go o BKITISH COLUMBIA 4r)i them will not soon perish ; for thty accomplished t'.e will of the Canadian people who stood behind them all the while, and supported them throughout their daring enterprise. Boundaries British Columbia — the Pacific province of the Canadian Dominion — is bounded on the north by the parallel of 60°, and on the south by the parallel of 4-9 , as far as the Strait of Georgia, or Clulf of Georgia, as it is locally called. The whole of Vancouver Island is included in it, and south of the island the province is bounded by the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The line passes tlu'ough the centre of the nearest to Vancouver Island of three navigable channels. On the east the province is bounded by the summits of the Iiocky ]\Iountain chain, from 40° to aliout 54° north, thence the boundary line separating it from the North-west Territories follows up the meridian of 120" west longitude to the northern boundary. On tlie west it is bounded by the Pacific Ocean as far as Cape Chacon on the north side of Dixon Channel ; from thence the western boundary is a narrow strip of the Alaskan coast now in process of delimitation. The area of the province is 383,000 square miles. It is the largest of all the provinces of the Dominion, and it is the most sparsely populated. The total popula- tion in 1891 was 98,173, consisting of whites 54,001, Indians 35,202, Chinese 8910, or 0*3 persons to a S([uare mile — a population about that of Huddersfield, to an area nearly equal to that of France and Spain. The population is practically all in the most southern part, and on Vancouver Island. The province has very strongly marked characteristics, and differs greatly from all the other provinces of Canada. " - ':..k. 'M ... ti il'iM im i , -! I.; I I I) 5 * J 452 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Tl'.eir physical peculiarities must be explained by their hydrography ; but orography is the key to the geography of liritish Columbia. The physical geography of the province is exceedingly complex and difficult to under- stand. The rivers are abrupt in tlieir turns, swift and turbulent, and navigable only in short stretches — the lakes are narrow and deep, with precipitous mountain shores; and, in lact, they are more like the troughs of mountain ranges than the broad expanses of the lakes oi' central Canada, Tliere is fertile agricultural land in abundance, but it is scattered over the province, and not collected in broad areas of arable plains. There are several distinct climates — the genial climate of Devon, the humid climate of the west of Scotland, and the extreme continenttd climate of central Canada. The conditions whicli, in the opening chapter of this book, were seen operating to soften the climate of Europe at the expense of that of America are here reversed. The eastern or Atlantic outline of America is almost repro- duced in the eastern or Pacific outline of Asia, and the great westward equatorial current of the Pacific impinges upon the counterpart of the Culf of jNIexico in the over- lapping peninsulas and islands of the eastern arcliipelago, and its waters flow in a return current similar to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. The China Sea, the Bandn Sea, and the Celebes Sea are so many caldrons from whence the heated water overflows to the north-east along the coast of Japan. For ages this current has Ijeen known to the Japanese as the " Kuro Sivo" or the l)lack river, from its dark l)lue colour contrasted, as in the Atlantic, with the lighter green of the adjoining sea. Controlled by the same general laws, it turns to the east- ward towards the north-west coast of America, and, as in the Atlantic, throws up a branch to the Arctic Ocean ; BRITISH COLUMBIA 453 but the parallel ends there, for Behring Strait is very shallow, having an average depth of only 25 or 30 fathoms. There is no wide and deep opening to the Arctic waters, and although there is a northward current through Behring Strait, which prevents the southward passage of icebergs, it is not like the great current which reaches the Spitsbergen Sea. The mass of the Japan current is thrown upon the coast of North-west America, whence it turns to the soutli and rejoins tlie great e({uatorial circuit. From this it results that the climate of Sitka and the Aleutian Isles is mild and in- tolerably rainy though near the latitude of 60' — the latitude of Hudson's Strait-— while in the gardens of Victoria, Vancouver Island, flowers may bloom all the year round. The province extends from 49 to 00 latitude, or 701 miles on the mainland, and the northern and southern boundaries are straight lines. As far as a line almost upon latitude 54 , or for 340 miles, the eastern and western boundaries are the sunnnits of the IJocky Mountains and the Bacitic coast respectively, and these are approximately parallel lines running south-east and north-west. On the parallel of 54"" the width of the mainland is from longitude 1.20° to 130" 30" or 427 miles. The southern portion is therefore approximately a rhomboid. The i)ortion north of 54'^ is l)ounded on the east by a perpendicular line — the meridian of 120" — and is thus included within three straight lines containing two right angles. The western boundary, on the side of Alaska, is irregular; bvt this northern portion maybe considered as a square ;14 miles from north to south, with an average width of 550 miles. Although such attem}>ts Lo compel the physical features of a country within mathematical lines are rough, they \ 1 |,)E}f' i ■}■ I i ' '1 I; 454 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL are an assistance in unravelling a tangled geography ; and, in this instance, the belt of division between 54'' and 55" really corresponds to a marked natural division. ]\Iore- over, the northern portion is practically uninhabited, unsurveyed, and, to a great extent, unexplored ; and tlien there is a line of water-parting a little north of 54*^ dividing the basins of the Skeena and Peace rivers fvom the basin of the Fraser. Summit Lake at the Giscome portage from the Fraser to the Parsnip is in latitude 54° 15', the divide of the Babine is at 54° 20', and Cape Chacon, the southern point of Alaska, is at 54° 40' ; tlie narrow projections of the sub-valley of the Stuart rhav may be disregarded. Cross ranges of mountains between 54° and 55° 80' also contribute to shut off this northern part from the southern half of the province. i I ii Mountain Ranges Two great physical features dominate the geography of British Columbia — the liocky Mountains and the Coast Mountains. Other mountains in more than abundance there are, but these are continuous and persistent through the whole extent of the province, and form the eastern and westt "n rim of the " sea of mountains." The Bocky Mountains are a continuation of the United States chain of the same name. They enter Canada at longitude 114° W. The boundary line between the province and Alberta follows the summits of the range as far as 54°, the point where it turns away north to follow tlie meridian of 120° W. The Bockies continue their north-west course within the province. At the valley of the Peace river their elevation is greatly reduced ; but, rising again, they continue along the BRITISH COLUMBIA 4^ f western margin of the Mackenzie river valley, until they die gradually away as they approach the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The Coast range, frequently called the Cascade range, commences just at the southern frontier at longitude 122" W. and continues along the Pacific coast to the head of Lynn Channel close to the northern frontier — a distance of 900 miles. It is this range which gives such a strong character to the sea coast ; to it are due the profound and gloomy fiords and the stupendous precipices which render the coast line an exaggerated reproduction of Norway. Keeping in mind these two master ranges, it is now to be observed that there are other parallel and some cross ranges, all of which are too often in 'general speech confused together in the expression " Ifocky Mountains." These ranges are, however, different in geological age and composition, and, for that reason, the director of the Geological Survey has preferred the term Cordilleras, or Cordilleran belt, for the general mass of mountain chains, and confines the expression liocky Mountains to the most eastern range. This nomenclature conduces to clearness, and so it may be said without confusion that the Cordilleran belt is 400 miles across, and the llocky Mountains are 60 miles across. It has been shown that the southern half of British Columbia is roughly in the form of a rhomb. At the south-eastern corner of the rhomb three subsidiary moun- tain ranges of different 1 gtls, and with sharply defined valleys, cross the frontier, with courses more directly to the north, and cut off that corner of the rhomb into a system of its own. This is the valley of the Columbia and its affluent the Kootenay, and these rivers flow through and around these stupendous ranges of mountains imi ! \i I 111 if- ill AJiM. 456 COMI>ENDIUM OF finOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ill trauqiul marches and counter -inarches without a parallel elsewhere in the world for their abrupt changes of direction. In this region of East and AVest Kootenay iire the recent silver and gold discoveries which are attracting so much attention. All the rest of the rhomb of Southern British Columl)ia is in clfect the basin of the Fraser river system. The Coast range has also a sul)sidiary and parallel mountain chain in the partially sul)merged range forming the axis of Vancouver and (^)ueeii Charlotte Islands. Before attempting to describe these mountain ranges it should be remarked that the core of the rhomb of Southern British Columbia, inclosed between the Coast range and the ranges to the east, is considered as a plateau, and called " the interior plateau." Tliis region is about 100 mile& wide and 500 miles long from north to south. It is only, however, in a special sense that it can be called a plateau ; for, viewed from the lower levels, it appears like a hilly or even mountainous country ; it is only when seen from a high level that it appears to be a number of isolated plateaus of an nxev- age elevation of 3500 feet, so that it is a plateau chietly by contrast with the lofty ]»orderiiig mountain ranges. During the Tertiary period it is stated by the geologists to have been a true plateau in the usual acceptation of the term, Init the surface has l>een deeply furrowed by streams, and has been upheaved in places into ridges, so that to an unscientific eye this is not apparent. In tliis region, however, there are many plains and valleys and benches of rich land, and in the aggregate there is a large area of agricultural and grazing land. IJising from a region of foot-hills 20 miles wide, formed by the folding of the strata, the liocky Mountains present to tlie traveller from the east an abrupt and r \ \ MM ^'1 \ I i m'^;"i '\ ipn ^ 1 1; ■ ^i 458 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL serrated outline against the sky, revealing by its acute suniniit peaks its recent geologic age. It is the latest formed of all the mountain chains of the province, as shown by the inclusion of comparatively new rocks in its Hexures. The mountains themselves are, however, composed chiefly of old rocks, ranging in age from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, Crystalline rocks are scarcely represented, and whole mountain ridges are often formed of massive limestone strata which no doubt under- lie the eastern plains and are here uplifted and upturned on their edges. It is 00 miles wide at the parallel of 49", and continues in a north-west direction (narrowing to 20 miles at latitude 56') for 850 miles to the valley of the Peace river, where, as before mentioned, it falls to a lower elevation ; rising again in a range at ol)lique echelon a little more to the east, it continues along the border of the Mackenzie valley. The average height of the range along the United States boundary is 8000 feet, and it culminates between 50° and 52° where the North Saskatchewan and Athabasca rivers take their rise in the glaciers of the loftiest valleys of the range. Several peaks near the boundary reach 10,000 feet; but the highest peaks are supposed to be Mount Murchison 13,500 feet. Mount Hooker 13,500, Mount Brown 16,000 feet, all near the sources of these rivers. There are many well-known passes over the liockies. Commencing from the south, the chief are : — the South Kootenay or Boundary Pass 7100 feet, the North Kootenay Pass 6800 feet, the Crow's Nest Pass 5500 feet (a railway over the pass is projected to open up some extensive coal-fields), Kananaskis Pass 5700 feet, Kicking-horse or Wapta Pass 5300 feet (the Canadian Pacific Railway Pass), the Howse Pass 5210 feet, the M BUITISH COLUMBIA 459 Atlmbusca Pass 6025 feet, the Yellow-head Pass 373.'» feet (the original design of the Canadian Government was to build the railway by tliis pass), tlie Smoky Eiver Pfiss 5300 feet, the Pine lliver Pass 2850 feet, the Peace liiver Pass 2000 feet. This last is scarcely a mountain pass, lor the Peace river Hows througii it, and, excepting for a portage of 12 miles, at what is called the Canon of the Peace, 40 miles east of the Pocky Mountains, it is navigable for 557 miles far up into the heart of the northern part of the province. On the western side of the Pocky Mountains there is a continuous valley, 700 nules long, through which flow the Kootenay in its southward course, and the Columbia in its northward course. The northward flowing portion of the Fraser also follows this valley, and, where it turns suddenly, after the manner common among the rivers of this province, to flow in a diametrically opposite direction, the Parsnip river takes up the valley and occupies it until its junction with the l*eace. Tiie Pocky Mountains are appropriately named. The summits are massive edges of fractured limestone strata bare of soil. The effect of their great height is diminislied on the eastern side Ijy the rise of the foot-hills and the height of the passes. It is only on descending into the western valley that their full height is appreciated. The western slopes are the more densely wooded. On the eastern side the slopes are covered with trees where there is soil, and interspersed with grassy prairie areas. The mountains abound in coal ; and anthracite of the best quality is mined near a station called " Anthracite " on the Canadian Pacific Pailway. West of the Rockies, distinct in composition and much earlier in geological age, are three ranges of mountains, of almost equal importance to them. These ranges rise • V. m\ ; I [ I I I ;: ■' I ! r m 'H n :' !. pi 1} - '■ I 4\- 1 If frl 1? ■■■ J ■ 4(30 COMPENDIUM OF GEOCJRAPHY AND TRAVEL directly from mirrow valleys, and there are no foot-hills to detract from their height. They are all three com- posed mainly of crystalline or highly metamorphosed rocks Sill mil II, I'liiiUi. MOUNT MAI UOXALI). — granites, schists, and gneisses — but, though related geohigically in age and composition, they are very distinct geographically, having valleys clearly marked by narrow BRITISH COLUMBIA 461 I lakes or rivers. Coiiiniencini;' i'roiii the east they are known as the I'urcell, tlie Selkirk, and the (lold ranges, although they are frei^uently called Ity the otticers of the Getjlogical Survey l)y the collective name of the GoUl jMountains, because of the identity of tlieir structure, and the fact that they are the chief source of the gold and silver found in the province. They are not known to rise much higher than 10,000 feet, the chief measured peaks being Mount Sir Donald 10,645 feet, Mount ^lacdonald 1)440 feet, and Mount Tupper OOoO feet — all in tlie central or Selkirk range. It has l)een previously pointed out that the llocky Mountains run from south- east to north-west ; consequently they make an angle of 45" with the frontier, and bound the south-east corner of the rhomb of the southern half of the province. These three inner ranges run almost north and south, as will appear on a consideration of the rivers and long narrow lakes which mark their valleys, and, if prolonged, they would cut the long inner valley of the liocky ^lountains. They are not prolonged, but interrupted. The I'urcell rani^e in the eastern angle is the shortest, and is inclosed in the loop between the head of the Kootenay and Kootenay Lake. The Selkirk range is the next to the west. The Columliia Hows round this range. Issuing from the Cohnnbia Lakes it Hows north along the eastern base of the Selkirks to a i)lace called the l»oat Kncamii- ment, where it sweeps round the head of the range in a sudden curve, and Hows in a diametrically opjjosite direction, south between the Selkirk and the next range to the west — tlie Gold range." The contour of these inner ranges is more rounded than that of the liockies, and the upheaval is nutre cimfused. There are, indeed, in the Selkirks many abrui)t peaks ; Init the general character of the whole m liil it 402 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAl'HY AND TRAVEL chain is less serrated, both from the character of the rock masses and tlie greater age of the system. The width of the Selkirk range is about 80 miles. lielow the snow-line, especially on the western side, it is densely forested, and enormous glaciers fill the upper valleys. Ill iiihrsiiii^ riiuti). THK HKHMIT (iLACIEU, SEhKIHK llANdK. The scenery in this part of the Cordilleran belt is grand beyond description. The Gold range is abovi^ OQ miles in width. It rises from the valley of the southward-tiowing Columbia to a height of 8000 to 0000 feet. Leing of a similar com- position, nnich that has been said of the Selkirks applies e([ually to it. The scenery is not so grand as among the liockies and the Selkirks, although in any other country BRITISH COLUMBIA 463 t ! it would be thought so. In British Cohinibia it suH'ers by contrast. Tlie Gold range continues much lartlier to the north, wliere it is known as the Cariboo Mountains, and as the region of the chief early discoveries of gold iu Ih'itish Columbia. In that region the chain curves and runs parallel to the Rockies, until the Fraser river, repeating the course of the Columbia on a larger scale, sweeps round it and changes its course to a diametrically opposite direction, Howing southwards, inclosing the whole series of inner mountain ranges to the east between it and the Ixjundary of the province. Interior Region Descending from the Gold range the interior jdateau, previously referred to, intervenes for a distance of 100 miles until the Coast range — the great western rim of the mainland of the province — rises, as before noted, on the ocean margin with a width of 1 00 miles. This is often, even in public documents, called the Cascade range, liut inaccurately from a scientific standpoint, for the (Jeological Survey staff has shown tliat the Cascade range of the United States is essentiallv different, l)oth in composition and geologic age, and the Coast range is a distinct system, originating just within the southern boundary and continuing through tlie whole length of the province. It is an older range than the ikocky Mountains, and consists chietly of crystalline rocks — granite, gneiss, and schists. It attains a lieight of 7000 to 8000 feet and abuts on the shore in many l)laces in spurs which, rising almost out of the sea on the l)orders of abysmal Hords, sliow tlie full measure of tlieir height to every ol»server. This rangi; is very rugged, and on the western side is lieavily timbered. 1 hi !•! I 1-1 n 1: rs |i m H III II V ' r 1 BRITISH COLUMBIA 465 The constant condensation from the warm winds of the Pacific has formed many glaciers in the upper seaward valleys of the northern part of the range, and many of the summits are snow-capped. The fiords are usually too deep for anchorage, for they are narrow, submerged valleys of the chain, running up sometimes for oO or 40 miles between precipitous mountain walls, with a general widtli of 1 or 2 miles. Where there is any level land on the shore it is densely forested, for the climate is mild and rainy, and the trees grow to an enormous size. liefore passing to the island portion of the province a few remarks may be appro[)riate concerning the northern portion — that portion described as a square based upon cross ranges of mountains about the parallels of 54° to 55 . Immense areas of this country are yet unexplored. Much of it is a plateau about 2000 feet high. Tlie western portion, watered by the Teace river, is in part open, fertile land, and suitable for a grazing country. An inner range (the Cassiar and other mountains) runs parallel to tlie Coast range at some distance. In this northern plateau the triliutaries of the Liard and the Peace rivers of the Mackenzie system take their rise. On the western side are the Skeena and Stikeen rivers, and far on the northern border of 00°, rising in a series of ranges, are the springs of the Pelly and Lewes rivers, tributaries of the Yukon. Large areas of this country are underlaid with Carboniferous and Devonian rocks, and in the valley of the Pai'snip river is an extensive area of Cambrian. "What is known of the geology of this northern half of the province indicates that in complexity and variety it rivals the southern part. Pocks ranging in age from Archa-an to Tertiary have been found. While little has 2 11 •"1 Ml I' ) ; 1 II 11 in |t| 1 ' ' f' I 466 compp:ndium of geography and travel been ascertained about mineral resources, the conditions indicate that metalliferous deposits like those of the south recur here. Gold has been worked by placer mining alone. Except along the coast, at the mouths of the Naas, Skeena, and other rivers where salmon canneries are situated, settlements scarcely exist. At Laketon in Cassiar, Hazleton at the forks of the Skeena, Stuart Lake, and Omenica, a few people, mostly miners, are settled. Hydrography The rivers of British Columbia demand notice now. They are in strong contrast with tlie rivers of central and eastern Canada. Here are no long stretches of a thousand miles of navigation ; but tlie courses of all the rivers nw contentious, strugglins,', and turbulent, circumventing obstacles by unexpected and abrupt bends, or bursting through barriers and rusliing down steep and gloomy canons to the ocean. There are many navigable stretches, but they are not continuous, and the rivers widen to long narrow lakes of still water — Kandoops, Quesnel, Chilco, Tacla, Fran(^ois, Shuswap, Okanagan, Kootenay, Babine, Arrow, and Columbia Lakes are the most important ; but the province is studded with similar lakes of smaller size, in strong contrast to the broad expanses of the eastern provinces. xVlthough the Peace and Liard rivers drain a very large area in British Columbia, they are more properly treated in connection with the Mackenzie system, of whicli they are a part. Tlie most northern river of importance is the Stikeen. It discharges into the Pacific near Fort Wrangell in Alaska. It is 2 HO miles long, and is navigable by steamers for 130 miles as far as the great canon. Tlie route to the Cassiar gold milling region passes up by its valley, a difficult and (3 BRITISH COLUMBIA 467 laborious route at best. A trail from the Grand Canon leads to Dease Lake, from whence Dease river leads to the Liard river. The Naas is a large river, but the next important river of the north is the Skeena. It draws its chief supply from Babine Lake, and falls into the Pacific after a course of 300 miles, of which 125 miles, as far as Hazleton, may be navigated by small steamers. Two river systems only call for notice in the southern or rhombic half of the province — the Columbia occupying the south-eastern corner, and the Fraser occupying all the rest. The Fraser river is the chief feature of the hydro- graphy of British Columbia, It is 740 miles long, and its triljutaries branch out over the countrv between the summits of the Coast and the liockv Mountain ranges, south of 54°, excepting the extreme south-east corner. They interlock with the sources of all the great rivers, but thougli they seem on the map to give access by short portages to the Skeena, the l*eace, the Parsnip, tlie Athabasca, the Saskatchewan and the Columbia, and though they search out all the interior valleys of tlie great mountain ranges of the southern half of the provhice, it must be remembered that many of tliem are unnavig- able even with canoes. It is a characteristic Columbian river, being contained entirely within the province, and it accentuates all their peculiar ways. It Hows, at first, north-west for 160 miles, then makes an abrupt turn round the head of the Cariboo mountains, and Hows directly south until, at Hope* it turns abruptly west and falls, after a course of 80 miles, into the Strait of Georj:^ia at New Westminster. It is a turbulent and rapid river — an exaggerated mountain stream in all its upper courses — at last, sunnnoning to its aid all its tributaries, it bursts its way through the Coast range and foams i k Ml I- !»| f-': 468 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and rages through the stupendous canons which bear its name ; then, all its trials over, it issues out a broad and -Vo,'»i (H, Photo. CAXON ( :• THE FUASEK HIVEH. noble river, with a rapid current; but navigable for 80 miles from Yale to the sea. The Fraser has many large bB: BRITISH COLUMBIA 460 tributaries — the Stuart, the North Thompson, the South Thompson, the Blackvvater, the Chilcotin, tlie Lillooet and their branches form a network of flowing waters through all the deep furrows of tlie interior plateau. Lastly, in the south-east corner of the province, the Columbia river and its chief tributary, the Kootenay, perform their eccentric evolutions, in a sort of hide-and- seek round mountain ranges, until they find each other iusu before thev cross the frontier together. Their courses resemble the military evolution called a countermarch by ranks. They rise, overlapping each other, in the long western valley of the Eockies antl flow past each other in opposite directions, as it were elbow to elbow, just grazing each other at the head of Columbia Lake, so closely that a canal a mile long unites their waters. The Kootenay flows south into the United States, and the Columbia flows north to the head of the Selkirks at the Boat Encampment; until, having got 1^00 miles away from each other, they both turn abruptly about and counterflow inwards in opposite directions — the Colundjia south to the Arrow Lakes, and the Kootenay north to the Kootenay Lake in British territory, from whence it flows across to join the Columbia 20 miles from the United States frontier. Commodious steamers navigate the Columbia from the Columbia Lake to the first crossing of the Canadian Pacific railway, and from the second, crossing at Revelstoke through the Arrow Lakes to the boundary. The Kootenay is navigable from Kootenay Lake to some distance within 'the L'nited States. Discovery and Development This immense territory was an unknown land, hidden behind the barrier of the Kocky Mountains, until 1793, 1. ! Il|l if) V i I if V. i . I, : I M t !. i I i III:! J i :■ 1| fj 470 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL when Mackenzie entered it by its natural gateway, the i'eaee river. He followed that stream to its forks, and then traced up its chief tributary, the I'arsnip, to its source, and crossed a short portage into tlie waters of the Fraser. The Xortli-west Company soon followed up his discoveries with their trading posts, and, on the union of the great fur companies, the Hudson's l>ay Company established on the Cohnnbia river the headquarters of their operations in the I'acific district. Communication was by pack trails through the Yellow- head or Athabasca passes to the Boat Encampment at the great bend of the Columbia, where the packs were transferred to clinker l)uilt boats and floated down to head(piarters on the lower Columbia. The other portions of the country were little visited, for the navigation of the rivers is dithcult, and travelling was more by trails than by the streams. Until the railway was completed, only ten years ago, all access to the province was through the United States, and heavy goods were carried round by Cape Horn. The construc- tion of the Canadian Pacific railway was essential to the continued existence of the Dominion of Canada, and the people rose to it. The railway is the answer of the native Canadian spirit to the foreigners, within and with- out, who wish to bring strange fire to burn on our hearths, and to smother the aspirations of a people whom they neither appreciate nor comprehend. Canadian Pacific Railway The I>ow river takes its rise in glacier-fed lakes high up in the heart of the mountains, 5530 feet above sea level, and issues out upon the lower levels at the foot-hills through a cyclopean portal known as " The Gap," fianked by two almost vertical mountain walls. Through this V 472 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIIAVEL 'A M M I .-Si 11 ti m: rr portal the Canadian Pacific railway enters the mountains, and it follows up the Bow river to Laggan, 7 miles from the summit of the pass ; thence it follows a small tributary creek through the connecting valley across tlie divide. On the summit of the divide (5296 feet) is Stephen Station, named for L(jrd Mount-Stephen, the first president of the road. Two miles farther west is Lake Wapta — the source of the Wapta river, whose precipitous course the railway follows to its junction with the Columbia. This stream, and the pass itself, was discovered about 1858 by Sir James Hector, and is known also by an English name — " the Kicking-horse." It quickly gathers volume from the neighbouring glaciers. In tlie first five miles it falls 1100 feet, through rapids and deep and narrow canons and over steep falls, and in a short course of 40 miles it drops 2746 feet to the town of Golden. The railway follows the river, crossing from side to side antl clinging along the ledges of dizzy precipices. It issues out at last from a gloomy cailon upon the broad valley of the Columbia river flowing quietly on its northward course. By the selection of tlie Wapta I'ass the first parallel of interior mountains, tlie Purcell range, has been flanked ; but here, at Golden, is seen, across the valley, the range of the Selkirks, its steep forest-clad slopes rising through lofty glaciers in snow-crowned peaks — a precipitous moun- tain rampart 10,000 feet high, over which, until 1883, no foot of white man or savage had ever passed. Beyond this range in a direct line is the Eagle Pass through tlie third or Gold range, and, by fcjllowing up the Columbia 100 miles north to the Great Bend, the Selkirks might also be flanked, but every mile would have to be travelled bac^>; to cross the Gold range at the Eagle Pass. Tlu' Government of Canada had intended to cross the Eockies farther north by the Yellow-head Pass, and follow down URITISH COLUMBIA 473 tho North Thompson to Kaniloops wiiich was the objective point in all the proposed routes, but the company which had assumed tlie work resolved to avoid so long a circuit,and to pass through to Kandoops on a direct western course. With amazing courage and faith they built their line THE ASULKAN CiLACIEK. from both ends, and in 1883 the sagacity of Major Rogers discovered a pass over the Selkirks so long sought in vain. Leaving the town of Golden the railway follows north along the Columbia to Donald, where it crosses and con- tinues along the western bank to Beavermouth. There the Beaver river issues from the mountains, through a gorge so narrow that a felled tree might span it. Up the steep valley of this stream the railway climbs its dizzy way, clinging to the precipitous sides of the lofty mountains, and winding in sharp curves round rocky •^,, !i i y ) 1 i i : 1 i I i ! \', \ .( ^: * k fVl'': 474 CO.Ml'KNDIUM Ol' GKOGHxMMFY AND TKAVKL Spurs, or tuiuu'lliiiiL;' tliroiigh theiu wlu-ii no kMl^c could l»e found. Half-vviiy up *he iisci'ut tlie niiiin JJeiivor valley is \v\\ for tluit of liear Creek, and, between two ;.fi<;antie ,..aks, the summit of the Koj^ers Pass spreads out into a ])leasant mountain meadow 41)00 feet above tlie sea. Tiie summits of all these mountain passes hav(^ been m THK (iUEAT (il.AllKH. SliowiiiK tlic e. 1'. I{. Motel. • tl lany oiner glaciers an re>erved from sale by tiie Dominion (Jovernnient to form })arks, and this is the ^^randest of all, for the ^reat ^laeier t»f the Selkirks is very near, nr visible amonji; tiie distant peaks. The load descends for a second time to the Columbia by the vuHey of the lllecillewai^t, a stream which hurries its headlouLj career down liSl*;' feet in 4() miles. Some ^reat feats of enninei'rin;^ j'l'c ]»ei'formed in this descent, and here is the ^reat loop where the roud dcaibles Itaek on itself in four tracks windiuLi; do»',.i to lower levels; I'.RITISH COLUMBIA 47. and iittcr ])n.ssiii25 ii^ THK tiUKAT l.ool' IN THK SKI.KIIIKS. Slinwiii;; fiiur Hjiilway Triu-ks. I'eet above the level of the Columbia. Four beautilul lakes occupy the whole width of the summit level, and the road follows the Kaglo river, tlu; outlet of the west«'rn- most, down to Sicamous Junction in tlu interior i)lateau of the province. Sicamous is upon the grou)> of lakes calhul the Shuswaj) lakes, ami there a railway branches olT south to Vi'rnon on ()Uan:igan lake. Tlie I'acitic Kailwiiy fnlhtws along the South Thompson t<» Kandoops, iind along the south shore of Kainloops Liike, jtlunges into \m 1 ;3i ■ 1 ^ : ■. , ■; 'i 1 476 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the Ijlack canon of the Thompson, and emerges to follow the Fraser in its Titanic struggles through narrow canons to reach tlie sea. There are not many other railways in the province. The chief ii^terest is centred at present in the Kootenay district, where several lines are in course of construction. Si'lllKlll, I'ltiit". THE lANON OK THE KH.VSKH KIVKU, ABOVE 81'LZZUM, H.C, ON THE fAXADlAX I'ACIFIC HAILWAY. A railway connects the Arrow, Slocan, and Kootenav lakes from Nakusp to Kaslo. There is also a railway from Xelson to Fort Shepi)ard. It continues across thi' frontier and connects with the Cheat Northern at Spokant'. and a branch connects Xelson with IfoUson. A short liuf is also hnilt to Trail Creek and llosaland. A branch road in lililTISH COLUMBIA 477 at Mission City on the lower Fraser connects with the United States roads ; anil Vanconver, the terminus of tlie Canadian Pacific railway, is thus connected by rail with the southern railway system. On Vancouver Island the coal region of Xanaimo is connected by a railway with Victoria and tlie harbour of Esijuimalt. The Coast (Jnly one aspect of the geograpliy of tlie Pacific pro- vince of the Dominion has so tar been considered. It is far more than a region of lofty mountains and rapid rivers ; it is a maritime country witli one of the uKJst remarkable sea coasts in the world, measuring, with all its indentations 7000 miles in the aggregate, abounding in commodious liarbours, and fringed with an archi}ielagurpose. Halifax on tlie Atlantic and Vancouver <»n iWurard Inlet on the Pacific are twin iiarbours unexcelled 480 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL f '■ in the world, and both within easy reach of coal, the all- important factor in modern navigation. Passing northward, all along the coast, deep sounds or HEAD OK BUTE IXl ET AND WAUDINl.TON HAKBOIH. inlets penetrate far inland — Howe Sound, Jarvis Inlet, Toba Inlet, Bute Inlet, Loughborough Inlet, Knight Jnlet, Kingcome Inlet, and many others. They spread out into branching arms within their entrances. Many are tou ^T" ISKITISH COLUMBIA 481 I deep for ancliovage, but they are sheltered by steep-up mountains rising 5000 to 8000 feet. Some of these inlets run up 40 miles into the land, and usually at their termination the land is low and some river forms a little delta. The scenery on these fiords is grand in the extreme. The dense archipelago, througli which the Strait of CJeorgia passes into (,>ueen Charlotte Sound, is permeated by numerous channels of deep water, and the islands are higli and buld. Discovery Tassage, the chief channel, is close to the Vancouver sliore. It is on an average a mile wide, and is from 30 to GO fathoms dee}). At Seymour Narrows, the tides flowing from the north cause swift currents ; for the passage closes in there t(j a width of about one-third to one-half of a mile. The same general characters [»revnil on the coast of A\ancouver Island. The liarl)nur of Esquimalt on the Strait of Juan de Fuca is another of these ideally i)erfect harbours like Halifax and lUirrard Inlet. It is very easy of access and very connnodious ; opening out, from an entrance one-third of a mile across, to a broad slu'ct with good anchorage all over in never less than G fathoms. A railwav to the coal mines at Xanaimo makes it com- plete as a naval station. It is tlie cliief station on the J'acilic for Her ]\hijcsty's navy ; and a dock 480 feet long, G") wide, and with 2G.', feet over the sill, aifords every facility for repairs. ( )n]y 2 miles distant is the harbour of Victoria: the inner harbour is available for sliips drawing 14 or 1 o feet, but somewhat intricate of entrance. Outer wharfs, with oO feet of water, provide for largi' steam-ships. An excellent harltour is found at Xanaimo for the large coaling licet which clusters there. The outer or west coast of \'ancouver Island is a repetition of the mainland coast, but on a less miignificent 2 I j I : 482 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TKAVEL scale. The inlets are there also, and they seareli far into the land, but tlie mountain sides are not so high, and anchorage within them may be conveniently found. Alberni Inlet is 20 ndles long, with a fine harbour at its head. It is a lumber-shipping port, for all the island is densely wooded with fine timljer. The width of tiie inlet varies from half a mile to one mile. Nootka Sound is 6 miles wide and stretches three arms into the land, 7, 14, and 18 miles long respectively, with a depth of 40 to IGO fathoms. Clayoquot, Esperanza, Kyuquot, and Quatsino Sounds also penetrate deeply into the island. There are many smaller bays, and all are surrounded by high land, but the mountains on the island are in general much lower than on the mainland shore. The interior of Vancouver Island is very little known, ))ut resembles the mainland in having many long mountain lakes. It is a rough country with dense undergrowth and ditticult to traverse. Climate The climate of British Columbia is as varied as its complex geography would indicate. It is the resultant, in the main, of the prevailing westerly winds impinging upon a coast bordered by a high mountain range and blowing over a territory of successive mountain ranges of increasing height. Where the winds strike fairly the climate is moist, and under the lee of the mountain ranges it is dry. In the northern part of the province the Eocky Mountains are lower and do not afford so much shelter from the easterly and northerly winds, from across tlie plain or from the regions of tlie Arctic Ocean. The climate of the northern interior is there- fore a continental climate, and, excepting on the coast, it is cold in winter and warm in summer. The con- Tn BRITISH COLUMBIA 483 ditions of climate on the west coast of America are the same as in western Europe with the important difter- ence tliat in Europe the westerly winds do not encounter the full Ijroadsides of the mountain ranges, but the coasts are low, and such ranges as there are run mostly east and west with the axis of the land and are taken in Hank by the winds from the ocean. The inner coast of Vancouver Island is drier than the ocean coast, being sheltered In' the mountains, antl the clouds bearing moisture from the ocean pass over to the mainland. In summer the south-eastern end of the island enjoys cool breezes from the snow-capped Olympian Mountains to the south, so that the climate of Esquimalt and Victoria is like that of South Devonshire, but drier. At Esquimalt the mercury, in the course of years, rai-ely goes below 21^ in winter or higher than 70 Fahr. in summer. On the mainland it is more humid, for the clouds are arrested by the Coast range, and yield up a large portion of their moisture in ascending the western side of the mountains. This is the region of the densest forests and the largest trees. Under the lee of the Coast range is a long strip of arid land, where the soil, though excellent, reitiiti()ii Low est. ni|.;lifst. ill iiii'lii's. S.E. Coast Van. I. . Esquinialt 21-6 53-1 5-01 West „ AUiorni . 20-6 50-2 13-83 Mainland coast, S. Xe\v "NVestniinster l.V-2 52-2 9-71 „ N. Port Siniji-son . 7 '5 r.;Vl 10-8;'. Interior Plateau Spcnce's liridge - 3-4 49 -t) 1-lf) )> >) Kaniloojis - 8-7 48-1 0-48 ., N. Cariltoo liarkorville -20-9 3!>-4 3-04 ., far North . Stuart Lake -37-7 43-1 2-97 Kontenay, S. E. corner Fort Steele -25-1 46-8 2-90 ^ It Snowfall reduced to inches of water, 10 in. snow = l in. water. IM Metkouologr'al Table fou Ji'ly, from the Or..sEi!V.vrioNs of a SeUIES of VeAKS — AVEHAOE UEGIStEKEl) TE.MI'EKATlUEs AM> RAINFALL. Locality. S.E. Coast, Van. I. West „ ^lainland coa.st, S. . „ N. . Interior Plateau )> I) ■ ,, N. Cariboo ,, far North . Xuiiit' of Place, Esquimau Alberni . New Westminster Port Simpson . Spence's Bridge Kamloops Barkerville Stuart Lake Tt'ini). Ti'iiiii. l'r('('i|iitiiti()ii hoWt'St. Ui;ilU',st. ill iliclli's. Kootenay, S.E. corner Fort Steele 44-5 41-9 46-9 39-2 48-r) 48-7 33-9 23-3 33-9 79-4 93-1 89-r. 72-8 100-9 97-3 83-2 92-0 95-2 0-43 0-82 0-57 5-3t> 0-41 2-29 3-08 1 -.-.2 1-08 Total An'nval Puech'It.vtiox— aveu.voe of a Seiue.s of Years. fStiitioii. Ilicllfs. S.E. coast of Vancouver Island Esquimau 40-34 Mainland coast, S. . * . New Westminster 41-72 , , , , *> . . . Port Simpson . ior.-9t) Interior Plateau Spence's Bridge 9-9« KM %. ^" r^%, '^>. .o^A^^^^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) t % // // / *; /. 4is Si? Mj f/. 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ mil 2.2 U IIIIII.6 "*' // /A i^^. t^y ^ k i i 'f IT: ft « ■ li m i 486 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Total Numher of Days of Fog, 1895. S.E. Coast of Van. I. West ,, „ Mainland coast, South Interior Plateau Esquimau Alberni . New Westminster Spence's Bridge Kani loops Barkerville Stuart Lake . Fort Steele ,, X. Cariboo , ,, far Xorth . Kootenay, S.E. Corner . Of the 26 days of fog at Esquimalt 15 were in Ootoher and November. 31 ,, Alberni 30 Days. 26 31 i 2 2 Forests The forests of British Cohimbia are of immense extent, as has been incidentally shown in the preceding pages. They consist almost entirely of conifers, and the varieties are few. On Vancouver Island there are areas of oak, and poplar is found throughout the province. The broad- leaved maple is met with on the lower reaches of the Eraser and in the country around Victoria. ]\Iany other trees are found, but of the total output of all the lumber mills of the province 85 per cent is from the Douglas tir. It is tough and strong, and is highly valued for cMps" spars as well as for building purposes. The lumbering industry, though the oldest in the province, has not, ]iowever,attained the development which might have been anticipated, for the province has practicall}' been opened only recently to the world, and capital is drawn chieHy towards mining and fishing. Entering the province from the east the chief trees of the Eocky Mountains are white spruce, Engelmann's spruce, black pine, l)alsam fir, and Douglas fir. Spruce, black pine, and Douglas fir, with po[>lars and a few other deciduous trees, characterise the valleys. The western BRITISH COLUMBIA 48' slopes, where not too rocky, are generally thickly clothed with spruce or black pine ; the Douglas fir does not there grow very high. The balsam fir and black pine, with Lyell's larch, attain a higher elevation than the other trees, and die away in stunted growths along tlie snow-line Nearly the same trees recur in the Selkirk and Gold ranges, but in sheltered valleys the cedar grows very large, and great tall western white pines are found. Hemlock grows in some localities, and the western larch, a tall, slender, straight tree, occurs in others. It is in the vallev of the Columbia that the cedar t/ l)egins to assume the huge proportions which distinguish it in this province. On crossing the Gold range and descending upon the interior plateau, tlie absence of sufficient rainfall is immediately evident. The yellow pine l)ecomes the most prominent tree in the valleys, growing in clumps or singly in open lands. Higher up on the plateaus, Douglas fir, spruces, and l^lack pine form thick woods, and white-barked pii -^ is found in some places at high elevations. Then, upon crossing the Coast range, the traveller enters into a dense forest region ex- tending down to the ocean and covering A\incouver Island ; for the humid western winds have their full infiuence, and nourish into their wonderful growth the gigantic firs and cedars, which astonish all who see them for the first time. The Douglas fir is often found oOO feet high, and from 10 to 12 feet in diameter. The trees which are tlie best for liandling and make the l)est lumber are those 5 to G feet in diameter, and running clear to IGO feet to the first branch. The cedar (arbor vitcv) is, however, even larger than the Douglas fir. It sometimes attains the enormous girtli of GO feet. It is used for fine dressed lumber and for shingles, as these trees decay at the heart on attaining I • IMI i i :! 