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d^y

STANFORD'S COMrENDIUM

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

(NEW ISSUE)

4
I

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'/ KNr^HM {.)V <if:()GRAl^HY AND TRAVEL

(NEW ISSUE)

(Mnil AM ERIC A

^AMUKL fCnWA]!!) DAWSUN

in 1,1'. (l.WM.) K.I£, •<.!•.

V.l/'.v i.V/> /t/.f'S'TUjr/n,\-s

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••»-.<

STANFORD'S
COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEArilY AND TJJAA'EL

(NEW ISSUE)

NOETH AMEEICA

VOL. 1

CANADA i\: NEWFOUNDLAND

SAMUEL EDWARD DAWSON

l.irv.U. (I.A\AI.) F.H.H.r.

AfA/'S AA'Jf ILLirSTRATliKys

LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD
2G & 27 COCKSPIJR STREET, CHARIN(J CROSS, S.W.

1897

/. /

THK IlIUHT HONOUU.V15LE

BARON STRATHOONA AND MOUNT ROYAl.

O.C.M.CJ., KTC.

IS DEDICATED

THIS ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE THE COUNTRY IN

WHICH HIS LIFE HAS BEEN PASSED ;

WITH WHOSE VARIED ASPECTS HE, MORE THAN

ANY OTHER LIVING MAN, IS FAMILIAR ;

AND OF WHOSE RECENT SOCIAL, COMMERCIAL,

AND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

HE MAY TRULY SAY,

PAHS MAGNA FUl

"e&xaoui^s^mjii

PEEFACE

It is opportune, wlieii the Jubilee of Her Gracious Majesty
the (,)ueen and Empress Victoria is being celebrated with
such unprecedented pomp and brilliancy, when the wide-
spread empire subject to her crown has become for the
tirst time conscious of its vast extent and its unlimited
potentialities of organisation and development, to pass
under review in a succinct and orderly statement those
territories in North America which fall ve / little short
of extending over one - third of the entire British
I'ominion.

This is the more fitting, inasnuich as the Dominion of
Canada and the province of Newfoundland possess many
physical peculiarities, and have passed through many ex-
periences imperfectly known to the general reader. Of
the numerous colonies which, by their chosen repre-
sentatives, clustered round their Sovereign at her happy
.Jubilee, Newfoundland is the oldest; while the ])ominion
of Canada is first in rank, not only by its magnitude, Init
because it has been the first to take, by the confederation

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

of its provinces, a forward step towards the solution
of the great problem of the ultimate organisation of the
Empire.

The ol)ject of this volume is to present in a concise
form the leading physical characteristics of the immense
area in North America which still owns allegiance to the
British Crown. This has, no doubt, often been done
before ; but during the past few years the devr-opment
of these regions has been so rapid as to outstrip such
works as have been written upon the subject.

The information is drawn mainly from the latest re-
ports presented to the Parliament of Canada by the men,
officials for the most part, who are engaged in exploring
the newer territories or in collecting the information
necessary for the administration of the Dominion and of
its integral provinces.

This is not, however, the sole object of the book. The
physical conditions of every region have, doubtless, a most
important influence in moulding the character of its in-
hal)itants, l)ut they are not the only factors to be taken
into account in the formation of a people. There are
moral influences which have contributed very powerfully
to form the political and social results manifested in the
important position in the Empire now occupied by the
Dominion of Canada. The short historical sketches
interspersed throughout the book are intended to show
why these great regions are still subject to Her Majesty's

PREFACE

sceptre, and why their inhabitants are still attached in
loving loyalty to her person and othce.

Although these historical notices are of necessity very
brief, they may serve to invite further inquiry into a.
subject very little understood. The history of these
American provinces abounds in passages of interest and
Qxen of romance, and in these respects is not excelled by
the history of any other people among the younger
nations of the world. The dominant characteristics of
tl ! people of these provinces have been manifested in
times of discouragement and trial, in peril and disaster,
as well as in the formative periods of self-organisation
and advancement. Whether, then, the Dominion of
( 'anada be considered in its extent, in its resources, or in
its history, the present volume may tend to show that it
has, under Providence, not only tlie right to exist and to
control its own destiny, but that it has as fair a prospect
of continuance as any other connnunity on the two
continents of the Western Hemisphere.

The philosophy of history is always more sound when
it is written after the history is over ; for tlie problems
presented by an active and growing community, and tlie
contingencies which unexpectedly arise in all human
iillUirs, are too complex to be grasped by any one mind,
no matter how great. The people of the British American
provinces, as will appear in the following paijes, are
nine-tentiis of Canadian birtli, and their views must be

I ■ ■■- -fiF^

Xll

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL

accepted as paramount by those, reared in other lands, who
would appear to be anxious to sell a birthright not their
own. The Dominion of Canada stands on the Western
Continent for a principle — the dominant principle of the
Anglo-Norman race — of steady advance in orderly self-
governnent, growing, as the trees grow, without precipi-
tation or even haste, but never pausing and never retro-
grading ; therefore the Canadian people take little interest
in self-appointed prophets or in doctors of destiny, but they
carry on their work year by year, as duty calls, leaving
the result to that controlling Power which has kept them
safe in the past and is able to do so in the future.

mm/iSnnU*Mii.^J^^^y^,r,.-H.^.^^,^ .■.-.^■^T-I^^ l ^y,,,,^^^^

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

Introductory
Chief Sources of Information— Explorers

PAOE
1

CHAPTER II

Threshold of the New World
Indications of Land .

Rivers of the North Athmtic-Tlie Gulf Stream-The Arctic
Current . . . _

IJanks of Newfoundland-The Grand HanklThe Smaller Banks
1 he Procession from the North

8
11

CHAPTER m

Dominion of Canada

Chiiracteristics common to the whole Dominion— Extent— Area —

Great Landmarks of the Empire
Boundaries— Description and History
Relief of the Land— Nucleus of the Continent— Characteristics of

the Laurentian Area ....
Hydrography-Hudson's Bay Basin— St. Lawrence Basin— Great

Lakes— Rivers— Water-routes— Lake of the Woods— Interior

Basins .....

Cliniatc-Tomperature— Agricultural Products— Rainfall— Forests
—Forest Products

U
16

29
43

XIV

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Fauna — Animals — Birds — Fishes . . . . .

Indian Tribes — Great Tribal Families — Eskimo — Present Numbers

Political Divisions— Maritime Provinces — Old Canada — Central
Province — Pacific Province — Territories — Unorganised Dis-
tricts ......

Population ......

Communications — Canals — Rivers — Railways — Distances

Government — Administration— Organisation

History of tlie Confederation

Trade and Commerce — Shi pping — Exports — Impoits — !Mines —
Fisheries — Forest — Animal and Agricultural Products

Finance — Manufactures .....

Ocean Distances ......

PAGE

54
67

78
80
82
87
92

100

CHAPTER IV

History op Acadia

Historic Unity of the Acadi.vU Provinces . . . .

Early Voyages — Northmen — Yarmouth Rune-stone

Discovery — Cabot — Verrazano — Gomez — Portuguese — Bretons —

Cartier ........

Settlement — De !Monts — Champlain — Port-Royal — Overlapping

Charters — Beginning of the Great Struggle
Dissensions — Riizilly — Charnisay — La Tour — Cession of Acadia
English in Acadia — Acadian French — Frontier and Indian Wars

— Political A'icissitudes ....

The Oath of Allegiance — Settlement of Halifax — Strained Relations

Expulsionof Acadian French ....
Loyalist Settlements — Formation of Provinces

CHAPTER V

The Maritime Provinces

G^ieral Physical Characteristics

Geology

Climate— Temperature— Rainl'all

Forest Trees of eacli Province

105
106

109

112
115

118

122
131

136
138
139
142

1(11.

I 'AUK

54
67

78
80
82
87
92

97
100

105

106

109

112
115

118

122
131

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

Nova Scotia
Area — Bouiularics ....
Coasts— Atlantic— Bay of Fuiidy— Northuniberlaii<l Strait
f;t.ology—:Minerals—(;old— Coal— Iron— Oypsuiii .
Cliaracter of the Land— Outer or Atlantic Division— Inner Division

— Agriculture . . . _

Government — Education . . . _

Cities— Commerce— Communications

Island of Cape Breton ....

CHAPTER Vn

New Brunswick

I5oundaries— Area— Campobello and Grand Manan

Day of Fundy— High Tides— The Bore . . , [

Contour of the Land — Southern Belt of Hills-Central Ran.'c "■

Intervales .... '^

Hydrography-River St. John-Grand Falls-Tribntaries-Lower

Falls— St. Croix— Miramichi—Richibucto—Restigouche—
Geology-Cambrian Slates-Silurian Plain-Carl oniferous Area-

^linerals . , . _

Agriculture— :\Iarshlands— Forests . . . . "

(Government— Education ....

Cities— Co; amerce— Coninninications— Resources— Game . [

CHAPTER Vni

Prince Edward Island

Situation— Area— Geology .
Soil— Climate- Agriculture .
Coast-line— Harbours— Communications
Government— Education— Commerce

144
144
154

158
16]
163
167

174
176

178

180

188
190
192
193

201
:^04
208
209

CHAPTER IX

Old Canada— The St. Lawrence Provinces-
General Characteristics
Origin and Contrasts of the two Provinces .

Climate-Tables of Temperature-Rainfall-Winters-Xew France
loi-est Trees of the two Provinces— Forest Products
Hudson's Bay Watershed ....

210
212
218
222

XVI

COMPENDIUM OF ClEOGRArHY AND TRxVVEL

CHAPTER X

Quebec — The Ancient Puovince

History — Early Explorations — First Settlement — Fouudatiou of
Quebec — Champlain — Foundation of Montreal

Indian "Wars — Frontenae — Church and State — Western Discovery
— French Expansion — Peculation — Vicissitudes of the Final
Struggle .......

Capture of Louisbourg — Amherst and AVolfe — Battle of Quebec-
Capitulation — Cession of Canada ....

Emigration — The Quebec Act — The American Revolution — Attack
on (Quebec — Failure of Congresp in Canada — War of 1812-14 .

•AGF.

23'.
238

CHAPTER XI

The Puovikck op Quebec

Boundaries — Area . . . . . . .214

Contour of the Land— Notre Dame Mountains — Gaspe — Laurcn-

tian Highlands — Central Plain .... 247

Gulf of St. Lawrence — Navigation — Lslands . . . 251

River St. Lawrence — Navigation — Shores — Tributaries . . 256

Geology ........ 259

Population — Education — Government — Civil Organisation — Com-
munications . . . . . . .261

Agriculture — Forest — Minerals ..... 266

Subdivisions — Southern Labrador — Climate . . . 270

The Saguenay Region — Lake St. John .... 276

St. Maurice and Ottawa Districts — Rivers .... 280

Gaspe District — Mountains and Coast .... 283

Eastern Townships — Settlement ..... 286

Quebec District — The City of Quebec — The Lower Parishes — Com-
merce ........ 289

Montreal District — City of Montreal — Island of Itlontreal — Con-
iluence of Rivers — Le Nord — The Southern Plain — The Upper

Valley — Canals — Rapids — Waterways .... 297

City of Montreal — History — Population — Railways — Commerce —
Education — Buildings — Port — Imports — Exports — Manu-
factures ....... 307

Other Cities ........ 320

CONTENTS

XVI 1

CHAPTER XII

Province of Ontario

History— Origin and Settlement ....
United Enijare Loj^alists — tlieir Principles — their Suflerings-

their Defeat — their Success ....
"War of 1812-14— Vicissitudes— Successful Resistance to Invasion
Peaceful Progress ......

I'AliK

3-22

323
329
332

CHAPTER XIII

Province of Ontario — Description

Boundaries — Area ......

Contour of the Land • . . . .

Hydrography— Water-partings— Physical Divisions
(Jeoloyv

The Great Lakes— Ontario—Niagara Falls— Erie— Huron— Superior

— Sault Ste. Marie .....
Natural Beauty of the Province ....
Population— Government— Education . . . .

Agriculture— Crops— Fruits- Grapes— Maize— Agricultural Results
Climate ••.....

T'le New Ontario— Forest Products— Fisheries— Minerals— Iron

Salt .......

Mineral Resources— Gold— Silver— Copper .

City of Toronto— Foundation— Educational Institutions— Trade

^lanufactures ......

Cities — Ottawa — Kingston —Peterborough— Hamilton— Brantford
—Gait — Guelph — London —Woodstock — Sarnia— Windsor-
Owen Sound— Other Cities

334
335
336
343

344
359
363
370
374

374
379

382

387

CHAPTER XIV

Manitoba and the North-west Territories

The Great Interior Plain— Divisions— Area— lioundaries—CJeneral

Characteristics ..... 394

First Prairie Steppe— Second Prairie Steppe— Third Prairie Stei)pe 396

Ueology— ]\Iinerals— Coal ...... 400

XVlll

COMrEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAYEL

Hyilrn^fraiihy — Red River-- Assiiiilioine — Souris— Xortli and Soutli

.Saskatchewan — Lakes : Winnijieg — Manitoba — Winnipegoosis 402

Climate — Paradoxes of Climate — Chine >k ^Vinds — Temjierature —

Rainfall ....... 408

Forest — Tree-line — I'rairies ...... 416

Communications — Education — Law and Order — North-west Police . 417

Province of Manitoba — Government — Boundaries — Area — Agricul-
ture — Hesourccs ...... 421

North-west Territories — Assiniboia — Alberta — Ranching Country —

liantf— National Park — Saskatchewan .... 427

History of Discovery in the North-west — The great Fur Companies
— Conflict— Union — Transfer of the West to the Dominion —
Rising at Red River — ^Military Expedition — North-west
Rebellion ....... 43l)

CHAPTER XV

British Columbia

iif

Boundaiies — Area ....... 450

Mountain Ranges — Cordillcran licit — Rocky Mountains — Passes —

Selkirk Range — ((old Range ..... 454

Interior Region — Coast Range — Northern Territory . . 463

Hydrography — Lakes — Rivers: Fraser River — Columbia and

]\.ootenay Rivers — Columbia Lakes .... 466

Discovery and Development ..... 469

Canadian Pacific Railway — Route over the Mountains — other Rail-
ways ........ 470

The Coast — Its Length — Islands : Queen Charlotte Islands — Van-
couver Island — Strait of Georgia — Strait of Juan de Fuca —
Burrard Inlet — Other Inlets — Esquimalt . . . 477

Climate — Temperature — Rainfall — ^Meteorological Table . 482

F''orests — Cedars — Douglas Fir — Forest Products . . . 486

^linerals — Gold — Kootenay Region — Exports — Coal — Crows-Nest

Region ........ 488

Fisheries — Salmon — Exjiorts ..... 499

Agriculture — Interior Plateau — "N'ancouver Island . . . 502

History — Early Voyages — Discovery — Early Traders — Nootka

Sound Dispute — Cook — Vancouver — M ' Kenzie— Hudson's liay

Company — Foundation of N'ictoria — Discovery of Gold — San

Juan Disi)ute — Province erected — Union with Canada . . 504

Cities : Victoria — Esquimalt — New Westminster — Vancouver ^ —

Communication — Commerce — Education . . . 519

CONTENTS

XIX

402

408
416
417

421

427

431)

4o0

CHAPTER XVI

Mackenzie River IJasin

Sources of the River— Leii^fth— Characteristics

(Jeologv

Atliabasca Territoiy ......

Contour of tlie Land— Hydrography— Atliabasca River and Lake
Resources — Agriculture .....

The Mackenzie River from Great Slave Lake to the Sea— Tributaries

Kesources—Cliniate — Communications

History .......

CHAPTER XVH

The Yukon Territory

Extent— Area— :\rount St. Elias— The Upper Yukon

Contour of the Land— The Lower Yukon ....

Hydrograpliy— Tributaries of the Yukon— Nature of the Country —

Cudahy .......

Communications— Routes to the Interior— Passes over the Coast

Range — Teslin Lake ......

Resources— Gold Mines— Coal .....

Climate .....

Discovery ......

CHAPTER XVni

District of Keewatin
Area — Boundaries ....

The Churchill A^alley ......

The iJarren Grounds— Extent— Explorations

CHAPTER XIX

Arctic Canada

Boundaries— The Coast— Islands .....
Arctic Ocean— Ice— Currents— Polar Outlets— Open Water along

the Coast — Mackenzie Bay .....

The Barren Grounds— The Arctic Archipelago

The Eskimo ........

Recent Divisions of the Territory .....

Arctic Explorations — Parry — Ross — Franklin— Back— Dease and

Simpson— Richardson— Rae— Completion of the Discovery of

the Coast-line .

P.MlK

:>2d
o.'JO
:>:n
532
540
542
547
550

553

555

.557

561
564

.568
571

574
575
576

585

587
593
595
596

597

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

CHAPTER XX

The Hudson's y>\\ Bassik

The Bay — Extent — Area — Characteristics .

The Coast — Trading Posts— Islands

Drainage Basin — Extent — Trilnitary Rivers

Geology — Minerals .....

Hudson's Strait — Characteristics — Tides — Navigation

Climate — Resources .....

History — Discovery — Occupation by the Hudson's Bay Company —
Struggle for the liay — North-west Passage — Midd.'eton — Dobbs
— Hearne — Parry — Lyon — Rue .....

I'AGE

606
008
610
615
616
62'2

621

CHAPTER XXI

Laurador

Extent — Area— Boundaries — Characteristics

Alain Physical Divisions — Four Great Watersheds .

Central Table-land — Lakes — Rivers

Explorations — M'Lean — Bell — Hind — ^Low and Eaton

Geology ......

Watersheds : Western, Northern, Southern, Eastern
Eastern Labrador — Coast-line — Inlets — Hamilton River

Falls

Climate — Resources— Fisheries — Eskimo

History — Early Voyages — Alythology — Recent Historj'

—Grand

63:?
63')
636
638
640
641

642
646

ti'.l

CHAPTER XXn

Newfoundland

Area — Coast-line — Chief Characteristics — Headlands — Cape Race . 660

Bays — Harbours — The French Shore — South Coast . . 663

Geology — Minerals ....... 667

Interior — Soil — Contour of the Land .... 670

Hydrography — Rivers — Timber Lands — Climate . . .671

Government — Trade and Resources — Population — Education —

Fisheries — Mineral Resources — Communications . . 674
History — Discovery — Attempts at Colonisation — Period of Repres-
sion — Organisation of Civil Society — Constitutional Government 686
The French Shore — Origin and History of the Question — St. Pierre

and Miquelon ....... 698

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

*•

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
lo.
16.

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.

Parliament Buildings at Ottawa

Cajie Race ....

Mmint St. Elias

Typical Laurentian Scene— Lake Teniiscamin

Crop of Maize, near Ottawa

Vineyard, near Ottawa

Douglas Firs, near Vancouver, B.C. .

Head of Prong-Horned Antelope

Head of Elk ....

Tlie Last of the Buffalo

Head of Rocky Mountain Slieep

Jritad of Musk-Ox

Crowfoot, the great Chief of the Blackfeet

Wild Indian Boy ...

The same Boy at a Government Scliool

The Yarmouth Runic Stone .

Halifax, Nova Scotia .

Grand Pre, Nova Scotia

Strait of Canso, N.S. .

Baddeck, on the Bras d'Or

Sydney, CajjC Breton .

The Bore, Petitcodiac River .

Kennebecasi'^ River, New Brunswick .

Falls of the Lower St. John River

Frontispiece
14
15
27
45
46
52
58
59
60
61
61
75
76
77
108
145
150
153
169
171
177
183
185

XXll

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

i i

25. Plarbour of St. Joliii, N.B,

26. Clark's River, Prince Edward Island .

27. Scene in the Interior of Prince Edward Island

28. Pownall, Prince Edward Island

29. ConHuence of the Restigouche and Meta|»edia

30. Tadoussac, at the Mouth of the Saguenay

31. Capes Trii.ity and Eternity

32. Head of Gaspe Basin .

33. Perce Rock, Bay Chaleiir

34. The Metapedia River, Quebec .

35. Quebec, from Hadlow Cove

36. Montreal ....

37. Varennes, Typical scene on the St. Lawrence

38. Steamer running the Lachine Rapids .

39. At Elora, on the Grand River .

40. Lake Craft at Kingston, Ontario

41. Tuagara Falls, general view

42. Thunder Cape, Lake Sui)erior .

43. Grain Elevator, Fort William, Lake Superior

44. View among the Thousand Islands

45. University of Toronto .

46. Part of Toronto, looking north-west .

47. Chaudiere Falls, Ottawa

48. r haudiere Falls, Avinter view .

49. Prairie Scene, Manitoba

50. Red River, n«ar Lower Fort Garry

51. North Saskatchewan, near Edmonton .

52. Reaping, South Manitoba

53. Threshing from Stook, Manitoba

54. Reaping in Manitoba .

55. Farm on the Little Saskatchewan

56. Medicine Hat, South Saskatchewan

57. Farm Scene, near Edmonton, Alberta .

I'AdK

194
203
204
205
249
277
278
284
285
287
290
298
301
305
342
346
350
355
356
360
369
385
388
389
398
402
405
412
423
425
426
428
430

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOXS

XXlll

203
204
205
249
277
278
284
285
287
290
298
301
305
342
346
350
355
350
360
369
385
388
389
398
402

5S. Calgary, Alberta ......

59. Cattle Ranching— a Round-up near Fort Macleod

60. Rundle Mountain from Vermilion Lake, Alberta

61. Louise Lake, Rocky Mountains, Alberta

62. Canadian Pacific Hotel at lianll", Alberta
6:3. Old Fort Garry, on the Site of "Winnipeg

64. Otter Tail Range, Rocky ]\Iountains, .showing characteristic

serrated Outline .....
6.'. Mount Macdonald, Selkirk Range ....

66, The Hermit Glacier, Selkirk Range ....

67. View in the Coast Range .....

65. Canon of the Fraser River, showing C, P. Railway Track

69. The Heart of the Selkirks .....

70. The Asulkan Glacier ......

7L The Great Glacier, Selkirk Range ....

72. The Great Loop in the Selkirks ....

73. Canon of the Fraser River above Spuzzum

74. Head of Bute Inlet, a typical Fiord of the Pacific Coast

75. Rossland, a mining Town in the Kootenay District, not tw t

Years old .......

76. View on Kootenay Lake — the Centre of the new mining Re'do

77. Esquimalt Harbour, Pacific Station of the British Xavy

78. Lower Part of one of the great Trees in Stanley Park,

Vancouver .......

79. Scene on the Peace River .....
SO. Cudahy, Upper Yukon, Steamer at the Wharf

81. View on the Upper Yukon, showing Forty-mile Creek and

the mining Town .....

82. Coal Creek, a Tributary of the Yukon
S3. Musk-Ox ......

84. Norway House, from " the Swan River Rock "

85. Foot of Gull Rapid, Nelson River

86. View of Marble Island, from Deadnian's Island

I'AGK

431
432
433
434

435
441

457
460
462
464
468
471
473
474
475
476
480

492
494
520

523
540
559

567
569
580
610
612
629

XXIV

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY A'SD TRAVEL

87. Nachvak Inlet, Northern Labrador

88. Sleuth of the Humber River .

89. View on the Humber River

90. Entrance to Harbour of St. Jolin's

643
665
672
685

LIST OF MAPS

1 . Dominion of Canada, Political Divisions

2. The International Boundary at Lake of the Woods
'3. Archivan Nucleus of the Continent

4. Canada, Rainfall and Temperature

5. Sault Ste. j\larie Canals

6. Canada, Railways

7. Shortest Route, Livei'pool to Eastern Asia

8. The Maritime Provinces

9. Halifax Harbour . .

10. Harbour of St. John, New Brunswick

11. Parts of (iHiebec and Ontario .

12. Environs of (Quebec

13. Environs of Montreal .

14. Niagara

15. Manitoba and Western Ontario

16. British Columbia and N.W. Territory

17. The Kootenay District

18. Newfoundland

13
22
24
43

83
85
86
137
163
195
245
289
297
348
395
451
4in
661

i'A(ii-;
643

672
685

THE DOMINION OF CANADA

137

163

195

245

289

297

348

395

451

4 in

6t)l

AND

NEWFOUNDLAND

CHArTEK r

INTKODUCTOUy

A COMI'EXDIUM or tlie geography of ]Jritish America
must be prefliced by a tlLsclaimer of all ]n'eteiisioii to
uri-iiiality. Such a book can only be a presentation in
logical order of an immense number of facts recorded
and observations made originally by explorers and found
in books of travel or in official reports. To give credit
in due proportion to each of the authorities IVom which
this work has been compiled would be an impossible
task, and, if it were possible, would confuse the reader
with unnecessary details ; moreover, many works of
authority ai-e themselves built up on the labours of
oliicials whose names have been merged in the routine
of their duties. A sliort list of authorities, where fuller
details of the subjects herein treated may be found, is
given at the end of each chapter; but it will be con-
venient here, at the connnencement, to acknowledge the
main sources from whence the information given has
been derived.

2 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

First, and before all, no treatise on the physical
features of British America can he written without chaw-
ing largely from tlie reports of tlie very ahle stall" of
scientilic men who have been connected with the
(geological and Natural Hist(jry Survey of (.'iinada, from
its inception under Sir William Logan down to tlie
present day. Before his death the main physical facts
concerning the two provinces of old Canada had been
collected in the great report of I860. About the time
of the appointment of Dr. Sehvyn came the necessity
of extending the operations of the Survey over the im-
mense and little-known region of the north-west. It
seems almost invidious to make special mention of any
single meml)er of a staff whicli has collectively done so
great a work, for the gaps on the maps of the J)ominion
have been necessarily tilled up by those to whose lot it
fell to work in the newer territories.

In this way it has happened that the name of the
present Director of the Survey, Dr. (J. M. Dawson, has
become bound up with the geography and geology of
British Columbia and the adjacent territories to the
north, as well as with the belt along the 40th parallel.
The regions round Hudson's ]3ay will always be associated
with the name of Dr. Ivobert r)ell, and the Piocky
^fountains and sources of the Mackenzie with that of
Mr. E. G. McConnell. ]\Ir. J. B. Tyrrell's explorations
nortli of Manitoba and in the Barren Grounds nmst
alwavs -je referred to when writing about those remons,
and Messrs. Low and Eaton, in a two years' exploration
attended with great hardships, liave filled up the map of
central Labrador, ])reviously less known than tlu^ interior
of Africa.

The Dominion Lands Branch of the De})artnient of
the Interior, under the direction of the Surveyor-(}eneral,

INTKODUCTOllV

Ciiplaiii J)eville, has been doing, in addition to its more
])iosaic task of settlement surveys, a large amount of
scientifie exploration. ]Mr. William Ogilvie has, through
a series of years, made many most arduous explora-
ti(tns iu the innnense territories al)out the Yukon and
[Mackenzie rivers. The most inaccessible recesses of the
luouutain ranges at the west are now being mapped by
a method of photographic survey first introduced in this
department.

in like manner the Acadian provinces of the Dominion
can never be studied without reference to tlie classic work
of Sir A\'illiam JJawson, Acadian Ga)Io(jy, for therein is to
be found the most complete collection avX statement of
the geographical and geological facts concerning tlie
l)rovinces on the Atlantic seaboard. The natural history,
and es})ecially the botany of the Dominion have been the
hfe study of I'rofessor jMacoun, whose published papers
nnist be referred to on these subjects.

In treating upon the separate divisions of British
America older names must be mentioned. It will be
impossible to write al)out (^)uebec without allusion to
La Salle and Jolliet, the discoverers and pioneers of the
(Jreat West, and to I.a Verendrye who carried the French
Hag to the liocky Mountains, or about Montreal without
allusion to Sir Alexander Mackenzie and the daring and
liai'dy northwesters who found the way overland to the
Polar Ocean and the great South Sea.

Xor should David Thompson be forgotten, the astronomer
of the Xorth-west Company, who explored so many of the
passes across the mountains in the early years of tliis
<entury, and was the first white man on the I'^pper
Columbia. The Tliompson river recalls his name. Many
have profited by his labours, l)ut he died in poverty at
hongueuil near ^Montreal at an advanced age. The

COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Yuk(jii will always suggest the name of its discoverer,
ltol)ert Campbell, and recall his wonderful journey of
9700 miles, and his snowshoe tramp of oOOO miles,
through the wilderness. He was the pioneer in that
remotest north-west.

Hudson's ]jay must of necessity recall the explora-
tions of Hearue and J)ease and Sini])Son and IJae and
other ofHcers of the great fur company of the Xorth, and
tlie Arctic regions of the Donunion are forever associated
with memories of Franklin and liichardson and l^)iU'k.

Parry, " the prince of Aictic navigators," must be
mentioned whenever the farthest north is s})oken of.
His name is attached to the northernmost territory of
Canada, and the Tarry Archipelagtj may yet be the start-
ing point of a successful expedition to the Pole. The
western shores of the Dominion will ever be associateil
with the name of Vancouver, whose exact and thorough
surveys are still the basis of all our ma])s.

To some of these more salient names reference must
be made, but it would indeed be a hea^y task to attempt
to make mention of all those whose labours, and whose
lives even, have l»een expended in the exploration of the
northei-n half of this continent; it must suttice to make a
iieneral acknowledgment of indebtedness once for all.

CHAP TEE II

THE TIIHESHOLD OF THE NEW WORLD

- ft.r\ >H

The westward voyager in the higher latitudes of the
North Atlantic will meet with many indications of the
western continent long before he sees its shores.
Suddenly, almost as if at a definite line between
oO"^ and 40° west longitude, the ship will pass from
the warm and deep blue water of the Gulf Stream into
the light green of the colder current tlowing from the
far Xorth. These two great ocean streams are such im-
portant factors in the climatic conditions of the countries
on the opposite sides of the North Atlantic that it is
necessary to dwell for a short time upon their direction
and characteristic features ; for they are the great ther-
mal influences which differentiate the climates of north-
east America from that of countries in north-western
Europe situated under the same parallels of latitude.

The Gulf Stream, gathering its momentum in the
tropical basin of the Gulf of Mexico, transfers by its
heated waters to the shores of Europe warmth generated
in the western hemisphere which softens the climate of
western Europe. New York city is in the latitude of
Naples, St. John's, Newfoundland, in that of Paris, and the
Strait of Pelle-isle in that of London. A'essels sailing
westwards cross the Stream at a higher or lower latitude,

COMPENDIUM OF GEOCiHAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

according to tlie season, for its northern limit is not
constant. Taken at the meridian of Cape IJace its
northern edge is at 40'' to 41'' in winter, while in Septem-
ber, when the sea is warmest, it stretches iip as far as
45° or 40' north latitude. The difference in temperature
in the depth of winter off' the Grand Banks of Xew-
Ibundland between its waters and those of the surround-
ing ocean ranges from 20° to 30° Fahrenheit.

This remarkable current, after issuing from the Florida
Straits, Hows north-eastwardly, following the general
direction of the American coast but at a distance from it ;
for the colder Arctic water runs inside in a contrary
direction along the land. About the latitude of Cape Cod
the Gulf Stream curves more outwards and Hows across
the ocean. In longitude west about 20° it divides — one
branch envelops the British Isles, the other flows more
to the north, prevents the lakes in the Shetland and
Faroe Islands from freezing, keeps the harbour of
Hammerfest, the most northern port in Norway, open
all winter, and makes its intiuence felt as far north as
Spitzl)ergen. To steer westwards against this drift is, in
sailor's language, to sail uphill, and the usual ocean routes
cross its course. The Gulf Stream and its attendant fogs
acted as a veil which hid America through long ages from
the sailors of western Europe in those latitudes where,
from the converging of the meridians, the distance
between tlie two worlds grows continually less and less.

Such are the benefits which the old world had been
unconsciously receiving for ages from the unknown and
hidden western continent. On the north-west coast of
America similar conditions produce similar effects, but
here on the north-east coast the provinces of British
America and the north-eastern States of the Union are
affected unfavourably as to climate by this ocean circula-

THE THRESHOLD OF THE NEW WORLD

tion. The Arctic current flows along their coasts in a
southerly direction and washes the whole eastern shore
of the continent down to Florida, flowing inside of the
Clulf Stream as a river of cooler water of varying surface-
width, and dipping finally under the Gulf Stream in its
course to the Equator to renew the circuits of the oceans.
The Gulf Stream, originating in the tropics where the
diurnal motion of the globe is swiftest, passes to the
slower moving regions of the north and, by its accunui-
lated momentum, is projected towards the east, while the
Arctic current, originating in the polar ocean, starts with
a deficiency of momentum and, as it flows southwards, is,
from the same cause, thrown westward upon the eastern
coast of the western conthient. Other conditions no
doubt exist — conditions of varying specific gravity, of
varying heat and prevailing winds — which operate to
modify or intensify the interaction of these great rivers
of the North Atlantic ocean ; but the dominant cause of
the opposite direction of these currents is now admitted
to be the varying speed of the surface of the globe
revolving on its axis upon water unequally heated and
flowing northward and southward towards an equilibrium.
It is the existence of this south-west Arctic current which
renders credible the voyages of the Northmen to America
in the tenth and eleventh centuries ; for, by means of it,
they could sail from Greenland or Iceland, as it were
downhill, along the coasts of Newfoundland, and in rear
of the veil which was to hid- Jie new world for four
more centuries from the enterprise of nations less advan-
tageously situated in that respect.

AVithout, however, diverging to discuss the inviting
problem of the Viking discoveries, the reader's attention
nmst be strongly directed to this Arctic current and its
wide-reacliing effects upon the American continent. The

COMl'KNDIUM OF GJ:0G1{APIIY AND TRAVEL

polar overflow seeks the south in several convergent
streams. The current which flows out of Baffin Bay
is reinforced at Cape Farewell by a strung current down
tlie eastern shore of Greenland. A current is also laid
down on some charts as issuing I'rom Hudson's Strait :
but, from the report of Lieutenant Gordon, li.N., it would
seem that bergs from Davis Strait are often seen to pass
in along the north shore of Hudson's Strait, almost as far
as the Bay, and out again along the southern shore ; the
strong tidal currents, moreover, confuse the problem and
render it uncertain how far the outward current on the
south shore of the Hudson's Strait is or is not a swirl of
the current from Baffin Bay. However this may be,
the currents east and west of Greenland unite to form
the great stream of cold water which is thrown upon
Labrador and is often called " the Labrador current."
Down this stream pass a stately procession of icebergs,
and, in the proper season, immense masses of field ice.
The bergs are the product of the glaciers of the Greenland
ice-cap and of the high polar ever- frozen sea. These
continue steadily on their southward course into the Gulf
Stream where they melt, impelled onward into the warmer
waters by the deep-down current from the north still
actiiig upon the submerged seven-eighths of their bulk,
and carrying them steadily across the eastward flowing
surftice stream.

Other indications of the western world soon present
themselves to the observant traveller long before land is
seen. In longitude 48° west the ship commences to cross
the submarine threshold of America — that remarkable
plateau known as the " Banks of Newfoundland." Signs
of the change will not be wanting. The largely increas-
ing number of sea-fowl will, during the fishing season,
proclaim some unusual condition ; but chiefly will be

THE THRESHOLD OF THE NEW WORLD

remarked the persistence of fogs caused by the contact
of opposing currents of \\ ator very dilferent in temperature.
In summer the (Uilf Stream flows over the southern end
of tlie Grand Bank with a velocity of one knot an hour,
and laps along the eastern border of the Arctic current
;it no great distance from the outer edge of the Bank
alon<f its whole length. At the line of contact of these
currents, even in the (piietest weather, a disagreeable
tumbling sea is experienced ; but over the ( Jrand Bank
itself the sea is not so heavy as outside. Among sailors
the (lulf Stream is called the "weather breeder" of the
Xorth Atlantic, and the records show that the great
hurricanes have usually followed its course. The French
fishermen in the last century called it " the storm king,"
roi di'S tempetcs, and when they found the sea very heavy
they supposed they were " debanked," and used to say
that they had got " away from home," qiiils ne sont jjas
chcz cii.r. These, with nianv similar savinjfs of men

' V I/O

whose lives are spent among the dangers of these seas,
go to show that the sea upon the Jjanks is (piieter than
outside, although a landsman may not be al)le to detect
much difference. It will appear then that the conditions
which produce vapour are never far distant, and, in fact,
any wind in which east or south preponderates in ever so
small a degree will bring upon the banks and neighljour-
iiig coasts dense and persistent fogs. The colour of the
sea over the banks is a characteristic light green, not
only because the water is shallower, l)ut because, from
the melting of enormous masses of ice, it is distinctly
less salt than the deep blue water of the profounder
ocean.

It has been supposed by some writers of weight that
the Banks are the result of detritus carrietl down l)y the
secular stream of Arctic icel)ergs and deposited at their

COJIl'KNDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIV AND TKAVEL

II '%

4' 11

' I

meltin<f — tliut tliey iiro, as IJocliis expresses it, " the
generul iiioraiiu^ I'or the glaeiers of Greenland and tlie
pohir arcliipelan'o " ; hut, if that were the case, tlie edges
of the plateau might l)e expected to slope gradually down
to th'} deeper abysses. On the contrary these uplands of
ocean terminate, at their eastern and southern edges
especially, in veritable submarine precipices over which
the sounding line drops from a dejtth of 22 or 32 fathoms
to one of many hundreds. The outline of soundings is
most marked around the whole contour of the plateau, as
well as over its surface, and the lead line is an infallible
guide to the sailor in ascertaining his position. The
bottom also is very characteristic, consisting of sand,
gravel, and broken shells, with mud only occasionally in
some channels or deeper valleys.

Smaller marine plateaus lie out before the coast of
Nova Scotia and New England, and, in long, 44° 38' west,
there is an outlier called " the Flemish Cap," extending
60 miles north and south l)y 25 mihis broad, upon which
the soundings are less than 100 fathoms. There is also
an elevation of the ocean bed along the whole North
American coast, due probably to the secular waste of the
continent ; but the bank off Newfoundland is known as
the " Grand Bank," because of its immense area and
striking characteristics.

The Grand Bank of Newfoundland extends from 43°
to 48° north latitude and from 48° to 55° west longitude.
It outlies the coast-line of Newfoundland from Cape Bona-
vista on the north-east round by Cape Eace and along the
south as far as the Eamea islands. It is practically one
and the same plateau, although portions of it are designated
by special names, as the St, Pierre Bank, the Green Bank,
the Ballard Bank, and are separated by channels of some-
what deeper water. The usual depth over the Bank is

THE THRESHOLD OF THE NEW WOULD

IVoiu oO to 4') fathoms. On the southern edge it de-
cicases to 22 ftithoius, and at one point, not far from
(')il)u li'ace, suhmarine reefs of small extent occur known
as the " Virgin llocks." Over the highest peak of this
lidgc the water shoals to 3 fathoms. These rocks are
lec'ugiiised, in heavy weather only, hy the sea breaking
over them. The Grand Bank is approximately 300
miles from north to south and 280 miles from east to
west ; its area is therefore e([ual to that of tlie whole
isluiid of Newfoundland.

Across this plateau in the spring and sunnner the
Arctic current sweeps large mnnhers of icebergs in slow
procession from the far north. These islands of Hoating
ice are sometimes 100 feet high out of the water, and, as
only one-eighth of their bulk is visible, they frecjuently
ground in the shallower places. They all are of clear,
clean ice and show no marks of carrying detritus of any
kind. They are all of fresh water and in the cavities on
their surfaces are ponds of fresh water. The sufferings,
tlierefore, from thirst of the heroes of some recent romances
who floated down south on bergs were unnecessary, and
future novelists may deduct this from the doubtless ex-
treme inconvenience of such a mode of travelling. Durintj
dense fogs these ice islands are a continual source of
anxiety to the careful navigator to any port of British
America or the northern United States, for fogs and ice-
bergs are by no means limited to the Banks of Newfound-
land. The bergs travel far south, and the Gulf Stream
is everywhere fruitful in fogs which require only appro-
priate winds to waft them in any direction. The only
drawback peculiar to the coasts north of Halifax is the
Held ice in spring.

Although, as described above, the two great rivers of
tlie North Atlantic How on their great courses, there are

COMPENDIUiM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

many local currents, eddies, and indraughts well known
to skilful sailors, and these ave affected by the prevailing
winds and by the tidal wave in the infinite diversity of
circumstances which condition its progress and n.'cession.
All of these are laid down in charts and sailing directions
compiled by highly skilled and scientific sailors, and will
be found in publications specially issued for the use of
mariners.

1 known
Tevailing
^ersity ol'
recession.
lirections
and will
le use of

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SCALE, 1" 14,826,240, 234 ENGLISH MILES TO I INCH

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r6^^

CHAPTEll III

DOMINION OF CANADA

The continent of North America is most conveniently
considered in tliree divisions. The most southern, or
Spanish, consists of Mexico and the other Spanish
American republics (953,930 miles) and the colony of
liritish Honduras (75G2 miles), containing a total area
of 961,492 squ! re miles. The central consists of the
United States proper (2,991,980 miles) and the Indian
territories (31,000 miles), to which must be added
Alaska (557,390 miles); for Alaska, though on the ex-
treme north-western corner of the continent, is a territorv
of the United States, purchased from liussia in 1867 —
the aggregate area of this division is 3,580,370 square
miles. The British, or northern division, consists of the
Dominion of Canada and the island of Newfoundland,
with the part of Labrador belonging to it, making a total
area of 3,618,583 square miles. These figures are the
most autlientic available ; but, as there are in all three
divisions enormous areas of unsurveyed land, they must be
taken as approximations. It would appear, however, that
Ihitish America is the largest of the three. This im-
mense region is all subject to the British Crown, save
the small islands of St. Bierre and ]\Iiquelon, on the

nCockat}nir St.

COMPP]XI)IUM OF (iEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

soutli coast of Xewfoumlliiiid, wliicli belong to France.
The present volnnie will be devoted exclusively to an
ex])osition of the geography and resources of this last
division. The extent of this region is within five per
cent of the area of the entire continent of Europe, and
as the aggregate area of the whole British Empire with
its protectorates is 11,475,127 square miles, the North

ry I

CAl'K HACK, NKWKOUNDI.AND.

American possessions of the Crown are not far from one-
third of the whole. At the farthest east the landmark
is Cape Puice — one -third of the distance across the
Atlantic— the most salient headland of the continent, at
long. 53' 4' 20"; and on the farthest west the gigantic
mass of Mount St. Elias marks the limit of British rule
as l)y a beacon 18,010 feet high at long. 141° W.
])etween these two points are eighty -eight degrees of
longitude, almost one-fourth of the entire circuit of the
globe ; and, in latitude, from the parallels of 42° 45° and
49° Canada extends to the unknown regions of the Pole,
^luch of this territory is, no doubt, inhospitable ; but there

'ranee.

to an
is last
ve per
le, and
•e with

Korth

rani one-
aiidniavk
TOSS the
inent, at

gigantic
itish rule

41° W.
eo;rees of
it of the

45° and

the Pole.

l)ut there

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL

is a belt, on an average oOO miles in width across the
whole, available for settlement. The extreme distance
from east to west Ijeing 3400 miles, there is, therefore,
an area, roughly approximating, of 1,700,000 square
miles, suitable to be the home of a settled, civilised, and
prosperous people. This last area is as large as all
Europe with the omission of liussia.

The colony of Newfoundland has not yet joined the
confederation of British American colonies ; and, as the
Dominion of Canada is enormously the larger, it will be
more convenient to commence with it and to dwell upon
its more general characteristics before considering the
separate provinces of wliich it is composed.

Boundaries

\\<-

XrV

The boundaries of British America are, on the north,
the Polar Ocean, and on the east the Atlantic Ocean,
Davis Strait, Battin Bay, and Smith Sound to the
Arctic Sea. On the west the Alaskan boundary starts
from Demarcation Point on the shore of the Arctic Ocean
at long. 141° W. and follows that rneridit n southwards
until it strikes the summit of the mountain range. This
intersection occurs at Mount St. Elias, which is just within
Canadian territory. So far the boundary is an astro-
nomical one ; and, as no previous survey exists and a
meridian of longitude may be ascertained with scientific
precision, the simplicity of, at least, that portion may
easily be preserved ; inasmuch, however, as some questions
of interpretation have arisen and a joint scientific survey
is now going on with a view to a more exact delimita-
tion, it will be better to quote the precise words of the
treaty of 1825 with Bussia as to the remainder. They
are as follows, beginning at the south : —

DOMINION OF CANADA

ering

the north,
tic Ocean,
l1 to the
larv starts
ctic Ocean
outhwards
ige. This
nst within
an astro-
ists and a
scientific

^rtion may
le (questions
titic survey
t delimita-
ords of the
ider. They

" Coninieiicin^' from the southernmost point of the
isliind called I'rince of WaU'S Ishmd, whicli point lies in
the jiarallel of 54 40' north latitude and hetween the
l;!1st and loord degree of west longitude, the said line
shall ascend to the north, ah)ng the channel called
I'ortland Channel, as far as the point of the continent
where it strikes the o6th degree of north latitude; from
this last mentioned point the line of demarcaticm shall
follow the summit of the mountains situated jjarallel to
the coast as far as the point of intersection of the 141st
degree of west longitude,"

The 4th article further describes the line as follows : —

" Whenever the sunnnit of the mountains, which
extend in a direction parallel to the coast from the oGth
degree of north latitiule to the point of intersection of
the 141st degree of west longitude, shall prove to he at
the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the
I ocean, the limit between the Jhitish possessions and the
[line of coast which is to belong to liussia, as above
I mentioned, shall be formed by a line parallel to the
[windings of the coast, and which shall never exceed the
(distance of ten marine leagues therefrom."

Prince of Wales Island belongs to Alaska, and the
ijroiii) of the (^)ueen Charlotte Islands are a part of
'aniula.

The southern boundary of Canada is .')260 miles long,
ind is remarkable for many reasons, and, among others,
)ecause it won for its negotiator the thanks of the
[niperial Parliament, and for the state of Maine so large
portion of Canadian territory as to have retarded for
|brty years the union of the British provinces. This
nost untf)\vard result ought not, however, to be attributed
[<' tile American people, inasmuch as President Andrew
[ackson, in 1835, (jft'ered a fair and ecj[uitable solution of

COMPENDIUM OF (iEOdltAl'IIY AND THAVKL

the qupstioiis in diispute. Tliis was nifused, and the
golden hour of sweet reasonableness i)assed away never
to retnrn. The thanks of rurlianient were equally due
to many others who eontrilnited to shape this boundary.
Indeed, ulniost everybody seemed to have had a hand in
it — provided he was not a ('anadian — for the times of
the Canadians had not then eome.

Tlie boundary l)etween French Canada and the old
colonies of England was well enough known to the
voyatjeiirs and ])orderers of (jld colony days. It was
taken to l)e the water-parting between the streams
falling into the Atlantic and those falling into the St.
Lawrence river. Tlie boundary l)etween Acadia and the
English colonies was supjmsed by the French to ])e the
Penobscot and by the English t(j be the St. Croix. The
general idea was that the boundary sliould be the water-
parting of the streams flowing into the Bay of Eundy and
those flowing into the main ocean. When, in l78o,
England divided her possessions in America with her
revolted colonies the treaty of jieace was negotiated by
Franklin, Jay, and Adams for the United States- — all
three perfectly acquainted with the (Question. The less
that is said of the English negotiators the better — to say
they did not know anything about the sulyect would be
to say infinitely too little. The intention was clearly to
reserve in their entirety Canada and Acadia to England.
The treaty recognised the w^atershed of the Atlantic as
distinct from that of the Bay of Fundy. It marked the
termination of the Atlantic at the St. Croix river.
Beyond that p(jint was the Bay of Fundy. The natural
division was simple — the St. Croix was to be the
boundary of the United States on the east and the St.
Lawrence watershed the boundary on the north. These
natural features, however, are not conterminous, for the

DOMIXrOX OK r'ANAD,\

the old
to tlu'

It \VilS

streiuus
, the St.
, and the
V)e the
)ix. The
he vvtitev-
\mdy iuul

111 1 / O.-),

with her
)tiated by
tates — all
The less
Y — to say
would be
clearly to
England.
Atlantic as
narked the
I'oix river.
;he naturrtl
to be the
iiid the St.
•th. These
311S, for the

drainafr*' basin of the St. .John, falliii!'- into the l»av of
J'undy, runs round the head of the St. ('roix and the
water-i)arting between the St. Lawrence and tlie Atlantic
does not extend so far east as a line due north from the
head of tlie St. Croix. This fact was not known at that
time, for the region was a wilderness and the maps
were inaccurate : but the treaty is not dithcult to read
in the li^dit of the knowledu;e of that ])eriod. The
northern boundary was a fixed line, '' tlie highlands
which divide those rivers that emi)ty themselves int<j
the liiver St. Lawrence from those which fall into
the Atlantic Ocean." The eastern lioundary had also a
natural object as a mark, to wit, the St. Croix river t(3
its source, and a line was to be drawn from one to the
other ; but, unfortunately, the treaty said the line was to
b(^ a " north line," and a due north line from one to the
other is not possible, for the termination of the highlands
is not north l)ut north-west from the source of the St.
Croix. Hence the diiliculty which aro.se.

The initial error was made by the commissioners of

170G, who made wider the angle of separation between

the two landmarks of the treaty. They dc^' 'ed that the

Schoodic, or west l)ranch, was the true .: Croix, but,

instead of following that up to its source in the Schoodic

lakes, they followed up a triliutary, the Chiputnaticook,

to its source and erected a, monument there. The

[subse(|uent negotiations started from the monument,

and, by insisting on a direct north line, carried the

boundary far l)eyond the other natural landmark, to wit,

r the line of highlands which divides the waters flowing

[into the St. Lawrence from those flowing into the

^Vtlantic," and brought it up to and along the river St.

[iTohn, which flows neither into the St. Lawrence nor the

Atlantic but into the Bay of Fundy, far east of the St.

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAniY AND TRAVEL

Croix. The erratic course of the present boundary
proves by simple description that it was not the one
intended, and this was demonstrated, after the signature
of the treaty, by the production in the Ignited States
Senate of a map supposed to have been lost. This nm[)
had been sent, on J)eceniber 6, 1782, l)y Franklin to
the French Minister Yergennes, and he had marked upon
it with a strong red line tlie boundary agreed upon, and
known at the time to be the natural boundary. The
historian, Sparks, who sent it from J'aris to his govern-
ment, pointed out that it establislied the ])ritish conten-
tion. His remarks when sending the map are con-
clusive : " In short, it is exactly the line now contended
for ]»y (Ireat Jiritain, except that it concedes more than
is claimed by her. It is evident that the line from the
St. Croix to the Canadian higldands is intended to ex-
clude all the waters running into the St. John."

This almost mortal wound in the frontier of Canada
tlemands explanation even at the risk of tediousness, and
the following description will indicate the eccentricities
of the map. Starting from the misplaceil monument, the
line runs due north to the St. John river, and thence
follows the St. John to the confluence of the St. Francis,
which it ibllows still northward to the outlet of Lake
I'ohcnagamook. From thence it strikes south-west across
the country to a point on the north-west branch of tht.'
Iiiver St. John, thence south by west to the intersection
of the parallel of 40 25' with the south-west branch
of the Iiiver St. John. The line follows this branch to
its source in the highlands which form the water-parting
of the St. Lawrence, ami then the highlands themselves,
as far as a little river called Hall's stream, which it then
hillows as far as the parallel of 4^)°. The forty -fifth
degree of north latitu(K' was mentioned expressly in the

DOMINION OF CANADA

'21

oundary
the one
iignature
d States
rhis map
uiklin to
keel upon
ipon, ami
try. The
s govern-
ih coiiteii-
are cou-
conteiKled
more tlian
e from the
led to ex-

I.
of Canada

usness, ami
icentricities

luiment, the
iuul thence
St. Francis,
let of Lake
-west across
anch of the
intersection
west l)ranch
is branch l<'
,vater-partin;i
s themselves,
,vhich it then
le forty -tihh
)res8ly in tin'

treaty of peace <^i 1783, but the true line of 45' was not
f< lUowed.

It liappened tliat certain land surv^eyors named
\'alentine and Collins had, previously to 1774, run a
Hue of 45'' north latitude aloni;- the frontier, and the
I'nited States governiiieut liad built a very tii.e fort on
a commanding point on Lake Champlain on the very
edge of what they supposed to be their territory. It
turned out, however, to be two miles north of the true
hue of 45. The treaty of 1842 was therefore drawn
so as to preserve that fort to tlie United States, and it
detines the boundary as " the old line of l)Oundary
surveyed by Valentine and Collins previously to 1774
r's the fortji- fifth degree of north latitude" to tlie St.
Lawrence river. At this point, therefore, tlie errors of
N'ah'Utiiie and Collins have been perpetuated to form a
second projection into Canada, but fortunately not a deep
one.

The hue of 45 intersects the St. Lawrence at St.
llegis, and from thence, westwards, the boundnry follows
the mid-channel of the connecting rivers and the middle
of the lakes. This part of the boundary was settled in
18i'2 l>y commissioners, but they did not get past the
St. Mary's river near the Sault Ste. !Marie. There a
ditliculty arose, and the delinntation was postponed, un-
fortunately, until 1842, for the Ashburton treaty. In this
jcasL' the geography of the treaty of 178."} was far wrong. The
Iboundary, as si)eciHed in the treaty of 178:5, was to pass
from Lake Superior through Long Lake to the north-west
angle of Lake of the "Woods, and thence to the Mississipjti.
jlJut tiiere is no Long Lake, and the source of the Missis-
(sippi is far south of Lake of the Woods. \\\ the Asli-
urton treaty the line is carried, according to its real
niteution, along the Pigeon river, and the portages and

lii'l

MINX E S -

Statuti' Mik'S

TlIK INIEHNATIONAI. BUUNUAUV AT I.AKK (IK THE WOODS.

DOMINION OF CANADA

1 nfiLatiuiilc

,,, ><„-,r'/ -'"■'

small lakes to Lake of the Woods. Then it runs north-
west across the lake to a bay, whence it drops due
south to tlie parallel of 40 , sni])ping off on the way a
little promontory projecting from JU'itish territory. This
projection into (Canadian soil is indescrihahle without a
map on a large scale. After this sortie int(j Canada the
line does not go south into the United States to seek the
source of the Mississippi, which also was expressly made
;i point in the treaty of 178.'», but continues along the
parallel of 49° to the Strait of (Jeorgia, and thence liy
the Hiiro Channel to the racific Ocean. This jiart of tlie
boundary is more particularly described in the chapter on
Ihitish Columbia. One little projection, not visible save
on ii map of a very large scale, just large enough to be a
foothold for inipaitial smugglers into both countries, is
cut off here, and then the Haro Channel, of three
navigable channels the nearest to Canada, is followed to
the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Such is the southern boundary
of Canada: the luojections all point one way.

■ It is/' says Justin McCarthy, " an arranjiement which

liiis niven mutual satisfaction ever since

and in ]\Iiss

.^blrtineau"s history it is naively recorded that " Lord
Ashlturton, after iiaving been honoured throughout every
stt'i» of his travels in the United States, received the
thanks of Parliament on his return home."

-Mr. McCarthy's 'Mnutual " does not include the
< iinadians. and Lord Ashburtons travels did not extend
to ( 'iinada.

Relief of the Land

TIk' nucleus of tlu- continent of North America is an
cnuriuous iirca ol' .V/oic rocks, called Laurentian Ity the
Ccolonical Survey of Canada, because of their immense
'Icvfiopmcni ni .tli of the St. Lawrence. The name is

mmmmmmmmmm

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

now accepted everywhere to denote the series of prindtive
crystalline rocks which probably underlie all formations.

ARCHiEAN NUCLEUS
OF THE CONTINENT.

Sc.ile (if Slatiitu Mili-s

\' mr 'iii i Ci-.x' IStfii/i

They are found in detached areas in tlie state of 2s'e\v
York and elsewhere in the United States, in the west «>t
Scotland, in Scandinavia, in Jiolieniia, in Central anil

DOMINION OF CANADA

diiiitive
nations.

^'-'XP'

ate of Nt-'NV
the west <>t
'eutrul iuul

Eliistern Asia, and in South America ; but nowiiere else
;ti(.' there such extensive and continuous exposures ot"
these rocks as in Canada. This Laurentian nucleus i.s
V-shaped on the outer margin, and the remainder of the
continent has orown upon it while still preserving the
same angular sliape. The later ranges of the liocky
Mountains and Appalachi;in chain run at the same angles,
mid the coast-lines run parallel to these, forming triangles
within each other, based on the north and having their
apexes to the south. 'J'he sketch shows in an ap])roxi-
niate wav the gradual growth of the continent as well as
its Laurentian core, contained almost wholly within the
Dominion of Canada.

Commencing in thv far north-west of the continent,
the outer edge of the Laurentian area skirts the valley of
the ]\Lickenzie river in almost its whole length. it
ronuiiences near the Arctic coast and passes through
(iieat IJear Lake, (}reat Slave Lake, and includes almost
all of Lake Athabasca. The line then passes, still to the
south-east, to the head of Lake Winnipeg, and includes
the eastern shore of that lake. It includes the northern
shore of Lake Superior, the northern part of the pro\ iuce
of Ontario, and touches the St. Lawrence at the Thousand
Islands, wliere it throws out across the river an outlier
into the state of Xew York. The Thousand Islands are
ot this formation, and are the southern ai)ex of the
:lriiingk'; the line then turns away to the north-east,
crosst's the Ottawa and follows the general course of tiie
St. Lawrence at varying distances, until it comes out on
hlif Atlantic coast in Labrador. Tiie whole of tlu'
[Labrador peninsula is of this formation.

^^ hile it is quite true, .speaking in a general way, to
■ill this innuense area Laurentian, there are witliin it
ari^e areas of more recent formation. On the maiuins

COMrKNDlUM (JF CEOGl.'Al'llY AND TRAVEL

and tlirdiiti'liout its exU'iit aic wide Lands nf lluroiiiau
i(K'ks, a .series geiiei'ally inetallit'eroiis, so called i'roiii their
great development on th(i ]iortli shore of J.ake Huron. In
the valleys of the rivers and on the plains of western
(Ontario are later formations, hut hehiud all these the
Laurentian formation forms the main mass.

This ^'-shal)ed nucleus is fre([uently descrihed as the
LaurtMitian mountains. The word is a little strong,
hecause the height of the plateau is not more than from
lOOO to KiOO feet ahove the sea. It is a country, several
hundred miles wide, of rounde<l, weather-worn hills,
densely wooded and al)ounding with lakes and streams.
In remote geological ages these most ancient of all hills
wei'c douhtless high mountains, hut they have l>een worn
down to their ])resent moderate height hy the wear and
tear of countless ages. Their outline is characteristic,
and they hound the horizon with undulations rather than
with ])eaks. The rivers have not cut deeply into these
hard rocks. They How with currents hrinnning between
their hanks, fed perenniallv hv the highland streams
which hurry down their clear and bright waters to the
greater rivers. There is no malaria in the Laurentian
country. Every l>rook mav l)e drunk of with inmunitv.
and the clearing up of new land generates no fevers. In
the extreme east the mountains of Labrador attain in
some places a height of 00(10 i'eet, but the mountains
further west become nuire like a hummocky ])lateau. Thi'
mountains on the Saguenav are loOO to 1<SOO feet hiuh,
and Trembling Mountain, north of ^Montreal, rises to a
height of 2.'] SO feet. These are the liighest sunnnits of
this formation near tin; settlements, and none higher are
recorded in the territory to the north. AV!ien the height
of land is reached the country slopes down to Hudson s
llav with a gentle descent, and, though the surface mav

roinaii

11 tlu'iv
.11. In
vesterii
3se tlu'

[ as the
stvoiij^f,
in troi'i
, sevoiiil
rii hills,
streams,
all bills
3en worn
wear au<l
icteristic,
ther than
iito these
.r between
streams

rs to tb«"
aurentian
iiiimnity,
(!rs. In
attain in
iioniitains

>an. Tho

tei't b.i'j^h,

rises to ii

ummits ot

bi;j;her avo

Ibe height

, Ihulsoiis

irface mav

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAI'HY AND TRAVEL

be broken with rocks find streams, the portages from
stream to stream are low.

Parallel to the coast-lines, on both oceans, two great
mountain systems preserve the original type of the con-
tinent ; the ranges of the I'acific Cordillera running
north-west and south-east, and the Appalachian ranges
running north-east and south-west. These are both of
later date than the Laurentian plateau, and rise to a mucli
greater height. The mountains on the Pacific coast will
be described in the chapter on British Columbia. The
Appalachian ranges oh the Atlantic side cross into Canada
from the states of Vermont and New Hampshire, where
they are known as the White and Green mountains.
They cross the south-eastern corner of the province of
Quebec with a much lower elevation until they strike the
St. Lawrence where, under the name of the Xotre ])ame
mountains, they follow down the shore into the Gaspe
peninsula and form a table-land of an average height of
1500 feet. Here they are known as the Shickshock
mountains, and rise to elevations of 3000 to 4000 feet.
AVhere these mountains cross the eastern townships of
Quebec they make a rolling hilly country, suitable for
agriculture and pasturing ; but the interior of Gaspe is a
rough mountain plateau unfit for cultivation.

The maritime provinces of the ] )ominion form a group
by themselves and belong to the Appalachian system. A
range of hills runs from Cape Chignecto on the Bay of
l\indy to the north-east point of Nova Scotia, and is con-
tinued, through Cape Breton Iskand, to its extreme point
at Cape North; but their elevation is not greater than
1200 feet. In New Brunswick two ranges of hills from
500 to 1000 feet high diverge from the south-west corne]'
of the province. One runs up in a north-east direction to
the ]^>ay Chaleur, and the other is a lower hilly tract, with

DOMINION OF CANADA

no conspicuous peaks, runninjj; in the general direction of
the .shore of the JUiy of Fundy. These may all be con-
sidereil as outliers of the Appalachians. The province of
Prince Edward Island is a gently undulating country — a
Harden land where rock or stone can seldom be seen. All
the Maritime provinces lie outside of the Laurentian
nucleus.

The Dominion of (Ainada, then, presents to the east
the Atlantic provinces with a rocky coast-line and an in-
iirior contour diversified with mountain and river and
iarni land. The provinces of (jld Canada form the basin
di' the St. Lawrence — in Quebec a broad and ricli valley
l)etween mountain ranges — in Ontario a broad i)lain
from Lake (Jntario to the Laurentian hills and a fertile
peninsula inclosed by three great lakes. This passes into
the broken Laurentian region north of lakes Huron and
Superior. Then commences the great interior Cretaceous
]ihiin stretching to the Kocky Mountains and the Polar
Sea : and, lastly, the mountain region of Jhitish Columltia.

Hydrography

The historv of Canada is explicaljle onlv bv its water-
ways. There is nothing which so impresses the mind of
an intelligent traveller as the prodigality with which
Xature has endowed the Dominion of Canada with one of
her choicest gifts. It is above all others the land of
abundance of water. Thousands of miles of deeply in-
dented sea-board extend along the Atlantic and thousands
along the Pacific with harbours on both oceans unrivalled
in the world. Both oceans search far into the land — the
Gulf of St. Lawrence on the east, and the Strait of (ieorgia,
with the deep fiords of British Columbia, on the west, and
nil the north the great ocean expanse of Hudson's ]jay.

i.v1V«

COMI'KNDIUM OF GEOGUArHY AND TRAVEL

Vi :

It is a country of l)i'Oiid lakes and Howinu' waters. A
country where the abundance of streams and the regularity
of summer rains preclude the possibility of drou<;ht, and
secure the widest area of veyetalde growth. A land of
grass and forest. A country containing by far the larger
portion (jf all the fresh water of the gloltc, when.' 2000
miles from the ocean the traveller may lose sight of land
and be prostrated by sea-sickness, and where thrilling ad-
ventures and shipwrecks may occur in mid-continent —
in the very heart of North America at its widest expansion.

This description applies more especially to the great
central provinces ; but Xew Brunswick has a most
extensive river svstem of its own and, for Nova Scotia
and I'rince Edward Island, the xVtlantic Ocean and the
Gulf of St. Lawrence are the waterways. While mountains
and a deeply indented coast-line; are the peculiar character-
istics of the Tacitic province, Canada proper, or old Canada,
contains the most extensive system of interior waterways
in the world, and such l)reaks as occur in their continuous
navigation are overcome by a series of caiuils ; so that,
with only one transhipment at Montreal, freight from the
largest ocean steamships may be carried to the head of
Lake Superior 2384 miles from the Strait of Belle-isle.

Four great basins divide the greater part of the in-
terior of the ])ominion. The St. Lawrence basin, the
Hudson's Bay basin, the Winnipeg sub-basin tributary to
Hud.son's Bay, and the Mackenzie l)asin. These are
separated by low water-partings, and the heads of their
dependent streams interlock in many places, so that the
whole continent lay open to the early explorers, and
adventurous roiiageura searched it out to its remotest
recesses.

Iii.).MINIOX OF CANADA

The Hudson's Bay Basin

The climatic and pliysical coiulitioiis of tlie country
around Hudson's ]>ay ditt'cr so much from those of the
rest of Canada tliat they must be considered in a se])arate
cliapter ; nevertheless, as the great Laurentian V-shaped
plateau has been shown to be the nucleus of the con-
liuent, so Hudson's JUxy, which occupies the interior of
the plateau, is, geographically, a most important feature
of the i>ominion. South and south-east of it stretches
tiio St. Lawrence basin, to the south-west the sub-basin of
the Winnipeg system, and to the west the basin of the
Mackenzie. Xo considerable height of land sei)arates
tlicni, and where they touch it is easy to pass from one
to unother.

The interior of the Laurentian nucleus is occupied by
the inland salt-water sea of Hudson's Bay, and its outward
edge is encircled by a succession of innnense inland ex-
panses of fresh water, extending from the (Ireat V>ei\v
Lake in the L'olar circle on the west, round by the south.
On the east the Laurentian plateau touches the ]viver St.
Lawrence nearly at the point where the water becomes
salt, and follows the lower St. Lawrence and the Gulf to
the Atlantic at the Strait of ]>elle-isle. The water-
jiartiug of the LIudson's ]>ay basin is far within the
Laurentian plateau, and is not marked by bold highlands,
but near it on both sides is an inner circle of smaller
lakes or lake-like expanses of the streams.

The estimated areas of the greater hydrographic basins
of central Canada are as follows : — -

Winnipeg sub-biibiu in Canada
Mackenzie River basin .
St. Lawrence basin

307,000 square miles
677,000 „
530,000 ,,

O.0

COMl'ENDIl'M OF (lEOGUArHY AND TKAVEL

Tlie area of tlie diaiiiaue liasiii of Hudsoirs J>av is difficult
to estiiiiatL' with appioxiiiiatu accuracy, so much of it lies
in the uid<noNvii north.

Tile hydrography of the Pacitic jtrovince is distinct from
these, as well as the hydrography of the maritime provinces
and that part of Lalnador which drains into the Atlantic
and Hudson's Strait. There is also in tlie far north a
smaller watershed, draining into the Arctic Ocean liy the
Great Fish and Coi)perniine rivers, and in the far north-
west another region trihutary to the A'ukon. These are
the subjects of separate chapters.

St. Lawrence Basin

The area drained hy the St. Lawrence is 'estimated at
530,000 s([uare miles: of which 400,000 are in Canada.
It is essentially <i northern river: for all its large tribu-
taries fall in from the north. It flows on the southern
aide of its drainage basin, and lakes L'hamplain and George,
and their (jutlet, the Iiiver liichelieu, are the only import-
ant contribution it receives from the south. The IJiver
St. Louis, which falls in at the head of Lake Superior,
close to Dulutli, in Minnesota, is taken as its source, and
it widens out into the most remarkable sequence of
ocean-like lakes in the world. It is known by various
names throughout its course — the River St. Mary, the
outlet of Lake Superior : the St. Clair river, from Lake
Huron to Lake St. Clair : the Detroit river from Lake
St. Clair to Lake Erie. The outlet of Lake Erie is the
Niagara river, and it is oidy from the outlet of Lake
Ontario that it is called the St. Lawrence — to the older
French writers it was also known as the Cataraqui. The
total length of navigation to l*ort Arthur, in Ontario, from
tlie open ocean at the Strait of Belle-isle is 2264 miles.

DOMINION' OF CANADA

3'.>

As 1)11' iiH Moiitiviil, !)8() miles are iiavigaUe for the
largest ocean steaiiishi[)K. A few miles above Montreal
is the Sault Si. Louis, or Laehine rapids, the tirst break
Irom the oeean. This, and all subse(|uent impediments,
are overcome by a series of magnificent canals with an
iii'gregate length of 71 miles, so that steamers 200 feet
long and drawing 9 feet may pass up the whole distance,
1278 miles, from Montreal to Port Arthur on Lake
Superior. Duluth, at the head of the lake, is 124 miles
farther. The canals are being deepened to 14 feet
lin'oughout the whole series.

The width of the St. Lawrence varies very much, for,
besides the immense expansions of the upper lakes, it
widens into Lake St. Francis (5 miles), St. Louis (7
miles), and St. Peter (9 miles), on its course north-east
from Lake Ontario. The average width of the river
proper is about a mile and three-quarters, and the
narrowest point on its whole course is at Cape liouge, a
lew miles above (t)uebec. Below Quebec it widens to
20 and 30 miles, and across its mouth at the west point
at Anticosti, where it is considered to end, the distance
is TOO miles.

The lakes of the St. Lawrence system, as before stated,
contain more than one-half the fresh water of the globe.
The water in them is clear and bright, for they are the
gigantic settling basins of the upper streams. At Three
liivers, half-way between Montreal and (Quebec, the
influence of the tide ceases ; about 30 miles below
i^Hiebec the water becomes brackish, and at the mouth
of the Saguenay it is salt. The aggregate area of these
fresh-water seas is 98,510 square miles, and the total
fall, from Lake Superior to tide water at Three
liivers, is 602 feet, half of which is in the Niagara
river. The St. Lawrence is thus a broad and deep

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL

L £ I

r "1

avenue to the very heart of North America ; for the
central point of the continent is only 250 miles in a
strai^Lflit line west of tlie head of Lake Superior. No
wonder the early Frencli explorers were continually
dreaming of a passage to China.

The dimensions of the chief lakes of the St. Lawrence
system are given below ; Lake Michigan is included
though wholly in the l^idted States. The strait of
Mackinaw connects it with Lake Huron.

Taule of S" L.wvkknck Lakks

Lakes.

Superior

Michigan

Huron .

St. Clair

Eric

Ontario

St. Francis .

St. Louis

St. Peter

St. Jolin

Ncpigon

Sinicoe

Temiscaniingue

statute miles.
I.eliKtli

A\erau''
IjiwuUli.

420

345

400

250

190

80
.'■)8
70
20
••38
40

1 to 10

S(iuat'(' iiiil(!s.
Ana.

:j 1,420

2.'.,5it0

23,780

300

10,030

7330

132

200

36(5

lino

300

113

Feet.

A vera;,'!'

depth.

900

1000

500

1.^.

412

3 to 50

over 540

(leei.

Feet.

Ueiulit

I hove sea.

602
578
576
570
566
240
142
58

278
665
701
612

It will be seen by the above table that the bottoms of
some of the great lakes are below the sea level, and the
surface of the higliest is only COO feet above the sea.
This great system of waterways is like an arm of the
oceai.i itself.

The river sy.stem tributary to the St. Lawrence is re-
markable for the length and number of its streams. As
before stated the river Hows on the soutliern edge of its
basin, and all tlie great triliularies are from the nortb. It
is a Canadian river, for seven-eightlis of its cb-ainage is on

DOMINION OF CANADA

for the
!S in a
V. No
:iimally

iiwvence
nclucled
itrait of

Feet.

lleiulit

above si'ii.

602

578

576

-.70

566

240

142

278

665

701

612

loUoins of
I, iiiul the
e the sea.
LViii of the

biice is i"«^'-

eaniH. As

t'dv?e of its

north. It

ina^e is «'n

Ciuiadian soil. It ^vill he iinpossilde even to mention
mure than a very few of the tril)utaries of this immense
svstem. They will he treated of more in detail in the
c'luq)ters on the separate provinces to which they i/clong.

Commencing on the north it must be noted that the
central plateau of Labrador is on an average 1800 feet
Iiigli, and not far distant from the shores of the gulf.
The rivers are very luimerous hut are not navigable ; for
many falls and rapids are necessary before the level of
the sea is reached. Almost the longest is the Manicoiiagan,
a lapid stream falling into the river St. Lawrence west of
I 'dint de Monts. Its source is a lake with a double
(luttlow — one l)y the Koksoak I'iver to the north into
Hudson's Strait, and the other to the south ui a course
of 224 miles, with short reaches of lake, and with nuicli
broken water. The Outarde, which falls in near it, is
2;)4 miles long. Further west is the Saguenay, a pro-
found and gloomy stream like a Norway tiord. Hanked by
])it'cipittjus cliffs. The largest man-of-war may steam up
for sixtv miles between the mountains on its shores. At
Chieoutimi (71 miles) navigation is interrupted by rapids.
Tlie Saguenay is the outlet of Lake St. -lohn, a lake 28
miles by 20, almost a circular l)asin, which collects the
water of several large streams. The Aslioua])m(aichouan,
one of its tributaries, leads up to the ]>ortage to Lake
Mistassini from whence I{ui)ert's river Hows into Hudson's
hay. The length of the Saguenay from the outlet of
bake St. John is 112 miles. Father Albanel was the
tirst white man to explore this route when, in 1072, he
followed it to Hudson's l>ay.

The Ottawa is the mo.st imi)ort.int tributary to the St.
bawrence. It drains an aii'a of HO, 000 sipuire miles,
and its total length is 780 miles. The city of Montreal
^^ huilt on an island, formed at its conHuence with the

i 1

COMl'KXDIUiM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

St. J.iiwicucc wln'i'c, llowing in ir.nn tlic west, it .strikes
with its darker water tlie clear tiood of the hirger river
llcjwiiit^ ill ail acute aimle from the south-west. The
waters do not mingle, Ijut How side by side until they
reach the tide. Xavi<'atioii on the lower Ottawa, is oli-
structed l)y the St. Anne's rapids and the ra]>ids of the
Long Sault at Carillon. These are overcome l»v short
canals, and steamers may go up as far as Ottawa city
wliere the falls of the Chaudiere bar further })rogress.
There are, however, steamers on all the upper readies of
th(! river. The Ottawa was the fur-trader's r<jute to the
great west. In 1G15 Champlain went up the Ottawa
and followed the Mattawa, one of its tributaries, to Laki'
Xipissiiig. From thence he j)assed down French river into
Lake Huron, and wintered there with the; Hurons. A
ship canal has been ])rojected to follow the same route
and so cut off tiie jieniiisula of south-west Ontario. Such
a canal would lie on a direct east and west line from the
junction of three great lakes at the Strait of Mackinaw
and would save "hO miles of navigation. In 1G8G the
Chevalier de Troyes led an expedition uj) the ( )ttawa to
capture the Fnglish forts on Hudson's Hay. He passed
up by the short portage leading to Lake Abitibi wliicii
discharges into Hudson's IJay by a river of the saiiic

name.

The most iiiij)ortant of the tributaries to Lake Ontario,
from the north, is the river Trent, which opens up a world
of lakes in the heart of that ])r(>vince. In KJIG ('ham
phiin came down with a great Huron war party from Lakt.'
Huron by the river Severn, and Lake Simcoe, and over
the portage to the river Trent, into Lake Ontario. This
route is now being improved, for modern business, ly
canals and dams. There are no rivers of importance on
the northern .shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, because

DOMINION OF CANADA

- ) /

lilt' Wilier-parting of Hiulsoii's IJay api)rouche.s very close
to their shores. At Micliipicoton is the main route for
the Mouse river, and at >»'e])igon is the route for the
Allianv river — both large rivers falling into Hudson's
llay. Their head waters are close to the lake, anil the
iiortaues to these waters have been used from the earlv
limes of the fuv companies.

Ileturning now to the east and following the south
shore of liie St. Lawrence, the tributaries are com}»ara-
lively small : but they are im])ortant because they open
H)) adjacent river .systems to tlu; south. At Ki' 'ere du
l.oiip the head waters of the St. John are only 20 miles
distant, and the old route of the war parties of the
.Mohawks was from there to the Madawaska. The
ChauiUere liver, falling in near (^)uebec, rises close to the
head waters of the Kennebec, and by that route Arnold
came in 177") from Maine to besiege (^'uebec. The
Kiclielieu river was called, in the earlv French davs, the
L'Irlrrc <iu,r /roiiiutis, for it was the track of their invasions.
The Kichelieu is navigable for large vessels from St.
.lohns to the head of Take Cham]»lain. A canal, 12 miles
long, overcomes the rajiids and com})letes the navigation
from the St. Lawrence to Whitehall, in the state of New
\'ork, at the Jiead of the lakt'. The llichelieu discharges
thr water of Lake.> (ieorge and Champlain, and down its
valley swept the tides of invasion to and fro in the wars
of old colony davs. Crown I'oint and Ticonderotja were
llie French fortresses, and Foil William Henry, and Fort
F/lward the chief English defences. The head waters of
the Hudson are very close to those of the llichelieu, and
ihey are connected by a canal. Thei'e was the mt)st
vulnerable point both of the Knglish and French ])rovinces,
aii4 nearly every headlaml and stream have ronmntic
liist((ri(' memories. Fenimore Cooper has made this

COMPKNDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

V '^

[

II it i'

re<^ion, as well iis tlio route by the Mohawk liiver to
Oswego, classic by his " Leather Stocking Tales."

Further west, from the south sliore of Lake Erie the
whole valley of the ( )hio lay open from the St. Lawrence.
At I'resqu'isle, on the site of the present city of Erie,
tlie head waters of the Alleghany river approach the
shores of tlie lake, and irom this river the French had a
line of forts to the present Pittsburg, Fort Duquesne.
This is tlie region of IJraddock's defeat, and of Washinu-
ton's early services for the king. Where Toledo is now
liuilt the ]\Iiami river leads to the head waters of the
Wabash which falls into the Ohio, and tliat was another
favourite route of the French.

From Lake Michigan the upper Mississij)pi lay open :
for at Chicago the Des Flaincs river approaches so close to
the lake shore, and the divide is so low that it is proposed
to carry the city driiinage, not into the lake, but into the
]\Iississippi. By that route, in 1682, La Salle led his
followers and, first of white men, traced the great
Mississipi>i to the (lulf of Mexico, and took possession
for the king of France of that magnificent valley now
the centre of the powjr of the United States. At the
foot of Green IJay, on the west side of the lake, the Fox
river falls in, from whose head waters a portage of a
mile and a half leads to the Wisconsin river. In lC7o,
by this route, Louis Jolliet and Father Marquette reached
the I\Iississipi)i and followed it as far as the Arkansas.

These are the main portage routes, and they show how
the St. Lawrence valley cuts all the comnmnications of
the interior of the continent with a transverse band nl
deep and navigabh* water and, although railways have to
a great extent 8U})erseded waterways, these facts are yet
necessary to elucidate the history of America and show-
how it was i»ossible for the small i)(>})ulation of New

DOMINION OF CANADA

I'j'tuice to keep the luiglish Colonies in clieck for so
many years. The settlements of the English colonists
were taken in rear, where they were weak and straggling,
and the incnrsions of the French and their Indian allies
retarded for a long time the advancing line of settlers
westwards.

At the western end of the St. Lawrence basin
commences the Winnipeg basin and stretches to the
llocky Monntains. It is, as has been previously shown,
in reality a sub-basin idtimately tributary to Hudson's
I)ay. A low and uncertain water-parting separates it on
the north from the ^Mackenzie river system; so that to
Hudson's ])ay and to the Arctic Ocean the fur companies
had several ways of ready access. In the same manner
to the south, the head waters of lied river lie far south
of the source of the ]\[iHsissipi)i, and the divide is so low
that in the glacial period the \vhole outflow of the Winni-
peg basin was by the ]\Iississippi. Further west the
Souris river, a tributary of the Assiniboine, aflbrds access
to the ]\Iissouri, and, indeed, the basin of the Missouri
enters Assiniboia aiul the main river itself Hows close to
the boundary of 40°, It was by the Souris that the
Sioux used to send their war parties into the Cree
country, and the lUver Assiniboine means " liiver of the
Stony Sioux " — a tribe of the Dakota nation. The Winnipeg
basin continues to tlie Eocky ]Mountains the function of
the St. Lawrence in the east, of intervening between the
great southern and northern watersheds of the continent
iuid of su])plying a key to both.

These tw(» basins, thus traversing the water systems
lit' the continent, are not continuous; for the height of
liuid of the Hudson's Uay basin follows tiu^ noith siiore
nf Lake Superior at no great distance, turns to the soutii
at the head »>f the lake and reaches south, within the

"ft"*

COMI'LaDIUM of GKOGltAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

United States, to gatlier in the waters of lied river. To
pass from Lake Superior into the Winnipeg basin it is
therefore necessary to cross this lieight of land, wliich
is from loOO to KiOO feet above the sea level, and as
tlie watershed on the St. Lawrence side is narrow, the
way is rougli and many falls and rapids have to be over-
come.

The country between Lake Superior and Lake Winni-
peg is a tangle of forests and lakes and swift Hovving
streams — a wilderness of rock and morass and foaming
ra|)ids and precii)itous waterfalls. It is the summit level
of four great watersheds. To the north-east the Albany
river drains directly into Hudson's Iiay ; to the west the
Lake of the Woods collects the waters of innumeraltle
streams to pour them down by the Winnipeg river into
Lake Winnipeg ; to the east are the streams flowing into
Lake Superior : and not far away across the border, in
Minnesota to the south, the head waters of the Mississip})!
begin to form tlie great river which pours its flood into
the tropical basin of the (Julf of Mexico. It was without
roads and without settlements until ten years ago, and
now the busy town of Hat Portage at the outlet of the
Lake of the Woods is a centre of business activity
where there are immense lumber and llouring mills.
This reuion is the centre of ureat mininy; enter

wluch have oj;

)ened and are still

I'prises
opening up valuable

mines of gold of which more will shortly be heard. A
long l)elt of good i'arm land runs along the north shore
of li'ainy river, but the country generally can never be
other than a mining and lumbering region.

The great livdroy-raithical feature of this countrv is
the Lake of the Woods. It is the pivot oi" that great
circle of lakes stretching down the St. Lawrence and
swee]»ing u]> past tiie Arctic circle to (Jreat Vn'-.w Lake

,■1

'!■

J ,>:

('(I

DOMINION OF CANADA

It is 70 miles long and 00 wide: but its outline is
indented to an extraordinary degree, and its northern
jtortion is filled with islands. The water area is given
as l."»00 square miles. The lake drains a basin of
.'in, 000 square miles. Its main tributary is liainy river,
a noble stream llowing from Iiainv Lake. Steamers and
steam-tugs ply over it and, if the lock at Fort Frances
were completed, there would be a continuous navigation
for steamers through liainy Lake and river and Lr.ke of
the Woods for 2r»0 nnles. At the northern corner of
hake of the AVoods is Ifat Tortage where the Winnijieg
liver eonnnences its swift career and, through falls and
ra])ids, drops 300 feet in a cf)ni])aratively short distance.

X(» roads ran through this territory, but two great
water routes were used in former years. One is now the
line of the international boundary and was called the
(irand Portage; and (Irand Portage Bay, still on the majjs.
marks its eastern end. The other coinmenced at Thunder
liay, and was used by the French fur-traders and adopted
by the North-west and Hudson's Pay Companies. \\\ the
(ii'.nid Portage it is only 00 miles to the heitdit of land.
The route is by l^igeon river and through a succession of
lakes to South Lake l").*)") feet above the sea or Ooo feet
alidvc Lake Superior. Many laborious portages have to
111' made to overcome falls and rapids, but the distance
across the summit to Xorth Lake is very short. The
•lescent is also laborious, through many lakes by liainy
hake and Rainy river to Lake of the Woods. The fall
troia the summit to Lake of the AVoods, which is lOoT
ffct aliove the sea, is 510 feet. The remainder of the fall
to the level of Lake AVinnipeg (;U7 feet) is by Ji series of
tills and rapids on tlie turbuh'nt AVinnipeg river in its
course of I (■>.■) miles.

The fuj'-trader's route to Lake of the AVoods from Fort

COMPENDIUM OF GEGGRAPIIY AND TRAVEL

William on Tlnuider Way was the one adopted by Colonel
Wolseley in his expedition to Ked lUver, with the diller-
ence tliat tlie old canoe route went up the Kaniinistiquia
into Dog Lake, and up Do^- river to the height of land.
He led his force of 1048 men up the Kaministiquia and
the Matawin rivers into Lake Sliebandowan, and crossed
the summit almost at the shore of Lac des Mille Lacs.
From thence he followed the old canoe route, by way of
Sturgeon Lake and river, into llainy Lake, and thence
by liainy river into tlic Lake of the Woods. The dividr
is 1570 feet high, about the same as on the other route,
but the main lift is in the 48 miles from Lake Superidv
to Lake Shebandowan, whicli is 800 feet above it and
close to the summit portage. At Lake La Croix both
routes unite and pass by way of llainy Lake into Lake of
the Woods — the central basin.

It will thus l)e seen that a dividing ridge 1000 feet
high separates the navigable water of Lake Superior from
Lake Winnipeg, and that the whole band of intervening
country is studded with lakes and streams. The distance
is 400 miles, and no doubt the long stretches of quiet
water would have been utilised Ijefore now in some system
of comnumication hud not the Canadian I'acitic llaihvay
intervened to nmke the required connection. The days
when the old fur-traders kept high state at Fort William,
and when these lonely river reaches were vocal witli tlie
songs of the voi/afjeurs are gone ; l»ut the town of L'at
Portage is stirring with active enterprise, and the railway
has become the link between the two great transverse
basins of the continent.

The St. Lawrence river basin has been described here
because it extends throughout tlie whole of old Canadii
and cannot be treated of excepting as a whole. The otliei
hyilrographic basins fall conveniently into other chapters —

"■M'fiV.......

Colonel
( dii'fer-
istiquia
of laud,
uia and
crossed
le Lacs.
' way of
[ thence
e divide
er route,
Superior
3 it and
oix both
> Lake of

000 feet
rior from
tervening
B distance

of quiet
ae system
; Eaihvay

The days
t William,

1 with the
vn of Hat
he railway
transverse

bribed here

(Id Canada

The other

chapters —

M KI KOHOLOGICAL MA

loo^ ?; IS'

SCALE, l.l4a;ii2*Mi 234 ENOltSM Mlirs U: ' 'NlH

M o ' loo 300 ^o*^

!.ntM«nn VMwiii'd SlJHi*'-Htl.£fi* 27 Oi»oli

;ICAL MAP or CANADA.

To fncc paye 43

r^-

IS%o"

."^o*

(•..Si'iidiniiilflotl

^^p" \

'.AsAuiiTr

Bltf'-B'

>>i

flttrhoii,

,ito

*""*•* \

J'.CAiiiWii//

'"'iiflilll

^"^/

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/i ^! y

I>|U"»"'

EXPLANATION

Averttjjc Meun Aiinu.-vl Toiuporntiirc ill Decrees Tahreiihtnt )
Miiui. Aiuuuj.1 Ixnthermal I.inXJ <£ Deifrtes in, RED
RAINMU.
Pre<:ipitu,i.ina , fftunbers III BLUE indicate total Annual /Wera^e
I " Under IS uu:he.!
20° I - IS tc is ..

3 - 25 to J5 ,.

4 - 3S *c trj ,.

J '. Tii Hum

fl>'l;l

ik \'

HPtta;y

BiWi

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'dL:::ita

DOMINION OF CANADA

'>:^

the Wiiiiiipeg system into the chapter on Manitoba and
the North-west, the ]\Iackenzie valley in the chapter on
the Mackenzie district, the Hndson's Jjay, the Ynkon, and
the Arctic in their respective chapters. "J'lie object of this
section is to show the paranionnt importance of the St.
Lawrence valley as the key to the whole inner continent.
Ill the far west of Canada there is a i)lace with a radins
of not many miles where rise the sources of the Sas-
katchewan flowing east, the Mackenzie flowing north, the
Missouri tlowinu; south-east, the Columljia tlowinu' south-
west, and the Fraser flowing west. This is the critical
geographical point of Dr. (Jliver "Wendell Holmes's poem,
Till' Tii-n Streams, from whence he has drawn a deep
moral lesson.

You stream whose sourees run
Tunif'd Ijy a ])ebble's edge
Is Athabasca rolling toward the sun
Through the cleft luountain-ledgt'.

The slender rill liad strayed,
But for the sliinting stone,
To evening's ocean, with the tangled braid
Of foani-flecked Oregon.

■►,%i

So from the heights of will
Life's parting stream descends.
And, as a moment turns its slender rill,
Each widening torrent bends.

From the same cradle's side.
From the same mother's knee,
One to long darkness and the frozen tiile,
One to the Peaceful Sea.

Climate

III a luevious chapter it has been shown that the
Aiclic current, in its south-western course, lowers the

Irr

PT r

COMI'KNDIL'M < 'F GEOGIfAl'HY AND TI!AVKI.

teinpi'i'iitUxo alitiig the iiorth-oast coast ot" tlic, American
coiitiuunt, and that parallel geographical conditions exist-
ing ill tlie TaciHc Uceaii elevate the teiuperature along
the north-west coast; of necessity, therefore, the isothermal
lines cross the continent in a north-west direction. The
nieteorolou;ical charts of Dr. lUiclian in the CliaUeiuicr
Mcport show a line of mean dannaiy tem])erature of 4- I'"
Fahrenheit alike at Halifax in lat. 4."> as in Alaska at
lat. 02^, and the mean tein])erature of the year is shown
to he nearly 40" at ^lontreal, not i'ar from lat. 45° X., and
in Alaska at lat. oG^. The mean temperature of 70 in
July in like manner is shown to extend from ^Montreal
to lat. ").")' in tlie far west. These ligures are a])i)roxi-
niately corr(!ct ; the scah; of the maps is too small to
show minor differences, but the main ])roposition is
confirmed that there are across the continent lines of
equal summer and of eipial winter temperature as well
as a line of equal annual temperature extending north-
westwardly through fifteen degrees of latitude. In
central (anada tliese lines heiid in waves of greater or
less amplitude according to local circumstances and as
affected Ity great hodit\s of water, or hy such inlhiences
as the ('hino((k winds, hut the general result is that spring
opens as early on the I'jtiH'r I'eace river in lat. .">0' as
as at Montreal in lat. 4rt' ilO', and the seeding time is
actually earlier.

The map annexed is compiled Ity the Meteorological
Service of Canada, and is the resultant of all recordeil
oh.servations to the jaesent time. it shows the mean
annual isotherms and the total annual }>recipitatioii in
inches reduced to terms of rain.

In treating of the several provinces of ("anada it will
he necessary to recur fre(|uently to the (luestiou of climate
as it is atfected l>y the diflerent physical circumstances <if

DOMINION OF CANADA

4.1

(jiicli. IMiiiiy I'alse ideas of tlii' climate liave lieeii rooted
in the inind.s of Europeans l»y the exuheiaiit vitality of
the jiroinotei's of winter carnivals, wlio, in iheir anxiety
til show tlie ])leaKiires ol' open air life in wintei', have
tlisseniinated ^■ie^vs of ice-palaces and such like things
until the name of Canada has in manv niinds become

ClKIl- (IK MAIZK — XJiAU OlTAWA.

iudissitlubly associated with ice and snow. Jt will, how-
ever, assist the reader to form a truer concejjtion of the
eliniate of Canada if he will remember that nuiize, which
cannot be grown as u croj* in any part of Enj^land, is a
staple crop throu<ihout Ontario and (.^)uebec. Abdvc
is a reproduction of a i<h(jto.grai)h taken al the Central
Kxperiniental Kami at Ottawa. The luxuriance of the
yrowih is shown by its pidportion beyond the height of

i n

i»fi

a man of uu

with the plai

as crops iu

I'aiiiida, 111

the open air.

uraph of a 1

suutheni part

the inaiiufacti

iUK.I winu-iiial

last few year

province of ()]

gives a livelih

wonderful ore

Indians cultiv

site of ]\Ioiitr

Lake Huron,

region west (

visited a iial

of their extei

Tol)acco Xatio

can not be gro^

50^ north latit

of Ptome. Th

not, however, (

upon the deg

maize, puinpki

tuba, and may

Saskatchewan.

These facts

which wheat is

■shorhl take u]

''i]ton millions

tilled in Araiii

Xortii-west. '

UOMINIOX UF CANADA 4 /

a iiuin of iiioiu than iiverage stature standing' in contact
with the plants. Xeitlier melons nor tomatoes are grown
as crops in England, but tliuy are extensively grown in
Canada. In many parts of Canada grapes are grown in
the open air. The illustration opposite is from a photo-
urapli of a large vineyard near Ottawa. In the more
southern part of (Ontario gra})es are extensively grown for
the manufacture of wine, and the business of grape-growing
and wine-making has increased very rapidly during the
last few years, as may be seen in the eha[)ter on the
province of Ontario. In the same province peach-growing
gives a livelihood to a numljer of people. Inhere is nothing
wonderful or exceptional about this, for the Huron-Iro(|Uois
Indians cultivated maize, i)umpkins, and tobacco on the
site of ]Montreal and north of Toronto on the shores of
Lake Huron, before the arrival of the whites. In the
region west of Nottawasaga Bay, Cliamjilain in IGIG
visited a nation of sedentary Indians, who, because
of their extensive crops of tobacco, were known as the
Toljacco Nation — Nation du Pdiin ; but a crop of tobacco
can not be grown in England. All of England is north (jf
50' north latitude and southern Ontario is in the latitude
of Iiome. The agricultural productions of a country do
not, however, depend entirely upon latitude, but rather
upon the degree of the summer isotherms. Melons,
maize, pumpkins, beans, and tomatoes are crops in ]\Iani-
toba, and may be grown even in lat. 53°, on the North
Saskatchewan.

These facts are also manifest by the high latitudes in
which wheat is grown. It is not suggested that settlers
shorld take up land on Lake Athabasca while millions
upon millions of vacant wheatlands are waiting to be
tilled in Manitoba and the southern territories of the
Xorth-west. These more northern lands are the reserves

' ! i 1 1 '.

: r

)

ITi^

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGHAl'IIV AND Tl.'AVEL

I I

■t '
I

of Canada, to conic into use when the other provinces
are tilletl up. It is true, nevertheless, that wheat has
been <>Town for one hundred vears at Dunveffiin on tlic
Peace river in lat. 56°, and that wheat grown at Fori
Chipewyan in lat. 58^ took a prize at the Centennial
Exhil)ition.

The climate of Canada is continental — one of cold
winters and warm sunnners. The average temperature
of duly is the same, 70° Fahr., at Battleford on the >.'ortli
Saskatchewan, at ]\Iontreal on the St. Lawrence, in the
lUscayan provinces f)f Spain, and throughout the plains of
Lombardy in Italy; but the winter temperatures are the
same as those of Stockholm in Sweden, or of Iviga on the
i3altic. It is inipossible, however, to generalise upon tiic
climate of Canada, for the conditions vary over so immense
an area. South-west Ontario is a wine-urowing country,
and grapes and peaches are staple fruit crops, while on
the Arctic coast vegetation lades out altogether. It will
therefore be better to refer questions of temperature to
the chapters on the separate provinces. From the winter
climate of the south of England to the Arctic night of
the Polar circle is a wide ranne.

Rainfall

Concerning the rainfall in Canada little need be said.
The hydrography proves that there can be no deficiency
in precipitation, for the innumerable lakes and streams
are constantly lull. There is very little difference in this
respect between Canada and the countries of the centre
and north of Europe lying in the same latitudes. in
Assiniboia what is called the American desert projects
north of the l)Oundary over an area of 20,000 square
miles, and in the ranching region of southern Alberta, while

i-' -fr

DOMINION OF CANADA

there is rain enough for grass, irrigation is necessary to
secure iarniing crops with certainty. There are dry
])eUs under the lee of the mountain ranges of JJiitish
Cdhuuhia, and a belt of excessive nujisture on the Tacitic
coast, but Canada is a country of abundance of water.
(Jrass land and forest cover it from one ocean to the
other, and follow the Mackenzie northwards to its mouth
on ilie Arctic Sea. The hnmense areas of water in the
great central lakes modify the climate l»y imparting
humidity to the air and moderating those extremes of a
continental climate which are developed in the centre of
northern Asia. In this respect the inmiense inland sea
of Hudson's Bay is of great benefit in preventing tlie
aridity which obtains on the plains to the south of the
boundary line.

Forest

It results, from the hydrographic and climatic con-
ditions before recited, that Canada is a land of forest. At
its discovery one dense continuous forest covered it from
the Atlantic to Lake Winnipeg ; and, north of the great
})rairies, the sub-arctic forest still sweeps round until the
head waters of the great western rivers are reached,
when the Ih'itish Columbia forest stretches southward
and westward to the Pacific. All the settled parts of old
( 'aiiada and the maritime provinces have been wrested
from the forest, and the rivers were the roads and lanes
through the sylvan wilderness, penetrating into its darkest
recesses with threads of silver. In summer the roi/agcnrs
canoe and in winter the Jiahiftnit'.'i sleigh made the mesh
of waterways available for locomotion long before the
settler had time or means to build roads or bridges.

What is known as the sub-arctic forest is a continuous
tract of woodland extending across the continent as far

<i t

.h:

\mi

CO.MPEXDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL

as the Itocky Mountains. The line of its northern Uniit
starts at al)Out hit. ij(j° in Labrador, and passes near
Churchill on the west coast of Hudson's Bay ; thence it
proceeds in a north-west direction to the shore of the
Polar Sea at the mouth of the Mackenzie river. To the
north-east of this line is the reuion known as tlie IJarren
Lands. The sub-arctic forest region varies in width, but
it may be approximately given as from 200 to 300 miles,
and this width across the continent would make its area
about 1,000,000 square miles. At its southern limit the
coniferous trees of the sub-arctic forest gradually change
into the aspen forests of the N ;rth-west Territories, and
the mixed forests of old Canada and the maritime
provinces. The coniferous trees extend down along the
Atlantic coast-line under the cooler and moister conditions
there existing ; but, in the interior, the forest is jnade up
chiefly of hardwood trees and of the more valuable pines.
The sub-arctic forest, east of the Mackenzie, according
to Professor Macoun, is made up almost exclusively of
only eight species : —

Pinus Banksiana
Picea alba
Picea nigra
Lavix Americana
Populus tremuloides
Popnlus balsaniifera
Betula papyrifera
Abies balsaniea

Scrub pine.
White spruce.
Black spruce.
Tamarack, larch.
Aspen.

Balsam poplar.
Paper or canoe bircli.
Canada balsam fir.

'I :1

The four first of these trees are the most characteristic,
and they are the last to disappear on the barren grounds
at til 3 north. They are not dwarfed, but retain their size
and importance to the last, only withdrawing from the
colder and wetter ground and occupying dryer and warmer
oases of soil at their extreme northern limit. The trees
change their character also. Thus the Banksian pine

\A i

DOMINION OF CANADA

along tlie northern shore of Lake Superior increases in
size, and in Athabasca attains a hei^lit of 100 feet and
a (Uameter of 24 inches. In the same manner the
asi)en, of small account in the east, hecomes in the west
an important tree. The forest of the Peace river valley is
composed of spruce and aspen, and this latter tree it is
which touches the edge of the prairies, making the oases
of woodland on the western plains, and penetrating the
coniferous forest at the north. It occupies dry situations,
and is considered to be an indication of good soil. The
region of aspen forest extends from Winnipeg to Edmonton,
a distance of 900 miles on a breadth of 50 miles, or
over an area of 45,000 square miles. Balsam poplar also
becomes a very large tree on the Mackenzie river and
its larger tributaries. This and the white spruce are the
characteristic trees of the jMackenzie valley, and attain a
diameter of four feet and over. On the other hand, it is
in the forests of Eastern Canada that the paper birch
reaches its highest perfection. It is a much poorer tree
on the Pacific coast.

South of the sub -arctic forest appear the forests
cliaracteristic of the different provinces. The province
of British Columbia has a forest growth peculiarly its
own. In the humid coast region the Douglas fir
{FscudotsHf/a Bouglasii) attains a height of 300 feet and
a diameter of from ten to twelve feet, and the western
cedar {Tliuya gigantea) reaches even to greater propor-
tions. Ninety -live per cent of the Kocky Mountain
forest is made up of five species — Engelmann's spruce,
black pine {Pimis Murray ana), white spruce, Douglas fir,
and balsam fir. East of the mountains is the belt of
poplar forest, a connecting link with the forests of
eastern Canada.

In the mild climate and rich soil of southern Ontario

i 'i

*i!

I 'I

i •,

' I
I

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'HV AND TKAVEL

iii)

is a different forast crrovvtli. There the predoiiiiiuint

trees are the oaks and tlie
hickories, and the chestnut,
buttonwood, and tulip trees.
In eastern Ontario and
tlirou,i,diout Quel)ec, south
of the Hudson's Hay water-
parting, the characteristic
trees are the maples,
beeches, birches, and elms,
beautiful in foliage and
graceful in form, attaining
here their highest perfec-
tion. In the maritime
provinces the same trees
are abundant, especially in
the central parts of Xew
Brunswick, but on the sea
level of the Atlantic and
the Bay of Fundy the cooler
climate brings back the
spruces and firs and pushes
the deciduous trees away
from the coast-line. The
maple, the national emblem
of Canada, is widely spread
from the Atlantic to Mani-
toba in four species, the
striped maple, mountain
maple, sugar maple, and
red maple. Two species,
the broad leaved maple (accr

DOUGLAS FIliS, NKAU VANCOUVER, B.C. r \

macroimyllum) and vine
maple {accr circinnatum), are found in British Columbia.

DOiMINION OF CANADA

A\'li!it is called the Manitoba maple is t' e ash-leaved maple,
(IV box elder {ncfjundo acvroidcs) tloweriiig like the maples,
but with pinnate leaves like the leaves of the ash. The
total area of wooded land in Canada lias been estimated
at 1,248,798 square miles; of this 70,000 square miles
are white and red pine lands in the provinces of Quebec
and Ontario.

The yearly increasnig use of wood pulp for the manu-
facture of paper and of many other articles of less
extensive use gives great importance to the immense area
of the sub-arctic forest, for it is the coniferous trees and
especially the spruces wliich are the most suitable for
])ulping. Areas of woodland passed over by tii lumber-
men attbrd t'^e precise kind of wood most desirable for
paper -making. Spruce is used almost exclusively for
mechanical pulp, and poplar, bass - wood, and lianksian
pine for chemical pulp. Almost anywhere at the edge
of the Laurentian plateau is an ideal situation for a pulp
mill, with the forests in rear, and the water, for motive
power and washing, flowing rapidly down to the plain
of the St. Lawrence. In the year ending June .'>0,
1890, the export of pulp amounted to the value of
§ 70,777, and of pulp- wood to $ C 2 7 , 8 G 5 , The imi ustry
is only in its infancy. Pulp -mills are being built in
all the provinces of the Dominion, and how lar the
industry may be developed is beyond surmise. Tlie
conditions existing in Canada are the most favourable
that can be conceived. During the last fiscal year the
value of the pulp exported to the United States was
^557,085, and of the pulp-wood $600,285, This was
in the face of a United States duty of ten per cent ad
valorem, lender the new tariff it is proposed to make
the duty prohibitive, with a view of admitting only tho
wood and compelling the entire manufacture to be carrieil

.■i

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGHAI'IIY AND TRAVEL

on in the United States. ]\lany of tlie mills in Canada
are owned by Americans, and they have bonght or leased
large areas of pnlp worjdland. As Canadian workmen
are not allowed to work in United States mills, the aim
of such legislation is to deprive Canada of her natural
advantages.

Fauna

The Dominion of Canada extends from oc ti to ocean
along parallels of latitude, and the physical conditions of
the forest region of the east, the prairie region of the
centre, and the mountain region of the Uacitic are
different ; but, now that the buffalo of the prairie country
has been exterminated, there is not i.^e diversity in the
land animals which might be ex[)ected. The sub-arctic
forest region to the north is a l)ond of union across the
whole continent in which similar conditions prevail.

Comnu'ucing with the animals of the widest range :
the moose {(dec Anicricaiius) is common througlu)ut the
forest regions of the east, in the forests of the Mackenzie
vulley, and of the northern part of liritish Columbia.
Tlu' most' accessible regions for moose hunting now are
in Noya Scotia and New Urunswick and in eastern
Quebec, but the moose may be found everywhere in the
northern forests. The woodland caribou {rangifer caribou)
is now almost extinct in Xova Scotia, but is found in the
forest regions of the Dominion from New Brunswick to
British Columbia. This aniuial should be distinuuislied
from tile IJarren Cround caribou {raiKjifer (rvorn/and-
icns) which roam in immense herds in tiie most northern
parts of Canada, on the Arctic coasts and islands, and in
northern Labrador. It is ju'actically the same animal
as the reindeer of Lapland, and inhal»its the treeless
plains of the uttermost nort^ . The Virginia deer
{cariacHs Vinjinitnius) is the deer still hunted in the

1,4.

DOMINION OF CANADA

more southern forests of Xew ]3riinswick, Quebec, and
Ontario, ani^ is found also sparingly in l>ritish Columbia.

Of the Carnivora the largest is the puma, cougar, oi-
iiHJuntain lion (felis coavolor) still met with occasionally
in the forest recesses of southern (>)uebec and in the
Rocky Mountains and Pacific regions. The wild cat
ami Canada lynx are found throughout the wooded
country from east to west, and, in sunnner, the lynx
migrates down the Mackenzie valley to the Arctic coast.
The wolf {ca/iis lujnis accident alis) is another animal
found throughout the unsettled portions of Canada. The
variety found east of the Uocky Mountains is the grey
wolf. It is almost extinci in the maritime provinces,
but is sonietijiics heard of in the wilder parts of Ontario
and (lUiebec and in the Xorth-west and Pacific territories.
The black wolf is found from the Mackenzie valley to
the Pacific, and the white wolf inhabits the barren
mounds and the islands of the far northern regions.

Many varieties of foxes (vidpcs ruhjarU) occur in
Canada. Throughout the wooded regions are the reil
fox, the cross fox, the silver or grey fox, — on the i)riiiries
the prairie fox (rulpcs macrouri/.s) and the kit fox (viilpcs
V(io.r) : — on the Barren Grounds and to the farthest north,
the Arctic or white fox {vulpcs hujopus) and the blue fox
{vulpcs fuliginot^ns). The wolverine {ijiilo Ih.^chs) has dis-
appeared in the maritime provinces, and is rare in C^uebec
and Ontario, but in the wooded regions of the Noith-
west and ]>ritish Cohunbia it is still connnon enough.

Tlie following are found everywhere in Canada irom
ocean to ocean and as far north as the forests reach : —
the fisher, pekan (iiiHstela Pcnnanti), the marten, pine
marten {miisfc/a Americana), the weasel {ptdoriiis
nil(/aris), the ermine {pi(ton'us crm incus), the mink
(pvforiiis /iitrcolii.^). The skunk {mephitis iitrphitica) is

i 1,!

^ t

< ' ,

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

also common throughout Canada, an ^ secure in il.s
unique power of defence, is often found close to the
settlements, where poultry are tlie objects of attraction
— a playful animal not in the least anxious to get out of
the way, and one wliich it is well rather to go round
than t(j hurry up. The otter {Intra tkaiadcnsU) is found
also throughout the breadth of the Dominion, and i'ar
north l)eyond the Arctic circle. The habitat of the
raccoon {procyon lotor) is more limited : it is found in
the eastern and Pacific provinces but not far north nor in
the prairie regions.

Bears of several kinds occur, the l)lack bear (ursus
Americanus) is the common bear of the country, though
now it is seldom met with near the settlements. It is a
somewhat. inolfensive animal when let alone, and prefers
wild fruits as a diet, though, if very hungry, will
scarcely let anything pass. The grizzly bear {I'n^tis
/lorrihi/is) is a dilferent aninud, but its habitat is
restricted to the central part of Ih'itish Columl)ia and to
the llocky j\Iountains, though in fact it is not often seen.
This is the most formidable animal of the continent.
The liarren (Jround bear (ursus ardos) is accounted a
variety, for the connnon black or l)rown bear does not
stray far from tlie wooded country. The polar beiir
{f It a/ assort OS maritlmns) is a true carnivorous liear, for
it can get no vegetable food, and lives upon seals and

upon

tish. It is found on the coasts and islands of the

Arctic Ocean and on the shores of northern Labrador.

The liodentia occurring in Canada extend across the
continent, and there are many varieties — f.r/. the deei-
mouse, the wood rat, and meadow mice of several kinds.
Lemmings of two kinds occur nortli of latitmle oG' — tlie
Hudson's r»ay lemming (cnnicithistori/ratns) from Labradoi
to the Arctic coast and islands, and the tawnv lennning

DOMINION OF CANADA

{myodcs obcnsis) around Great IJear Lake and in the
riocky ^Mountain region. Tlie musk-rat {Jil'tT zihcthicus)
is met witli everywhere throughout tlie JJominion, and
the beaver (castor Jihcr) — the most important creature of
tliis order — is found througliout from east to west and
us far north as the tree line extends. This \ery in-
leUigent animal is the chosen emblem of Canada, for it is
at home both in the woods and waters. Hares are found
also in several varieties — the polar hai'e {/cpm^ ti)nidus) in
the IJarren Grounds and along the Arctic coasts, the prairie
hare or " Jack rabbit " {Irpvs campestris) on the western
plains, the rablat {/rpi/:^ Aiiicrirani/s) throughout the
whole countrv to the limit of trees, and tlie wood hare,
a grey rabl)it {/rpiis si/fraficus), common in Ontario. The
Canada porcui)ine (rrcflilzoii do7'saf)'.s) extends from llie
Atlantic coast to the Mackenzie, and the yellow-haired
porcupine (-£'. epimnthuH) from thence to the l^acitic.

Of the scpiirrels there are very many kinds. Those
chiefly met in Canada are the striped squirrel, chip-
munk {himiax sh-iafiis) ; the grey s([uirrel or black squirrel
(srinni.^ Carol i/iensis), best known in southern Canada ;
the red squirrel {■^ciifrns HiafsiDiins) from the Atlantic to
the Kocky Mountains; two varieties {S. Iiiclianhoni and
S. Dnutjhissi) continue the range of this s(piirrel to the
Pacific; the woodchuck (urdomi/x w/o?/^'.'), reaching from
the maritime provinces round the shores of Hudson's
Pay to the Mackenzie river; and the Hying S(piirrel
(>ir ill ropier us rolucrlla), whicli is found everywhere as far
north as Great Slave Lake. Then there are the sipiirrels
nf the llocky ^Mountain region, viz. — Say's chipmunk
{/iiiiiias lateral i>i) and those of the western ])lains, viz. the
j^rey-headed spermo])hile and liichardson's s})ermoiihile :
and the S([uirrels of the far north, such as the northern
(liil)munk {lamias Asiatinis var. iKinalis) — Larry's sper-

Ril^;

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

niopliile {sj)crmop]bili>s enipetra) — these extend over the

Ikrren Grounds and beyond tlie Arctic circle. There

are also a few others of a more liniitetl range.

Of the Insectivora tlie most widely distributed arc;

moles, shrews, and bats. The star-nosed mole, the marsh

shrew, and Foster's shrew, are found from the Atlantic

to the Itocky Mountains. Tlie red bat, the blunt-nosed

bat, and the silvery - liaired

bat, ,are found all over the

J)oniinion, iind other species

of this order exist with more

local range.

Certain animals there are

i^vlj^^L^ ^Mmm'X peculiar to central Canada;
\ ^♦W'^JMSak.^^-^ .' ^^F<y/ tliese are the mule deer

{caricu'HS laacrotis), which ex-
tends up to, but not beyond,
the coast range of IJritish
Colundjia ; and the prong-
horned antelope {antilucapm
Aincriaina), which is w
creature of the plains. The
American elk {cervus Cana-
(Icni^ls) was formerly found in
eastern Canada, but is only
met with now from western
Manitoba to the TaciHc and north of the plains. It is
the same animal as the red deer ; it is sometimes called
" wapiti " and is most common in Ih'itish Cohunbia, for it
has been hunted to extinction almost everywhere else.
The })est of the prairies i,3 tlie goplier {f/idinomt/s faJpoiihs).
There are several varieties of go|)hers and prairie dogs :
they burrow in the ground and undermine the surface
with their colonies and villages so that horses' feet break

rKONQ-HOUNKU ANTKI.Ol'K

DOMINION OF CANADA

ihrouu:h and riding becomes in places unpleasant and
even dangerous. They are a great annoyance to farmers.
r)a(lgers also are common on the plains. Tlie coyote
{canis hitmns) is also an inhabitant of the western plains.
The story of the l)ison, or western Imffalo {has Amcri-

HEAD OF KI.K

ciiiivs) is disgraceful to civilisation. 1'he animal is
practically extinct. The Indians used tc live upon
liullido, and if they alone had hunted it tne species
would still survive ; but the white men, wiien the rail-
ways crossed the plains, brought all the destructive
forces of civilisation to bear and never rested until the
last accessible Initfalo was killed., The bones of the

COiMl'KNDlUM OF GEOGKAIMIY AND TKAVEL

U' r

!.! I

slaii^hterctl creatures whitened the i)Iains and are now
hein^t^- sold for fertilisers. A few individuals are jire-
served on Sir ])onald Sniitli's farm, near Winnipeg, and
there are rumours of a few wood buffalo surviving some-
where in the iMaekenzie valley. As late as 18 08 a
traveller across the plains drove with ponies for ten

^»...,V^;,

'■■*,,3^l

##■.

J***.

.-■**te..-

£.•%*

"»#-"'-4

m.I'l'AI.O, AT SII.VKK HKKIHIS, THK I.A.ST OK THKIH liACK.

successive days through a continuous herd, and the
prairie was black with animals as far as the eye coukl
reach.

Some animals are ])eculiar to the liocky Mountains ami
British ("oluml»ia. The liocky Mountain goat {Aj)l<>n'i'i"^
numtmii's) is still common on the mountains, and is
even increasing in numbers, as well as the Kocky
]\Iountain slice]) or big-horn {oris uiontann). The horns

of this 1
are x'ery

liic gout
to the

l)n'ci])itou
small deei
Ueside
llu'ir raiiL;'
)ilOS('/i(ift/s)

(•riat. 59'

iiiid alontf

Ai'ctie arc

<'iudi'(l in ,

''ver the

Atlantic o

arehipclagc

The nil

Arctic coa

*>iily one v

■^oul (jj/wca

DOMINION OF CANADA

of this latter animal are curved like tliose of a ram and
are very large. It does not seek the highest peaks like
IJir goat. I'otli these animals are limited in their range
to llie Kockv I\Ionntains, hut tlie goat delights in the

1!(MI<V MOLNTAIN SHKKI'.

IIKAI) I IF MLSK l).\.

pr('cii)itous cliffs and snowy peaks. There is also a
small deer (rdriana^ Columbianus) met with on the coast.

Jk'sides these animals, alreadv mentioned as extending
ilieir range beyond the Arctic circle, the nnisk ox (oriho.s
iiinsc/iiifii.s) must he mentioned. It does not come south
nt' Lit. 5!) , and its range is through the liarren Lands to
and along the Arctic coast and over the islands of the
.Vrctic archii)elago. The Eskimo dog must also be in-
cluded in any list of Arctic aninuds. It is fouiul where-
t'ver the Eskimo have ])een met with, whether on the
Atlantic or Arctic coast, or on the islands of the Arctic
archipelago.

The marine animals of Canada, on the Atlantic and
Arctic coasts, diller from those found on the Pacific.
'*nly cue variety of seal — the harbour seal or fresh water
wul {plwca ritulina) is found on both oceans. Its range

'.',

COMPENDIUM OF GE0GI5APHY AND TRAVEL

1 1

does not extend far north, but it is met with in Hudson's
Straits. The other varieties extend I'roni tlie Gulf of St.
Lawrence and the coasts of Newfoundland, far away along
the coast of Labrador, and along the Arctic coast and
islands. It is the main support of tlie Eskimo, and
provides liis food and clotliing, liis light and warmth.
His canoes and all his implements of wir or peace arc
derived almost entirelv from tlie se 1. The ringed seal
{l)]ioca foetid a) is most common in Hudson's Strait. The
harp seal {'phoca (ivoenlandica) is the nios*" common seal
on the coasts of Newfoundland and Laorador. The
hooded seal {cystophora cristatn) is found from the Gulf
of St. Lawrence to the Arctic Ocean, and the bearded seal
{erignatJuis harhitus) has the same range to the south but
readies far along the Arctic islands as well. Besides the
seals, tlie walrus is a common denizen of the Arctic seas
of Canada. In the times of the early sailors its range
was as far south as Nova Scotia and the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. It has been driven by hunters away north
to Labrador, Hudson's Bay, and the Arctic Ocean.

Although these animals are found in the Polar ocean
as far north as explorers have penetrated, they do not,
save in the one instance above cited, extend down liehring
Straits into the Pacific.

The animals of the latter ocean are the northern fur-seal
(callorhimis ursinus) on the west coast of British Columbia,
the sea -lion {eumato'piiio StcUeri) which goes north of
the fur-seal, the California sea-lion, which has a farther
southern range, and the sea otter {cnhydris lutris) on the
British (jolumbian coast. It was the trade with China in
the fur of this last animal that brought British Columbia
finit into notice.

Birds,

llic mi

stream.'-

\vi(h s

north,

their f

berries

Aim

bald eai

twelve (

circle ai

birds th

represeii

nunieix)i:

warljlers

are the

lnuumiii<

are the s

is very c

the citi€

l>artridge

abundant

up to tilt

which us^

^■el•y rare

plentiful

The wade

and wood

blue hero:

It is,

is pre-em

DOxMINION OF CANADA

t> o
)0

Birds

]\[oiitague Chaiiiljcrlaiii, in his Oota/of/i'c of CtniafUnn,
Birds, eiiumcTtite.s some six liuudred varieties. These, for
the most part, misi;rate to the soutli in winter when the
streams and poiuls freeze over and the ground is covered
with snow. They breed and rear their young in the
north, l)ut must toUow the open ground and water to lind
t'.ieir food. Those birds which live upon buds and
lierries remain all winter.

Amony; the birds (jf i»rev are the golden eayle and the
bald eagle, four varieties of gyrfalcon, twelve of liawks, and
twelve of owls. Some of these breed within the Arctic
circle and winter in southern Canada. Of the smaller
birds the woodpeckers are most widely extended and are
represented by nine varieties. The perchers are very
lunuerous, there being over a hundred varieties — thrushes,
warblers, jays, sparrows — the most showy of these birds
are the belted kingfisher, the scarlet tanager, the
hininning l)irds, and the orioles. Among the thrushes
are the sweetest singers — the rol)in or red-breasted thrush
is very connnon all sununer in the parks and gardens of
the cities. Of gallinaceous birds many varieties of
partridge, ruffled grouse, and ptarmigan are found
aliuudantly over all Canada in summer and winter and
up to the Arctic circle. The passenger or wild pigeons,
which used to ilarken the air in their nngrations, are now
very rarely met witli, the wild turkey, which used to be
plentiful in southern Ontario, has also become very rare.
The waders are numerously I'epresented by plover, snipe,
and woodcock, and by herons and bitterns. The great
blue heron is a common variety.

It is, however, in the order of Natatores that Canada
is pre-eminent — the ducks and geese are natives of the

COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

' l

northern part of the I)oininioii, juul there they breed in
prodigious nniubers on the tliousands of lakes remote
fi'oni tlie haunts of men. In the fall they migrate
soutliwards, stop]»ing on their way in southern Canada
until tlie lakes and streams bi'gin to freeze, when tliey
iio south as far as the southern states and the Gulf
of ]\Iexico. As many as thirty varieties are enumerated,
and, to adopt the theory laid down by the United States
in the fur-seal controversy, they are all Canadian born
sul)jeets visiting the south for a short time in winter, but
always aiiimo rcrcrteiuJi ; for tlieir domiciles are in
Labrador, Hudson's JJay, and tlie great northern lakes.
The number of these birds shot for food in the north is
innnense, and they form a large part of the staple food
supply of the Hudson's Iky posts. One of the old otticers
of the Company calculated that 80,000 geese are annually
killed for the posts around the Bay alone, besides those
killed along the Mackenzie and in other parts of the fur
countries. They pass in immense nund)ers to the south
late in fall and return early in spring, generally Hying very
high, and they come back invariably to the place of their
birth to breed.

The coasts of the Dominion abound with waterfowl,
gidls, puffins, auks, guillemots, murres, besides ducks and
geese. The islands in the (lulf are clouded with sea-
fowl — the ]>ird Eocks, the Perce Eock, and the unin-
habited rocky islets of the long Labrador coast are the
breeding-grounds of almost every kind of water birds.
More than half of the fresh water of the world is in the
Dominion, and is gathered up in myriads of lakes from
the still pools of innumerable streams to the sea-like
expanses of the great lakes. There is no other country
like the \ )ominion for water, and it is not wonderful that
there is no other country like it for water-fowl.

DOMINION OF CANADA

Fishes

Tlie sea-tislieries of Canada are well known. The
Atlantic coast waters abound with cod, mackerel, herring,
shiid, haddock, halibut, and its shores with lol»sters and
oysters. Some of the largest items of export from
Canada are products of the fisheries, and their money
values will be found in the tables of exports. ]\[any
foreign vessels ilock to Canadian waters to share in these
treasures, and the Dominion employs a regular fleet of
cruisers to enforce the fishing laws and to guard the
rights of Canadian fishermen. The Pacific waters of tlu;
Dominion also swarm with food fishes. The prodigious
nms of salmon in the rivers of the Pacific coast are
widely known by the imnumse (pumtities of canned
tisli exported. Large lunnbers of salmon, identical in
species with the salmon of the British rivers, are caught
ill the streams trilaitary to the river and gulf of St.
Lawi'eiice. Many of the salmon rivers are leased to
lishiiig clubs of sportsmen, foreigners as well as natives,
wlio camp upon them in the summer.

While the wealth of the Dominion in its sea-fisheries
is well known, and has been the subject of incessant con-
troversy with the neighbouring republic whose fishermen,
having exhausted their own seas, are desirous of exploiting
those of Canada, it is not so generally known that all the
.ureat lakes and rivers of the Dominion, up to the Arctic
coast, abound with food fishes. Lake trout, salmon trout,
speckled trout and whitefisli are caught in the farthest
iiortli in great numbers by the Indians for food and for
tile use of the Hudson's Bay Company's posts. In one
season 75,000 whitefisli were caught in Great Slave
Lake for the use of the Hudson's ])ay Company's post
<»n tlie lake. The value of the fish caught in the

!ii;

COMI'ENDIUM OF fiEOGUAl'HY AN1> Tlt.VVKL

waters of tlu.' pioviix ■ of Ontario alone, in the ycai
1894-05 was $l,ir)<J,*)G8. In Manitoba and tlie Noitli-
we.st Territories for the same period it was i?787,0G7.
Tliese were the produee of the settled parts of Canada,
but beyond them are the great northern lakes, Athabasca .
Great and Little Slave Lakes, and Great IJear J.ake and
all the far northern waters aboundinij in fish. The total
pi'oduct of the fisheries of Canada br«jiight to market in
the year 1804 was S2 0,7 10,5 To.

(Jreat attention is u;iven, not oidy by the Donunioii
government but by the pro\ineial governments, to ihc
protection of fish and game. The penalties for infringe-
ment of the close seasons are rigorously exacted, and,
irned by tlu; fate of the buffah) of the prairies, ])ublii'
opinion sujtports the laws. In some i)arts the nundu-r of
wild animals is increasing. Parties are not uow allowed to
go into the woods and kill as manv wild creatures as thev
can. Indians are allowed a necessary latitude ; but the
wanton destructiveness of cultivated white men is held in
check. Fish-breeding establishments have l>een estab-
lished on the shores ol' the ocean and inland waters, and
lobster and oyster cidture is also carried on under
government ofhcials supervised Ity a scientific ofilcei.
The attractions the Dominion offers to sportsmen in every
one of its provinces are very great, and the people ever\ -
where are alive to the importance of strictly enforcinu
the laws in this respect.

Difficulties sometimes arise on the tSt. Lawreiu-e lakes,
and one of the United States border newspapers puts the
matter very clearly as follows : — " Once the fisheries ol
Ohio were far superior to those of Canada. Now the
conditions are reversed ; Canada, having given reason-
able protection to the fish, is reaping a golden harvest
from her fishing interests. Having persistently fought

cvo'v
lisli in
lo ihc
the ])(
a iJLilit

The
Ity the
sail'ii's
(-■iintiiK'i
pnint t(i
caiiic, ai
l)L'li('\'('(l
departei
tribes of
.supl)o,se
from A.s:
relations
"pillion, i
piiiison 1
The diffei
the Indi;i
to alliniti
Kskiiuo.
wyaii.
the time
beotliiks (
I" the tr]
lenuinatei
hrought ii
theiu peri
•'I'eu treat

■ -1

i
I

ItOMIXION OF CANADA

cvt'i'v effort to i)i'otect tlie tifsli in Oliio, ami driven tlie
tisli into ('aiiiuliau water, the Anx-rieaii fisliernieii, contrary
{n ihc law, attempt to foll(»w the tisli into the waters of
the I)oniiiiion, where they are caught and made to suffer
;i liuliter punishment tliau they deserve."

Indians

The wikl trihes of the wc-^tevu worhl are still known
Iiy ihe general name, Indian, given thcni hy the early
sailors who thought they had discovered the Asiatic
continent. Whatever vague traditicjns they have, all
point to the north-west as the direction from whence thev
came, and to the north-west the spirits of the dead are
believed to tra\el on their journey to the abodes of the
departed. AVithout expressing any opinion as to the
trihes of Central and South America, it seems natural to
suppose that tlie Indians of n(jrthern America crossed
from Asia hy P.ehring Strait, and the opening of trade
relations with Japan tends continually to contirm this
opinion, as greater opportunities are develojied for com-
])aiisou between the people on both pdes of the Pacific.
The different tribes of Indians in the Dominion, excepting
the Indians of British (.'oluml)ia, are grouped according
to alHnities of language into the following families. 1.
Kskimo. 2. Algon([uin. .'5. Huron- Iroquois. 4. Chipe-
wyan. The island of Newfoundland was inhabited at
the time of its discovery by a race of savages, the
r»ei)thiks or Ked Indians, wdio seem to have l»een superior
h) the tribes on the adjacent coasts. They were ex-
terminated by the whites and by the ]\Iicmacs, who were
brought in by the French at I'lacentia, and the last of
tlieui perished some time about A.D. 1827. 1'hey had
been treated with such cruelty and treachery that they

COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAYEL

h I

retired into the inaccessible recesses of the centre of the
island, and would never trust the overtures of the Govern-
ment in its later attempts to make amends for past
injuries. There they passed away in silence, and their
last traces were found at lied Indian Lake. The
Indians of North America are called savages, and were
cruel in war, but in America the whites have ol'ten
l)een cruel in war and peace, unjust, and relentless. From
the discovery of the continent they stole the unsuspectiiin
natives and sold th. ., into slavery — the very first name
on the continent, Labrador, tells of man-stealing. What
poet or painter can ever depict the last renmant of the
Beothiks, which proudly and silently passed away on the
shores of lied Indian Lake, spunung the proffered over-
tures of the whites who had persecuted them to the last
family with their superior weapons ! From the scanty
vociibularies which ha^•e been preserved it cannot Itc
])ronounced with certainty whether or not they belonged
to the Algonquin race ; though the weight of authority
inclines to the belief they did.

The Eskimo — Innuits as they call themselves — extend
from northern Labrador to the northern shores of Hudson's
Bay and along the coasts and islands of the Arctic Ocean.
They seldom penetrate far inland or leave the haunts of
tlie seals that provide them with all they need — food,
clothing, and implements. At some not very remote
[)eriod the Eskimo crossed over into Greenland. From
Alaska, along the whole immense stretch of seveial
tliousand miles of coast to Greeidand, tliey all speak the
same language and are supposed to have crosseil from
Asia by ilehring Strait. They are a good-natured and
peaceful people, and, although tneir first contact with the
Europeans on the Labrador coast was hosl^ile, it was tlie
fault of the wliites who, by their violence and cupidity,

DOMINION OF CANADA

alienated and terrified them. Tlie natural disposition of
tlie Eskimo is seen by the assistance they have always
given to Arctic explorers, and liy the fiict that they have
never attacked isolated parties no matter how enfeebled
hy hunger, and yet these starving and liel[)less white
strangers must have possessed many objects tempting to
ihe poor natives. They are intelligent and support
tlieniselves witli ease in those far nortliern regions where
white men, with all the resources of civilisation, have
seemed unequal to the task. They liave nuich artistic
capacity. Eskimo, who had never l)efore seen pencil or
jiaper. ditny surprisingly accurate maps for Parry, Koss,
and otlier Arctic voyagers. Tliey are fond of music and
k'aru to sing in harmony, and to i)lay on various nmsical
instruments with ureat readiness, and thev alone of the
American tribes have trained an animal, tlie Eskimo dog,
lo do their Indding. They are of middle stature, not
dwarfed, as often represented, square-shouldered and very
hardy beyond all other races. They are bold and daring
on the water, attacking alone in their frail kayaks on the
open sea the largest sea animals and yet always at jteace
with each other. The Indians at the south have always
been their enemies. The name Eskimo is Algon([uin and
means " eater of raw meat," as a term of reproach, and,
Iieyond doubt, whatever their artistic tastes may be they
have not been directed to the culinarv art. The Moravian
missionaries have christianised the Labrador Eskimo, and
tliose around Hudson's IJay, liatlin land, and (he mouth
nf the Mackenzie have conu' under the inlhience of ilif
Anglican missions.

The most widely distributeil race of Indians in the
dominion is the Algompiin. This great i'amily extends
hdiu the Atlantic to the ivocky aVfonntains. In the
maritime provinces the Micmacs, ]\lalicetes, and Aben-

COMI'EXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

ill

■ (

akis ; in Lal)rad()r and eastern (^)uebee the Naskapees
and Montagnais ; in western (^)uebec and Ontario the
Mississaugas, the Ojibways, and the numerous tribes
wliich assisted the French in the okl colony wars, gener-
ally grouped under the name Algonquin ; in Manitoba
and the north-west, the Crees and Saulteux — all these
are Algonquins, and their languages are reducil)le to the
same stock. The Cree is the typical language of this
group and is a key to tlie others. This race of Tndianr
were great hunters and warriors, but had not the politi-
cal organisation n(.»r capacity of some of the races
with which they came in ccmtact. They stretched away
to tlie south along the Atlantic coast, and were the
kinsmen of the Delawares, Shawnees, and otlier tribes
in the present United States.

Tlie Iroquois-IIuron race and its varying fortunes arc
inseparal)ly interwoven with the history of Canada. A
few facts seem to stand out with sutiicient distinctness
from tlie shadowy pre-historic traditions of this remarkable
race. When ('artier first o])ened u[) to Kuroj)e the valley
of the St. Lawrence, he fouml at Ilochelaga (Montreal) ii
fortified, palisaded town inhabited l)y a people who culti-
vated the soil. These were people of the Iroquois-Huruu
race. The AlgoiKpiins roamed over the country to the
north, and probably to the east of Three Itivers ; and
there were even then hostile relations between the two
races, for the Quebec Indians sought to prevent Cartier
from going farther up the river by stories of the fierce-
ness of Tndians, whom Cartier calls Toudanians, aVl in
fact a people of that name are placed on a celebrated
map of 1544 (Sebastian Cabot's map), near the site of
Hochelaga. That map was based ui>on information de-
lived from Cartier's voyages, but when Champlain arrived,
seventy years later, the town of Hochelaga had dis-

DOMINION OF CANADA

apiieared — not a trace reniiiined : the Iroquois were
living ill the region now known as northern Xew York,
and tlie Algonquins occupied the whole of the St.
Lawrence valley, if roaming over the territory in war
parties and hunting parties can be called occupation.
The country round Montreal was without inhabitants —
a debatable land — the border march of two hostile races.
The lio(|uois, with their fixed abodes and more civilised
hal)its, liad lieen driven away and Chaiuplain had arrived
just at the time when they were recovering from their
disasters.

The Ir(jquois were the Jionians of this continent in
tlieir genius for political government. Tiider their mis-
fortunes tlieir spirit rose and tiiey organised tliemselves
into a confederacy. There were five tril)es at first - -the
Mohawks, tiie Oneidas, the Oiioiidagas, the Cayugas and
the Senecas. These last are the Toudamans of the French
maps, and were called by the Frencli Tsonnontouans in
after years. Tliey were on the extreme west, near
Xiagava, and tlie ^Mohawks were on the extreme east,
near hake Chaniphiin. The council house of the con-
federacy was in the centre with tlie Onondagas. The
Tuscaroras, a kindred tribe to the south, joined the
confederacy later, and it was thenceforth known as the
Six Nations, or generally as the lro(|uois. This ])(ditic
pt'oplu held the balance between the English and French
I'lir inaiiv vears. They were really six independent
ivimblies, organised for united defence, and the un-
organised AlgoiKpiins were unable to bear u]» against a
polity so subtle and persistent. J)uring the seventy
years between ('artier and Champlain some revolution
had occurred to alienate the Irocjuois from the llurons,
due. say the traditions of the Hurons (Wyandots), to a
dusky Helen (so history keeps re]»eating the old story),

Iri'

I 'I

1, Mi

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

" i

n
&

I I

and the Hnrons had been driven far away to the coiintry
between Lake ISinicoe and Georgian Bay on Lake Huron.
Tliey were pursued by the Iroc^uois with relentless hatred
and utterly destroyed as a nation. It was a political
maxim of the Iroquois, as of the Iiomans, never to carry
on more than one great war at a time and utterly to
crush and root out an enemy, so as never to have the
work to do over again. Having terrorised the Algonquins
and ruined the Hurons, they jn-oeeeded to exterminate
the Xeuter nation and the Tobacco nation then living
in the peninsula of Ontario. Then '^mne the turn of the
Eries and the Andastes, and theii less career was

only arrested by contact with the po\> .liul tribes of the
Sioux. Their position was central. Tliey were sur-
rounded on all sides by Algonquin tril)es who had not
the political sense to unite and act in concert. The
Iro(piois were a nation of orators as well as of warriors,
and they dissembled until they were in a position to
strike. For more than one hundred years they were a
terror to the surrounding tribes, an anxiety to the
English, and a menace to the French. With most pro-
found policy they massacred all the adults of each tribe
they conquered and adopted the children, who grew up
as Iro(|Uois, and thus their numbers were kept up.
Their warfare was cruel, but not more cruel than that
of Ca\sar in his Gallic wars — not more cruel than that
of Simon de IMontfort in Languedoc — nor than that of
Tilly and Wallenstein in the Thirty Years' War : nor more
cruel than the wars on the Turkish and Tartar frontiers
down almost to our own time. A remnant of the Hurons
took shelter at Lorette near (»)uebec after the ruin of their
nation, and a few are left, but of mixetl blood. Tiie
Iroquois survive still on their reserves at St. Eegis, and
Cauglmawaga in Quebec, and on the (Jrand river and

DOMINION OF CANADA

Bay of Quinte in Ontario. Of the descendants of the
Six Nations there are about 9000 surviving in Canada
and 7000 in the United States, without counting the
('hero' es, who are of the same race.

language of the Iroquois-Huron race is more
musical than that of the surrounding people. To them
we owe many of our most sonorous names, such as
Toronto, Ontario, Niagara, and in tlieir political con-
federacy was the germ idea of the union of the English
colonies.

Tlie fourth great group of Indian triljes is the Cliipe-
wyan or Athabascan, called also the Tinneh. These roam
over the region between the Algonquin Crees and the
Eskimo ; west of Hudson's I3ay and north-west t)f Little
Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca, including the interior of
Alaska and a part of British Cohunbia. The different
trilies are known as Dogribs, Yellow-knives, Slaves,
Hares, Loucheux, Sicannie, Xahanie — and there are many
others. There are outliers of this ]"ice to the south such
as the Apaches and Navajos, and one of the tribes of the
Blackfeet, the Sarcees, is of the same stock. In the north
tliese Indians are of a peaceable disposition, although the
xVpaches and Xavajos are the most untamable savages
of the plains. This group of Indians is inferior to the
Algonquin in intellectual capacity and civilisation as well
as in physical strength.

The four great races above described are grouped Ijy
the affinities of language, although their habits dilfer
according to their surroundings. The northern Chipe-
wyaus live on lisli and game and have no horses, while
the Apaches and Navajos are equestrian tribes. In British
Columbia are many smaller tribes differing in language.
In the northern part of the interior are the Tinneli al-
ready mentioned ; in the southern part are the Salish or

lil;

iil

^if

H», j;

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'lIY AND TRAVEL

Shusvviip, and in the south-east tlie Kootaiiie Indians. On
the coast the divisions are more nnnierons. The Haida.s
occupy tlie Queen Charlotte islands. Along the coast
and on Vancouver Island are the Tahinisian, the Kuakiool,
the lUlhoola, and the Aht or Xootka Indians. These last
are the Indians known to tlie tirst traders. A more
general name, Kawitshin, includes severnl other trihes,
probably of Salish stock, living round the Strait of Georgia.
IJesides these are the C'liinooks of the lower Columbia.
All these are maritime tribes and build good canoes which
they manage with skill and are al)le to paddle almost any
distance along the coast of the Pacific. .Many of these
Cohunbian Indians have settled down to steadv work, and
earn good wages at the salmon canneries along the coast.
They seem more ada})table to the methods of civilisaticai
than the tril)es of the interior, and some even live in good
houses with furniture. Since the discovery of the country
a trade language has been developed known as the Chinook
jargon. It is a nnxture of Chinook, English, French,
Xootka, and other tongues, corresponding to the Pigeon
English of the ( 'hinese coast. P)V means of this " botch-
potch " trade has l)een carried on along tlie coast since the
English fur-traders arrived. It is the " volapuk " of the
Pacific coast.

