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F, CAVEIiniLL, BOOKSELLER AND STATIONER, ^ 87 YOKGB STREET. %•»« follow ' ~ — ~ — jpriuted for Entered, accordiuBT to the Act of the Provincial Parliament, in la convenlei the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-nine, by i„tp„^prt „, John Lo^ bw., in the OflSce of the Registrar of the Province of Canada. "^^Editor will • . beyond the •vA similar wi self, in the 1 ^t may poss perhaps, ma Ing portion laudable pu knowledge c ^nd acquirec In the ear] Tables com II |)loyed. Anj liistory woul lemory, anc k degree of e: in fact. But thing like ac secure it | PUEFACE. fTfiE following elementary outline of chronological science is printed for the purpose of funilshing the Editor's pupils with .1 Parliament, in^ convenient help to their historical studies. But. although ' of the'^olce *"*'"'^''^ ""^'"^^ *° '"^'P'^ ^ ^'^^ ^^'^"* i" h«r 0^" ««nii»ary. the ►Editor will be gratified if it shall also be found acceptable beyond the limits for which it is more immediately destined. •Vi similar want may have been felt by others, engaged, like her* ^ «elf, in the labours of tuition ; and the present attempt to supply ^t may possibly receive ft-om them a friendly welcome. Nor, perhaps, may it prove altogether unacceptable to that interest- ing portion of the youthful community who have formed the laudable purpose of preserving and extending at home the Itnowledge of which at school they have laid the foundations ind acquired the love. j In the early, and essentially conjectural, dates with which the "ables commence, it Is only round numbers that have been em- (loyed. Any departure from these at that period of the world's listory would both be an unnecessary tax upon the pupil's emory. and have a positive tendency to mislead, by indicating degree of exactness In our knowledge which has no existence n flact. But after we come down to a period at which some- hingliko accuracy is really attainable, pains have been taken secure it , and it is believed that no vory glaring errors will Iv MEFACfi. be found to have been comtnitt«?tl. Tho events selectftd frtf notice are either s«i(;h as arc in thomselves of prominent liia* torical importance, or such as, from tlieir connexion with otliers of that description, seem calculated to serve as eonvi^mient aids to the memory. It is almost superfluous to observe, that in p.n introductory manual of this sort, where utility with reference to an educa* tional object is the sole end in vit>w, the Editor could have no hesitation in copiously availing herself of the labours of others. The sources from which she has compiled will indeed be suffi* ciently obvious to all who are really acquainted with modern works upon the subject. But it may do no harm to mention that nothing whatever has been borrowed from any work in the English language prepared for tho use of schools ; as, indeed, had tho Editor been acquainted with any maiuial suitable for her purpose, she would have greatly preferred using what lay ready to her hand, to bestowing on the preparation of the follow- ing pages an amount of time and labour utterly disjiroportioned to the slenderness of their bulk and pretensions. She will, how- ever, regret neither her hours nor her trouble, if the little manual shall bo found but half as useful as she hopes it is cal* culated to become. Argylb Terrace, Montreal, July, 1859. / I ? 4 INTRODUCTION. U I § 1. Chronolocy (from the Greek words chronos, time, and logos, a discourse) is the science which teaches the measurement and division of Time ; and, as a result of this knowledge, enables us to arrange the events of History in the order of their sequence, and to ascertain the intervals of time between tiicm. To give a complete definition of the notion of time, has been found one of the puzzles of metaphysics. "Si non rogas, intelligo"* still remains as good an answer, to the question of what time is, as we are ever likely to obtain. Without troubling ourselves, there- fore, about a definition, we may observe, that, as long as we are awake, there is a train of ideas which con- stantly s ucceed one another in the mind;— that, when *^[\- I^ot'ke translates this, "The more I set myself to think of It the less I mulorstandit"; but the words might also bo rendered,^ I understand what it is. but I ain't answer your question. We really have a perfect conception of what time is as well as space and motion, although we are unable to defuio any of the three. Our inability to arrive at a definition arises, not from their obscurity, but from their extreme clearness. It was an observation of Descartes, that it is vain, and even dan- gerous^ to attempt a definition of evident things, because in such cases we are apt to mistake a definition of the word for a defi- nition of the thing. 