488 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL maturity. Though hollow, they remain perfectly healthy. The grain of this wood is very beautiful, and it is exceed- ingly durable. Other trees attain a groat size on the coast region. The yellow cedar or cypress does not extend far inland, but is found throughout Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands, especially on the west coast. It is often G feet in diameter. Oak is met chiefly on the south-eastern part of Vancouver Island, and is often 3 feet in diameter. The western hemlock is found wherever there is abundant moisture, and on the coast often grows to a height of 200 feet. Yew occurs along the coast and on Vancouver Island, and attains a diameter of 1 8 inches to 2 feet. The alder becomes a small tree, and is sometimes two feet in diameter on the lower Fraser. The broad-leaved maple sometimes attains a diameter of 4 feet. It is never found far away from the coast-line. The total amount of lumber cut in 1895 was 112,884,040 feet, of which 52,043,070 feet were ex- ported. Minerals The mineral resources of British Columbia cannot be easily over-estimated, for new discoveries of importance are continually being made. The great Cordilleran l)elt extends throughout the province, in many ranges, with a widtli of 400 miles. These mountains, through the whole length of the two American continents, by whatever name they are called, are known to be highly metalliferous, and they preserve that character in tlie innnense development they attain in this province. As previously observed, the interior mountain ranges of the south are classed very frequently together under the general name of the Gold mountains, as being the source of the gold in the BRITISH COLUMBIA 489 ; i river valleys, and it may be said generally that the rivers of the province are all auriferous. The Fraser, with its atHuents, is a true Pactolus, for it drains in its rapid course all the interior mountain ranges of the southern half of the province, and far up in the almost inaccessible north sunilar conditions exist. Placer mining is carried on in the Omenica district in the l»asin of the Peace river, and some of the bars on tlie Liard are worked for gold. The Pelly, the Lewes, the Stuart, and other chief sources of the Yukon are all known to be auriferous, and, undeterred by distance and hardship, miners are working on these streams, and have taken out considerable quantities of gold by the rude methods which alone are possible where communications are so difficult. It is a note of the universal distribution of gold that it was first observed in 1851 on the coast of one of the Queen Charlotte Islands, and it is recorded that 820,000 was taken out, and that working was abandoned because tlie reef ran under the sea, and could not be followed for more than a few feet down. In 1857 the mines of the Thompson river, a chief tributary of the Fraser, were discovered. Then the riches of the Fraser became known, and soon, in searching for coarse gold, supposed to be the source of the lower washings, the miners pushed up to the Cariboo countrv, then almost inaccessilile among forests and mountains, and even now only reached l>y 285 miles of staging. Until 1895 half the gold found in tlie province came from this remote region. From 1858 to the end of 1*896 the aggregate of placer gold yielded was $57,704,855. This was entirely the result of different methods of placer mining, for the most part, of a very unscien];iHc kind. Tlie largest amount obtained in any one year was .S3,7o5,851 in 1804. '"^ince that time the vield has decreased as the surface n \ I I ii i 490 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL If ii deposits were exhausted. In the year 1896 the product was S544,026, a reaction from the lowest point reached, probably caused by the adoption of improved hydraulic methods, and the recent introduction of machinery as capital was drawn in this direction. Nearly all was from the districts of Yale and Cariboo. In addition to the above, the production of metals from lode mines in the year 1896 reached the sum of $4,257,179, nearly all from the Kootenay country now being opened up. The product of 1895 was almost doubled. Of this aggregate $1,244,180 was of gold, and $2,100,689 was of silver. Wherever the interior ranges extend gold is found in the streams. Placer mining is carried on at the great bend of the Columbia, on the lllicillewaet, on the Similkameen, and in the Okanagan and Kootenay districts. ]\Iost of the bars of the Fraser having been exhausted, the bed of the river is now leased to com- panies, who are dredging the river bottom for alluvial gold, under the belief that more of the gold would sink to the bottom of the eddies than would be caught on the bars. Not only are mining operations carried on in these central regions of the province, but the Cassiar region iu the north-west of the mainland contributed in 1895 $22,575 to the general aggregate. This is not a large amount, but it is the result of the labour of a few individuals, and illustrates the wide distribution of gold over the province. In 1896 gold was discovered at Alberni, on Vancouver Island, but beyond that general fact no particulars have been recorded. China Creek, in that part of the island, has been worked intermittently since 1862. The greatest recent development in mining for the [)recious metals has, however, taken place in the Kooteiiay ! i THK KOOTKNAV DISTHHT. To fiuf jtapf 491. i)'/il.-llir-i"«l,l'k'..V«r, ( <>ok;Ji»ui' St ( liaiii^l r«ss. S.W. f BB '^! I' To foxe page 4&1. ^V^T*^ ncy Qh/U*f300,000 in dividends. Other mines are commencing to pay dividends, but up to the present the product has mostly been spent in developing the properties. All these mines are in West Kootenay, but ra})id ' /ances are being made all over the province. The disirict of East Kootenay gives as good promise, but there are no facilities of transport, and development nmst wait until the district can be easily reached. The Boumlary Creek *i Iff ? r. Ji y. II BRITISH CULUMlilA 495 V. district is also a richly iniiieralised leniuii, and many (jiiartz ledges, with free niillinj;' gold, are i'ound there and in the Okanagan district. It has become evident during the last few months that if the trade of this rich region is not to be carried oil" to the United States in jierman- ence, a railway must be liuilt throuyli the Crow's Xest I'ass, and tiie Canadian Tacitic railway is preparing to Ituild it. Then tlie coal of All)eita, and the wonderful coal deposits in the pass itself will su[)ply the smelting- worlvs, at a low rate, with coke which now costs i'rom Jr^lo to 817 a ton. The East Kootenav district will then be opened up, and the massi'S of lower grade gold ores in West Kootenay will become available. I'his rapid progress is not limited to the Kootenay region. The wiiole province is feeling tlu; stimulus, and every day brings new evidence of metallic wealth from all ])arts of tlie country ;. and while iuyestors there, as everywhere, nuist be careful to ascertain that they are buying shares in a real mine and not in a prospect, there are legitimate and ])rolitable openings for all the capital, industry, and skill, whicli can be In-ought into tlie province. What is most needed is cheap transportation. The communications of West Kootenay are good, but they chiefly lead into th.o U^nited States, and thereafter concentration, the ore goes linally to be reduced. The Trade and Navigation returns of the Dominion just published, for the year ending oOth .Iun<\ 1S0('», give the chief items of mineral exports from lU'itish Columbia as follows : — (ioUl lii'firiii;,' (juartz. dust, iiuggetw, otc. Cn|iiMT oir, matte, or legiiliis Li'iid ....... Sfilvcr oiv concentnitcH, etc l.")ti,7i»-' ■|IIS.(i'_'.'i l.'.it.^.MS \ P ^ I 1 [« 1 II- 1^ HI II ' 496 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the exports of the latter half of 189G ran rapidly up, and they ino <^ased as each new mine came into active operation. liie approximate value of the exports of minerals from Xelson in West Kootenay during the first two months of the year 1897 was $999,138. Platinum is found in the Similkameen district. The export was in a previous year $10,000 in value, but in 1895 only $3,800 was reported. Mercury is found as cinnabar near Kamloops, and at Alberni on Vancouver Island, Iron ores occur in many places throughout the province ; at Alberni, and on the mainland. They are found in the Nicola Valley near beds of coal ; but the only iron ore mined is on Texada Island, where it occurs in large quantity as magnetic iron ore, and is exported to the United States. Shipments have also been made from Eedonda Island and from Kamloops. The preceding are metallic minerals only ; but mica, asbestos, marble, gypsum, slate, graphite, and other non-metallic minerals of value are also found. The mineral wealth of the province has only commenced to be apprehended by the public, even in Canada, since the opening of the Canadian I'aciiic railwfiy. The total production of minerals in British Columbia for the calendar year 189G was $7,140,425. Coal However defective may be the general knowledge outside as to the metalliferous resources of the province, its wealth in coal is sutliciently well known. It leads the market of San Francisco, and is exported to Hawaii, Petropaulovski, Alaska, and elsewhere on tlie Pacific coasts. Here again the province lias l)een favoured by nature, for coal occurs in many }»laces and in extensive I'i BRITISH COLUMBIA 497 areas readily accessible by sea and of superior quality ; for it is acknowledged to be the best on the whole coast of the Pacific, and, in fact, there is no coal on the coast until Puget Sound is reached. A heavy United States duty is not able to keep the Vancouver coal out of California. The only mines which are extensively worked are on Vancouver Island, at Nanaimo, and at Comox. The coal is a bituminous coking coal, and is found in seams of 6 to 10 feet thick on the very shore of the Strait of (jcorgia, and on harbours suitable for the accommodation of the largest vessels. The mines of Nanaimo have been worked for forty years with an increasing output, as the trade of the Pacific Ocean has been developed. The first regular custom-house returns are in 1860. Tlie following figures will show by decades the growth of the trade. The area of the coal-measures at Nanaimo and Comox is estimated at 500 square miles. ExpoKT OF Coal from Naxaimo Mines Tons. 1860 14,247 1870 29,843 1880 267,595 1890 678,140 In 1894 the total output was 1,012,953 tons. The total export for that year was 827,642 tuns, and, of the last quantity, 649,110 tons were exported to California. The output in 1896 was 846,235 tons — a falling-off from 1894. Table of the Output of Coal ToiiH. from THI', M NES AT Nanaimo ToiiH. 1863 2,000 1893 978,294 1874 81,000, 1894 . 1,012,953 1890 678,140 1895 . 939,654 1891 . 1,029,097 1896 . 846,235 1892 826,335 « i ,; t 1 ,, 2 K 1 1 k 498 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL m: ; I H n^ As before stated, a seam of excellent coal 5 feet 7 inches thick, with some thinner seams, occurs in the Nicola Valley, and coal has been found also near Kamloops, and on the North Thompson on the mainland. On Graham Island, one of the Queen Charlotte Islands, most important deposits are found, both of bituminous and anthracite coal of the best quality. There are two beds of anthracite and three beds 7 feet to 16 feet thick of bituminous coal. During the last few years a coal area of very remark- able extent has been discovered in the Crow's Nest Pass of the Rocky Mountains. There is an outcrop of from 30 to 40 miles on the Elk river side. One seam is 30 feet thick, another is 20 feet, another 15 feet, and the otliers are from 2 to 7 feet, twenty soams in all, rising successively one over the other to near the summit of the pass. These seams are cut by three creeks, and thus exposed for working. A railway is proposed from Lethbridge on the Canadian Pacific railway over the Crow's Nest Pass to the East Kootenay district, and the coal will then be available for smelting the ores of the :iumerous nunes in that region. The area of this coal-field is estimated to be 144 square miles, and as the aggregate thickness of the seams is 132 feet of coal, an idea may be formed of the immense quantity available. The coal is bituminous, of excellent quality ; fifteen of the seams are of cannel coal. In the same region — East Kootenay — petroleum was found, in 1891, oozing from the shale. Natural gas was observed at the same time, and lighted with a matcli. These indications have not been followed up. The coni- nmnication with the region is too difficult to make these resources available. "&' If BRITISH COLUMBIA Fisheries 499 There are treasures of the ocean also whicli must be taken into account in any enumeration of the resources of British Columbia. There are sea fisheries of halibut, rock cod, red cod, anchovies, herring, and of many other kinds. In 1895 2,586,700 lbs. of halibut were exported, but all these are dwarfed by the amazing runs of salmon in the rivers. The dense masses of fish which crowd up the Eraser must be actually seen to be believed in. The salmon of British Columbia differ from those of the Atlantic coast, and so much confusion exists in relation to the subject, that tiie following memorandum has been obtained from Professor Prince, the Commissioner of Fisheries for Canada, whose scientific reputation gives it authoritative value : — " The rivers of British Columbia are resorted to by at least seven different species of salmon. Four of these are of great economic importance, viz., the (^uinnat, the Sockeye (Sawquai), the Cohoe and the Steelhead. " The Quinnat, or spring salmon, are the first to ascend from the Sv^a. They run from spring until July, but they are not sufficiently numerous to be of great value for canning. Their large size, varying from 20 lbs. to 40 lbs., or even 80 lbs. weight, renders them inconvenient to handle, as the many processes involved in canning make uniformity in size very desirable. They are canned, liowever, to some extent, and the quality of tlie rtesh is most excellent. They are perhaps the best salmon ca ij,ht in Pacific waters, but as compared with the vast " ru ^s " of other Pacific salmon the Quinnat do not ascend in great numbers. Tiiey appear to frequent the Strait of Georgia and inshore waters during the :■; I ffi! 500 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL I: main part of the winter, and are then taken by Indians and anglers who troll for them with spoon-bait. " The Sawquai, in current conversation Sockeye, or red salmon, is the most valuable of all the British Columbia fish. The great canning industry may be said to be dependent on the supply of this fish, which ascends the river, in incredible quantities, from the end of June until September. The Sawquai is a small species, 6 lbs. to 10 lbs. in weight, and its flesh, being firm and of a rich red colour, gives it pre-eminence in the market. When the Sawquai run draws to a close, the canneries, for the most part, cease operations, but during the few weeks of the main run each cannery i3ceives on an average, it is estimated, probably not less than a quarter of a million of salmon. The Sawquai ascends great distances, and the principal spawning grounds are in remote lakes near the head waters of the principal rivers. Most of other British Columbia salmon are content to make a less lengthy and less perilous course, and many, such as the Humpback, appear to resort to the lower tributaries only. " The Cohoe is a fine fish, but the chief schools enter the rivers so late that until recently they were utilised less for canning than for the frozen fish and fresh fisli markets. The flesh is of a fine pink colour, but much paler than the rich orange-fleshed Sawquai. In size they range from ten to twenty pounds, or more, and they continue to enter the rivers until early November. " The Steelhead, which run late and are caught more or less numerously all through the winter, differ in the most marked manner ^.. oia all the British Columbia salmon. This fish resembles, in fact, the great sea trout of the Atlantic estuaries with its bright large scales and thick fleshy tail. It is more closely allied to the Eastern and '^ BRITISH COLUMBIA 501 British salmon thcan the foregoing species, but it has not proved suitable for canning, on account of the dense character of the bones, and the fact that it ascends from the sea in scattered schools ratlier than in the compact and dense runs of the Sawi^uai. For refrigerator purposes this fish could not be excelled, and it has been largely utilised in that way. Tiie average weight of these fish is 12 pounds, but they often reach a weiglit of 25 or 30 pounds. They are an exception to most of the Pacific salmon, because they afford capital sport with the rod. " The Dog-salmon, the Tyhee, and other spocies are too unimportant to rec^uire notice. " The Humpback salmon comes in from the sea in immense schools before the Sawquai rur. is over, and as they are practically valueless commercially, they are a serious annoyance to the fishermen, who frequently take in the course of a morning 00,000 Humpbacks to 10,000 or 15,000 Sawquai salmon. Tlie name given to this species is due to the fact that soon after the schools enter fresh water the males acquire a peculiar outline, the body deepening enormously, the back rising in the form of a blade-Jike ridge, and the jaws increasing in length, so that the creature presents a most grotesque and distorted appearance. The fiesh is pale, and, unless canned very soon after capture, becomes soft and insipid." The business of canning salmon is extending along the coast, and is carried on not only on the Fraser, but upon the Naas, Skeena, llivere Inlet and other rivers. The Fraser river industry is the most extensive. The quantity packed there in the year 1895 was 20,780,171 lbs. The total pack of the whole province was 28,847,101 lbs.,' and the export value was S2,884,710. Besides this 1,795,892 lbs. of fresh salmon, in value $179,589, were exported. The total 1 i 502 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL yield of tlie fisheries of the province in 1895 was $4,423,704 in value. Concerning the fur-seal fisheries much has been written during the last ten years, and the international disputes between the United States and Kussia, and the British and Canadian Governments have brought the subject into disagreeal.)le prominence. The diplomatic literature is enormous in bulk, and in that mass of octavo and folio volumes every actual or probable detail of infor.iiation, real or imaginary, concerning fur-seals is proved and disproved. Meantime, under international conventions, Sc.Js are hunted by British Columbian sailors. The number of vessels employed in 1895 was sixty-four, and the number of skins reported in 1895 was 71,350, amounting in value to $713,590. ' Agriculture Although British Columbia will always be thought of first as a country of minerals, lumber, and productive fisheries, it contains many areas of fertile land. These are not like the illimitable prairies of the North-west provinces and Manitoba, nor tlie broad and level farm- lands of Ontario, nor yet like the long river valleys of Quebec, but they are areas scattered over the province, in the deltas of the rivers and the valleys of the lakes and streams, and on the lower terraces of the mountains. Far away north there are rich prairies in the valley of the Peace river, but they will not be brought into re- quisition for a long time to come. The rivers of British Columbia are not highways of traffic like the rivers of eastern Canada, but communication is by trails and by roads, and access to these northern prairies, therefore, is costly and difficult. E i BRITISH COLUMBIA 503 The agriculturul areas on the ih.i iiland lie chietly in the southern part of the interior plateau. There the winters are short, and cattle require pl:elter for a few weeks only. The region is known as the Yale district, and is inclosed approximately by the Canadian Pacific railway to the north and west and the (toUI range on the east. The summers are warm enough for the growth of grapes and peaches and all kinds of fruit. The Nicola valley and the Okanagan valley are especially productive tracts, and so also are the valleys of the Similkameen and the Kettle river. A connnencement is being made in the Okanagan region with fruit trees and hop vines. All this region, however, is in the dry belt under the lee of the Coast mountains, and irrigation is necessary to make up for the deficient rainfall. The abundance of water at high levels makes irrigation easy and inexpensive. In the district of Yale also is the bunch-grass country, where horses and cattle find abundant and nutritious food on the slopes and plateaus. The country is open, and the trees are chiefiv along the river bottoms or in small clumps. Large ranches have been established with very successful results. The country about Kam- loops is specially adapted for ranching. The snowfall is light, and, if the rainfall is deficient, the country is netted with mountain streams. West of the Coast range all the farming land is on the deltas of the Eraser and other rivers. There the soil is rich, and on the lower reaches of the Eraser there is a large area of productive farm-land. The slopes of the mountains are rough and densely wooded. The opposite conditions exist in this n-egion, for the rainfall is in excess, and the lands must be drained and often dyked. On Vancouver Island, though it is in the main covered '1 t > 504 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL with thickly forested mountains, there is also much pro- ductive farm-land. The land near Victoria is fertile, and on the peninsula of Saanich are many fine farms, as well as at Cowichan and Comox. The land at the head of the Alberni canal is good farm-land ; the difficulty here is not so much the quality of the land as the cost of clearing the dense forest and undergrowth. The smaller islands in the Strait of Georgia are, in many cases, occupied by farmers for mixed farming and for sheep ranches. History Victoria, the capital city and the first actual settle- ment in British Columbia, was staked out in 1842, just fifty-five years ago, and, until Captain Cook's arrival upon the coast in 1778, British Columbia was either a blank on the maps, or the space was filled with imaginary details. Even as late as 1811 William Cullen Bryant, in his stately poem, Thanatojisis, could find no stronger instance of solitude and remoteness than these mysterious shores — Take the wings Of morning, pierce the Barcan wilderness — Or, lose thyself in the continuous woods Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound Save its own dashings — yet the dead are thjre. It is in the poet's mind the culmination of loneliness, and yet the imagination of sailors and geographers had been busy with it for three hundred years ; for there was the termination, on the " Mar del Zur," of the Strait of Aiiian — the waking dream of Hakluyt and Purchas and Michael Lok and Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Ealeigh, and all those other Elizabethan worthies with whom geography was a passion. To them it seemed BRITISH COLUMBIA 505 contrary to the order of the world that there should be no passage to Cathay through that interminable barrier continent which stretched from the frozen cliffs of Meta Incognita on the north to the snow-clad summits of Tierra del Fuego on the south, and which still, even at its narrowest point, defeats the utmost efforts of this ])re8ent age of engineering skill. It was, in effect, the Pacific end of the Strait of Anian that Captain James Cook was sent to discover, and it was the Atlantic end that Parry, last of many other explorers, searched for in 1H21 along the western shore of Hudson's Bay. Through all these years faith was kept alive by eagerly .accepted stories of passages made, or nearly made ; and so this history almost of yesterday, is preceded by an age of fable and romance. There was after all a great deal of truth in the dreams of these imaginative old sea-dogs. On those far distant coasts there is an abundance of gold and silver wherewith to replenish the exhausted veins of old-world commerce ; and the waterways of the " river of Hochelay " and the " Mer douce " do open up the way to the great southern ocean. It is really possible to cross the continent by water with but a few short portages. The old canoe route leads to the Athabasca I*ass, or to the I'eace river, from whence water flowing to the Pacific is not far distant — but the way is long. The Strait of Anian does really exist, but it is far on the north and is ice-bound. That such should be the case was incredible to the old sailors — to use a modern phrase, it was unthinkable. Besides, had not the Portuguese passed safely over the tropics round the Cape of Good Hope ? and the sea was not boiling, as the old writers had taught ; and Robert Thorne showed to King Henry VIII. that there was no more reason to suppose the sea at the north was im- passable for cold than the sea at the south for heat ; and i t - 506 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL then Christopher Oohuiibus liad actually been to Iceland in winter and the sea was not frozen ! No wonder, then, that some sanguine sailors thought they had found the long sought strait. Some had met people who had sailed through ; and others, finding everybody ready to believe them, boldly affirmed that they themselves had passed through. In this way it came to pass that even the short history of our most recent province, whose beginnings we our- selves may perchance remember liad its mythopoietic age. As fov this Strait of Anian, is it not laid down on Jeffrey's standard map of 17()8 !* nnd it leads from the position of Vancouver into Hudson's Hay ; and there, too, we may see the Haro river leading into the " N.E. Tartarean Sea," and the "country of the dwarfs." There, too, is " Fou Sang," discovered by Buddhist monks from China in the year 409, concerning which the curious ma}' consult the Year Books in the Imperial Library at Pekin — and this Fou Sang is no other than our own British Columbia, which, on Jeffrey's map of 1768, guards the western end of the Strait of Anian. Thtn Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who was the soul of honour and truth, heard the Mexican friar Urdaneta explain to Sir Henry Sidney how he had passed through the strait, and he saw also tlie map of the route. Then the pilot Juan Ladrillo had also sailed through it — not to speak of Scolmus the Dane, nor of the East Indians thrown on the coast of Germany ; for the particulars of which event the gentle and learned knight refers us to Quintus Curtius and Cornelius Nepos, to Aristotle, Be- rosus, and the first chapter of Hester, to Arrianus, Philo- stratus, and Sidrach in his " Discourse of the warres of the king of Bactria." If time presses, the hurried reader may omit these authors and consult Gemma Frisius, and BRITISH COLUMHIA 507 learn how three brethren sailed westward through tliis strait, whence it was called Frctam Trium Fivtrum ; and he may look it up on the map, and find that it also comes out near the site of our own Vancouver, which the Canadian Pacific Kail way Company founded a few years ago. J^)Ut to be more precise, there is Maldonado — Lorenzo Ferrer de Maldonado — an exceedingly circumstantial narrator, who laid before the Council of the Indies a full detailed account of this strait. He sailed in 1588 from Lisbon to Labrador at latitude 60°, thence on a north-west course to 64°, then north to 70°, and then north-west to 75", At that point the Strait of Labrador turned, and he passed down south-west to the Strait of Anian at 60' ; so again we are Ijrought to British Columbia. This person was a good guesser, for the Fury and Hecla Strait is exactly at 70°, and Melville Sound is at 75°; and it is just there where Parry would have got through had it not been for the ice. Then, in 1592, there was Juan de Fuca — a (J reek with all the mythopoietic powers of that highly gifted people — a much travelled and much enduring mariner who sailed through from the Pacific to the North Sea, but di ' not continue farther because of hostile Indians, though he knew the way. His real name was Apostolos Valerianus and he was a pilot well advanced in years. This shifty person made an offer to Michael Lok to pilot the ships of Queen Elizabeth through the strait, if she would make good the sum of 60,000 ducats, of which he had been plundered by the sea-rover. Cavendish, on the coast of Mexico. He too was a good guesser ; for he placed the western end of the Strait of Anian at 47° to 48°. His name is perpetuated in the Strait of Juan de Fuca at 48° to 49°; but no trace of him can be found i * r 'it. 508 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL I 1:11 in the records of Mexico or kSpaiii. His story, however, did some duty against ns in tlie settlement of the bound- ary with the United States. These persons, however, were serious persons compared with Admiral IJartholme de Fuentes. The details of his exploits appeared tirst in the monthly MisccUani/ for 1708. The narrative was accepted as fact, and on Jeffrey's map are jwrtrayed the geographical results of his expedition. It was accepted also in France by Voltaire, who states in his History of liussia that the Strait had been discovered. J. N. de I'lsle and Buache, the geographer to the king, presented in 1750 a memoir to the Academy of Sciences, " sur les nouvelles decouvertes au nord de la mer du sud," with a map which perhaps Jeffrey, the English royal geographer, followed. In this the strait was laid down to Hudson's Bay. The Academy was not deceived, but the voyage and the maps were put in as evidence by the Spanish Government in the Nootka Sound dispute. Tiie real fact is that the story was a pure fabrication by a clever contributor to the magazine. It is necessary to know this story to understand the ma]>s of that period. It will thus be seen that a very respectable mass of mythology has grown up around the history of our newest province and yet tliis, as all other mythology, has a certain substratum of fact ; for the shortest and most direct way to Cathay and Cambaluc and IVIangi and Quinsay is indeed through the great estuary discovered by Cartiei to tlie La Cliine of La Salle, and by tlie Canadian PaciHc railway to the Fou Sang of the IJud- dhist monks at Vancouver — the terminus on the Pacitic, of the Strait of Anian ; for railways and not sea-ways are the channels of tlie connnerce of the present day. The real history of Britisli Columbia may be very BRITISi^ COLUMBIA 509 shortly told. It commences with the expedition of Captain Cook. The succcvss of Hearne in 1771 in reaching the shore of the Arctic Ocean had awakened puhlic interest, and Cook was sent to the Pacific with instructions to search the whole coast, north of the new Albion of Sir Francis Drake, for a passage eastward to Hudson's Bay. Whether Drake reached 42", 43°, or 48° is irrelevant here. He did not pass 48° and therefore did not discover British Columbia. Captain Cook commenced i t latitude 44", and coasted to the north, but did not notice the Strait of Juan de Fuca. He discovered Xootka Sound (which he named King George's Sound) on Vancouver Island, and refitted his sliips there in the spring of 1778, and then passed up nortliwards into the Arctic Ocean as far as Icy Cape, where further progress was stopped by the ice pack coming down upon the land. He came to the conclusion that there was no opening westward at a lower latitude than 72°, and returned to Hawaii with ihe intention of renewing his attemi>t at a northern passage the following year, but he was unfortunately killed. Behriug, togetlier with his associate (.'hirikof, had made many discoveries previously. Sailing from Kamskatchka he had discovered the sea and strait which bear his name, and, on his last voyage in 1741, he had passed down the coast of Alaska as far south as 56° ; so that Cook's survey overlapped the Bussian discoveries. It was Chirikof who first saw the American continent. He lost some of his men near tlie present Sitka, licln'ing, a few days later, struck the land at ]Mounl St. Elias. It is also ir.ore than probable that Juan Berez, a Spaniard, conniuindiug an expedition from San Bias in Mexico, saw tliis ]>art of the coast four years beiore (^ook ; but the discovery was kept secret until many years later. The history of the pro- vince commences, then, with Cook's visit in 1778. i. i !■ t I 5»' 't| m 'fFI 510 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 1^ Captain Cook was killed, and his successor, Captain Clerke, died, and Captain King, upon whom devolved the command, touched at Petropaulovski on his return voyage ; and his visit waked up the liussian fur-merchants to organise a Kussian fur company in 1783, which estab- lished trading posts in Alaska. The news spread in the east, and some English merchants in China fitted out a small trading vessel under Captain Hanna in 1784, and thus commenced the direct trade in furs with China ; for there was a great demand for sea-otter skins among the wealthy Chinese, and eno'-mous prices were readily paid for them. In those days every British vessel trading in the I'acific round Cape Horn required a license from the South Sea Company, and every vessel trading east of the Cape of Good Hope required one from the East India Company. In 1785 a company under a license from the South Sea Company was organised in London to take up this fur trade at Nootka Sound. It was called the King George's Sound Company, and sent out two vessels under Captains Fortlock and Dixon. Before they arrived, however, vessels commanded by Englishmen, and sailing under the Portuguese flag and the flag of the East India Company, were trading on the coast. In that wa} Meares and Tippett and Strange and Duncan and Colnett carried on their operations ; and Barclay, who sailed under the flag of the Austrian East India Company. These officers made minor discoveries as they traded along the coasts, and many places still bear their names, though Nootka Sound, as it soon was exclusively called, became the general centre of the trade. Boston, then the chief port of the United States, and renowned for the enterprise of its merchants, aspired also to a share in so profltable ii business and the Columbia Captain Kendj'ick and the ■ikiSi ! BRITISH COLUMBIA 511 iS le rt of Washington Captain Gray arrived in those seas in 1788, and found ^leares at Nootka building a ship and a trading-house. Spain, which for centuries had been asleep on the shores of the Pacific, at last heard of these doings in what she conceived to be her territory ; for she claimed up to latitude 61', where the Russian discoveries were supposed to end, and in 1780 two Spanish ships of %var arrived at Nootka Sound and seized Captain Meares's two vessels and his house and establishment. This brought England and Spain to the brink of war. The matter was, however, settled by a treaty called the Convention of the Escurial, with the result that Meares was to l)e reinstated and reparation made ; it was to carry out this convention and reinstate Meares that Captain Vancouver was sent out in 1701, The Spanish othcers made difficulties, and Lieutenant Broughton was sent home for further instructions, while Vancouver went on with a survey of the coast so thorough and so accurate as to be available to the present day. Eventually in 1795 tlie Spanish flag was struck and the Union Jack hoisted, and British Columbia became an acknowledged possession of the Crown of Great Britain. While these events were taking place upon the coast the merchants of Montreal, known as the North-west Company, began to occupy the country. Alexander Mackenzie crossed the Bocky Mountains in 1793, and following in his wake came the fearless and hardy traders who had already si)read over the western and northern plains. Their names are written all over the map of the province, and the enterprise and pluck of Simon Eraser, David Thompson, Johik Stuart, Jules Maurice Quesnel, John M'Leod, Bobert Campbell, and other men of similar stamp, are wortliily commemorated in the names of the 512 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ! great natural features of the country they gave to the British Crown. Scarcely had the Nootka Sound dispute been settled when the United States laid claim to the w^ le country and the Oregon difficulty began to drag wearisome length over fifty years of controversy until the cry of " r)4' 40' or fight" began to be heard. On the other liand, Great Britain claimed the whole valley of the Columbia. Fortunately, the issue is now dead, but there are one or two points still of interest. It has been stated that Boston vessels arrived on the coast in 1788 — the Co. Ma and the Wo^shington ; one gave its name to the territory and the other to the chief river, long known as the Oregon or " The great river of the west." The estuary of this river had been discovered by the Spaniard, Heceta, in 1775, Meares in 1788 had entered it hoping to find a harbour, but seeing a wall of breakers across it, he made no further search, and recorded his rebuff by calling the headland Cape Disappointment, and the bay Deception Bay. Vancouver also sailed past it, noting the fresh water and the breakers. The first vessel to pass the line of breakers was the Columbia, commanded by Captain Eobert Gray, and he went about 12 or 15 miles up. The same year one of Vancouver's ships, commanded by Lieutenant Broughton, entered the river and sailed up for 120 miles, and took formal possession of the country in the name of the king. He went as far as the site where the Hudson's liay Company afterwards built Fort Vancouver. The first white man to see the upper Columbia above the site of Fort Colville was David Thompson, who, after having established, in 1808, Fort Kootenay at its source, descended the river in 1811 to its mouth. In 1805 Lewis' and Clarke's expedition I BRITISH COLUMBIA 513 reached the mouth of the Columbia — in 1808 the liussians founded a settlement soon after abandoned, and in 1811 John Jacob Astor founded Astoria, which two years later, on account of the war of 1812-14, he sold to the Canadian North-west Company with all its stores, buildings, and stock. That closed the first chapter of the history of the province. The second chapter is the history of the operations of the great fur company in what was called the western tlepartment. After years of rivalry and private war the North-west Company of ^Montreal united with the Hudson's Bay Company in 1821, and the British Government granted for twenty-one years to the ancient company, now reinvigorated with the new blood of the ^Montreal company, an exclusive license of trade over all tlie Indian territory not covered by the Hudson's Bay charter. The country west of the mountains was left open to trade under a convention with the United States to the subjects of all nations without prejudice to the territorial claims in dispute ; but the whole trade fell naturally into the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company. Private traders from the United States could not com- pete with this powerful organisation managed by capable men resident in the territory, and they were, moreover, always liable to be plundered or murdered l)y the Indians. The British Government conceded to the company, as against all other British subjects, the exclusive right to trade in the territory west of the mountains. The con- cession was renewed in 18. '3 8 for anotlier period of twenty-one years. Under these arrangements the Hudson's liay Company ruled this immense territory with a beneticent despotism. It was not in their interest t(j promote settlement, and they discouraged it ; but they excluded intoxicating 2 L ! 