The Dominion has relations also with some of the
tribes of the great Sioux (jr Dakota race which overlap the
frontier along the ^Missouri Coteau. The Assinil)oines or
Stony Sioux have given their name as liefore stated to one
of the chief rivers of Manitoba. The Pdackfeet, a power-
ful tribal coid'ederation of this race, have large reservations
in Alberta, and are still formidable from their nund)ers.
After the great rising in ^linnesota, some others of the
Sioux implicated removed into Pritish territory where
ever since they have peacefully resided.

...ii*.

DOMINION OF CANADA

In dealing with the Indians the Canadian (Joverirnient
has ac(|niied tlie land by definite purchase, fi;ranting certuin
;iinuial subsidies and making certain delined reservations

L'KinVKOOT. THK GIUCAT C'HIKK Ol' THK lil.ACKI'EKT.

of land for the support of the Indians. (Ireat care has
always been taken to see that they are not cheated Ity
white })eople, and intoxicating liquors of all kinds are
oxcluded from the Indian reservations. Schools for the
young, and industrial schools for teaching ti'ades to V(nith

* Hi M

t..l

i k'

I -v,

P i

.1 1

'4)111

rrr

i I

1
I

' 1 '

■

1 '

1 1^

iftj^^4

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'HY AND TKAVEL

It i

are curried on, and farm instructors are stationed on tlic
reserves to teach the Indians to cultivate the ground.
Good results have followed, and much greater success i.s
hoi)ed ior. The Dominion CJovernment has now in hand
a capital sum of 83,Gr)0,r)20 belonging to the Indians and

INDIAN Hoy, 8 YKAltS OLD BEl'OUE BEINU SENT TO SCHOOL.

administered for their Ijenefit. Oflicial returns are made,
from every agency, of the individual earnings of Indians,
and they amounted in the aggregate to $1,602,005 for
the year ending dune 30, 1895. This was earned
throughout the Dominion by fishing, hunting, lumbering,
loading ships, helping farmers, and acting as guides, to-

DOMINION OF CANADA

nx'tlier with the salo of hay and other prochice raised liy
their own liands. In Ihitish (Johinilna there are many
Indians in good circumstances, even from a white settler's
point of view.

The hist lleport of the Indian Department up to June

TUK SAMK BOV, 12 YEAHS OI.U, JN THE UNIKOUM OF THE
(iOVEUNMENT .SCHOOL.

."^'0, 1896, gives the numljcrs of resident and nomadic
Indians as follows: —

Indian I'oi'iji.ation hk Canada

Oiitiuio 17,663

<,>uel)ee 10,626

Nova Scotia . . . . .2108

t . 5 t

I'll

i.J

COMI'KNDIUM OF (lEOrUtAl'MV AND TRAVEL

I: .?

111

!! i

\ I

It'

New liiuii.swu'k ....

1;.90

I'lince Edwiii'il Isliiml

30S

Hritisli Coluniliiii ....

. 25,068

Miuiitoliii

9444

Nortli-we.st Tenitoiies

. 14,67l>

Ui^per Mackenzie district.

400

Eastern Atlialmsea ., .

881

Lower Mackenzie

20:>8

Great Slave Lake ,. .

i!)ir.

Kiviera aux Liards ...

377

Atlialiasea ,, .

. 1331

Peace Kiver ,. .

893

Lesser Slave Lake ...

1218

Yukon ,, .

2600

Nelson and Churchill River districts

8r.2

Eastern Rupert's Land

4016

Lahradnr — Canadian intcrioi' .

1000

Arctic Coa.st — Eskimo

1000

Craini ttta

1 100,027

Of these 16,»S12 are known to be Pagans; 28,408 are
luuler the iiiilueiice of Protestant, and 42,4") 4 of Pomau
Catholie missionaries.

Political Divisions

The Dominion of Canada is composed of [)rovinces,
each having a government of its own, independent for
local purposes. Commencing on the east, they are as
follows : —

Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick
Prince Edward Island

Capital . . Halifax
, , . Fredericton

,, . Charlottetown

These three form a group — the maritime provinces —
similar in climate, population, and general conditions.
They are Acadia, L'Acadie of French history.

Quebec .
Ontario

Capital

C,>uel)ec
Toronto

DOMINION OF CANADA 79

These are suiuetiiiies called Old Canada. They arc
diverse in population and lan<i;uage, but similar in climate
and nhvsical couditiuns. Thev are La Noiirrlle France of
French history, and compose Canada in its narrow and
strictest sense.

Manitoha

eg.

Tlie central prairie province — capital, Winnipeg

Bt • itish Culu inhia

The Pacific province — capital, A'ictoria. ]Jesides the
provinces there are the following: —

Tkuiutoimi s

Asslniboia
All)ert;i

Siiskatohewiui
Athabasca

These form the Xorth-west Territories, and arc
governed by a lieutenant-governor and council from
IJegiiia as a ca])ital, but are more dependent on the
central government than are the provinces.

The remaining portion of the Dominion is divided
into

Unorganised Districts

.Mackenzie — the Mackenzie region.

Yukon — the ]>ritisli portion of tlie Yukon valley.

Keewatin — the territory between the west c(jast of
Hudson's ])ay and the Mackenzie valley.

Ungava — the region between the east coast of Hud-
son's Bay and the strij) of the Labrador coast belonging
to Newfoundland.

Franklin — the Arctic archipelago.

These remote regions have no organised government.
Keewatin is, however, under the care of the Lieutenant-
Governor of Manitol)a, and it is worthy of note that

: si-

. : '!'llB

<::'iw

.'i'jllffil

; ^ :/i!;

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

(luring the seven years' term of the last governor there
was no crime committed calling for his intervention.

Population

The last census of the Uomhiion was taken in 1891,
and the following tables are from the returns of that year.
In using them it must be remembered that more than
one-half of another decennial period has elapsed, and that
they are understatements to that extent. The growth of
the western cities has been very rapid during tlie last six
years, as will be seen from the ratios of increase. A
census of the province of Manitoba alone was taken in
1896, and the result is given in the chai)ter on that
province.

Population hy Provixces

Ontario .
Quebec .
Nova Scotia
New Bniuswick
Manitoba
Bi'itiyb Cohinibia
Prince Edward Island
Tlie Territories

Census of

UiiUo of

1891.

Increase

2,114,321

9-73

1,488,.')35

9-53

450,3^6

2-23

321,263

— •

1.52,50(5

144-95

98,173

98-49

109,078

0-17

98,967

75-33

Total

4,833,239

Of the total population, 28'7 per cent live in the
cities and 71 "3 percent in the country. The proportion
of males is 509 of every thousand. In the western
provinces there is a large preponderance of males. In
British Columbia there are 642, in Manitoba 553, and
in the territories 543 to the thousand.

DOMINION OF CANADA

■(''.

PeRCENTACH ItY ?l!OVIN<'Es (IK THK TOTAL Poi'l-LATION

Ontario .....

43-9

QiR'heu .....

30-7

Nova Scotia ....

9-3

New Bninswiek ....

0-7

Miinitobii .....

3-1

I'riiice Edward Island .

2-3

IJritisli Columbia

2-0

Territories .....

2-0

100-0

rul'ULATIitN l!V NaTKiXALITIK.S

Txini in the Dominion of Canada
,, other British possessions

foreign countries

Total

4,185,877
4;t0,2.')2
ir)7,110

4,833,239

!i I

PorULATIuN 1!V llKLKilONs

Roman Catholics

^lethodists

Presbyterians

Church of England

Baptists

Other denominations

Total

1,992,017

847,765

755,326

646,059

303,839

288,233

4,833,239

The Eoman Catholics are therefore 41-21 per cent
of the total population; Methodists 17 '5 4; Presbyterians
l.")-G3 ; and Church of England lo-37.

Population by Languages

Canada having been colonised first from France, a very
large proportion of the population speak the French
lanoiiaue. The ratios given in the last census are : —

KieiR'h-siieaking Canadians throughout the Dominion — per cent . 29-4
All others 70-6

S'2

C().mim:ni»hm of (iEocuApiiv anh tiiavkl

The present distriliution ol' the l^v<) laui^iiagt's is in
the ])erc'i'iitii.i;e ratio I'ollcnviiiL;, taking tlie pnivinccs
separately : —

h'li'iich.

All

itlin>

Is'i)\a Sciitiii- . . (i7 !••■!•')

Nfw I'.iuiiswick l!i-2 SO-8

I'liiicr iMhviinl lsl;ui(l 10-8 S!»-J

(,>u.'lMr. . . 80 -l r.t()

I'lov ill

|-'|i'licll

All

tli.r>,

IS '.•">••_'
7 ■•>

Oiitaiio

.Manil(ili;i . .7:! '.'"J

l>iitish Coliiiiiliia 1 •:'. I's

North-west 'i'cirilorifs "j:! !"7

The !''reiieli languige is, by law, upon an iMpial tooling
with the Enghsh in the Dominion Parliament. Memliers
may speak in either language, ami all ])nhlie proceedings
and doeuments uw. jainted in I'^reneh us well as in Knglisli.
This is due to tiie iaet tliat, exeepling in British Columbia.
Freneh was the first European language s]>oken ; the French
having first ex})lored and occujiied by settlements oi' ])osls
every province in tiie Dominion south of Hudson's 15ay
from the Atlantic to the IJock}' Mountains.

A careful ealeulation has recently been made in tlic
department of statistics, and the ])opulation of the
Dominion has l)een estimated at o, I 25,41)0 at the end
of the vear IS!)!"..

Communications

The hydrograph}' of the Doniiinon and its hist.orv
show that it is, by nature, a country of easy communica-
tions, and belore tlu; era of railways great efforts were
madt! to improve the waterways by canals and develoj)
them to the utm";'t extent jtossible. Tlie total expemh-
ture by (lOVeMiment foi' canals on cai)ilal iieeoinit amounts
to }?()(),!)4S,:;48 to -lime .".O, ISDO. There aie three
eliief systems: 1. The Si. Lawrence system by canals
having an aggregate; length of 7 I mile •. These are now
bi'ing dei^pened to 14 feet. Their [)resent dej>th is from

DOMINION OF CANADA

!i led u]i\Viir(ls iis the Wdi'k lias ind^'rcsscd. The locks
live -[7i I'cct wide iiiid L'»Ml (o L*7(> t'cct Iohl;-. Ocean
liners, driiwiiiu' L'7.', lecl. pass u]) to Mdiiti'eal, OSO

slcal

miles IVoiii the Sirait of r»elle-isle. I-'ntin thence to the
lieail (tf Lake Sii])eiii)i' there are eii;ht canals, with Til
Idcks in all. ox'ereoiiiiii^ a total rise of (KM) feet, and

I |- A 1

SAUUf-rST^E. MARI£--

( .M i I li i i; i II )

/. fl H C H II 10 II

Si,,lir •'( I' I 1

X'it,^j\i\ij L/i\:j'. ^J.'Uvl

o I u >.

SAll.T STi;. MAIUK CANALS.

iciidcriiiu- a\ailahle to lai'Lic inland steamers an additional
-livich of 1271 miles to I'orl Arlhni'. The Sanll Ste.
Millie Canal, jnst completed, makes a c(»n(imioiis con-
iii'ctidii throu,^hont, on the ('anadian side (»f the lakes.
-. The ( )Ua\va and Ikideaii system uivini; an inteiior
I (iiiii(( tiiin hetweeii Montreal and Lake Ontario. '.'>. Tlit^
h'iclu'lieii system, rendt'rinn' availal>l(> hy a few locks the
wiiolf course of the Ilichelieu river into Lake Champlain.
Tlu'iv arc other canals, hut these are on the main arteries
"I cduniierco.

'i:' ? i

If J

■4i

111

COMTENDIUM OF GECJGKAl'HY AND TRAVEL

When the rnilway era hegaii the water coinniunica-
tioiis of Canada were complete to the head of Lake Hurcjii,
The people saw the necessity of keejnng up with the
advancing age, and the Government (for in Canada :i is n
people's (Jovernment) up to June oO, 189G, expended
directly, or in subsidies, an aggregate sum of $l.')8,899,l;'>5
upon railways. This has been spent during the last
fortv years. In l.SoO there were GG miles of railwav in
operation, and in 189G there were l.'JO railways with an
aggregate length in operation of 1G,;>87 miles. Tiicse
also, l»y amalgamation and absorption, may conveniently
be arranged under a few systems: 1. The Grand Trunk
system, extending Irom (^)uebec and from Portland, j\Iaine,
and following the old settled districts along the St. Lawrence
valley, brandling out through Ontario and ternunating at
Chicauo in tlie United States; it has the lar<'est trail ic.
Tile aggregate length (jf this system is MlGl miles.
Next in order of time is the Intercolonial railway,
liuilt and managed by the (loveriiment, extending I'ldin
Halifax, St. dolm, and Sydney on the Atlantic, to (\)uebic.
Tliis svstem is ll)U7 miles long. Last Iv, the ("aiuuhiii!
l*aciHc system stretching from (^)uebec on the St.
Lawrence, and St. John on tlie Atlantic, to A'^ancouver
on tlie l^icific, and toucliing, Ity many ])ranches, nearly
all the large cities. The total length of this system is
021 G miles. These three systems control 10,774 miles,
of the total of 1(),;)87 miles in Canada.

The railways of Canada have a uniform gauge of 4 ft.
8.V in., and the great trunk lines are ])rovided with
parlour, dining, and sleeping-cars, and all otiier conveni-
ences for the luxurious travellers of the present day.
The numlier of ]iassengei's carried in ]8!)G was
14,810,407, and tliere were L*4,L'GG,82r) tons of WvvM
moved. 'I'he gross earnings were Sr>0,.")4r),,'")GO, and tlu'

■fer'ifiiailitHii laateBiiA

,lll.

TJ|!|

i I •■ ft'; •'

mmmmmmn

!!!i^W"»"-'* ■"■"

THE CIIIKF TRITNK RAILWAYS OK Tilt", DOMIINION OV CANADA AND OF TIU

k^^^^"

«(\

ijn

110

ion

se K(' 7& lou

I — t — x: — I — , —

_i?" .v,«/< „/ A>u//i/*/i -V(V„

Laiuliiii >:il'iu<l Similtinl ;:t1JlL'7 (iiiknpui' SI CJi

VADA AND OF THK NORTnKRTS P » " T OF TIIK tJWITKD STAThS

TV) fgjM page ^5.

.1 Sliuiliinl JllJiLT loikHjiu]' SI tJuuiiijiC iiim S W.

^tftn/ord'3 [Tto^^ SstaJb*, loruL>n.

\:<im

O 8« 64) 75 U)U

■ ■ I ■ i

200

800

utn

Scale of -EnffUsh MUas

DOMINION OF CANADA

working expenses were S-->r),042,655. The total paid-
up capital invested in railways up to 189G was
$899,817,000, of which amount 22 per cent was supplied
by state or municipal sulisidies.

"Wliile the Grand Trunk railway parallels the old
waterways and the Intercolonial connects the maritime
provinces with the St. Lawrence valley, the Canadian
I'acitic railway passes througli the centre of the Dominion,
and opens up to settlement regions before inaccessible, as
well as the boundless regions of the west and north-west.
It realises the aspirations of every Canadian from Cham-
plain down to our own day by opening up a western passage
to the great South Sea through its natural portal the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. The following table of distances gives the
length of the chief routes from England to Shanghai, and
it will a|)pear that not only is the ^'oute through Canada
shorter in summer, \vhen the ocean steamers go direct to
Montreal, but that in winter, whether the traveller land
at Halifax, IJoston, or Xew York, the shortest route is still
by way of Montreal and the Canadian PaciHc railway to
Vancouver.

DlSTANCICS FROM Ll VKIiroOI, TO SHANGHAI

v/. Bi/ (he Sf. Lawrence route — deeimer direct to Montnal.
r/(? CiUiadiiiu I'acitic and Vancouver . . . 11, 06.'< miles
,, Chicago, Xortliern Pacific, and Taconia . . 11,387 ,,
,, Chicago, Union Pacilic, and iSan Francisco . 11,549 ,,

D. Hi/ Ifiillfii.i, X.S,, Its the .It/nulirpnrf, intdfroiii thenecbij

mil til Mont real.
J'iit Montreal, C. P. II., ami Vancouver . . . 11,504 miles
,, Montreal, Chicago, X. P. R., and Taconia . 11,823 ,,

,, Montreal, Chicago, U. P. R., and San Francisco 11,987 ,,

C. Bif Jiiistun, Muss., iist/ie Af/iiiitie port, nnd/roin thener liif ruif to

Mont rent or t'/iienijo.
J'iil Montreal, C. P. R., and Vancouver . . . 11,556 miles
,, Ciiicagit, N. P. R., and Taciinia . . 11,723 ,,

,, Chicago, U. P. R., and San Francisco . . 11,SS5 ,,

■ m

) li

C E A \-'<nii-^..<f" oi (.j:!ccxiv<\i.h

SHOHTKST Itdl'TE, l.IVEHI'OOl, T(l EASTEHN ASIA.

■^

DOMINION OF CANADA 8/

Ik J!,!/ Xc'f York ((s t/ie .Uhnitic port, (nnl f/icno; hi/ rai/ to BrorkviUc in

Ciiiiiiihi II ikI t'liiridjo,

rid Brockville, C. P. K., ami X'iUicouvcr . . 11, r»86 miles

,. (.'liicago, N. P. R., ami Tacoina . . . 11,770 ,,

,, Chicago, U. V. K., ami Sail Fniiicisro . . Il,lt32 ,,

The route by ]\I(Mitreal is of necessity the shortest,
because the higher the latitude the closer are the
meridians of loni^itude, and the quicker will a traveller
reach the lonyitude of Shanu'hai. This is in effect the
passage to Cathay which Cabot set out to find exactly
four hundred years ago, for he first fully api)reheiided
the fact that the great circle on the globe from Europe
to Japan was by the north. The railway coinniunications
of each province are given more in detail in the separate
chapters.

Government

The government of Canada is, like that of CJreat
Ihitain, monarchical in form but democratic in substance.
Theoretically the Crown with the Imperial I'arliament is
supreme, and, on rare occasions, on petition of the colonial
governments, these supreme powers are put in motion ; as,
ibr instance, in the case of the British North America
Act, 1<SG7, which formed the separate provinces into a
confederation and re-distributed all their existing powers
into new groups. l*ractically, however, the Dominion is
self-governing, and the (J^ueen and rarliament of Canada
carry on the government under all the forms, the implied
understandings, and the conventions, written or unwritten,
which obtain in the Mother Country, so far as they are
itpplicidjle. I'recisely as the (Jueen, by her ministers,
and together with the Imperial rarliament, governs the
IJritish Isles, so the (.^)ueen's representative, the ( Jovernor-
(ieneral, by his ministers, and with the Canadian I'arlia-

:i Kil

i:i:

Fir^

' \

COMPENDIUM OB' GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

iiient, governs the Doiniiiiori of Canada. Both parliiunents
enact the laws under simihir forms, and raise and voto
away the taxes under the same safeguards, lioth parlia-
ments have certain of their number, in form appointed by
the Crown, but responsible to parliament, who nominally,
as a connuittee of the (Queen's Trivy Council, but eti'ec-
tually, as a committee of the majority in parliament,
administer the laws and collect and expend the revenues.
The parallel is precise as between the government of the
Mother Country and that of the Dominion.

The Dominion of Canada is a confederation of distinct
colonies or provinces, each of which had previously a
constitution of its own. At confederation the existing
laws remained in force in each province until altered by
competent authority ; but the political powers and capa-
cities merged for a moment into the central imperimn
immediately to emerge nowly grouped. The powers of a
more general nature were vested in a new creation, to
wit the Dominion (rovernment, and the powers of a more
local nature were re-granted to the provincial governments.
Tlie provincial governments are presided over by lieu-
tenant-governors appointed by the Dominion Government,
and their proceedings and administration are carried on
under similar forms ; but whether the lieutenant-governors
are representatives of the Queen or of the Dominion
Government is a moot point in political theory concerning
which much has been said on both sides.

The seat of the Government of the Dominion is at
Ottawa. The Government consists of the Governor-
General, appointed by the (^ueen in Council, the Senate
of 78 meml)ers, appointed for life by the Governor-General
on the recommendation of his Privy Council, and the
House of Commons of 213 members, elected for five years
by the people under a franchise so popular as almost to

DOMINION OF CANADA

amount to iiiaiihv.od suffraf'e. After everv census the
constituencies are approximately equalised and adapted
to the movements of the population, and this sometimes
gives rise to misunderstandintr, for the electoral divisions
for Dominion purposes dit!er from the electoral divisions
for provincial purposes, and the maps often are, in that
respect, misleading.

The powers which reside in the Dominion l*arlia-
ment are such as relate to the regulation of trade and
commerce, the post office, the customs and all indirect
taxation, militia and defence, navigation, banks, currency,
bills of exchange, interest, Indian affairs, the public debt,
the criminal law, naturalisation, patents, and a general
reserve of all powers not specially allotted to the pro-
vincial governments.

The provincial governments consist of a lieutenant-
governor and a legislature of one or two chambers, I'or
the provinces are not all alike in this respect. The
subjects under the control of the provincial governments
are — direct taxation for local purposes, the ])ublic lands
of the province, municipal institutions, property and civil
rights in the province, education, hospitals and charitable
institutions, administration of justice in the province,
and generally all matters of a local nature. The pro-
vincial governments make laws, each for its own pi'ovince
within the limits of their powers, and the I)ominion
(iovernment legislates in the subjects allotted to it and
its laws extend over the Dondnion. The sum total of
political power may be considered as divisible into four
classes, {a) Powers reserved exclusively to the Dominion
Parliament. {h) Powers reserved to the provincial
legislatures exclusively, (c) Concurrent powers. (W)
Pesiduum of powers unenumerated or unprovided for,
vested in the Dominion Parliament.

i;11

:1!

!.!'

CO-MTENDIUM OF GEOCa.'Al'IIV xVND TltAVEL

Two courts sit at Ottawa and have jurisdiction over
the whole J)()niinion — tlie Exclieqner Court, having also
vice -admiralty Jurisdiction, and tlie Supreme Court, to
whicli appeals may be carried from any court of the
country. From all the courts in Canada an appeal may
he taken to the Imperial Privy Council or, as it is called,
to the Queen in Council. The provinces dift'er in their
interior organisation ; some have excellent municipal
institutions, self-governing in matters of roads, bridges,
licenses, and such like local matters, and others are not
so well organised. One important point must be noted,
that, as the Imperial Government has power to disallow
within two years any act of the Dominion Tarliament, so
the Dominion (Jovernment lias the power to disallow any
act of a provincial legislature.

The government of Canada, hi its federal aspect, has
some points of resemblance to that of the United States ;
])ut, in its spirit and administration, is the outgrowth of
the constitution and political genius of the JVIother
Country. It is the aim of the members of all political
bodies in Canada to follow English parliamentary rules,
to quote Flnglish authorities, and to be guided 1 )y English
precedents. In its system of local self-government is
found the most practical method of governing the
enormous area of the Dominion, and every municipal
council is a sciiool of instruction in public administration.

While the fundamental political law of the Dominion
is, as above stated, the Ih'itish North America Act of
18G7, the fundamental civil law in all the provinces but
one is the common law of England, and the fundamental
criminal law for all the provinces without exception is the
criminal law of England. In the province of Quebec, for
reasons stated in a later chapter, the fundani'^ntal civil law
is the law of France before the devolution, in other words,

DOMINION OF CAXAKA

it is tlio IJoiniiii Civil Law as prevail iiiL;' (Hi the continent
f)t' Eur()[)e, based on the code of -lustinian. It happened
that the law of Quebec had just been consolidated int(j a
code by a coniinission of very ciqiable lawyers, and the
province of (Quebec entered confederation with this code
and, as ]tr()i)erty and civil riglits are sul)jects reserved to
the provinces, the French law cannot be changed by the
Dominion Parliament. Manv who liave lived under both
laws prefer it to the English law, l»ut the procedure is
more cumbrous.

The judges are api)ointed for life by the Governor-
(leneral in Council and can be removed only by impeach-
ment. The civil service also is a l)ody of permanent
ollicials as in Clreat Jiritain and all her colonies, and in
the United States as far as the recent reformation of tlie
civil service there yet extends.

The militia of Canada consists of — (a) the active
militia, a body of about 35,000 men, volunteers well armed
and disciplined, and assembled in camps once a year for
practice in manccuvring in large bodies ; and (A) the
sedentary militia, consisting of all the able-bodied men in
the J)ominion of snitable age and who are liable to be
called npon for personal service in time of war. This is
a potential, not an active force, for it has no organisation.

In relation to the Empire, Canada is bound by imperial
treaties. It has, however, been cnstomary of recent years
to call in the assistance of Canadian representatives in
the negotiation of all matters affecting the Dominion.
Customs duties are imposed by the Dominion Parliament,
impartially and equally, on goods imported from the
Mother Countrv or from foreiy;n countries. A Zolli'crcin
of the Empire has been proposed, l)ut pulilic opinion
is not yet ripe for it either in (Jreat Britain or in the
colonies.

t i

I 'I

■i!^

;i -

li'i

,t uU

COMPENDIUM OK GKOGHAI'HY AND TKAVEL

History

AVliile tlie separate provinces of Canada have histories
full of interest and romance, the annals (tf the collective
])(tMiini()n date only from 1<SG7, when the Ikitish North
Anieri'-a Act came into effect. It is only thirty years
ago, and since then there have been, fortunately, no wars,
and nothing which is startling' or picturesque. The
country has steadily advanced, and as each province cast
its l(<t in with the first four, national spirit grew, and, as
the provinces were knit together hy railways and the
pr(n'incial delegates continued to meet at a common
centre and discuss measures for the general good, the
people of the ])rovinces learned to know each other and
hegan to take pride in the potentialities of their common
country. Local jealousicis began to fade; away, and the
mental horizon of every man widened out to the scope of
an enlarged citizenship. Two events are dominant in this
short period. The building of the Intercolonial railway
and the building of the Canadian Pacific railway ; without
these confederation woidd have lieen impossible, and to
secure them the people of Canada have made, and are
still making, great sacrifices. Tn despite of fears within
and jealousies without, the Canadian people went on in
its own way to fulfil its own destiny, and beyond doubt
will go on to perform the part assigned to it hidden in
the pounsels of Providence, whatever that part may lie.
Only Newfoundland .stands iiloof bearing her burdens
alone. Whenever she shall think fit to join the union
of sister provinces, the dream of many generations of
colf>nial stat(!smen will be realised.

DOMINION OF CANADA

Trade and Commerce

The resources of Caiuula luivt; lieeii developing rajiidly
(luring the last few years. Tlie Dominion possesses for
gia/ing and wheat lanils the broadest prairies, for lumber-
ing the most extensive forests, and in its seas and lakes
the most }»roduetive fisheries in the world. It has eoal
cr(H)[)ing out on the shores of tlu; Atlantic, and eoal
('i'0])})ing out on the shores of the Paeilic, and coal under-
lying large areas of the interior plains. The output in
ISOt) was ."»,74."),1'.")4 tons, (}old has Iteen mined in
Xova Scotia and in Uritish ( 'ohuubia for many years,
but durinLi' liSOo and ISiMJ an entirelv new <j:old area
lias been brought into ])rominence and successfully
worked near Lake of the Woods in westein Ontario,
and the Kootenay region of Jiritish Columbia has
di'veloi)ed unexpected riches. These most impitrtant
factors will draw the attention of Canadians more to the
mineral resources of their country.

It was natural that the attention of the peojjle should
in the iirst instance have been dirt.'cted to the sea; for
llie deeply indented coast-line on the Atlantic is cal-
culated to be 10,000 miles in length, and i\\v. I'acilic
coast in all its sinuous length is estimated at 7000
miles. Such a conformation of coast-line produces good
harbours, and the forests at the water's edge suggest
shipbuilding. Added to these conditions, tlu; innnense
iidand waterways were, l)efore the railway age, the only
lines of comnmnication, and naturally the ]>eoj)le tuined
in the Iirst instance tt) the water, Tlu; introduction of iron
ibr shipl)uilding, and the adoption of steam as a motive
]tower struck, a severe blow at the chief industry of the
iiia'itime provinces, and tiie amount of registered tonnage

[f'~

' 11

]

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ii lli

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^- (

1 ;.|

1. .

; :

1
iill...

ii'l

V' '

' m

.ill

COMTENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

has been decreasiu.L?. Tii 187'^ it reached its lii^diest poinl,
being then 740 8 vessels, aggregating 1,.'3;5.':>,015 tons.

Canada, however, still holds the sixth ])lace among the
nations as an owner of shii)ping. The last availaljle re-
turns came down to the pud of the vear 1895, when the
number of vessels owned was 72 (J 2, and the aggregate
amount was 8 2 5, 8. '50 tons register.

The following tal)le will give an idea (jf the activity
of shipping in the ocean and inland ports : —

Taum', ok Movemknts ok SiiirriNt; i.v Canada

\'i's-i'ls. Toiiiiai,'!'.

Sea-<;oiiig vessels arrived iuid ilcparted

exclusive of coasting vessels , . 29,802 ll,4r)8,824

Coasting vessels ariivcd an<l (li'imrted . 125,017 27.4.'n,753

Inland vessels arrived anil deiiarted . 3y,l>2 10,411,049

The foreign trade for the year ending June 189G was

Imports
Exports

.«!118,011,r.08
121,013,8.V2

Total trade

.■=!239.U25,3t)0

This trade is chietly with Great JUilain and the
United States and, as the natural course of trade has l)een
detlected bv outside legislation, it is necessary ti» consider
tlie itt'uis separately. It will then ai>pear that the
imports from (Ireat Britain are oO ju'r cent, and fmm
the United States 5. '3 per cent of the total amount. Of
the exports 54 ]ier cent are to (Ireat Britain and oG
per cent t<> the United States. The exports do not seem
to be much alfected by the incessant ettbrts of the United
States Congress to check them by new customs duties, for
Ml fact most of them are of food and raw material. It is
very ditticult tor any country in this present age com-
pletely to isolate itself. The trade of the Donunion is
steadily growing, and the hostile legislation which aims to

r«i

DOMIXION OF CANADA

ihive Canadian trade away fioni the United States does
not kill the trade, 1)ut simply diverts it into new channels
and o])ens np wider avenues and safer markets.

The Statistical Year IJook of Canada shows that while
articles of food and animals make up .''O'OT per cent of
tlie imports into the United States they form luit 10'89
per cent of the imports into Canada : the people of Canada
raise all necessary articles of food, but of course import
tea, coffee, and raw suL,ai. They manufacture cotton and
woollen goods, booth and shoes, soaps, paper, sugar, lieer,
whisky, agricultural implements and edge tools, with a
large numljer of other articles. The following classitica-
tion of the sources ot their exports will show the way in
wliicli the people of Canada procure such foreign goods
as tiiey recpiire : —

Chief Exrours 1895-1*6, sutiwiNc; SmurKs whknc k dkkivkd
Produce of the Mine . . . 88, 101, 7(50

Produce of the Fisheries . . . . 11,183,(598
Produce of the Forest .... '27,321, 8!t4
Animals and their products . . . 37,ini,:!it6

Agricultural pr.Mhicts IH, 974, Oil

Manufiicturers 10,222,877

Miscellaneous 473,8;'4

$112,985,490

The course and tendency of trade relations is shown
bv the following table more in detail : —

Aggukgatk Ti'.AKK (Imi'ihits and K.\i'<inTs) by CiirM'iiir.s

Great liritaiii §99,070,030

United States . .... 103.022,434

West Indies 4,707,243

Germany 6,688,990

France 3,392,482

China and .lajian 3,339,429

Exports to (Jreat P>rilain .... !?t;6.690,2(i8

E.vports to United States .... 44.448,410

Imports from Great Hritain . . . 32,!i79.7l2

Imports from United States . . . 58.574,021

rti

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ill: !

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGllAl'HY AND TKAVEL

The following table gives at a glance the foreign trade
(if each province. The inland provinces, of necessity, do
much foreign business through the sea-board cities.

Taulk of Imports and Exi'dins v,\ riioviNCEs, Yeau ending

Ji-NE 30, 1896

Imports.
Slt5,02.'),980

49,841, rr.o

8,336,S20
.">,406,(;48
L', 704, 134
5.. '(♦it), 238

490,24.'.

139,693

I'loviiice.

Ontario

(^liit'beo

Xova Scotia

New Bnniswick

Manitoba

P)ritisli Columbia

Prince Edward Island

North-west Territories

.S118,011,r.08

Exports.

!?32, 866,9 17

.')5,.')17,731

10,999,160

7,907,911

2, 00.'), 867

1 0,.". 76, ;'..") 1

979,979

159,706

.'r;i21,013,852

During the last two years the exports have exceeded
the imports, and in the last fiscal year the excess of
exports amounted to 3«^,002,.")4.'>.

In order to give a clearer idea of the productions of
('aiiada a lew of the leading items of export are given.
The values are the export values as entered in the
Trade lleturns.

Coal .

(iold .

(Jyiwnni

Cup|)er

Puoiti'cE OK THE Mines
§3,457,46.''. J Lead .
1,099,053 I Xickcl

205,641 ! Silver .

294,2.30 I

8408,625

486,651

1,595,548

The devclopm<'iit of the l.ritish Columbia mines has
been so rapid during the Inst few months tiiat the
statistical officer of the (Jeological Survey gives the
values for tlie calendar year ISO (5 at more tiian twice
the above amounts. He puts the gold i»roduction alone
at .$2,S1(I,20G.

Canned Lobsters
„ Salnmn

PltOl.n K OK THE FlSHKlllES

. .«!2,149,067 I CodHsli
. 2,803,457 I Herring

. !?3,150,180
411,386

DOMINION OF CANADA

ThK Flil!l>T

Horses

(.'attle

Clieese

Apples
I'ease .
Wheat
Flour .

l^ark and loys .
Lumber .
Square tiiuber .

!?1,731,321
19,99(5,803

Animals anh tiieiu Piioducts

. $2,441,118 I Furs .

. 7.086,822 I Bacon .

. 14,283,825 I Wool .

807,090 I Canned Tongues

AfiHK i; LIT i\.\ L I'nont'cTS

j>l,4f>:.,629

1,311,211

8,007,957

895,148

Hay .
Maize .
Tobacco leaf

81,822,689

3,802,269

832,797

820,605

81,976,749

1,131.429

153,566

A study of the preceding tigures will give an idea of
the productive capacity of Canada, as shown Ijy its
foreign trade. It only remains now to add that the
average customs duty, on all imports into Canada, is 1 8
per cent ad valonia, equal to }i^3'94 per head.

|i'i^:i

!: li

Financial

The total net public debt of the Dominion is
$258,497,432. The revenue for the year ending -hine
30, 1896, was $30,018,590, and the expentlitnre
$30,949,142. The deposits in the (iovernment savings
l»anks stood on the sanu-^ date at $40,799,318, or $9*13
]ier head of the population at its latest estimate.

The banking system of Canada is franu'd upon that
of Scotland, and is carried on by a comparatively sinad
number of institutions with large cajtitals and having
many branches, so that every town of imixjrtance has
one or more banks to assist in d(!veloping its trade, while

COMPENDlUiM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL

:((:

eacli branch has the entire resources of tlie central hank
to fall hack upon, and its accunnilated experience to guide
its operations.

The currency of the country is redeemable in gold.
There is no nunt in Canada, and the \dtiniate implement
of redemption is the sovereign at its legal par \'alue of
S4'87 (4'86G6) to the pound sterling. Silver is also in
circulation (the coins being minted in England), and is a
legal tender to thf extent of ten dollars. The currency
in actual use, ho^-•ever, is })aper, and consists of notes
issued by the Government and notes of $5 and upwards
issued by the banks. The (Jovernment issues notes of
many denominations, but has a monopoly of notes under
$5. The Government notes are legal tender, but are
themselves redeemable in gold on demand at the l)ranches
of the I'reasury in all the large cities. The absolute
safety of the notes of all the banks is secured by a per-
(jentage on circulaticjii paid to the (Joverninent, and held
for the immediate retlemption of the notes of any bank
which may happen to fail. This fund is called the Bank
Circulation Redemption Fund, and the Government pays
the banks interest upon it while liolding it for the
security of the pubUc. All l>aidv notes are a first charge
on the assets of a luink.

The banks may issue notes to the amount of their
})aid-up cajntal, and these nmst be kept at par throughout
the Dominion. They are l)ound to make monthly state-
ments to the (Jovernment, certified under oath, of their
assets and liabilities. The statement is in considerable
detail, and all loans are classified undei' heads to show
their nature. The reserves are also set forth, with such
otiier information as may have any important general
bearing on the bank's business. These statements arc
published in the Official Gazette. Many other con<litions

DOMINION OF CANADA

iiie laid down in the interest of tlie public, but these
are the most important.

The amount of Dominion notes in circulation in
Ft'ltruary 1897 was $21,955,011, and the amount of
the bank notes in circulation in the same month was
S.')0,409,197. The a«igregate capital of the banks is
861,831,391 ! The laruest bank is the Uank of Montreal,
whicli has a capital of $12,000,000, and a rest of
80,000,000. It is the largest l)ank as to its actual
capital in \orth America, the fifth largest in the British
Kmpire, and the eighth largest joint stock bank in the
world. The rapid development of the Inisiness of the
Dominion is shown l)y the enormous growth of the
business of the l)anks during recent years.

In order, however, to form a fuller conception of
tilt' I)(jminion and the pursuits of its inhabitants it is
necessary to give a few figures concerning its manufactur-
ing industries. The following are taken from the census
iL'lurns of 1891, and although six years old, they will
siiitice to show the nature of these industries : —

VaMK ok THK ANNTAr, OUTITI' OK SOME I,KA1)1N(; M ANTKACTrUKS

("iirriagcs. Railway Car-,, and Rolling; Stock . . .S19, 711,581

Sugar Rctineiies (cliieliy ill Quebec) . . 17,1*27,100

Tobacco Works (eliictly in (.iHiebec) . . '2,37r),3lil

Cigar Factories 3,367,204

Cordage, Rope and Twine ..... 1,723,534

Meat Curing 7,125,831

Furniture ........ 7,706,093

Hoots and Shoes (chiefly in (>uebee) . . . 18,990,381

Tanneries 11,422,860

Oil Refineries 2,064,115

Agricultural Iniplenients (nearly all in Ontario) . 7.493,624

Fouiulries and Machine Shoi)s .... 16,405,280

Rolling .Mills 3,lti3,930

Soap and Candle Factories 2,151,910

Taper Mills 2,575,447

Pill

i 1

i\4

Hl>

4-lW.

iff

100

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

^llt.

11!

Pulp Mills

Cheese Factories .....

Saw Mills

Musical Instiuiuents (iieai'ly all in Ontario)
Cotton Mills (nearly half in (i)uel)ee)
Woollen Mills (chiefly in Ontario)

!?1, 057,810
9,784,288

.'.1,262,4:35
3,:36:3,7i:5
8,451,724
8,087,871

ToT.VI; ValUK of AxXt'AL Ol'TlTT OF MaMFACTOUIKS

liY Pkovincks

Ontario

Quebec

Nova Scotia .

New Brunswick .

British Columbia .

Manitoba

Prince Edward Island .

Territories .

Total for Dominion

$239,781,926

153,195,583

31,043,392

23,849,655

11,999,928

10,155,182

4,345,910

1,827,310

.S476, 198,886

Distances

It will be convenient to record for reference in this
connection the distances between some of the chief ports
of the world and Canada. The table of Atlantic distances
was compiled Ijy Captain Smith, Ik.N.ll., for the St. John,
X.B., Board of « Trade. The Pacific distances were puli-
lished 1)}' JJritish Columbia government officers.

Distances to Points ox the Atlantic

.MK.KS

Antwerp to Halifax ....... 2767

,, St. John, N.B 3017

Belfast to Quebec via north of Ireland and lielle-isle . 2521

,, Halifax 2349

„ St. John, N.I5 2590

Cape Race to Halifax ....... 470

St. John, N.B 720

Glasgow to Halifax . 2381

,, Quebec ri« north of Ireland and Belle-isle . 2564

,, St. John, N.B 2631

,, Sydney, Cape Breton 2212

DOMINION OF CANADA

Halifax to Portland, .Me

St. John, X.B

Liverpool to I'oston, Mass., via north of Ireland and
Ca]ie Race ........

Liverpool to Boston, ^hiss., cid south of Ireland and
Cape Race ........

Liverpool to Halifax via north of Ireland ami T'ape Race

,, ,, south of Ireland and Cape Race

Livt rpool to Xew York, averai,'e distance, mail steamers

route .........

Liverjiool to Quehec via north of Ireland and Belle-isle
,, ,, ,, ,, Cape Race

,, ,, south ,, ,,

Livpr]iool to St. .Tohn, X.15., via north of Ireland and
Cape Race .......

Liverjjool to St. John, X.B., via south of Ireland and
Cape Race ........

Liverpool to Sydney, Cape Breton ....

Loch Ryan to (^>m'l)ec via north of Ireland and Belle-isle
,, Halifax .......

,, Sydney, Cape Breton ....

St. John, N.B

Milford Haven to Halifax ......

Quebec via Belle-isle
Sydney, Cape Breton
,, St. John, X.Ii. ....

(^tuebec to Montreal (from the Market Wharf, Quebec,
to the Allan Wharf, Montreal) ....

101

Mll.KS

:3:5H

•111

•2 SO 7

2830
'24r>0
2475

;nor)

2t533
2801
2826

27U0

2723

2282
2.') 13
2330
2161
2580
2353
2587
2186
2603

140

:'']!

till

Distances to Toints on thk Pacifu;

Liverpool to Hong-Kong via San Francisco

,, ,, ,, ,, Vancouver
San Francisco to New York .....

., ,, Boston .....

Sydney to Liverpool via Vancouver

,, ,, San Francisco .

Vancouver to Boston via Montreal

Calcutta ......

Hong-Kong .....

Honolulu, H.I.
Liverpool via Montreal .
London via Suez Canal .
Alontreal .....

12,883

11,649

3266

3370

12,663

13,032

3248

8987

5936

2410

5713

15,735

2906

102

COMPENDIUM OF CEOGRAl'IIV AND TRAVEL

Vancouver to New York via Brockvillc

,, Suva, Fiji

Sydney /n.S.W

,, Yokoliania . . . . .

Yokohama, Japan, to Liverpool via San Francisco
,, ,, ,, Vancouver

31tJ3
r.l90
6960
4'2S:i
11,281
10,047

NOTE TO CHAPTER III

The following is a list of books in which more detailed informa-
tion may be found. It is by no means an attempt at a complete
bibliograjdiy : —

BOUUINOT, J. G.

The Story of the Nations. Canada. New York : G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1896.
Recently published, and the most convenient nummary of the history
of the Dominion.

HOUUINOT, J. G.

How Canada is governed.
A short Account of its Executive, Legislative, Judicial, and Municiiial
Institutions, etc. Toronto : The Copp Clark Company, 1895.

BOUIIINOT, J. G.

Manual of the Constitutional History of Canada. Montreal : Dawson
Brothers, 1888.

Cen.sus OF Canada, 1891. Ottawa, 1893-97.
Four volumes, 1893-7.

Dawson, G. M.

Elementary Geography of the liritish Colonies in America. London :
Macmillan and Co., 1892.

Dawson, Sir William.

Handbook of Geology for the use of Canadian Students. Montreal :
Dawson Brothers, 1889.
A concise and complete Summary of the results of Canadian Geological
Exploration to date.

Dawson, S. E.

Handbook for the Dominion of Canada, prepared for the meetinj.;
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Montreal 1884. Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 1884.

'h i

DOMINION OF CANADA

103

Depahtmi'.ntal Rki'()I!ts of the Government of Canada. Presented to
Parliament annually.
Department of Marine and Fisheries.
Department of the Interior.
Department of Railways and Canals.
Dejiartment oi Indian Atl'airs.
Department of Public "Works.
These reports always contain matter of general interest not to be found
elsewhere.

Feklaxu, AiiiiK J. B. A.

Cours d'Histoire du Canada. 2 vols. 8vo. Quebec: A. Cote, 1861.
This was a historical course at Laval University. An impartial and
judicious work.

Gkoiaxucal SriivEY of Can'ada.

Report of progress. Summary from its oommencement to 1863.
Montreal : DaAvson Brothers, 1863.
This volume contains the Geology and Physical Geogi-aphy of the pro-
vinces of Quebec and Ontario. It was published before the confederation
of the provinces.

Geological and Natural Hlstouv Suuvey of Canada.

Annual reports since 1863.
Gkant, Geouoe M., D.D.

Picturesque Canada. 2 vols. 4to., illustrated. Toronto: Beldeu
and Co,
Ingall, E. D.

Annual Report on Mineral Statistics and Mines. Cfcological Survey.
Ottawa, 1897.
KiNGSFORD, William.

History of Canada. 8 vols. 8vo. London : Kegan Paul, Trench
and Co. Toronto : Rowsell and Hutchison,
The most important history yet issued. Two volumes have still to
appear.

McCoiU), F. A.

Handbook of Canadian Dates. Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 1888,

Macoux, John.

The Forests of Canada and their Distribution, with notes on the more
interesting species. Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada. Ottawa,
1894.
Maii!, Chaulks.

The American Bison — its habits, methods of capture, and economic
use in the North-west, with reference to its extinction and
jtossible preservation. Trans, Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. viii.
1890.

1 1
i 1

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I'll

104

COMPENDIUM OK fiKOGRAl'HY AND TIJAVKL

Mn.Ks, H. H.

History of Canada umlcr Kreiii'li Rrgiiiif. 1 vol. Svo. Montreal :
Dawson iirotliers, 1881.

i'AHKMAN, FllANCIS.

.Series of Historical Works on Canadian History. 10 vols. Svo.
Boston : Little Brown and Co., various dates, 1865-84.

These admirable books should be read by every one interested in
Canadian history. Mr. Parknian devoted his life to the subject.

Rowan, J. J.

The PIniigrant and Sjiortsman in Canada. Home experiences of an
Old Country settler, etc. Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 1881.

Sklavyn, a. R. C.

The Dominion of Canada and Xewfoundland. London : Kdward
Stanford.

Selwvn, a. R. C, and Dawsox, (!. AI.

Descrijitive Sketch of the Physical Geography of the Dominion of
Canada. Alontreal : Dawson Brothers, 1884.

Statistical Year Book, The, of Canada (published aiiniially, George
.lohnson. Statistician), Ottawa : Government Printing Bureau.

Stttakt, R. F.

Annual Rei)orts of the Director of the Meteorological Service of
Canada. Last issue is for 1890. Ottawa ; Government Print-
ing Bureau, 189(3.

Monthly Bulletins issued every month.

Sui.TE, B.

Histoire des Canadians Francais. 8 vt)ls. 4to. Montreal : "Wilson
and Co. 1881.
An important work containing a great deal not found in other histuries.
The form of publication is, however, inconvenient.

TVHELL, J. B.

The ALammalia of Canada. Proc. Canadian Institute. Toronto :

1888.

WiTiiHow, W. H., D.D.

History of Canada. Toronto: AVilliam Briggs, 1888.

i
i

CHAPTEK IV

IIISTOIIY OF ACADIA

TiiK liistoiics of tile three maritiiiie provinces are in-
extricably interwoven. To the ji;eneral reader, familiar
witli narratives of the rise and fall of great e)»ipires, the
theatre may seem small and the number of combatants
insignificant, but the great duel between France and
Kngland commenced in the forests and harbours of Acadia,
and there two different systems of colonisation came into
the strongest contrast. The French system failed because
the king was a human Ijeing and had not su[)ernatural
})0wers of controlling events occurring in a world utterly
I'emote from anything he or his courtiers could conceive
uf. The Frencli (iovernment had regard primarily to
the interests of France. Tlie English Parliament were
always content if the colonies did not trouble them
with their existence, and the colonists carried on their
affairs primarily in their own local interests. There was
no science or political wisdom about it, lait the English
colonists, living in the country, did what seemed necessary
to be done, while the French ofiicials were toiling to get
the truth out of voluminous and contradictoiy reports.
The English Parliament meddled more with Newfoundland
than with any other colony in America, and the result is
manifest now to all.

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COMPENDIUM OF CJEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

! tM

The combatants were indeed few in nunil)er, but the
stake was one of the greatest that was ever fought for Ijy
two great nations. Had there been a succession of kings
of France like Henry IV. all North America would
probably have been at this moment French, and the
P^nglish people would l)e in the ideal position coveted by
some of their own statesmen : shut up in the two islands
to manufacture generally for well-disposed foreigners.
The battle on the heights of Quebec was one of the great
decisive battles of the world, and the first skirmish of the
conflict opened in Acadia.

The history of Acadia commences far l)ack in the
times before the pacification of King Caimte, during the
great overflow of the Scandinavian people. Step by step
they passed over the western ocean to Iceland in A.D.
874, to Greenland in A.D. 086, and to Acadia in A.D.
1000. Concerning this there can now be no dispute.
The Icelandic records are admitted to be genuine, and it
is now conceded that Helluland, Markland, and Yinland
were places on the north-east coast of America. Whether
we take Helluland to be Labrador or Newfoundland,
whether Markland be Newfoundland or Nova Scotia, or
whether Vinland be Nova Scotia or New England, on
any theory yet propounded by scholars some ])art of
Nova Scotia was seen by the Northmen in A.D. 1000.

There is nothing in the Norse voyages to America
beyond the ordinary achievenu'nts (tf these daring sea
rovers. From Greenland to Labrador is the same distance
on the chart as from Iceland to Scotland, and iess than
the distance from Iceland to Norway ; and whether Leif
Ericson sailed from the east or the west coast of (Jreen-
land, he would ecpially have had the assistance of tlie
Arctic current flowing on both sides of Greenland, to
im])inge on the Labrador coast and follow down the coast

HISTORY OF ACADIA

10'

of Newfoundland and Xova Scotia. It is sailing down
hill all the way. The .ships of the Northmen were fitted
to contend with the stormiest seas ; for, from Norway or
h'eland, across the Bay of Ijiscay and into the Mediterra-
nean sea, was a very frecjuent course of their piratical
expeditions. No more formidable seas are encountered
in the North Atlantic than those around the north of
Scotland and Norway, in the r)ay of Biscay and on the
Atlantic coast of Spain. Their ships could make use of
oars as auxiliary to their square sails, and this was of
much assistance in their long coasting voyages.

The scope of this volume will not permit of a dis-
cussion of these early Norse voyages to America. It is
sufHcient to point out that three steps upon the coast are
plaiidy indicated. W Labrador be the first, Newfoundland
is tlie second, and Nova Sct»tia the third. If, however,
Newfoundland be tlie first, Nova Scotia is the second, and
New England the third. It might well be that some part
of Newfoundland was indicated by the word Helluland.
In the saga of Eric the Ileil Leif Ericson is said to have
given the name on the spot because of the ap]>earance of
the land. In Eafn's Antiqnitatcs Americana' the passage
is tnuislateil from the Icelandic -.jam terra', nom en imjntnani
li Hellnlandiam {terrain sarccc 2^l(init'iei) ajypellaho. This
is not, as often translated, a land of tlat stones, Ijut a liind
of stony flatness. So far as the name is concerned (and
fhere can be no higher authority than Eafn for the mean-
ing of it) it would apjdy to a long stretch of coast near
Tape Kace. The very earliest Portuguese sailors on the
coast were struck l»y the ])ecidiar ajipearance of that head-
laiid, and called it CaJx) Jt'aso — the ilat vi\\»\ At ]). 1 4 is
ii cut of this cape, taken from a p]iotogra]ih. Tbe nanu'
a[)pears on the King map of 1502 ai d has continued to
this day. Much of the coast in that part of Newfound-

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108

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

i I «

land is rocky table -land of the same character. One
merit of this theory is that it will enabh^ Leif Ericson to
iiave reached J>oston, where a statue has been erected to
commemorate his visit.

Tnrning away with reluctance from this enchanted
re<j;ion of American history, it must be observed once
more that Nova Scotia is clearly witliin the scope of
tliese voyao;es, whether it be taken as Vinland or Mark-

I !,

■u

STONE KOINI) NKAU YAUMOUTH, WITH SUI'l'OSKI) ItUNIC INSCUnTION.

laud, and as, u])on the coast of Massachusetts, the famous
Dighton rock with its inscription, convinced Professor Itafn
and some other schohirs of the former presence of the
Northmen, so near Yarmouth, Xova Scotia, a rock in-
scribed with characters su))posed to be IJunic was found
at the end of the last century, and has been the subject
of speculation among those who are interested in the
}»re-('olumbian discovery of America. Ah a matter of
anti([uarian s])eculative interest, and because it has not
often been reproduced, a cut of the inscri])tion is given
above. Tiie rock is about two feet thick, with one
smooth surface, and was found at high-wnter mark on

HISTORY or ACADIA

109

tlie shore ot" a sniall inlet at the head of the liarhour.
Whatever these ciiaraeters may be, or may mean, the
curiou« in(|uirer may be sure that they are genuine and
that no fraud has l)een practised. The inscription \vas
never decipliered until a copy was sent to ]\Ir. Henry
riiillips, an anticpiarian scholar of Philadelphia, who,
after a study extending at intervals over nine years,
read it, Harkiisscii men varti, " Harko's son addressed
the men." He made it the subject of a communication
to the American riiilosophical Society in 18X4, and
connected it with Hake, a Scotchman, who vvas with
ThorHnn on the voyage of A.D. 1007.

AVithout expressing any opinicjn as to either this or
the Dighton rock, and referring those readers who may
be interested in the sul»ject to the authorities cited at
the close of this chapter and to the rock itself, which is
carefully preserved at Yarmouth, it is necessary to pass
on to the vovages of the Cabots in 1407 and 1408.
The landfall of the first voyage has Iteeii the subject of
a lonu' controversv as to whetiier it was at i^abrador,
Newfoundland, or Ca])e Jireton. The present writer has
elsewhere stated the reasons of his conviction that the
landl'all was at the east ])oint of Cape Iheton, which has
given its name to the whole island. It is sutlicient to
o])serve that beyond all (question Cabot in the second
voyage, that of 1408, coasted along the shores of Acadia,
Xew England, and \'iiginia ; and ui)on these voyages
the Knglisli always based a claim by discovery upon the
mainland of Anu'rica. it is necessarv t<^ remend>er that
such claims must be read in the light of tiie notions
of international law existing at that j)eriod.

The voyage of Verrazano in ir)24, under a commission
"om Francis I. of France, has also ))een tlie subject of
controversy, and has been disputed, but without reason-

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110

COMl'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TUAVEL

able grounds. Upon this voyage the French founded a
right of (Uscovery from 30' to 4H° north latitude. In
1525 Estevan (loniez, a Portuguese sailor in the employ
(jf Spain, sailed along the coast from Florida to Cape
Race, and the Spaniards also laid claim to the territory
up to 45° by discovery, although they did not press it as
against the Fortuguese, inasmuch as the vague geographical
notions of the day drew Acadia and Newfoundland east
of the line of demarcation of Fope Alexander YL

The more closely the early records are searched the
clearer it will appear that the Portuguese and French
were the first to resort regularly to the sliores of Acadia
and the first to make attempts at settlement. The early
nomenclature of the coast bears witness to that, I'or
French and Portuguese names still linger along its whole
length. To these nnist be added the Bas(j[ues, Spanish
and French, who were the most daring and skilful sailors
of that age. As late as the treaty of Utrecht the king
of Spain made claim to <\ share in the fisheries of southern
Newfoundland for the Bas(j[ue8 of Guipuzcoa. From the
year 1504 French vessels from St. Malo, Dieppe, anil
La llochelle fre([uented the Acadian harbours and those
of southern Newfoundland. In 1607 Champlain met
0]^ tile coast an old sailor called Savalet from St. Jean
de Luz, who had made forty -two voyages to Acadia,
Lescarbot called the harbour where the old sailor was
fishing, Savalette. It was the present Whitehaven.
The English probably resorted more to Newfoundland,
for there are no clear records of their being on the
Acadian coast at so early a date. From the earliest
times the kings lm Portugal claimed sovereign rights
there, not only under the Pull of Pope Alexander, but
because of the voyages ot the Corte Ileal family in
1500-1 and 1502; and in 1521 the Portuguese court

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HISTORY OF ACADIA

111

iiitule a grant along the coast of Acadia to Joani Alvarez
h'agundez, who would seem to have made some attempt
to settle. Gradually, however, the Portuguese withdrew ;
tor their richer possessions in the east absorbed their
energies, and the sixty years' domination of Spain cramped
tlieir enterprise.

In 1534 and 1535 Jacques Cartier, under a conv
mission from Francis I., discovered the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and sailed around it and up the river to the
site of the present city of Montreal. Not only did he
C(jast along Labrador and the western shore of Newfound-
land, but he discovered the islands in the Gulf and
touched the north shore of Prince Edward Island the
gulf shore of New Brunswick, and the shores on l)oth
sides of the P)ay Chaleur. He was the unwitting
discoverer of Prince Edward Island, for he thought it
was part of the mainland. The idea that Cabot discovered
it is an afterthought of recent years without solid founda-
tion. Neither Cabot, nor Corte Keal, nor Verrazano,
nor Gomez, nor Fagundez, can be shown to have pene-
trated either the Bay of Fundy or the (Julf of St.
Lawrence ; and until Jacques Cartier's discoveries were
made known, tlie maps of America were drawn in such
a way as to prove that nothing beyond the Atlantic
coast was known.

As the English did not follow up the discoveries of
the Cabots for a long time so the French did not follow up,
l)y permanent settlement, the discoveries of Cartier; naver-
theless fishermen and traders, unknown to fame, con-
tinually frequented the coasts and, year by year, the mai»s
became more accurate from their reports. In the mean-
time the whole energies of the Euro])ean governments were
consumed in religious wars and internal dissensions.
Wliat went on in American waters is shown by one salient

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it..;.
3(1 'jif

112

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'HY AND TRAVEL

I 1

I I

fact. The coast of Cape JU-eton was the favourite fishing
resort, and the old name for Louisbourg was Havre aiix
Anglais, and for Sydney, Havre aux Espagnols, while
St. Anne's hay was tlie resort of tlie French. The fisher-
men fished in peace, and the different nationalities resorted
to different harbours. There were harbours and fish
enough for all.

France emerged from her troubles when Henry l^^
was settled firmly on the throne, and with liis character-
istic breadth of mind he recognised the importance of
western plantations. In 1603 he gave to M. de Monts
a commission as governor of the country of Z« Cailia from
40"" to 46"" north latitude (from Philadelphia to Xewfound-
land). In like manner the English monarch, James 1.,
f(jllowing liis e.\am})le, granted a charter to two companies to
settle " Virginia," extending from 33° to 46° north latitude,
that is from South Carolina to Newfoundland, tlius the
whole coast of America, north of the part generally con-
ceded to Spain, was claimed by both powers before either
had sent out a single permanent settler. In 1620 King
dames granted tlie country under tlie name of New Eng-
land, from the 40th to the 48tli degree, in absolute pro-
perty to a company of noblemen. It is not necessary to
follow farther the history of these overlapping charters,
except to point out that Acadia was claimed by the
English as a part of northern Virginia, or New England,
and King James again, in 1621, set off from the New
England territory, under the name, then first used, of Nova
Scotia, all the country known as Acadia from the St. Croix
to Gaspe inclusive. The grant was made to Sir William
Alexander, Earl of Stirling, although at the time the
French were actually settled at Port Royal, Tadoussac,
and Quebec.

To return, however, to the grant of Henry W. of 1603 :

IIISTOUY OF ACADIA

113

— ill the following year de Moiits sailed with two ships, and
with him were the Baron de Poutrincourt, Hebert, Toiit-
mave, and (.'hamplain. Coneerning the last many things
will require to be said elsewhere, for he is the true hero
(»f Acadia as well as of Canada. Thev sailed alonu; the
coast of Nova iSeotia, and most of the names they gave
still survive. La Heve, Port ]Moutoii, Cape Xegro, Cape
Salile, Long Island, St. ^Mary's ]»ay, and many others, are

itli

then

by de ]\Iont^

name
Champlain. The Bay of Fundy was named La Bale
Franraise by de ]Monts and the naim; i)ersisted on the
IVeiu'li maps. Champlain visited Annapolis l>asin and
sailed up to the head of the Bay of Fundy. He visited
and named St. John harbour, because lie arrived there
OH St. J(.>hii's day, and went on to the river Schoodic or
St. Croi.x. On an island in this river, now called Xeutral
(Douchet) island, de ^Monts built a fort, and the
I^oundary Commissioners in 1798 found its remains and
thus identified the Schoodic river as the true St. Croix.
There de Moiits passed a very uncomfortable winter. Tlie
) next spring the whole party moved across the bay to

the Annai)olis basin. Champlain had been charmed
witli this basin, and it was named Port Poyal. There
they settled, and thus, in 1605, was niadt; the first
iMTiiianent settlement of Europeans north of St. Augustine,
fi u' although the grant to de Monts was cancelled in 1G07
iind the adventurers returned to France, yet it was re-
iit'wcd in 1010, and they came l>ack and found all their
liuihlings just as they had left them.

Two years later, in 1(307, Jamestown in Virginia was
I'nunded. It should l)e noted, liowever, that the first
I'ort Poyal, tliat of de Monts and Cham])lain, was not
on the site of the present Annai)olis l»ut lower down on
tlie (iranville side opposite Goat island. The I'aron de

! I

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nil,

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114

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIIAVEL

n I

M' I

I |:,

Poutrincoiirt was so delighted with the place that lie
pr(jcured a grant of it from de Monts and made up his
mind to settle there for life ; for the French of those
days could live happily out of reach of Paris. Game
wa;^ plenty, the Indians were friendly, and the adventurers
were full of resources.

After spending in all three and a half years in Acadia.
Champlain on his return gave up his Acadian connection
to found Quebec ; but Poutrincourt brought his son out
and continued the enterprise. Lescarbot, a clever Paris
lawyer, was out for a while. He wrote an account of
the country, and the first American poetry was Lcs 3Tmr.<i
dc la Noui-dle France, meditated if not written at Gran-
ville on the Annapolis river. The little colony had
many dilliculties but it gave promise of success

There was peace at that time between P.x.,iand and
France, luit the colonists at Jamestown, when they heard
of a settlement at Port lioval, sent Samuel Arffiill with
tliree ships to destroy it, under the jn-etext that it was
witliin the limits of the grant of northern Virijinia. Hi'
lairnedthe houses, and the French took refuge witli the
Indians in the woods. "NVliatever colour of reason may
have existed fi>r tlie destruction of St. Sauveur on the
coast of Maine, tlie Frencii were clearly within theii-
right at I*ort Poyal, and witli this wanton and unjustifiable
act commenced the struggle for supremacy in the new
world. Poutrincourt, ruined in fortune bv the iailure of
his colony, was killed in l)attle in Europe, and his son
Biencourt took his name, and it has been genertdly
su})posed that with some companioiis he lived with the
Indians in difi'erent parts of Nova Scotia until liis death,
but recent researches have thrown doubt upon tliis.

Sir William Ah^xander in the meantime was making
unsuccessful attempts to utilise tlie grant of 1G21 when

til."

nil.

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IIISTOKY OF ACADIA

115

King" Charles first instituted, in 1G25, the order of
r>iironets of Xova Scotia, and connnenced to regrant tlie
country in tracts six miles long by three wide. The
western boundary of his charter of 1G21 was tliat
intended by the treaty of 1783, and is so far of interest,
otherwise all these documents only demonstrate the
]trevailing ignorance concerning the country. The
younger l^outrincourt had in some way conveyed to his
favourite companion, Charles de La Tour, all his rights in
Acadia, and liis command as governor for the king of
France, when Kirke, in 1G28, took possession of Tort
Jioyal for Alexander, and planted there a colony of Scotch
settlers, without however troul>ling the other small posts
the French had in Acadia. Charles de La Tour was
then residing at Port La Tour near Cape Sable, and his
father, Claude de La Tour, had gone to France to obtain
;i confirmation of his son's command. The elder La Tour
was taken prisoner while returning to Quel)ec in lioque-
iiiont's fleet, and sent to England, where he forgot his
nationality, married an English lady of rank, and under-
took to hand over all Acadia to the English. Sir AVilliam
Alexander appointed him and his son baronets of Xova
Scotia, and, reserving to himself Port Itoyal, he
transferred to the La Tours his remaining rights in
Acadia. The son, however, resisted all the entreaties of
liis father, held to his allegiance, and defeated an English
force led bv his father to take the fort at Port La Tour.
The fate of the Scotch settlers is obscure. Some were
killed by the Indians, and some married and were
absorbed among the French and natives, and some doubt-
less returned when tlie country was given up, for in
1<)30 the treaty of St. (Jermain en Laye conceded to
iVance all Acadia, Cape lireton, and Canada, and closed
the first chapter of Acadian history.

\l%

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGHAPHY AND TRAVEL

The second rliai)ter opens witli the arrivul of a very
distinguished officer, the Commander Isaac de Razilly,
allied to the family of liichelieu. He was appointed
lieutenant-general in New France for the king and for
the Cardinal de llichelieu, w'ith a grant for himself of tin;
river and l)av of St. Croix. There can.e with him two
men, — Nicholas Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, and Charles
d'Aulnay de Charnisay, — and he found in Acadia Charles
de La Tour. The history of Acadia during a long
period is nothing heyond the history of these most
capable and energetic men. Hazilly fixed his residence
at La Heve, and appointed Charnisay and La Tour his
lieutenants. The peaceful Denys estaldislied a shore
fishery in partnership with liazilly at Port liossignol
(now ^jiverpool), and La Tour received a grant of the
territory at the mouth of the St. John river. There he
built a fort known as Fort La Tour, and founded n
large fishery and trading establishment. It was in the
harbour of the present city of St. John, New lirunswick,
l)ut its precise site is disputed by antiquaries. Charnisay 's
lieuteuancv was along the coast of New Brunswick and
Maine, and La four's was ir Nova Scuiia, but La Tour's
grant on the St. John was expressly excepted from
Charnisay's jurisdiction.

De Iiazilly seems to have died in Acadia, and an
internecine feud broke out between his two lieutenants.
Both were confirmed in their governments l)y the court
of France, but Charnisay had strong familv influence in
France. Both were supported by companies of mercliants
with which they were connected in their fishing and
trading concerns. Charnisay was bold and haughty, and
maile aggressions on the New Englanders. He seized
Pentagoet at the mouth of the I'enobscot and fortified it,
and maintained himself there, making it his chief place

HISTORY OF ACADIA

117

of residence. On Eazilly's death he inherited the
estalthshments at I'ort IJoyal and La Heve, and he
removed the former to the site of the present Anna]K)lis.
These estahUslnuents were excepted from La Tour's
jurisdiction, so that Ch<'irnisay's posts were exemptions
in La Tour's government and La Tour's post was an
exemption in Charnisay's government. La Tour's family
was Huguenot, and although Charles de La Tour w^as a
Catliolic his relations with the English were more friendly
than those of Charnisay.

The quarrel between these two lieutenants of the
French king assumed the intensity of a war, and many
romantic and interesting incidents occurred which are
related in the histories. Madame de La Tour joined her
husband at Fort La Tour in 1G45 bringing supplies, and
Cliarnisay, finding out that La Tour had gone on an
expedition with most of his men, suddenly appeared before
the fort and summoned it to surrender. But ^Madame de
La Tour defended the place with a handful of men for four
(lays, until one of the garrison, corrupted by Charnisay,
turned traitor. Even then she held out and obtained
honourable terms of surrender. AVheii Charnisay got
possession of the place he violated his promise and hanged
all the garrison save one whom he forced to act as hangman.
He compelled IVIadame de La Tour to witness, with a rope
round her neck, the execution of her followers. Three
weeks after the lady died broken-hearted with grief, and
Charles de La Tour retired to Boston a ruined man. For
Hve years Charnisay ruled alone in Acadia and distressed
the settlers by his harsh rule. In 1G50 he died, and in a
short time La Tour was established in his government
and married his widow.

But there was not yet peace for Acadia. One Le
IJorgne, a merchant of La Bochelle, was a creditor of

118

OOMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

.! i It I

III

I :;

Chiirnisc'iy, and he proceeded to liarass La Tour and Denys
wlio succeeded to the con(hict of attiiirs hy ])rocesses and
seizures. Denys had obtained from the government at
(^)uebec a grant of all the shore from Cape Uosier in
Gaspe to Cape Canso in Nova Scotia, He liad establish-
ments at Chedabucto (( Juysltorough) and at St. IMcrre and
St. Anne's liay in Cape IJreton. It was lie who first
discovered and made use of Cap<i Breton coal. .\n
expedition under Le Borgne seized him, plundered his
chief post at St. Pierre, and forced him to retire to
Chedabucto. Under such circumstances as these Acadia
could not prosper, and in the midst of all these contentions,
while the French courts were considering the claims
and the French ministers were considering the reports,
Cromwell sent an expedition under Sedgvvicke in 1G54
and seized the whole country; together with M. Le Borgne
at Port Boyal — thus closed the second chapter.

Li 1056 a grant was made of Acadia to Sir Thomas
Temple, William Crowne, and Charles de La Tour ; for
La Tour had laid his case before Cromwell, showing in
full all his claims by inheritance and marriage. Their
justice was acknowledged and he was associated in the
patent with Temple and Crowne. Weary of strife, he
sold his interest to his associates and settled on a small
holding where he passed ten quiet years until his deatli
in 1606. Acadia was governed by Sir Thomas Tenipk'
until, by the treaty of Breda in 1667, it was again
restored to France 1)y Charles IL, sorely against the will
of the New England people. This closed the third
chapter of Acadian history.

Acadia was now under French rule once more.
Governors were sent down from Quebec, and the officials
carried on their petty disputes in a double series of
recriminatory despatches to headquarters. The governors

HISTORY OF ACAIHA

110

resided at first at reiita^^oct and St. Jolm. 1'lie settlers
were oppressed by the monopolies of the tradiiijj,'
eonlpani(^s, and no atteiu})! was made to reinforce the
coloiiv l>v sending out new settlers. The Intendant, i)e
Wienies, who visited Acadia in 1G(SG, was shocked 1)V the
dt!solation he saw. The New Enjjjland peo[>le encroached
on their fisheries, and there was no force to protect them
from the pirates who harried the coasts. In 1G80
William III. became kinif of England, and war broke out
with France, and, as always, the poor Acadians had lo
bear the brunt of it. Sir William Thips, witli an
expedition from New En<j;land, seized and plundered Tort
Royal and the other posts, but did not retain military
possession of the country, althou<^h the colonists of
^fassachusetts claimed it as theirs. 1'he French governors
retired up the St. John river to Jeniseg and then to
Xashwaak opposite the present Frederictou ; from
thence they incited the Indians to attack the English
colonies, and the most atrocious cruelties were practised
all along the frontier. The colonies had gained great
strength and the French were weak, but the ]\Iicmacs,
Malicetes, and Abeiuikis were numerous and thev hated
the English colonJsts, whom they called " Bastonnais."
The English frontiers were wrapped in fire and blood.
The tomahawk and scalping -knife were busy, and
midnight attacks and massacres were continual. The
Massachusetts colonists were exasi)erated to madness and
rt'taliated upon the Indians with desperate energy, and
adopted, moreover, some of the methods of their savage
enemies. Frontenac was also harassing the back settle-
ments from Canada in the same wav. Tlie English
colonists felt the French hand behind all these attacks
and the antagonism of Puritan and Catholic intensified
the feeling. All this prepared for tlie Acadians the

120

CO.Ml'ENDIUM OF GKOGItAI'HY AND TRAVEL

iti

i fi

i I

niii([ue tra^fedy wliicli tlioy were to endure in after years.
An expedition under Iberville ap])eared on the coast and
re('i)ii<|uered tluiir ])()st8, Imt ]>rivuteers and ]iirates , till
iiarricd them and, althou^^Ii Tort Iloyal was lortified. the
I'arnis were uncultivated and fannne evtuj thrcjatened the
people. .At last in 1710 (leneral Nicholson, with a
i'onuidahle e.\)tedition from ]>oston, attacked and eari'i(;d
iNirt Iloyal and seized the whole country. This time the
concpiest was iinal. The remonstrances of the Xew
Kn^land colonies were successful and, at the treaty of
Utrecht, tile whole of Acadia " in its ancient limits" was
ci'Avd to the Ku'dish, and the French retained only ('a]>e
Iheton and the islands in the (Julf The fourth chapto'
of Acadian liistory closes also with (hsaster.

At the period of the treaty of Ttrecht there were no
setth'ments on the island of ( ai)e Jireton, save the lishim^'

♦ 'stahlishments, under the urant to Denys, at St. .\nne's
Bay and St. I'eter's. AVhen the l''rench (loveriuiient reliii-

♦ pushed Xewfoinidland and tlu; niaiidand of Acadia it
resolvcnl to found a first-class fortress on the island to
<j;uard the jj,ul*' and yive a tirm foothold for the powei- n['
France in America. The place known as Fn^lish ILaihoui'
was chos«'n, its name was chanu'ed to Louishnurf^, the
island was called lie Iloyale, and durin^^ the I'ollowinu'
years o\-ei' thirty nnllions of livres were exju'iided by the
KreiK .1 (Jovennnent in IbrtHications. All tln' inhabitants
of IMacentia in X\'wf(»undland but four removed thither.
Few of the Acadians, however, could be induced to settle

any

wliere on tlie isiant

ley were not sailors and (

lid

not care for the lisheries ; they were farmers, and ( 'ajie
I'reton did not attract them.

I'rinc' Fdward Island was then called lie Saint Jean.
For a l(»n«.f ])erio(l it was not leco^niised as separate tVom
the mainland. Kve!i as late as 1000 it was not known,

'!;

IIISTOnV OF ACADIA

121

;, ;1 on ('Iijiinplaiir.s two liist iiiiq)s it does not iip])eni-.
in his voya_<fL'.s ot 1G03 lie stems to have lienrd of sucli
Mil island, and on his ma]) of 1G1."> lie lias laid down a
very sinall island with that name, hut it was not n'llil
1032 that it ai)])eared in its jtioper situation and pio-
])ortions. It is, no douht, the laet that on tlu' so-('all('(l
( "abot ma]) of 1044 there is an island in the gidf named
St. .Fohn, hut that has been shown to he in I'calitv the
May'dalen tiroiip. and the jna]) itself is eleaily based on
( 'artier's discoveries, ('artier, as before stat«'d, touched
ihe north shoi'c of tlii; island, but it has been demon-
strated that he ])as.s('d over to the Miraniichi sliore,
su])])osin^' the strait to be; a dee]) bay. In 1 GO.') the
(•om])any of Xew France made a (concession of the; island
of St. .John, tlu! ]\Ia^(lalens, ihion ishuid, and the liird
islands to Doublet, and a comj)any was formed to cany
on the fisheries. It was to be a sub-lief to the Miscou
comjiany and the fur-trade was reserved. Later, in ITliO,
these islands, too'cther with Miscou, were ^ranted to the
< 'oiint de St. Pierre, but there a]t])ear to have been no
settlements on the island (»f St. dolin at that time.
Attemjits were made with more success to induce the
Acadians to settle there, and towards the vear 17-1) a

littl

e colonv was lormet

1, at Port La .1

Oil- on the sit(!

of ( 'harlottetown. The AcacUans ivmoved verv slowlv,
liiit, it :t 173.'5, as Louisbourin' attaine> stieunth, a
,uarrison wr.s .sent and a fort and barracks wer*' erectc(l at
Port ha .loie. After the disjiersioii of the A'-adians many
settled on the island, so that in iTof^, when the Kiencli
I'Viicuated it, about 4000 souls were left. Thev had
1k'(U scarcelv three years tlici'c when the foitune of war
iiLiain com))ell«'d them to leave.

Ill the treaty of rtrccht, when Acadia was ceded, it
had been stij)ulated that the Acadians were to have

1 \
\

illli

I.-

iMI

■il'

122 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

lil)orty to romove olsewhoru within a specified period
with all their effects, but the docmnents show that the
Knulish did not wish them to remove, and threw ol)stacles
in their way. The reasons are stateil plainly. They did
not wish them to go to stren^tlien the new and threaten-
ing establishment on ( "ajjc Ureton, and, moreover, if the
Acadians left, su])plies would fail to the garrison at l*ort
lioyal ; for English farmers could not be got to settle in
a country infested l)y Indians so liitterly hostile to the
y'nglish name. A few left, but Ity far the greater part
remained on their I'arms ano increased in miml)ers and
prospered under English )ule more ra})idly than under
tile government of the French court. The position was,
however, a verv difticult one. The Acadians wen' tlu;
only iidia])itants, excepting the liulians, an<l although
they never had experienced any trouble from tlie Indians,
it was l)ecause they remained French. Tiie Indians were
controlled entirely from Canada and Cape r)reton, anc^, if
the Acadians had taht'u an active i)art against the Frchcli.
bevond doul)t tlie Indians would have massacred tliem,
for the only force the English had in the country was
about 200 men in garrison at aVnnapolis, and in later
Years a small u;arrison at Canso. ^Moreover, the Acadians
were Jioman Catiiolics of tiie intensest kind and received
all their impressions through their ndssionaries, who were
sent from (^)uebec. Tiiey had no schools, and were so
ignorant that, in a document signed liy 227 of tlie heads
of families in Annapolis, 1(50 signc(l with a cross, being
unable to write. Xot knowing wliat was going on in the
world, save through (^hieliec, they ex]»ecti'd that as Acadia
had always been restored to Franco liefore, it wonld be
s(» again, and besides, in tlieir simjdicity, tliey couM not
imagim tliat any other power equal to France existed
ill the world, and to take part agaiiist tlieir own Catholic

HISTORY OF ACADIA

123

mother-land on behalf of a heretical people was ntterly
alihorrent to them.

On the other hand the English — and by English
must C'hieHy be understood the colonists uf ^Massachusetts
— had suffered greatly from the Indian tribes which the
Fiench in Canada liad incited to harry their frontiers.
In their common conversation the Erench and Indians
were always grouped in one i)hrase, and as they were
Tpritan I'rotestants of the most intense type they looked
on the Erench witli aversion, while for the Indian allies
of the Erench n»> words the Englisli language possessed
were sufficiently strong to ex]iress their abhorrence.
They looked with suspicion on the missionaries and tlieir
connection with Canada, and they endeavoured to exact
iin oath of allegiance from the Acadians, which the latter
wi're obstinate in refusing to give. At last, after nianv
ditliculties. General Ehillijis, the governor, obtained from
them a modified form of oath, which was acce]>ted with an
understanding that they were not to Ije called upon t<>
bear arms against the French or Indians. This oath,
though the home authori' ' 'S at first considered it not
(|uite i)recise enough, was nevertheless accejtted, and so the
Acadians came to be called " tlvj neutral Erench." The
understanding that their allegiance was a limited oni.' is
nowhere recorded, but that it had some basis is evident
from the sequel of events.

They lived ])eaceal>ly on the whole with the Xew
England garrison, although occasional friction woidd arise
between the governors and the priests ; but the Indians,
incited by the Canadian and Cape Uretim French, kept
uj) an incessant warfare, and when the Knglish comjdained
llie French connnanders alfected to consider the Indians
as indejienilent nations.

Wiw broke out between England and France, and the

124

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

IJI:

French and Indians made several iinsuccessfnl attempts
to take Annapolis, until the New England colonics,
exasperated beyond endurance, undertook tlie hazardous
enteri>rise of attacking Louisbourg. They raisnl an army
solely (»f provincial troops and put a merchant .. Kittery,
WilHani IV'pperrell, in command. At tlie last moment,
and alter the ex])edition liad sailed, the English admiral
Joined it, and the singular spectacle was presented of a
colonial army assisted by an English fleet attacking a
lirst-class fortress containing a garrison of regular troo])s,
and all without orders of the JJritish ( Jovernment. It
was an impromptu enterprise, but fortune favoured the
courage of the Xew Englanders, and religious enthusiasm
made it ii veritable crusade. The Xew England trooi)S,
4000 in nund»er, landed on 1st May, 1747. Adndral
Warren intercepted succour from France and attacked
the town with his ships and on the l7tli of June the place
surrendered. The garrison and inhalutants were sent to
France. There were 650 regidar troo])s, 1310 militia,
and 2000 inhabitants in all surrendered. It was a very
brilliant feat of arms for men whose ex])erience had been
gained only in border warfare and bush-tighting. The
Xew F]ngland troops remained to garrison the place. The
island of St. John was also seized and the inhal)itants sent
to France.

Stung bv tlu' mortification of a defeat bv colonial
troops, the French (lovernment fitted out a formidable
armament for the reca])ture of Louisboiirg and the
conquest of Acadia. It consisted of 70 sail. There
were 11 ships (»f the line, 20 frigates, 5 bond»s, and the
remainder were transports conveying oloO regular troops,
all under the command of the Duke d'Anville, an
experienced and cajjaljle officer. Ihit the stars in their
courses fbuLi'it against bin). ][e encountered storms of

HISTORY OF ACADIA

125

ill;

uieat severitv. His fleet was scattered. Some sliii)S
were disabled and were captured in trying to return,
some were wrecked, and the remainder readied Clielaicto
harbour (now Halifax) shattered bv a passaue of ninety days.
Tlie duke died four days after his arriyal and the next
in command killed himself. Pestilence broke out among
the troops and sailors and ^yas conmuniicated to the
Indians \vho had flocked round to co-o])erate. ]\fore
than one-third of the whole Micmac tribe perished.
Twelye hundred and seyenty men had been lost at sea,
1 loO had l)een buried at Chebucfo, and all the rest were
weakened by disease. The remainder of the fleet returned
to Krance but receiyed further damage in a terrific gale
olf Cape Sable. So a great danger was ayerted from thi'
Ihitish- colonies, and they were sayed without strikim"' a
blow for themselyes.

J»y the treaty of I'trecht Acadia or Xoya Scotia, in
its ancient extension, had lieen ceded to England, ]>ut the
French Goyernment drew a distinction and insisted that
the territory ceded included only a i)art of the ])eninsula,
now Noyji Scotia, and not any Jjart oi' what is now known
as Xew Ih'unswick. Tiiey drew an imauinary line from
( aiuiCanso to the head of the basin of Minas (now Truro)
and sought to shut out the Knglish from the riclu'st part
of the ])eninsula. On the declaration of war in 1(44, an
('Xjiedition from Louisbourg seized the Knglish fort at Canso.
and a large Ijody of Indians under French leaders attacked
Annapolis belbre the Knglish had receiyed intelligence of
hostilities.

And now, when the sujtreme crisis of tlic struggle foi
eniiiirc in America was imnnnent, and the anomalous
political relations existing in Acadia were to undergo the
severest strain, apjteared the evil g»'nius of the .Vcidian
iH'nplc — the Ablx' he Loutre, missionary to the Micmacs

■iim

¥ ■

■hi i

I i

Jia., -1 1

12G

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

oil tlie Sliultonacadie. Tf the Acadiuiis had been let alone
they wouhl gracUially liave heeonie reconciled to En^^lisli
rule, lor tliey were naturally a peaceful and contented
people. They had increased in number and, secure from
the oppressive monopolies of the former regime, liad
jirospered greatly. They paid no taxes and enjoyed
absolute freedom of religion. The handful of soldiers
in tile ruinous fort of Annapolis were the only English
among them; for iiritish settlers were deterred l)y the
incessant incursions of the Indians. Le Loiitre at first
resided at Cobe(iuid (Truro). His immediate care was a
band of 200 Indians, but his influence extended over all
the ]Miciiiacs. He afterwards removed to Chignecto on
the border of the territory then in dispute and, provided
with abundant resources from Caiiada and France, he
exercised complete control over the Indians, and by their
assistance induced or territied the Acadians on the border
to take np arms against the British Government.

Ill 1748 peace was declared, and the English (Jovern-
ment, residving to colonise Acadia, sent out in 1740 )i
strong' coloiiv and laid the foundations of Halifax at
Chebucto. The governor, Coh)nel Coriiwallis, then calh'd
npon the Acadians to take an oath of loyalty to the
English crown. This they flatly and persistently refused
to do, in s])ite of repeated urging, unless with the reserve
that neither they nor their heirs should be called u])oii
to bear arms against the French or tlieir Indian allies.
Oiu' sentence in an address, siiJiieil bv 1000 of the chief
men among tiiem, expresses the real nnderlying idea :
" What canses us all very great pain is that the English
wisli to live amongst us. This is the general sentiment
of the undersigned inliabilants." lUit the Englisli could
not understand such a feeling, for Acadia had been ceded
to England for thirty-six years.

HISTORY OF ACADIA

127

t 1

The Acailians at Cliignecti> had renounced allegiance to
the En''li.sh, and wlien the governor sent a force undt'r
T.awrence to reduce them to oljedience, they burned their
houses under the orders or threats of l^e J.outre and
retired across the ]\lissignasli to join the force from
Canada under tlie (.'lievalier de La Corne, which had built
Fort Beausejour on the other siile of the river, and Fort
Gasperaux on the shore of the gulf at Bave Verte. The
next S[»ring Lawrence returned with a thousand men and
built Fort Lawrence on the Xova Scotia side of the
Missiguash. The Abbe Le Loutre with his Indians and
Acadians opposed his landiug, but, after a sharj) skirmish,
Lawrence was successful, and the iVbbe with his followiug
retired across the river, where the French troops stood
ri>ady to receive him.

There was ostensibly peace at that time between
England and France, but Le Loutre carried on, with his
Indians, incessant attacks on the English ; and the French
governors, when a])i)eal('d to, jmitested that they had no
jiower over the Micmacs, who were an independent people.
These incursions exasperated the Kiiglish beyond measure;
ibr they consisted in scalj)iiig detached settlers and their
fanulies aiound Halifax or Daitmouth, or any soldier who
might stray beyond the ])alisades of the Ibrts. These
attacks were secretly encouragetl by the French com-
manders, and a letter from the Intendant at Louisbourg
tn the minister at Laris re])oi'ts that the Indians were
continually harassing the Fuglisli and had brought to
Foit Beausejour eighteen Fuglish scalps, for which Le
Loutre had paid them 1 SOO livres. Le Loutre had been to
France, and was supplied with abundant funds ibr his
Work. He so far lost all sense of moth^'ation as to write
111 the Kuglish governor and offer to (Hvide the peninsula
with the Lnglisji, the ^licmacs to have what was really

i :!

t .:,lh\n.

f ■ = »

128

COMPENDIUM OF GF.OGHArHV AND TKAVEL

J ,
ii:

the richest part of Acadia on which English forts were
then existing. In all these matters Le Loutre was acting
contrary to the instructions of the IJisliop of Quebec, who
warned him of the wickedness and danger of compromis-
ing the Acadlans.

In 175') the decisive war broke out, and at first
fortune favoured the French in the west ; but, in Acadia,
Colonel Moncton captured Fort Ueausejour. Three
hundred Acadians wen; taken, l)ut the Ablje Le Loutre
escaped to (()uebec. He had to l)ear the rei)roaches of
his Ijisliop for the ruin he had brought on the Acadians.
He was not, however, solely to blame, for tlie Frencli
commanders and the government had supi)orted him, Init
he was a missionary priest and had disregarded the
injunctions of liis ecclesiastical superior.

While the English were exasperated by these pro-
ceedings, the news of Braddock's defeat and tlie failure
of the western campaign arrived. Tlie idea that nothing
but tlie deportation of the Acadians would secure the
safetv of the frontier had i)reviouslv suggested itself to
(Jovernor Shirley of ^Massachusetts, but it had not been
entertained. The tinal resolutio)i was taken by (fovernor
Lawrence and his council at Ilidifax in duly, 1755, u])on
the occasion of another formal and unanimous refusal of
deputies from all the Frencli settlements to take an
unqualilit'd oath of tdlegiance to the king of England.
It must have been a sudden resolution, for the governor
had received no orders from England. He had not formally
proposed it, although in one of his letters he expressed an
opinion that the Acadians were better away if they wouhl
not take the oath, but he added he would do nothing with-
out sul)mitting it to the a})probation of the Ih'itish
(loveinnuint. That approbation cannot bi' I'ound, nor even
iiny definite submission of a plan to the English authorities.

HISTORY OF ACADIA

120

Tlie rcfsolutioii was concealed until the Acadians had
got in their crojis, and then the hlow suddenly fell.
Without inquiry, guilty and innocent together, the people
were siuldenly seized and put into transports and de-
s] latched to the difl'erent English colonies. Xo prepara-
tion had been made for their reception, and some of the
colonies refused to receive them. Fanulies were sepa-
rated, and many were never reunited on this earth.
Many died of privation, exposure, and sorrow. In Acadia
the dykes were cut and the houses burned, and the
Kuglish found themselves alone in the province. The
charge that the New England colonies instigated the
measure in order to obtain tlie lands of the exiles is
without foundation ; for it was a long time before settlers
could be induced to take up land in a province so harried
Ity Indian scalping parties. The settlers began to arrive
ill 17 GO, and they came slowly, for there was an abundance
of land in all the colonies.

Nothing in history is precisely like this pitiful exile,
for it was not the outcome of religious intolerance.
There never was a question of the free exercise of the
Catholic religion, excepting such apprehensions as might
be suggested to a sinqde and pious ]X!0])le by emissaries
who sought to shake their fidelity. Their ignorance was
profound, and while they may have had the })etty faults
of ])easants shut out i'roni all real knowledge of the
outside world, the large majority of them were innocent
of treason to the English. Their longing for their
Acadian homes was like that of the .lews by the waters
of r.abvlou. ]\Iaiiv found their wav back coasting alontj
the shores of the colonies. ]\Iany hid in the woods or
escaped to Miramichi and the islands of the gulf. After
the ])eace they settled near Ih'gby and Yarmouth and
around St. Mary's liay. There are settlements of Acadians

I !

M':

130

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

I ii

I ■

5: i

ti. I

. i j'

i
1

also at Chozzek'ook in the eastern part of tlie province,
and along the north shore of I'rince Edward Island, and
in New Brunswick, especially on the Madawaska. Where-
ever they are found they retain their old simple habits
and manners.

All that can be said in respect to this tragedy must
be in palliation, not in justification. The Englisli
Government is clear of blame, for nothing has been found
to show its complicity in the matter. The English
colonists, however, are not alone to be charged with
cruelty, it was cruel in the Erench Government — iu
the Erench couniianders — to use this simple people for
their ])()litical purposes, and exploit their blind attachment
to their king and their religion for temporary political
ends, and thus bring down upon tliem the anger of a
race not easily appeased when thoroughly aroused.
Tliose, liowever, who ,qare to take all the circumstances
into consideration may look to Alsace and Lorraine, and
to Savoy and Nice, and ask how long the Erench and
German CJovernments would, even at the present day, en-
dure it if the people of those provinces were to declare
themselves neutral when war was on their borders !
Still, if such a measure as this were indeed necessary for
self-defence in time of war, the fate of the exiles might
have been greatly softened without prejudice to the result.

The events recited in the pages just preceding are well
sunnnarised in the following figures showing the movement
of the Acadian population on the peninsula : —

1714. Pojiulation when ceded to Eiiglaiul

1737. Population under English rule ....

1749. Population under English rule estimated at .

after the troubles about the oath connnenced —

1773

7.'i98

13,000

17r)2. Population depleted by emigration

1755. Just before the expulsion

1756. After the expulsion, estimated at .

9300
8200
1200

HISTOHY OB' ACADIA

131

«() tliat ill all over 6000 souls were deported to different
destinations.

The history of Acadia is heneeforth very simple. The
Micniaes continued their depredations and murders until
the complete triumph of the English arms left them no
support. A peace was concluded in 1701, and proved to
be tinal. Soon after, settlers began to come in to take up
the vacated land, and the successful revolt of the southern
colonies sent a large number of expatriated loyalists into
the province, who settled chiefly at Guysl)orough, Windsor,
Annapolis, and Shelburne. The civil government went
through the usual stages of coloinal evolution, until at
last the province attained the status of a self-governing
colony. Cape lireton in 178-4 was erected into a separate
government, and so re'iiained until 1820, when it was
re-united to Nova Scotia. The little town of Halifax,
on account of its unrivalle<l harbour, became the
centre of operations of the lioyal Xavy in the western
Atlantic, and grew rapidly under the stimulus of the
war expenditure during the great wars of the American
and French He volutions ; but the romance died out of
Acadian historv, and its annals record commercial and
industrial events until in 1807 the province entered the
confederation of the Dominion of Canada.

The province of New Brunswick at the time of the
peace of 1763 was an absolute wilderness. Although it
was, in reality, included in the cession of Acadia at
Utrecht, the French clung to it to the last, though
they never colonised it in any effective way. Nicholas
Ik'iiys, under his grant of 1653 (continued later), had
establishments at Miscou, Miramichi, and liichibucto.
The French had also a fort at Nashwaak, op})osite the
present Fredericton, and another at Jeniseg at the outlet
of Grand Lake. They had a fort, also, at St. .T(jhn, at

■li

i -li

in.

«*

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

l^|28

150 l"^"

2.5
2.2

r-o 1112.0

1.8

14 11.6

^.^••

"//,

132

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

I ! i

the mouth of the St. John river, but it was often
aljandoned because of incessant attacks from the Englisli
colonies. They kept control of the Indians by means of
communications with Canada guarded by the two interior
forts.

The fort at St. John was garrisoned liy English troops
for some time after the peace. Tlie first exploration of
the river was made in 1761, but the province of New
Brunswick is tlie creation of the American Eevolution.
In 17813 a fleet left New York with 3000 loyalists to
found at the mouth of the St. John river a new liome in
the wilderness. Tiie exiles were destitute of everytliing,
for their property liad been confiscated, but tliey were higli-
spirited and intelligent, because it was not tlie uninstructed
classes in the old colonies who sided with the king.
Some of the brightest names in the old colony annals
were among them, and Colonel Edward Winslow might
then have experienced some of the sorrows of the Acadian
exiles whom his uncle expelled from Grand I'rc'". They
were made of sterner stuff' than the poor Acadians, and
with unconquerable energy they opened up the forest
wilderness, and soon their vessels sailed on every sea,
for the instincts of maritime advent u"c were strong in
them. The name of the settlement, at first Parr-town,
was changed to St. John. In 1784 the province of New
Brunswick, with its present limits, was set off from Nova
Scotia, and entered upon a course of peaceful progress.
During the wars with the United States and France these
provinces were not the theatre of conflict. An occasional
])rivateer was the only warlike excitement, and they
understood privateering as well as any other people, and
made more than they lost by it. During the war of
1812-14 an expedition from Halifax seized the coast of
Maine and held it until the peace. The original en-

HISTORY OF ACADIA

10 o
00

dowmeiit of Dalhousie College at Halifax was a sum of
£9250, collected as customs duties at the port of Machias
while the British troops were in possession of Maine.
After the peace, as in the case of the other jjrovinces, the
civil government gradually developed, until New Bruns-
wick became a self-governing colony. In 18G7 it became
one of the confederate provinces (jf the Dominion.

l*rince Edward Island was known as Isle Saint Jean
from the time it first appeared upon the map. There were
so many places of that name that conlusion arose, and in
1799 it was called I'rince Edward Island in honour of
the father of Her present Gracious Majesty, who was
then commanding the troops in Nova Scotia. The island
contained very little of the marsh land so dear to the
Acadians and few had settled there ; for it was covered
with forest and the Acadians did not like the labour of
clearing land. In 1749 the po})ulation was estimated at
1000 ; but, for a while, tlie ready market at Louisbourg
IVjr all kinds of farm produce induced settlers from Nova
Scotia, and in 1755 the number was rated at .'5000.
The population increased rapidly in consetpience of the
expulsion of the Acadians, and in 1758 it had increased
to G500. When the English took possession they found
4100 souls on the island. Many of them left for the
mainland and some were deported, so that by the year
1771 the French population had decreased to about
1270.

In 1767 the whole island was granted in large
holdings to a limited number of jiersons, and a mischievous
system of absentee proprietoi'ship was established which
led in after years to incessant troul)le between the
tenants and landlords. The government was separated
from Nova Scotia in l7G9,and remained separate until the
year 1873 when the province entered the confederation.

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134

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'HY AND TRAVEL

fill

The liind question was settled by the proprietors selling
out under a valuation by a conunission to the government,
which then resold to the tenants on favourable terras.

NOTE TO CHAPTER IV

AiKiNS, T. B.

Selections from the Public Documents of the Province of Nova
Scotia. Halifax : Charles Annand, 1869.

Casgraix, AiJBi':.

Les Acadiens apres leur Dispersion. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada,

vol. V. 1887.
Eclaircissements sur la (^>uestion Aeadienne. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada, vol. vi. 1888.
Dawson, Siii J. Wm., F.R.S., etc.

Acadian Geology. The geological structure, organic remains and
mineral resources of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince
Edward Island, etc., etc. 2nd ed. 8vo. London : IMacmillan,
1868.
Dawson, S. E.

The Voyages of the Cabots in U07 and 1498. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada, vol. xii. 1894.
Dawson, S. E.

The Discovery of America by John Cal)ot in 1497. Trans. Roy.
Soc. Canada, new series, vol. i, 1896.
Hannav, Jamks.

History of Acadia. 8vo. St. John, 1879.

PaUKMAN, FltANCIS.

The story of the expulsion of the Acadians is given in Montcalm
and JFol/r, vol. i. chap. viii.
Pattkuson, Rev. Dr.

The Portuguese on the North-East Coast of America. Trans. Roy.
Soc. Canada, vol. viii. 1890.
Pattekson, Rev. Dr.

Last Years of Charles de Biencourt. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada,
1896.
Phillips, Hknuv.

Ou a supposed Runic Inscription at Yarmouth, Nova Scotia.
Proc. Am. Philosophical Society, May 2, 1884.

IIISTOKY OF ACADIA

135

Rafn, C. C. (ed.)

Antiquitates Americanae, sive Scriptores Scpteutrionales Renim
Ante-Columbianarum in America. Hafuiae, 1837.

RlfHAKD, EdOUAIM).

Acadia : ]\Iissiiig Links of a Lost Chapter in Anipricaii History,
by an Acadian. 2 vols. 8vo. Montreal : John Lovell and
Son, 1895,

"Wii.sox, Sin Daxikl.

Vinland of the Northmen. Trans, Ro3% Soc. Canada, 1890.

This pajier contains a facsimile of the inscription on the Yarmouth
stone, but it is upside down and reversed. The illustration in chap. iv.
p. 108, is from a photograph specially taken at the instance of T. B. Flint,
Ks({. , M. P. for Yarmouth. The stone is referred to in a papf'r liy the
Rev. Dr. Campbell in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada for 1896, section 2.

■

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CHATTER V

THE MARITIME rEOVINCES

General View

Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and I'rince Edwaid
Island form a group of provinces on the eastern Hank of
the Dominion which have many common characteristics
difl'erentiating them from the provinces of old Canada.
They are sometimes called collectively Acadia — a
euphonious word derived from the old French name
L'Acadie, which itself is simply the Micmac ciulic,
used in composition to signify a place where anything
expressed by the other word in the compound is found
in abundance. Such a word would naturally often occur
in the limited vocabulary of the natives in their early
communications with white men. The French took
it up and applied it to the whole maritime region. The
Malicetes, a kindred tribe to the Micmacs, pronounceil
tlie same word qnoddi/, and it occurs in that form
frerpiently in Xew Brunswick and eastern Maine ; as
Passamafpioddy Bay and Quoddy Head. During the
French domination these provinces b}'^ the sea were ad-
ministered by otticials, who, although in rank suljordinate
to the governors of Canada, corresponded also directly
with the ministers of the king at Paris. When, by tlu'
treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Acadia was ceded to the

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THE MARITIME

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THE MARITIME rROVIXCES

137

English Crown a contention immediately arose as to its
true boundaries — the French seeking to narrow them to
one-half of the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and the English
to extend them to the utmost limit of the wording of the
treaty. The English used the name Nova Scotia as the
equivalent of Acadia and included the present New
Jhiniswick within its limits. The boundaries of Sir
William Alexander's patent of 1625 extended to Gaspe ;
but, since the setting off of New Brunswick, the name of
Nova Scotia has been restricted to the present province
of that name. The English claimed the country by right
of the discovery of the Cabots in 1497 and 1498, the
French by right of the voyage of Verrazano. If such
voyages as these could give a title, under the rudimentary
international law of that period, the Cabot voyages were
clearly the first, but the French title was by far the
stronger, because they made the first actual settlements.
After a struggle of one hundred and fifty years of varying
fortunes the question was decided by the sword.

The maritime provinces on the Atlantic correspond
in many ways with the province of British Columbia on
the Pacific. The Dominion of Canada widens towards
the north ; the coast-lines and mountain ridges in the
western province all trend south-east and north-west, and,
in the eastern province, they trend south-west and north-
east, in each case following the basic plan of each
respective side of the continent. The peninsula of Nova
Scotia, 268 miles long and connected midway with the
rest of Acadia, corresponds to the island of Vancouver,
285 miles long and connected, within only half a mile of
open channel, by the dense archipelago half way along
its coast, with the rest of British Columbia. As the
mountains of Vancouver Island are outliers of the
western Cordilleras, so the highlands of Nova Scotia

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138

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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1 .' 1

3 ' i

and its appendage, Cfipe Breton, are outliers of the
Appalacliian system of the east. There is a singular
parallelism Ijetween the provinces on the two great oceans
which niiglit be set forth at great length; but no doubt
tliis will suggest itself in the study of their productions
and of the pursuits of their inhabitants.

The geological structure of the maritime provinces is
different from that of the adjoining province of Quebec.
The Laurentian system has very small space in the
geology of Acadia, and the Carljoniferous system has no
place in the geology of old Canada. The centre of Xew
]>runswick is a great triangular basin of horizontal
Carboniferous rocks, faced on the Atlantic seaboard to
the south by a rampart of primordial rock, and flanked by
the Silurian of the north-western corner of the province
and of the adjoining province of Quebec. The nortliern
limit of the Carboniferous system touches th( Gulf of
St. Lawrence at Miscou Head, and it sweeps along the
shore of the gulf, extends in a l)road band along all the
inner coast of Nova Scotia and into Cape Breton, and comes
out near Sydney upon the shore of the Atlantic where
the weaves wash the coal seams on the sea-shore. The
Carboniferous formation underlies the New lied Sand-
stone of Prince Edward Island ; it is recognised in the
rocks of the Magdalen islands, and comes to the surface
again at the south-western point of Newfoundland where
a seam of coal three feet thick crops out near the shore.

The people of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are
seafaring by instinct, and turn to the ocean with the
hereditary impulses of many generations of sailors. The
adoption of iron has centred the shipbuilding industry in
the United Kingdom, but vessels from Halifax, Yarmouth,
and St. John will still be met with in every seaport in
the world ; for the people of these provinces have an

1 . i

THE MARITIME PROVINCES

130

innate capacity for managing such property, and are al)le
to sail a ship at a jirofit where the merchants of otlier
nations are unable to meet the competition of tlie iron
steamships.

The people of the maritime provinces are alike in
their component nationalities. In all three i)rovinces
ninety-four per cent are Canadian-horn. The proportion
of Acadian French in each has been given in a table in
Chapter III. Tlie inhabitants of the eastern part of Nova
Scotia, especially in the counties of Antigonish,Pictou, and
tlie island of Cape Breton, are of Highland Scotch race,
and Gaelic as well as English is commonly spoken there.
Nearly all New Brunswick and many parts of Nova
Scotia were settled by loyalist exiles from the United
States at the close of the Kevolution. Of the six per
cent nob ^)orn in Canada not more than one per cent
Avere born outside of the British Empire.

Climate

The climate of the Acadian provinces is more equable
than that of the interior provinces of the Dominion, and,
from the large extent of their sea-board, it is not so dry.
The latitude of Halilax is nearly the same as that of
Bordeaux, but, as explained in a previous chapter, the
Arctic current hugs the coast of America, and the warm
waters of the Gulf Stream are pushed out to a distance
of one hundred miles from the coast. In questions of
climate one year is as good as another for a datum, and
the last completely tabulated year to hand is 1889.
Taking that year, then, the main facts are contained in
the following tables of the tempera*^ ? and rainfall at
the chief cities of the three Acadian pi jvinces : —

M':

^NS'i'UU

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Stii

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140

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL'

TkMIT.UATL'KE IX DeGIIEKS — rAHIlKNHEIT

Mean annual temperature
Ili^'liest temperature during year
Lowest , , , ,

Ilalitiix. St. .lolin. Cliarlottotown.

4r.-31 4-2 -66 43 -64

83 -SO S6-70 80-80

-8 -00 -1-J-OO -14-00

Mean TKMrKUArrnE isy Seasons ok Thkee MdNTHs

Simii-.

Siiimiier.

Halifax, Nova Scotia

r.1-70

&1-S7

St. John, New Brunswick

4!f47

f)8-63

Charlottetown, Prince Edward

isi.. : . . . .

f.l -20

6-2 -83

Autiinm. Winter.
39-(i0 -29-07

30-33 25-90

3t)-43

24-10

Taking the iiioiitli of Jcimiary alone and comparing
the teniperatnres with well-known })laees in Europe,
Halifax and Warsaw, in Poland, have the same mean
^eni])eratnre of 28*9, and taking the month of dnly alone,
Halifax and Hamburg have the same mean teniperatnre
of 03-9.

The Atlantic ports of Xova Scotia and New JU-nns-
wick do not freeze in winter. Halifax, St. John, Yar-
month, and Louisbonrg are open all the year ronnd.
Sydney is closed not so mnch hy freezing as by the drift
ice setting against the coast, while Louisbonrg is sheltered
from drift ice by the conformation of the coast-line. The
tremendous tides of the J Jay of Fundy prevent the forma-
tion of ice in the harbours of St. John and St. Anilrews.
The ports in the (lulf of St. J^awrence are closed in
winter, and the climate on that side of Acadia is a little
more severe than njton the ocean coast. The central
parts of New Jh'unswick have a continental climate like
that of Quebec.

Tables of temperature are insuihcient to give an idea
of climate — hunndity nnist be taken into account, 'i'lu'
followinu' table Laves the annual rainfall and the annual

i^:i

THE MAUITIME ritOVINCES

141

total precipitation — snow being reduced into terms of
rain : —

Annual Hainlall in Inches. Annnal Total I'lcciiiitatinn.
Halifax . . 45 -^t 48T.8

St. John . . 31-7r. 37-75

Chailottetowii . . '26-71 32-45

The number of days on which rain fell at any time
during the twenty-four hours, was, in Ifalifax, I")!): in
St. John, 119; in Charlottetown, 151. Halifax and
Yarmouth have a greater rainfall than any other points
on the Atlantic coast of Canada, and it is about the same
as that of New Westminster on the Pacific and of Pen-
zance on the coast of Cornwall.

In com}/ari'.ig these figures it nuist be reniem1>ered
that the interior parts of these proviiu*es have a much
drier climate. Thus the rainfall at Digby, Nova Scotia,
is only 25 inches, not much more than one-half that of
Halifax, and at IJathurst in New IJrunswick it is only
20-<S!) inches. For these reasons the continental climate
of the inland })rovinces of Canada is considered by
Canadians jireferable in winter to the climate on any
]iart of the Noi'th Atlantic coast. Prince Edward Island
is low and is also nearly all coast-line, and therefore the
climate is everywhere the same as at Charlottetown.
Perhaps the best indication of climate is the fact that,
ill the western parts of Nova Scotia and in tlu; interior
of Xew Prunswick as in Prince Kdward Island,
maize may be grown as a crop. The Atlantic coast is
unsuited to its culture. The greatest drawback to the
whole north-east coast of America is the fog generated
Ity the Gulf Stream, which often In summer sweeps in
from the sea along the Atlantic coast and the shores of
the r>ay of Fundy. It never extends inland more than a
few miles from the shore, and Prince Edward Island is

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142

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

largely exempt, but it is a frequent source of danger along
the exterior coast.

Forests

I'lie forest trees are practically tlie same in all the
Acadian provinces. Along the coast of the Atlantic
Ocean and the Bay of Fundy the sea air and frequent
fogs favour the growth of birch, spruces, and firs, but on
the higher and richer soils the growth is maple, beech,
ash and birch, as well as spruce and pine. The nature
of the forest growth is determined l)y the drainage and
richness of the land, the hardwood trees preferring a
drier soil than the spruces. Along the rivers are found
elms and red maples. In Prince Edward Island the
hardwood trees grow nearer to the sea level than on the
mainland, indicating a drier climate and warmer soil.
The forest of the Acadian provinces consists according
to lists prepared by Professor Macoun uf the following
species : —

Sugar Maple .
Red Maple
Striju'd Maple
IMuek Cherry .
IJird Cherry .
lilack Ash
"White Ash
Elm

White Birch .
Canoe Birch .
Yellow Birch .
Red Oak
Beech

Aspen Poplar .
Balsam Poplar
"White Pine .
Red Pine
White Spruce .

Acer sacchariuum.
Acer rubruni.
Acer Pennsylvanicum.
Prunus serotina.
Prunus Peiiiiwylvanica.
Fraxinus saiuhucifolia.
Fraxinus Americana.
Ulmus Anu'ricana.
Betula alba.
Betula papyrifolia.
Betula lutea.
Quercus ru1)ra.
Fagus Icrruginoa.
Populus treimdoides.
Populus balsamifent.
Pinus strobus.
Pinna resinosa.
Picea alba.

'f;

THE MARITIME TROYINCES

143

Black Spruce Picca nigra.

Red Siiriice ..... Picea rubra.

Balsam Fir ..... Alne.s balsainea.

Hemlock ..... Tsuga Canadensis.

Tamarack ..... Larix Americana.

White Cedar ..... Thuya occidentalis.

The following trees, in addition to the preceding, occur
in Nova Scotia and New Ih^unswick : —

Red Ash
Cherry Birch
Iron Wood
Black Willow
Scrub Pine

Fraxinus pubescens.
Betula lenta.
Ostrya Virf,'inica.
Salix nigra.
Pinus Banksiana.

The following additional species are found in tlie
interior of New Brunswick : —

liasswood
Butternut
IMos.sy-cup Oak

Tilia Americana.
Juglans ciiierea.
Quercus niacrocarpa.

These are the indigenous forest trees and are the best
indication of soil and climate. "Everything will grow
in Acadifi tliat grows in France," said the old French
writers, " except the olive."

! !'

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" 111'

CHAPTEli VI

NOVA SCOTIA

1 1

Tills province consists of tlio peninsula of Nova
Scotia proper and the island of Cape Ijieton. The
peninsula is 2G8 miles long and varies from GO to 100
miles in width ; the island is 108 miles lojig with a very
irregular width, and is hollowed out in the centre l)y a
remarkable arm of the sea--tlu' Bras d'Or. The ' otal
area of the ja-ovince is 20,000 square miles. It lies
between the parallels of 43 .'iO' and 47° north latitude,
and the meridians of oO' 40' and GO' 20' west longitude,
and is connected with New IJrunswick bv a low istlnnus
only 11^ miles wide at its narrowest point. It faces on
the Atlantic Ocean. On one side of .the isthnnis in rear
is the CJulf of St. Lawrence, and on the other is the I'ay
of Fundy.

The Atlantic Coast

South of the Grand Hanks of Newfoundland, a broad
and deep ocean channel, with soundings averaging 200
fathoms, leads through Cabot Strait and the centre
of the gulf far u]i into the river St. Lawrence. South
of this channel a series of baid^'s extend off the whole
coast of Nova Scotia between the innei- edge (»f the (Jidf
vStream and the land. They are known as the I'ampiereau,

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146

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

ff^l

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]\Iisaiiie, Canso, Sainbro, La Have, IJoseway, and Bnnvn
]5anks and the Middle Grounds. There are 20 to -40
fathoms on these ocean plateaus, and narrow gullies of
deeper water separate tliem from each other; hut their
edges on the landward side are not so clearly defined.
Midway in their length, hut on the outer edge of these
banks, is Sable Island, lying south-east of Cape Canso at
a distance of about 100 miles. This island of evil omen
is a bank of white shifting sand, without soil or trees,
rising in one place 60 or 70 feet high, and consisting f)f
a -eries of low sand dunes usually not over 20 feet high
and not easily distinguishcl in smooth weather from the
deck of a passing ship. The island itself is about 18
miles long by a little over a mile wide, and is a double
ridge containing a long shallow salt water lake. Long
bars of sand extend from the island at each end, and
sandy ridges, with only a few feet of water, lie off' the
shores, so that, in heavy weather, the whole sweep of
the Atlantic surge curls up in a continuous line of
tremendous breakers fifty miles in length. The island
was known by the earliest sailors, and the Portuguese
left cattle upon it which ran wild and nmltiplied ; uir a
coarse grass grows there and there are fresh water ponds.
In 1598 the Marquis de la lioche landed 50 or GO convicts
on the island while he sailed westwards to explore Xova
Scotia. A great storm drove his sliip back to France,
and it was five years before relief was sent to these
poor wretches. Only 11 had survived; for nnirderous
(piarrels, as well as exposure, had thinned their numbers.
They had made shelters out of the timbers of wrecked
vessels, and had provided food and clothing from the
wild cattle seals which were plentiful on the island.

In the gloomy annals of this " ocean graveyard " novel-
ists have a rich mine as yet untouched. The Dominion

NOVA SCOTIA

14^

Goveriiineiit lias erected two powerful lights, and main-
tains upon it five relief stations with lifeboats and rocket
apparatus and every other life-saving appliance. The
stations are connected by telephone, and a permanent
staff of 18 men reside on the island with their families —
about 50 souls in all.

The coast of Nova Scotia is low, but rugged and rockv,
and studded with innumerable rocky islets. Mount
Aspatagoen, a precipitous cliff on the headland between
St. Margaret's and Malione Bays, is 438 feet high, and
the promontory of Cape La Heve is 1 7 feet high. They
are the most conspicuous points on the coast, and the
first is usually the first land seen by sailors. The western
shores are wooded to the water's edge, but on the eastern
coast there is only a scanty giowth of Itirch and spruce.

The Atlantic coast differs from the inner coast by
being dee})ly indented with numerous excellent harbours.
Commencing from the east, Canso harbour is a deep and
safe haven — a favourite one in the time of Champlain
and Lescarbot, and now used as the terminus of ocean
cables. The <jld sailors iised frequently to make Canso
their rendezvous, and call there for water in going to and
from Europe ; and it was the central point for the best
fishing on the coast, being always thronged in the fishing
season. Following westwards are Country harbour,
Lescome harbour, Sheet harb(jur. Ship harbour, and Jedore
harltour, all safe shelters for large vessels. Then follows
Halifax harbour, one of the finest havens in the world,
deep, commodious, and easy of access. It is fourteen
miles long, with nowhere less than six fathoms of water.
Beyond the narrows, Bedford basin opens out in an area
of ten scpuire miles of excellent anchorage, with water of
8 to .'30 fathoms close to the shores. Westward are
the harbours of St. ^Margaret's Bav, Mahone Bav, and

HI!

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148

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL

li|

i t

Luiieiilmi'g. La Hl'VO, Liverpnol (the Tort IJossigiiol (if
Champlain) and INirt ]\I()utuii are available for siiifill
vessels only ; but the harbour of JShelburne is excellent,
and westward of it are the harbours of Pubnieo and
Yarmouth. These are only a few out of very many, for
the coast is deeply iiuleuted and l)()ld.

While the Atlantic coast of tlie province is protected
by a lu'oad belt of hard Candjrian rock broken by eruj)-
tions of granite, the western, or lUy o( Fundy, shore is
protected by a long" and narrow rim of trap rock which
caps and covers the red sandstone cliifs from abrasion.
This guardian ridge rises several hundred feet, and, save
at o. or two places where it is broken through, there
are no harbours throughout its length. St. ]Marv's JJav
is formed by a long projection of this wall of trap. The
bay is oO miles long with deep water. The wall is
l)roken at OTrand I'assage, fornnng IJrier island. Long
island is formed by l*etite Passage, and L)igby neck closes
in the rest of the bay. Annapolis, or L)igby Gut, is a
remarkal)le break in the barrier wall, opening into
Annapolis basin.

Annapolis basin is an arm of the sea of very great
beauty, rendered historic by being the scene of the settle-
ment of de Monts, Champlain, Poutrincourt and Lescarl)ot.
It is five miles wide, bordered by highlands on either side,
and it narrows towards the end, as the North mountain
and the South mountain ridges draw together. Tliere the
valley is about a mile wide and the Annapolis river falls in
— a tidal river, up which steamers go as far as Bridgetown,
returning by the same tide. The entrance from the Bay
of Fundy is barely half a mile wide. It is two miles
Ion"-, and the basaltic trap rises sheer on either side to
heights of 500 to /OO feet. The water is deep and the
tides rush through very swiftly.

XOVA SCOTIA

140

Farther up the iJiiy ot' Fuiuly tlie Basin of ]\Iiiias
opens \ip, . marked on its southern sliore hy capes Sph't
and Bloniidon, two graiid headlands formed l)y the abrupt
termination of the North and *>outh mountains upon the
basin. This beautiful sheet of water extends 00 miles
into the land, with an extreme breadth of 20 miles. As
it gradually narrows, it is called Cobequid Bay. All
along its northern shore runs the range of the Cobetpiid
mountains, clothed to their sunnnitswith beech and maple,
and, on the southern shore, are the rich dvked lands of
Grand Pre, made classic by Longfellow's poem of Evan-
geline. There dwelt tlie gentle maiden, the creation of
a poet's dream, and her people, faithful to France through
many sorrows. Xear there flows in the Avon, a tidal
liver like its prototype, ni'ar Bristol, and the tides rise
here oS feet, sweeping away into the country at their
flood, and exposing extensive tracts of unsightly smooth
red mud at their ebb.

The (,V)be(piid mountains terminate on the west in the
bold headlands of Cape d'(.)r and (ape Chignecto, Cape
d'Cr is surmounted by trap, and derives its name from
masses of native copper found u[»on it. This region is
well known to mineralogists for its rare minerals. Both
capes are precipitous, anil the whole region is one of
surpassing beauty and interest. Even the imagination
of the Micmac Indians has been impressed by the nobility
of the prospect, and has placed on these heights the abode
of Glooscap, the Algonquin Hiawatha. The majestic
dark red mass of Cape Bloniidon was a fit abode for a
demi-god sent by the Great Spirit to teach the stilf-
iiecked Micmacs. Glooscap is gone, and the melancholy
and lonely call of the loons vainly Iteseech his return,
and the Micmacs are nearly all gone as well. They were
good Indians according to their lights. They were the

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151

first converted to Cliristiiiiiity, and tliey scidped more
Eiirflislnnen than anv other tribe on the continent. Thev
had a mytliology of their own, and their legends are
assijciated witli all the more remarkable localities in
Acadia.

From Cape Chignecto the Bay of Fnndy extends for
fifty miles fnrther ; at first as Cliignecto channel which
forks into two bays — Chepody Bay and C'umljcrland Basin.
The latter washes the coast of Nova Scotia, the former
is in Xew Brnnswick. The rocks are softer and the coast
is not so bold. On Chignecto channel, at South Joggins,
are the celebrated sections of the coal-measures, and the
rushing tides of the Bay keep on making new exposures
full of instruction. At the head of Cumherland Basin
are rich and extensive marsli meadows, and the little
river jMissiguash falls in — the boundary between Xova
Scotia and New J3runswick, famous in the border wars
which led to the expulsion of the Acadians. The con-
necting isthmus is narrowest here, and this point is the
termination of the half finished Chignecto Marine railway,
projected in order to haul ships across to the Strait of
Northumberland, as the prodigious tides of the Bay of
Fundy prevent a canal being made.

The northern coast of Xova Scotia on Xortlunnberland
Strait consists of a low shore l)ehind which are seen in the
distance the highlands in the rear of Pictou and Antigonish
counties connecting the Cobeipiid mountains with the
mountains in Cape Breton. The whole stretch of country
is Carboniferous. The coast is indented by a num])er
of good harbours, as Pugwash harbour and AVallace
harbour ; but the finest harbour in the whole north
coast of the province is that of Pictou. Here tlie largest
vessels resort to ship coal from the adjacent mines. The
harbour forks out into three arms, west, middle and east,

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(•OMI'KNKIU.M (^F (;?:OGI£AriIY AND TliAVKL

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uud a river lulls in ut the ht'iul of each. The vallev.s
surrounding aiv fertile and with the highlands in the
distance make a scene of nuieh beauty.

The eastern end of the peninsula is characterised by
two large bays connected by the Strait of Caiiso. Cajjc
George, a bold and precipitous headland GOO feet high,
marks the western point of a broad bay, St. George's
])ay, opening on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Antigonish
harbour running in from the bay is extensive but not deep.
At the eastern end of the strait, and opening on the
Atlantic, is Chedabucto IJay, 17^ miles wide and 26 miles
deeit. Isle ]\Iadanie is at the northern entrance, and
upon it is the town of Arichat with a capacious and
secure harbour. The island is inhal)ited chiefly by
Acadian French, and is a very important centre for
fishing vessels. The town of ( hiysborough is at the head
of Chedabucto J]ay, and the harbour and town of Canso is
at its southern extremity.

These two bays are connected by a very remarkable
passage, the Gut, or Strait of Canso. This is a deep lane
of water, available by the largest ships, between the
peninsula of Xova Scotia and the island of Cape IJreton,
14^ miles long and three-quarters of a mile wide at its
narrowest part. It is much frecpiented by ships and,
narrow though it is, the depth of water is never less than
15 fathoms. Jiotli shores are bold. Cape Porcupine is
a precipitous headland on the Xova Scotia side, G-iO
feet high, and on the Cape Breton side are the mountains
which traverse that island. The headlands interlock so
as to conceal the through passage. The scenery is
exceedingly beautiful — the wooded shores, the green
clearings, the white villages, the deep water, the passing
ships, and the fringe of mountains present an unusually
attractive scene. For a long time after the discovery of

Anu'
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NOVA .SCOTIA

153

Aiiiorica this passuge was niikiiowii to the cartn<;rapliGrs
and they did not separate on their maps the island from
the i)eninsula. Tiiese seas were tlie best lisliinu;-<a'ounds
in the whole region. l*rivateers and pirates when
})nrsued sought refuge in tlieir numerous shelters, and a
harbour half w;'.v through tlie strait is still called I'irate's

STRAIT UK CAN.-JO, X.«.

harbour. The French name was the Passarjc de Fronmc
from Denys, Sieur de Froi;.M'ic, who had his chief
establishment at St. Peter's, where a canal, less than half
a mile long, now leads to the Bras d'Or and the
interior of the island. It is more euphonious than the
present name, and Denys was one of the best and most
(-■a])able men who ever lived in Xova Scotia. His name
should be commemorated on the coast where he spent
his active and useful life.

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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Geology

If u line be drawn leno;tlnvise throii";li the centre o\'
the peninsula, from l^igby Ciut on the south-west to Cape
Canso on the north-east, it will very nearly mark off on its
outer or Atlantic side the Cambrian rocks and, on its
inner side, later formations of which the Carboniferous is
tlie chief. These may, for convenience, be called tlie
outer and inner geological areas of the peninsula. In
this general statement, liowever, an importnnt modification
must be made — a broad band of intrusive granite extends
round in an arch from near Cape Sal tie to Cliebucto
head near Halifax and touches with its apex the Annapolis
valley near lU'idgetown. Detaclied areas of granite also
occur in the eastern extension of th') Cambrian area and
a small outcrop appears at Cape Canso. The outer or
Cambrian area presents to the surges of the Atlantic a
low barrier of hard rocks, mostly slates, sandstones, and
quartzites. These contain Acins of quartz carrying gold,
and after making deductions for the granite outcrops
there remains a total area of about oOOO square miles of
Cambrian i)i which these gold-bearing veins may be, or
have been, found. This outer area, while it contains
occasional valleys of good farm land is not agricultural to
any considerable extent.

The inner geological area of the peninsula is very
dilferent and, while it is in the main Carl »oniferous, there
are some important deductions to l)e made. Out of the
Carboniferous rocks rises the range of the Cobeipiid
mountains, consisting of slates and quartzites and in-
trusive rocks considcied to be Sihiro- Cambrian ami
extending through the hilly country of Tictou and
Antigonish to the Strait of Canso. There is also a narrow
band of li^pper Silurian and of Devonian extending from

NOVA SCOTIA

155

the head of tlie l>asin of ]\liiias eastward to tlie head of
(.'hedal)Ucto ]>ay and intervening between the Cand)rian
on the Atkntic coast and the ("arbitniferous of the inner
waters. Along the nortliern shore of the liasin of Minas
is a narrow strip of Triassie red sandstone, and this
fornia.tion extends also in a narrow band down the valley
of the Annapolis river and along the shore of the Uay
of Fundy. The valley is narrow, and while, on the inner
side, it is bounded by a ran<'''^ of hills called the South
mountain, it is separated from the Bay of Fundy on the
other side by a range known as the Xortli mountain,
and the red sandstone in this last is capped throughout
its whole length, from Cape lUomidon to the extreme
end of the peninsula, by an outliow of trap rock. The
coast of Nova Scotia therefore presents on that side a
very bold outline of precipitous trap rocks forming a
rampart, sometimes several hundred feet high, of columnar
biisaltic clifi's culminating at its eastern end on the JUisin
of Minas in tiie grand ])romontory of Cape lUomidon.

The Carboniferous formation extends from the high
land of Ca])e George westwards along the whole coast of
the peninsula on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and across the
country to Chignecto ])ay and the lUsin of Minas, occu-
1 lying Cuml)erland county and the greater part of Pictou,
( 'olclioster, and King's counties. The thickness of this
Ibrmation is estimated by Sir AVilliam Dawson at over
16,000 feet. At the Jog«jins on the shore of Chignecto
<'hannel is a uniipie natural exposure of a section of the
luiildle and u[>pi'r divisions of tiie whole series, giving an
actual measurement of 14,570 feet. It is a classic region
lor geologists, and Sir Charles Lyell. who examiiu'd it in
1842 ai-vv 1845, prononnced it to be " the finest examjile
in the world of a natural exposure in a continuous section
ten miles lon<j;." Here Sir Charles counted nineteen

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COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'lIY AND TKAVEL

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seams of coal from two inches to four feet thick in vertical
section, and t'le great range of the tides revealed a
horizontal section of 200 yards from the base of the
cliffs. Here he saw exposed to full daylight fossil trees
erect in ten distinct levels and terminating downwards
in seams of coal, and Sir AVilliam iJawson, he says, lias
enumerated over 150 species of plants found in this
extraordinary section of the coal-measures. The cliffs
on the fchore are from 100 to 400 feet high.

The main ge()lofi;ical formations of Xova Scotia are
continueu in Ciipe Breton Island. The raml)rian of the
Atlantic coast extends in a Land occupying the south-
east correr of the island as far as the cape from which
the island takes its name. AVest and north of that
is a wide area of ("arboniferous rocks, and from Cape
Jjreton head to the entrance of the Bias d'Or they
crop out on the sea lieacli and the black bands of coal
may be seen, in the clifl's, from a passing steamer. Tlic
long northern projection from the head of St. Anne's Ba}-
to Cape North is formed of Laurentian gneiss — the only
place in Nova Scotia where that formation occurs. It
rises in a lofty irregular table-land, but a narrow fringe
of Carboniferous rocks extends almost all round the
margin upon the gulf shore.

Minerals

The chief resources of Xova Scotia, so far as worked,
consist of coal, iron, gypsum, and gold. (3ther valuable
minerals occur, but the above have been developed and
utilised. Coal is extensively mined in three chief
localities — Cumberland, Pictou, and Cape Breton. The
coal-tield of Sydney, Cape Breton, extends along the
Atlantic shore for 32 miles and covers an area of over

NOVA SCOTIA

1 - K

250 square miles. Thirty-four seams occur in the section,
but only a few of them have Ijeen worked. Less extensive
coal-measures occur also on the west coast, at C'heticamp,
and Mabou and at Port Hood and on the south coast, in
Eichmond county. These have been tested, and small
(quantities of coal have been taken out, but the only
important workings have been near Sydney.

The Pictou coal-tield (thirty-live square miles in ex-
tent) is remarkaljle for the great thickness of its seams.
In one section tlie main seam is 34 ft. 7 ins., and what
is known as the IJeep Seam is 22 ft. 11 in. thick. Other
seams occur 5 ft. 7 in., 3 ft. G in., 3 ft. 3 in., 12 ft.,
o ft., 11 ft., and 10 ft. thick, respectively — in all
107 ft. 10 in. of coal. The Cumberland coal-tield has
an area of 430 square miles, and is worked chieHy at
Springhill, where eight seams occur, with an aggregate
thickness of 52 ft. 7 in. Mines have been opened at
several other places — at river Hubert, at jMaccan, and
at the Joggins. All the coal of Xova Sc(jtia is
Itituminous, and the area of the known productive coal-
Helds of the province is over 700 square miles. Coal
has been found in many other places, but there is no
profit in opening up new mines as those now in full
()[)eration can sup])ly the present demand.

Gold is mined in many places in the outer Cambrian
area throughout the whole length of the province on its
Atlantic side, and also in several localities in Cape
Breton. CJold has been found in thirtv-five localities,
and mines are worked in (Queen's county and in many
places from Halifax to Canso. The total product I'rom
1862 to 1895 was 602,268 oz., value $11,808,486.
The area of auriferous rocks is very wide and extends
through the roughest part of the province. The forests
and swamps of the interior probably cover many rich

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGlUrilY AND TRAVEL

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districts. The ores are low in grade, but the quantity is
very large and, by recent improvements in treatment, the
gold can be extracted from ores hitherto unavailable.
The mines during the past yem 1890) have been ex-
tending their operations with si ss.

Iron

Iron ores of great value are found in a broad belt
through the whole length of the province and in Cape
Breton. Immense masses are found in the coal districts,
'.nd the manufacture of iron and steel is carried on bv
large coni[)anies in the I'ictou district. There are ex-
tensive iron and steel works also near Londonderry, in
the Cumberland coal-field, where specular, magnetic, and
htcmatite ores occur in beds of immense extent. Some
of the Nova Scotia ores are unequalled excepting l^y the
best Swedish ores.

Gypsum

Tlie quantity of this mineral existing in the province
is incredible. Large masses showing exposures 50 feet
thick are frequently seen. On the shores of the Bras d'Or
it may be dropped into the holds of sea-going vessels from
the masses standing out white upon the green slopes of
the mountains or forming part of their precipitous sides.
Gypsum has been exported from the region round the
Basin of Minas from the earliest settlement of the
countrv.

Character of the Land

The peninsula has been, in the previous pages, roughly
divided into two parts almost etjual in area. One half
facing the Atlantic and the other facing the interior

NOVA SCOTIA

159

waters and, speaking in a general way, the first half may
be said to be rocky and barren, and the second for the
most part ara])le and fertile. Tlie Atlantic half corre-
sponds to the region of hard Cambrian rocks and granite,
the other to the region of Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,
and Triassic. The l)arren band along the coast is about
21 miles wide in its whole length.

The surface on the Atlantic coast is low, and it does
not rise more than 200 or 300 feet in the interior. In
the central part it is traversed by broken and rocky
ridges of very little elevation and interspersed with
numerous lakes and streams, especially at its western end
in rear of Yarmouth, Shelburne, and Liverpool, There are
also many l)ogs and many barrens where the forest has
l)een burned. The country is a paradise for sportsmen
where moose and caril)00 are plentiful, and bears are also
to be found, as well as fur animals such as foxes, otters,
and Uiinks. The numberless lakes are full of trout, and
ihe rivers at tlie coast abound in sea trout. Partridges,
snipe, and woodcock are plentiful, and, in their season,
all the waters, streams, lakes, and bays are resorts of
geese, ducks, and l>rant. The whole country is covered
with forest and, thougii in the alluvial land along the
streams there is agricultural land, the interior is for the
most part unsettled and wild.

On tlie side facing the inner waters of the Bay of
Fundy and the Culf of St. Lawrence it is far diflerent.
There continuous liills clothed with beech, maple, and
other hard woods run in ranges in the general direction
of the coast-lines. The Annapolis valley is flanked on
both sides by two such ranges extending from the basin of
Minas south-westwardly to the extreme end of the penin-
sula. These have a general elevation of ."iOO to 700 feet.
Along the north shore of the Basin of ]\Iinas are the

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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151 I ■■':
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Cobequid inoiintains which continue on along the northern
half of the peninsula to Cape George and the Gut of
Canso. The mountains are nowhere higher than 1200
feet, and are covered with fertile soil, or whers uncleared,
with dense forests of hardwood trees. At tlie eastern
end of this region is a rich pasture country, and around
the Basin of Minas and Cliignecto Bay are the fertile
marsh lands formed by the tides of the Bay of Fundy.

The rivers How across the peninsula, and necessarily
are small from the narrowness of the Avatersheds ; but
they are very numerous, and the tides running up from
the heads of the bays into which they fall make them
appear more important than tlieir drainage area would
warrant. Mtniy of the lakes in the interior are connected
by the rivers, so that it is easy to pass across the country
with canoes, for the portages are short. By the
Shubenacadie river and chain of lakes, the ]\Iicmac
Indians in the last century used to cross from the Basin
of Minas to the divide within a few miles of Haliiax,
and, after hiding their canoes, lurk in the woods round
Halifax, Lunenl)urg, and Dartmouth, waiting for the scalp
of any English settler who might be found off his guard,
or for the scalps of his wife and children if they were
alone in the house. From Liverpool and Lunenburg
similar chains of lakes with sliort portages lead across
to the Bay of Fundy. Lake Bossignol and the Great
Shubenacadie Lake are the largest.

The most im]»orlant of the rivers are the 8hul)enacadie,
which rises near Halifax and empties into the basin of
Minas, the Annapolis, whicli runs along the western edge
of the peninsula, the La Heve river, and the Pictou river ;
but in a countrv of great rivers like the Dominion these
cannot count for nmch. Tlie i)rovince of Nova Scotia is,
like its sister provinces, a land of abundant water.

NOVA SCOTIA

161

The agricultural lands, ah before stated, face along the
inner bays. The valley of the Annapolis is celel<rated
for a]jples, and during the year ending June oO, 1805,
28."'),S<S 4 l)arrels were exported, ehietly to England and the

I Tnited States. Th

sheltered th

[. lutea ^tates. I ins valley, oeino; slieltered tnrou<'liout oy a
d()ul)le range of hills, is warmer than the rest of the province.
In Cumberland, Colchester, and Hants connties are the
chief part of the dyked lands which never rctjuire manur-
ing, and have produced large crops of hay for a hundred
years. All the inner counties of the province are pro-
ductive fainiinu; districts, and wherever the tides of the
Bay of Fundy reach they liave formed mead(jw land of
great fertility. V\)(m such land, wherever found through-
out the province, were the settlements of the French
Acadiiins. They did not clear land with the axe, but
took up these fertile meadows and extended them by
dykes (called ahotcau.r) with sluices. Whenever these
were opened the water of the l)ay entering deposited a
liiiu dressiny; of red mud which renewed the fertility of
the soil.

Government

The government of Xova Scotia at first extended over
nil Acadia. I'rince Edward Island was erected into a
pi(jvince in 1770, and New IJrunswick was set off in
1784. (ape Breton was separated in 1784, but again
attached to Xova Scotia in 1820.

The constitutional history of this province jiassed
thr«»ugh the process of evolution usual in Ih-itish colonies.
First came the roval governor, with a council nominated
by the Crown. The popular legislative assembly was
superadded in due course ; then ensued the usual struggles
between the nominated and elected bodies, until in 1847
what is called responsible government was conceded, that

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

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is, tlie popular assembly obtained the dominant intluence
corresponding to that of tlie British House of Commons.
The subseipient political history is not different from that
of other parliamentary governments, and consists of
alternate administration by two political parties. In
1807 Nova Scotia l»ecame one of the jn-ovinces of the
Dominion,

It is now governed by a lieutenant-governor appointed
by the Dominion (Jovernment, a legislative council of
twenty members having a property qualification, appointed
for life by the Crown in theory, but practically by the
government of the day, and a legislative assembly of
thirty-eight mendjers, elected under a franchise narrower
than that of the other English provinces, but still on
a very popular basis. The executive government or
administration consists of eight mem])ers, and nmst be
able always to obtain the support of a majority in the
popular chamber.

The local government is carried on l)y the nninicipal
councils either of cities or of rural districts. The first
may be regulated by their own special charters or fall
under the general law, the second are under the general
municipal law of the province. Every electoral division
sending a representative to the provincial legislative
assembly is a municipality for its own local objects. The
municipal council is composed of councillors elected by
the ratepayers who choose a head — mayor or warden.

Education

The schools of the province are undenominational
and free, and the course extends from the primary
scliools for children of five years to the high schools and
academies. The Government maintains a normal school

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NOVA SCOTIA

103

for the triiiiiinf'' of teachers and schools for the deaf and
(hmdj and hhnd. The executive council (or administra-
tion of the day) is the supreme governing body, and
acts through the sui)erintendent (jf education. It
appoints a board of examiners for teacliers and a staff
of school inspectors. The province is divided into school
districts, for each of which a Ixjard of school com-
uiissioners is appointed l)y ( Jovernnient. The districts
are subdivided by the comnussioners into school sections,
and these are adnunistered by a l)oard of three trustees
elected by the ratepayers.