6 OUTLINES OF 'he appearance of a„v tw'^ succession, or between "'e call duralion TlLT "' '" °" "■'"''^' '» ^-h'' «»t8 a consciousuesVfrl „V"r''''"" "^ '""'' P^e- «o» of a certain lapse If U^e "' ""''» '"» """P" 5 2. That an actual succession „p :j perception of time isr»nrf f .?' " "'""^"« '» <>" '"at, wUen that s Ic erslTct ' ""^ "'-•'"'='-«, d-mtion ceases with . Th ''' "^ P'«^"«»» "t Oft dreaming, we Va™ n„ ' '" '"°''"""'^ "''^P ^"i- "J-ration. Havil^ore tn^ V<^'<^mon whatever of ■•» true, on wakin/i'^^^L „ "?" "' "'^'"' ^' ""»"> " "i'e interval has e^sed bu wl? """ " """""■ "^S' by inference from external n^ '™ '"'' """"^'^OKe consciousness. We see "hit ,h rt""' ""■ ""' ''^^ ohanged to the light „f da ' '".t ""^''"^'^ "f night has below the horizon! i abovXl'" "" ^""' '""'='• -- rience that these changes are I'rod ? '"'°" ''^ "P*" inter.a, of tm, . whence 1 ? °"'^ '" " "^""''' i-'erval n,„st have Cared , "'"'* '"*' ^""l' »» if ^e fa„ asleep in he 1 ' ' "'/^" "^'^^P- »«' -""til the next day but one w^' * "'' °"' "'«"'«" '' lapse of more than one night "* "nconscious of the § 3. S < I <. 'e furnished he distance or between 'fls» is what ideas pre- the percep- 3ite to our umstance, 2eption of eep with- atever of know, it tain defi- lowledge not from 'ight has ^ich was by expe- i certain 3uch an p. But awaken ' 3 of the hazard ithout CHRONOLOGY. 7 regularity by external objects, produces a perception of time, it does not afford a measure of it! A series of agreeable thoughts has the effect of making time appear to pass with rapidity, whilst a series of painful or dis- agreeable impressions has the effect of making an equal portion of time seem very much longer. The series of events or perceptions which would supply a measure of time must be absolutely uniform and regular. In such case, the number of repetitions of the same event or phenomenon found between any two points of the series becomes the measure of the interval of time which has elapsed between them. § 4. The series of phenomena which have been most uni- versally adopted by mankind as measures of time, are those regularly recurring phenomena, the (real or ap- parent) motions of the heavenly bodies, especially those of the sun (earth) and moon, which are easily observa- ble by ail, and never cease to be reproduced with unvarying uniformity. Thus the revolutions of the earth upon its axis, of the moon round the earth, and of the earth round the sun, give r se to those natural divisions of time with which we are familiar under the denominations of days, months, and years. The other divisions of time are of a more artificial and arbitrary nature. § 6.* The term day has two distinct significations : it may mean either the natural or the fiivil •nd night (Gi\ nuchthemcroii^ Lat. noctiduum). § 6. The day^ whether natural or civil, is divided into hours; and in all nations, from time immemorial, this division of the day has been a duodecimal division. Some peoples have counted the hours consecutively from one to twenty-four ; others have divided the day into two series of twelve hours each. It is probable that amongst the nations of antiquity the customary division of the natural day from sunxiso to sunset, and of the natural night from sunset to sunrise, was each into twelve equal parts, called respectively hours of the day and hours of the night. It is evident that the diurnal hours could have been equal in length to the nocturnal hours only at the equinoxes ; that from the vernal to the autumnal equinox the diurnal were longer than the nocturnal hours, and from the autumnal to the vernal equinox the nocturnal were longer than the diurnal hours. The hours, both diurnal and nocturnal, were also subject to continual variations of length. From the first day of winter, or the shortest day^ to the first day of summer, or the longest day, the diurnal hours constantly increased, and the nocturnal hours constantly decreased in length ; and from the first day of summer to the first day of winter, the aocturnai i ^ 1 /• and i I i, ! I CURONOLOaV. 9 /:•. * ** 1 r hours constantly increaaed in length, whilst the diurnal hours constantly diminished. Inconvenient as such a mode of measuring the time must have been, according to our present notions, it is probable that it continued to bo employed in Europe during the greater portion of the Middle Ages ; and that the division into hours of uniformly equal length did not take place, except for astronomical purposes (equinoctial hours), until the invention of mechanical clocks towards the twelfth century of the Christian era. § T. The moment at which the day commences is a point in regard to which there has been much disagreement in the practice of different nations. The Babylonians or Chaldeans began their day at sunrise, and divided it and the night into twelve hours each. They also invented sun-dials and water-clocks of a rude descrip- tion. The