1 1 n 514 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL I ^ Is , si;^ H < liquors, dealt fairly and justly with the natives, and in- directly prevented the extermination of fur - bearing animals. They established on the Columbia farms for the supplies of their own servants, and they had posts over the country, of which the chief were Fort Alexandria on the Eraser, Fort Thompson at Kamloops, the posts on Fraser's, Babine, and M'Leod's lakes, and Fort St. James on Stuart's Lake. The chief post of the wliole system west of the mountains was at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia. Tliey won the confidence of the Indians, and by justice, tact, and courage prevented the internecine struggles, between the white and Indian races, which broke out south of the boundary line. Such a system, however, could only be one of transition ; but, for the time and under the circumstances, the autocratic govern- ment of the company was of the greatest advantage, not only to the natives, Ijut to the British Government. If it was also of commercial benefit to themselves, it was well merited. In 1842 the tliird chapter of the history opened, for the boundary (piestion was once more in warm discussion, and it became necessary for the company to prepare to withdraw from Fort Vancouver, and transfer their head- quarters to some suitable point within unquestioned British territory. James Douglas, the chief factor, erected Fort Camosun, now Victoria, on Vancouver Island. No white settlement existed then on the whole island, nor, in fact, on the mainland either — then called New Caledonia. AVork was commenced in March, 1843, and during the summer the requisite buildings were erected and inclosed by a bastioned stockade. During 1844 the establishment was completed; the first ship direct from England arrived in 1845. In 1846 the Oregon treaty was passed, settling the boundary along BRITISH COLUMBIA 515 latitude 49" and t^e centre of the Strait of Juan de Fuca; and in 1859 the iTadson's Bay Company abandoned Vancouver for the new post of Victoria. Then came the gold discoveries in California, and the stream of settlers into Oregon. The old times had passed, and the new era of settlement was to commence. The British Government first began to colonise through the Hudson's Bay Company, and in 1849 it made a grant to the company of the whole of Vancouver Island, under conditions of settlement, and sent out a royal governor — with a commission and a promise of 1000 acres of land, but without a salary. The situa- tion was an impossible one. The real governor could be none other than the chief factor of the grantees of the island, and the superior officer of all the settlers but eight, who had been brought out by Captain Grant. Tlie nominal governor resigned, and, in 1851, Cliief Factor Douglas was appointed in his place, and with a salary of £800 sterling, apart from his salary as an officer of the company. He had seen too much land to care especially for 1000 acres of it. Governor Douglas was eminently qualified to be a pioneer governor. The colony and the British owe much to him. He was a man of courage and experience, and he had great tact and organising capacity. In quick succession followed the usual sequences of colonial history — the council, the justices, the petition to the Crown ; and at last, in 1856, the first legislative body elected by the people. There were not many electors, but the system was complete ; and Governor Douglas delivered the first speech from the throne heard in that wilderness of " continuous woods." ' The dispersion of nations, which on the plains of Babylon had to be accomplished by the confusion of 1 1 1 ■i a ^ »4r 516 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL !l» tongues, is in these latter days effected by the discovery of ijold ; and the discoveries on the Eraser river drew a great influx of people into the wilderness of forest and mountain in the summer of 1858. They came in singly and in parties as the news spread — rough and lawless miners, for the most part an overflow from California, and many of them driven out by the strict rule of the vigilance committee ; but in the English colony they found the force of law and order too strong, and the worst of them left in disgust. The increasing population consequent on the discoveries of gold stirred up the Imperial Government to unwonted promptness ; and the trading privileges of the Hudson's Bay Company were cancelled, the mainland was erected into a colony, and Mr. Douglas was made governor of it also, in addition to his position as governor of Vancouver Island. He was, however, required to retire from all connection with the Hudson's Bay Company, and dispose of his interest therein. On 19th November, 1858, he assumed the duties of governor. Governor Douglas soon had occasion for all his tact and patience. The treaty of 18-46 had provided that the boundary line should run " through the middle of the channel which separates the continent from Vancouver Island." Now there is an archipelago at the southern end of the Strait of Georgia on the parallel of 49° ; there are, therefore, many channels, and among them are three principal ones. Of these three, one was called from its position the middle channel, and still retains the name. The Hudson's Bay Company had established a large farm on the island of St. Juan on the British side of tliis middle channel, as they naturally supposed it to be. In 1854 a collector of taxes from the neighbouring territory of the United States visited the island, levied taxes on the Y ( BRITISH COLUMBIA 517 farm, and seized and sold stock to pay the taxes so assessed. The company made a claim for loss and damages, and the matter went into the arena of diplomatic correspondence. In the meanwhile the disappointed ones among the miners began to find their way back, and between twenty and thirty had S(|uatted on the island, and one of them shot a pig belonging to the resident factor of the Hudson's Bay Company. This apparently trivial incident brought the two countries to the brink of war. The twenty-two American citizens appealed for protection " in their exposed and defenceless position " — exposed to the attacks of outrageous pigs and wild Indians, as well as to the dangers from eighteen servants of the Hudson's Bay Company resident on the island. In response, the general commanding on the Pacific occupied the island with United States troops, without consulting the authorities at Washington or communicating with the government of the province. It is useful to recall this absurd occurrence, because it will show how easily a few hotheads may begin a war involving the destruction of millions of property and the loss of numberless lives. The tact and patience of the Governor and of the commanders of the British war- vessels barely availed to prevent collision before the matter was even reported to the United States Govern- ment. Fortunately General Scott was commander-in-chief — a soldier who had seen much of war ; and, when the facts were known, the belligerent officers were removed to other fields of usefulness, and a joint occupancy was established, and continued with peace and good feeling until the question was determined. Much money was expended in the movements of troops and war-ships, and nnich labour in diplomacy — but the pig was never paid for. The capital city of the new province was located Ij ilif i ; <:■■{ i 518 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL at the mouth of the Eraser, and, under the direction of Colonel Moody, a detachment of Iloyal Engineers surveyed the site. Queensborough was the name first selected — afterward changed to New AVestminster. The province had, of course, its legislative council, after the usual pattern of a colony in transition, and it soon commenced to petition for a resident governor. Governor Douglas retired at the close of his term of service, and was knighted. Governors were then appointed to each colony, but it soon became evident that a union was in the interest of both provinces, and this was effected in 1S6G by a general popular movement in despite of the opposition of a minority. The province of Vancouver Island was merged with that on the mainland under the gujicial name of British Columbia. In the year 1867 and 1868 the extreme isolation of the province became the subject of discussion, both in British Columbia and in England. The colony began surveys for a road to connect with Canada, and meetings of influential citizens were held in favour of union with the Dominion of Canada. The movement was warmly approved by the Imperial Government, and was met cordially by the Dominion Government. The terms of union included provision for the construction of a railway to connect the system of Canada with the Pacific sea- board. In 1870 the proposal was drawn up at Ottawa with the assistance of delegates from the Pacific province. The following year it was accepted, and the union was consummated in the same year by an act of the Imperial Parliament. Thenceforward the history of the province is merged in that of the Dominion, T^ BRITISH COLUMBIA Cities 519 Seeing that the province has been discovered very little more than a hundred years ago, it cannot be expected to contain large cities : Victoria, the capital of 1 British Colunil)ia, possesses, however, many natural advantages. The foundation of the city and the choice of its first name, Fort Caniosun, have already been noted. For a short time it was called Fort Albert, but the eventual selection of the name " Victoria " was a happy inspiration, since not only in climate but in surroundings of mountain and sea, her gracious ]\Iajesty would find, if it were only possible for her to visit lier island city on the great South Sea, all the natural charms of her summer and winter liomes in the central island of her empire. They are, however, drawn liere to a larger scale. The mountains around Dalmoral are surpassed by the lofty sunnnits which encircle the horizon at Victoria, and the Straits of Juan de Fuca and of Georgia reproduce the Solent in grander proportions ; for in their deep and sheltered waters all the navy of England might man- oeuvre, without inconvenience, in review before their sovereign. The city of Victoria is situated on the eastern side of a narrow inlet opening from the Strait of Juan de Fuca, upon gently rising ground and facing to the south and west. The inner harbour is sufficiently deep for vessels drawing 1 G feet ; and at the wharfs of the outer harbour, vessels of any size find accommodation. The harbour of Esquimalt, only 3 miles distant and con- nected by electric railway, is the station of the Royal Navy on the Pacific, and in its spacious shelter there is anchorage for the largest ships afloat. The population of the city proper increased from ;i-, m I 520 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL 5925 ill 1881 to 10,8-41 in 1891, and it is now estimated at close upon 25,000. For electoral purposes it is i^Touped with the adjacent districts of Metchosin and Esquimau, and returns two members to the Dominion Sutman, Vhntn. ESQUIMALT HAKBOUK. Parliament. Its importance as a naval station, from the proximity of the coal mines of Nanaimo, has always obtained for the city much consideration in England. Only there and at Halifax on the Atlantic are Imperial troops still to be seen ; and the fortifications being erected to protect Esquimalt are a sequel to the fortifica- tions guarding the Imperial dock at Halifax on the Atlantic. The Pacific city, far off though it be, has an English air, due to the large proportion of settlers direct from Great Britain, to the nautical proclivities of the people, and to the continued presence of British ships of 15KITISII COLUMBIA 521 war ill its waters. Tliore is also an old-world apitearaiice about it, from tlie ditferent nationalities represented in its population, not only European, but Asiatic ; for there are many Chinese and Japanese drawn thitlicr by its commercial connections. When Vancouver Island was united politically with the mainland to form the present province of Ijritish Columbia, Victoria was made the capital, and a pile of very imposing buildings has lately been built to accom- modate the legislature and the departments of the pro- vincial fjoveriiment. There is oiilv one legislative chamber, and that is elected direct by the people upon what is in effect manhood suffrage. It consists now of thirty-three members, from wdiom an executive council of five is selected in the usual way. The Governor, who is ap- pointed by the Dominion, resides at Victoria. The city is well built, with good shops and handsome private residences. The streets are well kept, lighted by electric light, and many are planted with shade trees, and the suljurbaii roads are well cared for. A fine park affords beautiful drives and very grand scenery. Across the water to the east and south are the mountains of the Coast range, and the snowy peaks of the Olympian range; and in the rear, to the west and north, are the mountains of the Island range. Victoria is the centre of a large business, not only in shipping but of general supply. There is a large Chinese colony resident in a quarter of its own, and there are many Japanese also ; for in the Pacific, China and Japan count for a great deal in trade, though, as these Asiatics, whether British subjects or not, have no votes, they do not count in the govefnment of the country. It is the centre of the fur-sealing fleet, and the point of departure for many lines of steamships. The chief details and \m < I 522 COMPENDIUN' OF GKOCItAPIIY AND TKAVEL tigures are uiven l)elow in tii1)ular form, and it will be sutficient to reniiirk hero that it is not only the third port in the Doniinioii, as the tallies show, but it is the chief port in the North Tacific after San Francisco. The dock at Esqninialt adds greatly to its im})ortance, and there is also in connection with it a marine railway, which can draw out of the water in a short time vessels 320 feet h>no- and of 22 feet draught. NEW WESTMINSTER In point of age this is the second city of the province. It was Ibundod by Colonel Moody in 18;") 8 at the out- break of the gold fever, and it w^as the capital of tiie mainland before the union. In 1881 the population was 1500. In 1891 it had increased to GG41, and at the present time it is probaldy 8000. The city is situated on a rising ground on the north bank of the delta of the Fraser, 15 miles from the mouth of the river. The low lands at the delta are the largest single tract of farming land in the province, and are very productive. The city, however, depends chietly on lumber and on the salmon canning industry for its trade. Tlie chief saw-mills of the province are here, and the salmon-runs up the Fraser river are incredible to all who have not seen them with their own eyes. It has tt good harbour and a large shi})ping trade. VANCOUVER This infant city, the child of the Canadian Facilic railway, does not appear in tlie census of 1881 ; for it was then in forest — the site only of prodigious Douglas firs. In 1891 the population was l."»,085, and is now HKITISir COLUMIUA L) J, O probably nearly 20,000. it is situated uu a i)euinsula on the south shore of lUirrard Inlet on ground 200 feet high sloping down to the sea. JJurrard Inlet is one of I'AKT OK Till-; HUNK OK ONK OK TllK MAMMOTH TKKKS IN STANI.KY KAIIK, VANCOUVEH. the deep fiords previftusly de.scribed, and is uuv of the best harbours on the raeific It is half a mile wide at its mouth, and opens out to two miles in fmnt of the 1'! If ii i ^ : ' ' : !i ' ■I § I .1 ■ m |'!f ! I !lf- fe : 1:: ! 1 ■)■ '■■ : ' r 'la tifll' f M'f -s — 11^ 524 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL city. The inlet extends twelve miles into the countr}', and is everywhere from 6 to 20 fathoms deep with excellent anchorage. It is very easily accessible to the largest ships, and is open all the year round. Vancouver is connected with New Westminster by electric railway, and by steamers daily with Victoria, 90 miles distant. Shortly after its foundation it was destroyed by fire, but has been rebuilt in solid and substantial manner. It is lighted by electricity, and possesses all the conveniences of cities many times its size. Chief among the hotels is that of the Canadian Pacific railway, which cost ^250,000. The principal park is Stanley Park, and some of the gigantic Douglas firs are left standing there for the inspection of travellers. The other chief towns in British Columbia are Nanaimo, the centre of the coaling trade, and Kamloops in the interior plateau. Parkerville is a small town, the centre of the Cariboo district, but in the Kontenay district large towns have sprung up almost in the last eighteen months, llossland has 7000 inhabitants, and Trail IT) 00. In the Slocan district are Kaslo and Sandon, mining towns, and Nelson tlie official centre. These towns grow week by week, and the spring of 1897 will witness an infiux hard to estimate Ijeforehand. The leading banks of the Dominion have agencies in these toxvns, and civil order is as perfect as in any town in England. Oommunication The great avenue of communication by land is the Canadian Pacific railway. The main line is 5 1 miles long within the province, and it opens up all the southern territory. At Pevelstoke a branch leads soutli to the head of the Arrow Lakes and, by means of well- 1 PT BRITISH COLUMBIA 525 appointed steamers and short connecting links of railway, the Columbia and Kootenay valleys are opened up throughout, and connection is made with Spokane on the Xorthern Pacific railway and all the system of United States railways. The Columl)ia river is naviiijated all winter, and althougli ice sometimes forms, the steamers of the Canadian Pacitic Company never intermit their trips from Arrowhead. At Sicamous a branch leads to the head of Okanagan Lake, and connects with steamers plying upon the whole length of the lake. At Mission Junction the most important southern connection is made for Seattle, Taconia, and San Francisco, and opening up the transcontinental systems of the Xorthern l^acitic and Union Pacitic routes. Eighteen miles east of V^ancouver a short branch leads to Xew Westminster, at the mouth of the Fraser, All these connnunications are to the south of the Canadian Pacitic railwav. The region to the north has to be reached by stages from Ashcroft, which is the avenue to the Caril)oo country, or from Kandoops and a few other points. There are good farms at intervals along the road, and at Chilcoten and (^uesuel ; but travelling through the north country is still chietly along the trails. There are few settlers, and in that remote region, miners, prospectors, and explorers are the only travellers. On Vancouver Island there is a railway from Es([uimalt to Xanaimo, 78 miles long, connecting with the coal mines, and one from Victoria to Sidney, 16 miles long, opening up some good farming country. It is by sea that the communications of the province ar e Si) important and far reaching, for they stretch out over the whole Pacific Ocean to (.'hina, -Japan, and Australasia, as well as to San Francisco and the other United States ports to the soutli. Some of the chief i- i'l m ■s(^. 526 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAniY AND TRAVEL f I I 1*1 i ■ 1, mi ^l steamship lines are enumerated to show liovv tlie tonnage of these racific ports has attained such high figures. The magnificent steamships of the Canadian Pacific line sail from Vancou^^er and Victoria for Yokohama and Shanghai, and those of the Australian line sail for Sydney, N.S.W., touching at Honolulu and Fiji. By these the most direct communication is made with all points in eastern Asia and Australasia. The Pacific coast steam- ship line touches at all the ports on the west coast from San Francisco on the south to Sitlca in Alaska. The Canadian Pacific Navigation Company's line keeps up communication with all tlie ports of the province — Victoria, New Westminster, Vancouver, Port Simpson, Alberni, and tlie Queen Charlotte Islands. This is a far- reaching svstem of connections, and there are from Victoria and New Westniinster many routes to nearer ports. Commerce The trade and navigation returns of the Dondnion presented to Parliament in March, 1897, give the follow- ing results of the trade of the i)rovince fur tlie last fiscal year to June 30, 1896. Statement of arrivals of sea-going vessels for the year ending June oO, 189G; — Vessels. Tons. Pacific ports- -Hritisli Columbia — ojion all the year round. Couiox . 81 121,788 Nanaimo . 369 •265,270 Viinuouver . • 364 337,131 Victoria .... 1386 929.669 Summary of the foreign trade of IJritish Columbia for the year ending June 30, 1890 : — Total imports Total exports $5,496,944 10.576,551 1 BRITISH COLUMBIA 527 Chief Expouts Products of tlie mine >) >) fisheries . >> )) forest Animals and tl leir products ' Education $5,762,960 3,288,776 685,740 434,647 III: 1 ■ ill The governnieiit of tlie province is alive to the paramount importance of providing schools for the rising generation, and beside the vote taken for school build- ings one-sixth of the revenue is devoted to education. The schools are frciC, and wherever there are ten scholars the government will provide a certificated teacher. In 1893 there were 149 schools, and an attendance of 10,773 children — about one-sixth of the entire white population. ! i, I* NOTE TO CHAPTER XV The following publications may he referred to for further details on the subject of this chapter : — Annual Reports of tlie British Columbia Hoard of Trade. \'ictoria, B.C. Annual Reports of the Minister of Mines. Victoria, B.C. Banckoft, H. H. History of the North-west Coast, vol. i. San Francisco, 1884. Bkog, Alkx. • History of British Columbia. Toronto, 1894. British Columbia, its present resources and future possibilities. Published by the Provincial Government, V^ictoria, 1893. Bulletins of the provinciijl Mineralogist, Williajn A. Carlyle, Victoria. Grkenhow, RoilEUT. History of '^'•egon and California, and other Territories on the North-west Coast of North America. Boston, 1845. 111 528 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Twiss TiiAVEns. The Oregon Question examined. London, 1846. The following are the reports of the Geological and Natural History Survey with their dates :— Vancouveu Island. J. Richard.son, 1872-73, 1874-75, 1877. CJ. M. Dawson, 1877, 1886. Prof. Macoun, 1876. Queen Chaulotte Island. J. Richardson, 1873. G. M. Dawson, 1879. Coast and Mainland. Dr. Selwyn 1872-76. J. Richardson, 1875-77. G. M. Dawson, 1876-77, 1878, 1880, 1886-89, 1891-94. Prof. Macoun, 1876. H. Bauennan, 1884. A. Hownian, 1888. J. McEvoy, 1893- 94. R. G. McConnell, 1894. Survey Reports, 1895 and 1896. Rocky Mountains. Dr. Selwyn, 1876. Prof. Macoun, 1876. G. M. Dawson, ISSO, 1885. R. G. McConnell, 1886, 1893-94. CHAPTER XVI THE MACKENZIE KIVEU BASIN W' Xext to the Mississippi the Mackenzie is the largest liver in North America. It drains an area of 077,000 square miles, and it flows through nearly 17 degrees of latitude in a course, from its ultimate source, of nearly I'oOO miles. Its sources, on the south, are the head waters of the Athabasca, which originate on the eastern slopes of the Eocky Mountains, in the Yellow-head and Athabasca passes. Its waters, in the Athabasca Pass, rise close to waters flowing into the Columbia, at the l»oat Encampment. The sources of the Peace river, one of its great tributaries, almost touch those of the Fraser ; and the source of another great tributary, the Liard, is within a few miles of the source of the Yukon. On the east it receives the waters gathered up in the Athabasca, < treat Slave, and Great Bear lakes, and it is separated from the basins of the Churchill and Saskatchewan by narrow and low water-j)artings. It rises in the south at lat. 52° 20', and it falls into the Arctic Ocean in lat. 69°. In its northern course it is known first as the Athabasca ; from Lake Athabasca to Great Slave Lake it is the Slave river, and 'from Great Slave Lake to the sea it is called the Mackenzie, and is continuously navigable by steamers to the sea for a distance of 1120 miles. The 2m 11 tt fill ^ -Is 530 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL I' ( « i-' »v Mackenzie river is nowhere less than half a rrtile wide ; where the Liard falls in it is a mile and a o wide, and in its widest part it expands to three ^' r miles. It is nowhere less than 7 or 8 feet dc its length of over 1000 miles from Great Slave Laiv o the sea. The valley of the Mackenzie is an alluvial plain bounded on the east by a more or less wooded region sloping down to the Barren Grounds and drained l:»y the Coppermine and Great Fish rivers falling into the Arctic Ocean and, south of them, by the Doobaunt and by the Churchill with its extensive tributary system flowing into Hudson's Bay ; on the west, it is bounded by the Kocky Mountains, and on the south by the water-parting of tlie North Saskatchewan. The territory of Athabasca, which was reserved from the chapter on the other north- west territories, forms the southern part of the Mackenzie basin, and is more naturally considered in this clmpter than with the territories of the Winnipeg sub-basin. The Mackenzie has the drawback, in common witli all rivers ilowing north in these latitudes, that the upper waters thaw in spring before the lower reaches of the river are clear of ice. This is the frequent cause of floods, which, with the action of the ice, erode the banks where the rocks are soft, and carry down to the sea trees and other waste of the land to increase the area of the delta at its mouth. Geology The valley of the Mackenzie is a continuation to the Arctic Ocean of that great interior plain which has already been described. The line of crystalline rocks, on its eastern border, starts from the western end of Lake Ataabasca, and follows along the bank of the Slave river to Fort Resolution, midway on the southern shore of i THE MACKENZIE RIVER BA.SIN 531 Great Slave Lake. (Crossing the centre of the lake, these rocks leave the Mackenzie far on the west, and are seen no more on its banks. The river issues from the western end of Great Slave Lake, and inclines more to the west- wards ; while the line of Laurentian rocks passes V...O* ly north, touches the extreme east of Great Bear Lake, and stretches north to the Devonian of the Arctic coast. The territory known as Athabasca is underlaid by the Cretaceous formation, but towards the north the Devonian closes in from both sides, and iiarrows the Cretaceous area, so that in places it barely keeps possession of the river banks, while in other places it disappears and leaves the Devonian rocks exposed. From Fort Good Hope it spreads out, gradually widening to the sea. It will appear then, that, speaking generally, the same geological conditions exist as on tlie plains to the south. The soil is deep and well suited to the growth of crops wherever the climate permits, but as the region is, for the most part, covered with forest, it requires to be cleared and the lower land drained to prepare it for cultivation. The elevation of the valley is very slight. Lake Athabasca is 690 feet, Great Slave Lake is 301 feet. Fort Simpson is 2-11 feet, and Fort Norman is 150 feet above the sea. i- ^: 1 i It Athabasca Territory The boundary of Athabasca at the south is, at present, precisely the northern boundary of Alberta. Its western boundary is the meridian of 120° W. which divides it from British Columbia. On the north it is bounded by a survey line coinciding, within a few miles, with the parallel of 60° north latitude. The boundary on the east is the northward prolongation of the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan (about 111' 30' west longitude) 532 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHV AND TRAVEL until it strikes the Athabasca river (which it does very nearly at I'ort M'Murray at the junction of the Clearwater), thence it follows the Athabasca and !;Uave rivers to the northern boundary. An Order in Council has been passed to extend the eastern boundary to the meridian of 100^ W., but the final statutory action has not yet been taken. Tlie territory as now existing covers an area of about 122,000 square miles. The water-parting between the Mackenzie and the North Saskatchewan runs diagonally to the south-west from the north-east corner of Alberta, and thus one-tliird of the territory of Alberta is drained northwards by the head streams of the Athabasca and I'eace rivers. These two rivers, however, How for the most part of their courses in the territory of Athabasca and form its main features ; for all practical purposes it may be said that the territory of Athabasca is the Mackenzie basin as far as lat. 60°. Ccntour of the Land The territory is, for the most part, an undulating plain. Immediately south and west of Lake Athabasca the large rivers How in and out of the lake through wide deltas, and form a very low alluvial tract, often flooded by tlie rise of the rivers. Throughout the southern part, be- tween the Peace and Athabasca rivers, it is a rolling plain thickly wooded and studded with numerous shallow lakes which, as they fill up with moss, become muskegs and marshes. Everywhere the rivers have cut deep valleys through the soft rocks. There are some ridges of higher elevation. The Birch mountains are a range or plateau 1000 feet above the plain, or 2300 feet above sea -level, extending for 100 miles between the lower reaches of the Peace and Athabasca rivers. The Buflalo THE ^lACKENZIE RIVER BASIN 633 Head hills, about 40 miles south of Fort Vermilion, on the Peace river, is a plateau elevated 1000 feet above the plain, and about oO miles long by 25 miles wide. The hills near Lesser Slave Lake are the same height, and tliere a"e other detached ridges of similar elevation. The main chain of the Kocky Mountains does not enter Athabasca. Lesser Slave Lake is 1890 feet above the sea, and the land falls with a gradual descent to the head of Athabasca Lake. North of Peace river the land is higlier and has more of the character of a plateau. Hydrography The Athabasca, on the eastern and southern edge of the district, and the Peace, flowing diagonally through it from south-west to north-east, with their tributaries, make a net- work of streams over the territory, and these open out into lakes of all sizes, for the most part shallow. The largest is Lesser Slave Lake, 61 miles long, with an average width of 8 miles, draining by the Lesser Slave into the Atha- basca river. It covers an area of 484 square miles, and is seldom more than ten feet deep. The Wabiscaw river and lakes, draining northwards into the Peace, collect the water of the south-east corner of the territory, and in the north-west the Hay river, a tributary of Great Slave Lake, takes its rise. The Peace river is a stream remarkable for many reasons, and especially because, taking its rise far within British Columbia and on the west of the Kocky Moun- tains, it flows eastwards, with a breadth of 300 to 500 yards, through that range l)y the lowest and most practic- able pass, — a veritable gateway of nature, a valley a mile wide between mountains rising 2000 to 4500 feet above it, or 4000 to 6500 feet above sea-level, — through which. I III 534 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL US seems fitting, Alexander Mackenzie first crossed to tlio Pacific. The Peace river is 905 miles long from the rise of one of its chief tributaries in Summit Lake, at tlie crown of the Pacific - Arctic water-parting. There is u portage road there only 7^ miles long to the Fraser. ]t is there called the Parsnip river, and, flowing nortlivvard, meets the Finlay river at the " Forks." The Einlay is 'MO miles long. It is the larger stream, and the tiuc Peace river. Its head-waters interlock with the sources of the Liard and of the Skeena and Stikine rivers. Calculated from its farthest source, the Peace is 1007 miles long. From the Forks it is called the Peace rivei', and flows in a general eastward direction for 757 miles to its discharge into Lake Athabasca. It is remarkable, also, because it flows through a rich agricultural country, and with a quiet, untroubled current, navigable up to Eocky Mountain Canon beyond Dunvegan, save for one short break of two miles ; this is at the Vermilion Falls, 220 miles from its mouth, where the river, at that point a mile wide, falls over a low limestone ledge in a drop of ten to fifteen feet at lowest water, but at high water the fall becomes much less. In its upper course the Peace flows through a broad valley 600 feet below the general surface of the country, but in its lower stretches the valley almost disappears. The Athabasca (often called in old maps the Elk) river, is considered to be the upper Mackenzie on account mainly of its general direction from its source. It is 776 miles long — not so long as the Peace. Like the Peace, it flows in a valley cut deeply into the surface. In its upper course the valley is over 300 feet deep and two miles wide. For the first sixty miles it flows through the mountains, through a heavily wooded country. Many mountain streams contribute to swell its volume, among THK MACKENZIK UIVEK BASIN 535 wliicli are the M'Leod and tlie Pembina. This latter stream skirts the water-parting of the North Saskatche- wan, and at the lloman Catholic Mission of Lake St. Anne the two streams approach veiy closely. IJelow the I'embina the Lesser Slave river brings in the waters of Lesser Slave Lake, and the Athabasca tiien becomes navigable by stern-wheel steamers drawing 2.^ to 3 feet of water. Athabasca Landing is an important point on tiie great bend of the liver, where it assumes its direct northerly course ; and this is, at the present day, tlie entrance to the Mackenzie basin; for there the road, 90 miles long, from Edmonton is connected by rail with Calgary. It is a Hudson's ]]ay post and a busy station, as all supplies for the great north land pass through there. The steamer Athabasca plies throughput the stretch of navigable water accessible from this point. There are 166 miles to ( J rand liapids, on the north and east, of unimpeded navi- gation. Up to Grand Kapids the river is from 250 to 400 yards wide, and Hows in a valley from 300 to 400 feet below the general level of the plain. At Grand IJapids commences a series of rapids and falls which render the river unnavigable for about 85 miles to Fort M'Murray, in which distance the river drops 3 GO feet, running between sandstone cliffs of a general height varying from 200 to 300 feet, and in one place 500 to 600 feet high. Fort M'Murray is anotiier important point in the ^lackenzie valley, for it is not only the head of a long stretch of steamboat navigation, but it is at the junction of the Clearwater river, the main avenue of the canoe navigation of former days. Up the Clearwater is the Methy portage, 12^ miles across to the Churchill, and down the Churchill is the Frog portage, 380 yards, to 536 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 1 waters ialliiiLj iuto the North Saskatchewan. In the old fur-trading days, when the brigades of voyageurs met on these key portages of the great western wilderness, and the wild scenery was lit np by the great camp fires, the arduous labours of the day were often forgotten in the merriment of the re-union of acquaintances ; for, to be a voya^^eur, a cheerful disposition was tlie prime requisite, and a good canoe man had usually a good store of voyageur songs, and, whenever he had an opportunity, could show very wonderful steps in dancing. Fort M'j\Iurray is the starting-point of the steamer Grahamc, and navigable waters, 717 miles in aggregate length, are available from thence. There is a stretch of water to Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca, 200 miles, and from thence to Fort Smith on the Slave river, 102 miles long. In addition, the Peace river is navigable for 220 miles as far as A'ermilion Falls, and Athabasca Lake is 195 miles long; there are ])esiil('S 40 miles of navig- able water on the Clearwater. From Fort M'jMurray the banks of the river continually decrease in height, until, at Lake Athabasca, they are only 3 feet high. Tlu' river expands to a width of from 400 to 800 yards, and deepens to permit of vessels drawing from 7 to S feet of water. The current runs steadily at about four miles an hour. The country is all level alluvial land, well wooded, and the soil is good, but there is nuicii swampy land. It is a loamy clay suited for agriculture as far as Fort Cliipewyan, where the hard Arcluean rocks come out upon the right bank. As the river approaclies the lake, it divides into many arms, embracing low marshy islands, and forming a wide delta of low land. It falls in at the extreme western end of the lake, and there also is the outflow of the Slave river ; and, at a short distance down, the flood of the Peace river joii"^ the ■ ] i jj i iiii * sirawt: ■I) Hi ' .k M .t-.V I'EACE KIVEK. before a committee of I*arliament Mr. Christie, formerly a chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, described it as " the finest country he had ever seen," and he was tlien living on the St. Lawrence. The soil, he said, was a beautiful dark loam. Crops have been raised there for 100 years, and wheat is as certain as in Manitoba. It is an open, park-like country, and THE Mx\.CKENZIE RIVER BASIN r.4i horses winter on the open prairie, and the Cliinook winds keep the wikl grasses clear of snow for them as in Alberta, oOO miles to the south. Wheat is grown not only at Dunvegan, but at Fort Vermilion, on tlie Peace, farther north in lat. 58°, and the country is productive farming land along the valley for hundreds of miles. This is beyond question, for large farms are worked there. South of the valley of the Peace the soil is also good, but it is thickly wooded, and the swampy parts round the lakes require to be drained. Settlements Tlie settlements in Athabasca are all collected around Hudson's Bay posts or mission stations. Fort Chipewyan is a large post. It is the seat of an Anglican bishop and of a lioman Catholic bishop. Tliere is a convent of Grey Nuns, with twenty-five pupils. At Fort M'Murray is anotlier Itoman Catholic mission. At Little Slave Lake beside the Hudson's Bay post, there are missions of the Anglican and Roman Churches, with schools. On the Peace river, at Vermilion, there are missions of both churches, besides the Hudson's Bay post. At Dunvegan there is an im- portant Hudson's Bay post, and missions of both churches. This post is the garden of the north-west. Every kind of grain and garden vegetable is grown there. Mr. Ogilvie, iu his visit in 1891, saw the crops, and describes the large size of the vegetables gi'own. As a note of the conditions existing, he remarked two sunllower.s which measured fourteen inches across the seed disc. All alonu the Peace these favourable conditions exist. Ploughing at Dunvegan commences about 14th April, and potatoes are planted at the end of April. 1(1 I 542 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL m ltf\ W II 11 Hi i The Mackenzie River It is under the name of the Slave river that the Mackenzie flows out of Lake Athabasca. Its course is northwards, and about 20 miles from the lake it receives the waters of the Peace river. If that river be in flood, it flows over also into the lake by the Quatre Fourches river, but under ordinary circumstances the Quatre Fourches discliarges into tlie Peace. At Grahame Landing, 102 miles down from the lake, the river drops 240 feet through a series of rapids which interrupt navigation for 14 miles to Fort Smith; from that point navigation is uninterrupted for over 1100 miles to the Arctic Ocean. A cart-road has been constructed on the west side of the river, and all supplies in transport for the lower river must be reshipped there. The Laurentian rocks, which come out at the western end of Lake Athabasca, follow down on the east bank of the river as far as Fort Smith, where they finally strike away directly to the north. From Fort Smith tlie river flows with a slow current for 190 miles between low banks, and through a flat, wooded, alluvial country, until it falls into CJreat Slave Lake, midways on the southern shore, near Fort Pesolution. Fort Smith is a place to remember as the head of navigation from the sea, and it is as near as possible on the parallel of (50^ N. About 20 miles down the Slave river the Salt river falls in — a stream with water rendered brackish by three or four salt springs 20 miles from its mouth. Tlie springs have foi'med evaporating-basins, and the salt crystallises out perfectly pure, and is shovelled into bags and used all over the North-west without furtlier preparation. Near the inflow of the Slave river into Great Slave THE MACKENZIE UIVER BASIX 543 Lake is Fort Resolution, an important Hudson's Bay post, where are missions of the Anglican and Eoman Churches. The spring is later tlian at places farther north on the main river ; for, as there is no current, the ice lingers in the lake until the end. of June, and the country is rocky around it, yet garden vegetables are j-TOwn. The lake is about .*500 miles long, with an average width of 46 miles. Its waters are very clear and very deep. It covers an area of about 10,100 square miles, and it is only 391 feet above the sea. Much interest attaches to this lake, for Back built Fort lieliance on the extreme eastern arm, and started thence on his expedition down the Great Fish river to the sea. Fort Ilae, at its extreme northern point, was the English and Canadian international Polar station, and there is a Ikoman Catholic mission there. The western shore of the lake is well wooded with good spruce, with belts of llanksian pine, poplar, and birch, but the eastern and northern arms project into the Barren Grounds. The Hay river is the most important tributary, and is 400 miles long, flowing in from the south. Much of the coast of the lake is still unsurveyed. From the western end of Great Slave Lake, the river, thenceforth the Mackenzie, flows nortliward in a broad and deep stream. The banks are low and the country is level, covered with spruce and broken by many lakes and marshes. About 50 miles down is Fort Providence, where the Hudson's Bay Con\pany have a post, and the Itoman Catholic Church a mission, with a church, orphan asylum, hospital, and school. The Grey Nuns, from Montreal, have the care of these latter institutions. Barley is grown here, and even wheat usually escapes frost, and many garden vegetables are raised, for the ice moves away earlier than from the lake. ^IM t\ ' ?'| 1,! ■ 544 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGEAl'HY AND TRAVEL Fort Simpson is the next post on the Mackenzie. It is o24 miles from Fort Eesohition, on an island in the river, close to the junction of the Liard, and very nearly on the parallel of 62". This is said to be the most northern point at .which wheat will ripen, but it is a very uncertaiu crop. Barley and garden vegetables are grown, and with good success. Cattle are kept, and are fed on the native grasses. The potatoes grown here are as large as those raised 1000 miles farther south. The timber is large, and consists of poplar, spruce, birch, and hemlock. The ice breaks up between the 1st and 15th of May, and the river does not close again until the beffinninu of November. In 1850 Lieutenant Pullen, with two boats, from H.M.S. Plover, which had entered the Arctic Sea by Behring Straits, went up the river and wintered at Fort Simpson, returning to his ship in the spring. The Liard river is a very large stream. It rises in a number of lakes flowing into Frances Lake, close to the source of the I'elly (L^pper Yukon), and flows east, through the Itocky Mountains, in a course almost as long as that of the Peace. It is a turbulent and dangerous stream, but in its lower course it is navigable to Fort Liard, and Hows through a densely wooded country, with g-^od soil. Its name, Eiviere aux Liards (Cottonwood or c^oplar river) indicates the quality of land ou its banks. At Fort Liard, 162 miles from its mouth, it is a mile wide. There the soil is a black loam. Wheat may be grown, and barley is a regular crop, and used as feed for cattle. Below Fort Simpson, as the Mackenzie approaches within 25 miles of Fort Wrigley, one of the Hanking ranges of the Eocky Mountains rises to the east of it, and for several hundred miles its course is in a valley between two mountain ranges 3000 to 4000 feet hidi. The banks of the river are low, and the country is low to the THE MACKENZIE KIVER BASIN 545 mountains on both sides. The distance from Fort Simpson to Fort Wrigley is l.'