The schools are supi)orted by legislative grants supple-
mented by statutory municipal taxation. When any
unusual amount is required, it must be voted by a meet-
ing of the ratei)ayers of the districts concerned. From
the high sc^hools those who desire to puisue their studies
further may avail themselves of the University of
Dalhousie College at Halifax, which is undenominational;
or King's College at Windsor, which is Anglican; or
Acadia College at Wolfville, which is liaptist ; or St.
Franc^ois Xavier College at Antigonish, which is lioman
Catholic. The aggregate amount expended on public
education in 1895 was $811,804.

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Cities

Halifax, the capital of the province, is situated upon a
rising ground — a peninsula formed l)y Bedford basin (the
continuation of the harbour) and the North-west Arm, a
heautiful sheet of water (a quarter of a nnle wide and
navigable for large vessels), running into the land in rear.
It is very strongly fortified, not only by the citadel, a
tirst-class fortress, which rises over the city, but by forts
at the entrance of the harbour which can cross their fire,

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COMl'ENDIUM OF GEOCaUPHY AND TKAVEL

and l)y forts upon islands wliicli can rake the clmnncls of
tip))roacli from sea. This is tlie last footliold of Imperial
power on the continent saving a few engineers at Escjuimalt
on the l*acitic. Since the Imperial troops were withdrawn
from the rest of Canada a regiment has l)een left here, and
Halifax is also the chief centre of the IJritish naval forces
in North American waters. The harhour has been noticed
on a previons paj^e.

Tlie popnlation of Halifax given in the census of 1801
is 08,550, and the pursuits of its people are chiefly
maritime. The total tonnage registered at Halifax is
4.'), 094 t(ms. The imports amounted in value to
S0,250,092 and the exports to 85,1)97,284 for the year
ending June oO, 1890. The trade of Halifax is largely
connected with the product of the fisheries.

The numl)er of vessels entered inwards I'roni sea in the
year ending June oO, 1890, was 975, with a total tonnage
of 005,345 tons.

Halifax is the saat of the provincial government, and
the old province l)uilding suggests many memories of old
colony days. The Imperial (Jovernment has an extensive
dockyard and naval arsenal, and on the hill overlooi<ing
it is the official residence in summer of the admiral
commanding on the Xorth American station. Dalhousie
College, a non-denominational university with about 500
students, is at Halifax. It was established in 1820,
during the adndnistration of the Earl of Dalhousie, and is
the chief educational institution of the province.

Yarmouth is the second city of Nova Scotia. It has
a population of 0089 of the most enterprising people in
the whole Dominion. The tonnage registered in this small
place amounts to 52,731 tons, and the management of
shipping is a peculiar gift of the people of this city. The
harl)our of Yarmouth is not equal to mauy others in

NOVA SCOTIA

IC.O

Xova .Scotia, and lliere is no back couiitrv to support it.
The lakes in rear are beautiful, and the rei;ion is a
sportsman's wilderness, not a rich f'nrniing country, and
yet Yarmouth is moi'e prosperous than any other city in
the east. In the ten years, 1881-18!il, the ratio of
increase in population was 74*7 i)er cent.

Truro, at the head of Cobequid l»ay, is the next im-
portant place in the province. It is in the centre of a rich
farming district and the provincial normal school is there.
It is also the centre of some imp'ortant manufacturing
industries. It is an exceedingly i)retty town. The \)o\m-
lation is 5102 and increased 47 i)er cent in the last
decade. Lunenburg, with a population of 4044, increased
131 per cent in the same })eriod. It is i maritime town
and depends upon the fisheries, sending out many vessels
to follow the cod fishery on the l)anks. Amherst at the
head of Chignecto Bay is in a rich agricultural district,
the fen lands of the upper Bay of Fundy, and is a centre
of supply for the Cumberland mining district. Its popu-
lation increased GO per cent in the last ten years, and is
now .'5781. Xew Glasgow is the centre of the Tictou
mining district. It increased 45 per cent, and the popu-
lation is o77G. I'ictou, the shipping port, has remained
f^:ationary, the towns closer to the mines grew at its
expense. "Windsor (the Pisiquid of French and Indian
history) is a small town of 2838 inhabitants on the Avon,
a tidal river falling into the Basin of Minas. Its people
are large owners of shipping. King's College, the oldest
English college in Canada, is at Windsor. It was founded
in 1788 on the plan of an English college, and is under
the control of the Ancjlican Church.

166

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Communications

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The railway conimiiiiicatioiis of Nova Scotia for the
most part form a portion of the (Jovernment line of the
Intercolonial railway. Halifax is connected by that line
with Windsor and Truro at the heads of the two great
arms of the Bay of Fiindy. The same line connects with
Picton and Sydney, Cape ]]reton, the centres of the two
great coal- fields, and, in passing over the ipthnms to
connect with the main Canadian system, the line traverses
the Cumberland mining district. There is a line of rail-
way from "Windsor down the Annapolis valley to Digliy
and Yarmouth, and a branch connects the valley with the
Atlantic coast at Lunenburg. There is a short spur from
the Springhill coal mines to their shipping port (l*arrsboro')
on the ])asin of ]\linas, and another connecting the Cape
Breton coal mines with Sydney and Louisbourg. The
Joggins coal mines are reached l)y a spur from the Inter-
colonial railway fr(jm Maccan near Andierst.

Halifax is in connnunication witli Europe l)y several
lines of steamships. The Allan line is fortnightly from
Norfolk and IJaltimore, touching at Halifax and St. Jolm's,
Newfoundland, to (>)ueensto\vn and Liverpool. I'lie
Lurness line runs from Halifax ilirect to London, the
Hansa line to Antwerp and Hamlturg, the Allan line to
(Jlasgow. There is also a line to New York and one to
Boston, and lines of coasting steamers run to Canso and
ports in the gulf and round the coast westwards.
Steamers run regularly also to St. John's, Newfoundland,
and to Sydney.

The following table gives a summary of the chief facts
not already stated of tlie business of the ]»rovince : —

Total value ot imports (1895-«G)
„ ,, oxiwts „

*8,. '$36,820
lO.nStO.lGO

|!|

NOVA SCOTIA

Value of jirorluce of Hslieries (1894-95)
Number of fishennen (1894)
Quantity of coal produced (tons) 189.")

,, iron ore jtrnduced (tons) 1895

„ pig iron made (tons) 1895

Value of gold produced (value) 1895
Quantity of gypsum exported (tons) 1895

Cape Breton

1G7

86,547,387

19,571

2,265,930

83,792

52,454

8406,770

156,809

The i.sland of Cape Breton is unlike any other part of
the Dominion. It has a l)eauty all its own — a beauty
of woods and mountains and sea and lakes in close
contrast, for the octan passing through the narrow inlets
flows into the very heart oi the island, and searches
out the innermost recesses of the two mountain ranges
which spread out like the letter Y to the north and
north-east. The water is deep enough to permit vessels
of the largest size to lie close inshore, and there is not
sufficient range of tide to expose much beach, so the
woods come down to the margin of the Bras d'Or, as
this brinnning loch is a])propriately named. On the west
is a wilderness table-land of 1100 scpuire miles and 1200
feet high, and the highlands on the outer side are bluff
on the gulf shore and on the inner descend steep down
to the Bras d'Or. On the east is a lower range, where
an occasional farm may be seen breaking the rounded
outlines of the forest-clad hills. At the extreme southern
l)oint the Dominion Ooverninent has cut a canal, only
2400 feet long with one lock, and opened out another
passage into the Atlantic, thus dividing the island into two

separate parts.

The distance from the northern entrance

from the sea to the canal is GO miles, and the Bras d'Or at
its widest is 20 miles across. The mountains are not
high enough to 1)e gloomy, and they are covered with a
mixed forest of deciduous and everLjreen trees, nf it

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COMPEXDIL'M OF GEOGIUI'HV AND TRAVEL

sninincn-'s day, wlien the sun shines fVoni a clear Idue sky,
it lights u]) tlie traiishieent water ti> the hdttoni, and tlie
nie(Uis;e, or jelly-tisli, Hoat in shoals of delicate white, pink,
and ])uri)le discs, ex])andin<^- and contracting with regular
l)ulsati(>ns in the warm sunlit waters. Thei'e is no stir
in this (i;()lden arm el' the sea. The western plateau is an
unexplored wilderness, the home of the moose, the carihoo,
and the Itear; occasionally a vessel is seen close inshore,
loading gy})snni froui a white cliif, or the steamer may
disturh some hird sitting out on a low branch fishing and
studying the clear water for a strike. The Ijrooks and
streams falling in are full of trout, and all the fish of the
neighliouring coasts are found in the dee}K'r waters. At
one jtoint, where the Little I>ras d'( )r passes into the
(Jreat Uras d'Or, all the lake closes in to the (Jrand
Xarrows and there it is hridged l»y the Intercol(.»nial
railway. Then it spreads out agisin in great stretches
among the hills — more beautiful, says Charles J)udley
Warner, than he had imagined a body of salt water could be.
In the fresh early morning, when the loons b(>gin to talk
about getting u]), or in the still evening when the jturjile
of the hills l)egins to darken, or even in full mid-day
when the leaves rustle lightly overhead ami the ri])itleH
sparkle in the sunshiiu', the beauty of the IJras d'Or can
be expressed only by the opening stanzas of Thomson's
" Castle of ludoleiu^' " before the Knight of Industry broke
in ui)on the restful paradise.

The Carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia continue into
Cai»e Ih'eton island ami form its centre in which, as in a

basin, lie the Ihas d'Or lake

I'l'oductive I'oal seams

crojt out on the edges of the island — at the west, ou
the shore of the gulf along the base of the hills from Port
Hood to Margaree — in the south, neai' Port Ilawkesbuiy
at the entrance of the strait of ('anso— atthe soutli-east.

i : '■ ■ r

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170

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGItAPHY AND TRAVEL

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along the banks of the river Denys; and, on tlie north-
east, near Sydney, where they cro}) out on. the sea-shore.
Ah)ng the S(juth-east coast, from tlie Lennox passage to
Scatari island, a continuation of the Caniln-iau belt of Nov.
Scotia lionlers the low rocky shore. To the north the long
projecting plateau extending to the northern capes consists
of crystalline rocks classed as Archa-an. All round this
})lateau the coast is bold, rising to 1392 feet at Cape
Enfunie. On the whole west or inner coast of the island
Port Hood is the onlv fair harbour, but on the Atlantic
side are many excellent harljours, foremost among which
is that of Svdnev, one of the best in the world although
blocked by ice in winter. In the sixteenth century, fisher-
men from all the maritime nations of Europe resorted
annually to this coast, and the old names bear witness that
tiiey resorted to different harbours. Thus, St. Anne's IJay
was called Port Dauphin and was a favourite; rendezvous
of the French, Sydney harbour was called lUiye des
Espagnols, and Louisl)ourg, Port aux Anglais. Ingonisli
or Niganis was, says Champlain, at one time a resort of
tbe Portuguese, ("ape Enfume, Snuike ca})e or Bala dcs
finiios, derives its nanu' from a very curious ai)pearinicc
of smoke ascending from the sliore up the face of the
cliff whicli led the old mariners sailing past to suppose tbe
place; was iidial»ite(l.

Tbe chief town (tf ("ape I'reton is Sydney, ])opulati<in
2427. North Sydney, on tbe opj)osite side of the harltour,
has a population of 2522, and the ])oi»ulation at tbe
neighl)ouring mines is 244(). The harbour is very
conmiodi<tus, s])reading out into two deep arms. It is
a favourite port of tbe French s(pia(bon on the New-
foundland station. The site of Louisbourg is occupied
oidy by a few lisbei'men and the ruins of tbe old fortress
city. The harbour is small but is open all the year. It

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

will 110 (lonbt once more become, on tluit account,
impfjitant, for a railway has recently been completed
to it from the coal mines. During the last 140 years
there has been a strange desolation aljont tliis really fine
harbour, once the centre of tlie power of France in the
west. The fortress was blown up beyond all restoration
after its capture, and as the land around is barren, only a
few fisliermen's Imts mark the site of the once crowded
seaport.

NOTE TO CHAPTER VI

Tlie following books contain more detailed information :—

]5oritiN'OT, J. G.

Historical and Descrijitivc Account of the Island of Cape Breton.
Trans. Roy. Soc, Canada, vol. ix. 1891.

HiiOWX. RiclIAlM).

Coal Fields of Cape IJreton. 8vo. London.

BnowN, RiciiAiU).

History of the Island of Cape Breton. Svo. London : Sampson
Low and Co., 1809.

GiLrix, F^DWix (Insjtector of Mines).

.Mines and Mineral Lands of Nova Scotia. Halifax: Robert T.
.Murray, 1880.

(iii.i'iN, Edwix.

The Gold Fields of Nova Scotia. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1882.

(iii.i'ix, K.

The Mining Dcvelo]iincnt of Nova Scotia, a paper read before the
Federated Institution of .Mining Kngineers. London, 1894.

H.\i.ii!ri!T()X, TniiM.vs C.

Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia. 2 vols. Svo.
llalifa.x, 1829.

H.\unv, Capt.

Forest Life in Acadia. Sketches of Sport and Natural History in
the Lower rrovinces of the Canadian Dominion. London :
Ciiapman and Hall. 1809.

NOVA SCOTIA

173

Murdoch, Bkamish.

History of Nova Scotia, or Acadia. .3 vols. 8vo. Halifax: James
Barnes, 1865.

Nova Scotia GovKitXMr.NT.

Animal Rejiorts of the Department of Mines.

Pattekson, Rev. Dr.

Sable Island : its History and Phenomena. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada, 1894.

The following are tlie dates of llejtorts of otficers of the
Geological Survey, arranged by localities : —

CUMUKHLAND COAI, FlELDs.

E. Hartley

MeOuat, 1874 : S. Barlow. lS7t] ; R. W

Ells, 188;') ; H. Fletcher, 1892.

PiCTOU C(JAI, FlELPS.

Sir Wm. Logan, 1869 ; E. Hartley, 1869 ; H. Fletcher, 1891.

Cai'e Buetox Coal Fields.

Chas. Robb, 1873-75 ; H. Fletcher, 1876-78, 1884, 1895.

Ooi.D Fields.

T. S. Hnnt and A. Michel, 1868 ; Dr. Selwyn. 1871 : K. R.
Faribault, 1886, 1896.

Eastei;n Nova Scotia.

H. Fletcher and E. R. Faribault. 1886.

PicToi: AND Colchester Counties.
Dr. Selwyn, 1873 ; H. Fletcher, 1891.

South-Westeux Nova Scoiia.

L. W. Bailey, 1893 ; R. Chalmers. 1894

These Reports are ])ublished, and may be had at tlic (Jeolngical
and Natural History Museum at Ottawa.

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CHA1»TEK VII

NEW BllUXSWICK

The province of New lU-iiiiswick is almost square in sliape,
and three of its sides front on the three great bays of the
Atlantic coast of the Dominion. On the north it is
hounded by tlie whole length of the Bay Chaleur and by
a i>art of the province of (,^)uebec. From the head of the
bay the line follows the liestigouche river and its tributary
the Patapedia as far as lat. 48', which parallel it follows
westwards to the water-parting of the Eestig(juche and
the waters Howing north into the river St. Lawrence by
the Iiimouski. At that point the western l)oundary
commences. It follows approximately by straight lines
the water-parting of the Iiimouski and St. John rivers
southwards to the south-east corner of the old seigneuries
of Temiscouata and ]\Iadawaska. Leaving these sei-
gneuries wholly in the province of (.^)uebec, the line follows
their southerly limit, and continues on in the same
general south-west direction to a point on Lake Beau,
where it to\iches the international boundary. From that
point it follows the international l)oundary southwards to
the mouth of the St. Croix river. The greater part of
the western boundary is, therefore, formed l>y the state
of Maine, and the rest by the provinces of Quebec. On
tlie south New Brunswick is Ixtunded by the Bay of

ti '
I i,

NEW I5RUNSWICK

175

Fuiicly and l)y the istlnnus at its head — the little n\'er
Missiguash being the line of separation from Nova tSeotia
for almost the whole distance across the isthnms. The
eastern boundary is the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The province extends from 63° 55' to 07 40' west
longitude and froni44°35'to 48"north latitude, an extreme
distance of 200 miles from east to west, and 230 miles
from north to south, and its area is 28,200 square miles.
Two islands at the entrance of the liay of Fundy belong
to it — Campobello and Grand ]\Ianan, both very important
to the fishing interests (jf the province. Campobelhj
is 8 miles long l)y .'5 in width, with very bold
shores, and is covered with forests of evergreens. In
1767 it was granted to Admiral Owen, and was held by
his heirs for 100 years. There are 1160 inhabitants on
the island, mostly fishermen. Grand IManan is 22
miles long by 3 to 6 miles wide, and has good
harbours on the east coast. The west and south coasts
are perpendicular cliffs 300 to 400 feet high. The
surface is level and wooded, and the inhabitants, 2700 in
number, live 1)y fishing. Both these islands are tlie
sununer resort of many wealthy people from the south,
and of artists, who find al)undant material for sketches
in their bold cliffs and pictures([ue marine scenery.

The exterior of New Brunswick on the west and south
will make an unfavourable impression, for the coast on
the Bay of Fundy is rocky and rugged though not high,
and the country on the eastern i)art of ]\laine and the
western part of New Brunswick, where the railways cross
tlie border, is a wilderness of boulders and of rock,
where the l)urnt forest has not found soil wherewith
to renew itself. These narrow barriers of barren and
rocky soil enclose a broad area of level and fertile country
extending away to the eastern and northern shores.

|1 :

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170

COMI'KNDIUM OF (JEOGUAI'HY AND TRAVEL

The Bay of Fundy

Tills l)i()iul anil of the Xorth Atliiutic icaches eastward
towards the (Jnlf of St. Lawrence, and separates, exceptin<4
for a low isthmus only 1 1 .V miles across, the j)eninsula of
Nova Scotia from the province of New Brunswick on the
main continent. It is aliout 180 miles in length.
Opposite St. John harl)our it is 45 miles wide, and
continu(!S alxjut that width until it forks into two ureat
l)ays — the IJasin of INlinas and Clii<j,necto Vmy, which last
siihdivides into Shepody Bay and Cumberland l>asin, the
Beaubassin of the French. De ^Nlonts, in 1604, named
it La Baye FraiK'aise, and so it remained upon the French
maps; but the Fn*j;lis!i always called it the ]!ay ol'
Fundy — the corruption probably of an earlier Portuguese
name, I>(i)/a Foinlc, or " the deep bay," for the rortuguese
were the earliest cartogra[)liers of this coast.

The tidt'S of the Bay of Fundy are noted for their
height. In St. dohn harbour the sju'ing tides rise 27
feet ; at Sackville, 4;") feet : at Fort Cumberland, 47) i'eet :
at the mouth of Shubenacadie river in the l>asin of jNIinas,
50 feet, rising constantly higher towards the upper reatihes
of the l)ay. I'lie cause is a])pareiit on the map. The
tidal wave sweeps in from the ocean with a broad front,
extending from Cape Sable in Xova Scotia to the Maine
coast, and, as the shores of the bay draw together and
the depth decreases in the upper reaches, the wave rises
in height, and its current becomes swifter. At Cape
Sable it runs at the rate (jf three miles an hour, but
rapidly accelerates its speed until, in Chignecto Bay and
the liasin of ]\Iinas, it rushes at the rate of six or seven
miles an hour with a bore or crest up the funnel-like
estuaries. The water in the u])per reaches becomes
heavily charged with sediment. The bore arrives suddenly,

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NEW inil'N.SWICK

t i

the foremost wave curling some 4 to G feet liiiili, and
it covers almost instantly the broad Hats at tiie head of
the bay. The ceaseless scour has, in its hnver courses,
deepened tlie bay and swept the sliores. On tlie New
Brunswick side tlie rocks are hard Cambrian, and on the
Nova Scotia side a wall of hiird trap protects the lied
Sandstone, but farther up the softer Carboniferous and lied
Sandstone rocks are corroded l)y the swift currents. At

Mi'i.-iliiiKin, J'hiito.

TlIK I30UE, I'ETITCODIAC HIVEU, MOXCTOX, XKW IMtrNSWICK, AL(i. 8, LSO'2.

nt>i},'lit, 5 foi't 4 inches.

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such pohits as Windsor, or j\Ioncton, or Andierst, the
spectator at low tide will see oidy^a vast ex])anse of
smooth red mud, and tar away in the middle little
rivulets such as the Salmon, the Avon, the Missiguash,
the Tetitcodiac, trickling in a thin stream of fresh water.
Suddenly will arrive a rush of waters, and these little
rivers have spread out t(j a width of two or three miles,
and the water brims up in all the little brooklets and
ditches. Tide after tide deposits thin layers of red mud

!■ !

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17<S

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAl'lIY AND TKAVEL

on the Hilts, Jiiiil they gradually rise until only the
spring tides cover them, then tliey are dyked and heeonie
rich liay meadows which a hundred years of crop})ing
will not exhaust.

The Bay of Fundy, in tlie months of sunnner, is very
sul)ject to fogs ; for the wind at that season frequently
blows from the south, and almost any wind with south
in it will Ining up fog from the (iulf Stream. Otherwise
there is no ditticulty in navigating it. The coasts are
bold; there are no shoals l)ecause of the ceaseless scour,
and the tides, if they are swift, are always the same.
There is excellent shelter for vessels along the Xew
Brunswick coast, and, after the islands off I'assama-
<|uoddy Bay are passed, there are no rocks to endanger
navigation. Even when the fog is tliick on the main
bay it does not extend inland, and the whole extent of
PassanuKpioddy Yrdy may l)e clear over an area of 100
square miles of deep and sheltered water. Passama-
(juoddy Bay contains many harbours, of which the best
is tliat of St. Andrews. Other excellent harbours on
the main Bay of Fundy west of St. dohn are: L'Etang,
Lepreau, and INIusquasli harljours, Itesides the harbours
and shelters of Grand Manan and Campobello islands.
On tlie Nova Scotia side the openings through the barrier
of trap are few and narrow, but the harbours of St. John
and St. Andrews are open all the year round with easy
access and simple navigation to the main Atlantic.
There is no other part of the western ocean where the
phenomena of the tides afford so interesting a study.

Contour of the Land

The whole southern border of the province fronting on
the Bay of Fundy is protected from the scour of the tides

>:e\\ hucnswick

179

by ii narrow belt o'- uiicicn*^ and partly inetaiunrphosod
(.'aiiibrian and Caiiibro-Sihaian rucks extt-ntlinii' from
Slie[)uily I)ay in a series of ridges of no great height;
Shepody mountain (1050 feet) being the highest ]>()int.
This belt reaches almost to the south-west corner of the
province, and from that j)oint a similar band oi' hard
rocks, largely granite, stretches away at an angle of about
45^, across the province to IJathurst on the ]>ay Chaleur.
Uetween the base Ihie and this diagonal extends a wide
fan-shaped area of level land underlain l)y rocks of the
Carboniferous formaticjn ; beyond the diagontd to the
north-west is a rolUng country of Silurian age. The
diagonal stretch of highlands is the water-parting, sepa-
rating the waters of the Mirimichi and the l{icliil)Ucto,
flowing into the Gulf of 8t. Lawrence from tla; waters
of the upper St. John and the Iiestigouche. Thi; dividing
ridge varies in height from 1000 to 1300 feet, and
detached mountains rise throughout this disturbed band
to heights from 1500 to 2000 feet, rendering broken
and confused the country about the head waters of the
Tobi(j[ue, Upsalquitch and Xipisiiput. IJald Mountain, the
iiighest point, is a mass of granite 2470 feet abo\e
the sea, and the height of JUue Mountain is 1600 feet.
These ranges of hills are forested to their sunnuits.
With the exceptions stated above New lirunswick is a
level plain, covered everywhere with forests, and large
tracts of it are yet unexplored ; a famous hunting
country for moose and caribou, bear and lynx, sable,
mink, and beaver. Under the operation of good game
laws these wild creatures are increasing rather than
diminishing in number,

Xew Brunswick has been well called the best watered
country in the world ; for it contains an unusual number
of rivers terminating at their mouths in estuaries

'II ''.

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111

I 'I
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180

COMrKNDIUM OF GEOGRAl'llV AND TRAVEL

foiniinu; unod harljoiirs. These Howiiii'' throiiuli tlie
interior reuioii of soi'l rucks lia\(' cut Ijroad valleys ; ,su
that the country, which is really a plain only from 200
to 400 feet above the sea, seems to be a series of ridi^^es.
The valleys are called intervales, and consist of low
alluvial lands flooded at the spring freshets or of terraced
hmd at dill'en'iit elevations a love the streams. Such
lands are fertile and easily worked, and when not clearetl
are clothed with a I'oiest of hard wood — the elm and ash
growing on the lower levels, which are fertilised by the
spring Hoods. All the islan.Is in the streams are alluvial
lanil of the same ([Uality, consisting of rich loam on a
sub-soil of sand or cla}'. North-westwards of the diagonal
range of hills the Silurian ])lain is ."lOO to 800 feet abttve
the sea.

Hydrography

As stated above, the province is watered liy lunnerous
rivers, and these spread out into a mti/e of innumerabl(>
forks and Blanches, all of which ha\i' \alleys of a similar
nature more or less witle, so that tiie aggregate of inter-
vale land is wry large. Those Howing into the Uul'' of
St. Lawrence terminate in wide lagoons jirotected by
sandy bars and spits : for the c(»asl on tliat side is low
although the water of the gulf is dcej).

The chief river of New ihunswick is the St. John — a
grand river draiiung one-half of the ])rovhice and that
])art of Maine which was presenteil to the United States
under the Ashburton treaty. It rises in the State of
]\[aine,near the sources of the Tenobscot and the Chaudiere,
and Hows in a great curve of 400 miles first north, then
south-east and south for about oOO miles in Ni'W
Brunswick. It drains an area of 2(1,000 scpiare miles,
one half of which is in that ]trovince. Tlie head waters

NEW r, HUNS WICK

ISl

of tlie river in the State of Maine How tlirouu'h a
country valuable for its lun'^vr, and altlioUL!,li Loid
Aslihurtoii wrote that Croker's "little farm was worth
the whole pine swamp," the ]>ine of the ceded region
has been of threat value to our neighbours, and ]>ines
do not grow in swamps. The St. John is a hnnbering
river of the Hrst ini])ortan('e, not only to Xew Bruns-
wick but to ^faine ; for all the lumber cut on the upper
St. rFohn and its tributaries in that State is floated down
to the sea at the city of St. John, For eighty miles of
its course the river is tin; international boundary and
does not become a wholly Ihitish stream until a little
above (rrand Falls. It is navigable for large river
steamers for SO miles as far as Fredericton, and smaller
steamers may go up in spring and early summer 12G
miles farther to (Irand I'alls. Above that break it is
navigalile for a further distance of tio miles.

The u]tper stretches of tlu; river How through a
farming eountry wh(;re the ^[adawaska river falls in,
drainiu''' Laki' Temiseouata — a fer'.ile region settled bv
Aeadians driven out from their homes in the great dis-
}>ersion, who returned to find them occui)ied by strangers,
and retreated far up into the wilderness where they found
an undisturbed retreat wheicin to Ibllow their own
customs in peace. At (Irand Falls the river expands into
a broad basin prei)aratory to forcing its way in a swift
curient through a narrow rocky cluuuu'l down an incline
of feet to a ])reci[)ic<! of oS feet, ovei- which it falls into
a deep chasm '!!'){) feet wide with walls of rock 100 to
2r(0 fe(«t hiirh. Within the chasm the river makes a
further fall of 58 feet in rapids and eddies and whii'l-
])ools for a (bstance of a nnle. This is the only obstruc-
tion to navigation aliove St. .loh" harbour, and tiie river
resumes its tran(piil course tnrov jb a level and rich

11 '1.^

182

cf)Mi'ENi;irM 01' (;eo(;i;ai'H V Axi> 'ii:avkl

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farniing coiuitiy witli iii'icli fcilile intervale land, settled
after the Anieriean Jvevolution by expelled loyalists. It
receives many important tributaries in its u])j)ei' course
— the Aroostook from .Maine, the Madavvaska and St.
Francis from Quebec, and the Tobi(|ue from near the
shores of tlu; J Jay ('haleur.

Frederic! on — the capital of the province — is 8G miles
from the mouth of the river. ()p])osite to it the Na^h-
waak river falls in by which the French uarrison con:-
numicated with Canada by way of Miramichi in the olti
colony days. The tide rises to a point six miles aiiove
the city, and at low water there is a dei)th of <S
feet that far. For more than oO miles from its moulh
the river is lo feet deep at h)W water. At INhmner-
ville, the junction of the Oromocto, was a settle-
ment of Fjinlisli colonists in 17GM, the earliest in the
province. It was from ^iassachusetts, and the oidy one
in the present Dominion which sided with the revoltinu
colonists. At -lemsej;' is the outlet of (Jrand Lake, an
expanse ."»0 miles long by ."> to !) miles wide, into which
the Salmon river falls. Here was another FVench fort in
old colony days, the scene of many conflicts after 1004
when it was taken by Cromwell's ex])edition. Cp to this
jioint the river Hows through a level I'arming country
with wide borders of inter\ale and many islands. ]>elow
Jemseg the banks l»ecome hilly and the river seems to be
a long succession of lake exjtanses. South of .lemseg the
Washiulemoak lake and river discharge their waters
among a nudtitude of alluvial islands. As the Si. .lolni
approaches the sea it passes through ranges of bills
parallel t(» tin- coast, and extends behind tliem in long
r.'aches ol' deep and ([uiet water thriuigh highlands clothed
nith woods. Near the citv of St. .lohn such a reach
navigable for huge vessels for "20 miles extends to where

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184

COMrp]NDIU.M OF (lEOl UIAl'lIY AND TIIAVEL

tlie Kciiiiebt'casis tlow.i in from Itcliiiid tlie coast range of
hills. At the head of the havhour the river narrows and
Hows in through a gorge between walls of rock 100 feet
high, and here is ])resented the uni(|Ue phenomenon of a
reversible fall. The river, which at Fredericton is half
a mile wide, and in its lower stretches is nnicli wider, is
here forced to How for 4nO yard;-' through a g<»rge only
400 feet across. The tide in St. John Harbour rises '2~>
feet, and the gorge is so narrow that it can neither admit
the tide ([uickly nov discharge the river pr<)m})tly ; for
the tide recedes faster lliau tlie narrow outlet can ]>ermit
the returning water to flow through. At low water the
level of the river is 11 to lo feet aliove the sea, an<l at
high water the level of the sea is S to ll^ i'eet above the
I'iver. '{'here are iherefon; two falls at every tide, one
in and one out. Four times in every twenty-four hours
there is for ten or lilteen minutes a period of equililirium
when vessels can pass in oi' out. At other times the
passage is dangerous or iuijxtssible, according to the state
of the tide. The directions for this uni(pu' navigation
are ju'culiar enough to be repeated. "The falls are level,
or it is still water, at about three and a half hours on
the flood and about two and a half on the ebb, so that
they are passable four times in twenty-ibur hours, about
ten or iifteen minutes each time. No other rule can be
given, as nnich deitends on the Hoods in the IJiver St.
John and the time of high water or \'u\\ sea, which is
often hastened l)y high southerly winds." 'I'he railway
cr(»sses the chasm on a cantilever l)ridge 447 teet long,
and near it there is a sus])i'nsion bi'idge ibr ordinary
trallic.

The St. Croix river is the western boundary of the
province. It is the outlet of extensive chains of lakes
and discharges into PnssamaipKtddy l^ay, a magnificent

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COMPENDIUM OF OEOOHArilY AND TRAVEL

sheet of deep water witli gootl aiichomge all over, ami
l)rotected from the sea l>v the West Isles. The towns <>i'
St. Andrews and St. Stephen are on the Xew IJrunswiek
side of the river. St. Andrews is an instance of a town
l)lighte(l l)y a treaty. Its harhour is the finest on tlu;
coast — one of the hest in America and open all the year
round. At the commencement of the railroad era it was
to become the terminus of a railway from (.k)uebec. The
Ashliurton treaty cut out all the intervening territory
and killed the project. Now St. Andrews is indeed a
favourite sunnner resort because of its beautiful scenery,
its boating and fishing, and its perfect summer climate ;
but its dila])idated wharfs, and its old-fashioned Imt
neglected mansions, tell of brighter prospects and of
better days. The St. Croix is navigable for large vessels
to the falls, a distance of 25 miles. The town of St.
Stt'phen, 17 miles from St. Andrews, is a stirring,
lumbering and manufacturing town.

The Miramichi is the second river in importance in
Xew Ib'unswick. It is about 220 miles long and Hows
int(^ the (Julf of St. Lawrence, at right angles to the
course of the St. John, for a distance of 125 miles above
the forks, and searches out with its aflluents all the
interior of the country. Near the coast its banks are hnv
and uninteresting, but its upjier stretches and tributaries
How through a rojling country. The tide goes u[) 15
miles l)eyond the forks ami the river is navigable for
large vessels for .'55 miles as far as Newcastle, at the
main forks, and six miles beyond Chatham. These two
cities, together with Douglastown, are the Miraniiciii
known to general readers, for there is no city (tf
Miramichi. Thev were verv Imsv phices in the old
days of wooden shipbuilding, and they still do a good
business in lund)er and fishery products. The Miramichi

NEW BUUN8AVICK

18V

and all the rivers of the ]>roviiife Howi:i_u into the clear
waters of the milf aiul tiie Bav Cluileiir are iiinious
resorts for salmon.

AuKJii'j; the more important rivers on the eastern
eoast is the Kichihueto. Jt has u <>'ooil harbour at its
iiioiith, where a town of the same name carries on a uood
business in tishinu', lumbering, and canning h)bsters.

The chief rivers fallinu into the \

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the \i[)isi([uit and JJestigouche, noted salmon streams.
The Xipisiquit is a shallow turbulent river flowing on a
rocky bed, and with a fall of 140 feet high, and is one
of the four streams which combine to form the harbour
of Uathurst. The Jie.stigouche forms in the lower ])art of
its course the l)oundary between Xew Urunswick and
(>)uebec, but the upper part is wholly within the former
province. The river is 22") miles long and falls into
llie head of the liay Chaleur in a wide estuary, and
the largest vessels can ])ass up as far as Campliellton.
It has many allluents and drains an area of (iOOO S([nare
The scenery on its banks is very beautiful, and

iiiiies

thi' country around is covered with a network of streams
al)oundiiig in fish, ("ampbellton and Dalhousie at the
nioulh of the estuary are favourite sunnuer resorts, and,
with Dathurst, are the entrances to the wild country in
the north and centre ol' New JUunswick, where large
game still have a retreat, and where streams are still full
of fish, and the lakes abouml with wild- fowl in their
si'ason. The r]»sal([uitch, one of its chief tributaries in
the province of New I)runswick, is a notable fishing
stream, rising in the high dividing ridge among conical
liills loOO to 200(1 feet high. Its source. I'psahpiitch
hake, is ToO feet above the sea, and not far fr(»m there
the river falls over 400 feet in a series of lieautiful
cascades in a distance of less than two miles. Other

1S8

COMPy.NDIU.M OF GEOGIIAPIIY AND TKAVEL

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iiiipoitaiit tributaries are the ^letupedia and Tatapedia
from (^)uel)ec, and the (Jiiatawamkedgwick from the
Xew Jiniiiswick side.

All these rivers, excepting the main river St. John,
rise in the centre of the province and their atlhients over-
lap. There are very many other rivers, for New liruns-
wick is a land of abundant waters, but these are the
most important.

New Brunswick as w"ell as Nova Scotia possesses, at
the head of tiic ]')ay of Fundy, extensive areas of marsh
lands. The rivers Petitcodiac, D'Aulac, and Tantramar
are of themselves mere brooks ; but when the tide is up
they are broad rivers two or three miles wide. Tlie
Petitcodiac Hows eastwards behind the coast ridge, and
turning suddenly at a place called " the Bend " empties into
Shepody JJay. The tidal wave passing from the widi;
mouth of the bay up the narrow funnel-like estuary
attains a height of 50 feet. The advance wave arrives
w4th a bore four to six feet hioh, and the vessels seemiuLiiv
asleep on their sides wake up, for the muddy valley
suddenly becomes a great arm of the sea.

Geology

Now ])runswick presents to the geologist one great
obstacle to ex})loration in the dense forest covering its
surface, and the horizontal ])osition of the rocks over a
great ])art of its extent. The main geological features
have already incidentally been indicated. The band
along tiie coast of the ]»ay of Fundy, while consisting
mainly of hard Canda'ian and Cambro- Silurian rocks,
contains also, near St. John, small areas of Devonian,
Huronian, and Laurentian. The city of St. John is built
upon very hard Cand)i'ian slates, and these have afforded

NEW BllUNSWICK

189

a series of fossils of great interest to geologists, because
of the fulness with which they represent the life of this
xi^vy ancient period. ]\Iention has Jilready been made of
a l)and of granite and highly metamorphosed rocks stretch-
ing in a chain of hills diagonally across the province, and
of a rolling Silurian plain l)evond; there remains (tnlv to
s}teak more particularly of the great fan-like area of the
coal-bearing rocks which occup}' the centre of the country.
The pivot of the fan is a little west of Oromocto lake —
lines drawn from thence north to ]Jathurst on Ba^'
Clialeur, and east to the head of the Bay of Fundy,
would approximately include an area underlain ])y hori-
zontal beds of true productive coal-measures. Two seams
of l)ituminous coal have been found, but they are un-
fortunately thin, although extending over a wide area.
A seam of 22 to 30 inclies is worked near Grand Lake.
It is, near the surface, never deeper tlian 45 feet, and
sometimes brought abo'e the surface l)y ine<|ualities of
grountl. An area of over 40 S(piare nules has been
proved to exist in one locality. Coal has been f(jund
also in widely distant places ; l)ut, so far, always in
thin seams. What may be concealed in the unexplored
lands of this extensive forest area it is impossible to
f(jresi'e, but geologists have, so far, given little hope of
the discovery of thicker seams. As Itefore stated, tlie
('arl)oniferous area of New Brunswick is continuous across
the isthmus with that of Nova Scotia, so that from
Miscou on the ]iay Chaleur, t( Sydney on the Atlantic
coast of Cape Breton, the whole coast of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence is bordered by coal-bearing rocks.

i i

Minerals

Since the exhaustion of the deposit of Albertite in
Albert county, Xew Brunswick has not developed any

190

( OMPENDIUM OF tlEOiiltAPIIY AND TIJAVEL

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iiotiiblo iiiiuing iutercsts. The Giaiid Lake field i.s beiiii;
worked, and the I'aiiuers over all that re»;'ioii ha\e for a
very loii*^ time been using tlie coal lying' just under the
surface, but no exports are made. Iron ore occurs in
many places, and in great al)undance, especially near
Woodstock. Manganese, antimony, anil copper are also
found, but there have Ijeen no exports of late years.
Clypsum was exported in the year ISOo-OO to the value
of $>7 1,441, and, as in Xova Scotia, any imaginable
quantity is at hand waiting for a market. At St.
George, at the mouth of the river Magaguadavic, there
are (piarries of very fine red granite, superior in quality
to the Aberdeen granite.

Agriculture

The agricultural restnirces of the province have ne\er
been ileveloped, because the energies of the people have
always found outlets on the sea or in lumbering and
fishing. It contains large tracts of very rich farming
lands along the vallevs of the rivers and on the marsh
lands at the head of the ]]ay of Fundy. The marshes
of the Tantranuir alone cover 40 S(juare miles.

Miles on miles they extend level, and grassy, and dim,
Cleai', from the long red sweep of Hats, to the sky in the ilistancc
Save for the outlying heights, gi'een-iami>iied Cumberland point :
Miles on miles outrolled, ami the livei'-ehannels divide them —
Miles on miles of green, barred by the hurtling grass.

The country about and above Woodstock on the upper
St. John is rich farming land, but the finest farms are in
Sussex vale in King's County. The whole central area over
the horizontal Carboniferous rocks is suitable for agriculture.
The land along the coast of the ]>ay of Fundy is rocky.
and fre([uent fogs cool the sununers and make the winter

NEW BUUNSWICK

191

climate raw; Itut, in tlu' iiitt'i'ior, the climate Itecomes
more coiitim^ntal, and, without heiuLi, (piite as cold as at
Quebec in winter, or as warm as at Montreal in summer,
the weather is bright and the sky is clear. The snow
is always sufficient for the winter roads, the sunnner rains
are abundant for the growing crops, and water is at hand
everywhere for cattle. , Every tiling may be grown which
will grow in a temperate climate. Wheat has of late
years been unprofitable there, as elsewhere in the east,
because of the competition of the new western j»rairie
farms, and the farmers have turned their attention to
other crops and to dairying. Maize is grown in tlie
interior of the province away from the coast and is used
as fodder for cattle. It has l)een calcuhited that the
province contains 14,000,000 acres of arable land, a
great part of which has not yet come under cultivation.

Xew lirunswick is a forest province, and excepting
over a small area where the land is very rocky, was
densely covered witli trees. Much of the province has
been culled over by lumberers, and the best timber has
been cut. In former years, before wooden ships luul
been displaced by iron steamers, the forests were largely
(hawn upon for siiipbuilding, ami the export of lumber
is still carried on very extensively. The h)rest renews
itself, and the smaller trees, spared by the axemen, grow
faster with more room and light. It is forest fires which
are most to be feared. A fire ever to be remeuil)ered
occurred in 1 825 on the lower Miramichi, when »»,000,000
acres of forest were swept away, 81,000,000 of property
(lestroved, and 100 lives lost. The town of Newcastle
was destroyed, and human beings and domestic cattle
took shelter from the heat in the rivers in company with
the wild creatures of the woods. The fiames advanced
"U a front of 50 miles, and the north-eastern part of

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COMPENDIUM OF GKOOHAl'IIV AND TRAVEL

New JJniiiswick bears evidence still of its desoliitiiii:
etl'ects.

Government

New ]>ruiiswick is governed by a lieutenant-governor
appointed by the ])oniinion Government and by one
chamber of 46 members, called the legislative assendjly,
elected on a voy popular franchise. The executive
government consists of 7 mendters, and is responsilde
to tlie assendjly in the manner usual in the Jirilish
colonies.

There is also a system of local municipal government.
The unit is called a parisli and annually elects two
members to the County Council, which elects a warden.
Cities and towns are usually incorporated under special
statutes. The seat of government is at Fredericton, a
city of 0502 inhabitants, very (piiet and very i)retty.
The University of New Jh'unswick is at Fredericton.
On the opposite side of the river is CJil)Son, wliere are
larue lundjer and cotton mills. Fredericton is the
central point for sportsmen who desire to enter the
wilderness in pursuit of caribou or moose, or to fish in
the well-stocked waters of the interior.

Education

The Executive Council of the province, together with
the Chancellor of the University and the Superintendent
of Education, form a Board of which the Superintendent
is secretary and administrative officer. There is a
government normal school for training teachers, and
a staff" of inspectors for supervising the teaching and
to see that the laws and regulations are carried out.
The schools are free and undenominational, and may

NKW BltUNSWICK

193

be priinaiy, advaiiced, lii^di, suju'iidr, or ,niiinimar schools
accoriliii^" to tlie extent and needs of the district they
are provided for. They are supjiorted l»y legislative
;j,rants supplemented by l(jcal taxation voted in district,
parish, or county nieetin^s of ratt;-payers. The schools
in the cities are niana^'cd by Ixjards of trustees, one
half api)ointed by the (lovernnient and one half by
the City Corporations. The keystone of the system is
tile University of New Ih'unswick, founded in 1828, an
undenominational institution to winch a certain nund)er
of students from each county are admitted without
payment of the usual fees, and which has the power to
grant university degrees.

Cities

The real centre of provincial life is at St. John, which
is situated on a fine harbour at the mouth of the river
St. John, open all the year roiuid, for even if it were
cold enough to freeze, no ice can be formed stron"'
enough to resist the strength of tides which rise 2')
feet. Partridge Island at the mouth of the harliour
l)i'otects it from the sea. The [)Opulation of St. John is
■■*)9,170. The pursuits of the people are mainly maritime,
and very many residents of the city derive their incomes
IVom the earnings of vessels which are trading in distant
seas. A large amount of siiipping is owned there, and
St. John vessels may be met in every port in the world.
Tlie chief industry in former years was shipbuilding.
During the past fifty years ships to the value of eiglity
millions of dt»llars were built, but tlie decrease in the
shipping interest is now l)eing made up by the introduc-
lion of general manufacturing. Owing to the decline in
•leniand for wooden ships, and the innnense fire which

FT-

194

(.'OMl'ENDIl'M OF CKOdlJAl'll Y AND TKAVKf.

svvei)l iiwjiy tlic Imsiiu'ss ])iul ol' the city, the p<'i)uliiti(i i
(k'croased live ]•('!• ct'iit in the last duceTiniiil period. The
city is idso a centre of siip[»ly tor a lariie extent of
country and does a larji;e husiness in hnnber and j)ro(hicts
of tlie lislieries. The ex])orts (hirinjj; tlie year en(hnj4'
»rune oO, 1 890, amounted u. ,S4,l.)r)0,-J7 I. and the ini])orts
to Sr>.'),r)r)0,12(i 1 . In tlie same ])eiMod 1 oO!) vessels with

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IIAKHOI U dl' .ST. JOHN. N.I!.

an an|>;i-(.ojtte tonnayc (»!' 40S,r)7() tons cleared from the
port. Steamers connect St. .lohn with all ])orts on tlie
liav of Kundv, and remilar lines are estahlishe I with
Kn<;land, the West Indies, and :he hw^v cities of tlie
I'nited States. Since the extension of the Canadian
Pjicilic railway to St. .lohn its bu.siness as a winter
port has inerea.sed, and there ai'e regular steamshi]»s in
winter to Liver])Ool, London, (llasjjjow, I>clfast, Dulilin,
and Aberdeen.

NKW BRUNSWICK

195

In 1.877 the whole l)U.siiiess part, us well us iho
ht'st resident iiil pnrt <>f the city, was swei)t away by a

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S\\ ,)()MN, NKW IIIUNSWUK.

Ljreat lilt'. In nine hours 1G12 Imildinys were reduced
to ashes, and vessels in the harhour were hurned hel'orti

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COMPENDIUM OF CiEOGKAPHY AND TPiAVEL

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they could loose from their moorings. Nine miles of
streets were swept clear to the bed rock, and from
twenty to thirty million dollars of value was destroyed.
That was in the year 1877, hut nothing is heard of it
now and the citv has been entirely rel)uilt.

There are few large cities in the province. Moneton
at the "liend" of the retitcodiac is the next in size. It is
a manufacturing town with 8765 inhabitants, and is the
(;entre of the Intercolonial railway system. Chatham,
with 5G44 inhabitants, and Newcastle six miles away,
with a population of 400G, are the chief towns on the
Miramichi. St. Stephen on the St. Croix is a stirring
progressive town with 2G80 people, and Sackville at the
liead of the l)ay has a population of 4982 ; Blount Alison
College, the chief educatioual institution of the Methodist
Church in the maritime provinces, is situated there, and
St. Joseph's College, a Konian Catholic institution, is at
jMemramcook, a neighbouring place.

Communications

The aggregate railway mileage of Xew Jhunswick is
1404 miles. Railways extend along the whole outer
coast. Owiug to the Ashljurton treaty the Intercolonial
railway had to make a long detour and runs along three
sides of the S([uare of the province. The Canadian
Pacihc railway follows ti.e direct line to St. flohn and
enters the province on the west side, but it has to pass
tlirough the state of ]\Iaine. Fredericton is connected
with the Alirannchi by rail and with central Canad.i
by unotlu'r line through Edmundston on the up])er St.
.lohn, and by a brancli with the Canadian Tacitic system.
The Intercolonial railway has l)ranche8 connecting with
Kichibucto, l)Uctouche, iind Sliip])egan on the (lulf (»f St.

NEW BRUNSWICK

19'

Lawrence; with Qiiaco and Hillsl'orongh on tiie Bay of
Fundy, and with Chipnian at the liead of Grand Lake.
St. John is connected on the west with two lines of road.

Besources

Tlie province depends largely upim the prodncts of
the forest and the sea. Its fisheries are extensive and
prodnctive. The total number of vessels en<j;aged in the
fisheries in 1804 was 048.". with ll.BHO tislierinen, and
the value of tlie catcli was 84,."5r)l ,527. The cliief items
wt're — smelts, S."»o(),400 : salmon, $4r)4,!)74 ; sardines,
827S,70G: herrinus, $1,127,107: lobsters, 8r);M,r)70.
The sardine tisliinu; is abnost jieculiar to New lirunswick.
The fish are exjxjrted fresh to the United States, and on
account of the customs laws .'j.") canneries are kept ,!4'oing
in Kastport, Maine, witli sanbnes caught in New Brunswick
waters. Manufacturing industries are extending. The
census of 1801 gave the (tut])ut of manufactured goods
at $2.S,840,(3nr).

The Bay Chaleur — for so it is always called, though
Jac(iues Carlicr in 15:34 finding tlie weatlier very warm
there named it the 13aye des Clialeurs — -is a deep
extension of the (lulf of St. Lawrence, without a rock,
reef, or shoal to imped(^ navigation, separating, as far
;is it goes, the jirovinces of New Jirunswick and Quebec.
The Indians called it " the sea of fish." It is 7''» miles
long and from 14 to 2-" miles wide. It is navigable
by the largest ships and has many good harbours.
The Hestigouche river falls in at the head of the l)ay and
I'ontiinies it by a deep estuary 2 to '^ miles wide for 17
miles farther. The land rises at a little distance up the
river valley, and the scenery on the Bestigouehe and at
the junction of the Metapedia is very fine. On the

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198

COMPENDIUM OF UEOGKAPHY AND TKAVEL

nortli side the hills rise from 1000 to 2000 feet; on the
south side, although the height does not exceed 815 feet,
there are, as elsewhere in the province, detached moun-
tains of considerable height. One of these^ — the Squaw's
Cap, near the mouth of the Upsahpiitcli — is 2000 feet
higli.

Miscou, tlie extreme point of Xew Ihnmswick upon
the bay, is a good liarbour with four to six fathoms, but
Sliippegan Sound not far ofl' is secure for vessels of the
largest size. It has been proposed to make Sliippegan
the terminus of a line of ocean steamers to Canada
connecting with the Intercolonial railway. Cara(piette
and IJathurst both hav(^ harbours for vessels of moderate
diaught, but Dalhousie at the head of the bay has a fin(^
harbour and is the shipping port of the lumber Hoated
down the Kestigouche.

J)alhousie is the last port of New lirunswick, and on
crossing the liestigouche the province of (ihiebec begins.
The north shore of the bay is bordered by red sandstone
cliffs and wide beaches of sliingle. The high talJe-land of
Gaspe rises in the rear. The shore is settled by fisher-
men, for the fishery in the bay is still fair thongli
the great productiveness of former years has been
destroyeil l)y ivcklessness. The sandstone formation is
connected with the Carboniferous (jf New llrunswick, and
thin seams of coal have been observed.

Game

The Dominion of Canada abounds in n^sorts Ibi"
s]>ortsmen, but none of them are so attractive as the
province of New lirunswick. It is a great S(juare and
the borders oidy are settled ; the interior is a wilderness
penetrated by streams of every size, affording access by

NEW BRUNSWICK

199

canoti and paddle to its wildest recesses. Here in the
summer may be seen many a sportsman's camp and many
even witli ladies and children enjoying the healtliful life
of the woods. The salmon fishinLj on tlie l{esti"ouche is
reputed the best in Canada. The fish are very large
upon it and its chief tributary, the Metapedia. All the
tributaries of this fine river are widely known yalmon
streams. From the liead of the liay Chaleur tlie sports-
man may strike into the very heart of the wilderness
altout the head waters of the T()bi(|ue, tlie Xipisiquit,
and the Miramichi. This region may also be reached
from Fredericton on the other side. Here moose and
caribou are abundant and of late yeais have been
increasing. A sportsman fanuliar with this region from
youth reports tliat in tlie fall and winter of 189G moose
were more plentiful tlian they had been for tliirty years.
Many sportsmen come every season from the United
States, and wealthy people from the large cities have
secured leases along the rivers and have l>uilt hunting
lodges for their holiday convenience.

The following are some of tlic leading facts connected
with the trade of the jirovince : —

Imports, lS9.'>-i>6 ....
Exports ,,

The exports consisted of: —

I'roduce of the Mine .

,, ,, Fisheries

,, ,, F()re>sts

Aiiiiiiiils and their prodnets
Agrieultural j)rudnct.s .
Miinuf'aetures ....
Miscenaneou.s ....

•Sr., 106,(548

7,ftr)7

911

.*11'».

!tr>o

798

270

.^),r)i;5,()i2

5S<<

721

^92

118

ir.7

722

•MS

200

COMrENDlUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TltAVEL

■i -i
V '

NOTE TO CHAPTER VII

The following books will be found of use if more detailed
information be required. In the case of this, as of the other pro-
vinces, reference should be made to the Transactions of the Eoyal
Society of Canada, where many important geological, geographical,
and historical papers will be found : —

Adams, A. Lkitii.

Field and Foi'cst Rambles ; with notes and observations on the
Natural History of Eastern Canada. London : llcniy S.
Iving and Company, 1883.

HiNii, Hf.nuy Yulk.

Preliminary Report on the Geology of New Hrunswick. Fred-
ericton, 186f».

M.VTTIIKW, (i. F.

Yolumes I. to XII. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada contain an exhaustive series of jjapers on the fossils of
the St. John group.

The following is a list "of Reports, Avith their dates, made by
officers of the Geol()<rical Survev, arranged bv localities : —

NkW BltUXsWICK.

C. Robl), 1869. 1870; L. W. Bailey, 1875.1891 ; (i. F. Matthew,
1875-77 ; R. Chalmers, 1884-86, 188S-S9, 1891.

Central Poution.

Bailey and Matthew, 1873-75, 1876; L. ^Y. Bailey, 1884-85.

NonniEUN Poktion.

R. ^Y. Ells, 1880-82, 1885.

SOUTHEUN PonXION.

Bailey and Matthew, 1870-71, 1870-79 ; L. W. P.ailey, 1878 ; R.
W. Ells, 1878 ; G. F. Matthew, 1878. ,

Chahi.otte County.

G. F. Matthew, 1877-78.

Albert and Westmoreland Counties.
Bailey and F:11s, 1877, 1885.

North-western Portion.

Bailey and Mclnnes, 1886-88.

Grand Manan Island.

Bailey and Matthew, 1871.

CHAPTKK VlIE

PRINCE EDAVARD ISLAND

! ii

This island is the garden ])r()vince of the Dominion. It
is more like an Knglisli sliire than a Canadian province.
Its inliabitants are for the most part ftirniers, and they
have cleared almost the whole island and l^rought it
un<ler cultivation.

Prince iuhvard Island is situated on the south oi' tlie
(lulf of St. Lavrence in a great Imy formed by the con-
cavity of the coasts of Xew lirunswick and Nova Scotia,
which, from Miscou Head to the North Cape of (.\ape
IJreton, curve round it. Tlie island adapts itself to its
position by curving to correspond with the encircling
shores of the sister provinces and its northern coast-line
presents to the gulf a parallel concavity.

The island is 145 miles long from East Point to
North Ca])e, but is most irregular in width varying from 4
to ll7 miles across. It is exceedingly irregular also in
outline, for the land is penetrated by deep bays and tidal
streams to such an extent that it has barely escaped
l)eiiig divided into three parts. From the head of Hills-
borough river a portage of one and a half miles would
place a boat in Savage harbour on the north shore and cut
off the whole eastern end of the island. Farther to tlie
west the distance between the heads of the creeks fallim;

■'■J

'* t'

i, I'

1 1

202

COMPENDIUM OF GEOOKAPIIY AND TRAVEL

into Ijcdcque and Iiiclmioiul J Jays is so short tliat it
measures only two miles on th<i map, and at high tide it
is really much less. This indentation almost separates
the westein third of the island.

Nothing would lie gained in elearness of eonception
by eonsidering the island in three divisions, for the whole
of it is of unil'oini charaeter in every resjieet saving that
the nearest approach to a highland is in the central part
where the land rises on the West river into picturesque
wooded hills, but everywhere the country is rolling and
almost everywhere it is cultivated. This general uni-
formity is not monotonous, for there are always dilferences
in the undulations of the surface, differences in the little
streams running in the valleys to the sea, and differences
in tlie e^i' ps of trees or patches of woodland which
ct)nspire to give variety to what might otherwise be a
monotony of pleasing landscape.

The total area is 2 loo square miles and it is in-
habited by 100,078 people, so that there are 54*4 ])eo])le
to the square mile — the exact density of the population
in Caithness, and a little more than that of rerthshire,
but when compared with Quebec 0*5, or Ontario 10, or
Xova Scotia 22 to the mile, I'rince Edward Island is
thickly populated for a Canadian province.

The surface is nowhere higher than 500 feet above
the sea. The underlying geological formation is the Trias
and the rock is new red sandstone ; l)ut rock is very
seldom met with, iiiul such exposures as are found are
soft and coarse. These rocks are newer than the coal
formation, and productive coal measures may be su}»})osed
to exist there also, especially as coal is found on the
adjacent Nova Scotia shore. If, however, there be coal it
is believed by geologists to be very deep down. The
upper coal measures might be reached in some localities

■r.

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204

(JOMPENDTUM OF (iEOilKArHY AND TltAVEI,

at a deptli of i'OO to 1^000 feet, l>ut if the l)e(ls should
l)e found too tliin to I»e \v(»rked with profit there would
l»e little pro.si)ect of reaching profitable heds at a less
depth than 3000 or oOOO feet.

The soil of the island is an open sandy loam, of a
deep red colour, and the red soil, contrasting with the
vivid green of the meadows, uives a very distinctive

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character to the landscapi'. it is of all soils that hest
suited for oats and potatoes, and these are the stajtle
crops of the island. Wheat is still raised, hut cannot
now be grown at a profit. The soil will, however, i)ro-
duce any crop which can be grown in a temperate
climate. The farmers of recent years are commencing
to grow maize for fodder; barley is also a favourite crop
and is extensively grown.

There cannot be any general hydrographical system,
for the streams How transversely and the island is narrow.
Thev are all tidal and, the land being low, the tides How

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COMPENDIUM OF fiEOGRArHV AND TUAVEL

U) the lieads of the streams. Thicc beaiitil'ul rivers con-
verge ill Charlottetowii liarliour — tlie Hillsborough, and
the West or Elliot, and the North (»r York rivers. The
Hillshorongh rises close to the north shore and Hows
across the island at its widest part. These rivers are all
deep and steamers go up the Hillsl)orough to its very
head.

The climate of the island province is not so extreme
as that of some of the interior provinces, Init yet it is
not a maritime climate ; for it is embayed and sheltered
irom the influence of the outer ocean. There are few
fogs and the sky is clearer than on the Atlantic coast,
the summer is warmer and the winter is colder than in
parts of Nova Scotia. Spring does not come in, as in
(^)ueljec and Ontario, with a rush, for it is retarded by
the floating ice of the upper waters on its way seawards.
The crops do not therefore start as early as in the St.
Lawrence valley or even in ]\fanitol)a or the far North-
west. On the other hand the fall lingers lati'r. The
harljours are closed in winter Ity ice. That of Charlotte-
town freezes up between December 15 ami 21 and opens
about A})ril 7. The harbour of (leorgetown on the east
coast is open longer than any other on the island.

The Strait of Northumberland separates I'rince
Edward Island from the neighbouring provinces. It is
from 9 to 3 1 miles wide. The projecting capes of Nova
Scotia interlock with those of the island, so that viewed
from either end the strait seems to be a bay. Jaccpies
Cartier in 1534 coasted along the western coast and
crossed over to the IMiramichi. He called the opening
of tl ^ strait the Bay of St. Lunario, and so it remained
for sixty years longer, for it was not until the time of
Champlaiii that the island began to be separated on the
maps under the name of the island of St. John.

rUINCE EDWAHI) ISLAND

207

Tlie coast is imilormly l<»\v. Hna Point is a low clitf
of red sandstone 30 to GO t'cet Iii^Mi, and North Cape,
tlie other extreme point, is precisely similar. I'etween
these points the concavity of the island forms a hay 91
miles lon;4 and 22 miles deep, and in its whole len;_5th the
nortii sliore is a continnous series of sand heaches and Ioiil;-
spits or bars of iiiie sand, beaten hard Ity the incessant
impact of the waves. The wide Itays which on the north
penetrate the land are cut off I'rom o])en water by loiii,'
narrow sandbanks with occasional openings, through
which small vessels may [)ass. These sandy 1)eaches are
favourite resorts for bathing in sunnuer, for they an;
smooth and comj^act and the water deepens very gradually.
Two of these lieaches are each 20 miles long. St. ret(!r's
Hay, Tracadie J5ay, llustico Bay, New Lcjudon ]>ay, Jiich-
mond or ]\[al])e(pu' IJay, and Cascnmpec ]'>ay are the chief
of these saud-locked liays. The sand-dunes are highest
near Xew London, where they are 40 feet high ; but as
a rule they rise to a height of 11 to 20 feet only, (lose
behind these sandy beaches the forest stands protecting
the farm land. 'The sands are derived from the waste of
the soft red sandstone rock, but the oxide of iron is dis-
solved by the sea, and though the rocks are red the sand
is white.

From North Cape along the west coast to Cape EgUKjnt
there are no harbours. The shore is of red clay or red
sandstone — low and with occasional beaches where boats
may land in fine weather. Cape Egmont on the south
shore is formed of sandstone cliffs 50 feet high. It marks
one side of Bedeque Bay at the head of which is a good
harbour, that of Summerside, l>ut somewhat intricate to
enter. Cape Traverse is the nearest point to the mainland,
for there the promontory of Cape Tormentine stretches
over from Nova Scotia to a distance of only nine miles

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COMl'KXDU'M OK CEOdKAlMlY AND TltAVEI;

till

IVuiu the isliuul, and licii' it is thai travellers cross in the
tlepth t)t' winter if the harlMUir of ( Jeorj^etown is frozen.

The harltour of ("harlottetown is one of the best in
Anierii'a an». ,)n(' ni' the most pleasing' to the eye. Any
number of vessels of tiu! hnj^est si/e may find room in it,
and till' three deep tidal rivers streteh up from it into a
charminsj; eountrv of cultivated farm and meadow land
with ([uiet rui'al scenery diversified liy low hills clothed
with woods.

On the east coast is the harbour of (Jeori^etown or
Cardiuan liay, second only to that of CharloLtetown in
deplli and conimo(liousness.

Oommunications

There is an cxcelli'ut service of steamers connecting
('liarh)ttetowii and Sunnnerside with I'ictou in Nova Scotia
antl Shediac in Xew Ihunswick i'es]»eclively, and after
tiiese ports are closed a steamer runs to ( <eor<.i,etown.
I''(»r a few weeks (ieor<j;etown may be closed and then
travellers must cross in ice-boats from Cajie 'I'ormentine
to Cape Traverse. This is occasionally very disaurceable
when the ice is running witli the tides and llie weather is
t,hick. The distance is only nine miles, but such modes
of tiiiiisit are not suited to modern ideas of condbrt, and
a schenu' is projHised to tunnel under thi' strait. if such
a feat of engineering; skill be ever ' 'eved it will remove
the onlv drawback to a residence on I'riuee Ivlward Island.
l>'c«j;ular lines of steamers also connect in the oju-n season
with (^)uebec and Montreal, and witli lloston and Halifax.
A railway, owned and managed by the hondnion (loveni-
ment, runs fj-om end to end throui^'h the island with
branches. It is iM miles in lenuth and almost every
handet on the island is reached bv it.

ritlNrK EDWAUl) ISLAND

209

Cities

( "liarlottetowi. is tlie cnidtiil of tlie province. It li'\"-
a population of 1 1,."I74 and is the centre of sup))lv.

Suniniersiile is a town of al)out ;'.(M)0 inhabitants
with a ('onsi(U'rahh' tradi' in exjMrtin^- the ]»rothiee of the
western ])art of the ishnul. Tliis ]iarl of the const is noted
for its oysters.

(leoruetown and Souris are small towns on the eastern
shore. IMinee Kdward Island is a count ly of fanners and
they li\e all over it. There is veiy little land not taken
n\\ Tlu' towns are necessarily few, foi' there are no
manufactures to attract the jK'oplc into eitiei^.

Government

I'rince Kdward Island is ifoverned hy a lieutenant-
uovernor ap])ointcd hy the !)oniinion ( <o\'erinnent and a
le^islatix'e assendilyof a jieculiar nature. It is composed
of ir» councillors elected on a jiroperty (|Ualilication, and
1 .'• nu'inhers elected on a ]>opular i'ranchise. The exi!cutive
government consists of (S memhers, and is i-cspmisihle to
llie assemhly, and unist always conunand a majority therein
as in the other ])rovinces. There are no municipal insti-
tntii'iis for local uovernment.

r.'i£-'i.

im-

Education

The supreme authority is the e.\ecuti\e cuuncil or
iiiiuistiy of the day. The Suiierinlt'udent of Kducalion
.icl;- as secretary o\' the hoaiil and adnunisters the system
lhroUL;h school ins[teclors. There is a normal >cho(»l foi'
training teachers, and a coUcLic for higher stmlics. The
sch Mils art! primary, ad\anccd, and hij^h schonls. Tlu^

l-t^-f-

I 'H:

tnl

210

COMPENDIUM OF OEOC.ltAl'HY AND TKAVEL

expenses are paid by governiueiit grants supplemented l)y
local assessments. They are undenominational, hut the
children read the Bible at the opening of the scliool. Xo
comments are to l»e made, and if tiieir guardians object
to the reading, children need not be present at it.

Exports

The chief exports of the island are agricultural produce
and fisli products. Lobster canning is carried on to a
considerable extent.

The value of tish products exported in 18IJ5 was
$^4:57,30 5. ( )ats were exported to the value of Si 45,:520
and potatoes *to the value of $92,057.

In the year ending June oO, 189G, 04 vessels with
a total tonnage of 09,892 tons cleared for sea from the
port of Charlottetown.

The total exports of tiie island in tlu; year l89r)-9<)
were $979,r79 and of imports $490,24;"). ' The trade of
the province is chielly with the other provinces, and does
not show in the " Trade and Navigation " reports.

NOTE TO CHAITER VIII
For further details reft'ieiue iii«v be made to -

(iKOI.OOICAl, vSuUVDV ReI'OUT, I'lilNCK KltWAilH Islanh.

R. W. Ells, 1SS4.

Dawson, Sir Wii-liam, an<l Haiuunoton, W. .1.

RoptH't on the (Ji'olo^^fical Structure and Miiieial Resources of"
Piinee Edward Island. Muntieal : Lovcll, 1{<71.

CHAPTKli IX

OLD CANADA TIIK ST. LAWKF.XCK I'KOVINX'ES

Land of mighty lakf and forest ;
Wlioiv the winter's looks are hoarest,
Where tlie suiiinier'.s leaf is f^reonest,
And the winter's liite the keenest ;
Where the autumn's leaf is aearest,
And her partinj^ smile the dearest.

Al.KX. M'Lai lll.VN.

The colony of New Fnince" Wiis ceded to (ircat lUitain in
\7Go, in its full extent, and included the whole hiiHin of
the St. Lawrence syiftei'n of lakes ansl river.s. In the
year 1791 it was divided with the <>l»ject of fonuinjj; a
new province for the I'nited Empire Loyalists — a body
uf refu<;('es who, at the recoj^nition of independence of
the thirteen revolted colonies, found themselves homeless,
their pro]>erty havinin heen confiscated and they liiem-
selves proscribed. Tlu; si'ttled part oi' New Krani'e was
at that time occu[)ieil by French Canadians, who had
been continued in th».' full and undistuii>ed enjoyment of
their religion, lnu^uaue, and laws, so that (;ven tiie tenure
of the land was feudal. It was intendecl to connuence at
the western limit of the lands then actually held rn
'■•ir/tifuru:, and to lay the foundations of an Knglish
province, where all grants of land sjiould be in free and
common socage, where the common law of Kngland

212

COMPENDIUM OF (lEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

■1l|?M

]j >

sljould be the basis of the organised coinmiinity, and the
P^nglisli language should l)e the language of the people.
The provinces so separated were called respectivtdy
Ui)pt'r and Lower Canada. In 1841 they were reunited,
and these -Uvisions were called Canada "West and Canada
East. Wheu all the r)ritish American provinces were
confederated in 18G7, these two l)ecanie the provinces of
Ontario and Quebec, and entered into new relations with
each other. Thenceforward they ceased to be parts of
one province, and each became an integral province of
one dominion. They are still sometimes spoken of as
" Canada " in the narrow sense of the word, sometimes
as " Old Canada," and it has l)een proposed to call them
the St. Lawrence L'rovinces — a suitable name, since
Quebec is the province of the river, and Ontario is the
province of the lakes.

Wirile'these two provinces are thus indissolubly united
physically, by the simple fact of fornung part of the same
great valley, and although, down to the year 1 701,
they had one history, they are socially very different,
on account of the circumstances above stated. It is
that very fact which gives special interest to the student
of political science; for in Canada (piestions of the most
complicated nature have had to be faced and determined
without the possibility of shirking them or putting them
oil' upon a i'uture generation. l*lain men have come
from their farms and thi'ir businesses and have be-
come statesmen by successl'ully grappling with questions
which have agitated older countries for centuries, 'i'hat
a peo}>le should be homogeneous over the whole extent
of its terr'tory has, no doubt, many advantages jind, to an
Knglishman. it would seem an economy of time and
money if all the world were to speak Knglish. Such
a worM would be in danger of becoming excessively

OLD CANADA THE ST. LAWRENCE PROVINCES 211^)

monotonous. On the Imnks of the St. Lawrence, societv
has an additional interest in the fact that tlie two lead-
injj; races of P^uro])e are strongly, almost eciually, repre-
sentetl, and that tliey have learned mutual respect and,
without ceasing to be English and Protestant on tlie one
hand and French and Catholic on the otlier, liaAe learned
to unite for the objects of common Christian civilisa-
tion upon tlie liasis of a toleration which is tlic result of
incessant intercomnuinication and of intimate knowledge
of each other.

Climate

A glance at the map will show that the St. Lawrence
flows diagonally north-eastwardly from Niagara to Jielle-
islc, and that, therefore, in the more southern counties at
the west tlie climate must be milder. Nevertheless,
there is a general description possible which, with the
mcxlitications stated in describing each province, may be
of use to form a preliminary idea of the conditions of life
in Old Canada. The country has sulfered much from the
exuberant athleticism of its youth brinnning over in
winter carnivals, and by t\ui graphic pens and pencils of
newspaper correspondents giving literary and pictorial
finish to their descri]»tions. It is ])erfectly true tliat
such a (^"sagreeable thing as a thaw seldom occurs in
winter in Canada, and therefore it becomes [)ossiblc to
])ile up lilocks of ice into structures having the outward
aspect of buildings; but the undue exaltation of these
ice '• [talaces " gives a very false impression of the con-
ditions of life in Canada. Anv < 'iinaihan who has ex-
jtcrienced the raw and chilly winters of a great ))art of
western KurojK' knows tlie truth t>f the adage, that any
one whi» wants to be warm in winter nuist go to a cold
climate. It is, however, dillicult to divide Ontin!o from

t :

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214

COMPENDIUM OF (lEOGRAPIIY AND TRAVEL

Quebec climatologically, })ecause Ontario also stretches
north to Hudson's J>av and includes a re<j;ion north of
J^ake Superior, where the winters are as cold as anywhere
in Quebec. The climate of Ottawa, in eastern Ontario, is,
if anything, colder in winter than tliat of Montreal. The
range of temperature is almost the same at Sault 8te.
Marie as at the city of (^luebec. That portion of Ontari(»
known as the "western peninsula," lying between the
great lakes Ontario and Huron, enjoys a milder climate
than the rest of Canada, and that portion lying along the
shores of lake Erie and the Niagara river is still more
favoured. in order to show the variation, the following
table has been compiled from the meteoi'ological returns
of ISOO, the last completed returns to hand at the writ-
ing of this chai)ter, and i)laces have been selected on a
great curve from Quebec south-west to Xiagaia and north-
west to Sault Ste. Marie. This range will show the
climate of New France or Old Canada.

That the climate, since the discovery of the country,
has changed very little is clear I'rom the reports of Cartier,
Champlain, and the "-Jesuit Relations" concerning the crops
grown by the Huron-Iroquois Indians. These were not
wandering tribes, but had permanent towns. The state-
ment has been made, in })laces which should be sources of
more accurate information, "that corn is more a garden
vegetable tlian a i'arm ])roduct, excepting in southern
Ontario." Nothing could l»e more untrue, for every
student knows, that from the discovery of the country,
maize has been a staple crop from ^Montreal to (Jeorgian
Bay. It was the stajde food. of the Huron-Iro([uois at
^Montreal in 15. '3 5, and the staple food of the Hurons on
(leorgian Uay in Kilo, and of their kinsmen the Tobacct*
nation and the Neutral nation. Mai/e, pumpkins, and
beans were grown for food, tol»ncco for solace, and sun-

OLD CANADA THE MT. LAWRENCE PROVINCES 215

llowers for ornamout. They had no other vegetable food,
and they raised large ([uantities of maize and stored it
f(.ir winter. There can be no possible mistake abont a
fact as patent upon the pages of the old writers two
lunidred years ago as it is in tlie agricnltural returns and
the "Trade and Navigation " tables of to-day,

Meteohologioai, Tai'.lk i'ok Ontakio ami ()uri!i;c.— Tkmi'khaii'ke
FAHUKNHErr j'uu THE Veau 18it0.

Mean in Quartiuly Periods.

< ^>uebcc .

Montreal

Ottawa

Toronto

Niagara

Sault Ste. Marit

Annual
mean.

:{()-r)8

41-0:5

40-46

4r)-0:5

46 •.")0

:58-82

Uigliest. l.nwe.sl. Winter. Si>rin,L,'. Summer. Autumn.

86-0
88-8
9:5-0
89-1
91-0
87-0

:54-3 14-80 46-27 60-3:5
21-6 20-17 52-03 6:5-73

19-6 19-57

2-7 28-;i7

0-0 :50-07

34-0 15 -80

51-43 62-53

52 •.")3 63-10

51-03 t;r80

47-80 58-77

24-93
28-20
28-30
;36 -10
37-10
:}2-90

iVlKTEfiuoi.ouicAi. Tai!IJ-: Foi! Oniaiiio am> Quehec. — Total
PiiECirrrATioN i-ni; THE Yeau 1890.

inches of Total

Inelies of

Preci|)itation

Haiti.

Snow.

leduceil to terms
of Kain.

(t>U0l)CH

31-74

1:33-5

45-09

Montreal .

33-97

114-5

45-42

Ottawa

25-25

71-3

32-38

Toronto .

:52-12

52-6

37-38

Niagara .

35-75

35-7

39-22

Sault Ste. Mario

. no report

Mean lor Ontario

27-83

<,>nebt'('

25-43

A (U'scriplioii of the climate of tlic sellled portion (»f
the i)rovince of (^)uebec is e(]ually applicable to tlic climate
uf Ontario, north of a, line drawn west from Montrt'al
tliroiigh Ottawa to the ]\lnskoka district on i.ake Huron,
The climate of the peninsula south of that line is indi-
cated bv the figures for Toronto and Niagara in tlie
preceding table. In reading these tables it should be

^11 1 1

ill

' ill ii
'Sir*

i h

216

COMPENDIUM OF llEOGltAl'IlY AND TI5AVEI.

remembered that, if the extremes are given as well as
the mean, these extremes do not endure for any lengtli
of time. AVeek after week will pass while the ther-
mometer registers from -\-l^) to +30 . Tlien a cold
wave will swee]» eastwards and send the merenry down
below zero. Such " cold snaps " may last tlirec days,
and there may be three or four of them in a winter.
The sky is very blue, anil at night tlu' stars look large
and the snow creaks under the foot ; but these " spells "
soon pass away and the temperature returns to 10 or 15°
below freezing-point; only that, after -lanuary, the bright
sun thaws enough at mid-day to make the roofs drop a
little on the sunny side of the streets and in sheltered
positions in the country.

Althouuh in some vears there mav be two or three
days' thaw, tlie sleep of nature in winter is profound.
Xo dreams disturb jier rei)ose and waken her to pre-
mature activity. Ihit when tlie warm white coverlet
begins to disappear she never hesitates or goes ]>ack witli
the provoking indecision of other lands, but spring comes
on with a firm and steady foot. The following is from a
poem desciiptive of April in the country near Ottawa : —

In tlic warm noon the Soutli wind creeps and cools,
Wlieiv the red-biidded stems of maples throw

Still tangled etchings on the anilier ])Ools,
(i)uite silent now, t'orgetful oi'the slow
Drip of the taps, the troughs, and tramjiled snow,

The keen March morning, and the silvering rime.
And mirthfiU labour of the sugar jirime.

The tii'st Canadian nobleman (ennol)led by I.ouis
XIV.) was Pierre Voucher, whose descendants are widely
spread throughout Canada to-day. He was governor of
Three Itivers in 1G5.'» and defended the infant settlement
agahist the Iro(|Uoi,s at a very critical time. He died

OLD CANADA THE ST. LAWUEXCK PltOVINCES 217

at Boucherville, near Montreal, at the age of ninety-
seven, a standing testimony to the healtht'nbiess of tlie
climate. ^Vmong innumerable other public services to
his country this gentleman wrote a Ndtimd Hidori/ of
New Fraiifc, commonl// called Canada, and although, at
the time he wrote, Montreal was only a perilous outpost
in tlie Indian country, and the forest had not been cleared,
his description of the general conditions of life are still
to a great extent true. He says : —

" Speaking of Xew France as a whole, I may say that
it is a good country, and one that contains in itself a
good portion of all that can be wishetl for. The soil is
very good, it produces wonderfully well, antl is not un-
grateful ; we have had experience of that. The country
is covered with dense and very fine forests, that are
stocked with numbers of animals of various kinds ; antl
what is of still greater consequence is that those forests
are intersected by large and small rivers of very good
water and have in them numbers of springs and fountains ;
besides which there are large and small lakes, l)ordered,
as well as the rivers, by fine large prairies which produce
as good grasses as there are in France. In these lakes
and rivers there are great numl)ers of fish of all kinds,
very good and \ery dainty ; waterfowl are also to be met
with in great numbers on these lakes and rivers. The
country is a very healtliy one; animals brought from
France thrive very well in it. One sees here many fine
plants that are not to be found in France ; and there are
few plants that are injurious to num. . . . The climate
is different in diiferent places : Imt I may say in general
that in the coldest places here in winter, is a more
cheerl'ul season than it is in France."

The translation ([uoted is by one of L'ierre IJoucher's
descendants. The forest has l)een cleared over a wide

m
I

■III.'.;
■ ■(■

!!IM^^

\i\

'■af

1'^

218

COMPENDIUM OF CKOGIJAI'HY AND TKAVKL

extent, and tlie (lesecndants of tlio Iroqnois, who howled
after scalps round the ])alisade.s of ]>ouelier's little fort,
are now iarnierw on tlie (Irand river : but in the north are
still the forests where his descri})tion would hold in every
particular, and the climate is still the same.

Forest

The province of (^)uehec extends over so wide an area,
and the conditions of climate vary so much, that it is
not possible to make j^eneral statements applicable to tlie
whole province. The sub-Arctic forest comes down to
the water-i)arting of Hudson's Jlay, and has been treated of
in Chapter HI. The forest of southern Laltra<lor consists,
for the most part, of sub-xVrctic species, as also the forest
on the hi^h plateau of the (Jaspc peninsula; but through-
out the ricli country bordering on the rivers — not only
the level plain of the St. Lawrence and liichelieu, lait
the Laurentian country to the north up to the water-
parting — and over the rolling ])asture -lands of the
Eastern Townships, a diflerent forest prevails — a forest
similar to that alrcadv descril)e(l as existing in the inland
counties of the Maritime provinces. At page li2 a list
of .'52 species is given, and it is not necessary to repeat it
here. Uesides these, the following additional species are
stated by l*rofess(tr Macoun to occur in the forests of
Quebec : —

Broad Fruited ^lapli'
Red Fi'uitod Thorn
Slippery Elm
Rock Elm
Nettlo-trco
Hitteriuit

Siicll-biirk Hickory
Blue Beech
White Oak
Cottonwood
Red Cedar

Acer dasycarpum.
Crataegus eoccinea.
Ulmus fulva.
Ulmus racemosa.
Celtis oecidentalis.
Caryf aniara.
Carya alba.
Carpinus Caroliniana.
(>nercus alba.
Bopulus monilifera.
Juiiiperhs Virginiana.

OLD CANADA TDK ST. I-AW1!ENX'E PItOVINCKS 219

It is these mixed forests wliich give sucli a charm to
tliese piHn'inces. AVheii tlie work of the year is done,
wiien the forest has ilowered and fruited and made its
growth, it retires to its winter sleep in sucii a hlaze of
colour as no painter has ever dared to ])ut upon canvas.
Those who have seen it all their lives look upon it witli
unfailing admiration, and at every succeeding fall they
wonder whether the brilliant crimsons or the browns,
warmed with red and yellow, or the bright yellows, be
the most l)eautiful or the most effective contrast to the
deep green of the pines and spruces. Then the fair blue
sky and the sparkling of the flowing water, or the reflec-
tions in (juiet lakes all through the autunni weather, and
the still and mysterious Indian sunnner at tlic end, throw
over the woods a wonderful charm, and make, as the poet
whose verse heads this chapter has well said, the ]iarting
smile of nature as slie sinks to rest, the dearest of all her
varied aspects.

In like manner, passing W(»stward, the forest of the
province of Ontario repeats the species found in (Quebec,
but, in the peninsula to the south-west inclosed by the
lakes, the milder clinuite favours new species, and we
})ass into a region of oaks and hickories. Tlu* trees
superadded to the lists previously given are these; to
• luote again from Trofesstu' Macoun : —

Cucumber tree
Tulip tree

Kentucky Cofl'ee-trec
.ludas tree
Honey Locust
Cral) Apple
Cock-spur Tlioin
Downy-leaved Thorn
•hiue Berry
i'lowerinjf Doi^-wood
Sour (Uini

Asiniina triloba (.Duval).
Liriodendron tulipifera.
( iyninocladns Cana<lensis.
Cercis Canadensis.
( ileditsrliea tricantlios.
I'yrus curonaria.
Crataegus ( 'rus-jfalli.
Crataegus tonieutosa.
Anielaneliier Canadensis,
(.'ornus llorida.
Nyssa niultiflora.

If:^

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'3':.

-fli * ■

' rfj

■,r

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

S><

l/..

'(/.

1.0

I.I

lit 1^ 12.2

Sb4 ■

us. 120

11.25 ■ 1.4

1.6

^>.

^w*' -^

^5.

220

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPllY AND TRAVEL

lUuc Aisli
Sassafras
liiitton-wood .
Hofj-imt lli(;k()ry
White-lieait Hickory
Snuill-fiuitiHl Hickory
lilack Walnut .
(Jliestimt

Swamp white Oak
Scarlet Oak
Swamp Oak
Black Oak

Fraximis quatliaiif^ulata.
Sassafras ollicinale.
Platamis occideiitalis.
Carya porciiia.
Carya tomentosa
Carya microcarpa (Nutt).
Juglans nigra.
Castaiica Americana.
Quercus liieolor.
tiuercus coccinea.
(Quercus palustris.
(^•nercus tinctoria.

The coniferous trees are not often found in tlie peninsula.
In the north of Ontario, as in (^)aebec, tlie sub-Arctic
forest comes down to the water-parting of Hudson's Bay.

Forest Products

The provinces of Ontario and (Quebec still supply the
larger proportion of the total forest i)roduct of the
Dominion, and innnense tireas of these forests at the
north are i)ractically untouched. The best of the more
accessible wood on the main streams has been cut ; pine
is g 'ting scarce and oak is all gone, but the lu ^'.Iwood
ibrests of other sju'cies still remain, and the spruce at
the north is without limit. The governments of both
])i-ovinces are beginning to awake to the necessity of
taking precautions against forest tires, and of making
regulati(»ns to prevent the reckless waste which has gone
on for manv venrs. Ontario is leading the wav in this
res}tect, and the Xational Algonipiin Park is not only ii
reservation of the j)rimeval Ibrest but a school of forestry.
It is situated on the headwaters of the Madawaska, tiu'
l)Oiniech('ri', the I'etewawa, and othei- streams draining
into the Ottawa, and of the Muskoka flowing to Oeorgiaii
I»ay. Very little of the land is arable, but it is admirably

a
v.

OLD CANADA THE ST. LAWllENCE TliOVINCES 221

suited for the growth of trees. Land niisuited for agri-
culture is availahle for arl)oriculture, and under proper
regulations the fon^st will reproduce itself. Forestry as
a science is in its infancy in Canada ; still it must not
be supposed that the lumbermen denude any district
they go over. They cut only tlie trees above a certain
limit as to si/e, and leave the remainder to grow. Tine,
liowever, does not succeed pine on tlie same land, nor
oak succeed oak. There are some laws dominating the
reproduction of forests which have not yet been worked
out into a scientific system. Tlie total forest product of
the Dominion may be estimated by the exports, and these
may be taken as three-fifths of the whole, the other two-
Hfths being consumed in the country.

The proportions of the forest products of the 1 )ominion,
still harvested in the provinces of ( )ntario and (>)uebec,
appear by the following table, showing the percentage of
the forest products of each province of the Dominion
relatively to the total product for the census year 1800
taken as TOO : —

Ontario

New Bruiiswirk
Novii Scotia
P. E. Island
Manitoba
liiitisli Coluniltiii
Tonitoiies .

IH'V Cl'lll

40-22
32-1I2
77r)
8-4U
2 •:{.'.
2-12
4r.7
l-tl7

100-00

This includes not only luml)er [)roper, but laths,
sliingles, i)ulpwood, and tan-bark.

Tlie whole sul>ject requires careful examination by
impartial scientific experts, for the wildest statements
have been made concerning the exhaustion of the forests

J I

fi I

Iti

9 9 9

^ ^ *J

COMPENDIUM OB' GEOGKAPHY AND TitAVEL

and the ratio of their reproduction. These statements
range from the gloomiest pessimism to the most extrava-
gant optimism, and all with figures l)ehind them running
into many thousands of millions where in one item alone
an error in transcription of official figures might change
two millions into twenty millions, and form the basis of
an argument or an autlioritative statement.

Hudson's Bay Watershed

Many (Utferences of opinion exist as to the resources
of the territory belonging to Ontario and to belong to
(»|uebec across the water-parting of Hudson's Bay. The
l)arting is low ; for at high water Summit Lake discharges
both north and south — into Lake Abitilti and into Lake
Temiscamingue. Tlu' main facts seem to be that n(»
white pine is met further north than six miles below Lake
Abitibi, and wlnle tliere is abundance of spruce, po])lar,
and birch northwards to the bay, only tlie spruce is large.
At j\Ioose river the spruce is 15 inclies in diameter, and
the balsam and poplar is of fair size : but there, and all
round the shore of James ]5ay, the trees, while (pute
suitable for building, do not grow to any great si/e.
As for agriculture, then^ are gardens at all the Hudson's
lUiy posts in the territory in (iuesti<:)n, and i)otatoes and
many other vegetables are grown, but melons, cucumbers,
and tomatoes will not ripen, nor will wheat. Cattle are
kept in considerable innnbers, and feed on the native grass
and the liay cut on the meadows. ^Vt the post on the
East ^lain river there were fifty liead of cattle in 1890.
AVhen the province of Quebec is enlarged as contemplated,
that river will be its extreme northern limit, it is just
beyond latitude 52", and that is also the extreme
northern limit of the ]»rovince of Ontario on the bay.

CHAPTEIi X

\i'

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT rilOVINCE

History

Canada, iu the restricted sense of tlie word denoting New
France, represented now by the two St. Lawrence pro-
vinces, was discovered by Jac(pies Cartier, in 1534, for
Francis I. of France. He was the first who is recorded
to have entered the (Julf of St. Lawrence, and was
the discoverer of all tlu^ lands bordering on or contained
witliin it. What transpired npon the ocean-coast l)etvveen
that date and the discovery of America has already been
discussed in the chai)ter on Acadia. On his first voyage
Cartier went no further than (Jaspe. On his second
voyage, in loSo, he went up the Kiver St. Lawrence as
far as Hochelaga, the site of the present IMontreal : he
wintered on the St. Charles river, close to the present city
of Quebec, and returned to France on tlie opening of
spring. In 1540 Francis I. created lYiUK^ois de la I\ocque,
Sieur de liol)erval, his viceroy and lieutenant-general in
New France, witli many othei- liigh titles, and lioberval
sent out Cartier in the following year, with five ships, aa
ids lieutenant, intending to follow with the nuxin body of
settlers. Cartier Ituilt a fort at or near Cape liouge, a few
miles above (,)uelK'C, but Eoberval did not sail as arranged,
and Cartier having sent two ships back to France wintered

t^!

224

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

again ill Canada in 1541-42. Little has been found con-
cerning' tlie events of that winter, lie named his fort
Charlesbourg lioyal, and he would seem to have again
visited Hochelaga. On the return of spring he sailed
with all his people for France ; and, having put into tlie
harbour of St. flohn's, Newfoundland, on his way home, he
found Itoberval there with his l)elated expedition on the
way to Xew France, but having apparently had enough of
the country Cartier sailed during the night lor liome.
Hoberval continued on his way, and on arriving at Cartier's
fort, lie enlarged it and changed its name to France Ifoy.
He is reported to have explored the Saguenay, and to have
gone up the St. Lawrence at least as faras Hoclielaga. Little
has remained to record his doings. He passed one winter in
Canada, and, in the fragmentary records which survive, it
would apjiear tliat Cartier was sent out to bring him and the
remains of his party back to France. It is, however, certain
that b(»th were back in 1544, and from that time no
attempt to found a colony was made until 1()0(S.

Although Canada was forgotten l)y the king and the
great noblemen, it does not follow that Cartier's discoveries
were not utilised by the merchants and sailors of France.
Tlie gulf and river were, during the years of ajtparent
neglect, favourite resorts of the ]3asque whalers ; and there
are indications of traders having been not only upon the
coasts, l)ut far up the river, although no explicit narrations
have been preserved of such voyages. Thus it happens
that with Chainplain and Lescarbot commence the first
definite records of the History of Canada. Tadoussac was
the chief place of res(U't in those early days, and merchants
of St. ]\ralo were trading there for furs in 1 GOO, when
Canadian history properly begins. Chaniplain made a
voyage as far as Hochelaga in 1003, before he went to
Acadia. The merchants of St. jMalo and I^ouen were then

^'^I

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PROVINCE

225

coiuluctiiit>' the fur trade in the river, either individually
or liy u company of partners, like the North-west Company
of 200 years later. The Canadian annals eoninience with
such a company, of which l)e Monts was the head. After
his experiment in Acadia he decided on making a settle-
ment at Quebec, and in 1608 he sent out Champlain as
his lieutenant to found the settlement, and Pontgravc to
carry on tlie fur trade.

Quebec was thus a creation of the fur trade. Many of
the members of the company were Huguenots, l*ontgrave,
Chauvin, and De Monts among them ; and altliougli Cham-
plain was a Catholic, and always took a deep interest in
the conversion of the savages, the merchants cared very
little about such matters, being anxious rather for good
returns in furs. Protestant and Catliolic chaplains ac-
companied the earlier expeditions, Imt their polemics
scandalised the sailors, and gave little ]iromise of success
in converting the Indians. 8o it came about very soon
that only Catholics were allowed to settle ])ermanently in
the country.

There has been in Canada no dearth of remarkable
men, l)ut of all who have left their traces upon her history
none have been endowed with a character so noble, so
brave, so loyal, so persevering, as Samuel Cliamplain. The
amiability and grace of the French cliaracter was combined
with the sturdier elements requisite in a pioneer leader.
He was as much at home smoking the calumet in the
wigwam of a sachem on the upper Ottawa as he was in
l*aris at the court of his patron Henry I V. His cheerful-
ness never failed him, nor did his faith in his adopted
country ever waver. He was patient and kindl)' without
being weak, and religious without being intolerant. It is
not the least among the privileges of Canada that her
liistory opens with a personality so sane and so sweet as

226

COMPENDIUM OF GEOCHAPIIY AND TRAVEL

i '

still to remain a type and ideal to sliine as the jj;uiding
star of successive generations of her children.

In 1008, then, (^)uebec was founded. The first " abi-
tation " was in the lower town, on the site of the present
market : but soon after a fort was built on the cliff above,
on the site of Dufferin Terrace, not far from the Hotel
Frontenac. Chaniplain allowed Pontgrave to attend to
the fur business of the com])any, and he set himself to
establish a colony for France, and extend discovery to the
West, if haply that nnich-desired passage to the South
Sea might only be found. There is not space here to
recount the trials of the little settlement — how its founder
laboured in the colony : how he pleaded its cause among
the great in France ; with what tact he conciliated the
jarring interests of the merchants of llouen, St. Malo,
and La liochelle ; and, after the English broke up his
colony and carried him away a prisoner, with what
patient courage he picked up the broken threads of the
enterprise, and, after the peace, connnenced his work
anew.

Chaniplain has been blamed for having entered into
an alliance with the Algonquin tribes, and having thus
incurred the deadly hostility of the powerful Iroquois
nation. In reality he had of necessity to cast in his lot
with the tribes surrounding his colony. In a conflict so
deadly there could be no neutrals. The Neutral nation
in Southern Ontario adopted the very policy which
Chaniplain is blamed for not following, and, after the
Hurons were crushed, the Iroquois exterminated them
with so ruthless a destruction that their very name
disappeared in blood and fire.

Slowly and painfully the little colony grew, and was
with difliculty maintaining itself against the Iro(|Uois
who, after the assassination of Piskaret, the great war-

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PROVINCE

227

chief of the Algonquins, raged up to the very palisades
of the fort, when in 1641 there arrived at the little
settlement a party of forty men from France, headed by
a soldier, or rather a crusader, of commanding and
grave aspect — a man who really believed in something,
and such persons are always to be taken seriously.
With him came Mademoiselle Jeanne Mance and three
women companions, two of them wives of soldiers.
Such an acquisition to the strength of the colony was
indeetl welcome.

Now, writing in this nineteenth centurv — almost at
its close — it l)ehoves one to be circumspect, lest in any
way he betray weakness for antiquated ideas of the super-
natural. Are they not visions, dreams, figments of
exalted religious enthusiasm without objective reality ?
Possildy ; but the present object is not to discuss them,
but merelv to direct attention to the fact that out of
such visions and dreams has been woven the objective
reality of the beautiful city of Montreal. These people
had not come so far to dwell under the ])rotection of the
fort at Quebec ; would not, in fact, stay there, but would
go when the spring opened to the island of Montreal —
that fair but fiend-haunted wilderness infested by devils
incarnate in Iroquois war-parties.

It came about in this way ; a devout priest (Jean Jacques
Olier) and a devout receiver of taxes (Jerome le Royer
de la Dauversiere), strangers to each other, and living in
different cities, each received a divine mission, concerning
the reality of which they had no shadow of doubt, so
clearly was it marked by miraculous signs, to found an
order of priests to preach and minister, an order of nuns
to nurse the sick, and an order of nuns to teach — on the
island of Montreal and nowhere else upon the habitable
globe. They knew nothing of Canadian geography, but

I 1

228

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

1 1

this place they saw in a vision. Tliey met by accident,
and each read instantly the other's secret. There is not
space to dwell upon these singular occurrences. Those
who are able to receive them may read about them in
other books, and those who cannot receive them will not
care to liear. Suffice it to say, that these two persons,
under the inspiration of these and many other such
influences, organised a company — the society of Notre
Dame de ]\lontreal — obtained a grant en seirpuurie of the
island of Montreal, aiul Paul de Chomedey — Sieur de
Maisonneuve — a soldier of experience in war, had come
out to take possession. In vain did the governor of
Quebec set forth the danger of their rash undertaking.
Maisonneuve replied simply, " It is my duty and my
honour to found a colony at Montreal, and I would go if
every tree were an Iroquois." So on May 18, 1642,
Montreal was founded, and mass was said on the site of
the present Custom-house. All the dreams of its founders
came to pass, and remain visible to this day. The semi-
nary of St. Sulpice, founded by Olier, still preaches and
ministers in the great parish church of Notre Dame ;
the successors of Jeanne Mance still nurse the sick at
the great Hotel Dieu ; and the sister Marguerite Bourgeoys
who came shortly after to join them, still teaches the faith of
the Roman Catholic church by the mouths of more than a
thousand of her successors, not only in the beautiful pile
of buildings on the slope of Mount Eoyal, but in over
a hundred establishments to more than 20,000 children
throughout the Dominion, and in many cities in the
United States. Francis Parkman, a scholar trained in
the clear and dry light of Boston culture, asks, " Is this
true history or a romance of Christian chivalry ? " and
answers, " It is both."

With such a beginning, romance could not fail to

T^l

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PROVINCE

229

abound in the history of Montreal, and on il tell the
brunt of the Iroquois fury. Deeds of devotion and even
of self-immolation recur constantly in the history of this
little colony, and the halo of a deed worthy of Thermopyla'
lingers round the rapids near Carillon on the Ottawa.

The time came, howevei', when the growing strength
of New Erance not only made head against the Iroquois,
but sought them out in their forest recesses, and destroyed
their towns. A life of incessant peril developed a rare
succession of partisan leaders and Indian fighters who
beat the Indians in their proper methods of war. The
young men would leave the restrained life of the settle-
ments to follow the wild freedom of Indian life in the
forests. In vain were laws enacted against these "coureurs
de bois," as they were called ; the more adventurous youth
found the temptation too strong, and indeed they were of
use to the colony. They spread the inHuence of France
to the remotest tribes of the west ; they assisted as
interpreters, and became the pioneer fur-traders, and they
kept the governor informed of every stir on the remotest
borders ; many married Indian wives and bound the
tribes to the French interest. The Count de Frontenac
was the leading figure among the governors of those days,
and from 1672 to 1G98 upheld the prestige of France
in the New World. Under his guidance New France
passed from the status of a chain of trading and mission
posts to that of an organised political community.
Although the colony was small, great issues were raised
and contended for the mastery. Frontenac represented
Louis XIV., and Bishop Laval, the first Bishop of (Quebec,
represented, fully and worthily, the Church. They were
both very able men and embodied types of two oft-
conflicting forces in society. The history of Canada in
their day is full of interesting disputes, recalling some-

'!.:;'

If;'*

'I f
ll ill

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230

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

times the times of Pope Gregory VII., aiul sometimes
the " Auchterarder ease." The " ofhcialite " t»f tlie
JJishop and the tribunal of the King's re])resentative
were not always in accord, and uppcls commc d'ahns
disturbed the little society on the St. Lawrence as well
as the great world of I'aris. Neither the bishop nor
governor were endowed with yielding natures, and
Frontenac was recalled after the court was wearied with
their disputes ; but in seven years the colony sank so
low he had to be sent back to save its falling fortunes.
On his return he adopted an actively offensive system
of defending the colony. He inaugurated what was
called " la petite guerre," to check the advance of the
English colonies at the south by harassing them with
incursions of Canadian militia and of Indians led by
daring and skilful partisan commanders. Such an
expedition it was which took Schenectady in a bitter
niglit in February 1690, and massacred many of the
inliabitants in their beds, and carried off the rest as
prisoners. Another, under Hertel de Eouville, destroyed
the village of Salmon Falls, and another harried the
town of Casco in Maine. Deerfield in Connecticut,
Haverhill in Massachusetts, and other towns were
destroyed ; generally tired at night and in the winter,
by parties of French and Indians on snow-shoes. In
this way the frontier settlements of the far more populous
English colonies were kept in a constant state of alarm.
The captives, mostly women and children, were compelled
to march to Canada in the swift retreats of the invaders,
and the Indians would kill any who could not keep up.

Some really brilliant commanders were produced
among tlie French colonists. All the family of Le
Moyne distinguished themselves, but chiefly Le Moyne
d'Iberville. He it was who repeatedly conquered

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PROVINCE

231

Hudson's l»ay iiiid Xewfoundland, and kept tlie xVtlantic
sea- board in terror. He was a captain in the service of
the king, and commanded squadrons in the royal navy.

In the meantime gret't discoveries were Ijcing made
in the far west. Tliere was no more daring explorer
than ('hani])lain liiniself. He discovered the lake which
bears his name. He went up the (.)ttawa to tiie river
Mattawa and crossed the portage to Lake Nipissing. He
went down French river to Georgian Bay in Lake Huron
and remained a winter just soutli of the ]\Iuskoka country
nortli of Toronto. He went on a war party through Lake
Simcoe and down the Trent to Lake ( )ntario at the JJay
of (^)uint(' and crossed the lake to attack the Iroquois
towns in western Xew i 'k. Nicolet had Ijeen sent by
him among tiie Indians to learn their language, and this
young and enterprising explorer was able to tell ( 'hamplain
the year before liis death of the Sault tSte. Marie and Lake
Michigan. Then came the Iroquois onslaughts. The
Huron missions were extinguished in blood, and all the
nations (jf the peninsula were exterminated. The trails
were deserted and overgrown. The lurid glare of the
Haming towns died down to l)lood-soaked cinders, and the
upper country was closed for many years. In 16 60 the
regime of the trading companies ended, and under the
royal government, succour was sent to the failing colony
and discovery recommenced. Talon, the ablest intendant
ever in New France, encouraged exploration. In 1660,
Groseilliers and Radisson were on Lake Nepigon, and in
1671 Father Albanel was on his way to Hudson's ^ -'^
by Lake St. Jolni and Lake Mistassini. In 1665 La..e
Superior was explored in all its extent, and in 1669
Jolliet and DoUier de Casson were on Lake Erie ; for up
to that time all exploration had pone by the Ottawa.
In 1673 Father Marquette and Louis Jolliet reached the

If}

232

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TlJAVEl.

Mississippi by way of Fox river and the Wisconsin, {i?i(l
paddled down as tar as tlie Arkansas, returnin^tf by the
Des IMaines and Cliieai^o portage. Tlie same year Fort
Frontenac was founded on its ])resent site at Kingston.
Then La SaUe leased the fort as a centre for western
discovery and trade. In lG7l> lie built the (irifoii at
Cayuga creek on the Niagara river, ubove the falls, and
the pioneer lake craft sailed to the site of ^lichillimackinac.
He went by the St. tseph and Kankakee rivers to the
Illinois, and from thai year to 1(5X2, Ilcnne])in, Dulnth,
and La Salle visited all the region of the upper
IMississippi. In the latter year La Salle followed that great
river down to its mouth. As the colony gained strength
the Canadians .nished westwards farther and farther. They
founded Detroit and St. Louis and their forts reached t<t
Hudson's liay. They ])ushed across the Winnipeg water-
shed, and founded posts on Lake Winni])eg and the
Saskatchewan as far as the liocky jVIountains. All tliese
enteri)rises emanated from Quebec and Montreal : liut the
latter citv was the centre of the fur trade, and when the
narrow streets were filled with n>i/<,;/firrs on the arrival
of the laigailes of canoes with furs, and when the savage
allies of the French cam])ed in the meadows near the
town, it retjuii'cd all the efforts of tlie good ]»riests, the
Hcifinvnrs of the island, to keep tlie ])eo])le in anything
like a tolerably religious frame of mind.

Meanwhile tlie Knglish colonies at the south were
increasing very rapidly, but they had no cohesion. The
wars of the New Fngland border, and of the iiack settle-
ments of New York, never disturbed the N'irginians : latr
were the New Fnglanders ever concerned when the
frontiers of N'irginia were swept with fire and axe. The
Canadian French were, by the very fad of that centralisa-
tion wlr a was their political weakness, better organised

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT I'HOVINCE

Zoo

for war, because tlieir leaders could act with decitsion and
promi)tiiess. Town meetinj^s of citizens nre useful for mak-
ing speeclies, not for making campaigns: while the military
spirit of the French rose higli. The expeiUtion under Sir
AVilliam I'hips to take <»)uebec in 1(500 was re}»ulsed,
and in 1C91 a strong e.\))edition from New York, under
Schuyler, was defeated near Montreal. Tlie French had
no dilliculty in maintaining their position, r,nd even
carried on an aggressive jxilicy. Tiiere was never
lack of bold and skilful leaders among them, it was
a native-born Montrealer who settled the mouth of
the Mississippi, and another founded the city of Mobile.
As the great strugi^le for su])renia(y iip]>roached, the
French established a chain of forts from Canada down
the Mississippi valley, and on all the portages leading to
its tributaries nortli of the Ohio.

The history of Canada in those days is full of inciilent
and interest. The exertions and successes of this handful
of peo})le in the north against the stronger English
colonies at the south are a sur])rise to the student of
history. The Si^ven Years' \Yar, which broke out in
I7r),~», was undertaken by the English almost solely on
behalf of the colonies, now the United States : and twenty
years later they turned against the Mother (country,
which had saved them by her ships and troo])s from the
far-reaching enterprises of the French from Canada, and
]»laceil thenj in a jiosition of permanent security, at the
cost of an increase to tlu^ national debt of sixty-four
millions of pounds sterling. The struggle was, however,
inevitable, and the decaying monarchy ol' France c(add
not abide the shock. The luxury and extravagaiwe of
the horile of ])eculators which crowded round the intend-
ant Bigot and acted as his jackals, plundered the king
and oppressed the i»eople with impartial rascality, it

234

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TIJAVEL

was one of liis cieatures, Vergor, wlio surrendered ]3eau-
sejour, and who had charge of the post on tlie heights at
(»)uebec which WvJfe's troops surprised in the night. One
sentence in a letter from Piigot to his protege when he
sent him to Jieausejour tersely expresses the cause of the
collapse of the French power in America. " Profit, my
dear Vergor, by your position ; clip and pare, you have
every facility, and soon you will be able to join me in
France and buy an estate near me." The English
language possesses in its copious treasury no legitimate
word to set forth this intensity of decaying public honour,
and the low wmd " boodle " must Ije used to express that
debased ideal of politics which, with the cynicism of
]\Iephistopheles, took the heart out of a people and
dropped from the height of Champlain, Maisonneuve, and
Daulac, to the coward and sluggard who surrendered
JJeausejour and lost the heights of Quebec.

It was in June 1755 that war was declared; Imt
there had been hostilities on the (~)hio for a year preced-
ing, and AVashington had tired upon a party of Canadians
on May 28, 1754, and killed their leader, Jumonville.
The French were very indignant, and their histories still
apply hard names to the occurrence ; but, while it is not
necessary to go into this still burning question, it is
interesting to note that AVashington tired the first shot of
the war. On l»rd July he capitulated to a party of
Canadians, and for the rest of tlie vear the French held
file whole valley.

In 1755 war was formally declared, and the final
struggle began. The French, tliough inferior in numbers
and resources, ami with very little aid from P'rance, won the
first honours. In July, De lieaujeu, with 140 Canadian
militiamen, 60 regulars, and 600 Indians, attacked and
defeated General I haddock on the Monongahela. It was

QUEBEC THK ANCIENT PROVINCE

2:15

a terrible defeat, and had it not been for Washington
and his Virginians, who covered the retreat, scarcely a
man of the English army would have escaped alive. All
the horses, equii)ment, cannon and baggage of un nrmy
of 2000 men were captured, together with the military
chest of £25,000. One thousand soldiers were killed,
including the general and most of the officers. In the
same year Johnson, with colonial troops, defeated JJaron
Dieskau near Lake (leorge. In iToG the Mar(iuis de
Montcalm arrived in Canada — a soldier whose skill and
experience retarded for a few years the fall of the French
power. He defeated the English at Oswego, and captured
the place, and he invaded the cohmy of New York by
way of Lake Champlain, and captured Fort William Henry
at the head of Lake (ieorge. The massacre of the garrison
by the Indians which occurred there, althougli against
his commands, has been ever since a l)lot upon liis
reputation. Tn 1758, at Ticonderoga, he defeated Aber-
crond)ie and an army of 14,000 men, and althougli the
English were successful in some minor engagements, tlie
results of the first three years of the war were disastrous
to tlie English arms.

With the appointment as commander-in-chi(^f of
(Jeneral Amherst in 1758, the fortune of war changed.
Andierst did not himself display commanding military
genius, but he liad witli liim a number of very capable
ulHcers, and, cliief amctng them, Major- (leneral .James
Wolfe, who led tlie attack on l.ouisbourg, and captured
it after a brave defence. The following year the armies
of England began to close in round the hitherto victorious
French in Canada, and Montcalm drew in his garrisons
for a final stand. It was the end of »Iune before the fleet,
under Admiral Saunders, having on board (Jeneral Wolfe's
army, arrived at (Quebec, and lor more than t\v(j months

'■^ fl

r ■

I II'

230

COMPKNDIUM OF GEOGlJArilY AND TKAVEL

the town was bombarded, and several unsuccessful attempts
were made upon IVIontcalm's position. At last Wolle
witlulrew most of liis troo})s from tlie north shore, crossed
to Point Levis on the south shore, anil beu;an to march
u]) the river, watched by tlie French from tlie op])osite
heiii'hts. On the niyht of the 12tli of September, con-
cealed by the darkness, Jic dropj)ed down the river and
effected a iandinu; at a place still known as AVolfe's Cove,
and by daybreak his whole army was drawn up on the
lieiohts of Quebec.

It is unnecessary to recouut in this short sketch the
events wliicli succeeiletl. Tlie details of the battle are
well knt)wn — tlie success of the Knglish arms, the heroic
death of Wolfe at the moment of victory, and the equally
heroic death of the chivalrous ^Montcalm in the hour of
ilefeat. A single shaft in a conspicuous position in the
ui)])er city was erected, when the J'^arl of J)alliousie was
uovernor, to the memory of both, ami the inscription
tersely sums up the result :

MoHTKM. Vlltrrs. COMMI'NKM

FaMAM. HlsTOlllA

MdNU.MENTUM. I'ltSTElllTAlS.

Dkdit.

In Canada, to this day, it is debated whether Montcalm
exercised good judgment in accepting battle, seeing that
at the approach of winter Wolfe and the Heet would have
be»Mi compelled to abandon the enterprise. He is blamed
for iletaching De Levis, his best oHlcer, ami thus weaken-
ing his force. To this it may be re})lied that the defences
of the town were destroyed by the bombanlment, and that
it was in no position to resist attack from the land side,
that his force was still superior in numbers to Wolfe's,
and that his object was not to give Wolfe time to
establish himself IMontcalm was a soldier of great

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PROVINCE

-I o

experience ami ability, and tloubtless knew all tlu; ciiruni-
stances better tban the critics of to-day.

The Heet sailed away and left General dames .Murray
with a stronij jjfarrison in tlie ruined citv, and for the
wliole winter lie was in turn besici^ed by the active
De Levis who ke]»t the field with troops from Montreal.
He was tempted out to meet De Levis in a battle on the
Ste. Fove road, and was deieated, but he held out until
the returninj^ sjiring brought tlie ileet again witli nnich-
needed reinforcements, and a combined movement of all
the English armies was made on Montreal. Amherst
assembled his troops at Albany and marched to Oswego
on Lake Ontario, from whence he moved down the river
in a large flotilla collected there in advance, — a ])erilous
passage enough, seeing that he had to run all the ra])ids
with an army of 10,000 men. Colonel Haviland moved
down the valley of the Hichelieu, the usual route of in-
vasion, and General Murray marched up from Quebec.
Amherst disembarked at Lachine, and united his forces
on the plateau west of the town. Resistance to such a
force was useless, and the French governor, the Manpiis
de Vaudreuil, capitulated and surrendered to General
Amherst the whole of Canada in its utmost extent.

Thus closed the history of the French monarchy in
Canada, and opened the history of the Fnited States of
America.

The terms of the capitulation were generous, and the
treaty of cession continued them. After a ju'iiod of un-
certainty the state of the country was settled by a measure
called "the Qm bee Act," passed by })arliament in 1774.
That statute con.lrmed the Canadians in the enjoyment
of their religion and their civil laws. The feiulal tenure
of the land was continued. The religious conununities
were unmolested, and the Koman Catholic religion received

i :i

238

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

i >-\

,;;*i

a quasi -establishment under wliich it collects tithes from
its own people to this day. The Jesuits tvere not allowed
to continue their institution, and about tlie same time the
Jesuit order was suppressed in Europe by Pope Clement
Xl\. Wliile the members of the order were expelled
from all Catholic countries, it is the fact that those who
remained in Canada enjoyed their estates under English
rule, until the last one died, when the property was
taken by Gover'v.nent for the support of education.

Scarcely was the treaty of cession concluded when
Tontiac's war broke out, and the whole western border
was desolated by fire and axe. It was a deep-laid
conspiracy of the western tribes, and all the forts of the
frontier but one fell — the most of them by strategem.
Detroit alone held out. After Pontiac's defeat the fur
trade opened up again, and the English from Montreal
entered into it with vigour ; but the West remained un-
easy until after the murder of the great war-chief of the
Ottawas by an Indian enemy.

At the conclusion of peace in 176.') nearly all the
leaders of Canadian society had emigrated to France, even
those who, like the Marquis of Vaudreuil, were Canadian
born. Nearly all of the class designated by the name
" noblesse " left. The parochial clergy remained — the
clergy of tlie seminaries of (Quebec and of St. Sulpice at
Montreal also remained, and, round this body of faithful
clei'i>v, the abandoned and discouraged remnant of some
05,000 to 70,000 French Canadians clustered, and by
their ministrations and wise counsel the national fire was
kept alive. The Canadia'- ^-^ople indeed needed support ;
for the English came in trom the southern colonies as t(t
a conquered country, and, although under 400 in all,
claimed to be alone entitled to political rights, to serve
on juries, or have a voice in public matters. They

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PROVINCE

239

supposed the penal laws against llonian Catholics were
introduced into Canada, and one little knot of grand
jurymen even presented the whole native population as
papists, and, in the jargon of the period, declared that to
permit Koman Catholics to ser/e on juries, or to hold
positions of tru^.t, was " an open violation of our most
sacred laws and liberties." In the meantime, in the
souDhern colonies, the seeds of disaffection were beintr
fanned into tiame, for the restraining fear of France on
the north was at last removed.

The Canadians call this period le trmps dc malaise,
but out of it was born in 1774 a measure so just, so wise,
so fraught with all that is noble and generous in states-
manship, that it attached at one stroke the affections of
the whole French Canadian people to the throne of Great
Britain. This measure — tlie Quebec Act — granted, as
above stated, to the (.'anadians their religion, not only
its toleration but its freest exercise, their civil laws, their
civil rights, their institutions and their lands ; and the
amazed people found tliemselves in a position, civilly,
religiously, and socially, vastly superior to that they had
been accustomed to under their old monarchs.

The Quebec Act was received with violent indignation
by the disappointed little band of English in Quebec, and
it raised a storm of invective among tlie revolutionary
leaders at the south, who made it a count in the indict-
ment of the 1 )eclaration of Independence ; l)ut it was an
impregnable wall of defence to the (Canadians, and to
its justice is due the fact that Canada is still British.
At the outbreak of the Bevolution the armies of the
Continental Congress invaded Canada, occupied Montreal,
and l)esieged Quebec. The investing force was about
8000 men under Montgomery and Arnold, and General
Carieton had as a garrison only one company of troops with

l^iftii

240

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

the seamen aiul nuiiiners of a sloop of war and the
inliabitants of the town — not exceeding 1000 in all.
JMontgoniery fell in the assault on the night of December
31, 1775, and the siege lagged all through the long winter
of 1775-6, to be abandoned at tlie opening of spring.

In the meantime the Continental Congress was vainly
exercising its blandishments upon the French Canadians,
and endeavouring to show them under what fearful
oppression they were unconsciously groaning. Three
connnissione^j were sent to Montreal. Among them
were the astute Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll
of Carrollton. Th \itter was a Iloman Catholic, and he
brought with him his brother, a Jesuit priest, to assist in
moving the French clergy. Many interviews were held
at the Chateau de Ifamesay in Montreal, but the French
were politely immovable. The fact was that the Con-
tinental Congress of 1774 had a great literary faculty
for composing addresses, and they prepared three — one
for circulation in England, where there existed a strong
Protestant prejudice against Catholic emancipation ; one
for circulation in the English colonies, where the Quebec
Act was intensely unpopular ; and the third for circula-
tion among the French Catholic people of the province
of Quebec itself. These appear in the proceedings of
Congress, and a sentence or two from each in juxtaposi-
tion will explain the present position of French Canada
fully, without any added comment. It is no wonder that
even the ready and plausible Franklin, who, a few years
later, was to outwit the diplomats of England and France,
was nonplussed by the production of these three master-
pieces of political rlietoric, each so cogent and persunsive
to the sufferers for whom it was prepared. At the
present date the error of letting them all out at once
would be patent, for the press telegrams would publish

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT I'UOVINCE

241

them ; but coniinunicatlons in those days were much more
difficult. One remark alone suggests itself in. tliis connec-
tion, tlie simple historic statement that, alou'.. among the
colonies of the New World, Canada stands proudly pre-
eminent, inasnnich as not one spot of blood shed in the
name of religion sullies the white pages of her annals.
The only persecutors in Canada were the Iroquois savages,
and the only victims were lioman missionaries.

Extract from the Address of October 21, 1774, to the
2)eople of Great Britain

" Nor can we suppress our astonisliment that a
British Parliament should ever consent to establish in
that country (Canada) a religion that has deluged your
island with l)lof)d and dispersed impiety, bigotry, per-
secution, nnirder, and rebellion, through every part of
the world."

Extract from the Address to the 'people of the EikjUsIl
Colonies, October 21, 1774

" In the session of Parliament an Act was passed for
changing the government of Quebec, by which act the
Ixonuin Catholic religion, instead of being tolerated as
stipulated by the treaty of peace, is established, and the
people there are deprived of a right to an Assembly.
Trials by jury and the English laws in civil cases are
abolished, and instead thereof the French laws were
established."

Extract from the Address to the Canadian People, October

2G, 1774

" And what is offered you by the late act of Parliament ?
Liberty of conscience in your religion ? Xo. God gave
it to you, and the temporal powers witli which you have

1 ii

242

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

■n

been and are connected firmly stipulated for your
enjoyment of it. . . . We are too well acquainted with
the liberality of sentiment which distinguishes your
nation to imagine that difference of religion will pre-
judice you against a hearty amity with us. You know
that the transcendent nature of freedom elevates those
who unite in her cause above all such low-minded
infirmities,"

These three addresses were drafted by a committee,
and adopted clause by clause in full session of Congress,
two of them on October 21, and the third on October
26, 1774. They are very long, and the contents of the
rest may be readily guessed. Their importance in this
connection is to account for the fact that in all the
extensive dominions of the Queen of the British Empire
she has no more loyal subjects than the French people of
Canada, and to show that this fact is mainly due to an
act of generosity, justice, and kindness granted to a
people in the deep discouragement of betrayal and
abandonment by their own proper leaders.

With this the history of French Canada may be
closed. Under the British Government the people by
degrees advanced towards the full development of
British political institutions. Only once since 1774
has the soil of the French province been invaded,
and then, at the battle of Chateauguay in 1813,
it was by a French connnander with an army consisting
solely of French militia that the enemy were defeated.
It is on record in a Precis, printed in 1826, by order of
the Duke of Wellington, privately for official use, and
published many years after, that " not a single Lower
Canadian militiaman was known to desert to the enemy
during the three years of the war of 1812-14."

QUEBEC THE ANCIENT PHO" INCE

243

111 later years 1837-8 a small minority in the neigh-
bourhood of Montreal, dissatisfied with the slow progress
of political reform, took np arms against the British
Government, but some of the leaders were English, and
there was a similar attempt in Upper Canada where the
whole population was English. Both movements were
promptly suppressed, and the desired changes came about
in natural course at the introduction of responsible
government.

NOTE TO CHAPTER X

The chief works of reference for the subject of this chapter
liave been noted at the end of Chapter III. The disputes between
Bishop Laval and the Count de Froutenac may be followed in
detail in Lc Comte de Frnvtenac par Henri Lorin, Paris, 1895, and
in La Vie de M(jr. Laval par I'Abbe Gosselin, Quebec, 1890-91.
The most complete work on the Jesuits in Canada is Lcs Jesuites
de la Nouvelle France au XVII"'" Sikle par la Pere Camillo de
Rochemonteix, 3 vols., Paris, 1895. The literature concerning
this period is extensive, but it is nearly all in French, and
excepting by Francis Parkman, has been little studied by English
writers.

li*

";i«

I f

CHAPTEK XI

THE TROVINCE OF QUEBEC

This province is entitled to consideration and special
study as the pivot province of the Dominion. No matter
how the population of the provinces may wax or wane,
Quebec, by the fundamental law, must always have sixty-
five members in" the House of Connnons. The represent-
ation of the other provinces is regulated at each census
by the proportion which their population bears to that
of the province of Quebec, so that, the delegation from
Quebec remaining always the same, the others are ad-
justed to it. This indicates some peculiar circumstances
connected with Quebec requiring a special safeguard,
and it is found in the fact that eighty per cent of
its inhabitants speak French as their mother tongue.
Quebec, moreover, demands the attention of the student
because it is the germ of Canada. From the narrow
shore under the cliff of Cape Diamond went forth the
initial force which penetrated the wilderness from
Hudson's Bay to the Ohio, and from Labrador to the
Saskatchewan. Somewhere on that cliff, unmarked and
unknown, is the grave of Samuel Champlain, the founder
of New France — one of the noblest, bravest, gentlest men
who ever sailed on the ocean or trod a forest trail ; for

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THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

245

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ocean and forest were laniiliar to him. He was the type
of a class of men connnon in the France of that period.

Boundaries

The province of Quebec is bounded on the south by
the international boundary, by part of the province of
New Brunswick, and by Jjay Chaleur. On the east it
fronts upon the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and it includes
Auticosti and the whole group of the Magdalens ; on the
mainland the Canadian Labrador is separated from the
Newfoundland Labrador by a line drawn due north from
Blanc Sablon Bay to the 52nd degree of latitude. East
of Blanc Sablon the coast is under the jurisdiction of
Newfoundland, but how far inland that jurisdiction
extends has not been determined. The western boundary
separating Quebec irom Ontario extends from the head
of Lctke Temiscaming northwards to the water-parting
of Hudson's Bay and southwards through the centre of
the same lake. Thence it follows down through the
middle of the Ottawa river to Point Fortune at the
head of the Lake of Two Mountains, from whence it
strikes across the country to the river St. Lawrence at
Point au Baudet. The triangular territory between the
two rivers thus attached to (,^)uebec consists of certain
seigniories granted under the feudal tenure by the French
crown. West of that the country was unsettled and was
set off in 1791 to form a province under English laws.

The northern l)oundary of the old province of Quebec,
which included jdso the present province of Ontario, was,
until recently, taken to be the lieight of land, or water-
parting, between the Hudson's Bay and St. Lawrence
basins, and so it was always laid down on the maps. P)Ut
dithculties arose about the boundary of Ontario and
Manitoba, and a conunission appointed to arl)itrate ran

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'HY AND TRAVEL

the boundary of Ontario north to James Bay, wliich
boundaries, so far as Ontario is concerned, were confirmed
by Act of Parliament. The boundaries of Quebec, how-
ever, remained in statu quo ante, and the novth lines
at the extreme east and west, to wit le due
north line from Blanc Sablon to latitude j2°, and
the due north line from the head of Lake Temis-
caming have not been produced l)eyond the height of
land by any definite legislation. An Order in Council
was passed in 1895, and it has been accepted by the
province, to continue the western boundary from Lake
Temisca to James Bay. The northern boundary

specified . the order follows the East Main river from
its mouth to the north point of Lake Patamisk. From
thence it follows the parallel of latitude (about i^'l° 55')
eastwards to the head waters of the Hamilton river,
which it follows to the boundary of the coast strip of
the Xewfoundland Labrador. As this proposition was
made by the Dominion and accepted by the province,
the required statutory enactment will follow in time.

Area

The province of Queljec extends, then, from Blanc
Sablon, a fishing harbour at the inner end of the Strait of
Belle-isle, in longitude 59° 7' west, to Lake Temiscam-
ing, in longitude 79° 40' west, a distance of about 1350
miles. The width of the province, when measured to the
height of land at the north, is very variable. Its extreme
width along a line between 71° and 72" is about 500
miles, and its average widtli may be taken as 250 miles.
The superficial area of the province is 228,000 square
miles. When the boundary is finally enacted to extend to
the limit of the Order in Council, it will add about 1 10,000

THE PKOVINCE OF QUEBEC

247

square miles to the territory of the province. The
general lie of the province is N.E. and S.W., in the
direction of its great feature, the river. In a general
way the province is the hydrographical basin of the
river as far as the intersection of the parallel of 45° nortli
latitude ; and the river being, as before stated, a northern
river flowing on the southern edge of its basin, only
50,000 S(piare miles of the area of the province lies
south of it.

Contour of the Land

South of the St. Lawrence the Appalachian chain,
known in Vermont as the C4reen jMountains, crosses the
border between Lakes Champlain and Memphremagog,
and continues in a north-easterly direction to a point
about 30 miles south of Quebec city. Thence it follows
the general course of the river at a varying distance from
the south shore, but nearly always in sight upon the
horizon. The range is known under the general name of
thr Notre Dame Mountains. It comes out upon the
shore near Metis, and continues along the river to form
the tableland of Gaspe. To the south-east of this range
is the rolling country of the Eastern Townships, and
on the north-west is the level plain of the river St.
Lawrence.

The Notre Dame Mountains are not, however, in the
Eastern Townships, mountains in any strict sense of the
word ; for the Appalachian highlands, on passing the
border, lose their height, and cross to the St. Lawrence as
a succession of ridges. Tliat portion of Quebec is not a
rough mountainous country, but a rolling country con-
taining a large amount of rich farming and pasture land.
Tliere are points in this range, however, where tlie hills
rise to a qonsiderable height. Sutton ^Mountain is 4000

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248

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

feet high. The mountains on the west side of Lake
Meniphreniagog, although themselves of intrusive rock,
are in this range. The higher peaks on the lake are the
]3ear and Hawk Mountains, the Owl's Head (2500 feet),
and Mount Elephantis. Orford ^Mountain, which is not
far away, is the highest peak (2886 feet) among the
mountains in that vicinity. The general elevation of the
country is from 500 to 1000 feet above the sea. The
lakes in this region are not numerous. Among them are
Lake Metapedia 480 feet, Lake Temiscouata 467 feet,
and Lake ]Memphremagog 756 feet above the sea. Lakes
Aylmer (795 feet), St. Francis (890 feet), and ]\Iegantic
(1092 feet) are the chief remaining lakes of this region.
After the Notre Dame Mountains come out upon the
shore of the lower St. Lawrence they attain their highest
elevation in the Shickshock Mountains, from Matane to
St. Anne des Monts, a distance of about 65 miles. The
range is from 4 to 9 miles wide, and the higher summits
rise from 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea, or an average
of 2000 feet above the tableland of Gaspe. This range
is not a part of the watershed ; for the streams rise in
lower lands in rear of them, and cut their way through to
the St. Lawrence in deep ravines. The central part of
Gaspe Peninsula is, on an average, 3000 feet above the
sea. Some peaks are 3700 feet high. The whole central
area is a wilderness ; and if there be any level or arable
land there, it is unsuitable for cultivation, for the altitude
exposes it to summer frosts. On the lower levels towards
the Bay Chaleur the timber is good, and there is a belt,
about 10 to 20 miles wide, of fertile farm lands along
the shore of the bay between it and the mountains. On
the St. Lawrence side there is no farm land. Small
settlements of fishermen cluster in sheltered coves at the
moutlis of the rivers. The Gaspe Peninsula is separated

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBFC

210

from the main pro-
vince l)y tlie valley
of the Metapedia
river, which, taking
its rise in Metapedia
Lake, not far from
the Metis on the St.
Lawrence, falls into
the Kestigouche near
the Bay Chaleur.
The Intercolonial
Itailway follows this
valley.

The valley of tlie
river St. Lawrence
is bounded on the
north in its wliole
length by the Laur-
entian highlands or
Laureni ides. They
are but a short dis-
tance from the shore
at Blanc Sablon, and
thev follow all alont;
the north shore of
the gulf, the estuary,
a' d the river 8t.
Lawrence at varying
distances, but never
very far away, until
at the Saguenay they
come out upon the
shore. From thence
they follow the liank

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250

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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of the river very closely to within 20 miles of the city of
Quebec. There, at Cape Tourraente, opposite the lower
end of the island of Orleans, they turn away from the river,
but still follow its general course at a greater or less dis-
tance. At Montreal they are 3 miles away ; and, nearly
half way between Montreal and Ottawa city at Calumet,
they strike the Ottawa river, and follow up its northern
bank for about 100 miles, as far as Lake des Chats, where
they cross the river into the province of Ontario.

The nature of the Laurentian country beyond the
valley has been described at length in a previous chapter.
The number of its lakes is past all counting, and, as the
country is surveyed, more and more are laid down upon
the maps. These are the sources of numbers of perennial
streams, which flow down into the central valley in rapids
and cascades, providing water power for the lower levels
along a line of 1000 miles. In these days of ready
transfer of power such an incalculable reserve of force
may come to mean a great deal. In the meantime it is
running to waste.

The Laurentian tableland to the north of the St.
Lawrence valley is, as before stated, from 1000 to 1600
feet high, clothed with forest, and worn by the waste of
countless ages into hills with rounded outlines. These
rise in places into mountains. Cape Tourmente is 1919
feet high; Les Eboulements are 2547 feet high ; and the
mountains about the Saguenay are 1800 feet high.
North of Montreal the highest point is Trembling
Mountain 2380 feet, rising from the shore of Trembling
Lake.

There remains now to notice only the central plain
extending over an area of about 10,000 square miles in
the province of Quebec. At the gateway stands the city
of Quebec in a spacious amphitheatre formed by the

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

251

approach of both ranges. To the west the valley l)roaden8,
level and fertile, to Lake Ontario. The tide reaches to
Three llivers — half-way to Montreal, and nowhere in all
the plain is the level higher than '300 feet above the sea,
save in some isolated hills to be specially mentioned.
Where tlie basin of the St. Lawrence touches that of the
Hudson river on the south the water-parting is but 120
feet high. Lake Champlain itself is only 88 feet above
the sea.

Across this central plain at distances varying from
15 to 25 miles, a line of completely detached hills, all,
with one exception, of igneous rock, rise sharply out
of the level fields. The}- are not very high — 600 to
1000 feet above the plain, but they seem higher by
contrast. The most northei'n is Eigaud mountain, at the
head of the Lake of Two Mountains. Then follows Mont
Calvaire of Lauren tian gneiss, where the lake widens.
Mount Eoyal is the next — the forest crown of the city
of Montreal. Then follow successively, Montarville,
Mont St. Hilaire (Beloeil), Ilougemont, Yamaska, Shefford
and Brome mountains, until the intrusive masses of Lake
Memphremagog are reached, which extend south beyond
the border. Monnoir or jMount Johnson is a smaller
conical peak to the west of the echelon. Any one stand-
ing on Mount Eoyal, above Montreal, may see on a clear
day the Laurentides to the north, and to the south may
follow this echelon of detached hills until it leads up to
the southern range, where it crosses the border. The
plain itself, as before stated, does not rise higher than
300 feet above the sea.

The Gulf of St. Lawrence

This great inland sea is closed in from the Atlantic
by the whole length of the islands »of Cape Breton and

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252

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

Newfoiindlaiul. It washes the sliorcs of four provinces —
Quebec, Nova Scotia, New l>ruiiswick and Prince Edward
Island. It has tliree entrances — one far to the nortli,
the Strait of Belle-isle ; one at the south, the Strait of
Canso ; and in the centre the main entrance, Cabot Strait,
between Cape Breton and Newfoundland. As if to lead
up to tlie grand entrance, a channel over 200 fathoms
deep extends from the outer ocean between the St. I'ierre
bank and the lianquereau. It enters the gulf with a
breadth of 40 miles, and continues up the river between
Gaspe and Anticosti as far as Bic. The gulf is. deep to
the very shores, and there are not many expanses of land-
locked water presenting so few obstacles to navigation.
The land is bold on both sides of the entrance.

The width of Cabot Strait, from Cape North to Cape
IJay, is 60 miles. St. Paul's Island, off Cape North,
narrows the distance to 40 miles. Cape North is 1100
feet, and the coast of Newfoundland at Cape Bay is
2000 feet high, so both sides of the gateway can be seen
from the deck of a passing steamer.

The Gulf of St. Lawrence is 500 miles in its extreme
length from north to south, and 243 miles across from
Cabot Strait to Gaspe. Its area is over 80,000 square
miles. Although the smooth water of the Gulf is some-
times spoken of, it is by no means smooth in a strong
wind, even though it is sheltered from the long roll
of the A-tlantic. The islands it contains are easily
recognised, and the gulf and river are lighted almost like
a street. The water is deep and the soundings are well
marked. On the other hand, the currents are variable,
and much affected by the* winds and tides. Tlie current
which has long been supposed to run in at tlie Strait of
Belle-isle proves to be mainly a tidal current, although
there is a preponderance of inward How. The current of

fit

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

253

discharge of the. river runs near the south shore, and
there is a steady current running out of Cahot Strait.
Ships sailing inwards follow the northern shore to avoid
the river current and obtain the assistance of the tidal
stream, which mainly seeks the northern shore.

The navigable season extends from 15th April to the
end of December. The lighthouses are extinguished from
10th December to 1st April, Throughout December ice
forms in the bays, and though the gulf never freezes, the
ice collects in floes with lanes more or less open. In
March and April the sealing vessels go amongst the
floating ice in pursuit of seals, and, even in May, lield-ice,
from the breaking up of the rivers in the interior, will
sometimes gather, for a few days, in Cabot Strait, but it
is rotten with the spring sun, and steamers can pass
through. The navigation by the Strait of Belle-ish? is
open between 1st July and 1st December. In entering
the gulf by Belle-isle allowance must be made for the
exceptional variation of the compass, as it is 37° at Belle-
isle, and only 17° at Quebec.

Besides Prince Edward Island, which has been sepa-
rately treated, the only islands in the gulf are Anticosti
and the Magdalen group. The long chain of the Labrador
islands are not included, for they cluster close against
the north shore. Anticosti and some of the Magdalens are
alone seen in the direct course in or out by Cabot Strait.

The geography of the gulf is sometimes confused by
counting the Magdalens as thirteen small islands. There
is a large island, narrow, and concave to the east, about
35 miles long, stretching in the same general direction
as the north-east coast, and consisting of what are called
Amherst, Grindstone, Allright, Coffin, Grosse, and East
Islands, but all these are connected by a double row of
sandbars enclosing shallow lagoons. It is possible to

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254

COMrKNDIUM OF (lEOfJKAPIIY AND TRAVEL

drive at low tide from one end to the other, for althongh
tliere are occasional inlets across the bars, they can be
forded. The land rises in hills from 200 to 580 feet
high, consisting of red sandstone similar to that of Prince
Edward Island, and containing large deposits of gypsum.
There is abundance of grass for cattle and sheep, but very
little agricultural land. The appearance of the island on
a fine day is very pleasing — cliffs of red sandstone, hills
of yellow sand, a mantle of bright green grass, and clumps
of dark green spruce combining to form a contrast of
colour. Entry Island is a red sandstone rock 580 feet
high, three miles off the inner soutli-east point, and
Beadman's Island is a trap rock, 170 feet high, 8 miles
off' the south-west point. It is like a pyramid when seen
end on, but its broadside is like a body draped for burial.
The funereal nomenclature of this group is heightened l)y
the fact that the islands were granted to Admiral Coffin.
Tom Moore's imagination was stir ed, on passing Dead-
man's Island, into bringing the I'hantom Ship into the
gulf, and other poets have followed him —

To Deadniaii's Isle in the eye of the blast,

To Deadman's Isl*^ she speeds her i'ast ;

By skeleton shapes her sails are furled,

And the hand that steers her is not of this world !

There are 4942 people on the Magdalen Islands —
kindly people, for the most part French. They get their
living by fishing and sealing, and they are never troubled
with the Phantom Ship. The islands were known in the
early times as Les Isles Eamees (the Eamea Island of
Hakluyt).

Prion Island — so najmed by Jacques Cartier after his
patron Philippe de Prion -Chabot, admiral of France
under Francis I. — is 11 miles from the Great Magdalen.

] ;

THE PROVINCE OF l,"L'EliE('

255

Tt is 4 miles long and 200 feet liigli on the north side.
The red and j^ray sandstone so common in the gulf is
seen here also. The soil is good, and there are a few
settlers on it. Not far away are the Greater and Lesser
Bird Islets rising 105 feet from the sea, and white with
sea fowl. It is not possible to land on the liird Islands
excepting in the calmest sea.

In the estuary of the river is Anticosti — an island
122 miles long and 30 wide, and 2 GOO scpuire miles in
area. The south coast is low and monotonous ; hut on
the north there are cliffs of white limestone rising to a
height of 700 feet. The only harbour is at Ellis I»ay,
and that has but three fathoms of water. The island is
encircled by a dense belt of dwarf spruce. The land is
fair, but the crops are exposed to sunnner frosts, a. id
there is very little good timber upon it. There are
salmon in the streams and cod in tlie waters around,
wild ducks and geese frcfpient its bays and inlets, and
it is a famous place for l)ears, as its name indicates —
Naticostek, " the hunting ground of the bear." The
island has been purchased by ]\I. Menier, the chocolate
manufacturer of France, who is reported to be stocking it
as a game preserve with wild creatures of all kinds,
which had been hunted almost to extinction. The
population permanently residing on the island was 253
in 1891. '

The New Brunswick shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
is uniformly low and wooded. The rivers empty into
lagoons formed by bars and spits of sand ; but there are
no shoals or rocks. Shediac has a harbour of 18 feet
water. There is also a good harbour at the mouth of
the liichibucto. The Miramichi river is the chief place
on this coast, and is a great shipping centre for lumber.
The inner bay or estuary is 13 miles long l.)y 8 miles

1, 1

25G

COMPENDIUy OF GEOGHArilY AND TRAVEL

wide. There is a depth of 15 ieet over the bar at low
tide, thp water is deeper inside, and any vessel which
can cross tlie bar can go up as far as the forks of the
river.