Hebrews fixed the commencement of their day at sunset : their ancient division of it was into evening and morning, noon and night— the night being also divided into watches : it was from the Babylonians that they first learned the division into hours. The ancient Greeks also commenced their day at sunset. Before the time of Herodotus (B. C. 450), they appear to have learned from the Babylonians both the division of the day into hours, and the use of the sun-dial ; but neither of these were in common use amongst them until long afterwards. To denote the time of day, they employed expressions borrowed from the common functions of life ; and, for ascertaining the four watches 10 OUTLINES OP into which they divided the night, they made use of a rude water-clock called a clepsydra. The Romans divided the natural day and the natural night into twelve hours each ; but as their civil day began at midnight^the seventh nocturnal hour—their nocturnal hours were thus distributed over two civil days. Like the Greeks, they divided the night into four watches (vigiliae), in the regulation of which they were guided by observing the heavenly bodies, or by the clepsydra. The position of the sun served to indicate to them the time of day. About three centuries before Christ they were acquainted with the sun-dial: the water-clock was introduced among them by Scipio Nasica in the year B. 0. 164. The Italians, even to the present time, divide the day into twenty-four successive hours, reckoned continuously from sunset to sunset. Thus, at an hour before sunset, it is twenty-three o'clock ; at two hours before sunset, it is twenty-two o'clock , and soon. According to this system, the hour of sunrise varies from day to day, and from season to season ; but the hour of sunset is constant, being twenty-four o'clock. It is evident that a clock to indicate such time must be set from day to day, or at least from week to week, since each succeeding- sunset would be con- stantly later than the previous one during one-half the year, and constantly earlier during the other half. The English, French, Germans, and the moderns generally, commence the day at midnight and divide it Into two equal series of twelve hours, so that midday and mid- night are equally twelve o'clock. According to this iystem of reckoning, it is necessary, whenever an hour •1' I M 4 J I CHRONOLOGY. 11 ide use of a he Komans night into y began at r nocturnal lays. Like ur watches rere guided clepsydra, to them the Christ they rater-clock $ica in the 2sent time, ive hours, ;. Thus, at 3'clock ; at lock , and of sunrise to season; venty-four ieate such from week Id be con- le-half the half. The generally, t into two and mid- ng to tbia ir an hour is named, to indicate its relation to noon. The hours before noon are indicated by the letters A. M., and those after noon by P. M., being the initials of the Latin words ante meridiem (before midday), and post weri- dlem (after midday). Modern astronomers divide the day into twenty-four successive hours reckoned from noon to noon. Thus, according to their manner of reckoning, twenty minutes and a half after ten o'clock in the morning would be 22h. 20m. 30s. Civil or common time, therefore, is half a day before astrono- mical time. Thus, for example, the fi-t day of the year 1859, according to civil reckoning, commenced at the moment of midnight between the 31st December, 1858, and 1st January, 1859; but, according to astro- nomical reckoning, it commenced at midday on 1st January, 1859. It follows, therefore, that the twelve hours which preceded the noon of 1st January, 1859, were, according to astronomical reckoning, the last twelve hours of the year 1858. § 8. Next to the alternations of day and night, the changes of the mc form the most striking appearance amongst the heavenly bodies ; and as the regularity of their occurrence must soon have attracted attention, we are not surprised to find that in the earliest ages they were used as a measure of time. The sun (apparently) and the moon (really) move round the celestial sphere in the same direction ; but the moon moves more than thirteen times as fast as the sun, and consequently makes more than thirteen 1*> OUTLINES OF from or approaching to and overtaking the sun A? he moment it overtakes the sun, it is said to bet ^>^ncUo„, and is called ne. ,noon. At the moment" s in the opposite part of the heavens, it is in oppoH- '-,• and as it then presents its enlightened hemisphere d rec ly towards the earth, it appears with a comple ! creular disc, and is called full .oon. When itt m d! way betwixt conjunction and opposition, it is said ,o be m Its quarters : n then appears as an enlightened Bcm,c,rcle, and is called half „„„„. The time which H takes to make one complete revolution of t:.e heavens s called ,ts,mW, and is found by exact observat on to