>4 miles, and from thence it is 180 miles to Fort Norman. At times the mountains close in, and again they spread out and form a broad valley. At Fort Norman there are missions of the Eoman and Anglican Churches. It is in lat. 64" 41', but barley is grown and the grass is luxuriant. Near Fort Norman, Great Bear Lake discharges by Great Bear river into the Mackenzie. The lake is irregular in shape : its length is 175 miles, and its breadth varies from 25 to 45 miles; but if it were measured across by its opposite northern and southern arms, the distance would be 180 miles. The area of the lake is 11,200 square miles, and its average depth exceeds 270 feet. It is open for only three months in the year. In 1873 Dease and Simpson built Fort Confidence at the extreme north- eastern point of the lake, and made it the headquarters from whence they carried on their remarkable explorations during three years. It was in lat. 66" 53' and inside the Arctic Circle, but they found abundance of game. The lake was, and still is, full of fish ; wild fowl were plentiful in their season, and caribou and musk oxen were numerous. It was an admirably selected point, for they could readily reach the Coppermine river below most of the heavy rapids and the Arctic coast was more accessible from there than from any of the points selected by Franklin or Back. From Fort Norman to F(5rt Good Hopt is 170 miles. This post is nearly on the Arctic Circle. Besides a Eoman Catholic church and mission, there has been a convent of Sisters of Charity established there for thirty years. Here are what are called the Eamparts of the I\Iackenzie. The river flows for 7 miles through a canon of steep, overhanging rocks, 150 feet high. The broad 2n fi I t -, ' . ' ' f t S' I I 546 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL stream narrows to half a mile, and flows with an even current and with a depth of 350 feet. In 1887 a whale came up to this point from the Arctic Ocean, from which fact tlie depth of water in the delta may be surmised. After passing Fort Good Hope, the river flows between banks sometimes 200 and 300 feet high. The country is still wooded on both sides of the river. On the east the trees are small, but on the west side the white spruce is from 6 to 18 inches in diameter. Black spruce, balsam, poplar, aspen, and tamarack grow to a fair size as far as Fort MacPherson. Fort MacPherson is in lat. 67" 26', and is the most northern abode of civilised man on the Mackenzie. There is an Anglican and Poman mission there. It is on the Peel river, 14 miles above th'^ forks, where one branch flows towards the delta of the Mackenzie and the other into the Arctic Sea. The Hudson's Bay steamer Wrigley makes this her last stopping-place. The delta of the Mackenzie has not been accurately surveyed. The great river spreads out in many arms, and flows for 70 or 80 miles between very low banks through an alluvial plain. On the east branch the depth of water is 12 feet. Even here the forest follows the river, and the spruce is 12 to 15 inches in diameter. At Fort MacPherson may be seen the wonderful effect of the long solar day. A recent traveller reports that on 20th June the buds on the trees appeared, and on the 22nd they were out in leaf. Throughout July the temperature was + 64 through a 24-hour day of sunlight. At Fort MacPherson the territory of the Eskimo commences, and about 350 frequent the fort. On the Arctic Ocean, 80 miles west of the western- most mouth of the delta, is Herschel Island, the best shelter harbour on the coast. It is in lat. 69" 40'. THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN 547 Twelve United States whaling ships wintered tliere in 1895-96 with crews of about 1000 men. Supplies were sent to them from San Francisco. It is a small island seven miles long by four wide. Tlie tide rises there two or three feet flowing from the east. Resources The resources of the lower Macl enzie valley are similar to those of the territory of Athabasca. All the waters and lakes are st?ocked abundantly with fish — whitefish and trout, the latter of very large size, and in the river a species of fish concerning which there is so much uncertainty that it is called the inconnu. The following account of it, contributed by Professor Prince, may be relied upon as accurate : — " The Inconnu {Stenodus 3facke7izii), sometimes called the Mackenzie river salmon, is found in most of the large rivers of the north-eastern portions of the continent bor- dering on the Arctic circle. It is neither a salmon nor a whitefish, though in general outline it resembles the latter. The projecting lower jaw, in contrast to the shortened lower jaw of the whitefish, and its great size, twenty to fifty pounds weight, are characteristic. The tail is deeply forked, the scales somewhat diminutive for so large a fish, while the glittering silvery coloration adds to its imposing appearance. Its flesh is superior, and it spawns in the late fall. In certain rivers in northern Pussia a closely allied species occurs." Coal has been found in localities at distances from each other all over the valley, but so far as it has been examined along the rivers it is lignite. Other seams have been reported at various places in the interior, and it is more than probable that bituminous ;: ^■1 548 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and authracite coal will be discovered in the region nearer the mountains. Near Fort Norman two seams are exposed. The upper one has been burning for 100 years. Sir Alexander Mackenzie saw it when he passed down in 1789 on his famous voyage of discovery. Tar springs are met with on Great Slave Lake, and bitu- minous limestones occur in many places, indicating the existence of petroleum. The extensive deposits of salt have already been noted, and also the fact that the whole country is wooded. Moose and caribou are plentiful, and somewhere in these forests a few wood buffalo have taken refuge and many sportsmen have been out in vain search for them. May the search ever be vain, for men are many, and will not be missed, but buffalo are few. Climate It has been pointed out elsewhere that the isothermal line of summer heat sweeps very far northward along the Mackenzie valley, and this fact, taken with the long days of summer, draws the limit of growth of cultivated crops very far to the north. The line of grasses and of forest stretches through the valley north into the delta of the Mackenzie and close to the shore of the ocean. The causes of this have been pointed out elsewhere and are briefly the low elevation of the land combined with the influence of the Chinook winds from the Pacific and the presence of large bodies of water. Very little can be predicated generally concerning the climate and productions of a region extending northward through fifteen degrees of latitude. The subject has been incidentally treated in connection with the description of successive stretches of the river to the sea. The mention of the growth of crops at the different points will afford important indications of THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN 549 climate. The winters are severe, but, as explained in a previous chapter, spring seems to open simultaneously over an immense reach of territory to the north-west, and there is sufficient heat in summer to ripen wheat up to lat. 60° N. There does not seem to be any great differ- ence in the severity of the winter frost or the heat of the summer ; such differences as exist are in the direction of shorter summers and earlier frosts. Fort Chipewyan, in lat. 58° 43', may be taken as a central point, and Mr. Stupart, the Director of the Mag- netic and Meteorological Observatory at Toronto, has supplied the following meteorological table : — Fort Chii CEVVYAX MeTEOIIOLOGICAI, Table For a period ol' ten years. January . Average mean temperature. - 14-9 Absolute maximniji, 10 years. o 45 Absolute niinimuui, 10 years. o -49 Total precipiUUi inches. 0-68 February . -10-6 46 -50 0-68 March 4-5 47 -41 0-81 April 24-7 56 -22 0-67 May . 41-9 79 5 0-41 June 55-6 90 24 1-51 July . . . 61-4 84 26 3-19 August 57-9 89 25 1-16 September 45-1 79 13 1-58 October 30-0 65 -9 0-96 November 13-0 56 -33 0-73 December . -2-3 49 -41 0-67 13-05 Some indications may also be gathered from the dates of the opening and closing of navigation at various points as follows in the records of eleven years : — Fort M 'Murray, Fort Simpson Fort Norman • Navigation. Latitude. Opens. Closes. 56° 40' April 18 to May 18 Oct. 24 to Nov. 14 62° May 1 to May 14 Nov. 7 to Nov. 30 64° 54' May 9 to May 28 Nov. 7 to Nov. 18 'Wl. \ 1 ;'■ 1 ■; J !. ■ ■ i i i yiii 550 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEI There being no current on Great Slave Lake to carry away the ice, it lingers there until the middle of June. Communications A sated globe-trotter in search of new fields may be interested to know that the land of the midnight sun is now within twenty-three days of comfortable travel from Ottawa. There are steamers on the Mackenzie down to Fort MacPherson on the delta and Mr. Ogilvie gives the following itinerary. The steamer Wriglei/, plying upon the last stretch of the river, is a propeller with 80 feet keel and 14 feet beam and draws G feet. Ottawa to Calgary — Canadian Pacific Calgary to Edmonton ,, .... Edmonton to Athabasca Landing, 90 miles by waggon Athabasca Landing to Grand Rapids by steamer Athabasca Grand Rapids to Fort M 'Murray by horses . Fort M 'Murray to Fort Chipewyan by steamer Graham'' Fort Chipewyan to Grahame Landing by steamer Grahamc Grahame Landing to Fort Smith, 14 miles by horses . Fort Smitli to Fort MacPherson by steamer Wriylcy . Day.s. 4 1 ;5 1 3 1 1 1 8 23 History It has been stated in a previous chapter that tht; French fur-traders had established posts throughout tlic; region now known as Manitoba and Assiniboia, and had even pushed on as far as the foot of the Ik cky Mountains. After the cession of Canada to England adventurous merchants of Montreal took up the enterprises interrui)to(l by the war and, first individually and then in concert as the North-west Company, extended their operations into regions far beyond the French explorations. The English on Hudson's Bay were sitting quiet at their posts and THE MACKExNZIE RIVER BASIN 551 waiting for the Indians to come, but tlie Montrealers pushed their enterprises with sucli vigour tliat the Hudson's Bay Company were stirred to extend their posts into the interior. The French posts followed the Saskatchewan and its southern branch — for they were aiming towards the jMissouri — the Montrealers reached out towards the north. Fort Cumberland was established in 1772 by Joseph Frobisher, and he intercepted at Frog Portage a large baud of Indians going to Fort Charchill to trade. He bouglit all their furs, and made sucli a successful trade that he called the place "Portage la Traite." He was the first white man on that portage and on the Upper Churchill or Missinipi river. His brother, Thomas Frobisher, built a post at Isle a la Crosse in 1775, and I*eter I'ond, another Montrealer, pushed farther west and crossed Methy Portage in 1777, and the following year established a post on the Athabasca river (Iliviore i\ la Biclie or Elk river) about twenty miles from the lake. From thence he sent Lerou.x; and Grant to Great Slave Lake and river, where they established the posts now called Fort Kesolution and Fort Providence. On the formation of the North-west Company the Athabasca district was allotted to the care of Alexander ^lackenzie, who sent Poyer, a French Canadian, to establish a post on Peace river and one on Lake la Marthe, north of Great Slave Lake. He had formed tlie design of follow- ing th"^- great river to the 'Arctic Ocean, and he left his friend Roderick Mackenzie in charge. It was this latter Mackenzie who built the first Fort Cliipewyan on Lake Athabasca. It was on the soutli side of the lake, and was finished during Alexander Mackenzie's aljsence in 1789. In 1820 the post was moved to its presi^nt site. It will be leen, therefore, that some of tliese posts have I '^ 3 1 ! •fl m m r ! i'il 552 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL i m a history far more ancient than most of the cities of Canada, and that the discovering and opening up of the Mackenzie basin was effected by merchants from Montreal under the English regime, though many French Canadians were associated in these enterprises. r - ■. ■■ . NOTE TO CHAPTER XVI The following works will be useful for further information on the subject of this chapter : — Report of a Committee of the Senate of Canada upon the resources of tlie Great Mackenzie Basin, and the country eastward to Hudson's Bay. Ottawa, 1888. This exasperating work is a vohinie into which an immense mass of information has been thrown without index, classification, or guide of any kind. Most of the information is of great vahie, and the book is indis- pensable for a knowledge of the resources of the Mackenzie valley, though it will sorely try the patience of any one who attempts to master its contents. OaiLViE, William. Report on the Peace River and tributaries in 1891. Ottawa, 189"2. The following are the reports of the officers of the Geological Survey : — Athabasca District. Dr. Selwyn, 1876. Prof. J. Macoun, 1876. G. M. Dawson, 1880. R. G. McConnell, 1880, 1891. R. Bell, 1884. J. B. Tyrrill, 1893. D. B. Dowling, 1893. J. B. Tyrrell, 1896. Yukon and Mackenzie Riveh Districts. G. M. Dawson, 1888. R. G. McConnell, 1S89. Other "norganised Territouies. A. S. Cochrane, 1880. R. Bell, 1884. J. B. Tyrrell, 1894. ?'- H m CHAPTER XVII THE YUKON TERRITORY In the uttermost Dorth-vvest of the Dominion is the pro- visional district of Yukon — extending over an area of 192,000 square miles. It is in the shape of a right- angled triangle. The base is the parallel of 00° N., separating it from l^ritish Columbia at the south ; the perpendicular is the meridian of 141° W. — striking the Arctic coast at Demarcation Point, and the hypothenuse is the summit of the mountain range which borders the valley of the Mackenzie and about 70 miles of coast west of the delta of that river. While this description is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes it nnist be observed that the boundary of 141° does not come down •piite into contact with the parallel of 00°; it comes down to the sunmiit of the range of mountains on the coast perhaps 15 or 20 miles short of lat. 00° N., and it Just incloses Mount St, Elias within British territory ; so that large mountain mass is tlie uttermost western point, within one or two miles of British dominion. The height of this mountain is variously given, but tlie most accurate figure is probably ISfOlO feet. It has been supposed to be the highest mountain in North America, but Mount Logan, within 20 miles of it in long. 140° 30', is given in the map of the U.S. Geodetic Survey at 19,514 feet. 1 1 III I 'I ::f' , h n i ,! liyi 4 '•Til m 554 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL I These are the highest peaks on the North American continent. There is another Mount Logan, 9000 feet high, near Lake Frances at the source of the Liard, which must not be confounded with this one near the Alaskan boundary. This district received its name from the fact that all the large rivers which combine to ibrm the Yukon, rise in it. The river was not called the Yukon by its dis- coverers higher up than the junction of the Pelly and Porcupine rivers for the reason that the upper rivers were all named and mapped before they were known to connect with the lower river. The name Yukon was given by James Bell of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1842. It is the Indian name and signifies "Great River." At the junction the Hudson's Bay Company founded Fort Yukon in 1847; but in 1867 it was dis- covered to l)e 110 miles west of the boundary of 141'' W. and, upon an abrupt notice to quit l)y an United States officer, the fort was abandoned. This point is almost exactly upon the Arctic Circle. The name Yukon was extended in the course of a few years to the Lower Belly as far as tlie junction of the Lewes. This part of the river is called the Upper Yukon. During the last two years attention lias been strongly attracted towards this region because of the immense extent of the gold deposits found there and their exceed- ing richness. Tlie gold district is intersected by the meridian of 141°, and it is fortunate for Canada that the boundary there is an astronomical line ; for as that is a definite mathematical limit, there can be no possible diplomatic excuse for disfiguring that part of the bound- ary with another re-entering angle. A joint connnissioii of Canadian and United States officers has been for two years on the ground collecting accurate topograi)lucal THE YUKON TERRITORY 555 information. It reported last year, and Mr. W. E. King, the astronomer of the Department of the Interior, has returned, but Mr. William Ogilvie is still fn the territory surveying and cutting out a conventional boundary-line in order to settle provisionally the respective jurisdictions of the United States and Canadian authorities. His reports and those of Inspector Constantine in command of the North-west Police have recently been received, and have revealed to the Canadiuns themselves a world of interest and resource previously undreamed of. This chapter is largely based upon their reports dated as late as January 27, 1897. i-l nil 3 LM 1 iB'i It h' U] Contour of the Land The interior of this country is very little known. It differs from the Alaskan territory in being more or less mountainous throughout ; for the Cordilleran ranges spread through it in many parallels, running in a general direction with the coast. What is definitely known beyond the reports of the Hudson's Bay officers is based on the subsequent explorations of Dr. G. M. Dawson and Mr. E. G. McConnell of the Geological Survey, and of Mv. Wm. Ogilvie of the Department of the Interior. The pioneers and miners now in the territory are not writers, and very few travellers have visited this very secluded and inaccessible .region. The reports of late explorers now coming in have all the interest of dis- coveries. It is not a country of tundras, but of mountain ranges and rolling hills, penetrated everywhere by large navigable rivers. The most continuous range is tliat nearest the coast, which is 84 miles wide with a general height of about 6000 feet ; but there are many high peaks rising to 8000 and 10,000 feet. J 556 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL I: IWI:: m 1;: The range of which Mount St. Elias is the chief feature commences at Cross Sound and attains a much higher elevation, and of this range Mount St. Elias is one of the loftiest peaks. During the present summer several parties of scientific men and skilled climbers are to attempt the ascent — an arduous task ; for the snow-line is at the height of 2000 feet, and all the remaining distance to the summit is over snow and ice. The eleva- tion of the general surface of the territory at the head of the Upper Pelly is 2965 feet. At the confluence of tlie Pelly and Lewes it falls to 1555 feet. The average level of the whole territory is estimated at about 2000 feet. Until some better route than the present one over the Chilcoot pass is found the Yukon must be the main avenue into the country and, by treaty, the navigation is free to Canada. It falls into Behring Sea by several mouths, and they are all so obstructed by sand that sea- going steamers are unable to enter any of them ; nor is there any site at the mouth of the river suitable for a town. The greatest depth anywhere is eight feet, and in consequence, the river steamers, which are stern-wheeled drawing only four feet, are obliged to wait for calm weather and go out to meet the ocean vessels at St. Michael's in the open Behring Sea, 80 miles north of the entrance to the river. The ice is all down about the middle of June, and at the end of the month, when Norton Sound is clear, navigation commences. For hundreds of miles the river flows through the perfectly level tundras of Alaska — flat mossy morasses on a frozen sub-soil, where it is difficult to find a dry spot to laml upon. It is a very wide monotonous stream ; not deep, but flowing with a tranquil current on its lower course ; but, on the upper river about Cudahy and farther up, the current runs at the rate of about five miles an hour ; THE YUKON TERRITORY 557 for much of the season it is even swifter. Two trans- portation companies have steamboats plying from the mouth of the river to Cudahy, beyond wliich it is navig- able to the head of Teslin Lake. It is over a thousand miles from its mouth to the junction of the Porcupine at old Fort Yukon, and 2300 miles to the extreme head of its waters. The trip up to Fort Cudahy takes eighteen to twenty days, and two trips are made in the short season of summer. The drainage area of the Yukon is estimated at 330,982 square miles, about one-half the area of the Mackenzie basin. lieturning, however, to the exclusive consideration of the Yukon territory which belongs to Canada ; it consists, as before stated, of the higher lands drained by the chief atiiuents of this great river. The country is fairly well known along the chief water-courses ; for these have been travelled first by officers of the Hudson's Bay Company, and more recently l)y explorers of the Geological Survey, and of the Department of the Interior. From the chief streams, miners and prospectors have followed up many of the smaller streams, but away from the water-courses very little is known. Hydrography It has already been stated that the I'orcupine river meets the Upper Yukon at tlie site of old Fort Yukon to form the main Yukon river. The course of the rorcui)ine is mainly within the Arctic Circle, and the contiueuce is almost precisely upon it. The Porcupine is navigable for hght steamers for 106 ndles, and an easy canoe route exists from its upper waters, at the great bend in its course, by way of Lapierre House to Fort Macpherson on the Peel, which falls into the delta of the Mackenzie, so 'i! J"'' ' , ' * 5, .1 I: m. 558 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL i i (I '! ' "': that coinnmiiication is easy from tlie Yukon to the Mackenzie within the Arctic Circle. The I'elly is a large river, and for Cx. time the name Telly- Yukon was used to denote tlie whole river to the sea. It is navigable for small steamers to within fifty miles of old Fort Felly Banks on the Upper Felly, within twenty miles of Finlayson Lake, from whence the water flows by the Liard into the Mackenzie. Commencing at old Fort Yukon and proceeding up the Upper Yukon river from its confluence, the first stream worthy of note is Forty ]\Iile Creek (so called because it was sup- posed to be forty miles from Fort Keliance) — not on account of its size, altliough it is about 250 miles long, but because it is the cntre of supplies for tlie miners. The little town of f name was supposed to be within Alaskan territory, out it turns out to be eiglit miles within the Canadian line. Fort Cudahy is the centre of Canadian administration. It is in lat. 04° 25' and long. 140° 18', and is the most northern point in the Em})ire occupied by British troops. A detachment of sixteen men of the North-west police with two officers and a surgeon, was sent there in 1895, and in three months they got out the hnnber and l)uilt a fort at Cudahy, at the junction of the Yukon and Forty Mile Creek, threi;- ([uarters of a mile from the mining town and across the creek. It would be misleading to call them bv tlieir proper name, " mounted pcjlice," as dogs are used for travel in the winter, and in Alaska the United States officers are training reindeer and have imported deer and men from Lapland. Food lias to be carried for dogs, l)ut tlie reindeer and the barren land cariboo (which are practi- cally the same) find their own food in travelling. What the police require here is a swift steamboat ; although, to the credit of the miners, it should be observed that » ( I '''^ ■ m m llf^fc Mm it:,: i - k' r:t^- zn-.r: ij i: 560 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL «-| no serious crime has so far been committed. There have been as yet no civil courts, and the miners, until the arrival of the police, administered their own law. Fort Cudahy is 1800 miles from the mouth of the Yukon. It has now a collector of Customs, and the Anglican Bishop Bompas has a church and resides there. There is a steamer from this point running up to old Fort Selkirk, and at Forty Mile City the Alaska Commercial Company has its headquarters. At Fort Cudahy opposite are the headquarters of the North American Trading and Transportation Company. Both com- panies have steamers on the rivers. Still following up the Yukon, two large rivers fall in almost opposite each other, the White river from the south and the Stewart from the north. The White river is turbulent and shallow, and colours the lower river with its milky waters; but the Stewart is said to be navigable for 200 miles. The next important confluence is at old Fort Selkirk. There the Lewes and the Upper Felly unite. The Upper Pelly receives, about seventy-five miles from its mouth, the waters of the Macmillan, a large river yet unexplored, supposed to rise in the Rocky Mountains, near the sources of the Peel. The length of the Upper Pelly is 3 2 5 miles, and its source is believed to be in tlie Pelly lakes about 131° W. and lat. 62° N., close to the source of the Liard. Mr. Warburton Vike has, however, shown some reason for doubting this. lieturning to old Fort Selkirk at the junction of the Upper Pelly and the Lewes — the united river is there three-quarters of a mile wide. The Lewes is a large river and a most important one ; as it must become, for goods as well as miners, the highway into the country. This river is navigable as far as the White Horse rapids and Miles Canon. There an interruption of three miles THE YUKON TEKKITOHY 561 occurs, but that once passed there is navigation to a group of lakes near the Cliilcoot Pass up to a point within twenty-five miles of tide water at tlie head of Lynn Channel. It would be of very little use to attempt to give furtlier details of the wonderful river system which penetrates this territory. All the streams mentioned are very large rivers, and there are many others wliich have not been explored. Tlie whole region is now opening up and every month brings notices of new discoveries. Cudahy commands a navigation of more than 1500 miles on the interior rivers — the Lewes, I'elly, Stewart, Porcupine, Macmillan and others. All these rivers run in the general direction of the mountain ranges, but there are two streams which cut the ranges and give access to the interior — the Stikine in British Columbia, and the Liard in the extreme south- east which rises in the Yukon district and Hows eastward into the Mackenzie, cutting through the Pocky Mountains on its way. It was by the Liard that the first white man, Robert Campbell, entered the country, and it is now l)eginning to be recognised tliat the best entrance to it on the south is by the Stikine from British Columbia. 4 '1 1 Communications Once within the Yukon territory communication is comparatively easy by the rivers ; but entrance, save by the long circuitous course from the mouth of the Yukon, is difficult. The supplies for the mining town at Forty Mile Creek are sent "in by that route. The distance is enormous both by sea and river, but heavy freight can be got in by no other route under present conditions. The route by the Porcupine is only a canoe route, and is too 2o ij 562 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL far north and too circuitous to be available ; the route up the Liard, from the Mackenzie to the head-waters of the Pelly, is direct enough, but the Liard is a very dangerous river to navigate, even in canoes, and the route had to be abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company. The geo- graphical problem now before the Canadians is how to reach the territory from British Columbia at the south and avoid the enormous detour by St. Michael's. It does not seem difficult on the map ; for the head-waters of the Lewes approach closely the tide water of the north of British Columbia, but intervening is the barrier of the Coast range of mountains. The route hitherto followed by the miners is by Lynn Channel, and the point of departure is at Juneau City in Alaska, from whence there is a steamer to Taiya, ] miles distant, on Taiya Inlet, at the head of Lynn (Jhannel. Canoes may be used for a few miles from that point to the Canon. From thence it is 1 5 miles to the sunmiit of the Chilcoot Pass (3475 feet), and lo miles of descent leads to Lake Lindeman, which discharges its waters by a chain of lakes into the Lewes. It is 23|^ miles only, by direct measurement, but 28 miles by trail; if trail it can be called. It is a hard climb over bare and broken rocks among snow and ice all summer. In winter the miners haul loads over the pass on hand sledges and across Lake Lindeman and the chain of lakes in succession to the foot of Lake Laberge, from whence they float down on rafts (jr boats in the spring. There is another pass, the White Pass, a little to the south, and another the Chilcat not fav to the north, but both are at present considered to be more difficult than the Chilcoot Pass and they are not used. Another difficulty exists on this route ; for, when the pass has been surmounted and the main Lewes is reached, it is absolutely necessary to portage for three THK YUKON TERRITORY 563 miles round Miles Canon and the Wliite Horse IJapids. In the winter of 1895 the Canadian mail was abandoned at the summit of this pass, and was found in the snow in the following summer. The mail courier was badly frozen. Two mails got through, however, that winter — one by the Chilcat and one by the White Pass. A route has been spoken of to the Pelly called the Dallas trail, where horses might l)e got in, but little is known about it. In view of these difiiculties attention is now turned to Teslin Lake. This is a deep lake 80 miles long which discharges by the Teslintoo or Hootalinqua river (100 miles), into the Lewes, thirty miles below Lake Laberge, and below Miles Canon and the White Horse Kapids, thus getting into the Lewes beyond all the dangerous obstruc- tions. The Teslintoo is a broad and quiet stream, and from the head of Lake Teslin a steamer can go down to Cudahy and to the mouth of the main river on Behring Sea, a distance in all of 2400 miles of interior navigation. The whole outer circuit in the ocean, round by Oonalaska and Behring Sea would then be avoided. The cardinal point is, then, Teslin Lake, and that may be reached from the sea by two routes. From the head of Taku Inlet the Taku river is navigable Ijy canoes for 53 miles as far as the junction of the Nahkina river. From that point to the head of Teslin Lake is 70 miles, through a country not mountainous or difficult. The Taku river is not,, ho wevet, availal »le for steamers. The total distance from tide to lake is thus 123 miles, or 150 miles from Juneau City, near the entrance of the hynn Canal. The other route *to Teslin Lake, and one which is meeting with much favour, is by the Stikine river to Telegraph Creek, 140 miles, all available for steamers. From thence it is 150 miles in a direct line to the head ■ >t i l| Mr ^ *• -f^ n ; I i .r i . it 564 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL h m i':- A of Tesliii Lake ; 53 miles of which distance is covered by a trail already made to i.;ie Hudson's Bay post at Eynell's Creek. Ill comparing these routes it will appear that from steamer navigation at Telegraph Creek to the head of Lake Teslin is 170 miles, and from -hineau City to the same point is 1 5 miles. Telegraph Creek is in Canadian territory, and the inconvenience of passing goods througli United States territory will be avoided and the whole interior country be opened up by a short route from Victoria. The distance from the head of Lake Teslin to Cudahy is GOO miles. There remains only to be noticed the Cassiar trail from Telegraph Creek to Dease Lake, the head of one of tlie branches of the Liard ; but it will appear on consideration that Teslin Lake is the key ])oinl of the problem how to get into the Yukon territory without going round 2000 miles by sea to the mouth of the river, and 1500 miles more on the river itself. Resources The same remark whicli has already been made concern- ing the Lower Mackenzie is applicable here. No one will go to the Yukon in search of farm lands, but nevertlieless the country in its southern jiart wUl produce ost of tin* crops necessary for food. It will, at Fort Selkirk and south of it, [)roduce the barilier cro])s siu'h as barley, rye, turnips, llax. There are areas throughout of gt'utly lolling land and the river valleys are wide. There is sullicii'iil rainfall, but the country is ])rotected by mountains from the incessant ])recii)i(ation of the Alaskan coast. The Yukon territorv of Canada is well wooded with timi'tT of fair size, mostly white and black spruce. At Cudahy dry timber is beginning to be scarce, having been cut THE YUKON TEHRITORY 565 away from the river ban^: where it was most accessible. In tlie interior there is plenty if there were horses or oxen to haul it out when cut. An island in the river lias been laid out for a market garilen ; for ordinary vegetables may be grown with fair success. At old Fort Selkirk, in lat. 63°, there are Ibrests of large timber aud })leasant green meadows. It is 1000 miles north of Victoria, but when the fort was occupied crojfs of potatoes and barley were raised there, and it has been calculated that, even in this remote region, there are in the southern part 30,000 square miles available for agriculture and stock raising. The country abounds in moose and caribou, and these, with salmon, are the chief food of the Indians. Kur- beariug aniuials are abundant — silver-gray and black foxes, marten and sable, and lynx. r>ighorn slu'ej) aud mouii'/ain goats are numerous, and bears both black aud griz'iiy. Moose have been increasing of late years and are txleuding their range. Fish are not so plentiful on the nd t:ra vlini ;o up -21)00 Yukon, l)ut there are whiteHsh, lake trout, a in the tributary streauis and lakes. Salmon uiiles to the I'elly lakes, but they are in very ])0(tr con- dition after t!u ir long journey. Gold Mining It is, however, as a niMiing count ly that tlie Yukon district is important. Tlie geological character of the territory is, so far as known, a continuation of tliat of Ihitish Columbia. There arc the same l*ahco/oic rocks, and th(^ mountiiins are a continual ion of tlie same ranges, which, at the soutli. have been ])roved to ahound in mineral wealtli, and espcciallv in the precious metals. There is a gold-bearing Itelt of territory of indcitinite 566 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL If width, and three hundred miles long to the north from the Chilcat Vans, and advices received while these pages are going to i)ress show tliat the Canadian ^'^kon region is one of the richest areas for gold-mining which has ever been discovered. The climate is severe and access is difhcnlt, so that strength, courage, and good health are necessarv to all who go there. The climate is healthv for the healthy, Itecause there are no fevers, but the life of a miner is laborious. It is, so .iir, all placer mining of the most primitive kind. The miners do not hang round the posts, but as a rule stay on their claims all winter and dig out the frozen uravel. In the summer they wash out the " pay dirt " so that the long winter is not a season of entorced idleness, but of pre- paration. Otticial reports show that in the south there is good l)lacer mining, and coirse gold is found on the Te.slintoo (Hootalincjua). The principal work of the last two years has l)een around Forty-mile Creek and Sixty-mile Creek, and among the richest of the tributaries of the latter are ]\liller Creek and Ciacier Ci vk. One claim on ]\Iiller Creek yielded J?7r),000 to 5^8 0,0 00 in the summer of 1890. Paying gold-diggings are being worked on the Stewart and many other of the interior rivers, and every creek for thiee hundred miles shows signs of gold. In August, 1800, very rich deposits of "coaise gold " were found on the Klondike or Deer river, a stream whicli falls into the Yukon a few miles above Fort Keliance. One of the tributaries was named by the miners " r^^nanza Creek," but all the creeks on botii sides of the Klondike give most ])romising prospects. The miners are flocking there, and tlu' otlicer in ciiarge reported in Decendier, 18!)G,that it is beyond doubt that three pans yielded respectively, $204, }?212, and $210. a *:^i' 568 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL These were, of course, very exceptional, but they indicate the productiveness of the locality. Nothing has b^en done in quartz prospecting, and nothing probably w " be done until access to the country is easier, Ijut gold-bearing quartz is found in many places. Cone Hill, about two miles from Cudahy, consists (dmost entirely of metalliferous rock richer in gold than the celebrated Treadwell mine. By the time placer mining is exhausted the country will be opened up by a railway from one of the British Colundna rivers, and quartz mining will begin. All these matters are so recent, and the country is so new, that the official reports are read with the interest of new discoveries. i- ■I ; i: 1 f i "i r1 i ■\ 1' .■ ■ ■ i -- Coal It is now beyond doubt that there is abundance of coal in the very heart of the gold-mining region. Seven miles up Coal Creek, not far from Cudahy, an extensive seam 12 ft. in. thick has been found. Over 200,000 tons are in sight there of a good quality of lignite. About oO miles from Cudahy, seams 5 ft. 4 in. and G ft. have been found, as well as on the Klondike and at other places along the Yukon. In view of the severity of the winters, this is most important, for it would adtl enormously to tlie cost of winning the gold if fuel had to be iinported. Climate While tlui mountains protect the country from the incessant downpour « f the coast region, the climate has the disadvantage of lieing very cold in winter, though (by. Tiie readings of th«' tiiermometer at Cudaiiy in the winter of 1895-90 several times were far below — 50 and once 1 1 111 m i' 570 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIJAPHY AND TRAVEL n\ 1^ ^Wr m touched — 6.')°. From — 40° to — 50° was quite common. The miners luive a ready way of testing the temperature by putting a bottle of mercury outside, and if it freezes they remain indoors. In clearing away the site of the fort at Cudahv the men of the detachment of North-west police had to tear up moss from one to three feet thick, and underneath it they found ground covered by clear white ice. The ground quickly thawed and dried on exposure to the sun, for the summers are warm during the long northern day, and there is very little rain in summer excepting during thunder showers. In looking over the reports for facts indicative of the climate, it appears that the ice broke up on the Yukon at Cudahy on May 17, 189G, and it was considered unusually late. By the middle of September the river was again full of floating ice. That gives a sunnner of four months. Again we find the surveyors could not travel in the middle of April of the same year, excepting early in the morning and late in the evening, because the water was running in the creeks. We find, again, that boundary surveyors were out on snowshoes working in the field from February to May and in October and November, and that their work stopped for two or two and a half months, not because of the cold, but because of the darkness of the short days of midwinter. But the cold is nevertheless very great, for Mr. Ogilvie reports that on January 8, 1896, the thermometer registered —G'^°, and that it fell once in the night to —08°. The cold experienced by Arctic explorers has not been so severe as this, and the only way to account for the comparative ease with wliich the miners support such low tempera- tures is because of the drvness of the air. Now that the town has Ijeen ascertained to be on Canadian territory, the name Forty-mile Creek will THE YUKON TERKITORY 571 probably be clian^ecl for a more appropriate one. Tlie new fort is called Fort Constaiitiiie, from the iiauie of the otlicer who built it. liishop JJompas has Aiiell not only discovered but named and published the names of all these streams, and conducted business on their banks long l)efore the Eussians had gone any considerable distance beyond the estuary. The Russian name for the Yukon was Kwich-Pak. To change these names is not only unjust to the original explorers, but also confuses the geograpliical history of the country. The St. Lawrence has many names by which its progressive discovery may be traced, and so has the Mackenzie. In like manner, in the far north, Smith Sound, Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Channel mark steps in discovery from 1616 to 1871; and, although it is one continuous strait, any attempt to apply Sir Tliomas Smith's name to Captain Hall's discovery would be resented by Hall's fellow-countrymen. The same usage obtains throughout all Polar voyages, and there seems no adequate reason for interfering further with Mr. Robert Campbell's nomenclature. NOTE TO CHAPTER XVII The best accounts of the Yukon diatrict will be found in the following publications : — Dawson, G. M. Report on an explonitioii in tlie Yukon district, N,W,T. aii^y ^""i V^'/ ^ ^j? 7 iV V "% V ^ <^ ^ V 4^^ ;\ '<^ ^^ \ il 576 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'IIV AND TRAVEL surface of the country — u clear stream spreading into countless lake expanses, full of fish and the resort of myriads of wild fowl. Ilie wooded country on its banks abounds in moose and deer. <.)ne of the chief tributaries from the north is the Jfeindeer river. The ultimate source of that stream is AVollaston Lake — a beautifully clear body of water, 800 square miles in extent, dis- charging by two outlets — to the north by the Stone river into the extreme eastern arm of Lake Athabasca, and to the south-east by the Ccjchrane river into Reindeer Lake — a large lake 135 miles long. This lake discharo-es into the Churcliill bv the Ifeindeer river, and a Q,'ood canoe route to Lake Athaltasca passes that way. From Black Lake at the northern end of this route there is a portage leading to the l)ool)aunt river, and through the centre of the Barren Grounds to Hudson's Bay. Owing to the fact of it being the main canoe route to the ]\Iackenzie valley, tlie Churchill has been described by nearly all the great Xorth-west travellers, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Sir John Franklin, Sir John liichardson, and Sir George r)ack, but beyond the chief portage routes the country is very little known. Mr. .1. B. Tyrrell of the Geological Survey, explored in ^S 92-93 the region between the river and Lake Athabasca, and his report has been published only this year. The whole country is without inhabitants save scattered bands of Chipewyan Indians, and as it has been incidentally noticed in previous chapters, no further description seems to be necessary in this place. The Barren Grounds Tills is a region west of Hudson's B)ay, of which the northern portion of the i)rovisional territory of Keewatin forms a part, and concerning which very little is actually THE BARKEN GROUNDS 577 a region on IIS IS an hus llu known. It is in the main a treeless wilderness of rock and swamp permeated ])y lakes and streams, upon whose barren sliores nature assumes her most unattractive aspect, and where winter seems almost ]iermanently enthroned. It is not an inviting; region to the traveller ; for in winter it is probably colder than anywhere else on the continent, and in summer the Hies, mosquitoes, black tiies, and " bull dogs," make up in activity for the sliortness of their season. If a line be drawn westwards from the western shore of Hudson's Bay, north of Fort Churchill, along the GOth parallel of latitude, and curve to the north-west to cut off the eastern arm of CJreat Slave Lake; if it be con- tinued northwards througli Great Bear Lake, and from thence down the Lockart and Anderson rivers to the Polar Sea, such a line will approximately inclose the Darren Grounds, for the other boundaries will be the Arctic Ocean to the north, and Hudson's Bay to the east. It includes, in general tern.o, the river valleys east of the Mackenzie, wliich discharge direct into the Arctic Ocean, and those north of the Churchill, which discharge into Hudson's Bay. It is the true Arctic basin of Canada, and is vaguely reputed to cover 200,000 square miles in area. It should not, however, l)e supposed that the entire region so marked off is absolutely Ijare of trees, for in places where there may be shelter, or where the soil may lie drier, trees will be found in groves and clumps. On the shores of the larger lakes there may also be trees, and the tree line will advance or retreat from the limits above described according to varying local circumstances. Thus, in the Tyrrell expedition of 1893, a grove of white spruce, composed of trees eight fee*^^ in circumference, was met in the heart of the Barren Grounds in lat. G2'' 15', 2 P - 1 : I ; .: 1'' 578 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TKAVEL » '■ I ' If ■ fl and the same expedition records an undulating grassy plain as observed on the Doobaunt river about 64° north latitude. Clumps of willows were met on the Doobaunt, and the rivers to tiiC west brought down trunks of spruce trees one foot in diameter, proving that the interior is not so treeless as is supposed. But on the other hand, Doobaunt Lake was found on August 7, covered with an immense sheet of ice seven feet thick. The explorers paddled between the ice and the shore save at one spot where the ice was firm, and tliey had to portage over it. The Barren Grounds drain mostly to the north by the Coppermine and the Great Fish (Back's) rivers, l)Oth ditticult to navigate even in canoes, consisting of strings of lakes connected by violent rapids, and flowing for the most parts in rocky channels. There are other rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean and into Hudson's Bay. Of the latter the Doobaunt is the largest, falling into Baker Lake — a continuation of Chesterfield Inlet. Little is known of the land away from the main watercourses, for Samuel Hearne is the only white man who traversed it on foot. He saw a range of mountains — the Copper mountains — and they have been described by Dr. Bdchardson, who found scales of copper disseminated generally throughout the rock, and picked up plates of native copper, and malachite, copper glance, and native copper and copper ore in many other forms. The Indians report that every part of this range, over an extent of 40 miles, abounds in copper, and Kichardson found ice chisels of pure copper 12 and 14 inches long and half an inch in diameter in the possession of the Eskimo. The area of the Barren Grounds for the most part consists, us is supposed, of Laurentian rocks ; but even with our present knowledge, important reservations must be made. The Coppermine river flows through Cambrian THE BARREN GROUNDS 579 of Live ilUS luilf rocks for a large part of its course, and on the shore of the Arctic Ocean the Cambrian extends in a belt west- wards from the mouth of that river to meet the Devonian and Cretaceous of the IMackenzie valley, and eastwards along Coronation gulf, lied sandstone and conglomerates with various trappean rocks referred to the Cambrian (and doubtless representing, like the last mentioned, the Keweenian of the great lakes), have also been found by Mr. Tyrrell along the course of the Doobaunt river, and on Baker's Lake and Chesterfield Inlet. Huronian schists and quartzites also occur in some places, and appear to be highly charged with copper ores. He found a stretch of 225 miles of these rocks along his route, and he observed their line of contact with the Laurentian gneiss along the Doobaunt river, i'rom where it turns east almost as far as Baker Lake, and he observed, moreover, the same contact on Baker Lake and Chestertield Inlet. These rocks are doubtless a repetition of the copper-bearing rocks of the Coppermine river, and indicate a very wide extent of metalliferous rocks in this region, otherwise so scantily favoured by nature. From Chestertield Inlet to Ciiurchill he found, however, the low shores of the bay consisted of Laurentian gneiss; but it is evident that large areas of later fornuition exist in the interior. Very little shelter can be found in this region from the winds which sweep across it ; nevertheless it is by no means destitute of animal life ; immense herds of caribou roam over it, migrating from the shores of the Arctic Ocean in sunnner to the whiter shelter of the woods on the soutlr and west. These are the J^)arren (tround caribou, practically identical with the Lapland reindeer, and like them they find abundant food in moss \ t H'' • 1 f! 1! 