The nortli sliore of the gulf is part of tlie Quebec
Labrador, and will be described in that connection.

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The Kiver St. Lawrence

]\Iuch has been said of this stately river in a jjreced-
ing chapter ; but, in describing the ])rovince of Queliec, it
is necessary to revert to it, and to it one nuist always
revert in tliinking of Canada ; for nowhere is tliere
such another river, with an estuary so Itold, with ])ortals
so urand, with water so bright, with scenerv end)racinu
every elenu'nt of nobility tiud ])icturesqueness, from the
solenni fdooni of the Sau;uenav to the sunnv tanule of
the Thousand Islands. Ikoniantic memories clinu' to
every islet aiul headlantl. Its broad waters were the
highway to the great west, antl o})ened up the continent
to its very core. AVhat the Nile was to the I'lgyptians,
and more than the Iihine is to the (icrmans, this king
among rivers is to tlie liearts of those l)orn ujion its
banks.

Tlie St. Lawrence is not like otlier great rivers whicli
lose their identity irj vast alluvial deltas where land and
water are scarce discernible apart. Its banks are clear
cut and sharp to the very ocean's rim, and, from the
heart of tlie Atlantic, a broad and deep channel oi' 200
fathoms leads far up, as if to invite an entrance. Little
need be said of the navigation of the river bevond the
fact that, among the very few ports with sullicient de}>tli
of water to receive the Gmif Eustern, Quebec was one.
Above (^)ueuec the average width is two miles, and there

THE PKOVINCE OK Ql KBEC

257

the energy of the Caiuulians lias so impiovetl the natuial
channel that the largest oeean steamer which can cross
the bar of New York harbour can steam up to the wharfs
of Montreal at the foot of the rapids of I.achine. The
St. Lawrence is, as Charlevoix well said, the most
navigable of rivers. The strong tides assist vessels in
entering or departing when the wind is contrary, for the
winds are apt to blow directly up or down the river,
being drawn by the highlands on both sides. At Quebec
the spring tides rise 1 8.V feet, so that it seems less a
river than an arm of the sea. At Iliviore ihi Sud it is
i'.\ miles wide, at the Saguenay it is 20 miles, at Matane
30 miU's, at Seven Islands 81 miles, (i.dy 21 miles
below Quebec the water is brackish and untit to drink,
and at Kamouraska it is quite salt. in many of the old
books and maps the St. Lawrence is called the Kiver
Hochelaga, and siMuetimes the (Jrand river of Canada.

At Point de ]\lonts a stranger Hrst realises that he is
in a river, for both sides become visible. The St. hawrence
is 40 miles across at that point and very deep, (^n the
north shore the coast is low and sandy : but 40 miles
farther up it rises in ])laces to 1000 feet and continues
high to the mouth of the Manicouagau river, where the
mountains again recede. West of Point ile Monts on
the north shore the ( Jodbout and Sheldrake, two noted
salmon streams, fall in. Next follow the Manicouagan
(224 miles long) and the Piviere des Outardes (2o4
miles), these are the largest southwaid thnving streams in
habradoi'. They rise in the central water-]>arting of the
peninsula. A shoal !(> miles long off the mouths of
these rivers causes vessels to tiikc plenty of room in
passing. Farther up is the licrsinns, or P)etsiamites, a
river 112 miles long, often used as a route to iiabrador.
^[anv rivers, more noted as salmon streams than for

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258

COMPENDIUM OF GFIOGRAPHY AND TIfAVEL

tinythiiiu' else, tall in before the mouth of the Sagiieiiay
is reached. The Sagueiiay is, next to the Ottawa, the
largest trihularv, and in a line from its montli across the
river are lied Island in the centre and (Jreen Island near
the soutii shore, marking a change in the navigation.

The sontli shore of the St. Lawrence for a long distance
from (Jas]ie is very high and bold, for the mountains rise
up from I lie bank wooded to their summits, and there is
little room along the river l)ank, excepting for small tishing
hamlets. At Metis the mountains begin to turn away
from the river, and cultivation commences. At Uimouski
the mail steamers land their mails to be transferred to
the Intercolonial Itailway. JJic is the next point (jf note.
Bicquette Island lies off the shore, and here the ocean
navigation may l)e said to end, for it is the eastern cruising
ground for ])ilots, who are usually taken on there, although,
in i'act, there are no special dangers to navigation l»elow
Green Island opposite the Saguenay, The rivers falling
in upon the soutli side are small.

Opposite the mouth of the Saguenay the river naviga-
tion connuences, for the channel divides. Keil Island is the
beginning of a series of islands and shoals, such as AViiite
Island and Hare Island in mid-channel, although the river
is yet 20 miles wide. Vessels usually take the south
channel. The river bank is oO to 100 i'eet high; the
country is level, and there is a continuous iine of farms
up to (i)uebec. Cacouna, Iliviere du T.oup, and Kamour-
aska, are favourite summer watering-places.

On the north shore at the mouth of the Saguenay the
land auain rises. The mountains skirt the shore, an<l

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array r>ay tlie scenery is very nnpressive

Les Eboulements the mountains rise to Jool feet, and
continue around Hay St. Paul to Cape Tourmente, where
the}' retire from the shore to form an amphitiieatre round

THE PUOVINCE OF gUEBEC

250

Quebec. The noitheiii channel of tlie river is deep and
clear, but the south channel is usually followed, as the
anchorage is better.

The south ciiannel passes between Red and Green
islands. IJetween Isle aux Coudres and l*ointe St. IJoch
the channel again divides. Goose Island, Crane Island,
and a cluster of other islands, narrow the deep water
channel, altlioiigh tlie river is 13 miles wide. Here is
the Traverse, where the tides attain their greatest velocity,
ebbing and flowing at the rate of 8 knots an hour. The
tidal wave enters the estuary with a wide front, and off
Gaspe runs at the rate of 2^ to 3 knots. After passing
the Traverse the beautiful and fertile island of Orleans
divides the river int(t two channels, which unite at its
upper end to form the great basin of tlie harbour of
Quebec.

Geology

In descril)ing the contour of the land three divisions
were indicated — the central plain, the northern or Lauren-
tian area, and the soutii-eastern or Appalachian area. The
central ])lain is underlaid by ( "andjnt-Silurian rocks in
almost lioriz(»ntal stratitication. The lowest in the series
is the I'otsdam sandstone, resting directly upon the con-
torted Laurentian rocks. This is succeeded by beds of
impure nuignesian limestone, known as the Calciferous
formation. A series of highly fossiliferous limestones
follows — the Chazv, lUack river, and Trenton limestones.
The Trenton beds are widely extended, and from Quebec
to Kingston the cities are built of stone from (juarries in
that formation. The Ulica formation wiiich succeeds
consists mainly of black bituminous shales, passing
gradually into the Hudson river formation, where the
shales cease to be bituminous, and impure sandstones

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIUPIIY AND TRAVEL

occur. Tlic greater part of the plain country is under-
laid by these limestones and shales, the Potsdam and
Calciferous being found upon the niai'gin. Small areas
of Silurian of the Medina formation occur, and, at St.
Helen's Island, near ]\Iontreal, is a little patch of Lower
Helderberg. Tiie isolated volcanic hills across the plain
have already been iK)ted. They consist of neplieline
syenite, or of syenites of the usual types.

North of the ])lain and north of a line from Cape
Tourmente, 20 miles l)elo\v (^)uebec, t(» Lake des Chats on
the Ottawa, the whole country is Laurentian up to and
over the water-parting, until the limestones which slope
down to Hudson's Buy are met. TJie peculiarities of the
Laurentian country have already been described, and
need not be repeated. It nuist be observed, however,
that Lirge portions of this northern country have
not been examined, and that Huronian rocks are
being found constantly in regions supposed to l)e solely
Laurentian. Several large areas of intrusive anorthosite
rocks exist, one — the most important — near St. Jerome,
north of Montreal, another near Lake St. John, another
on the north sliore of the river near Isle aux Coudres,
and several smaller areas in Labrador. This is the
" Upper Laurentian " of former years, and has been called
" Norian." At Lake St. Jolni there is also an area ol'
Cambro-Siluiian rocks. In the gulf the island ot
Anticosti is Silurian with a northern border of Cambro-
Silurian, and the Magdalen group is Carboniferous.

South-east of tlie central plain, and beyond the line
already described as extending from Lake Champlain to
(,^),uebec, is the region of hilly Appalachian country
extending to Gaspe. This is underlaid by an exceedingly
complex series of rocks of }n"e-Canibrian, Cambrian, and
Cambro-Silurian age, which have Ijeen much contorted,

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

261

folded, and overtunied. They have luieii the subject of a
controversy extending over tliirty years, and for furtlier
details concerning them reference must be had to the
special monographs of the (reological Survey. These
rocks have been verv much altered, and in them are the
mines of asbestos and copper and tlie (piarries of slates,
serpentine, and marble of the Eastern Townships.

In the centre of the peninsula of (Jaspe, around the
basin of that name, and coming out in bold clitt's at Cape
CJaspt', is an area of Devonian rocks. South of this the
Silurian rocks of New Brunswick extend into the southern
part of (laspc, while close along the shore of the ]jay
Chaleur is a l)and of Oarl)oniferous rock in which, at the
extreme edge of the province, a thin seam of coal has
been found.

Population

The population of the province of (^)uebec is given in the
census of 1891 as l,488,r)ori. It increased only 9'")o per
cent during the previous decade. The natural increase of
the French Canadian people is very rapid, but a continual
drain is kept up upon the population of the province to
supply hands for the fact(jries of New England. The
French Canadians are (juiet, industrious, and contented.
For carpentry, masonry, and the kindred trades they have
a natural aptitude. A French Canadian will accomplish
as much with an axe as a man of any other race with a
full outfit of tools. They have not mcn'cd to Manitoba
anil the North-west as was contidently expected, and have
allowed the English to fdl up those territories, while they
form a large proportion of the o})eratives in tlie manu-
factories of the cities. This movement to tlu' towns
seems to be universal, and Canada has not escaped it.

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COMTENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHV AND TliAVEL

In 1871 the proportion of city to rural population was
19-5 to 80-r) ; in ISO I it was 20-2 to 70-8.

Of the wliole population of Quehec in 1891 94*4 per
cent were born in Canada, and 80 per cent of the people
spoke French as their mother tongue. Out of the whole
population 1,291,709 were IJonian Catholics; 75,472
were Anglicans ; 52,659 were rreshyterians, and .'30,410
Methodists. The density of the ]>oj)ulation is G'5 to the
s«[uare mile.

Education

Very dihicult ])rol)lenis presented ihemselves to the
statesmen of Canada in connection with education in the
province of Quebec: for not only are 85 per cent of the
population lionian Catholic, but 80 per cent speak
French as their mother tongue. The suliject is every-
where else a battleground for opposing theories of
Church and State, and, in (Juel)ec, unless the over-
whelming majority of French Catholics had manifested
the utmost consideration, the Protestant minoritv of
1 5 ])er cent would have found tliemselves after con-
federation in a very uncond'ortable position.

By the fundamental law of the confederation edu-
cation is a subject within the exclusive power of the
]»rovincial legislatures, but th(^ tlien existing educational
status was guaranteed to the respective min(»rities, and
it was also enacted that the Protestant minority of
(>)uebec should have the same privileges enjoyed by the
Catholic minority of Ontario. This was not satisfactory
in every respect to the Protestants of (^Juebec, for they
iiad been calling for amendments to the existing law.
The (piestion was likely to interpose olistacles to the
consunnnation of confederation, l)ut all objections were
removed by a ]>romise made by the leaders of tlie

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263

JIoiiuiu Ciilholic luajority that the reijuiivd legislatiou
would l)e passed at the first meeting' of the new pro-
vincial legislature — a promise which was faithfully
redeenieil. These additional conditions are therefore
not guaranteed by the fundamental law but exist under
enactment of an overwhelmingly lloman Catholic legis-
lation — a fact worthy of very especial note, and in the
highest degree creditable to the majority.

It will not l)e possil)le to enter into the details of a
svstem devised to meet difliculties so great. One leading
feature is that all the ])ublic schools arc religious, or
to use a. common phrase, denominational. There is a
superintendent of education for the whole i)rovince, a
non-political otticer, assisted by a council divided into a
lionian Catholic and a Protestant conuiiittee, each with
a secretarv wlio is the chief allministrati^c i)tHcer for
Catholic and Protestant schools respectively. These
connnittees meet separately as a rule, tliough they may,
and occasionallv do, meet together as the council. Each
committee su})ervises the expenditure of tliu pro})ortion
of ])ubli(' money allotted to it, and eacli lias its own
normal school and a[)points its own teachers and exercises
control by the inspectors over its own schools under the
general law. The legislative grant for higher education
is divided according to population — the Protestants
receiving one-seventh ; of the grant for normal schools
the Protestants receive one- third, and the elementary
school grant is divided according to population. This
is supplemented by local municipal taxation through
local trustees. In the cities the tax-payers are divided
into three panels. The money of Protestants is paid to
the local Protestant school ))oard, the money of Catholics
to the Catholic board, and the taxes of corjxirate ImxHcs
are apportioned between them according to population.

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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The Catholic schools number 4880 with 265,132
scholars, and the Protestant schools 1002 with >1

scholars. Jn the Catholic schools religious teac' s ji

strong feature ; the Protestants have mor* .cult}-

because of their divisions. Nevertheless t schools

are all conducted on a religious basis, and begin with
singing and prayer. Instruction in religion and morals
is based on reading from the Old Testament, the (iospels,
and the Acts, and the children commit to memory portions
of the Gospels and Psalms, together with the Apostles'
Creed, the Decalogue, and the Lord's Prayer. If the
Piotestant ( 'onnnittee wished to secularise their schools
there is nothing in the law to prevent them doing it. The
religious teaching is deliberately preferred and therefore
enjoined.

The system is founded on the most scrupulous
consideration for the rights of Protestants and Catholics
alike, and although it may not be so perfect that it
meets every case which can arise, it is worthy of study
as a contribution to Christian toleration.

Government

The province tlifiers from all its sister provinces,
except Nova Scotia, in having a double chamber. The
lieutenant-governor is, as in the other provinces, appointed
by the Dominion (Jovernment. The legislative council,
or upper house, consists of twenty-four members appointed
for life by the provincial government of the day, and the
popidar house, or legislative assembly, consists of seventy -
three mendjers elected for live years. The executi\e
government is a ministry of eight mend)ers, responsible to
the legislature and liolding otlice so long as they command
a majority in the popidar chamber. French and English

THE riJOVINCK OF QUEBEC

265

are spoken in the debates, but much more French tlian
English is heard, and all public documents are printed
in both languages. The civil law of the province is the
civil law of France leased on the Homan law, and it is
codified in a compact and logical form. It was continued
by the (,^)uebec Act of 1774, previously referred to, and
can be changed by the legislature of the province alone.
The criminal law introduced by the same measure is
English, and is uniform over the Dominion. Wlule its
principles are English it now rests on Dominion statutes.
1'he municipal system of hjcal government extends over
the province, the elementary unit being called a parish
in the French districts and a township in the English
districts. Under the French regime the countrv was
organised as it was settled into parishes under cures and,
as in remote times in Europe, the ecclesiastical preceded
the civil organisation. Although of recent years the
erection and division of canonical parishes is frecpiently
accompanied or preceded l)y a corresponding civil change,
the ecclesiastical parish and civil municipality are n<jt of
necessity identical, but the intervention of the civil ])ower
must be invoked to secure civil results.

The law is administered by judges a})pointe(l, as in
the other provinces, l)y the Crown on the advice of tlu^
Dominion ministry. Ft is needless to add that the
proceedings are conducted either in French or English,
the lawyers speaking both languages with equal facility,
and changing oftentimes alnuptly from one to the other
as the momentary phases of a trial may recpure.

The tenure of the land was originallv feudal, grants
having always been made en .seif/ncurie according to the
routunir tie Paris for the most part. The feudal system
had its advantages: for everv grant carried conditions of
settlement with a penalty of reunion to the Crown domain.

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COMPENDIUM OF GE(JG1{A1'IIY AND TRAVEL

Every seigneur was interested to secure settlers at
nominal rents, and the liardshi})S oi" the condition of
censitaires were superstitions of the English imagina-
tion accustomed to anotlier system. Nevertheless tlie
feudal tenure became uiisuitalile to the social condition
of the country, and in 1854 tlie (Jovernment bought out
the rights of the seigneurs ami changed the tenure to
one of free and connnon Sfjcage.

Communications

Tlie })o))ulatlon of the province is settled mainly in
the valley of the St. Lawrence and its Inrger tributaries —
the innnense territory to the nortli is undeveloped. As
the population advances it is followed up by railways,
and, indeed, in very many instances, the railways precede
the trathc and create it. The total number of miles of
track laid is .'51 .'>9, al)out half the amount of railway
laid in the jn'ovince of Ontario, but the distril)ution of
the population is such that the people are well providetl
with railway service. Steamers ply on all the rivers, and
there are direct connections with all parts of the world.
All these communications centre at Montreal, or (^)uebec,
and to avoid repetition will be given in that connection.
Tlie shipping business, inland and ocean, of the in'ovince
is best seen in the statistics of the port of ^Montreal
where nine-tenths of it is done. Tlie rivers are great
highways in summer, and steamboats of all sizes ply on
the inland waters, from the large and luxurious steamers
on the passenger routes from (^)uel)ec to Toronto to the
smaller craft ujion the smaller rivers.

Agriculture

The St. Lawrence provinces of Canada have, from
their first discovery, been noted for their agricultural

THE I'lKWINCE OF QUEFiEO

20'

wealth. Jacques Cartier in 1535 luarclied to the liulian
town which occupied the site of the present city of
Montreal, througli " the ftiirest and best countrie that
possil»ly can be scene," '' through goodly and large tickles
full of such corn as the countrie yieldeth. It is even as
the millet of liresil, as great and somewhat l)igger than
small peason, wherewith they live even as we do
with ours." In tlie midst of these fields " is the city of
Hochelaga," " tilled round about very fertill." The (tld
English of Hakluyt's translation reproduces the s))irit <>1"
the narrative better tlian more modern English, (.'artier
had never seen maize before, and he walked through
fields of it growing on the land now occupied by the
busy streets of Montreal. That was .')G2 years ago, and
ever since then seed-time and harvest has never failed in
Canada for the growth of maize — a crop which will not
ripen in England.

Tiie wise Talon — Intendant in IGG.l-GS and in
1670-72 — saw the capabilities of the country, and
wrote of them to the king, pointing out how the surplus
wheat, lumber, and fisli products miglit afford a mucli-
needed su])ply to the French West Iiuhes. At the
beginning of the; present century the centre of the wheat-
producing countr}' of America was in tlie Kichelieu valley.
There were large ex])ortations Ijy the liichelieu valley t<»
Vermont and the neigh l)ouring states, as well as from
<.^)uel)ec l)y sea. lUit the richest soil will not endure the
same crop for a hundred years, and the centre of wheat
culture moved steadily westward to tlie virgin soil of the
licd Eiver valley. The valleys of the liichelieu and St.
Lawrence are now renewing their youth by mixed farming,
and, while it is impossible to compete in wheat growing
with the new Xorth-west, the proxinnty to a market gives
the Quebec farmer an advantage in other crops. The

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COMPENniUM OF (iEOfiHAPHV AND TUAVEL

number of acres under croj) in tlie province in 1891 was
5,542,780, in pasture .'»,054,5.">1), and in garden and
orchard 7.">,G27, There were 101,509 acres in wheat:
107,005 acres in l)arley; ],;»27,842 acres in oats ; and
2,4 5 7,0 2 o acres in hay. All the ordinary crops are pro-
duced — wheat, barley, rye, oats, maize, pease, together
with pumpkins, melons, tomatoes, potatoes, and other
vegetables grown in temperate climates. Fruits, such as
apples, plums, cherries, and pears are raised in large
quantity. (Jrapes are grown in the open air near
Montreal, and by the census of 1801 the annual pro-
duction of tobacco grown in the province was .'),058,7.'»7
lbs., and the (quantity of maize was 700,085 bushels.
Maple sugar was produced in the same year to the extent
of 18,8 7 5,2 ill lbs. Much attention is given to stock
raising and dairying. The last returns (1804) report 581
cheese factories in the province, producing .'51,554,740
lbs. of cheese, and 145 creameries, producing 4,024,504
lbs. of butter ; the aggregate value of both is estimated
at $4,140,;'. 70.

While the summer has never failed to ripen the croi)s,
(and nowhere out of the tropics can more than one crop
a year be harvested), the winter is not an idle time for
Canadian farmers. The snow makes good roads every-
where, and it is the season for hauling wood or produce.
The melting snow in the spring aerates the soil, and land
ploughed in the fall is pulverised by the relaxing frost.
Those who fancy that country life in winter is dreary are
mistaken. A native writer describes it as follows : —

" In the country one can go everywhere upon snow-
shoes, but chietlv is it a delight to walk in the woods in
winter. The snow covers the rough places with an even
white carpet, and the heaviest wind is shut out by the
branching trees. The stillness and solemnitv of the

THE THOVINCE OF (,>UE13EC

269

woods in winter cannot be described to tliose who have
not experienced it. There is, however, no lack of lite
there. The tield-nuce and tlie hares and the sqnirrels and
tlie partrid^i,'es are laisy enougli, as tlieir tracks on the
snow testify. They seem to )»e always visiting. It is
warm f(tr them under tlie snow, and they enjoy their
winter life.

" Then, in tlie o]>en tliere is abundant enjoyment for
the eye. The light of the winter sun is made the most
of. It is not swallowed up by a l)lack and gloomy
landscape, but retiected and redoubled from the earth's
snowy raiment into changing gradations «»f white as the
clouds float over the blue sky or the sunset tinges it with
faint rosy hues. There are nund)erless tints of wdiite of
indescribable delicacy, always gliding over the snowy
fields."

Forest

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The forests of the province have been treated of else-
where. It is, however, of interest to observe tliat, during
the years 1895 and 1890 the legislature has set apart
the Laurentides National Park " to preserve its forests,
fish, and game, to maintain an even water supply and to
encourage the study and culture of forest trees." The
park is directly to the north of (»)uebec city in the counties
of Quebec, Montmorenci, and Cliarlevoix, and is on the
head waters of streams flowing into the St. Lawrence,
the Saguenay, and Lake St. John. It covers an area of
2640 square miles or 1,689,400 acres. The lakes and
streams abound with trout, partridges are plentiful, and
a portion of the park is noted as a hunting ground for
caribou. Another large forest area north of Montreal,
near Trembling Mountain, has also been reserved for the
same purposes.

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COMrENlHUM OF tiEOdlJArilY AND TIIAVKL

Tiu' recent developiueiits in the applieutions of woiul
fibre in tlie arts, have a most important heariny' on tlie
industries of the province, for tlie forest.s of availahU'
])nlp\voinl in northi'rn (^Uiehec are inexhaustihk', and the
water power is without limit. The present product is
large and extensive, mills are heinu erected to manu-
tiu'ture for export.

Minerals

The province of Quehee doi's not eompare in mineral
wealth with some of the t>ther prn\ inces. Ashestos is mined
in the Kasiern Townships, and nearly the total protluction
(if the JJominion. amountinu' to S42 1 ,0!)0 in 1 8!>r», is from
that district. ('o})per. iron, and gold are worked, but
not to anv great extt'ut in recent vears. ]\Iica and
graphite are abundant, and apatite exists in large ([uantity.
but the ex[)(trt has i't>ased.

Subdivisions of the Province

in order to gixe a nuue detailed account of a ]»rovince.
which in area is ten per jcnt larger than France, it will
be convenient to subdividi' it into districts, and the most
convenient dixision is the following: —

1. Southern or (»)iu'bec Labrador.
-. The Saguenay region.
."!. The Ottawa and St. Maurice renion.
The aboNc are north of the liver.

4. The (lasjie district.
r». The Kastern Townships.
These are so\\{\i of the river.

t). (^>uebec and the surrounding district.
7. Montreal and the surrounding district.
These are in the central plain.

THE rUOVINt K 01" CJUKHKC

1. Southern Labrador

271

Tlie poiiiiisula of Laltiador is ilu' subject »'i' a soparati'
I'liaptei' : tlu' t>l>jiHi of ilu' ])ivseiit section is liiuitoil to
the soutliern portitui known as Quelur Liihrador, a l»oll
of (.'onntrv risinu' t(» the central taltlehuul of tlic iien-
insula. This is hi^ulu'st al its soutlu'in side, and the
rivers tlow down the coniitaratively narrow southern
watershed in vioU-nl rapids and cascailes. 'I'he i^eneral
heiiihl of the taMeland i> ir>OU t<t L'OOO feet, hut on the
southern side it fre(|uently rises to l'L*4(> to L'o(U) feet, and
the ri\'ers ha\e eul deep chasms through the rot'k in their
precipitous eoursi'. On the I'oast-line, wherexcr trees
may tind soil to uiow, they are of stunted urowtli. hut at
a little distance hack there is a continuous forest, of
which Mack s])ruce is hy far the nu)st alnindanl tree.
The others are aspen ]>oplar. Uanksiau pine, balsam
poplar, cedar, white spruce, jtapi'r birch, larch, tamarack,
and juniper, '.riie trees, however, do not reach any i^real
si/e. Tlu^ ediic of the central tal»lelanil on its southern
sitlc runs in the ;_teneral direction of the siiore t»f ttu' gulf
ami estuary at a distance \aryinn- fnnu oO to loO miles.
The ascent to the high land oi' the interior is ditlicult.
for the eountrv is rouijli and tanulcil. The A[ontai>nais
Imliaus descend fr(»m the interior I'hictly by the St.
Auu'ustim* river on the east and the liersimis on ihe
west; but, at lu'st, tin' task is laborious, and the
mos(piitoes and other tlies art', "vhen in season, ipiite
pluMu»menal in activity.

The Strait ot' r.clle-isle, the northern entrance to the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, is ."lo miles Iniio, with a width of
10 to 1 L' miles. The water is deep — oO fathoms on an
average — and the strait is clear of rock or shoal, lli'cent
surveys hav*' shown that tiu're is not, as has been s'l.Mniseil.

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u coustaut current setting inwards, but that tlie Arctic
current passes the strait to How dowu the outer coast of
Newfoundland. The current has been shown to be mainly
a tidal one, and to be allected l)y the prevailing wind.
Nevertheless, although the current Hows sometimes out
and sometimes inwards, there is a preponderance in the
direction inwards, and this would seem t<» be proved by
the fact that icebergs have been seen off Natashquan
Point. Tlie strait is within the jurisdiction of New-
foundland, but the lighthouses are maintained by
Canada.

The boundary of (»>uebec is at Blanc Sablon harbour,
at the inner end of the strait. It would seem to have
been a resort for fishermen in very early times. A little
river at the head of the bay has formed a beach of white
sand, which, on a coast of rock, is unusual enough to give
a name to the bay. It is SOO miles distant from
Quebec city. The poit is much frequented in the fishing
season, and there are, besides, several permanent establish-
ments and about 200 residents. The boundary is drawn
just west of the port, which thus belongs to Newfound-
land. Greenly Island, at its entrance, is still, as described
l>y ('artier, "the island of birds, in which there is great
store <jf godetz aiul crows, with red l)eakes and red feete,
they nuike their nestes in holes under the ground even
as conies." These are the Arctic imttins, and they are as
numerous now as in ir):]4. This northern arm of the
gulf was fre(|uented in early times, and known as La
Grande lUiye. It is remarkable that altiiough I'edro
IJeinel, in IHO'), showed the strait by unclosed lines,
and although several later maps indicate its existence
in the s.ame way, Newfoundland was thought a part of
the main con^^inent until Jac(pies Gartier's second voyage,
when he saileu out by Cabot strait.

THE PROVINCE OF OUEBEC

273

*ls

Bradore liay, the next luiiboiir, was known to the
French first as La Bayc des Espannols, and afterwards
M. de Courtemanche, who obtained a grant of it in 1702,
called it Phelyppeaux liay. It was an early resort of
liasque whalers from San Sebastian in Spain, for there
was no whaling ground in those days like the Grand
15ay.

Esquimaux Bay, the next great bay, was called (31d
Fort Bay in early times, and in it is an island still called
w^. Fort Island. This was the harltour of ]3rest, and
("artier sailed to it as to a known port, and farther on lie
found a vessel from liochelle looking for it. It must not
be supposed, however, that it was anything but a resort
of fishermen in the summer season.

The coast between lUanc Sal)lon and Cape Whittle is
very rocky and bold, ami deeply indented with harbours ;
]»ut it is skirted by a maze of rocky islets among which
\\x> vessel of any size may safely venture without a pilot
who knows the coast. It is entirelv bare of trees —
stunted spruce and birch may l)e found at the heads of
the inlets, but only moss on the rocky coast. Jacques
Cartier's remark that he did not see a cart-load of earth
on the coast is not too strong. The mainland is
Uenerallv high. The hills about Bradore are 12 04 feet,
and the average height of the land is about oOO feet.
The Es([uimaux river and the St. Augustine river are
large rivers tumbling down in falls and rapids from the
inner tableland.

The coast from Cape AVhittie to Boint de Monts
turns sharply to the westward, and the land gradually
falls, but it is still sheltered by a maze of rocky and
barren islets of all sizes. The cliief rivers are tlie
< Homonsheeboo, the Natashquan, the Agwanus, the
Komaine, the Mingan, the Magpie, the ]Moisic, the

Kill

i '■!
1

274

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGltAPIlY AND THAVKI,

Pentecost. At Xatusliquaii the river makes ii long and
sandy promontory, and there, as well as on many other
places along the coast, the sand is so i'nll of iron that
ships' compasses are alfected. jMount St. John is the
highest point on this part of the coast, and it is an
isolated peak 141G feet high. As the coast passes west
there are low cliffs on the sliore, but inland the land
is high. The harbours are few and suitable only for
small vessels. jMingan, however, has a very good
harljour, and at Seven Islands there is an excellent
harbour for large ships. From Seven Islands to Point
de Monts the coast is quite low and the high land
distant.

As the shore proceeds west from Cape Whittle it
becomes more wooded, but the tindjer is spruce, and
birch of small size. The climate moderates, and cultiva-
tion of the soil is carried on to some slight extent. All
the rivers are famous for salmon, and they are all leased
by wealthy people who go down in the fishing season.
The number of settlers is small — there are Hudson's liay
posts at different points, and a few scattered families
along the coasts, at the sealing, salmon, and fur-trading
posts. As far as St. Augustine they speak French, but
east of that point English begins to prevail. At
Esquimaux Point is the hirgest settlement on the coast.
It numbers 1751 souls, who are supported l)y fishing and
sealing. St. Genevieve liay near there was called l)y
Cartier " St. Lawrence liay," and from it th(» name
gradually spread over the whole gulf. Egg Island is
noted as the place where Sir Hovenden Walker's great
expedition for the conquest of Canachi was wrecked in
1711, when eight transports and eleven hundred lives
were lost.

5 v-f I

-'75

W'E ,,,ov,,vc,.: oi- <,,L-,„Kc

Climate

T'le climate is seveio- -n,

7'""",aiiy tr.,Kii„. to u',,; ';;"''' '' "'^ '---^^t i,

;>«'.ea»cs i„ severity ™, «, r"'";",'''' " «'--'"'^"r

;i'"t« along the eoa.t. t„ , 'Z." "l '" ^''^■"«-'
f o%'l. not to a laro,. si,f I, f ^-^^^ ■■""I I'^'atoe.s ,.,,w,
for a coarse tl.ougl" «, tt ■"'"'^■'■■'' '^'"^'l' '•"ttle

places where the Un,! s ' f ,"?"" ^"^""-lantlj. i,
;]"«« --'r i" the .„„•,: , ; : ""' "'■"- -"' grow
'!■« snow .lisappears Altl^ '] f '"" ''^"S"' ''^e

- more ,,0,,, U.ie,,th,r- '!""''""''''' '^ --'■e. it
«f''l m winter. Mv. ,Ste rn, , ""i''' "''■"' '*««''.^ive
«^^- "■ vvn,ter, cli,, not o n^ I, "^ "' "' ^"""■"--
''■-"' -27, and he adds t at on t ""''"' ""^ '°»-'''-

Aays the n,erc«ry hardly ret , '""•'""'.>• "'' "".ter

!"-«' «.. the coast Z s^ ' ;. ""• '■''« "•'"'-■ ''"
''«'=» »m,sually nn-l,I. T I .« 1 f "'" '■^^''''''"■' '« have
"earer than lielle-isk which I ''f '■'>'"l'«ieal station

l'>o figures following are for tl "' ^''""•' «"Won.

o ^"e 101 the year 1800.

•T.u,. F.„, „.„. , ., ^^^'''''' T''-^""ERATrnK

-^ ^^- U-. t!^i :^^, •;- --. A,.. .,,,

-^ *0h ;.a-S) r,r,.i j^..^

Oct.

3ST

I),.,..
13-1

Mean of the year 29 -61

-^J":!Ss,r;:r;:!:- ; - '■■ -•«-. ^he

•;■ lowest point in wint "Z m""';'"^' ''° ^" «" •
•'a'mary the inercuiy only „n« , 7 ' ^"' "" """"fc'l'

'» sunnner the coa i ' " '" + « '•

;;.Hl trading vessels, s" , in^'irr' ''^' "'""^- «»'"•"«

''•--asn,anyasl„r:„t^:t.!:^^^

""Li« at anehoi- at one

ii!

'1!

f' ll

IWW

276

COMPENDIUM OK (iEO(.iJ{A?HY AND T15AVEL

time. Tlie residents on the coast live by the fisheries in
summer. In winter they trap and liunt, and in spring
they hunt seals on the ice. The furs of Labrador are
of excellent ([uality. Caribou are plentiful in the interior,
and the bavs and islands are the breediny-t'Tound of
ducks and geese innumerable, while the seas abound with
fish. The climate does not seem to incommode the
inhabitants, who, with all their hardships, obtain a far
better liveliliood than the poor of great cities, and they
are really attached to their free and adventurous life.
There is a mail once a month in winter as far as ]51anc
Sablon. Travel in winter is by dogs over the snow and
ice when the inlets freeze, for there are no roads.

2. The Saguenay Region

Tlie savages who greeted Jacques Cartier told him

there were three IcinLidoms in the country — Saguenay,

( "anada, and Hochelaga, and in fact the Saguenay region

has always been kept, as it were, apart from the rest of

Canada, lender the French I'egime it was Le Boinai/w

dn Hoi, Traifc dc Tadovasac, Pastes du Hoi, and was leased

to contractors or companies. I'nder the English regime

it was known as the King's Posts, and leased to the

Hudson's IJay Company. Tadoussac, at the mouth of

the river, was a trading post beft)re either Port lloyal

or (»)uebec was founded. Even before a.d. 1000, when

Pontgrave and Chanvin traded there, the liasques fre-

([Uented tlie river for the whale fishery, and, at TEcha-

faud aux Piastpies, a little Ijeyond the mouth of the

Saguenay, remains have l>een found of their utensils for

lendering l)lubber. The name Tadoussac signifies luwlh

= Krencli mainclons, from the shaiie of the neiuhl touring

hilb

■ I

'hi

U I

I i

«iff;

'.!l '•

4-^

: i ;•

278

COMPENDIUM OF (lEOdltArilY AND TltAVEL

[if
si:

The river Sagueiiay is rt'iimrkcible I'or its iiniuense
volume and <4Toat (Iu])tli. Inside the bar tlie depth is
from 100 to 14") latlionis. There is not a rock or slioal,
and it is navigable for the largest ship aHoat to Point
Iloches, 57 miles from tlie month of the river. Small
vessels may go u}) to Cliicontimi, miles farther, Tlie
lower Sauuenav is the sternest and "loomiest stream in

i;l

Notih I, I'hoto.

CAPKS TRINITY AND ETERNITY, UlVEll SAllUENAY.

the world. It is more like a profound mountain loch,
with a breadth of from three-ibnrths of a mile to two
miles of water, black with the shadow of savage clifi's
rising sheer 1000 to ISO feet from the sullen surface.
The elifl's are bare ; for tire has swept away sucli forest
as the scanty soil would permit to grow and left only
the charred s})ikes. Wooded valleys run up between the
hills along the little tributaries, but tliey also are dark
and gloomy. The savage grandeur of the scenery cul-
minates at Capes Trinity and Eternity, the southern and

P-

THE TROVINCE OF QUEBEC

270

northern hcadlaiids (if Eternity cove. Gloomy and grim
as late, tliese terrible clifl's frown over the black abyss of
water ; and the report of a gun, which is generally tired
from tlie tourist steamers in summer, reverberates in
nnnd)erless explosions from cliff to cliff round the bay,
and far up and down the Idack river.

From Ha Ha, or Grand IJay, a valley of good land
opens up westwards ]>y Lake Kenogami, anil the country
around Cliicoutimi is fertile. It is a prosperous little
towii with a college and a bishop's see, and is a good
point for shipping lumber. Above Chicoutimi is Le
(Jrand IJemous, a series of rapids wliicli stop further
navigation.

The Saguenay is the discharge of I-ake St. John, an
almost circular basin 28 miles by 20, with an area of
365 square miles. It is 27<S feet above the sea, and the
river passes out in two tremendous rapids — La Giande,
and La I'etite Decharge. From the })oint where they
unite it is possible for a skilful boatman to go down the
river in a canoe without a portage to a point 12 miles
above Chicoutimi. The river runs its rapid course
between hills 300 to 500 feet high, clothed with maple
and birch and other <leciduous trees ; nor is there any-
thing of the gloom of the lower river.

Lake St. John is a shallow lake surrounded l)y high
hills, protecting it from the raw east winds. T'l. country
around is fertile and settled by a contented population
of farmers. Many considerable rivers empty into tlie
lake. The longest — the Ashuapmouchouan (where we
watch the deer) is considered as the upper course of the
Saguenay. The other rivers are the Mistassini, tlie
I*eribonca (water flowing through sand), the Metaltet-
ehouan (coming out as a rapid), the Ouatchewan (see the
falls), and several others of minor importance. Tliese

ill

2S0

COMPENDIUM OK (IKOOltArilV AND TKAVEr,

111

1 '*''

^«

^^'

•

J.1;

3m''

'Hi

two last streiains descend in cascades from the mountains.
Tlie fall of the Ouatchewau is visible from the lake as
one mass of vviiite foam against the hillside 2.">G feet
liigh. In the spring, wlien the snow melts and all tliese
rivers rise in Hood, the Sagnenay is not able to discharge
all the water, and tlie lake rises 20 to 27 feet.

Far up in the interior, 270 miles north-west of Lake
St. John and 110 miles l)evond the height of land, is
the great Lake ]Mistassini, the largest lake in Labrador.
Tiie water-parting at this point is loOO feet above the
sea, and if the ascent is laborious the portage across is
only half a mile. Mistassini is practically two parallel
lakes divided by a range of islands in the centre — tlie
western is 90 miles long, and l."*> to 17 miles wide; the
eastern is 60 miles long and 5 to 10 miles wide. It is
reached by the riv'ers flowing into Lake St. John, and
drains l)y liupert's river into James Bay. The adven-
turous desuit. Father Albanel, ])assed to Hudson's liay
by this route in A.D. 1072. Lake Mistassini is oOO to
400 feet deep. The soil around the lake is good enough,
but the summer is too short for crops. The lake is on
the height of land, and the trees do not attain full size.
It is full of tish — lake trout, river trout, whitefish, pike,
and pickerel — and these are the main support of tlu*
Indians. Ducks and geese abound in their season, but
the caribou have been hunted to extinction.

3. The St. Maurice and Ottawa Districts

On the north shore of the St. Lawrence the settle-
ments have not penetrated any distance into tlu*
Laurentian plateau. The enormous territory between
the head-waters of the Saguenay and Ottawa is still a
wilderness. In the summer season the innumera1)le

THE PUOVINCE OF QUEBEC

2S1

lakes are visited l)y anglers, and lar up the luniber-
nien in winter carry on their operations by felling the
trees for Hoating down when the snow melts and the
rivers rise in spring. The country has all the wild charnj
characteristic of Laurentian country. It is covered with
forest, but tlie streams penetrate everywhere, and the
lakes expand into still pools. The great rivers interlock
at their heads so that it is easy to go uj) by ilie Saguenay
waters from Lake St. John and portage into the Uatiscan,
the St. Maurice, or the Ottawa. From this treasury of
sparkling waters How innunieral)le streams, each with its
rapids and falls. Only a few can be mentioned. Visitors
from (>)uebec may see the falls of St. Anne, or la Puce, or
St. Fercol. Close to Quebec are the beautiful falls of
the jMontmorenci, 224 feet high — far more Iteautiful
before thev were harnessed to turn a mill. West of
(i)uebec are the Jac(pies Cartier and the St. Anne, and
the llatiscan, nil charming streams of sunny pools and
impetuous rapids. At Three liivers the St. ^Nfaurice falls
in; an important river .'500 miles long. About 25 nnles
from the town it throws itself into a chasm bv a fall of

150 feet — the Shawanegan Falls.

Many other rivers fall in to the westward — the
Loup, the Masldnonge, the Assumption, the Achigan, all
lumberiuL!; streams. Xorth of Montreal the rivers turn
towards the west and flow intt) the Ottawa. Settle-
ments extend TOO miles north of Montreal into the
Laurentides, for there is good land in the valleys of the
streams and lakes. A railway now leads up to Trembling
I,ake, and the cottages of sunnner visitors are seen on the
lakes beside the pioneer farm-houses. In the pure clear
air of these highlands is a veritable sanatorium for weak
lumrs.

The Ottawa Bii-Ct

■This is the largest tributary to

282

CO.Ml'KNKIUM OK GEOCKAI'JIV AND TliAVEL

:Ui:

; :■

' :!■

the St. Lawrence. It is 7. SO miles long and drains nn
area of 80,000 square iiiik's. It rises in small lakes
very near the intersection of 4<S° N. lat. and 7() W.
long., and before it enters Lake Teniiscaming it Hows to
almost all points of the conii)ass in succession through
lakes and rapids, and receives the waters of more than
twenty large tributaries and inmimerahle small ones.
The (Jrand Lake Victoria, a large lake TOO feet above
the sea and of very irregular form, is in its course, but it
takes its final direction on leaving Lake Temiscanung
(deep water), and that lake is practically the head of the
river. As its name purports, it is very deep. It is (5 12
feet above the sea, 1 to o miles wide, and 75 miles in
length. It is 2 3. '5 miles above Ottawa city, and may
now be reached by railway. The land round the head
of the lake is being settled by farmers. The scenery on
the lake is very fine. All over this region are forests of
red ])ine, white pine, maple, elm, ash, birch, si)ruce, and
cedar. The Ottawa is not a very navigable river, but
tliere are steamboats (jn the lake and on all the quiet
reaches between the interrui)tions to navigation. The
Canadian I'acific railway runs along its l)ank as far as
the lake. From the foot of Lake Temiscaming the
Ottawa is a series of rapids to the junction of the Mattawa
508 feet above the sea. After a stretch of quiet water
the Iiocher Capitaine and the Des Joachims succeed, and,
with a total drop of 148 feet, the Otta\va enters into a
gorge of high rocky walls on the north, and steej) sloping
banks on the south, known as the Deep river. It is here
a mile wide, and so deep that rafts with 100 fathoms of
chain cannot anchor in it. The Deep river is o60 feet
abo^'e the sea. The river then divides at Fort AVilliam,
an old Hudson's IJay (Company's i)Ost, and encloses a large
island — Allumette Island, after which it flows through

TIIK I'l.'OVIXCE OF (."CKHEC

— o >)

ra])i(ls into Lake ('oulonn'o. At'icr aiiutlicr (juiet reach
audlher series ul' laitids follow, and the river (lro])s tliroii_i;h
I.").") teet to I'ortaue du Fort at the head ol' Lac des Chats.
This lake is 50 miles loiio;, and at its foot th(i river Hows
in a creseent of .".0 indi'peiident r/nifrs 50 feet high into
Lake Ihisehenes {'2o miles long). From tliat lake the
river drops 40 feet l>y the Chaudiere falls at Ottawa city
1 LM iei't .above the sea. From Ottawa the river is
navigaMe to ^Montreal l)y means of the (Jrenville canal,
hy whicii the rapids of tiie Long 8ault and Chute a
lUondeau are overcome.

The cliief tril)utaries of the Ottawa on the north-east,
commencing from the head of the river, are the Keepawa,
falling in witli a cascade 1.20 feet high; the Demoine ;
the J>lack river, 120 Miiles long: the ("oulonge ; tlie
(latinean, 420 miles long, draining a liasin of 12,000
.square miles; the Lievre, 170 miles long, draining 4000
s(piare miles ; tiie Rouge, 120 miles long ; and the lliviere
du Xord. On the south-west, or Ontario side, it receives
the .Montreal river, an old canoe route to Hudson's Bay ;
the ^Nlattawa, the old canoe route to the upper lakes; the
Tetewawa, 140 miles long; the IJonnechere ; the Mada-
waska, 240 miles long ; the ]\Iississii)pi ; the liideau, the
route by canal to Lake Ontario ; and the Nation. All
these are important lumbering streams,

4. The Gasp^ District

The peninsula of (laspe has been partially described
in previous remarks upon the contour (tf the land and
the general geology of the province. The interior is
unsettled and unsurveyed. As previously stated, there
are villages of fishermen in sheltered coves at the mouths
of rivers along the shore of the St. Lawrence, but there is

■

l-f^

i i

THE ritOVlNcK OF orElJEC

— o <_>

no harbour until Haspi' r>ay is ivached. This niagniticent
hay is 7.V niik's \viik», ami extends 20 miles inwards to a
land-loeked basin where vessels may lie as secure as in
a dock. Tlie l)ay alVords exeellent anehora^e, and the
harbour is one of the best oi\ the Atlantie eoast, with
room anil depth of water for any number of vessels.
Tiie harbour branehes into two arms, ami the Voik and

.\oll.l <!,, /7iu/w.

ri:m I-: itoiK, it.w < iiai,i;i it.

l)artmouLi> rivers fall in respectively at the head )f each.
These streams are famous saluum livi'rs. The scenery
all round (iaspe is very Iteautiful and bold, especially
near Cape (Iaspe, a idilf of l)e\(»nian liuu'stone, (il>2 feet
luLTh. Ai l)ou!nlastown and at several othei' i>oiuts on
the bay are settlements of jicoplc deitendent directly t)r
indirectly u[»on the tisherics.

iMtJlowiuu' the eoast round into the l>ay Chaleui' is
Cape IV'rci' and l»onavenlurt^ Island. Closi' to tlic village
of Terct' is a prei'ipitous island rock rising slieer L'SS
feet out of the water. It is 1400 feet lon<' and oOO

■ ! '

rH'l

28 G

COMI'KNI'IU.M OF CKOCllArilY AND TKAVEL

I' M

■ ('■ ■

i\:

ft'i't wide, and is ])ieit't'd ilndu^Ii 1>\- an ojicnin^ ."lO I'ci-l
wide and 00 feet hhj}\, like an archway, throuinh wliieh at
high tide lishinu-hdals may sail. Its Dtp is inaccessible
and is white wit'h sea-+')\vl — gulls and coiinorants. There
were two arches fifty years ago, hut the outer tmc fell
and left the huttress, which is still standing. l\iu:k *>i'
I'erce village is ]\hiunt St. Anne, 1'2'.j0 feet high. It is a
conspicuous object from the sea, the cliffs (if led sand-
stone rising thr(tugh the green (»f the encircling iri-es.
Here are large fishing esial»lishments, and, in fact, all
along the coast are the estahlishments of tla..' great
fler.sev tishinu; honses, and the settk'rs are larij:elv flersev
jM'ople. l*ort Daniel and Tasjiehiac are also iishing
Aillages with good roadsteads. At L'arlelon at llie lu-ad of
the hay is a good roadstead. The rivers Casca})edia, Uoiia-
\enture, and ^Iata]tedia are noted salmon rivers, and in
fact all the rivers of (iaspe are lea.sed for .salmon-tishing.
The iJay Chaleur was settled tirst by refugee Acadians,
and many United Kni})ire L(tyalists got grants thereafter
the Revolution. The cod-tishinu' in the 'lav was vi'rv
productive in i'ornu'r days, but has fallen off. The olil
Indian name was "the .sea of tish,"' ami large nund)ers of
salmon and lobsters are still taken jdong the coast. 'Jhe
district (»f (laspc has sutfered for want of easy com-
nnmication with the outside world. A railway is Iteing
built along the north of the bay, and will ]>rol)ably be
ellicient in opening the country to the travelling })ublic,
but hitherto tli' • shore has been accessible to lourists
only by means of steamers to the (lulf ports.

5. The Eastern Townships

This is a political, not a natural, division; for it
includes tlio level couuUy south o[ ^lonlreal along tlie

.i;i

288

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

international boundary, as well as the rolling and hilly
country to the east, already described in the remarks
upon the Notre iJanie Mountains. It has already been
stated that after the cession of Canada to the British
Crown the French laws were continued, and that in
1791 an English province, now Ontario, was set off to
tlie west of the existing settlements. The French had
settled along the rivers only — the banks of the St.
Lawrence, the llichelieu, and the Yamaska were con-
tinuously settled in several ranges deep, but beyond this
" bordage " of cultivated land was a wilderness. Extensive
tracts of this wild country were granted to families of
Loyalist refugees from the levolted colonies, and grants
were made in free and common socage, afterwards con-
firmed under Imperial statutes passed in 1825 and
1827. The question is a complicated one and not easy
of explanation in small compass, but the idea was that
the Eastern Townships, like Ontario, were to be English.
The abolition of the feudal tenure assimilated the tenure
of all land in the province, but of late years, as the virgin
lands of the north-west were opened up and as manu-
factures were established, tlie Ent>lish vouth left the farm
lands of the Eastern Townships, and moved to the cities
or took up prairie farms in the new AVest. It has there-
fore happened that by a natural transfer of population
the Eastern Townships are to-day much less English
than they were fifty years ago, for, as the English moved
away, the Frencli bouglit tlieir farms. The French
Canadians are of a more social nature than the English,
and dislike to move nway from their churches, their laws,
and the sound of their own language. In this way it
liapi»ened that as the west became English the east
became more Frencli.

Tlie Eastern Townships is an agricultural country, and

■II

! ! ■ill

"l-il

THE PlfOVINCE OF QUEBEC

289

contains some of the best fariiiinii: )in<l <'TJuin«,' land in
tlie Doniitiion. It is watered eliieHy bv tlie Yaniaska
and St. Francis, and bv a number of smaller streams.
The latter river flows from Lake St. Francis throuuh a
course of loO miles to fall into the St. Lawrence at
Lake St. Peter, not far from the moutli of the Yaniaska.
Lake ]Memphremau,o,n' discharges Itv the river ^Ligog int(»
the St. Francis, and at tiieir innction is the citv of
Sherlu'ooke, a manufacturing town with a population of
10,110. Tliere are large woollen and cotton mills, as
well as other factories at Sherbrouke and on the Magog,
and the town has increased 40 per cent in the decade
188 1-9 L The ^fagog is a very rapid river, and affords
abundant water-power. The total value of the manu-
factures of Sherbrooke is given in the census returns as
82,377,878. In the hilly eastern part of this di.strict
are the mines of slate, asbestos, and coi)per, previously
mentioned.

6. Quebec and the Quebec District

Quebec (strait or narrows) is the happily descri[)tive
name given by the Indians to the })lace where the
northern and southern highlands draw together — where
the great basin of the St. Lawrence is narrowest, and
where the river itself, at C'ape IJouge, only seven miles
al)ove the city, is narrower than in any other part of its
whole course.

That wondrous strait wlieie close tli' opposing hills

To build the stately portal of the west.

There I at the foot of that stupendous rock.

Which towers aliove a luisin sheltered round

liy mountains slowly stoojiiug from their heights.

In terraces of verdure to the deep

And ever-tran<]uil water.

■ '<■ I

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nl'i

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

291

The situation of the city is iineqiialled. ]\Iany have
attempted to describe it, but none have done better than
Charles Marshall. The following is a condensation of
his description : —

" Unexampled for pictures(pieness and magnificence
of position on the American continent, and for the
romance of lier historic associations, Quebec sits on her
impregnable heights a queen among the cities of the new
world.

" At her feet Hows the noble St. Lawrence, the fit
liighway into a great empire, here narrowed to a couple
of miles' breadth. From the compression of the great
river at this spot the city derives its name. On the
east of the city, along a richly fertile valley, flows tlie
])eautiful St. Charles, to join its waters with those of the
great river. The mingled waters divide to enclasp the
fair and fertile Isle of ( )rleans.

" The city, as seen from a distance, rises stately and
solenni. Clustering houses climb the rocky heights.
(Jreat piles of stone churches, colleges, and public buildings,
crowned with gleaming minarets, rise above the mass of
dwellings. Above all rise the long dark lines of one of
tlie world's famous citadels, the Gibraltar of America."

Quebec was foumled in 1G08 by Samuel Cliamplain,
tlie real father of Canada, for his was the first permanent
settlement of Europeans in the provinces of Old Canada.
It was the wisdom of a man full of ex))erience both as a
soldier and sailor that chose the site, for tliere is none
like it on the continent. At a distance of 840 miles
from the open ocean at Belle-isle is a basin large enough
to hold a navy, and deep enougli for the (hrat Uti^itcnt ;
for, after narrowing at Cape li(»uge, the river widens at
the city. The mountains around the city form a vast
am[)hitheatre.

292

C0MI'P:NDIUM ok GEO(H{ArHY AND TUAVEI.

Look :
Those solemn hills, whieh close the distance dim
Of the fiirhori/oii, how their contours, clothed
With summer loliiige, smile as they slope down,
Bathed in the sunlight, to the ripjiling Hood
Which laps their liases ; and the azure vault •

Mirrors its brightness with the changing hues
or blue and purjjle in the dimpling waves—
An ami)liitheatre, whose circles vast
Rise u]>ward from the central basin, leared
For high assembly of the earlier gods.
And Zeus' high seat might rest upon the Cape
And dominate the concourse. All the scene
Was clad in summer's livery. Blue in the sky
And water ; on tlie hills a living green,
Sheening to yellow in the twinkling birch,
And glooming in the pines — all glowing tints
Of the upper rainbow, for the autumn hues
Of crimson, gold, and scarlet were not yet.

Quebec is still the centre of the Frencli life of Canada,
^lontreal is more cosmopolitan, for there the two races
are etjual in numbers, and there is an eddy of language,
race, and religion ; but Quebec is overwhelmingly French
and lioman Catholic, and in the parishes dependent upon
it, around the city and lower down the river, tbe old
French Canadian life still survives.

The city of Quebec has not kept pace with the growtli
of the country. The population at the census of 1891
was 63,090, an increase of only one per cent during the
previous ten years. Several causes have contributed to this.
The adoption of iron in place of wood for shipbuilding
destroyed a very large industry. Changes in the timber
trade also seriously afifected the city. ]n former years
nearly the whole export trade in timber went by (Quebec ;
now comparatively little goes that way. Formerly
the timber went down the river in rafts to Quebec ;
now the business is done directlv from the mills, and the
lumber is sent to the nearest shipping port V)y rail. The

THE rnOVINCE OF QUEBEC

293

tmtle used to be chiefly done with Client Britain ; now
the hiniber is largely sent by rail across the border to the
United States. Even the lumber for (Jreat Jhitain is not
always loaded at Quebec. It may be loaded at Montreal
or even Tln-ee liivers. (,j)uebec, as a shipping port, has
been injured by the unreasonable exactions of societies of
ship-laboureis, who have unwittingly conspired with the
general tendency of trade to send the ocean vessels west-
ward to the port nearest to the point of production.
Therefore, as the channel of the river was deepened, the
trade moved past Quebec to ^Montreal, and the rapid
growth of Montreal as a manufacturing and railroad centre
made it, rather than Quebec, the chief distributing point.
Causes such as these have tended to depress the trade
of Quebec, beside tlie fact that the most enterprising
merchants always centred at Montreal. In former years
the garrison contributed a great deal to the life and
gaiety of the city, and kept it in touch with English
society. That phase has passed away, and, with the
change in trade, the English merchants moved westwards,
and do the business of the country from Montreal and
Toronto.

Quebec still has the trade of the lower St. Lawrence,
and, of recent years, some important manufacturing
industries have settled there. The tanning business and
the manufacture of boots and shoes have been largely
developed. A large cotton factory lias been established
at the falls of the Montmorenci, where cotton cloth is
made solely for export to the east. There is at (Quebec
a ready command of labour, and the French Canadian
"habitants "are cheerful, contented, and skilful work-people.
The trade of the Lake St. John district and the Saguenav
valley must always centre at Quebec, and these districts
are developing fast. The chief towns below Quebec are

M .

a 'I

294

COMl'KXlilUM OF CiEOGltAI'IlY AND TRAVEL

on the south shore, where the j^reater part of tlie fertile
laud is situated, and are situated mostly at the mouths
of the rivers. Xew Liverpool is almost a sul)url» of
(^hiebec. It is at the mouth of the Chaudit-re, a river
110 miles louj^, draining an area of 2rt00 square miles.
It rises in Lake ^Megantic on the frontier, and a short
portage connects it with the Kennebec. Gold has been
found in considerable quantity in the gravel of this
river. A few miles from (^)uebec it falls in a picturesque
cascade loO feet in height. At St. Thomas the liivicre
du Sud discharges, after winding through a fertile and
level country. At the mouth of the IJivicre du Loup is
Fraserville, the largest town below (,^)uel)ec, and growing
fast by the establishment of manufactures. Here also is
a very pretty iall.

Alomj tiie north shore is a continuous series of
cascades, as river after river contributes its quota to the
St. Lawrence. The ]\Iontmorenci falls are a cloud of
foam arching over a precipice 265 feet high. The falls
of St. Anne de I)eaupre and of St. Fereol are a series of
cataracts, one of which is 130 feet high. It will be
impossible to refer in detail to the numberless points of
picturescjue interest around Quebec. Thoreau {Yankee in
Canada, p. 5-4) remarks :

" It was evident that this was the countrv for water-
falls ; that every stream that empties into the St.
Lawrence, for some hundreds of miles, must have a great
fall or cascade on it, and in its passage through the
mountains was, for a short distance, a small Saguenay
with its upright walls."

Below Qiiebec the valley of the river on the south
side as far as Kamouraska is fertile and rich. It is the
heart of the old French colony, where the manners and
the language of old France are l.)est preserved from

THK I'lJOVIXCK OK itlKliKC

2 or.

adiuixtiiio with Kiinlisli. in large pdilioiis ot" tliis countrv
juiglisli is st'ldoiu lu'aid. A straiigiT would siipjMtso he
was in the centre of Normandy. On the river hank is a
long continuous village: tor the eon(H'ssions were deep
with onlv a narrow front on the river, hecause in the
earlv davs the rivers were the onlv hiuhwavs. It has
been said, with little truth, that the French of Canada is
a 2)ato'n<. It is as much of a /xtfoi-'i as the French of
Normandy is a pittoiM, aud no more. it is the l^'rench
which was spoken in that part of i-'rance before tlie
Kevolution, and kept up by the clergy, who were always
an instructed class, and letained their intiuence over the
peoj)le. Fnglisji is not spoken in the same way over all the
riiited Kingdom, Imt no one speaks of a i)ublin or an Al)er-
deen pafoi.<i, or for that matter, of a i.ondon jxifnis. Canada
was settled from Normandy, r>rittany, and Saintonge h>ng
previous to the I^'rench llevolution, and after the con(|uesl
there was little connnunication with France, llevolution-
ary princii)les and actions opened a wide gulf l.etween the
monarchical and Catholic colony and the French l{epul)lic,
consciiuentlv manv old French words continued in use.
The physical and social conditions of a new country intro-
duced some new words, and some words have been adoj.ted
from the English. The j.ronunciation of the vowels
among the country people is broader than now at I'aris,
and the changes in recent years in the spoken language
of the ca})ital have had little effect in Canada, but culti-
vated French or English peojile s]»enk their language very
nnich alike wherever they are. The literature of French
Canada is very extensive, and has now a jdace in France.
The power of literary ex])ression of the 1^'rench of Canada
is verv remarkable. It mav or mav not be common
elsewhere for statesmen to speak fairlv well in a lanuua'ji;e
not their own, but in Canada there are statesmen born

if;,

2i)G

COMPKNDIUM OF (lEOrilJAl'lIY AND TiJAVKL

in tlie FreiR'li cnuntiy And ('(iucaUHl in tlie 'uvnch-
(Jaiiiulian colU'uvs. who can not oiilv arouse the enthusiasm
of their own people, hul whi.e sjieakin^', will suddenly
turn, and, with faultless and ready i'lo([Uence, disjday a
eonnnand over the English tonyue whieh is possessed by
very few (►f the Kn^lish themselves.

The city of (^>uel)ee is the centre of French Canada,
as 1)efore remarked, and l.aval I'niversity is the heart of
the city of (^^uebec. It ])er[)etuates the name and the
memory (if Fran(M>is de Laval -Montmorency, the lirst
bishop of (^hu'bec, who, tiu'nin^- his back u])on the
advantages of an almost ]iiincely lineage, spent his life in
an outpost in the western wildeiness and built the
foundations of the Iloman Church deep and solid in the
new world. The I'niversity buildings at once arrest the
attention of a traveller, for tlu'y are the most jnominent
objects on the cliff dondnating the lower city. The
I'ldversity has also a large bi-anch at Montreal with
faculties in both cities of Theology, ^[edicine, Law,
Literature, and Science. The leaching staff consists of
47 professors, and the students, in the present yeai',
l.S!l7,are 282 in nund)cr. The University is founded
on a special charter of Her ]>rcsent Majesty, and a special
liull of Tope i'ius iX. Si.xteen French - Canadian
colleges throughout the ])rovince are affiliated with the
I'lnversity. in this institution the activity of the 'at
bishop still works for his people. He founded tii"
Seminary of (^)uebec, and in isr)2 the Seminary founded
the University.

(juebec, being the seat of governmcnl for the province,
has very large and handsome legislative buildings. A-
the chief fortress of Canada, the city is crownt'd by a
series of works most formidable in a)>pcarance, and armed
with cannon most fornudable in innnber. In their day,

•5 -

1/1

h-i

iii

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

297

these works have arrested the tide of invasion ; but their
day is over. Still they are picturesque and noble, stretch-
ing along the heights, and the heights may at any time
be adapted to the latest methods of defence. From the
heights of the citadel may be distinguished, on the south
side of the river, three forts designed on modern principles
for the defence of the city ; but they are not armed.

Quebec in old days was far more important as a
shipping port than now. Before the railway age arrived
to disturb the natural channels of crade, and before iron
shipbuilding superseded the wooden vessels, it was one
of the great ports of the world. The first vessel which
crossed the Atlantic Ocean propelled by steam was the
Iloyal William, launched at Quebec in 18.'»1. Slie crossed
to London in 183o. The port possesses a graving dock
at Levis, 495 feet long and 100 feet wide, with 25^ feet
depth of water on tlie sill at high tide. Another im-
portant work is the Louise Embankment, inclosing a dock
40 acres in extent, and a tidal dock of 20 acres.

Trade. — The exports of (.»>uebec in the year ending
June, 1896, were in value $5,42."»,9G0, and the imports
amounted to $3,000,029. The number of vessels cleared
was 203, and the tonnage was 308,358 tons.

7. Montreal and the Surrounding Territory

Few cities in the world are so advantageously situated
as Montreal. It is at the head of navigation on the
St. Lawrence, and at the confiuence of its greatest tribu-
tary, the Ottawa. It is the point where the great river
approaches nearest to tiie Atlantic Ocean on tlie New
Kngland coast, and it is near che interscctirtn of a great
nortli and south valley where tbe Hudson and llichelieu
waters are separated by a water-parting only 120 feet

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THE PHOVINCE OF QUEBEC

290

high and 20 miles wide. It is tlie centre of one of the
most fertile valleys in the world, and, though a thousand
miles from the open ocean, is not quite 12 feet above the
level of the tide. It is the foot of tlie most extensive
system of inland navigation in the world, and it has of
late years become as important a centre of railways as it
alwavs was of waterways. All of the converging vallevs
bring l)usine8s to the city, forming a steady volume of
local tratlic, undisturbed by the fluctuations of foreign
markets.

West of Montreal is the valley of the Ottawa, and
that river flowing from the west strikes the St. Lawrence
flowing from tlie south-west at a very acute angle, and
an archipelago of islands is formed at their confluence, of
which the Island of Montreal is the centre and chief.
The impact of the Ottawa water presses the water of the
St. Lawrence to the southern sliore, so that, strictly
speaking, the islands are in the moutli of the Ottawa;
for, opposite to the city of ]Montreal the line of separation
between the dark water of the Ottawa and the clear blue
of the St. Lawrence may be plainly seen, and the rivers
do not commingle until tide water is reached. The
Ottawa in its lowest reach expands into a lieautiful lake
— the Lake of tlie Tvo Mountains. IJigaud Mountain,
one of the masses of erui)tive rock l)efore spoken of, is
at the head of the lake, and Mount (. alvaire (an Lsland
of Laurentian rising in the midst of the Cambro-Silurian
plain) marks the foot of the lake where it turns to tlie
north-east to follow the general course of the St. Lawrence
valley. The St. Lawrence expands into Lake St. Louis
just above jMontreal. It draws togctlier to a little less
than a mile in width before throwing itself over the
Lachine rapids, and immediately expands again t(» form
a broad bay, Ave miles wide, at La]nairie, and then flows

.300

COMl'KNDIUM OF (iEOGKAI'IIY AND TRAVEL

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past the front of tlio city with the width of a mile and a
half to two nnles.

The Ottawa river flows out of the Lake of Two
M(»untains in four channels, two north and two west of
Montreal. Tlie most western is unnavigal)le, and Hows
between the mainland and Isle Perrot ; the main channel
Hows l)etween Isle Terrot and the Island of Montreal.
Here are the celeln-ated St. Anne's Kapids of Moore's
Canadian boat sony;. A sin<>le lock enables vessels to
pass. In rear of the island of Montreal the Ottawa is
called the Iiiviere des Prairies, and separates it from Lsle
Dizard and Isle Jesus, and north again of these latter
islands the most northerly mouth of the Ottawa separates
them irom the mainland. This branch is known under
various names : liivicrc Jesus, I'ivicre St. Jean, or IJiviere
Terre1x)nne, or sometimes sim])ly as the Ottawa. The
largest bodv of r)ttawa water Hows in front of ^Montreal,
l)Ut rafts of timlier for (,)uebec pass down in rear by the
Itiviere des Prairies, where the rai)ids are easier to run.
All these streams unite at the lower end of the Island of
Montreal in a maze of wooded islands which completely
oltscures the coniluence, !Mount IJoyal rises in rear of
the city about 700 feet — a mountain— beca.ise it is the
only elevation in tliis level and fertile ]>lain — a central
eminence from which the very garden of the St. Lawrence
spreads to all points ul' the compass, rolted in summer
witli every colour in which bountiful Nature adorns her
most favoured localities, until tlie horizon is elosed
by the blue hills of the distant ranges bordering the
valley.

r»elow Montreal, to tlie north-east, the St. Lawrence
river Hows in a broad stream througii a wide and fertile
vallev. On Ixdh sides of the river stretches a continuous
line of farms and villages, and about everv nine miles,

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302

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

J til
11".

from parish to parisli, there is a group of ecclesiastical
buildings, a church and presbytere, and often a convent
school, or some monastic building, showing that the country
is French and lionian Catholic. The banks of the river
are from 40 to 100 feet high, cut by the river into the
plain. Sorel, at the mouth of the Richelieu, is 45 miles
from Montreal. The Yamaska and St. Francis fall in
very near, and the river expands into Lake St. Peter, the
shallowest part of its course. Through the ilats of the
lake a broad and deep channel for ships has been dredged,
and here the river meets the tide.

Lc Nord. — North of the level country near Montreal, in
the blue hills seen frttm tlie mountain, is a region generally
called " Le Nord." It is in the counties of Joliette, Mont-
calm, Terrebonne, and Ottawa, and is being colonised from
the older settlements. While the valleys are being cleared
for farms, the mountains and lakes are becoming the
resort of pleasure - seekers from the cities. The whole
region is ideal Laurentian country ; for it is in the
heart of the Laurentides. The lakes are beyond counting,
and they abound in trout. The country is all wooded
with mixed deciduous and coniferous forest, and is
threaded by numerous streams. There are some stirring
little manufacturing villages in this region of abounding
water-power, and they bring to Montreal a constant and
steady trade.

The South. — South of ^Montreal is the IJiclielieu valley.
The river of that name is the only important tributary fall-
ing into the St. Lawrence from the south. It discharges
Lake Champlain and Lake (Jeorge in the United States Ity
a stream Si miles long, from Kouse's Point on the frontier
to Sorel on the St. Lawrence. It is navigaljle by large
river steamers from Sorel to Chandjly, with the assistance
of only one lock ~ of a mile long at St. Ours. At

THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

303

Chainbly is the mouth of a canal of 9 locks, with a depth
of 7 feet, built to overcome a series of rapitls interrupting
navigation for 12 miles. ]iy this canal a rise of 75 feet
is accomplished, and from St. John's there is uninterrupted
navigation to the head of the lake at AVhitehall, in New
York. TPj;^ thence is a canal to the Hudson, and by
this route much heavy freight, such as coal, raw sugar,
and lumber is exchanged. The liichelieu valley at the
beginning of the century was the granary, not only of
Canada, but of the neighbouring states of the Union.
The banks are low, and tlie plain is as level as a table.
Tlie soil is rich, and altliough it has been impaired for
wheat by overcropping in a long series of years, it is now
a most productive country for mixed farming. The valley
of this river is the old highway of invasion, and in early
times the liichelieu was called Riridrc des Iroquois, because
of the irruptions of the ^loliawks by that route. The
French and English armies traversed it incessantly in
attack and defence during the Colonial wars, and upon
its banks some of the manor houses of the old French
" seigneuries " still survive. It was originally settled by
men of the Carignan-Salieres regiment, who came out
with the Marquis de Tracy in 1CG5, and the names
along the banks are those of officers of the regiment who
received the first grants, such as AI. de Sorel, M. de St.
Ours, M. de Chambly.

To the south-west of Montreal the St. Lawrence
valley extends up to the great lakes, and, although from
Lake Ontario to l*oint au Baudet is politically part of
Ontario, it is convenient to consider it in connection
with the canals whicli terminate at ^Montreal. The St.
Lawrence leaves Lake Ontario under its own proper name
and passes through a wilderness of rocky, wooded islets,
; known as the Thousand Islands (though more than a

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COMl'KNDIUM OF GEOCIIJAI'MY AND TIIAVEL

tliousiind have Ikhmi eounU'd) where iifter a sharp liirii
the I.aurenlian nieks make a h)ii,u,' reaeh southward to
connect witli the Adironihick ni(»untains, a detached out-
lier of tlie Laurentian svsttMu in tlie state of New York.
Tlirou'jh 40 niiU's of beautiful sceiu^rv the river Hows
aiuonjj; i)arks and countrv houses and villas and wild
rocky islets, some just larue enough to hold a clump of
trees. At Trescott commence the ra])ids of the St.
Lawrence and the mannitlcent series of canals huilt to
overcome them. These are used onlv in ascendinu the
river. The largest passenger steamers shoot all the
rapids in descending, and this ex))erience, so novel anil
uni([ue, is one of the attractions of Canadian travel. The
tirst in the descent is the (ialops rajjid, avoided hy a
canal, 7^ miles long. Then follows the llapide Plat,
4 miles, with its canal. A canal, the Farran's I'oint
Canal, only ^ of a mile long, foUows, and then suc-
ceeds the rai)id of the Long Sault, 1 1 ^ miles in
lenuth, which is overcome by the Cornwall Canal.
There are long reaches of (piiet water between these
rapids. Tlu^ Long Sault is the most picturesque and
the most exciting of the up})er group. Op])osite Cornwall
the line of 45" strikes the river, and the banks on both
sides become lU'itish. At the point of contact is St.
liegis, an Iroquois reserve ; Cornwall is a manufacturing
town with hirge cott<Mi nulls and a large paper mill.
There the river widens into Lake St. Francis, and for 3S
miles is a quiet stretch between monotonous low banks
of farming lands. From Cornwall the southern side of
the river belongs to the province of (.^)uebec, but Ontario
continues on the north side until the village of Coteau
du Lac indicates by its name that tlie boundary between
the English and French provinces has been passed. At
Coteau Landing the St. Lawrence gathers up its strength

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKArilY AND TIJAVEL

for another plunge, and the Coteau liapids, the Cedars,
and the Cascades follow each other in quick succession.
The run down these rapids is very exciting, for tlie
water is much broken. All three are avoided l)y the
JJeauharnois canal, 11^ miles long — the only one on the
south side of tlie river.

When the policy of deepening and enlarging the canals
was adopted, the cost of making a new canal opposite
lieauharnois was found to be not much in excess of enlarg-
ing the old one, and a new canal is now being built on
the north side of the river. As the Cascades terminate,
the most westerly branch of the Ottawa falls in, and the
river expnuds into Lake St. Louis for 15 miles, and receives
the main body of the Ottawa, then it contracts again to fall
45 feet through the Lachine Jvapids, which are overcome
Ity the Lacliine canal, S^ miles long. This is the last in
the series, and at its mouth in the harbour of Montreal
the river steamers may run alongside of the largest ocean
vessels.

This very interesting stretch of inland navigation is
unecpudled, not only because of the inmiense volume of
the descending river, but because of the magnitude and
costliness of the canals and the large size of the vessels
which may pass through them. Tlie following table will
be of use to sliow at a glance the main facts regarding
them. Sea-level is taken from the head of the tide in
Lake St. "eter. Lake Ontario is 1^40 feet al)ove that
level. At Lake St. Francis, the foot of the first group
of rapids, the river lias fallen to 142 feet. At Lake St.
Louis, the termination of the second group, it has fallen
to 58 feet, and the harbour of IMontreal is 11 "7 5 feet
al»ove tide-water.

THE PllOVINCE OF QUEBEC

307

Table ok Distances ani> Levels fhom Point to Point from Head of
Tide at Three Rivers, on Lake St. Peter, taken as 0.

Montreal
Lake St. Louis
Cornwall on Lake St.
Francis

Distance Rise in
in Miles. Feet.

Obstructions.

Ciinal.

Lciijrth of

Canal in

Miles.

86-00 11-75
S'oO 44-75 Lacliine Rapids Lacliine Canal 8-50

59-25 133-50 Cascades
Cedars
Coteuu

Beauharnois
Canal

n-2i

Prescott on St. Lawri ice 51-25 45-75 Long Sault
River Rapide Plat

Galops Rapids

Cornwall Canal 1 1 '50

Farran's Point 0-75

Canal

Ra].ide Plat 4-00

Canal

Galops Canal 7 "(iO

205-00 235-75

43-60

The total distance from head of tide to Prescott is 205
miles, of which 43*60 miles in the aggregate is broken
water overcome by canals, ^lontreal being at the foot
and Prescott at the head. The difference in level is
2o5'75 feet, of which 206"50 is overcome by six canals
with an aggregate of twenty-seven locks.

While tliese pages have been passing through the
press the Government has announced its intention to
complete by the spring of 1899 the deepening of all the
St. Lawrence canals to a uniform depth, and wlien the
enlargement now going on is completed, the width of the
locks will be 45 feet, the length 270 feet, and the depth
of water on the sills 14 feet.

!:''

The City of Montreal

This beautiful city is the commercial cai)ital of the
Dominion, for there are the head offices of tiie greatest
financial institutions and the greatest railways, and tlicre
is the point of contact between the ocean and the great

'■ '"i ' '

308

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGKArilY AND TKAVEL

central x)lain of the continent. From 1841 (the date of
the union between Upper and Lower Canada) to 1849,
it was the poHtical capital ; but the atmosphere of politics
was not congenial to the iidiabitants, for in the latter
year some excitable hot-lieads set fire to the parliament
buildings, witli a vague idea that they might, perchance,
burn a Bill to which they took great exception. The
legislature objected to being burned out for trivial causes
and removed to Quebec and Toronto alternately, and,
after seven years of wandering, definitely settled, in 186G,
at Ottawa. In that way Montreal lost the seat of govern-
ment and the Bill was not burned after all.

In the historical sketch preceding this cliapter, the
city is shown to have been the result of an outburst of
religious enthusiasm. Though no other site on the
continent excels it as a centre for trade, it was not a
trader who founded it ; though no other point equalled it
as a central point for geographical exploration, it was not
an explorer who founded it. A brave but humble-minded
and religious soldier and two meek and tinnd women are
the hero and heroines of the early city. It was the city
of a dream — a bright and stainless Hower of the lioman
Catholic faith. I'he world soon in\aded this ideal home
of devotion, and the geographical position of Montreal
soon gave it the control of the fur trade — the one great
connnercial interest of early days. In the narrow streets
of the old town black-robed ecclesiastics and silent nuns
in sober uniform glided about on their errands of charity
and mercy, but the soldiers and noblesse were gay with
the Paris fashions of tlie last sliip of the season, the
coureurs de hois swaggered in half-civilised dress ; and on
the outskirts of the town Indians camped, from the farthest
regions of the west, decked in all their savage finery of
paint and feathers.

THE rROVIXCE OF QURBEC

309

l)U

1st

lof

Those days passed away, and tliere came to ^Montreal,
under the English ri^ginie, anotlier set of men, mostly from
Scotland and many from the Iligldands. These were the
enterprising and daring fur traders of the North-west.
They united with tlieir Frencli predecessors and availed
themselves of their knowledge, but they overpassed their
discoveries, and chief among them was Alexander ^Nfac-
kenzie, a quiet Scotch youth who came out to AEontreal as
a clei'k in Gregory's counting-house, and who carried tlie
Ih'itish Hag to the Polar Ocean and the great South Sea.
That age also passed away, and tlie era of steam opened first
on the St. Lawrence, for the first river steamhoat (after
IJobert Fulton's experiment in ISO 7) was built in 1(S00 by
the Molsons at Montreal. Then came the era of canals, and
the steamboats gradually swarmed from ^Montreal over the
western waters; for ^Montreal held the key of the whole
valley. In 1 8 5 G the first line of ocean steamers was estal )-
lished by the skill aiul energy of the Allatis. Then followed
the railway age. The (Irand Trunk JJailway paralleled the
and spread to all the laruer cities : but, in

water-co''.rses

1886, the destiny of the city was accomplished, for the
Canadian Pacific liailway in that year completed its
stupendous task, and ^Montreal once more held the keys of
the gateway from the Atlantic to the great central plain
and over the passes of the Pocky Mountains to the PiU'ific
Ocean, tlie Mar del Zur of the dreams of tlie Elizabethan
mariners. Champlain sought for the passage in his
ailventurous voyage up the (Htawa, Jolliet and Marcpiette
sought it in their lonely wanderings. La Salle thought he
had found it, La Yerendrye followed the path as far as the
mountains, Alexander ^Mackenzie lifted the veil of the
west and north, and, in less tliau one hundred years later,
the Xorth-west jiassage was achiexed in the great railway
which is the shortest passage from ocean to ocean.

' ';■
iiii

r-i

'ill

iM,

310

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGHArilY AND TRAVEL

-!■ N

I!'

The city is built upon natural terraces rising from the
river. It is underlaid by the Trenton limestone, and
through the level beds of tliis formation the mass of
eruptive rock which forms Mount lioyal in rear of the city
has forced its way, tilting up the limestones immediately
surrounding. Extensive quarries of limestone are found
near the city, and the substantial way in which the build-
ings, not only public buildings but private residences, are
built is due to the accessibility of these quarries. The
terraces are ancient sea margins formed by the clay and
sand of the Pleistocene a^e. One well-marked terrace is
at Dorchester Street, another is at Sher])rooke Street.
This last is 120 feet above the sea. Other sea margins
may be traced on the tianks of the mountain at heights of
220, 380, and 440 feet, and the crest of the moimtain
itself is 700 feet above the sea.

The population of the city is given as 216,650 in the
census of 1891, having increased 39 per cent in the pre-
vious decade. Since that date the lindts of the city have
been extended, and the population is now probably close
upon 275,000, of whom a little more than one-half are
French in race, and about three-fourths are Roman Catholic
in religion.

Montreal is one of the best built cities in America, and
one of tlie most convenient for residence. It is clean and well
drained ; electric cars perform a rapid and efficient service,
not only through tlie city and suburbs, but to all parts of
the island, and there are good theatres and frecpient musical
entertainments and other amusements, lieing a university
city, there is an element of science and literature in its
society, and there is an Art Gallery, which, if not equal to
those of the great Ignited States cities, is at least a credit-
able beginning. In the summer the wharfs and canal basin
are crowded with inland steamers from ports on Lake

THE PROVINCE OF U)UKBEC

311

Superior to ports on the lower St. Lawrence, and with sea-
going steamers from the Atlantic provinces, lieside them
in the harbour lie ocean liners from London, Liverpool,
Glasgow, Hamburg, Antwerp, and many other European
ports. A large fruit trade brings vessels from the ]\Iediter-
ranean and the AVest Indies. The great sugar refineries
bring vessels with raw sugar from the East and the West
Indies, and from the Brazils, and the large cotton mills,
tobacco factories, rolling mills, and manufactures of all
kinds draw raw material from all parts of the world. This
shipping finds its return freight in the produce of the farm,
forest, and factory. Ifailway trains run along the wharfs
at night, for the port is lighted by electricity, and the
vessels may unload by day and night and thus have quick
despatch.

Then ^Montreal is a great terminal centre of railways.
It is the terminal point of the Central A'ermont, the
Delaware and Hudson, and the Adirondack and Xew
York railwavs to the cities of Xew York and Boston.
While these pages are passing through the press, the
Government has decided on extending the Intercolonial
Bailway from Levis opposite Quebec to ]\Iontreal. It
is, as it always was, the great highway to the west.
Trains leave daily for the Pacific coast, direct to Vancouver
without change of cars, and to all points in the Maritime
provinces, and to all points in the west and south. The
central offices of the Canadian Pacific llailway and the
Grand Trunk liailway are at Montreal. There are services
several times daily for the great cities of the United
States and of the Dominion, and there are convenient
services for all the neighbouring country.

The city is well supplied with parks and pleasure-
grounds. The whole of Mount Ivoyal is a jiark with
pleasant drives affording magnificent prospects over the

! m

:U2

COMPKNDIUM OF (lEOGHAPIIY AND TRAVEL

; I

i \

H ,

\ r

central plain. The island of St, Helen's is another park,
and the natural l)eaiities of these ])laces have heen
heightened by the art of the landscape gardener.

The chief cities of the other provinces lean on their
respective provinces for support, l)ut Montreal gives and
does not receive. The chief part of the taxes of the
province of (Quebec are raised there, but the provincial
government spends nothing on the city. It has immense
hospitals and universities, and charitable institutions
without number, all supported solely by the bounty of
the citizens.

Montreal is more cosmopolitan than tlie other cities
in Canada. There the French and English races, languages,
and religions meet in a swirl in which neither predominate
exclusively. The great trading and manufacturing interests
are mainly English, Init there are also many large French
houses and factories. The magnitude of the Imshiess and
shipping interests of the city is shown in the tables
appended below. It is the fourth largest port in Xorth
America for the shipment of grain, the order being, San
Francisco, New York, ] Boston, ^Montreal.

]\Iontreal is also a great centre of education. The
jM'Gill University has 9. '5 professors and lecturers and
1059 students. Its buildinus are large and fitted with
every appliance for teaching, and situated in the midst
of spacious grounds. The ^Montreal branch of Laval
University has 70 professors and 73 o students. There
are large classical colleges under the care of the Seminary
of St. Sulpice and the Jesuit Fathers, and theological
colleges for lioman Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians,
]\Ietliodists, and Congregationalists. All these are housed
in handsome buildinus of stone.

Tlien there are the connimnities of nuns of the lloman
Church, — the sisters of the congregation of Notre Dame,

THE PKOVINCE OF QUET5EC

313

numbering nearly 1.000 prijfessed sislers, Jind teaching
over 20,000 girls all over tlie Dominion and in many
cities of the United States. Tliis is the institution
founded by Sister Marguerite Bourgeoys, gentlest of holy
women, in the year 1653. Then the cloistered nuns of
tlie Hotel Dieu — the Steurs Ilospitalieres de St. Joseph — -
founded by Jeanne Mance, whom only the consciousness
of a divine mission supported in tliose early years when
she and her assistants cowered behind the plank doors of
the first hospital at the sound of the Irocjuois war-whoop
in the woods around. Xow the great liospital on the
mountain side is the scene of their activities, and volunteers
from their ranks manage the lazaretto at Tracadie without
putting it through the newspapers as if it were a wonder-
ful thing to do. Then tliere is the great institution of the
Grey Nuns, with nearly 400 sisters, whose branch estaljlish-
ments reach into the Polar circle along the ^Mackenzie
river. Tliis was founded by a ^Montreal widow in 1755 ;
and there are tlie Sisters of I'rovidence, with 500 sisters
and with brancli houses all over the Dominion. All
these are active workers, nursing, and carrying on asylums
for the blind, aged, or helpless, and all of them originated
in ^Montreal.

The Protestant charities of ]\Iontreid are verv numerous,
though not branching over the country, for the Protestant
religions have not the centralised organisation of the
Ponian Church. The Victoria Hospital is the gift of Sir
D. A. Smith and Lord Mount-Stephen to the city ; the
(ieneral Hospital is an institution of the Protestant
citizens, supported by their annual contributions and
by smaller endowments. Both are noble charities — of
citizens of IVIontreal, not of governments ; for the citizens
of ^Montreal are immensely in earnest when they under-
take anything ; they do nothhig in a half-hearted way,

1:^

314

COMPENDIUM OF OEOOHArilY AND THAVEL

wliethcr they found a line of ocean steamers, undertake
to build a transcontinental railway, or to burn out a
parliament for the sake of killing a bill they object to.
There is nothing monotonous in jMontreal or dull about
its citizens, and this was the character of the people
always in French as in English days. Iljerville and
liiencourt, the two greatest in a family of cai)tains ;
Du I'Hut and Lacorne de St. Luc, chief among Indian
fighters ; La Salle and Alex. ]\rackenzie, explorers ; the
old Xorth-westers as fur traders ; the Allans as steam-
ship owners ; (ieorge Stephen and ])onald A.Smith as
railway men^ — there never was a time when ^Montreal
had not men to bear up her fortunes through all
vicissitudes.

Montreal is also a city of churches. The Protestant
churches are numerous : all are substantially built, and
many of them beautii'ul ; and the Koman churches are
the largest on the continent. The parish church of
Notre Dame will hold 10,000 people. It is 225 feet
long, 134 feet wide, and its main towers are 227 feet
high. The Cathedral is a reproduction of St. Peter's at
Rome, on half its scale. It is 333 feet long and 222
feet wide.

The St. Lawrence is liridged by two important bridges
at Montreal. The Victoria bridge of the CJrand Trunk
IJailway is well known as the greatest tubular bridge in
the world. It is 9184 feet long, and the tubes have a
span of 242 feet each, except the centre tube, which is
330 feet. It cost $0,300,000, and took six years to build.
It was formally opened in 18 GO by the Prince of Wales,
and was considered to be the eighth wonder of the world.
Since then engineering science has advanced beyond the
tubular principle, and it has been decided, while these
pages were passing through the press, to replace the tubular

T1I1>: I'ltOVlNCK OF (,>UEBEC

r.i."

superstructuro by nn open lattice-work Ijricl^e. The eon-
tract liiis been made and the work of renewal will be
tinished in twelve months. The foundations remain
unaltered, for the piers were massively built and will
need only t(j be lengthened six or seven feet by building
upwards from the shoulders of the angles of the cut-
waters. The present bridge has only a single track and
has long been utterly insutiicient for the trathc. The
new bridge will have double tracks for steam and electric
cars and facilities for vehicles and foot passengers. The
spans, /IS the old piers are used, are of necessity tlie same.
Not far otT is the Canadian Pacific bridge, a trestle bridge
on the latest plan, which cost !?1,000,000 and took only
one year to build.

The Port of Montreal

IMontreal was always an ocean port, but not for the
largest vessels. The St. Lawrence river in widening to
Ibrm Lake St. Peter loses very much in depth, and unless
steps had been taken to deepen the channel of the river,
the great increase in the size of sea-going vessels would
have relegated Montreal hopelessly to the position of an
inland town ; for no vessel drawing more than 1 1 feet
could pass up to Montreal. The legislature undertook
in 1841 to deepen the channel, but abandoned it, and it
was then that the character of the people once more
asserted itself. They undertook the work in 1850 at
the charge of the port, and by the year 1853 the channel
was deepened to 15 feet o inches, and the first ocean
steamer arrived at Montreal. Since then the work has
Ijeen vigorously pressed, but as fast as the channel was
deepened the size of the ocean steamers increased. The
citizens were not discouraged. They deepened the water

(

%■

i;M;!

■III

!; vM

■ ),1 *7

i i

316

COMPENDIUM OF nEOGEAPIIY AND TItAVEL

to IG feet, then to 20 feet, then to 25 feet, and lastly to
its present depth of 27-|- feet, so that now any ocean
steamer which can enter the harbours of New York and
Boston can steam up to the wharfs of Montreal. Then
it was found that the dues charged upon the trade of the
port for this service were a burden on the whole trade
of the country, and, in the year 1888, the Dominion
Government assumed the debt, and placed the port of
Montreal on an equality with other ocean ports. Tlie
minimum width of the channel is 300 feet, and at curves
where more room is necessa y it widens to 550 feet. It
is buoyed throughout and lighted like a street.

The harbour of Montreal is not disfigured by ugly
buildings on the water's edge. The whole river front is
public property, and a broad street faced with quays of
stone extends along the river. The quays are supported
by a rercti'vient wall of stone, and ramps lead down ""o
the wharfs below. The St. Lawrence, like all rivers
flowing towards the north, is liable to flood in the spring
if the ice breaks up on its upper waters before the river
is clear below the city. Then the river struggles mightily,
the water backs and rises, and the pressure increases
until at last wliat is called a " shove " occurs. So
suddenly does it come, and so quickly is it over, that
many old residents of the city have never seen it. The
river throws off its icy encumbrance, bursting up the level
ice and piling it in immense heaps. The whole mass for
miles and miles is for a few minutes in motion, and then
the river appears in broad channels and expanses, having
thrown up against the banks or over the shallows huge
masses of ice-blocks piled one upon another. These are
soon pierced by the strong rays of the spring sun and
crumble in long needles of crystal, and are undermined
by the swift current which bears all away to the sea.

THE PROVINCE OF (.»UEBEC

317

While *^he river is gathering force and backing for an
efl'ort the water rises, and once in every ten or fifteen
years flows over the revetcment wall and floods the city.
Although this has seldom occurred, it has caused lieavy
loss when it has happened, and hence a breastwork liigh
above the utmost reach of the river is built along tlui
edge of the quay to higher land above the city and
prevents a recurrence of these inundations. ^Nlany
seasons pass when tlie ice moves away quietly, but when
it holds firmly below tlie city, and the lake and river
ice comes down from above and is packed by the current
against the firm ice, the loose floes dip under and
gradually choke the channel ; it is then the river rises
to its work, and the very remarkable phenomenon called
a " shove " is witnessed.

As the trade of the port increased, and Ifirge steam-
ships completely displaced the sailing vessels of former
days, great changes were made in the harbour, and the
^v'orks are still in progress. An inmiense guard pier is
being extended from the outer end of the embankment
of the Victoria bridge down stream for a length of one
mile and a third. In this way the upper portion of the
harbour will be made into an immense slack water basin,
and, as the whole discharge of the Lachine Canal falls in
at the upper end, the water in the basin will be changed
at least twice a day. In this way the harbour front will
be protected from the current, and in spring from the
scour of the ice and from " shoves " in time of flood.
Within this basin are to be four pier wharfs from 1000
to 1550 feet long. The lower part of the harbour is an
extension of the present shore wharf to Hochelaga, and
at the ^-^wer end four pier wharves 500 to 850 feet will
project ato the river at an acute angle. The result of
these changes, when all complete, will be that the wharfage

iiH

¥,

;4V

■ 1 ,

' i

:U8

rOMl'ENl>irM OF CK.OlinArHY AND TKAVKL

accommoilatioii. whie'h, in 1 S0.'>. was r)Ol' luilos. will bo ox-
teiukHl one-hulf, ami the port will 1h> able to meet all tlu>
roquiivinents of a rajnilly innvasinp; trade. The length
of the wharf front at the commencement of the present
year (1897") was TrSS miles.

It remains now to oive in tabnlar form a succinct
statement of the main items nf the trade of ^Montreal.
These are made up to the end of the vt-ar 1S!)G. An
inspection o^ the tables, item bv item, will convey a
clearer conception of the business of the jHut than a long
description. The items given are the chief items only.
A ureat deal of business is done beyond these. It may
be observed here that, in 1S!>1), the juut «>]KMied on A}>ril
LHt and closed on l)ecend>er 1 !\

SiiirriN(i UrstNKss ok iiu". I\>i;i' of Monti;k.\i. koi: tuf. Vkai;

KM>1N(; Df.i F.MIlKli o\, 18!H)

Xiunlu'i' ot' soa-_L;oiiig vosscls arrivml
iulaiul vossi'ls anivod .

Total

Vi'ssi'ls.

Tomiaj;!'.

ro9

l.i'hi.UiS

•1832

1.001.117

■..Ml

•J. 220, 585

Of this number GOS vessels were built of iron and tlu'ir
tonnau'c augrcgated l,L!00.4(t7 tons, showing how com-
pleti'ly the trade has ])assed away from sailing vessels.
The inland vessels are from tlu' great lakes and inland
waters of Canada, and come down through the St. Lawrenct>
cauals or conu' u}> from the lower river and its tributaries.

CuiKK Itkms of Kxroiir fi;om iiif I'oiir of .Momufai, koi; iiik
Vkai; fm'INo l)Kt I'.MiiF.K 31, ISSHi

Luuibor to Imhoiu'. . lioiud inoasuro iVct . 21!>,0:)2. 17S
the ii\ir IMato 7,790.1tk)

Total . 22(5,822.314

TUK rKOVINfK OK c^trEHKr

;; 1

Wheat. Imslu'ls
Corn

Hailov
Kvo "

Flo\ir. biUii's
Moal

Kgi,'-^. cases .
Cheese, Intxes
l>iitter. jv'.ekages .
Appkvs, barrels
Catth'. head
Slieep .. .
Hurses .,
llav. tons

Total Inishels of «'niin

7.o-j:,o:.s

•J 17. MS
;5;")l,ti-J7

1S.!HV_\017

77'-M'2i5
■lO.O'Jl

in.sr.;?

1,7 ■-'•-'. I i:.i

i:.7,c>i-j

7i.'.^,0Ui

ins. lis
7(5,:>-JO

lO.lL'l

TJ,."i07

Tho total value ot" oxpovls at llio port of ^lontival in
lSO(i was i^40.1(;0,;U)4, ami of imports i:*4r),!H)0,L'70.

It would jiivo an imjH'rt'ot't iiU'a of tho I'iiy to omit
n)ontion of its jj;ivat mannfat'turinj^- industries. The
c'han;4c of tiado policy in Knj_iland l>roko up the old
channels of business, and fv>r a fi'W years the city
stauut'red under the blow. In lv^r)4 eommeneed the
manufaeturin^ era ; I her • was. no doubt, some manufaelur-
iuu' done before, but with tlu' ureat suu'ar retinery of the
lledjjaths a new de|Kirlure was iuauiiurated. Manufactures
of ciUton. tobacco, boots and shoes, clothin;j;. silk, iron, ami
many other things, followed in ([uick succession. A short
tabli' extracted from the census of ISO! will L;ivi' an idea
of iln' I'hief industries of the citv :- —

Uoots ami shoes, annual valne ot'outiuu
Cotton elotli .....

HoUing stock . . . . .

Nails anil iai Us . . . . .

liuliarnliher liiotorios . . . .

>'l,7:'iS,'_'00

i.s.-.o.oio

7,Oii:!.t04
•JlS.KUt

i,;u)s,ooo

111

320

CO.MI'EXPIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Sliiils, collars, and ties

Clothing

Rolling mills

Silk . . . ,

Sugar refineries

ij;i,505,5r)0

3,687,313

1,815,949

460,000

13.563,100

The returns (jf nuuiiilactures of tobacco and liquor may
be had from the Inland IJevenue lieports. They are for
the year ending June oO, 189G :

Tobacco, 11 )S.
Cigars, number
Cigarettes, number
^lalt liquors, gallons

7,573,320
41,359,825
82,772,400

3,433,637

The total value of the output of manufactured articles in
the year 1890 was estimated as Ji?7 3,000,000.

Cities

Besides ^Montreal and (Quebec, which are descrilied
elsewhere, the chief towns in the province are Hull, on
the Ottawa river opposite the capital, a manufacturing
town with large paper and lumbering nulls, and a popula-
tion of 11,205, having increased Oo per cent in the
decennial census period ; Sherbrooke, at the junction of
the Magog and St. Francis river, with a population of
10,110, also a manufacturing town with woollen and
cotton mills: St. Hyacinthe, on the Vamaska, population
70 IG, increased oO per cent, a manufacturing town;
Sorel, GGG9, at the moutli of the Eichelieu river, a
centre for industries connected with building and repairing
river steamers, increase 15 i)er cent; Valleytield, on the
lieauliarnois canal, witli cotton and paper mills, 551 G,
increase 41 per cent; Fraserville, on the Loup river,
4175, increase 82 per cent, and a number of suburban
munici])alities around Montreal and not yet annexed, into
which various manui'acturing industries are overllowing.

THE PKOVINCE OF QUEBEC

321

The total annual output of the manufactories of the
province is given as .SI 4 3,3 9 8,8 80 by the census of
1891.

NOTE TO CHAPTER XI

The chief books of rei ceuce for the province of C^uebec have
already been indicated at the end of previous chapters. The
following list of Reports by officers of the Geological and Natural
History Survey will be found of use. It is arranged by districts
to facilitate reference to any special locality.

Quebec

The Province generally — Geology of Canada, 1863 — the large
volume containing a summary of work done in previous
years.

Gasi'i-::.

R. W. Ells, 1882-S4 ; A. P. Low, 1884.
LowKu Sr. Lawrence.

J. Richardson, 1869 ; A. P. Low, 1891 ; Abbe Lafiamme, 1891.
Eastern Townships.

J. Richardson, 1866 ; R. W. Ells, 1886-88, 1891-94.
Sa«uenav and Lakk St. John.

J. Richardsoii, 1870-71 ; W. McOuat, 1872 : Abbe Laflamme,
1884, 1893.
ChaudiIcue District.

A. Michel, 1866 ; Chalmers, 1895-96.
St. Maurice River and Vicinity.

A. Webster, 1870 ; J. Richardson, 1871 ; N. J. Giioux, 1893.
Ottawa County.
• H. a. Vennor, 1874-77 ; J. Richardson, 1871 ; K. W. Ells.

1893-94 ; J. F. Torrance, 1884.
PoNTiAc County.

H. G. Vennor, 1877 ; R. W. Ells, 1894.
Lake Mistassini.

J. Ricliardson, 1871 ; A. P. Low, 1885.
Basin of James Uay.

A. P Low, 1888, 1893; R. Bell. 1895-96.

Magkalen Islands.
' ' J. Richardson, 1880, '

i h

i'!. .

v-|il

1 ■ • I'

:'■ f

i;i

Si!

I' I

in'

i!:[

CHAPTEll XII

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

History

lo ! Viirn.s

While the voice of the world siiouts its chorus,

its ])ii'aii tor those who have won.
While the trumpet is sounding triumphant, and

high to the breeze and the sun
Gay banners are waving, liands clajjping, and

hurrying feet
Thronging after the laurel-crowned victors — I stand

on the lield of 'efeat.

Hold the hand that is helpless and whisper, " They

only the victory win
Who have fought the good tight and liave vanquished

the demon who triumphs within ;
Who have held to their faith iinseduced by the

jtrize that the world holds on high.
Who have ihired for a high cause to sutler, resist,

tight — if need be to die."

In the short histories of Acadia and (Quebec wh'ch pre-
cede this chapter, we have seen the simple - minded
Acadians clinging to their ideals and suH'ering for a
monarchy which regarded them with cynical indifl'erence.
We have seen the French in Canada gallantly fighting
to the last for a nation which oppressed and neglected
them ; and, as if to stamp upon the whole people
of Canada a character al)ove all others for conrage
and faithfulness, and to throw around the annals of the

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

323

entire Dominion a halo of loyalty and self-sacrifice, came
the immigration of the United Empire Loyalists and openeil
a page of history so bright with all adornment of courage,
fortitude, and devotion that the heart of every native-
horn Canadian beats with pride at the story.

The history of the province of Ontario commences
late, but its roots a.o deep down in the character of the
Anglo-Saxon race, in its love of liberty and of truth — of
liberty in that gradual and steady evolution which has
been the peculiar strength of the liritish race, and which
is embodied in a political constitution

Where freedom broadens slowly down
From [irecedent to )>reo(!dent

adapting itself to each generation without shock or strain,
and venerable with the traditions and achievements of a
thousand years. It is upon the character and princijiles
•jf its first settlers that the province of Ontario has
l)een solidly built, and these are expressed in one word
" loyalty " — for these i)eople were called " Loyalists."

The word " loyalty " has Ix'cn regarded by " superior
]»ersons " with a kind of contemptuous pity, as if in this
" eidightened " age it has no meaning. It counts for nuich
in Canadian history, and must be tak«!n into consideratit)n
by any one who wishes to understand the people of Canada,
it is nothing other than a persistent determination to be
faithful to the law of the nation t(j which one belongs
and to the institutions in wi'ich that law is embodied.
These slowly grow, developing and adapting themselves in
accordance with the political ideals of each race ; growing
as a person grows, always changing, yet ever the same. The
word loyalty involves an idea of duty, and is opposed to
selfishness and wilfulness. It is altruistic, because .1
implies sacrifice for some principle or institution other
than one's self and one's own will, and it is in politios

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TKAVEL

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what religion is in morals. These United Empire
Loyalists had an ideal of a world-wide Anglo-Saxon
Empire, and the ancient historic monarchy ol' the mother-
land was for them the central institution of their race,
of which the king was the visible embodiment from
generation to generation. The idea has been fimiliar to
soldiers in all ages, for as the colours of a regiment,
tattered and torn in many a conflict, are hung up in some
cathedral, the associations which gathered abound them
are transferred to the new colours by a solemn ceremony.
Loyalty is not confined to subjects, it is also the law for
kings, and it was for disloyalty that the Stuart line was
superseded. The United Empire Loyalists were in one
respect happier than tlieir Erench compatriots. They
had warm friends in the grandfather and the father of
oui present sovereign, and, although few of the Loyalists
had ever been in England, their devotion to King George
III. was unbounded, and the king's good-will and constant
thoughtfulness for them was manifested by many kind
acts. The United Empire Loyalists saw no fault in King
George III. It was not he who brought on the war, it
was not he who mismanaged it, it was not he who was
arrogant in one mood and cringing in another, it was not
he who was ready to play into the hands of the enemies
of his realm, and it was not he who deserted them in the
day of defeat and distress. The grandchildren of the
Loyalists attach no importance to the numerous histories,
written after the event and full of after- wit, which strive
to throw upon the k.ng the odium of measures which
others initiated and many of which passed Parliament
either without discussion or after short laA languid
debate. Their knowledge of the events of those days is
too intimate to be aflected by the obsequiousness of
historians on either side of the water. They have seen

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

325

the principles of their grandfathers vindicated in the
great civil war for the American union, and vindicated
by the descendants of the very people who drove their
ancestors into exile — and they read now with kindly
feelings the writings of the new school of American
history, born after the civil v;ar, which, with scholarly
impartiality, dares to tell truths suppressed for one
hundred years. The Loyalists, to borrow a phrase from
Lord Alahon, " fixed their faith on the personal integrity
and uprightness of the sovereign, and felt more reliance
oh his character than on that of any of his ministers."

To discuss the causes of the American Involution is
foreign to the object of this volume. The people who
settled Ontario and New Brunswick saw no just cause
for it, and their descendants are of the same mind. A
hundred years of misrepresentation and declamation have
not obscured in their eyes the fact that there was no
oppression on the part of the mother-country to justify a
revolt. The lurid light of the war of secession has
brought out truths enveloped for three generations in the
mists of passionate prejudice, and calm scholars are re-
writing the whole history from the beginning. The
Loyalists did not approve of most of the measures of
rarliament, and many, who were afterwards banished and
proscribed as Loyalists, were leaders in constitutional
agitation for the repeal of laws contrary, in their opinion,
to the spirit of English institutions. They set their
faces equally, however, against mob law ; and tarring and
feathering, or sacking their houses, or threatening their
lives, did not change their views because, being Loyalists,
they thought such methods disloyal ; for loyalty is always
opposed to impromptu laws enacted and enforced by self-
appointed persons.

This character is not confined to their immediate

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL

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descendants. It permeates the wliole people, and the
desperadoes, who flocked to Britisli Columbia in the first
rush for gold, left in disgust a land " where a man could
not shoot a Cliinainan without being hanged " The
principles of these early Loyalists have become an abiding
force, reaching to the farthest corner of the Dominion,
and carrying " the Queen's peace " to the remotest
mining camp. All tliese issues are dead now, the only
object in alluding to tliem is to explain to " superior
persons " how Ontario came first to Ije settled, and what
were the distinguishing traits of the men wlio settled it.

If there had been, in 1 770, a vote by ballot of the
whole people, the disruption of tlie English race would
never have been consummated. The preacher appointed
to preacli l)efore the Continental Congress as late as
February, 1776, prayed for a restoration of " the former
harmony between Great Ihitain and tliese Colonies upon
so firm a basis as to perpetuate its blessings, uninterrupted
by any future (Hssensions, to succeeding generations,"
and, when he published his sermon later in the year, he
would not su])press his jirayer, for he said, " It is
consonant to every declaration of Congress which has
appeared, and it would l.)e indecent to suspect sentiments
which they have not declared."

It will be impossible to understand the history of the
Dominion without knowing what kind of people these
Loyalists were. A clear majority of the educated men
and of the professional classes in the colonies were in
favour of the king, antl in tlie ranks of the Loyalists
were the most brilliant names of old colony history. A
work of high authority, published of late years in Boston,
shows that of 3 1 citizens banished and proscribed by
Massachusetts alone hi 1778, more than 60 were
graduates of Harvard University. The United Empire

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

327

T.oyalists who settled in ('aiiatla were, for tlie most part,
men who possessed property or had occupied important
positions in the colonies. They were not obscure persons
who could slink back into their former places in society ;
but were important enough to have all their property
confiscated, and in many colonies to be threatened with
death if they returned, nox* was there any amnesty for
the vaiupiished, as has usually been the case after the
bitterest civil wars. The Loyalists were not the (»nly
losers ; for it has been well said that what France lost
by the emigration of the Huguenots the United States lost
by the emigration of the Loyalists. France has indeed
been great and pi'osperous since ; but in the expulsion of
the Huguenots she lost an element which would have
saved her many a throe, and have retained lier institutions
on a more stable foundation.

At the close of the war the adherents of the Crown
liad taken shelter in the sea-board cities still held by the
r(jyal troops. In the month previous to the evacuation
of Xew York, says Sabine, upwards of 12,000 men,
women, and children embarked for Nova Scotia and the
Bahamas. Many settled on the iron-bound Atlantic
coast of Nova Scotia, and many on the inhospitable
coast of eastern New ]^runswick. At Port Eoseway, and
Shelburne, and at St. John, most of them were utterly
destitute, and lived in log huts tlirough the winter, and
were preserved from starvation by the issue of rations at
public expense. Those who went up the Bay of Fundy
to Annapolis and Windsor fared better, for the land was
good and, after the tirst winter, they could live off the
land. So it was also with those who went up the St. John
river, but those who settled first on the rocky Atlantic
coast suffered every privation. The treaty of peace had
only stipulated that Congress woukl recommend the different

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TKAVKL

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states to revoke the coiitiscatiou laws, and when the recum-
mendation was issued the obligation was performed.

Nova Scotia had some settlers, but New IJrunswiclv
and Ontario were forest wildernesses. The i^oyalists
Hocked into Ontario on foot by way of Lake Champlain
and Montreal. Others went to Oswego and built boats
in which thev coasted round the nortliern sliores of the
lake seeking for a home. There had been a French fort
at Cataraqui, and there the first settlements were made
and the name changed to Kingston. Then followed
settlements around the ]>ay of Quinte and along the
shores of the liver, and of Lake Ontario. These were
followed by settlements at Niagara, and on the shores of
Lake Erie. It is difficult to ascertain the precise
number who emigrated from the revolted colonies, but
Kingsford with much reason rates it as about 45,000.

To those who see the fair and fertile province of
Ontario as it exists to-day, with its rich homesteads and
prosperous towns, the country will seem indeed to be a
fair and goodly heritage ; but in 1784 it was a forest
wilderness. The aboriginal inhabitants had been dispersed
or massacred in the ruthless Iroquois raids, and it was
roamed over by wandering bands of Mississaugas, a tribe
of Ojibway stock from the North-west. The forest was
dense, and even the Indian trails were almost obliterated
l)y disuse. Every acre had to be won by the axe, and
the crops grew among the stumps. The scattered
settlers had no roads, nor bridges, nor schools, nor churches,
and it was well for them that they themselves were intel-
ligent and instructed people ; for they straightway set
themselves to organise municipal and political institutions,
and to found schools. There never was a " wild west "
in Canada. The west was as orderly as the east.

The province was set off in 1791 with its own

PROVINCE OF ONTAItIO

329

governor and legislature. The first seat of goveriinieiit
was at Xewark, now called " Niagara on the lake," but
when Fort Niagara was given up to the United States,
Governor Sinicoe saw that it was impossible that the
capital of the province should be commanded by the
guns of a United States fort ; so, after consideration of
several localities, he decided upon the present Toronto.
He called the place York, a name which it bore for forty
years. Tliere in the wilderness tlie legislature of Upper
Canada met in 1797, and the refugees proceeded to the
business of political organisation with all the dignity of
thoughtful and instructed minds. Governor Sinicoe had
been Colonel of the Queen's Eangers in the lievolutionary
War and was at home among the Loyalists, and the work
of organisation and of clearing the forest went on rapidly.
But Ontario — then Upper Canada — was not allowed
to enjoy a long peace, and the Loyalists soon had to tight
for their wilderness homes. The war of 1812-14 was
forced on Great Britain, and both Upper and Lower
Canada braced themselves for an unec^ual struggle. It
was very unequal, for the population of the United
States was then 8,000,000, and of Canada 300,000, of
whom only 75,000 were in Upper Canada, and bore the
main weight of the invasion. There were more soldiers
in the American army than the whole male population of
Ontario capable of bearing arms. The American army
crossed the Detroit river on July 12, 1812, and General
Hull, in a proclamation dated the same day, tendered "the
invaluable blessings of civil, religious, and political liberty "
to this very people who had cleared tlie forests of the
northern wilderness to escape from civil, religious, and
political oppression ; who had been threatened with death
if they returned to their own native colonies to claim the
estates, confiscated because of their political opinions.

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COMPKNDIUM OF GKOGRAPHY AND TRAVKL

y
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( Jvoai Jiritaiii wa.s at tliat time in the very crisis of
tlie struggle witli Xapoleon lionaparte, and was fighting
single-handed against the world. She could not spare
many iiuMi, hut she sent Major-General ]^)rock, who was
an army in himself. The Provincial Legislatures voted
money and men, and raised regiments of militia. The
first hinw ol' the war was struck from Canada by a
company of infantry and 200 Canadian voyageurs, who
ca])tured the fort at Michillimackinac and held it through-
out the war. ( Jeneral Hull and the invading army were
captured, aud Detroit was taken within six weeks. A
little later Majur-deneral llrock was killed in action
jiear (^hieenston heights on the Niagara frontier as he was
leadiug a column <»f Canadiau militia up a hill in the
possession of the enemy. He is the hero of Ontario,
and no nobler character can Ite found in the annals of
modern warfare. J lis remains rest under the monument
which crowns the heights and looks over the frontier he
guarded so well. His death was mourned witli passionate
grief, Imt his spirit inspired the Canadian militia witli
fresh courage and determination, and the result of the
first year was, that the soil of Canada was clear of in-
vaders, and Ihe l>ritish held Michigan.

The following year the American Government made
greater effoits, and the Jkitish met with some reverses.
'The enemy obtained command of Lake Erie, and l)urned
the town of Newark and the farmhouses around ; raided
the capital of the province, now Toronto, and burned the
public buildings, Init did not hold the place. The net
result of the year's operations was, that the Americans
retained only Andierstburg, in Canada, while the British
held Fort Niagara, in the state of New York. The follow-
ing year there was very severe fighting on the Niagara
frontier, and attempts at invasion all along the border ;

PROVINCE OF ONTAlllO

331

tlie bloody battle of Luiirly's Luiie was fought, but the net
result at the close of tlie thiee years of the war was, that
not an acre of Canadian territory was in the possession of
the invaders, exceptinji; the village of Aniherstburg on the
Detroit river. On the contrary, tlie ]>ritisli held Micliilli-
niackinac in Michigan, Fort Niagara in tlie state of Xew
York, and nearly the whole of the state of Maine. I'eace
was signed on December 24, 1814. The brunt of the
conflict had been borne by the militia <tf Upper (Canada.

In a rapid sketch such as this, all details of battles
and campaigns must be i legated to the books of history.
There is no object in reviewing these past griefs, save
to hope they may never recur, and to show how the
Canadian character was formed and how mistaken those
were who supposed the country to be an easy conquest.
The war was not po]iular in the northern states of the
American Union, and was decided on l)y a very small
majority in Congress. President Madison and his ad-
visers were under a singular hallucination as to the
feelings and wishes of the people of Canada. Great
Britain had the world in arms against her, and the
Canadian militia had to l)ear a very heavy share of
the defence, and bore it l)ravely and cheerfully. The
best summary will perhaps be found in the dry narrative
of the otticial confidential " Precis " previously referred to.

" It (Congress) conceived that the American flag had
only to be shown to be followed, and that the British
authority and influence was confined to the barracks
and military posts in the Canadas. The Canadian militia,
however, uniformly behaved well. The only partisans
and well-wishers to the Americans were a few discon-
tented emigrants from England who were dissatisfied
without any reason, and who, probably, as no form of
government could have pleased them, would have been

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COMPENDIUM OF llEOOKArilY ANP TI.'AVEI,

ctpiitUy tioultlesomo iinder tliat ol' the iruited States.
There weii^ furtunately but very lew setllei's of this de-
scriptidii. The yretit iiiiijority ot" the r])per ("iuuidians
were hiii)i)V, loyal, and contented." These words are as
true now as in 1S2() when they were written.

xVfter the ])eaee the Canadians ouee more settled down
to (piiet progress. They cleared i'arnis, built roads and
bridj^es, du^' cauids, urew ero))s,tleveloped trade by steamers
and sailini;' eraft on the iuhind waters, and inaut,nirated
their nuini('i})al and educational systems. I'olitiud
ijueslions be<j;an to occui>y more attention, and the two
immemorial lorces iuhereiit in J»ritish political lite acted
and reacted in this as in all other colonies of the Kmjtire.
The seat of government remained at Toronto until the
union of I'lJper and Lower Canada. Sometimes the
strnu,;iile waxed warui, and in 1S,">7 occurred in Upper
Cjinada, as well as in Lower Canada, a short-lived insur-
rection against the state of alVaiis then existing. This
would have been of little imjiortance but for the active
sympathy of the I'nited States. Then came the mis-
sion of the Karl of Durham, the union of U})per and
bower Canada under one government in 1841, and the
iutroduetion of what is knownas "res[)onsible government."
This was really consunnnated by the Karl of Mlgin, one of
the most ca])able governors who ever served the Ihitish
Crown in Canada. Cndt'r his caie the sails of the shi]>
of State were trinnned to the changing winds, and the
system of complt>te iKirliamentary contiol was inaugurated.
It is beyo'ul tiie scope of this chapter to follow the details
of the political events which led to confederation in
1807. These are given in the books of history. The
object of this sketch will lu! fullined if it conveys an idea
of the way in which the eiiaraeter *A' the Canadian people
was built up. it originated in devotion, self-sacrilice, ami

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

1 q .»

sorrow, juiionu; aljirins iiiul tlir(.'!il,i'niii<,'s aiul Wiirs, aiul it
was lornied and sustaiiitnl througli all adversities by cour-
aij;e, loyalty, and laith.

NOTE TO (MIAPTKH, XII

Till' story of tUo I'HitiHl Kiii])ir(' Loyalists will lie round
narrated fully in the folluwinp; works : —

CaXNIFK, Wll.l.lAM, M.l).

ilistiiiy of the Sfttlomciit of Upju'r Canada, with s]i('cial roferoiiiH'
tothc liay otgiiiiiti'. Toronto, IStii).

Hykkson, Kkv. KoKiiroN, D.l).

Tilt' Ijoyiilists of Anii'rii'a and Tlicir Tinit's. 'J vols. Toronto, ISSO.
Dr. RytM-sDii was the t'athfr of the |uvst'iit fdiicational systciii ofOiitario.

Saiiim;. liOiiK.NZo.

liio^raphical Skfti'hcs of Loyalists of the .Xiut'rii'aii Revolution,
with an Historical Kssay. li vols. Svo. ISostoii, IStil.
The lion. Ijorcnzo Saliine was a i-itizeii of the State of .Maine. His was
the tirst United States hook to do justice to the nieniory of the lioyalists.

liAWUKNCK, .1. \V.

Footprints in the Karly History of New Urunswiek. St. ,iohn,
N.H.. iss;}.
The Loyalists who settled in New Ihiinswick are the theme of this work.

The lirst nimilu'r of the " .\moricaii llistoi'ical Koview,"
imblislied in New Voik, Oetulu'r IH!);"), contains an important and
impartial article on the Loyalists by Prof". Alo.scs Coit Tyler.

Of the histories pnhlished in the United Stuti's before the civil
war, llildieth's is the only one which has altempti'd to be iinjiartial.
.Xmoiifj; the Knj,dish historians Lord Malion and Mr. Lecky have
based their studies upon orif,'itial documents and authorities, and
their works are of -^reat value. Prof. (Joldwin Smith, in his
" History of the United States," has (hme justice to the Loyalists.
Other British writers do not ajipear to have i^one beynnd the Tnited
States Histories, and ap}»ear unconscious of any other version.

The history of the war of 181:2-1 1 is narrated with much
detail in Kin^sford's " History of Canada." Many special histories
have been jirinted in the I'niti'd States, as well as in Canada, but
Dr. Kingsford has had the advantaj^'e of ucce.'^s tu the recent collec-
tions of papers in the Canadian archives.

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CHAPTEE XIII

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO DESCRIPTION

Boundaries

The province of Ontario is bounded on the east and,
partly, on the north by the province of Quebec, and on
the south by the international boundary. Its western
boundary is the international boundary, as it follows
through the centre of the great lakes and along the water-
courses to the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods.
The remaining portion of the boundary on tliis side was
defined by a Connnission, and settled by Act of the
Imperial Parliament in 1880. It connnences at the
north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, and continues
north in a direct line to the river (English river) which
discharges Lonely Lake ; it follows that river eastward,
up to and through Lonely Lake, across to Lake St. Joseph,
through that lake and down the All)any river to James
]»ay. That line forms the remaining part of the northern
boundary. The eastern boundary was extended at the
same time by a line from the; head of Lake Temiscaming,
jiast the height of land to James Pay, and thus overpasses
the limit of the province of Quebec, although both
provinces formed part of the same New Prance. Legisla-
tion will no doubt soon rectify this discrepancy on the map

PROVINCE OF ONTAKIO

335

liy extending the province of Quebec also to .lames
]^ay.

The area of the province of Ontario is ahout 222,000
S([uare miles. Its shape is very irregular. The soutliern
boundary is really south-west in direction, for the peninsula
projects diagonally southward from -io" through three
degrees to latitude 42°, almost ])recisely to the latitude
of (Jhicagfj, and well south of the latitude of lioston. The
length of this diagonal south-western liue, from the
boundary at Coteau du Lac, on the east, to Sarnia, is
about GOO miles by water, and the Canadian Pacific
railway line, running due west through the province in
its extreme length from Ottawa to Ingulf, is 1202 miles.
If a line be drawn from Sarnia, the most southern point
of the province, to Fort Albany on dames Bay on the
extreme nortli, it passes through ten degrees of latitude,
very nearly from 42° to 52°, or about 690 miles. These
figures give a vague idea of the extent of tiie province.
A[»proximately, and in a general way, it may be said to
consist of the great peninsula situated south of a line
drawn due west from Ottawa to (leorgian liay by the
^lattawa and French rivers and Lake Xi]iissing, and a
vast territory north of that line now being opened up
bv lumberers, nn'ners, and settlers. These two grand
divisions nnist be kept before the mind in any inquiries
as to soil, climate, or productions, tor they are very
ditferent.

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Contour of the Land

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Throughout its whole extent (Jntario is an undulating
l)lain, without any prominent elevated ranges to mark
its surface, and sloping down gradually to the great
waters at the north, south, and west. None of the water-

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

partings which control the courses of the rivers are high.
The northern sliores of Lakes Huron and Superior are
hi<jj]i and bold, but tlie shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario
are low. The land, indeed, rises at its highest points to
an average of 1200 feet above tlie sea ; but the rise is so
gradual as to be imperceptible to the eye, excepting along
tlie line of the western escarpment, where a height of
1600 feet is attained at the summit of the Blue Mountains
in tb vestern peninsula, where the escarpment sweeps
aloi tlie southern shore of Georgian Bay and into tlie
promontory of Bruce, dividing the bay from the main
lake.

Hydrography

Putting aside for the present any description of the
great lakes, it may be said that the whole of the province,
excepting the peninsula west of Toronto, is studded with
countless lakes, and the whole province, without exception,
is watered by numberless streams which are fed by a
regular and always sufficient precipitation.

Taking first the northern portion of the province it
will be seen that the water-parting of Hudson's Bay
enters on the east from Quebec aljut 40 miles north of
Lake Temiscaming nud passes north of Lake Huron and
Lake Superior in a sinuous course at an average distance
of 60 miles. At a i)oint near Jackfish ]3ay the water-
parting comes close down to the shore and then suddenly
turns north to sweep round the heads of the feeders of
Lake Nepigon, then, turning south, in a bend equally
abrupt and equally sinuous, it crosses the international
boundary at Pigeon river on the Grand Portage about
60 miles from the lake shore. It must, however, be
observed that near the bend where the water-parting

TROVINCE OF ONTARIO

337

finally turns south there is a divide running to the north
between Lonely Lake and Lake St. Joseph. West of the
waterslied from that point, and west of that divide, the
water does indeed eventually reach Hudson's J Jay, but
first fiows into the sulj-basin of Lake Wiiniipeg. Lake
St. Joseph drains eastward by the Albany river, and
Lonely Lake (Lac Seul) drains westward into English
river, which falls into the Winnipeg river almost
precisely at the extreme north-western point of the
boundary of tlie province. The northern watershed
slopes gradually down to ffanies liay and, as the shore is
approached, the Laurentian rocks are covered by lime-
stones of Silurian and Devonian age as described in
tlie chapter on Hudson's Bay. The western or Win-
nipeg watershed has been already described in Chapter
III. in treating of tlie general hydrography of tlie
1 )ominion.

The water-parting of Hudson's Day approaches so
closely to the lakes that the rivers are all short. They
are very numerous, but none are of sutticient importance
to be noticed. There are also many lakes, but none are
important save Lake Xepigoii. This lake is 70 miles
long by 40 miles broad and has an area of 1450 sipiare
miles. It is very deep, no bottom having been found in
places at 040 feet. It is 605 feet above the sea, and
chains into Lake Superior by the Xepigon river, about
30 miles in length.

Coming now to the second grand division of the
province, namely the. great peninsula enchjsed between
the (Ottawa on the east and the great lakes on the west,
it is divided into two parts by what is called the Niagara
escarpment, marked conspicuously at the point where it
crosses the international boundary, by the Kails of Niagara.
The river has cut its way back through the limestones

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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and flows, after its fall, for several miles through a canon
200 feet high. The escarpment commences in Canada
at Queenston Heights and follows westwardly along the
southern shore of Lake Ontario at no great distance in
rear of St, Catharines and Hamilton. Having reached
the head of the lake, it turns sharply to the north-west
and passes through the heart of the western peninsuh to
Oeorgian IJay near Owen Sound at its western corner.
Thus the greater peninsula of Ontario is divided into an
eastern i)lain l)etween the escarpment and the Ottawa
river, having an approximate area of about 16,000
square miles, and a higher western plain with an area of
about 10,000 square miles sloping gently down to Lakes
Erie and Huron from the summit of the escarpment.

Considering first the eastern or lower plain, it may
be divided into livt; drainage basins. First the Ottawa
basin. The chief rivers falling into the Ottawa on its
western or Ontario side have 1»een mentioned in connec-
tion with the Ottawa valley in the chapter on the province
of Quebec. ^lany of them are large rivers and reach far
into the centre of the province. Those which fall in
east of Ottawa city rise very close to the St. Lawrence.
One of the Ijranches of the South Nation river, which
hills into the OttaM'a half-way bet vcen Montreal and
the city of Ottawa, rises in the townships of Matilda
and Edwardsburg only a mile and a half from the bank
of the St. Lawrence, and the water-parting there is only
thirty feet above the latter river. The Ottawa basin
forms therefore an important division of the lower plain,
while tlie basin of the St. Lawrence proper is of little
comparative importance.

The second division of the eastern plain is a narrow
strip of country draining into the main St. Lawrence
and extending along the river as far as the Thousand

ch
nd
[da
nk

[in,
Itle

ice
liid

I'ROVINCE OF ONTARIO

339

Islands where the Laurentian rocks cross the river.
Tliis is physically an unimpoicant division, for the water-
shed is so narrow that it can form no river of any size,
all the important streams drain away to the Ottawa at
the north.

The third or central division is the basin of the Trent,
called the Otonabee in its upper reaches. This river has
a winding course of about 170 miles, and drains a
country full of lakes of the most irregular shapes.
Balsam, Scugog, Chemung, Sturgeon, Stony and Eice
Lakes are large lakes, but the number of smaller ones
is beyond count. Th<i valley of the Trent is wide, and
its course is most eccentric. It doubles, by six sharj)
turns, the direct distance between its source and its
mouth, and the Bay of Quinte, into which it falls, zigzags
in similar sharp angles before joining the main lake.
The basin of the Trent spreads very widely, for Scugog
Lake, its main feeder on the south, is only 1 7 nules from
the shore of Lake Ontario. The height above the sea
of the chief sources of the river are —

Keet.
820
815

Balsam Lake .....
Cameron Lake ....
Scugog Lake .....
Sturgeon Lake ....
Pigeon, Buckhorn, and Chemung Lakes
Stony and Salmon Trout Lakes
Rice Lake .....

797
793
788
758
59(5

Tlie amount of water power in this basin is evident by the
drop from the upper lakes to liice Lake, and from thence
to Lake Ontario 240 feet above the sea. This sub-
division is drained also by the Moira river and two small
streams, the Salmon river and the Napanee, but all fall into
the Bay of Quinte, and they may be conveniently grouped
into one subdivision.

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340

COMPENDIUM OF GEOCiHAPHY AND TRAVEL

. i

The fourth division of the eastern plain is the basin
of Georgian liay, and its soutliern arm Nottawasaga Bay.
This basin touches the Ottawa basin on the east, and the
Trent and Ontario l)asins on the south. Its chief feature
is Lake Sinicoe (area 283 square miles), the nu)st western
lake of any importance in the peninsula. There are
several large rivers in this division. At the north is
French river draining Lake Xipissing, the ^lagnetewan
drains a number of small lakes, the Muskoka river drains
the Muskoka lakes, and the Severn drains Lake Sinicoe.
On the south the Holland river lises at the Toronto
portage, and on the west the Nottawasaga river Hows
along the base of the escarpment and empties into the
bay of the same name. It flows in a broad N'alley about
twelve miles from the foot of the cliffs, and some of its
feeders rise even west of the escarpment and cut through
it in deep ravines. Lake Simcoe is 704 feet above the
sea, and lies in a depression which barely misses being a
continuation of the Trent valley. It drains into Lake
Huron, but the water-parting between it and the Trent
is very narrow. A series of works are being constructed
to connect (leorgian Bay with the Bay of Quinte through
the Trent valley, and thirteen locks have already been
built to overcome obstructions.

The distance between the Bay of Quinte and (Jeorgian
Bay is 200 miles, of which less than 20 miles will require
canals; the rest of the proposed route will be l)y stretches
of water connnunication improved in various ways. The
works now in progress will open up 100 miles of direct
and the same extent of lateral navigation.

The fifth and last division of the lower plain may be
called the Ontario division, as its streams fall directly into
that lake. It extends from the Trent division on the east
to the Niagara escarpment on the west, and is bounded

be
Into

Ided

PROVINCE OF ONTAHIO

341

on the iiortli bv the basin of (leorgian Bav

The only

streams of note are the Huniber and the Credit. The
Huinber falls into the lake at Toronto. The old portage
route to the north was by the Huniber and across to the
Holland into Lake Sinicoe and thence by the Severn
into Georgian Bay. The water-parting of the Huniber
and Holland is 904 feet, and of the Xottawasaga and
Huniber is 950 feet above the sea, from whicli it will
appear that this plain scarcely attains at its highest
point a height of 1000 feet above the sea, or TOO feet
above Lake Ontario.

The Niagara escarpment, as l)efore explained, forms
the edge of a higher plain, and its drainage has reference
solely to Lakes Erie and Huron, which are respectively
560 and 576 feet above the sea. It is distinctlv
marked in its wliole course across the country and
[)resents a face more or less steep to the east. At places
the weatlierino- of the limestone cliff's and the weariny-
away of the softer rocks beneath have produced scenes of
wild and picturesque beauty. This upper plain attains
at one place an extreme height of about 1200 feet above
the sea, and on its western side rise the streams ' ch
water the garden of western Canada. The escarpment
continues to the nortli to form the long promontory of
IJruce, and then passing along the southern shore of tlie
Manitoulin Islands, crosses over into ^Michigan at the
Straits of ^lackinac.

The area of the upper plain is about 10,000 square
miles, and it may be divided into four l)asins. First, the
basin of the (irand river: this stream rises in the
liighest part of the western slope of the escarpment, and
its descent is so steep in the first part of its course that
it was called by the French La RivUrc Bapidc. On its
banks are many manufacturing towns of importance, and

!! !

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342

COMl'KKDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

from Elora it drops 600 feet to Lake Erie. l>elow
lirantfoxd it is a traiKiuil stream iiowing out by a large
estuary into Lake Erie at Port INIaitland, about 30 miles
west of the discharge of the lake.

The river Tliames, which is the chief physical feature
of the second basin, rises also on the western flank of

■ M

AT KLOUA, ON THK (iHANU HIVKIl.

Cdiiihik, litdtii.

the escarpment, but more to the south, and is a quiet
stream meandering through a beautiful park-like country
in a general course at right angles to the Grand river
and falling into Lake St. Clair at the western end of
Lake Erie. These two streams drain the centre of the
upper plain.

The valley of the Thames is broad, and there is much
rich intervale land wooded with willows and elms ; sheep

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

343

and cattle graze on the sloping liill-sides, and clumps of
oak and elm and maple are interspersed witli meadows,
and give the general impression of an Kiiglisli landscape.
On the south of tliese two basins is tlie third sub-
division — a narrow strip running along the shore of the
lake, drained ])y short streams and brooks falling directly
into Lake Erie. Tiie fourth is the Huron basin — a
triangular tract nortli of the Thames basin and ])etween
the northern part of the escari)ment and the lake —
drained by the ^laitland river falling into Lake Huron
at Goderich, and by the Saugeen falling in at Kiucanline.
This upjH'r ])lain of the province of Ontario is very
important from its great fertility and from the density of
its population, and while these divisions and subdivisions
of the peninsula may seem very small, every physical
fact regarding so important a part of the province is of
interest.

Geology

In the chapter on the province of Quebec it has been
shown tliat the Laurentian form.ition crosses the Ottawa
river at the Lac des Ohats where it is the cause of
numerous cascades. From that point it sweeps down
to the St. Lawrence river and crosses into the state
of New York, forming the beautil'ul archipelago of
the Thousand Islands. In this way it cuts off to the
east a triangular area of about 10,000 square miles in
extent, of Cambro-Silurian rocks between the two <rreat
rivers. This area, as has been seen, is very level and
drains mostly to the Ottawa. It is still densely wooded,
and is settled chiefly on the l)anks of the rivers. The
onlv olevati(jn to break the level surface is the Iligaud
mountain on the Ottawa, a mass of trap rock rising 538
feet above the plain.

;fil

344

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAI'IIY AND TRAVEL

If a line l)e now drawn due west from the Thousand
Islands to MatchetUish Bay, in the (leorgian Day of J.ake
Huron, it will mark the southern limit of the Laurentian
formation. N(»rth of that line the whole territory is
Laurentian, or I'ather it is a region of Archa'an rocks ;
for it includes very large areas of the Huronian formation,
and, as the country is surveyed, new areas of Huronian
are being continually found. This is very important to
remember, for these latter rocks are usually metalliferous.

South and west of this line of Laurentian, and close
up to the escarpment previously described, the whole of
the lower plain is underlaid by Cambro-Silurian rocks,
the same in general character as are found in the plain
country of Quebec in the valley of the St. Lawrence.

The escarpment, so frequently mentioned as forming
the leading })hysical feature of the western peninsula, is
the edge of a series of rocks belonging to the Middle and
Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Erian series. This series
contains in ascending order the Niagara limestones seen
at Niagara Falls; the Guelph formation, a special group of
dolomitic rock with characteristic fossils; and the Salina
or Onondaga group containing important deposits of salt
and gypsum. These are succeeded by rocks classified as
Erian (Devonian) containing the " corniferous " limestone,
remarkable for the abundance of its fossils, and the
Hamilton shales, important as the source of petroleum.
These formations occur in the successive order above
given, and in bands across the western peninsula from
Lake Ontario to Lake Huron.

The Lakes

The distinguishing characteristic of Ontario is the
important physical fact that the great peninsula is

I'imVlNCE OF ONTARIO

345

l)rnctically surroiindod by water — not only the western
peninsula j'.kI the upper plain, hut the whole peninsula
from the Ottawa river as a base to its apex on tiie
Detroit river. Geor<,nan IJay reaches i'ar down towards
Lake Ontario, and in the belt of Laurentian country from
Lake Xiiassing' to the Thousand Lslands though the lakes
are small they are beyond all count. The aggregate area
of the great lakes alone is 08,000 square miles including
Lake Michigan, which, though in the United States, is
sutHcientlv near to have an effect on the climate of
Ontario. The greater peninsula of Ontario is what is
generally meant in conversation by " Ontario." The
outlying territories dependent on the province are the
districts of Xipissing, Algoma, Thunder l>ay, and llainy
river — parts no doubt of Ontario in its widest sense :
but the population and strength of the province is in
the peninsula, and lies south of a line drawn along the
46th degree of latitude. On a previous page is given a
tal)le of the dimensions of the greater lakes.

The shore of Lake Ontario is comparatively low,
rising only from oO to 150 feet above the surface of the
lake. The most remarkable feature of the lake is the
l)eninsula of Prince Edward separated by the J>ay of
Quinte from the mainland. The Murray canal, 5^ miles
long, without locks, cuts across the neck of the penin-
sula. There are many excellent harbours along the
lake, Kingston, Cobourg, I'ort Hope, Whitby, Toronto,
Hamilton, and Port Dalhousie at the mouth of the Welland
canal are a few of them. The lake is deep and navigable
over its whole extenc. It is 190 miles long by 50
miles in average breadth, and its area is 7o30 square
miles. Many cities of importance are on its shores, for
it lies between the most populous province of Canada
and the important state of New York. Its clear waters

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111

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I'ROVINCK OF ONTAHIO

347

are studded with the white sails of hike craft, rassciif^er
steamers ply in almiidance to the many cities which
surround it, and lonj^ tows of bar,nes bring down to the
sea tlie agricnltural treasures of the west. 'I'lie rivers
wliich fall into the lake are not ini])ortant. The largest
is the Trent. The main feeder of tlie lake is the Niagara
river which, in its sliort course from Lake Erie, dro[)s 326
feet not only over the Niagara Falls l)ut in rajtids above
and below.