amount to 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes and n° seconds. i" The interval between two successive conjunctions of the moon with the sun, or between two successive new moons, IS greater than the moon's period. If we sun pose the sun and moon to start together from conjunc" tion, the moon, moving more than thirteen times as fast immediately gets before the sun, and returns to the point from which she had started in 27d. 7h. 43m and liters as we have just seen : but during this time the sun also has been (apparently) moving in the same direction and the next conjunction, or new mo^n, can- not therefore take place until the moon overtake him which it will still require somewhat more than two day to accomplish. By the most exact observations and cal culations it has been found that the interval between two successive conjunctions is 29d. 12h. 44m 2 aii-= Th.s interval is called a lunation, '''''' 1 makes one. er departing the sun. At said to be in be moment it is in opposi- i hemisphere 1 a complete in it is mid- it is said to enlightened me which it i.-^e heavens observation I and ll-/„- iinctions of essive new If we sup- n conjune- aes as fast, rns to the 43ra. and 3 time the the same »oon, can- akes him, two days 3 and cal- between CHRONOLOOr. § 9. 15 _ The moon s period is not well suited for a measure of civil time, because the moment which terminates one period and begins the next is not marked by any con- spicuous and generally observable phenomenon, and can only be ascertained by astronomers. But the recur- rence of the lunation, and even of its fractional parts IS marked by phenomena so striking and so universally observable even without instruments, that in all an-eg and countries we find it used by common consent as a measure of time. It received the appellation of month (Anglo-Saxon monath, from mona, the moon) : but the civil month, being now arranged with reference to the year (see § lO), no longer corresponds to the lunation, nor does it retain any reference to the moon beyond the name. "^ A natural division of the lunation into four quarters corresponding to the changes of the moon, would make each of these quarters correspond pretty nearly to a period of seven days ; and such has' probably enough been the origin of the week amongst variout ancient nations, including the Chinese, the ancient Peruvians, and the ancient Germans. The week of the Christian nations however, is derived from the Jews, amongst Whom, by the setting apart of the Sabbath, it possessed from the first a religious signification. One of the chief Jewish festivals, namely, the feast of Pentecost (the thanksgiving for the harvest), was determined by a cycle of weeks, and was therefore often called the Feast of Weeks. But in the affairs of common life the Jews ieem to have reckoned more usually by days than by 14 OUTLINES OF weeks until after their return from the captivity. Nei- ther in the Old nor in the New Testament do we find names for the different week days. These names would appear to have had originally an astrological meaning, referring to the different planets under the influence of which the first hour of each particular week-day was imagined to stand, as the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupi. ;r, Venus, and Saturn. This astrological week was, about the commencement of the Christian era, intro- duced amongst the Greeks (who until then had divided their mouths into decades^ or periods of ten days), and amongst the Romans (who previously had had a week of eij^ht days) ; and by the time that the Christian week, adopted from the Jews, was officially recognised by Constantine, the heathen names for the week-days had taken such firm root that they continued in common use. Besides the name of Sunday, however, (dies solis,) the Christians gave the first day of the week an appel- lation, dies dominicus (the Lord's day), which has been retained in the modern Romanic languages (Ital. Do- menica ; French, Dimanche), In these languages, how- ever, for the week-days from Monday to Friday inclusive, the original names were retained, the seventh day re- ceiving the name of the Sabbath. Thus, Latin. Dies Lunae. Martis. Mercurii. Jovis. Veneris. (( (< (( (( Italian. Lunedi. Martedi. Mercordi. Giovedi. Venerdi. (( Saturnii (Sab- Sabato. bati). French. Lundi. Mardi. Mercredi. Jeudi. Vendredl. Samedi. ativity. Nei- nt do we find names would ical meaning) e influence of ^eek-day was ars, Mercury, cal week was, n era, intro- L had divided in days), and lad a week of ristian week, scognised by sek-days had [ in common r, (dies solis,) ek an appel- lich has been es (Ital. Do- guages, how- iay inclusive, 'enth day re- 'rbnch. idi. •di. credi. di. idredi. ledi. CHRONOLOGY. 