1 'J , 'll ■ ■ ' ■:! ■ ■ i;i i 1; M 'I I'S' '.11' .' Ill i80 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL and licliens. Tyrrell met some of these immense herds and was able to get photographs of them, they were so unsuspicious of the destructive nature of white men. The fawns wonld approach within a few yards of tlie party. Geese and ducks breed in immense numbers MUSK-OX. on these solitary lakes, partridges are found there, and the waters abound in trout and whitetish. The Hudson's Bay officers, in their expeditions do not seem to have suffered such privations as the explorers from Europe. Dr. Rie and Simpson and Dease provided food for their parties from the resources of these regions. On the northern part of the Barren Grounds is the home of the musk-ox, a harmless, inoffensive creature which, as its name iwihos indicates, is undecided whether to evolve THE BAKUEN GROUNDS r)81 itself into a sheep or an ox. It has the teeth of a sheejt and the disposition and mental development of a sheej), but the feet of an ox and the horns of an ox. The hide partakes of the same double nature, for there is a thick fleecy undergrowth in winter with a long permanent coat of hair. The picture given is taken from an excellent preserved specimen in the (Jeological Survey Ottico in Ottawa. The first white man to enter the Barren Grounds was Samuel Hearne, who in 1770-71 crossed them to the Coppermine. He was unskilful in scientific observation and did not correctly estimate distances, so there is some ditliculty in tracing his route. Franklin, in his first expedition in 1819-21, entered the country from Clreat Slave Lake. He went up one of its tributaries, the Yellowknife river, and built Fort Enterprise of timber growing around. The following year, with his com- ])anions IJack and Uichardson, he crossed the divide and went down the Coppermine through the Barren Grounds. He returned hj Hood river to the Coppermine, experienc- ing extreme privations and disasters. The next to pass through was Captain Back in 183.')-34 in the search for Boss. He also entered by Great Slave Lake, built Fort Beliance at its extreme eastern end, and went down by the Great Fish (or l»ack's) river to the sea, thus passing through the heart of the Barren Grounds. Simpson and Dease in 1837 Iniilt Fort Confidence at the north-east corner of Great Bear Lake, and, from that point in the iKirth of the Ikrren Grounds as a centre, made most successful explorations. They found abundance of game and fish ; Init they were Hudson's Bay officers and used to the country. They also went down to the sea by the lower Coppermine. The .same point Fort Confidence was, in 1848-49, made the starting-point of llichardson I ■. , I !H if if i. ■ :; 1 i • . i 1 . .*: ; •/ i 1; ,■ i -"■»- - ■ ■ ■' 5 ' '1 &I 582 COMl'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND THAYEL and Eae's expedition in search of Sir Jolni Franklin and again the Coppermine was followed to the sea. In 1850-51 Dr. Itae again wintered at Fort Enterprise and went down on foot to the sea in carrying out a further search under the orders of the Hudson's Bay Company. The next traverse of the Barren Grounds was made l)y James Anderson, a Hudson's Bay officer; he went down l)y the Great Fish river. Father l*etitot, who spent many years as a missionary on the lower Mackenzie, has visited that part of the Barren Grounds hetween Great Bear Lake and the sea. it was on an island at the mouth of the (treat Fish river that the last of Franklin's crew perished in 1848. Of recent years renewed interest has arisen concern- ing the Barren Grounds ; not in the cause of science hut because of an insatiable longincj to shoot the harmless nnisk-oxen which are one of the few means of support of the Indians of that region. Mr. AVarlnirton Pike has written a very good book giving an account of his experiences in 1889. He was on the head waters both of the Coppermine and Great Fish rivers in the heart of the Barren Grounds. It is worthy of note that he found the edge of the woods to be at Lake Mackay, north of Great Slave Lake (about long. 112"), on the height of land between the lake and the ocean. In 1893 the Geological Survey of Canada sent Mv. J. B. Tyrrell to exploi-e this region. He entered by way of Lake Athabasca, and from its eastern extremity to Black Lake, and from thence north-eastward across the divide to Hudson's Bay. It was at the height of land that he also left the forest ; for there he sa w poplar for the last time but he did not finally leave behind the scattered and intermittent clumps of spruce until he was 50 miles beyond the water-parting. Baly Lake at the divide is THE BARREN GROUNDS 583 of of 1290 feet above the sea, and the portage across is only 1^ mile. Following, to the north-east, a chain of lakes and streams he came, on August 7, to the great lake before mentioned covered with a field of heavy ice, and he paddled for 117 miles between it and the shore. Very near there he met Eskimo and he followed down the outlet of the lake to Baker Lake at the head of Chesterfield Inlet of Hudson's liay. This route passed thr( )ugh the centre of tlie Barren Grounds. He describes the open country as consisting in many places of mossy plains where the ground is not thawed on the suriace in 'July, and the ice is protected by the moss from the influence of the sun. Trees cannot grow under such circumstances. In 1894 he entered from the so\ith by Reindeer Lake, and again left the forest near tlie water-parting of the Churchill. ]\Ir. Caspar Whitney has also followed the musk-oxen to their homes, and has given his experience in a recent volume. This region at the south and south-west is the hunting ground of the Yellowknives and Dogribs, tribes of Chipewyan stock, and the Eskimo wander into the interior from the Hudson's Bay and Arctic coasts almost up to the height of land. These tribes live by fishing, and upon the caribou, and by hunting the musk-oxen for their skins. The Canadian Parliament has passed very stringent laws to protect the game in these far northern regions from the incursions of .those who go there for mere destruction. The Indians depend solely for existence on these wild creatures, and must perish by starvation if civilised men are allowed to go into the country to kill off the game. The district of Keewatin, of which the Barren Grounds form the north part, is entirely unsettled, excepting the few 'J 584 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 1 persons at the Hudson's ]>ay posts, and it is roamed over by Eskimo, Chipewyans, and, at the extreme south, bv Algonquins. The lieutenant-governor of ]\Ianitol)a is governor of the wliole provisional district. Xot a single crime of a serious nature was conunitted in this whole territory during the seven years' term of the late govern< a . The whole district of Keewatin is 282,000 square ndles in area. The main fact concerning tlie Barren Grounds at tlie north seems to be that east of the Mackenzie Ijasin and north of the drainage of the Churchill the water-parting is elevated, and the land facing the Arctic Ocean and tlie northern part of Hudson's Bay is exposed to the full sweep of the winds from the north NOTE TO CHAPTER XVIII The following will be found useful for additional information on the subject of this chapter : — Pike, WARiiuuxox. Barren Grounds of Northern Canadii. London, ^Macniillan, lS9-_'. Tyriiell, J. 15. An Expedition through the Barren Lands of Northern Canada. Geographical Journal, London, vol. iv. No. 5, November 1894, pp. 437-450. A Second E.Kpedition through the Barren Lands of Northern Canada. Geographical Journal, London, vol. vi. No. ;"i, November 1895, pp. 438-448. Tyuuell, J. W. Through the sub- Arctics of Canada, in the Canadian Magazine for 1896, Toronto. WnrrNEY, Caspar W. On Snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds, New York. Harper, 18iMi. The following reports of the Geological Survey relate to this region : — Keewatin. R. Bell, 1878-79, 1880-86. A. S. Cochrane, 1879. A. P. Low. 1886. D. B. Bowling, 1894. J. B. Tyrrell, 1894-95. 1 ■ '•"' CHAPTER XIX AKCTIC CANADA The Coast Uemarcatiox Point, on the 141st meridian of west lon'i'' 588 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Pi ■' P. m li . - I \\ bably extends over all the Arctic S'^a, opening out in sunnuer more or less into lanes or areas of open water as the detached packs are separated or .^.losed up by the intiuenees of winds or currents. A current of warmer water, corresponding to the ex- treme northern branch of the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, tiows northwards through IJehrinrj Strait at the mte oi' two miles an hour. The influence of the earth's rotation give it also an eastern direction, so that while Kotzeljue and Xorton Sounds on the American coast are full ol' drift wood there is none on the Asiatic side, and while the water at Prince of A\"ales Cape in America may be 53" that on East Cape in Asia will be o5". Although this north-easterly current is impeded by the long chain of the Aleutian Islands and the narrowness of the straii. it curves into Behring Sea by the wider opening on tlu' west and follows the trend of the American coast, and i> the cause of a well-ascertained current eastward in the Arctic Sea. The outlets for the heavy ice in the Polar Sea — the paliL'Ocrystic sea of Xares, and the dense pack encountered by Parry — the sea of ancient ice as it is sometimes called. are small on both sides of the American continent. Behring Strait is verv shallow. Over its whole extent there is an even depth of only 19|- fathoms. On the east. llobeson Channel and Lancaster Sound are insutticienl outlets for so wide an area of ice, and the strait intn Hudson's Bay is very narrow, so that the portion of the Arctic Ocean under consideration is a basin for the ac- cumulation of ice which does not drift away to warmoi latitudes but decreases chieflv bv melting in sunnuer and by evaporation. There are doubtless many local condi- tions affecting the tides of the polar sea. Parry records a tide of 2 feet 7 inches at Winter Harbour on Melville ARCTIC CANADA 589 Tf I'lii! Island, l)ut^ at Point Barrow it is only 0"7 feet. Franklin oliserved 2 feet at the inoutli of the ^Mackenzie, but only 10 inches at Cape Simpson. Dease noticed 15 inches and, at the mouth (jf Back river, 12 inches. At the nioutli of the Coppermine river it was 20 inches. In other places it was scarcely noticeable. The influence of the tide in breaking up large masses of ice is enormous, and where the movement of the tides is so feeble it is not surprising that the ice presents such an impenetrable barrier to a north-west ])assage. There is, however, a tide, impeded though it l)e by the shape of the coast, h'om each ocean, and the tidal waves from east and west would seem to meet about the end of M'Clure Strait, which may explain tlie impenetrable pack found there by all explorers from Parry down. The general set of the currents is eastward, for the liesolutc drifted east from this region out of Lancaster Sound. It would therefore seem to be the fact tliat this current eastward from Hehring Sea controls the movement of the permanent j)ack north of the American continent, and packs the ice in the lieaufort Sea, so that while 83° 24' N. has been reached l)y way of Smith Sound, and 8G° 14' X. lat. by the Spitzbergen Sea, the parallel of '< 4° N. has not been iittained north of the western part of the American continent. In the sunnner, when the long Arctic day loosens the grip of the ice-pack upon the coast, tlie intiuence of the warmer water of the Pacific current prevails along the shore, and this is aided by the Hush of the melting ice ill the great Mackenzie river, and by the drainage of the whole Arctic watershed. These inHuences condnne witli jirevailing southerly winds to move the ice-pack away from I he coast and create a passage of navigable water for a greater or lesser breadth along the shore. Captain Collinson W:\ 590 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL F>)i 'n t sailed along this in 1852 as far as Cam'. ridge Bay at 105° W., and Sir .lohn Franklin, in his last expedition, i thought the Erehus and Terror as far as 98° 41' W., both points being close to the latitude of 69° N., so that, on that parallel, the north-west passage has been made by sea excepting a gap of about 150 miles. It may be con- ceived as possible that, under exceptionally favourable circumstances, a steam vessel might follow Franklin's track and get through this gap into the water off the continental shore, and so pass through by Collinson's track westward to Behring Strait. The ice to the west of Melville Sound on the parallel of 75° is reported by Parry and all subse(iuent explorers to be compact and innnovable, and unaffected by the east wind, therefore the north-west passage, if ever made, will doubtless be along the coast of the continent. The width of the open lane of water off the coast is very uncertain and depends upon the wind. The pack may be out of sight to the north, and on a change of wind might close down on the shore, or the wind might clear away one prominent headland and block another. The pack is seldom ffir away, and for the most part of the year the southern edge extends in an arch from I'oinl Barrow to Cape North in Siberia. The season for navi- gating the Polar Sea off the mouth of the Macken;^ie is from the beginning of July to the middle of Septeiidjer. at which time the young ice l)egins to form. The l*olar ocean has been shown to be very shallow, so far as known, on the American side. In 1850 the Enterprise followed up a lead in the pack for 100 miles north of Point Barrow, and found only 45 fathoms. The most frequent depths recorded range from 15 to oO fathoms, and although places have been reported where no bottom was found at GO and even at 140 fatlioms. ARCTIC CANADA y 91 the soundings indicate a very shallow sea with a muddy bottom. liobeson Channel also, leading into Smith Sounci, is very shallow, so tliat a fall in the ocean level of 100 fathoms would certainly make an inclosed basin of the Arctic Ocean, or rather a basin opening only on the Spitzbergen side upon a very deep ocean. The soundiugs otf the Siberian coast as far as known are also shallow. The di'ainage of half of North America and Asia pours into the Arctic basin on that side, and the main overflow from the circumpolar ocean is into the deep Spitzljergen Sea, and thence Ijy the current to the south-west on the eastern side of Greenland. Xansen's observations confirm this, and tend to establish the belief that the permanent ice-pack which is entangled amoaig islands north of the American continent in a compara- tively shallow ocean breaks away into Spitzbergen Sea and flows south by the Greenland current. The current which carried Nansen to the north-west would l)e the return of the Gulf Stream, its eastward momentum being exhausted, in the overflow, which becomes a south-west current along the Greenland coast. It was observed by IJeechey, in the li/nssom, as early as 1820, and was laid down by Parry as a canon in Arctic navigation, that the margins of ice-packs l)etween America and Asia, and Europe and Greenland, lie as nearly as possible in the same direction, viz., south-west and north-east, and that therefore navigation on the western shore is impeded by ice to a much lower latitude than on the eastern. This seems to be only another illustrati(m of the effect of the earth's rotation upon float- ing matter passing from a zone of slowei' to one of swifter rotation, and it has been already noticed in a preceding chapter on the Arctic current. Hence it has iu)w i^ fl 592 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPIIY AND TRAVEL 8 ml •ill MM 3- become a inaxiiii of Arctic navigation to creep up north along the eastern side of an ice-paek. lietnrning now to the continental shore at the western- most point of Canada — the coast of Alaska west of 141'' W. (Demarcation Point) has l)een described also as low, with low clift's of frozen clay and sand. Point J3arrow m Alaska is low, and the northern ice-pack rests against it for the greater part of the year. Not far inland a chain of mountains of moderate height follows ihe outline of the coasi. Eastwards of Point Parrow the coast is also low. At Herschell Island, where the coast conmieiices to trend to the south-east to form ^Mackenzie Bay, is an excellent harbour with good anchorage suita1)le for a winter harbour, and the best shelter-harbour along the whole extent of the Arctic coast. Mackenzie Bay is 160 miles across from headland to headland, with an average depth of 25 fathoms. Into it the river Mackenzie discharges with a great volume through an innnense and complex delta. This river with its valley forms the subject of a separate chc'ipter. It is not an Arctic river, for under different names its navig- able waters extend for 2000 miles southwards into the heart of the continent. Eastwards along the Arctic shore frcjni the mouth of the river the coast is still low, consisting of soft rocks of the Cretaceous formation. At Cape Parry is an interrup- tion of Devonian limestone, from whence a long stretch of Candjrian rocks follow along the coast to the eastern end of Coronation Gulf, and Dease's Strait, excepting Cape Harrow, which is Laurentian. This part of the coast is bold and high. The Coppermine river falls into Corona- tion Gulf, and in the interior are the Copper Mountains, wliich abound in ores of green malachite and in native copper. This region was discovered l)y Hearne in 1771, ARCTIC CANADA 593 who was led tliither l;)y the re])orts of the Eskimo and the specimens of native copper they showed. Cape J>aiTow is tlie apex of a Laurentian area project' ng into the Cambrian, an* I is a cliff IHOO feet high. W The Barren Grounds ]>ehind all these coast areas of later rock lies the mass of crystallijie rock forming the core of the continent. From the eastern end of Dease's Strait and eastwards to the Atlantic the Laurentian comes out upon the coast. The great promontories of Boothia and of Melville penin- sula are, so far as icnown, of this formati(jn, excepting a few small detached areas of fSilurian or Devonian. The coast along the Polar Ocean is nearly in its whole length low and rocky. It is the northern shore of the ]>arren (^rounds — a region sacred to the musk-ox and reindeer. Jjack's, or the ( Ireat Fish, river flows through it. Like the Coppermine, the only other large river t)f this part of Canada, it flows through a region of low tund)led hills and of morasses and lakes, with rapids and rocks which render it unnavigable. On Montreal Island, at the mouth of this river of desolation, the tragedy of the last Franklin expedition closed — the last survivors of the retreating party led by Crozier and Fitzjames drojjped dead of hunger one by one in their tracks, and the ice and dark- ness concealed their fate during many weary years of heroic effort for their relief and of search for their traces. The Archipelago As before observe?!, north of the continental mass lies a great archipelago, the most northern range of which is called after Tarry, who discovered it. All these islands 2Q .94 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPIIY' AND TKAVEL ■ i , . consist geologically of late formations from Silurian to Carboniferous, and oji the western sides of ]>ii.nks Land and Prince I'atrick Land, Miocene fossils liave l^een found. All along the coasts of Melville Sound and M'Clure Strait, at the very knot of the north-west passage, are abundant deposits of bituminous coal close to the great barrier of innnovable ice which shut out the adventurous I'arry from I'arther progress. Fragments of coal may be picked up along tlie continental coast westwards as far as Icy Cape, and the Eskimo often use it lor making lip ornaments as well as for making fires. On the Atlantic side IJaftin Land is for the most ])art Laurentian, and Laurentian rocks continue from Hudson's Strait along the coast of Batlin Bay and Smith Sound. In (Irinnell Land there is a large mass of Cambrian rocks stretching up along liobeson Channel to the I'akcocrystic sea. The coasts of these far-northern islands are higli and often precipitous. Tarry wintered on ]\Ielville Island and kept his crews in good health. Ho descr'bes tlie soil as rich, and, in the short summer, vegetation was abundant. Game was plentiful — nmsk-ox, reindeer, hares, grouse, geese, ducks, and ptarmigan were abundant. Collinson found ptarmigan plentiful at Cambridge Bay, where he wintered in 1852-00, and there were deer in large herds crossing on the ice to the mainland. From the records of Arctic voyages it would seem that the cold is not so great on the islands as on the mainland. Stern and re])ellant though nature may be in these far-nor*' a latitudes, the Arctic seas have yet a life of their own. There the great marine animals increase and multiply unmolested — whales, walruses, and seals. Trout and salmon are in the streams and lakes, on the land are mui'v-oxen and reindeer, and on the bays I I ARCTIC CANADA 59." laul. IV 111 Col and inland waters ducks and geese innumerable in their season find their l)reeding- places. The seal is to the Eskimo what the hull'alo was to the Indiiin. of the prairies, and upon its hit and ilesh he is ahundantlj' nourished. It would seem, however, that these creatures are uncertain in their migrations, for in the region where Crozier perished of Imnger Simpson had found al)undance of game. Whaling-ships are now })ressiiig in from Behring Strait on the west and up into Fox Channel from Hudson's ]>ay on the east, and witli l)omb- lances are destroying and frightening away the timid monsters into the farthest north. Nothing can escape the wasteful activity of civilised man witli liis scientific weapons of destruction. The Eskimo Nor are these regions without human iidiabitants. From Arctic Siberia to Labrador and Oreenlund, alou!*- 5000 miles of coast wander that interesting race known in tlie language of their Indian enemies as Eskimo, or raw-meat eaters, but in their own tongue as Innuits or Iniman beings. This peoi)le s[)eaks 1)ut one language over all its wide extent of dispersion, so that a CJreenhmd Eskimo will serve as interpreter to his ])eople on Hudson's 15ay or the Siberian coast. From hit. C0° N. to the farthest north yet reached scattered families liave been met, clhiging with filfection to tho'w icy coasts, and living in ai)parent plenty, as tlieir sturdy and podgy figures testify, in spite of the terrible cold. I'arry found their huts on Melville Island and on r>v%am Martin's Island, and speaks well of the peaceful disposition of those he met. He says their voices are soft, and tlusy are fond of singing and drawing. They have generally mil ■If III f' J! ['. V, 590 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TltAVEL 1 I ])een ready to assist ratlier than molest Arctic expedi- tions. They have excellent notions of geography, and when pencil and paper were supplied they would draw maps which have been of great use to explorers. Where the Moravian missionaries on the Labrador coast have gathered them in communities, they delight -to sing liynnis translated into their own tongue by the devoted bre<^liren. A brave and kindly people, they wrest their subsistence from nature in her most stern and cruel moods, navigating in skin canoes the storndest seas, and OA ' .oming, with tlieir prinntive weapons of bone, the great monsters — whales, polar bears, walruses, seals — on which they live. They have learned to support themselves under circumstances which have compelled many explorers to succumb though aided by all the resources of civilisation. They are not cleanly, and washing is unknown, for the intense cold burns the exposed skin like lire ; but people who can Hourish in such a climate cannot want for intelligence, and as for morality they have not much to learn from civilisation. In stature they are not over middle height, they are strong and active, their hands and feet are small, their noses are flat, and their cheeks are fat and projecting. They are tremendous eaters, and delight in whale blubber and the fatty flesh of seals, which they do not require to cook. Altogether, then, though in intellect, morals, good nature, and courage these Eskimo are not to be despised, their habits with regard to cooking and cleanliness are not by any means worthy of commendation. Present Divisions In the year 1895 the Canadian Government divided up and named all the unorganised territory on the nortli AKCTIC CAN AD \ 59' and west. The Arrtic aRliipelago with the projecting peuinsuhis and all the regions of the uttermost nortli were named Franllin, in memory of tlie gallant and gentle sailor who perished in its wastes. Those uninviting and dreary regions of Arctic Canada will ever he classic for the deeds of devotion and heroism which have been wrouglit there. Three distinct problems have been attempted in that perilous land — the search for the north- west passage, the quest to learn the fate of Sir John Franklin, and the struggle to reach the uttermost pole. The two first are solved, the last is still the passion of the nations of the English, Scandinavian, and Oerman races — the knight-errantry of practical mercantile people. Arctic Exploration The efforts to solve tliese problems by way of Hudson's Bay are noticed in another chapter, and a short sketch of the chief attempts made in other directions along the northern coast is necessary in any account athurst Inlet to I'oint Tarna- gain, near Cape Flinders, in 109° 25' W., retui'ning by way of Hood river to Fort Enterprise, which he reached after great privations. In July, 1822, he reached York Factory on his return. In 182 5 Franklin led a second expedition, but by way of Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg to Cumberland House. Thence he proceeded to Lake Athabasca and down the Mackenzie river to the Polar Sea. Returning thence, he established his headquarters at Fort Franklin, wliich he built at the outlet of Great Bear Lake. During tlie sunnner Dr. liichardson surveyed Great Bear Lake. In June of 1826 Franklin went down the Mackenzie through the most westerly channel to the sea, and turning ? ARCTIC CANADA GOl ■' ] west surveyed the coast fur 374 miles as far as lleturn lieef. The plan of the western expedition was that Franklin was to push on westward to liehring Strait, where Captain IJeechey in H.]\I.S. BloxMmi was to await him. lieeehey, remaining in the Blosmm in Kotzebue Sound, sent Elson in a barge along the coast, who suc- ceeded in reaching l*oint IJarrow at the very time Franklin was at Eeturn Iteef. Only IGO miles then remaineu to be discovered west of the Mackenzie. AVhile Franklin was thus coasting tothewest,llicliardson started eastwards with two boats down the eastern branch of the Mackenzie delta. He coasted 8G3 miles to the mouth of the Coppernune river, and thus connected his survey with that of Franklin's first voyage. He passed through a strait named after his boats IJolphin and Union Strait, and discovered a land to the north which he called Wollaston Land. The strait was i)acked with ice. He returned l)y a shorter way overland to the north-east angle of Great Bear Lake, and thence to head(puirters at Fort Franklin at its outlet, a distance of 433 miles. This closed the second Franklin expediticju. In the meanwhile Eoss had been innnured in the Polar legions since 1829 and nothing had Ijeen heard of liim. Captain IJack, li.N., was despatched, by public sul)scription, in the winter of 1832-33 to relieve him or ascertain his fate. He went by way of Montreal along the usual north- west route to Great Slave Lake, and starting from Fort Iiesolution traced his way to Great Fish river, which he heard of from Eichardson, who had heard of it from Eskimo and Indian reports. This river he discovered, and it is sometimes caHed ])ack's river. It was too late in the season to proceed, so he returned to Fort lieliance, which he had built at the extreme north-east point of Great Slave Lake. Although he heard here of the safe G02 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL return of Eoss, he was anxious to bring back some fruits of his expedition, and he went down the Crreat Fisli river and reached Montreal Island at its mouth. Back dis- coN'ered the land across the ice-encuml jered strait and named it King AVilliam Land. He returned in 181)4. lo the west, then, only 163 miles, from J'eturn I'eef to Point Barrow, remained unknown ; but east of the ]\Iackenzie were two long gaps — one from Point Tarn- again of Franklin's first expedition to the mouth of Back's river, and the other from the discoveries of Boss at tlie southern angle of ])Oothia and tlie main coast, to the explorations of l*arry from Bepulse Bay in Hudson's Bay. A small extent of coast, between Cape Britannia, at the mouth of Back's river, and Boss's sledging exploration to King William Land, also remained undiscovered. These points were connected by ollicers of the Hudson's Bay ( ompany. It should be stated once for all I hot on these expeditions officers of tlie Hudson's Bay Com})any had co-operated with the conuuanders whose names are given ; but now the company t(.)ok the matter up, and B. AV. Dease and Thomas Simpson, two of its officers, com- pleted the discovery of the Arctic coast. They started from Fort C'hipewyan, at the outlet of Athabasca Lake, and on July i), 1S37, reached tlie nioutii of thr Mackenzie. They started westwards in boats; but about ilO miles east of Point Barrow tliey found tlie ice-pack hard down on the coast. There Dease remained with the boats, and Simpson and five men proceeded oii foot on August 1 ; and on August 4, 1837, just ay is, however, very shallow through- tait, and even small vessels cannot approach the shore. There is a wide channel down tlie centre leading to Moose Factory, lait l)eyond the central channel, in many places out of sight of land, the bottom may l)e touched Ijy an oar from a small boat, and even the main ]>ay along the southern shore is also shallow for a long distance out ; so that, from Cape Jones around the whole southern sweep of the shore, there is not a harbour worthy of the name until the excellent harl)Our of Churchill is reached upon the western coast. The water of James Bay is l)rackish, for a numljer of iuiportant rivers converge int(j it from the east and soutji and west, and tlie bottom is muddy, whereas in Hudson's Bay proper the water is as bright and as salt as in the main ocean. An elevation of GOO feet would convert the wli<»le area into an immense li'vel plain. Tiie tklal wave enters at tlie strait and first ;-trikes the western shcn'c. It rises 11 to 12 feet au Churchill, and in the converging shores of tlie estuary of COS COMTENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND THAVEL Bu i H «! '•if i . the Nelson river it rises 15 feet, but ns the tide jiasses round the coast to the south and east it becomes h»wer. It is only 9 feet at Moose Factory, and lower still on the East Main. The Coast At Cape Wolstenholnie, the inner point of the south shore of the strait, the land is very high and steep, rising to nearly 2000 feet; Ijut, turning southwards, it (piiekly falls to a low and level coast, and so continues as far as Cape Dufferin. There the character of the land changes and becomes high and bold, rising often as high as 100<> feet, until CJreat AVhale river is reached — almost as far south as Cape Jones. This portion of the coast is known l»y the general name of the East Main. From Cape Jones all round James IJay the coast is very low and the land level, sloping upwards very gradually to the water- jiarting which bounds on the north the basin of the St. Lawrence system. Tlie coast continues low and the land level all along the south and south-west side of Hudson's ])av. On the western coast it becomes rockv and bolder at Churchill, l)ut though not so low as on the south, the coast cannot be called high as far north as Chesterfield Inlet. The whole area round the Itay may thus be generally described as an immense shallow basin, in the centre of which is a sea with a uniform depth not exceeding 70 to 100 fathoms. The centre and west of the main bay is singularly free from islands, rocks, or shoals. From the inner ter- mination of the strait to Churchill navigation is clear and unimpeded by any nautical danger. The whole stretch of the eastern coast is, however, fringed with innumerable islets close to the shore, and farther out, at a distance varying from 70 to 100 miles, is a chain of THE HUDSON S BAY BASIN 009 siiiiill islands in groups muler various names — the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepi'rs, the IJelchers — extending from the strait to the soutliernmost point of tlie whole hay. Among these islands frin5>inther chief posts of the company are Fort Albany, ]\Ioose Factory, and liupert's House, at the mouths of the rivers of the same name. NOUWAY HOL'SE- Ilr. Hill, Phuto. A TYi'ifAL Hudson's hay i-ost. These are very large rivers, and they drain a territory extending from Labrador on the east to Lake Superior on the west, but as they converge into the shallow James Bay, no vessels of any size can approach them. Charlton Island is the only roadstead in James Bay, and all ships go there ; from thence the navigation is very intricate to Moose F'actory, and goods are transhipped into smaller vessels or boats. Drainage Basin This enormous inland ocean is the basin into which an area of three millions of square miles is drained, for THE HUDSON S HAY BASIX Gil inert Itou iil>s to Her lueh Ijiisides its own iiiimediate trilnitaries the whole system of Lake WiiiiiipeLi; finds its outlet Ity the Xelsoii river into Hudson's Bay. The Ited river, rising' in ^Minnesota sonth of the source of tlie Mississippi, flows directly n(jrth into Lake AVinnipeg, and the Saskatchewan, rising on the eastern slope of the Kocky Mountains, flows eastwards into the same lake, so that the drainage basin of Hudson's Bay extends 2100 miles from east to west, and 1500 miles from north to south. This Winnipeg sub-basin is more conveniently consideued in connection with the Xorth-west provinces ; it is only necessary to allude to it here to show the innnense territory drained by this in- land ocean. The basin of the bay contracts towards the north. The rivers on the east or Lal)rador side gnnv longer and longer towards the south, and tlie same con- dition obtains on the west coast. All this dependent territory slopes down gently and gradually to the bay, for the water-partings are not liighlands, but an^ low and inconspicuous, and tlie upper streams of the contiguous watersheds interlace at their sources. Of the many important rivers flo\ving into the bay it will be possible to notice only the chief, and, in noticing them, to indicate the wonderful svstem of water com- munication which covers as with a network even the remotest recesses of the Dominion of Canada, and which has rendered possible the extensive operations of the Hudson's Bay Company and its continuous successful existence from the year 1670 down to the present day. The first important river on the west is the Churchill iir English river, sometimes called by its Indian name tlie Missinipi river, which after a course of 1100 miles falls into the bay to form the harbour of Churchill. It is a beautiful clear stream of great volume, expanding lliroudiout its course into numerous lakes. It rises in tIF ii ■;. m p '::^ 012 COMPENDIUM OF (lEOdKAI'HY AND TKAVEL 1 m i ^ Mt'thy Lake, and I'loiii tlie lake by a portage (Metliy or La Loc'lie) of 12|- miles the Clearwaler river, a triljutary of the Athabasca, is reach(;d. This portage opens up the whole valley of the INLickenzie. At Frog Tortage, a dis- tance of only 1.180 yards separates the Churchill from the head-waters of the (h'ass river, flowing into the Saskat- chewan at Cunil)erland House and opening up that large river system. Not far from Frog l*ortage the Deer river Dr. mi, I'InAn. FOOT OF liULL RAPID, XKI.SON lilVKH. falls in from the north, by which Eeindeer Lake and the head of Athabasca Lake may be reached. The Churchill is not navigable from the bay, as there are rapids at tho head of tide-water. The upper valley of the Churchill is well wooded, but its lower course is through a roel^y and barren country. South from the Churchill is the Nelson river, named after the master of one of Sir Thomas Button's ships who died and was buried there in 1612. It is the largest and most important river of Hudson's Bay, for it is tho THE HUDSON .S HAY HASIN G13 fi. ■■ i. outlet of the wliole AViniiipeg and Siiskatcliewau system. It is a imuldy stream of immense volume tiowiiig in a course of about oGO miles tlirouuh a ilat country. In its upper course it divides into many channels and ex- pands into many lakes ; in its lower course it is navigable for river steamers for 40 miles from its moutli. It falls into the bay by an estuary which is Hat and muddy. At high tide the estuary is seven miles wide. At low tide the mud-ilats and boulders are uncovered and tlie river shrinks into its own channel. The Xelson is of little value for navigation, for there is no liar hour at its mouth. The water of the bay is shallow, and there is no shelter for vessels in the open roadstead which answers for a harbour, so that vessels lying there prefer to put to sea at the appearance of bad weather. Tliere are 10 feet of water on the bar at low tide, but above that point the depth is 20 feet. The width of the river varies from half a mile to a nule and a half, until within ten miles of the tide-water where it widens to three miles. Eight miles farther south is Hayes river, and York — the chief Hudson's Bay post — is upon the western bank. This river, and not the Nelson, is the boat route to AVinnipeg ; for the Nelson is too large a stream to be convenient for boat and canoe navigation. The route passes up Hayes river and by Hill river into Knee Lake, and tlience by way of Oxford House to Norway House and by Sea river into the lake. The Hayes river with two of its tributaries is navigable for 140 miles for light- draught steamers. The Severn is the next considerable river southwards. It is a shallow streai^i, difficult for canoes, passing through a well-wooded country. Continuing to the south-east are many small streams until the All)any river is reached, a very important stream which is now the northern 11' G14 COMPENDIUM OF (lEOORAI'IIY AND TKAVEL 1»oiui(l)ii'y of tlu' province of Oiiturio. ]>y tlie Albany there is a mucli-fref(iiented route to Lake Nepigoii and Lake Sni)erior. The distance is 4GS miles, and of this 270 miles are available for light-draught steamers. Moose river, falling in at the extreme south of James Bay, is navi<<:able for 100 miles, and is the channel of a very much used route to Michi])icoton on Lake Superior. Since the Canadian Pacific IJailway was built, ^Missinabi station is the point of departure for the bay. At this l)oint the water-parting of the Hudson's ])ay system is within 30 miles of Lake Superior. The whole distance from the bay to the lake at this point is only about 281 miles. The Abitibi, a tril)utary of the Moose river, is the route by which canoes pass into the Montreal river, wliich falls into Lake Temiscaming at the head of the Ottawa riv^er. All this country between Lake Superior and -Tames ^jay is low and Hat, sloping gradually down until about a distance of 100 miles from the bav, when it makes a sudden drop of 100 feet. This fall marks a change in the character of the rocks, which pass from the Laurentian into the Silurian, and at some places into the Devonian system. As far up as this drop many of the rivers might be available for light steamboats. The rivers which, as far as Moose Factory, flow from the west and south-west thenceforth How into the l)ay from the south-east and east, radiating from the southern shore like the spokes of n wheel ; so that liupert's House at the mouth of Rupert's river, the next important stream, and only 100 miles from Moose Factory, is the point of departure for the Saguenay, lower St. Lawrence, and Labrador, liupert's river Hows out of Lake Mistassini, from whence a portage over the height of land leads into water flowing into Lake St. John. On the western side of the estuary of Rupert's river the Xoddaway river Wf, THK HUDSON'S I5AV UASIX (J 1 O falls in, a shallow but iin[)()rtaiit stream draining a wide area. Many largo rivers How into the l>ay on the eastei'n side. The East Main river approaclies by one l)ran('h elose to tlie waters Htnving into Lake Mistassini, but another branch readies far into the lieart of Labrador and approaches the sources of the Koksoak, flowing into Hudson's Strait, and of the Hamilton llowing into the Atlantic ; or a canoe may even pass into Manicouagan flowing into the lower St, Lawrence. Great and Little Whale rivers are also important from their size, but north of these the rivers grow sh(jrter as the water-part- ing of the central basin of Labrador gradually approaches the coast. Geology Hudson's Lay lies within a basin of the Laurentian nucleus, on the reverse or inside of the great V-shaped mass of crystalline rocks which forms the framework of the continent, and which from the earliest formative period has dominated its shape. One arm of this mass of primitive rock reaches from near the delta of the Mackenzie on the Arctic Sea on the west, and the other stretches from the north of Labrador on the east. The Laurentian rocks come to the surface on the northern shores of the bay, both on the eastern and western side ; but on the southern shore there is a border of Cambro- Silurian rocks of varying width. South and west of -lames Bay this border of later formation is from 100 to 200 miles wide. On the south, from near the water- parting of the St. Lawrence system, the limestones of the later formations slope gradually down to the bay, and the rocks pass in places into the Devonian. On the eastern coast, north of Cape Jones, there is a narrow strip of I OIG COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TIIAVEL ii ■« I il ' I f||ll ^ ill Cambrian, and the islands which chister along on that side- of the bay are of that formation. Minerals The country around the l)ay possesses consideraljle mineral wealth, especially upon the eastern coast, where are masses of iron t)re, chiefly manganiferous carbonate of iron. Upon the islands on that coast copper ore is abundant. CJalena is found in sevei'al places, and mica is plentiful, and occurs in sheets a foot scpuire. riumbago is freipiently met with. Lignite coal occurs on the ]\Ioose and Abitibi rivers, but no deposit of importance is known. (Jypsum occurs on ^Moose river: and the limestones on Lake Altitibi have been reported to carry l»etroleum. The Strait Hudson's Strait, lying as it does between 00" and 65 north latitude, mav be considered as l)einL'' in a sub- Arctic region. The shores are high and bold; tlie water is from 100 to 1^00 fathoms deep, and until the opening out of the bay is reache(b the course of vessels is clear of islands. There are no rocks or shoals in all its length. It is about 4r»0 mih'S long, with an average width of 100 miles; at the narrowest part the width is 4." miles. The shore on the north side is l)old, but sloping; on the south bluff and ju'ecipitous. For the greater i)art of its lennth lioth shores are visible from mid-channel because of their height, win'ch is seldom less than 1000 feet. Cape Chidley, at the southern entrance, is loOO feet, and Cajie Wolstenholme, at the southern point where the strait o[)ens into the bay, is nearly 2000 feet high. This docs not, however, apply to Ungava Bay, a dee]» and lirdjul indentation of the southern shore. The coasts of this i^i r THE HUDSON S BAY 15ASIX G\ l)av are low and fiat, and here the Koksoak or Unuava river, wliich (h-ains the central basin of the Lalirador peninsula, discharges into the strait. This is a large river, with a course of oHO miles, and with an average width of a nule for sixty miles from its mouth. Thirty miles u]) the river is Fort Chimo, a post of the Hudson's IJay Company, and the river is navigahle for ships four miles farther up. The tides in Hudson's Strait rise to a height of 30 feet or -iO feet in spring tides, and How with great swiftness. This prevents the strait from freezing over, nittwithstanding its liigh latitude; but, in conjunction with the drifting ice, seriously complicates the rpiestion of navigation. At the mouth of the Koksoak river the rise and fall of the tide is stated in evidence liefore Tarlianient to be 04 fi-et, .and at Fort Chimo it is 30 feet, or 38^- feet at spring tides. They ilow with a velocity of 3 to G miles an hour, and when there is much ice in the strait vessels not specially pre[iared for ina'thern waters are in danger of being crushed. With regard to the bay itself, it is ])roved that it does not freeze in winter. Ice forms on the shores to a Niirying distance out. In James IJay, wliere the water is shallow and brackish, the ice extends far out ; but it is proved that there is always o]»eii watci' in the liody nf the bay, and that what ice tliere is is loose, and of one season's formation. There may be field ice, coUecti'tl in the centre of the bav from the circular i)rogress of the tidal wave; Init all through t!ie winter the vapour of the o[)en water may be seen from the shore. "^ Navigation The ciiiefditlicultv of navigation is in the strait which is at the north of the bay. The l»ay ice is not heavy, 618 COMrEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL but in tho early summer the disadvantage of the northern inlet ftoni the Arctic regions becomes manifest, for heavy ice comes down Fox Cliannel, and for an uncertain period, until it gets an outlet to the ocean, it floats up and down the strait with the elib and flow of the tide. This is the ice reported l)y Lieutenant (lordon as 40 feet thick. Few bergs are met, and those which occur are small, excepting, as sometimes happens on the north shore, bergs are carried in by an indraught of the Arctic current to pass out along the soutliern shore. This ice sometimes forms into a pack in the strait, and then a vessel nuist wait until it opens out with the wiud into leads. Tt may for a while completely block the sti'ait at its narrowest i)art or mav become entanfiled in tlie land or among the islands at tlie inner end. Xeither ber^s nor heavv ice are encountered in the liav west of Fox Channel. The sul)ject is one of great importance to Canada, and the most diverse opinions are advocated respecting it. I'ort ( 'hurchill is almost at the centre of the continent of North America, and it is on the northern edt'e of the greatest food-producing region in tlie world — the illimitable wheat area and the cattle ranches of the Canadian Xorth-west. A far northern course like this is almost a great circle, and tlierefore the distance from Winnipeg tvV/ Hudson's Bay is very much shorter thini ri(i ^Montreal, Stated in ge(»graphical miles, the distances are as follows : — 3507 From .Montioiil to Livoipool 27!