The Niagara Falls have Ix'cn the thenu'. of so many de-
scri[)tions, not only in guide-books Imt by writers of great
literary eminence, that it is dillicult to write about them,
and the more they are known and the longer one tarries
within the sound of the falling waters the less one is
inclined to attemjtt to describt^ them. Th(> enormous
volume im))resses the mind only by degrees: for at first
sight it is not realised, and the steady unintermitting How
of the cataracts slowly impresses the nerves by its solemn
and monotonous roar, \otiiing now detracts from the full
(tnjoyment oi' tlu' scene. .Ml the jx'stilent swarms of
touters, of curiosity-dealers, (tf I'akirs and mountebanks
at'e utterly swept away on both sides of the rivci', and
beautiftd grounds, cared Ibr i)y ]»ublic ollicers, skirt the
baidcs ot the lalls and rapids, both in ( )ntario and in
tlie state of New York. On the Canadian side the [)ark
is longer, for the river makes a dee)) cur\ e ; liut an
(dectric railway runs through its whole length and a
visitor may sto|» anywhere his fancy (Hctates.

The Niagara river did not form ]»art of the main
route to the west in the earliest days ol' the colony.
Tiiat was by the Ottawa and I'Veiich riveis to the Strait
of Ahickinac ; so that Fakes Huron, Michigan, and to a
great e.Ktent. even Sujjerior, were well known before Fake
Frie. Nor was this strange, for not onlv were the

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1. 011,1011. S!illlJ\'u<'i (iVi;i,-'/:\i7i»/'

St.-.tiitc Al ill's

I'HOVIXCE OF ONTARIO

349

liostile Iroquois avoided by the (!)tta\va route but the
circumnavigation of the peninsula was also avoided,
and on Ciianiplain's map of 1().")2 Lake Erie is shown
only as a long river. About the position of Niagara a
fall is indicated. In the Eel at ion of l()41 Lake Erie is
mentioned and the river is called Onguiaahra. No fall
is alluded to: Ijut, in 1G48, Father liaguenot mentions
a fall of a " frightful height"; and in Sanson's nia]» of
IGoG the lake is plainly shown and the riNer is called
Ongiara. The simple word " sault " indicates the know-
ledge of an existing fall, but the information is evidently
from Indian reports, and even on (Jalinee's map of 1G09
the fall is laid down as "reported by the Indians to be
200 feet jjigh." La Salle heard the roar of the water as
he passed the Niagara river on his way to the head of
the lake in 1GG9. There he met dolliet on his wav down
from the upper lakes, but he too had avoided the Niagara
river for fear of the Senecas, and had gone up the ( irand
river and made a i»ortage across to some })oint near
Ifamilton. La Salle remained behind, lait Dollier and
(Jalinee, two Sulpician priests in his party, took the trail
to (Irand river and wintered on Lake Erie. It was in
1678 that La Salle, 'J'onty, La ]\Iotte, and Hennepin
saw the falls, and the first description on record is in
Hennepin's 7Vfnv'/,s in 1G8.'1, where is als<» given a very fail-
drawing of them. The Frenchmen built a fort at Niagara,
In the great annoyance of the Iroquois, and then made a
]>()rtage to Cayuga Creek above the I'.'dls where La Salle
built the (h'ifo}}, the first vessel on tlie u\'per lakes.

The Falls of Niagara are formed by the precipitation of
the whole drainage of the four upper lakes from llu'
upper to the lower plain, over the escarpment .'•^o fre([uently
referred to in tlie previous i»ages. The edge of the
escarpment is at Queenston Heights seven miles lower

HI I

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I -,' =
I '11

350

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'HY AND TIIAVEL

down, but, in the course of ages, tl\e river has cut its way
back, and the falls are coLiinuou,'-'. receding in the same
way. It has been ascr 'Mied tliat .luring the last forty-
eight years tlie aimual niu •" recession has been, on the
American side, 7G^» nitij >, ;aid, on the Canadian side,

CENKHAI- VIKW OK NIA(iAli.\ FAI.I.S.

Niitinait, ritotii.

2 feet 2 inches. The group of rocks forming the escarp-
ment at its edge is called the Niagara formation and
consists of shales and limestones. At the falls the upper
85 feet of the precipice is limestone, and the lower 80
feet is of shale, so that the cataract erodes the softer
shale and undermines the limestone above. This is best
seen on the Canadian side, at Table Itock, where the
Ihnestone projects over the abyss. Not many years ago
this ledge was much wider, l»ut an innnense mass of it
broke off and fell into the caldron below.

PKOVINCE OF ONTAKIO

351

The Niagara river Hows from Lake Erie with a swift
current, l)ut moderates as it divides and expands to en-
clasp (Irand Island. Jielow the island it unites in a
broad stream 2 J miles in width. About half-way between
the lakes the rapids commence, and gather momentum
as they speed down an incline of 55 feet in three-fourths
of a mile. At the edge of the fall is Goat Island dividing
it into two unequal ])arts. The crest line of the American
Fall is 1080 feet, and is almost straight. The Canadian
or Horseshoe Fall, whicli carries four-fifths of the water,
makes a grand curve and falls as into a huge caldron.
The crest of water, as it curves in a clear green sheet
over the edge, is 13010 feet. It breaks into white
foaming masses as it plunges into the misty abyss.
It is calculated tiuit 7000 tons of water fall every
second. The height of the fall on the Canadian side is
ir»S feet, and on the American side 1G7 feet. Two
bridges span the river just l)elow the falls — a suspension
l)ridge and a cantilever bridge, respectively 820 and
900 feet long.

lielow the falls the river runs with great rapidity
between steep clitfs. A few miles l»elow are the lower
rapids and the tortured river, compressed into a width of
MOO feet between clilfs of rock 200 feet high, forms a
whirl}>ool where the currents not only swirl round hori-
zontally but from below in confused waves. At Lewiston
and (.>)ueenston the river resumes its tranijuillity, and
steamers from Lake (Ontario steam up to the wharves.
The total fall from Lake Erie is .'520 feet in a distance
of o3 miles i'rom lake to lake. The upper rapids account
.ipproximately for 5 5 feet, the cataract for 1 GO feet, and the
remaining 111 feet is in the declivity of tlie lower rapids.

Lake Erie is another busy lake, the centre of the
traflic of manv cities. Its sliores are for the most

< ^1 ;

III

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P' '

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352

COMPENDIUM OF GKOOHAI'HY AND TIJAVEL

9>!

■t; V-

part low (altliou,i(li there are in places long stretches
of clay hanks oO to 100 feet high) and its waters
are comparatively shallow. AVliile the other great lakes
are so deep that their holtonis are lower tlian the ocean
surface, Lake Erie has an average depth of only 80 feet.
The shallowest part is at the western end — west of Pelee
Island. In the centre and east, the depth varies I'roni
80 to 210 feet. The navigation is more dangerous on
that account, and there are not so many good harbours.
On the Canadian side the chief are Port ("olborne at the
entrance of the Welland Canal, Port Maitland at the
mouth of the (Jrand river, Pondeau harbour, and Port
Dover. In this lake, as also in Untario, there is a bay at
the eastern end cut oft' by Long Point, a low marshy spit
18 miles long, once a peninsula but now an island, the
waves having cut a canal at the neck. It is the resting-
place in their migrations of innumerable ducks and geese,
and is the property of a club which holds it as a game
preserve. Near the western end of the lake is Point
Pelee, and south of it Pelee Island, well known for its
vineyards. The lake is 250 miles long by .'38 miles
wide, and covers an area of 10,030 miles.

Tiie Detroit river, about .'>2 miles long witli a depth
of 17 feet, leads into Lake St. Clair, a small and shallow
lake .'100 miles in area, and with an average depth of
only 15 feet. The St. Clair river connects it with Lake
Huron. The lake is about 25 miles wide, and the St.
Clair river is ;jO miles long. The steamboat channel
in the lake is a canal across the tiats 2().V miles long by
oOO feet wide and with 10 feet of water, kept to its
])i'oper depth by ih-eilging. The sliores are low. The river
Tiiames is the only feeder of importance falling into the
lake. The large citv of Detroit in Michigan was an old
centre of the fur trade : opposite to it is the Canadian

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

353

town of Windsor, and not far away on the Detroit river
is Amherstburg, famed in the war of 1812-14 as the only
point of Canadian territory held ]jy the Americans at the
close of the war.

The Detroit river is crowded with shipping and
crossed by many ferries. The railway cars are ferried
over on large barges, so the continuity of travel is not
broken. It is calculated that in 1894, 34,800 vessels,
with an aggregate tonnage of 26,120,000 tons passed
through. The trattic is so large that it is now proposed
to cut a canal from Kondeau harbour into Lake St. (Jlair
through the counties of Kent and Essex. The distance
would be only 15 miles against the circuitous route oi'
02 miles by the Detroit river.

Lake Huron, the Mcr Douce of Champlain, l)eing on
the great route to the west by the Ottawa, was the first
of the great lakes known to the French. It is 270
miles long, wdth an average breadth of 70 miles, and
coA'ers an area of 23,780 srpuire n^iles. It is deep over
its whole extent. In many places the depth is over GOO
feet. The great island-studded expanse of Georgian liay
is almost a lake of itself. It receives the French river,
the Severn, the Nottawasaga, and other rivers of import-
ance, and is separated from the main lake by the great
Bruce promontory terminating in Cabot's Head and by
the lonu' chain of the ]\Ianitoulin islands. Tiie water of
this great lake is singularly clear, and on sunnuer days
it is ditUcult to distinuuish l)etween the blue skv and
the l)lue water, and a canoe will seem to float in the
air. The southern pa it of the coast is low, but, near
Goderich, the land rises into bold breezy bluffs and con-
tinuL'S high to Cabot's Head, terminating in lin. une
cliffs 3.24 feet high above the lake. Goderich and Ivin-
cardine are the chief ports on the main lake, but the great

2 a

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.4.U tCZt

354

COMrENDIUM OF (JEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

stream of Canadian traffic from the Sanlt Ste. ]\Iarie and
the Straits of Mackinac ])asses^into Georgian I'ay to the
crowded ports of Collingwood and (.)wen Sound — the
terminal point of railways which carry the freiglit directly
east and south to Toronto or Montreal, and avoid the long
detou" ' ■«" Lake Erie. There are many harliours on tlie
(Jeor Jay. before the convention for national dis-

ar' .li on the lakes, Tenetanguishene was the naval

i for the upper lalces. The north shore is very

hi„.. and Ijold, and rises up into cliffs of the formation
called Huronian, ironi its great development in that
locality.

Lake Superior — GOO feet above the sea — is the last
of the great series of St. Lawrence lakes, and is also the
largest. It is 420 miles long, with an average width of
80 miles, and extends over 31,420 square miles. It is
the largest sheet of fresh water on the globe — a serious
and stern inland sea encircled by steep rocky clilfs
300 to 1500 feet high of Archaean age, interrupted by
immense masses of granite and basalt. The water is
very clear and very deep, averaging 900 feet, and the
lake is subject to storms of great \'ioleuce. Port Arthur
and Fort William are the chief Canadian ports on the
lake. Xear them the gigantic ridge of Thunder Cape
rises clear from the water, a mass of basalt 1300 feet
hish with an outline like a lion conchant.

Storm-beaten elitr, tlioii mighty cnpe of thunder ;
Rock Titan of the north, whose feet the waves beat under ;
Cloud-reared, mist-veiled, to all the world a wonder.
Shut out in thy wild solitude asunder,

Thunder Cape, thou mighty cape of storms.

Thunder Bay is 25 miles long by 16 wide, and is
surrounded by cliffs alxmt 1000 feet high. Not
far off is Pie Island, rising 050 feet from the lake

I'ROVINCE OF ONTAlilO

, > O

cajiped l)y ;i mass of eruptive roek, and near it is the
little Silver islet, eeleljrated for having contributed from
three to four millions of dollars worth of silver to the
currency before the great fall in price. The St. Louis
river falls in at the head of the lake — not a very import-
ant stream, l)ut interesting as the source of the St.
Lawrence. The Kaministiquia is a large river, the old
portage route to the west, and Fort William was the

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THUXDEU C.vrK, NKAK TOltT AUTHlIt, I.AKK SUI'EIUOU.

lot

entrance where the fur traders held high carnival at their
reunions in the good old days of the fur trade, when the
western plains were black with buffalo.

Fort William is in a beautiful valley at the foot of
McKay Mountain, and has a good sheltered harbour.
The business of the Canadian Pacitic passes through
Fort AVilliam, and there the Company has inmiense
elevators for grain. It is gaining at the expense of Fort
Arthur. Lake Nepigon is the most important feeder of
the main lake. It is a great lake !4'»0 miles in
urea, very deep, and a favourite resort of fishermen in
summer. Off the mouth of Michipicoton river, formerly

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35G

COMPENDIUM OI' GEOGKAl'HY AND TKAVEL

one of tlie main canoe routes by Moose river to Hudson's
Bay, is Alichipicoton Island, another muss of eruptive
rock.

Lake Superior discliarges its waters into Lake Lluron
Ijy tlie St. Mary's river, which, at one point in its course,
falls in rapids '2'2 feet in a distance of three-fourths of a

(ili.VIN KI.KVATdU, AT 1-()UT WILLIAM, LAlvL .SLl'KlUdU.

mile. This is the Sault Ste. Marie, or locallv the " Soo,"
one of the great cardinal points of the continent. There
is a canal on the Tnited States side, and the Canadian
(lovernment has just coni]>leted one on the Canadian side.
It was only when the Canadian Xorth-west began to open
np that Canada felt the need of a canal of her own.
The United States canal was overcrowded ; and it may
give an idea of the extent of the commerce of these
upper lakes to add that, in ^he year 1 890, 18,01 ."> vessels,
with a registered ca})acity of 17,240,418 tons, passed
through the canals at the Sault. Among the items of

I'liOVJNCE OF ONTAlilU

Oi> I

fiviiilit were (j:!,2.'G,4(;;5 Imsliels uf wheat, 27,448,071
liushels (tt" otlier i;Taiii, ami 7,009,2;50 tons of iron ore.
There were 04(16 hjckaws. The lousiness of the Canadian
canal out of the al)ove auuregate ol.'Sli vessels, i>f tonnage
4,:')0r),l,'G tons, passing in 3042 lockages. The Canadian
canal was coni})lete(l in September, l(S0r>, it is in one
lock 900 feet long b} 00 feet wide and with 20 feet o
inches of water on the sills at lowest known level. It is
larger than the present American canal, and will take
larger vessels than can now navigate the lakes. The
total length of the canal is oOG7 feet, and its witlth 1 oO
feet. ])uring last summer three steamships with an
aggregate length of 9. '30 feet, and a registered tonnage
of 4i)87 tons, were passed through at one locking. The
cost of the canal was between three and four millions of
dollars. Navigation on the great lakes opens about the
middle of April and continues until the middle of
1 )ecember.

These great inland waters present very different
aspects. Clear and bright, in line weather, the blue sky
is reriected from their transparent depths ; but in days of
storm, wlien the sky is black with clouds, they are very
serious waters to navigate. The waves have not the long
swell of the ocean, and are less regular in their movement.
During a storm of several days the waves will attain an
amjtlitude of 15 to 18 feet. The surface of the lakes is
nnich affected by winds of long duration, and a long con-
tinued gale will raise the level of the leeward end of a
lake as nmch as 7 feet. In that way storm beaches are
formed on the shore. The level of the lakes is sul)iect
to iluctuations not yet accounted for, and recurring in
cycles of years. The levels of the lower lakes have been
recently l)elow the average, but the level of Lake Superior
has been above the normal heiuht.

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358

COMrENHir.M f)l' CEOCUAl'IIY ANI> TltAVEI,

iiii

lilj

The great lakes do not freeze in winter, .sa\t' in the
shallow places along the shores, for the cokl is not of
sufficiently Ion" continuance to cool the Avhole liodv of

I/O t

water to the freezing-point. As fast as the surface layer
is cooled it sinks, and is replaced by wanner water of less
density from below. The currents through the lakes vary
from 4 to 12 miles a day; but during a long prevailing
wind the rate may l)e increased to 2 or even 4 miles an
hour.

The system of canals by which these great inland
oceans are opened up to navigation has been already
described, and it has been shown how the difference of
level Ijetween Montreal and Lake Ontario is OA'ercome by
a series of nine canals, with an aggregate length of 42
miles, and overcoming a total drop of 205 feet. Between
Lakes Ontario and Erie the difference of level has been
shown to be 320 feet, and of this 1G7 feet is at Niagara
Falls. TheWelland canal overcomes this drop by twenty-
seven locks in a course of 28 miles. It extends from
Port ])alhousie on Lake Ontario to I'ort Colborne on
Lake Erie, and the aggregate rise is 333 feet. This canal
once passed, the whole of Lakes Erie, Huron, and jMichigan
are accessible, without further obstruction.

The parallel of 46° passes through two very important
points — the head of tide water on the St. Lawrence and
the key of the whole centre of the continent — that
remarkable conjunction of the outlets of the upper lakes
at the Straits of Mackinac and St. Mary. Montreal, a
few miles above tide water, in the old fur-tradini2 days
was the eastern end of a navigation which led straight,
by way of the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing to that central
point of the continent. The route was due west, never
deviating more than a few miles from the parallel of 40"
— Lake Huron is 570 feet above the tide — the foot of

I'ROVIN'CE OF ONTAiaO

159

the Chaudic've Falls at Ottawa is 1.18 feet above the tide.
It is now ]>roposed to open up this old canoe route liy a
series of canals, and connect by a line of waterways, almost
as strai,u;ht as the crow tiies, the core of the continent with
the ocean, and thus avoid the circunniavigation of the
Ontario peninsula and the breaking;- of bulk on the
railways.

Natural Beauty

It must not be supposed that because Ontario is a level
country that it is wantinu' in natural l>eauty. On the
contrary, it has beauties all its own. Gazing across these
blue inland seas in sunnner, and hearing the lap of the
ripple at his feet, one might imagine himself transported
to the ^Mediterranean. The Lake of the Thousand Isles has
been long celebrated. It is 40 miles long by 4 to 7 miles
wide, and contains about 1700 islands and islets. Georgian
I'>ay, on Lake Huron, studded with islets and shut in from
the main swell of the lake bv the Manitoulin islands, is

I ;»

a paradise of loveliness.

That bay of wizard beauty, where
The frequent i.sh>ts seem to float, so like —
In calms — the upper and the nether l)lue.

It is reported, on the autlnnity of David Thompson,
that Lieut. Collins, of the survey party, counted 47,500
islands and islets in tlie bay. INIany of them are of very
small size. Another estimate places the number at
30,000.

All the Laurentian country, from the Ottawa to the
Trent and Lake Simcoe, is a wilderness of lake and forest.
]\Iuch of this region is included in the IMuskoka and
Larry Sound districts, and is still in its pristine wildness,
where the lumbermen's camps are the only settlements.

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I'llOVlNCH or ONTAIMi)

.SlJl

'Hu' Muskoka reu-iou is within a low liour.s ol" 'r.u'onlo,
and is a tavourilf summer camping; ,uTtuuul, though ilierc
aiv u()(hI lioii'ls ihrouuh it. The leu'inn contains iVom
SOO to 1000 lakes studded with islai, Is and eonnected
hv a network <»t' streams. With eamte and |>addle one
may i;'o all over it, and thousands of ]teople resort to it
not only from the eities of Canada hut from the I'nileil
States. On the southern horder was the honu' of the
Huron nation when the lro(iuois warriors extinguished it
in hlood. Two ureat routes led to Lake Ontario; one hy
the Severn, Lake Simeoe, and the Trent into the \\\\\ of
i.hiinte and the other by the Holland and Jlumber to
Toronto. Lake Simeoe (on the old nu!])s Lake Toronto)
is one of the most beautiful i)laees in the Hominion, and
is the entranee to the Muskoka region. Champlain eanie
down with the *nvat Huron war ])artv bv that route, and
althouiih tlu' waters of the lake are now plouu'hed with
steamers, and canals are beinu' built alonu; the Trent, the
Lireat features of the country remain unchanged.

Ho ))asst'(l
l"]! Severn's stieaiu aiul u'ei Tonnito's lake,
Wliose mirrored sliadow.-:, oiKileseeut. j;lo\ve(l
Witli tieiiitilous eolour as tlie iiaiMles ili|>]ieil
.\iiil tiirneil. ilisturliiug all the numie seeiies
Of sylvan li; iity in its ileptlis |ir(i|iuind.
Still soutlnv .nls down the rushing Trent he ui>;i(l
\\'< trail eanoe ; at times tlirou^h level lakes.
Shootiiii,' at times down lapids. <}uiek the eye
.\nd tirm the wrist to hold the steady course
On the smooth eurreiit's crest. Ihit where the stream.
With glassy torrent, ^'lides nurullled down
And liackwards swirls in loam against the rocks.
Then, landing on the narrow rn::,i,'ed trail.
()'.'!■ houldors wet and sli|i|>ery with spray.
.\nd stoo]iinii 'lUMth the lirMshwo<id ovcrheaij.
He. with his savap' ^Miiiles, their luirdens hore
I 'own the portage's weary steep, until

si' I

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.302 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGHAI'HY AND TliAVKL

The (juiet watur calli'd tliein to cinliaik.

At Icii^'th lu! reaclictl a jilavu "twixt vcMdurous hauks-

Tlie luvclicHt which Ontario's waters hohl,

Where Quinte's matchless bay unnitllcil smiles.

Chaniplaiii luiloiigs to the whole of Canada ; for he was
as fainihar witli Ontario as witli Quebec, and he visited
ahnost every harbour on the Atlantic coast of Acadia.
Few Canadians in these days of railways have seen more
of Canada tiian lie saw from his canoe. I )urinL!; the winter
he si)cnt with tlie Hiirons he visited the Tobacco Nation
and another nation farther west. ](e must have entered
upon the upper western plain of Ontario and looked down
on the beautiful country to the west and south slo})in_L!;
down to Lakes Erie and Huron, and covered, as Charlevoix
says, l»y " the noblest forest of d.v whole world." Charle-
voix saw it from the other side and jminounced it " tlie
iinest country in the universe." Jn Cham])lain's time it
was, for an Indiiin country, populous, and trails led in all
directions throuyli forests of oak and elm and hickorv and
walnut. The Indian towns were surrounded with Helds
of maize, and pumjikins and sun-flowers and tobacco.
Champlain saw the country Ji all its ]irimitive l)eauty.

Muslcoka's rocky ^'leiis,
Threadcil liy crystal streamlets ami adorned
With lakes of <,deamin.if silver. West and south
Still onward— to a lovely ^Mrden land.
Fair even in winter. On its farther wv^a
A liold eseaii»ment oveilooks the i>hiin, —
And, on lonj,' summer days the gladdened eye
Dwells on n scene of beauty stretclied lielow
Still richer. Like a billowy sea of smilinj,' j,'reen
The woodlands wave lielow, and, far off, sweep
To distant shores of nd^hty laud-locked seas —
The bourne to which the spirits of the dead
Addressed of yoro their Journey lone ; nor rcaoiictl
Hut after weary travel.

I'KO LV( ■:: OF ONTARIO

3G3

'v did not ^ isit tie Xei.titl Xiitioii, and llieroloiv did
'lOt ;^f>e NiagUi.. ''''^" L"»ke Erie, i.. t he heard of theni i'roni
ihe natives, and Itr a[>[ireliended the character of the
wc-'lvji province. He says"Ctrble terre est conmie une
isle, ([ue la grande riviere Saint Laurent enceinl, passant
par ])lusieurs lacs de grande estendue." " I.e pays est fort
plaisant, cstant cliarge de grandes et hautes forests,
reniplies de l)ois de pareilles especes (pie ceux (pie nous
avons en France." "Much of the forest is now cleared, l)Ut
there is enough woodland left to give the whole country
the a]»pearance (jf a park. On the upper ( ourse of the
(irand river and along the edge of the Niagara escarpment
the scenery is very beautiful, and on the clifl's looking <iver
hake Huron one might fancy himself on the chalk downs
overlooking tlie Knulish Channel.

Population

Ontario is tiie most pojtulous jirovince of the I )ominion.
Out of a total })opulation of 4, 80.'), 2;!'.) given in the
census of 1801 Ontario has 2,1 14,.'»l21 , or ahout 4."! per
cent. Of these GG*8 per cent, or almost exactly two-
lliirds, live in the country. The pro])ortion of the rural
I>oi)ulation is still larue, hut it has decreased since the

( 2 iicr

)pu
previous decennial census, when it sto(jd at
cent. All of the people hut .">'7 per cent arc native-
lioi'ii lU'itish suhjects, and four-fifths of the whole were
linrn in Canada. The nundiei' of Protestants is 1.7r»(),021,
and of Koman Catholics ;;r.8,:;0(). Of the dillercnt
religious denominations the Methodists are by far the
most uunuH'ous. heinu- Gr)4,0Mr) : the Vreshvterians eonic
next with 4rt;-.,l 47, and the Anglicans next with .".S.",(>!i!i.
The population of the ])r(wince is almost all in the older
part, in the jicninsula hounded by the lakes and the

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364

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGltArilY AND TIIAVEL

Ottawa river. As originally planned, Ontario is still an
English province, for 95*2 per cent of the people speak
Knglish as vheir mother tongue. What is called " the
new Ontario " is now commencing to be colonised, but,
up to the present time, has Iteen known almost solely as
a lumbering and mining; territorv. The iirovince has
many more cities and towns than the other provinces, for
out of a total of 42 cities and towns having a population
of 5000 and upwards, 22 are in Ontario. These smaller
centres of population are also centres for lactones, and
the manufacturing industries are not gathered into one or
two centres, but are diffused over the province.

Government

The capital of Ontario is Toronto, on Lake Ontario,
the second city of the Dominion. Its population is given
in 1891 as 181,220 within the old boundaries, but the
city has been extended. A nnmicipal census taken this
year shows the present population to be 195,907.
The provincial government consists of a lieutenant-
governor, nominated by the Dominion Oovernment, and a
legislative assembly of 94 mend)ers elected on a manhood
suffrage. The province started at confederation with
one chamber only. The executiNc government is, as in
all other provinces, a committee of the privy council
having seats in the legislature, and holding otlice as long
as they connnand a majority therein.

Ontario led the way in the intportant matter of local
self-government, and first oi'ganised a municipal system
which, while it relieved the legislature of the minor
details of government, formed in every nnniicipality a
local school for training the j>eople in the exercise of
their political duties. It was from (Ontario that the

ritOVlNCE OF ONTARIO

3G5

inunicii»al system spread to (,^)ueljec at the riiioii in
1841, and quite recently to most of the other provinces.

l>r

1)1'
lie

Education

The educauional system of <)ntari(» is eclectic, and
based on princii)les adopted after a careful examination
of the systems of other countries. It was welded into
jin organic whole and moulded to the requirements of the
l)rovince mainly by the li<.;v. J)r. IJyerson, a man of un-
usual ability, born in Dnlario, the son of an exiled
Loyalist of the colony of Xew Jersey. It was commenced
on the present lines in 184-t on Dr. Ifyerson's apjtoint-
ment as chief superintendent of education, and he
administered it until 1870, when the ottice was abdlished.
and its duties were assumed liy a mend)er of the uovern-
ment of the day. The Minister of Education, with his
subordinate stall, now administer the education laws as
a de[»artment of goyernment. In tiiis way unity of
action is attained, anil he administers it, moreover,
throuuli trustees elected bv the local rateiiavers, bv
which flexibility and ])erfect adaptation to l<»cal ni'cds
is secured. It is a com[)lete system, and extends iVom
the child of four years in a kindergarten to the W.k. of
the provincial university fully e(|uiiiped for his career
in life. The principles of the system, as it has finally
been shai)ed by the legislature, are deserving of careful
study. Education is divided into three divisions, each
distinct and complete in itself; and yet the course of

study is uniform and consecutive wi

ithout

itverlapping.

There are, rirst, elementary or, as they are called,
public schools. These are free, and children from eight
to fourteen must attend them or some private school of
e(pial grade. They include kimlergartens, in the towns

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366 COMPENDIUM OF OEOCiRArilY AND TRAVEL

ami cities, for children of four years ; but children of
six years may enter the elementary schools. Second,
Intermediate education is carried on by high schools
into which youths of thirteen years may enter. The fees
are very low, and many are free of all charge. These
schools, when eciuipped up to the fullest requirements
of the law, are called ( 'ollegiate Institutes. Youths who
have passed through these schools are prepared for the
tliird division — higher education — and may matriculate
at the university, where, after a four years' course, the
degree of B.A. may be attained.

Taking first the autocratic side of the system, the
Government, by statutes, orders in council, and depart-
mental regulations, examines and certifies teachers,
prescribes text-l)Ooks and courses of study, compels
attendance, dictates the essential requisites of school
buildings, contributes grants, creates the machinery of
local taxation, and appoints inspectors to secure con-
formity with the laws. The democratic side is manifest
in the provisions for carrying out all details by boards
of trustees elected by the local ratepayers of each
school section. The excellent nmnici[)al organisation of
the province makes this easy. The counties are organised
by townslups or Ity incorporated villages or cities; all
are municipalities, and these are subdivided for edu-
cational purposes into school sections. Every school
section has at least one public school, and every county
has at least one high school.

Teachers are selected ami appointed by the local
boards, from among those certificated by (lovernment,
in three classes, according to their acquirements and
abilities. In every county there is at least one school
called a model school, under a highly-trained master,
where, in addition to ordinary work as a ])ublic school,

I'KOVIN'CK OF ONTARIO

30"

lit,
III* I
Ix.l
lev,
Jul

students are pre})iired for a third-class certificate as
teachers. Tliere is a noruial school at Toronto ami at
Ottawa where teachers are trained for second-class
certificates, and a school of pedagogy at Toronto where
first-class certificates are granted.

The main portion of the money re(piired is raised by
local taxation. Under the statute law this is imi)osed
and collected l)y the locally-elected l)oards ; and these
trustees also administer all the finances, build the
schoolhouses, and appoint and pay the teachers. In
the wealthier cities the schoolhouses are large and
handsome. The Government makes a grant to each
board l)ased on attendance, and the county council
must raise an equal amount. In addition, the township
council must coiitriljute at least J? 100 annually to each
school ; and if more is needed, the trustees nuist raise
it from the ratepayers of the school section. It is a
principle of the system to keep these three divisions
of education separate. There are separate inspectors
of pultlic, model, and high schools, and they are managed
l)y different boards of trustees.

It has been shown that in the province of (,)uebec
the schools are frankly denominational. In a Iioman
Catholic province that is t(j be expected ; l)ut in a
province like Ontario, where the majorit}'' is over-
whelmingly Trotestant and opposed to the least semblance
of connection between church and state, the prol)lem
of doing justice to the lioman Catholic minority had
to be approached in another way, and the result is
creditable to the Christian toleration of the majority.
The public schools of (Ontario are not open to the
reproach of lieing Godless. On the contrary, it is
expressly laid down that "Christianity is the basis
of the whole system of elementary education, and its

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808

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIV AND THAVEL

■' I

Itriiicipk'S pervade that system," but at the .same time
" No relij^ious body has any voice in tlie management
of the high or pubUc schools and the university."

Under the Act of Confederation the lloman Catholics
of Ontario have certain privileges in relation to schools,
and whenever five or more heads of families notify
the clerk of the municipality of their intention to
l)ecome separate school supporters they are excused
from taxation for public schools. Tliey elect trustees,
who appoint teachers, and their taxes go to the separate
school. It is provided that clergymen of any denomina-
tion may have tiie use of the schoolhouse after regular
hours for reliuious instruction as niav be arranued liv
the trustees, so that the whole question (»!' religious
teaching is settled, not by the Government, l)ut l)y the
people themselves. The Government inspectors visit
these schools and keep them up to the legal standard,
and the teachers nuist l)e certificated, but the Govern-
ment does not concern itself with the religious teaching.
The Roman Catholics generally avail themselves of
these provisions, and in some localities, where Protestants
are in a minority, it is they who have the separate
schools. It is, however, the general law that every
jiublic and high school shall l)e opened with the Lord's
Prayer, and closed with reading the lUble and with
the Lord's Prayer, or a special prayer authorised by the
government, and that the Bil)le shall be read systematically
either in the complete King James's version or out of
the ai Jiorised volume of selections from it, as the
trustees nu\y direct; but no comment may l)e made.
Pu])ils whose parents have conscientious objections to
such religious exercises mav retire. All such matters
are at the discretion of the trustees. There are in the
])rovince 289 separate schools, witli 36,168 scholars.

I'ltOVIXCE OF ONTARIO

:369

The crown to tliis system is tlie University of Toronto,
endoNved, niaintiuned, and controlled l»y the proyince. It
is nndenoniinational, and has I'aenlties oi' arts, of law,
and of medicine. It has also a college called Uniyersity
College, and a number of denominational colleges and
similar institutions are federated with the Tniversity.

]

■ n

INIVKHMTV (IF TdlidNTii.

These grant their own degrees in Divinity, and are
rei)resented in tlie u'uvernin''' body of the riiiversitv
which confers all other degrees. The chief among the
federated bodies arc Victoria rniversity (^lethodist),
Knox College (Presbyterian), iSt. ^lichaers College
(Uoman Catholic), Wycliffe College (Anglican), Huron
(.'oUege (Anglican), the School of Practical Science, the
Ontario Agricultural College, Trinity Medical School,
the TVomen's ^Nfedical College, the Toronto College of
Music, the College of Tharmacy, and the College of

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAl'IIY AND TliAVEL

Dental Surgeons. The people of Ontario are justly
proud of their educational system, and they have
succeeded in solving many most dillicult problems in
the debatable n^gion of mixed questions of church and
state. Those who prefer denominational institutions may
resort to <^>ueen's University, Kingston (rresbyterian) ;
Trinity University, Toronto (Anglican) ; Ottawa Uni-
versity, Ottawa (lloman Catholic); M'Master University,
Toronto (Jiaptist) ; and others.

■t 3

Agriculture

( )ntario is, al)ove all, the province where agricidture
has been most scientilically carried on, and where the
greatest results have been achieved. As has been seen,
it is a level country, and well watered. There is no
possibility of summer drought, and lakes and running
streams abound for cattle. There are, of necessity, patches
of swamp land in such a country, lait no arid land. The
soil varies from sandy loam to clay loam in every possible
gradation, according to the geological structure of the
locality. In the older settled parts of the province the
persistent cropjiing of wheat has, so far as wheat is con-
cerned, lowered the productive power of the soil ; but it
is luiimpaired for all other crops, and, after a due season
of rotation, its power of growing wheat must return. The
province grows the finest l)arley on the continent, and
raises the finest cattle. All the productions of temperate
regions otow throughout its extent, to the watershed of
Hudson's ])ay at the north. The Indian tribes, who
inhabited the jn'ovince before the whites, grew maize,
tobacco, puni])kins, and beans, and were sedentary tril)es
with settled abodes. The western peninsula is more
especially the garden of the province — the southern

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

lie

lid

I /AN

comities are tlie centres of priKluetioii of llie choicest
fruits. There tlie grape grows in the greatest perfection
for the niaiuifacture of wine and for tahle use. I'eaches
are cultivated in extensive plantations, and sold in
immense quantities ; and, for home use, the farmers grow
apricots, nectarines, and (punces, over an area of several
thousand scpiare miles.

All over the province maize is a standard crop,
and melons are grown in ahundance. Every farmer may
liave liis orcliard, and grow fruit for his own use, if not
for sale. It is necessary to dwell for a moment on
these important facts, because Canada has been long
misrepresented as a region of frost and snow, where it is
dift.eult to wrest a living from an inclement climate.
For this reason a few extracts I'rom tlie last olHcial
returns are given below; and these figures will refer
specially to such crops as maize, grapes, and peaches,
because in that way the real conditions of the climate
will most clearly appear.

The chief peach district in Ontario is in the southern
counties around Niagara, along the shore of Lake Erie,
and on the shore of Lake Ontario from Niagara to
Toronto. But they ma} lie grown anywhere as far nt)rth
as the south shore of Oeorgian ])ay. The largest orchards
are at Niagara, Grimsby, and St. Catharines ; but at the
single station of Leamington, in South Essex, 35,000
baskets of peaches were shipped in the season of 1894.
In that same year the peach crop of Niagara was
estimated as 300,000 baskets, and the crop was so large
that they were sold in the Toronto market at twenty-five
cents, or t)ne shilling sterling a basket. In the same year,.
at Winona in South Wentworth, 1200 tons of small
fruits were shipped, and one firm alone paid $3000 for
Itaskets.

fit

COMPENDIUM OF GEOCJKAI'IIY AND TRAVEL

Grai)C's have long Ijeeii a staple ciop in Ontario, and
the extent of tlieir cnltuie may l)e estimated liom the
following figures, Tliey are grown all over the peninsula
of Ontario, as far nortli as the south shore of Georgian
])ay. On a preceding page is a view of a vineyard
near Ottawa, but the most productive region is along the
shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario, for there tlie farmers
have given greater attention to the cultivation of the
vine. In the census of 1801 the quantity of grapes
produced is given at 11,725,281 i)Ounds. There are
350 acres of vineyard on Pelce Island, and the Wine
Company there pressed 500 tons of grapes in 1891. It
is n<jt easy to get a continuous series of figures for fruits
which are consumed in a market near at hand and are
not exported through the Custom houses. The returns
made to tlie department of agriculture at Toronto in
1893 gave 2,000,000 of grape vines and 500,000 peach
trees in Ijearing. These are approximate figures, but they
are sufficiently precise to indicate a climate by no means
rigorous.

Tobacco is not grown in Ontario to nearly the .^amc
extent as in Quebec, although the home of the Tobacco
Nation (Xation du IVtun) was between Toronto autl
Xottawasaga Bay. Only 314,080 pounds are returned
in the census of 1891 as having been raised during the
preceding year. For maize tlie figures are availaljle for
the year 1895. In that year there were 452,828 acres
under this crop, and the product is given as 24,819,897
bushels for husking and 1,775,654 tons for fodder. This
is a good indication of climate, but in fact, as pointed out
before, maize will ripen anywhere in Central Canada away
from the Atlantic sea-l)oard.

The number of acres in orchard and garden in 1895
was 202,0,14. The farmers in the southern counties

PROVINCE OF ONTARIO

o 7 o

Imve orchards, Jiud inaiiy farms have 60 or 70 acres in
[tcfiches as an adjunct to other crops. Tlie (|uantity of
apples grown is enormous, as well as of small fruits.
From one railway station alone, in 1804, 158,000 (piarts
of strawberries were shipped. Plums are also a very large
crop.

A few items of the larger crops may now l)e given to
show the extent of the agricultural interests of the
province. The figures are for 1895 —

Total acres under ci'Dp .

8,321,073

,, ., imsturt'

2,728,655

Dnslifls of fall wheat raised .

14,155,282

,, spring wheat raised

3, 472,. -,13

,, barley raised .

. 12,090,507

,, oats ., . . .

84,r)97,5t)6

Pounds of ehecse made .

. 109,230.340

,, butter .,

2.192.526

The extent of stock-raising is expressed in the follow-
ing figures for the same year : —

Value of horses in the jirovince . . .^40,283,754
,, cattle ,, ,, . . 46,708,017

AVool clip, 6,214,811 lbs.

The total amount of assessed land in the province
is given otticially at 23,11 3,3 15 acres, made up as

follows :—

Cleared land 12,426,992

Swamp ,, . . . . 2,828,904

Wood ,, 7,857,419

These details are available through the labours of the
otticers of the Department of Agriculture, and of an
admirably practical institution, the Agricultural College
at Guelph — an institution with a staff of eighteen
professors, where everything concerning the farming
interests of the i)rovince may be learned.

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374

COMl'KXDIU.M OF (lEOCRAI'HY AND TRAVEL

Climate

The old settled part of Ontario lies l)et^veell 42'^ and
4G° latitude, and, as hefore observed, is nearly surrounded
l)y water. Tlie elfeets of a eold wave IVoni the west are
moditied i.y the lakes, while thev are more severely felt
farther to the south, ^vhere tiiey ]>ass entirely over land.
The foUowini'' taltU^ fdves tlu» result of observations
extendinji; over fourteen years, lS72-S."i, It i^ives the
absolute hi<2;hest and lowest points, the mean highest and
lowest, and the monthly mean for January and July over
that period. The oi)ject of this table is to show the
climate of the western ]»eninsula and of Toronto.
London is in the centre of the peninsula, and Stony
Creek is close to Hamilton, at the head of Lake (Ontario.

TiCMrKiiATi'ia; in Dix.iikks FAiii;i:Nnr.iT. Kkmi.t.- (U' Fiu'ktki.n

Vkai;>' Oiim:i:v AiioNs

Jamiiirv,

.Tilly.

l.iindciH.

stony Cit'i'U.

Toiolit

Hi.U'lifst

. 4H-t)

r.1-7

44-.-

Lowi'.sl

. -9-9

-1-1

- 7.".t

Mi'aii lii,iriie.st

. 27-7

;52-s

27-9

Mean lowest

. 12-7

llt'O

12.9

Monthly mean .

. 21 -i:}

21-81

21 -d

Hi<,'lu\'st

. !t()'4

94 -S

89 -It

Linvost

. 1:5 "J

49-4

47-1

^Mean lii,L,'Iu',st

. 7!»-i)

82-4

( i 'o

JMean lnwi'st

. ."pti-1

.19-8

"i'-\

Monthly mean .

. OS -42

70 -r.

l)7-:!

The New Ontario

Hitherto the 8ul)ject of this chai)ter has been the old
Ontario — the solid ]topulous ]»eninsula ; but, of recent
years, since the boundaries of the pi'ovince were enlarged,
there is a new Ontario which must now be noticed. It
is divided into districts — jMuskoka, I'arry Sound, and

111

I'KOVLNCK UF ONTAiaO

o ■- -

O I O

Nipissin^' are such districts. The two lirst and a portion
of tho last, however, are in the peninsula as tiiev lie south
of the French river and west of the Ottawa. They form,
to;j,ether with the Ottawa valley, a lundn'rinu region havino;
all the characteristics of the haurentian country so fre-
(piently descrihed. These districts are near the larjj,c
towns and cities. IJailways run through them and they
are the summer recreation grounds of the inliahitants of
till' laru:e cities. In South XijtissinL;' is the Al^ontiuin [);uk
— a tract of eighteen townships, from whence jxtt-hunters
are rigidly excludeil — where the wild animals may roam
unmolested, and where visitors mav catch fish oidv
with a hook anil not more than are necessary for their
own food. The ])ark consists of l.MlO s([uare miles
of land and KKt sipiare miles of wa'er. It is a forest
reservation, well wooded with i»ine, maitle. Mack hirch,
hendock, heech, hlack ash, and hasswood.

The districts which comprise the Xew Ontario aie
North Xipissing, extendini;- from Lake X'ipissing to dames
r>av, Alifoma, irom the north shore of Lake Ilmou t«» the
Alhany river, Thunder Uay, extending frt»m the north
of Lake Superior to the same river, and west of it the
JIainv river district, from the international houndarv to
the northern and western houndarv of tne province.

AVhile the ipiestion of houndarv was unsettled very
little attention was paid t<» these territories and very
little was known ahout them. It is not strange in a
country like Canada, where land is so ahundant, that few
cared to press al(»ng the northern shores of the upper
lakes. 1* was seen that the shores were hold and rocky,
and it was assumed that the hack country was the same.
When, howe\er, two lines of railway were run through the
district, it was seen that there was a laigv (piantity of
good land hehind the coast hanier. The people ol'

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376 CO.MI'ENDIUM OF GLOGlfAPIIY AND TKAVEL

Ontario recognised tlie fact that they liad a territory of
many millions of acres ; larger than all the New England
States with Xew York uddcd, and easily accessihle hy
railway and steamboat, and that nuich of it was available
for settlement. The conntrv is a tal)le-land elevated

ahont lOOO feet above the sea, and exhibits an endless
variety of lake, river, and forest country with soil of all
kinds. It contains a good deal of broken rocky land in
the ridges, but the valleys contain large areas of good land.
It is a country of sunnner ruins, and the nundierless streams
and lakes drain it thoroughly. It is a hind of abundant
grass, and cattle, and especially sheep, thrive there.

The ([uantity of jiulp wood available in this region is
l)ast all calculation, but the forests are by no means all
spruce or poplar. Elm, basswood, maple, l)eech, and oak
are plentiful. The largest pulp mill in the world is now
established at Sault Ste. ]\[arie. It is situated near the
Canadian canal and draws from the Sault HOOO horse
power. The conqiany possesses oO scpiare miles of pulp
forest, and the mill can turn out 111) tons of ])ulp in a
day. The recent tariff of the United States has l>een
enacted with a view of excluding pul]» made in ( anada,
and drawing on the Canadian forests for the raw material
of pulp wood. Half of the wood used ]>y the mills of
New York State is drawn from (,)uehec and Ontario, and
Maine is drawing largely on the forests of Xew lUunswick.

These remarks apjily chielly to Xipissing and Algoma.
The Thunder r»ay district is solely a mineral icgion. The
chief town is Tort Arthur at the head (tf Lake Superior.
At Fort AVilliam, live miles from Tort Arthur, is the
shipping ]iort of the Canadian Tacitic Ifailway and the
terminus of its line of steamers on the up]>er lakes.

The uKtst western district is that of IJainy (Hem')
river. Tlie most ol' it is oroken countrv studded with

PROVINX'E OF ONTAIJK)

0*717
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tliinisiuids (if lakes and covui'lhI witli a iiotwork of
myriads of .strcain.s hiiiTyinsj: awiiy to tliu four points of
the comjiass down the waterslieds which eonvei'ge tliere.
Alon^' the IJainy river, however, tlie soil is very rich for
a distance of 8(1 miles, and the area of good farming land
is calculated at (100,000 acres. There is farming land
t(» Ite f«'und in the valleys throughout the district, hut it
is scattered over the country. The chief town of this
district is IJat Tortage at the outlet of J.ake of the AVoods
hy the turlailent river Winnij»eg. This is a town of a
few years' growth, with a population of 4.')00, rapidly
increasing on account of the mines opening uj) around it.
It is the centre of enormiais water power. The Lake of
the Woods is the great reservoir for a countless mimlier
of lakes and streams, and is like an immense mill-])ond
with a surface of 3000 square nules. There are large
lunilier mills there (for it is an extensive lumliering
district), and the laigest fl( airing mill in Canada with an
out])Ut <»f 2000 harrels of ihiur in a day. The wheat is
fr(tm Manitolta and the Xorth-west.

Fisheries

The fisheries of the great inland seas of the jirovince
have an impialant jilace in its industries. They are
(liietly carried on in Lake Huron, although idl the lakes
idiound in lish, 'J'he returns of production for the year
1 S'.),") are, aggregate value, !J5l,(jr»l),!)(iS, consisting mainly
of whitetisii, trout, herring, sturgeon, hass, and ]>ickereL
Tile numlier of lake hshermen was ."JL^rti).

Mineral Resources

I'ntil recent yeiirs Ontario has heen known almost
solely as a )>ro\ince ol' suriiassing agricultural i'esour«n'.s

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COMrENltlL'M OF (iEOCliArHV AND TKAVEL

mid of forest wcultli, l»ut (»f lute Years, iuid especially
since the settlement of the western find northern
boundary, the mineral wealth of the country has eome
prominently forward.

Coninieneinu" at the easteru portion of the peninsula,
the Lanrentian region has long been known to be rich in
iron ores. The country around Ottawa city in l)oth
provinces possesses numerous localities where magnetic
and lueniatite iron ores occur in immense masses.

The northeiii part of Hastings county and the adjoin-
ing region al)ound in iron, and great quantities of iron
have recently been discovered in the district of liainy
river. The absence of coal is, however, a serious
hindrance to the develojMuent of this iiuhistry. The
ores are as \)\nv as those of Sweden and Xorway, and
wood for charcoal is as abuiulant. The conditions are
similar, lait, so far, iron smelting has been a failure,
and the only use made of the ores of Central Canada
is to ship them to the United States to enrich lower
grades of ore. This exjtori business hiis now ceased as a
result of a prohibitive duty, Ijut the Ontario government
passed an Act in IS!) (5 to grant a bounty on iron
smelted in the province, and a new start has been made
at Hamilton during the last year. AVith this exce[)tion
the great deposits of iron ore in this ]»art of Canada are
now unworked.

The eastern })art of Ontario produces mica and
])hosphate of lime (apatite). 1'he production of the former
is increasing, 1»ut the export of phos]»hates has cea.sed
owing to the discovery and competition of new fields
very favourably situated for ex])ort on the coast of
Florida. In the same region gold, silver, co[tper, and
lead have been found, and vnluable deposits of litho-
graphic stone.

PRDVIXCE 01" ONTAltKJ

:!70

111 the western part of the peninsula is tlie oil reuioii.
The seat of this industrv is in the eountv of Laiiihloii,
where are al)out ."tOOO wi-lls, and tiu' value of <iil
products in the }'ear IS!),") amounted to Sl,80G,L^">7.
Alon^L!; the shores of Lake Erie wells of natural i^^as are
very numerous. Many towns are lij^hted hy them, and
the gas is used for cooking and in niiinufaetures. Pipes
are (extended across the international l)Oundary, iuid llie
gas is used for heating and lighting in some of the liorder
cities of the United States. The chief regions of })ro-
duction are Essex juid Welland counties, Imt new
localities are being coiitinuallv found. In tlu; latter
county there is an aggregate daily How of ;'.0,80r»,000
cuhic feet, and a pii)e-liiie is laid to the city of Uulfido.
The value of the gas i)ro(hiced in 1 Sl)r» was .S4ll."!,0.")l'.

Along the shores of Lake Huron are the greut salt
wells of the Oiiondagii formation. Thev are found over
an area of about 2000 S([uare miles. The salt beds air
at least four in number, and are at a depth of about
1000 feet. The beds vary in thickness from 20 to 100
feet, and the salt is brought up as brine by pumi»s in
b(»rings and is eva])orated in j»ans. The value of the
salt raised in 1805 was $180,407

( f

Mineral Resources of the New Ontario

led

It s

As has already Iteen stated, the Xew ( )ntario is, in
the main, Laurentian ; but tiiere are very imporlaiit
de(hictions to be made; for all (»ver it thcit' exist large
areas of lluronian rocks known to be metalliferous.
The general distribution of detached lluronian areas <tver
the Laurentian mass is being more and more ree(»gnised
with the advance of ex]»lorati<in ; but the largest single
area is oiu' extending along the north sImu'c of Lakt;

380

COMl'KNDIU.M OF GEOGKAl'IIY A^'D TUAVEL

■\

Huron from Killariiey westward to a short distance
beyond the Sault Ste. ]\Iarie. The formation lias a front
of 100 miles on the strait north of the Manitoulhi
islands, and extends far hack beyond the watershed until
it comes out upon the])evonian and Silurian band around
the southern shores of Hudson's Hay, a distance of aljout
GOO miles. Other important areas there are, as for
instance around ]\Iichipicoton ]>ay on Lake Superior, and
in many places along the shore of the same lake. There
are also bands in rear of Thunder ])ay, along the Seine
river, and between liainy Lake and J.ake of the Woods ;
and there is another area starting from the northern
l»ortion of the latter lake. All these areas run in l)ands
generally south-west and north-east. There ai-e many of
them, and they are so irregular in shape as only to be
described by a map. Their special signiKcauce is that
they carry copper, nickel, galena, zinc, and gold. From the
city of Ottawa to the Lake of the Woods there is a tract
of 1000 miles of mineralised country 100 miles broad.

A group of rocks is found around Thunder Bay, and
referred to the very base of the Cambrian formation to
which the name Animikie has been assigned. It extends
i'roni Thunder ]>ay to Pigeon river and along the
international boundary to (Juntlint Lake; in fact to the
height of land. This group is specially important as
carrying silver, and another group is found around Lake
Xepigon called Keewenian, containing native copper.
These are the great rock masses containing the chief
mineral wealth of the New Ontario.

Gold

Gold is found at many widely distril)Uted points over
an extensive area in ( )ntario — from Madoc and ]\Lirmora

PHOVIN'CK OF ONTARIO

;581

Iver

iol'il

in Hastings county to the nortli-west boundary of the
province. It is not found as alhivial gold, hut in the
rocks, and is usually " free milling." It is thirty years
since the Madoc mine was discovered, hut the uold there
was combined with mispickel, and the workings were
after a while aliandoned, Ijecause there was no suitable
process for separating the gold. liccently discovered
processes have been introduced, and the mines are now
again being worked. Other deposits near Sudbury are
now being developed, and mines along the shores of the
Lakes Huron and Superior are being opened uj) and are
beginning to make returns.

Although it had been reported l)y the Geological
Siirvev, it is scarcelv more than a year since it came to
be generally known tliat the most important region for
gold mining is in the district of llainy river, and there,
es])ecially near Shoal Lake and Seine river, hundreds of
locations have been recently taken up and are being
pushed rapidly to development. Several mines have
passed into the stage of paying dividends. j\Iany
locations have been taken up on Lake of the Woo-'s,
and one mine not far from Lat Portage is now set d
down to the reu'idar weeklv i)roduction of a brick of
metal with enough ore in actual sight to keep the stamps
Itusy for years. All this business is so recent that exact
statistics are not accessible. All that can be delinitely
ascertained is that in eleven months, ending with iJOth
Septemlter 180G, Ontario jiroduced gold to the value of
Sl42,Gor», and that the average value of the ore milled
was ,$14".S;> per ton.

Silver was discovered at Silver Islet in Lake Su])erior
ill 1SG8, and up to 1S84 the amount of $:;,l!r.O,000 had
been raised from that little sjiot alone. There are many
other locations where silver is ibund, but the present

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382

COMPKNDIUM OF GEOGKArilY AND TKAVEL

ll :'

price is too low to induce any efforts to develop them.
A iiiiue of galena carry iiin' silver has been worked near
Sank Ste. ]\Iarie.

Copper has long been mined on the northern lakes at
the l>ruce mines and elsewliere. The ])est known locality
now is Sudbury junction, where, in cutting ibr the Canadian
Pacific liailway, large deposits were found of nickeliferous
copper pyrites — sulpliides of copper and nickel associated
witli pyrrhotite or sulphuret of iron. There are three
or four mines in working at Sudl)ury. The (juantity of
nickel produced in 1895 was 0,888,525 lbs. of metal
in tlie matte. The value of tlie metal was $1,. '5 (3 0,9 84,
but, as it was exported in matte, the value entered out-
wards was the value at the nnnes, viz., $521,783.

Cities

Toronto is the political capital and the heart of
Ontario. It is situated on the nortli-west shore of Lake
Ontario on a front of eight miles, between the mouths of
the rivers Don and Humber, on an excellent harbour
l)rotected from the swell of the lake l)y a long low island.
The city is on level ground, but in tlie rear the land rises
in it terrace which was a former lake margin, and the
belt of land along the terrace and in the valley and ravine
is laid out in Ijeautiful drives and parks. Tlie city is
well laid out, with streets at right angles, and is built up
with su})stantial buildings. Tlie residences are mostly
detached with a little ground around them. They are
not huddled togetlier in terraces, and the city has, in
consequence, a look as if there were plenty of room.

The first settlement at Toionto was in 1749, when
the French built Fort Ifouille, named after the Count de
.louv, Minister of Marine i?nd Colonies. It was intended

. T':

PROVINCE OF ONTAKIO

383

to cheek the eominunieiition between the Iiuliau tribes of
the north and the English traders from (Xswego, The
meaning of the name has been mucli disputed. It is
argued by many that it means " })lace of meeting," but
schoLars in the Indian tongues like the Al)be Cuoq and
JJisliop ]jarega give the meaning as " trees in the water,"
])robably from the fact tliat in {i})pruacliing T<jronto from
the lake in a canoe the trees on a long, low spit of land
seem to grow out of the lake. Tliis spit of land is six
miles long, and incloses a connnodiuus and sheltered
harljour. Of recent years the lake has washed a channel
tln'ouii'li the neck and made an island of wliat was a
peninsula. The name of the landing-place for the portage
to ( Jeorgian ]}ay was extended on the old maps over the
wdiole country to which the route led, and so Lidce Simcoe
was Lake Toronto, and Matchedasli ]jay was Toronto Bay,
and the river Severn wliich connects them was Toronto
river.

AVhen Governor Simcoe in 1703 fixed on Toronto as
the site of the future capital of Upper Canada it was a
wiiderness. One Mississauga wigwam occupied the site
uf the city. The fort had been al)andoned since the
French evacuated it. Simcoe pitched his tent there
and lived in it during the first winter. ]\[en of the
(Queen's liangers (his old regiment) cleared the site, and
in 1797 the legislature removed there from Newark.
The present euphonious name did not please the g(nernor
and he called tlie i)lace York. It was not until 1S34
tliat the name was changed l)ack to Toronto. During the
war of 1812-14 the town was twice taken and the puldic
buildings were burned; but it was not occupied for more
than a few days at each raid, for tlie attack was by
expeditions over the lake. The invading army did not
get so far.

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384

CO.MrKNDIUM OF (;E0( iKAI'llV AND TIJAVEL

Toronto is a great tiiiaucial, coiiiiiiercial, and manu-
facturint; centre, and its citizens are very active and
enterprising' Imsiness men. The harbour is always full
of steamers and lake craft, and a large nundier of railways
converge upon the esplanade on the lake front. The
great systems, of course, make it a central point, Imt
tiiere are numy lines originating in the city itself which
stretch out in all directions — north, east, and west, and
toucli the shores of the great lakes at very many points.
Few cities anywliere have such a railway service. Thi'
country around Toronto is ricli in aui'it;ultural wealtii
and of itself would support a laige city; but the trade ot
the city far overspreads the province and tne business
enterprise of its people e.\tends over the whole J)ominion
from ocean to ocean.

The city is a veiy pleasant place of residence, for it
has all the conveniences of the largest American cities.
The electric-car service is e.Kcellent — tlien' are nearly
100 miles of electric track — and the electric light and
telephone .systems are most complete. There is no lack
of anui.sements, for there are theatres and large music-
halls, and great artistes visiting America never i)ass
Toronto.

The educational advantages of tlie city an; complete.
The schools are of course numerous and good, but the
institutions of higher learning are also many and im-
portant. The Tniversity of Toronto is the especial care
of the government of the province, and with this central
institution twelve C(jlleges are federated. The buildings
are considered the finest group of university buildings in
the Dominion if not on the continent. I'nivi'rsitv
Collegx' has a teaching staff of 7.'! profes.'^ors and lecturers
and the students usually number l.'>00. In tiie paragraj)!)
on Education information will be found concerninu- the

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38G COMPENDIUM OF (lEOGltAl'HY AND TltAVEL

ecluciitioiiiil institutions of the city. A large and admirably
managed free public liljrary adds greatly to the attractions
of the city.

As the capital of so important a province, Toronto is
the centre of its political life, and the legislative and
departmental buildings are very substantial and imposing.
The centre of the immense educational system of the
province and the chief Normal school is at Toronto, and
there also is the chief Meteorological and Magnetic
Observatory of the Dominion.

The foreign trade of Toronto for the year ending
June 30, 1<S96, was —

Imports
Exports

!?20,275,400
4,178,332

The value of the manufactures produced was given for
the last census year, 1891, as $42,489,352.

The domestic trade of the city is very extensive, for
it reaches over the whole Dominion ; but as it does not
pass through the Customs there is no way of gauging it.
It is a banking and insurance centre, and the head offices
of a number of large and successful banking institutions
are situated there. The higher courts of law are at
Toronto, so that it is the centre of the legal business of
the province as well. Another and more pleasing advan-
tage is that it is the centre from whence a very large
number of attractive summer resorts may be readily
reached. The Muskoka region and Georgian Bay and
the upper lakes, Niagara Falls and Grimsby Park, and
many resorts along the lake shore are conveniently
accessible by the swarm of steamers in the harbour or
the frequent trains from the stations.

As pointed out already one half of all the cities of the

rUOVlNCE OF ONTARIO

Doiiiiniou, haviiig a population of over 5000, are in
Ontario. Only a few can be mentioned. Connnencing
on the east is —

Ottawa, population 44,1 o4, the capital of the Dominion,
situated on Uie river of the same name 120 miles west
of Montreal at a point where navigation is arrested by
the Chaudiere Falls. It is the most important centre of
tlie lumber interest in Canada. The enormous power
developed by the fall of such a river as the Ottawa is
utilised by immense saw-mills. The same power on the
<^>uebec side at Hull is used not only for saw-mills but
for paper and pulp mills and other factories. The
Parliament and Departmental buildings (see FroiitUpiecc)
of the Dominion Government are very handsome, and, as
the seat of Government, the city draws many visitors,
especially during sessions of Parliament.

Kingston, at the foot of Lake Ontario, is situated on
the best harbour on the lake, and is the oldest town in
Ontario ; for Frontenac built a fort and trading post
there in 10 73, and it is the only place west of Quebec
which has any pretence of being fortified. The liideau
ciuial from Ottawa opens into the lake at Kingston. It
was built as a line of interior communication in case of
war. The Eoyal ^Military College — the West l^oint or
Woolwich Academy of Canada — is situated here, and
<»>UGen's University, an institution in the front rank of the
universities of Canada, is also at Kingst ju. The large lake
craft tranship their grain by elevators at this point into
barges which carry it down to the ocean vessels at
Montreal. There are cotton and woollen mills, and
factories of railway cars and locomotives. The po})uhition
is given in 1891 as 19,264.

Peterborough is a city of 9717 inhabitants, situated
<jn the Otonabee river in the Trent valley. Originally a

i.r

'X'

m I

i !

t
1

:'>SS CO.Ml'KNIiUM OK (.KOt.KAl'llV AND Tl.'AVKl,

luiiilifiiiiu town, il has dcvi'litiu'd into a innnufactuiinu
ciMilit' Itt'cansc of the innni'iisr wati'i'-powev j^rncratcd liy
a tall of lifiy feet in tlie nwi: Tlu-iv aii' woollen mills,
llouiinu' mills, liridgv-liuildinu works, ami railway car
facloiics. Ajjvi: ultural implcnR'nls and all kinds of
t'K'cliical sujjplies an* niadr lirrr, Imt chiclly il is

i»

I'liti ni'ii'l,, I'lc't"

c HAi i)n;iii-; iai.i.s, ouawa.
(I'loiii I'.iiiiMiiii'Mi mil)

I't'lebrated all over tlu' I)oniiiiion for making tlu'
" Pelorltorouu'li canoe" tlu' l)t'st canoe made anywlierc
'I'lie ciiv is the centre of a region of innuuierahh' lake.-
und streams.

Hamilton is an inijiorlant city situated on a shelterrd
hay at th.e head of Lake Ontario and at the foot of llir
Xia<Mr; "arpment. It is a verv hnsv and a verv wrll
hiiilt city, witii iiuuieroiis lar^e inytitnlions and handsome
editices. .Many im]>ortant manufactures are cairied (»n ai

lluTf.

akt'>

lU'ifi
It' I 1m

NVrl

Isttllli'

rilOVINCK OF ONTAIMO

:{S0

lliimilton, and its iiulustrit's are ninri' .livrrsitu'tl ilian
lliuse of (Ulu'r ciiii's in ilu' wt'si. It has a Vwc I'ultlic
Liliiarv. Tlu' railway cnnnt'clidns (if Hamilton arc very
oxtcnsivc, and liciiiLjat the (.'xUvmr head of tlic lake it is
an inijiortant jtoint of iidand iiaviL^'ation. The imitulation

"HI

i''iiti, rif.t"

( llAll)li:i!K. I'AI.I.S, (iTTWVA.

(Willi.

iViMii till' riM'i' liiUiU)

Wiis niwMi in IS'.M as 4S,080, and tho animal ontjiul of
luanufac'tnrod n'ot.ds as !^14.044,oL' 1 .

IWantford is a laiiidlv uidwin-j; citw licautifnllv
-ituatt'd on the (irand river. In ISDI its jiojiulaiion

\va-

12,

i>, and the annua

1 val

ue III its nianulaetur*'

IU'mIucIs S4/JS(), !)!)'.). It lias nianufaelnres of niaehiiiciy
id hardware, of hieveles. earriaLU's. liinder-1 wine, and

:ni

•>i'iiieware. and has also cotton and woollen mi

ills. I

t i«

".lined after Uraiit. the ^r.-at and Imiuaiie Mohawk ehief,

I ; ■''■ i

'i\

ili

■I:

; ' 'I

I
'I ■

i: ! j.

' : M

[jmr

aoo

COMrKNDlUM OF (iKOGKAPIIY AND TUAVEL

wliom Thrtin.'is Campbell slandered in his Gcrtrv<lr of
W Homing.

Tlic mammoth comes, the foe, tlie monster Brandt
With all his howliiii' desolatin" band.

.;)

I <

The poet made an apdlouy, ])Ut it is in a note at the
end of the poem where few see it. It is evidently less
imjjortant to tell a lie than to spoil a poem. ])ranl
was not at Wyomin''- at the so-called " massacre."

(lalt is anotlier citv on the (irand river, whose name
commemorates Joint (lalt tlie author of The Ai/rsJiirr.
Zcf/fiffefi, and other novels very popular in tlieir day. It
has a population ttf Tr*.'!."), and is noted for its manu-
factures of edj^fe tools, machinery, woollens, and (»ther
articles to the amount of !?2,G21,olO annually.

(luelph is on the Speed, a tributary of the (Irand
river, and a fall of 30 feet gives it abundant water-power.
The population in ISO! was 10,000. It is the seat of
the Ontario A";ricultural C'olleu;e and the centre of a verv

rich farminrr countrv,

Ther

e IS an e.\])erime

ntal f

uni

attached to the colle;j,e, and the number of students is
usuallv about Ho. There is a verv etfective, scientific,
and practical teaching- stall'. Agricultural implements,

wooll

ens, carpets, sewing-machines

and

oiuans, are

chief manufactures.

London on th(^ Thames is a city of ."»I,077 inhabit-
ants, the centre of the ric' st farming district in I he
west, and reaches out l»y many railways over the j»eninsul;i.
It has manv in<histrial interests, iron foundries, machinery
works, breweries, chemical works, musical instruments,
and many factories of other kinds. The country iii'ounil
is very beau'ii'ul, and it is known as the " Forest city"
because of tlie park-like apiu'arance of tiie surroundini,'
countJ'V. ]\lany large institutions, educational ami

I'KOVINCE OF ONTAllIO

101

liH'iy

"Ills,
ItUlltl

lity"

linanc'iiil, are situated at this central point. Tlie annual
output of its factories is given at $8,22r),9r>T.

Woodstock on the Thames is another ag'.'icnltural and
nianulacturini'' centre. Tlie ccnintrv round is exceedinr;ly
ricli, and it lias more than tlie usual educational advan-
tages, even in Ontario. Organ ami piano factories, woollen
mills, and manv other industries are carried on here.
The po[)ulation in ISDl was 80 12.

Sarnia (po]). OCil).'') is a growing town on the 8t. Clair
river celelaated for having one of the greatest tunnels in
the world. It is the link connecting the Orand Trunk
L'aihvay of Canada, at I'ort Union, in ]Michigan, with its
laanch to Chicago. The tunnel is under the St. Clair
river and is 21 feet in diameter and 0020 feet long.
The walls are of cast iron segments holted together.
The a]»proaches are oGOO feet in length. The cost was
S2,700,00(l.

AVindsor (pop. 10,1522) is a jMiint of many converging
roads, and freight and [lassenger cars are ferriecl across to
Hetroit rill immense l»arges. The Ixtats are so jioweiiul
that even in the de])th of winter they are uninterrupted
hy ice. l)uring the season of open navigation on the
lakes, lines of steamers start from Windsor for the u]t})er
lakes. The city is lit hy natural gas found near.

( )\ven Sound is a town on an inlet of Oeorgian r>ay of
the same name (pop. 7407). it is on the lust harhour
on the lake, 12 miles loiiy; hv o miles wide, and is the
terminus of one of the Canadian Pacific llailway sysiems.
The steamers in connection with that railway leave ( >weu
Sound for Fort William on Laki; Su])erioi.

Some of the cities and towns owe their jirospeiity to
the fact that they are the centres of converging railways
such as Stratford (i>o]>. 0501) and St. TIi(»nias (pop.
10,.">70); others are centres of rich farming districts, as

1 i

;392

COMrEXDIUM OF c;K<3<;itAl'IIY AND TKAVKL

I' ■ I

i ■ :

Cliiitluiiii (p<»p. 00."»2) iiiid St. Cfithiiriiies which is tlic
centre of the fruit -growing iiidustry. Maimfiictures
naturally spring up at sucli points. < )thers are terminal
points of ,L>-reat railway systems on the lakes, such as
Croderich on Lake Huron, Owen Sound and Collingwood
on (leorgian J>av, where there are elevators and facilities
for transliipment.

Many other cities and towns might l)e mentioned if
sj)ace permitted. They arc; abundantly furnished with
the conveniences met with in the Lirge American cities.
Electric roads and light, tele}>hones, schools, churches,
and places of amusement, and they are all well admin-
istered under the excellent municipal laws of Ontario.

In the old days, before tlie railway system olitained
its present large development, ports such as Cobourg,
Port Hope, Whitby, and similar places on tlie shore
of Lake Ontario, were the cliief to^/ns, but now the
raihvavs are passing through the heart of the countrv,
and the inland towns are becoming more important
centres of business. Toronto and Hamilton are great
railway centres as well as points of inland navigation,
and are growing very rapidly, but some of the lake ports
are losing their comparative im]>ortauce.

NOTE TO CHAITEII XIII

A Lrrc.il luaiiy Itooks liavi' been i>ul)lislit'il on the ivsourcos of
Oiitiirio, l>ut. the proviiu'ii is ;i(lviiiu'iiig rapully, JUid tlie liest f^cmrces
of iiifi)riiiiiti()n are the annual reports ot' the dei)artnients of the
provimial L,Mvernnient. Among them arc the following • —

Annual Report of tlie Hiireau of ^linos; Toronto.
Hullctins of the Hureau of Mines, Tunnito.
Ijiillctiiis of the I'liu'itiu of Inilustrii's.
]Je[iiirtiiit'iit of .Vj^rieiilturo, Annual Ilejiorts.

I'ROVINCE OF ONTARIO

o o O

These valuable lejiorts contain all accessible iiit'ovniatioii (■(inceniiiij,' the
a<,'rieultnial ami iiiiueral industries of the province lirouf^ht down to the
latest date. The last report on a^'rieulture is in 2 vols., 8vo., 1896,
jmhlished in Toronto.

Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada, by J. (icorf^e
Hodgins. M.A., LL.D.. Toronto. :5 vols., Svo., 1891-95.

Report of the Royal Coniiuission on the Mineral Resources of Ontario.
Toronto, 1890.

Reports of the Royal (Jonnnission on Forest Reservation and National
Fark. Toronto. 189:5.

Many of the books mentioned in the notes to ])rcvious ehaitters, refer
also to Ontario.

Tlic j;eoloj,'y of ibe older jiart of the jirovince was the subject )f tlie
labours of the earlier years of the Geolo^'ieal Survey. The results are
containe<l in the largo volume published at ^lontreal in 18(J3, "Geology
of Canada." r-ater researches haie reference mainly to the '"New
Ontario." The reports arranged by localities are as follows : —

Cr.NTlIAI- ANP EaSTKKN ColNTIKS.

H. (;. Vennor, 18(59, 1871, 1872-75, 1877. Thomas Macfarlane, 186»5.
R. W. KUs, 1891. F. A.lams, 1S9:5.
Wi-sricKX Fkninsila.
T. >S. Hunt, 1S69, 1877.

Ul'l'DIl OrrAWA AND NlI'ISSINC.

W. .M'Ouat, 1873. A. E. IJarlow, 1893-91.
IJasIN (IK Jamks F.AV.

R. Hell, 1871-72, 1876-78, 1891, 1893, 1894.
Lakk Hri:i)N and GEoitcuAX 15av.

IJ. IMl, 1866-69, 1877, 1891, 1893-94.

LaKK Sl'I'KKIOI!.

Thomas Macfarlane. 1866. R. P.ell, 1869, 1871-72, 1873, 1876-77,

1882. E. IX Ingall, 1888. W. M 'Innes, 1894.
Lakk of Tiir. AVooDs and En<;i.ish Rivkk.
Dr. Selwyn, 1873. R. I'.dl, 1873, 1882-81. A. C. Lawson, 1885-88.

W. H.'Smith, 1891. W. M'lniies, 1891-93.

s. '

1 '

I*,

'■r

il ■*'

I !

chaptej: XIV

MANITODA AND THE NORTH-WEST TEUIHTOKIES

We come now to tlie (,'rejit interior plain extending iVoni
the international bonnthuy line of lat. 40 N. to tlu^
Polar Ocean. It is contained between the great ])rolonga-
tion to the north-west of the Laurentian nucleus, ])re-
viously described, and the Jiocky ]\lountain range. Tlu;
]\Iackenzie I'iver basin forms the northern })ortion of this
enormous ])lain, and it includes the provisional district of
Athal)asca ; the remaining portion contains the greater
part of the province of ]\lanit(jba and the territories of
Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The present
chapter will treat of the latter jutrtion only, which might
almost be called the Winnipeg basin. Tlu; former, or
the Mackenzie basin, will bc^ more conveniently con-
sidered separately. The physical conditions of ]\Ianito]»a
and the three last mentioned territories are similar, and
they are politicidly divided by lines of survey only, not
by geographical i'eatures. It will therefore avoid repeti-
tion to take them together in their general characteristics
before dwelling u[>on those few points in which they
differ.

The area of the territories now in <iuestion is almost
entirely contained within two low water-partings very
nearly u])on the lines of lat. 40° and r»4°. On the

nidst
very

the

if 1

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ct of
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MANITOBA AND WEST

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SCALS, I ?.,274,7ZO a.' 'A ENGLISH MliES TO I INCH
SO lUO UO

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LotHoR: F4<K»ard Stfutftird.iMt A ;i7('iM-iii«|ttii

WEST ER N ONTARI O.

To^icepoffe 39!>.

ir«rA.'>Mi A 27('tM>i(tt|mt- StA'hHi-in^ Crosfi

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'"1

MANITOBA AND THE NOKTH-WEST TERHITORIKS .MOo

south the drainage basin of the ^lissouri projects across
the boundary line over about 20,000 Si^uare niik'S. At
the extreme north-west corner there is an area beh^nging
to the Mackenzie basin and a portion of the drainage
basin of the Churcliill river extends south of 55°; the
Laurentian country, moreover, invades the eastern border,
l)ut for ready compreliension the territories now in view may
be considered as an immense paralk'logram contained
within the })arallels of 49° and 55° and the meridians
of 1)5' and 110°, or 24"" of longitude l>y G of latitude.
The chief characteristic of the area is tliat of an immense
ocean -like plain, treeless at the south but gradually
becoming forest-clad at the north — first Ity scattering
islets ol" poplars, then by park-like expanses intermixed
with prairie, and passing, lastly, into a region of coniferous
forest land. The edge of true forest connnences in
Manitol)a about the Duck mountains, and extends north-
west to the forks of the Saskatchewan, thence westerly,
approximately along the northern wjiter- parting north
and west of Edmonton, then south-west to the foot-hills
of the liocky ^Mountains where the forest line turns to
the south. The whole area is about 3 7 0,0 S,*) scpiare
miles in extent, as large as France and Spain, and of
that about half is prairie land — green with grass in the
spring, gay with wild flowers in eaily summer, and
yellow-brown with self-cured hay in autumn. That was
its aspect in its wild state before the settlements com-
menced ; but, whether the western sun goes down under
a horizon of wheatfields or wild prairie grass, it has the
same appearance of sinking in an ocean of which the
long undulations of vegetation are the waves. It im-
presses the traveller from settled countries with a feeling
of loneliness and immensity ; ibr the settlements seem
lost as are ships upon the ocean.

S I

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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396

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'HY AND TKAVEL

The whole interior plain of Canada slopes with a very
gentle descent to the north, and tlie area in present con-
sideration slopes also very gradually to the point of dis-
charge at the outlet of Lake Winnipeg on the north-east,
to which all its waters (juietly converge to be carried
thence by tlie Xelson river into Hudson's Bay. The
initial elevation of the interior plain is sliglit, and the
distance to the oceans, whether of the north or east is
great ; hence the rivers How with a tranquil current and
tlie whole region is permeated with waterways separated
by very low divides from adjacent river systems. This
innnense plain is in the very centre of the continent.
Winnipeg, its commercial capital, is in long. 97° 8',
within a few miles of the half-way point between St.
-lohn's, Newfoundland, .')2'' 42', and the boundary of
Alaska at long. 141' W.

Two lines of elevation running north-west and south-
east divide the plain into three parts, called respectively
the first, second, and third prairie steppes. They run
diagonally across the territory. The first prairie steppe
is wholly contained within Manitoba — the second com-
prises the south-west lialf of ^Manitoba, half of Assiniboia
and three-i"ourths of Saskatcliewan — the third, the re-
mainder of those territories and all > (" Alberta to the
foot-hills of tlie mountains.

The First Prairie Steppe

Tlie first ])rairie stei)i)e is bounded on the east by the
Laurentian country, marked l)y the line of the eastern
shore of Lake Winnipeg produced to the south beyond
the parallel of 49' ; and, on the west, by a low escarp-
ment nowhere more than 500 feet higli. This escarp-
ment crosses tlie international boundary at the rembiiui

MANITOBA AND THK NOltTII-WEST TEillilTOUIE.S

39'

mountiiiiis abuut 40 luile.s west of lied river and continues
north-westwardlv as tlie liidinu' mountains, the Duck
mountains, the I'orcupine hills, and finally reaches the
Saskatchewan river as the Pascjuia hills. Wide valleys
are cut through this escarpment l»y the rivers flowing
east — the Pembina, Assiniboiiie, Swan, aid Eed Deer
rivers.

Between the east and west l)oundaries aljove described
is a flat alluvial plain having an elevation at the inter-
national boundary of 800 feet a1)ove the sea. Through
it flows the lied river northwards to Lake Winnipeg,
which is 710 feet al)0ve the sea. The plain, where it
crosses the frontier, is 52 miles wide and widens out at
the north to 250 miles to include the large lakes. It is
composed of a black ^'egetable mould frijm two to four
feet deep, resting on a marly clay subsoil — ^the bed of an
ancient lake. The southern part of the plain, being
higher, is also drier and more productive ; for the land
on the southern margins of the lakes is low and swampy.
This first prairie steppe contains about 0900 S(puire
miles of land, of which one-half, or o450 square miles, is
probably the richest agricultural land in the world.

Geologists show that in quaternary times an innnense
glacial lake C(jvered all this region. It extended far into
Mimiesota and included all the basin of the lied river
and the Lakes AVinnipeg, Manitoba, Winnepegoosis, Lake
Dauphin, Lake of the Woods, and all the smaller lakes
around them, over an area of 110,000 S([uare nules.
The western escarpment shows in places a nundter of
distinct terraces rising one above* the other and marking
the ancient levels. The outflow to the north is supposed
to have been blocked l)y an ice cap extending south from
Hudson's Bay, and all the water passed southward Ity
the Mississippi. As the glacier contracted under the

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1 ■'

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES 399

genial conditions of the existing period, the lake level
was lowered ; nntil, at last, new ontlets were opened to
the north and the drainage followed the northern and
lower channel. As the water witlidrew into the lowest
depressions the lakes assumed their present proportions.
The previous great lake, and nnich that is now dry laml,
lias l)een designated by geologists as " the glacial Lake
Agassiz." The unscientific find the theory interesting
as accounting for the rich wheatland of the lied river
valley.

!i 1

The Second Prairie Steppe

On ascending the escarpment to the west it is seen
to be — not a mountain, Imt the edge of another plain
— the second prairie steppe. This plain is 250 miles
wide at the parallel of 49^. It is a region of rolling
prairie, where hills rising 200 to .'300 feet al)ove the
surface are called Ijy such names as Touchwood hills and
Moose mountain, for their height is exaggerated to the
eye by the immensity of the level land. It is l)ounded
on the west by another escarpment. This latter elevation
crosses the frontier as the Missouri Coteau at al)out
long. 103° 30' and coutiimes away to the north-west,
parallel to the first escarpment, under various names — as
tlie Vermilion hills, the Coteau, the Bear hills, and the
Eagle hills. It has an approximate area of 105,000
square miles, of wliich two -thirds are prairie. The
average elevation of this plain is 1600 feet. Tlie soil
is for the most part excellent, and while it may not be
quite equal to tlie best part of the lied river valley, some
of the largest and most productive farms of the north-
west are situated within it.

ii. ■ ^'

•i/i'

■/•\

v. I

400 COMPENDIUM 01- GEOGKAl'HY AND TRAVEL

The Third Prairie Steppe

The third prairie steppe has, at the iiiternatioiial
boundary, a width of 465 inik'S. Its western limit is the
lioeky Mountain range. At its eastern edge the elevation
is 2000 feet, Ijut, as it slopes up to the foot hills of the
lioeky Mountains, it rises, and in the south-west corner
attains its highest elevation, 4200 feet above the sea. The
surface is more irregular tiian that of the others, and
several detached plateaus rise 2 feet al )Ove the surround-
ing plain, of which the m(jst important are known as AVc^od
mountain and the Cypress hills. These are the only
elevations worthy of mention in all the region in ques-
tion. Very little of it is covered with forest. Wood
mountain and the Cypress hills are to some extent
wooded, and, at the north, the line of true forest comes
down as far as the head streams of the Xorth Sas-
katchewan. It is l)etter suited for pasture than for
farming, although, besides the irrigated land in the
valleys, there are very good farm lands at lied I)eer
river, and thence north to Edmonton. At the south and
west the rainfall is deficient, and irrigation is re(|uisite
to secure certainty of crops. It is known as the ranch-
ing country, and if timber is absent on the surface it is
very generally underlaid with coal or lignite, which at
the west becomes true bituminous coal, and in the eastern
slope of the mountains develops into an area of excellent
anthracite.

Geology

The Lauren tian system of hard crystalline rocks has
been stated to extend into Manitoba as far as the eastern
shore of Lake Winnipeg. It is bordered on the west by
a belt 60 to 120 miles wide of Silurian and Devonian

MANITOBA AND THE NOJITH-WEST TERRITORIES 401

limestone. These formations stretch away to the far
Arctic sea in a north-west direction. Limestones of
these systems form the western shore of Lake Winnipeg,
and extend along the other lakes to the west. Upon these
rest the comparatively soft rocks of the Cretaceous and
Laramie formations which characterise the area of the
great interior plain. I'aliieozoic limestones representing
those of the Winnipeg region reappear in the Ilocky
Mountains, and it is prohable thtit they are continuous
beneath the greater part of the plains. The Cretaceous
and Laramie rocks of tlie plains are themselves almost
everywhere covered by thick deposits of " drift " or clays,
sands, silts, and gravels, due to the glacial period. Upon
these the character of the soil largely depends.

AVhere these drift deposits are cut through in the
banks of the larger rivers and streams, the Cretaceous
and Laramie rocks are seen in Hat-lying l)eds, occasionally
holding seams of lignite or coal. IJeing quite conformable
to the Cretaceous, the Laramie may practically be con-
sidered an upper part of that formation, although
palicontologically it nearly bridges the gap usually
recognised between the Cretaceous proper and the
Eocene, or earliest Tertiary. Some beds in the Cretaceous
or Laramie abound in fossil plants and molluscs, while
iJinosaurian bones occur in others.

Coal is the principal mineral worked throughout all
this region. Gold is found on the Saskatchewan and
some other rivers. There are deposits of ir(jn, but they
lire not utilised. Coal is mined at Edmonton, on the
North Saskatchewan, and near the Souris river on the
southern boundary. The Lethbridge mines ar3 extensively
worked, and export largely to the United States at the
south. The mines at Canmore, in tlie liocky ^Mountains,
are also worked extensively, and also the mines at An-

2 I)

■ Si''!i;

ii-i

n .4;

! 1^'

1:r^

I if

402

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGliAPIIY AND TliAVEL

thracite, higher up. J»y a law recently passed, settlers
are allowed to take away wliat they recjuire for their
own use of coal cropping out anyw'here over the territory
on the uiigranted lands of the Crown, l)y paying a royalty
of 10 cents for lignite, 15 cents for bituminous, and 20
cents for anthracite coal, per ton.

Hydrography

In early days the rivers were the main arteries of
trade ; but they have been in recent years supplanted by

Dr. IkU, I'hob:
LOOKINU DOWN ItED RIVER, NEAR LOWER FOUT GARRY.

railways ; and, as the light-draught steamers with their
tows of barges supplanted the canoes of the voyageurs, so
have they, m their turn, made way for locomotives and
trains of cars. Nevertheless, the hydrography of the
country continues to be a most essential study ; for it is
the key to its history.

The best known river of the prairie region is the Eed

MANITOBA AND THE NORTII-WKST TERIIITORIES 403

river of the Xortli, an iiiiportaiit .streuiii tlowiug from its
source in. the state of ]\IiiJiies(jta directly north across tlie
parallel of 49'" at Peniljina, and, after a course of 100
miles in Canadian territory, falling into Lake Winnipeg.
Tiie river is very tortuous, and winds through a l)ed which
it has cut in stiff clay, 30 to 40 feet l)elow the level prairie.
For 50 miles from the frontier the banks are woodeil.
The city of Winnipeg is situated at the junction of its chief
attiuent, the Assiniljoine. It is navigable for steamers from
"Winnipeg up to Fargo in the United States, altout 220
miles south on the Northern Pacific railway. North of
Winnipeg the navigation is impeded Ijy the 8t. Andrews
rapids, and the river falls into the lake through a
swampy delta. Its total length is about 700 miles, and,
its course being north, it is sul»ject to flood ; for in early
spring the water is released at its sources before the ice
has given way at its mouth.

The other rivers of the interior plain have a general
course from west to east and flow into the lied river,
or into the great lakes of the Winnipeg group at the
north. One general characteristic distinguishes them
from the rivers of eastern Canada, and that is, they do
not flow nearly level with their banks, Imt have cut
through the softer materials of the western plains deep
and broad valleys, often two miles wide, at the Ijottom
of which they wind from side to side in their tortuous
courses. There is often a descent of several hundred feet
to the levels of the streams, and the great plain is graven
with such river furrows ; so that travellers are surprised
by coming suddenly upon a river Howing at the l)ottom of
one of these steep-sided valleys, where at a little distance
the prairie seemed to be a continuous level surface.

The chief triljutary of the lied river is the Assiniboine,
an important stream flowing in at Winnipeg. The

*i' '

I r'mm

404

COMPENDIUM OF CEOdRAPHY AND THAVEL

:i.1

Assiiiiboiiie tlovvs throiigli some of the most fertile land
in the north-west. It is not n lari^^e river, being about
120 yards wide at the contluence, but it retains that
width for a hmg distance up. It is over ooO miles hjng.
and rises north of Fort Pelly. It Hows at first south to
a point 35 miles west of l^-jindon, where it turns to the
east. At lirandon it is joined l)y the Qu'Ai)pelle, a stream
with a course of 200 miles, and hjwer down, at Milfonl,
is the junction of the Souris. This last stream Hows
along the edge of the Missouri Coteau into the United
States, then recrossing the boundary it i)asses through a
fine farming country to join the Assiniboine. These
streams are not wide but are from three to four feet
deep, and before the railway age were, excepting the
Souris, utilised for transport. They, with their l»ranche.s,
water Manitoba and eastern Assiniboia.

North of these How the double streams of the Saskatcli-
ewan with its aHluents ; rising in the heart of the Kocky
Mountains, and falling into the northern end of Lake
"Winnipeg. The main river, taken together with the
south branch, has a length of 1032 miles. The Nortli
Saskatchewan is 481 miles from its source to the forks,
and the only rapids are close to its discharge from Cedar
Lake into Lake Winnipeg ; above this obstruction, called
the Grand Eapids, navigation is continuous to Edmonton.
The Hudson's Iky Company have had stern-wheel steamers
on the river since 1877, ])ut by boats the navigation
might be continued 150 miles farther to L'ocky Mountain
House. The North Saskatchewan, alcove the forks, passes
through a very fertile farming country. Tlie water-
parting of the Churchill and of the Mackenzie basin is
not far distant, and the southern border of the true
forest land is also very near. From Cumberland House,
near the (Ireat Bend, the canoe route led up by Frog

■^

MANITOHA AND THE NOKTH-WEST TEHKlTOiaKS 405

portage to the Chiuclnll, and, by following n}) that
stream, the old voyageurs reached the IMethy portage and
the great Mackenzie system l)y the Athabasca river.
Goods are now talcen by rail from Calgary to Edmonton,
and over a road 90 miles long to Athabasca landing
on the same river. The head waters of the North Sas-
katchewan and tlie Athabasca are very close to each

THE NORTH SASKATCHEWAN, NEAR EDMONTON.

other, for they have their springs in the neighbouring
glaciers of Mounts Brown and Hooker. The chief tribu-
tarv of the north branch is the Battle river, falling in at
liattleford.

While the northern branch flows through the open
park country at the north, the South Saskatchewan flows
through the great plain at the south. The Bow river,
rising in glacial lakes a few miles north of the AVapta
l)ass, and swollen by a tributary from its summit, and
the Belly river, rising in the South Kootenay pass, unite
at the granil forks to form the South Saskatchewan. The

I!
i

I - I

in'*

KM-

M TO! !

40G

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

IjOW river is followed by the Canadian I'acitic railway
to the summit of Wapta (Kicking- horse) pass. The
lied Deer river is also an important tributary. All
these streams and the South Saskatchewan itself How
through a pasturing country, the region of the great
cattle ranches. The land is rich ; but the rainfall is
deficient at the south, and irrigation works are being
constructed to distribute the water of these rivers over
the lower portion of the plateau.

Lakes

The drainage of the immense area under consideration
is collected, preparatory to being discharged by the Nelson
river into Hudson's ]3ay, by a remarkable group of large,
irregularly shaped lakes — the deeper basins cf the great
lake of the quateruiiry age before referred io. Lake
Winnipeg, the largest of the group, is 260 miles long,
and its breadth varies from 5 to 05 miles. Its area is
9400 miles, and its depth varies from 42 to 90 feet.
The lied river fiows in at the south, and at the north-
west corner all the water collected by the Saskatchewan
in its double course from the Eocky Mountains, pours
over the Grand liapids from Cedar Lake into this great
reservoir. It receives many tributaries from the Laur-
entian country on the east, and in the south-east corner
the Winnipeg river, a turbulent stream, discharges all
the water collected by Lonely Lake and Lake of the
AVoods in the rough wilderness of lakes and streams
l)ordering on the west and north shores of Lake Superior.
The overriow of Lake Winnipeg is by a very nari'ow
channel at the north-east corner, near Norway House,
and, after passing through many lakes, the water shapes
itself into the sea-like flood of the great Nelson river

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERIilTOHIES 407

The coast at the south is verv nmrshv, — the delta of the
I'eil river is a reedy wihlerness, — hut it is nowhere hi^h,
neither on tlie Laurentian or east side, nor on the west
or Sihirian side. Lake Winnipeg in a storm, when tlie
wind blows up or down tlie lake, is a ^'ery serious piece
of water, ;;nd the l)est course is to find shelter as soon as
possible. The height of the lake is only 710 feet above
the sea.

Lake Manitoba has given its name to the province.
It is 122 miles long and from 5 to 24 miles wide, and it
covers an area of ISoO sipiare miles. It is a shallow
lake with low shores, and the coast at the south is very
swampy. It is 810 feet above the sea, and is connected
with Lake Winnipeg l)y the Dauphin river and through
St. ]\Iar*^in's Lake. Manitoba is tlie Cree name for the
narrows, cUd the name originally signifying " spirit
narrows " has been extended to the wIkjIc lake and to
the province.

Xortli of Lake Manitoba is Lake Winnipegoosis, of
very irregular shape, covering an area of 2080 square
miles. It is l.'>0 miles long and, in many places, 27
miles wide, and is 828 feet above the sea. It is fed by
many small streams .rom the west and by the overflow
of Lake Dauphin (840 i'eet) through Mossy river. The
outlet of this lake is into Lake Manitoba by the very
indirect way of Waterhen river through Waterhen Lake,
<ind is not apparent on the first glance at the map. The
total area of this group of lakes is 1 .3,5 00 miles.

Manitoba and the adjoining territories contain many
other smaller lakes. Some of those in the plains have no
outlet and the inflow is balanced by r ^ ^oration. These
lakes are necessarily saline. The lai„est are the Old
Wives' Lakes, or, more euphoniously. Lakes Chaplin and
Johnson. From Chaplin to Ernfold station the Canadian

i iH

- ( . I

i/i'Jr

I 1 f I IS I

408

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TRAVEL

Pacilic railway runs along tlie shore of the northernniosl
of these lakes. All the lakes throughout tlie whole
region are the resort, in their season, of immense numbers
of waterfowl.

Climate

Over all the immense area treated of in tliis chapter
the climate is practically the same — a continental climate
of cold winters and warm sunnners, for it is in the very
heart of the continent, far from the influence of the
ocean Clear blue'skies are never absent in summer oi'
winter, and, if the cold is sliarp, it is never damp and raw.
The leacUng facts concerning the isothermal lines extend-
ing over the whole Dominion have already l)een given,
but tliere arc some peculiarities of these central interior
plains which .seem almost paradoxical to residents on the
seaboard.

Those who have live<l in a maritime country only
cannot realise how greatly humicUty increases tlic eh'ect
of cold upon the system. There is not so much bodily
inconvenience from a temperature of —10 in a dry
climate as from one of -f 82 in a moist one. Tlit
climate of these territories is always dry in winter. The
snowfall is from 18 inches to two feet and there is no
rain or thaw to pack it. The snow lies dry as sand
under the feet. The air is clear and the sun is bright
throughout the winter days, and tliere is a great quantity
of liu'lit reflected from the white covering of the ground,
The iiouses are built to resist tlie frost, and they aic
warmed, and lighted, and supplied with water as easily
at — 1)0'' as in any city on the seaboard where the
mercury may never fall below +10. The people are
clothed to suit the climate, ami, in tlie country, the
winter roads are convenient for travel. In sunnuer the

■A

MANITOBA AND THE NOliTH-WEST TEKRITORIES 409

nights arc cool, and the lunnid heat often experienced
on the seaboard is never found upon the central plains.
These plains are not high table-lands like the plains of
Central Asia, but there is one innnense reach of level
country sloping down gently to the Arctic Ocean for
200i) miles, with a very low initial elevation; for, as
has Iteen stated, the elevations of the three prairie steppes
at the frontier are only 800 feet, IGOO, and 3000 feet
respectively. As one travels soutli the land rises, and
hence the paradox that here the cold does not increase
in proportion to the latitude.

From these conditions arises another paradox, that the
spring opens earlier at Winnipeg in lat. 49° 52' than at
Montreal in lat. 45° 30'. It opens as early at Edmonton
in lat. 53° 35' and at Dunvegan on the I'eace river in lat.
50° 08', so that in a nortli-west line from Winnipeg the
rivers open and the crops may be sown sinmltaneously
through ten degrees of latitude. The following table of
the dates of opening of navigation will illustrate this: —

Orr.NiNi; ok Xavkjatiun— 1883 T(i 1881' ; Eaumksi' and Latkst Daik

riiu'f.
Toronto, Lake Ontario
Ciiarlottctown, T.E.I.
Flirt M'Murray, AtliaUasoii river
Winnipeg, Manitolui .

Montreal

(^'ueliec .....
Fort Simpson, Mackenzie river

lu a .series of years, from 1814 to 1 889, the port of CJueliec
was open only once as early as April 14. In thirty-
live years the port of Montreal was open only seven times
liefore April 14. Tlie point will be ilhistrated furllicr
liy giving the lowest temperature recorded in the month
of April, 1895, in various places, connnencing with the

l.iititiiilf.

Eiirli.'st.

l.iit.'.-<t.

43' 88'

Mareh 20

April 2;")

46' 13'

Mareh 3()

April 22

56" 4(1'

April it

Mav 4

49' r.2'

April 14

April 28

45' 30'

April 22

Mav .'>

46" 48'

Ajiril 23

Aj.ril 30

61 r)2'

May 1

Mav n

: :i-i;

!MU

) liJ

410

COMPENDIUM OF (lEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

fir'

i ' 'si

lowest as follows: (^>iiel)ec, 10"; Charlottetown, r.E.1.,
1G° ; Montreal, 10° : Winiiipen-, 19° ; Calgai;, , 20° ; Hali-
fax, N.8., 20°; Toronto, 23^; Edmonton, 2T. Thus it
a^, pears that the sprinu; was as far forward in Edmonton
on the North Saskatchewan in lat. o^r 14' as at Toronto
on Lake Ontario in lat. 48° 38', and that there was a
parity of temperature between Halifax, Xova Scotia, and
Calgary on the ]»ow river in Alberta. The difference is
not in the opening but in the closing of navigation, for
the eastern rivers remain open later than the western.

So far as the cro])s are concerned, the severity of the
winter is of no consequence ; the essential re(|uisite is
that the summer he long enouuli and warm enough to
ripen the grain. In the high latitudes and long clear
days of the north-west, wheat matures in 90 to 93
days, (^n the U])})er l*eace river the snow is away the
first week in April, the wild anemones blossom on the
20th, and, on tlie same date, the mosquitoes Ijegin to
appear.

This suggests mention of another paradox. In the
east, when the snowfall is heavy and often packed by
thaws, tlie farmer waits until the snow melts and the
frost is out of the ground and the ground is dry — then
he commences seeding. Xot so in the north-west. The
snow soon goes, for it is light and never packed. As
soon as six inches of the soil is thawed, the grain is sown,
nor is the farmer careful how or when the frost comes
out of the ground. As the frost relaxes inider the warm
sun, moisture to feed the young roots is provided lower
and lower down in the earth. Seeding, therefore, com-
mences much earlier in the north-west than in the east,
— in ^lanitoba usually in the first week in April, and a
traveller at Dunvegan, on the I'eace river in 1883, saw
the wheat sown on April 10. The first fortnight of

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES 411

A|)ril is the <j;enei'al period of sctwiiiL;' all over the north-
west, ami vegetation gets a long start over the eastern
]>rovinces. The trees are lireaking into leaf and the ild
Howers are blooming <is early at Dunvegan in lat. o<J''
as at Montreal in lat. 46".

Tliere is still another paradox in tlie way the native
horses and cattle are tnrned out for the winter, nidionscd
and nnfed, and are cauglit in good condition in spring.
In this way innnense herds of cnttle in the rancliing
country become possible. Tlie countless thousands of
buflalo wliich roamed the plains in former days found
food all winter, and the Indians never provided shelter
or hoy for the numerous horses they owned, for the plain
Indians were all e([i'estrians. In the east the grass, if
left uncut, seeds and decavs and becomes wortldess in
the rain ; but in the north-west the native prairie grass
is self-cured l)y the dry weather of the fall and is just so
nuich nutritious standing liay. The winds l)low oft' the
Hght fall of dry snow, and horses may readily scratcli it
away with tlieir hoofs, and so their food is uncovered.
Farther soutli, where the sn<nv is liardened and becomes
ice l»y rain and thaw, tlie hoofs of the animals would be
worn to tlie (piick and they would perish. For this
reason, in former years, innnense herds of buflalo migrated
to the north in winter, and found all the food and shelter
tlicy retpiired in the region ncjw known as Alberta.

'i'lu're is yet another ])aradox in what are known as
the Cliinook winds. These are warm and dry winds
blowing down from the snow-laden and glacier-crowned
sunnnits of the Kocky Mountains — blowing with con-
siderable force, from time to time, tbrough the winter,
and licking up every vestige of snow from the jdains of
Alberta. Tlie snow is not thawed l»y these winds, it is
simply evaporated. A Chinook wind will take up the

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MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERRITOKIES 413

snow without maiiifestiiitf a trace of dampness on the
smooth face of a stone. These winds make All)erta so pre-
eminently a rancliinu; country ; for though the snow may
fall it will lie only until the next Chinook, and that, in
a few hours, will clear every vestige away lioni the
standing self-cured hay on which the cattle feed.

The singular properties of these winds have excited
nnich speculation. It was not that sindlar conditions
were unkncnvn elsewhere, but because of the magnitude
of the area over which they extended in the north-west
of Canada. Their influence is felt as far east as Ifegina,
and far to the north also in the Mackenzie valley, l)ut
the phencjmena are most pronounced in Alberta. ]^r.
( }. yi. iJawson, of the Geological Survey, has pointed out
tlieir identity with the winds know^n in Switzerland as
fiiehii winds, and they are accounted for thus. In the
clutpter on British Cohnnbia it will be seen that, north
of the Pacific trades, there is a prevailing return current
of westerly winds l)lowing over the l)road ocean and
arriving on the north - west coast of America laden
with warmth and moisture. They encounter in
liritish Columbia three mountain ranges — upon the first
the larger portion of tlieir moisture is i)recipitated, and
the enormous cedars and firs of Vancouver Island anil
the main coast are the result of the al)undant rainfall.
Passing over the Coast range a further precipitation takes
])lace upon the (lold ranges, and the last and loftiest
laiige — the Pocky Mountains— deprives tlie winds of the
last drop of moisture.

Tliere is thus a i)revailing eastward pressure from
across the ocean, and this produces effects in addition to
die copious rainfall on the western sIojjcs. It is a
\ 'll-estaltlished liiw that for every .'500 feet of eleva-
tion air becomes one degree Faiirenlieit colder. This is

. .1 i (

M>i

Ill

414

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TliAVEL

ex[)luiiie(l by the fact that when forced to rise, as in this
case, against a mountain harrier, the air, by expanding as
it reaches higher levels of lesser atnios[)lieric pressure, is
mechanically cooled, or, in other words, a part of its heat
is rendered " latent," and it parts with its moisture to
the point of saturation ai the temperature at tlie summit
of the mountains. The condensation of moisture during
this ascent retards the cooling effect, and enal)les tlie air
to reach the summit at a higher temperature than would
otherwise be possilile. Meanwhile, much of the moisture
IS lost as rain along the western slopes. In descending
again to the eastward a converse action occurs. The air
is mechanically warmed by the increasing pressure. Any
condensed moisture in the ^brm of cloud is absorbed
at once, and as the air continues to descend with in-
creasing warmth, its capacity for absorbing moisture also
increases, but remains unsatisfied. It thus reaches the
lower country as a relatively warm and very dry wind,
particularly in winter.

This etfect is most pronijunced upon the seaward
range, but is repeated to a greater or less degree at each
succeeiling range passed over, each of which has thus a
relatively dry side. The Ilocky ^Mountains is the last
and loftiest of these ranges, and thus it hajjpens that the
western winds blowing over tlie summits of these snow-
crowned mountains arrive at the ranches of Alberta as
warm dry winds, and the warmth of the westcvn ocean
is as it were siphoned over the mountains upon tin*
eastern plains, and the climate of Alberta, and, to a less
degree, of the whole north-west, including the Mackenzie
valley, is ameliorated.

These .culiarities of the climate of the great central
plain have been called paradoxical, because they are
contrary to the experience of men living in maritime

MANITOBA AND THE NOKTH-WE.ST TEHUITOKIES 415

regions. They are l»y no means anonialons, lor, wlien
tliose newly opened territories are inhabited by people
familiar with them from childhood, such C(jnditions,
strange to an innuigrant, become normal and fanuliar.
Thev are paradoxical only in relation to the received
opinions of settlers and travellers from the sealtoard.

In considering the climate reference must l)e mnde tO'
the amount of precipitation, for upon that the growing
crops ultimately depend, and this varies nuich as the
mountains are approached. In southern Alberta and
western Assiniboia the annual precipitation is insutticient
to ensure invariable success. DuriuLi; the last year irriua-
tion lias been extensively introduced. There are about
80.000 sipuire miles which re([uire irrigati(jn, and, in
southern Alljerta, the streams descend from high levels
and are readily distril)uted over lower land. The soil is
very fertile, and it is covered with nutritious native
grasses, but cultivated crops reijuire a steadier supply of
moisture. At Calgary the annual jtrecijatation is 12".')8
inches, at Chaplin it is only 0'44: inches, and at Ifegina
8'o8 inches. In the dry country south of Eegina irriga-
tion is not so easy, for the streams How in valleys deeply
cut below the general surface of the country. The result
of all the observations from "lo stations is sunnned up
l)y the Meteorological Service in a statement tliat the
mean annual rainfall throughout the North-west Territories
is l.'.)"30 inches, of which 70 per cent falls between April 1
and September .'>0. In ]Manitol)a the mean annual rain-
fall is 17*43 inches, of which 74 per cent falls, between
A[)ril 1 and September .')().

It has l)een previously noted that many of the smaller
lakes, when they have no outlet, are brackisli or salt.
There is a small nrea on the southern boundary known
as the Alkali plain, in the shape of a triangle based upon

■■^■^

416

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

n. I

the parallel of 49°. It is a projection into Canada of the
Missouri drainage basin. On the west it is bound«Kl
approximntely l)y the Cypress hills and Maple creek, and
the apex of the triangle reaches the line of the Canadian
Pacitic railway at two or three stations adjacent to
Chaplin. This region is not suited for farming or even
for grazing. The whole of it is between the railway and
the boundary, and is in the locality of the Old "Wives'
Lakes, previously noted as saline.

The following extract from the othcial return of the
Meteorological Bureau for the month of April, 1897, will
be a practical comment on the preceding remarks. The
dp^^s are all in April of this year : —

Edmonton reports : — The season is the most favourable for years,
seeding is well advanced, some grain is np and trees are in leaf.
Calgary — Snow has disappeared, tlie river is low and free from ice,
seeding is well advanced. Medicine Hat — Seeding finished, grain
sown early now above the ground. Battleibrd — Vegetation is slow
considering length of time since snow melted. Prince Albert —
Seeding is general in this district, little water in the sloughs, river
opened on the 19th and is very high. Qu'Appelle — Seeding almost
finished, spring birds have arrived, grass turning green. Minnedo^^a
— Ploughing on 12th, seeding on 14th, wheat nearly all sown.
Snow gone, no floods, vegetation progressing most favourably, wilil
geese on the 4th, ducks 10th, blackbirds numerous. Regina —
Trees budding and leafing, grass showing green, anemone in flower
on the 18th, ploughing on light lands commenced on 13th.

fl.

Forest

It has been stated on a previous page that the line of
the southern limit of the true forest extends from tht'
Duck Mountains in Manitoba round by the north of the
North Saskatchewan to the foot hills of the Kocky Moun-
tains. South of this line the trees gradually disappear,
clinging to the hills and to the river valleys, and cluster-

MANITOBA AND THE NOHTH-WEST TERiaTORIES 417

iug in cluinps round the pools and moist places, until at
last the plains at the south become destitute of trees.
Much speculation has arisen coiicerninjji' tlie treelessness
of these plains, whether it wa- the result of a detieieut
rainfall, or whether it is due to the (uistom of settin,!j; fire
to the prairie, which lias been practised by the Indians
from time immemorial, as shown by the blackness of the
surface soil. While it is doubtful whether large portions
of these prairies were ever covered with forest, it appears
certain that the fires have extended the treeless area very
considerably. This area was estimated by ])r. G. M.
Dawson to include, in 187^:5, about 192,000 s(piare miles.
The object of the Indians usually was to burn up the old
grass to make way for the young growth, and the early
settlers imitated them and used t(-» set fire to the prairie
in late fall or early spring. Even now prairie fires some-
times do much damage, although the settlers arrest their
spread by ])loughing fire-guards of a few furrows of turned
sod around their property. Tlie experimental farms
established by the Dominion Government distribute large
nundjers of young trees to all farmers who will undertake
to set them out, and the Government has reserved all the
timlier on the Turtle, Duck, and Hiding mountains. It
is only recently that in Canada the infiuence of forests
upon the rainfall and the volume of the rivers has l)een
recognised, for the Atlantic regions were so heavily
timbered that the settler looked upon trees more as
obstacles to be got rid of in the quickest possible way
than as having value in themselves, and value as gathering
and preserving moisture.

Communications

The days have passed away when the voyageurs
paddled their canoes along these western streams or

2 E

■f »

418

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

poled the heavier barges on the larger rivers. The clays
even of the Hat-bottomed, stern-wheeled steamer, short
though they were, have also gone by, and railways open
np the country everywhere to the settler. In western
America railways are the pioneers and precede the settlers,
clearing the way for tlieni and carrying away their earliest
products. It is little more than twenty-five years since this
country was acquired by Canada, and there are now 3342
miles of railway in operation within it. Of this 10G5
miles is the main line of the Canadian Pacific; from the
eastern boundary to tlie sunnnit of the liocky ]Moun tains.
Winnipeg has become a great railway centre and is the
point from whence the Canadian I'acific railway branches
out over the west. The Company has built a line almost
parallel with its main line, running only 5 to 1 5 miles from
the frontier, striking the Missouri Coteau and skirting it
north-westward to the main line at I*asqua, near jMoosejaw.
Equidistant between this branch and the main line is
another parallel branch from "Winnipeg to I'ipestone.
Southward to the frontier from Winnipeg the Canadian
Pacific has a line on each side of the Ped liiver, connect-
i\m in the United States with the Great Northern raihvav.
In connection with the same system is a line from Pegina
to Prince Albert on the North Saskatchewan, and another
from Calgary north to Edmonton on the same river and
south to Macleod, and from Dunmore a branch runs to
the coal mines of Lethbridge.

The Alberta Pailway and Coal Company has a con-
nection to the south from Lethbridge with the Great
Northern of the United States at Great Falls on the
Missouri. The Manitoba and North-western is reaching
out for a connection with I'rince Albert, and is in operation
for 223 miles to Yorkton with a branch to Papid City.
The North-west Central has 50 miles of road from

MANITOBA AND THE NOKTII-WEST TEHRITOUIES 419

Brandon to Haniiota in the direction of the Nortli Sas-
katchewan. At Estevan the most sonthern line of the
Canadian I'acific is reached by the " Soo-l*acific " route
from St. l*aul. Tlic Xortliern I'acihc svsteni of the
United States readies AVinnipeg by a branch of its own
and continues to I'ortage la I'rairie to connect with the
Manitoba and North-western. It has also a branch line
from Morris to ]irandon.

These are the main railway routes. There are otlier
minor branches, but it will be seen from the extent of
these lines that the country is well supplied with means
of communication in advance of the needs of the settlers.
Prosperous little towns with one or more grain elevators
;ire rising along the railways ; and the Canadian Pacific
llailway, under the conviction that its own prosperity
depends upon that of the whole country, backs up i)rivate
enterprise. The monopoly under its contract was given
up in 1888, and railways may be built in any direction
by any other company.

Education

The Dominion Covernment has provided for schools
throughout the North-west by reserving for that purpose
certain sections of land in every township as it is sur-
\'eyed. A Council of Public Instruction has the super-
vision of this important subject, and schools are opened
pari jycissu with the advance of settlement. The religious
(question is disposed of in the Xortk-west Territories by
assigning the time after 3 P.M. for religious instruction
by clergymen, and permitting parents to withdraw their
children if they desire to do so. Manitoba has a school
law of its own, which, at the present time, is the subject
of political discussion foreign to these pages.

:{!

Ill

420

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGliAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

Law and Order

The transfer of the Indian territories anil Jiupert's
Land, containing large nundjers of Indians, threw ujxjn
the Government of Canada the responsil>ihty of keeping
the Queen's peace over the enormous area between hit.
49° and tlie uttermost North. The scattered traders ot
the great fur company had li\ed and traded in peace, Init,
when the country was o])ene(l to settlement, the same
internecine struggle would luive begun between the red
and white races wliich had caused so much injustice and
consequent bloodshed soutli of the line. To prevent ^lii:-;
the North-west jMounted l*olice was organised — a body oi'
V50 men armed like troopers to act together, and clothed
by statute with the power to act individually os constables.
The officers were entrusted with full authority as magis-
trates, and, in that way, law and order were enforced
over these immense regions. At the time of the transfer
the N(3rth-west was being overrun l)y lawless traders, who,
presuming on the waning power of the Hudson's Bay
Company, had commenced the corruption and destruction
of the Indians by the sale of spirituous liquors. A law
was passed forbidding absolutely the importation of
alcoholic liquor throughout the territories, and it was
rigidly enforced by this most efficient body of men. They
were organised under a conmiissioner, superintendents,
and inspectors, so as always to keep in view their civil
functions ; but they wore the scarlet uniform which tlic
wild Indians had always associated with fair-play ami
justice. The prestige of the Mounted Police is remark-
able. A constable has often ridden into an Indian cani}i
and singled out and arrested and carried off for trial the
man he was sent for. Crowfoot, the great chief of the
powerful Blackfeet tribe, gave the reason hi a few words

ilii

MANITOBA AND THE X(Mmi-WEST TERRITORIES 421

'•' Tn tlie United States, wlieu one of our voun<'' men does
anything wrong and they want to punish him, a troop of
sol(hers surround the camp and begin shooting into it,
killing our women and children. Here in Canada when
they want an Indian for doing something wrong, a red-
coat comes right oif into the camp and we gi\'e up the
young man he wants; for we know that if he is the
wrong man they will let him go again." This is strong
testimony for the Mounted I'oliee, and an eloquent ph'a
for his race coming from the mouth of a ])agan Indian.
There are throughout the north-west eighty-three stations,
and the frontier is patrolled by the force, who not oidy
keep order lait enforce the revenue and quarantine laws.
The Indians are adopting civilised means of subsistence
rapidly. The Blackfeet and lUood Indians are incre.ciing
their herds of cattle, and are even beginning to buv
mowers and hay-rakes. They make contracts with the
ranchers to supply hay from their reserves.

It will now l)e convenient to treat of the separate
divisions of the wdiole area and to state that it is politi-
cally organised into two governments :

1. The province of Manitoba, a fully organised pro-
vince of the Dominion, and

2. The North-west Territories under a government
more dependent upon the Dominion Government and not
yet arrived at the complete political status of a province.

, '•■

J '

1 1 '• )i

I f
t

Manitoba

Manitoba is a province of the Dominion organised in
the manner of the other provinces, with a lieutenant-
governor, appointed by the Federal Government, and a
legislative assembly, elected by the people. There is
no second chamber, and the executive power is in a

422

COMPENDIUM OF GEOCJUAlilV AND TRAVEL

council of five ministers responsihle to, and having- tlio
confidence of, the leuislature. The assenihly consists of
forty-one nienihers elected l»y residents domiciled for six-
months and over. Indians are excepted if in receipt of
annuity or treaty money, and all otlicials of the Dominion
(utyernment receiying salaries of more than i^ooO. if
their salaries arc less they are presumed to be ipialitied
to yote at jiroyincial elections. The province is rei)re-
sented in the Dominion Tarliament hy seven memhcrs
of the Ifouse of Connuons and three senators. The
population hy the census of ISDl was 152,500, an
increase of 145 percent in the preceding decade. There
were 10,1 7S more males than females, for tlu^ immigrants
1)eing mostly young men had no wives to hring witli
them. It also appears l»y the census that 77 percent of
the [)o))ulation is rural, and doubtless life on a farm is no;
attractive to W(»men. Since then a five years' census ol
po[»ulation has been taken, and some of the figures \u\\\'
now (1800) been ])ublis]u'd, showing that total po[)ulatii ii
has increased to 1!)5,425.

The; province is almost an exact S([iiare of 270 miles

on each side and has its base on the international lM)un(l-

ary of hit. 40 . The other boundaries are lines of s^u-

veys. The northern boundary is 12 miles short of the

])aridlel of 5.". ; the eastern l)oandary is a [)rolong;i-

tion of the western boundary of Ontario, and is nearly u

meridian line touching the north-west angle of Lake of

the Woods and tlu^ junction of the AVinnipeg and Knglisli

long. 05 10'. Tlu> western bouuiiaiy

learly a meriditin lin(; at about loiiu.

ley are lines of surveys, not astronomical

)tal area is about 7."»,i)00 s([uare miles.

al features of the province have already

The whole of tiie first i)rairie step|M' is

}

r i

I ',' I .^

1 i

,i|:.t>

424

fOMPENDIUM OF GKOGKAPIIV AND THAYEL

SI f ■■ V

included within its boundiiries, and is Hanked by a strip
of Laurentian country on tlie east, and on the west
by a portion of the second prairie steppe.

Tlie resources of ]\ranitol)a are agricultural, and their
magnitude is best sliown by llie results in tabular form
of the two last yeais. The year 1895 was a very ^ood
year, and the year 1 <S!)0 was very nnich below the average.
The two sets of ligurcs will sliow tlie extremes within
whicli the i)r(i(ht('t varies.

Tai'.m: siiowiNi; iiiK i'lionrc T m' iitr, Ciin:K Cmu's in ^Mamioha

IN IS'.I.' AM> ]S!M)

III

AVlieat

Oats

lia,l..y

Flax

Rye

I'easc

Tdtal ,L(i'aiii iTdji in luisliuls

iNil.".

Ai'i-f;i.L;t'.

Yi.'M

|ii'r Ai'ii'.

Iln-hi'ls.

Trod nets,
liuslicls.

l,]10/J7tj

•-!7-SO

31,77r.,008

■lS2,6r)8

1(;73

22,55-i,7:!n

ir,:!.s;]«1

:!()-(;9

r),Gir..o:3(;

1.2S2,:!:.t
S],0S2
28,22!)

. (il, 367, 472

II:!

Wheat

Outs

liailcy

Flax

Kyc

Foasc

Tntal 1,'raiii crop in Imslu'ls

1 SW.
!)99,.^08
112.145

r27,ss.-,

1 4 -aG

14,:{7],sOti

28 •2;'!

i2,r.o2,yis

24 -8

3,171.717

2r.9,14:5

. . .

r>2,2.^ri

...

2:5, :;s:!

■

. 30,380,(;:.2

In the year 1 890 tlie cxjiort of cattle was lo,8o."l
head, and of hogs .>8il4 head.

It may serve ns nn indication of the productiveness of
Manitoba to add that a C(donv of Mcnnonites from southern
liussia settled in 1874 in the south of the province. iVs

■J

* i

:!j'i

k: I

42G

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

if
■t!

''1

a start the colony Ijorrowed $90,400 from the Canadian
Government, and in 1892 it had repaid the principal and
interest — in all $ 130,3 8 G — and the colonists are now
owners of a large tract of vahi.' ^e farm land well stocked
with cattle.

The chief cities of ManitoDa are Winnipeg, the capital
—population in 1881, 7985; in 1891, 25,042; in

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^J^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

FAUM ON THE LlTTl.K SASKATCHKWAN.

1890, 31,049; Brandon, population 3778; in 189(;.
4591 ; and rortnge la Prairie, population 3303 ; in
1800, 3805. The two latter did not appear in the
census of 1881.

Winnipeg is situated at the confluence of tlie Assiui-
boine with the Ked river. In 1870 it was known as
Fort (Jarry, a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company.
It is now a well-built city, comparing favourably in all
the conveniences of life witli the older cities of America.

I i .1

MANITOBA AND THE NOKTH-WEST TERRITORIES 427

It luis electric roads and is lighted l)y electricity. The
legislative Ijiiildiiigs are large and handsome. The Mani-
toba University has two affiliated colleges. There is a
large city hospital, and tliere are numerous cluu'ches,
extensive stores, and large railway stations, where twenty-
five years ago was an open pniirie and a trading post for
Indians and halt'-l)reeds.

The North-west Territories

The four territories of the Xortli-west are under one
lieutenant-governor, appointed Ijy the Dominion Govern-
ment, and a legislative assembly elected by the people
consisting of 2!) memliers and meeting at l*egina. The
territories also send to Ottawa, as their representatives in
the Dominion rarliament, 4 members of the Commons
and two senators. The lieutenant-governor is assisted by
an executive council of four meml)ers appointed by the
Assemljly, Tlie Dominion Government provides for the
greater part of the expenses of local government, l)ut the
legislature has power to make laws for local purposes.
Tiie territories do not f(jrm a province, and responsible
government has not been yet introduced.

There are four territories — Assinilwia, Saskatchewan,
Alberta, and Athabasca. The last, Athabasca, lies wholly
within the basin of the Mackenzie river, and will be treated
more convenientlv in that connection.

Assiniboia'

Tiiis district is composed in almost equal portions of
parts of the second and third jtrairie steppes, and for that
reason may naturally be divided into east and west. The
district or territory contains an area of 80,535 S(iuure

-I 1

428

COMPENDIU.\[ OF GEOGHAPIIY AND TRAVEL

miles. It is boumled on the soutli by the frontier of
lat. 40", and on tlic nortli hy a survey line almost
exactly on the parallel of 52', on the east by ]\ranitol)a,
and on the west by a survey line nearly coincidinu" witli
long. 11 r 40' W.

Eastern Assiniboia, on the second prairie steppe, is a
ricli farminjT country of rolling prairie land. In the

y'litiiKiii, I'liuto.

MKUK'INE HAT, CUOSSIN(; THE SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN.

north tliere are many patches of wooded land, but the
main portion is true prairie. Western Assiniboia is
drier and is more adapted for pasture. It is a ranching
country, and, while there is water ibr cattle, the climate
is too dry for certain crops. AVest of Moose jaw statidii
the need for irrigation begins to appear. The country is
covered with buffalo grass, a rich short grass, the food of
countless thousands of buffalo in former years. This is
self-cured by the dry climate, and affords food for tlie
cattle of the ranches. The Souris coal-fields at tlic
south supply abundant fuel. The snowfall is light, and

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TElUUTOltlES 429

11 r

the climate is affected favourably by the Chinook winds
which are felt as tar east as liegina. The alkali region
crosses the frontier and projects into the southern part
of the district.

Alberta

This district is the westernmost of the territories, and
is bounded on the west by the Iiocky Mountains, and on
the east by the territories of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan.
It includes the remaining portion of the third prairie
steppe. From the .United States frontier it extends
northward to a survey line almost coincident with the
parallel of 55°. The whole territory is underlaid by
coal-measures yielding co;d varying in (piality from lignite
to anthracite. Xear Edmonton, coal crops out on the bank
of tiie North Saskatchewan, and was used by the Hudson's
Bay people before settlers arrived. Now it is regularly
mined and sold at Edmonton from i?1.75 to $2 a ton.
The area of the territory is about 100,000 square miles.
Winter is shorter than in the more eastern districts, anil
the Chinook winds exert their fullest inHuence in the
southern half, but strongly influence also the nortliern
half of tlie district.

The climate and soil of northern Alberta are suital)le
for every kind of grain or root crops. It is als(j well
watered and has abundance of wo(jd. The north-west
corner is true forest land, and the trees follow the
numerous streams of the head waters of the Athal)asca
and J^orth Saskatchewan. There are numer(jus lakes, and
the country is diversified with hills and timbered bluffs,
relieving the monotony of the prairie and giving it a
park-like appearance.

Edmonton is the chief town of northern Alberta. It
is the terminus of the Calgary railway and the carrying-

tal

Wil

the
suti
unt
lira

«110

sea

hil]

biti

mil

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TEKUITOKIES 431

place for goods going into the Mackenzie river basin. A
few years ago it was a mere Hudson's IJay trading post ;
it is now a stirring little town with churches, newspapers,
electric light, and tramways. A little above the town
the river is worked for gold, and .ST 5,000 have been
taken out in one year.

fSouthern Alberta is the ideal ranching country. It
was the favourite winter home of the buffalo, and is now

.,» ■ - *0. '*-^^ ^.^

i^^ii^^lHH

^^^

.f' ■ . . -r-

CALGAKY, ALBEUTA.

the region of the great ranches. The rainfall is not
sutiicient for regular crops, and there is no wooded land
until the mountains are reached. It is an open, treeless
jirairie covered with wild grasses, and in winter the light
snowfall is licked up by the Chinook winds. The coal
of Lethbridge is of good quality and in 5 and G feet
seams only 40 feet below the surface, and in the foot-
hills and up the mountain passes' there is abundance of
lituminous coal and areas of anthracit(i as well. The
mines at Canmore are 42')0 feet above the sea, and ten
miles farther up the pass are the mines of Anthracite
station.

,1 ii,

M:i

k'ij

'i ' i

lil'fv

4.". 2

COMl'KNDIUM OK ( IKOOIIAPIIV AND TIIAVEL

II'

!!9

;t ■

:i:^j

( "algary is the
chief town — a briglit,
busy, aiul prosperous
place, noil - existent
in 1881, but rated in
the census of 1801
as having a popula-
tion of 387G, rapidly
increasing. Here the
liocky ]\l()untains are
visible on the western
horizon, and in this
iar-western town are
found all the con-
veniences of civilisa-
tion. The ranches
draw their supplies
from Calgary, and
almost everything
can be found in the
stores. A light gray
sandstone, found near,
is extensively used
for building, and the
town has a substantial
look very surprising
in a far- western town
scarcely twenty years
old. Fcjrt ]\Iacleod,
farther south, is an
important station of
the Mounted Police
and a large ranching
centre.

MANITOIiA ANIi TIIK NOHTH-WKST TKltKITOItlF.S 4."),']

Til .southern Allierta, l»eyoiid tlio " Gu]) " or gatoway Ity
which the 15o\v liver issues from the mountains, and hit;'li
ujt in the lioart of the mountains, is one of the most
attractive spots on the continent. At liaiitf station is tiie
Iiocky Mountain Park, 20 miles long l)y 10 miles wide,
containing within it prohahly more giand and lieautiful
scenerv than any other area of the same size in tlu; world.

' ■ ; ' "^

•:;-^feSfea.^

,;,.,. ■

\ '^

'] 4

■■K-'T^^IP

Hl^^fei^^'J. . "

1 if PIH

UUNDLK MOUNTAIN l-'UO.M VKKMlLIdX l.AKK, lUM I , AI.HKH lA.

The railway company have built a hotel here, and the
Canadian Government have laid the park out with r(»ads
and bridle-paths. Two mountain riv^^rs, l)riglit from tiieir
homes near by in the glaciers, rush thr(aigh it in rapids
and ialls, and sometimes pause in still reaches, lleautilul
mountain lakes retlect in their quiet depths gigantic ice-
covered peaks, 8000 to 10,000 feet high. IJoads wind
through forests of evergreens to scenes of the rarest lieauty.

( 1

4:U

COMrKNDIlTM OF GKOGUAPIIY AND TRAVEL

For tlie iiiiglor tlie lakes are full of trout. Luke ^liinic-
wimka is iiiue miles loii*,^ lying 4500 feet up between
two ranges of lofty peaks. Medieinal si)rings occur on
the slopes of Sulphur j\Iountain — hot springs containing
soda and magnesiii salts — and for the use of tourists the

Niitmoii, riiiilo.

LOUISE LAKE, IJIKKY MOUNTAINS, ALHEHTA.

;s n

(lovernment has provided houses and attendants. The
])ark contains a sanitarium and a hospital, and in summer
is a veiy favourite resort for travellers ft-om all lands.
For those who do not seek quiet and rest it is a cdii-
venient centre of excursions into the mountains for
mountain goats, mountain sheep, or if perchance it should
be considered desirable, for an occasional grizzly bear.

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH- WKST TKHUITOIUKS 4o5

Saskatchewan

This is a district of 107,092 squure miles, north of
As.sinil)oiii, and Ixmndcd on the west l)y Alberta, and on
the east partly by Manitoba, Ijut chieHy by the northern
part of Lake Winnipeg;" and tlie waters of the Nelson

XutiUdll, I'lli'tii.
CANADIAN PACIFIC HOTEL AT BAXKt', Al.HEKTA, AND HOW KIVKK VALI.KY.

1!M

1:1,

river. On the north it is bounded very nearly by the
parallel of 55°.

The first intention of the Government was to carry the
railway through this district, but the company preferred
tlie more southern route. It is tlie best watered region
of the North-west, with abundant streams and lakes, the
resort of myriads of wild fowl in their migrations. The
forest land extends along the northern margin at no great
distance from the North Saskatchewan, and the trees
reach down among the prairies and give the country a
park-like appearance. The district forms tlie chief part
of the " fertile belt " of Captain I'alliser, and ev^ery kind of
crop is grown in its productive soil. The farming country

' f '

4:5 (i

COMPENDIUM OK CKOCItAI'lIV AND TltAVKI,

round l*riiu'(' Allicit is csiK'ciiilly rich, Iml tlu'ic arc c\-
tonsivc^ areas iit Ualtlc livcr and Carrol river and in nianv
tjllier [ilat'cs ([uitc as ;4o()d.

The ehiersetUemenls arc at Prince Alhcrl and l^altle-
Ibrd. The dislriet, has not. attiaclcd the atlention of
s(!Ulers hecausc it has not hcen acci'ssilde hv I'ailwavs Id
the same; extent as the more southern «listiicls. The
river i'rom Fort I'itt to 50 miles west of Kchnonton is
worked in |»laces lor u;old. In the summer of ISOO
th(! hanks at Mdnionton purchased Jii>4r»,0U0 of ^old.
The ])urchases of fuis at Mihnonlon tiie same year
amounted to >>'27 1 ,000.

if Mr

History

In I 72S Pierre (laulticrde N'arenncs de la \'erendiye,
while in chain'c of a fur-trading' ))ost on the northern slioic
of Lake Xe|ti_i;'on, was told hy an Indian of a jL^reat lake al
the west, diseharj^ini; westwards by a lai^e rixcr into a
sea which ehbi'd and (lowed. Ne\'er had. the i'Vcni li
i;iven up the idea of a water-ioute to thi' racilic. It wa>
constantly in their nnnds, and at that \v\\ time thc\-

t, i

were seeking- it through the country of the Sioux. I.a
\'eicndrye was no ordinary man. Iioin at Thice Jlivcrs,
he passed over intd l"'rance in his early manhood, and,
enterinu; tlic^ army, was severely wounded at Malpkaiucl
He returned to Canada and Joined llu; nundtcr of tlmsi'
hardy ami fearless men who found congenial homes in
tht^ pathless forests and fai'-i'cachini; I'ivers of Canadn,
who endured toil and privation with lij^ht hearts and
tireless liodies, and for whom the wildest trihes in tlir
wi'st had no terrors. The idea scix.ed him that the rivci
of the western ocean was more to the north than had hccii
supposed. He came east and succeeded in interest in^;

MANITOMA AND TIIH NOHTII-WKST TKUKITOKIK.S 4;*.'

tlic tiovcnior, rx'JUilwu'Mois, nud ohtaincd jin c>\('liisi\(>
lictMiRc lor llic fur trade in (lie Uui'itory lo lie explored,
liciiiii; ])0()r, he oltlaiiuMl iiu'iui.s by jissocialiiii,' otliiMs in
liis eiilcrinise, and in IT.'M he started IVoni Montreal inr
the (Irand I'ortaj^e, on Lake Superior, with a laiije party.
Some \a«'Me knowledije ahcadx' existed of the lake wilder-
ness west of the ])ost on the Ka.niinisti(|uia, and Lake
Winnii^'L!,' even apj>ears on the niajjs (»t' the time as a
small lake; but that was the utmost limit ol" knowledi:,(\
and La N'erendryt! led his |»aity into what was at the
time an unknown wilileiMiess. in the sueceedinj^- nine
years, undetcii'ed by tlie loss ol" one of his sons and
twenty ol" his eomj)anions, he sueceech'd in buiidiui;' a
number ol" IradiuL;; posts — Kort St. IMeri'e, at the outlet
of llainy Lake, V\ni St. Cjiailes, on the west shore of
Lake of the Woods, l"'(tit ^L•lurel>as, at the mouth of the
\\'innii»eL; liver, l'"oit L'ouuc, on tlie site of Lortaj^c la
I'raiiie (the poi'taue to Lake Manitolia), l*'ort Itourbon, on
Cedar Lake, the inlet of the Saskatchewan, and Foil
Dauphin, on Mossy ri\tM' wliere Lake |)au|)hin disehar_Lies
into Lake Manitoba. Otlii'i' lesser posts there were, but
these were the strategic points of the wh<»le (tf Manitoba,
and in I 740, before the Lnij;lish had er<'Ssed the Allej;hany
Mountains, (U- the Hudson's Hay traders benan to ascend
ihc rivers from tlie bay, our ])rairie province was the lii'ld
of a \aluable fur business ci'iiteiiii^ at ^L>lltreal.

'['he Souris river was an imitoitaiit stream in tiiose
days, for it led to the poitanc i'oi' the upper Missouri, and
the Frencii built a fort at its juifction with the Assini-
Itoine. La N'ereiidrye pushed up tlu' Souris, e\er in
search of the ^reat^ river <»l' the west. He struck across
to the Missouri and came upon the Mandan tiibe an

iiiterestiim tribe of Indians, whose f;

ices are jierpetuate

J-

j.H

11 (iei)r<.,fe ("atliirs )>ietures, and wlio in after years weii

i w

i I

4:]8

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

III I

supposed by Celtic eutluisiasts to speak AVelsli and to bo
descendants from Prince ]\Iadoc's party of emigrants
in tbe twelfth century. Tiiey were very kind to La
Verendrye. He, however, went no farther, and one of
his sons, whom lie left beliind, also failed to proceed
farther. In 1742 two of his sons, with cmly two com-
panions, started over the same ground, and pushed their
adventurous way across the broken and arid region of
Montana until they saw the lofty snow-capped peaks of
the Big Horn range of the llocky Mountains. Canadians
from Three Eivers were the first white men to see the
Itocky Mountains at the north — l)ut the great river of
the western ocean was yet liidden.

La Verendrye, the father, died in 1749, and his two
sons continued the trade and discovery of the North-west :
l)ut the evil days of New France were approacliing. La Jon-
(piiere was governor, and I)igot, the evil genius of Canadii.
had arrived. Tlie license of the brothers was cancelled,
and their forts and prt)perty and business became the
prey of a syndicate of the clique of the favourites of the
new governor and intendant. Acting for tlieni, Legardeui'
de Saint I'ierre took up tlie places and enteri)rises of the
Verendrye brothers. He sent an expedition of ten men
tliree hundred leagues up the Saskatchewan (probal»ly thi'
south Ijranch), and they Innlt, in 1751, Fort la Jonquierc
at the foot of the IJocky jVIountains. It was soon
al)andoned, l)ut again the liockv ]\Iountains were seen
by French Canaihan voyngeurs belbre Daniel ]>oone hiid
crossed the mountains into Kentucky, and l)efore the
Hudson's r>av traders had established a itowt bevond tide-
water. The seven years' war ensued, and the two brothcis
La Verendrye, though ruined in fortune, served t licit
king in defence of their country. One of them died in
1755, and the otlier perished by shipwreck in tin-

MANITOBA AND TFIE 'nOUTII-WEST TERRITORIES 439

Aiif/iistr oil the coast of Cape liretoii, with a iiuiiil»er of
(listiiiguished Canadians who were returning to France.
Thus closed in injustice, disappointment, and disaster tiie
tirst chapter of Xorth-western hist(ny.

The fur trade of the French was broken up hy the
war, and the conse(|uent uncertainty and confusion of
the cession ; and, l)efore the country could again become
quiet, Pontiac's war Inoke out, and the whole west was
aflame with tire and massacre. Peace was made in the
fall of 1765, and in 17GG two Montrealers are reported
as trading on the Saskatchewan. Others followed, both
English and French, until tlie Hudson's Bay Company
began to wake up, and in 1774 l)uilt Fort Cuml)erland
on the same river commanding the route to the
Athabasca. In 1787 the cliief ]\Iontreal merchants
coml)ined and formed the North-west Company, managed
by such men as Frobisher, ^M'Tavish, ]\['(lillivray, (Iregory,
and jVI'Leod, and they availed themselves of the skill and
knowledge of the French voyageurs and traders. They
])ushed their posts into the farthest regions of tlie North-
west, and one of their ])artners, Alexander Mackenzie,
went down the river which bears his name to its mouth,
and, the foUowing year, was the Hrst white man to cross
the Jfoeky ^lountains and reach the I'acific cm the north.
Sii- Alexander Mackenzie and the Hon()ural)le Edward
i^llice formed in 170G the X. Y. Company, but united
again in 1X04 with thii North-west Com])any. Fartlier
and farther these daring men extended their operations.
Tliey had posts at rembina, in tjie present Minnesota,
and as far south as Crand Forks, in Dakota. On the
north tlieir posts exteiuled down the ^Mackfiizie river,
and on tlie west they crossed the llocky M<>u:i(aiii and
followed the Columbia river almost to its mouth. Tlioii tiie
Hudson's ]}ay Company, fully aroused to the danger of

■f

440

CO.MrENDlLM OF GEOGKAPIIY AA'D '■ V.WKh

m'f

».L^

liaviii.L;' tlie Indians coining to tlieii }»osts to titule inter-
cepted on the way, liegan to occnpy the country; and,
in the rivahy whicli followed, the Indians were lieing
last corru])ted by the competition of the rival companies
for their furs. The Hudson's JJay Company's Imsi -s
was d(jne byway of York Fort on Hudson's J5ay, and Llie
Xorth-west Com]iany's by way of Montreal and the
Grand Portage at the head of Lake Superior.

While the rivalry between the two companies was
fast ap})i<»aching a crisis, the Earl of Selkirk arrived in
Canada. He was a veiy capal)le and thouj^htful nol)l('-
niiMi, with advanced views on colonisation. At ]Montreal
he was in the centre of the fur trade, and there he
acipiired such a knowledge of the far west that he
resolved to found a settlement in the very heart of the
continent. Jfeturning to England, he pui'chased a con-
trolling interest in the stock of the Hudson's r)ay
Comjiany, and, despite the protests of the more practical
sharehoklers, he i)urchased from the company an
immt'use tract of territory which he called Assiniboia,
and ])rocee(kHl to send out settlers. The tract accjuired
reached from about l»ig Island, on Lake Winnipeg, far
south, into the jiresent Minnesota and Dakota, to the
water-]>arting of the Ijasin of the Ited lliver. On the
west the line reached the confluence of the Qu'Appelle and
Assiniboine, and on the east it reached Lake of the Woods,
with a long jirojection along the water-route to the height
of land over Lake Superior. The area of this mid-
continental empire was 110,000 miles, and it comprised
what are now known to be the ciioicest fanning lands in
the world — the very garden of the North-west. In
1812-1.'» he sent out the first i)arty of settlers byway
of Hudson's liay, under Captain Miles Macdonald as
Clovernor of the Hiulson's JJay Company and of the

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TEIlUITOIilES 441

Selkirk colony. Ho proc'eoded to euforeo what he eoii-
eeived to l»e the territorial rights of the company against
the Xorth-west Company's employees. It is unnecessary
to discuss the merits of the controversy. It culminated
in a private war which lasted several years, in the course
of which the colonists were driven away and posts on
hoth sides were captured and destroyed. At last, in a

V'-lvrrf^'

.^JMXkm^mfmmi^'

Ol.l) lUHT (JAUHV.