15 The English names for the days of the week have come down from the Anglo-Saxons. Previously to the introduction of Christianity amongst them, the ancient Germans seem to have had a week of their own, and to ha.e given names to its days un- der Roman influence, which may probably enough have reached them through Gaul. For Sunday and Monday the Roman names were retained : for the other days they selected the names of those German deities which seemed to bear most resemblance to the correspondinir gods of Rome. To the Roman Mars corresponded the Teutonic Ziu, whence dies Martis became Ziu's-day Tuesday; to Mercury corresponded the Teutonic Wod- an (Scand. Odin), whence dies Mercurii became Wodan's-day, Wednesday ; dies Jovis became the day of Thor, the god of thunder, Thor's-day, Thursday ; dies Veneris became the day of Fria, the spouse of Wodan, Fna's-day, Friday ; dies Saturnii, Saturn's-day Saturday, was retained in many of the Teutonic Ian guages, and amongst others in the Anglo-Saxon ; but in the Scandinavian dialects it became laugar dagr Idver dag, or lordag, equivalent to bathing or washing^ay. § 10. Although moons or months afforded a convenient mode of measuring time amongst the earliest peoples It could not. in the course of time fail to strike them' that a more convenient mode of reckoning and dividing time, not only for the more regularly recurring labours of the field, but even for the Durauita of T^aafir— hunting, and fishing, arose from the changes of the 16 ObTLINES OP «aso„8. Thence would originate the division of tim* nto year., or those interval, in the conrso o wh h t^ sun maltes a complete revolution of the heavenf In the seasons are periodically reproduced ' ""' such a revolution was a matter of some difhculty In tbe.r first attempt at the establishment of th annual they divided mto twelve periods of 30 day each we must bear ,„ mind that they were months which .keonr modern civil months, had no reference wat «ver to the moon. They subsequently added five sup- prementary days to their year: these five day "he add: .on of which to the original year is attributed „ one of their gods or heroes called by the Greeks Hermes lion of the old year and the commencement of the new Amongst other nations, the practice of recko injy moons had taken such root before they began reckon^ J by years, that, when they adopted the latter mode of reckoning, they assumed the year to consist of a certain number of lunar months. The year of .» r consisted of twelve lunar months, t^fh C',' ; ^ n order to establish an approximative har^onrwUh The new 'Z' '^"^ °«»-™»% added a thirteenth The new month commenced with the first appearance Of the new moon in the evening twilight. If the vea her was not clear enough to allow the new moon "Ckon eTtT " "" ""•'""' ""• ""^ »- "O"'" -a" reckoned to commpnr.p .f *x.„ j „.,,.. , ,^tj SI luu cuu 01 ihuty days from * 'Ai_. CHRONOLOOY. 17 <♦» the commencement of the oM one. At the end of tweWe lunar month., the ,ne.tion whether, new nu added, depended on the circum.t.n« of whether the growing crop of barley were so far advanced toward, maturily that, by the middle of the first month, after- wards called Nisan, which fell in the time of the Vernal •qmnoE, the sheaf of the first frnita could be offered to Jehovah according to the command of Moses. Thi. fluctuating mode of measuring their years was retained by the Jews not only throughout the period of the Babyloman captivity, but down to the destruction of Jerusalem The division of the year amongst the Greeks .s mvolved in some obscurity, and this obscu- n y ,s mcreased by the circumstance that the different Hellemc States were at variance with each other in regard both to the number and the lengths of their months, as well as to the period at which the year com menced. We know, however, that they earlyTta"^' averyprec.se knowledge of the period of the l„n„ phases, and that these served as the basis of the" chronometnc system. They estimated the lun.Uon a^ 2H days (which is within three quarters of an ho„r of .ts actual length), and this period they took for ^he^ month. For the sake of convenience they made the months consist of 29 and 3- days alternately and twelve of these months composed their year Such^ year, however, consisting of only 384 days, deviated ™m the periodical return of the seasons by LI^T^ U days, so that after the lam. of thr- v.