>0 4021 DiH'ert'iuc in lavour of lliidson's Hay .... r»17 Tf then it can only l)e established that the route rla Churchill is as .safe as n'lc Montreal, and is o])en fof n From Wiiiuipog to Liveipool rin Hudson's Hay . From Wiiiiiiiipi,' to .Montreal, Canadian I'acitic Railway THE IITDSONS BAY 15ASIN 619 suliiciently long i)erio(l to make it commercially nvailable, tlie paramount importance of the fact to the North- western territories is evident. Tlie following distances are Ldven 1)V Admiral Markhani : — given Liverpool to Cliureliill ,, (^tuebec ,, Halifax Xew York 2030 nautical miles 26r.O •2S-20 2490 3010 liy Hollp-islo. Iij- Cajic Race. That the navigation is safe enough at certain seasons is clear from the fact that for 220 years the Hudson's r>ay Company have annually despatched one or two slii])s lo por ts on the hav witli an unusual freedom from accident or loss. That one fact is sutlicient to demonstrate the safety of the route, the oidy question is the length of the period of safety. The de}>th of tlie water, the freedom from shoal or reef, and the l)oldness ol' the land on both .h )f th i\ d if uralile circumstances, the dip of the needle in consefpience of the proximity of the magnetic pole is so great as to render the comjtass iinserviceahle, the fact that during midsummer tlie liglit in such high latitudes extends over almost all tlie tW(Mity- I'nur hours is a largely compensating advantage. Xot the least (htlicull })art of tlie ])roblem is the stream of ice in the Atlantic carried }tast the mouth of the strait by the Arctic current. 'J'his may be 100 "V 200 miles wide, and for that reason the invariable rule of the Hudson's ('omi>any's ca]itains, based (ii tlu^ experience of 200 years, is to time their de}/;ntr.i'e from Kiigland so as not t(» reach the outer stream ^f i^e ti'.-wir.g down from the north belbre 1 .'itli duly, and lo lea^'e the liiiy (111 the return voyage not later than the end of September, making a ]»erio(l of safe navigation of two and % W II G20 COMPENDIUM OF OEOOHAPHV AND TifAVEL ii; u hair months. Many conflicting statements are made ; but, for sailing ships, the weight of evidence goes to show- that the average period of safe navigation lies between these two dates. Wiiile this ])eriod is not strongly combated, so i'ar as regards sailing ships, it is warmly urged that the em])loy- ment of steamships completely alters the question. It is maintained that vessels, specially built for such a trade, and for contact with ice, and ])rovided witii ])owerful engines, could enter the ice at a nmch earlier period and rem.ain much later in the bay. Sealing steamers from iJundee and Xewfoundland carry on their regular business amongst the ice in early spring, and it is claimed that freight steamers coidd be built in a similar manner to encounter the ice with equal impunity. Such vessels, it is argued, could enter the pack as early as loth June and remain to 1st Xovember ; that is, four and a half months, between these extreme periods of two and a half and four and a half months the controversy is waged. The Canadian Government has attempted to solve the problem in a practical way, and in 1884, 188"), and 188G sent a steamship into the bay under Lieutenant (lordon, H.N., with a stalf of observers, who were dis- tributed at six stations on the shores of the strait, to remain through the winter and report upon the move- ments of the ice and all other occurrences of interest. In 1884 the Niptunr — a Xewfoundland sealing steamer — was employed, and in 188r> and 188G H.]\I.S. Ahrt, a steamer which had bi-en with the Arctic expeditidii uniler Sir (leorge Xares, was lent by the Admiralty, in 188G the observing parties were brought back. They had passed a. ]>leasant winter, for game had been plenti- ful. The sum of Lieutenant (iordon's report was lluit the tirst half of duly was the earliest date at which the - , <;■ if ¥: THE iirnsoNS liAV kasix ill' I straits nuiy be coiisideretl as navigable for tbe puq)oses of coiumeree b}' steamsliips fitted fur ice iiaviuation, aiul at the same time capable of l)eiiip,' used proiitably as I'reight carriers; and that the middle of October was the latest. He was of opinion that while it niinlit, under exceptionally favourable circumstances, be ])ossible to extend the time from 1st 'July to 1st Xoveml)er, that a period of three months, namely from loth -Inly to l.jth Uctol)er, was for all ])ractical purposes tlie extreme time during wliich it wouhl be safe for steamships to navigate the straits. It ha])pened that the former commander of the Alert on th< Nares expedition, ( a})tain (now Admiral) ^farkham went as a i)assenger on the ex])edition of 1 bay, stated that the bay itself was iiavigalile for five months, but he dilfered stronglv from A(ii,iiral ]\rarkham's conclusions and supported Lieutenant t!ordon's report. w G22 COMPEXDIU.M OF GEOGIiAl'HY AND TKAVEL I The geographiciil facts are therefore ])laiii enough, and the (j^iiestion luis become one for naval architects and merchants. Can steamers be Ijuilt, economical as li-eight carriers, and at tlie same time suitable for forcing their way through field ice ? The ice which comes down Fox Channel is 12 to 20 feet thick, and, even if mucli of the ice be brashy in rfune or duly, the blades of a propidlei are apt to be l)roken by (piite small pieces of ice. 2s o one disputes tlie presence of the ice, — wlu^ther loose or packed, Imishy, honey-comlied, or heavy, the ice is there: and if the steam vessels are built to encounter it, will they carry sutticient cargo for profit, and what will be done with them durinu' the long season of winter, frn' witii such a build they cannot compete with the vessels l)uilt as carriers for more soutliern [)orts ? Lieutenanl ( Jordon records the fact that towards the western end of the strait the compass will not work owing to the proximity of the magnetic })ole. In the long days of June and -luly that might be unimportant, but in the late fall the niu'lits would be long and dark with sn(jw and storm. The question is one of such prime importance to the wheat-growers of the Canadian North-west, that another vessel, the D'kuki, is now, in the sunnner ol' 1897, on its way to the bay to settle the controversy in some indis- [)utable manner. Climate The climate of Hudson's Uay has also been a sul)je('l of controversy, and when it is considered that the biiy extends from lat. 51 N. to lat. 70' X., it will lie seen that in any statement concerning climate therr is much need to indicate [>recisely what part of tlii.' bav is meant. This stretcii of latitude corresiionds with the stretch from Land's End in Cornwall to the Xorlii THE Hudson's bay basin 62a Cnpe in Xorway — -tlic most iiortherii part of Europe, and well within the Ai'ctic circle. The country around Hudson's Vrdj can never ])e an agricultural country, and even thouuh it be true that veQ;etal)les have been seen growing in sheltered spots, it may or may not be true tliat the same vegetables could be grown in tiie oiicn on a large scale. The inquiry has no practical bearing while so many millions of acres of rich arable soil are lying vacant all over tlui vast territoi'v of the JJominion. Churchill is the northern limit of the cultivated grasses on the west coast of the bay. The line drops on the east side to the northern point of flames 3>ay. The line which marks the northern liu'it of cultivation of l)arley, rye, oats, and the root crops crosses dames 15ay from east to west about half way u]). The northern Hunt of the growth of wheat passes altogether south of the bay without touching any part of it. In the same way the northern limit of deciduous trees barely touches the extreme south of James IJay. Some of the coniferous trees are found on the west coast consideral)ly to the north of Churchill and almost as far north as Chesterfield Inlet. On the east coast the tree line drops to Capi' Dulferin, but the growth is stunted at the extreme northern linut. Xorth of that is the region of mosses and lichens, the food of the caribou and musk-oxen. All around the bay the trees are small when they come down to tlie coast, and the ground is covered with sphagnum moss ; but a little way back the level land is well wooded, and nnich valuable timbi'r of large size ;j,i(jws along the upper waters of the many large rivers which empty into .bmies l)ay. The resources of the bay as to fisheries are important. Fur to the north, up Kowe's AVelcome and Fox Channel, is the favourite resort of American whalers, who winter I {J24 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL i : Jit Marble IhIcUrI, inside the so as to coiniiienee operuti*. up. These people are :»■' fishery by their destruf "nlf near Chesterfield Inlel, soon as the ice breaks a to be last destroyin-^' the lethods, and every year they have to ti;o farther no.. . ; for the latest reports yo to sliow that tliey have destroyed almost all the large marine animals in tlie upper })art of the bay. In tlic northern seas of Canada is the last retreat of the whale, and some control should be exercised over these strangers. The seal and porpoise fisheries are productive, and saluKju abound in the rivers. The cod fishery extends round from the Atlantic into the strait as far as Ungava Bay. The territories surrounding the whole bay are productive in fur-1 tearing animals. Caribou (reindeer) are abundant, and in the Barren ( rrounds of the Xorth-west as far as the Arctic Ocean are the haunts of musk-oxen. They are met also north of the strait, but not south of it. South of the strait througliout all the peninsula (jf Lat)rador roam large herds of the barren-ground caribou or reindeer. Tliere is abundance of feathered game in its .season — ducks, geese, loons, ptarmigan. Far in the north, at IJepulse Bay and on tlie Arctic coast, the Hudson's Bay officers could always maintain themselves. Eskimo live in bands all round the l)ay. Some of their settle- ments have existed for 100 years in the same place, and all the Canadian parties of observation whicli entered the bay were abundantly supplied with fresh meat during the winter by the E.skimo. History There is nmcli interesting history and even romancu clustering round this remote and solitary inland ocean of the north. It was explored very early. (Jn lluysch's THE HUDSON S BAY BASIX 023 : ■ map ill the " rtoleiny " publislied in 150S is a legoiul wliic'h reveals personal experiences inside the strait. '■ Here a surging sea coninienees, here ships' compasses lose their properties." liuysch had probably been with the Cabots in the second voyage in 1498, and they had evidently penetrated for some distance within the strait. It is often stated that Cabot in 1517 discovered the bay, but there is no ground for the assertion. The maps about 1540 and onwards showed, in an indefhiite way, an iiceaii north of the land. Michael Lok's map in Hakluyt's Divers Voycujcs, 1582, showed a long inland reach of sea extendino; to the south -west towards the southern ocean, but that was only conjecture, as is proved Ity the rare and celebrated Molyneux Map in the Hakluyt of 1600, where Hudson's Strait is indicated by the words '■ a furious overfall " marked auainst a long inlet, but the passage is closed. Frobisher in 157G and Davis in 1588 had looked into the strait, and Cape Chidley had been named by Davis after Sir John Chidley (not Chudleigh), ii worthy of Queen Elizabeth's time who took an interest ill north-west explorations. It was not until IGIO that Hudson first of all worked tlirough into the bay. It was early in July that he got in by coasting along the [southern shore of the strait. He named the inner cape iifter Sir John Wolsteiiholme, one of the contributors to the expedition, and with surprising courage pushed on to the southernmost recesses of James I>ay, where he was frozen in on Xoveinber 1*0. He wintered there, and liad no difficulty in providing for the ship's company, as game and fish were abundant. On June 18, 10 11, he sailed for home ; but a mutiny V)roke out among the crew, and shortly after he with five sick men and two otliers of the crew were put into a boat and abandoneil iuid were never more heard of So perished this chief 2 s G2() COMl'KXDIUM OF CJEOGh'AI'IIV AND TItAVEL amoiiji; great iiJivi>uebec, and, as tln' colony of Xew France grew strong, enterprising spirit> among them began to reach out west and north in tlieii H THE HUDSON S I5AY BASIN 627 tradiiifj; expeditions. JUit the priest often preceded the trader, and Fatlier Alljanel was sent overland by Talon to the bay in 10 72. He went liy way of the Saguenay, Lake Mistassnii, and liupert's river, and found a small vessel of ten tons witli an English il.'iu; and two emiHy houses. The Enii'lish had, in fact, resumed their vovages to the bay, and Captain L. (lilham had been at the mouth of Jiupert's river in 1007. The charter of the Hudson's IJay Company liad been n;ranted in 1070, and it was the report throuuli tlie Indians of tlie English trading-posts on the bay which suggested the expedition of Father All»anel to Talon — then Intendant of New France. 1'he French traders then extended their operations to the bay, and soon commenced that struggle between the two nations for its possession, of whicli the obscure and contradictory accounts till a large numl)cr of state docu- ments. The Hudson's jiay Company, in lOiSO, had five forts on the bay at the mouths of tiie five largest rivers, when, in a time of ]trofound peace, the governor of New France sent an ex])editi(jn overland from Montreal and captured them. Tlie cxpediti(.)n was commanded l»y the Chevalier de Troyes, and went by way of the Ottawa and Aliitibi rivers. The English people resented this raid, and recovered the forts. At this time, after the liay has been neglected for so long, it is dillicult to realise the iiii])ortance then attached to it; lait, in fact, then, and even down to Parry's second ex})edition, it was the current belief that th(> north-west passage lay hidden in some unknown corner of it. So tlie struggle went on until in 1097 Hterviile — a French-Canadian Nelson l»orn in ^Montreal — was sent in conmiand of a s(piadron of i'our vessels to destroy the English ])ower completely in the north. One of Ids vessels was crushed in the ice, and ^T«- I' I ! 1^' II I'-ll if pi ■i ]■ A ! Irr i G28 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Iltervillo, wlien he got thvougli in liis ship, the Prlirini. i'ound himself alone, his consorts having been se})arate(l by the ice. Three sliips hove in sight, which lie at tirst took to l»e his own shii)s, but they proved to be three English iirnied vessels — tha Wiriqi'ihirc, 52 guns, the TkiruKj, tJG guns, and the Huihon's Bay, o'l guns. Iberville's vessel, tlie Pelican, had only 44 guns, but he was a eonsuniniate sailor and a daring ca}»tain, and he l)oldly attacked tlie Ilavqishirc. Jt was a unique sea-tight. The weather was very heavy at the time, and the situation was complicated by the masses ol' ice; l)Ut the fight continued for four hours — all one July mctrning — until the JldmjJi^hirc went down with all on Ixiard. Iberville then attacked and captured the Hudson s JJin/ ship, but the Daring escaped by flight. Iberville's consorts joined him after the battle, and he proceeded tn reduce all the forts on the bay — to little permanent effect, for by the treaty of Utrecht Hudson's Bay \vas restored to the English Crown, and for seventy years the bay was at peace, until, hi 1782, La Perouse, with a squadron of frigates, seized the forts again, and carrieil away the traders as prisoners of war. Once more at peace, the quest for the north-west passage was revived, and the spell which Sel)astian Cal)ot, that arch schemer among navigators, had laid upon the English people, l)egan again to work. Some- where hidden in the bay was the opening of the Strait of Anian of the old maps, opening into the Mar del Zui ; and in 17 19 James Knight, who had been govenKjr on the bay, set out with two ships to find that mythical passage. The whole expedition utterly disappcfired ; iioi could its fate be conjectured, until, in 1759, forty years later, remains were found on Marble Island, which })r(ALHl that the whole party — two ship's crews — had miserahly THE Hudson's bay ha.sln 029 periKlicd of cold and famine durin<^' two teiTil)l(! years of stru.uj^lc and agony. In 1741 Ca])tain Middleton was sent to the nortli- west corner of the hay on a voyage of discovery. He discovered Wager inlet and Wager river and liCpulse ]')ay and the strait north of Southampton Island called l»y liim, I VIKW OK MAKHI.K ISLAND, FHOM DKADMAN S Tsr.ANI). SS. Xi'iitunr ill llu' lliirbDiir. and Still known as Frozen Strait, for it was })acked with ice. His report was vehemently discredited hy Sir Arthur Dohbs, and he, in 1740, titted out an expedition to demonstrate that Wager inlet was in very truth tlie longed-for opening to the great southern ocean. This attempt led to no result. The search by land then commenced. The company had built a fort at the mouth of Churchill river — Prince of Wales fort — and \he otticers, having heard from tlie Indians marvellous stories of mountains of copper, sent off Samuel Hearne to discover them. This persevering »i,-..ii G30 hit COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRArilY AND TllAVKL kill u it ('X})l()ivr succceikul at liis third attempt, discovered the (Joppermine river and iullowed it (U)wii to tlie Arctic Ocean, upon wliose p^looniy and desohite shore lie was the tirst wliite nuui to tread. Hearne's e\[)edition had shown that there was no passage to the Soutli Sea ; l)ut the passion of tlie Knghsli people ibr the north-west passage returned with increased vehemence in 1818 when l^irry, the prince of Arctic navigators, made, on his first expedition, the lailliant iliscovery of the archi})elago which now hears his name. At the end of ^Nfclvilie Sound lie encountered an impass- able liarrier of ancient ice. On his second voyage in 1821 with the Hecla and Fifv// he followed up the north-west angle of Hudson's Iwiy, if, perchance, miglit lurk there a passag(3 into the Arctic Sea round the southern edge of the impervious Arctic pack at the north. The result of his voyage justiiied the slandered (Aiptain ]\Iiddletoii. He passed up by Fox Channel and sailed through Middleton's Frozen Strait and tried to lind a, passage through at licpulse Iby. JTe then followed 11]) north the eastern shore of j\lelville ])eniiisula and wintered at Winter Island. The next summer he pushed (t no farther than Wi.ger H TIIK IIUDSON.S 1!AV IIA.SLN (J-^1 111 let. Thus C'losod the record of the seairli I'ov llu no isli schI L'tic iant Line. illSS- the iijj;ht the the lered . and find iwed and shod t the hi' ,Udlv > the h-iiiip ■avch heeii lit' at \inus h <-[ jd hv 1 w sc iioi'th-wcst passage hy Hudson's IJay, lU'veitheless it was I'roiu the koy-i)(>iiit nl' lii'j)ulsi' JJay llial the Arctic irol»leiii was eventually solved. Arctic ex])loration with shii)s hy way of llmlson's Hay haviiiL!,' ceased with Cajitaiii Lyon's ex]>edilion in IS24, it was taken u)) in other directions — by way of liehrin;^ Straits, by land along the shores oi" the Arctic Ocean, and hy way ol' Lancaster Sound. Sir John I'Vanklin sailed in 1 84o with the IJ/rJu's and Ti rror ith 12!) souls, and no m-ws of him came hack. The arch coinmenced in 1 84(S. Eniiland could not rest while the late of her sailor-hero was unknown, and the interest and .sympathy of her ccdonies and the Tnited States were warmly enlisted in the .search. Dr. Kae, an otlicer of the Company, had heeii for .several years eii- i;aged in soarchinn the Arctic coast, and at la.st, in 18r»;:), he was aL5ain .sent out hv the Hudson's Uay (\)mi)anv and went up the west coast to IJejailse Jiay. ][e established his liead(iuarters there at a place he called lM)rt Hope, on the isthmus now called llae's Isthmus. He sup))orted himself and his little jiarty of jbur men all the winter by his skill with his rille, and in the summer of 1 8r)4 he explored westwards and northwards until at ('a])e I'orter, nil the west coast of Uoothia ])eiiiiisula, he met the I'lskimo from whom lu' learneil the sad details of the fate yA the Fianklin ex])edition and won the reward of C 1 0,000 ]a()mised by the Ihilish (*!o\t'rnnieiit to the person who shoidd briii<;' home the lirst definite and certain news. So clcsed tlu' romantic annals of this solitary sea. (old and forbiddin'j thoU'j,h it may be to the outward eye, I lie heart warms at the thought of the deeds of heroism and of uatieiit endurance which its silent wastes liav(! 1 witnessed. The names aloii'i (!oasts are mostly I 632 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AMD TKAYEL the names ot old worthies of far-off tlays, suggesting memories which stir the blood and quicken the pulse. If the present expedition results fixvourably we shall see the hay and strait of Hudson become an important factor in the development of the Canadian North-w^est. m NOTE TO CHAPTER XX The following publications will be useful for further details : — GoKDox, Lieut., R.X. Reports on the Hudson's Bay Expeditions, 1884, 1885, ;.886. OoiLviE, William. Exploratory Survey to Hudson's Bay in 1890. Ottawa, 1891. Rei'outs of the Geolooical Suuvev. R. Bell, 1878, 1880-8-1, 188.'). EA.ST Main Coast. R. Boll, 1878. AVi'.sr Coast. R. Bell, 1885. .1. 15. Tyrrell, 1894. Sti;aits. R. Bell, 1884-85. CHAPTER XXI LABRADOR Labrador is tliat peninsular mass of north-eastern America which stretches the farthest across tlie Atlantic towards the British Islands and towards Greenland. It is separated from the main continent by the Gulf of 8t. Lawrence and Hudson's Ijay and Strait, and the mtiin Atlantic washes its eastern shore. It extends lietween the parallels of 50° and G2" X. latitude, and the me- ridians of 50° and 79° W. longitude. It lies hetween the same parallels as the British Isles, from the Scilly Islands to one degree Ixiyond the most northerly of the Shetlands, and its area is equal to the combined areas of the CJerman Empire, Austro-Hungry, and Italy. xVlthough it is nearer to Europe than any other part of the western world, and was almost the first land across the ocean visited by Europeans, its interior was, until the last three or four years, less known than the interior of Africa ; and, even now, therT- remain "probably 120,000 square nules of it where the foot of a white man has never trodden. A] (proximately the shape of the territory is that of a Iniucated triangle presenting its base to the north-east. From the outer end of the Strait of Bell(»-isle to Cape ( hidley is al)out 700 miles,and from thence along Hudson's Strait to Cape Wolstenholme is about ."iOO miles, so that a Ifi I; f ii i i'i ! G:U COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIiAI'IIY AND TRAVEL II I i|;i! ■ 1;: 'in f i' line of about 12 00 miles, in a general direction to tlie north-west, will I'orm a base. From (Jape Wolstenholnu' to the extreme south of James Jiay is 800 miles. That will make the second side. The third side, however, presents a ditliculty ; for starting westwards from J>elle- isle there is no consensus ol' opinion as to where it should stop. Some would prolong it to the mouth of the Saguenay ; l)ut it is l)etter to follow the opinion of the most recent and cliief explorers, Messrs. Low and Eaton, and stop at the well-known harlxjur of Seven Islaiuls ; the distance is about 500 miles. Then the apex of the triangle will be cut o(f by a line from Seven Islands to the southern point of James IJay. The line will be nearly 000 miles long, and the neck of the peninsula will br verv wide : but, allhout-h territorial divisions will seldom submit to geometrical treatment, this rough apprcjximatiou will serve to convey a general idea of the configuration of Labrador. Tbe area so inclosed covers an extent of ~) 11,000 S(puire nules. It will help to give an idea of the distances involviid, if it be added that from tlie mouth of the Saguenay north to Cape Wolstenholme is 1070 mile."? in a straight line, and from Cai)e Jones in Hudson's ])ay to the Strait of J)elle-isle is a line nearly east and west, of 1005 miles. Tin? present clia])ter, however, will deal with thi' northern part onlv of this territorv. The southern water- shed, draining into the St. Lawrence basin, forms part of the province of <^)uebec, and will oidy l>e incidentally touched upon lien.'. There is a vagueiu\ss of usage of the word Labrador which may be confusing. The north shore of the (lulf of St. Lawrence is often called Labrador, and it is the Labrador coast of the province of (^)uebc(', or southern Labrador: but when the word is used with- out (qualification, it generally signifies that part of thr L< 'k LAliKADOK (335 coast from the Strait of ]5elle-isle to Cape Cliiilley, wliich ])olitic'ally belongs to the government of Xewfoundhind. The peninsula of Labrador may be described as a tableland hiiving a general elevation of ITtOO to 2000 I'eet al)(»ve the sea. The interior })lateau over an anvi of 200,000 si^uare miles is a rolling country, in which the dilierences of level seldom exceed from .'500 to TtOO feet, and the higher idevations do not exceed 2.") 00 feet above the sea. On the Atlantic coast the ]ilateau rises abru])tly i'rom the sea in stu])endous cliffs, increasing in height towards the north to :» point 70 miles south of Cape (Jhidley, from whence tlie height decreases, until at the l)oint of the cape it falls to 1500 feet. The shore of Cngava ]>ay is low, but IVom Cape Hope's Advance to < "ape Wolstenholme the coast again rises, and continues for 270 miles loftv and Ijold, 500 to 2000 feet high all along the south of Hudson's Strait. On the eastern shore of Hudson's I>ay the; coast is low, excejiting be- tween Portland pronumtory and Cape -lones, where a lange of mountains 1000 to 2O00 feet high a[»proaches I'lose to the shore for 1350 miles. Ori the south the plateau drops in steep ten-aces down to the level of the I iver and Culf of St. Lawrence. Three water- i)artings divide the country into four divisions. The Laui'eiitian mountains mark off southern La1)rador. They Ibllow the general tri'iid of the coast at distances varying from 100 to 200 miles, until they terminate on the Atlantic in the Mealy uKanitains around Sandwich l)ay, south of Hamilton Inlet. At a point a little siaith of the centre of the peninsulti, in the stpiare where the meiidians of 60 and 70' W. cut the })arallels of ~\o and 54^ X., is the apex of a roughly approximate irianiile formed by two water-partings inclosing the •watershed of northern Labrador, (hie leg of this triangle i if m H 1 63G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAl'IIY AND TRAVEL Hi t i\. m 1*;. extends to the western end of Hudson's Strait at Cape Wolstenliohne, marking the limit of western Labrador where the streams flow into Hudson's Bay, the other leu extends to Cape Chidley at the Atlantic end of the strait, marking off eastern Labrador where tlie streams fall intf> the Atlantic Ocean. As this triangle spreads to the whole length of Hudson's Strait, which is its base, the rivers on the exterior necessarily grow shorter and shortoi. The apex is, and has been in former geological ages, the central point of Labrador; for as the streams flow nortli, south, east, and west from that centre the lines of stria- tion on the rocks l)ear witness that there was the nevi- from whence the glacial streams flowed in the ice-age. This central elevation is also the apex of a roughly approximate triangle to the west with its base on Hudson's Bay, and another to the east with its base on the Atlantic coast. Necessarily, the longest rivers rise there. Sunmiit Lake discharges to the north by the Koksoak river, GOd miles long, flowing into Ungava IJay in Hudson's Strait. and to the south l)y the Manicouagan river, .■i2r» miles long, flowing into the St. Lawrence. The lake is 104(t feet altove the sea, and is upon the 53rd parallel of latitude. Witliin a few miles of Summit Lake are tlie head-waters of Big river, flowing in a course of 550 miles westward into lEudson's Bay. The fourth great river of Labradm flows eastward — the Hamilton river, GOO miles long — and its chief source is in Ashuanipi Lake between the parallel- of 52° and 53'', and on the meridian of GG ' 30'. The foui greatest rivers flowing north, south, east, and west, thus have their sources within a very limited area on the central plateiiu. The highest point of the plateau is 2400 feet above the sea, on the water-parting of the 151^; river of Hudson's P)ay, and the ]\Lanicouagan at Lake Attikopi, in longitude 70° and latitude 52 40'. LAHRADOll 637 The sui'laco of this eiioriuous plateau consists largely of iiiuishes and bare rock, cut up l)y lakes innumerable and traversed by a maze of streams wliich How almost on the surface. The country seems uniinished, as if it had l)een left as a specimen to show wliat otlier countries may have l)een at the termination of the glacial e]»och, when the rivers had not worn down their Ijcds, and valleys and basins liad not beeli ibrmed. So the rivers are here at this late age still like strings of lakes, and tlie lakes often discharge in two directions. The rivers (Hvide and unite again as they liow over the level table- land in a way confusing to tlu^ explorer. Kully one- fourth of the area of tiie peninsula is occupied by rivers and lakes mostly shallow — many not over 20 feet and few over 50 feet in depth. The largest lake is ^listassini, which is, however, deep. It is 100 miles h»ng, but, l)eing very narrow, it covers an area of only oOO S([uare miles. Among tlie larger lakes are Xichicun (1700 feet al)ove the sea) at the head of l)ig river; Lake Kaniapiskau (1850 feet) on the head- waters of the Koksoak river, this lake is over 50 miles long; Lake Michikamau (1050 feet) on the head- waters of die Hanulton river, a deep lake 80 miles long by 20 miles broad. The Ashuanijji and Attikonak, two main tributaries of the Upper Hamilton, take their rise in lakes of the same names (1700 feet). From this latter lake the portage to the JJomaine river, flowing into the St. Lawrence, is (jnly half-a-mile across. Thei'e are no Liiies on the grand scale of the west of tlie continent. The rivers are, liowever, for tlie most part ililhcult to ascend, for, as they^ippi-oacli the edge of tlie plateau, they hurry down in swift continuous ra])ids and precipitous falls, so that while it seems easy upon the maj) to pass ill any direction through the peninsula, it is in practice r 1^ ■' I ■ 1 1:1 i 638 COMPENDIUM OF GEOCJRAPHV AND TllAVEL extremely laltorious to portage or to work up the rivers to reach the interior level. The portages are usually rough ; for the surface of the country is strewn with boulders, and these are for the most part angulai', and have not been rounded by travel, while the rivers, in descending to the lower levels through the mountains which fringe the plateau, have cut narrow gorges or canons recpiiring great effort to ascend. The southern rivers especially How in deep valleys 500 to 1000 feet below the fringing highlands. On a portion of the western side, however, the watershed inclines with a gentle slo]»e to James Bav, so that the countrv is most accessil)le from that side. Until recently, the interior of Labrador was a great unknown land. M'Lean, an otticer of the Hudson's Bay Company, was the first white man to enter it, and in 18o8 and 1839 he crossed from north to south from his station on Ungava Bay to the posts on the Hamilt(tn Inlet. Some of the Oblate missionaries had followed tlic ^Montagnais Indians from the (Julf of St. Lawrence to their winter retreats on the Hamilton river and its branches, and they established a mission on the Xorth-west river, from whence Father Lacasi- , had gone in 1875 to Ungava ]»ay. The Hudson's Bay Company had a few posts in the interior on the main routes ; Messrs. Bichardson and M'(^uat had examined the country around Lake Mistassini. and Dr. Bobert Bell had explored and reported on the coast region in its whole circuit from James Bay around by Hnrlson's Straits and the Strait of Belle-isle ; Professor Hind had gone up some of the southern rivers to the tableland; but it remained for Messrs. Low and Eaton in their explorations during 1802-94 to open up the heart of this fornudable wilderness. They entered by the south-west, by Lake St. John, the head of the Saguen;iy. LABIJADOIJ 0:;9 passed up the Chamoucliouan (Asluia])iiioucliouan), and crossed to Lake ]\Iistassiiii. From thence they explored the East ]\Iain and Jiupert's rivers to James Lay. lieturn- ing the following year they went up the East ]\Iain river and the Dig river to its source, crossed the water-parting of the northern watershed, and followed down the Koksoak river from its source to its mouth in Ungava Bay. At Fort Chinio they found the Hudson's J Jay Company's supply vessel which took them around the east coast to liigolet, the Company's post on Hamilton Inlet. They thence explored the Hamilton river to its source, and the highest part of the central plateau, then turning south- wards they crossed the southern water-parting and followed down the liomaine and St. John rivers to the CJulf of St. Lawrence. Thus, in a series of most arduous explora- tions, an area of 289,000 square miles of the peninsula was examined, for much of which even Indian guides could not be found. Maps showing the results of their labours were compiled by Mr. Eaton, and have just been pulJished. The explorations of Messrs. Low aiul Eaton show that while Labrador is, in reality, a very uninviting country, L*rofessor Hind's oft ([uoted words that " language fails to depict the awful desolation of the tableland of tlie Labrador peninsula," are too strong. Although large game has become scarce in the south, the myriads of lakes and streams are alive ;' uing the sunnner with wild ducks and geese. The explorers found also that iish, whitetish, lake trout, and brook trout, were very abundant in all the inland waters. The countrv is, however, the very home of mos(|\utoes and black tiies ; for everything in it — land, water, climate — tends to produce an environ- ment in which these irritating insects increase and multiply. It is by no means everywhere a treeless waste ; but I he ^' 'vf' i; ; G40 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL ' 1 i IH forest is continuous south of 53", and nortli of that latitude, while the sunnnits and northern slopes of the hills are bare over large areas, in the valleys of the streams and lakes, and at the heads of the inlets, and in .sheltered places, wliite, black, and balsam spruce, as well as birch and poplar, are abundant. In the valley of the Hamilton river thti spruce attains 24 inches in diameter at a height of -"l feet from the ground. Dr. Clrenfell reports trees at the head of Sandwich ]>ay from which GO feet spars might be made. North of latitude 54' the timljer is not larue enough to be of much commercial value, and the tree limit is reached at latitude 58", or about the southern coast of Ungava Bay. The northern part of the peninsula, where the tre^s are scant, is covered with reindeer moss. At the south this is replaced Ijy sphagnum. A large portion of the forest region has been swept by tires started by the carelessness of the Indians, who take nn precautions with their camp fires. Geologically, Labrador is an immense area of Archtean rocks. . Nine-tenths of the whole peninsula consists i.if Laurentian gneisses with intrusions of granite, basalt, and syenite. Masses of anorthosite occur in the southern part of the territory. Huronian rocks occur to a some- what large extent along the East Main river, and on some lakes south-west of Lake Mistassini. Small areas are reported along the coasts of Hudson's Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The Cambrian formation is found over large areas along the Koksoak river and on the upper waters of the Hamilton river. A narrow band of Candiriau extends along the coast of Hudson's Bay from Clreat Whale river to liichmond Gulf, and the islands along the coast are of the same formation. A large area of Cambrian extends also along the southern shore of Lake Mistassini. Enormous quantities of bedded iron ore specular, carbon- ' (■ LA15HAD0R 641 ate, and red ha.'iiiatite, occurring in mountain masses, were observed in the Cambrian along the Koksoak river and on the upper waters of the Hamilton. These ores are unfortunately too inaccessible to be available. Xo other minerals of economic value have been observed in (puintity. Labradorite of the precious variety occurs in very large masses on an island near Hopedale on the Atlantic coast, and Low and Eaton foun 1 it also in great abundance on Lake Michikamau. It is a beautiful mineral and glistens with opalescent colours from bright blue to bronze green and yellow. It is sometimes used in jewelry. For ten miles along the lake large crystals were found. Of the four divisions previously referred to, the western watershed is the largest, and many large rivers flow through it to fall into Hudson's Bay. The Big river is 550 miles long, the East Main and (Jreat Whale rivers are 250 miles long. Little Whale river and Clearwater river discharge a group of large lakes, but the region around the last two is practically unknown. The watershed from James Bay slopes very gradually up to the dividing ridge, and is an exception in that respect to the rest of the peninsula. The northern watershed is chiefly drained by the Koksoak river and its afliuents, which rise in groups of- small lakes at the apex of the central triangle and flow into Ungava Bay. Next after the Hamilton it is the most important stream in. the peninsula, and drains an urea of 60,000 sc^uare miles. The George is a very large liver, and falls also into Ungava Bay after a course of about 300 miles. Whale river in the same division is I."»0 ndles in length. The coast of Hudson's Strait, which forms the base of the northern watershed, has been de- scribed in the chapter on Hudson's Bay. As the watershed to the south along the Gulf of St. 2t ! mi III. !:• 14 i ':' 1- i>' - f}?