■|",\lii' of ail iiiiimititiit niulsoii's I5:iy ( 'mil 11:111 ys |i(ist. It slooil 011 llic sile <if

Wimiiiicn, .Mmiituliii.

liattle between the Hudson's Bay Company's people and
the Xorih-weHters, (lovernor Semjile, a military oflieer
then in command of the colony, was killed, t<\i;etlier with
some twenty of liis ])eople, and the colony a second time
scattered. In 1817 Lord Selkirk succeeded in estalilish-
iiiu a iinal colony on the J{._-d L'iver, and the wliole
matter went hcfore the courts, and.ltecame the Kul)je(*t of
a war of pam))hlets. Meantime there was ])rivate war
:it all the torts and carrying;-] daces throuoliout the j^reat
western territories.

At last, in 18.11, Iiolh companies were nearly
haukrupt. The long struggle had exhausted the

I i

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M^l

442

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

resources of both ; for, liowever congenial a life of
turmoil may have been to the half-breeds and the traders
on the wild western plains, the men who, at Montreal
and London, managed the finances of the companies, saw
the folly of tlie struggle, and both companies united
under the cliarter of the Hudson's liay Company. The
policy changed ; the North-west became a sealed book,
and the little settlement on lied liiver seemed to lose
reality even to the Canadians themselves. Gradually the
company M'ithdrew its operations from Montreal, and
conducted its business, unobserved, by the remote route
of Hudson's I>ay. In the year 184G a detachment of
the Gtli lioyals, under Lieut.-Col. Crofton, was sent
to the lied lUver, l)ut they went l)y Hudson's Bay. They
returned in 1848, and for a few years a small force of
pensioners was maintained at Fort Garry, but they went
and returned by way of Hudson's Bay. All knowledge
of the fertile region of Assiniboia faded away and a veil
was drawn over the land — a veil of misrepresentation —
and the country now covered with teeming corn -fields
was thought of only as a region of illiniital)le snow and
intolerable frost. So closed the second chapter of North-
west history in the domination of a handful of fur-traders
over an empire — a domination which nuist be admitted to
have l)een beneficial, for tlie time of the iJominion of
Canada had not yet come.

Tliis territory covered by the Hudson's Bay Company's
operations was considered under two heads. First, lUipert's
Land, granted under tlie cliarter to I'rince Bupert and his
associates; and second, the Indian territories, occui)ied with
exclusive right of trade under licenses from the Crown
for periods of 21 years. In the year 1858 the Canadian
Government, in an address to the (^)ueen, impugned the
validity of the charter, and deprecated a renewal of the

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES 443

license. Seven years were spent in correspondence and
negotiation between the Imperial Government, the
Hudson's Bay Company, and the Canadian Government,
and in the British North America Act provision was
made for admitting these territories into the Dominion.
It was recognised by the Canadian people generally that
they were necessary to the continuous existence of the
confederation of the provinces then in course of forma-
tion, and, after much further negotiation, the Compan}'
in 18G9 surrendered to the Crown, for the consideration
of certain territorial reserves, and the sum of £300,000
sterling, to be paid by Canada, the whole of their right
and title to the territories in (Question for transfer to
Canada.

While the final steps for transfer were in progress,
the Canadian Govei'nment appointed a governor and sent
parties of surveyors to survey lands. Xo opposition was
anticipated ; but in this all parties were mistaken, for
the Canadian officials were met at the frontier l)y an
armed party of half-breed residents and warned not to
proceed farther.

These transactions are so recent that it is inconvenient
to discuss the merits of the dispute, or to enter upon the
details of the events. An organisation had l)een formed
among the half-breeds with the intention of exacting
terms of some kind from the Canadian Governmenl Iiefore
yielding peaceable surrender of the territory. The move-
ment developed into an insurrection, and an armed force
under the connnand of Louis Iliul seized Fort Garry,
issued proclamations as a provisional government, sum-
moned a convention, and passed what they called a Bill
of liight.si. Tlien followed the imprisonment of settlers
adverse to the provisional government, the hoisting of a
new flag — a white fiag with a fieur de Ivs and shamrock;

! ( •

1 I I

: I ^ ■

1 t "' ■

I ! > i'.

! J

M, i

444

COMrEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

tlie confirmation of Louis Jiiel as prcsidont, and, last ol'
all, the crime of condemning \s Scott to death for

reljellion a*iainst the provi government, and of

sliooting liim in cold blood

In these and similar p jdings passed the winter oi'
1869-70, but, as the spring opened and the country
became again accessible from Canada, calmer counsels
began to prevail and wiser heads began to resume in-
fluence. The Imperial Crovernment had accepted the
transfer from the Hudson's Bay Company and felt boiuid
to liand it over to Canada. The Imperial troops had not
at that time been withdrawn, and an expeditionary force
was despatched under Colonel Wolseley, now Field-Marshal
Lord AVolseley, consisting of 250 men of the Imperial
army and 750 men of the militia of Canada. Nn
resistance was offered, the men concerned in the rebellion
had disappeared, civil government was established, the
two battalions of Canadian troops remained over the
winter, but the Imperial troops returned at once. Thus
the transfer was complete, and all the Xorth-west to i\ht
Eocky Mountains and the Polar Ocean became part of the
Dominion of Canada.

On 5th Julv, 1871 .British Columbia entered the union,
and the chief condition was that Canada should build a
railway to connect the new province with the railway
system of Canada. This was a stupendous task for threi'
millions and a half of people; but the national spirit nl'
Canadians was aroused and they were determined to cany
it tlnough. Survevs were instituted to discover the best
route, and more especially to discover a practicable pass over
the Iiocky Mountains. Tliis would necessarilv take sonic
time, and in the meanwhile the Government adopted tlic
policy of having the Pacific Bailway built by a com|)any
and not by the Dominion. In 1873 the first Pacilic

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES 445

charter was granted ; Init before anything was done the
Oovernnient was defeated at the polls, consequently tlie
charter fell through, and the new (government decided to
construct the railway as a public work. The surveys were
])ressed forward, and after a long and careful examination
the line of road was located l)y way of Echnonton and the
Yellow-head Pass to Burrard Inlet. In IS 78 tlie Govern-
ment auain changed hands, and the original policv was
reverted to — the present company ol)tained the charter in
October, 1880, the existing location was adopted, and tlie
1st of May, 1891, was fixed as the limit of time for
completion of the whole line. The history of the railway
is as interesting as a romance. Tiiere is only space to
say that on June 28, 1880, the first train ran througli
from Montreal to Jiurrard Inlet — five years before tlie
expiration of the stipulated time. The coinpniiy was a
most exceptional comlnnation (jf skill, energy, and courage,
and the more that is known of the difficulties of the
undertaking the more wonderful does the result appear
to be.

The troubles (jf ]\Ianitol)a were over — those of the
Xorth-west were to come. Louis liiel had l)een banished
and liis term was ended. He was residing in Montana,
iiud had been naturalised in the United States, when, in
June, 1884, the lialf-breeds on the Saskatchewan, wiio had
some grievances, invited him to come over and put tlieir
demands into a form to be pressed upon the Dominion
(Tovernment. Agitation continued all winter, and in
l\Iarch, 1885, the rebellion of .1800 was repeated.
A provisional government was again foniied, witii IJiel
again as president. This rebellion was more dangerous
than tlie former; for now some of the Indians t(»ok part
with the half-breeds and broke out from their reserves.
The rebels soon came into conflict with the authorities,

'■i

jJ|t

,mi'

446

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPllY AND TRAVEL

and ill the first engagement near Duck Luke, on 2Gtli
March, the loyalists retreated to Trince Albert with a L ;s
of twelve men killed. This slight success inflamed the
Indians, hut it also aroused the whole ])ominion, and before
four days were over the volunteer militia were on the
move westwards ; and indeed the emergency was serious,
for some 2000 Crees aud Stony Indians broke out from
their reserves and commenced to plunder the settlers and
to tln-eaten the town of IJattleford. Tliey massacred the
settlers of Frog Lake, including the Indian agent and tlic
Itoman Catholic priest in charge of the mission. The way
was long and difficult, for the railway was not complete
along the north of Lake Superior, but in less than a month
a strong body of troops was upon the scene of action
under General Middleton. The first engagement took
place at Fish Creek. (Tabriel Dumont, who commanded
for Eiel, with the title of adjutant-general, had a natural
gift for war, sharpened by the wild life of the plains, and
had disposed his men very skilfully in ri He-pits. They
were accustomed from childhood to the use of the rifle, and
as they fired from shelter there were many casualties among
the troops. Both of the aides-de-camp of the general
were wounded, and he himself had a narrow escape, for a
bullet passed through his cap as lie was leading his men.
The rebels evacuated the position during the night. They
liad lost fewer men than the attacking force.

The whole North-west was by this time in a turmoil.
The powerful tribes of the Blackfeet were with difficulty
kept quiet by the influence of Father Lacombe and his
fast friend the war-chief Crowfoot. Some of the smaller
l)Osts had been abandoned, and small detachments of
Mounted Police assisted by the settlers were holdinu
Battleford, Prince Albert, Edmonton, and Fort Saskatche-
wan. A detachment under Colonel Otter had an en-

filii

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TEKRITOIHES 447

uageini'iit with a large body of Indians, nnder cover, at

Cut Knife Hill, and liad to retire to Battleford. The

Indians knew how to avail themselves of every inch of

cover, and the plunder of the agents' stores had given them

abundance of amnuuiition. The rebellion was, howe\er,

crushed at the place of its origin in the parish of St.

Laurent. There, at IJatoche Crossing on the South

Saskatchewan, liiel entrenched himself in a good position

in ravines protected also by rilie-pits, })lanned with great

Judgment by Duniont, and before this position General

^liddleton was detained four davs, for he was verv careful

in exposing his men. The rebels were well covered and

were skilled marksmen well commanded, for the wild life

of the plains is a good school for a soldier. On the other

hand, the volunteers were on their first service and were

impatient at the delay, and at seeing their conn-ades tall

1)V the bullets of luiseen enemies. At last thev were let

go and they carried the position with a rush. Tlie re])elli()n

then collapsed — the half-breeds surrendered, and ]>ig l>ear

and Poundmaker with their Indians gave up their arms.

The half-breeds had made a good fight. All the Indians

on the plains wdio had not actually revolted were in a

state of excitement, and the Canadian troops had to patrol

the frontier of the United States as well as to watch the

Indians over the whole territory while attacking the

rebellion at its centre. The first l)low was struck on

2()th March, and on the 12th of May the rebellion was

crushed. In this short time the Canadian militia, who

had never seen active service before, had got to the scene

of action distant 1800 to 2500" miles from their homes,

and had done a great deal of marching and some sharp

fighting. There were 38 killed and 115 wounded in

action, besides the losses by the fatigues and hardships

incident in such a campaign. (Jabriel Dumont, who was

i .. 1
i

448

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGl.'AI'HY AND THAYEL

tlio life of tliu tigliliiij^', cst'{»])e(l to the United States.
Ikiel surreiuleied, and, after trial, was liaiiged for treason;
ei<ilit Indians who were convicted fur murdering settlers
were also executed. The memory of the murder of
Thomas Scott in the first rebellion set public o])inion
strongly against any I'urther clemency to Kiel.

These events close the historv of the North-west. The
country is settling fast, the Indians are beginning to take
up civilised modes of life, and the grievances of the half-
breeds are redressed, so that the North-west has entered
into that happy condition when it makes no more history.
'J he great real estate boom followed, when fortunes were
made and lost in a day. Of this the only remaining sign
is the belt of unoccupied farm land round Winnipeg still
held to be sold at some i'uture time for choice city lots.

NOTE TO (TIAPTEE XIV

The following publications coutnin fmtlier detailed inibiniatiuii
upon the subject of tlii.s c]iai)ter : —

Annual Re]iorts of the lioard of Trade of "Winnipeg.

Daw.sox, G. M.

Report on the Geology and liesourccs of the region in the vicinity
of the forty-nintli parallel, fioni the Lake of the "Woods to tlie
Rocky ^lountains. Montreal, Dawson Brothers, 1875.
Guxx, Hon. Doxatp.

History of Manitoba from the earliest settlement, edited by C. II.
Tuttle. Ottawa: j\Iaclean, Rogers and Co., 1880.
Macoux, Prof. JoHX.

Manitoba and the Great Xorth-west. Gneljih, 1882.
MAxrroitA Govehnmkxt.

bulletins of the Deiiartnient of Agriculture.
MA.SS0X, Hon. I^. R.

Los Bourgeois de la Conipagnie du Xord-Ouest. 2 vols., Svn.
Quebec, 1889.

The following are the Reports of the Geological and Natural History

MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST TERRITOKIES 449

Survey referring to Manitoba and tlio North-west Territories excepting
Athabasca.
Manitoba.

A. R. C. Selwyn, 1873-76, 1880. R. Bell, 1873-75, 1S78. J. W.
Spencer, 1875. G. M. Dawson, 1880. J. B. Tyrrell, 1S8»,
1891. Warran Uphani, 1889.

NORTH-WKST TeURITOUIES.

Assinihoine District.

R. Bell, 1884. R. G. McConnell, 1885. G. M. Daw.son, 1880.
J. B. Tyrrell, 1891.
Sa.skatchewan Distru t.

Dr. Selwyn, 1874. A. S. Cochrane, 1880. J. B. Tyrrell, 1891-93.

ALnERTA DlSTIUCT.

(Southern), G. M. Dawson, 1882-84. (Northern), J. B. Tyrrell
1886.

I I

CHAITEK XV

BRITISH COLUMBIA

') lili

! 'I

EvEX now, when popukm?-' cities stud the shores of the
Pacific Ocean, when great steamships start daily from
crowded wharfs for far-ott' lands from which the mists of
fable have only recently cleared away — even now, when
western science and western activity have invaded those
dreamy regions where the west changes into the east, it
is difficult to divest the mind of the romantic interest
associated with the great South Sea of the early sailors.
The more one has read of their voyages and the more
familiar one is with Hakluyt — that prose Homer of tlie
EnLi'lisli race — the more wonderful become the achieve-
ments of the past fifty years. Not one hundred years had
elapsed after Alexander Mackenzie — partner in a Montreal
fur-trading company — broke through the western moun-
tains and pressed on his perilous journey until he saw the
tide rising at the mouth of the Bella Coola, when a train of
cars left from alongside the ocean shipping of the same
port to pursue an unbroken journey to the Mar dd Sur
of the good Sir Humphrey (Jilbert's prolix discourse.
What may be in store for our country in the hidden
counsels of Providence no man can know, but the destinies
of the people who dreamed such a dream nuist be high
destinies, and the memory of the men who realised it for

mUTlSII COLLI MDIA, MANITOBA ano the N

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BKITISH COLUMBIA

4r)i

them will not soon perish ; for thty accomplished t'.e
will of the Canadian people who stood behind them all
the while, and supported them throughout their daring
enterprise.

Boundaries

British Columbia — the Pacific province of the
Canadian Dominion — is bounded on the north by the
parallel of 60°, and on the south by the parallel of 4-9 ,
as far as the Strait of Georgia, or Clulf of Georgia, as it is
locally called. The whole of Vancouver Island is included
in it, and south of the island the province is bounded by
the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The line passes tlu'ough
the centre of the nearest to Vancouver Island of three
navigable channels. On the east the province is bounded
by the summits of the Iiocky ]\Iountain chain, from 40°
to aliout 54° north, thence the boundary line separating
it from the North-west Territories follows up the meridian
of 120" west longitude to the northern boundary. On
tlie west it is bounded by the Pacific Ocean as far as Cape
Chacon on the north side of Dixon Channel ; from thence
the western boundary is a narrow strip of the Alaskan
coast now in process of delimitation.

The area of the province is 383,000 square miles.
It is the largest of all the provinces of the Dominion,
and it is the most sparsely populated. The total popula-
tion in 1891 was 98,173, consisting of whites 54,001,
Indians 35,202, Chinese 8910, or 0*3 persons to a
S([uare mile — a population about that of Huddersfield, to
an area nearly equal to that of France and Spain. The
population is practically all in the most southern part,
and on Vancouver Island.

The province has very strongly marked characteristics,
and differs greatly from all the other provinces of Canada.

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Tl'.eir physical peculiarities must be explained by their
hydrography ; but orography is the key to the geography
of liritish Columbia. The physical geography of the
province is exceedingly complex and difficult to under-
stand. The rivers are abrupt in tlieir turns, swift and
turbulent, and navigable only in short stretches — the
lakes are narrow and deep, with precipitous mountain
shores; and, in lact, they are more like the troughs of
mountain ranges than the broad expanses of the lakes oi'
central Canada, Tliere is fertile agricultural land in
abundance, but it is scattered over the province, and not
collected in broad areas of arable plains. There are
several distinct climates — the genial climate of Devon,
the humid climate of the west of Scotland, and the
extreme continenttd climate of central Canada.

The conditions whicli, in the opening chapter of this
book, were seen operating to soften the climate of Europe
at the expense of that of America are here reversed. The
eastern or Atlantic outline of America is almost repro-
duced in the eastern or Pacific outline of Asia, and the
great westward equatorial current of the Pacific impinges
upon the counterpart of the Culf of jNIexico in the over-
lapping peninsulas and islands of the eastern arcliipelago,
and its waters flow in a return current similar to the
Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. The China Sea, the Bandn
Sea, and the Celebes Sea are so many caldrons from
whence the heated water overflows to the north-east along
the coast of Japan. For ages this current has Ijeen
known to the Japanese as the " Kuro Sivo" or the l)lack
river, from its dark l)lue colour contrasted, as in the
Atlantic, with the lighter green of the adjoining sea.
Controlled by the same general laws, it turns to the east-
ward towards the north-west coast of America, and, as in
the Atlantic, throws up a branch to the Arctic Ocean ;

BRITISH COLUMBIA

453

but the parallel ends there, for Behring Strait is very
shallow, having an average depth of only 25 or 30
fathoms. There is no wide and deep opening to the
Arctic waters, and although there is a northward current
through Behring Strait, which prevents the southward
passage of icebergs, it is not like the great current
which reaches the Spitsbergen Sea. The mass of the
Japan current is thrown upon the coast of North-west
America, whence it turns to the soutli and rejoins tlie
great e({uatorial circuit. From this it results that the
climate of Sitka and the Aleutian Isles is mild and in-
tolerably rainy though near the latitude of 60' — the
latitude of Hudson's Strait-— while in the gardens of
Victoria, Vancouver Island, flowers may bloom all the
year round.

The province extends from 49 to 00 latitude, or
701 miles on the mainland, and the northern and
southern boundaries are straight lines. As far as a line
almost upon latitude 54 , or for 340 miles, the eastern
and western boundaries are the sunnnits of the IJocky
Mountains and the Bacitic coast respectively, and these
are approximately parallel lines running south-east and
north-west. On the parallel of 54"" the width of the
mainland is from longitude 1.20° to 130" 30" or 427
miles. The southern portion is therefore approximately
a rhomboid. The i)ortion north of 54'^ is l)ounded on the
east by a perpendicular line — the meridian of 120" — and
is thus included within three straight lines containing
two right angles. The western boundary, on the side of
Alaska, is irregular; bvt this northern portion maybe
considered as a square ;14 miles from north to south,
with an average width of 550 miles.

Although such attem}>ts Lo compel the physical features
of a country within mathematical lines are rough, they

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

are an assistance in unravelling a tangled geography ; and,
in this instance, the belt of division between 54'' and 55"
really corresponds to a marked natural division. ]\Iore-
over, the northern portion is practically uninhabited,
unsurveyed, and, to a great extent, unexplored ; and tlien
there is a line of water-parting a little north of 54*^
dividing the basins of the Skeena and Peace rivers fvom
the basin of the Fraser. Summit Lake at the Giscome
portage from the Fraser to the Parsnip is in latitude
54° 15', the divide of the Babine is at 54° 20', and Cape
Chacon, the southern point of Alaska, is at 54° 40' ; tlie
narrow projections of the sub-valley of the Stuart rhav
may be disregarded. Cross ranges of mountains between
54° and 55° 80' also contribute to shut off this northern
part from the southern half of the province. i

Mountain Ranges

Two great physical features dominate the geography
of British Columbia — the liocky Mountains and the
Coast Mountains. Other mountains in more than
abundance there are, but these are continuous and
persistent through the whole extent of the province, and
form the eastern and westt "n rim of the " sea of
mountains."

The Bocky Mountains are a continuation of the
United States chain of the same name. They enter
Canada at longitude 114° W. The boundary line between
the province and Alberta follows the summits of the
range as far as 54°, the point where it turns away north
to follow tlie meridian of 120° W. The Bockies continue
their north-west course within the province. At the
valley of the Peace river their elevation is greatly
reduced ; but, rising again, they continue along the

BRITISH COLUMBIA

4^ f

western margin of the Mackenzie river valley, until they
die gradually away as they approach the shores of the
Arctic Ocean.

The Coast range, frequently called the Cascade range,
commences just at the southern frontier at longitude 122"
W. and continues along the Pacific coast to the head of
Lynn Channel close to the northern frontier — a distance
of 900 miles. It is this range which gives such a strong
character to the sea coast ; to it are due the profound
and gloomy fiords and the stupendous precipices which
render the coast line an exaggerated reproduction of
Norway.

Keeping in mind these two master ranges, it is now
to be observed that there are other parallel and some
cross ranges, all of which are too often in 'general speech
confused together in the expression " Ifocky Mountains."
These ranges are, however, different in geological age and
composition, and, for that reason, the director of the
Geological Survey has preferred the term Cordilleras,
or Cordilleran belt, for the general mass of mountain
chains, and confines the expression liocky Mountains to
the most eastern range. This nomenclature conduces to
clearness, and so it may be said without confusion that
the Cordilleran belt is 400 miles across, and the llocky
Mountains are 60 miles across.

It has been shown that the southern half of British
Columbia is roughly in the form of a rhomb. At the
south-eastern corner of the rhomb three subsidiary moun-
tain ranges of different 1 gtls, and with sharply defined
valleys, cross the frontier, with courses more directly to
the north, and cut off that corner of the rhomb into a
system of its own. This is the valley of the Columbia
and its affluent the Kootenay, and these rivers flow
through and around these stupendous ranges of mountains

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COMI>ENDIUM OF finOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

ill trauqiul marches and counter -inarches without a
parallel elsewhere in the world for their abrupt changes
of direction. In this region of East and AVest Kootenay
iire the recent silver and gold discoveries which are
attracting so much attention. All the rest of the rhomb
of Southern British Columl)ia is in clfect the basin of
the Fraser river system. The Coast range has also a
sul)sidiary and parallel mountain chain in the partially
sul)merged range forming the axis of Vancouver and
(^)ueeii Charlotte Islands.

Before attempting to describe these mountain ranges
it should be remarked that the core of the rhomb of
Southern British Columbia, inclosed between the Coast
range and the ranges to the east, is considered as a
plateau, and called " the interior plateau." Tliis region
is about 100 mile& wide and 500 miles long from north
to south. It is only, however, in a special sense that it
can be called a plateau ; for, viewed from the lower
levels, it appears like a hilly or even mountainous
country ; it is only when seen from a high level that it
appears to be a number of isolated plateaus of an nxev-
age elevation of 3500 feet, so that it is a plateau chietly
by contrast with the lofty ]»orderiiig mountain ranges.
During the Tertiary period it is stated by the geologists
to have been a true plateau in the usual acceptation of
the term, Init the surface has l>een deeply furrowed by
streams, and has been upheaved in places into ridges, so
that to an unscientific eye this is not apparent. In tliis
region, however, there are many plains and valleys and
benches of rich land, and in the aggregate there is a
large area of agricultural and grazing land.

IJising from a region of foot-hills 20 miles wide,
formed by the folding of the strata, the liocky Mountains
present to tlie traveller from the east an abrupt and

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

serrated outline against the sky, revealing by its acute
suniniit peaks its recent geologic age. It is the latest
formed of all the mountain chains of the province, as
shown by the inclusion of comparatively new rocks in
its Hexures. The mountains themselves are, however,
composed chiefly of old rocks, ranging in age from the
Cambrian to the Carboniferous, Crystalline rocks are
scarcely represented, and whole mountain ridges are often
formed of massive limestone strata which no doubt under-
lie the eastern plains and are here uplifted and upturned
on their edges. It is 00 miles wide at the parallel of
49", and continues in a north-west direction (narrowing to
20 miles at latitude 56') for 850 miles to the valley of the
Peace river, where, as before mentioned, it falls to a lower
elevation ; rising again in a range at ol)lique echelon a
little more to the east, it continues along the border of
the Mackenzie valley.

The average height of the range along the United
States boundary is 8000 feet, and it culminates between
50° and 52° where the North Saskatchewan and Athabasca
rivers take their rise in the glaciers of the loftiest valleys
of the range. Several peaks near the boundary reach
10,000 feet; but the highest peaks are supposed to be
Mount Murchison 13,500 feet. Mount Hooker 13,500,
Mount Brown 16,000 feet, all near the sources of these
rivers.

There are many well-known passes over the liockies.
Commencing from the south, the chief are : — the South
Kootenay or Boundary Pass 7100 feet, the North
Kootenay Pass 6800 feet, the Crow's Nest Pass 5500
feet (a railway over the pass is projected to open up
some extensive coal-fields), Kananaskis Pass 5700 feet,
Kicking-horse or Wapta Pass 5300 feet (the Canadian
Pacific Railway Pass), the Howse Pass 5210 feet, the

BUITISH COLUMBIA

459

Atlmbusca Pass 6025 feet, the Yellow-head Pass 373.'»
feet (the original design of the Canadian Government was
to build the railway by tliis pass), tlie Smoky Eiver Pfiss
5300 feet, the Pine lliver Pass 2850 feet, the Peace
liiver Pass 2000 feet. This last is scarcely a mountain
pass, lor the Peace river Hows througii it, and, excepting
for a portage of 12 miles, at what is called the Canon
of the Peace, 40 miles east of the Pocky Mountains, it
is navigable for 557 miles far up into the heart of the
northern part of the province. On the western side of
the Pocky Mountains there is a continuous valley, 700
nules long, through which flow the Kootenay in its
southward course, and the Columbia in its northward
course. The northward flowing portion of the Fraser
also follows this valley, and, where it turns suddenly,
after the manner common among the rivers of this
province, to flow in a diametrically opposite direction, the
Parsnip river takes up the valley and occupies it until
its junction with the l*eace.

Tiie Pocky Mountains are appropriately named. The
summits are massive edges of fractured limestone strata
bare of soil. The effect of their great height is diminislied
on the eastern side Ijy the rise of the foot-hills and the
height of the passes. It is only on descending into the
western valley that their full height is appreciated. The
western slopes are the more densely wooded. On the
eastern side the slopes are covered with trees where
there is soil, and interspersed with grassy prairie areas.
The mountains abound in coal ; and anthracite of the best
quality is mined near a station called " Anthracite " on
the Canadian Pacific Pailway.

West of the Rockies, distinct in composition and much
earlier in geological age, are three ranges of mountains,
of almost equal importance to them. These ranges rise

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOCJRAPHY AND TRAVEL

directly from mirrow valleys, and there are no foot-hills
to detract from their height. They are all three com-
posed mainly of crystalline or highly metamorphosed rocks

Sill mil II, I'liiiUi.

MOUNT MAI UOXALI).

— granites, schists, and gneisses — but, though related
geohigically in age and composition, they are very distinct
geographically, having valleys clearly marked by narrow

BRITISH COLUMBIA

461

lakes or rivers. Coiiiniencini;' i'roiii the east they are
known as the I'urcell, tlie Selkirk, and the (lold ranges,
although they are frei^uently called Ity the otticers of the
Getjlogical Survey l)y the collective name of the GoUl
jMountains, because of the identity of tlieir structure, and
the fact that they are the chief source of the gold and
silver found in the province. They are not known to
rise much higher than 10,000 feet, the chief measured
peaks being Mount Sir Donald 10,645 feet, Mount
^lacdonald 1)440 feet, and Mount Tupper OOoO feet —
all in tlie central or Selkirk range. It has l)een previously
pointed out that the llocky Mountains run from south-
east to north-west ; consequently they make an angle of
45" with the frontier, and bound the south-east corner of
the rhomb of the southern half of the province. These
three inner ranges run almost north and south, as will
appear on a consideration of the rivers and long narrow
lakes which mark their valleys, and, if prolonged, they
would cut the long inner valley of the liocky ^lountains.
They are not prolonged, but interrupted. The I'urcell
rani^e in the eastern angle is the shortest, and is inclosed
in the loop between the head of the Kootenay and
Kootenay Lake. The Selkirk range is the next to the
west. The Columliia Hows round this range. Issuing
from the Cohnnbia Lakes it Hows north along the eastern
base of the Selkirks to a i)lace called the l»oat Kncamii-
ment, where it sweeps round the head of the range in a
sudden curve, and Hows in a diametrically opjjosite
direction, south between the Selkirk and the next range
to the west — tlie Gold range."

The contour of these inner ranges is more rounded
than that of the liockies, and the upheaval is nutre
cimfused. There are, indeed, in the Selkirks many
abrui)t peaks ; Init the general character of the whole

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAl'HY AND TRAVEL

chain is less serrated, both from the character of the
rock masses and tlie greater age of the system. The
width of the Selkirk range is about 80 miles. lielow
the snow-line, especially on the western side, it is densely
forested, and enormous glaciers fill the upper valleys.

Ill iiihrsiiii^ riiuti).

THK HKHMIT (iLACIEU, SEhKIHK llANdK.

The scenery in this part of the Cordilleran belt is grand
beyond description.

The Gold range is abovi^ OQ miles in width. It rises
from the valley of the southward-tiowing Columbia to a
height of 8000 to 0000 feet. Leing of a similar com-
position, nnich that has been said of the Selkirks applies
e([ually to it. The scenery is not so grand as among the
liockies and the Selkirks, although in any other country

BRITISH COLUMBIA

463

t !

it would be thought so. In British Cohinibia it suH'ers
by contrast. Tlie Gold range continues much lartlier to
the north, wliere it is known as the Cariboo Mountains,
and as the region of the chief early discoveries of gold iu
Ih'itish Columbia. In that region the chain curves and
runs parallel to the Rockies, until the Fraser river,
repeating the course of the Columbia on a larger scale,
sweeps round it and changes its course to a diametrically
opposite direction, Howing southwards, inclosing the whole
series of inner mountain ranges to the east between it
and the Ixjundary of the province.

Interior Region

Descending from the Gold range the interior jdateau,
previously referred to, intervenes for a distance of 100
miles until the Coast range — the great western rim of
the mainland of the province — rises, as before noted, on
the ocean margin with a width of 1 00 miles. This is
often, even in public documents, called the Cascade range,
liut inaccurately from a scientific standpoint, for the
(Jeological Survey staff has shown tliat the Cascade
range of the United States is essentiallv different, l)oth
in composition and geologic age, and the Coast range is a
distinct system, originating just within the southern
boundary and continuing through tlie whole length of
the province. It is an older range than the ikocky
Mountains, and consists chietly of crystalline rocks —
granite, gneiss, and schists. It attains a lieight of
7000 to 8000 feet and abuts on the shore in many
l)laces in spurs which, rising almost out of the sea on
the l)orders of abysmal Hords, sliow tlie full measure
of tlieir height to every ol»server. This rangi; is very
rugged, and on the western side is lieavily timbered.

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BRITISH COLUMBIA

465

The constant condensation from the warm winds of the
Pacific has formed many glaciers in the upper seaward
valleys of the northern part of the range, and many of
the summits are snow-capped. The fiords are usually
too deep for anchorage, for they are narrow, submerged
valleys of the chain, running up sometimes for oO or
40 miles between precipitous mountain walls, with a
general widtli of 1 or 2 miles. Where there is any
level land on the shore it is densely forested, for the
climate is mild and rainy, and the trees grow to an
enormous size.

liefore passing to the island portion of the province a
few remarks may be appro[)riate concerning the northern
portion — that portion described as a square based upon
cross ranges of mountains about the parallels of 54° to
55 . Immense areas of this country are yet unexplored.
Much of it is a plateau about 2000 feet high. Tlie
western portion, watered by the Teace river, is in part
open, fertile land, and suitable for a grazing country. An
inner range (the Cassiar and other mountains) runs
parallel to tlie Coast range at some distance. In this
northern plateau the triliutaries of the Liard and the
Peace rivers of the Mackenzie system take their rise.
On the western side are the Skeena and Stikeen rivers,
and far on the northern border of 00°, rising in a series
of ranges, are the springs of the Pelly and Lewes rivers,
tributaries of the Yukon. Large areas of this country
are underlaid with Carboniferous and Devonian rocks,
and in the valley of the Pai'snip river is an extensive
area of Cambrian.

"What is known of the geology of this northern half
of the province indicates that in complexity and variety
it rivals the southern part. Pocks ranging in age from
Archa-an to Tertiary have been found. While little has

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466

compp:ndium of geography and travel

been ascertained about mineral resources, the conditions
indicate that metalliferous deposits like those of the
south recur here. Gold has been worked by placer
mining alone. Except along the coast, at the mouths of
the Naas, Skeena, and other rivers where salmon canneries
are situated, settlements scarcely exist. At Laketon in
Cassiar, Hazleton at the forks of the Skeena, Stuart Lake,
and Omenica, a few people, mostly miners, are settled.

Hydrography

The rivers of British Columbia demand notice now.
They are in strong contrast with tlie rivers of central and
eastern Canada. Here are no long stretches of a thousand
miles of navigation ; but tlie courses of all the rivers nw
contentious, strugglins,', and turbulent, circumventing
obstacles by unexpected and abrupt bends, or bursting
through barriers and rusliing down steep and gloomy
canons to the ocean. There are many navigable stretches,
but they are not continuous, and the rivers widen to long
narrow lakes of still water — Kandoops, Quesnel, Chilco,
Tacla, Fran(^ois, Shuswap, Okanagan, Kootenay, Babine,
Arrow, and Columbia Lakes are the most important ; but
the province is studded with similar lakes of smaller size,
in strong contrast to the broad expanses of the eastern
provinces. xVlthough the Peace and Liard rivers drain
a very large area in British Columbia, they are more
properly treated in connection with the Mackenzie
system, of whicli they are a part. Tlie most northern
river of importance is the Stikeen. It discharges into
the Pacific near Fort Wrangell in Alaska. It is 2 HO
miles long, and is navigable by steamers for 130 miles as
far as the great canon. Tlie route to the Cassiar gold
milling region passes up by its valley, a difficult and

BRITISH COLUMBIA

467

laborious route at best. A trail from the Grand Canon
leads to Dease Lake, from whence Dease river leads to
the Liard river.

The Naas is a large river, but the next important
river of the north is the Skeena. It draws its chief
supply from Babine Lake, and falls into the Pacific after
a course of 300 miles, of which 125 miles, as far as
Hazleton, may be navigated by small steamers.

Two river systems only call for notice in the southern or
rhombic half of the province — the Columbia occupying the
south-eastern corner, and the Fraser occupying all the rest.

The Fraser river is the chief feature of the hydro-
graphy of British Columbia, It is 740 miles long, and
its triljutaries branch out over the countrv between the
summits of the Coast and the liockv Mountain ranges,
south of 54°, excepting the extreme south-east corner.
They interlock with the sources of all the great rivers,
but thougli they seem on the map to give access by
short portages to the Skeena, the l*eace, the Parsnip, tlie
Athabasca, the Saskatchewan and the Columbia, and
though they search out all the interior valleys of tlie
great mountain ranges of the southern half of the provhice,
it must be remembered that many of tliem are unnavig-
able even with canoes. It is a characteristic Columbian
river, being contained entirely within the province, and it
accentuates all their peculiar ways. It Hows, at first,
north-west for 160 miles, then makes an abrupt turn
round the head of the Cariboo mountains, and Hows
directly south until, at Hope* it turns abruptly west and
falls, after a course of 80 miles, into the Strait of Georj:^ia
at New Westminster. It is a turbulent and rapid river
— an exaggerated mountain stream in all its upper
courses — at last, sunnnoning to its aid all its tributaries,
it bursts its way through the Coast range and foams

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

and rages through the stupendous canons which bear its
name ; then, all its trials over, it issues out a broad and

-Vo,'»i (H, Photo.

CAXON ( :• THE FUASEK HIVEH.

noble river, with a rapid current; but navigable for 80
miles from Yale to the sea. The Fraser has many large

bB:

BRITISH COLUMBIA

460

tributaries — the Stuart, the North Thompson, the South
Thompson, the Blackvvater, the Chilcotin, tlie Lillooet
and their branches form a network of flowing waters
through all the deep furrows of tlie interior plateau.

Lastly, in the south-east corner of the province, the
Columbia river and its chief tributary, the Kootenay,
perform their eccentric evolutions, in a sort of hide-and-
seek round mountain ranges, until they find each other
iusu before thev cross the frontier together. Their
courses resemble the military evolution called a
countermarch by ranks. They rise, overlapping each
other, in the long western valley of the Eockies antl flow
past each other in opposite directions, as it were elbow
to elbow, just grazing each other at the head of Columbia
Lake, so closely that a canal a mile long unites their waters.
The Kootenay flows south into the United States, and
the Columbia flows north to the head of the Selkirks at
the Boat Encampment; until, having got 1^00 miles
away from each other, they both turn abruptly about and
counterflow inwards in opposite directions — the Colundjia
south to the Arrow Lakes, and the Kootenay north to the
Kootenay Lake in British territory, from whence it flows
across to join the Columbia 20 miles from the United
States frontier. Commodious steamers navigate the
Columbia from the Columbia Lake to the first crossing of
the Canadian Pacific railway, and from the second,
crossing at Revelstoke through the Arrow Lakes to the
boundary. The Kootenay is navigable from Kootenay
Lake to some distance within 'the L'nited States.

Discovery and Development

This immense territory was an unknown land, hidden
behind the barrier of the Kocky Mountains, until 1793,

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

when Mackenzie entered it by its natural gateway, the
i'eaee river. He followed that stream to its forks, and
then traced up its chief tributary, the I'arsnip, to its
source, and crossed a short portage into tlie waters of the
Fraser. The Xortli-west Company soon followed up his
discoveries with their trading posts, and, on the union of
the great fur companies, the Hudson's l>ay Company
established on the Cohnnbia river the headquarters of
their operations in the I'acific district. Communication
was by pack trails through the Yellow- head or Athabasca
passes to the Boat Encampment at the great bend of the
Columbia, where the packs were transferred to clinker
l)uilt boats and floated down to head(piarters on the
lower Columbia. The other portions of the country were
little visited, for the navigation of the rivers is dithcult, and
travelling was more by trails than by the streams. Until
the railway was completed, only ten years ago, all access
to the province was through the United States, and heavy
goods were carried round by Cape Horn. The construc-
tion of the Canadian Pacific railway was essential to the
continued existence of the Dominion of Canada, and the
people rose to it. The railway is the answer of the
native Canadian spirit to the foreigners, within and with-
out, who wish to bring strange fire to burn on our hearths,
and to smother the aspirations of a people whom they
neither appreciate nor comprehend.

Canadian Pacific Railway

The I>ow river takes its rise in glacier-fed lakes high
up in the heart of the mountains, 5530 feet above sea
level, and issues out upon the lower levels at the foot-hills
through a cyclopean portal known as " The Gap," fianked
by two almost vertical mountain walls. Through this

472

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIIAVEL

I .-Si

portal the Canadian Pacific railway enters the mountains,
and it follows up the Bow river to Laggan, 7 miles from
the summit of the pass ; thence it follows a small tributary
creek through the connecting valley across tlie divide.
On the summit of the divide (5296 feet) is Stephen
Station, named for L(jrd Mount-Stephen, the first president
of the road. Two miles farther west is Lake Wapta — the
source of the Wapta river, whose precipitous course the
railway follows to its junction with the Columbia. This
stream, and the pass itself, was discovered about 1858
by Sir James Hector, and is known also by an English
name — " the Kicking-horse." It quickly gathers volume
from the neighbouring glaciers. In tlie first five miles it
falls 1100 feet, through rapids and deep and narrow
canons and over steep falls, and in a short course of 40
miles it drops 2746 feet to the town of Golden. The
railway follows the river, crossing from side to side antl
clinging along the ledges of dizzy precipices. It issues
out at last from a gloomy cailon upon the broad valley of
the Columbia river flowing quietly on its northward course.
By the selection of tlie Wapta I'ass the first parallel
of interior mountains, tlie Purcell range, has been flanked ;
but here, at Golden, is seen, across the valley, the range
of the Selkirks, its steep forest-clad slopes rising through
lofty glaciers in snow-crowned peaks — a precipitous moun-
tain rampart 10,000 feet high, over which, until 1883,
no foot of white man or savage had ever passed. Beyond
this range in a direct line is the Eagle Pass through tlie
third or Gold range, and, by fcjllowing up the Columbia
100 miles north to the Great Bend, the Selkirks might
also be flanked, but every mile would have to be travelled
bac^>; to cross the Gold range at the Eagle Pass. Tlu'
Government of Canada had intended to cross the Eockies
farther north by the Yellow-head Pass, and follow down

URITISH COLUMBIA

473

tho North Thompson to Kaniloops wiiich was the objective
point in all the proposed routes, but the company which
had assumed tlie work resolved to avoid so long a circuit,and
to pass through to Kandoops on a direct western course.
With amazing courage and faith they built their line

THE ASULKAN CiLACIEK.

from both ends, and in 1883 the sagacity of Major Rogers
discovered a pass over the Selkirks so long sought in vain.
Leaving the town of Golden the railway follows north
along the Columbia to Donald, where it crosses and con-
tinues along the western bank to Beavermouth. There
the Beaver river issues from the mountains, through a
gorge so narrow that a felled tree might span it. Up
the steep valley of this stream the railway climbs its
dizzy way, clinging to the precipitous sides of the lofty
mountains, and winding in sharp curves round rocky

•^,,

)

: 1

\', \

^: *

fVl'':

474

CO.Ml'KNDIUM Ol' GKOGHxMMFY AND TKAVKL

Spurs, or tuiuu'lliiiiL;' tliroiigh theiu wlu-ii no kMl^c could
l»e found. Half-vviiy up *he iisci'ut tlie niiiin JJeiivor
valley is \v\\ for tluit of liear Creek, and, between two
;.fi<;antie ,..aks, the summit of the Koj^ers Pass spreads out
into a ])leasant mountain meadow 41)00 feet above tlie
sea. Tiie summits of all these mountain passes hav(^ been

THK (iUEAT (il.AllKH.
SliowiiiK tlic e. 1'. I{. Motel.

• tl

lany oiner glaciers an

re>erved from sale by tiie Dominion (Jovernnient to form
})arks, and this is the ^^randest of all, for the ^reat ^laeier
t»f the Selkirks is very near, nr
visible amonji; tiie distant peaks.

The load descends for a second time to the Columbia
by the vuHey of the lllecillewai^t, a stream which hurries
its headlouLj career down liSl*;' feet in 4() miles. Some
^reat feats of enninei'rin;^ j'l'c ]»ei'formed in this descent,
and here is the ^reat loop where the roud dcaibles Itaek
on itself in four tracks windiuLi; do»',.i to lower levels;

I'.RITISH COLUMBIA

47.

and iittcr ])n.ssiii<j; tlivoiiuh stupeiiddus canons and gorges
it at last L'niorgi's once nioru u])on tlio Columbia now
ilowing son '1' ward, a (^uict navigable stream with all its
turbulent rapids behind it.

Near K'evelstoke the rojid crosses the river and enters
the Gold range by a pass, at its highest point only r>25

ii^

THK tiUKAT l.ool' IN THK SKI.KIIIKS.
Slinwiii;; fiiur Hjiilway Triu-ks.

I'eet above the level of the Columbia. Four beautilul
lakes occupy the whole width of the summit level, and
the road follows the Kaglo river, tlu; outlet of the west«'rn-
most, down to Sicamous Junction in tlu interior i)lateau
of the province. Sicamous is upon the grou)> of lakes
calhul the Shuswaj) lakes, ami there a railway branches
olT south to Vi'rnon on ()Uan:igan lake. Tlie I'acitic
Kailwiiy fnlhtws along the South Thompson t<» Kandoops,
iind along the south shore of Kainloops Liike, jtlunges into

1 ;3i

■

: ■.

■; 'i

476

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

the Ijlack canon of the Thompson, and emerges to follow
the Fraser in its Titanic struggles through narrow canons
to reach tlie sea.

There are not many other railways in the province.
The chief ii^terest is centred at present in the Kootenay
district, where several lines are in course of construction.

Si'lllKlll, I'ltiit".

THE lANON OK THE KH.VSKH KIVKU, ABOVE 81'LZZUM, H.C, ON THE
fAXADlAX I'ACIFIC HAILWAY.

A railway connects the Arrow, Slocan, and Kootenav
lakes from Nakusp to Kaslo. There is also a railway
from Xelson to Fort Shepi)ard. It continues across thi'
frontier and connects with the Cheat Northern at Spokant'.
and a branch connects Xelson with IfoUson. A short liuf
is also hnilt to Trail Creek and llosaland. A branch road

lililTISH COLUMBIA

477

at Mission City on the lower Fraser connects with the
United States roads ; anil Vanconver, the terminus of tlie
Canadian Pacific railway, is thus connected by rail with
the southern railway system. On Vancouver Island the
coal region of Xanaimo is connected by a railway with
Victoria and tlie harbour of Esijuimalt.

The Coast

(Jnly one aspect of the geograpliy of tlie Pacific pro-
vince of the Dominion has so tar been considered. It is
far more than a region of lofty mountains and rapid
rivers ; it is a maritime country witli one of the uKJst
remarkable sea coasts in the world, measuring, with all
its indentations 7000 miles in the aggregate, abounding
in commodious liarbours, and fringed with an archi}ielag<j
of innumeral)le islands. Of these the largest is Vancouver
Island, and upon it Victoria, the capital city of the pro-
vince, is built. This island is 285 miles long, and from
40 to SO miles wide, covering an area of about 20,000
S(|uare miles — very nearly the size of Nova Scotia, its
c(»unterpart on the Atlantic. Vancouver Island is
liounded on the soutli bv the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
and is separated from the mainland of the province l»y
the Strait of (Jeorgia and (.^Hieen Cliarlotte Sounil. TIu'
mountain ridge wliich forms the luickbone of the island
rises again from the ocean on the north to form the
<^UK'en Cliarlotte Islands, an extensive group at luesent
iniuibited by the Haida Indians and a few white settlers.
The partially submerged range of mountains forming the
nucleus of these islands runs ))arallel to the Coast range
of the mainland; and, while it consists largely of
crystalline rocks, it cowlains areas of the Cretaceous
formation, in wliicli are extensive basins of true coal ;
t'ituminous in Vancouver, and anthracite, as well as

III

i|i

478

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL

bitimiinous, in Queen Charlotte Islands. The general
heiglit of the mountain range is from 2000 to 3000
feet on Vancouver Island. Some of the peaks are 0000
feet, and Victoria Peak is 7484 feet higli. On the (}ueen
Cii- ^lotte Islands some of the higher summits are 5000
feet. Tlie islands of this group are generally moun-
tainous, Imt the north-east part of Graham — the largest
island — is a gently rolling plain. All the islands are
densely forested. As might Ijc expected, the waterways
around and throughout the whole archipelago fringing
the coast of British Columbia are exceedingly deep, and
the shores are bold, for they are tlie longitudinal and
cross valleys of the sunk'en range.

Tlie Strait of Juan de Fuca, from the open ocean to the
shore of tlie nuiinland, is 100 miles long. For CO miles it
runs along the densely wooded coast of Vancouver Island,
with a width of 11 miles of very deep water. As it turns
round the southern end of the island, it is sul»divi<led by
islands into many channels. Three of them are broad,
and navigable for the largest ships ; the Haro, the
Middle, and the liosario channels. According to the
Ashburton Treaty, the boundary line was to be con-
tinued from the parallel of 40° to the ocean, through the
centre of the channel of the strait. This centre lias l)eeii
decided to be the centre of tliat one of the three princi])al
channels which is nearest to liritish territory.

The Strait of (Jeorgia extends in a north-west direc-
tion, and is continued l»y many channels through a crowd
of smaller islands into Queen Charlotte Sound. The strait
varies in width from 14 to 20 miles. All the channels
ar" deep — the soundings range from 70 to 200 fathoms.
All the way along the coast of the jjrovince, from its
southern point, and even much beyond it, to Cross
Sound in Alaska, the largest ocean steamship may pass

HUITISII COLUMBIA

479

securely through sheltered channels for 800 miles; and,
except for a very short distance, without encountering the
swell of the main ocean. The (,)ueen Charlotte islands
are separated from Alaska by the ])ixon Entrance, and
from the main province by Hecate Strait.

The parallel of 49°, the southern l)0undary of the
mainland, is marked by a granite monument 25 feet
high, erected on a bluff on lioundary I Jay. Across the
bay, and projecting from Canadian soil, a little spit of
land, lloliert's Point, ventures for a mile across the line
of 49°, and is snipped off into the United States. Lord
John liussell ndldly suggested that this little projection
could not possildy be of any use to the United States,
and might be left to l)elong to tlie land it grows out of:
but tlie hint was not taken, and it remjiins, together with
tlie little bit in the north-west angle of the Lake of
the Woods, a curiosity of dijdomacy and a singular con-
venience to smugglers.

About 15 miles north of the boundaiy is the delta
of the Fraser. The city of New Westminster, at one
time the capital of the mainland i)rovince, is l)uilt at the
mouth of the river wliere the delta commences. Sliips
drawing 14 feet can pass 30 miles up tliu stream as
fur as Langley. Seven miles north of New Westminster
liurrard Inlet stn^tches for 12 miles into the land-
au aiiU of the Strait of (leorgia, an ideally perfect
harlxtur, 2 to 4 miles wide, and opening jtractically
into three harl)Ours, commodious, and with excellent
ancliorage all over. It is easily accessilde, and open at
all seasons. When the Pacific terminus of the ( 'anadian
Pacific railway had to be decided ujton, it was impossible
to overlook a place so marked out by nature for the
]>urpose. Halifax on tlie Atlantic and Vancouver <»n
iWurard Inlet on the Pacific are twin iiarbours unexcelled

480

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

f '■

in the world, and both within easy reach of coal, the all-
important factor in modern navigation.

Passing northward, all along the coast, deep sounds or

HEAD OK BUTE IXl ET AND WAUDINl.TON HAKBOIH.

inlets penetrate far inland — Howe Sound, Jarvis Inlet,
Toba Inlet, Bute Inlet, Loughborough Inlet, Knight Jnlet,
Kingcome Inlet, and many others. They spread out into
branching arms within their entrances. Many are tou

^T"

ISKITISH COLUMBIA

481

deep for ancliovage, but they are sheltered by steep-up
mountains rising 5000 to 8000 feet. Some of these
inlets run up 40 miles into the land, and usually at their
termination the land is low and some river forms a little
delta. The scenery on these fiords is grand in the
extreme.

The dense archipelago, througli which the Strait of
CJeorgia passes into (,>ueen Charlotte Sound, is permeated
by numerous channels of deep water, and the islands are
higli and buld. Discovery Tassage, the chief channel, is
close to the Vancouver sliore. It is on an average a
mile wide, and is from 30 to GO fathoms dee}). At
Seymour Narrows, the tides flowing from the north cause
swift currents ; for the passage closes in there t(j a width
of about one-third to one-half of a mile.

The same general characters [»revnil on the coast of
A\ancouver Island. The liarl)nur of Esquimalt on the
Strait of Juan de Fuca is another of these ideally i)erfect
harbours like Halifax and lUirrard Inlet. It is very easy
of access and very connnodious ; opening out, from an
entrance one-third of a mile across, to a broad slu'ct with
good anchorage all over in never less than G fathoms.
A railwav to the coal mines at Xanaimo makes it com-
plete as a naval station. It is tlie cliief station on the
J'acilic for Her ]\hijcsty's navy ; and a dock 480 feet long,
G") wide, and with 2G.', feet over the sill, aifords every
facility for repairs. ( )n]y 2 miles distant is the harbour
of Victoria: the inner harbour is available for sliips
drawing 14 or 1 o feet, but somewhat intricate of entrance.
Outer wharfs, with oO feet of water, provide for largi'
steam-ships. An excellent harltour is found at Xanaimo
for the large coaling licet which clusters there.

The outer or west coast of \'ancouver Island is a
repetition of the mainland coast, but on a less miignificent

2 I

482

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TKAVEL

scale. The inlets are there also, and they seareli far into
the land, but tlie mountain sides are not so high, and
anchorage within them may be conveniently found.
Alberni Inlet is 20 ndles long, with a fine harbour at its
head. It is a lumber-shipping port, for all the island is
densely wooded with fine timljer. The width of tiie
inlet varies from half a mile to one mile. Nootka Sound
is 6 miles wide and stretches three arms into the land,
7, 14, and 18 miles long respectively, with a depth of
40 to IGO fathoms. Clayoquot, Esperanza, Kyuquot, and
Quatsino Sounds also penetrate deeply into the island.
There are many smaller bays, and all are surrounded by
high land, but the mountains on the island are in general
much lower than on the mainland shore. The interior
of Vancouver Island is very little known, ))ut resembles
the mainland in having many long mountain lakes. It
is a rough country with dense undergrowth and ditticult
to traverse.

Climate

The climate of British Columbia is as varied as its
complex geography would indicate. It is the resultant,
in the main, of the prevailing westerly winds impinging
upon a coast bordered by a high mountain range and
blowing over a territory of successive mountain ranges of
increasing height. Where the winds strike fairly the
climate is moist, and under the lee of the mountain
ranges it is dry. In the northern part of the province
the Eocky Mountains are lower and do not afford so
much shelter from the easterly and northerly winds,
from across tlie plain or from the regions of tlie Arctic
Ocean. The climate of the northern interior is there-
fore a continental climate, and, excepting on the coast,
it is cold in winter and warm in summer. The con-

BRITISH COLUMBIA

483

ditions of climate on the west coast of America are the
same as in western Europe with the important difter-
ence tliat in Europe the westerly winds do not encounter
the full Ijroadsides of the mountain ranges, but the coasts
are low, and such ranges as there are run mostly east and
west with the axis of the land and are taken in Hank
by the winds from the ocean.

The inner coast of Vancouver Island is drier than the
ocean coast, being sheltered In' the mountains, antl the
clouds bearing moisture from the ocean pass over to the
mainland. In summer the south-eastern end of the island
enjoys cool breezes from the snow-capped Olympian
Mountains to the south, so that the climate of Esquimalt
and Victoria is like that of South Devonshire, but drier.
At Esquimalt the mercury, in the course of years, rai-ely
goes below 21^ in winter or higher than 70 Fahr. in
summer. On the mainland it is more humid, for the
clouds are arrested by the Coast range, and yield up a
large portion of their moisture in ascending the western
side of the mountains. This is the region of the densest
forests and the largest trees.

Under the lee of the Coast range is a long strip
of arid land, where the soil, though excellent, re<iuires
irrigation to produce crops. At the (lold range, the
Selkirks, and the liocky ^Mountain ranges these conditions
iire repeated. The higher strata of air from the west
iuid the descending . clouds are deprived of their last
particle of moisture by the successive ranges of moun-
tains. The most easterly of these ranges is the highest
so that, when the movement of the atmosphere over the
eastern plains draws away from the mountains, the western
winds come down from ' the liockies perfectly dry, pro-
ducing the phenomena of the Chinook winds described in
a previous chapter.

, (

484

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

rroceeiliiig northward along the coast the diniute
becomes more humid, as the winds from the Japan cur-
rent strike more squarely against the mountains. The
summits are perpetually snow -clad, and great glaciers
form in the ujtper valleys. The snowfall in winter is
much lighter across the range, thougli the climate is
colder.

Illustrating tliese general statements by concrete ex-
amples, it is thus explained why the climate of Vancouver
Island is so genial, and why, although there may be slight
falls of snow in winter, tlie snow lies so short a time. On
the mainland at New Westminster, the Fraser river in some
winters may freeze for a few weeks, but ihe winter is
more a rainv season tlian a season of snow a:id ice. On
the interior plateau in winter the tliermometer sometimes
falls below zero, as shown l»y the following tables. The
snowfall is light, but many of the lakes are frozen from
December to March. Far to the north in tlie region of
the rivers draining into the ^Mackenzie tlie climate cor-
responds to the conditions of that basin. At the far
south-east corner of the province, the Kootenay and the
Columbia valleys have a climate of their own. They are
high and inclosed by mountains. The precipitation is
not nearly so great as on the coast — the snowfall is light,
and on the western slope of the Iiockies there is suiticient
rainfall. Navigation is continuous all the year round on
the Columbia and the Kootenay lakes. It is cold in
winter, but owing to the elevation the air is rarified and
the climate is bracing and invigorating.

The westerly winds frequently bring fog along the
coast to such an extent as to embarrass navigation in the
fall months. The same general conditions as to fogs exist
on the coast of North-west America as along the cor-
responding coasts of North-west Europe. The follow-

BRITISH COLUMBIA

485

iiig ti^bles set forth in concrete shape tlie varvin;^ climates
of tlie province : —

MKTKOKOLOOrCAL TatU.E FOK J.VNrAUY, KltOM THK OllSERVATIONS OF
A Sf.UIES of YeAIIS — AVEUAOE KEGISTEIIED TEMI'KUATl'KES AND
PllECIPITATION.

Locality.

Nniiie of Place.

Ti'iiip.

Ti'ini). 1

'i'i'<'i|>itiiti()ii

Low est.

ni|.;lifst.

ill iiii'lii's.

S.E. Coast Van. I. .

Esquinialt

21-6

53-1

5-01

West „

AUiorni .

20-6

50-2

13-83

Mainland coast, S.

Xe\v "NVestniinster

l.V-2

52-2

9-71

„ N.

Port Siniji-son .

7 '5

r.;Vl

10-8;'.

Interior Plateau

Spcnce's liridge

- 3-4

49 -t)

1-lf)

)> >)

Kaniloojis

- 8-7

48-1

0-48

., N. Cariltoo

liarkorville

-20-9

3!>-4

3-04

., far North .

Stuart Lake

-37-7

43-1

2-97

Kontenay, S. E. corner

Fort Steele

-25-1

46-8

2-90

Snowfall reduced to inches of water, 10 in. snow = l in. water.

Metkouologr'al Table fou Ji'ly, from the Or..sEi!V.vrioNs of a

SeUIES of VeAKS — AVEHAOE UEGIStEKEl) TE.MI'EKATlUEs AM>
RAINFALL.

Locality.

S.E. Coast, Van. I.
West „

^lainland coa.st, S. .
„ N. .
Interior Plateau

)> I) ■

,, N. Cariboo
,, far North .

Xuiiit' of Place,

Esquimau
Alberni .
New Westminster
Port Simpson .
Spence's Bridge
Kamloops
Barkerville
Stuart Lake

Tt'ini). Ti'iiiii. l'r('('i|iitiiti()ii

hoWt'St. Ui;ilU',st. ill iliclli's.

Kootenay, S.E. corner Fort Steele

44-5
41-9
46-9
39-2

48-r)

48-7
33-9
23-3
33-9

79-4
93-1

89-r.

72-8
100-9
97-3
83-2
92-0
95-2

0-43
0-82
0-57
5-3t>
0-41
2-29
3-08
1 -.-.2
1-08

Total An'nval Puech'It.vtiox— aveu.voe of a Seiue.s of Years.

fStiitioii.

Ilicllfs.

S.E. coast of Vancouver Island

Esquimau

40-34

Mainland coast, S. . * .

New Westminster

41-72

, , , , *> . . .

Port Simpson .

ior.-9t)

Interior Plateau

Spence's Bridge

9-9«

%. ^" r^%,

'^>.

.o^A^^^^>

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

t
%

/ *;

4is

Si? Mj

f/.

1.0

I.I

1.25

1^ mil 2.2

U IIIIII.6

"*'

i^^.

t^y

i i

IT:

ft « ■

m i

486

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Total Numher of Days of Fog, 1895.

S.E. Coast of Van. I.
West ,, „
Mainland coast, South
Interior Plateau

Esquimau
Alberni .
New Westminster
Spence's Bridge
Kani loops
Barkerville
Stuart Lake .
Fort Steele

,, X. Cariboo ,
,, far Xorth .
Kootenay, S.E. Corner .

Of the 26 days of fog at Esquimalt 15 were in Ootoher and November.
31 ,, Alberni 30

Days.
26
31

Forests

The forests of British Cohimbia are of immense extent,
as has been incidentally shown in the preceding pages.
They consist almost entirely of conifers, and the varieties
are few. On Vancouver Island there are areas of oak,
and poplar is found throughout the province. The broad-
leaved maple is met with on the lower reaches of the Eraser
and in the country around Victoria. ]\Iany other trees
are found, but of the total output of all the lumber mills
of the province 85 per cent is from the Douglas tir. It
is tough and strong, and is highly valued for cMps" spars
as well as for building purposes. The lumbering industry,
though the oldest in the province, has not, ]iowever,attained
the development which might have been anticipated, for
the province has practicall}' been opened only recently to
the world, and capital is drawn chieHy towards mining
and fishing.

Entering the province from the east the chief trees of
the Eocky Mountains are white spruce, Engelmann's
spruce, black pine, l)alsam fir, and Douglas fir. Spruce,
black pine, and Douglas fir, with po[>lars and a few other
deciduous trees, characterise the valleys. The western

BRITISH COLUMBIA

48'

slopes, where not too rocky, are generally thickly clothed
with spruce or black pine ; the Douglas fir does not there
grow very high. The balsam fir and black pine, with
Lyell's larch, attain a higher elevation than the other trees,
and die away in stunted growths along tlie snow-line

Nearly the same trees recur in the Selkirk and Gold
ranges, but in sheltered valleys the cedar grows very large,
and great tall western white pines are found. Hemlock
grows in some localities, and the western larch, a tall,
slender, straight tree, occurs in others.

It is in the vallev of the Columbia that the cedar

l)egins to assume the huge proportions which distinguish
it in this province. On crossing the Gold range and
descending upon the interior plateau, tlie absence of
sufficient rainfall is immediately evident. The yellow
pine l)ecomes the most prominent tree in the valleys,
growing in clumps or singly in open lands. Higher up
on the plateaus, Douglas fir, spruces, and l^lack pine form
thick woods, and white-barked pii -^ is found in some
places at high elevations. Then, upon crossing the Coast
range, the traveller enters into a dense forest region ex-
tending down to the ocean and covering A\incouver Island ;
for the humid western winds have their full infiuence, and
nourish into their wonderful growth the gigantic firs and
cedars, which astonish all who see them for the first time.

The Douglas fir is often found oOO feet high, and from
10 to 12 feet in diameter. The trees which are tlie best
for liandling and make the l)est lumber are those 5 to G
feet in diameter, and running clear to IGO feet to the first
branch.

The cedar (arbor vitcv) is, however, even larger than
the Douglas fir. It sometimes attains the enormous girtli
of GO feet. It is used for fine dressed lumber and for
shingles, as these trees decay at the heart on attaining

I •

IMI

488

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL

maturity. Though hollow, they remain perfectly healthy.
The grain of this wood is very beautiful, and it is exceed-
ingly durable.

Other trees attain a groat size on the coast region.
The yellow cedar or cypress does not extend far inland, but
is found throughout Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte
Islands, especially on the west coast. It is often G feet
in diameter. Oak is met chiefly on the south-eastern
part of Vancouver Island, and is often 3 feet in
diameter. The western hemlock is found wherever
there is abundant moisture, and on the coast often
grows to a height of 200 feet. Yew occurs along the
coast and on Vancouver Island, and attains a diameter of
1 8 inches to 2 feet. The alder becomes a small tree, and
is sometimes two feet in diameter on the lower Fraser.
The broad-leaved maple sometimes attains a diameter of
4 feet. It is never found far away from the coast-line.

The total amount of lumber cut in 1895 was
112,884,040 feet, of which 52,043,070 feet were ex-
ported.

Minerals

The mineral resources of British Columbia cannot be
easily over-estimated, for new discoveries of importance
are continually being made. The great Cordilleran l)elt
extends throughout the province, in many ranges, with a
widtli of 400 miles. These mountains, through the whole
length of the two American continents, by whatever name
they are called, are known to be highly metalliferous, and
they preserve that character in tlie innnense development
they attain in this province. As previously observed,
the interior mountain ranges of the south are classed
very frequently together under the general name of the
Gold mountains, as being the source of the gold in the

BRITISH COLUMBIA

489

; i

river valleys, and it may be said generally that the rivers
of the province are all auriferous. The Fraser, with its
atHuents, is a true Pactolus, for it drains in its rapid
course all the interior mountain ranges of the southern
half of the province, and far up in the almost inaccessible
north sunilar conditions exist. Placer mining is carried
on in the Omenica district in the l»asin of the Peace river,
and some of the bars on tlie Liard are worked for gold.
The Pelly, the Lewes, the Stuart, and other chief sources of
the Yukon are all known to be auriferous, and, undeterred
by distance and hardship, miners are working on these
streams, and have taken out considerable quantities of
gold by the rude methods which alone are possible where
communications are so difficult.

It is a note of the universal distribution of gold that
it was first observed in 1851 on the coast of one of the
Queen Charlotte Islands, and it is recorded that 820,000
was taken out, and that working was abandoned because
tlie reef ran under the sea, and could not be followed for
more than a few feet down. In 1857 the mines of the
Thompson river, a chief tributary of the Fraser, were
discovered. Then the riches of the Fraser became known,
and soon, in searching for coarse gold, supposed to be the
source of the lower washings, the miners pushed up to
the Cariboo countrv, then almost inaccessilile among
forests and mountains, and even now only reached l>y
285 miles of staging. Until 1895 half the gold found
in tlie province came from this remote region.

From 1858 to the end of 1*896 the aggregate of placer
gold yielded was $57,704,855. This was entirely the
result of different methods of placer mining, for the most
part, of a very unscien];iHc kind. Tlie largest amount
obtained in any one year was .S3,7o5,851 in 1804.
'"^ince that time the vield has decreased as the surface

ii i

490

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

deposits were exhausted. In the year 1896 the product
was S544,026, a reaction from the lowest point reached,
probably caused by the adoption of improved hydraulic
methods, and the recent introduction of machinery as
capital was drawn in this direction. Nearly all was from
the districts of Yale and Cariboo. In addition to the
above, the production of metals from lode mines in the
year 1896 reached the sum of $4,257,179, nearly all
from the Kootenay country now being opened up. The
product of 1895 was almost doubled. Of this aggregate
$1,244,180 was of gold, and $2,100,689 was of silver.

Wherever the interior ranges extend gold is found in
the streams. Placer mining is carried on at the great
bend of the Columbia, on the lllicillewaet, on the
Similkameen, and in the Okanagan and Kootenay
districts. ]\Iost of the bars of the Fraser having been
exhausted, the bed of the river is now leased to com-
panies, who are dredging the river bottom for alluvial
gold, under the belief that more of the gold would sink
to the bottom of the eddies than would be caught on the
bars.

Not only are mining operations carried on in these
central regions of the province, but the Cassiar region iu
the north-west of the mainland contributed in 1895
$22,575 to the general aggregate. This is not a large
amount, but it is the result of the labour of a few
individuals, and illustrates the wide distribution of gold
over the province. In 1896 gold was discovered at
Alberni, on Vancouver Island, but beyond that general
fact no particulars have been recorded. China Creek, in
that part of the island, has been worked intermittently
since 1862.

The greatest recent development in mining for the
[)recious metals has, however, taken place in the Kooteiiay

THK KOOTKNAV DISTHHT.

To fiuf jtapf 491.

i)'/il.-llir-<i:-- t^Oilf ^'■■''Ulh' Lf'i'i^

SCALE OF aTATUTC MlkU

Lnudiin KilwHiil S»iujU>i"«l,l'k'..V«r, ( <>ok;Ji»ui' St ( liaiii^l r«ss. S.W.

'^!

To foxe page 4&1.

^V^T*^

ncy

Qh/U*f<r

FO*T_
MAC|

'^W

Ji- Grool^^txlU Lundvii

IJUITISH COLUMBIA

491

district during the hast two or three years. The chief
mines are on Kootenay Lake, on 81ocan Lake, on Tront
Lake, on the Illicillewaet, and at Trail Creek, where it
falls into tlie Columbia near the frontier. The ores are
varied in character. !Most of them are galenas carrying
silver, and many are pyrites carrying gold. The average
amount of silver may be 100 ounces to the ton; many
yield much more, and some less. When they carry gold,
the quantity varies all the way from S2 a ton to an ore
whicli is worked chiefly for gold. The lead ores contain
an average of 7 per cent of lead.

Other mines in the same district contain gold and
silver in varying amounts, mixed generally with sulphides
of copper and iron. It is not easy to give any summary
description of such mixed ores, nor is it easy to ascertain
their value with sufficient precision. They may be
roughly classified into three divisions: 1. Silver -lead
ores, found chiefly at Ainsworth, Kaslo, Slocan, and on
the Illicillewaet. These yield from S20 to several
hundred dollars a ton in silver, besides the value of the
lead. 2. Copper ores holding silver, found at Toad
Mountain. These are similar to the previous class, but
contain much copper. 3. Iron and copper pyrites
holding gold, found chiefly in the Trail Creek district,
yielding from S8 to 840 or more in gold per ton, and
some copper. They are all exported either as crude
ores, as " matte," or as argentiferous pig-lead. Several
smelting and concentrating plants are in operation, and
more are being erected.

While these pages have been passing through the
press the mining interests of the province have been
advancing with enormous strides. It is now beyond all
(juestion that British Columbia is destined to become one
of the most important regions in the world for the pro-

BRITISH COLUMBIA

493

■I

duction of the precious inctuls. The town of llossUind
is not tv'i years oUl, and has now 7000 inlmbitants,
with churches, hotels, water -works, electric light and
newspapers; and, what is of prime im])ortance, the most
perfect civil order. The love of civil liberty combined
with order existing in the province is strikingly shown
by the fact that in liossland, crowded as it is by nuners,
the majesty of the law has been represented by one single
constable. Xo one (piestions his authority, and no one
is allowed to carry weapons of any kind. (Jamblers
and card-shar[iers coming to start their evil trade are
requested to leave and always accept the advice. Two
mines in tliis district (Trail Creek) have paid $^3 1)2, 5 00
in dividends up ^-^^ July, 180(5. Six: or seven other
n)ines are now shipping ore, and development is rapidly
going on. These are nunes of high grade gold ore.
There is also an enormous quantity of low grade gold
ore, only waiting for increased facilities of transportation
to be made available. The average net value of the
ores already mined is $37'1S per ton.

Although, at the present moment, the gold mines are
attracting more attention, production in the silver and
lead mines of the Slocan district is going on quietly and
steadily. There are over fifty mines shipping ore in
paying quantities. One mine in the district was dis-
covered only in 1891, and up to July, LSOG, has paid
Ji>300,000 in dividends. Other mines are commencing
to pay dividends, but up to the present the product has
mostly been spent in developing the properties. All
these mines are in West Kootenay, but ra})id ' /ances
are being made all over the province. The disirict of
East Kootenay gives as good promise, but there are no
facilities of transport, and development nmst wait until
the district can be easily reached. The Boumlary Creek

Iff

? r.

BRITISH CULUMlilA

495

district is also a richly iniiieralised leniuii, and many
(jiiartz ledges, with free niillinj;' gold, are i'ound there and
in the Okanagan district. It has become evident during
the last few months that if the trade of this rich region
is not to be carried oil" to the United States in jierman-
ence, a railway must be liuilt throuyli the Crow's Xest
I'ass, and tiie Canadian Tacitic railway is preparing to
Ituild it. Then tlie coal of All)eita, and the wonderful
coal deposits in the pass itself will su[)ply the smelting-
worlvs, at a low rate, with coke which now costs i'rom
Jr^lo to 817 a ton. The East Kootenav district will then
be opened up, and the massi'S of lower grade gold ores in
West Kootenay will become available. I'his rapid progress
is not limited to the Kootenay region. The wiiole province
is feeling tlu; stimulus, and every day brings new evidence
of metallic wealth from all ])arts of tlie country ;. and
while iuyestors there, as everywhere, nuist be careful to
ascertain that they are buying shares in a real mine and
not in a prospect, there are legitimate and ])rolitable
openings for all the capital, industry, and skill, whicli
can be In-ought into tlie province. What is most needed
is cheap transportation. The communications of West
Kootenay are good, but they chiefly lead into th.o U^nited
States, and thereafter concentration, the ore goes linally
to be reduced.

The Trade and Navigation returns of the Dominion
just published, for the year ending oOth .Iun<\ 1S0('», give
the chief items of mineral exports from lU'itish Columbia
as follows : —

(ioUl lii'firiii;,' (juartz. dust, iiuggetw, otc.

Cn|iiMT oir, matte, or legiiliis

Li'iid .......

Sfilvcr oiv concentnitcH, etc

l.")ti,7i»-'

■|IIS.(i'_'.'i

l.'.it.^.MS

^ I

[« 1

II-

II '

496

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

the exports of the latter half of 189G ran rapidly up,
and they ino <^ased as each new mine came into active
operation. liie approximate value of the exports of
minerals from Xelson in West Kootenay during the
first two months of the year 1897 was $999,138.

Platinum is found in the Similkameen district. The
export was in a previous year $10,000 in value, but in
1895 only $3,800 was reported. Mercury is found as
cinnabar near Kamloops, and at Alberni on Vancouver
Island, Iron ores occur in many places throughout the
province ; at Alberni, and on the mainland. They are
found in the Nicola Valley near beds of coal ; but the
only iron ore mined is on Texada Island, where it occurs
in large quantity as magnetic iron ore, and is exported to
the United States. Shipments have also been made from
Eedonda Island and from Kamloops. The preceding are
metallic minerals only ; but mica, asbestos, marble, gypsum,
slate, graphite, and other non-metallic minerals of value
are also found. The mineral wealth of the province has
only commenced to be apprehended by the public, even
in Canada, since the opening of the Canadian I'aciiic
railwfiy.

The total production of minerals in British Columbia
for the calendar year 189G was $7,140,425.

Coal

However defective may be the general knowledge
outside as to the metalliferous resources of the province,
its wealth in coal is sutliciently well known. It leads
the market of San Francisco, and is exported to Hawaii,
Petropaulovski, Alaska, and elsewhere on tlie Pacific
coasts. Here again the province lias l)een favoured by
nature, for coal occurs in many }»laces and in extensive

I'i

BRITISH COLUMBIA

497

areas readily accessible by sea and of superior quality ;
for it is acknowledged to be the best on the whole coast
of the Pacific, and, in fact, there is no coal on the coast
until Puget Sound is reached. A heavy United States
duty is not able to keep the Vancouver coal out of
California.

The only mines which are extensively worked are on
Vancouver Island, at Nanaimo, and at Comox. The coal
is a bituminous coking coal, and is found in seams of 6
to 10 feet thick on the very shore of the Strait of
(jcorgia, and on harbours suitable for the accommodation
of the largest vessels. The mines of Nanaimo have been
worked for forty years with an increasing output, as the
trade of the Pacific Ocean has been developed. The first
regular custom-house returns are in 1860. Tlie following
figures will show by decades the growth of the trade.
The area of the coal-measures at Nanaimo and Comox is
estimated at 500 square miles.

ExpoKT OF Coal from Naxaimo Mines

Tons.

1860 14,247

1870 29,843

1880 267,595

1890 678,140

In 1894 the total output was 1,012,953 tons. The
total export for that year was 827,642 tuns, and, of the
last quantity, 649,110 tons were exported to California.
The output in 1896 was 846,235 tons — a falling-off
from 1894.

Table of the

Output of Coal

ToiiH.

from THI',

NES

AT Nanaimo

ToiiH.

1863

2,000

1893

978,294

1874

81,000,

1894

1,012,953

1890

678,140

1895

939,654

1891

. 1,029,097

1896

846,235

1892

826,335

,; t

1 ,,

2 K

1 1 k

498

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

;

I H

As before stated, a seam of excellent coal 5 feet 7 inches
thick, with some thinner seams, occurs in the Nicola Valley,
and coal has been found also near Kamloops, and on the
North Thompson on the mainland. On Graham Island,
one of the Queen Charlotte Islands, most important
deposits are found, both of bituminous and anthracite
coal of the best quality. There are two beds of anthracite
and three beds 7 feet to 16 feet thick of bituminous
coal.

During the last few years a coal area of very remark-
able extent has been discovered in the Crow's Nest Pass
of the Rocky Mountains. There is an outcrop of from
30 to 40 miles on the Elk river side. One seam is 30
feet thick, another is 20 feet, another 15 feet, and the
otliers are from 2 to 7 feet, twenty soams in all, rising
successively one over the other to near the summit of
the pass. These seams are cut by three creeks, and
thus exposed for working. A railway is proposed from
Lethbridge on the Canadian Pacific railway over the
Crow's Nest Pass to the East Kootenay district, and
the coal will then be available for smelting the ores of
the :iumerous nunes in that region. The area of this
coal-field is estimated to be 144 square miles, and as
the aggregate thickness of the seams is 132 feet of coal,
an idea may be formed of the immense quantity available.
The coal is bituminous, of excellent quality ; fifteen of
the seams are of cannel coal.

In the same region — East Kootenay — petroleum was
found, in 1891, oozing from the shale. Natural gas was
observed at the same time, and lighted with a matcli.
These indications have not been followed up. The coni-
nmnication with the region is too difficult to make these
resources available.

"&'

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Fisheries

499

There are treasures of the ocean also whicli must be
taken into account in any enumeration of the resources
of British Columbia. There are sea fisheries of halibut,
rock cod, red cod, anchovies, herring, and of many other
kinds. In 1895 2,586,700 lbs. of halibut were exported,
but all these are dwarfed by the amazing runs of salmon
in the rivers. The dense masses of fish which crowd up
the Eraser must be actually seen to be believed in.

The salmon of British Columbia differ from those of
the Atlantic coast, and so much confusion exists in
relation to the subject, that tiie following memorandum
has been obtained from Professor Prince, the Commissioner
of Fisheries for Canada, whose scientific reputation gives
it authoritative value : —

" The rivers of British Columbia are resorted to by at
least seven different species of salmon. Four of these
are of great economic importance, viz., the (^uinnat, the
Sockeye (Sawquai), the Cohoe and the Steelhead.

" The Quinnat, or spring salmon, are the first to
ascend from the Sv^a. They run from spring until July,
but they are not sufficiently numerous to be of great
value for canning. Their large size, varying from 20
lbs. to 40 lbs., or even 80 lbs. weight, renders them
inconvenient to handle, as the many processes involved
in canning make uniformity in size very desirable. They
are canned, liowever, to some extent, and the quality of
tlie rtesh is most excellent. They are perhaps the best
salmon ca ij,ht in Pacific waters, but as compared with
the vast " ru ^s " of other Pacific salmon the Quinnat do
not ascend in great numbers. Tiiey appear to frequent
the Strait of Georgia and inshore waters during the

:■;

ffi!

500

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

main part of the winter, and are then taken by Indians
and anglers who troll for them with spoon-bait.

" The Sawquai, in current conversation Sockeye, or
red salmon, is the most valuable of all the British
Columbia fish. The great canning industry may be said
to be dependent on the supply of this fish, which ascends
the river, in incredible quantities, from the end of June
until September. The Sawquai is a small species, 6 lbs.
to 10 lbs. in weight, and its flesh, being firm and of a
rich red colour, gives it pre-eminence in the market.
When the Sawquai run draws to a close, the canneries,
for the most part, cease operations, but during the few
weeks of the main run each cannery i3ceives on an
average, it is estimated, probably not less than a quarter
of a million of salmon. The Sawquai ascends great
distances, and the principal spawning grounds are in
remote lakes near the head waters of the principal rivers.
Most of other British Columbia salmon are content to
make a less lengthy and less perilous course, and many,
such as the Humpback, appear to resort to the lower
tributaries only.

" The Cohoe is a fine fish, but the chief schools enter
the rivers so late that until recently they were utilised
less for canning than for the frozen fish and fresh fisli
markets. The flesh is of a fine pink colour, but much
paler than the rich orange-fleshed Sawquai. In size they
range from ten to twenty pounds, or more, and they
continue to enter the rivers until early November.

" The Steelhead, which run late and are caught more
or less numerously all through the winter, differ in the
most marked manner ^.. oia all the British Columbia salmon.
This fish resembles, in fact, the great sea trout of the
Atlantic estuaries with its bright large scales and thick
fleshy tail. It is more closely allied to the Eastern and

BRITISH COLUMBIA

501

British salmon thcan the foregoing species, but it has not
proved suitable for canning, on account of the dense
character of the bones, and the fact that it ascends from
the sea in scattered schools ratlier than in the compact
and dense runs of the Sawi^uai. For refrigerator purposes
this fish could not be excelled, and it has been largely
utilised in that way. Tiie average weight of these fish is
12 pounds, but they often reach a weiglit of 25 or 30
pounds. They are an exception to most of the Pacific
salmon, because they afford capital sport with the rod.

" The Dog-salmon, the Tyhee, and other spocies are too
unimportant to rec^uire notice.

" The Humpback salmon comes in from the sea in
immense schools before the Sawquai rur. is over, and as
they are practically valueless commercially, they are a
serious annoyance to the fishermen, who frequently take
in the course of a morning 00,000 Humpbacks to
10,000 or 15,000 Sawquai salmon. Tlie name given to
this species is due to the fact that soon after the schools
enter fresh water the males acquire a peculiar outline,
the body deepening enormously, the back rising in the
form of a blade-Jike ridge, and the jaws increasing in
length, so that the creature presents a most grotesque and
distorted appearance. The fiesh is pale, and, unless
canned very soon after capture, becomes soft and insipid."

The business of canning salmon is extending along
the coast, and is carried on not only on the Fraser, but
upon the Naas, Skeena, llivere Inlet and other rivers.
The Fraser river industry is the most extensive.
The quantity packed there in the year 1895 was
20,780,171 lbs. The total pack of the whole province
was 28,847,101 lbs.,' and the export value was
S2,884,710. Besides this 1,795,892 lbs. of fresh
salmon, in value $179,589, were exported. The total

502

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

yield of tlie fisheries of the province in 1895 was
$4,423,704 in value.

Concerning the fur-seal fisheries much has been
written during the last ten years, and the international
disputes between the United States and Kussia, and the
British and Canadian Governments have brought the
subject into disagreeal.)le prominence. The diplomatic
literature is enormous in bulk, and in that mass of
octavo and folio volumes every actual or probable detail
of infor.iiation, real or imaginary, concerning fur-seals is
proved and disproved. Meantime, under international
conventions, Sc.Js are hunted by British Columbian
sailors. The number of vessels employed in 1895 was
sixty-four, and the number of skins reported in 1895
was 71,350, amounting in value to $713,590.

' Agriculture

Although British Columbia will always be thought of
first as a country of minerals, lumber, and productive
fisheries, it contains many areas of fertile land. These
are not like the illimitable prairies of the North-west
provinces and Manitoba, nor tlie broad and level farm-
lands of Ontario, nor yet like the long river valleys of
Quebec, but they are areas scattered over the province,
in the deltas of the rivers and the valleys of the lakes
and streams, and on the lower terraces of the mountains.
Far away north there are rich prairies in the valley of
the Peace river, but they will not be brought into re-
quisition for a long time to come. The rivers of British
Columbia are not highways of traffic like the rivers of
eastern Canada, but communication is by trails and by
roads, and access to these northern prairies, therefore, is
costly and difficult.

E i

BRITISH COLUMBIA

503

The agriculturul areas on the ih.i iiland lie chietly in
the southern part of the interior plateau. There the
winters are short, and cattle require pl:elter for a few
weeks only. The region is known as the Yale district,
and is inclosed approximately by the Canadian Pacific
railway to the north and west and the (toUI range on
the east. The summers are warm enough for the
growth of grapes and peaches and all kinds of fruit.
The Nicola valley and the Okanagan valley are especially
productive tracts, and so also are the valleys of the
Similkameen and the Kettle river. A connnencement
is being made in the Okanagan region with fruit trees
and hop vines. All this region, however, is in the dry
belt under the lee of the Coast mountains, and irrigation
is necessary to make up for the deficient rainfall. The
abundance of water at high levels makes irrigation easy
and inexpensive.

In the district of Yale also is the bunch-grass country,
where horses and cattle find abundant and nutritious
food on the slopes and plateaus. The country is open,
and the trees are chiefiv along the river bottoms or in
small clumps. Large ranches have been established
with very successful results. The country about Kam-
loops is specially adapted for ranching. The snowfall is
light, and, if the rainfall is deficient, the country is netted
with mountain streams.

West of the Coast range all the farming land is on
the deltas of the Eraser and other rivers. There the soil
is rich, and on the lower reaches of the Eraser there is a
large area of productive farm-land. The slopes of the
mountains are rough and densely wooded. The opposite
conditions exist in this n-egion, for the rainfall is in excess,
and the lands must be drained and often dyked.

On Vancouver Island, though it is in the main covered

t >

504

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

with thickly forested mountains, there is also much pro-
ductive farm-land. The land near Victoria is fertile, and
on the peninsula of Saanich are many fine farms, as well
as at Cowichan and Comox. The land at the head of
the Alberni canal is good farm-land ; the difficulty here
is not so much the quality of the land as the cost of
clearing the dense forest and undergrowth. The smaller
islands in the Strait of Georgia are, in many cases,
occupied by farmers for mixed farming and for sheep
ranches.

History

Victoria, the capital city and the first actual settle-
ment in British Columbia, was staked out in 1842, just
fifty-five years ago, and, until Captain Cook's arrival upon
the coast in 1778, British Columbia was either a blank
on the maps, or the space was filled with imaginary
details. Even as late as 1811 William Cullen Bryant,
in his stately poem, Thanatojisis, could find no stronger
instance of solitude and remoteness than these mysterious
shores —

Take the wings
Of morning, pierce the Barcan wilderness —
Or, lose thyself in the continuous woods
Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound
Save its own dashings — yet the dead are thjre.

It is in the poet's mind the culmination of loneliness, and
yet the imagination of sailors and geographers had been
busy with it for three hundred years ; for there was the
termination, on the " Mar del Zur," of the Strait of
Aiiian — the waking dream of Hakluyt and Purchas and
Michael Lok and Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter
Ealeigh, and all those other Elizabethan worthies with
whom geography was a passion. To them it seemed

BRITISH COLUMBIA

505

contrary to the order of the world that there should be
no passage to Cathay through that interminable barrier
continent which stretched from the frozen cliffs of Meta
Incognita on the north to the snow-clad summits of Tierra
del Fuego on the south, and which still, even at its
narrowest point, defeats the utmost efforts of this ])re8ent
age of engineering skill. It was, in effect, the Pacific
end of the Strait of Anian that Captain James Cook was
sent to discover, and it was the Atlantic end that Parry,
last of many other explorers, searched for in 1H21 along
the western shore of Hudson's Bay. Through all these
years faith was kept alive by eagerly .accepted stories of
passages made, or nearly made ; and so this history almost
of yesterday, is preceded by an age of fable and romance.
There was after all a great deal of truth in the dreams
of these imaginative old sea-dogs. On those far distant
coasts there is an abundance of gold and silver wherewith
to replenish the exhausted veins of old-world commerce ;
and the waterways of the " river of Hochelay " and the
" Mer douce " do open up the way to the great southern
ocean. It is really possible to cross the continent by
water with but a few short portages. The old canoe
route leads to the Athabasca I*ass, or to the I'eace river,
from whence water flowing to the Pacific is not far
distant — but the way is long. The Strait of Anian does
really exist, but it is far on the north and is ice-bound.
That such should be the case was incredible to the old
sailors — to use a modern phrase, it was unthinkable.
Besides, had not the Portuguese passed safely over the
tropics round the Cape of Good Hope ? and the sea was
not boiling, as the old writers had taught ; and Robert
Thorne showed to King Henry VIII. that there was no
more reason to suppose the sea at the north was im-
passable for cold than the sea at the south for heat ; and

506

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

then Christopher Oohuiibus liad actually been to Iceland
in winter and the sea was not frozen ! No wonder, then,
that some sanguine sailors thought they had found the
long sought strait. Some had met people who had sailed
through ; and others, finding everybody ready to believe
them, boldly affirmed that they themselves had passed
through.

In this way it came to pass that even the short history
of our most recent province, whose beginnings we our-
selves may perchance remember liad its mythopoietic age.
As fov this Strait of Anian, is it not laid down on Jeffrey's
standard map of 17()8 !* nnd it leads from the position
of Vancouver into Hudson's Hay ; and there, too, we
may see the Haro river leading into the " N.E. Tartarean
Sea," and the "country of the dwarfs." There, too, is
" Fou Sang," discovered by Buddhist monks from China
in the year 409, concerning which the curious ma}'
consult the Year Books in the Imperial Library at Pekin
— and this Fou Sang is no other than our own British
Columbia, which, on Jeffrey's map of 1768, guards the
western end of the Strait of Anian.

Thtn Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who was the soul of
honour and truth, heard the Mexican friar Urdaneta
explain to Sir Henry Sidney how he had passed through
the strait, and he saw also tlie map of the route. Then
the pilot Juan Ladrillo had also sailed through it — not
to speak of Scolmus the Dane, nor of the East Indians
thrown on the coast of Germany ; for the particulars of
which event the gentle and learned knight refers us to
Quintus Curtius and Cornelius Nepos, to Aristotle, Be-
rosus, and the first chapter of Hester, to Arrianus, Philo-
stratus, and Sidrach in his " Discourse of the warres of
the king of Bactria." If time presses, the hurried reader
may omit these authors and consult Gemma Frisius, and

BRITISH COLUMHIA

507

learn how three brethren sailed westward through tliis
strait, whence it was called Frctam Trium Fivtrum ; and
he may look it up on the map, and find that it also
comes out near the site of our own Vancouver, which the
Canadian Pacific Kail way Company founded a few years
ago.

J^)Ut to be more precise, there is Maldonado — Lorenzo
Ferrer de Maldonado — an exceedingly circumstantial
narrator, who laid before the Council of the Indies a full
detailed account of this strait. He sailed in 1588 from
Lisbon to Labrador at latitude 60°, thence on a north-west
course to 64°, then north to 70°, and then north-west to
75", At that point the Strait of Labrador turned, and
he passed down south-west to the Strait of Anian at 60' ;
so again we are Ijrought to British Columbia. This
person was a good guesser, for the Fury and Hecla Strait
is exactly at 70°, and Melville Sound is at 75°; and it is
just there where Parry would have got through had it
not been for the ice.

Then, in 1592, there was Juan de Fuca — a (J reek
with all the mythopoietic powers of that highly gifted
people — a much travelled and much enduring mariner
who sailed through from the Pacific to the North Sea, but
di ' not continue farther because of hostile Indians,
though he knew the way. His real name was Apostolos
Valerianus and he was a pilot well advanced in years.
This shifty person made an offer to Michael Lok to pilot
the ships of Queen Elizabeth through the strait, if she
would make good the sum of 60,000 ducats, of which he
had been plundered by the sea-rover. Cavendish, on the
coast of Mexico. He too was a good guesser ; for he
placed the western end of the Strait of Anian at 47° to
48°. His name is perpetuated in the Strait of Juan de
Fuca at 48° to 49°; but no trace of him can be found

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508

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

I 1:11

in the records of Mexico or kSpaiii. His story, however,
did some duty against ns in tlie settlement of the bound-
ary with the United States.

These persons, however, were serious persons compared
with Admiral IJartholme de Fuentes. The details of his
exploits appeared tirst in the monthly MisccUani/ for
1708. The narrative was accepted as fact, and on
Jeffrey's map are jwrtrayed the geographical results of
his expedition. It was accepted also in France by
Voltaire, who states in his History of liussia that the
Strait had been discovered. J. N. de I'lsle and Buache,
the geographer to the king, presented in 1750 a memoir
to the Academy of Sciences, " sur les nouvelles decouvertes
au nord de la mer du sud," with a map which perhaps
Jeffrey, the English royal geographer, followed. In this
the strait was laid down to Hudson's Bay. The Academy
was not deceived, but the voyage and the maps were put
in as evidence by the Spanish Government in the Nootka
Sound dispute. Tiie real fact is that the story was a
pure fabrication by a clever contributor to the magazine.
It is necessary to know this story to understand the ma]>s
of that period.

It will thus be seen that a very respectable mass of
mythology has grown up around the history of our newest
province and yet tliis, as all other mythology, has a
certain substratum of fact ; for the shortest and most
direct way to Cathay and Cambaluc and IVIangi and
Quinsay is indeed through the great estuary discovered
by Cartiei to tlie La Cliine of La Salle, and by tlie
Canadian PaciHc railway to the Fou Sang of the IJud-
dhist monks at Vancouver — the terminus on the Pacitic,
of the Strait of Anian ; for railways and not sea-ways are
the channels of tlie connnerce of the present day.

The real history of Britisli Columbia may be very

BRITISi^ COLUMBIA

509

shortly told. It commences with the expedition of Captain
Cook. The succcvss of Hearne in 1771 in reaching the
shore of the Arctic Ocean had awakened puhlic interest,
and Cook was sent to the Pacific with instructions to
search the whole coast, north of the new Albion of Sir
Francis Drake, for a passage eastward to Hudson's Bay.
Whether Drake reached 42", 43°, or 48° is irrelevant here.
He did not pass 48° and therefore did not discover British
Columbia. Captain Cook commenced i t latitude 44", and
coasted to the north, but did not notice the Strait of Juan
de Fuca. He discovered Xootka Sound (which he named
King George's Sound) on Vancouver Island, and refitted
his sliips there in the spring of 1778, and then passed
up nortliwards into the Arctic Ocean as far as Icy Cape,
where further progress was stopped by the ice pack
coming down upon the land. He came to the conclusion
that there was no opening westward at a lower latitude
than 72°, and returned to Hawaii with ihe intention of
renewing his attemi>t at a northern passage the following
year, but he was unfortunately killed.

Behriug, togetlier with his associate (.'hirikof, had made
many discoveries previously. Sailing from Kamskatchka
he had discovered the sea and strait which bear his name,
and, on his last voyage in 1741, he had passed down the
coast of Alaska as far south as 56° ; so that Cook's survey
overlapped the Bussian discoveries. It was Chirikof
who first saw the American continent. He lost some of
his men near tlie present Sitka, licln'ing, a few days
later, struck the land at ]Mounl St. Elias. It is also ir.ore
than probable that Juan Berez, a Spaniard, conniuindiug an
expedition from San Bias in Mexico, saw tliis ]>art of the
coast four years beiore (^ook ; but the discovery was kept
secret until many years later. The history of the pro-
vince commences, then, with Cook's visit in 1778.

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510

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Captain Cook was killed, and his successor, Captain
Clerke, died, and Captain King, upon whom devolved the
command, touched at Petropaulovski on his return voyage ;
and his visit waked up the liussian fur-merchants to
organise a Kussian fur company in 1783, which estab-
lished trading posts in Alaska. The news spread in the
east, and some English merchants in China fitted out a
small trading vessel under Captain Hanna in 1784, and
thus commenced the direct trade in furs with China ; for
there was a great demand for sea-otter skins among the
wealthy Chinese, and eno'-mous prices were readily paid
for them.

In those days every British vessel trading in the
I'acific round Cape Horn required a license from the
South Sea Company, and every vessel trading east of the
Cape of Good Hope required one from the East India
Company. In 1785 a company under a license from the
South Sea Company was organised in London to take up
this fur trade at Nootka Sound. It was called the King
George's Sound Company, and sent out two vessels under
Captains Fortlock and Dixon. Before they arrived,
however, vessels commanded by Englishmen, and sailing
under the Portuguese flag and the flag of the East India
Company, were trading on the coast. In that wa} Meares
and Tippett and Strange and Duncan and Colnett carried
on their operations ; and Barclay, who sailed under the
flag of the Austrian East India Company. These officers
made minor discoveries as they traded along the coasts,
and many places still bear their names, though Nootka
Sound, as it soon was exclusively called, became the
general centre of the trade. Boston, then the chief port
of the United States, and renowned for the enterprise of
its merchants, aspired also to a share in so profltable ii
business and the Columbia Captain Kendj'ick and the

■ikiSi

BRITISH COLUMBIA

511

le
rt
of

Washington Captain Gray arrived in those seas in 1788,
and found ^leares at Nootka building a ship and a
trading-house.

Spain, which for centuries had been asleep on the
shores of the Pacific, at last heard of these doings in
what she conceived to be her territory ; for she claimed
up to latitude 61', where the Russian discoveries were
supposed to end, and in 1780 two Spanish ships of %var
arrived at Nootka Sound and seized Captain Meares's two
vessels and his house and establishment. This brought
England and Spain to the brink of war. The matter
was, however, settled by a treaty called the Convention
of the Escurial, with the result that Meares was to l)e
reinstated and reparation made ; it was to carry out this
convention and reinstate Meares that Captain Vancouver
was sent out in 1701, The Spanish othcers made
difficulties, and Lieutenant Broughton was sent home for
further instructions, while Vancouver went on with a
survey of the coast so thorough and so accurate as to be
available to the present day. Eventually in 1795 tlie
Spanish flag was struck and the Union Jack hoisted, and
British Columbia became an acknowledged possession of
the Crown of Great Britain.

While these events were taking place upon the coast
the merchants of Montreal, known as the North-west
Company, began to occupy the country. Alexander
Mackenzie crossed the Bocky Mountains in 1793, and
following in his wake came the fearless and hardy traders
who had already si)read over the western and northern
plains. Their names are written all over the map of the
province, and the enterprise and pluck of Simon Eraser,
David Thompson, Johik Stuart, Jules Maurice Quesnel,
John M'Leod, Bobert Campbell, and other men of similar
stamp, are wortliily commemorated in the names of the

512

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

great natural features of the country they gave to the
British Crown.

Scarcely had the Nootka Sound dispute been settled
when the United States laid claim to the w^ le country
and the Oregon difficulty began to drag wearisome
length over fifty years of controversy until the cry of
" r)4' 40' or fight" began to be heard. On the other
liand, Great Britain claimed the whole valley of the
Columbia. Fortunately, the issue is now dead, but there
are one or two points still of interest. It has been stated
that Boston vessels arrived on the coast in 1788 —

the Co. Ma and the Wo^shington ; one gave its name
to the territory and the other to the chief river, long
known as the Oregon or " The great river of the west."
The estuary of this river had been discovered by the
Spaniard, Heceta, in 1775, Meares in 1788 had entered
it hoping to find a harbour, but seeing a wall of breakers
across it, he made no further search, and recorded his
rebuff by calling the headland Cape Disappointment, and
the bay Deception Bay.

Vancouver also sailed past it, noting the fresh water
and the breakers. The first vessel to pass the line of
breakers was the Columbia, commanded by Captain
Eobert Gray, and he went about 12 or 15 miles up.
The same year one of Vancouver's ships, commanded
by Lieutenant Broughton, entered the river and sailed up
for 120 miles, and took formal possession of the country
in the name of the king. He went as far as the site
where the Hudson's liay Company afterwards built Fort
Vancouver. The first white man to see the upper
Columbia above the site of Fort Colville was David
Thompson, who, after having established, in 1808, Fort
Kootenay at its source, descended the river in 1811 to
its mouth. In 1805 Lewis' and Clarke's expedition

BRITISH COLUMBIA

513

reached the mouth of the Columbia — in 1808 the
liussians founded a settlement soon after abandoned, and
in 1811 John Jacob Astor founded Astoria, which two
years later, on account of the war of 1812-14, he sold to
the Canadian North-west Company with all its stores,
buildings, and stock. That closed the first chapter of
the history of the province.

The second chapter is the history of the operations of
the great fur company in what was called the western
tlepartment. After years of rivalry and private war
the North-west Company of ^Montreal united with the
Hudson's Bay Company in 1821, and the British
Government granted for twenty-one years to the ancient
company, now reinvigorated with the new blood of the
^Montreal company, an exclusive license of trade over all
tlie Indian territory not covered by the Hudson's Bay
charter. The country west of the mountains was left
open to trade under a convention with the United States
to the subjects of all nations without prejudice to the
territorial claims in dispute ; but the whole trade fell
naturally into the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Private traders from the United States could not com-
pete with this powerful organisation managed by capable
men resident in the territory, and they were, moreover,
always liable to be plundered or murdered l)y the Indians.
The British Government conceded to the company, as
against all other British subjects, the exclusive right to
trade in the territory west of the mountains. The con-
cession was renewed in 18. '3 8 for anotlier period of
twenty-one years.

Under these arrangements the Hudson's liay Company
ruled this immense territory with a beneticent despotism.
It was not in their interest t(j promote settlement, and
they discouraged it ; but they excluded intoxicating

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514

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

I ^

Is ,

si;^

H <

liquors, dealt fairly and justly with the natives, and in-
directly prevented the extermination of fur - bearing
animals. They established on the Columbia farms for
the supplies of their own servants, and they had posts
over the country, of which the chief were Fort Alexandria
on the Eraser, Fort Thompson at Kamloops, the posts on
Fraser's, Babine, and M'Leod's lakes, and Fort St. James
on Stuart's Lake. The chief post of the wliole system
west of the mountains was at Fort Vancouver on the
Columbia. Tliey won the confidence of the Indians, and
by justice, tact, and courage prevented the internecine
struggles, between the white and Indian races, which
broke out south of the boundary line. Such a system,
however, could only be one of transition ; but, for the
time and under the circumstances, the autocratic govern-
ment of the company was of the greatest advantage, not
only to the natives, Ijut to the British Government. If
it was also of commercial benefit to themselves, it was
well merited.

In 1842 the tliird chapter of the history opened, for
the boundary (piestion was once more in warm discussion,
and it became necessary for the company to prepare to
withdraw from Fort Vancouver, and transfer their head-
quarters to some suitable point within unquestioned
British territory. James Douglas, the chief factor,
erected Fort Camosun, now Victoria, on Vancouver
Island. No white settlement existed then on the whole
island, nor, in fact, on the mainland either — then called
New Caledonia. AVork was commenced in March, 1843,
and during the summer the requisite buildings were
erected and inclosed by a bastioned stockade. During
1844 the establishment was completed; the first ship
direct from England arrived in 1845. In 1846 the
Oregon treaty was passed, settling the boundary along

BRITISH COLUMBIA

515

latitude 49" and t^e centre of the Strait of Juan de Fuca;
and in 1859 the iTadson's Bay Company abandoned
Vancouver for the new post of Victoria. Then came the
gold discoveries in California, and the stream of settlers
into Oregon. The old times had passed, and the new era
of settlement was to commence.

The British Government first began to colonise
through the Hudson's Bay Company, and in 1849 it
made a grant to the company of the whole of Vancouver
Island, under conditions of settlement, and sent out a
royal governor — with a commission and a promise of
1000 acres of land, but without a salary. The situa-
tion was an impossible one. The real governor could be
none other than the chief factor of the grantees of the
island, and the superior officer of all the settlers but
eight, who had been brought out by Captain Grant. Tlie
nominal governor resigned, and, in 1851, Cliief Factor
Douglas was appointed in his place, and with a salary of
£800 sterling, apart from his salary as an officer of the
company. He had seen too much land to care especially
for 1000 acres of it.

Governor Douglas was eminently qualified to be a
pioneer governor. The colony and the British owe much
to him. He was a man of courage and experience, and
he had great tact and organising capacity. In quick
succession followed the usual sequences of colonial history
— the council, the justices, the petition to the Crown ;
and at last, in 1856, the first legislative body elected by
the people. There were not many electors, but the
system was complete ; and Governor Douglas delivered
the first speech from the throne heard in that wilderness
of " continuous woods." '

The dispersion of nations, which on the plains of
Babylon had to be accomplished by the confusion of

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516

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

!l»

tongues, is in these latter days effected by the discovery
of ijold ; and the discoveries on the Eraser river drew a
great influx of people into the wilderness of forest and
mountain in the summer of 1858. They came in singly
and in parties as the news spread — rough and lawless
miners, for the most part an overflow from California,
and many of them driven out by the strict rule of the
vigilance committee ; but in the English colony they
found the force of law and order too strong, and the
worst of them left in disgust. The increasing population
consequent on the discoveries of gold stirred up the
Imperial Government to unwonted promptness ; and the
trading privileges of the Hudson's Bay Company were
cancelled, the mainland was erected into a colony, and
Mr. Douglas was made governor of it also, in addition to
his position as governor of Vancouver Island. He was,
however, required to retire from all connection with the
Hudson's Bay Company, and dispose of his interest
therein. On 19th November, 1858, he assumed the
duties of governor.

Governor Douglas soon had occasion for all his tact
and patience. The treaty of 18-46 had provided that the
boundary line should run " through the middle of the
channel which separates the continent from Vancouver
Island." Now there is an archipelago at the southern end
of the Strait of Georgia on the parallel of 49° ; there are,
therefore, many channels, and among them are three
principal ones. Of these three, one was called from its
position the middle channel, and still retains the name.
The Hudson's Bay Company had established a large farm
on the island of St. Juan on the British side of tliis
middle channel, as they naturally supposed it to be. In
1854 a collector of taxes from the neighbouring territory
of the United States visited the island, levied taxes on the

(

BRITISH COLUMBIA

517

farm, and seized and sold stock to pay the taxes so assessed.
The company made a claim for loss and damages, and the
matter went into the arena of diplomatic correspondence.
In the meanwhile the disappointed ones among the miners
began to find their way back, and between twenty and
thirty had S(|uatted on the island, and one of them shot a
pig belonging to the resident factor of the Hudson's Bay
Company. This apparently trivial incident brought the
two countries to the brink of war. The twenty-two
American citizens appealed for protection " in their
exposed and defenceless position " — exposed to the attacks
of outrageous pigs and wild Indians, as well as to the
dangers from eighteen servants of the Hudson's Bay
Company resident on the island. In response, the
general commanding on the Pacific occupied the island
with United States troops, without consulting the
authorities at Washington or communicating with the
government of the province.

It is useful to recall this absurd occurrence, because
it will show how easily a few hotheads may begin a war
involving the destruction of millions of property and the
loss of numberless lives. The tact and patience of the
Governor and of the commanders of the British war-
vessels barely availed to prevent collision before the
matter was even reported to the United States Govern-
ment. Fortunately General Scott was commander-in-chief
— a soldier who had seen much of war ; and, when the
facts were known, the belligerent officers were removed
to other fields of usefulness, and a joint occupancy was
established, and continued with peace and good feeling
until the question was determined. Much money was
expended in the movements of troops and war-ships, and
nnich labour in diplomacy — but the pig was never paid for.

The capital city of the new province was located

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518

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

at the mouth of the Eraser, and, under the direction of
Colonel Moody, a detachment of Iloyal Engineers surveyed
the site. Queensborough was the name first selected —
afterward changed to New AVestminster. The province
had, of course, its legislative council, after the usual
pattern of a colony in transition, and it soon commenced
to petition for a resident governor.

Governor Douglas retired at the close of his term of
service, and was knighted. Governors were then appointed
to each colony, but it soon became evident that a union
was in the interest of both provinces, and this was effected
in 1S6G by a general popular movement in despite of the
opposition of a minority. The province of Vancouver
Island was merged with that on the mainland under the
gujicial name of British Columbia.

In the year 1867 and 1868 the extreme isolation of
the province became the subject of discussion, both in
British Columbia and in England. The colony began
surveys for a road to connect with Canada, and meetings
of influential citizens were held in favour of union with
the Dominion of Canada. The movement was warmly
approved by the Imperial Government, and was met
cordially by the Dominion Government. The terms of
union included provision for the construction of a railway
to connect the system of Canada with the Pacific sea-
board. In 1870 the proposal was drawn up at Ottawa
with the assistance of delegates from the Pacific province.
The following year it was accepted, and the union was
consummated in the same year by an act of the Imperial
Parliament. Thenceforward the history of the province
is merged in that of the Dominion,

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Cities

519

Seeing that the province has been discovered very
little more than a hundred years ago, it cannot be
expected to contain large cities : Victoria, the capital of
1 British Colunil)ia, possesses, however, many natural
advantages. The foundation of the city and the choice
of its first name, Fort Caniosun, have already been noted.
For a short time it was called Fort Albert, but the
eventual selection of the name " Victoria " was a happy
inspiration, since not only in climate but in surroundings
of mountain and sea, her gracious ]\Iajesty would find, if
it were only possible for her to visit lier island city on
the great South Sea, all the natural charms of her
summer and winter liomes in the central island of her
empire. They are, however, drawn liere to a larger
scale. The mountains around Dalmoral are surpassed by
the lofty sunnnits which encircle the horizon at Victoria,
and the Straits of Juan de Fuca and of Georgia reproduce
the Solent in grander proportions ; for in their deep and
sheltered waters all the navy of England might man-
oeuvre, without inconvenience, in review before their

sovereign.

The city of Victoria is situated on the eastern side of
a narrow inlet opening from the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
upon gently rising ground and facing to the south and
west. The inner harbour is sufficiently deep for vessels
drawing 1 G feet ; and at the wharfs of the outer
harbour, vessels of any size find accommodation. The
harbour of Esquimalt, only 3 miles distant and con-
nected by electric railway, is the station of the Royal
Navy on the Pacific, and in its spacious shelter there is
anchorage for the largest ships afloat.

The population of the city proper increased from

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520

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

5925 ill 1881 to 10,8-41 in 1891, and it is now
estimated at close upon 25,000. For electoral purposes
it is i^Touped with the adjacent districts of Metchosin and
Esquimau, and returns two members to the Dominion

Sutman, Vhntn.

ESQUIMALT HAKBOUK.

Parliament. Its importance as a naval station, from the
proximity of the coal mines of Nanaimo, has always
obtained for the city much consideration in England.
Only there and at Halifax on the Atlantic are Imperial
troops still to be seen ; and the fortifications being
erected to protect Esquimalt are a sequel to the fortifica-
tions guarding the Imperial dock at Halifax on the
Atlantic. The Pacific city, far off though it be, has an
English air, due to the large proportion of settlers direct
from Great Britain, to the nautical proclivities of the
people, and to the continued presence of British ships of

15KITISII COLUMBIA

521

war ill its waters. Tliore is also an old-world apitearaiice
about it, from tlie ditferent nationalities represented in
its population, not only European, but Asiatic ; for there
are many Chinese and Japanese drawn thitlicr by its
commercial connections.

When Vancouver Island was united politically with
the mainland to form the present province of Ijritish
Columbia, Victoria was made the capital, and a pile of
very imposing buildings has lately been built to accom-
modate the legislature and the departments of the pro-
vincial fjoveriiment. There is oiilv one legislative chamber,
and that is elected direct by the people upon what is in
effect manhood suffrage. It consists now of thirty-three
members, from wdiom an executive council of five is
selected in the usual way. The Governor, who is ap-
pointed by the Dominion, resides at Victoria. The city
is well built, with good shops and handsome private
residences. The streets are well kept, lighted by electric
light, and many are planted with shade trees, and the
suljurbaii roads are well cared for. A fine park affords
beautiful drives and very grand scenery. Across the
water to the east and south are the mountains of the
Coast range, and the snowy peaks of the Olympian range;
and in the rear, to the west and north, are the mountains
of the Island range.

Victoria is the centre of a large business, not only in
shipping but of general supply. There is a large Chinese
colony resident in a quarter of its own, and there are
many Japanese also ; for in the Pacific, China and Japan
count for a great deal in trade, though, as these Asiatics,
whether British subjects or not, have no votes, they do
not count in the govefnment of the country. It is the
centre of the fur-sealing fleet, and the point of departure
for many lines of steamships. The chief details and

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522

COMPENDIUN' OF GKOCItAPIIY AND TKAVEL

tigures are uiven l)elow in tii1)ular form, and it will be
sutficient to reniiirk hero that it is not only the third
port in the Doniinioii, as the tallies show, but it is the
chief port in the North Tacific after San Francisco. The
dock at Esqninialt adds greatly to its im})ortance, and
there is also in connection with it a marine railway,
which can draw out of the water in a short time vessels
320 feet h>no- and of 22 feet draught.

NEW WESTMINSTER

In point of age this is the second city of the province.
It was Ibundod by Colonel Moody in 18;") 8 at the out-
break of the gold fever, and it w^as the capital of tiie
mainland before the union. In 1881 the population
was 1500. In 1891 it had increased to GG41, and at
the present time it is probaldy 8000.

The city is situated on a rising ground on the north
bank of the delta of the Fraser, 15 miles from the
mouth of the river. The low lands at the delta are the
largest single tract of farming land in the province, and
are very productive. The city, however, depends chietly
on lumber and on the salmon canning industry for
its trade. Tlie chief saw-mills of the province are here,
and the salmon-runs up the Fraser river are incredible to
all who have not seen them with their own eyes. It has
tt good harbour and a large shi})ping trade.

VANCOUVER

This infant city, the child of the Canadian Facilic
railway, does not appear in tlie census of 1881 ; for it
was then in forest — the site only of prodigious Douglas
firs. In 1891 the population was l."»,085, and is now

HKITISir COLUMIUA

L) J, O

probably nearly 20,000. it is situated uu a i)euinsula
on the south shore of lUirrard Inlet on ground 200 feet
high sloping down to the sea. JJurrard Inlet is one of

I'AKT OK Till-; HUNK OK ONK OK TllK MAMMOTH TKKKS IN STANI.KY KAIIK,

VANCOUVEH.

the deep fiords previftusly de.scribed, and is uuv of the
best harbours on the raeific It is half a mile wide at
its mouth, and opens out to two miles in fmnt of the

1'!

i ^

' ' : !i

■I

I .1 ■

|'!f

! I

!lf-

: 1:: !

1 ■)■ '■■

: '

r 'la

tifll'

f M'f

-s —

11^

524

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

city. The inlet extends twelve miles into the countr}',
and is everywhere from 6 to 20 fathoms deep with
excellent anchorage. It is very easily accessible to the
largest ships, and is open all the year round.

Vancouver is connected with New Westminster by
electric railway, and by steamers daily with Victoria, 90
miles distant. Shortly after its foundation it was
destroyed by fire, but has been rebuilt in solid and
substantial manner. It is lighted by electricity, and
possesses all the conveniences of cities many times its
size. Chief among the hotels is that of the Canadian
Pacific railway, which cost ^250,000. The principal
park is Stanley Park, and some of the gigantic Douglas
firs are left standing there for the inspection of travellers.

The other chief towns in British Columbia are
Nanaimo, the centre of the coaling trade, and Kamloops
in the interior plateau. Parkerville is a small town, the
centre of the Cariboo district, but in the Kontenay district
large towns have sprung up almost in the last eighteen
months, llossland has 7000 inhabitants, and Trail IT) 00.
In the Slocan district are Kaslo and Sandon, mining
towns, and Nelson tlie official centre. These towns grow
week by week, and the spring of 1897 will witness an
infiux hard to estimate Ijeforehand. The leading banks
of the Dominion have agencies in these toxvns, and civil
order is as perfect as in any town in England.

Oommunication

The great avenue of communication by land is the
Canadian Pacific railway. The main line is 5 1
miles long within the province, and it opens up all the
southern territory. At Pevelstoke a branch leads soutli
to the head of the Arrow Lakes and, by means of well-

BRITISH COLUMBIA

525

appointed steamers and short connecting links of railway,
the Columbia and Kootenay valleys are opened up
throughout, and connection is made with Spokane on the
Xorthern Pacific railway and all the system of United
States railways. The Columl)ia river is naviiijated all
winter, and althougli ice sometimes forms, the steamers
of the Canadian Pacitic Company never intermit their
trips from Arrowhead. At Sicamous a branch leads to
the head of Okanagan Lake, and connects with steamers
plying upon the whole length of the lake. At Mission
Junction the most important southern connection is
made for Seattle, Taconia, and San Francisco, and opening
up the transcontinental systems of the Xorthern l^acitic
and Union Pacitic routes. Eighteen miles east of
V^ancouver a short branch leads to Xew Westminster, at
the mouth of the Fraser, All these connnunications are
to the south of the Canadian Pacitic railwav. The
region to the north has to be reached by stages from
Ashcroft, which is the avenue to the Caril)oo country, or
from Kandoops and a few other points. There are good
farms at intervals along the road, and at Chilcoten and
(^uesuel ; but travelling through the north country is
still chietly along the trails. There are few settlers, and in
that remote region, miners, prospectors, and explorers are
the only travellers. On Vancouver Island there is a
railway from Es([uimalt to Xanaimo, 78 miles long,
connecting with the coal mines, and one from Victoria to
Sidney, 16 miles long, opening up some good farming
country.

It is by sea that the communications of the province

e Si) important and far reaching, for they stretch out
over the whole Pacific Ocean to (.'hina, -Japan, and
Australasia, as well as to San Francisco and the other
United States ports to the soutli. Some of the chief

i'l

■s(^.

526

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAniY AND TRAVEL

f I I

1*1 i ■

steamship lines are enumerated to show liovv tlie tonnage
of these racific ports has attained such high figures.
The magnificent steamships of the Canadian Pacific line
sail from Vancou^^er and Victoria for Yokohama and
Shanghai, and those of the Australian line sail for Sydney,
N.S.W., touching at Honolulu and Fiji. By these the
most direct communication is made with all points in
eastern Asia and Australasia. The Pacific coast steam-
ship line touches at all the ports on the west coast from
San Francisco on the south to Sitlca in Alaska. The
Canadian Pacific Navigation Company's line keeps up
communication with all tlie ports of the province —
Victoria, New Westminster, Vancouver, Port Simpson,
Alberni, and tlie Queen Charlotte Islands. This is a far-
reaching svstem of connections, and there are from
Victoria and New Westniinster many routes to nearer
ports.

Commerce

The trade and navigation returns of the Dondnion
presented to Parliament in March, 1897, give the follow-
ing results of the trade of the i)rovince fur tlie last fiscal
year to June 30, 1896.

Statement of arrivals of sea-going vessels for the year
ending June oO, 189G; —

Vessels.

Tons.

Pacific ports-

-Hritisli Columbia —

ojion all the

year round.

Couiox

121,788

Nanaimo

369

•265,270

Viinuouver .

•

364

337,131

Victoria

....

1386

929.669

Summary of the foreign trade of IJritish Columbia for
the year ending June 30, 1890 : —

Total imports
Total exports

$5,496,944
10.576,551

BRITISH COLUMBIA

527

Chief Expouts

Products of tlie

mine

>) >)

fisheries .

>> ))

forest

Animals and tl

leir products

Education

$5,762,960

3,288,776

685,740

434,647

III:

1 ■

ill

The governnieiit of tlie province is alive to the
paramount importance of providing schools for the rising
generation, and beside the vote taken for school build-
ings one-sixth of the revenue is devoted to education.
The schools are frciC, and wherever there are ten scholars
the government will provide a certificated teacher. In
1893 there were 149 schools, and an attendance of
10,773 children — about one-sixth of the entire white
population.

NOTE TO CHAPTER XV

The following publications may he referred to for further
details on the subject of this chapter : —

Annual Reports of tlie British Columbia Hoard of Trade. \'ictoria,
B.C.

Annual Reports of the Minister of Mines. Victoria, B.C.
Banckoft, H. H.

History of the North-west Coast, vol. i. San Francisco, 1884.
Bkog, Alkx. •

History of British Columbia. Toronto, 1894.

British Columbia, its present resources and future possibilities.
Published by the Provincial Government, V^ictoria, 1893.

Bulletins of the provinciijl Mineralogist, Williajn A. Carlyle, Victoria.
Grkenhow, RoilEUT.

History of '^'•egon and California, and other Territories on the
North-west Coast of North America. Boston, 1845.

111

528

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Twiss TiiAVEns.

The Oregon Question examined. London, 1846.

The following are the reports of the Geological and Natural History
Survey with their dates :—

Vancouveu Island.

J. Richard.son, 1872-73, 1874-75, 1877. CJ. M. Dawson, 1877, 1886.
Prof. Macoun, 1876.
Queen Chaulotte Island.

J. Richardson, 1873. G. M. Dawson, 1879.

Coast and Mainland.

Dr. Selwyn 1872-76. J. Richardson, 1875-77. G. M. Dawson,
1876-77, 1878, 1880, 1886-89, 1891-94. Prof. Macoun, 1876.
H. Bauennan, 1884. A. Hownian, 1888. J. McEvoy, 1893-
94. R. G. McConnell, 1894. Survey Reports, 1895 and 1896.

Rocky Mountains.

Dr. Selwyn, 1876. Prof. Macoun, 1876. G. M. Dawson, ISSO,
1885. R. G. McConnell, 1886, 1893-94.

CHAPTER XVI

THE MACKENZIE KIVEU BASIN

Xext to the Mississippi the Mackenzie is the largest
liver in North America. It drains an area of 077,000
square miles, and it flows through nearly 17 degrees of
latitude in a course, from its ultimate source, of nearly
I'oOO miles. Its sources, on the south, are the head
waters of the Athabasca, which originate on the eastern
slopes of the Eocky Mountains, in the Yellow-head and
Athabasca passes. Its waters, in the Athabasca Pass,
rise close to waters flowing into the Columbia, at the
l»oat Encampment. The sources of the Peace river, one
of its great tributaries, almost touch those of the Fraser ;
and the source of another great tributary, the Liard, is
within a few miles of the source of the Yukon. On the
east it receives the waters gathered up in the Athabasca,
< treat Slave, and Great Bear lakes, and it is separated
from the basins of the Churchill and Saskatchewan by
narrow and low water-j)artings. It rises in the south at
lat. 52° 20', and it falls into the Arctic Ocean in
lat. 69°. In its northern course it is known first as the
Athabasca ; from Lake Athabasca to Great Slave Lake
it is the Slave river, and 'from Great Slave Lake to the sea
it is called the Mackenzie, and is continuously navigable
by steamers to the sea for a distance of 1120 miles. The

fill

^ -Is

530

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

I' (

i-' »v

Mackenzie river is nowhere less than half a rrtile wide ;
where the Liard falls in it is a mile and a o wide,

and in its widest part it expands to three ^' r miles.

It is nowhere less than 7 or 8 feet dc its length

of over 1000 miles from Great Slave Laiv o the sea.

The valley of the Mackenzie is an alluvial plain
bounded on the east by a more or less wooded region
sloping down to the Barren Grounds and drained l:»y the
Coppermine and Great Fish rivers falling into the Arctic
Ocean and, south of them, by the Doobaunt and by the
Churchill with its extensive tributary system flowing
into Hudson's Bay ; on the west, it is bounded by the
Kocky Mountains, and on the south by the water-parting
of tlie North Saskatchewan. The territory of Athabasca,
which was reserved from the chapter on the other north-
west territories, forms the southern part of the Mackenzie
basin, and is more naturally considered in this clmpter
than with the territories of the Winnipeg sub-basin. The
Mackenzie has the drawback, in common witli all rivers
ilowing north in these latitudes, that the upper waters
thaw in spring before the lower reaches of the river are
clear of ice. This is the frequent cause of floods, which,
with the action of the ice, erode the banks where the
rocks are soft, and carry down to the sea trees and other
waste of the land to increase the area of the delta at its
mouth.

Geology

The valley of the Mackenzie is a continuation to the
Arctic Ocean of that great interior plain which has already
been described. The line of crystalline rocks, on its
eastern border, starts from the western end of Lake
Ataabasca, and follows along the bank of the Slave river
to Fort Resolution, midway on the southern shore of

THE MACKENZIE RIVER BA.SIN

531

Great Slave Lake. (Crossing the centre of the lake, these
rocks leave the Mackenzie far on the west, and are seen
no more on its banks. The river issues from the western
end of Great Slave Lake, and inclines more to the west-
wards ; while the line of Laurentian rocks passes V...O* ly
north, touches the extreme east of Great Bear Lake,
and stretches north to the Devonian of the Arctic coast.
The territory known as Athabasca is underlaid by the
Cretaceous formation, but towards the north the Devonian
closes in from both sides, and iiarrows the Cretaceous area,
so that in places it barely keeps possession of the river
banks, while in other places it disappears and leaves the
Devonian rocks exposed. From Fort Good Hope it
spreads out, gradually widening to the sea.

It will appear then, that, speaking generally, the same
geological conditions exist as on tlie plains to the south.
The soil is deep and well suited to the growth of crops
wherever the climate permits, but as the region is, for the
most part, covered with forest, it requires to be cleared
and the lower land drained to prepare it for cultivation.
The elevation of the valley is very slight. Lake Athabasca
is 690 feet, Great Slave Lake is 301 feet. Fort Simpson is
2-11 feet, and Fort Norman is 150 feet above the sea.

1 i

Athabasca Territory

The boundary of Athabasca at the south is, at present,
precisely the northern boundary of Alberta. Its western
boundary is the meridian of 120° W. which divides it
from British Columbia. On the north it is bounded by
a survey line coinciding, within a few miles, with the
parallel of 60° north latitude. The boundary on the east
is the northward prolongation of the boundary between
Alberta and Saskatchewan (about 111' 30' west longitude)

532

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHV AND TRAVEL

until it strikes the Athabasca river (which it does very
nearly at I'ort M'Murray at the junction of the Clearwater),
thence it follows the Athabasca and !;Uave rivers to the
northern boundary. An Order in Council has been passed
to extend the eastern boundary to the meridian of 100^
W., but the final statutory action has not yet been taken.
Tlie territory as now existing covers an area of about
122,000 square miles.

The water-parting between the Mackenzie and the
North Saskatchewan runs diagonally to the south-west
from the north-east corner of Alberta, and thus one-tliird
of the territory of Alberta is drained northwards by
the head streams of the Athabasca and I'eace rivers.
These two rivers, however, How for the most part of their
courses in the territory of Athabasca and form its main
features ; for all practical purposes it may be said that
the territory of Athabasca is the Mackenzie basin as far
as lat. 60°.

Ccntour of the Land

The territory is, for the most part, an undulating plain.
Immediately south and west of Lake Athabasca the large
rivers How in and out of the lake through wide deltas,
and form a very low alluvial tract, often flooded by tlie
rise of the rivers. Throughout the southern part, be-
tween the Peace and Athabasca rivers, it is a rolling
plain thickly wooded and studded with numerous shallow
lakes which, as they fill up with moss, become muskegs
and marshes. Everywhere the rivers have cut deep
valleys through the soft rocks. There are some ridges of
higher elevation. The Birch mountains are a range or
plateau 1000 feet above the plain, or 2300 feet above
sea -level, extending for 100 miles between the lower
reaches of the Peace and Athabasca rivers. The Buflalo

THE ^lACKENZIE RIVER BASIN

633

Head hills, about 40 miles south of Fort Vermilion, on
the Peace river, is a plateau elevated 1000 feet above
the plain, and about oO miles long by 25 miles wide.
The hills near Lesser Slave Lake are the same height, and
tliere a"e other detached ridges of similar elevation. The
main chain of the Kocky Mountains does not enter
Athabasca. Lesser Slave Lake is 1890 feet above the
sea, and the land falls with a gradual descent to the head
of Athabasca Lake. North of Peace river the land is
higlier and has more of the character of a plateau.

Hydrography

The Athabasca, on the eastern and southern edge of the
district, and the Peace, flowing diagonally through it from
south-west to north-east, with their tributaries, make a net-
work of streams over the territory, and these open out into
lakes of all sizes, for the most part shallow. The largest is
Lesser Slave Lake, 61 miles long, with an average width
of 8 miles, draining by the Lesser Slave into the Atha-
basca river. It covers an area of 484 square miles, and
is seldom more than ten feet deep. The Wabiscaw river
and lakes, draining northwards into the Peace, collect the
water of the south-east corner of the territory, and in the
north-west the Hay river, a tributary of Great Slave Lake,
takes its rise.

The Peace river is a stream remarkable for many
reasons, and especially because, taking its rise far within
British Columbia and on the west of the Kocky Moun-
tains, it flows eastwards, with a breadth of 300 to 500
yards, through that range l)y the lowest and most practic-
able pass, — a veritable gateway of nature, a valley a mile
wide between mountains rising 2000 to 4500 feet above
it, or 4000 to 6500 feet above sea-level, — through which.

I III

534

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

US seems fitting, Alexander Mackenzie first crossed to tlio
Pacific. The Peace river is 905 miles long from the
rise of one of its chief tributaries in Summit Lake, at tlie
crown of the Pacific - Arctic water-parting. There is u
portage road there only 7^ miles long to the Fraser. ]t
is there called the Parsnip river, and, flowing nortlivvard,
meets the Finlay river at the " Forks." The Einlay is
'MO miles long. It is the larger stream, and the tiuc
Peace river. Its head-waters interlock with the sources
of the Liard and of the Skeena and Stikine rivers.
Calculated from its farthest source, the Peace is 1007
miles long. From the Forks it is called the Peace rivei',
and flows in a general eastward direction for 757 miles
to its discharge into Lake Athabasca. It is remarkable,
also, because it flows through a rich agricultural country,
and with a quiet, untroubled current, navigable up to
Eocky Mountain Canon beyond Dunvegan, save for one
short break of two miles ; this is at the Vermilion Falls,
220 miles from its mouth, where the river, at that point
a mile wide, falls over a low limestone ledge in a drop of
ten to fifteen feet at lowest water, but at high water the
fall becomes much less. In its upper course the Peace
flows through a broad valley 600 feet below the general
surface of the country, but in its lower stretches the
valley almost disappears.

The Athabasca (often called in old maps the Elk) river,
is considered to be the upper Mackenzie on account mainly
of its general direction from its source. It is 776 miles
long — not so long as the Peace. Like the Peace, it
flows in a valley cut deeply into the surface. In its
upper course the valley is over 300 feet deep and two
miles wide. For the first sixty miles it flows through
the mountains, through a heavily wooded country. Many
mountain streams contribute to swell its volume, among

THK MACKENZIK UIVEK BASIN

535

wliicli are the M'Leod and tlie Pembina. This latter
stream skirts the water-parting of the North Saskatche-
wan, and at the lloman Catholic Mission of Lake St.
Anne the two streams approach veiy closely. IJelow the
I'embina the Lesser Slave river brings in the waters of
Lesser Slave Lake, and the Athabasca tiien becomes
navigable by stern-wheel steamers drawing 2.^ to 3 feet
of water.

Athabasca Landing is an important point on tiie great
bend of the liver, where it assumes its direct northerly
course ; and this is, at the present day, tlie entrance to
the Mackenzie basin; for there the road, 90 miles long,
from Edmonton is connected by rail with Calgary. It is
a Hudson's ]]ay post and a busy station, as all supplies
for the great north land pass through there. The steamer
Athabasca plies throughput the stretch of navigable water
accessible from this point. There are 166 miles to
( J rand liapids, on the north and east, of unimpeded navi-
gation. Up to Grand Kapids the river is from 250 to
400 yards wide, and Hows in a valley from 300 to 400
feet below the general level of the plain.

At Grand IJapids commences a series of rapids and
falls which render the river unnavigable for about 85
miles to Fort M'Murray, in which distance the river
drops 3 GO feet, running between sandstone cliffs of a
general height varying from 200 to 300 feet, and in
one place 500 to 600 feet high.

Fort M'Murray is anotiier important point in the
^lackenzie valley, for it is not only the head of a long
stretch of steamboat navigation, but it is at the junction
of the Clearwater river, the main avenue of the canoe
navigation of former days. Up the Clearwater is the
Methy portage, 12^ miles across to the Churchill, and
down the Churchill is the Frog portage, 380 yards, to

536

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

waters ialliiiLj iuto the North Saskatchewan. In the old
fur-trading days, when the brigades of voyageurs met on
these key portages of the great western wilderness, and
the wild scenery was lit np by the great camp fires, the
arduous labours of the day were often forgotten in the
merriment of the re-union of acquaintances ; for, to be a
voya^^eur, a cheerful disposition was tlie prime requisite,
and a good canoe man had usually a good store of
voyageur songs, and, whenever he had an opportunity,
could show very wonderful steps in dancing.

Fort M'j\Iurray is the starting-point of the steamer
Grahamc, and navigable waters, 717 miles in aggregate
length, are available from thence. There is a stretch of
water to Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca, 200 miles,
and from thence to Fort Smith on the Slave river, 102
miles long. In addition, the Peace river is navigable for
220 miles as far as A'ermilion Falls, and Athabasca Lake
is 195 miles long; there are ])esiil('S 40 miles of navig-
able water on the Clearwater. From Fort M'jMurray the
banks of the river continually decrease in height, until,
at Lake Athabasca, they are only 3 feet high. Tlu'
river expands to a width of from 400 to 800 yards, and
deepens to permit of vessels drawing from 7 to S
feet of water. The current runs steadily at about four
miles an hour. The country is all level alluvial land,
well wooded, and the soil is good, but there is nuicii
swampy land. It is a loamy clay suited for agriculture
as far as Fort Cliipewyan, where the hard Arcluean rocks
come out upon the right bank. As the river approaclies
the lake, it divides into many arms, embracing low
marshy islands, and forming a wide delta of low land.
It falls in at the extreme western end of the lake, and
there also is the outflow of the Slave river ; and, at a
short distance down, the flood of the Peace river joii"^ the

■ ] i jj i iiii * sirawt:<g t a i

THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN

r o H

00 i

Slave river, and the water Hows into or ont of the lake,
according to the varying conditions of the sec .ons, through
an extensive maze of lakes and channels.

Lake Athabasca is 690 feet above the sea. According
to tlie recent survey of Messrs. Tyrrell and Dowling,
published in 1897, it is 195 miles long; its breadth
varies from 5 to 35 miles, and it covers an area
of 2850 miles. At the west end it is shallow,
but it is deep eisewhere, and it is navigable in its
whole extent. The soil around it is generally rocky,
and unfit for agriculture. On the north sliore the
Laurentian rocks come to the surface, and on the south
shore are hard non-fossiliferous sandstones. Some land,
however, near the fort has been cleared, and wheat, as
well as all garden crops have been raised with success.

Fort Chipewyan is on the north side of the lake, near
its outlet, and is built on bare Laurentian rock. This
})ost, before and after its removal from the south shore, has
always been a central and a favourite spot in tiie wilderness,
and in the old days the chief traders wlio sojourned there
took trouble to supply it with books and other things of
the same nature to lend a little of tlie relinement of
civilisation to this distant wilderness home. There is no
want of food, for tlie lake abounds in tish and the countrv
with game. In the fall of IS 88, it is recorded by Mr.
Ogilvie that the Hudson's Bay people required o 0,0 00
whitelish for winter use, the lioman Catholic Mission re-
• luired 12,000 and the other residents required oO,000.
He re])orts that nearly all of these were caught during
tlie three weeks he was there. From oO,000 to 40,000
wild geese are killed every fall for winter use.

f "^

;

■I

!■;

538

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

A- ■(!

;li

18 ill

Resources

Although the northern boundary of the territory reaches
to Fort Smith on Shwe river, at lat. 60", it will be con-
\ .lient to pause here and consider the resources of this
immense but little known territory, and here also is a
point of physical change ; for northward beyond the
valley of the Peace river very little can be said of agri-
culture, and if the growth of crops and vegetables round
the more northern Hudson's Bay posts is referred to, it is
chiefly intended as an indication of climate.

The larger part of the teriitory of Athabasca is under-
laid bv Cretaceous rocks. At Isle a la Biche, 20 miles
above Fort M'Murray, Devonian limestones iirst appear
on the Athabasca, and they are seen on both sides of the
river, at the base of the bluffs on the banks, down to
Lake Athabasca. From Isle a la Biche the river begins to
pass between banks of sand impregnated and consolidated
by tar or pitch supposed to have originated in the
Devonian limestone below. The tar exists in sucli
quantity that it is drawn out by the sun and flows down
the banks in viscous streams, forming pools of tar and
tar wells 11 or 12 feet deep, whence it may be ladled
up for tarring boats or roofs of buildings. These tar
sands are 150 to 200 feet thick, and they extend at
intervals for 53 miles below Fort M'Murray, or througli
a total distance of 73 miles. Similar tar springs are
met ' ;ith in places far down the Mackenzie, almost to the
sea, and on the shore of Lesser Slave Lake. For a long
distance on the Athabasca a black petroleum-bearing
sandstone underlies these banks of tarry sands.

W^'it tliese tar sands may yet mean does not clearly
appear, for no borings have been made excepting mI
Athabasca Landing, where they were not reached at

THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN

5;39

a depth of 1770 feet; but it is evident that in-
calculable quantities of petroleum have in past ages
come to the surface, and the more volatile jjortions
have evaporated and left the heavier ingredients behind,
[t can hardly be supposed that all the petroleum has
escaped in this way to the surface, but all that is now
known is that everywhere, over an area of 150,000 square
miles, are indications of petroleum -bearing rocks ; and if
.. use rocks be exhausted under the sands, where tliev
were partly exposed, the immense area uncovered no
doubt remains in reserve waiting to be tapped.

Similar indications are found, over the whole area, of
tlie existence of coal. Beds of lignite four feet thick
occur at the great bend of the Athabasca, and may be
seen for miles 150 feet up in tlie cliffs along the river.
From Buffalo river down past Fort M'Murray seams of
lignite are seen. Lignite is reported at many places in
the interior, at l*eace river and on Lesser Slave Lake, and,
as in Alberta, these lignites change into true coal as the
mountains on the west are apju'oached.