- • sons were put back more ^. mt';:^r.rS: 18 OUTLINES OF If I 1: \ lapse of eighteen years they were actually reversed, — midsummer taking the place of midwinter, and vice versa. But the return of the seasons constituted so ob- Tious and so natural a measure of the year, and was so intimately connected with the business of life, and especially with agriculture, that no standard which greatly varied from it could long be roaintaiaed. At- tempts, therefore, were early made amongst the Greeks to bring their series of twelve months into harmony with the period of the seasons, and finally their several lengths were so adjusted as to produce a total of 365 days,— an interval so ^early corresponding to the true succession of the seasons that an age must elapse before any important discordance would be rendered manifest. The Roman mode of measuring the year was origi- nally very rude ; and it continued very imperfect down to the time of the great reformation of the calendar effected by Julius Caesar. The Roman year is supposed to have consisted originally of 304 days, portioned amongst ten months,* and to have been extended (in • The first four months of the Roman year were named Mar- iius, AprilU, Majus, and Junius. The name Martins is derived from the god Mars, the supposed father of Romulus. Aprilis is derived hy Ovi4 from the latin word aperire, to open, in allu- sion to the opening vegetation of spring : more probably, how- ever, it oomes by metathesis from Parilis, the equivalent of Palilis, because on the 2l8t of that month, which was the sup- posed anniversary of the foundation of the city by shepherds, A^ere celebrated the Parilia or Palilia, the festival of the shep» herd god Pales. The true etymologies of Majus and Junius are uncertain, although various c-onjectural ones have been assi"ncd The names of the other six months, which express«d merply ^ CHRONOLOOY. 19 reversed r, and vice uted so ob' and was so f life, and lard which iacd. At- the Greeks ) harmony t«ir several )tal of 365 to the true ust elapse e rendered was origi- •fect down i calendar 3 supposed portioned tended (in latned Mav IS is derived . Aprilis is )en, in allu- bably, how- uivalent of as the sup- shepherds, if the shepr Junius are •it ctj the time, as is said, either of Numa or of one of the Tarquins) to 355 days, distributed over twelve months. It, however, soon appeared that the year of 355 days did not remain in harmony with the revolutions of the seasons, but that these were yearly becoming about ten or twelve days later, according to the calendar, than they had been the year before. The expedient adopted by way of remedy was to introduce into every second year a thirteenth month, called Mercedonius, consisting alternately of 22 and 23 days, and inserted immedi- ately after the 23rd February. Thus a series of four years consisted of — their numerical order, were Quintilis (fifth nionlli) Sextilis (thQuXxth), September (the seveutli), Oc^o^er (the eighth) No- vember (the ninth), and December (the tenth). TJie two months afterwards added received the names of Januarius and Febru- artm,-ihQ former in honor of the old Italian god. Janus, and the latter in honor of Februus. an Etrurian god, who seems to be identified with Pluto. Quintilis subsequently received the name ot Julius, in honor of Julius Caesar, and Sextilis the name of Augustus, in honor of that Emperor. It was afterwards at- tempted to change the names of September, October, November and December into names derived from the Emperors Tiberius* Claudms. Nero, and Domitian; but the new names would not stick, and so the old remained. The months were divided by Calends (whence we have the familiar word Calendar). Nones and Ides, which originally corresponded, the first to the new moon, the second to the first quarter, and the third to the full moon. This correspondence, however, was lost sight of after the solar year came into use, though the names were retained as convenient for making subdivisions, just as the word month is still retained in modern languages, although the thing signified has ceased to have any connection with a revolution of the moon. ^ 20 OUTLINES OF Bays. 1. An ordinary year of 355 days, 355 2. A year of 355 days-f Mercedonius, 23 days, 377 3. All ordinary year of 355 days, 355 4. A year of 355 days+Mercedouius, 23 days, 378 Total, 14G5 But the true length of four solar years being only 1461 days, four Roman years as thus established would be four days too long ; so that every four years the seasons would fall four days earlier in the year than they had done four years before, and in the short period of ;thirty years they would severally be moved back a month. This consequence becoming apparent, a reme- dy was sought by confiding to the pontiffs a discretion- ary power of intercalating as many days as they might consider necessary to preserve harmony betwixt the year of the calendar and the year of the seasons. But the pontiffs, abusing the power confided to them, their proceedings created so much disorder that at last the various festivals fell entirely out of coincidence with the seasons of the year at which they ought to have been celebrated. 4« f § 11. It was reserved for Julius Caesar, in his capacity of chief pontiff, not only to put an end to this confusion and the abuses in which it originated, but to establish a system of recording time which has descended to the present nay, auu is deaoRiinated, froxn its founder, the CnRONOLOOY. 