^" -f P"^' P" - - If f ?: i'! iiiW 642 COMrEXDIUM OF (.IKOGUAl'HY AND TRAVEL Lawrence has been already considered in connection with tlie i)rovince of Quebec, of which it forms a part, there remains to be noticed only Eastern Labrador, that portion of the peninsula along the coast politically a dependency of Newfoundland. l>lanc Sablon, at the inner end (tf the Strait of JJelle-isle, is the point of separation from (^)uebec. From thence a line is drawn due north to the oSnd degrei- of latitude. There the line stops, and the governor'.s connnission goes on to say that from the point of inter- section of that line with the par.illel of ~}'2' the coast ol Labrador and all its islands to Cape Chidley shall be under the government of Newfoundland. How far inland from the coast -line the jurisdiction of Newfoundland extends has not been authoritatively decided, and is not a practical question, liehind the mountains of the coast range, up to ^le height of land, the country is unexplored, excepting the valley of the Hamilton river. Eastern Labrador presents to the Atlantic a formidaldc coast-line of steep-to cliffs of Laurentian gneisses, schists, and granites, with occasional Huronian rock, deeply in- dented by fiords, and studded along all its length by innumerable islands. These are all rocky, and many nf them are high. Along continuous stretches of hundreds of miles these islands afford an inside sheltered channel. Only at one spot of this whole rugged and barren coast is there a stretch of sandy beach. The ocean face ot rock rises from 500 to 1000 feet, increasing in heiuiit northwards to 1500 feet at Nain, and continuing to rise from Okkak to Nachvak Bay to a height of ;)000 feel. The mountain range in the rear conies down north ol that point, close to the coast, and the land rises to oOUO feet and 6000 feet, until wi<:hin 70 miles from Cape Chidley, when it sinks to a continuous height of 1500 feet. The mountain chain of the interior, as it approaches LAHKADOU 64.S the const at the north, contracts to 25 miles from a width of 50 miles, and is the highest land in British Xortli America east of the llocky Mountains. The peaks of these northern mountains are not glaciated, hut angular and ragged, not rounded hy attrition, but sjjlit by frost. I'rofessor Hind's description is very gra])hic — "The Atlantic coast is the edge of a, vast solitude of rocky hills. XACHVAK IXLKT. NOUTHEIi.N I.AliHADOH. split anil blasted by frosts and beaten by waves. Head- lands ajrim and naked tower over the waters — often fantastic and picturesque in shape — while miles on miles of rocky precipices, or tame monotonous slopes, alternate with stony valleys, winding away along the Ijlue hills ol' Uie interior." With the notable exception of the Hamilton river, the streams on the easterft slope are very short. They empty at the heads of deep fiords where the flowing water and the beating surf have completed the work of the glaciers of a former age, and have cut deep grooves in the rocky i 644 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TllAVEL In rampai't. During the short suimner tbd wind is most frequently from the west, and the sea is then calm, but easterly winds throw against the coast a tremendous sea. The numerous inlets with steep shores cutting deeply into the land, and the clustering islands form many sheltered harbours, and navigation is not so much impeded by fog as on the southern and south-eastern coast of Newfound- land. Navigation opens on the southern shore at the end of dune, or early in July, but north of Nain the coast is seldom clear of field-ice before the end of July, and all the year round bergs are passing down south- wards. In July and August, the stream of icebergs is most continuous, but all through the summer they are floating down the Arctic current. The whole overflow of the Arctic basin is thrown against this coast, for the currents east and west of Greenland set upon it. Sandwich ]5ay is one of the more important inlets. It is 25 miles long and G miles wide. It contains several good harbours, and here, at a place which still bears his name, the adventurous Major Cartwright estab- lished his trading post at the end of the hist century. The most important, however, is Hamilton Inlet. This extends o5 miles inland where it narrows to one-third of a mile, and then expands into Lake Melville, 18 miles wide, and reaching 90 miles farther inland to wliere the Grand or Hamilton river discharges its waters. The whole distance from the headland at the mouth of the inlet to the Hamilton river is laO miles, and the averauo width is 14 miles. Al the narrows is IJigolet, the chii'f post of the Hudson's iJay Gomjiany in the district. Tlii' country round is bold and rocky, especially on the south shore where the Mealy mountains rise abruptly 800 t(j 1200 feet from the waters of the inlet. Only one river is worthy of mention on this coast, in .'IlK dec Nwi Froi i'(Mn; How; The swift whic tliaji rise LABRADOR 645 the f^reat Hamilton river, wliicli piacticallv drains nearly the whole of Eastern Lalirador. Its trihntaries rise in large lakes on the interior plateau, and its head waters interlock with the sources of the Koksoak and George rivers which discharge into Hudson's Strait. From its fartliest source to its mouth the distance is about GOO miles. Like all the rivers of Labrador it Hows on the interior plateau in an even bed, on the surface and not in a deeply cut valley : l)ut in its lower course below the falls it Hows in a precipitous rocky valley deep below the surface of the surroiinding country. The great falls are 215 miles from the mouth of the river, and commence where it first sweeps down from the central plateau. In a distance of 12 miles the river falls from a lake IGGO feet to the mouth of a gorge only 900 feet above the sea — a drop of 7G0 feet. Four miles above the great cataract the rapids commence, and, within that distance, the river rushes swiftly down until it reaches the head of a precipitous gorge, at riglit angles to its general course, into which it plunges with a final fall of ;>02 feet. Through this deep and gloomy canon the river sweeps in foanung rapids in a zigzag course of al)out 10 miles, and then passes into a narrow valley with steep 8iay. ]]eyond that, there is no communication in winter, tlie inlets are all frozen over and the field-ice sets in upon the coast blocking it from Xovemljcr until July. The Quebec boundary at Blanc Sabloii marks a real division ; for east of that line French is seldom heard. It is impossible to write or speak of Labrador witliout a tribute of respect to the ^Moravian ]>rethren. They came upon this desolate coast about 17G4 and made their first settlement at Xain, from whence they have extended their work among the Eskimo. Their settlements are Hopedale — the most southerly, — Zoar, Xain, Okkak, Hebron, and Ramah on Xachvak Inlet — the most northern. The Eskimo of the coast are collected round their stations. Tiiev had been embittered against the whites by centuries of injury — the very name of Lalnador records the humiliating fact that it was as man-stealers that Europeans first appeared uijon those coasts. The Moravians at first found it diflicult to approach the Eskimo, who did not believe that a white man could be anything but an evil being. Now there are very few heathen among them on the whole peninsula, and they have become a harndess and industrious people, working at their business of fishing and hunting, and grouping themselves around the Moravian Hrethren.who teach them, \\\) to their needs and capacity, the arts of civilisation. They are very different .from the Indians. They are cheerful and good-naturr-d in disposition and industrious in habit. They are very fond of nnisic, and Caittain John Davis relates how they would gather around to listen to it. Tliat was 300 5*ears ago, and they have still the same love of music. Dr. Grenfell of the ^Medical Mission reports that when he arrived on the coast in his niission 650 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL M !i iiii iHi ; i rji r ;!i: ship, a number of them came aboard and squatted round in the hold, while one of their number played excellently on the ship's harmonium, and others performed on two concertinas and two cornets, and the rest sang, in parts, hvnins in their own lano;ua2fe to Enulish tunes. Thev will play on the violin in first and second parts, and have a natural appreciation of harmony. They are not increasing, for, under the infiuence of European food and clothing, their natural hardihood is weakened. Mr. Low confirms the reports of some other explorers that the Eskimo are not short in stature. They are from 5 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft, tall, but their breadth and the clothing they wear detracts from their height. They can all read and write in their own language. Tlie Indians of Labrador are of Algonquin stock, and are Montagnais south of Hamilton Inlet and Nascopies at the north. They have all been christianised by the Anglican missionaries from Hudson's Bav, and the liomaii missionaries from the St. Lawrence. The Christian Indians nearly all read and write in the syllabic char- acters invented for them by the missionaries, and it is not unusual to find at the portages letters written with cliar- coal on birch bark, fastened up for the information of travellers. Further remarks on the northern and western shores of Labrador will be found in the chapter on Hudson's I)ay, and in the chapter on Quebec, Southern or Quebec Labrador is treated. The value of the fish products of the eastern coast is included in the figures of the exports of Xewfoundland. The present chapter is based very largely on information contained in the reports of ^Ir. A. P. Low and Dr. liell of the Geological Survey. The volumes puldished by Messrs. Packard and Stearns, and l>v l*rofessor Hind and Dr. Grenfell, are of much value. LABRADOR 051 History That the Northmen must have visited Labrador in their vovages to Vinland in the tenth and eleventh centuries cannot well be doubted ; but there is nothing recorded to suggest that they ever attempted to settle on that very uninviting coast. They are generally believed to have given the name Helluland to the country — a name singularly inapplicable ; f(ir though Labrador is a country of stone and rock, it most certainly is not " a land of stony flatness " — tcrram mxem planitici ; for that is Eafn's translation of " Helluland," the descriptive name which Leif Ericson gave to the territory he saw. The coast is not such as to suggest any idea of flatness at first sight. After the Northmen, the first Europeans to reach the north-east coast were the Cabots. They, in their second voyage in 1498, sailed along it northwards in the hope of finding a pas.sage to Cathay. Their ex- pedition must have reached Hudson's Strait ; and from in- dications on liuysch's map, elsewhere referred to, they nuist have attempted unsuccessfully to enter the strait l»efore turning southwards. There is nothing positive in the records or maps to show that Cortereal, who followed soon after the Cabots, was ever on the coast of Labrador, ♦'ither on his first or second voyage. The Cantino map (tf 1502 shows the east coast of Newfoundland, and Cape Farewell in (ireenland, but no land between ; and the indications on that map are that he struck directly from Cajie Farewell to the Newfoundland coast, as Leif Ericson probably did. Tiie Lal>rador coast is in fact barred from the east until late in the year bv a continuous stream of ice, sweeping d»nvn with the (Greenland current, as explained in previous chapters, and it is not probaljle that either voyager entered the pack. There is, however, 652 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TRAVEL I: in Kiuistniaiin's Atlus a reproduction of a Portuguese chart, dated 1502-4, showing an island marked Terra Corterialis, and a small piece of coast behind it marked Iiegalis Domus. These lines are repeated in the Ptolemv of 1511, and suggest that some Portuguese sailor may have penetrated into the Strait of Belle-isle ; but they are not found on any other map, and Newfoundland was delineated as part of the mainland until Jacques Cartier's time. There is always, however, a deep bay (La Grand Bale) marking the place of the Strait of Belle-isle. Seeing that Labrador is so near Europe, a singular amonnt of mythology has gathered around its scanty history. There are, for instance, the Basque stories, and, among what are called the " traditions of the coast," is ^ 3 story that Cabot fonnd a Basque vessel there. This IS an evident transference of an experience of Cartier. Then there is the story, based on a few incidental words in Peter Martyr's letter, that the Indians met by Cabot on the coast called the cod by the ]>asque name baccalaos — a word no more Basque than Spanish or Portuguese. It is also asserted in a general way, without citation of any evidence, that the north-east coast was well known to the Basque whalers before Cabot or Columbus dis- covered America. It is beyond doultt true that the Basques, both of France and Spain, were very early upon the coast, but there is no evidence that they preceded the liretons in 1504. They carried on the whale fishery at the time America was discovered, and they followed the whales far out to sea ; but the assertion that they were on the American coast as early as 1450, and that Cabot and Cortereal met their sliips there, is without foundation. It is hard to prove a negative, but it is destructive to history to make positive statements without adducing a single LABRADOK G53 IS h of there 504. erica ut t<» ricaii ereal haril ry to uugle historical fact in support of them. St. Sebastian was the great centre of Uascpie shipping, and both Kohl and Estancelin quote Xavarrete, to the effect that he had searched the annals of St. Sebastijin and of the province of Guipuscoa, and that they sliowed tliat the J Basque whale fishery on the coasts of Newfoundland did not commence before the return of Stephen Gomez' expedition. Beyond question, Cabot or Cortereal did not encounter Basque vessels on the American coast, and no name nor date has l)een cited to show the contrary. Then there are myths connected with the French claims on Hudson's Bay. For instance, that in 1G56 the sovereign council of Queljec sent Jean IJourdon to Hudson's Bay by sea, and that he went there and took possession in the name of the king of France. This is effectually disproved by the Jesuit Kelation of 1058, which records the arrival of Bourdon's vessel at Queljec in 1657, and states that he did not go beyond latitude 55°, where he was stopped by ice, and that he therefore returned, having lost some of his people killed hy the Eskimo. Tlie year is generally erroneously given as 1656. Again it is asserted that Pere Dablon and the Sieur de Valliere went overland to Hudson's ] iay in 1661 ; bnt in the Jesuit Ilelation of that year a full account is given of this expedition in a letter from Pore Dal)lon, dated from Lake Nekouba, a little south of the lieight of land, the utmost point they reached. They did not there- fore cross the height of land. It is, moreover, clear in the lielation of 1672 that Father Albanel was sent to make a " discovery " of the bay, to learn its situation and distance, and that his was the first expedition to succeed in reaching it fronh Canada. Then, in 1841, the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec published a memoir, by a resident on the Labrador 654 COMrEXDIUM OF GEOfiRAPHY AND TRAVEL ■I I 1 '] I coast, giving, wliat the author called, the " traditions oi' the coast." This memoir is a treasury of mythology, and the statements made have been copied into most of the later ])ooks : and here it may be remarked that a coast without permanent inhabitants can have no traditions, and that settlers in after years, in a wild country without books or records, are not in a position to know more ol' its previous history than any one else. ]Most of the statements made in this memoir have been incidentallv treated elsewhere ; it is only necessary now to refer to thosd concerning the port of Brest. It is stated that J>rest was founded a hundred years before Quebec, about A.I). 1508, and that it contained 200 houses and 1000 permanent inhabitants all the year round, a number probably trebled in summer; that in 1G.">0 a grant was made of Bradore Bay en .srif/nctiric to a Count dc Courtemanche, who had mai-ried a daughter of Kinu Henrv I^^, and that the town tlien fell into decav. Louis lioberts's Dictionary/ of Commerce, published in 1600, is cited to the effect that lirest was the chief town of New France, the residence of a governor, almoner, and other high officials, with many other par- ticulars showing the importance of the town. The real facts concerning Brest are that it was m harbour well known to the fishermen. Jac(pies Cartier was there in 15. '3 4, but mentions no town, nor fort, noi' governor. He calls it the " Island of Brest " and the " port of Brest." Jean Alphonse in his Routicr, about 1542, mentions Blanc Sablon, l)ut not Brest. If it had been a settlement he could hardly have failed to notice it as the only settlement on the coast. Champlain does not once mention the place, though it, like many other harbours without inhal)itants, is on his map, and he wrote from 1600 to 1632. The port was in Esquimaux LABRADOR 655 Bay, not in Bradore Bay, and on the old French maps Esqniniaux Bay is often called A'ieiix Fort, and Old Fort Island of our maps was called ^'ieux Fort. It is at the mouth of the bay, but Stearns saw no remains of a fort, nor even of buildings upon it. He resided on the bay for a year, and the settlers told him that they had seen remains of houses on the south sh(jre near the mouth of the bay ; but he did not find any remains tiicre. The name indicates that there must have been an establishment, probably a summer fishing station there. The particulars of the grant of Bradore are in the public records at Quebec, and it is beyond question that there was no Count de Courtemanche. The only grant was made in 1702 to Augustin Le (iardeur de Courtemanche, who was born in Quebec in IGGo, and married the widow of Pierre Martel. Her maiden name was ]\Iarie Cluirest, and she was the daughter of a tanner at Levis, o})posite (Quebec. He married her in second nuptials in KiDT. and in 1704 he made a vovage to Labrador, and, in a report to the (Jovernor, he described the coast from the Kegashka to a point beyond the strait. He mentions Es(piimaux Bay, but not Brest, which ought to have been there if it were a town ; and he descriltes Bradore r>ay, then called Baye des Espagnols, where he found the vestiges of an establishment for rendering blubber. He found no ndiabitants on the coast. In 1712 his grant was renewed and its extent curtailed. He built a fort there, and he called the bay Phelyppeaux Bay, from tlie name of the minister, and 'the fort, I'ontchartrain, from the minister's territorial title. Phelyppeaux was minister of Marine from 1699 to 1715. The first grant on the coast was made in ^661 of the Seigniory of Mingan to Fran(^ois Bissot, and the grant to Courtemanche, whose wife was Bissot's grandchild, was the second. After that n lili: 056 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 1! ■ ' P ■ ,; iit} v:P many grants were made for limited periods from Cape Whittle eastwards far beyond the Strait f»f J]elle-isle, and on the opposite coast of Newfoundlaud. These were worked by the grantees, who were mostly Quebec merchants, and a l)risk business was carried on. It was under the English regime that the coast fell into the hands of a monopoly, and was eventually almost abandoned to the Hudson's Bay Company. The correct title of Louis lioberts's work referred to in the memoir is given in Lowndes as The MnxlianU' Map of Commerce, and the first edition was published, not in 1600 but in 16o8. With respect to Xorth-east America the work is full of errors. The town of Brest is given as the capital of Terra Corterialis ; the chief town of the region of Norumbega bears the same name ; the chief towns of Xovii Trancia are Canada and Sanguinai. All these towns are equally mythical. Ileturning once more to history, the name Labrador presents much difticulty. It was not given by Cortereal. He stole a number of Indians from Newfoundland ; and from the descriptions given by Canlino and Tasqualigo, who saw some of them in Lisbon, they could not have been Eskimo. In the letters written at the time, both the writers record the fact that the king of I'ortugal was impressed by the suitability of these Indians for labourers or slaves, and this is the most rational explanation of the name. It is on the earliest maps, though not on Cantino's, as Terra Laboratoris, De Lavrador, and Labrador. The last is the Spanish spelling of the same word, and means labourer, so that Labrador might be freely translated as *' Slave Coast." A map dated 1534— the " Wolfenbuttel map " — contains the only attempt at an etymology, in a note to the effect that the country was discovered by the English, and a labourer (Labrador) from the Azores LABiiADOU GT)' fiiuoiijj;' the crew saw it first. Tlie "tradition of tiu' coast," however, iiiocliHcs this tiieory !»}' reportint;" tluit ''one Lahrudor, a J)as(|ne wlialer from Navarre in Sjtain (lid ])enetrate throiij^h the .Strait of ]>elle-isle as i'ar as Labrador IJay some time about the middle of the fifteenth century, and eventually the whole coast took its name from that bay and harlwur." The fact is, that liradore ]>ay is a name which dates oidy from tlie Kn«^lish occu]^ .- tion, and is not found on the early maps or in the French authors. In the (rcdf/rnp/iicn/ Joi'ma/ for February, 1 (SljT, a Portuguese writer states that private documents have recently been found to indicate tiiat in 1402 tlie king of Portugal sent one .loao Fernandes Lavrador to discover lands across the ocean. The documents are not appendeil to the paper. The early English voyages of discovery wer^c to the coasts north of Labrador. Tlie Knglish were searching for the north-west passage, and sought for it more to the north. Frobislier saw the entrance of Hudson's Strait. Davis, in 1587, crossed the mouth of the strait, and sailed down the coast of Labrador to latitude 52 , having landed at Davis' Inlet and Hamilton inlet liefore returning to England. Weymouth, in 1002, sailed for some distance into the strait, and afterwards coasted along Labrador. The state of English knowledge is shown by the Hakluyt nuip of IGOO, and was limited to the e.xistence of a strait ; but the Portuguese nuqjs of an earlier date not only show- all the coast of Labrador named, but even indicate a knowledge of Hudson's Lav, which Hudson did not enter until IGIO. When the Portuguese ceased to frequent the north-east coast, and the French and English began to make maps, all tltese names disappeare(l. When at tlie peace of 17G.*] Canada was ceded to (ireat Ihitain, the whole of Labrador, as far up the gulf 2 u ! 058 COMPENDIUM OF CJEOGKAPIIY AND TIJAVEL ■I m ■!( as the St. John river, as well as the Island of Anticosti, and tlie jMagdalen Islands was annexed to the Governnieiit of 2> •vfoundliuid. This became a grievance to llic pioprietors on the coast, because tlie grants had bet'ii niatle under French law, and nmch confusion arose because of the introduction of English law ; so that, by th'.. statulf connnonly called the (»)uel)ec Act of 1774, Canada was extended to its ancient limits. In the meantime, English merchants at (Quebec bought out the old French grants and worked the fisheries for a while ; but eventually tiie whole region passed under lease, first to the North-west Company, and then to the Hudson's I iay Company, whosi' trading po'^ts still exist at convenient ] join's along the coast. In 1800 the boundaries of the i)rovince of (Quebec were again contracted to the Ifiver St. John, and Southeni Labrador reverted to Newfoundland ; but finally, in ISlTi, the boundary of (>)uebee was extended to lUanc Sablon at the Strait of Uelle-isle, its ])resent limit. North of the Strait of lU'lle-ish; the coast was un- inhabited when, in l77l, the Moravian Ibvthren foundnl at Nain the first of tlieir missions to tlie Eskimo. The eccentric ]Major Cartwriglit settled soon after at Sandw icli Bay, where he carried on, for many years, trade with I he Eskimo. Settlers from England were established on Hamilton Inlet in 1777, and found there the remains of the French stations. A ^'mw years later the Quebec merchants established post.s there. At Eclipse Harbour, close on latitude GO , the American Covernment exi)editioii of 18G2 was stationed to ol)serve the ecli})se of that yciir. Practically the only settlers nortli of Hamilton Iidet aiv at the Moravian and Hudson's IJay stations. I^ABRADOR IT) 9 NOTE TO CHAITER XX I I'l^i-r., Dr. K, Tlie Labrador IVninsnl'i u-,-fi. ^Ma«a.ine, July, S'. '"' " "'^1'' Scottish Geograpluc-al ''A( KAIil), A. S. Tl.o Labrador Coast. i\eu- York, 1891. L<'\v. A. r. "'":;;,,ss„::i:---';---^ « Rtkakxs, \\\ .\ Labrador, a .skelcli of its ,,eonl.. ,> • i . • I'i«tory. lioston, 1884 ^' '"•'"■^^'■"•'•^' ^""l it« natural And the following report, of the Geological Survey .- - LaI11!A1m)1{ PKN-IXsri.A. A. r. Low, 1894, 1S95. K- B"H, 18S.J. A. P. Low. 1894. Mi CHArTER XXII NEWFOUNDLAND i I Xkwi-'OUXDLAND i:< an island, one -third lar^vr than Iivland, situatod at the mouth of the Gult'ot" St. Lawrence, which it protects from the lull sweep of the X'orth Athuitic Ocean. It is the easternmost ])art of X'orth America, and readies one-tliird of tlie (hstance across t<» (Ireat lUitain. It is descrihed with ap}»voximate ac- curacy as lieinu; shaped hke an eiiuilateral triangle, hut the north-eastern side of this imagined triangle is so ])rofoundly indented l»y dee]* and wide bays that the line on that side would inclose a laige extent of water. Xewfoundland extends from 40 .">."»' to .'I -tO' north latitudt ans from • • -. ') to oO '2'> west lonuitudc St. dohn's, the capital city and easternmost jtort of the island, is lOT") nnles distant from Caite Clear in Ireland; it is about as far distant westwards from Capi' Clear as Moscow is distant eastwards. From Ca[ic Iface lo Montreal, at the head of navigation on the river St. Lawrence, the distance is 101.» nnles. The island from Cajie Anguille to (.'ape S})ear — the liroadcsi l»art of its base — is 'Mij nnles witle frttm west to eiisl and on its western side tin; distance from Cape Hay, the south-west ]>oint, to Cape Xorman, its northern ajH'x, is .'(17 miles. The total area of the island \\:\> been calculated to be 42,000 scjuare miles. The are;i jMklS ^'^ r«-»^" jrr -^ii;^ '* OV T.>Nit(nii K«iwiir«i Slaiitiiiii ili A Z; Cixk ^m:A' Tn f'lir fi I,/, Hi;, .*4 tt^ .;:;"i/' N !•: w i'( > i ' N i ) L A x i ) .*>■'. hiiiu'trr /'• Tin* (r<><»|(>t'l(-.'i I M;«I» BY AI-KX"? MIIIHAY. K. >* '^1 XVj- '\ ' T, ifio //Willi /.' ,#■ Anw/« \,./.A^-V' -^^^^^^ ■4' ftitH.tri.'ftii ntirislii ' r/P^ ^.'•'-'^ ■ 4 48 f^^mft '""^* ^^**^, t/il/K/ J *>l I < nifijttiktlf VS iij" *>f<-mwit-ii MiiliirtV ili .V i; (o<'kj«|>iu 'M ('hHrni)> ('ru«« S.W. Iblhcepuffi! 661 52 ^ AND OI 60l '-i h n fl l! ^' 4B yland if Oi-M«i«itfh NEWFOUNDLAND 00 1 of Ireland is iU,7oO square miles, and of Wales, 7378 square miles, so that their united areas are not equal to that of Newfoundland. Tlie western coast of the island is comparatively straight, but the southern and east(»rn coasts are remarkable by profound indentations and salient peninsulas, so that few countries in the world have coast-lines so long relatively to their areas. Three peninsulas especially mark the outline of the island witli a unique character — at the south-east corner the penin- sula (jf Avalon, connected with the mainland l)y ii, neck only two miles wide; the peninsula of Burin on the south ; and, on the north, the long projection Irom White Bay to the Strait of ]>elle-isle, known on the old mtips, and even now, as Le Petit Xord. So deeply does the ocean penetrate into the land, that on many of the old maps, for nearly a hundred years after its discovery, Newfoundland was represented as an archipelago. This long coast-line is indented witli numerous commodious liarl)ours, and studded with innumerable islands, especi- ally on the eastern and southern coasts. The general character of the coast is very rugged and bold. A rampart of steep rocky cliHs 200 to 400 feet high confronts the ocean and resists the tierce onslaught of the storniy North Atlantic. For long stretches of the coast the wall of rock appears to be urd^rcjken, but on close api)r(»ach it is seen to be cleft by fissures, which open up deep and tiord-like harbours safe and sheltered from e\ery wind. V/here the broad bays enter the land the coast may not be so forbidding, but it is still rocky and bold. Alon<^ the west coast a few miles inland the Long liange ^Mountains, rising in places to a lieight of 2000 feet above the sea-level, run far into the l»eninsula of Le Tetjt Noril and almost the whole length of the island; and outer ranges 1900 to 2000 feet high J I > \ I 'i 1 I 662 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL V.I m IP &, , m run closer to the shore and give a stern and majestic beauty to the coast from Cape Anguille as far as Cape Gregory and Bonne Bay. Newfoundland is separated from the main continent at Labrador on the north by the Strait of Belle-isle, which extends north-east and south-west for a length of 85 miles, with a breadth varying from 10 to 15 miles. A rocky island (Belle-isle) of granite cliffs 700 feet high guards the Atlantic entrance. The lighthouse (470 feet above the sea) is maintained by the Dominion of Canada. Through this strait is the most direct route from western Europe to the river .St. Lawrence, and it was the first route known to the early sailors in these waters. By this strait, evidently then well known, Jacques Cartier sailed in and out of the fkdf of St. Lawrence on his first voyage in 15o4. The expansion below the strait between Newfoundland and Labrador was known as La Grande Bale before the existence of a southern outlet was suspected, and that name lingered on the maps down to the commencement of the present century. Cape Bay, at the south-west apex of the triangle, is separated from Cape North, on Cape Breton Island, by a strait until very recently nameless, but happily called on the later Admiralty charts Cabot Strait, after John Cabot, who discovered these waters in 1497. The strait is 60 miles wide, but 20 miles of that distance is cut off by the island of St. Paul, a high-wooded island, lying 20 miles off Cape North. Cape Kay is a remarkable headland, and stands out as a table-land rising 1700 feet above the sea. Cabot Strait is a noble portal to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The lofty land is visible from passing vessels on both sides and the })assage is lighted by two lighthouses on St. Paul's Island and one on Cape Bay. times It mej than loilfr O was t'A i** also vessels! ['"rtant •Hid it 'iiaps. To J w NEWFOUNDLAND 663 M til. as Cape Race, the soutli-eastern apex of the iiuaginary triangle, deserves very special notice as the beacon of tlie North Atlantic route to America — the objective point to which all westward bound ships aimed to make a landfall, and to which the great sailing routes converge. In recent years tlie large Jind powerful steamships to Xew York, on emerging from the English Channel, lay their course by a more southern route ; but for 375 years, and during the period of sailing vessels, before the application of steam, the ocean lane outward between England and America was by Cape Race. It is the one unchanging point of the old sea cliarts. On the first map showing any part of the main American continent — La Cosa's in a.d. 1500 — it appears under the name of Cavo de Yngla- terra, and on Ruysch's map, in the I'tolemy of 1508, it is called Cavo de Portogesi ; but, with these excep- tions, it is called upon every map from the (so-called) King chart of 1502 down to the present day. Cape Raso, Rasso, Ras, Raz, or, in the English corrupted form, Race. The word is practically the same in all the romance languages, being derived from the Latin " rasus," and the name was given in the very earliest times by some I'ortuguese sailor who knew the locality. It means " the flat cape," for it is lower and evener than the adjacent headlands. The Uritish Government long maintained a lighthouse there; but, in 18(S0, it was taken over by the Dominion of Canada. Tliere is also an electric telegraph station from whence passing vessels may be reported. Cape Race is tlie most im- [)ortant headland in North America for many reasons, iind it is the key to many of the problems of the early maps. ^ To attempt to describe, or even to mention, the Ijays ■ i ' w GG4 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'HY AND TKAVKL ,[1 If f 1^ ft *., If m and Imrboui's of Newiouiidljiiul would be a weary task. Only the j^reat bays can be noted, and to all of them the same remark is a])plicable. They all contain numberless smaller bays, harbours, coves, and shelters for vessels. All are studded with islands, and in all there is deeji water to the very shores. On the east coast Conception Lay runs 35 miles into the peninsula of Avalon ; around it have clustered the oldest settlements. To the north of it is Trinity Bay, which bounds Avalon on the north. It runs 50 miles into the land and is 10 miles wide at its mouth. On the south-east shore of this bay is Heart's Content — the landing-place of the Atlantic sub- marine tele4, and as a Portuguese word, Boavista. Notre ])ame liay, the next on the north, is 45 miles wide between its headlands Fogo Island and Cape St. John. It also is studded with islands. At Tilt Cove on the north side near Cape St. «Iohn are large coj^per mines. White Bay, which succeeds, cuts oil the i)en- insula of Le Betit Nord from the main island on the east. Hare Bay, on the farthest north, is a bay with bold and lofty shores very little frequented. Cape Baidd, tiie extreme north point of the island, is on Kirpon Island, often mentioned by the early marini'vs 'I stre disco ve coast All th This h •'•I'lallc •Vortli — one The ba Jt scare T NKWFOUNDLANI) G(3o niitlor the name of Quii'i)i)n or Carpunt. Tlie .so-callocl KieiH-'li shore contimu's from Cape St. Joliii on the east side, round by Cape IJaidd (in the north, and down the west coast to Cape Ray, its most southern ))oint. Tiie blight of the dijdomatic Idiindei- of Utrecht in 171.") hns prevented settlement on this coast and kept the country a wilderness. A few tishiuLr stages and an occasional lobster-canning establishment are ]»oor results on so long .MOUTH or THK Hf.MHKK HIVKU. a stretch of coast for the four hundred years since the discovery of Xewfoundland. Following down the west coast from the north are St. dohn's l>ay and l>onne Bay. .Vll the coast is uninhabited down to the bay of Islands. This l)ay is remarkable tor its magniticent scenery, nn- Geology Although Newfoundland is a country of coast-lines iiiid harbours, so that even its elec'oral districts are nr"ir||i 10 GGS CO.MPENDIU.M OF GEOGllAPIlY AND TKAYEL (lefinotl iip(Hi their sea fronts alone, a careful survey lias been made of its geoloi^acal structure. Speakiny' generally it consists of two unecjual areas — an area of Huronian rocks occupying the south-east corner and the })eninsula of Avalon, and an area of predinniiiant Laurentian extending over the remaining two-thirds ol' the island. The dividint; line is a diagonal heoinninu' at (Jape Freels, the nortliern headland of Bonavista ])ay, and running in a generally south-westerly direction across the country to and along the western side of Fortune l^ay — and here it may l»e ol)served that all the pliysical features of the island are on a similar diagonal ]»lan : so that, whether it be the mountains and ridges, or tlie valleys and I'ivers, or even the outcrops of the rock formations, they will all l)e found to run u])on a diagonal north-east and south-west jilan. The south-east ov Huronion ansa contains three small nuclei of Laurentian gneiss, but is characterised by Ifuronian rocks consisting of slates, (juartzites, and slate conglomerates with laigc areas of Lower Cambrian ])eds, desi'-nated as I'riniordial in the early surveys, and consisting of sandstones and conglomerates. These form the stee]) forbidding cliifs of this ])art of the coast, and underlie the most sterile portion of tlie island. The two peninsulas of Avalon and Piurin are included in tliis area. The remainiuL;' two-thirds of the island mav be called Laurentian, from tlie immense jireponderance of that formation ; althougli, in fact, it contains im])ortant areas where the whole series of rocks from Upper Cambrian to the true coal-measures are disjdayed. These areas are Iiands along the coast, or troughs along tiie river valleys; but the main mass of the country, and its chief mountain chains are Laurentian similar to the Laurentian uneiss which forms the backbone of Canada. W !il NP]\VFOUXDLANI) GG9- Tlie diay-oiiul dividing' line aljove descril)ed comes out upon the south shore at the western headland of Fortune ]iay. From that jtoint westwards to 10 miles beyond Cape Ray all the coast is Laurentian. At this latter point this formation runs north-north-east in a stiaight line along a fault almost to the northern end of tiie island; between the line of this fault and the west coast is a band varying from 10 to 30 nnles in width accord- ing to the sinuosities of the shore line composed of upper Taheozoic rocks as high in series as the coal- measures. The chain of highlands called the Long IJange is entirely Laurentian, and although it marks the character of the scenery it nowhere comes out upon the shore along the whole western coast, nor yet u])on the northern point. At Canada Head, on the north-east si«le, the Laurentian comes out and continues cdonsi' the coast to Cape Freels, excepting around the shore of Notre Dame liay, which is fringed by an area of serpentine rocks. While the lieait of the island is thus formed of Arcluean and Primordial rocks tliere are large .'iicas of later formations, and upon these are the agi'icultural and heavily tind)ered lands which liave of late years been opened up and made known by the oilicers of the ( Jeolo<'ical Survev. On the west coast the larminsj' lands of the Codro}' valley and ]>ay St. (reorge iin' upon Carboniferous rocks. Further north, upon the maiginal lu'lt, are Candtro-Silurian rocks which extend all avound l>y the northern cape. A trough of I'pper Siluiian 20 to 25 miles in width commencing at the IJay of Exploits runs diagonally across the island and comes out in two narrow forks on the south shore. The Exploits river in its whole leuLjth Hows through it, and it surrounds huUan and Victoria lakes.' A similar band to tlie south is followed l)y the (»ander river, and in the two valleys are I f i ! I- f ; li ■ U k I I <)70 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'IIY AND TRAVEL large areas of good land and of merchantable tiniljer. There is also an area of Carboniferous rocks at the head rjf tlie valley of tlie Huniber. I? ■I 1^ M P *' Interior It has been the misfortune of Newfoundland that, for more than 200 years, it was the policy of the British Government to prevent its settlement, and the interest of the influential class who controlled the fisheries to decry its climate and agricultural capabilities. The forbidding rampart of l)arren rock which guards its eastern and southern shores, and the magnificent moun- tainous scenery of the western coast do not in truth suggest the existence of large tracts of arable land ; but the explorations of the Geological Survey have revealed in the valleys of the streams, and at the heads of tlie bays, large areas suitable for settlement and cultivation. Until then the interior of the island was an uidvnowu wilderness, and even yet large areas remain unexplored : for, although the railway is now completed across tlie island, and hunting parties w'itli canoes and Indian guides may follow up the rivers and cross the portages over to the westward streams, no white man since Cormack in 1822 is reported to have crossed the main island at its witlest extension on foot. So for as known the interior is an undulating i)lateau of no great elevation, for the most part covered by marshes, interspersed with patches of woods, and studded with countless lakes ami ponds. There are also large areas known locally as "barrens," consisting of rock generally covered with lichens or caribou moss, with shallow pools, and small streams, and patches of low pines and larch (locally called juniper) where there is a little soil in sheltered hollows. NEWFOUNDLAND 07J Ptidges, generally Ijtire of trees, run across this plateau in a north-east and south-west direction and terminate as the headlands of bays giving an undulating appearance to the interior of the country. From the jjlains rise occasional high isolated peaked hills, called locally "tolts," to a height of 1500 to 2000 feet. The most important range of mountains is the Long Range running near the west coast and rising often into peaks 2000 feet high. \ shorter range runs between this and the shore starting from Cape Anguille — not of Laurentian age but Silurian and Carboniferous. Tlie Blomidon Eange breaks otf from these and borders the valley of the Humber composed also of the later formations. Another range called the Middle liange extends across the island from Notre Dame liay to Fortune Bay. The peninsula of Avalon is very hilly, and is traversed by two high ranges. Few peaks rise anywhere upon the island higher than 2000 feet. ii''i 4 -I <: l Hydrography Newfoundland is a country abounding in waters. It lias been calculated that one-third of its surface is covered with water. From any elevated point will be seen in all directions lakes, rivers, and brooks in countless numbers. The highest land is on the west and scjuth, and all the larger rivers except the Humber tiow to the north-east coast. Of the rivers the largest is the Exploits river, 200 miles lonj-' and draining an area of 3000 to 4000 miles. It rises at the extrem3 south-west point of the island within 12 miles of Cape l*ay and flows north-east into the bay of Exploits, a sub-bay of the great Notre Dame Bay. The Gander river rises also near the southerii i : . I, 672 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIY AND TKAVEL il;:;;' coast, and tiowiiig also in a nortli-east direction, falls, after draininu,' an area of 2500 miles, into another sul)-l»ay (dander liay) of tlie same great Ijay of Xotie iJanic. The third large river is the Huml^er, ^vhich Hows in an opposite direction, but between the same points of the compass. It rises near the head of AVliite 1\ay on the east coast and falls into Bav of Islands on the west. t'l: VIKW (IX THK HlMliEK KIVEH. Tiie head waters of the streams almost touch in the interior, and some of the lakes drain in opposite directions ; Imt, while these afford canoe routes for hunters, all com- munication before the railway was built was by vessels along the coast. Timber For a considerable distance inland from the west and south coasts the trees are generally fir and spruce ol NEWFOUNDLAND /• ^ »> 0/ o stunted growtli, but there are large tracts of heavily timl)ered land at the heads of the bays and in the valleys of the numerous streams. Ujjon the ]]ay of Exploits, the river Exploits, the (hinder river and (jiander Lake, and the river Huml:)er ; along the west coast, upon St. George's IJay, and in the valleys of tht; ('odrovs timber is abundant and fjood. Lumberiny; operations are extending rapidly. The trees found ai-e cliietly white and yellow pine, white, l)lack, and red spruce, fir and tamarack, birch, asli, and red maple, (.'edar, beech, oak, and elm are not found in the forests. : m Climate The climate of Xewfoundland varies very much. The Arctic current running along the eastern coast lengthens out the spring and, in winter and early spring, the east winds blow masses of tield-ice into the bays and harbours, tlie continual stream of Itergs also helps to retard the summer. Frequent fogs are borne in upon the east and south coasts by all the eastern and southerly winds. The climate of that portion of the island, while not so cold in winter or so WMrm in sunnner as in Canada, is apt to be raw and chilly rather than cold in winter and foggy and cool in summer. The average minimum temperature of eight years was 7°, and the maximum 197,551 ,, frozen, barrels .... 56,907 56,907 Salmon, pickled, tierces .... 3216 51,483 Lobsters, preserved, pound.s .... 2,306,688 312,364 Cod oil, tons 3783 264,810 Seal oil, tons 4063 276,284 Sealskins, number 284,460 227,568 Copper, ingots — regnlus and green ore— tons . 28,842 236,235 Iron pyrites, tons 40,582 285,474 Lumber, feet 6357 82,641 Total Value of Lmtohts and Exi'outs of NEWForNDLAND, INCLUDING LAliUADOIl 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 Iiiiports. l?6,368,835 6,869,458 5,012,877 7,572,596 7,164,738 CouitSE ok TUADiC, 1894 United Kingdom British Colonies Foreign Countries Imports. 82,538,942 3,952,046 1,673,750 $7,164,738 Exports. 86,099,686 7,437,158 5,651,111 6,280,912 5,811,169 Exports. 81,347,425 1,366,684 3,097,060 85,811,169 Population From the nature of their occupation it is evident that this peox^le cannot be grouped in cities, but settled in families and small communities along the coast. There are no settlers in the interior, and the French claims check settlement on the west coast ; but in spite of many discouragements tliere are settlements at Codroy, St. George's Bay, Bay of Islands, and Bonne Bay. The life the people lead, in continual conflict with the sea, and in ll'ii i r 1 )' ■j ■ '1 '• J n- ii-i iiiiT It ', 07 G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'llY AND TRAVEL i.resence of all the dangers of seafaring life upon an ocean vexed with frequent storms, makes them earnest and resolute in character. They are matchles.. sailors- skilful and daring, such men as in the old days ot wooden ships raised Great liritain to the pinnacle of her naval renown. They are daily braving its dangers, and they know well all the secrets of the sea. They, beyond all other people, " go down to the sea in ships, and do business in great waters." Newfoundland is still a great training-school for mariners, but, possibly, it is engineers and stokers that are needed under the new conditions ot naval warfare. The last census was taken in 1891, and *Tave the following results : — - PorULATioK— Ceksus of 1891 Newfouiullaiul Labrador Total population :Males in Newfoundland only Females . . • • 197,934 4,106 202,040 100,775 97,159 POPVLATION OF ToWNS St. John's . Harbour Grace Twillingate . Bonavista . Carbonear . 