At (h'and Kapids, on tlie Athal)asca, natural gas is
found and the water is disturbed by water bubbling uj),
or, as the voyageurs say, " boiling." ( )n the banks the
men light it to cook their food. This is of importance
chiefly as an indication of petroleum, for the gas cannot
be utilised in so remote a I'^calitv. On the Clearwater
river mineral springs have been found, and also at a jdace
on the Athabasca called La Valine, wliere the bank is
encrusted with saline deposits. On the I'eace river and
some of its tributaries gold has been found on the bars.
Mr. M'Connell, of the Geological Survey, found " colours "
of gold on most of the streams by washing a few luunl-
fuls of sand in a frying-pan.

Although the country is timbered throughout, the

. \

i ■ ■!
t i

540

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

trees are not large over much of the territory under
review. They are all trees of the sub-arctic forest described
in a previous chapter, and vary in size, according to local
circumstances, from one foot to two feet in diameter.

Agriculture

The country on the Peace river has awakened the
enthusiasm of all who have seen it. In his evidence

'1'

'!'
ii >

■I)

Hi '

M .t-.V

I'EACE KIVEK.

before a committee of I*arliament Mr. Christie, formerly
a chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, described
it as " the finest country he had ever seen," and
he was tlien living on the St. Lawrence. The soil,
he said, was a beautiful dark loam. Crops have been
raised there for 100 years, and wheat is as certain as
in Manitoba. It is an open, park-like country, and

THE Mx\.CKENZIE RIVER BASIN

r.4i

horses winter on the open prairie, and the Cliinook winds
keep the wikl grasses clear of snow for them as in
Alberta, oOO miles to the south. Wheat is grown not
only at Dunvegan, but at Fort Vermilion, on tlie Peace,
farther north in lat. 58°, and the country is productive
farming land along the valley for hundreds of miles.
This is beyond question, for large farms are worked there.
South of the valley of the Peace the soil is also good,
but it is thickly wooded, and the swampy parts round the
lakes require to be drained.

Settlements

Tlie settlements in Athabasca are all collected around
Hudson's Bay posts or mission stations. Fort Chipewyan is
a large post. It is the seat of an Anglican bishop and of a
lioman Catholic bishop. Tliere is a convent of Grey Nuns,
with twenty-five pupils. At Fort M'Murray is anotlier
Itoman Catholic mission. At Little Slave Lake beside
the Hudson's Bay post, there are missions of the Anglican
and Roman Churches, with schools. On the Peace river,
at Vermilion, there are missions of both churches, besides
the Hudson's Bay post. At Dunvegan there is an im-
portant Hudson's Bay post, and missions of both churches.
This post is the garden of the north-west. Every kind
of grain and garden vegetable is grown there. Mr. Ogilvie,
iu his visit in 1891, saw the crops, and describes the
large size of the vegetables gi'own. As a note of the
conditions existing, he remarked two sunllower.s which
measured fourteen inches across the seed disc. All alonu
the Peace these favourable conditions exist. Ploughing
at Dunvegan commences about 14th April, and potatoes
are planted at the end of April.

1(1

542

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL

ltf\ W

Hi i

The Mackenzie River

It is under the name of the Slave river that the
Mackenzie flows out of Lake Athabasca. Its course is
northwards, and about 20 miles from the lake it receives
the waters of the Peace river. If that river be in flood,
it flows over also into the lake by the Quatre Fourches
river, but under ordinary circumstances the Quatre
Fourches discliarges into tlie Peace. At Grahame Landing,
102 miles down from the lake, the river drops 240 feet
through a series of rapids which interrupt navigation
for 14 miles to Fort Smith; from that point navigation
is uninterrupted for over 1100 miles to the Arctic Ocean.
A cart-road has been constructed on the west side of the
river, and all supplies in transport for the lower river
must be reshipped there. The Laurentian rocks, which
come out at the western end of Lake Athabasca, follow
down on the east bank of the river as far as Fort Smith,
where they finally strike away directly to the north.
From Fort Smith tlie river flows with a slow current
for 190 miles between low banks, and through a flat,
wooded, alluvial country, until it falls into CJreat Slave
Lake, midways on the southern shore, near Fort
Pesolution.

Fort Smith is a place to remember as the head of
navigation from the sea, and it is as near as possible on
the parallel of (50^ N. About 20 miles down the Slave
river the Salt river falls in — a stream with water rendered
brackish by three or four salt springs 20 miles from its
mouth. Tlie springs have foi'med evaporating-basins, and
the salt crystallises out perfectly pure, and is shovelled
into bags and used all over the North-west without furtlier
preparation.

Near the inflow of the Slave river into Great Slave

THE MACKENZIE UIVER BASIX

543

Lake is Fort Resolution, an important Hudson's Bay
post, where are missions of the Anglican and Eoman
Churches. The spring is later tlian at places farther
north on the main river ; for, as there is no current, the
ice lingers in the lake until the end. of June, and the
country is rocky around it, yet garden vegetables are
j-TOwn. The lake is about .*500 miles long, with an
average width of 46 miles. Its waters are very clear
and very deep. It covers an area of about 10,100
square miles, and it is only 391 feet above the sea.
Much interest attaches to this lake, for Back built Fort
lieliance on the extreme eastern arm, and started thence
on his expedition down the Great Fish river to the sea.
Fort Ilae, at its extreme northern point, was the English
and Canadian international Polar station, and there is a
Ikoman Catholic mission there. The western shore of the
lake is well wooded with good spruce, with belts of
llanksian pine, poplar, and birch, but the eastern and
northern arms project into the Barren Grounds. The
Hay river is the most important tributary, and is 400
miles long, flowing in from the south. Much of the coast
of the lake is still unsurveyed.

From the western end of Great Slave Lake, the river,
thenceforth the Mackenzie, flows nortliward in a broad
and deep stream. The banks are low and the country is
level, covered with spruce and broken by many lakes
and marshes. About 50 miles down is Fort Providence,
where the Hudson's Bay Con\pany have a post, and the
Itoman Catholic Church a mission, with a church, orphan
asylum, hospital, and school. The Grey Nuns, from
Montreal, have the care of these latter institutions.
Barley is grown here, and even wheat usually escapes
frost, and many garden vegetables are raised, for the
ice moves away earlier than from the lake.

^IM

t\ ' ?'| 1,! ■

544

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGEAl'HY AND TRAVEL

Fort Simpson is the next post on the Mackenzie. It
is o24 miles from Fort Eesohition, on an island in the
river, close to the junction of the Liard, and very nearly
on the parallel of 62". This is said to be the most
northern point at .which wheat will ripen, but it is a very
uncertaiu crop. Barley and garden vegetables are grown,
and with good success. Cattle are kept, and are fed on the
native grasses. The potatoes grown here are as large as
those raised 1000 miles farther south. The timber is
large, and consists of poplar, spruce, birch, and hemlock.
The ice breaks up between the 1st and 15th of May, and
the river does not close again until the beffinninu of
November. In 1850 Lieutenant Pullen, with two boats,
from H.M.S. Plover, which had entered the Arctic Sea by
Behring Straits, went up the river and wintered at Fort
Simpson, returning to his ship in the spring.

The Liard river is a very large stream. It rises in a
number of lakes flowing into Frances Lake, close to the
source of the I'elly (L^pper Yukon), and flows east, through
the Itocky Mountains, in a course almost as long as that of
the Peace. It is a turbulent and dangerous stream, but in
its lower course it is navigable to Fort Liard, and Hows
through a densely wooded country, with g-^od soil. Its
name, Eiviere aux Liards (Cottonwood or c^oplar river)
indicates the quality of land ou its banks. At Fort
Liard, 162 miles from its mouth, it is a mile wide.
There the soil is a black loam. Wheat may be grown,
and barley is a regular crop, and used as feed for cattle.

Below Fort Simpson, as the Mackenzie approaches
within 25 miles of Fort Wrigley, one of the Hanking
ranges of the Eocky Mountains rises to the east of it, and
for several hundred miles its course is in a valley between

two mountain

ranges

3000 to 4000 feet hidi. The

banks of the river are low, and the country is low to the

THE MACKENZIE KIVER BASIN

545

mountains on both sides. The distance from Fort
Simpson to Fort Wrigley is l.'>4 miles, and from thence
it is 180 miles to Fort Norman. At times the mountains
close in, and again they spread out and form a broad
valley. At Fort Norman there are missions of the
Eoman and Anglican Churches. It is in lat. 64" 41',
but barley is grown and the grass is luxuriant.

Near Fort Norman, Great Bear Lake discharges by
Great Bear river into the Mackenzie. The lake is
irregular in shape : its length is 175 miles, and its breadth
varies from 25 to 45 miles; but if it were measured across
by its opposite northern and southern arms, the distance
would be 180 miles. The area of the lake is 11,200
square miles, and its average depth exceeds 270 feet. It is
open for only three months in the year. In 1873 Dease
and Simpson built Fort Confidence at the extreme north-
eastern point of the lake, and made it the headquarters
from whence they carried on their remarkable explorations
during three years. It was in lat. 66" 53' and inside the
Arctic Circle, but they found abundance of game. The
lake was, and still is, full of fish ; wild fowl were plentiful
in their season, and caribou and musk oxen were
numerous. It was an admirably selected point, for they
could readily reach the Coppermine river below most of
the heavy rapids and the Arctic coast was more accessible
from there than from any of the points selected by
Franklin or Back.

From Fort Norman to F(5rt Good Hopt is 170 miles.
This post is nearly on the Arctic Circle. Besides a
Eoman Catholic church and mission, there has been a
convent of Sisters of Charity established there for thirty
years. Here are what are called the Eamparts of the
I\Iackenzie. The river flows for 7 miles through a canon
of steep, overhanging rocks, 150 feet high. The broad

I t -,

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546

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

stream narrows to half a mile, and flows with an even
current and with a depth of 350 feet. In 1887 a whale
came up to this point from the Arctic Ocean, from which
fact tlie depth of water in the delta may be surmised.

After passing Fort Good Hope, the river flows between
banks sometimes 200 and 300 feet high. The country
is still wooded on both sides of the river. On the
east the trees are small, but on the west side the
white spruce is from 6 to 18 inches in diameter. Black
spruce, balsam, poplar, aspen, and tamarack grow to a
fair size as far as Fort MacPherson.

Fort MacPherson is in lat. 67" 26', and is the most
northern abode of civilised man on the Mackenzie. There
is an Anglican and Poman mission there. It is on the
Peel river, 14 miles above th'^ forks, where one branch
flows towards the delta of the Mackenzie and the other
into the Arctic Sea. The Hudson's Bay steamer Wrigley
makes this her last stopping-place.

The delta of the Mackenzie has not been accurately
surveyed. The great river spreads out in many arms,
and flows for 70 or 80 miles between very low banks
through an alluvial plain. On the east branch the depth
of water is 12 feet. Even here the forest follows the
river, and the spruce is 12 to 15 inches in diameter. At
Fort MacPherson may be seen the wonderful effect of
the long solar day. A recent traveller reports that on
20th June the buds on the trees appeared, and on the 22nd
they were out in leaf. Throughout July the temperature
was + 64 through a 24-hour day of sunlight. At Fort
MacPherson the territory of the Eskimo commences, and
about 350 frequent the fort.

On the Arctic Ocean, 80 miles west of the western-
most mouth of the delta, is Herschel Island, the best
shelter harbour on the coast. It is in lat. 69" 40'.

THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN

547

Twelve United States whaling ships wintered tliere in
1895-96 with crews of about 1000 men. Supplies were
sent to them from San Francisco. It is a small island
seven miles long by four wide. Tlie tide rises there two
or three feet flowing from the east.

Resources

The resources of the lower Macl enzie valley are
similar to those of the territory of Athabasca. All the
waters and lakes are st?ocked abundantly with fish —
whitefish and trout, the latter of very large size, and in
the river a species of fish concerning which there is so
much uncertainty that it is called the inconnu. The
following account of it, contributed by Professor Prince,
may be relied upon as accurate : —

" The Inconnu {Stenodus 3facke7izii), sometimes called
the Mackenzie river salmon, is found in most of the large
rivers of the north-eastern portions of the continent bor-
dering on the Arctic circle. It is neither a salmon nor a
whitefish, though in general outline it resembles the latter.
The projecting lower jaw, in contrast to the shortened
lower jaw of the whitefish, and its great size, twenty to
fifty pounds weight, are characteristic. The tail is deeply
forked, the scales somewhat diminutive for so large a fish,
while the glittering silvery coloration adds to its imposing
appearance. Its flesh is superior, and it spawns in the
late fall. In certain rivers in northern Pussia a closely
allied species occurs."

Coal has been found in localities at distances from
each other all over the valley, but so far as it has
been examined along the rivers it is lignite. Other
seams have been reported at various places in the
interior, and it is more than probable that bituminous

^■1

548

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

and authracite coal will be discovered in the region
nearer the mountains. Near Fort Norman two seams
are exposed. The upper one has been burning for
100 years. Sir Alexander Mackenzie saw it when he
passed down in 1789 on his famous voyage of discovery.
Tar springs are met with on Great Slave Lake, and bitu-
minous limestones occur in many places, indicating the
existence of petroleum. The extensive deposits of salt
have already been noted, and also the fact that the whole
country is wooded. Moose and caribou are plentiful, and
somewhere in these forests a few wood buffalo have taken
refuge and many sportsmen have been out in vain search
for them. May the search ever be vain, for men are
many, and will not be missed, but buffalo are few.

Climate

It has been pointed out elsewhere that the isothermal
line of summer heat sweeps very far northward along the
Mackenzie valley, and this fact, taken with the long days
of summer, draws the limit of growth of cultivated crops
very far to the north. The line of grasses and of forest
stretches through the valley north into the delta of the
Mackenzie and close to the shore of the ocean. The
causes of this have been pointed out elsewhere and are
briefly the low elevation of the land combined with the
influence of the Chinook winds from the Pacific and the
presence of large bodies of water. Very little can be
predicated generally concerning the climate and productions
of a region extending northward through fifteen degrees
of latitude. The subject has been incidentally treated in
connection with the description of successive stretches of
the river to the sea. The mention of the growth of crops
at the different points will afford important indications of

THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN

549

climate. The winters are severe, but, as explained in a
previous chapter, spring seems to open simultaneously
over an immense reach of territory to the north-west, and
there is sufficient heat in summer to ripen wheat up to
lat. 60° N. There does not seem to be any great differ-
ence in the severity of the winter frost or the heat of
the summer ; such differences as exist are in the direction
of shorter summers and earlier frosts.

Fort Chipewyan, in lat. 58° 43', may be taken as a
central point, and Mr. Stupart, the Director of the Mag-
netic and Meteorological Observatory at Toronto, has
supplied the following meteorological table : —

Fort Chii

CEVVYAX MeTEOIIOLOGICAI,

Table

For a period ol'
ten years.

January .

Average

mean

temperature.

- 14-9

Absolute

maximniji,

10 years.

Absolute
niinimuui,
10 years.

-49

Total
precipiUUi

inches.

0-68

February .

-10-6

-50

0-68

March

4-5

-41

0-81

April

24-7

-22

0-67

May .

41-9

0-41

June

55-6

1-51

July . . .

61-4

3-19

August

57-9

1-16

September

45-1

1-58

October

30-0

-9

0-96

November

13-0

-33

0-73

December .

-2-3

-41

0-67

13-05

Some indications may also be gathered from the
dates of the opening and closing of navigation at various
points as follows in the records of eleven years : —

Fort M 'Murray,
Fort Simpson
Fort Norman

• Navigation.

Latitude. Opens. Closes.

56° 40' April 18 to May 18 Oct. 24 to Nov. 14

62° May 1 to May 14 Nov. 7 to Nov. 30

64° 54' May 9 to May 28 Nov. 7 to Nov. 18

'Wl.

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550

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEI

There being no current on Great Slave Lake to carry
away the ice, it lingers there until the middle of June.

Communications

A sated globe-trotter in search of new fields may be
interested to know that the land of the midnight sun is
now within twenty-three days of comfortable travel from
Ottawa. There are steamers on the Mackenzie down to
Fort MacPherson on the delta and Mr. Ogilvie gives the
following itinerary. The steamer Wriglei/, plying upon
the last stretch of the river, is a propeller with 80 feet
keel and 14 feet beam and draws G feet.

Ottawa to Calgary — Canadian Pacific

Calgary to Edmonton ,, ....

Edmonton to Athabasca Landing, 90 miles by waggon

Athabasca Landing to Grand Rapids by steamer Athabasca

Grand Rapids to Fort M 'Murray by horses .

Fort M 'Murray to Fort Chipewyan by steamer Graham''

Fort Chipewyan to Grahame Landing by steamer Grahamc

Grahame Landing to Fort Smith, 14 miles by horses .

Fort Smitli to Fort MacPherson by steamer Wriylcy .

Day.s.
4
1

;5
1

3
1
1
1

History

It has been stated in a previous chapter that tht;
French fur-traders had established posts throughout tlic;
region now known as Manitoba and Assiniboia, and had
even pushed on as far as the foot of the Ik cky Mountains.
After the cession of Canada to England adventurous
merchants of Montreal took up the enterprises interrui)to(l
by the war and, first individually and then in concert as
the North-west Company, extended their operations into
regions far beyond the French explorations. The English
on Hudson's Bay were sitting quiet at their posts and

THE MACKExNZIE RIVER BASIN

551

waiting for the Indians to come, but tlie Montrealers
pushed their enterprises with sucli vigour tliat the
Hudson's Bay Company were stirred to extend their
posts into the interior.

The French posts followed the Saskatchewan and its
southern branch — for they were aiming towards the
jMissouri — the Montrealers reached out towards the north.
Fort Cumberland was established in 1772 by Joseph
Frobisher, and he intercepted at Frog Portage a large
baud of Indians going to Fort Charchill to trade. He
bouglit all their furs, and made sucli a successful trade
that he called the place "Portage la Traite." He was
the first white man on that portage and on the Upper
Churchill or Missinipi river. His brother, Thomas
Frobisher, built a post at Isle a la Crosse in 1775, and
I*eter I'ond, another Montrealer, pushed farther west
and crossed Methy Portage in 1777, and the following
year established a post on the Athabasca river (Iliviore
i\ la Biclie or Elk river) about twenty miles from the
lake. From thence he sent Lerou.x; and Grant to Great
Slave Lake and river, where they established the posts
now called Fort Kesolution and Fort Providence. On
the formation of the North-west Company the Athabasca
district was allotted to the care of Alexander ^lackenzie,
who sent Poyer, a French Canadian, to establish a post
on Peace river and one on Lake la Marthe, north of
Great Slave Lake. He had formed tlie design of follow-
ing th"^- great river to the 'Arctic Ocean, and he left his
friend Roderick Mackenzie in charge. It was this latter
Mackenzie who built the first Fort Cliipewyan on Lake
Athabasca. It was on the soutli side of the lake, and
was finished during Alexander Mackenzie's aljsence in
1789. In 1820 the post was moved to its presi^nt site.
It will be leen, therefore, that some of tliese posts have

I '^

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r !

i'il

552

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

i m

a history far more ancient than most of the cities of
Canada, and that the discovering and opening up of the
Mackenzie basin was effected by merchants from Montreal
under the English regime, though many French Canadians
were associated in these enterprises.

- ■.
■■ .

NOTE TO CHAPTER XVI

The following works will be useful for further information on
the subject of this chapter : —

Report of a Committee of the Senate of Canada upon the resources of
tlie Great Mackenzie Basin, and the country eastward to Hudson's Bay.
Ottawa, 1888.

This exasperating work is a vohinie into which an immense mass of
information has been thrown without index, classification, or guide of any
kind. Most of the information is of great vahie, and the book is indis-
pensable for a knowledge of the resources of the Mackenzie valley, though
it will sorely try the patience of any one who attempts to master its
contents.

OaiLViE, William.

Report on the Peace River and tributaries in 1891. Ottawa, 189"2.

The following are the reports of the officers of the Geological Survey : —
Athabasca District.

Dr. Selwyn, 1876. Prof. J. Macoun, 1876. G. M. Dawson, 1880.
R. G. McConnell, 1880, 1891. R. Bell, 1884. J. B. Tyrrill,
1893. D. B. Dowling, 1893. J. B. Tyrrell, 1896.
Yukon and Mackenzie Riveh Districts.

G. M. Dawson, 1888. R. G. McConnell, 1S89.
Other "norganised Territouies.

A. S. Cochrane, 1880. R. Bell, 1884. J. B. Tyrrell, 1894.

?'-

CHAPTER XVII

THE YUKON TERRITORY

In the uttermost Dorth-vvest of the Dominion is the pro-
visional district of Yukon — extending over an area of
192,000 square miles. It is in the shape of a right-
angled triangle. The base is the parallel of 00° N.,
separating it from l^ritish Columbia at the south ; the
perpendicular is the meridian of 141° W. — striking the
Arctic coast at Demarcation Point, and the hypothenuse
is the summit of the mountain range which borders the
valley of the Mackenzie and about 70 miles of coast
west of the delta of that river. While this description
is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes it nnist be
observed that the boundary of 141° does not come down
•piite into contact with the parallel of 00°; it comes
down to the sunmiit of the range of mountains on the
coast perhaps 15 or 20 miles short of lat. 00° N., and it
Just incloses Mount St, Elias within British territory ; so
that large mountain mass is tlie uttermost western point,
within one or two miles of British dominion. The height
of this mountain is variously given, but tlie most accurate
figure is probably ISfOlO feet. It has been supposed to
be the highest mountain in North America, but Mount
Logan, within 20 miles of it in long. 140° 30', is given
in the map of the U.S. Geodetic Survey at 19,514 feet.

1 1 III

I 'I

::f'

i ,!

liyi

'•Til

554

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

These are the highest peaks on the North American
continent. There is another Mount Logan, 9000 feet
high, near Lake Frances at the source of the Liard,
which must not be confounded with this one near the
Alaskan boundary.

This district received its name from the fact that all
the large rivers which combine to ibrm the Yukon, rise
in it. The river was not called the Yukon by its dis-
coverers higher up than the junction of the Pelly and
Porcupine rivers for the reason that the upper rivers
were all named and mapped before they were known to
connect with the lower river. The name Yukon was
given by James Bell of the Hudson's Bay Company in
1842. It is the Indian name and signifies "Great
River." At the junction the Hudson's Bay Company
founded Fort Yukon in 1847; but in 1867 it was dis-
covered to l)e 110 miles west of the boundary of 141''
W. and, upon an abrupt notice to quit l)y an United
States officer, the fort was abandoned. This point is
almost exactly upon the Arctic Circle. The name
Yukon was extended in the course of a few years to
the Lower Belly as far as tlie junction of the Lewes.
This part of the river is called the Upper Yukon.

During the last two years attention lias been strongly
attracted towards this region because of the immense
extent of the gold deposits found there and their exceed-
ing richness. Tlie gold district is intersected by the
meridian of 141°, and it is fortunate for Canada that the
boundary there is an astronomical line ; for as that is a
definite mathematical limit, there can be no possible
diplomatic excuse for disfiguring that part of the bound-
ary with another re-entering angle. A joint connnissioii
of Canadian and United States officers has been for two
years on the ground collecting accurate topograi)lucal

THE YUKON TERRITORY

555

information. It reported last year, and Mr. W. E. King,
the astronomer of the Department of the Interior, has
returned, but Mr. William Ogilvie is still fn the territory
surveying and cutting out a conventional boundary-line
in order to settle provisionally the respective jurisdictions
of the United States and Canadian authorities. His
reports and those of Inspector Constantine in command
of the North-west Police have recently been received, and
have revealed to the Canadiuns themselves a world of
interest and resource previously undreamed of. This
chapter is largely based upon their reports dated as late
as January 27, 1897.

i-l

nil

3 LM

1 iB'i

Contour of the Land

The interior of this country is very little known. It
differs from the Alaskan territory in being more or less
mountainous throughout ; for the Cordilleran ranges
spread through it in many parallels, running in a general
direction with the coast. What is definitely known
beyond the reports of the Hudson's Bay officers is based
on the subsequent explorations of Dr. G. M. Dawson and
Mr. E. G. McConnell of the Geological Survey, and of
Mv. Wm. Ogilvie of the Department of the Interior.
The pioneers and miners now in the territory are not
writers, and very few travellers have visited this very
secluded and inaccessible .region. The reports of late
explorers now coming in have all the interest of dis-
coveries. It is not a country of tundras, but of mountain
ranges and rolling hills, penetrated everywhere by large
navigable rivers. The most continuous range is tliat
nearest the coast, which is 84 miles wide with a general
height of about 6000 feet ; but there are many high
peaks rising to 8000 and 10,000 feet.

556

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

IWI::

1;:

The range of which Mount St. Elias is the chief
feature commences at Cross Sound and attains a much
higher elevation, and of this range Mount St. Elias is one
of the loftiest peaks. During the present summer several
parties of scientific men and skilled climbers are to
attempt the ascent — an arduous task ; for the snow-line
is at the height of 2000 feet, and all the remaining
distance to the summit is over snow and ice. The eleva-
tion of the general surface of the territory at the head of
the Upper Pelly is 2965 feet. At the confluence of tlie
Pelly and Lewes it falls to 1555 feet. The average level
of the whole territory is estimated at about 2000 feet.

Until some better route than the present one over the
Chilcoot pass is found the Yukon must be the main
avenue into the country and, by treaty, the navigation is
free to Canada. It falls into Behring Sea by several
mouths, and they are all so obstructed by sand that sea-
going steamers are unable to enter any of them ; nor is
there any site at the mouth of the river suitable for a
town. The greatest depth anywhere is eight feet, and in
consequence, the river steamers, which are stern-wheeled
drawing only four feet, are obliged to wait for calm
weather and go out to meet the ocean vessels at St.
Michael's in the open Behring Sea, 80 miles north of the
entrance to the river. The ice is all down about the
middle of June, and at the end of the month, when
Norton Sound is clear, navigation commences. For
hundreds of miles the river flows through the perfectly
level tundras of Alaska — flat mossy morasses on a frozen
sub-soil, where it is difficult to find a dry spot to laml
upon. It is a very wide monotonous stream ; not deep,
but flowing with a tranquil current on its lower course ;
but, on the upper river about Cudahy and farther up,
the current runs at the rate of about five miles an hour ;

THE YUKON TERRITORY

557

for much of the season it is even swifter. Two trans-
portation companies have steamboats plying from the
mouth of the river to Cudahy, beyond wliich it is navig-
able to the head of Teslin Lake. It is over a thousand
miles from its mouth to the junction of the Porcupine at
old Fort Yukon, and 2300 miles to the extreme head of
its waters. The trip up to Fort Cudahy takes eighteen to
twenty days, and two trips are made in the short season of
summer. The drainage area of the Yukon is estimated
at 330,982 square miles, about one-half the area of the
Mackenzie basin.

lieturning, however, to the exclusive consideration of
the Yukon territory which belongs to Canada ; it consists,
as before stated, of the higher lands drained by the chief
atiiuents of this great river. The country is fairly well
known along the chief water-courses ; for these have been
travelled first by officers of the Hudson's Bay Company,
and more recently l)y explorers of the Geological Survey,
and of the Department of the Interior. From the chief
streams, miners and prospectors have followed up many
of the smaller streams, but away from the water-courses
very little is known.

Hydrography

It has already been stated that the I'orcupine river
meets the Upper Yukon at tlie site of old Fort Yukon to
form the main Yukon river. The course of the rorcui)ine
is mainly within the Arctic Circle, and the contiueuce is
almost precisely upon it. The Porcupine is navigable for
hght steamers for 106 ndles, and an easy canoe route
exists from its upper waters, at the great bend in its
course, by way of Lapierre House to Fort Macpherson on
the Peel, which falls into the delta of the Mackenzie, so

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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that coinnmiiication is easy from tlie Yukon to the
Mackenzie within the Arctic Circle.

The I'elly is a large river, and for Cx. time the name
Telly- Yukon was used to denote tlie whole river to the
sea. It is navigable for small steamers to within fifty
miles of old Fort Felly Banks on the Upper Felly, within
twenty miles of Finlayson Lake, from whence the water
flows by the Liard into the Mackenzie. Commencing
at old Fort Yukon and proceeding up the Upper Yukon
river from its confluence, the first stream worthy of
note is Forty ]\Iile Creek (so called because it was sup-
posed to be forty miles from Fort Keliance) — not on
account of its size, altliough it is about 250 miles long,
but because it is the cntre of supplies for tlie miners.
The little town of f name was supposed to be within
Alaskan territory, out it turns out to be eiglit miles
within the Canadian line. Fort Cudahy is the centre of
Canadian administration. It is in lat. 04° 25' and long.
140° 18', and is the most northern point in the Em})ire
occupied by British troops. A detachment of sixteen
men of the North-west police with two officers and a
surgeon, was sent there in 1895, and in three months
they got out the hnnber and l)uilt a fort at Cudahy, at
the junction of the Yukon and Forty Mile Creek, threi;-
([uarters of a mile from the mining town and across the
creek. It would be misleading to call them bv tlieir
proper name, " mounted pcjlice," as dogs are used for travel
in the winter, and in Alaska the United States officers
are training reindeer and have imported deer and men
from Lapland. Food lias to be carried for dogs, l)ut tlie
reindeer and the barren land cariboo (which are practi-
cally the same) find their own food in travelling. What
the police require here is a swift steamboat ; although,
to the credit of the miners, it should be observed that

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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no serious crime has so far been committed. There have
been as yet no civil courts, and the miners, until the arrival
of the police, administered their own law. Fort Cudahy
is 1800 miles from the mouth of the Yukon. It has
now a collector of Customs, and the Anglican Bishop
Bompas has a church and resides there. There is
a steamer from this point running up to old Fort
Selkirk, and at Forty Mile City the Alaska Commercial
Company has its headquarters. At Fort Cudahy
opposite are the headquarters of the North American
Trading and Transportation Company. Both com-
panies have steamers on the rivers. Still following
up the Yukon, two large rivers fall in almost opposite
each other, the White river from the south and the
Stewart from the north. The White river is turbulent
and shallow, and colours the lower river with its milky
waters; but the Stewart is said to be navigable for 200
miles. The next important confluence is at old Fort
Selkirk. There the Lewes and the Upper Felly unite.
The Upper Pelly receives, about seventy-five miles from
its mouth, the waters of the Macmillan, a large river yet
unexplored, supposed to rise in the Rocky Mountains,
near the sources of the Peel. The length of the Upper
Pelly is 3 2 5 miles, and its source is believed to be in tlie
Pelly lakes about 131° W. and lat. 62° N., close to the
source of the Liard. Mr. Warburton Vike has, however,
shown some reason for doubting this.

lieturning to old Fort Selkirk at the junction of the
Upper Pelly and the Lewes — the united river is there
three-quarters of a mile wide. The Lewes is a large
river and a most important one ; as it must become, for
goods as well as miners, the highway into the country.
This river is navigable as far as the White Horse rapids
and Miles Canon. There an interruption of three miles

THE YUKON TEKKITOHY

561

occurs, but that once passed there is navigation to a group
of lakes near the Cliilcoot Pass up to a point within
twenty-five miles of tide water at tlie head of Lynn
Channel.

It would be of very little use to attempt to give
furtlier details of the wonderful river system which
penetrates this territory. All the streams mentioned
are very large rivers, and there are many others wliich
have not been explored. Tlie whole region is now opening
up and every month brings notices of new discoveries.
Cudahy commands a navigation of more than 1500 miles
on the interior rivers — the Lewes, I'elly, Stewart, Porcupine,
Macmillan and others.

All these rivers run in the general direction of the
mountain ranges, but there are two streams which cut
the ranges and give access to the interior — the Stikine
in British Columbia, and the Liard in the extreme south-
east which rises in the Yukon district and Hows eastward
into the Mackenzie, cutting through the Pocky Mountains
on its way. It was by the Liard that the first white
man, Robert Campbell, entered the country, and it is now
l)eginning to be recognised tliat the best entrance to it on
the south is by the Stikine from British Columbia.

'1 1

Communications

Once within the Yukon territory communication is
comparatively easy by the rivers ; but entrance, save by
the long circuitous course from the mouth of the Yukon,
is difficult. The supplies for the mining town at Forty
Mile Creek are sent "in by that route. The distance is
enormous both by sea and river, but heavy freight can be
got in by no other route under present conditions. The
route by the Porcupine is only a canoe route, and is too

562

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

far north and too circuitous to be available ; the route up
the Liard, from the Mackenzie to the head-waters of the
Pelly, is direct enough, but the Liard is a very dangerous
river to navigate, even in canoes, and the route had to be
abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company. The geo-
graphical problem now before the Canadians is how to
reach the territory from British Columbia at the south
and avoid the enormous detour by St. Michael's. It does
not seem difficult on the map ; for the head-waters of the
Lewes approach closely the tide water of the north of
British Columbia, but intervening is the barrier of the
Coast range of mountains.

The route hitherto followed by the miners is by Lynn
Channel, and the point of departure is at Juneau City in
Alaska, from whence there is a steamer to Taiya, ]
miles distant, on Taiya Inlet, at the head of Lynn (Jhannel.
Canoes may be used for a few miles from that point to
the Canon. From thence it is 1 5 miles to the sunmiit of
the Chilcoot Pass (3475 feet), and lo miles of descent
leads to Lake Lindeman, which discharges its waters by a
chain of lakes into the Lewes. It is 23|^ miles only, by
direct measurement, but 28 miles by trail; if trail it can
be called. It is a hard climb over bare and broken rocks
among snow and ice all summer. In winter the miners
haul loads over the pass on hand sledges and across Lake
Lindeman and the chain of lakes in succession to the foot
of Lake Laberge, from whence they float down on rafts (jr
boats in the spring. There is another pass, the White
Pass, a little to the south, and another the Chilcat not
fav to the north, but both are at present considered to be
more difficult than the Chilcoot Pass and they are not
used. Another difficulty exists on this route ; for, when
the pass has been surmounted and the main Lewes is
reached, it is absolutely necessary to portage for three

THK YUKON TERRITORY

563

miles round Miles Canon and the Wliite Horse IJapids.
In the winter of 1895 the Canadian mail was abandoned
at the summit of this pass, and was found in the snow in
the following summer. The mail courier was badly frozen.
Two mails got through, however, that winter — one by the
Chilcat and one by the White Pass. A route has been
spoken of to the Pelly called the Dallas trail, where
horses might l)e got in, but little is known about it.

In view of these difiiculties attention is now turned
to Teslin Lake. This is a deep lake 80 miles long which
discharges by the Teslintoo or Hootalinqua river (100
miles), into the Lewes, thirty miles below Lake Laberge,
and below Miles Canon and the White Horse Kapids, thus
getting into the Lewes beyond all the dangerous obstruc-
tions. The Teslintoo is a broad and quiet stream, and
from the head of Lake Teslin a steamer can go down to
Cudahy and to the mouth of the main river on Behring
Sea, a distance in all of 2400 miles of interior navigation.
The whole outer circuit in the ocean, round by Oonalaska
and Behring Sea would then be avoided.

The cardinal point is, then, Teslin Lake, and that
may be reached from the sea by two routes. From the
head of Taku Inlet the Taku river is navigable Ijy canoes
for 53 miles as far as the junction of the Nahkina river.
From that point to the head of Teslin Lake is 70 miles,
through a country not mountainous or difficult. The
Taku river is not,, ho wevet, availal »le for steamers. The
total distance from tide to lake is thus 123 miles, or
150 miles from Juneau City, near the entrance of the
hynn Canal.

The other route *to Teslin Lake, and one which is
meeting with much favour, is by the Stikine river to
Telegraph Creek, 140 miles, all available for steamers.
From thence it is 150 miles in a direct line to the head

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL

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of Tesliii Lake ; 53 miles of which distance is covered by
a trail already made to i.;ie Hudson's Bay post at Eynell's
Creek.

Ill comparing these routes it will appear that from
steamer navigation at Telegraph Creek to the head of
Lake Teslin is 170 miles, and from -hineau City to the
same point is 1 5 miles. Telegraph Creek is in Canadian
territory, and the inconvenience of passing goods througli
United States territory will be avoided and the whole
interior country be opened up by a short route from
Victoria. The distance from the head of Lake Teslin to
Cudahy is GOO miles. There remains only to be noticed
the Cassiar trail from Telegraph Creek to Dease Lake,
the head of one of tlie branches of the Liard ; but it will
appear on consideration that Teslin Lake is the key ])oinl
of the problem how to get into the Yukon territory
without going round 2000 miles by sea to the mouth of
the river, and 1500 miles more on the river itself.

Resources

The same remark whicli has already been made concern-
ing the Lower Mackenzie is applicable here. No one will
go to the Yukon in search of farm lands, but nevertlieless
the country in its southern jiart wUl produce ost of tin*
crops necessary for food. It will, at Fort Selkirk and
south of it, [)roduce the barilier cro])s siu'h as barley, rye,
turnips, llax. There are areas throughout of gt'utly lolling
land and the river valleys are wide. There is sullicii'iil
rainfall, but the country is ])rotected by mountains from
the incessant ])recii)i(ation of the Alaskan coast. The
Yukon territorv of Canada is well wooded with timi'tT of
fair size, mostly white and black spruce. At Cudahy
dry timber is beginning to be scarce, having been cut

THE YUKON TEHRITORY

565

away from the river ban^: where it was most accessible.
In tlie interior there is plenty if there were horses or
oxen to haul it out when cut. An island in the river
lias been laid out for a market garilen ; for ordinary
vegetables may be grown with fair success. At old Fort
Selkirk, in lat. 63°, there are Ibrests of large timber aud
})leasant green meadows. It is 1000 miles north of
Victoria, but when the fort was occupied crojfs of potatoes
and barley were raised there, and it has been calculated
that, even in this remote region, there are in the southern
part 30,000 square miles available for agriculture and
stock raising.

The country abounds in moose and caribou, and these,
with salmon, are the chief food of the Indians. Kur-
beariug aniuials are abundant — silver-gray and black
foxes, marten and sable, and lynx. r>ighorn slu'ej) aud
mouii'/ain goats are numerous, and bears both black aud
griz'iiy. Moose have been increasing of late years and are
txleuding their range. Fish are not so plentiful on the

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Yukon, l)ut there are whiteHsh, lake trout, a
in the tributary streauis and lakes. Salmon
uiiles to the I'elly lakes, but they are in very ])0(tr con-
dition after t!u ir long journey.

Gold Mining

It is, however, as a niMiing count ly that tlie Yukon
district is important. Tlie geological character of the
territory is, so far as known, a continuation of tliat of
Ihitish Columbia. There arc the same l*ahco/oic rocks,
and th(^ mountiiins are a continual ion of tlie same ranges,
which, at the soutli. have been ])roved to ahound in
mineral wealtli, and espcciallv in the precious metals.
There is a gold-bearing Itelt of territory of indcitinite

566

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

width, and three hundred miles long to the north from
the Chilcat Vans, and advices received while these pages
are going to i)ress show tliat the Canadian ^'^kon region
is one of the richest areas for gold-mining which has ever
been discovered. The climate is severe and access is
difhcnlt, so that strength, courage, and good health are
necessarv to all who go there. The climate is healthv
for the healthy, Itecause there are no fevers, but the life
of a miner is laborious. It is, so .iir, all placer mining
of the most primitive kind. The miners do not hang
round the posts, but as a rule stay on their claims all
winter and dig out the frozen uravel. In the summer
they wash out the " pay dirt " so that the long
winter is not a season of entorced idleness, but of pre-
paration.

Otticial reports show that in the south there is good
l)lacer mining, and coirse gold is found on the Te.slintoo
(Hootalincjua). The principal work of the last two years
has l)een around Forty-mile Creek and Sixty-mile Creek,
and among the richest of the tributaries of the latter are
]\liller Creek and Ciacier Ci vk. One claim on ]\Iiller
Creek yielded J?7r),000 to 5^8 0,0 00 in the summer of
1890. Paying gold-diggings are being worked on the
Stewart and many other of the interior rivers, and every
creek for thiee hundred miles shows signs of gold.

In August, 1800, very rich deposits of "coaise gold "
were found on the Klondike or Deer river, a stream
whicli falls into the Yukon a few miles above Fort
Keliance. One of the tributaries was named by the
miners " r^^nanza Creek," but all the creeks on botii
sides of the Klondike give most ])romising prospects.
The miners are flocking there, and tlu' otlicer in ciiarge
reported in Decendier, 18!)G,that it is beyond doubt that
three pans yielded respectively, $204, }?212, and $210.

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL

These were, of course, very exceptional, but they indicate
the productiveness of the locality.

Nothing has b^en done in quartz prospecting, and
nothing probably w " be done until access to the country
is easier, Ijut gold-bearing quartz is found in many places.
Cone Hill, about two miles from Cudahy, consists (dmost
entirely of metalliferous rock richer in gold than the
celebrated Treadwell mine. By the time placer mining
is exhausted the country will be opened up by a railway
from one of the British Colundna rivers, and quartz
mining will begin. All these matters are so recent, and
the country is so new, that the official reports are read
with the interest of new discoveries.

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Coal

It is now beyond doubt that there is abundance of
coal in the very heart of the gold-mining region. Seven
miles up Coal Creek, not far from Cudahy, an extensive
seam 12 ft. in. thick has been found. Over 200,000
tons are in sight there of a good quality of lignite.
About oO miles from Cudahy, seams 5 ft. 4 in. and G
ft. have been found, as well as on the Klondike and at
other places along the Yukon. In view of the severity
of the winters, this is most important, for it would adtl
enormously to tlie cost of winning the gold if fuel had
to be iinported.

Climate

While tlui mountains protect the country from the
incessant downpour « f the coast region, the climate has
the disadvantage of lieing very cold in winter, though (by.
Tiie readings of th«' tiiermometer at Cudaiiy in the winter
of 1895-90 several times were far below — 50 and once

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIJAPHY AND TRAVEL

^Wr

touched — 6.')°. From — 40° to — 50° was quite common.
The miners luive a ready way of testing the temperature
by putting a bottle of mercury outside, and if it freezes
they remain indoors. In clearing away the site of the
fort at Cudahv the men of the detachment of North-west
police had to tear up moss from one to three feet thick,
and underneath it they found ground covered by clear
white ice. The ground quickly thawed and dried on
exposure to the sun, for the summers are warm during
the long northern day, and there is very little rain in
summer excepting during thunder showers. In looking
over the reports for facts indicative of the climate, it
appears that the ice broke up on the Yukon at Cudahy
on May 17, 189G, and it was considered unusually
late. By the middle of September the river was again
full of floating ice. That gives a sunnner of four months.
Again we find the surveyors could not travel in the
middle of April of the same year, excepting early in
the morning and late in the evening, because the water
was running in the creeks. We find, again, that boundary
surveyors were out on snowshoes working in the field
from February to May and in October and November,
and that their work stopped for two or two and a half
months, not because of the cold, but because of the
darkness of the short days of midwinter. But the cold
is nevertheless very great, for Mr. Ogilvie reports that
on January 8, 1896, the thermometer registered —G'^°,
and that it fell once in the night to —08°. The cold
experienced by Arctic explorers has not been so severe
as this, and the only way to account for the comparative
ease with wliich the miners support such low tempera-
tures is because of the drvness of the air.

Now that the town has Ijeen ascertained to be on
Canadian territory, the name Forty-mile Creek will

THE YUKON TERKITORY

571

probably be clian^ecl for a more appropriate one. Tlie
new fort is called Fort Constaiitiiie, from the iiauie of
the otlicer who built it. liishop JJompas has Aii<?lican
mission posts and schools at JUixton (Cudahy), at Old
Fort Selkirk, and at Iianipart House on the upper waters
of the Porcupine.

Discovery

It is to the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company that
the credit is due of discovering and o])ening up this
region. The estuary of the river was explored by the
Kussians in the years 1 80 5-38, l)ut the whole interior
remained an absolute blank on the map. In the spring
of 1840 Mr. liobert Campbell was sent up the Liard to
seek for some stream flowing west to the Pacific. He
reached its source in two lakes. The first he named
Frances, and the second Finlayson Lake. He then crossed
to the Pelly river, which he named. In 1843 he went
down the Pelly to the junction of another river, which he
named the Lewes; and, in 1847, Fort Selkirk was built
at the confluence. While Campbell was establishing
posts on these rivers, Mr. James Bell had discovered and
was exploring the Porcupine. In 1847 he descended it
to its mouth, and came upon the great river which he
named the Yukon. He l)uilt in that year Fort Yukon
iit the confluence : and three years later, Campbell
went down the Pelly to Its junction with the Yukon.
He named the White river from its colour, and tlie
Stewart riv^er for a friend. Most of tliese names are
names of people wtjl known in Canada at the time.
Hudson's liay traders then followed down the main river
from Fort Yukon past the Tanana river long l)efore any
Kussian trader ascended it. The information thus
obtained was communicated and embodied in i)ul)lished

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

maps. It will therefore appear that Messrs. Campbell
and P>ell not only discovered but named and published
the names of all these streams, and conducted business
on their banks long l)efore the Eussians had gone any
considerable distance beyond the estuary. The Russian
name for the Yukon was Kwich-Pak. To change these
names is not only unjust to the original explorers, but also
confuses the geograpliical history of the country. The
St. Lawrence has many names by which its progressive
discovery may be traced, and so has the Mackenzie. In
like manner, in the far north, Smith Sound, Kennedy
Channel, and Robeson Channel mark steps in discovery
from 1616 to 1871; and, although it is one continuous
strait, any attempt to apply Sir Tliomas Smith's name
to Captain Hall's discovery would be resented by Hall's
fellow-countrymen. The same usage obtains throughout
all Polar voyages, and there seems no adequate reason
for interfering further with Mr. Robert Campbell's
nomenclature.

NOTE TO CHAPTER XVII

The best accounts of the Yukon diatrict will be found in the
following publications : —

Dawson, G. M.

Report on an explonitioii in tlie Yukon district, N,W,T. aii<l
adjacent northern part oi' IJritish Columbia, 1888,

McCoNNKM,, R. G.

Rejiort on the Yukon and Mackenzie river districts, 1889.

The above arc publications of the Geological Survey. The annual n -
jiorts of tlie Department of the Interior contain the communications
of Mr. William Ogilvie, and tliose of the Department of Mounted Police
contain the letters of Insj)ector Constantine to his chief.

THE YUKOX TEKUITORY

573

Ogilvie, William.

Exploratory Surv-ey of part of the Lewes, Tat-on-duc, Porcupine,
tJelJ, Irout, Peel and Mackenzie rivers in 1887-88. Ottawa,

J. oVfU.

■nf.™aM:"°!i"« "'""' '" "" ■=»«''* '"-"-■ -'"-- ■""* v,„„„Ue
PrKK, Waubukton.

Through the Sub. Arctic Forest ; a record of a Canoe A'oyag,. Iron.
I< ort ^^ rangel to the Pelly lakes and down the Yukon river to
the Behring sea. London, E.Iwin Arnold, 1S9().

^^^_^There is also a handy little guide-book for the use of prospective

Wilson, Y.

Guide to the Yukon Gold-fields; where they are, and how to (in.l
them. Seattle, 1896.

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CHAPTER XVIII

THE DISTRICT OF KEEWATIN AND THE I3AIIREN GROUNDS

The district of Keewatiii is, under the existing law,
bounded on the south partly by Manitoba and partly by
the projection of the district of Saskatchewan, which
reaches eastwards to the Nelson river. Its western
boundary is very nearly the 100th meridian to the
Arctic coast — to be precise it is the meridian passing
through the northern end of Mossy portage. On the
east the boundary follows the western shore of Hudson's
Bay from the extreme north of Canada southwards to a
point near Fort Churchill, where the meridian of the
dividing line between Manitoba and Ontario touches the
bay. That meridian is the remainder of the eastern
boundary. The upper part of Lake Winnipeg is at the
extreme south of Keewatin, and the extreme north is the
utmost north of Canada. Practically it may be conceived
to be, in a general way, a narrow stretch of territory
along the western shore of Hudson's P)ay extending
towards the watershed of the Mackenzie river, and
including on the north the lower part of the Great Fish
river, and on the south, the lower part of the Churchill
and the greater part of the i^elson rivers.

It will be convenient to consider this immense
territory in two divisions — the southern, south of a line

THE DISTIIICT OF KEEWATIN

575

drawn westwards from the shore of Hudson's Buy a
little north of Fort Churcliill about lat. 60°, this will
approximately include the basin of the lower Churchill —
and the northern, which consists of the greater part of
the area vaguely known as "The Barren (hounds."

The ChurchiU Valley

The Churchill river, known also by the names of
English river and Missinibi river, is an important stream
about 1100 miles long. Its head-waters are very close
to altiuents of the Saskatchewan and Atluibasca. Beaver
Lake, one of the sources of the Beaver river, a main
tributarv of the Churchill, is within a few miles of Lake
la Biche, which discharges into the Athabasca ; and the
south Beaver river rises within 40 miles of Edmonton
and close to the "White Earth river falling into the
Saskatchewan. The Churchill was the main highway to
the North-west of the fur-trading companies ; and from
Fort Cumberland on the lower Saskatchewan the brigades
of canoes went up the Crrass river to Frog portage, only
380 yards across, to the main Churchill. From thence
the route followed the Churchill up to its source in Methy
Lake and passed over into the Clearwater river wliich falls
into the Athabasca below the (Jrand liapids. This key-
})oint of the far west is 12^ miles across and is known
as " the long portage," " Metliy portage," or " Portage la
Loche." Keferences to it are met with continually in all
books of North-west travel.

The valley of the Churchill is wooded throughout its
whole length, so that there is no great extent of prairie
on its banks. The soil is good as far as Lake a la Crosse
where the river enters the great Laurentian area. From
thence like other Laurentian streams it Hows on the

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surface of the country — u clear stream spreading into
countless lake expanses, full of fish and the resort of
myriads of wild fowl. Ilie wooded country on its banks
abounds in moose and deer. <.)ne of the chief tributaries
from the north is the Jfeindeer river. The ultimate
source of that stream is AVollaston Lake — a beautifully
clear body of water, 800 square miles in extent, dis-
charging by two outlets — to the north by the Stone
river into the extreme eastern arm of Lake Athabasca,
and to the south-east by the Ccjchrane river into Reindeer
Lake — a large lake 135 miles long. This lake discharo-es
into the Churcliill bv the Ifeindeer river, and a Q,'ood
canoe route to Lake Athaltasca passes that way. From
Black Lake at the northern end of this route there is a
portage leading to the l)ool)aunt river, and through the
centre of the Barren Grounds to Hudson's Bay.

Owing to the fact of it being the main canoe route to
the ]\Iackenzie valley, tlie Churchill has been described
by nearly all the great Xorth-west travellers, Sir Alexander
Mackenzie, Sir John Franklin, Sir John liichardson, and
Sir George r)ack, but beyond the chief portage routes
the country is very little known. Mr. .1. B. Tyrrell of
the Geological Survey, explored in ^S 92-93 the region
between the river and Lake Athabasca, and his report has
been published only this year. The whole country is
without inhabitants save scattered bands of Chipewyan
Indians, and as it has been incidentally noticed in previous
chapters, no further description seems to be necessary in
this place.

The Barren Grounds

Tills is a region west of Hudson's B)ay, of which the
northern portion of the i)rovisional territory of Keewatin
forms a part, and concerning which very little is actually

THE BARKEN GROUNDS

577

a region

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known. It is in the main a treeless wilderness
of rock and swamp permeated ])y lakes and streams,
upon whose barren sliores nature assumes her most
unattractive aspect, and where winter seems almost
]iermanently enthroned. It is not an inviting; region to
the traveller ; for in winter it is probably colder than
anywhere else on the continent, and in summer the
Hies, mosquitoes, black tiies, and " bull dogs," make up
in activity for the sliortness of their season.

If a line be drawn westwards from the western shore
of Hudson's Bay, north of Fort Churchill, along the GOth
parallel of latitude, and curve to the north-west to cut
off the eastern arm of CJreat Slave Lake; if it be con-
tinued northwards througli Great Bear Lake, and from
thence down the Lockart and Anderson rivers to the
Polar Sea, such a line will approximately inclose the
Darren Grounds, for the other boundaries will be the
Arctic Ocean to the north, and Hudson's Bay to the east.
It includes, in general tern.o, the river valleys east of
the Mackenzie, wliich discharge direct into the Arctic
Ocean, and those north of the Churchill, which discharge
into Hudson's Bay. It is the true Arctic basin of Canada,
and is vaguely reputed to cover 200,000 square miles in
area.

It should not, however, l)e supposed that the entire
region so marked off is absolutely Ijare of trees, for in
places where there may be shelter, or where the soil may
lie drier, trees will be found in groves and clumps. On
the shores of the larger lakes there may also be trees, and
the tree line will advance or retreat from the limits above
described according to varying local circumstances. Thus,
in the Tyrrell expedition of 1893, a grove of white
spruce, composed of trees eight fee*^^ in circumference, was
met in the heart of the Barren Grounds in lat. G2'' 15',

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578

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TKAVEL

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and the same expedition records an undulating grassy
plain as observed on the Doobaunt river about 64° north
latitude. Clumps of willows were met on the Doobaunt,
and the rivers to tiiC west brought down trunks of spruce
trees one foot in diameter, proving that the interior is
not so treeless as is supposed. But on the other hand,
Doobaunt Lake was found on August 7, covered with
an immense sheet of ice seven feet thick. The explorers
paddled between the ice and the shore save at one spot
where the ice was firm, and tliey had to portage over it.

The Barren Grounds drain mostly to the north by
the Coppermine and the Great Fish (Back's) rivers, l)Oth
ditticult to navigate even in canoes, consisting of strings
of lakes connected by violent rapids, and flowing for the
most parts in rocky channels. There are other rivers
flowing into the Arctic Ocean and into Hudson's Bay. Of
the latter the Doobaunt is the largest, falling into Baker
Lake — a continuation of Chesterfield Inlet. Little is
known of the land away from the main watercourses,
for Samuel Hearne is the only white man who traversed
it on foot. He saw a range of mountains — the Copper
mountains — and they have been described by Dr.
Bdchardson, who found scales of copper disseminated
generally throughout the rock, and picked up plates of
native copper, and malachite, copper glance, and native
copper and copper ore in many other forms. The Indians
report that every part of this range, over an extent of
40 miles, abounds in copper, and Kichardson found ice
chisels of pure copper 12 and 14 inches long and half
an inch in diameter in the possession of the Eskimo.

The area of the Barren Grounds for the most part
consists, us is supposed, of Laurentian rocks ; but even
with our present knowledge, important reservations must
be made. The Coppermine river flows through Cambrian

THE BARREN GROUNDS

579

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rocks for a large part of its course, and on the shore of
the Arctic Ocean the Cambrian extends in a belt west-
wards from the mouth of that river to meet the
Devonian and Cretaceous of the IMackenzie valley, and
eastwards along Coronation gulf, lied sandstone and
conglomerates with various trappean rocks referred to
the Cambrian (and doubtless representing, like the last
mentioned, the Keweenian of the great lakes), have also
been found by Mr. Tyrrell along the course of the
Doobaunt river, and on Baker's Lake and Chesterfield
Inlet. Huronian schists and quartzites also occur in
some places, and appear to be highly charged with copper
ores.

He found a stretch of 225 miles of these rocks along
his route, and he observed their line of contact with the
Laurentian gneiss along the Doobaunt river, i'rom where
it turns east almost as far as Baker Lake, and he observed,
moreover, the same contact on Baker Lake and Chestertield
Inlet. These rocks are doubtless a repetition of the
copper-bearing rocks of the Coppermine river, and indicate
a very wide extent of metalliferous rocks in this region,
otherwise so scantily favoured by nature. From
Chestertield Inlet to Ciiurchill he found, however, the low
shores of the bay consisted of Laurentian gneiss; but it
is evident that large areas of later fornuition exist in the
interior.

Very little shelter can be found in this region from
the winds which sweep across it ; nevertheless it is by
no means destitute of animal life ; immense herds of
caribou roam over it, migrating from the shores of the
Arctic Ocean in sunnner to the whiter shelter of the
woods on the soutlr and west. These are the J^)arren
(tround caribou, practically identical with the Lapland
reindeer, and like them they find abundant food in moss

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COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

and licliens. Tyrrell met some of these immense herds
and was able to get photographs of them, they were so
unsuspicious of the destructive nature of white men.
The fawns wonld approach within a few yards of tlie
party. Geese and ducks breed in immense numbers

MUSK-OX.

on these solitary lakes, partridges are found there, and
the waters abound in trout and whitetish. The Hudson's
Bay officers, in their expeditions do not seem to have
suffered such privations as the explorers from Europe.
Dr. Rie and Simpson and Dease provided food for their
parties from the resources of these regions. On the
northern part of the Barren Grounds is the home of the
musk-ox, a harmless, inoffensive creature which, as its
name iwihos indicates, is undecided whether to evolve

THE BAKUEN GROUNDS

r)81

itself into a sheep or an ox. It has the teeth of a sheejt
and the disposition and mental development of a sheej),
but the feet of an ox and the horns of an ox. The hide
partakes of the same double nature, for there is a thick
fleecy undergrowth in winter with a long permanent coat
of hair. The picture given is taken from an excellent
preserved specimen in the (Jeological Survey Ottico in
Ottawa.

The first white man to enter the Barren Grounds was
Samuel Hearne, who in 1770-71 crossed them to the
Coppermine. He was unskilful in scientific observation
and did not correctly estimate distances, so there is some
ditliculty in tracing his route. Franklin, in his first
expedition in 1819-21, entered the country from Clreat
Slave Lake. He went up one of its tributaries, the
Yellowknife river, and built Fort Enterprise of timber
growing around. The following year, with his com-
])anions IJack and Uichardson, he crossed the divide and
went down the Coppermine through the Barren Grounds.
He returned hj Hood river to the Coppermine, experienc-
ing extreme privations and disasters. The next to pass
through was Captain Back in 183.')-34 in the search for
Boss. He also entered by Great Slave Lake, built Fort
Beliance at its extreme eastern end, and went down by
the Great Fish (or l»ack's) river to the sea, thus passing
through the heart of the Barren Grounds. Simpson and
Dease in 1837 Iniilt Fort Confidence at the north-east
corner of Great Bear Lake, and, from that point in the
iKirth of the Ikrren Grounds as a centre, made most
successful explorations. They found abundance of game
and fish ; Init they were Hudson's Bay officers and used
to the country. They also went down to the sea by the
lower Coppermine. The .same point Fort Confidence
was, in 1848-49, made the starting-point of llichardson

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582

COMl'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND THAYEL

and Eae's expedition in search of Sir Jolni Franklin and
again the Coppermine was followed to the sea. In
1850-51 Dr. Itae again wintered at Fort Enterprise and
went down on foot to the sea in carrying out a further
search under the orders of the Hudson's Bay Company.
The next traverse of the Barren Grounds was made l)y
James Anderson, a Hudson's Bay officer; he went down
l)y the Great Fish river. Father l*etitot, who spent
many years as a missionary on the lower Mackenzie, has
visited that part of the Barren Grounds hetween Great
Bear Lake and the sea. it was on an island at the
mouth of the (treat Fish river that the last of Franklin's
crew perished in 1848.

Of recent years renewed interest has arisen concern-
ing the Barren Grounds ; not in the cause of science hut
because of an insatiable longincj to shoot the harmless
nnisk-oxen which are one of the few means of support of
the Indians of that region. Mr. AVarlnirton Pike has
written a very good book giving an account of his
experiences in 1889. He was on the head waters both
of the Coppermine and Great Fish rivers in the heart of
the Barren Grounds. It is worthy of note that he found
the edge of the woods to be at Lake Mackay, north of
Great Slave Lake (about long. 112"), on the height of
land between the lake and the ocean.

In 1893 the Geological Survey of Canada sent Mv. J.
B. Tyrrell to exploi-e this region. He entered by way of
Lake Athabasca, and from its eastern extremity to Black
Lake, and from thence north-eastward across the divide to
Hudson's Bay. It was at the height of land that he
also left the forest ; for there he sa w poplar for the last
time but he did not finally leave behind the scattered
and intermittent clumps of spruce until he was 50 miles
beyond the water-parting. Baly Lake at the divide is

THE BARREN GROUNDS

583

1290 feet above the sea, and the portage across is only
1^ mile. Following, to the north-east, a chain of lakes and
streams he came, on August 7, to the great lake before
mentioned covered with a field of heavy ice, and he
paddled for 117 miles between it and the shore. Very
near there he met Eskimo and he followed down the
outlet of the lake to Baker Lake at the head of Chesterfield
Inlet of Hudson's liay. This route passed thr( )ugh the centre
of tlie Barren Grounds. He describes the open country
as consisting in many places of mossy plains where the
ground is not thawed on the suriace in 'July, and the ice
is protected by the moss from the influence of the sun.
Trees cannot grow under such circumstances. In 1894
he entered from the so\ith by Reindeer Lake, and again
left the forest near tlie water-parting of the Churchill.
]\Ir. Caspar Whitney has also followed the musk-oxen to
their homes, and has given his experience in a recent
volume.

This region at the south and south-west is the hunting
ground of the Yellowknives and Dogribs, tribes of
Chipewyan stock, and the Eskimo wander into the
interior from the Hudson's Bay and Arctic coasts almost
up to the height of land. These tribes live by fishing,
and upon the caribou, and by hunting the musk-oxen for
their skins.

The Canadian Parliament has passed very stringent
laws to protect the game in these far northern regions
from the incursions of .those who go there for mere
destruction. The Indians depend solely for existence on
these wild creatures, and must perish by starvation if
civilised men are allowed to go into the country to kill
off the game.

The district of Keewatin, of which the Barren Grounds
form the north part, is entirely unsettled, excepting the few

584

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

persons at the Hudson's ]>ay posts, and it is roamed over
by Eskimo, Chipewyans, and, at the extreme south, bv
Algonquins. The lieutenant-governor of ]\Ianitol)a is
governor of the wliole provisional district. Xot a single
crime of a serious nature was conunitted in this whole
territory during the seven years' term of the late govern< a .
The whole district of Keewatin is 282,000 square ndles
in area. The main fact concerning tlie Barren Grounds at
tlie north seems to be that east of the Mackenzie Ijasin and
north of the drainage of the Churchill the water-parting
is elevated, and the land facing the Arctic Ocean and tlie
northern part of Hudson's Bay is exposed to the full
sweep of the winds from the north

NOTE TO CHAPTER XVIII

The following will be found useful for additional information
on the subject of this chapter : —

Pike, WARiiuuxox.

Barren Grounds of Northern Canadii. London, ^Macniillan, lS9-_'.

Tyriiell, J. 15.

An Expedition through the Barren Lands of Northern Canada.

Geographical Journal, London, vol. iv. No. 5, November

1894, pp. 437-450.
A Second E.Kpedition through the Barren Lands of Northern

Canada. Geographical Journal, London, vol. vi. No. ;"i,

November 1895, pp. 438-448.

Tyuuell, J. W.

Through the sub- Arctics of Canada, in the Canadian Magazine for
1896, Toronto.

WnrrNEY, Caspar W.

On Snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds, New York. Harper, 18iMi.

The following reports of the Geological Survey relate to this region : —
Keewatin.

R. Bell, 1878-79, 1880-86. A. S. Cochrane, 1879. A. P. Low.
1886. D. B. Bowling, 1894. J. B. Tyrrell, 1894-95.

1 ■ '•"'

CHAPTER XIX

AKCTIC CANADA

The Coast

Uemarcatiox Point, on the 141st meridian of west lon<fi-
tude, is the western point of Canada on the Arctic Ocean.
Tlie boundary separating it from Alaska runs south along
that meridian until it strikes the summit of the Coast
ran^e. Demarcation Point is 145 miles west of the
mouth of the Mackenzie river. Thirty miles west of the
general course of the lower Mackenzie the last spurs of
the Eocky ]\Iouiitains close in the valley. East of these
mountains the whole interior of the continent slopes
with a very gentle incline down to the Arctic Ocean,
so that there is an uninterrupted stretch of steamboat
navigation, from the mov.th of the Mackenzie river, of
1118 miles, to Great Slave Lake, which is only 391 feet
above the sea.

The continental coast-line of Canada on the Arctic
Ocean follows approximately the parallel of 70° north
latitude; Bellot Strait, in lat. 72\ at the end of the
projecting peninsula of Boothia, marks the most northerly
point of the mainland. The coast is uniformly low, and
is bordered by low cliffs of frozen clay and sand, or east-
wards as far as (Joronation gulf bv tiat limestones. It
may be a melancholy coast, l)ut it is not a storm-beaten

586

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

4^^ -

one, for the masses of ice to the north, never very far
distant and always ready to close down with a strong
wind, protect the coast from such tremendous surges as
batter Labrador with the gathered momentum of 2000
miles of ocean.

North of the continent is the immense Arctic archi-
pelago, forming part of the Dominion and included in the
provisional district of Franklin, laid down on the maps
under various names — the more northern islands as the
Parry Islands, and those nearest the coast as Banks Land,
Prince Albert Land, Wollaston Land, Victoria Land, King
William Land, Prince of Wales Land, North Somerset.
These two groups of islands are separated by a continuous
broad passage called, in succession from the west, M'Clure
Strait, Melville Sound, Barrow Strait, and Lane ster Sound,
which last opens into Bafthi liay. South from Barrow
Strait Prince Eegent Inlet leads into the far-reaching
Gulf of Boothia down to Bae's Isthmus, only 40 miles
across to Hudson's Bay. An almost continuous chain of
lakes extends across this isthmus and Itarely fails to cut
oft' ]\Ielville Peninsula from the mainland. Half wav
down the Gulf of Boothia, and precisely at 70° nortli
latitude. Fury and Hecla Strait leads into Fox Channel of
Hudson's Bay. An immense unexplored territory lies
north of Hudson's Strait, undefined on its western coast
upon the Gulf of Boothia and Fox Channel. It extends
on the north to Lancaster Sound, and is bounded on the
east by Davis Strait and Battin Bay. Although of late
years the name Baffin Land has l)een extended over the
whole region, it is laid down on the maps under various
names, as Meta Incognita, Fox Land, Baffin Land, Cock-
burn Land. North of all these, and stretching up toward
the North Pole, are the lands upon the western shores of
Smith Sound, Keimedy Channel, Hall Basin, and Kobe-

ARCTIC CANADA

587

son Channel, leading to the raheocrystic Sea of Xares's
expedition. These lands are named Ellesmere Land and
Grinnell Land. In their rear is the absolutely unknown.
In Xares's expedition of IcSTo-TO Lieutenant Aldricli con-
ducted a sledging party along the northern edge of this
awful desolation as far as long. H(j° W. and lat. 82° 16'.
The point he reached he called Cape Alfred Ernest ; it is
220 miles further than any previous explorer had attained.
Near the coast he saw a range of mountains 1000 to 5000
feet high, which are called the Challenger mountains.
These mountains, then, are the nortliernmost part of
Canada.

A glance at the ma}) will show tliat only along
the eastci. half of the northern coast of the mainland
have islands or lands to the north been discovered.
From long. 125°, near Cape Ijathurst, westward to the
longitude of Behring Strait no land has been seen. An
impenetrable ice pack has prevented all discovery. This
region is called on the Admiralty cluirts Beaufort Sea,
and it is as impenetrable from the east, l)y way of Lancaster
Sound, as it is from tho south, by way of liehring Strait.
Parry in 1819 found die western end of Banks (M'Clure)
Strait blocked up with ice of ftir greater thickness than
lie had ever met before. It was from 40 to 100 feet
thick, and, after narrowly escaping the loss of his ships,
he was compelled to return.

The ice of the Polar Sea north of xVmerica is more
formidable than that in tlie Spitzbergen Sea. It is pro-
bably entangled in an archipelago exti 'ing far to the
north. It does not consist of bergs, the product of
glaciers, but of imnjense fields of hard, blue ice, some-
times four miles in diameter, with hummocks twenty to
forty feet high and welded by the winds into packs of
immense extent. In this way the polar ice pack pro-

i >'i''

588

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

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bably extends over all the Arctic S'^a, opening out in
sunnuer more or less into lanes or areas of open water
as the detached packs are separated or .^.losed up by the
intiuenees of winds or currents.

A current of warmer water, corresponding to the ex-
treme northern branch of the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic,
tiows northwards through IJehrinrj Strait at the mte oi'
two miles an hour. The influence of the earth's rotation
give it also an eastern direction, so that while Kotzeljue
and Xorton Sounds on the American coast are full ol'
drift wood there is none on the Asiatic side, and while
the water at Prince of A\"ales Cape in America may be
53" that on East Cape in Asia will be o5". Although
this north-easterly current is impeded by the long chain
of the Aleutian Islands and the narrowness of the straii.
it curves into Behring Sea by the wider opening on tlu'
west and follows the trend of the American coast, and i>
the cause of a well-ascertained current eastward in the
Arctic Sea.

The outlets for the heavy ice in the Polar Sea — the
paliL'Ocrystic sea of Xares, and the dense pack encountered
by Parry — the sea of ancient ice as it is sometimes called.
are small on both sides of the American continent.
Behring Strait is verv shallow. Over its whole extent
there is an even depth of only 19|- fathoms. On the east.
llobeson Channel and Lancaster Sound are insutticienl
outlets for so wide an area of ice, and the strait intn
Hudson's Bay is very narrow, so that the portion of the
Arctic Ocean under consideration is a basin for the ac-
cumulation of ice which does not drift away to warmoi
latitudes but decreases chieflv bv melting in sunnuer and
by evaporation. There are doubtless many local condi-
tions affecting the tides of the polar sea. Parry records
a tide of 2 feet 7 inches at Winter Harbour on Melville

ARCTIC CANADA

589

Tf
I'lii!

Island, l)ut^ at Point Barrow it is only 0"7 feet. Franklin

oliserved 2 feet at the inoutli of the ^Mackenzie, but only

10 inches at Cape Simpson. Dease noticed 15 inches

and, at the mouth (jf Back river, 12 inches. At the

nioutli of the Coppermine river it was 20 inches. In

other places it was scarcely noticeable. The influence of

the tide in breaking up large masses of ice is enormous,

and where the movement of the tides is so feeble it is not

surprising that the ice presents such an impenetrable

barrier to a north-west ])assage. There is, however, a

tide, impeded though it l)e by the shape of the coast,

h'om each ocean, and the tidal waves from east and west

would seem to meet about the end of M'Clure Strait,

which may explain tlie impenetrable pack found there by

all explorers from Parry down. The general set of the

currents is eastward, for the liesolutc drifted east from

this region out of Lancaster Sound. It would therefore

seem to be the fact tliat this current eastward from

Hehring Sea controls the movement of the permanent

j)ack north of the American continent, and packs the ice

in the lieaufort Sea, so that while 83° 24' N. has been

reached l)y way of Smith Sound, and 8G° 14' X. lat. by

the Spitzbergen Sea, the parallel of '< 4° N. has not been

iittained north of the western part of the American

continent.

In the sunnner, when the long Arctic day loosens the
grip of the ice-pack upon the coast, tlie intiuence of the
warmer water of the Pacific current prevails along the
shore, and this is aided by the Hush of the melting ice
ill the great Mackenzie river, and by the drainage of the
whole Arctic watershed. These inHuences condnne witli
jirevailing southerly winds to move the ice-pack away from
I he coast and create a passage of navigable water for a
greater or lesser breadth along the shore. Captain Collinson

W:\

590

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

F>)i

'n t

sailed along this in 1852 as far as Cam'. ridge Bay at
105° W., and Sir .lohn Franklin, in his last expedition,
i thought the Erehus and Terror as far as 98° 41' W., both
points being close to the latitude of 69° N., so that, on
that parallel, the north-west passage has been made by
sea excepting a gap of about 150 miles. It may be con-
ceived as possible that, under exceptionally favourable
circumstances, a steam vessel might follow Franklin's
track and get through this gap into the water off the
continental shore, and so pass through by Collinson's track
westward to Behring Strait. The ice to the west of
Melville Sound on the parallel of 75° is reported by Parry
and all subse(iuent explorers to be compact and innnovable,
and unaffected by the east wind, therefore the north-west
passage, if ever made, will doubtless be along the coast
of the continent.

The width of the open lane of water off the coast is
very uncertain and depends upon the wind. The pack
may be out of sight to the north, and on a change of wind
might close down on the shore, or the wind might clear
away one prominent headland and block another. The
pack is seldom ffir away, and for the most part of the
year the southern edge extends in an arch from I'oinl
Barrow to Cape North in Siberia. The season for navi-
gating the Polar Sea off the mouth of the Macken;^ie is
from the beginning of July to the middle of Septeiidjer.
at which time the young ice l)egins to form.

The l*olar ocean has been shown to be very shallow,
so far as known, on the American side. In 1850 the
Enterprise followed up a lead in the pack for 100 miles
north of Point Barrow, and found only 45 fathoms. The
most frequent depths recorded range from 15 to oO
fathoms, and although places have been reported where
no bottom was found at GO and even at 140 fatlioms.

ARCTIC CANADA

the soundings indicate a very shallow sea with a muddy
bottom.

liobeson Channel also, leading into Smith Sounci, is
very shallow, so tliat a fall in the ocean level of 100
fathoms would certainly make an inclosed basin of the
Arctic Ocean, or rather a basin opening only on the
Spitzbergen side upon a very deep ocean.

The soundiugs otf the Siberian coast as far as known
are also shallow. The di'ainage of half of North America
and Asia pours into the Arctic basin on that side, and
the main overflow from the circumpolar ocean is into
the deep Spitzljergen Sea, and thence Ijy the current to
the south-west on the eastern side of Greenland. Xansen's
observations confirm this, and tend to establish the belief
that the permanent ice-pack which is entangled amoaig
islands north of the American continent in a compara-
tively shallow ocean breaks away into Spitzbergen Sea
and flows south by the Greenland current. The current
which carried Nansen to the north-west would l)e the
return of the Gulf Stream, its eastward momentum being
exhausted, in the overflow, which becomes a south-west
current along the Greenland coast.

It was observed by IJeechey, in the li/nssom, as early
as 1820, and was laid down by Parry as a canon in
Arctic navigation, that the margins of ice-packs l)etween
America and Asia, and Europe and Greenland, lie as
nearly as possible in the same direction, viz., south-west
and north-east, and that therefore navigation on the
western shore is impeded by ice to a much lower latitude
than on the eastern. This seems to be only another
illustrati(m of the effect of the earth's rotation upon float-
ing matter passing from a zone of slowei' to one of swifter
rotation, and it has been already noticed in a preceding
chapter on the Arctic current. Hence it has iu)w

592

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPIIY AND TRAVEL

ml •ill

MM
3-

become a inaxiiii of Arctic navigation to creep up north
along the eastern side of an ice-paek.

lietnrning now to the continental shore at the western-
most point of Canada — the coast of Alaska west of 141''
W. (Demarcation Point) has l)een described also as low,
with low clift's of frozen clay and sand. Point J3arrow
m Alaska is low, and the northern ice-pack rests against
it for the greater part of the year. Not far inland a
chain of mountains of moderate height follows ihe outline
of the coasi. Eastwards of Point Parrow the coast is
also low. At Herschell Island, where the coast conmieiices
to trend to the south-east to form ^Mackenzie Bay, is an
excellent harbour with good anchorage suita1)le for a
winter harbour, and the best shelter-harbour along the
whole extent of the Arctic coast.

Mackenzie Bay is 160 miles across from headland to
headland, with an average depth of 25 fathoms. Into it
the river Mackenzie discharges with a great volume
through an innnense and complex delta. This river with
its valley forms the subject of a separate chc'ipter. It is
not an Arctic river, for under different names its navig-
able waters extend for 2000 miles southwards into the
heart of the continent.

Eastwards along the Arctic shore frcjni the mouth of
the river the coast is still low, consisting of soft rocks of
the Cretaceous formation. At Cape Parry is an interrup-
tion of Devonian limestone, from whence a long stretch
of Candjrian rocks follow along the coast to the eastern
end of Coronation Gulf, and Dease's Strait, excepting Cape
Harrow, which is Laurentian. This part of the coast is
bold and high. The Coppermine river falls into Corona-
tion Gulf, and in the interior are the Copper Mountains,
wliich abound in ores of green malachite and in native
copper. This region was discovered l)y Hearne in 1771,

ARCTIC CANADA

593

who was led tliither l;)y the re])orts of the Eskimo and
the specimens of native copper they showed. Cape
J>aiTow is tlie apex of a Laurentian area project' ng into
the Cambrian, an* I is a cliff IHOO feet high.

The Barren Grounds

]>ehind all these coast areas of later rock lies the mass
of crystallijie rock forming the core of the continent.
From the eastern end of Dease's Strait and eastwards to
the Atlantic the Laurentian comes out upon the coast.
The great promontories of Boothia and of Melville penin-
sula are, so far as icnown, of this formati(jn, excepting a
few small detached areas of fSilurian or Devonian. The
coast along the Polar Ocean is nearly in its whole length
low and rocky. It is the northern shore of the ]>arren
(^rounds — a region sacred to the musk-ox and reindeer.
Jjack's, or the ( Ireat Fish, river flows through it. Like the
Coppermine, the only other large river t)f this part of
Canada, it flows through a region of low tund)led hills
and of morasses and lakes, with rapids and rocks which
render it unnavigable. On Montreal Island, at the mouth
of this river of desolation, the tragedy of the last Franklin
expedition closed — the last survivors of the retreating
party led by Crozier and Fitzjames drojjped dead of
hunger one by one in their tracks, and the ice and dark-
ness concealed their fate during many weary years of
heroic effort for their relief and of search for their traces.

The Archipelago

As before observe?!, north of the continental mass lies
a great archipelago, the most northern range of which is
called after Tarry, who discovered it. All these islands

.94

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPIIY' AND TKAVEL

■ i , .

consist geologically of late formations from Silurian to
Carboniferous, and oji the western sides of ]>ii.nks Land
and Prince I'atrick Land, Miocene fossils liave l^een
found. All along the coasts of Melville Sound and
M'Clure Strait, at the very knot of the north-west
passage, are abundant deposits of bituminous coal close
to the great barrier of innnovable ice which shut out the
adventurous I'arry from I'arther progress. Fragments of
coal may be picked up along tlie continental coast
westwards as far as Icy Cape, and the Eskimo often use
it lor making lip ornaments as well as for making fires.

On the Atlantic side IJaftin Land is for the most ])art
Laurentian, and Laurentian rocks continue from Hudson's
Strait along the coast of Batlin Bay and Smith Sound.
In (Irinnell Land there is a large mass of Cambrian rocks
stretching up along liobeson Channel to the I'akcocrystic
sea.

The coasts of these far-northern islands are higli and
often precipitous. Tarry wintered on ]\Ielville Island
and kept his crews in good health. Ho descr'bes tlie
soil as rich, and, in the short summer, vegetation was
abundant. Game was plentiful — nmsk-ox, reindeer,
hares, grouse, geese, ducks, and ptarmigan were abundant.
Collinson found ptarmigan plentiful at Cambridge Bay,
where he wintered in 1852-00, and there were deer in
large herds crossing on the ice to the mainland. From
the records of Arctic voyages it would seem that the cold
is not so great on the islands as on the mainland.

Stern and re])ellant though nature may be in these
far-nor*' a latitudes, the Arctic seas have yet a life of
their own. There the great marine animals increase
and multiply unmolested — whales, walruses, and seals.
Trout and salmon are in the streams and lakes, on
the land are mui'v-oxen and reindeer, and on the bays

I I

ARCTIC CANADA

59."

laul.

IV 111

Col

and inland waters ducks and geese innumerable in their
season find their l)reeding- places. The seal is to the
Eskimo what the hull'alo was to the Indiiin. of the
prairies, and upon its hit and ilesh he is ahundantlj'
nourished.

It would seem, however, that these creatures are
uncertain in their migrations, for in the region where
Crozier perished of Imnger Simpson had found al)undance
of game. Whaling-ships are now })ressiiig in from
Behring Strait on the west and up into Fox Channel from
Hudson's ]>ay on the east, and witli l)omb- lances are
destroying and frightening away the timid monsters into
the farthest north. Nothing can escape the wasteful
activity of civilised man witli liis scientific weapons of
destruction.

The Eskimo

Nor are these regions without human iidiabitants.
From Arctic Siberia to Labrador and Oreenlund, alou!*-
5000 miles of coast wander that interesting race known
in tlie language of their Indian enemies as Eskimo, or
raw-meat eaters, but in their own tongue as Innuits or
Iniman beings. This peoi)le s[)eaks 1)ut one language
over all its wide extent of dispersion, so that a CJreenhmd
Eskimo will serve as interpreter to his ])eople on
Hudson's 15ay or the Siberian coast. From hit. C0° N.
to the farthest north yet reached scattered families liave
been met, clhiging with filfection to tho'w icy coasts, and
living in ai)parent plenty, as tlieir sturdy and podgy
figures testify, in spite of the terrible cold. I'arry found
their huts on Melville Island and on r>v%am Martin's
Island, and speaks well of the peaceful disposition of
those he met. He says their voices are soft, and tlusy
are fond of singing and drawing. They have generally

mil

■If III

f' J!

['. V,

590

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TltAVEL

])een ready to assist ratlier than molest Arctic expedi-
tions. They have excellent notions of geography, and
when pencil and paper were supplied they would draw
maps which have been of great use to explorers. Where
the Moravian missionaries on the Labrador coast have
gathered them in communities, they delight -to sing
liynnis translated into their own tongue by the devoted
bre<^liren. A brave and kindly people, they wrest their
subsistence from nature in her most stern and cruel
moods, navigating in skin canoes the storndest seas, and
OA ' .oming, with tlieir prinntive weapons of bone, the
great monsters — whales, polar bears, walruses, seals —
on which they live. They have learned to support
themselves under circumstances which have compelled
many explorers to succumb though aided by all the
resources of civilisation. They are not cleanly, and
washing is unknown, for the intense cold burns the
exposed skin like lire ; but people who can Hourish in
such a climate cannot want for intelligence, and as for
morality they have not much to learn from civilisation.
In stature they are not over middle height, they are
strong and active, their hands and feet are small, their
noses are flat, and their cheeks are fat and projecting.
They are tremendous eaters, and delight in whale blubber
and the fatty flesh of seals, which they do not require to
cook. Altogether, then, though in intellect, morals, good
nature, and courage these Eskimo are not to be despised,
their habits with regard to cooking and cleanliness are
not by any means worthy of commendation.

Present Divisions

In the year 1895 the Canadian Government divided
up and named all the unorganised territory on the nortli

AKCTIC CAN AD \

59'

and west. The Arrtic aRliipelago with the projecting
peuinsuhis and all the regions of the uttermost nortli
were named Franllin, in memory of tlie gallant and
gentle sailor who perished in its wastes. Those uninviting
and dreary regions of Arctic Canada will ever he classic
for the deeds of devotion and heroism which have been
wrouglit there. Three distinct problems have been
attempted in that perilous land — the search for the north-
west passage, the quest to learn the fate of Sir John
Franklin, and the struggle to reach the uttermost pole.
The two first are solved, the last is still the passion of
the nations of the English, Scandinavian, and Oerman
races — the knight-errantry of practical mercantile people.

Arctic Exploration

The efforts to solve tliese problems by way of
Hudson's Bay are noticed in another chapter, and a short
sketch of the chief attempts made in other directions
along the northern coast is necessary in any account
<jf Arctic Canada.

The search for the north-west passage was resumed
in 1818, when the Admiralty sent an expedition under
Captain John lioss with the Isahclla and Alexander.
His highest point was 76° 54', not so far as IJallin had
attained (77° 45') in 1016; but he hastily concluded
there was no opening to the nortli, and, turning, he
coasted along the west side of ] Baffin Bay to Lancaster
Sound, which he attempted to penetrate. There he was
on the threshold of the north-west ]\assage ; but on
sailing up for fifty iniles his farther progress was arrested
by ice, and he fancied lie saw a range of mountains
closing in round the head of what lie rashly assumed to
l)e a bay. He named these cloud mountains the Croker

598

COMPENDIUM OF (JEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

]\Iountains, and returned home, to the great disappointment
of the Admiralty and of Lieutenant I'arry in charge of
the Alexander, his second in command. The next year
Parry was sent witli the Heela and Griper. He sailed
through Lancaster Sound, through Barrow Strait, through
Melville Sound, into M'Clure Strait, and discovered the
islands on the north since called the Parry Islands, and
Cockburn, Prince of AYales, and Banks Lands on the
south. He wintered at Winter Harbour, on the south-
east coast of Melville Island, whence he explored the
adjacent country ])y sledging parties. The following
sunnner he vainly endeavoured to penetrate the barrier
of innnovable ice which closed in M'Clure Strait, but
the farthest point attained was 114° west longitude.
After narrowly escaping the loss of both ships in the
ice, he returned to England, where he was received with
enthusiasm.

Parry's second expedition in 1821 was an attempt
to flank the impenetrable ice-pack by the south. He
made the attempt by Hudson's Bay, as related in another
chapter. In 1824 he sailed again with the Heclct and
Fury, and he entered by Lancaster Sound and sought to
turn the flank of the ice-pack by passing to the south
through Prince liegent Inlet, but the conditions of the
season were against him. He wintered at Port Bowen,
not as far west as he had sailed on his first voyage, and the
following summer, after protracted struggles with storm
and ice, he lost the Fury on Fury Point in Prince liegent
Inlet and returned home in the Heclct in 1825. This
closed Parry's efforts on the American side of the Arctic
sea.

Eoss, who chafed under his failure of 1819, again
took up the quest, and, in 1829, he led an expedition in
a paddle -steamship — the Victory — despatched at the

ARCTIC CANADA

509

expense of the Sheriff of London, Fehx Tiootli. He passed
five years in tlie Arctic regions, and was most successful,
not only in keeping his crew in health, but in making
important discoveries. He lost his vessel, and, after
un[)ai-alleled experiences, he feP in with the whaling ship
Imhc/la and returned home. He, with his nephew James
Jioss, by sledging p.u'ties discovered the Magnetic Pole
on the west coast of lioothia, he also discovered Franklin
Strait and King William Land, and followed round the
whole coast of JJoothia and North Somerset but failed to
notice liellot Strait, lloss's operations were in fact
around a spot close to the very key of the north-west
passage, at the termination of Simpson's discoveries by
land, and not far from the point wliere the crew of the
last Franklin expedition abandoned their ships. He
explored at the abrupt elbow where the long series of
straits and sounds after following the coast eastwards
impinge upon the peninsida of Boothia, which projects
at a right angle northwards, lioss found the temperature
ranging from —31° to —40°, and occasionally as low as
— 44° and — 55". This was lower than anything recorded
by Parry.

In the meanwhile the Admiralty resolved upon con-
necting the discoveries of Samuel Hearne and Alexander
]\Iackenzie upon the xVrctic coast, if haply the desired
])a3sage might be found along the shore of the ocean
they had seen. In 1819 Franklin was despatched on his
first expedition, and then commenced the series of explora-
tions which delimited the northern coast of the continent
and the Arctic shores of the Canadian territories recently
called Mackenzie and Keewatin. It will be remend)ered
that Hearne was the first to reach the Polar Ocean at the
mouth of the Coppermine in 1771, and Mackenzie had
subsequently reached it in 1798 at the mouth of the

600

COMI'KNDIUM OF GEOUHAl'IIY AND TICAVEL

^Mackenzie. Captain Cook had in 1778 passed through
Beiiring Strait and coasted as far eastwards as Icy Cape,
and now these three points on tlie Arctic coast were to
be connected link by link with the Atlantic.

Under orders from the Admiralty, Franklin left England
in May, 1819, and went by way of Hudson's Bay, York
Factory, and Norway House to Cumberland House on the
North Saskatchewan. From thence he went in January,
1820, by snow-shoes and sledges to Fort Chii)ewyan on
Lake Athabasca. In July he went on to Great Slave L .ke,
to old Fort Providence, a post of the North-west Company,
and from thence he went up the Yellowknife river 156
miles, where he built a house at AVinter Lake and called
it Fort Enterprise, and there he had to remain nine months
to collect provisions and procure guides. In June, 1821,
the expedition started for the Polar Sea, Dr. liichardson
in charge of the first party, and Franklin a week later with
the rest. They followed down the Coppermine river, 450
miles, to its mouth, and coasted along the shore of the
Arctic Sea for 038 miles eastwards. He traced the coast
of Coronation Gulf and of P>athurst Inlet to I'oint Tarna-
gain, near Cape Flinders, in 109° 25' W., retui'ning by
way of Hood river to Fort Enterprise, which he reached
after great privations. In July, 1822, he reached York
Factory on his return.

In 182 5 Franklin led a second expedition, but by way
of Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg to Cumberland
House. Thence he proceeded to Lake Athabasca and
down the Mackenzie river to the Polar Sea. Returning
thence, he established his headquarters at Fort Franklin,
wliich he built at the outlet of Great Bear Lake. During
tlie sunnner Dr. liichardson surveyed Great Bear Lake.
In June of 1826 Franklin went down the Mackenzie
through the most westerly channel to the sea, and turning

ARCTIC CANADA

GOl

■' ]

west surveyed the coast fur 374 miles as far as lleturn
lieef. The plan of the western expedition was that
Franklin was to push on westward to liehring Strait,
where Captain IJeechey in H.]\I.S. BloxMmi was to await
him. lieeehey, remaining in the Blosmm in Kotzebue
Sound, sent Elson in a barge along the coast, who suc-
ceeded in reaching l*oint IJarrow at the very time Franklin
was at Eeturn Iteef. Only IGO miles then remaineu to
be discovered west of the Mackenzie.

AVhile Franklin was thus coasting tothewest,llicliardson
started eastwards with two boats down the eastern branch
of the Mackenzie delta. He coasted 8G3 miles to the
mouth of the Coppernune river, and thus connected his
survey with that of Franklin's first voyage. He passed
through a strait named after his boats IJolphin and Union
Strait, and discovered a land to the north which he called
Wollaston Land. The strait was i)acked with ice. He
returned l)y a shorter way overland to the north-east
angle of Great Bear Lake, and thence to head(puirters at
Fort Franklin at its outlet, a distance of 433 miles. This
closed the second Franklin expediticju.

In the meanwhile Eoss had been innnured in the Polar
legions since 1829 and nothing had Ijeen heard of liim.
Captain IJack, li.N., was despatched, by public sul)scription,
in the winter of 1832-33 to relieve him or ascertain his
fate. He went by way of Montreal along the usual north-
west route to Great Slave Lake, and starting from Fort
Iiesolution traced his way to Great Fish river, which he
heard of from Eichardson, who had heard of it from
Eskimo and Indian reports. This river he discovered, and
it is sometimes caHed ])ack's river. It was too late in
the season to proceed, so he returned to Fort lieliance,
which he had built at the extreme north-east point of
Great Slave Lake. Although he heard here of the safe

G02

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL

return of Eoss, he was anxious to bring back some fruits
of his expedition, and he went down the Crreat Fisli river
and reached Montreal Island at its mouth. Back dis-
coN'ered the land across the ice-encuml jered strait and
named it King AVilliam Land. He returned in 181)4.

lo the west, then, only 163 miles, from J'eturn I'eef
to Point Barrow, remained unknown ; but east of the
]\Iackenzie were two long gaps — one from Point Tarn-
again of Franklin's first expedition to the mouth of
Back's river, and the other from the discoveries of Boss
at tlie southern angle of ])Oothia and tlie main coast,
to the explorations of l*arry from Bepulse Bay in
Hudson's Bay. A small extent of coast, between Cape
Britannia, at the mouth of Back's river, and Boss's
sledging exploration to King William Land, also remained
undiscovered. These points were connected by ollicers
of the Hudson's Bay ( ompany.

It should be stated once for all I hot on these
expeditions officers of tlie Hudson's Bay Com})any had
co-operated with the conuuanders whose names are given ;
but now the company t(.)ok the matter up, and B. AV.
Dease and Thomas Simpson, two of its officers, com-
pleted the discovery of the Arctic coast. They started
from Fort C'hipewyan, at the outlet of Athabasca Lake,
and on July i), 1S37, reached tlie nioutii of thr
Mackenzie. They started westwards in boats; but
about ilO miles east of Point Barrow tliey found tlie
ice-pack hard down on the coast. There Dease remained
with the boats, and Simpson and five men proceeded oii
foot on August 1 ; and on August 4, 1837, just <iO
years ago, the discovery of the north coast of America
west of the Mackenzie was accomplished. Simitsou
reached I'oint Barrow, which Elson of the Blossom had
reached from Behriiig Strait in 1820.

ARCTIC CAXVDA

603

These intrepid and skillul explorers on their return
estal)lished themselves at Fort Confidence, which they
built at the discliarge of Dease river into the north-west
a?igle of Gieat IJear Lake, where, by 1 muting and fishing,
tliey supported their party and collected food for their
journeys eastward during the two following years.

In 1823 they startt ' on June 7, with l)oats up
the Dease river, and hauling them on sledges, passed the
lieight of land into the Coppermine, and arrived at the
sea on July 1. Tliey found Coronation Gulf full of ice,
and, with great difliculty, reached Cape Flinders on
August 9. Finding that the boats could go no farther,
Simpson landed and proceeded eastwards as far as Cape
Alexander, where he discovered land to the north, which
he named Victoria Land, but which was a continuation
of "VVollaston Land, previously discovered by Eichardson.
Leturning, they coasted King AVilliam Land and Victoria
Land, and named Wellington and Cambridge ]5ays, tlien
crossed to the south, ascended the Coppermine, and
reached Fort Confidence on September 24. This was
the most remarkable series of discoveries made on the
Arctic coast.

Little now remained to be discovered, and tliat was
completed by Dr. llae of the Hudson's Bay Company in
1840, from llepulse IViy in Hudson's IJay as a base.
That remarkable explorer was connnander, astron<jmer,
and naturalist in one, ad(*led to which Lis skill as a
liunter and iisherman was the main sui)port of his small
}iiirty. (ruided by maps drawn by Fskimo, lie crossed
the istluuiis of ]\relviUe peninsuhi (a distance of only 40
miles, covered by an almost continuous chain of lakes,
with only twelve miles of portages) and reached the tide
water at Committee Lay of the (lulf of Loothia. After
explorations on both sides of Cttmmittee r)ay, he returned

604

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

to Fort Hope on Repulse Bay, where he wintered. In
April, 1847, he started with dogs and sledges, and on
April 16, lie completed the survey of the northern
coast of the continent by reaching Lord Mayor's Bay
(discovered by Sir James lioss), and surveying the lower
part of tlie Gulf of Boothia up to Fury and Hecla Strait
of Parry.

Thus was North America finally discovered along its
northern shores. It does not fall w^ithin these pages to
recount the weary search for Sir John Franklin, a long
Odyssey of heroism and endurance. The north-west
passage was in truth found. Dease and Simpson found
it ; Eae found it ; and Crozier had found it, w^hen he
dropped dead in his tracks at the mouth of Back's river.
Very nearly was it achieved by sea, for Collinson, in his
wonderful voyage in the Entciyrise, followed the American
coast from Behring Strait as far as Cambridge Bay,
at the eastern end of Dease's Strait, within 150 miles of
the place where the Erdms and Terror were abandoned.
One party alone made the passage — M'Clure and his
crew of the Invcstif/afor, abandoning their ship in the
ice-pack in Bay of Mercy, at the western end of Melville
Sound, crossed over the ice to Captain Kellet's vessel, the
licsolnte, in the ice-pack at the western end ; both shi})S
had to be abandoned, and the crews of five vessels reached
England in the North Star in 1853.

And now a few words must be given to Sir John
Franklin's last expedition, the tragedy which wull ever
add interest to the northern coasts of Canada. On ]\hiy
20, 1845, he sailed with the Erebus and I'error. It
had been ascertained by Pease and Simpson that con-
tinuous water connnunication existed along the coast of
America. Franklin entered by Lancaster Sound, and
finding Barrow Strait blocked, passed up Wellington

ARCTIC CANADA

605

Channel to Grinnell Island, and south between Bathiirst
and Cornwallis Island. The following year he sailed
south for the water along the coast, and on September
12, 1846, both ships were beset in Victoria Strait,
twelve miles north of King William Land. On June
11, 1847, Franklin died, and the command devolved
on Captain Crozier. The ice-pack did not relax, and on
April 22, 1848, the ships were deserted, and Crozier
with 104 men landed at Victory Point on King William
Land to go to the mouth of the Great Fish river, 250
miles distant. Every mile of their course was traced by
the pious zeal of search parties. Worn by disease and
starvation, they followed down the west coast of King
William Land, dropping by tlie way until at Montreal
Island, at the mouth of the river, the last trace disappears.
Some forty men were reported by the Eskimo to have
reached that far, and the traces of their having a Ijoat
were seen. There they must have died of starvation,
but the secret of their last sufferings and death will ever
remain unrevealed.

CHAPTEE XX

THE HUDSON S BAY BASIX

The Bay

One of the most striking features of the map of British
North America is Hudson's ])ay — an inmiense navigal)le
inland sea, extending half-way across the continent at
its widest part, and bounding upon the north the settled
provinces of the Dominion of Canada through thirty
degrees of longitude ; a distance as great as from London
to St. Petersburg. Although Hudson's Bay has been
known and continuously navigated sinco 1610, two years
only after the foundation of (Quebec, and altliougli for U\o
hundred and thirty years Europeans have resided at points
far within its recesses, the nature of the climate and the
duration of the season of navigation are still moot
questions in Canada, and widely divergent views are
confidently advocated concerning them.

Hudson's ]iay and Strait extend from Go" to 95° west
longitude, a width of IO08 miles, and from the extreme
head of James Bay on tlie south to the Fury and Heel.i
Strait on the north is a distance of thirteen hundred miles,
or nineteen degrees of latitude. It is not then a l»ay <»t'
the Atlantic Ocean alone, l)ecause through Fox Chainiel
and Fury and Hecla Strait it opens into the Arctic Sea,
and, in considering the physical conditions of the bay, it

THE HUDSON S BAY BASIN

G07

is always necessary to bear in mind that there is an

opening on the north in latitnde 70" down which the

polar ice may pass to find an ontlet into the Atlantic in

latitude 60° through Hudson's Strait. If, however, the

name be taken in its narrowest sense, and James ]5ay.

Fox Channel, and Hudson's Strait l)e excluded, Hudson's

Bay is almost square, l)eing GOO miles from north to

south, by 590 miles from east to west. In nnjst books

James Bay (350 miles long) is taken into the calculation,

and in round numbers the dinuinsions of Hudson's I)ay

are stated to be 1000 miles from north to south and GOO

miles from east to west. The area is aj^proximately

given as 500,000 square miles. In the bay proper the

depth of water is very uniform, averaging 70 fathoms,

excepting near the strait, where it deepens to 100

fathoms. James J>ay is, however, very shallow through-

tait, and even small vessels cannot approach the shore.

There is a wide channel down tlie centre leading to

Moose Factory, lait l)eyond the central channel, in many

places out of sight of land, the bottom may l)e touched

Ijy an oar from a small boat, and even the main ]>ay

along the southern shore is also shallow for a long

distance out ; so that, from Cape Jones around the whole

southern sweep of the shore, there is not a harbour worthy

of the name until the excellent harl)Our of Churchill is

reached upon the western coast. The water of James Bay

is l)rackish, for a numljer of iuiportant rivers converge int(j

it from the east and soutji and west, and tlie bottom is

muddy, whereas in Hudson's Bay proper the water is as

bright and as salt as in the main ocean. An elevation of

GOO feet would convert the wli<»le area into an immense

li'vel plain. Tiie tklal wave enters at tlie strait and first

;-trikes the western shcn'c. It rises 11 to 12 feet au

Churchill, and in the converging shores of tlie estuary of

COS

COMTENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND THAVEL

Bu i

H «!

'•if i

the Nelson river it rises 15 feet, but ns the tide jiasses
round the coast to the south and east it becomes h»wer.
It is only 9 feet at Moose Factory, and lower still on the
East Main.

The Coast

At Cape Wolstenholnie, the inner point of the south
shore of the strait, the land is very high and steep, rising
to nearly 2000 feet; Ijut, turning southwards, it (piiekly
falls to a low and level coast, and so continues as far as
Cape Dufferin. There the character of the land changes
and becomes high and bold, rising often as high as 100<>
feet, until CJreat AVhale river is reached — almost as far
south as Cape Jones. This portion of the coast is known
l»y the general name of the East Main. From Cape
Jones all round James IJay the coast is very low and the
land level, sloping upwards very gradually to the water-
jiarting which bounds on the north the basin of the St.
Lawrence system. Tlie coast continues low and the
land level all along the south and south-west side of
Hudson's ])av. On the western coast it becomes rockv
and bolder at Churchill, l)ut though not so low as on
the south, the coast cannot be called high as far north as
Chesterfield Inlet. The whole area round the Itay may
thus be generally described as an immense shallow basin,
in the centre of which is a sea with a uniform depth not
exceeding 70 to 100 fathoms.

The centre and west of the main bay is singularly
free from islands, rocks, or shoals. From the inner ter-
mination of the strait to Churchill navigation is clear
and unimpeded by any nautical danger. The whole
stretch of the eastern coast is, however, fringed with
innumerable islets close to the shore, and farther out, at
a distance varying from 70 to 100 miles, is a chain of

THE HUDSON S BAY BASIN

009

siiiiill islands in groups muler various names — the Ottawa
Islands, the Sleepi'rs, the IJelchers — extending from the
strait to the soutliernmost point of tlie whole hay.
Among these islands frin5>in<i' tlu' holder coast of the
East Main there may he harhours, hut otherwise, except-
ing Churchill, there is no harbour in the hay. IMK.nigh
the centre and west is thus clear, the jtrolongations of
the hay contain many islands. The north side of the
hay is shut in by an archipelago; there are a nund)er of
islands in the strait and also in James Bay.

The Hudson's IJay Comi)any have posts at the mouths
of all the chief rivers, hut, as before stated, at Churchill
alone is there a harbour which may be connected by rail
with the settled parts of Canada, and availal)le for large
ships. There the Churchill river empties by a dee]»
(istuary into the l»ay with a narrow opening seawards and
bold rockv shores. Tt is an easv harl)0ur for sliii)S to
make, being well marked, and is sheltered fi'om all winds.
The anchorage is good and there is a de])th of thirty feet
of water within, so that it mny be considered in all re-
spects as admirably suited for the largest vessels. Other
harl)ours there no doubt are, at ]\Iarl)le Island, where the
whalers winter, and in Chesteriield Inlet, l)ut they are
too far north to be of ])ractical commercial use.

Tiie most important post of the Hudson's Way Coni-
]»any is, and has always been, at York Factory, on the
Hayes riven' near the mouth of the Nelson river, the
largest river which falls ijito the bay. At this jioint the
Winnipeg l)asin discharges into Hudson's Bay, and it is
the point of connnunication with the whole network of
waterways to the IJocky ^Mountains and the valley of the
Mackenzie river. '•'There is practically no harlxmr at
Y'ork, l)Ut a roadstead, and alxmt seven miles from the
fort there is good anchorage at a i)lace called Five Fathom

2 u

u yi ^

CIO

COMl'EXDIUM OF CiEOGKArilV AND TRAVEL

Hole, ^vlle^e large ships may safely lie ; but vessels draw-
ing more than twelve feet cannot go up to tlie fort, for
at low tide there is not more tlian twelve feet in the
channel of the Hayes "river. C>ther chief posts of the
company are Fort Albany, ]\Ioose Factory, and liupert's
House, at the mouths of the rivers of the same name.

NOUWAY HOL'SE-

Ilr. Hill, Phuto.

A TYi'ifAL Hudson's hay i-ost.

These are very large rivers, and they drain a territory
extending from Labrador on the east to Lake Superior
on the west, but as they converge into the shallow James
Bay, no vessels of any size can approach them. Charlton
Island is the only roadstead in James Bay, and all ships
go there ; from thence the navigation is very intricate to
Moose F'actory, and goods are transhipped into smaller
vessels or boats.

Drainage Basin

This enormous inland ocean is the basin into which
an area of three millions of square miles is drained, for

THE HUDSON S HAY BASIX

Gil

inert
Itou

iil>s
to

Her

lueh

Ijiisides its own iiiimediate trilnitaries the whole system
of Lake WiiiiiipeLi; finds its outlet Ity the Xelsoii river
into Hudson's Bay. The Ited river, rising' in ^Minnesota
sonth of the source of tlie Mississippi, flows directly n(jrth
into Lake AVinnipeg, and the Saskatchewan, rising on the
eastern slope of the Kocky Mountains, flows eastwards
into the same lake, so that the drainage basin of Hudson's
Bay extends 2100 miles from east to west, and 1500
miles from north to south. This Winnipeg sub-basin is
more conveniently consideued in connection with the
Xorth-west provinces ; it is only necessary to allude to it
here to show the innnense territory drained by this in-
land ocean. The basin of the bay contracts towards the
north. The rivers on the east or Lal)rador side gnnv
longer and longer towards the south, and tlie same con-
dition obtains on the west coast. All this dependent
territory slopes down gently and gradually to the bay,
for the water-partings are not liighlands, but an^ low and
inconspicuous, and tlie upper streams of the contiguous
watersheds interlace at their sources.

Of the many important rivers flo\ving into the bay it
will be possible to notice only the chief, and, in noticing
them, to indicate the wonderful svstem of water com-
munication which covers as with a network even the
remotest recesses of the Dominion of Canada, and which
has rendered possible the extensive operations of the
Hudson's Bay Company and its continuous successful
existence from the year 1670 down to the present day.

The first important river on the west is the Churchill
iir English river, sometimes called by its Indian name
tlie Missinipi river, which after a course of 1100 miles
falls into the bay to form the harbour of Churchill. It
is a beautiful clear stream of great volume, expanding
lliroudiout its course into numerous lakes. It rises in

tIF

ii ■;.

'::^

012

COMPENDIUM OF (lEOdKAI'HY AND TKAVEL

m i

Mt'thy Lake, and I'loiii tlie lake by a portage (Metliy or
La Loc'lie) of 12|- miles the Clearwaler river, a triljutary
of the Athabasca, is reach(;d. This portage opens up the
whole valley of the INLickenzie. At Frog Tortage, a dis-
tance of only 1.180 yards separates the Churchill from the
head-waters of the (h'ass river, flowing into the Saskat-
chewan at Cunil)erland House and opening up that large
river system. Not far from Frog l*ortage the Deer river

Dr. mi, I'InAn.

FOOT OF liULL RAPID, XKI.SON lilVKH.

falls in from the north, by which Eeindeer Lake and the
head of Athabasca Lake may be reached. The Churchill
is not navigable from the bay, as there are rapids at tho
head of tide-water. The upper valley of the Churchill
is well wooded, but its lower course is through a roel^y
and barren country.

South from the Churchill is the Nelson river, named
after the master of one of Sir Thomas Button's ships who
died and was buried there in 1612. It is the largest
and most important river of Hudson's Bay, for it is tho

THE HUDSON .S HAY HASIN

G13

fi. ■■ i.

outlet of the wliole AViniiipeg and Siiskatcliewau system.
It is a imuldy stream of immense volume tiowiiig in a
course of about oGO miles tlirouuh a ilat country. In
its upper course it divides into many channels and ex-
pands into many lakes ; in its lower course it is navigable
for river steamers for 40 miles from its moutli. It falls
into the bay by an estuary which is Hat and muddy. At
high tide the estuary is seven miles wide. At low tide
the mud-ilats and boulders are uncovered and tlie river
shrinks into its own channel. The Xelson is of little
value for navigation, for there is no liar hour at its mouth.
The water of the bay is shallow, and there is no shelter
for vessels in the open roadstead which answers for a
harbour, so that vessels lying there prefer to put to sea
at the appearance of bad weather. Tliere are 10 feet of
water on the bar at low tide, but above that point the
depth is 20 feet. The width of the river varies from
half a mile to a nule and a half, until within ten miles of
the tide-water where it widens to three miles.

Eight miles farther south is Hayes river, and York —
the chief Hudson's Bay post — is upon the western bank.
This river, and not the Nelson, is the boat route to
AVinnipeg ; for the Nelson is too large a stream to be
convenient for boat and canoe navigation. The route
passes up Hayes river and by Hill river into Knee Lake,
and tlience by way of Oxford House to Norway House
and by Sea river into the lake. The Hayes river with
two of its tributaries is navigable for 140 miles for light-
draught steamers.

The Severn is the next considerable river southwards.
It is a shallow streai^i, difficult for canoes, passing through
a well-wooded country. Continuing to the south-east are
many small streams until the All)any river is reached,
a very important stream which is now the northern

11'

G14

COMPENDIUM OF (lEOORAI'IIY AND TKAVEL

1»oiui(l)ii'y of tlu' province of Oiiturio. ]>y tlie Albany
there is a mucli-fref(iiented route to Lake Nepigoii and
Lake Sni)erior. The distance is 4GS miles, and of this
270 miles are available for light-draught steamers.

Moose river, falling in at the extreme south of James
Bay, is navi<<:able for 100 miles, and is the channel of a
very much used route to Michi])icoton on Lake Superior.
Since the Canadian Pacific IJailway was built, ^Missinabi
station is the point of departure for the bay. At this
l)oint the water-parting of the Hudson's ])ay system is
within 30 miles of Lake Superior. The whole distance
from the bay to the lake at this point is only about
281 miles. The Abitibi, a tril)utary of the Moose river,
is the route by which canoes pass into the Montreal river,
wliich falls into Lake Temiscaming at the head of the
Ottawa riv^er. All this country between Lake Superior
and -Tames ^jay is low and Hat, sloping gradually down
until about a distance of 100 miles from the bav, when
it makes a sudden drop of 100 feet. This fall marks a
change in the character of the rocks, which pass from the
Laurentian into the Silurian, and at some places into the
Devonian system. As far up as this drop many of the
rivers might be available for light steamboats.

The rivers which, as far as Moose Factory, flow from
the west and south-west thenceforth How into the l)ay
from the south-east and east, radiating from the southern
shore like the spokes of n wheel ; so that liupert's House
at the mouth of Rupert's river, the next important stream,
and only 100 miles from Moose Factory, is the point of
departure for the Saguenay, lower St. Lawrence, and
Labrador, liupert's river Hows out of Lake Mistassini,
from whence a portage over the height of land leads
into water flowing into Lake St. John. On the western
side of the estuary of Rupert's river the Xoddaway river

Wf,

THK HUDSON'S I5AV UASIX

(J 1 O

falls in, a shallow but iin[)()rtaiit stream draining a wide
area.

Many largo rivers How into the l>ay on the eastei'n
side. The East Main river approaclies by one l)ran('h
elose to tlie waters Htnving into Lake Mistassini, but
another branch readies far into the lieart of Labrador
and approaches the sources of the Koksoak, flowing into
Hudson's Strait, and of the Hamilton llowing into the
Atlantic ; or a canoe may even pass into Manicouagan
flowing into the lower St, Lawrence. Great and Little
Whale rivers are also important from their size, but
north of these the rivers grow sh(jrter as the water-part-
ing of the central basin of Labrador gradually approaches
the coast.

Geology

Hudson's Lay lies within a basin of the Laurentian
nucleus, on the reverse or inside of the great V-shaped
mass of crystalline rocks which forms the framework of
the continent, and which from the earliest formative
period has dominated its shape. One arm of this mass
of primitive rock reaches from near the delta of the
Mackenzie on the Arctic Sea on the west, and the other
stretches from the north of Labrador on the east. The
Laurentian rocks come to the surface on the northern
shores of the bay, both on the eastern and western side ;
but on the southern shore there is a border of Cambro-
Silurian rocks of varying width. South and west of
-lames Bay this border of later formation is from 100
to 200 miles wide. On the south, from near the water-
parting of the St. Lawrence system, the limestones of the
later formations slope gradually down to the bay, and the
rocks pass in places into the Devonian. On the eastern
coast, north of Cape Jones, there is a narrow strip of

OIG

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TIIAVEL

ii ■«

I il '

I f||ll

ill

Cambrian, and the islands which chister along on that side-
of the bay are of that formation.

Minerals

The country around the l)ay possesses consideraljle
mineral wealth, especially upon the eastern coast, where
are masses of iron t)re, chiefly manganiferous carbonate of
iron. Upon the islands on that coast copper ore is
abundant. CJalena is found in sevei'al places, and mica
is plentiful, and occurs in sheets a foot scpuire. riumbago
is freipiently met with. Lignite coal occurs on the
]\Ioose and Abitibi rivers, but no deposit of importance
is known. (Jypsum occurs on ^Moose river: and the
limestones on Lake Altitibi have been reported to carry
l»etroleum.

The Strait

Hudson's Strait, lying as it does between 00" and 65
north latitude, mav be considered as l)einL'' in a sub-
Arctic region. The shores are high and bold; tlie water
is from 100 to 1^00 fathoms deep, and until the opening
out of the bay is reache(b the course of vessels is clear
of islands. There are no rocks or shoals in all its length.
It is about 4r»0 mih'S long, with an average width of
100 miles; at the narrowest part the width is 4." miles.
The shore on the north side is l)old, but sloping; on the
south bluff and ju'ecipitous. For the greater i)art of its
lennth lioth shores are visible from mid-channel because
of their height, win'ch is seldom less than 1000 feet.
Cape Chidley, at the southern entrance, is loOO feet, and
Cajie Wolstenholme, at the southern point where the strait
o[)ens into the bay, is nearly 2000 feet high. This docs
not, however, apply to Ungava Bay, a dee]» and lirdjul
indentation of the southern shore. The coasts of this

i^i

THE HUDSON S BAY 15ASIX

l)av are low and fiat, and here the Koksoak or Unuava
river, wliich (h-ains the central basin of the Lalirador
peninsula, discharges into the strait. This is a large
river, with a course of oHO miles, and with an average
width of a nule for sixty miles from its mouth. Thirty
miles u]) the river is Fort Chimo, a post of the Hudson's
IJay Company, and the river is navigahle for ships four
miles farther up.

The tides in Hudson's Strait rise to a height of 30
feet or -iO feet in spring tides, and How with great
swiftness. This prevents the strait from freezing over,
nittwithstanding its liigh latitude; but, in conjunction
with the drifting ice, seriously complicates the rpiestion
of navigation. At the mouth of the Koksoak river the
rise and fall of the tide is stated in evidence liefore
Tarlianient to be 04 fi-et, .and at Fort Chimo it is 30
feet, or 38^- feet at spring tides. They ilow with a
velocity of 3 to G miles an hour, and when there is
much ice in the strait vessels not specially pre[iared for
ina'thern waters are in danger of being crushed.

With regard to the bay itself, it is ])roved that it
does not freeze in winter. Ice forms on the shores to a
Niirying distance out. In James IJay, wliere the water is
shallow and brackish, the ice extends far out ; but it is
proved that there is always o]»eii watci' in the liody nf
the bay, and that what ice tliere is is loose, and of one
season's formation. There may be field ice, coUecti'tl in
the centre of the bav from the circular i)rogress of the
tidal wave; Init all through t!ie winter the vapour of
the o[)en water may be seen from the shore.

"^ Navigation

The ciiiefditlicultv of navigation is in the strait which
is at the north of the bay. The l»ay ice is not heavy,

618

COMrEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

but in tho early summer the disadvantage of the northern
inlet ftoni the Arctic regions becomes manifest, for heavy
ice comes down Fox Cliannel, and for an uncertain
period, until it gets an outlet to the ocean, it floats up
and down the strait with the elib and flow of the tide.
This is the ice reported l)y Lieutenant (lordon as 40
feet thick. Few bergs are met, and those which occur
are small, excepting, as sometimes happens on the north
shore, bergs are carried in by an indraught of the Arctic
current to pass out along the soutliern shore. This ice
sometimes forms into a pack in the strait, and then
a vessel nuist wait until it opens out with the wiud into
leads. Tt may for a while completely block the sti'ait
at its narrowest i)art or mav become entanfiled in tlie
land or among the islands at tlie inner end. Xeither
ber^s nor heavv ice are encountered in the liav west of
Fox Channel.

The sul)ject is one of great importance to Canada, and
the most diverse opinions are advocated respecting it.
I'ort ( 'hurchill is almost at the centre of the continent
of North America, and it is on the northern edt'e of
the greatest food-producing region in tlie world — the
illimitable wheat area and the cattle ranches of the
Canadian Xorth-west. A far northern course like this
is almost a great circle, and tlierefore the distance from
Winnipeg tvV/ Hudson's Bay is very much shorter thini
ri(i ^Montreal, Stated in ge(»graphical miles, the distances
are as follows : —

3507

From .Montioiil to Livoipool 27!>0 4021

DiH'ert'iuc in lavour of lliidson's Hay .... r»17

Tf then it can only l)e established that the route rla
Churchill is as .safe as n'lc Montreal, and is o])en fof n

From Wiiiuipog to Liveipool rin Hudson's Hay .
From Wiiiiiiiipi,' to .Montreal, Canadian I'acitic Railway

THE IITDSONS BAY 15ASIN

619

suliiciently long i)erio(l to make it commercially nvailable,
tlie paramount importance of the fact to the North-
western territories is evident.

Tlie following distances are Ldven 1)V Admiral
Markhani : —

given

Liverpool to Cliureliill
,, (^tuebec

,, Halifax

Xew York

2030 nautical miles

26r.O

•2S-20
2490
3010

liy Hollp-islo.
Iij- Cajic Race.

That the navigation is safe enough at certain seasons
is clear from the fact that for 220 years the Hudson's
r>ay Company have annually despatched one or two slii])s

por

ts on the hav witli an unusual freedom from

accident or loss. That one fact is sutlicient to demonstrate
the safety of the route, the oidy question is the length of
the period of safety. The de}>th of tlie water, the freedom
from shoal or reef, and the l)oldness ol' the land on both

)f th

d if

uralile circumstances,
the dip of the needle in consefpience of the proximity of
the magnetic pole is so great as to render the comjtass
iinserviceahle, the fact that during midsummer tlie liglit
in such high latitudes extends over almost all tlie tW(Mity-
I'nur hours is a largely compensating advantage.

Xot the least (htlicull })art of tlie ])roblem is the
stream of ice in the Atlantic carried }tast the mouth
of the strait by the Arctic current. 'J'his may be 100
"V 200 miles wide, and for that reason the invariable
rule of the Hudson's ('omi>any's ca]itains, based (ii tlu^
experience of 200 years, is to time their de}/;ntr.i'e from
Kiigland so as not t(» reach the outer stream ^f i^e ti'.-wir.g
down from the north belbre 1 .'itli duly, and lo lea^'e the
liiiy (111 the return voyage not later than the end of
September, making a ]»erio(l of safe navigation of two and

W II

G20

COMPENDIUM OF OEOOHAPHV AND TifAVEL

ii;

u hair months. Many conflicting statements are made ;
but, for sailing ships, the weight of evidence goes to show-
that the average period of safe navigation lies between
these two dates.

Wiiile this ])eriod is not strongly combated, so i'ar as
regards sailing ships, it is warmly urged that the em])loy-
ment of steamships completely alters the question. It is
maintained that vessels, specially built for such a trade,
and for contact with ice, and ])rovided witii ])owerful
engines, could enter the ice at a nmch earlier period
and rem.ain much later in the bay. Sealing steamers
from iJundee and Xewfoundland carry on their regular
business amongst the ice in early spring, and it is claimed
that freight steamers coidd be built in a similar manner
to encounter the ice with equal impunity. Such vessels,
it is argued, could enter the pack as early as loth June
and remain to 1st Xovember ; that is, four and a half
months, between these extreme periods of two and a half
and four and a half months the controversy is waged.

The Canadian Government has attempted to solve the
problem in a practical way, and in 1884, 188"), and
188G sent a steamship into the bay under Lieutenant
(lordon, H.N., with a stalf of observers, who were dis-
tributed at six stations on the shores of the strait, to
remain through the winter and report upon the move-
ments of the ice and all other occurrences of interest.
In 1884 the Niptunr — a Xewfoundland sealing steamer
— was employed, and in 188r> and 188G H.]\I.S. Ahrt,
a steamer which had bi-en with the Arctic expeditidii
uniler Sir (leorge Xares, was lent by the Admiralty, in
188G the observing parties were brought back. They
had passed a. ]>leasant winter, for game had been plenti-
ful. The sum of Lieutenant (iordon's report was lluit
the tirst half of duly was the earliest date at which the

- , <;■
if ¥:

THE iirnsoNS liAV kasix

ill' I

straits nuiy be coiisideretl as navigable for tbe puq)oses of
coiumeree b}' steamsliips fitted fur ice iiaviuation, aiul at
the same time capable of l)eiiip,' used proiitably as I'reight
carriers; and that the middle of October was the latest.
He was of opinion that while it niinlit, under exceptionally
favourable circumstances, be ])ossible to extend the time
from 1st 'July to 1st Xoveml)er, that a period of three
months, namely from loth -Inly to l.jth Uctol)er, was
for all ])ractical purposes tlie extreme time during wliich
it wouhl be safe for steamships to navigate the straits.

It ha])pened that the former commander of the Alert
on th< Nares expedition, ( a})tain (now Admiral) ^farkham
went as a i)assenger on the ex])edition of 1<SSG. His
opinions are recorded in the /'rocccdi/ii/s of ihr lloija}
(koiimphieal Socict// for 1888, antl he states that "a
well-found steamer is al)le to make lier way with ease
through the ice in Hudson's Strait in flune aud July,
when a sailing shi}» would be hopelessly bi'set " ; and he
reports on the authority of tlic observers at Ashe Inlet
tliat the ice did not form in tlie strait before^ l)eceni])er,
aud that the channel was ])erfectly free for navigation
during the entire month of Xoveml)er. He thinks that
tlie vessels should be specially constructed to resist ice
pressure, should Ije of considerable steam-power, and
strengthened at the bows to rejtel tlie severe lilows
caused l)y striking tlie tioes when threading their way
thr<uigh a stream of ice.. The re])orts of the observei'S
I'arther up tlie strait were not S(j favoural)le. in tht!
subsequent discussion })v. I'ae, the celelaated Arctic
explorer, who as an officer of the Hudson's IJay Conijiany
bad resided on tht> bay, stated that the bay itself was
iiavigalile for five months, but he dilfered stronglv from
A(ii,iiral ]\rarkham's conclusions and supported Lieutenant
t!ordon's report.

G22

COMPEXDIU.M OF GEOGIiAl'HY AND TKAVEL

The geographiciil facts are therefore ])laiii enough, and
the (j^iiestion luis become one for naval architects and
merchants. Can steamers be Ijuilt, economical as li-eight
carriers, and at tlie same time suitable for forcing their
way through field ice ? The ice which comes down Fox
Channel is 12 to 20 feet thick, and, even if mucli of the
ice be brashy in rfune or duly, the blades of a propidlei
are apt to be l)roken by (piite small pieces of ice. 2s o
one disputes tlie presence of the ice, — wlu^ther loose or
packed, Imishy, honey-comlied, or heavy, the ice is there:
and if the steam vessels are built to encounter it, will
they carry sutticient cargo for profit, and what will be
done with them durinu' the long season of winter, frn'
witii such a build they cannot compete with the vessels
l)uilt as carriers for more soutliern [)orts ? Lieutenanl
( Jordon records the fact that towards the western end of the
strait the compass will not work owing to the proximity
of the magnetic })ole. In the long days of June and
-luly that might be unimportant, but in the late fall the
niu'lits would be long and dark with sn(jw and storm.
The question is one of such prime importance to the
wheat-growers of the Canadian North-west, that another
vessel, the D'kuki, is now, in the sunnner ol' 1897, on its
way to the bay to settle the controversy in some indis-
[)utable manner.

Climate

The climate of Hudson's Uay has also been a sul)je('l
of controversy, and when it is considered that the biiy
extends from lat. 51 N. to lat. 70' X., it will lie
seen that in any statement concerning climate therr
is much need to indicate [>recisely what part of tlii.'
bav is meant. This stretcii of latitude corresiionds with
the stretch from Land's End in Cornwall to the Xorlii

THE Hudson's bay basin

62a

Cnpe in Xorway — -tlic most iiortherii part of Europe,
and well within the Ai'ctic circle. The country around
Hudson's Vrdj can never ])e an agricultural country, and
even thouuh it be true that veQ;etal)les have been seen
growing in sheltered spots, it may or may not be true
tliat the same vegetables could be grown in tiie oiicn
on a large scale. The inquiry has no practical bearing
while so many millions of acres of rich arable soil are
lying vacant all over tlui vast territoi'v of the JJominion.

Churchill is the northern limit of the cultivated
grasses on the west coast of the bay. The line drops on
the east side to the northern point of flames 3>ay. The
line which marks the northern liu'it of cultivation of
l)arley, rye, oats, and the root crops crosses dames 15ay
from east to west about half way u]). The northern
Hunt of the growth of wheat passes altogether south of
the bay without touching any part of it. In the same
way the northern limit of deciduous trees barely touches
the extreme south of James IJay. Some of the coniferous
trees are found on the west coast consideral)ly to the
north of Churchill and almost as far north as Chesterfield
Inlet. On the east coast the tree line drops to Capi'
Dulferin, but the growth is stunted at the extreme
northern linut. Xorth of that is the region of mosses
and lichens, the food of the caribou and musk-oxen.
All around the bay the trees are small when they come
down to tlie coast, and the ground is covered with
sphagnum moss ; but a little way back the level land is
well wooded, and nnich valuable timbi'r of large size
;j,i(jws along the upper waters of the many large rivers
which empty into .bmies l)ay.

The resources of the bay as to fisheries are important.
Fur to the north, up Kowe's AVelcome and Fox Channel,
is the favourite resort of American whalers, who winter

{J24

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

i :

Jit Marble IhIcUrI, inside the
so as to coiniiienee operuti*.
up. These people are :»■'
fishery by their destruf

"nlf near Chesterfield Inlel,

soon as the ice breaks

a to be last destroyin-^' the

lethods, and every year they

have to ti;o farther no.. . ; for the latest reports yo to
sliow that tliey have destroyed almost all the large
marine animals in tlie upper })art of the bay. In tlic
northern seas of Canada is the last retreat of the whale,
and some control should be exercised over these strangers.
The seal and porpoise fisheries are productive, and saluKju
abound in the rivers. The cod fishery extends round
from the Atlantic into the strait as far as Ungava Bay.
The territories surrounding the whole bay are productive
in fur-1 tearing animals. Caribou (reindeer) are abundant,
and in the Barren ( rrounds of the Xorth-west as far as
the Arctic Ocean are the haunts of musk-oxen. They
are met also north of the strait, but not south of it.
South of the strait througliout all the peninsula (jf
Lat)rador roam large herds of the barren-ground caribou
or reindeer. Tliere is abundance of feathered game in its
.season — ducks, geese, loons, ptarmigan. Far in the north,
at IJepulse Bay and on tlie Arctic coast, the Hudson's
Bay officers could always maintain themselves. Eskimo
live in bands all round the l)ay. Some of their settle-
ments have existed for 100 years in the same place, and
all the Canadian parties of observation whicli entered
the bay were abundantly supplied with fresh meat during
the winter by the E.skimo.

History

There is nmcli interesting history and even romancu
clustering round this remote and solitary inland ocean of
the north. It was explored very early. (Jn lluysch's

THE HUDSON S BAY BASIX

023

: ■

map ill the " rtoleiny " publislied in 150S is a legoiul
wliic'h reveals personal experiences inside the strait.
'■ Here a surging sea coninienees, here ships' compasses
lose their properties." liuysch had probably been with
the Cabots in the second voyage in 1498, and they had
evidently penetrated for some distance within the strait.
It is often stated that Cabot in 1517 discovered the bay,
but there is no ground for the assertion. The maps about
1540 and onwards showed, in an indefhiite way, an
iiceaii north of the land. Michael Lok's map in Hakluyt's
Divers Voycujcs, 1582, showed a long inland reach of
sea extendino; to the south -west towards the southern
ocean, but that was only conjecture, as is proved Ity the
rare and celebrated Molyneux Map in the Hakluyt of
1600, where Hudson's Strait is indicated by the words
'■ a furious overfall " marked auainst a long inlet, but the
passage is closed. Frobisher in 157G and Davis in 1588
had looked into the strait, and Cape Chidley had been
named by Davis after Sir John Chidley (not Chudleigh),
ii worthy of Queen Elizabeth's time who took an interest
ill north-west explorations. It was not until IGIO that
Hudson first of all worked tlirough into the bay. It
was early in July that he got in by coasting along the
[southern shore of the strait. He named the inner cape
iifter Sir John Wolsteiiholme, one of the contributors to
the expedition, and with surprising courage pushed on to
the southernmost recesses of James I>ay, where he was
frozen in on Xoveinber 1*0. He wintered there, and
liad no difficulty in providing for the ship's company, as
game and fish were abundant. On June 18, 10 11, he
sailed for home ; but a mutiny V)roke out among the
crew, and shortly after he with five sick men and two
otliers of the crew were put into a boat and abandoneil
iuid were never more heard of So perished this chief

2 s

G2()

COMl'KXDIUM OF CJEOGh'AI'IIV AND TItAVEL

amoiiji; great iiJivi<futors in the great bay wliich l)ears liis
name — a name written larger on the ma}) of tliis conti-
nent than any other. For 170 years no navigator was
able to approach the Xortii Pole nearer than his record
in 1G07. The Hudson river still bears his name, and
justly so, tor he first explored it in his search for a,
passagv! U) the south sea, and sailed up to th»; site nf
All)any. The miserable wretches wh(» abandoned him for
the most part perished at the hands of the Eskimo, and
others died of starvation on thtMr passage home.

The news was brought to England liy tiie few surviv-
ing nuitineers, and in 10 12 Sir Thomas JUUton was seal
out to rescue Hudson, if perchance he had survived.
lUitton wintered at the site of the present York Factory.
The great river near is called Xelson river from his
sailing-master, whom he buried there, and that part of
the bay is known as lUittou's ]]ay on many old ma])s.
In IGlo Bailin and Uylot explore(l the north of tlie bay
about Southampton Island. A J )anish Captain, Monck,
was the next adventurer to ex]»k)re lor tlie north-west
passage. He wintered ni-ar Churchill, but not knowing
how to take care of his crew, onlv he himself with twti
of his company got away alive. On some old maps
that part of the coast is named Xew Denmark. Then in
1G31 followed Captain Fox, " North-West Fox," as he
called himself, who discovered and named Fox Channel,
and the same year Captain James sailed hit! the bay and
wintered there, near the mouth of liupert's river, at tlie
head of the l)ay .still called after him. The north-west
passage still remained hidden, and for a hundred yeais
the perilous quest was abandoned.

In.lGOS Champlain founded (>>uebec, and, as tln'
colony of Xew France grew strong, enterprising spirit>
among them began to reach out west and north in tlieii

THE HUDSON S I5AY BASIN

627

tradiiifj; expeditions. JUit the priest often preceded the
trader, and Fatlier Alljanel was sent overland by Talon
to the bay in 10 72. He went liy way of the Saguenay,
Lake Mistassnii, and liupert's river, and found a small
vessel of ten tons witli an English il.'iu; and two emiHy
houses. The Enii'lish had, in fact, resumed their vovages
to the bay, and Captain L. (lilham had been at the
mouth of Jiupert's river in 1007. The charter of the
Hudson's IJay Company liad been n;ranted in 1070, and
it was the report throuuli tlie Indians of tlie English
trading-posts on the bay which suggested the expedition
of Father All»anel to Talon — then Intendant of New
France.

1'he French traders then extended their operations to
the bay, and soon commenced that struggle between the
two nations for its possession, of whicli the obscure and
contradictory accounts till a large numl)cr of state docu-
ments. The Hudson's jiay Company, in lOiSO, had five
forts on the bay at the mouths of tiie five largest rivers,
when, in a time of ]trofound peace, the governor of New
France sent an ex])editi(jn overland from Montreal and
captured them. Tlie cxpediti(.)n was commanded l»y the
Chevalier de Troyes, and went by way of the Ottawa
and Aliitibi rivers. The English people resented this
raid, and recovered the forts. At this time, after the liay
has been neglected for so long, it is dillicult to realise the
iiii])ortance then attached to it; lait, in fact, then, and
even down to Parry's second ex})edition, it was the
current belief that th(> north-west passage lay hidden in
some unknown corner of it. So tlie struggle went on
until in 1097 Hterviile — a French-Canadian Nelson l»orn
in ^Montreal — was sent in conmiand of a s(piadron of i'our
vessels to destroy the English ])ower completely in the
north. One of Ids vessels was crushed in the ice, and

^T«-

I !

1^'

I'-ll

■i ]■

A !

Irr i

G28

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Iltervillo, wlien he got thvougli in liis ship, the Prlirini.
i'ound himself alone, his consorts having been se})arate(l
by the ice. Three sliips hove in sight, which lie at tirst
took to l»e his own shii)s, but they proved to be three
English iirnied vessels — tha Wiriqi'ihirc, 52 guns, the
TkiruKj, tJG guns, and the Huihon's Bay, o'l guns.
Iberville's vessel, tlie Pelican, had only 44 guns,
but he was a eonsuniniate sailor and a daring ca}»tain,
and he l)oldly attacked tlie Ilavqishirc. Jt was a unique
sea-tight. The weather was very heavy at the time, and
the situation was complicated by the masses ol' ice; l)Ut
the fight continued for four hours — all one July mctrning
— until the JldmjJi^hirc went down with all on Ixiard.
Iberville then attacked and captured the Hudson s JJin/
ship, but the Daring escaped by flight. Iberville's
consorts joined him after the battle, and he proceeded tn
reduce all the forts on the bay — to little permanent
effect, for by the treaty of Utrecht Hudson's Bay \vas
restored to the English Crown, and for seventy years the
bay was at peace, until, hi 1782, La Perouse, with a
squadron of frigates, seized the forts again, and carrieil
away the traders as prisoners of war.

Once more at peace, the quest for the north-west
passage was revived, and the spell which Sel)astian
Cal)ot, that arch schemer among navigators, had laid
upon the English people, l)egan again to work. Some-
where hidden in the bay was the opening of the Strait of
Anian of the old maps, opening into the Mar del Zui ;
and in 17 19 James Knight, who had been govenKjr on
the bay, set out with two ships to find that mythical
passage. The whole expedition utterly disappcfired ; iioi
could its fate be conjectured, until, in 1759, forty years
later, remains were found on Marble Island, which })r(ALHl
that the whole party — two ship's crews — had miserahly

THE Hudson's bay ha.sln

029

periKlicd of cold and famine durin<^' two teiTil)l(! years of
stru.uj^lc and agony.

In 1741 Ca])tain Middleton was sent to the nortli-
west corner of the hay on a voyage of discovery. He
discovered Wager inlet and Wager river and liCpulse ]')ay
and the strait north of Southampton Island called l»y liim,

VIKW OK MAKHI.K ISLAND, FHOM DKADMAN S Tsr.ANI).

SS. Xi'iitunr ill llu' lliirbDiir.

and Still known as Frozen Strait, for it was })acked with
ice. His report was vehemently discredited hy Sir
Arthur Dohbs, and he, in 1740, titted out an expedition
to demonstrate that Wager inlet was in very truth tlie
longed-for opening to the great southern ocean. This
attempt led to no result.

The search by land then commenced. The company
had built a fort at the mouth of Churchill river — Prince
of Wales fort — and \he otticers, having heard from tlie
Indians marvellous stories of mountains of copper, sent
off Samuel Hearne to discover them. This persevering

»i,-..ii

G30

hit

COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRArilY AND TllAVKL

kill

('X})l()ivr succceikul at liis third attempt, discovered the
(Joppermine river and iullowed it (U)wii to tlie Arctic
Ocean, upon wliose p^looniy and desohite shore lie was the
tirst wliite nuui to tread.

Hearne's e\[)edition had shown that there was no
passage to the Soutli Sea ; l)ut the passion of tlie Knghsli
people ibr the north-west passage returned with increased
vehemence in 1818 when l^irry, the prince of Arctic
navigators, made, on his first expedition, the lailliant
iliscovery of the archi})elago which now hears his name.
At the end of ^Nfclvilie Sound lie encountered an impass-
able liarrier of ancient ice. On his second voyage
in 1821 with the Hecla and Fifv// he followed up the
north-west angle of Hudson's Iwiy, if, perchance, miglit
lurk there a passag(3 into the Arctic Sea round the
southern edge of the impervious Arctic pack at the
north. The result of his voyage justiiied the slandered
(Aiptain ]\Iiddletoii. He passed up by Fox Channel and
sailed through Middleton's Frozen Strait and tried to lind
a, passage through at licpulse Iby. JTe then followed
11]) north the eastern shore of j\lelville ])eniiisula and
wintered at Winter Island. The next summer he pushed
(<n farther and discovered the outlet of the bay at tlio
north and called it Fury and Hecla Strait. This lie
supi)osed to be the long-sought passage, but it was solidly
blocked with ice and, after ]tassing a winter close to the
strait and exi)loring the adjacent region l»y sledging
parties, he returned without getting through. 'I'he search
was continued in 1824 by Captain Lyon who had been
with Tairy. ]Iis (mlers were to establish himself at
l{e[)ulse r»ay and exidorc across the narrow isthniu.s
by sledging parties. He unfortunately went south of
Southampton Island and his sh'j) was so daniage(l ly
heavy storms and ice that he g.>t no farther than Wi.ger

TIIK IIUDSON.S 1!AV IIA.SLN

(J-^1

111

let. Thus C'losod the record of the seairli I'ov llu

isli

schI

L'tic

iant

Line.

illSS-

the

iijj;ht
the
the

lered

. and
find
iwed
and
shod
t the
hi'
,Udlv
> the

h-iiiip
■avch

heeii

lit' at

\inus

h <-[

jd hv

iioi'th-wcst passage hy Hudson's IJay, lU'veitheless it was
I'roiu the koy-i)(>iiit nl' lii'j)ulsi' JJay llial the Arctic
irol»leiii was eventually solved.