21 355 23 days, 377 355 13 days, 378 14G5 irs being only xblished would 'our yeara the the year than le short period moved back a arent, a reme- s a discrction- as they might Y betwixt the seasons. But to them, their that at last >f coincidence they ought to is capacity of this confusion it to establish cended to the m 3 founder, the Julian Calendar. He was aided in this great reforma- tion by two eminent astronomers, viz., Marcus Flavins, a Roman, and Sosigines, an Egyptian— he himself having also paid some attention to astronomy when in Egypt, where the science was so fur advanced that the length of the solar year was known to be about 365J days. The adoption of a civil year of exactly that duration, would, however, have involved inconvenient conse- quences. Thus if we suppose such a year to commence at midnight between 31st December and 1st January, the succeeding year would commence at 6 a.m. on the next 1st January ; the next at neon on the following 1st January; the next at 6 p. m. on the 1st January of the third year ; and, in fine, the next at the midnight between the 1st and 2nd January of the fourth year. Thus, in a series of four years, the first of January would be transferred piecemeal, quarter by quarter, backwards to the preceding year. Instead of this, Cajsar decided to adhere to years consisting of the whole number of days (365) and to allow the fraction of \ to accumulate until, at the end of four years, it should amount to an entire day, which was then to be added as a supple- mentary day to the year of its occurrence. The addi- tional day given to the fourth year (which would thus consist of 366 days) was introduced where formerly the intercalary month Mercedonius had been introduced, namely, after the 23rd February, so that the 24th of February, (called in the Roman calendar a. d. VI. Kal. Martias) being reckoned twice over, received the name ante diem bisscxtum Kal. Mart., whence we have the t2 OUTLINES fff mjn^ oUnnus bis,rxtilis (bissextile) for the intercalary Un future being thus prov >'^ed for, it now remain- ed tu , pair the consequences of past disorder, by bringing back the months to their normal position with respect to the seasons. To accomplish this, it was de- creed that the year 708 from the building of the city (corresponding to the year B. C. 4G, and to which chronologists have given the appellation of the year of confusion) should consist exceptionally of 445 days, by adding to the common year of 355 days, not only the intercalary month Mercedonius, but two extraordinary months, the first of 33 and the second of 34 days, which wqre inserted between the months of November and December. % this means the day of the vernal equi- nox was brought back to the 25th of March, the date Which It was supposed to have held in the time of Numa Pompilius. A rectification of the intercalary Bystem, which had fallen into some confusion after Caesars death, was effected by Augustus, in the year 8 iJ. C, on which occasion it was that he gave his own name to the month Sextilis. (§ lo.) § 12. The Julian Calendar, together with the Jewish wcol- ot seven days (§ 9), was adopt. 1 by the Christn.u i, w^ '''"''"°'; "^"^^ ^^'''" *° bissoxtile years in our language ileap.ycar.--a term of vvhicli it is difficult to see the propS Smh >^ ^^ " '^"^^^"° ^^^" ^^ -* *'- 29th but I \ CHRONOLOar. 88 ae intercalary '■ now remain- disorder, by position with lis, it was de- ig of the city nd to which 3f the year of 445 days, by not only the xtraordinary t days, which )vember and vernal equi- 'ch, the date the time of intercalary fusion after n the year 8 ive his own ewish wcfil- 3 Christii.ii our language he propriety. )ntinent, the the 29th but nations of Europe, and remained the common calendar of Christendom down to the year of our Lord 1.82. la various states it continued to be used much longer, and in Russia it remains in use down to the present day. § 13. It hap bee - already stated that the interval of 366i dayb assumed in the Julian reformation as the length of a year, differs from its exact length by a fraction— though only a small fraction— of a day. As we have now to explain the part which this small fraction has played in chronology, it is requisite to attain and bear in mind a clear idea of the precise meaning of the term year. A year, it has been said (§ 10), is the period after which the seasons are reproduced, or froff the moment at which spring begins to the moment at which winter ends and spring recommences. This mom«nt— and be it observed that we have here to do, not with days or hours, but with such minute periods of time as minutes, seconds, and fractions of a second— i- considered to be the moment at which the centre of the sun's disc has such a position in the heavens that, if it were sta- tionary there, day and night would be exactly equal— the sun would, during an apparent revolution of the he .