29,007 6466 3565 3551 4127 rOPULATION BY RELIGIONS— CeXSUS OF 1891 Church of Rome . Church of England Reformed Episcopal Church . Methodists . • ■ • Presbyterians Congregationalists . Salvation Army . Baptists and others Moravians on the Labrador Coast (2,696 69,824 487 53,276 1,449 782 2,092 37 1,397 N p:\vfoundlan I > G7 Education The educational system adopted is deuomiiiatioiial. and 110 other system seems to be possible with tlie strong sectarian feelings of the people. The government grant for 189G amounted to lj>150,58r) for all schools and colleges. The total iiuml)er attending colleges and schools is l'>4,5o7. There are four superintendents of education appointed by Government — one each for the Eomaii, Anglican, Methodist, and Presl)yterian churches — and they act through separate boards in each district. Industries Farming has not been followed to any extent, nor is there a population suited for manuf.icturing pursuits. It has Ijeeii too strongly asserted and too frequently repeated that there is no land on the island suitable for agriculture. Such is no doubt the case along tlie barrier shores which bear the brunt of the Atlantic surf Sir Richard Bonnycastle pointed out that there is mucli agricultural land in the western districts and in the valleys. The fact seems to be that the danger and excitement of a fisherman's life, everywhere it can be followed, are preferred to the supposed monotony of farm work, and, on the coast of Newfoundland, the treasures of the deep are too tempting, though the fishermen themselves have not profited over much. Should a Latin motto ever be required, none more expressive of the fortunes of ' e island could be chosen than /SVc tos non vohis. It is no wonder that the people are too apt to neglect all other pursuits, for here in all the l)ays and harbours, and at their very doors, nature, somewhat stern in many respects, presents them with millions in their Ji 078 COMl-ENl'llM OF *;KOr,UAl'UY ANl> TIIAVKL seasons of tish and oihev marine creatnivs. Out v( a total population ot' L'OL',040 souls, there to re, no less than o 2,501* Nvcre eu'iaueil in ratchinu' or euriuif tish. The harvest ot" the oeeau opens on the 1st of March, when the sailing' vesst-ls for the seal tisherv ]>ut to sea. On the 12th the steamers leave, ami all are crowded with men. There are 22 steamers from ooO to ">00 tons enuaueil in the husine.ss. carrviny- from 200 to oOO men each. Thev arc vcrv stron^lv built and protected SO as to force their way through the iee tloes. The seals seek the tield-ice carried down l>y the Arctic current upon which to l)ring forth and suckle their young. The pups are born from the loth to the 20th of February, and ari' in the best condition a)>out March 10, being fat: for ic ice U'; aud thev are also easv to kill while upon tl earlv in April thev lake to the water. Of late vej the seals Iuim' not been sw numerous and the hunting is regulated bv law : so that n^ seal mav be killed before ^larch 10, nor after April 10, and the steamers are allowed to make only one trip. The ves.sels are pushed into the tloating ice, and when a herd of seals is seen the crews pursue liiem from tloe to tloe and kill the vi)unL;' ones chietlv, for from them the best oil is obtained. Thev are hunted for their fit and skins unlv. Tl le hunters kill them with cl Ul'S. >kin them upon the ic and draLT their loads to the vessels until the car^o i^ .'omi lett As the Clulf Stream is the bearer of warmth to distant shores, the Arctic current is the bearer of that wealth of ocean-born organisms j^ioierated in the cv\d waters of the north which is the sui»erabounding suppttrt immeiliately or mediatelv o( the food fishes of eonnnerce. In the overtlow of the.se waters and along the coasts thev wasji. cod, herring, salmon, and other lishes of commerce tind cu t w.t tee t-av tor Ha Sc_\ lea se\ ^ ^E\VFOU^'DLA^'D 079 the LouUitioiis suitable for reproduction, and there also thev tiud tV)od eouveuieut for them. Tlu' r>auks of Xewft-tuudlaud have been dfscribod elsewhere. These hi'4'hlaud uieadox s i>f ocean are ihirini;' the sunnaer season tlu' resort of innunierabh- swarms oi oodtish. which, issuinu frou) the darker recesses uf their unknown vleep-sca ln>mes, thronu' the shallower and liuhter waters and tlow over inti» the bavs and coves of the adjacent coasts in such numbers as to become the sta}>le export of the colony and the industrial support of four-hflhs of its people. In the earlv vlavs o( .1 une llic cai>elin arrisf and swarm aUm.; the coast in such numbers that, with a casting-net, a man may obtain a cart-load in an hour. They stay for about seven weeks. They are small hshes six t.»r seven inches long, an*l are the i^od (4' tiie cod, which tbllow hard upon them and drive them inshore. When the capelin disappear, about the 1st of August, immen.se numbers of sipiid arrive. These are small cuttle- tish which swarm on the coast and in the harboiu-s. IVca- sionally they are ntt^t with oi' gigantic size, nu>re than realising Victor Hugos description of the di'vil-tish in his 7''»(7<'/',s nj' t'li.' Siii, They are, however. deca]>ods. A piece ll> teet long vif an arm of one ^^( tiiese creatures cut otV by a tisherman wlu>.se bout it had attacked is in the nniseum v>f Si. .lohns. Another of these monsters was found dead. Its two larger tentacles nu'asured L'4 feet each, the eight shorter and thicker ones I L' feet each; the body was 10 feel long. Formidable monsters fortunately .seldom encountered. After reading Dr. Harvey's account of them Homer's vivid account of Scvlla in the 1 2th book of the Odti^tnii becomes almost ic alistic. riie s»[uid become in their turn for si.x or seven weeks the prey of the cod when thi' hi'rring arrive, 080 COMPKXDIU^r OF GEOGIJAPIIY AND TliAVEL M and, during Scpttunber and Octoher, tlie codfisli i'eed upon tlioni until they depart for their winter homes in the deeper waters. The prosperity of the colony has always l)een so hound up with the cod fishery that in the language of Newfoundland the word " fish " means only cod. There are indeed "salmon" and "lierring" and "haddock," l)ut the cod are always called " lish." Upon the early ma]»s, which are Portuguese, Spanish, or Italian, the country is called " baccalaos," tho general name for codfish in the languages of Southern Europe. Fishing on the ]>aid\S is open to all, and vessels from western Europe as well as from the United States and the neighbouring colonies share in the sea harvest. Oftentimes the passenger on an ocean steamer is surjirised, as the fog lifts, to see small fishing sciiooners i)ursuing their business anchored apparently in mid-ocean. For four hunthed years this treasury of food has been ex])loited apparently without signs of exhaustion. The foreign vessels carry away their cargoes salted green, but the colonists hiive only to take tiieir fish to the adjacent shores to be dried and cured for export. The colonists do not rely so much upon the Hank fisheries, for the cod follow the ca]ielin, S([uid, and herring close into the bays, and afford abundance of bait wherewitli the cod may be caught nciuer home. The importance of the cod fisliing will appear on reference to the preceding tables. Out of a total valui' of $r),811,l(i0, the exi)ort of (h'ied codtish alone amounts to $."),703,o.'kS. The fish are split, cleaned, salted, and then dried on stages on the shore, and are exportetl to the tropics, to Soutiiern Europe, to tlie West Indies, and th(^ Brazils. The products are entirely used u)i ; from the livers cod-liver oil is extracted, glue is nnide from the skins, and the heads and entrails are utilised fui' the manufacture of fertilisers. Tlie fish flakes or drying mwn NEWFOUNDLAND 081 stcigep used in this industry are characteristic of the settlements along the whole coast. The total exports of Xew '-^undland, in 1894, were, as before stated, J^.j,8 1 1,1 09 ; of this the value of fish products was ,s"), 144, 589. It is no wonder then that the coh)nists have Ijeen tempted away upon the sea and luive neglected the other resources of their isL'nd. The wealtli earned has, however, been drawn away to other lands, and 1ms built up the prosperiiy of non-resident merchants. There is a change now in progress, and other industries are beginning to be more vigorouslv pursued. The herring tislierv is followed along the south and west shores, and the lobster-canning industry has grown from its com- mencement in 18T'> to an export value of 8-H2,.'»04. The salmon rivers, swarming with tish in old days, had been ruined but are recovering under careful supervision, and in 1 894pickled salmon to the value of J^o 1,48.". were exported. While it may or may not be true that the ])a]dv fisheries show no signs of exhaustion, the Government oi" Newfoundland has waked up to the fact that the inshore fisheries were becoming less })roducti ve. In 188 9 a Fishery Conunission was ap]»ointed, and uiuler the skilful manage- ment of the superintendent scientific regulations were enacted ane for Kiny; Henrv YII., and, after having touched land at the eastern point of Cape l^reton and raised there the banner of St, George, he sailed along the south coast of Xewfoundland as he returned to Bristol, his port of departure. It should always be borne in mind that, at that date. CV)lumbus had discovered the AVest India Islands <>nl\'. He did not set foot upon, nor even see, the Western Continent until August 2, 1498, on his third voyage, when he discovered what is now Venezuela in South America. On his fourth voyage in 1502 he first .saw tlie main- land of Xorth America, in Honduras I>ay, and sailed along the sliore of Costa liica. [Meanwhile a .second expedition had been fitted out at Bristol, also under the conmiission of Henrv VI I. and under the connnand of Johii Cabot and his son Sebastian. This expedition sailed early in 1498 and coasted the Continent of Xorth America from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. There are many disputed (questions concerning the.se two men and their voyages which will be found discussed at length in the authorities cited at the end of this chapter : it is only necessary to observe here that the primary title to the inheritance of the English race in the Xew World is derived from the voyages of the Cabots and their first discovery, prior to Columbus, of the mainland of America. It is almost impossible in this century tt> conceive to what an extent the two great maritime powers, Spain and Portugal, overshadowed all others at the commence- ment of the sixteenth century, and the diplomatic strife which was carried on between them is more confusing because the new land discovered by Spain in the west 088 COMl'ENDIUM OF (lEOGRAl'HY AND TRAVEL was supposed to be the eastern inaigiu of the eontiiicnl of Asia, where the Portuguese discoveries in the east were incessantly extending. To settle these rival claims the celebrated l)ull of To^te Alexander VI. was issued in 149 o ; but the Ijoundary line therein hiid down wjis nioditied l)y the treaty of Tordesillas in 1404, and a meridian, o70 leagues west of the Cape de A'erde Islands, was fixed upon as the dividing line. All lands discovered were to belong to Spain if westward, and to I'ortugal it eastward of this line. In the defective knowledge of that period, and owing to the impossibility of ascertaining longitudes with approximate accuracy, Newfoundland was drawn to the east of this line and fell to I'ortugal, while the rest of America, as discovered, was claimed l)y Spain. On some of the earliest maps the Portuguese " sphere of inHuence," to borrow a recent phrase, included even Nova Scotia. In those days Portugal was at the zenith of her greatness, and a powerful and noble family of that kingdom, the Cortereals, were sailors and discoverers while the English and Prench nobility were slowly recovering from intestine wars. To one of the younger scions of this fearless and enterprising family, Gas})ar Cortoreal, the king of Portugal granted a commission, and in a.d. 1500 and 1501 he made two voyages in the I. ope of reaching Asia by the north-west. In these voyages he reached as far as Greenland, and coasted along the east coast of Newfoundland and perhaps Labrador. His own vessel, and he himself, perished on the second voyage, but upon his discoveries and the bull of Alexander VI. the Portuguese based their claim to Newfoundland. The English neglected the Cabots and their dis- coveries, and, besides, they were wrapped up in their NEWFOUNDLAND 689 trade with rceliiiul, wliere they got iiU the codfish they wanted ; l»ut tlie rortuguese and 15as(iiies, Spanish and French, soon heard of the amazing wealth of codfish on the coasts and banks of Newfoundland, and, with a bold- ness and enterprise scarcely credible now, began to throng those waters with their little fishing vessels, and they were followed l)y fishermen of Urittany and Xorniandy. This accounts for the fact that tlie uimes of the promi- nent localities on the east coast of Newfoundland are mostly corruptions of Portuguese, while the names on the south coast reveal the predominance of the French and Bas(|ues. Ingenious and romantic theories have been jtro- pounded concerning discoveries of America by Jiasijue sailors liefore Columbus. The whale fishery of that period and long afterwards was in the hands of the liasques, and it is asserted that, in following the whales, as they became scarce, farther and farther out in the western ocean, they came upon the coasts of Newfoundland a hundred years before Columbus and Cabot. No solid foundation can be found for these assertions. Tlu; records of the Basque maritime cities contain nothing to confirm them, and these assertions are mixed up with so much that is absurd — such as a statement that the Newfound- land Indians spoke Basque — that the whole hypothesis is incredible. There is not space in the present volume to follow out such questions, nor is it possible to discuss here the allurino- and romantic legends of the islands of Antillia, of St. lirandon, of the seven cities, of Stockafixia, or of Mansatanaxio. It is, however, beyond question that, from the year 1506, the fishermen of I*ortugal, 1 U'ittany, and the iiasijue provinces resorted in far greater numbers to these coasts than tiie English, and the nomenclature of the coast proves it to the ])resent day, 2y mm M GOO COMPENDIUM OK (lEOGUAl'llV ANI> TltAVKL not only ill NewfouiuUaiul, but on Labmdoi' and in ('a])i' Breton and Nova Scotia. Colonisation, 1583 1633 Under the fivni government of (.»)ueen Klizaljetli, England became united and live tVoni foreign entangle- ments, and her national energy and spirit Howed o\cr into those channels of colonisation which have lesulted in the present wide expansion of the Knglish race. Hence in 15 80 Sir Humph '-cv Gilbert obtained the Queen's commission as governor, and a large grant of territory in Newfoundland. '' He," says Hakluyt, " was the first of our nation that carried peojjle to erect an habitation and <;overnmeiit in these northerly countries of America." In the harbour of St. John's he found thirty or forty sail of vessels of all nations, of \vhich number twenty were Portuguese. He set up the royal arms and took possession (jf the country with the for- malities customary at the time. The Portuguese were foremost and warmest in their welcome, which is explained l)y the fact that, three years before his arrival, their country had fallen under the yoke of Pliilij) 11. of Spain. At the lieight of its glory it was to Jase for sixty years to be an independent kingdom, and the Englisli were at least enemies of Spain. If any state had a rigid to challenge Gilbert's commissiijii it would have been Portugal. Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost on the return voyage, and his attempt to colonise was a failure. But more and more the English vessels resorted to the fisheries, and perhaps, although no record of the fact exists, sonic permanent settlers remained behind. With the reign ol' James I. the overflow of the English people into the NEWFOUNDLAND 091 wusteni world coimiieiifcd to run stoiidily and Loiitiiiu- ously, iiud all tlie brightest minds around the court and anionjf the niereiiants were turned towards adv«Mitures beyond the seas. In 1010 a royal charter was issued to a company, of which Lord Uacnii was tiie chief promoter, known as " The London and J'.ristol Com])any, usually called Guy's Association." A grant was made by -lames of the territory from Cape St. >Mary's to Cape ]>ona\ista, and John Guy of Ihistol led (mt, the same year, the first colony to Newfoundland. He settled on tiie shore of Conception ])ay, built a tort, and commenced to issue decrees as governor. Tliat struck the first note of a conflict whicli was to last for 150 years, and of whicii the echoes may yet be heard. The fishermen, merchants, ami seamen who flocked to the coast for the fishing season vehemently resented anything which might seem to threaten their turl)ulent lawlessness, and the great merchants in England, who were profiting l)y the fisheries, were jealous lest the planters should in some way interfere with their operations ; bi!t, for a time, the planters had sufficient influence through the patentees in England to maintain themselves. Captain Tohn Mason came out as governor in 1015 — an aide and notable man — and, in the same year. Captain Kichard Whitbourne, the worthiest of mariiiei's, canu' out with a commission from the Admiralty to establish order among the fishing fleet. He reported that more than 400 sail of " French, Portugals, and Kiscainesi^," and 250 sail of English fisher- men were resorting to the coast. He urged upon the Government the importance of colonising the country with permanent settlers. He was an experienced sailor, not only to Newlbundland, but to every port in Europe, and he saw the surpassing value of the fisheries. Other companies were formed and other p«ttlements were made m M (>92 COMl'ENDIL'.M OF (JEOGKAPHV AND TKAVEL about tliis time, but ull were confined to the peninsula of Avalon. Many distinguislied names were connected with tliose enterprises — as Sir William Vaughan, Sir George Calvert, Lord Falkland. Sir (leorge Calvert (afterwards Lord Baltimore) spent two years in the colony at Ferry- land, where he erected large buildings. The romantic name Avalon was given by him, and that name is all which remains of his efforts. Calvert al>andoned New- foundland and afterwards obtained a charter for tlie colony of Maryland, whose capital, Baltimore, is named after his family title. Period of Repression, 1633-1800 In the fairy story it is the youngest sister, but the eldest sister is the Cinderella of colonial history. If Newfoundland had experienced only the healthful neglect under which the other colonies prospered, she too would have grown into vigorous life. But a strong and in- riuential class in England was interested in harassing the settlers, in depreciating the resources of the island, and in throwing every obstacle in the way of permanent settlement. This policy came in with Charles I. and continued down to the very commencement of the present century. Captain Mason, Sir William Vaughan, and Captain Whitbourne had written favourably of the island ; but from their day down to 1842, when Sir Richard IJonnycastle wrote his l)ook, every writer described it as barren ; in sunnner gloomy with perpetual fog, and in winter given over to excessive cold and blinding snow- storms. The west country people of England, gt'^^-ation after generation, drew from the fisheries of Newfoundland enormous profits, upon wliich xn'osperous mercantile establishments and noble families wci-e built up and NEWFOUNDLAND 09;} sustained — in England. Tliey considered and called them " their " fislieries, and their interests required that there should be no resident population to conqtete in their monopoly, to share the best fishing rooms, and to grow up to be dangerous rivals in foreign markets. The influence of this class upon the government was in- cessantly exercised in framing regulations and laws to choke the ut in 1633 the English mercliants succeeded in procuring from tlic " Star Cliamber" rules and regulations drawn solely to advance their own private interests, and these rules were supple- mented, alwavs in the same direction, Itv the same o]»pressive agency. It was now enacted that no settler should dwell within six miles of the sea-shore : that no planter should cut down any wood or plant within the s.nne distance from the shore; that no inhabitant or planter should take the best places in the harbours before the arrival of the tishing-fleet in the spring. Then, in tlie s])ring, the ca[)tain of the lifst vessel to arrive in any iiarbour sliould be tishing admiral tiiereof and allot the pliices in the harbour. In tliis way the fisheries were to Ik* reserved J\ 094 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIY AND TKAVEL for the Eiiglifsh merchants, who sent out the vessels and fishermen for the lishiny; season. To ])revent the growth of a resident population it was ordained tliat jio master or owner sliould transport seamen or fishermen to the colony other tlian his own crew ; tliat all ])rovisions, except salt, should he purchased in England to last for the whole voyage ; that every master of a vessel should give a hond for £100 to carry back to England every man he took out ; tliat no settlers or planters should be taken to the colony. To ])revent the formation of any organised administration, it was enacted that all offenders sliould be taken to England to be tried by the magistrates of certain specified cities in the; western counties ; that the fishermen were to be for ever free from the jurisdiction of any government in Newfoundland. Incredible as it may seen, attem])ts were made to compel the resident idanters to remove to some otlier cohjny, or to return to England. Orders in council were made to that effect, and the })lanters had to organise and resist by force the destruction of their property which had ])een connnenced. At last permission was sent out to continue, until furtber orders, the ])Linters in ])ossession of tlieir houses. Tlie planters liiul also asked for a resident governor to connnand tliem in case of attack, and for a clergyman to administer the ordinances of religion to them and tiieir children, l)ut they )net with no lesponse. The govern- ment of the fishing admirals liad to suHice, and violence and disorder reigned during the fisliing season. This system of government by fishing achiiirals is a curiosity of administration. It liad existed on the coast from the first, having originated in tlie necessity lor some form of law among tlie crowds of turbulent sailors of all nations who thronged the coasts in the fishing season. Ihit this wild system was recognised l)y the Star (/hainbcr l^'r< Fvi whi Fi', am for a pe and IJ.ir unti sett] .foil! islan "«^ NiaVFOUNItl.AND 695 ordinjuices aiul confirmed in IGDS by Act of Parliament. The first fisliing ca])tain to arrive at any harbour in the spring was " admiral " for tlie season, the second was " vice-admiral," tlie third was " loar-admiral ! " Tliey not only allotted the fishing rooms in the iiarV)0urs, but they were magistrates of the (Ustrict, not only among the fluctuating sunnner ]t()pulation, l»ut in all ([uestions between the fishermen and tlie ]»ermanent residents. Inasmuch as those fishing admirals were tlie hired servants of the merchant adventurers tlie course of justice set in one direction only. The English merchants wanted no better system, and strenuously opposed every modifica- tion ttf it. The only ap])eal was to the naval ollicers commanding the convoy of the king's ships, and, in the course of time, the commanding ollicerof the S(|uadron on the Newfoundland station was also commissioned as governor, and his jurisdiction in appeal gradually en- croached on the administration of the Hshin!'' admirals. .Vs if these discouragements were not sullicient, the French in 1()(J2 sci/.i'd I'lacentia, fortified it, and made it the seat <>f a resident govi-ruor. l']) to that date no French subject had wintered upon the island. The French (rovernment had taken no interest in it, and, while the su])reniacy of the English was not disputed, the French fishermen fished unmolested, chiefly on the south and west coast. There was room and there were fish for all; but, after the French settled at riacentia, came a period of intermittent hostilities and of injuries given and received, in the course of wliicii St. »b»hn"s, Ferryland, Hai'bour (Irace, and IMaceiitia were taken and retaken until, at the close of the sixteenth century, all the Knglish settlements l)ut> two were com])letely ruiiuul, and St. .lolin's utti'rlv destroved and abandoneil. In 1007 the island was re-coiupieied by an expedition sent by I 696 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Williaiii 111., forts were erected and a garrison stationed at St. John's, but the island continued to be the arena of incessant trife during the subsequent wars. To relate tlie vi( udes of this warfare is foreign to the object of thi. Dook ; it is sufficient to call attention to the dispersion of the colonists consequent upon the repeated destruction of the settlements as another cause of the tardy growth of the struggling colony. The English cared only for the fisheries. It wfis of small importance to the western adventurers that the settlers whom they were urging to have removed to the New England colonies or brought back to Enghind, were carried off by the French. The peace of Utrecht in 1713 settled the dispute between the English and French as to the sovereignty of the island. It was given over in full supremacy to England. But so firmly planted in the English mind was the theory that Kewfoundiand should be only a fishing station, whereon to dry fish ni the summer and a nursery wherein to trdiu seamen for service at need in the royal navy, that the rankling thorn of the " French shore " was planted in the side of the colony to trouble and hinder its development down to the present day. In the treaty Spain made a claim of ancient fishing rights for the Guipuscoans (Basques), but they were never proved. As for Portugal, the domination of Spain had killed its expansion, and what energy remained aftiT it regained independence was drawn off to the East Indies. After the island was reconquered in 1697, some unfortunate experiments were made with garrison governors until, in 1720, Captain Osborne, E.N., was appointed. After that time, until 1825, the com- manders of the fleet on the North American station wer(3 always goveriU)rs of Ni'wfoundland. ■PI NEWFOUNDLAND 09' Tlie fishino- admirals had now a i'lvni hand always over them and, by degrees, tlie reign of violence came to an end. The naval officers did justice in a summary ofl- hand way, and the colonists' position was greatly improved ; still the fishing admirals ignored the justices appointed ]jy the governors, luider the pretext that they were only winter magistrates, and, in fact, the authority of the magistrates appointed l»y the governors did not rest on the firm basis of an Act of Parliament. Improvement was slow: for, altliouuh the governors did all in their power to ameliorate the condition of the colonists, the merchants did all in their power to thw.irt tliem, and resisted any modification of the statutes which were oppressing the colony. As late as 1709 houses erected in St. John's without license of the governor were pulled down, and it was not until 1.S20 that the statutory restrictions were abolished which required licenses for cultivatiui'' or inclosinu' ground and for buildin" or repairing houses. At last, in 1792, in spite of all opposition, rarliament ])assed a statute upon which a Supreme Court of Judica- ture, civil and criminal, was erected in Newfoundland. The period of confusion came to an end, and the colonists became possessed of that only stalJe foundation of civil society, a court of justice of unquestioned authority, to which, as is l)ecoming, is superadded the ap]»eal to the sovereign in council claimed by all the subjects of the ]»ritish Crown. I. ■ I Organisation of Civil Society, 1792-1832 The preceding history has occupied a disproportionate space because, itnless somewhat fully set forth, it would be incredible that such laws Suould have existed. It affords an ex])lanation why this colony — the eldest of i G98 COMPENDIUM! OF GEOGIIAPHY AND TRAVEL tlie (Jrown, with soil and climate not inferior to that of the Eastern New England States, should have remainef>ui.(J(irie.s, 137 '■liinate. I;i9 I'ore.st, 142 geology, 13S histoiy, 105 •iiliiibitaiits, l;!S 'ainfall, 141 Acliigaii river, 281 ■Agiii:ii](iir(' — iWtisli Columbia, 502 Canada, 45 Hu.lson'.s Bay Ba.si„. ,i:>3 Mmikeiizie river l,a,si„, 540 New Brunswick, IHO Ncwfoundlund, «;? Ontario, 370 i'rince Edwanl Lsland, 204 Yukon Territory. 564 A >anel, Fatlier, 35, 280 Albany, Fort, 610 A >any river, 37, 613 ^"H'rni inlet, 482 Alberta, 429 ^"^'^^^« Railway and Coal Company. Alcutiati r.sland, 588 Alfred Ernest. Cape, A gonia i)istrict, 375 A gompiin tribes. Q7, 584 Alleghany river, 38 Allumette Island, 282 ?587 Anglican nussjous. y.), 541. 546 Anian Strait. 506 Annapolis Basin, n^ Antelopes, prongdiorned {../,A„,,.,,, Antieosti Island,' :i55 Apaelies. 73 Apatite. 270, 37,s Appalaeliian ranges, •>8 Arctic Canada— arclnj)eIago, 593 coast, 585 explorations, 597 »% fisheries, 594 game. 594 geology. 592, 5!>J icc-delds, .f,89 present divisions, 596 Arctic current, direction and char- acteristics oi; 7 """ Asbestos, 496. 682 Ashonaphronchan river, 35, 279 A.-^'inanipi Lake, 637 Assiniboiii, 427 Assiniboiue river. 39 Assiiiuptioi, river. 281 Athabasca Lake, 537 landing, .'535 Pass, 459 river. 53' territory. 53] Attikoiiak Lake. 637 Attikopi Lake. 636 Auks. 64 Aylmer Lake, 248 708 COMPENDIUM OF (iEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL Back's Exiiuditiou, (JOl Back's river, 601 Hiifiiii Land, 586 Bald Mountains, 177 Balsam Lake, 3:i9 Banks Land, 586 Barkerville, 524 Barren Grounds, 593 birds, 580 cliaracter of land O' t 580 248 6/ tislierie minerals, 578 Barrow Strait, 586 Batiscan river, 281 Bats, 58 Bear and Hawk Mountains Bear Hills, :599 Bears, 56, 159, 255, 565 Beeehey, {.'a))tain, 601 Bell, James, 571 Belle-isle, Strait of, 662 Beotliiks or Ui-il Indian Big river, ^i'-W Bird Islets, 255 Birds — Barren Grounils, 580 Cana.la, 63 Maikeiizie iliver Basin, 551 Manitolm, 408 Nova Scotia. 159 Queliee, 255. 272 Southern Labrador, 270 Bison, 59 Bitterns, 63 Blaek river, 283 Blaekwater river, 469 Blu;:.' Sablon Harbour, 272 Blomidon, Cape, 149 Blue Mountain. 179 Bomjias, Bishop, 560 Bonaventure Island, 285 Bonavista Jiay, 664 Bonne Bay, 665 Bonneehere river, 283 Bootiiia, (Julf of, 586 Bniicher, I'ierre. 216 Boundaries — Acadian Provinces, 137 British Anieriea, 16 British Colundiia, 451 New Brunswi,;i<^ 171 Ontario. 334 Boundaries — cantiuucd Quebec, 245 Saskatchewan, 435 Bradore Bay, 273 Brandon, 426 Brant, 159 Brantford, 389 Britannia, Cape, 602 British America — area. 13 boundaries, 16 British Columbia- agriculture, 502 l)Oundaries, 451 channels, 478 cities, 519 climate, 482 coast, 477 communications, 524 discovery and development, 469 education, 527 lisheries, 499 forest, 486 fruit-growing, 503 geology, 458, 465 history, 504 hydrography, 466 minerals, 466, 488, 496 mountain })asses, 459 mountain ranges, 454 railways, 424 trade returns, 495, 526 Brown, Mount, 458 Butl'alo Grass, 428 Bu Haloes, 59 Bute Inlet, 480 Button, Sir 'J\, 626 Byam Martin's Island, 595 Cabot Strait, 662 Calgary, 432 Calvaire, Mont, 251 Campbell, IJobert, 561, 571 Camj)obello Island, 175 Canaila — agriculture, 45 Ari'tic (Janaila (see that title) Atlantic and Pacilic distances, table of, 100 birds, 63 eamils, 82 > clinnite, 43 INDEX •oi> Canada — cordinucd coimminieations, 8') fauna, 54 finance, 97 tisheries, Uf) forest, 49 fruit-growing', 47 fur trade, 22 1 jrovernnient. S7 liistory, 92 hydrography, 29 Indian population, 77 hmguages spoken in, 82 militia. 91 minerals, 9:5 mountains. 2(5 old Canaila [xce title, St. Lawrence i'rovinees) I)olitical divisions, 78 jxipulation, SO railways, 84 rainfall, 48 steamship lines, 8") trade returns. 93 Canadian Pacific railway, 84. 470 Canso Strait, 152 Cape Breton Island - character of land, 1H7 geology, 168 harbours, 170 Caribou, 54, 159, 276, 565, 624 Cartier, .lac(iues, 70. Ill, 22:5 Cataracjui did nanu' forSf. Lawrence river, 32 Cats, wild, 55 Chah'ur Bay, 187 Champlain,' Samuel, 36. 113, 225, 244, 291, 626 ('hapo9 Chilcoot pass, 562 Chilcotin river, 169 Chinook trade language. 74 Chinook — ruii/iiini'i/ winds, 44, 411 Chipev/yan, Foit, 537 tribes, 67, 73. 583 Chipnuinks, 57 Churchill river, 611 Churchill valley. 575 Clayo(piot Sound. 482 Clearwater river, 535. 612 Climate — Acadian provinces, 139 '■ British Columbia. 482 Canaila, 43 ■ • ' Hudson's Bay Basin. 622 Labrailor. 646 Mackenzie river basin. 548 Manitoba. 408 Cntaiio. 374 I'rince Edward Island, 206 St. Lawrence Provinces. 213 Southern f,abradoi-, 275 Vnkon Tirritorv, 568 Coal, 93, 157, .195.' 565. 591. 616. 682 Coast mountains. 15 1 Cobecpiid — Bay. 149 mountains. 149 Cockl)urn Land, '.^bd Conception Bay, 664 Confidence, Fort, 545. 60:! Cook. ( 'aptain, 509 Copjier, 149, 270. 378,491. 578, .''.92, 616, 682 Coppermine river, 3!.<, 593 Coulonge river, 283 Cordilleni, Pacific, 28 Coronation (iulf, 592 Cornwallis Colonel. 126 Coteau mo\intains. 399 Coyofe [fiiiiiK /titnui-i), ''i9 Credit river, 341 Croker monntnins. 5!t7 Crown Point F> rt, 37 Crow's Nest pas-. 45s Cudahy, Fort, "'^H Cumberland ;.i)' [n 151 Cyp.'ess hills, 4l,'0 Oahtmoith liver, 285 l»c Monts, 225 |)e Ua/.illy, Isaac. 116 Deadnuvn's Island. 254 710 co^rpENDIUM ok geography and travel Dease, P. W., 602 Dease river, 467 Deep river, 282 Deer, r)4, 58 Deer-mouse, 56 Deer river, 612 Demarcation Point, 585 Demoiiie river, 28.'5 De.s Plaiiies river, -iS Deschenes, Lake, 283 Detroit river, 32, 352 Dighton rock, 108 DobUs, Sir A., 629 Dogs— Es(iuimau.\, 61 Prairie, 58 D'Or, Cape, 149 Douglas, James, 514 Duck mountains. 416 Dufferin, Cape, 608 Eaglk liills, 399 Eagles, 63 East ]\Iiiin river, 641 Eastern townsliips, 287 Edmonton, 429 Education — British Colundjia, 527 Manitoba, 419 New Brunswick. 192 Newfoundland, 677 Nova Scotia, 162 Ontario, 365 Prince Edward I.sland, 209 Quebec, 262 Edward, Fort, 37 Egg Island, 274 EK'pliantis, Mount, 248 Elk, American {crrnis i'aiui.(h'iit Halifax, N.S., 163 Hall Basin, 586 Hamilton, 388 llandltou river, 63(i Hare Bay. 664 Hares, 57, 594 Hnro Channel, 478 12 COxMPENDIUM OF GEUGKAl'HV AND TRAVEL Hawks, 63 Hayes river, 613 Hc-arne, Samuel, 58] Hearne's Expedition, 629 Hecate Strait, 479 Herons, 63 Herschel Island, 546, 592 Holland river, 340 Hooker, Mount, 458 Hope, Fort, 631 Howe Sound, 480 Howse Pass, 458 Hudson's Bay, 606 Hudson's Bay Basin, 31 — climate. 622 coast. 608 drainage hasin, 611 I'auna, 624 tislieries. 623 geology. 615 iiistory, 624 hydrography. 61 1 minerals. 616 navigation, 617 Hudson's Bay Company, 439, 513. 609 Hudson's Bay Watershed, 222 Hudson's Stiait, 616 Humlier river, 341, 672 Humming-birds, 63 Huron Basin, 343 Huron. Lake. 353 Huron-Iroquois trihes. 67, 71 H ydrography — British Columbia, 466 Canada, 29 Hudson's Bay Basin, 611 Labrador, 636, 641 Mackenzie river basin. 535 Manitoba, 402 New Brunswick, 180 Newl'ouiidlanil, 664, 671 Nova Scotia, 148, 159 Ontario. 336. 339. 345 Quebec, 256 Saguenay region, 278 ICKBEIKiS, 1 1 Ice-fields in Arctic Canada, 589 Imitorts {sir title. Trade lleturns) Indians — Beothiks or Hed liulians, 67 Canada, Indian population ol'. 77 Indians — contimml Canadian Government's provision for. 75 Micniac, 125, 131 North American, 67 Sioux, 74 Intercolonial railway system, 84 Iron. 158, 270, 378, 491, 496, 616 Jacquks Cartier river. 281 James Bay, 607 .Tarvis Inlet, 480 •lays. 63 Johnson, Mount, 251 Jones. Cape. 608 Juan de Fnca, 507 Juan de Fuca Strait. 478 Kaj[IX1stiql:ia river. 42. 355 Kananaskis Pass, 458 Kaniapiskaii, Lake, 637 Keepawa river, 283 Keewatin District, 574 Kennedy Channel, 572, 586 Kicking-horse Pass, 458 King William Land. 586. 603 Kingconie Inlet. 480 Kingfisher, belted. 63 Kingston, 387 Kinnebacasis river, 184 Klondike, 566 Knight Inlet, 480 Knight, James, 628 Koksoak river, 35. 636 Kootenay District, 490 Kotzebue Sound. 588 Kyutptot Sound, 482 Lahhadou — character of land. 633 climate. 646 Eastern Labiador. 64 U fisheries. 639 forest, 640 geology, 640 history, 651 hydrography, 636, 611 La Croix, Lake, 42 La Puce Falls. 281 La Salle. 38 La Tour, Charles de, 116 La Vercndrye. Pierre Gaultierdi^, 136 INDEX — 10 Lac lies Milles Lacs, 42 Lake of the Woods. 40 Lakes and rivers {sec title, Hydro- graphy) I^aiicaster Sound. 586 Lanjfuages spoken in Canada, 82 Laurentian Highlands, 248 [iaurentian nucleus of North America, 23 Laval. Bishop. 22H Le (4rand Renious riai)ids, 27S Le Loutre, Ahbe, 127 Le Moyne d'll.erville. 230 Le Nord, 302 Lead. 378, 491, 682 Lemmings, ,5ti licsser Hlave Lake, ."(33 Lesser Slave river, 53.') [jcwes river. 560 Liard Fort, 5-«4 Liard river, 544 Lii'vre river, 283 Lilloct river, 4(J9 Little Whale river, 615, 641 London on the Thames (Ontario), 390 Lonely. Lake. 337 Long Range Mountains, 661. 671 Long Sault Rapids. 36 Looiis, 624 Lougid)orough Inlet, 480 Loup river, 281 Low and Eatcui's Expedition, 638 Lynx, Canada, 55 Mac'Uonald, Mount, 461 Mackenzie, Alexander, 439, 51 ^ . 551 Mackenzie Bay, 592 Mackenzie river, 542 Mackenzie Bay, 592 Mackenzie River Basin — agi'iculture, 540 • area. 529 Athabasca Territory. 531 birds, 551 clinmte, 548 coniuiunicatioiis. 550 contour of land. 532 fisheries, 547 gecdogy, 530, 53.S Idstory, 550 hydrography. 535 Mackenzie River Basin — coiitinited minerals, 539, 547 settlements. 541 Macleod Fort, 432 M-('lure Strait. 586 Macndllan river, 561 M'Munay Fort. 535 Macl'her^on Fort. 546 ^lailanie Isle, 152 Madawaska river. 181. 283 Magog river, 289 Maitland river. 343 Maldonado. Lorenz, 351 Nichiaii, Lake, 637 Niekel. 380, 382 Ni})isi(|iiit river, 187 Niinssiii-- cli.striet, 374 Noddaway river, 614 Nootka Sound, 482 Norman, Fort, '\M) North Ameriea— division of, 13 Laiirentian niieleiis oC, 23 Nortli Anieriean Indians, 67 North Kootenay pass, 458 North Somerset, '))^{i North Thompson river, '469 North-west central railwav, 419 North-west company, 139' North-west passag,'-, expeditions in -ieareh of, 597 North-west teruitories, 427 Norton Sound, 588 Notre Dauie Bay, 66 1 niountains, 247 Nottawasaga liver, 340 i 1 Nova Scotia — area, 144 hanks, 144 hinls, 159 character ofland, 158 cities, 163 coast, 1 17, 151 conimunication.s, 166 education, 162 fauna, 159 tisheries, 159 forest, 159 fruit-growing, 161 .W'logy, 148, 154 government, 161 harhouis, 147 hydrograj)hy, 148, 159 '"iiierals, I49, 156 mountains, ]49, 160 railways and steamship li„,.s, 166 trade returns, 166 Ohi.atk missions, 638 Old Wives Lakes, 107 Ontaiio- agriculture, 370 hoimdaries, 334 cities, 382 climate, 374 contour of !an\ Partri(l<;es. 63, lf)9 Passanuupioddy Hay. 18,') Peace river, 533 Peace river pass, 459 I'elly river, 558 Perce, Cape. 285 Peril )ouca river, 279 Peterhorougli, 388 Petewawa river, 283 Petitnt. Fatlier, 582 Petroleum, 498, 616 Plielyppeaux Bay, 273 Pigeons, jjassenger, 6:> Pine river pass, 459 Platinum, 496 Plovers, 63 Pluniliago, ()16 Population- Canada, 80 Newfoundland, 675 Ontario, 363 Queliee, 261 Porcu})ine. Cape. 152 Porcupine river, 557 Porcui)ines, 57 Port Bowen, 598 Portage la Prairie, 426 Prairie — dogs, 58 foxes, 55 liares, 57 stejipes, 396 I'rinee Albert Land, 586 Prince Edward Island — agriculture, 204 character of land, 201 cities, 209 climate, 206 communications, 208 education. 209 geology. 202 government, 209 trade returns. 210 Prince of Wales' Land, 586 Prince Patrick Land. 594 Prince Regent Inlet. 586 Providence Fort. 543 Ptarmigan, 63, 594 Puffins, 64, 272 Pulp and pulpwood. 53 Puma i/i'lis concohiv), 55 Purcell Range. 461 QUATsjxo Sound, 482 Quebec CJity, 290 Quebec, ]irovince of — agriculture, 266 area, 246 birds, 255, 272 boundaries, 245 cities, 321 communications, 2b() contour of land, 247 education, 262 forest, 269 geology. 259 government, 264 history, 223 hydrography. 25(5 minerals, 270 mountains, 247 population, 261 subdivisions of province, 270 trade returns, 297 Queen Charlotte's Islands, 477 Quintc Bay, :!39 Rabbits (lepus Aiiicrimnns), 57 Raccoon {pmci/nn lotor), 5(5 llace, Cai)e, 662 Rae. Fort, 543 Rae and Richardson's expedition. 581. 603 Rae's Isthmus, 586, 631 Railways — British Columbia, 424 Canada, 84 f-'anadian Pacific, 470 Manitoba, 418 Nova Scotia, 166 Rainfall — Acadian Provinces, 141 Canada, 48 Manitoba, 413 Rainy river. 41 INDEX 717 ]|:it Portage, 40 Kat's Wood, 5t) Jit'il Iiidiiiiis, 67 fiver, 39 Reindeer, 593, ^,94 Reliaiiee, Fort, 543 Resolution, Fort, 543 Restigoiielie river, 187 Rice Lake, 339 Rieliardson an.l M'Ouat's expedition. Hielielieu — <,'anal system. S3 liver, 37 valley, 302 Richibncto river, 187 Rideau river, 283 lading -Aloimtains, 417 Riel, Louis, 443 Itigaud Mountain, 251 Rivei's and lakes (see title. Hydro- gniphy) Riviere lo hixus), 55 Wolves, 55 Wood Mountain, 400 Woodchuck.s (,oWw«v.v W"i/r/,» NVoodcoeks, 63, 159 Woodstock, 391 INDKX Wostenholnie. Cape. 608, 616 Wrigley, Fort, 544 X.^'. Company. 439 Yama-ska river, 289 Yellow-Head pass, 459 York river, 285 Vukon, Fort. 558 VukoM Territory- -- iiKricuIture. 564 fliniate. 568 lonuiiunieations, 561 tontonr of land, 555 discovery of, 57] i'iiuna, 565 fisheries, 565 geology. 565 liyilrography. 557 minerals, 565 ZiN-c. 380 THE END M' /W.iiiis in- i'liidcd in tlic ti'iiii ' inti'iidiiin visitors' to Australia, Dr. Wallaci's hook may bi' I'onlidi'ntly ri'commi'mlril." — TJn- Suturilini l!i riin-. AUSTRALASIA. — Vol. II. Malaysia and the Pacific Archi- pelagoes, liy F. H. H. Urii.ij-.MAi:!), .M.D.. author of " Tlie Cruise of tlic Marnliosa." Witli numerous Majis and Illustrations. " l.)r. Gnilli'iiiaid's voliimi' is ci'i'taiiily tlie most iiiti'ivstin.n and aceiiialc accoiinl oxtant on till' li(i|iical portion of tlm Hlaslcrn Aii'liipi'la.no.' — .VcZ/i/v. AFRICA— Vol. I. North Africa. By A. H. Kkank, F.K.C^ S., author of "Asia" in same series, "Eastern Geogra[ihy," etc. Willi 9 ^Maps and 77 Illustrations. "Till' preparation of the hook mnst have involved imniense and ori;{iiial lalioiir, for tli>' volume in the Inrnier series hy the late Keith .lohiislon has heeii entiiely su]per.seileil. .Mr. Keaiie is lij he eomplimented on the manner in which he has discharged his task. " — lihiKiinn- III ,Kh1. AFRICA.— Vol. II. South Africa. J}y A. H. Keani:, F.K.d.S., author of " Xorth Africa" !n same series. "Eastern Geography," etc. With 11 INlajis and 92 Illustrations. " .Vn admirable I'i'pertory, not niiT'ly of ^eoj^iaiihieal infoiiiiation iirojier, but of so mneh of history, ethiioj,'rapliy, ami political xicissitndes as is re(|uired to illustrate ami exiilaili the geo.maphy." — Tinas. ASIA. — Vol. I. Northern and Eastern Asia, Caucasia, Russian Turkestan, Siberia, Chinese Empire, and Japan. By A. 11. Kk.vm:, F.R.G.S. With 8 Majis and 01 Illustration.s. "The volume now issned is devoted ti Northern ami Eastern Asia, ami in its jirepara- tiioi Mr. Keane has made excellent use of the almmlanfii of fresh material whidi 1ms accumulated since the orii;inal issue of the work.' — Tlic 'I'i iiif>i. ASIA. — Vol. II. Southern and Western Asia, Afghanistan, India, Indo- China, Malay Peninsula, Turkey in Asia, Arabia, arid Persia. r>y A. H. Kkank, F.R.G.S. W^ith 7 Maps and 89 Illustrations. " l>ike the lirst volume it lias been almost entirely recast and to a lai'xi' extent re-written. The two volumes form a most useful summary of the geography of what is in some respi'cts the most iiiterestiiig uf all the contineiits." — Tlir Tinu.'*, Other Viilviiir^ i)i nrlivc pr-'paration. LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, 26 d 27 COCKSPUR STREET, S.W. h so