Arctic ex])loration with shii)s hy way of llmlson's
Hay haviiiL!,' ceased with Cajitaiii Lyon's ex]>edilion in
IS24, it was taken u)) in other directions — by way of
liehrin;^ Straits, by land along the shores oi" the Arctic
Ocean, and hy way ol' Lancaster Sound. Sir John
I'Vanklin sailed in 1 84o with the IJ/rJu's and Ti rror
ith 12!) souls, and no m-ws of him came hack. The
arch coinmenced in 1 84(S. Eniiland could not rest
while the late of her sailor-hero was unknown, and the
interest and .sympathy of her ccdonies and the Tnited
States were warmly enlisted in the .search. Dr. Kae, an
otlicer of the Company, had heeii for .several years eii-
i;aged in soarchinn the Arctic coast, and at la.st, in 18r»;:),
he was aL5ain .sent out hv the Hudson's Uay (\)mi)anv and
went up the west coast to IJejailse Jiay. ][e established
his liead(iuarters there at a place he called lM)rt Hope, on
the isthmus now called llae's Isthmus. He sup))orted
himself and his little jiarty of jbur men all the winter by
his skill with his rille, and in the summer of 1 8r)4 he
explored westwards and northwards until at ('a])e I'orter,
nil the west coast of Uoothia ])eiiiiisula, he met the
I'lskimo from whom lu' learneil the sad details of the fate
yA the Fianklin ex])edition and won the reward of C 1 0,000
]a()mised by the Ihilish (*!o\t'rnnieiit to the person who
shoidd briii<;' home the lirst definite and certain news.

So clcsed tlu' romantic annals of this solitary sea.
(old and forbiddin'j thoU'j,h it may be to the outward eye,
I lie heart warms at the thought of the deeds of heroism
and of uatieiit endurance which its silent wastes liav(!

witnessed. The names aloii'i

(!oasts are mostly

632

COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AMD TKAYEL

the names ot old worthies of far-off tlays, suggesting
memories which stir the blood and quicken the pulse.
If the present expedition results fixvourably we shall see
the hay and strait of Hudson become an important
factor in the development of the Canadian North-w^est.

NOTE TO CHAPTER XX

The following publications will be useful for further details : —

GoKDox, Lieut., R.X.

Reports on the Hudson's Bay Expeditions, 1884, 1885, ;.886.

OoiLviE, William.

Exploratory Survey to Hudson's Bay in 1890. Ottawa, 1891.

Rei'outs of the Geolooical Suuvev.
R. Bell, 1878, 1880-8-1, 188.').

EA.ST Main Coast.

R. Boll, 1878.
AVi'.sr Coast.

R. Bell, 1885. .1. 15. Tyrrell, 1894.

Sti;aits.

R. Bell, 1884-85.

CHAPTER XXI

LABRADOR

Labrador is tliat peninsular mass of north-eastern
America which stretches the farthest across tlie Atlantic
towards the British Islands and towards Greenland. It
is separated from the main continent by the Gulf of 8t.
Lawrence and Hudson's Ijay and Strait, and the mtiin
Atlantic washes its eastern shore. It extends lietween
the parallels of 50° and G2" X. latitude, and the me-
ridians of 50° and 79° W. longitude. It lies hetween the
same parallels as the British Isles, from the Scilly Islands
to one degree Ixiyond the most northerly of the Shetlands,
and its area is equal to the combined areas of the CJerman
Empire, Austro-Hungry, and Italy. xVlthough it is
nearer to Europe than any other part of the western
world, and was almost the first land across the ocean
visited by Europeans, its interior was, until the last three
or four years, less known than the interior of Africa ; and,
even now, therT- remain "probably 120,000 square nules
of it where the foot of a white man has never trodden.

A] (proximately the shape of the territory is that of a
Iniucated triangle presenting its base to the north-east.
From the outer end of the Strait of Bell(»-isle to Cape
( hidley is al)out 700 miles,and from thence along Hudson's
Strait to Cape Wolstenholme is about ."iOO miles, so that a

Ifi

I; f
ii i

i'i !

G:U

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIiAI'IIY AND TRAVEL

I i|;i! ■

1;:

'in

line of about 12 00 miles, in a general direction to tlie
north-west, will I'orm a base. From (Jape Wolstenholnu'
to the extreme south of James Jiay is 800 miles. That
will make the second side. The third side, however,
presents a ditliculty ; for starting westwards from J>elle-
isle there is no consensus ol' opinion as to where it should
stop. Some would prolong it to the mouth of the
Saguenay ; l)ut it is l)etter to follow the opinion of the
most recent and cliief explorers, Messrs. Low and Eaton,
and stop at the well-known harlxjur of Seven Islaiuls ;
the distance is about 500 miles. Then the apex of the
triangle will be cut o(f by a line from Seven Islands to
the southern point of James IJay. The line will be nearly
000 miles long, and the neck of the peninsula will br
verv wide : but, allhout-h territorial divisions will seldom
submit to geometrical treatment, this rough apprcjximatiou
will serve to convey a general idea of the configuration
of Labrador. Tbe area so inclosed covers an extent of
~) 11,000 S(puire nules. It will help to give an idea of
the distances involviid, if it be added that from tlie mouth
of the Saguenay north to Cape Wolstenholme is 1070 mile."?
in a straight line, and from Cai)e Jones in Hudson's ])ay
to the Strait of J)elle-isle is a line nearly east and west,
of 1005 miles.

Tin? present clia])ter, however, will deal with thi'
northern part onlv of this territorv. The southern water-
shed, draining into the St. Lawrence basin, forms part of
the province of <^)uebec, and will oidy l>e incidentally
touched upon lien.'. There is a vagueiu\ss of usage of
the word Labrador which may be confusing. The north
shore of the (lulf of St. Lawrence is often called Labrador,
and it is the Labrador coast of the province of (^)uebc(',
or southern Labrador: but when the word is used with-
out (qualification, it generally signifies that part of thr

L< 'k

LAliKADOK

(335

coast from the Strait of ]5elle-isle to Cape Cliiilley, wliich
])olitic'ally belongs to the government of Xewfoundhind.

The peninsula of Labrador may be described as a
tableland hiiving a general elevation of ITtOO to 2000
I'eet al)(»ve the sea. The interior })lateau over an anvi of
200,000 si^uare miles is a rolling country, in which the
dilierences of level seldom exceed from .'500 to TtOO feet,
and the higher idevations do not exceed 2.") 00 feet above
the sea. On the Atlantic coast the ]ilateau rises abru])tly
i'rom the sea in stu])endous cliffs, increasing in height
towards the north to :» point 70 miles south of Cape
(Jhidley, from whence tlie height decreases, until at the
l)oint of the cape it falls to 1500 feet. The shore of
Cngava ]>ay is low, but IVom Cape Hope's Advance to
< "ape Wolstenholme the coast again rises, and continues
for 270 miles loftv and Ijold, 500 to 2000 feet high all
along the south of Hudson's Strait. On the eastern
shore of Hudson's I>ay the; coast is low, excejiting be-
tween Portland pronumtory and Cape -lones, where a
lange of mountains 1000 to 2O00 feet high a[»proaches
I'lose to the shore for 1350 miles. Ori the south the
plateau drops in steep ten-aces down to the level of the
I iver and Culf of St. Lawrence.

Three water- i)artings divide the country into four
divisions. The Laui'eiitian mountains mark off southern
La1)rador. They Ibllow the general tri'iid of the coast at
distances varying from 100 to 200 miles, until they
terminate on the Atlantic in the Mealy uKanitains around
Sandwich l)ay, south of Hamilton Inlet. At a point a
little siaith of the centre of the peninsulti, in the stpiare
where the meiidians of 60 and 70' W. cut the })arallels
of ~\o and 54^ X., is the apex of a roughly approximate
irianiile formed by two water-partings inclosing the
•watershed of northern Labrador, (hie leg of this triangle

H 1

63G

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

Hi t

i\.

1*;.

extends to the western end of Hudson's Strait at Cape
Wolstenliohne, marking the limit of western Labrador
where the streams flow into Hudson's Bay, the other leu
extends to Cape Chidley at the Atlantic end of the strait,
marking off eastern Labrador where tlie streams fall intf>
the Atlantic Ocean. As this triangle spreads to the
whole length of Hudson's Strait, which is its base, the
rivers on the exterior necessarily grow shorter and shortoi.
The apex is, and has been in former geological ages, the
central point of Labrador; for as the streams flow nortli,
south, east, and west from that centre the lines of stria-
tion on the rocks l)ear witness that there was the nevi-
from whence the glacial streams flowed in the ice-age.

This central elevation is also the apex of a roughly
approximate triangle to the west with its base on Hudson's
Bay, and another to the east with its base on the Atlantic
coast. Necessarily, the longest rivers rise there. Sunmiit
Lake discharges to the north by the Koksoak river, GOd
miles long, flowing into Ungava IJay in Hudson's Strait.
and to the south l)y the Manicouagan river, .■i2r» miles
long, flowing into the St. Lawrence. The lake is 104(t
feet altove the sea, and is upon the 53rd parallel of latitude.
Witliin a few miles of Summit Lake are tlie head-waters
of Big river, flowing in a course of 550 miles westward
into lEudson's Bay. The fourth great river of Labradm
flows eastward — the Hamilton river, GOO miles long — and
its chief source is in Ashuanipi Lake between the parallel-
of 52° and 53'', and on the meridian of GG ' 30'. The foui
greatest rivers flowing north, south, east, and west, thus
have their sources within a very limited area on the
central plateiiu. The highest point of the plateau is
2400 feet above the sea, on the water-parting of the 151^;
river of Hudson's P)ay, and the ]\Lanicouagan at Lake
Attikopi, in longitude 70° and latitude 52 40'.

LAHRADOll

637

The sui'laco of this eiioriuous plateau consists largely
of iiiuishes and bare rock, cut up l)y lakes innumerable
and traversed by a maze of streams wliich How almost
on the surface. The country seems uniinished, as if it
had l)een left as a specimen to show wliat otlier countries
may have l)een at the termination of the glacial e]»och,
when the rivers had not worn down their Ijcds, and
valleys and basins liad not beeli ibrmed. So the rivers
are here at this late age still like strings of lakes, and
tlie lakes often discharge in two directions. The rivers
(Hvide and unite again as they liow over the level table-
land in a way confusing to tlu^ explorer. Kully one-
fourth of the area of tiie peninsula is occupied by rivers
and lakes mostly shallow — many not over 20 feet and
few over 50 feet in depth.

The largest lake is ^listassini, which is, however, deep.
It is 100 miles h»ng, but, l)eing very narrow, it covers an
area of only oOO S([uare miles. Among tlie larger lakes
are Xichicun (1700 feet al)ove the sea) at the head of
l)ig river; Lake Kaniapiskau (1850 feet) on the head-
waters of the Koksoak river, this lake is over 50 miles
long; Lake Michikamau (1050 feet) on the head- waters
of die Hanulton river, a deep lake 80 miles long by 20
miles broad. The Ashuanijji and Attikonak, two main
tributaries of the Upper Hamilton, take their rise in
lakes of the same names (1700 feet). From this latter
lake the portage to the JJomaine river, flowing into the
St. Lawrence, is (jnly half-a-mile across. Thei'e are no
Liiies on the grand scale of the west of tlie continent.

The rivers are, liowever, for tlie most part ililhcult to
ascend, for, as they^ippi-oacli the edge of tlie plateau, they
hurry down in swift continuous ra])ids and precipitous
falls, so that while it seems easy upon the maj) to pass
ill any direction through the peninsula, it is in practice

■'

■ 1

1:1

638

COMPENDIUM OF GEOCJRAPHV AND TllAVEL

extremely laltorious to portage or to work up the rivers
to reach the interior level. The portages are usually
rough ; for the surface of the country is strewn with
boulders, and these are for the most part angulai', and
have not been rounded by travel, while the rivers, in
descending to the lower levels through the mountains
which fringe the plateau, have cut narrow gorges or
canons recpiiring great effort to ascend. The southern
rivers especially How in deep valleys 500 to 1000 feet
below the fringing highlands. On a portion of the western
side, however, the watershed inclines with a gentle slo]»e
to James Bav, so that the countrv is most accessil)le from
that side.

Until recently, the interior of Labrador was a great
unknown land. M'Lean, an otticer of the Hudson's Bay
Company, was the first white man to enter it, and in
18o8 and 1839 he crossed from north to south from his
station on Ungava Bay to the posts on the Hamilt(tn
Inlet. Some of the Oblate missionaries had followed tlic
^Montagnais Indians from the (Julf of St. Lawrence to their
winter retreats on the Hamilton river and its branches,
and they established a mission on the Xorth-west river,
from whence Father Lacasi- , had gone in 1875 to Ungava
]»ay. The Hudson's Bay Company had a few posts in
the interior on the main routes ; Messrs. Bichardson and
M'(^uat had examined the country around Lake Mistassini.
and Dr. Bobert Bell had explored and reported on the
coast region in its whole circuit from James Bay around
by Hnrlson's Straits and the Strait of Belle-isle ; Professor
Hind had gone up some of the southern rivers to the
tableland; but it remained for Messrs. Low and Eaton
in their explorations during 1802-94 to open up the
heart of this fornudable wilderness. They entered by the
south-west, by Lake St. John, the head of the Saguen;iy.

LABIJADOIJ

0:;9

passed up the Chamoucliouan (Asluia])iiioucliouan), and
crossed to Lake ]\Iistassiiii. From thence they explored
the East ]\Iain and Jiupert's rivers to James Lay. lieturn-
ing the following year they went up the East ]\Iain river
and the Dig river to its source, crossed the water-parting
of the northern watershed, and followed down the Koksoak
river from its source to its mouth in Ungava Bay. At
Fort Chinio they found the Hudson's J Jay Company's
supply vessel which took them around the east coast to
liigolet, the Company's post on Hamilton Inlet. They
thence explored the Hamilton river to its source, and the
highest part of the central plateau, then turning south-
wards they crossed the southern water-parting and followed
down the liomaine and St. John rivers to the CJulf of St.
Lawrence. Thus, in a series of most arduous explora-
tions, an area of 289,000 square miles of the peninsula
was examined, for much of which even Indian guides
could not be found. Maps showing the results of their
labours were compiled by Mr. Eaton, and have just been
pulJished.

The explorations of Messrs. Low aiul Eaton show that
while Labrador is, in reality, a very uninviting country,
L*rofessor Hind's oft ([uoted words that " language fails
to depict the awful desolation of the tableland of tlie
Labrador peninsula," are too strong. Although large
game has become scarce in the south, the myriads of
lakes and streams are alive ;' uing the sunnner with wild
ducks and geese. The explorers found also that iish,
whitetish, lake trout, and brook trout, were very abundant
in all the inland waters. The countrv is, however, the
very home of mos(|\utoes and black tiies ; for everything
in it — land, water, climate — tends to produce an environ-
ment in which these irritating insects increase and multiply.
It is by no means everywhere a treeless waste ; but I he

^' 'vf'

i; ;

G40

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL

' 1
i

forest is continuous south of 53", and nortli of that latitude,
while the sunnnits and northern slopes of the hills are bare
over large areas, in the valleys of the streams and lakes, and
at the heads of the inlets, and in .sheltered places, wliite,
black, and balsam spruce, as well as birch and poplar, are
abundant. In the valley of the Hamilton river thti
spruce attains 24 inches in diameter at a height of -"l
feet from the ground. Dr. Clrenfell reports trees at the
head of Sandwich ]>ay from which GO feet spars might
be made. North of latitude 54' the timljer is not larue
enough to be of much commercial value, and the tree
limit is reached at latitude 58", or about the southern
coast of Ungava Bay. The northern part of the peninsula,
where the tre^s are scant, is covered with reindeer moss.
At the south this is replaced Ijy sphagnum. A large
portion of the forest region has been swept by tires
started by the carelessness of the Indians, who take nn
precautions with their camp fires.

Geologically, Labrador is an immense area of Archtean
rocks. . Nine-tenths of the whole peninsula consists i.if
Laurentian gneisses with intrusions of granite, basalt,
and syenite. Masses of anorthosite occur in the southern
part of the territory. Huronian rocks occur to a some-
what large extent along the East Main river, and on some
lakes south-west of Lake Mistassini. Small areas are
reported along the coasts of Hudson's Bay and the
Atlantic Ocean. The Cambrian formation is found over
large areas along the Koksoak river and on the upper
waters of the Hamilton river. A narrow band of Candiriau
extends along the coast of Hudson's Bay from Clreat
Whale river to liichmond Gulf, and the islands along the
coast are of the same formation. A large area of Cambrian
extends also along the southern shore of Lake Mistassini.
Enormous quantities of bedded iron ore specular, carbon-

' (■

LA15HAD0R

641

ate, and red ha.'iiiatite, occurring in mountain masses, were
observed in the Cambrian along the Koksoak river and
on the upper waters of the Hamilton. These ores are
unfortunately too inaccessible to be available. Xo other
minerals of economic value have been observed in (puintity.
Labradorite of the precious variety occurs in very large
masses on an island near Hopedale on the Atlantic coast,
and Low and Eaton foun 1 it also in great abundance on
Lake Michikamau. It is a beautiful mineral and glistens
with opalescent colours from bright blue to bronze green
and yellow. It is sometimes used in jewelry. For ten
miles along the lake large crystals were found.

Of the four divisions previously referred to, the western
watershed is the largest, and many large rivers flow through
it to fall into Hudson's Bay. The Big river is 550 miles
long, the East Main and (Jreat Whale rivers are 250
miles long. Little Whale river and Clearwater river
discharge a group of large lakes, but the region around
the last two is practically unknown. The watershed
from James Bay slopes very gradually up to the dividing
ridge, and is an exception in that respect to the rest of
the peninsula.

The northern watershed is chiefly drained by the
Koksoak river and its afliuents, which rise in groups of-
small lakes at the apex of the central triangle and flow
into Ungava Bay. Next after the Hamilton it is the
most important stream in. the peninsula, and drains an
urea of 60,000 sc^uare miles. The George is a very large
liver, and falls also into Ungava Bay after a course of
about 300 miles. Whale river in the same division is
I."»0 ndles in length. The coast of Hudson's Strait, which
forms the base of the northern watershed, has been de-
scribed in the chapter on Hudson's Bay.

As the watershed to the south along the Gulf of St.

III.

!:•

i ':'

i>' -

f}?^"

-f

P"^'

- -

f ?: i'!

iiiW

642

COMrEXDIUM OF (.IKOGUAl'HY AND TRAVEL

Lawrence has been already considered in connection with
tlie i)rovince of Quebec, of which it forms a part, there
remains to be noticed only Eastern Labrador, that portion
of the peninsula along the coast politically a dependency
of Newfoundland. l>lanc Sablon, at the inner end (tf the
Strait of JJelle-isle, is the point of separation from (^)uebec.
From thence a line is drawn due north to the oSnd degrei-
of latitude. There the line stops, and the governor'.s
connnission goes on to say that from the point of inter-
section of that line with the par.illel of ~}'2' the coast ol
Labrador and all its islands to Cape Chidley shall be
under the government of Newfoundland. How far inland
from the coast -line the jurisdiction of Newfoundland
extends has not been authoritatively decided, and is not
a practical question, liehind the mountains of the coast
range, up to ^le height of land, the country is unexplored,
excepting the valley of the Hamilton river.

Eastern Labrador presents to the Atlantic a formidaldc
coast-line of steep-to cliffs of Laurentian gneisses, schists,
and granites, with occasional Huronian rock, deeply in-
dented by fiords, and studded along all its length by
innumerable islands. These are all rocky, and many nf
them are high. Along continuous stretches of hundreds
of miles these islands afford an inside sheltered channel.
Only at one spot of this whole rugged and barren coast
is there a stretch of sandy beach. The ocean face ot
rock rises from 500 to 1000 feet, increasing in heiuiit
northwards to 1500 feet at Nain, and continuing to rise
from Okkak to Nachvak Bay to a height of ;)000 feel.
The mountain range in the rear conies down north ol
that point, close to the coast, and the land rises to oOUO
feet and 6000 feet, until wi<:hin 70 miles from Cape
Chidley, when it sinks to a continuous height of 1500
feet. The mountain chain of the interior, as it approaches

LAHKADOU

64.S

the const at the north, contracts to 25 miles from a width
of 50 miles, and is the highest land in British Xortli
America east of the llocky Mountains. The peaks of
these northern mountains are not glaciated, hut angular
and ragged, not rounded hy attrition, but sjjlit by frost.
I'rofessor Hind's description is very gra])hic — "The
Atlantic coast is the edge of a, vast solitude of rocky hills.

XACHVAK IXLKT. NOUTHEIi.N I.AliHADOH.

split anil blasted by frosts and beaten by waves. Head-
lands ajrim and naked tower over the waters — often
fantastic and picturesque in shape — while miles on miles
of rocky precipices, or tame monotonous slopes, alternate
with stony valleys, winding away along the Ijlue hills ol'
Uie interior."

With the notable exception of the Hamilton river, the
streams on the easterft slope are very short. They empty
at the heads of deep fiords where the flowing water and
the beating surf have completed the work of the glaciers
of a former age, and have cut deep grooves in the rocky

644

COMrENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TllAVEL

rampai't. During the short suimner tbd wind is most
frequently from the west, and the sea is then calm, but
easterly winds throw against the coast a tremendous sea.
The numerous inlets with steep shores cutting deeply into
the land, and the clustering islands form many sheltered
harbours, and navigation is not so much impeded by fog
as on the southern and south-eastern coast of Newfound-
land. Navigation opens on the southern shore at the
end of dune, or early in July, but north of Nain the
coast is seldom clear of field-ice before the end of July,
and all the year round bergs are passing down south-
wards. In July and August, the stream of icebergs is
most continuous, but all through the summer they are
floating down the Arctic current. The whole overflow
of the Arctic basin is thrown against this coast, for the
currents east and west of Greenland set upon it.

Sandwich ]5ay is one of the more important inlets.
It is 25 miles long and G miles wide. It contains
several good harbours, and here, at a place which still
bears his name, the adventurous Major Cartwright estab-
lished his trading post at the end of the hist century.
The most important, however, is Hamilton Inlet. This
extends o5 miles inland where it narrows to one-third of
a mile, and then expands into Lake Melville, 18 miles
wide, and reaching 90 miles farther inland to wliere the
Grand or Hamilton river discharges its waters. The
whole distance from the headland at the mouth of the
inlet to the Hamilton river is laO miles, and the averauo
width is 14 miles. Al the narrows is IJigolet, the chii'f
post of the Hudson's iJay Gomjiany in the district. Tlii'
country round is bold and rocky, especially on the south
shore where the Mealy mountains rise abruptly 800 t(j
1200 feet from the waters of the inlet.

Only one river is worthy of mention on this coast,

.'IlK

dec

Nwi

Froi

i'(Mn;

How;

The

swift

whic

tliaji

rise

LABRADOR

645

the f^reat Hamilton river, wliicli piacticallv drains nearly
the whole of Eastern Lalirador. Its trihntaries rise in
large lakes on the interior plateau, and its head waters
interlock with the sources of the Koksoak and George
rivers which discharge into Hudson's Strait. From its
fartliest source to its mouth the distance is about GOO
miles. Like all the rivers of Labrador it Hows on the
interior plateau in an even bed, on the surface and not
in a deeply cut valley : l)ut in its lower course below the
falls it Hows in a precipitous rocky valley deep below the
surface of the surroiinding country. The great falls are
215 miles from the mouth of the river, and commence
where it first sweeps down from the central plateau. In
a distance of 12 miles the river falls from a lake IGGO
feet to the mouth of a gorge only 900 feet above the
sea — a drop of 7G0 feet. Four miles above the great
cataract the rapids commence, and, within that distance,
the river rushes swiftly down until it reaches the head
of a precipitous gorge, at riglit angles to its general
course, into which it plunges with a final fall of ;>02
feet.

Through this deep and gloomy canon the river sweeps
in foanung rapids in a zigzag course of al)out 10 miles,
and then passes into a narrow valley with steep 8i<les
dee[)ly incised into tlie table-land, down which it Hows
swiftly for 50 miles to 'piiet water at Winokapau Lake.
From the lake it passes in rapids, and falls down the
remaiuing height in its course of over 120 miles, ami
Hows into the sea-level at the head of Melville Lake.
Tiie ascent of the river is very arduous, owing to tiie
swift current and the precipitous sides of the valley in
uiiich it Hows. Iik some places the whole valley is less
than half a mile wide, and perpeniUcular walls of rock
rise from 400 to GOO feet sheer from the river, which

646

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

in the course of ages has cut its way back from tlie
inlet.

These lalls were first seen by Mr. M'Lean in 1839.
Father Babel, who spent some seasons with the Indians
on the Hamilton, about 1870, visited them. In the
summer of 1891 two parties from the United States
succeeded in reaching them, and described tliem in com-
munications to the periodical press. In 189o-94 Low
and Eaton wintered on the Xorth-west river, and in the
following season explored the Upper Hamilton ; and the
fullest description of the Grand Falls is in Mr. Low's
report published in 1897.

i^i

Climate

The climate and soil do not admit of agriculturi'
north of 51°. The surface of this ancient tableland
seems to have been protected from sub-aerial action, and
the glacial period has lingered so late that the soil is
thin. There is i ) grass for cattle, and its place is sui)plied
by reindeer-moss and lichens. Edible berries, such as
gooseberries, cranberries, raspberries, currants, whortle-
berries, cloudberries, grow everywhere in great altundance.
Potatoes will grow at the head of Hamilton Inlet and at
Xain. The ^loravian missionaries cultivate during the
short summer a few garden vegetables by covering them
at night. There the average annual tem})erature is
'2'2'^)° Fahr., that is O"")" below freezing-point, while further
south at Hopedale it is 27 or 5° below. In the north,
on Hudson's Strait, the climate is Arctic, and on tlu'
unsheltered i)lateau it is very cold. Along the Atlantic
coast easterly gales are in winter very severe, sending
against the shore a heavy swell which sometimes breaks
over islands 30 feet high. The fishermen retire al'ttT

LABRADOR

647

the fishing is over up the valleys into sheltered spots,
and carry on fur-hunting during the long winter. It is
not that the winter temperature is so low compared with
other places where agriculture is possible, for at Rigolet, on
Hamilton Inlet, the mercury never falls below — 40' Fahr.;
but it is the shortness of the summer and the frequent
summer frosts which prevent the cultivation of vegetables.
The fishermen of tlie Atlantic coast profess to prefer
the winter season when they retreat up the valleys for
perliaps 50 miles or more. They find abundance of
food iishes — trout, whitefish, ouananiche, or land-locked
salmon — and may catch them easily through holes in the
ice. Innumerable geese breed in the north, and these,
shot by the residents in the fall, are hung up to freeze.
On the coast eider-ducks, loons, divers, widgeon, teal and
other water-fowl are very abundant, and a supply of those
suitable for food may be ])reserved l»y frost all through
the winter. Partridges are very plentiful in the interior,
and on the coast the choicest of the food-fishes of the sea
come to the feet of the inhabitants. Caribou are scarce
in the south, but the Iceland moss is the support of herds
of reindeer in the far north. The winter residents also
hunt, and trap for their skins, foxes, otter, beaver, nn"nk,
marten, and lynx ; so that ^Ir. Low concludes that the
lot of the residents at Labrador is more enviable than
that of the poor of large cities. These northern cliniv^s
are, however, unsuited for the " submerged tenth " of
civilisation. Nature is stern in the north, and quickly
eliminates the idle and thoughtless. The permanent
residents are frugal, moral, good-natured, and intelligent.
They are tall and strong physicidly, and their appearance
testifies that the climate is healtliy. Tlie Lal)rador coast
is a very important doix-ndency of Newfoundland, for
more than one-fourtli of the total fishery product of the

■i I

648

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

colony is derived from tlience, and the proj)ortion is
annually increasing. In the fishing season, from 20,000
to o 0,0 00 fishing-folk, men and women, leave Xewfoiind-
land for the liarhours of the const of Labrador. Tlie
favourite inlets are crowded with fishing craft, not only
from Xewfoundland but from Canada and the Tnited
States. There are ten to fifteen stations along the coast
for buying fish, and temporary settlements are made,
where the fish caught are cured and diied and sliii)ped
for the most part to the ports of final consum})tion in
the AVest Indies, lirazil, or western Europe.

Besides this floating population tliero was, accord-
ing to the census of 1891, a resident population in
eastern Labrador of 4120. Of tliese 2719 were Englisli.
and 1417 were christianised Indians — Eskimo, converted
by the Moravians ; all of whom get their living by fish-
ing. The cod of tliis coast are very large and fine ; for
along it, about 15 miles outside tlie islands, extends a
narrow bank exceeding 7000 square miles in area, over
which the Arctic current sweeps its treasures of " living
slime " — tlie food of fish. In July the capelin arrive
blackening the water by their numbers and throw them-
selves on the shore in myriads followed by the voracious
cod. The cod will not take l)ait while the capelin are
running, but are caught in enormous seines. Later in the
season, after the capelin disappear, they are taken by the
hook. The stations do not extend beyond Xain, but tlii'
fishing vessels follow the fish when they strike in all
along the coast as the ice clears away tlirough tlif
summer. Besides cod, herring and salmon are taken in
their season, and in spring the seal fishery affords eni})l(ty-
ment.

In the fall the large floating ])o])ulation go back to
their homes, and the winter residents gather at the chief

fWT^

LABRADOR

649

harbours. Two mails go in the winter l)y courier to
])attle Harbour, and one as far as Cartwright on Sandwich
] >ay. ]]eyond that, there is no communication in winter,
tlie inlets are all frozen over and the field-ice sets in upon
the coast blocking it from Xovemljcr until July. The
Quebec boundary at Blanc Sabloii marks a real division ;
for east of that line French is seldom heard.

It is impossible to write or speak of Labrador witliout
a tribute of respect to the ^Moravian ]>rethren. They
came upon this desolate coast about 17G4 and made their
first settlement at Xain, from whence they have extended
their work among the Eskimo. Their settlements are
Hopedale — the most southerly, — Zoar, Xain, Okkak,
Hebron, and Ramah on Xachvak Inlet — the most
northern. The Eskimo of the coast are collected round
their stations. Tiiev had been embittered against the
whites by centuries of injury — the very name of Lalnador
records the humiliating fact that it was as man-stealers
that Europeans first appeared uijon those coasts. The
Moravians at first found it diflicult to approach the
Eskimo, who did not believe that a white man could be
anything but an evil being. Now there are very few
heathen among them on the whole peninsula, and they
have become a harndess and industrious people, working
at their business of fishing and hunting, and grouping
themselves around the Moravian Hrethren.who teach them,
\\\) to their needs and capacity, the arts of civilisation.
They are very different .from the Indians. They are
cheerful and good-naturr-d in disposition and industrious
in habit. They are very fond of nnisic, and Caittain John
Davis relates how they would gather around to listen to
it. Tliat was 300 5*ears ago, and they have still the same
love of music. Dr. Grenfell of the ^Medical Mission
reports that when he arrived on the coast in his niission

650

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

M
!i

iiii

iHi

; i

rji

;!i:

ship, a number of them came aboard and squatted round
in the hold, while one of their number played excellently
on the ship's harmonium, and others performed on two
concertinas and two cornets, and the rest sang, in parts,
hvnins in their own lano;ua2fe to Enulish tunes. Thev will
play on the violin in first and second parts, and have a
natural appreciation of harmony. They are not increasing,
for, under the infiuence of European food and clothing,
their natural hardihood is weakened. Mr. Low confirms
the reports of some other explorers that the Eskimo are
not short in stature. They are from 5 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft,
tall, but their breadth and the clothing they wear detracts
from their height. They can all read and write in their
own language.

Tlie Indians of Labrador are of Algonquin stock, and
are Montagnais south of Hamilton Inlet and Nascopies
at the north. They have all been christianised by the
Anglican missionaries from Hudson's Bav, and the liomaii
missionaries from the St. Lawrence. The Christian
Indians nearly all read and write in the syllabic char-
acters invented for them by the missionaries, and it is not
unusual to find at the portages letters written with cliar-
coal on birch bark, fastened up for the information of
travellers.

Further remarks on the northern and western shores
of Labrador will be found in the chapter on Hudson's
I)ay, and in the chapter on Quebec, Southern or Quebec
Labrador is treated. The value of the fish products of
the eastern coast is included in the figures of the exports
of Xewfoundland. The present chapter is based very
largely on information contained in the reports of ^Ir.
A. P. Low and Dr. liell of the Geological Survey. The
volumes puldished by Messrs. Packard and Stearns, and
l>v l*rofessor Hind and Dr. Grenfell, are of much value.

LABRADOR

051

History

That the Northmen must have visited Labrador in
their vovages to Vinland in the tenth and eleventh
centuries cannot well be doubted ; but there is nothing
recorded to suggest that they ever attempted to settle on
that very uninviting coast. They are generally believed
to have given the name Helluland to the country — a
name singularly inapplicable ; f(ir though Labrador is a
country of stone and rock, it most certainly is not
" a land of stony flatness " — tcrram mxem planitici ; for
that is Eafn's translation of " Helluland," the descriptive
name which Leif Ericson gave to the territory he saw.
The coast is not such as to suggest any idea of flatness
at first sight. After the Northmen, the first Europeans
to reach the north-east coast were the Cabots. They, in
their second voyage in 1498, sailed along it northwards
in the hope of finding a pas.sage to Cathay. Their ex-
pedition must have reached Hudson's Strait ; and from in-
dications on liuysch's map, elsewhere referred to, they nuist
have attempted unsuccessfully to enter the strait l»efore
turning southwards. There is nothing positive in the
records or maps to show that Cortereal, who followed
soon after the Cabots, was ever on the coast of Labrador,
♦'ither on his first or second voyage. The Cantino map
(tf 1502 shows the east coast of Newfoundland, and Cape
Farewell in (ireenland, but no land between ; and the
indications on that map are that he struck directly from
Cajie Farewell to the Newfoundland coast, as Leif Ericson
probably did. Tiie Lal>rador coast is in fact barred from
the east until late in the year bv a continuous stream
of ice, sweeping d»nvn with the (Greenland current, as
explained in previous chapters, and it is not probaljle
that either voyager entered the pack. There is, however,

652

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TRAVEL

in Kiuistniaiin's Atlus a reproduction of a Portuguese
chart, dated 1502-4, showing an island marked Terra
Corterialis, and a small piece of coast behind it marked
Iiegalis Domus. These lines are repeated in the Ptolemv
of 1511, and suggest that some Portuguese sailor may
have penetrated into the Strait of Belle-isle ; but they
are not found on any other map, and Newfoundland was
delineated as part of the mainland until Jacques Cartier's
time. There is always, however, a deep bay (La Grand
Bale) marking the place of the Strait of Belle-isle.

Seeing that Labrador is so near Europe, a singular
amonnt of mythology has gathered around its scanty
history. There are, for instance, the Basque stories, and,
among what are called the " traditions of the coast," is
^ 3 story that Cabot fonnd a Basque vessel there. This
IS an evident transference of an experience of Cartier.
Then there is the story, based on a few incidental words
in Peter Martyr's letter, that the Indians met by Cabot
on the coast called the cod by the ]>asque name baccalaos
— a word no more Basque than Spanish or Portuguese.
It is also asserted in a general way, without citation of
any evidence, that the north-east coast was well known
to the Basque whalers before Cabot or Columbus dis-
covered America.

It is beyond doultt true that the Basques, both of
France and Spain, were very early upon the coast, but there
is no evidence that they preceded the liretons in 1504.
They carried on the whale fishery at the time America
was discovered, and they followed the whales far out to
sea ; but the assertion that they were on the American
coast as early as 1450, and that Cabot and Cortereal
met their sliips there, is without foundation. It is hard
to prove a negative, but it is destructive to history to
make positive statements without adducing a single

LABRADOK

G53

h of
there
504.
erica
ut t<»
ricaii
ereal
haril
ry to
uugle

historical fact in support of them. St. Sebastian was
the great centre of Uascpie shipping, and both Kohl and
Estancelin quote Xavarrete, to the effect that he had
searched the annals of St. Sebastijin and of the province
of Guipuscoa, and that they sliowed tliat the J Basque
whale fishery on the coasts of Newfoundland did not
commence before the return of Stephen Gomez' expedition.
Beyond question, Cabot or Cortereal did not encounter
Basque vessels on the American coast, and no name nor
date has l)een cited to show the contrary.

Then there are myths connected with the French
claims on Hudson's Bay. For instance, that in 1G56 the
sovereign council of Queljec sent Jean IJourdon to
Hudson's Bay by sea, and that he went there and took
possession in the name of the king of France. This is
effectually disproved by the Jesuit Kelation of 1058,
which records the arrival of Bourdon's vessel at Queljec
in 1657, and states that he did not go beyond latitude
55°, where he was stopped by ice, and that he therefore
returned, having lost some of his people killed hy the
Eskimo. Tlie year is generally erroneously given as
1656. Again it is asserted that Pere Dablon and the
Sieur de Valliere went overland to Hudson's ] iay in 1661 ;
bnt in the Jesuit Ilelation of that year a full account is
given of this expedition in a letter from Pore Dal)lon,
dated from Lake Nekouba, a little south of the lieight of
land, the utmost point they reached. They did not there-
fore cross the height of land. It is, moreover, clear in
the lielation of 1672 that Father Albanel was sent to
make a " discovery " of the bay, to learn its situation and
distance, and that his was the first expedition to succeed
in reaching it fronh Canada.

Then, in 1841, the Literary and Historical Society of
Quebec published a memoir, by a resident on the Labrador

654

COMrEXDIUM OF GEOfiRAPHY AND TRAVEL

■I

']
I

coast, giving, wliat the author called, the " traditions oi'
the coast." This memoir is a treasury of mythology, and
the statements made have been copied into most of the
later ])ooks : and here it may be remarked that a coast
without permanent inhabitants can have no traditions,
and that settlers in after years, in a wild country without
books or records, are not in a position to know more ol'
its previous history than any one else. ]Most of the
statements made in this memoir have been incidentallv
treated elsewhere ; it is only necessary now to refer to
thosd concerning the port of Brest. It is stated that
J>rest was founded a hundred years before Quebec, about
A.I). 1508, and that it contained 200 houses and 1000
permanent inhabitants all the year round, a number
probably trebled in summer; that in 1G.">0 a grant was
made of Bradore Bay en .srif/nctiric to a Count dc
Courtemanche, who had mai-ried a daughter of Kinu
Henrv I^^, and that the town tlien fell into decav.
Louis lioberts's Dictionary/ of Commerce, published in
1600, is cited to the effect that lirest was the chief
town of New France, the residence of a governor,
almoner, and other high officials, with many other par-
ticulars showing the importance of the town.

The real facts concerning Brest are that it was m
harbour well known to the fishermen. Jac(pies Cartier
was there in 15. '3 4, but mentions no town, nor fort, noi'
governor. He calls it the " Island of Brest " and the
" port of Brest." Jean Alphonse in his Routicr, about
1542, mentions Blanc Sablon, l)ut not Brest. If it had
been a settlement he could hardly have failed to notice
it as the only settlement on the coast. Champlain does
not once mention the place, though it, like many other
harbours without inhal)itants, is on his map, and he
wrote from 1600 to 1632. The port was in Esquimaux

LABRADOR

655

Bay, not in Bradore Bay, and on the old French maps

Esqniniaux Bay is often called A'ieiix Fort, and Old

Fort Island of our maps was called ^'ieux Fort. It is

at the mouth of the bay, but Stearns saw no remains of

a fort, nor even of buildings upon it. He resided on

the bay for a year, and the settlers told him that they

had seen remains of houses on the south sh(jre near the

mouth of the bay ; but he did not find any remains tiicre.

The name indicates that there must have been an

establishment, probably a summer fishing station there.

The particulars of the grant of Bradore are in the public

records at Quebec, and it is beyond question that there

was no Count de Courtemanche. The only grant was

made in 1702 to Augustin Le (iardeur de Courtemanche,

who was born in Quebec in IGGo, and married the widow

of Pierre Martel. Her maiden name was ]\Iarie Cluirest,

and she was the daughter of a tanner at Levis, o})posite

(Quebec. He married her in second nuptials in KiDT.

and in 1704 he made a vovage to Labrador, and, in a

report to the (Jovernor, he described the coast from the

Kegashka to a point beyond the strait. He mentions

Es(piimaux Bay, but not Brest, which ought to have been

there if it were a town ; and he descriltes Bradore r>ay,

then called Baye des Espagnols, where he found the

vestiges of an establishment for rendering blubber. He

found no ndiabitants on the coast. In 1712 his grant

was renewed and its extent curtailed. He built a fort

there, and he called the bay Phelyppeaux Bay, from tlie

name of the minister, and 'the fort, I'ontchartrain, from the

minister's territorial title. Phelyppeaux was minister of

Marine from 1699 to 1715. The first grant on the

coast was made in ^661 of the Seigniory of Mingan to

Fran(^ois Bissot, and the grant to Courtemanche, whose

wife was Bissot's grandchild, was the second. After that

lili:

056

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

1! ■ '

P ■ ,;

iit}

v:P

many grants were made for limited periods from Cape
Whittle eastwards far beyond the Strait f»f J]elle-isle, and
on the opposite coast of Newfoundlaud. These were
worked by the grantees, who were mostly Quebec
merchants, and a l)risk business was carried on. It was
under the English regime that the coast fell into the
hands of a monopoly, and was eventually almost abandoned
to the Hudson's Bay Company. The correct title of
Louis lioberts's work referred to in the memoir is given
in Lowndes as The MnxlianU' Map of Commerce, and the
first edition was published, not in 1600 but in 16o8.
With respect to Xorth-east America the work is full of
errors. The town of Brest is given as the capital of
Terra Corterialis ; the chief town of the region of
Norumbega bears the same name ; the chief towns of
Xovii Trancia are Canada and Sanguinai. All these
towns are equally mythical.

Ileturning once more to history, the name Labrador
presents much difticulty. It was not given by Cortereal.
He stole a number of Indians from Newfoundland ; and
from the descriptions given by Canlino and Tasqualigo,
who saw some of them in Lisbon, they could not have
been Eskimo. In the letters written at the time, both
the writers record the fact that the king of I'ortugal was
impressed by the suitability of these Indians for labourers
or slaves, and this is the most rational explanation of the
name. It is on the earliest maps, though not on Cantino's,
as Terra Laboratoris, De Lavrador, and Labrador. The
last is the Spanish spelling of the same word, and means
labourer, so that Labrador might be freely translated as
*' Slave Coast." A map dated 1534— the " Wolfenbuttel
map " — contains the only attempt at an etymology, in a
note to the effect that the country was discovered by the
English, and a labourer (Labrador) from the Azores

LABiiADOU

GT)'

fiiuoiijj;' the crew saw it first. Tlie "tradition of tiu'
coast," however, iiiocliHcs this tiieory !»}' reportint;" tluit
''one Lahrudor, a J)as(|ne wlialer from Navarre in Sjtain
(lid ])enetrate throiij^h the .Strait of ]>elle-isle as i'ar as
Labrador IJay some time about the middle of the fifteenth
century, and eventually the whole coast took its name
from that bay and harlwur." The fact is, that liradore
]>ay is a name which dates oidy from tlie Kn«^lish occu]^ .-
tion, and is not found on the early maps or in the French
authors. In the (rcdf/rnp/iicn/ Joi'ma/ for February, 1 (SljT,
a Portuguese writer states that private documents have
recently been found to indicate tiiat in 1402 tlie king of
Portugal sent one .loao Fernandes Lavrador to discover
lands across the ocean. The documents are not appendeil
to the paper.

The early English voyages of discovery wer^c to the
coasts north of Labrador. Tlie Knglish were searching
for the north-west passage, and sought for it more to the
north. Frobislier saw the entrance of Hudson's Strait.
Davis, in 1587, crossed the mouth of the strait, and
sailed down the coast of Labrador to latitude 52 , having
landed at Davis' Inlet and Hamilton inlet liefore returning
to England. Weymouth, in 1002, sailed for some distance
into the strait, and afterwards coasted along Labrador.
The state of English knowledge is shown by the Hakluyt
nuip of IGOO, and was limited to the e.xistence of a strait ;
but the Portuguese nuqjs of an earlier date not only show-
all the coast of Labrador named, but even indicate a
knowledge of Hudson's Lav, which Hudson did not enter
until IGIO. When the Portuguese ceased to frequent
the north-east coast, and the French and English began
to make maps, all tltese names disappeare(l.

When at tlie peace of 17G.*] Canada was ceded to
(ireat Ihitain, the whole of Labrador, as far up the gulf

2 u

058

COMPENDIUM OF CJEOGKAPIIY AND TIJAVEL

■I

■!(

as the St. John river, as well as the Island of Anticosti,
and tlie jMagdalen Islands was annexed to the Governnieiit
of 2> •vfoundliuid. This became a grievance to llic
pioprietors on the coast, because tlie grants had bet'ii
niatle under French law, and nmch confusion arose because
of the introduction of English law ; so that, by th'.. statulf
connnonly called the (»)uel)ec Act of 1774, Canada was
extended to its ancient limits. In the meantime, English
merchants at (Quebec bought out the old French grants
and worked the fisheries for a while ; but eventually tiie
whole region passed under lease, first to the North-west
Company, and then to the Hudson's I iay Company, whosi'
trading po'^ts still exist at convenient ] join's along the
coast. In 1800 the boundaries of the i)rovince of (Quebec
were again contracted to the Ifiver St. John, and Southeni
Labrador reverted to Newfoundland ; but finally, in ISlTi,
the boundary of (>)uebee was extended to lUanc Sablon at
the Strait of Uelle-isle, its ])resent limit.

North of the Strait of lU'lle-ish; the coast was un-
inhabited when, in l77l, the Moravian Ibvthren foundnl
at Nain the first of tlieir missions to tlie Eskimo. The
eccentric ]Major Cartwriglit settled soon after at Sandw icli
Bay, where he carried on, for many years, trade with I he
Eskimo. Settlers from England were established on
Hamilton Inlet in 1777, and found there the remains of
the French stations. A ^'mw years later the Quebec
merchants established post.s there. At Eclipse Harbour,
close on latitude GO , the American Covernment exi)editioii
of 18G2 was stationed to ol)serve the ecli})se of that yciir.
Practically the only settlers nortli of Hamilton Iidet aiv
at the Moravian and Hudson's IJay stations.

I^ABRADOR

IT) 9

NOTE TO CHAITER XX I

I'l^i-r., Dr. K,

Tlie Labrador IVninsnl'i u-,-fi.

^Ma«a.ine, July, S'. '"' " "'^1'' Scottish Geograpluc-al

''A( KAIil), A. S.

Tl.o Labrador Coast. i\eu- York, 1891.
L<'\v. A. r.

"'":;;,,ss„::i:---';---^ «

Rtkakxs, \\\ .\

Labrador, a .skelcli of its ,,eonl.. ,> • i . •

I'i«tory. lioston, 1884 ^' '"•'"■^^'■"•'•^' ^""l it« natural

And the following report, of the Geological Survey .- -

LaI11!A1m)1{ PKN-IXsri.A.

A. r. Low, 1894, 1S95.

K- B"H, 18S.J. A. P. Low. 1894.

CHArTER XXII

NEWFOUNDLAND

i I

Xkwi-'OUXDLAND i:< an island, one -third lar^vr than
Iivland, situatod at the mouth of the Gult'ot" St. Lawrence,
which it protects from the lull sweep of the X'orth
Athuitic Ocean. It is the easternmost ])art of X'orth
America, and readies one-tliird of tlie (hstance across t<»
(Ireat lUitain. It is descrihed with ap}»voximate ac-
curacy as lieinu; shaped hke an eiiuilateral triangle, hut
the north-eastern side of this imagined triangle is so
])rofoundly indented l»y dee]* and wide bays that the
line on that side would inclose a laige extent of water.
Xewfoundland extends from 40 .">."»' to .'I -tO' north

latitudt

ans

from

• • -.

') to oO '2'> west lonuitudc

St. dohn's, the capital city and easternmost jtort of the
island, is lOT") nnles distant from Caite Clear in
Ireland; it is about as far distant westwards from Capi'
Clear as Moscow is distant eastwards. From Ca[ic
Iface lo Montreal, at the head of navigation on the
river St. Lawrence, the distance is 101.» nnles. The
island from Cajie Anguille to (.'ape S})ear — the liroadcsi
l»art of its base — is 'Mij nnles witle frttm west to eiisl
and on its western side tin; distance from Cape Hay,
the south-west ]>oint, to Cape Xorman, its northern
ajH'x, is .'(17 miles. The total area of the island \\:\>
been calculated to be 42,000 scjuare miles. The are;i

jMklS

^'^ r«-»^" jrr -^ii;^ '* OV

T.>Nit(nii K«iwiir«i Slaiitiiiii ili A Z; Cixk

^m:A'

Tn f'lir fi I,/, Hi;,

.*4

tt^ .;:;"i/' N !•: w i'( > i ' N i ) L A x i )

.*>■'. hiiiu'trr /'•

Tin* (r<><»|(>t'l(-.'i I M;«I»
BY AI-KX"? MIIIHAY. K. <i.S.

Toidy n^/i. LiftMi A LahUs shewn fhiu

.•'^•>

'^1 XVj-

'\ ' T,

ifio

//Willi /.'

,#■ Anw/«

\,./.A^-V'

-^^^^^^

■4'

ftitH.tri.'ftii

ntirislii '

r/P^

^.'•'-'^

■ 4 48

f^^mft

'""^* ^^**^,

t/il/K/

*>l I < nifijttiktlf VS iij" *>f<-mwit-ii

MiiliirtV ili .V i; (o<'kj«|>iu 'M ('hHrni)> ('ru«« S.W.

Iblhcepuffi! 661

AND

60l

'-i

h n

yland

if Oi-M«i«itfh

NEWFOUNDLAND

00 1

of Ireland is iU,7oO square miles, and of Wales, 7378
square miles, so that their united areas are not equal to
that of Newfoundland. Tlie western coast of the island
is comparatively straight, but the southern and east(»rn
coasts are remarkable by profound indentations and
salient peninsulas, so that few countries in the world
have coast-lines so long relatively to their areas. Three
peninsulas especially mark the outline of the island witli
a unique character — at the south-east corner the penin-
sula (jf Avalon, connected with the mainland l)y ii, neck
only two miles wide; the peninsula of Burin on the
south ; and, on the north, the long projection Irom White
Bay to the Strait of ]>elle-isle, known on the old mtips,
and even now, as Le Petit Xord. So deeply does the
ocean penetrate into the land, that on many of the old
maps, for nearly a hundred years after its discovery,
Newfoundland was represented as an archipelago. This
long coast-line is indented witli numerous commodious
liarl)ours, and studded with innumerable islands, especi-
ally on the eastern and southern coasts. The general
character of the coast is very rugged and bold. A
rampart of steep rocky cliHs 200 to 400 feet high
confronts the ocean and resists the tierce onslaught of
the storniy North Atlantic. For long stretches of the
coast the wall of rock appears to be urd^rcjken, but on
close api)r(»ach it is seen to be cleft by fissures, which
open up deep and tiord-like harbours safe and sheltered
from e\ery wind. V/here the broad bays enter the
land the coast may not be so forbidding, but it is still
rocky and bold. Alon<^ the west coast a few miles
inland the Long liange ^Mountains, rising in places to a
lieight of 2000 feet above the sea-level, run far into the
l»eninsula of Le Tetjt Noril and almost the whole length
of the island; and outer ranges 1900 to 2000 feet high

I > \

I 'i 1

662

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

V.I

&, ,

run closer to the shore and give a stern and majestic
beauty to the coast from Cape Anguille as far as Cape
Gregory and Bonne Bay.

Newfoundland is separated from the main continent
at Labrador on the north by the Strait of Belle-isle,
which extends north-east and south-west for a length of
85 miles, with a breadth varying from 10 to 15 miles.
A rocky island (Belle-isle) of granite cliffs 700 feet high
guards the Atlantic entrance. The lighthouse (470
feet above the sea) is maintained by the Dominion of
Canada. Through this strait is the most direct route
from western Europe to the river .St. Lawrence, and it
was the first route known to the early sailors in these
waters. By this strait, evidently then well known,
Jacques Cartier sailed in and out of the fkdf of St.
Lawrence on his first voyage in 15o4. The expansion
below the strait between Newfoundland and Labrador
was known as La Grande Bale before the existence of a
southern outlet was suspected, and that name lingered
on the maps down to the commencement of the present
century. Cape Bay, at the south-west apex of the
triangle, is separated from Cape North, on Cape Breton
Island, by a strait until very recently nameless, but
happily called on the later Admiralty charts Cabot
Strait, after John Cabot, who discovered these waters
in 1497. The strait is 60 miles wide, but 20 miles
of that distance is cut off by the island of St. Paul, a
high-wooded island, lying 20 miles off Cape North.
Cape Kay is a remarkable headland, and stands out as
a table-land rising 1700 feet above the sea. Cabot
Strait is a noble portal to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The lofty land is visible from passing vessels on both
sides and the })assage is lighted by two lighthouses on
St. Paul's Island and one on Cape Bay.

times
It mej
than

loilfr
O

was t'A

i** also

vessels!

['"rtant

•Hid it

'iiaps.

To J

NEWFOUNDLAND

663

til.

Cape Race, the soutli-eastern apex of the iiuaginary
triangle, deserves very special notice as the beacon of
tlie North Atlantic route to America — the objective
point to which all westward bound ships aimed to
make a landfall, and to which the great sailing routes
converge. In recent years tlie large Jind powerful
steamships to Xew York, on emerging from the English
Channel, lay their course by a more southern route ;
but for 375 years, and during the period of sailing
vessels, before the application of steam, the ocean
lane outward between England and America was by
Cape Race. It is the one unchanging point of the
old sea cliarts. On the first map showing any part
of the main American continent — La Cosa's in a.d.
1500 — it appears under the name of Cavo de Yngla-
terra, and on Ruysch's map, in the I'tolemy of 1508,
it is called Cavo de Portogesi ; but, with these excep-
tions, it is called upon every map from the (so-called)
King chart of 1502 down to the present day. Cape
Raso, Rasso, Ras, Raz, or, in the English corrupted
form, Race. The word is practically the same in all
the romance languages, being derived from the Latin
" rasus," and the name was given in the very earliest
times by some I'ortuguese sailor who knew the locality.
It means " the flat cape," for it is lower and evener
than the adjacent headlands. The Uritish Government
long maintained a lighthouse there; but, in 18(S0, it
was taken over by the Dominion of Canada. Tliere
is also an electric telegraph station from whence passing
vessels may be reported. Cape Race is tlie most im-
[)ortant headland in North America for many reasons,
iind it is the key to many of the problems of the early
maps. ^

To attempt to describe, or even to mention, the Ijays

■ i

' w

GG4

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'HY AND TKAVKL

,[1

f 1^

ft *.,

and Imrboui's of Newiouiidljiiul would be a weary task.
Only the j^reat bays can be noted, and to all of them the
same remark is a])plicable. They all contain numberless
smaller bays, harbours, coves, and shelters for vessels.
All are studded with islands, and in all there is deeji
water to the very shores. On the east coast Conception
Lay runs 35 miles into the peninsula of Avalon ; around
it have clustered the oldest settlements. To the north
of it is Trinity Bay, which bounds Avalon on the north.
It runs 50 miles into the land and is 10 miles wide at
its mouth. On the south-east shore of this bay is
Heart's Content — the landing-place of the Atlantic sub-
marine tele<j;raph cables. Next northwards is Bonavista
liay, marked on the north by Cape Freels, and on the
south 1)y Cape I'ona vista. The liay is .'JO miles wide
between these two headlands; it extends :'0 miles in-
wai'ds and is full of islands. The headlands are not
high, but are rocky. Cape IJonavista is supposed by
some authorities to be the landfall of dohn Cal)ot on
his first voyage, and to have been named by him. There
are many reasons why this cannot have been the case:
it is sulhcient to remark here that the name is not found
on the earliest mai)s. It appears first on a map by
Viegas in 15.'>4, and as a Portuguese word, Boavista.
Notre ])ame liay, the next on the north, is 45 miles
wide between its headlands Fogo Island and Cape St.
John. It also is studded with islands. At Tilt Cove
on the north side near Cape St. «Iohn are large coj^per
mines. White Bay, which succeeds, cuts oil the i)en-
insula of Le Betit Nord from the main island on the
east. Hare Bay, on the farthest north, is a bay with
bold and lofty shores very little frequented. Cape
Baidd, tiie extreme north point of the island, is on
Kirpon Island, often mentioned by the early marini'vs

'I stre
disco ve
coast
All th
This h
•'•I'lallc
•Vortli
— one
The ba
Jt scare

NKWFOUNDLANI)

G(3o

niitlor the name of Quii'i)i)n or Carpunt. Tlie .so-callocl
KieiH-'li shore contimu's from Cape St. Joliii on the east
side, round by Cape IJaidd (in the north, and down the
west coast to Cape Ray, its most southern ))oint. Tiie
blight of the dijdomatic Idiindei- of Utrecht in 171.") hns
prevented settlement on this coast and kept the country
a wilderness. A few tishiuLr stages and an occasional
lobster-canning establishment are ]»oor results on so long

.MOUTH or THK Hf.MHKK HIVKU.

a stretch of coast for the four hundred years since the
discovery of Xewfoundland. Following down the west
coast from the north are St. dohn's l>ay and l>onne Bay.
.Vll the coast is uninhabited down to the bay of Islands.
This l)ay is remarkable tor its magniticent scenery, nn-
<M|ualled by anything upo'n the whole Atlantic coast of
North America. Three lofty islands guard the entrance
— one of them, Guernsey Island, rises sheer up 1000 feet.
The bay is encircled, by mountains 2000 feet high, and
it searches in among them in solenni tiorddike arms.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

1.0

I.I

1.25

s ;^ It

" us. Illllio

122

1.4

1.6

^.^ ^

606

COMPENDIUM or GEOGIJAI'HY AND TRAVEL

I- ■■,

iM'v

The river Humber falls into this bay, and near the
Huniber arm Jjloniidon cliff rises — sheer up 2125 feet
— the western termination of a range of hills which
follows lip the river valley. The bay has safe anchor-
ages and harbours, and settlements begin to form around
it ; for the valley of the Humber is rich, and minerals
abound in the hills. St. George's Bay, the last im-
l)()rtant bay to the south, is 35 miles wide and extends
^)0 miles into the land. The most important settlement
on the west coast is at the head ol this bay. It is
bounded on the south by Cape Anguille, one of the
loftiest headlands on the coast. There is but one good
harbour in this large bay, that at its head, and there
are few islands in it.

At Cape liay tlie French shore ends, and from that
point along the south shore and round by Cape Eace
to Cape St. John, it has been possible for the colonists
to make settlements uninterrupted, at least by French
interference, their only difficulties have l)een with the
mother country. About 7 miles east of Cape Ifay is
Port aux Basques, wliere, in 1866, the first Atlantic
telegrapli cable crossed to Cape Breton. This harbour
is the '"vminus of the railway which was completed in
June, 18.) 7. A connection will this year be made by a
first-class steamer witli Sydney, Cape Breton, the eastern
terminus of the Intercolonial railway. The passage will
be made in five or six hours, and the port of St. John's
will then be in close running connection with the
continental railway system. The distance from Liver-
pool to New Vork is )»56o miles, while from Cape Clear
to St. -fohn's it is only 1675 miles, and the project is,
by extension of the railways on both sides of the ocean,
to shorten the ocean portion of the passage by 180U
miles.

]»assii

town

John'

Bay

is, in

gale

vcsselij

from

by a
■;tevii

)lnr

NEWFOUNDLAND

CO'

The south coast of Xewtbundlciiid is studded witli
iununierable islands ; the Burgeo islands, the Eamea
islands, and tlie islands in Fortune Bay figure in the
Spanish and Portuguese maps as the 11,000 Virgins — a
name which has disappeared from the coast unless it has
been transferred to the ^'irgin liocks. Fortune Bay is
much frequented, and has many settlements upon its
shores. It penetrates 65 miles inland and is 35 miles
wide at its mouth. Like the other large bays it abounds
in harbours, coves, and shelters for fishing craft. The
French islands of St. Pierre Micpielon lie off its mouth.
East of Fortune Bay opens up the great bay of Placi'ntia
lying between the peninsulas of Burin and Avalon. It
is 40 miles wide at its mouth, and reaches 60 miles
inland, abounding, as do all the other great bays, in
harbours and islands. On the eastern side of the bay is
the town of Placentia, in the days of French supremacy
the seat of French power but now of much reduced im-
l)ortance. The Atlantic telegraph cables are landed at
l*la jntia Road, and the lines pass from thence overland to
Heart's Content in Trinity I)ay. Six cables cluster liere,
l)aSKing from Sydney by way of St. Pierre Island. The
town of Placentia is connected by a, railway with St.
John's. St. Mary's ]iay, 20 miles wide, and Trepassy
l)ay are the other important bays to the east. Trepassy
is, in winter, of some importance ; for when an easterly
gale may have blocked St. John's harbour with field-ice,
vessels may find shelter tliere, and there is a good road
IVom thence 70 miles lung to St. John's.

kcean,
180i>

Geology

Although Newfoundland is a country of coast-lines
iiiid harbours, so that even its elec'oral districts are

nr"ir||i

GGS

CO.MPENDIU.M OF GEOGllAPIlY AND TKAYEL

(lefinotl iip(Hi their sea fronts alone, a careful survey
lias been made of its geoloi^acal structure. Speakiny'
generally it consists of two unecjual areas — an area of
Huronian rocks occupying the south-east corner and the
})eninsula of Avalon, and an area of predinniiiant
Laurentian extending over the remaining two-thirds ol'
the island. The dividint; line is a diagonal heoinninu' at
(Jape Freels, the nortliern headland of Bonavista ])ay,
and running in a generally south-westerly direction
across the country to and along the western side of
Fortune l^ay — and here it may l»e ol)served that all the
pliysical features of the island are on a similar diagonal
]»lan : so that, whether it be the mountains and ridges,
or tlie valleys and I'ivers, or even the outcrops of the
rock formations, they will all l)e found to run u])on a
diagonal north-east and south-west jilan. The south-east
ov Huronion ansa contains three small nuclei of Laurentian
gneiss, but is characterised by Ifuronian rocks consisting
of slates, (juartzites, and slate conglomerates with laigc
areas of Lower Cambrian ])eds, desi'-nated as I'riniordial
in the early surveys, and consisting of sandstones and
conglomerates. These form the stee]) forbidding cliifs of
this ])art of the coast, and underlie the most sterile
portion of tlie island. The two peninsulas of Avalon
and Piurin are included in tliis area.

The remainiuL;' two-thirds of the island mav be called
Laurentian, from tlie immense jireponderance of that
formation ; althougli, in fact, it contains im])ortant areas
where the whole series of rocks from Upper Cambrian
to the true coal-measures are disjdayed. These areas
are Iiands along the coast, or troughs along tiie river
valleys; but the main mass of the country, and its chief
mountain chains are Laurentian similar to the Laurentian
uneiss which forms the backbone of Canada.

W !il

NP]\VFOUXDLANI)

GG9-

Tlie diay-oiiul dividing' line aljove descril)ed comes out
upon the south shore at the western headland of Fortune
]iay. From that jtoint westwards to 10 miles beyond
Cape Ray all the coast is Laurentian. At this latter
point this formation runs north-north-east in a stiaight
line along a fault almost to the northern end of tiie
island; between the line of this fault and the west coast
is a band varying from 10 to 30 nnles in width accord-
ing to the sinuosities of the shore line composed of
upper Taheozoic rocks as high in series as the coal-
measures. The chain of highlands called the Long IJange
is entirely Laurentian, and although it marks the character
of the scenery it nowhere comes out upon the shore
along the whole western coast, nor yet u])on the northern
point. At Canada Head, on the north-east si«le, the
Laurentian comes out and continues cdonsi' the coast to
Cape Freels, excepting around the shore of Notre Dame
liay, which is fringed by an area of serpentine rocks.

While the lieait of the island is thus formed of
Arcluean and Primordial rocks tliere are large .'iicas of
later formations, and upon these are the agi'icultural and
heavily tind)ered lands which liave of late years been
opened up and made known by the oilicers of the
( Jeolo<'ical Survev. On the west coast the larminsj'
lands of the Codro}' valley and ]>ay St. (reorge iin' upon
Carboniferous rocks. Further north, upon the maiginal
lu'lt, are Candtro-Silurian rocks which extend all avound
l>y the northern cape. A trough of I'pper Siluiian 20
to 25 miles in width commencing at the IJay of Exploits
runs diagonally across the island and comes out in two
narrow forks on the south shore. The Exploits river in
its whole leuLjth Hows through it, and it surrounds huUan
and Victoria lakes.' A similar band to tlie south is
followed l)y the (»ander river, and in the two valleys are

I f

i ! I-

f ;

li ■ U

k I

<)70

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

large areas of good land and of merchantable tiniljer.
There is also an area of Carboniferous rocks at the head
rjf tlie valley of tlie Huniber.

■I 1^

Interior

It has been the misfortune of Newfoundland that,
for more than 200 years, it was the policy of the
British Government to prevent its settlement, and the
interest of the influential class who controlled the fisheries
to decry its climate and agricultural capabilities. The
forbidding rampart of l)arren rock which guards its
eastern and southern shores, and the magnificent moun-
tainous scenery of the western coast do not in truth
suggest the existence of large tracts of arable land ; but
the explorations of the Geological Survey have revealed
in the valleys of the streams, and at the heads of tlie
bays, large areas suitable for settlement and cultivation.
Until then the interior of the island was an uidvnowu
wilderness, and even yet large areas remain unexplored :
for, although the railway is now completed across tlie
island, and hunting parties w'itli canoes and Indian
guides may follow up the rivers and cross the portages
over to the westward streams, no white man since
Cormack in 1822 is reported to have crossed the main
island at its witlest extension on foot. So for as known
the interior is an undulating i)lateau of no great elevation,
for the most part covered by marshes, interspersed with
patches of woods, and studded with countless lakes ami
ponds. There are also large areas known locally as
"barrens," consisting of rock generally covered with
lichens or caribou moss, with shallow pools, and small
streams, and patches of low pines and larch (locally called
juniper) where there is a little soil in sheltered hollows.

NEWFOUNDLAND

07J

Ptidges, generally Ijtire of trees, run across this plateau in
a north-east and south-west direction and terminate as
the headlands of bays giving an undulating appearance
to the interior of the country. From the jjlains rise
occasional high isolated peaked hills, called locally "tolts,"
to a height of 1500 to 2000 feet.

The most important range of mountains is the Long
Range running near the west coast and rising often into
peaks 2000 feet high. \ shorter range runs between
this and the shore starting from Cape Anguille — not of
Laurentian age but Silurian and Carboniferous. Tlie
Blomidon Eange breaks otf from these and borders the
valley of the Humber composed also of the later
formations. Another range called the Middle liange
extends across the island from Notre Dame liay to
Fortune Bay. The peninsula of Avalon is very hilly,
and is traversed by two high ranges. Few peaks rise
anywhere upon the island higher than 2000 feet.

ii''i

4 -I

<: l

Hydrography

Newfoundland is a country abounding in waters. It
lias been calculated that one-third of its surface is covered
with water. From any elevated point will be seen in
all directions lakes, rivers, and brooks in countless
numbers. The highest land is on the west and scjuth,
and all the larger rivers except the Humber tiow to the
north-east coast.

Of the rivers the largest is the Exploits river, 200
miles lonj-' and draining an area of 3000 to 4000 miles.
It rises at the extrem3 south-west point of the island
within 12 miles of Cape l*ay and flows north-east into
the bay of Exploits, a sub-bay of the great Notre Dame
Bay. The Gander river rises also near the southerii

i : . I,

672

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIY AND TKAVEL

il;:;;'

coast, and tiowiiig also in a nortli-east direction, falls, after
draininu,' an area of 2500 miles, into another sul)-l»ay
(dander liay) of tlie same great Ijay of Xotie iJanic.
The third large river is the Huml^er, ^vhich Hows in an
opposite direction, but between the same points of the
compass. It rises near the head of AVliite 1\ay on the
east coast and falls into Bav of Islands on the west.

t'l:

VIKW (IX THK HlMliEK KIVEH.

Tiie head waters of the streams almost touch in the
interior, and some of the lakes drain in opposite directions ;
Imt, while these afford canoe routes for hunters, all com-
munication before the railway was built was by vessels
along the coast.

Timber

For a considerable distance inland from the west and
south coasts the trees are generally fir and spruce ol

NEWFOUNDLAND

/• ^ »>

0/ o

stunted growtli, but there are large tracts of heavily
timl)ered land at the heads of the bays and in the
valleys of the numerous streams. Ujjon the ]]ay of
Exploits, the river Exploits, the (hinder river and
(jiander Lake, and the river Huml:)er ; along the west
coast, upon St. George's IJay, and in the valleys of tht;
('odrovs timber is abundant and fjood. Lumberiny;
operations are extending rapidly. The trees found ai-e
cliietly white and yellow pine, white, l)lack, and red
spruce, fir and tamarack, birch, asli, and red maple,
(.'edar, beech, oak, and elm are not found in the forests.

Climate

The climate of Xewfoundland varies very much. The
Arctic current running along the eastern coast lengthens
out the spring and, in winter and early spring, the east
winds blow masses of tield-ice into the bays and harbours,
tlie continual stream of Itergs also helps to retard the
summer. Frequent fogs are borne in upon the east and
south coasts by all the eastern and southerly winds.
The climate of that portion of the island, while not so
cold in winter or so WMrm in sunnner as in Canada,
is apt to be raw and chilly rather than cold in winter
and foggy and cool in summer. The average minimum
temperature of eight years was 7°, and the maximum
<S3° Fahrenheit. These are the extreme points of range.
In the interior and on the west coast the climate is
different and resembles that of Canada. The spring is
earlier and the summer warmer. The fog does not
penetrate farther than 20 miles from the south and east
coasts, and so the sky is briglit and the weather clear.
On the elevated barl-ens it is very cold in winter, but the
\alleys are sheltered from the colder winds. The robust

O y

^!. itj

674

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

ii?

I ,1

appenmnce of the population testifies to the sahihrity of
the climate.

Government

The fjoveriimeiit of Xewfoundland extends not onh-
over the island of that name but over that part of
Labrador extending; from Blanc Sablon at the Strait of
Belle-isle northwards along- the coast to Cape Chidley.
The island has not yet consented to form part of the
Dominion of Canada, and the British ( rovernment there-
fore appoints the lieutenant-governor. There are two
chambers — the legislative council of 15 members,
nominated for life by the governor in council, and the
legislative assembly, at present consisting of 30 mem-
bers, elected for four years by ballot under manhood
suffrage. The administration is in the form known as
responsible government by a ministry commanding a
majority in the popular house.

Trade and Resources

Since the year 1887 accounts have been kept in
dollars and cents, and, by a recent statute, the currency
was assimilated to that of Canada and the United States,
the par of exchange being fixed at $4'86"66 to the
pound sterling, or in the language of bankers the par is
9^ per cent premium on old par.

The exports are for the greater part to foreign
countries, while the importations are mostly from Great
Britain and her colonies.

A reference to the tables given below will show that
in 1894 the value of fishery products was $5,144,589
out of a total export value of $5,811,169. This will
show to what an extent the resources of the colony are
derived from the surrounding ocean.

that tl

familit

are

check

discoui

George

the peo

NEWFOUNDLAND

675

Values op Chikf Auticles of Export fok the Yeak 1S94

Qtmiitity. Valin-.

Dry codfish, (luiutals 1,107,69() s:3,703,33S

Herrings, piokletl, barrels .... 78,:57t> 197,551

,, frozen, barrels .... 56,907 56,907

Salmon, pickled, tierces .... 3216 51,483

Lobsters, preserved, pound.s .... 2,306,688 312,364

Cod oil, tons 3783 264,810

Seal oil, tons 4063 276,284

Sealskins, number 284,460 227,568

Copper, ingots — regnlus and green ore— tons . 28,842 236,235

Iron pyrites, tons 40,582 285,474

Lumber, feet 6357 82,641

Total Value of Lmtohts and Exi'outs of NEWForNDLAND,

INCLUDING LAliUADOIl

1890
1891
1892
1893
1894

Iiiiports.
l?6,368,835
6,869,458
5,012,877
7,572,596
7,164,738

CouitSE ok TUADiC, 1894

United Kingdom
British Colonies
Foreign Countries

Imports.
82,538,942
3,952,046
1,673,750

$7,164,738

Exports.
86,099,686
7,437,158
5,651,111
6,280,912
5,811,169

Exports.
81,347,425
1,366,684
3,097,060

85,811,169

Population

From the nature of their occupation it is evident
that this peox^le cannot be grouped in cities, but settled in
families and small communities along the coast. There
are no settlers in the interior, and the French claims
check settlement on the west coast ; but in spite of many
discouragements tliere are settlements at Codroy, St.
George's Bay, Bay of Islands, and Bonne Bay. The life
the people lead, in continual conflict with the sea, and in

ll'ii

1 )'

■j

■

'1 '• J

ii-i

iiiiT

It ',

07 G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'llY AND TRAVEL

i.resence of all the dangers of seafaring life upon an ocean
vexed with frequent storms, makes them earnest and
resolute in character. They are matchles.. sailors-
skilful and daring, such men as in the old days ot
wooden ships raised Great liritain to the pinnacle of her
naval renown. They are daily braving its dangers, and
they know well all the secrets of the sea. They, beyond
all other people, " go down to the sea in ships, and do
business in great waters." Newfoundland is still a great
training-school for mariners, but, possibly, it is engineers
and stokers that are needed under the new conditions ot
naval warfare. The last census was taken in 1891, and
*Tave the following results : — -

PorULATioK— Ceksus of 1891

Newfouiullaiul
Labrador

Total population

:Males in Newfoundland only
Females . . • •

197,934
4,106

202,040

100,775
97,159

POPVLATION OF ToWNS

St. John's .
Harbour Grace
Twillingate .
Bonavista .
Carbonear .

29,007
6466
3565
3551
4127

rOPULATION BY RELIGIONS— CeXSUS OF 1891

Church of Rome .

Church of England

Reformed Episcopal Church .

Methodists . • ■ •

Presbyterians

Congregationalists .

Salvation Army .

Baptists and others

Moravians on the Labrador Coast

(2,696

69,824

487

53,276

1,449

782

2,092

1,397

N p:\vfoundlan I >

Education

The educational system adopted is deuomiiiatioiial.
and 110 other system seems to be possible with tlie strong
sectarian feelings of the people. The government grant
for 189G amounted to lj>150,58r) for all schools and
colleges. The total iiuml)er attending colleges and
schools is l'>4,5o7. There are four superintendents of
education appointed by Government — one each for the
Eomaii, Anglican, Methodist, and Presl)yterian churches
— and they act through separate boards in each district.

Industries

Farming has not been followed to any extent, nor is
there a population suited for manuf.icturing pursuits.
It has Ijeeii too strongly asserted and too frequently
repeated that there is no land on the island suitable for
agriculture. Such is no doubt the case along tlie barrier
shores which bear the brunt of the Atlantic surf Sir
Richard Bonnycastle pointed out that there is mucli
agricultural land in the western districts and in the
valleys. The fact seems to be that the danger and
excitement of a fisherman's life, everywhere it can be
followed, are preferred to the supposed monotony of farm
work, and, on the coast of Newfoundland, the treasures
of the deep are too tempting, though the fishermen
themselves have not profited over much. Should a
Latin motto ever be required, none more expressive of
the fortunes of ' e island could be chosen than /SVc tos
non vohis. It is no wonder that the people are too apt
to neglect all other pursuits, for here in all the l)ays and
harbours, and at their very doors, nature, somewhat stern
in many respects, presents them with millions in their

078

COMl-ENl'llM OF *;KOr,UAl'UY ANl> TIIAVKL

seasons of tish and oihev marine creatnivs. Out v( a
total population ot' L'OL',040 souls, there to re, no less than
o 2,501* Nvcre eu'iaueil in ratchinu' or euriuif tish.

The harvest ot" the oeeau opens on the 1st of March,
when the sailing' vesst-ls for the seal tisherv ]>ut to sea.
On the 12th the steamers leave, ami all are crowded
with men. There are 22 steamers from ooO to ">00
tons enuaueil in the husine.ss. carrviny- from 200 to oOO
men each. Thev arc vcrv stron^lv built and protected
SO as to force their way through the iee tloes. The seals
seek the tield-ice carried down l>y the Arctic current
upon which to l)ring forth and suckle their young. The
pups are born from the loth to the 20th of February, and
ari' in the best condition a)>out March 10, being fat:

for

ic ice

U';

aud thev are also easv to kill while upon tl
earlv in April thev lake to the water. Of late vej
the seals Iuim' not been sw numerous and the hunting is
regulated bv law : so that n^ seal mav be killed before
^larch 10, nor after April 10, and the steamers are
allowed to make only one trip. The ves.sels are pushed
into the tloating ice, and when a herd of seals is seen
the crews pursue liiem from tloe to tloe and kill the
vi)unL;' ones chietlv, for from them the best oil is obtained.
Thev are hunted for their fit and skins unlv. Tl

hunters kill them with cl

Ul'S.

>kin them upon the ic

and draLT their loads to the vessels until the car^o i^

.'omi

lett

As the Clulf Stream is the bearer of warmth to distant
shores, the Arctic current is the bearer of that wealth of
ocean-born organisms j^ioierated in the cv\d waters of the
north which is the sui»erabounding suppttrt immeiliately
or mediatelv o( the food fishes of eonnnerce. In the
overtlow of the.se waters and along the coasts thev wasji.
cod, herring, salmon, and other lishes of commerce tind

w.t

tee
t-av
tor
Ha
Sc_\
lea
se\

^E\VFOU^'DLA^'D

079

the LouUitioiis suitable for reproduction, and there also
thev tiud tV)od eouveuieut for them. Tlu' r>auks of
Xewft-tuudlaud have been dfscribod elsewhere. These
hi'4'hlaud uieadox s i>f ocean are ihirini;' the sunnaer
season tlu' resort of innunierabh- swarms oi oodtish.
which, issuinu frou) the darker recesses uf their unknown
vleep-sca ln>mes, thronu' the shallower and liuhter waters
and tlow over inti» the bavs and coves of the adjacent
coasts in such numbers as to become the sta}>le export of
the colony and the industrial support of four-hflhs of its
people.

In the earlv vlavs o( .1 une llic cai>elin arrisf and
swarm aUm.; the coast in such numbers that, with a
casting-net, a man may obtain a cart-load in an hour.
They stay for about seven weeks. They are small hshes
six t.»r seven inches long, an*l are the i^od (4' tiie cod, which
tbllow hard upon them and drive them inshore. When
the capelin disappear, about the 1st of August, immen.se
numbers of sipiid arrive. These are small cuttle- tish
which swarm on the coast and in the harboiu-s. IVca-
sionally they are ntt^t with oi' gigantic size, nu>re than
realising Victor Hugos description of the di'vil-tish in
his 7''»(7<'/',s nj' t'li.' Siii, They are, however. deca]>ods.
A piece ll> teet long vif an arm of one ^^( tiiese creatures
cut otV by a tisherman wlu>.se bout it had attacked is in
the nniseum v>f Si. .lohns. Another of these monsters
was found dead. Its two larger tentacles nu'asured L'4
feet each, the eight shorter and thicker ones I L' feet
each; the body was 10 feel long. Formidable monsters
fortunately .seldom encountered. After reading Dr.
Harvey's account of them Homer's vivid account of
Scvlla in the 1 2th book of the Odti^tnii becomes almost

alistic.

riie s»[uid become in their turn for si.x or

seven weeks the prey of the cod when thi' hi'rring arrive,

080

COMPKXDIU^r OF GEOGIJAPIIY AND TliAVEL

and, during Scpttunber and Octoher, tlie codfisli i'eed
upon tlioni until they depart for their winter homes in
the deeper waters. The prosperity of the colony has
always l)een so hound up with the cod fishery that in
the language of Newfoundland the word " fish " means
only cod. There are indeed "salmon" and "lierring" and
"haddock," l)ut the cod are always called " lish." Upon
the early ma]»s, which are Portuguese, Spanish, or Italian,
the country is called " baccalaos," tho general name for
codfish in the languages of Southern Europe.

Fishing on the ]>aid\S is open to all, and vessels from
western Europe as well as from the United States and the
neighbouring colonies share in the sea harvest. Oftentimes
the passenger on an ocean steamer is surjirised, as the fog
lifts, to see small fishing sciiooners i)ursuing their business
anchored apparently in mid-ocean. For four hunthed
years this treasury of food has been ex])loited apparently
without signs of exhaustion. The foreign vessels carry
away their cargoes salted green, but the colonists hiive
only to take tiieir fish to the adjacent shores to be dried
and cured for export. The colonists do not rely so much
upon the Hank fisheries, for the cod follow the ca]ielin,
S([uid, and herring close into the bays, and afford abundance
of bait wherewitli the cod may be caught nciuer home.

The importance of the cod fisliing will appear on
reference to the preceding tables. Out of a total valui' of
$r),811,l(i0, the exi)ort of (h'ied codtish alone amounts to
$."),703,o.'kS. The fish are split, cleaned, salted, and then
dried on stages on the shore, and are exportetl to the
tropics, to Soutiiern Europe, to tlie West Indies, and
th(^ Brazils. The products are entirely used u)i ; from
the livers cod-liver oil is extracted, glue is nnide from
the skins, and the heads and entrails are utilised fui'
the manufacture of fertilisers. Tlie fish flakes or drying

mwn

NEWFOUNDLAND

081

stcigep used in this industry are characteristic of the
settlements along the whole coast.

The total exports of Xew '-^undland, in 1894, were, as
before stated, J^.j,8 1 1,1 09 ; of this the value of fish products
was ,s"), 144, 589. It is no wonder then that the coh)nists
have Ijeen tempted away upon the sea and luive neglected
the other resources of their isL'nd. The wealtli earned
has, however, been drawn away to other lands, and 1ms
built up the prosperiiy of non-resident merchants. There
is a change now in progress, and other industries are
beginning to be more vigorouslv pursued. The herring
tislierv is followed along the south and west shores, and
the lobster-canning industry has grown from its com-
mencement in 18T'> to an export value of 8-H2,.'»04. The
salmon rivers, swarming with tish in old days, had been
ruined but are recovering under careful supervision, and in
1 894pickled salmon to the value of J^o 1,48.". were exported.

While it may or may not be true that the ])a]dv
fisheries show no signs of exhaustion, the Government oi"
Newfoundland has waked up to the fact that the inshore
fisheries were becoming less })roducti ve. In 188 9 a Fishery
Conunission was ap]»ointed, and uiuler the skilful manage-
ment of the superintendent scientific regulations were
enacted an<l enforced, not only for preventing wasteful
methods of fishing but for rei)lenishing from liatcheries
areas wdiich had been exliausted. The cod fishing had
ceased to be profitalile in ('once])ti(tn Ilay and was failing
in Trinitv IJav, but in 1894 three liundred millions of
cod ova were hatched at. the hatchery in Trinity Uay, and
the fishermen are now reporting shoals of small fish in
places where for many years they had not been seen.
Floating; incubators havi' l)een established for lobsters —
the ova are collected at the canning factories and are
hatched and liberated to rejilenisii the waters.

082

COMPENDIUM OF CxEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

The following figures show the whole output of the
hatchery since its institution in 1800 : —

Cod Hatchixo at Diloo, Xumbeu ok Cod Ova iiatchkd and i'lamted
1890 17,100,000

18H1 .

18'.t2 .

1893 .

1894 .

1895 .

39,650,000
165,244,000
20], 435,000
•221,500,000
188,000,000

832,929,000

The grand total of lobsters hatclied and planted from
1890 to 1895 was 2,010,475,000. This far exceeds
anything which has been done elsewhere.

Mini^ral Resources

It was pointed out by the ofticers of the Geological
Survey many years ago that the similarity of some of tht"
rock formations of Xewft)undland to those of Canada and
the adjacent maritime provinces gave promise of contain-
ing similar minerals. In 1857 copper was discovered
at Tilt Cove and works were built, and in 1875 'uother
mine was opened not far distant. In 1894 from these
mines were exported 284,400 tons of green ore and
regulus. Lead was discovered on the west coast, Inil
the French comi)lained that the works infringed their
treaty rights and work was stopped. Iron pyrites Wiis
exported in 1894 to the value of $285,474. The large
area of serpentine rocks gives promise of asbestos, and
several mines of it have been opened. Tnunense deposits
of gypsum exist on St. Ceorge's IJay md along tlic
(^odroy rivers, but tlie most ])romising among thi'
prospective mining industries are the coal areas observed

n I

NEWFOUNDLAND

083

lirst hj Jukes in IS.'mS. The.se may be considered as .in
extension of the coal-fields upon the neighlx- ,.ing shores
of Cape Breton. The seam he ibund was on the south
of St. George's Bay, tliree feet in thickness, and many
other seams liave l)een discovered (jf varying thickness
from a few inches t(.) six feet tliick, l)ut none liave yet
been worked.

Game

It seems stiange tliat there siiould exist so near to
England a country like the interior of Xewfoimdland
abounding in lai'ge game like the caril)ou. They migrate
in great numbers at regular seasons, spending the winter
in the south and moving to tlie nortli to l)riug forth and
rear their young. The favourite hunting-grounds are
upim the " barrens " where the reindeer moss grows in
abundance. AVild geese and ducks are very ])k'ntiful,
and the numerous lakes and streams in the interior are
I heir favourite resorts. I'tarmigan are also abundant.
The streams are full of trout, but the salmon rivers will
re([uire a long rest before they recover.

lilt

I'M

' I

Means of Communication

Xewfoundland was settled as a lisliery, and all the
settlers were fishermen along the coast. Vnder the evil
lav.s elsewhere descri])ed the Crown refused to grant lands
until 1 81. 't, and it was not until 1820 that the lirst road,
nine miles long, was built. Since that time roads have
been extended to points in the peninsula of Avalon : but
elsewhere all counnunication has lu'cn liv vessels along
the coast. At kis^t, in 1881, the railway was projected
which is opening the interior. Trains have been run-
ninu' for some time from St. John's to I'lacentia and to

084

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPtAYEL

8' ' 3--

Harbour Grace, and this summer tlie road has been com-
pleted to its terminal ])oint. It follows the valley (»!'
the Exploits river for some distance and strikes across
to the valley of the Handler, which it follows down to
the head of Humber Ari.i and thence in a south-west
direction to the head of St. George's ]3ay and to I'ort aux
l]as(pies, seven miles east of Cape IJay. It opens up the
best part of the interior of the island and the coal areas
of the Hundjer and St. (Jeorife's Bav. The total len<!tli

Of O

of this road is 484 miles, and it will this vear connect
with Sydney, Cape Breton, by steamer.

Communication to all points along the coast is now-
made by lines of steamers. One route follows the east
coast to the north as far as Battle Harbour in Labradoi .
the other goes along the south coast and up by the west
as for as Bonne Bay. Begular .steamship comnmnicatiou
is also estaldished witli Liverpool, England : Halifax.
Nova Scotia ; New York, and ]\[ontreal.

St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland, is a city cf
20,007 people, situated o" the north side of one of the
most remarkable harbours in America, one mile lontj- bv
half a mile wide, perfectly land-locked, deep, and accessible
at all states of the tide for the largest ships afloat. Tlu'
entrance is through a cleft in the wall of clitfs which
abut on the ocean all along that part of the east coast.
It is scarcely distinguishable at a little tlistance, and ;i
stranger is surpriseil v/hen suildenly the vessel turns
inwards and ])asses through the " Narrows," a channel
half a mile Ioulj and oidv GOO feet wide. Cliffs on the
north 20 feet and on the south TOO feet high shut out
all view of the city until the end of the Narrows is reached,
when the city opens up suddeidy, most pictures(pu'ly seated
on a rocky slope.

St. -John's is entirely devoted to the ilshing business.

NKWFOUXDLANl)

(JH')

When tlie sealiui? steamers arrive, and at the seasons
when the peoi)le at the outposts tlironfr in to purchase
supplies, it is a very Inisy phiee ; but the city does not
do justice to its very striking- situation. It has repeatedly
sulfered from ureat conflagrations, and its inhabitants have
had to bear heavv losses and great discouragements, not

KNTH.VNC'K TO HAItbOL'H OK .ST. JOHN S.

only on account of tires, but on account of the failure in
December, 1894, of the two Imnking corporations which
had been carryinu' on the business of the colonv. This
misfortune was due to defects in the old system of carrying-
on business. Methods had been followed no': suited to
the present day, and the city has liad to pass through a
commercial collapse. The (.'anadian banks at once opened
up agencies there, and business is once more reviving on
a sounder and more modern basis. Manufactures are

686

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAl'IIY AND TRAVEL

also being introduced to diversify the interests of {h.-
people. A serious obstacle to the advancement of this
colony has been tlie too general practice of people wlm
have made money leaving it to live in England. Xo
country can steadily prosjjcr when its successful men art'
drained away and the realised wealth it produced is spent
to enrich other lands.

St. John's is the seat of government and the pubhc
buildings are there, but its arcliitectural adornments arc
the Eoman and tlie Anglican cathedrals, two very fine
buildings in the front rank of tlie churches of British
America.

History

The history of the island of Xewfoundliind differs so
radically from that of the other colonies of England that,
with a view to making its course plain, it becomes
necessary to consider it under the following heads : —

1. Discovery, a.d. 1497.

2. Attempts at colonisation made, as in the case of
other colonies, by patentees, A.D. 158o-lG33.

3. Period of repression of the colonists in the interest
of the mercantile liouses of the west of England carrvinu
on the fisheries, often called " the merchant adventurers."'
A.D. 1633-1792.

4. Organisation of civil society, A.D. 1792-1832.

5. Constitutional government, conceded 1832.
0. The French shore question.

Discovery

In the briglit family of the colonies of England, of
those which have remained faithful as well as those
which revolted from the motherland, Newfoundland it^

<«^

NEWFOUNDLAND

()87

the elder sister — elder nut only by discovery, but by lirst
cittHiupt Jit settlement. Tlie island was discovered in
14'.) 7 by .John Cabot on his first vova<>e for Kiny; Henrv
YII., and, after having touched land at the eastern point
of Cape l^reton and raised there the banner of St, George,
he sailed along the south coast of Xewfoundland as he
returned to Bristol, his port of departure. It should
always be borne in mind that, at that date. CV)lumbus
had discovered the AVest India Islands <>nl\'. He did
not set foot upon, nor even see, the Western Continent
until August 2, 1498, on his third voyage, when he
discovered what is now Venezuela in South America.
On his fourth voyage in 1502 he first .saw tlie main-
land of Xorth America, in Honduras I>ay, and sailed
along the sliore of Costa liica. [Meanwhile a .second
expedition had been fitted out at Bristol, also under the
conmiission of Henrv VI I. and under the connnand of
Johii Cabot and his son Sebastian. This expedition
sailed early in 1498 and coasted the Continent of Xorth
America from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. There are
many disputed (questions concerning the.se two men and
their voyages which will be found discussed at length
in the authorities cited at the end of this chapter : it is
only necessary to observe here that the primary title to
the inheritance of the English race in the Xew World
is derived from the voyages of the Cabots and their
first discovery, prior to Columbus, of the mainland of
America.

It is almost impossible in this century tt> conceive to
what an extent the two great maritime powers, Spain
and Portugal, overshadowed all others at the commence-
ment of the sixteenth century, and the diplomatic strife
which was carried on between them is more confusing
because the new land discovered by Spain in the west

088

COMl'ENDIUM OF (lEOGRAl'HY AND TRAVEL

was supposed to be the eastern inaigiu of the eontiiicnl
of Asia, where the Portuguese discoveries in the east
were incessantly extending. To settle these rival claims
the celebrated l)ull of To^te Alexander VI. was issued in
149 o ; but the Ijoundary line therein hiid down wjis
nioditied l)y the treaty of Tordesillas in 1404, and a
meridian, o70 leagues west of the Cape de A'erde Islands,
was fixed upon as the dividing line. All lands discovered
were to belong to Spain if westward, and to I'ortugal it
eastward of this line. In the defective knowledge of
that period, and owing to the impossibility of ascertaining
longitudes with approximate accuracy, Newfoundland was
drawn to the east of this line and fell to I'ortugal, while
the rest of America, as discovered, was claimed l)y Spain.
On some of the earliest maps the Portuguese " sphere of
inHuence," to borrow a recent phrase, included even Nova
Scotia.

In those days Portugal was at the zenith of her
greatness, and a powerful and noble family of that
kingdom, the Cortereals, were sailors and discoverers
while the English and Prench nobility were slowly
recovering from intestine wars. To one of the younger
scions of this fearless and enterprising family, Gas})ar
Cortoreal, the king of Portugal granted a commission,
and in a.d. 1500 and 1501 he made two voyages in the
I. ope of reaching Asia by the north-west. In these
voyages he reached as far as Greenland, and coasted along
the east coast of Newfoundland and perhaps Labrador.
His own vessel, and he himself, perished on the second
voyage, but upon his discoveries and the bull of
Alexander VI. the Portuguese based their claim to
Newfoundland.

The English neglected the Cabots and their dis-
coveries, and, besides, they were wrapped up in their

NEWFOUNDLAND

689

trade with rceliiiul, wliere they got iiU the codfish they
wanted ; l»ut tlie rortuguese and 15as(iiies, Spanish and
French, soon heard of the amazing wealth of codfish on
the coasts and banks of Newfoundland, and, with a bold-
ness and enterprise scarcely credible now, began to throng
those waters with their little fishing vessels, and they
were followed l)y fishermen of Urittany and Xorniandy.
This accounts for the fact that tlie uimes of the promi-
nent localities on the east coast of Newfoundland are
mostly corruptions of Portuguese, while the names on
the south coast reveal the predominance of the French
and Bas(|ues.

Ingenious and romantic theories have been jtro-
pounded concerning discoveries of America by Jiasijue
sailors liefore Columbus. The whale fishery of that
period and long afterwards was in the hands of the
liasques, and it is asserted that, in following the whales,
as they became scarce, farther and farther out in the
western ocean, they came upon the coasts of Newfoundland
a hundred years before Columbus and Cabot. No solid
foundation can be found for these assertions. Tlu; records
of the Basque maritime cities contain nothing to confirm
them, and these assertions are mixed up with so much
that is absurd — such as a statement that the Newfound-
land Indians spoke Basque — that the whole hypothesis
is incredible. There is not space in the present volume
to follow out such questions, nor is it possible to discuss
here the allurino- and romantic legends of the islands of
Antillia, of St. lirandon, of the seven cities, of Stockafixia,
or of Mansatanaxio. It is, however, beyond question
that, from the year 1506, the fishermen of I*ortugal,
1 U'ittany, and the iiasijue provinces resorted in far greater
numbers to these coasts than tiie English, and the
nomenclature of the coast proves it to the ])resent day,

GOO

COMPENDIUM OK (lEOGUAl'llV ANI> TltAVKL

not only ill NewfouiuUaiul, but on Labmdoi' and in ('a])i'
Breton and Nova Scotia.

Colonisation, 1583 1633

Under the fivni government of (.»)ueen Klizaljetli,
England became united and live tVoni foreign entangle-
ments, and her national energy and spirit Howed o\cr
into those channels of colonisation which have lesulted
in the present wide expansion of the Knglish race.
Hence in 15 80 Sir Humph '-cv Gilbert obtained the
Queen's commission as governor, and a large grant of
territory in Newfoundland. '' He," says Hakluyt, " was
the first of our nation that carried peojjle to erect an
habitation and <;overnmeiit in these northerly countries
of America." In the harbour of St. John's he found
thirty or forty sail of vessels of all nations, of \vhich
number twenty were Portuguese. He set up the royal
arms and took possession (jf the country with the for-
malities customary at the time. The Portuguese were
foremost and warmest in their welcome, which is explained
l)y the fact that, three years before his arrival, their
country had fallen under the yoke of Pliilij) 11. of Spain.
At the lieight of its glory it was to Jase for sixty years
to be an independent kingdom, and the Englisli were
at least enemies of Spain. If any state had a rigid
to challenge Gilbert's commissiijii it would have been
Portugal.

Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost on the return voyage,
and his attempt to colonise was a failure. But more and
more the English vessels resorted to the fisheries, and
perhaps, although no record of the fact exists, sonic
permanent settlers remained behind. With the reign ol'
James I. the overflow of the English people into the

NEWFOUNDLAND

091

wusteni world coimiieiifcd to run stoiidily and Loiitiiiu-
ously, iiud all tlie brightest minds around the court and
anionjf the niereiiants were turned towards adv«Mitures
beyond the seas. In 1010 a royal charter was issued to
a company, of which Lord Uacnii was tiie chief promoter,
known as " The London and J'.ristol Com])any, usually
called Guy's Association." A grant was made by -lames
of the territory from Cape St. >Mary's to Cape ]>ona\ista,
and John Guy of Ihistol led (mt, the same year, the first
colony to Newfoundland. He settled on tiie shore of
Conception ])ay, built a tort, and commenced to issue
decrees as governor. Tliat struck the first note of a
conflict whicli was to last for 150 years, and of whicii the
echoes may yet be heard. The fishermen, merchants, ami
seamen who flocked to the coast for the fishing season
vehemently resented anything which might seem to
threaten their turl)ulent lawlessness, and the great
merchants in England, who were profiting l)y the
fisheries, were jealous lest the planters should in some
way interfere with their operations ; bi!t, for a time, the
planters had sufficient influence through the patentees in
England to maintain themselves. Captain Tohn Mason
came out as governor in 1015 — an aide and notable man
— and, in the same year. Captain Kichard Whitbourne,
the worthiest of mariiiei's, canu' out with a commission
from the Admiralty to establish order among the fishing
fleet. He reported that more than 400 sail of " French,
Portugals, and Kiscainesi^," and 250 sail of English fisher-
men were resorting to the coast. He urged upon the
Government the importance of colonising the country
with permanent settlers. He was an experienced sailor,
not only to Newlbundland, but to every port in Europe,
and he saw the surpassing value of the fisheries. Other
companies were formed and other p«ttlements were made

(>92

COMl'ENDIL'.M OF (JEOGKAPHV AND TKAVEL

about tliis time, but ull were confined to the peninsula of
Avalon. Many distinguislied names were connected with
tliose enterprises — as Sir William Vaughan, Sir George
Calvert, Lord Falkland. Sir (leorge Calvert (afterwards
Lord Baltimore) spent two years in the colony at Ferry-
land, where he erected large buildings. The romantic
name Avalon was given by him, and that name is all
which remains of his efforts. Calvert al>andoned New-
foundland and afterwards obtained a charter for tlie
colony of Maryland, whose capital, Baltimore, is named
after his family title.

Period of Repression, 1633-1800

In the fairy story it is the youngest sister, but the
eldest sister is the Cinderella of colonial history. If
Newfoundland had experienced only the healthful neglect
under which the other colonies prospered, she too would
have grown into vigorous life. But a strong and in-
riuential class in England was interested in harassing the
settlers, in depreciating the resources of the island, and
in throwing every obstacle in the way of permanent
settlement. This policy came in with Charles I. and
continued down to the very commencement of the present
century. Captain Mason, Sir William Vaughan, and
Captain Whitbourne had written favourably of the island ;
but from their day down to 1842, when Sir Richard
IJonnycastle wrote his l)ook, every writer described it as
barren ; in sunnner gloomy with perpetual fog, and in
winter given over to excessive cold and blinding snow-
storms. The west country people of England, gt'^^-ation
after generation, drew from the fisheries of Newfoundland
enormous profits, upon wliich xn'osperous mercantile
establishments and noble families wci-e built up and

NEWFOUNDLAND

09;}

sustained — in England. Tliey considered and called
them " their " fislieries, and their interests required that
there should be no resident population to conqtete in
their monopoly, to share the best fishing rooms, and to
grow up to be dangerous rivals in foreign markets. The
influence of this class upon the government was in-
cessantly exercised in framing regulations and laws to
choke the <irowth of the colonv.

The confused annals of this period can only be under-
stood by rememl)ering tlie existence of two antagonistic
parties, the "planters" and inhabitants on tlie one
hand, who, Ijeing settled there, needed the protection of a
government and police, with administration of justice ;
and the " adventurers " or mere) units on the other ; who,
originally carrying on the fishery from England, and
visiting the island only for the season, needed no sucli
protection for themselves, and had various reasons for
preventing its being afforded to the others.

If the Mother Country had only forgotten the island
it would have prospered; l>ut in 1633 the English
mercliants succeeded in procuring from tlic " Star
Cliamber" rules and regulations drawn solely to advance
their own private interests, and these rules were supple-
mented, alwavs in the same direction, Itv the same
o]»pressive agency.

It was now enacted that no settler should dwell
within six miles of the sea-shore : that no planter should
cut down any wood or plant within the s.nne distance
from the shore; that no inhabitant or planter should
take the best places in the harbours before the arrival of
the tishing-fleet in the spring. Then, in tlie s])ring, the
ca[)tain of the lifst vessel to arrive in any iiarbour sliould
be tishing admiral tiiereof and allot the pliices in the
harbour. In tliis way the fisheries were to Ik* reserved

094

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIY AND TKAVEL

for the Eiiglifsh merchants, who sent out the vessels and
fishermen for the lishiny; season. To ])revent the growth
of a resident population it was ordained tliat jio master
or owner sliould transport seamen or fishermen to the
colony other tlian his own crew ; tliat all ])rovisions,
except salt, should he purchased in England to last for
the whole voyage ; that every master of a vessel should
give a hond for £100 to carry back to England every
man he took out ; tliat no settlers or planters should be
taken to the colony. To ])revent the formation of any
organised administration, it was enacted that all offenders
sliould be taken to England to be tried by the magistrates
of certain specified cities in the; western counties ; that
the fishermen were to be for ever free from the jurisdiction
of any government in Newfoundland. Incredible as it
may seen, attem])ts were made to compel the resident
idanters to remove to some otlier cohjny, or to return to
England. Orders in council were made to that effect,
and the })lanters had to organise and resist by force the
destruction of their property which had ])een connnenced.
At last permission was sent out to continue, until furtber
orders, the ])Linters in ])ossession of tlieir houses. Tlie
planters liiul also asked for a resident governor to
connnand tliem in case of attack, and for a clergyman to
administer the ordinances of religion to them and tiieir
children, l)ut they )net with no lesponse. The govern-
ment of the fishing admirals liad to suHice, and violence
and disorder reigned during the fisliing season.

This system of government by fishing achiiirals is a
curiosity of administration. It liad existed on the coast
from the first, having originated in tlie necessity lor some
form of law among tlie crowds of turbulent sailors of all
nations who thronged the coasts in the fishing season.
Ihit this wild system was recognised l)y the Star (/hainbcr

l^'r<

Fvi

whi

Fi',

for

a pe

and

IJ.ir

unti

sett]

.foil!

islan

"«^

NiaVFOUNItl.AND

695

ordinjuices aiul confirmed in IGDS by Act of Parliament.
The first fisliing ca])tain to arrive at any harbour in the
spring was " admiral " for tlie season, the second was
" vice-admiral," tlie third was " loar-admiral ! " Tliey not
only allotted the fishing rooms in the iiarV)0urs, but they
were magistrates of the (Ustrict, not only among the
fluctuating sunnner ]t()pulation, l»ut in all ([uestions
between the fishermen and tlie ]»ermanent residents.
Inasmuch as those fishing admirals were tlie hired
servants of the merchant adventurers tlie course of justice
set in one direction only. The English merchants wanted
no better system, and strenuously opposed every modifica-
tion ttf it. The only ap])eal was to the naval ollicers
commanding the convoy of the king's ships, and, in the
course of time, the commanding ollicerof the S(|uadron on
the Newfoundland station was also commissioned as
governor, and his jurisdiction in appeal gradually en-
croached on the administration of the Hshin!'' admirals.

.Vs if these discouragements were not sullicient, the
French in 1()(J2 sci/.i'd I'lacentia, fortified it, and made it
the seat <>f a resident govi-ruor. l']) to that date no
French subject had wintered upon the island. The
French (rovernment had taken no interest in it, and,
while the su])reniacy of the English was not disputed, the
French fishermen fished unmolested, chiefly on the south
and west coast. There was room and there were fish
for all; but, after the French settled at riacentia, came
a period of intermittent hostilities and of injuries given
and received, in the course of wliicii St. »b»hn"s, Ferryland,
Hai'bour (Irace, and IMaceiitia were taken and retaken
until, at the close of the sixteenth century, all the Knglish
settlements l)ut> two were com])letely ruiiuul, and St.
.lolin's utti'rlv destroved and abandoneil. In 1007 the
island was re-coiupieied by an expedition sent by

696

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Williaiii 111., forts were erected and a garrison stationed
at St. John's, but the island continued to be the arena of
incessant trife during the subsequent wars. To relate
tlie vi( udes of this warfare is foreign to the object
of thi. Dook ; it is sufficient to call attention to the
dispersion of the colonists consequent upon the repeated
destruction of the settlements as another cause of the
tardy growth of the struggling colony. The English
cared only for the fisheries. It wfis of small importance
to the western adventurers that the settlers whom they
were urging to have removed to the New England colonies
or brought back to Enghind, were carried off by the
French.

The peace of Utrecht in 1713 settled the dispute
between the English and French as to the sovereignty of
the island. It was given over in full supremacy to
England. But so firmly planted in the English mind
was the theory that Kewfoundiand should be only a
fishing station, whereon to dry fish ni the summer and a
nursery wherein to trdiu seamen for service at need in
the royal navy, that the rankling thorn of the " French
shore " was planted in the side of the colony to trouble
and hinder its development down to the present day.
In the treaty Spain made a claim of ancient fishing
rights for the Guipuscoans (Basques), but they were
never proved. As for Portugal, the domination of Spain
had killed its expansion, and what energy remained aftiT
it regained independence was drawn off to the East Indies.

After the island was reconquered in 1697, some
unfortunate experiments were made with garrison
governors until, in 1720, Captain Osborne, E.N., was
appointed. After that time, until 1825, the com-
manders of the fleet on the North American station wer(3
always goveriU)rs of Ni'wfoundland.

■PI

NEWFOUNDLAND

09'

Tlie fishino- admirals had now a i'lvni hand always
over them and, by degrees, tlie reign of violence came to
an end. The naval officers did justice in a summary ofl-
hand way, and the colonists' position was greatly improved ;
still the fishing admirals ignored the justices appointed
]jy the governors, luider the pretext that they were only
winter magistrates, and, in fact, the authority of the
magistrates appointed l»y the governors did not rest on
the firm basis of an Act of Parliament. Improvement
was slow: for, altliouuh the governors did all in their
power to ameliorate the condition of the colonists, the
merchants did all in their power to thw.irt tliem, and
resisted any modification of the statutes which were
oppressing the colony. As late as 1709 houses erected
in St. John's without license of the governor were pulled
down, and it was not until 1.S20 that the statutory
restrictions were abolished which required licenses for
cultivatiui'' or inclosinu' ground and for buildin" or
repairing houses.

At last, in 1792, in spite of all opposition, rarliament
])assed a statute upon which a Supreme Court of Judica-
ture, civil and criminal, was erected in Newfoundland.
The period of confusion came to an end, and the colonists
became possessed of that only stalJe foundation of civil
society, a court of justice of unquestioned authority, to
which, as is l)ecoming, is superadded the ap]»eal to the
sovereign in council claimed by all the subjects of the
]»ritish Crown.

■ I

Organisation of Civil Society, 1792-1832

The preceding history has occupied a disproportionate
space because, itnless somewhat fully set forth, it would
be incredible that such laws Suould have existed. It
affords an ex])lanation why this colony — the eldest of

G98

COMPENDIUM! OF GEOGIIAPHY AND TRAVEL

tlie (Jrown, with soil and climate not inferior to that of
the Eastern New England States, should have remaine<l
in so backward a condition. For the teeming riclies (a
these Xewfoundland waters the great nations of Europe
have fou'dit for 200 vears. Fabulous wealth has been
gathered there to enrich distant countries, while the
people of the colony are still poor. And yet the people
are hardy, industrious, and brave. As a school for brave
and skilful seamen it was so important that, for 150
years, every fishing vessel that left England wus com-
pelled, under penalty, to take out one "green man"
to every five of the crew, so that braving the stormy
seas of the North Atlantic in these little craft the men
were formed who have carried the fiag of England over
all the seas. As an organised connnunity the colony
may be said to date from the erection of the Supreme
(Jourt in 1791, and from that date its history presents
no points worthy of remark. It is the history of all
the other colonies of England. The j overnor-in-council
served his purpose, and in 18o2 was superseded by the
governor with a legislative assembly, and that did its
work and was in turn replaced in 1854 by a governor
assisted by a ministry holding oflice as in England while
it enjoyed the confidence of the popular branch of the
legislature. The Crown began to grant titles to land in
181o,a post-office was established, and roads commenced
to be made. In 1841 the ^ .st of the naval governors
gave way to Sir John Hervey who, though a soldier by
profession, acted as a civil governor.

The French Shore

The preceding history has incidentally discussed the
title to the island of Newfoundland ; it is, however,

NEWFOUNDLAND

699

necessary to repeat tliat it was not the intention of tlie
British Government to found a colony there. It was
desiLjned to be a "reat drvint; station for fish to be
caught by English fishermen sailing in the spring and
returning in the fall, I)urin<j the winter it was intended
to be left desolate and uninhabited. Therefore when the
Treaty of Utrecht was signed, no inconvenience was
expected to flow from conceding to the French the right
to dry fish upon a specified extent of the coast, provided
only that the sovereignty of the lUitish Crown was
established. It is also very important to remark tliat
whatever documents, obligations, promises, or treaties
may have succeeded they are all retrospective to the
Treatv of Utrecht, and neither add to. nor deduct one
word from, its stipulations. One exception must, how-
ever, be made. Tlie original treaty specified an extent of
coast from Cai)e Bonavista round ])y the north to Cape
Mclic, and the Treaty of Versailles in 1783 changed
the localitA' of these rii-hts to the extent of coast from
Cape St. Jolm round ])y the nortli to Cn})c Ray, the
rights themselves remaining unchanged. Tiie coast thus
specified is known shortly as the " French Shore."

The treaty stipulates that the island shall belong " of
right wholly to Great Britain," but tlie subjects of France
" shall l)e allowed to catch fish and to dry tliem on land "
on the extent of coast specified. It is also laid down
that " it shall not be lawful for the subjects of France to
erect any buildings there besides stages made of ])oards
and huts necessary and useful for drying of fisli, or to
resort to the said island beyond thi; time necessary for
fishing and drying of fish." I'pon these words the
French claim iin exclusive riglit to the French shore,
and to prevent tlie people of Newfoundland from any use
of that whole extent of coast: so that if any buildings

700

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

are erected there, or operations of any nature carried on,
the French ships have a right to destroy the one and
put a stop to the other. The French catch lobsters and
erect permanent canning establishments there and prevent
the English from doing the same ; they seize all English
fishing implements found there, and drive away all English
fishermen. The French also erect salmon weirs up the
rivers and prevent the English from doing the same.
The English (xovernment reserve the French treaty rights
in all land grants, and in 1879 inhil)ited a railway to
St. George's Bay upon tlie French shore, on the ground
that the French would regard it as an invasion of their
treaty rights. In this way the colonists are debarred
from developing the fairest half of their own island lest
some French fishermen should come along and want the
very place where a wharf or house may have been erected.
This is the more unreasonable, inasmuch as the French
fishing operations had, two years ago, tlwindled down to
seven fishing vessels, so that the whole coast might be
said to have been practically abandoned. There had
never been a French fishing station at St. George's Bav,
so that a railway terminus there could not have inter-
fered with tlieir fishing operations. During the last
two years there has been a slight increase in the number
of French vessels on the coast.

The French take their ground upon the letter of the
treaty. Their rights to use the shore being specified,
they argue to be on that account exclusive of any other
right. Therefore they repudiate any concurrent right of
the colonists, and, of late years, the French naval officers
have cairied out the most extreme interpretation with
great vigour. This was due probably to the fact that
the lobster-canning business has been commenced recently,
and also to pique at a somewhat extreme measure of the

NEWFOUNDLAND

701

Newfouiidlciiid legislature aimed to prevent the sale of
bait to other than Newfoundland fishermen.

On the other hand, the words of the treaty appear to
be sufficiently clear ; for when it was signed no other
fishery than the cod fishery could have been contemplated.
If there could be any reasonable doubt it would be
removed on reference to the Mniiolvoi de Mors, de Torcy,
who was one of the negotiators. Tlu; word " morues "
is used always, and not the more general word " fish."
He writes tiiat while the king consents to cede J*lacentia
and the island of Newfoundland, he persists in reserving
to the French "the lil)erty of fishing and of drying cod-
fish (morues) on the I'etit Nord." In the discussion,
which became warm, the question was limited to codfish
{dc pecker et de sScher les morues) no other fish was
present in their minds, since none other is mentioned ;
and he relates that Prior (one of the English negotiators)
returned and announced that the English Governmc
would yield this " much contested point of catching and
drying ' codfish ' ' morues ' on the coast."

That codfish alone are intended is clear from the fact
that the words " fishing and drying " are always men-
tioned together as one expression. The canning industry
is very recent, and canned lobsters are not dried even if
lobsters were fishes. Salmon weirs are neither stages
nor huts for drying fish.

While the interpretation of the treaty is clear enough,
the question is unfortunately complicated l)y a declaration
of the English Government, afterwards embodied in the
preamble of an Act of Parliament (28 George III. cap.
35), in which it is set forth that the king, in order to
prevent quarrels among the fishermen, " was pleased to
engage that he would take the most positive measures
for preventing his subjects from interrupting, in any

\ «

V02

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGlJArHV AND TRAVEL

iiuuiiier, by their competition, the tishiiig of the Freiuli,
during the teiiiponiiy exercise tliere which is grunteil
tlieiii upon the coasts of the island of Newfoundland,
and that he would, for that purpose, cause the permanent
settlements which should be formed there to be removed:
and that he would give orders that the French lisher-
inen should not be incommoded in the cutting of wood
necessary for the repair of their scaffold huts and fishing-
boats ; and that the l.'Uh article of the Treaty of Utrecht,
and the method of carrying on the fishery whicli had at
all times been acknowledged, should be the ])lan u])on
which the fishery should be carried on there." There is
a plain contradiction in this promise of the king which
goes beyond the treaty, while intending specifically only
to confirm it, and the matter is further complicated by
the words of the statute which empower the king's
officers " to remove, or cause to be removed, any stages,
stakes, train -vats, or other works whatever, for the
purpose of carrying on fisher}', erected by his Majesty's
subjects, and also all ships, vessels, and boats which shall
be found within the limits aforesaid ; any law, usage, or
custom to the contrary notwithstanding." It is not the
Treaty of Utrecht then which embarrasses the colonists,
but the unadvised and uncalled for promise of the king,
formally endorsed by an Act of Parliament. When will
some fairy godmother relieve our Cinderella from the
careless engagements of the Motherland ?

Islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon

Ten miles west of Crew point (May point) the eastern
headland of Fortune Bay, lie the islands of St. Pierre and
Miquelon, the last remaining possessions of France in
North America. These islands have had more vicissi-

NEWFOUNDLAND

703

tildes tluiu iiave fallen to the lot of niaiiy greater and
more important lands. Since the year 1713 they have
been four times ceded to, or captured by, England, and
four times restored to France. For fifty years, l7lo-
1703, St. Pierre was in the possession of tlie English.
In 1778 it was captured by Admiral ]\I(nitague, who
deported all the inhabitants to France, 1932 in number;
in 1783 the exiles returned, and when the llevolution
broke out in France they had their .lacobin (.'lub, and
their Committee of Tublic Safety, and their Liberty tree ;
but had not got any farther when, in 1793, the islands
were again taken and the citizens deported again to
France. At last, in 1810, at the general peace they were
finally restored to France, and 045 of the old colonists
returned.

There are I wo islands — St. Pierre and Mii^uelon.
The latter is the larger, but it is practically two islands
connected by a neck of sand five and a half miles long.
The northern portion is called Great Miquelon, anil the
southern, Little Miquelon or Langlade Island. Both
islands are high, rocky, and barren, and they are
surrounded by rocky islets ; so that navigation is
intricate in fair weather ; and as they are more subject
to fog than any other part of the coast, navigation is
often dangerous. The cliffs are from 050 to 800 feet
high. The contour of Great Miquelon is irregular, and
a projecting semicircular cliff forms a roadstead at the
northern end, wher& there is also a settlement. The
cliffs of Little Miquelon form a level plateau 050 feet
high. The channel between it and St. Pierre Island is
three miles wide.

St. Pierre Is a steep rocky island of many peaks.
The town is the residence of the governor, and is as
thoroughly French in every respect as any town in

<ii

!!|i^

704

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL

Normandy. Every detiiil of a complete civil uiul
military organisation is seen — departments of marine,
of health, of religion, of education, of war, of finance,
superintendents of roads, of charities, of pilots. The
total resident population of the islands is 5440, of whom
4804 live in St. Pierre, but, during the fishing season,
the little town is crowded with fishermen, and the
harbour with fishing vessels from France. The port is
well regulated and orderly, the quays are massively
built of stone, and the houses are generally of stone.
The dress and habits of the people are French, cafes
and cabarets abound, and the people are bright and gay
as in any seaport of Old France.

The harbour is good and open all the year round, and
is usually full of shipping, for all the fishing fieet from
France to the Grand Banks resort here for bait and
supplies. The imports to this little island amounted,
in 1885, to the remarkable sum of Fr. 2 0,1 9 9,0 6 2 or
$4,039,812 nearly $800 per head of the population —
an amount unaccountable until the admirable position of
the island for smuggling into the neighbouring British
colonies is considered. French wines, brandies, and other
goods are admitted free, but are subject to heavy duties
in Canada, and were apt to overflow upon the neigh-
bouring coasts until increased vigilance was excited, and,
in 1892, the imports consequently decreased to about
half the above amount.

NOTE TO CHAPTER XXII

The following are the lucst useful works of reference for New-
foundland : —

Harvey, Rev. M., LL.D.

Newfoundland as it is in 1894. J. W. Withers, St. John's, N.F.:
1894.

NEWFOUNDLAND 705

H.ittvEv, Kct, ]),., aii.l H.vm.N, JosKj^ir

''""■Lrill"f k'JS °'''"' "'"'* '-'°'°"^- "-1'"""' " '»".

Keloids, hyio and SpottiMvo..d.. 2n.l K,l. London : IsiS

Ai
At

Aeh

A^M-l

H
€i
H
Mi

Nt
Nv
On
J'ri

QlK

Yii

Allian
A I ban
Alhiin
All),.,.,

Allmrt

Albert

Alcutiti

AlCrwl

Algoniii

Algon(i

Allt'glm

Allunie)

INDEX

Ahimbi liv.i, (il4
Acii.i-au ProviiK-os—
'>f>ui.(J(irie.s, 137

'■liinate. I;i9

I'ore.st, 142

geology, 13S

histoiy, 105

•iiliiibitaiits, l;!S

'ainfall, 141
Acliigaii river, 281
■Agiii:ii](iir(' —

iWtisli Columbia, 502

Canada, 45

Hu.lson'.s Bay Ba.si„. ,i:>3

Mmikeiizie river l,a,si„, 540

New Brunswick, IHO

Ncwfoundlund, «;?

Ontario, 370

i'rince Edwanl Lsland, 204

Yukon Territory. 564

A >anel, Fatlier, 35, 280

Albany, Fort, 610
A >any river, 37, 613
^"H'rni inlet, 482
Alberta, 429

^"^'^^^« Railway and Coal Company.

Alcutiati r.sland, 588
Alfred Ernest. Cape,
A gonia i)istrict, 375
A gompiin tribes. Q7, 584
Alleghany river, 38
Allumette Island, 282

?587

Anglican nussjous. y.), 541. 546
Anian Strait. 506
Annapolis Basin, n^

Antelopes, prongdiorned {../,A„,,.,,,

Antieosti Island,' :i55
Apaelies. 73
Apatite. 270, 37,s
Appalaeliian ranges, •>8
Arctic Canada—

arclnj)eIago, 593

coast, 585

explorations, 597 »%

fisheries, 594

game. 594

geology. 592, 5!>J

icc-delds, .f,89

present divisions, 596
Arctic current, direction and char-
acteristics oi; 7 """
Asbestos, 496. 682

Ashonaphronchan river, 35, 279
A.-^'inanipi Lake, 637
Assiniboiii, 427
Assiniboiue river. 39
Assiiiuptioi, river. 281

Athabasca

Lake, 537
landing, .'535
Pass, 459
river. 53'
territory. 53]
Attikoiiak Lake. 637
Attikopi Lake. 636
Auks. 64
Aylmer Lake, 248

708

COMPENDIUM OF (iEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL

Back's Exiiuditiou, (JOl
Back's river, 601
Hiifiiii Land, 586
Bald Mountains, 177
Balsam Lake, 3:i9
Banks Land, 586
Barkerville, 524
Barren Grounds, 593

birds, 580

cliaracter of land

O' t

580

248

tislierie
minerals, 578
Barrow Strait, 586
Batiscan river, 281
Bats, 58

Bear and Hawk Mountains
Bear Hills, :599
Bears, 56, 159, 255, 565
Beeehey, {.'a))tain, 601
Bell, James, 571
Belle-isle, Strait of, 662
Beotliiks or Ui-il Indian
Big river, ^i'-W
Bird Islets, 255
Birds —

Barren Grounils, 580
Cana.la, 63

Maikeiizie iliver Basin, 551
Manitolm, 408
Nova Scotia. 159
Queliee, 255. 272
Southern Labrador, 270
Bison, 59
Bitterns, 63
Blaek river, 283
Blaekwater river, 469
Blu;:.' Sablon Harbour, 272
Blomidon, Cape, 149
Blue Mountain. 179
Bomjias, Bishop, 560
Bonaventure Island, 285
Bonavista Jiay, 664
Bonne Bay, 665
Bonneehere river, 283
Bootiiia, (Julf of, 586
Bniicher, I'ierre. 216
Boundaries —

Acadian Provinces, 137
British Anieriea, 16
British Colundiia, 451
New Brunswi,;i<^ 171
Ontario. 334

Boundaries — cantiuucd

Quebec, 245

Saskatchewan, 435
Bradore Bay, 273
Brandon, 426
Brant, 159
Brantford, 389
Britannia, Cape, 602
British America —

area. 13

boundaries, 16
British Columbia-
agriculture, 502

l)Oundaries, 451

channels, 478

cities, 519

climate, 482

coast, 477

communications, 524

discovery and development, 469

education, 527

lisheries, 499

forest, 486

fruit-growing, 503

geology, 458, 465

history, 504

hydrography, 466

minerals, 466, 488, 496

mountain })asses, 459

mountain ranges, 454

railways, 424

trade returns, 495, 526
Brown, Mount, 458
Butl'alo Grass, 428
Bu Haloes, 59
Bute Inlet, 480
Button, Sir 'J\, 626
Byam Martin's Island, 595

Cabot Strait, 662
Calgary, 432
Calvaire, Mont, 251
Campbell, IJobert, 561, 571
Camj)obello Island, 175
Canaila —

agriculture, 45

Ari'tic (Janaila (see that title)

Atlantic and Pacilic distances, table
of, 100

birds, 63

eamils, 82 >

clinnite, 43

INDEX

•oi>

Canada — cordinucd

coimminieations, 8')

fauna, 54

finance, 97

tisheries, Uf)

forest, 49

fruit-growing', 47

fur trade, 22 1

jrovernnient. S7

liistory, 92

hydrography, 29

Indian population, 77

hmguages spoken in, 82

militia. 91

minerals, 9:5

mountains. 2(5

old Canaila [xce title, St. Lawrence
i'rovinees)

I)olitical divisions, 78

jxipulation, SO

railways, 84

rainfall, 48

steamship lines, 8")

trade returns. 93
Canadian Pacific railway, 84. 470
Canso Strait, 152
Cape Breton Island -

character of land, 1H7

geology, 168

harbours, 170
Caribou, 54, 159, 276, 565, 624
Cartier, .lac(iues, 70. Ill, 22:5
Cataracjui did nanu' forSf. Lawrence

river, 32
Cats, wild, 55
Chah'ur Bay, 187
Champlain,' Samuel, 36. 113, 225,

244, 291, 626
('hapo<ly Bay, 151
Charlton Island, 610
('harnisay. 1 16
Chamlicrc river, 37 .

('hedabucto Hay. 152
( 'heniung Lake, 339
Chicoutimi river, 35
Chiilley, Cape, (i16
Chidley, Sir .)., 625
Chignecto, Cape. 1>9
Chilcoot pass, 562
Chilcotin river, 169
Chinook

trade language. 74

Chinook — ruii/iiini'i/

winds, 44, 411
Chipev/yan, Foit, 537

tribes, 67, 73. 583
Chipnuinks, 57
Churchill river, 611
Churchill valley. 575
Clayo(piot Sound. 482
Clearwater river, 535. 612
Climate —

Acadian provinces, 139 '■

British Columbia. 482

Canaila, 43 ■ • '

Hudson's Bay Basin. 622

Labrailor. 646

Mackenzie river basin. 548

Manitoba. 408

Cntaiio. 374

I'rince Edward Island, 206

St. Lawrence Provinces. 213

Southern f,abradoi-, 275

Vnkon Tirritorv, 568
Coal, 93, 157, .195.' 565. 591. 616. 682
Coast mountains. 15 1
Cobecpiid —

Bay. 149

mountains. 149
Cockl)urn Land, '.^bd
Conception Bay, 664
Confidence, Fort, 545. 60:!
Cook. ( 'aptain, 509
Copjier, 149, 270. 378,491. 578, .''.92,

616, 682
Coppermine river, 3!.<, 593
Coulonge river, 283
Cordilleni, Pacific, 28
Coronation (iulf, 592
Cornwallis Colonel. 126
Coteau mo\intains. 399
Coyofe [fiiiiiK /titnui-i), ''i9
Credit river, 341
Croker monntnins. 5!t7
Crown Point F> rt, 37
Crow's Nest pas-. 45s
Cudahy, Fort, "'^H
Cumberland ;.i)' [n 151
Cyp.'ess hills, 4l,'0

Oahtmoith liver, 285
l»c Monts, 225
|)e Ua/.illy, Isaac. 116
Deadnuvn's Island. 254

710 co^rpENDIUM ok geography and travel

Dease, P. W., 602
Dease river, 467
Deep river, 282
Deer, r)4, 58
Deer-mouse, 56
Deer river, 612
Demarcation Point, 585
Demoiiie river, 28.'5
De.s Plaiiies river, -iS
Deschenes, Lake, 283
Detroit river, 32, 352
Dighton rock, 108
DobUs, Sir A., 629
Dogs—

Es(iuimau.\, 61

Prairie, 58
D'Or, Cape, 149
Douglas, James, 514
Duck mountains. 416
Dufferin, Cape, 608

Eaglk liills, 399
Eagles, 63

East ]\Iiiin river, 641
Eastern townsliips, 287
Edmonton, 429
Education —

British Colundjia, 527

Manitoba, 419

New Brunswick. 192

Newfoundland, 677

Nova Scotia, 162

Ontario, 365

Prince Edward I.sland, 209

Quebec, 262
Edward, Fort, 37
Egg Island, 274
EK'pliantis, Mount, 248
Elk, American {crrnis i'aiui.(h'iit<iti

58
EUesniere Land, 587
Erie Lake, 351

Eruiines (pidnrins cnii incus), 55
Esperanza Sound, 482
Es(|uiinault harbour, 481
Estpiiniauj —

(logs, 61

river, 273

tribes, 67, 584, 595
Eternity, Cape, 278
Exploits river. 671
Exports (w(i title, Trade Returns)

Fauna —

Canada, 54

Hudson's Bay Basin, 624

Manitoba, 411

Nova Scotia, 159

St. Lawrence Provinces, 217

Yukon Territory, 565
Finlay river, 534

Fisher Pekan (niastda Peniuinti), 55
Fisheries —

Barren Grounds, 580

British Columbia, 499

Canada, 65

Gaspe District, 286

Hudson's Bay Basin, 623

Labrador, 639

Mackenzie river basin, 547

New Brunswick. 197

Newfoundland, 678

Nova Scotia, 159

Ontario, 377

Sagucnay region, 280

Southern Labrador, 276

Yukon Territory, 565
Five Fathom Hole, 610
Forest —

Acadian provinces, 142

British Columbia, 486

Canada, 49

Labrador, 640

Manitoba, 416

New ISrunswick, 191

Newfoundland, 672

Nova Scotia, 159

Quel)ec, 269

St. Lawrence i'rovinces, 218
Forts-
Albany, 610

Chipewyan, 537

t!ontldence, 545, 603

Crown Point, 37

Cudahy, 558

Edward, 37

Frontenac, 232

Good Hope, 545

Hojie, 631

Liard, 544

Mach'od, 432

M 'Murray, 535

MacPherson, 546

Norman, 545 *

I'rovidence, 543

INDEX

7.11

Forts — cinitiai'nl

Rae, 543

Reliance, 543

Resolution, r)43

Simpson, 544

Hniith, 542

Ticonderoga, 37

Williatn Henry, 37

Wrigle.y, 544

Yukon, 558
Forty Mile Oeek river, 558
Fox Cliannel, 5SU
Kox Land, 586
Fox river, 38
Foxes. 5.5, 159, 565
Franklin's Expeditions, 599. 600.604
Eraser river, 467

French Shore, Newfoundland, 698
Frobislier, Joseph and Thomas, 551
Froi; Portajfe, 612
Fronteiiac, Count de, 2li9
Frontenao, Fort, '232
Frozen Strait, 629
Fruit-growing —

(,'anada, 47

Hritish Columbia, 503

Nova Scotia, 161

Ontario, 371
Fundy, Bay of, 176
Fur Ti-aile in Canada, 224
Fury and Hecla Strait, 586
Fury Point, 598

Gai.t, 390
Gander river, 671
( iaspc, ( !ape, 285
(ias])c District, 285
Gatineau river, 283
(ieology —

A'fulian Provinces, 138

An.tic. Canada, 592, 594

British ('olund)ia, 458? 465

Cape Bri'ton Island, 168

Ihulson's Bay Basin, 615

Labrador, 640

Mackenzie river basin, 530, 538

Manitoba, lOU

New Brunswiiiv. 188

Newfoundland, 667

Nova Scotia, 14S, 151

(tntario, 343

Quebec. 259

(Jeology — coiiliiiHiil

Yukon Territory, 565
(Jeorge, Cape, 152
George river, 641
Georgia Strait, 478
Georgian Jiay Basin, 340
Glooseap — Demi-god of Micmae In-
dians, 149
(ioats, 60, 565
Godbout river, 257
Gold, 93, 157, 270, 380, 466. 488,

565
Gold Mountains, 461
Gomez, Estevan, 110
Good Hope, Fort, 545
Gopher {Tliomnt/ii/s taJpoide.s), 58
(rran<l- -

Bivnks of Newfoundland, 10

Falls, 181

Lake, 182

Manan Islan<l, 175

Portage Route, 4 1

Rapids, 535

river, 341

Trunk railway system. 84
Graphite, 496
(ileal Bear Lake, 545
Great Fisli river, 32. 593
Great Slave Lake, 542
(4rcat Whale river. 615, 641
(Jrcen Malachite, 592
Grccu Mountains, 247
Greenly Island, 272
GrenvUle Canal, 283
Grinnell Land, 587
Grouse, 63. 594
(Juelph, 390
(Juillemots, 61

(Jiilf Stream, direction and character-
istics of, 5
(Jnlls, 64

(Jypsuni, l.'')9, 496. 616, 682
(Jyrfalcon, yy-\

Ha-iia Bav, 27'.>
Halifax, N.S., 163
Hall Basin, 586
Hamilton, 388
llandltou river, 63(i
Hare Bay. 664
Hares, 57, 594
Hnro Channel, 478

COxMPENDIUM OF GEUGKAl'HV AND TRAVEL

Hawks, 63
Hayes river, 613
Hc-arne, Samuel, 58]
Hearne's Expedition, 629
Hecate Strait, 479
Herons, 63

Herschel Island, 546, 592
Holland river, 340
Hooker, Mount, 458
Hope, Fort, 631
Howe Sound, 480
Howse Pass, 458
Hudson's Bay, 606
Hudson's Bay Basin, 31 —

climate. 622

coast. 608

drainage hasin, 611

I'auna, 624

tislieries. 623

geology. 615

iiistory, 624

hydrography. 61 1

minerals. 616

navigation, 617
Hudson's Bay Company, 439, 513. 609
Hudson's Bay Watershed, 222
Hudson's Stiait, 616
Humlier river, 341, 672
Humming-birds, 63
Huron Basin, 343
Huron. Lake. 353
Huron-Iroquois trihes. 67, 71
H ydrography —

British Columbia, 466

Canada, 29

Hudson's Bay Basin, 611

Labrador, 636, 641

Mackenzie river basin. 535

Manitoba, 402

New Brunswick, 180

Newl'ouiidlanil, 664, 671

Nova Scotia, 148, 159

Ontario. 336. 339. 345

Quebec, 256

Saguenay region, 278

ICKBEIKiS, 1 1

Ice-fields in Arctic Canada, 589

Imitorts {sir title. Trade lleturns)

Indians —

Beothiks or Hed liulians, 67
Canada, Indian population ol'. 77

Indians — contimml

Canadian Government's provision
for. 75

Micniac, 125, 131

North American, 67

Sioux, 74
Intercolonial railway system, 84
Iron. 158,

270, 378, 491, 496, 616

Jacquks Cartier river. 281

James Bay, 607

.Tarvis Inlet, 480

•lays. 63

Johnson, Mount, 251

Jones. Cape. 608

Juan de Fnca, 507

Juan de Fuca Strait. 478

Kaj[IX1stiql:ia river. 42. 355
Kananaskis Pass, 458
Kaniapiskaii, Lake, 637
Keepawa river, 283
Keewatin District, 574
Kennedy Channel, 572, 586
Kicking-horse Pass, 458
King William Land. 586. 603
Kingconie Inlet. 480
Kingfisher, belted. 63
Kingston, 387
Kinnebacasis river, 184
Klondike, 566
Knight Inlet, 480
Knight, James, 628
Koksoak river, 35. 636
Kootenay District, 490
Kotzebue Sound. 588
Kyutptot Sound, 482

Lahhadou —

character of land. 633

climate. 646

Eastern Labiador. 64 U

fisheries. 639

forest, 640

geology, 640

history, 651

hydrography, 636, 611
La Croix, Lake, 42
La Puce Falls. 281
La Salle. 38

La Tour, Charles de, 116
La Vercndrye. Pierre Gaultierdi^, 136

INDEX

— 10

Lac lies Milles Lacs, 42

Lake of the Woods. 40

Lakes and rivers {sec title, Hydro-
graphy)

I^aiicaster Sound. 586

Lanjfuages spoken in Canada, 82

Laurentian Highlands, 248

[iaurentian nucleus of North America,
23

Laval. Bishop. 22H

Le (4rand Renious riai)ids, 27S

Le Loutre, Ahbe, 127

Le Moyne d'll.erville. 230

Le Nord, 302

Lead. 378, 491, 682

Lemmings, ,5ti

licsser Hlave Lake, ."(33

Lesser Slave river, 53.')

[jcwes river. 560

Liard Fort, 5-«4

Liard river, 544

Lii'vre river, 283

Lilloct river, 4(J9

Little Whale river, 615, 641

London on the Thames (Ontario),
390

Lonely. Lake. 337

Long Range Mountains, 661. 671

Long Sault Rapids. 36

Looiis, 624

Lougid)orough Inlet, 480

Loup river, 281

Low and Eatcui's Expedition, 638

Lynx, Canada, 55

Mac'Uonald, Mount, 461
Mackenzie, Alexander, 439, 51 ^ . 551
Mackenzie Bay, 592
Mackenzie river, 542
Mackenzie Bay, 592
Mackenzie River Basin —

agi'iculture, 540 •

area. 529

Athabasca Territory. 531

birds, 551

clinmte, 548

coniuiunicatioiis. 550

contour of land. 532

fisheries, 547

gecdogy, 530, 53.S

Idstory, 550

hydrography. 535

Mackenzie River Basin — coiitinited

minerals, 539, 547

settlements. 541
Macleod Fort, 432
M-('lure Strait. 586
Macndllan river, 561
M'Munay Fort. 535
Macl'her^on Fort. 546
^lailanie Isle, 152
Madawaska river. 181. 283
Magog river, 289
Maitland river. 343
Maldonado. Lorenz<i. 507
Manicouagan river. 35. 257
Manitoba —

birds, 408

character of land. 391

cities, 426

climate, 408

communications, 417

education, 419

fauna. 411

forest. 416

geology. 400

government, 421

hydrography, 4U2

law ami order, 420

minerals, 401

prairie stepi)es. 396

railways, 418

rainfall, 413

trade returns, 424
Manitoba and North-western railway

418
Manitoba, Lake. 407
Manufaitures. value nf dutput—

Canaila. 99

New Brunswick, 197
Marljle, 496

Marsh lands of New Brunsv . 188
Marsliall, Charlo, on Quebec. 291
Martens, 55. 565
Maskinongc river. 281
Matawin river, 12
Mealy Mountains 614
Medicinal springs mi Sulphur moun-
tain. 434
Megautic. Lake. 248
Melville—

Islan.l. 594

Peninsula, 586

Sound, 586

714

COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL

Meiuplireir ke, 289

Mercurv.

Meta 1 ' , ,586

Meta' n river, 279