-( us, be exactly twelve hours above and twelve hours below the horizon. But the sutf s disc is not stationary. It has a continual easterly motion upon the heavens, moving at the rate of about I" per day or 2i' per bour, 80 that it does not reta.u the position in auea- tAon more tlian a single s«con• the 2l8t March andZ "?''' "'' P'"° "Oo"' •poch of the be. nni'l T T'^ *" «^ <"■ " «« the «I>e 23rdSepte»ter"'*Thf ''""""''.*'"'»' P'a«e about situate at opposite sideJof ':''»""'<""-> Points are r™«2 other b, an tV^ L'^iJ^ir' ^'""""^ °"' '^-:ttrir,r.:t:r i: "«" --■«''- «- '^^ «ie centre of the sun^,T , °'°°'""' »' """iob .ively through ei her of '.t """'^ "'^ '"''"' »"«"«- interval Zw which L' "'"'" "" '" '"■=' '"o interval is calL the XtT;:' Z i s'r'"-, ^"'^ J»a beon ascertained b, mJZT^XT, i"^"* «.o«rs 9 »i„„,ea and 10.- seconds. ''' "^^ '' .n t"h^ htr,""tev a""'* '^ ""' " "«^ -»'«'"' -t from ;:; to'^r.^ r^eUrc:'? '"■""^»'- motion of the sun Ti,« . "ireetion contrary to the ».nt is smallTin J?mrr "'^""^ "■"""" "''P'"''- ^~« ver, precisely meard':7rrr'".*- -i waiv •ound Its dial, t- The exact it the moment inoctialpoint, through that wo equinoxes ied the rernal E on it as the place about he autumnal on it as the place about •^ points are jparated one lition on the ts at which •ice sueces- in fact the appears to ^ens. This caet length 365 dajs G ■^ position '■ displace- arj to the f displace- ^entbparfc ; is, it has v to «j.l.J_l_ ft? j »*» SSI liili ■f V. 4 "If. CUKONOLOOV. 25 are of the highest importance, as well in chronoloirv «s,„ astronomy, have been exactly appreciated ^ ba^Crd°'rh'ef "" ""'°™' "' '"' ^'"■"■''"-' P"-* oacRward, the sun, on maliing a rerolntion of the hea- vens, arrives at it sooner than it would have done had t not been displaced. This must be evident wl en U rec«ot:: ,""" "' '•""■""=«"• "»'»'■ -"^P'a- n a to me the »'"".""'* "''"'' ™»'' »<"-", advances heaven and r ' ■"'"'''' " "'"""'" ^"<""«™ "f ">" cedes the t,me at which it wonld have taken place if the eq„,„„ctial point had been stationary. Tl's phe successive „' ' ' ""' """"' ''^*''een two *««• IS somewhat less than the sidcrial year. «a that acoo' T. " "^ "-""•"» '-"■gf. and would civil „„rnl t' f " '^"'^"e'l totally unfit for C-V.1 purposes by the circumstance that it is not in rie e::LT/''^''^"°''"= '^»"- "' «■» -- .earwouiTal, b"?."" ""^ ^'""o-ry, the siderial case iTw!?,. r . ""' '""'"'"'t-' y^ar, and in that son Z • """"'"' ''"• ""^ '^'"° of 'he sea- QuLc!i^ '"."y'^""^'^' of the displacement of the cqmnoct.al pomts, the commencement of the equinoc- l l2:!TrT' "'■'' ''"""'' ^^"^ ' -" ^''-o""" yeL vet ' 1 anticipation is very small year by ' year, yet, accumulating dnrm,.^ i^„, . - ^ i. causes the »easons=to-ta?e pCsr^J^.n^ every .maginablc part of the siderial year ^ 26 OUTLINES OF If the precession of the equinoxes, or, in other words, the annual displacement of the equinoctial point, were regular and constant, the equinoctial year, differing from the siderial year by an inconsiderable quantity, would itself be invariable ; and, as it is in accord- ance with the succession of the seasons, it would be in all respects eligible as a standard measure of civil time ; but it so happens that, through the operation of several causes, the displacement is rendered variable ; and though its variations are circumscribed within, narrow limits, alternately increasing and decreasing, still, the existence of variation at all, renders the equi- noctial year unfit for the purpose in question. A remedy for the variations has been found in the exact ascertainment of the mean annual displacement of the equinoctial point. This being done, a fictitious equi- noctial point is supposed to exist, having this mean annual displacement ; and, the interval between two successive retiirns of the sun to this fictitious equinoc- tial point being invariable, that interval is adopted as the standard, and is called the mean solar or civil year. Although it does not correspond rigorously with the returns of the seasons, it never varies from them by an interval great enough to be perceived or appreciated by any but astronomers : its exact length is 365d. 5h. 48m. 49-iVjjs.j being less than the siderial year by 20m. 20i%s. § 14. The exact length of a year that would always remain in accordance with the successive returns of the sea- eons being 365d. 5h. 48m. 49fVjS., whilst the length ^2^ v^. I » -m CHRONOLOGY. 27 ler words, )int, were differing quantity, 1 accord- would be e of civil sration of variable ; d within creasing, the equi- tion. A ;he exact nt of the t>us equi- tiis mean reen two equinoc- lopted as ivil year. with the jm by an )reciated :65d. 5h. by 20m. 3 remain the sea- 3 length of the Julian year was 365d. 6h., it follows that the Julian year would depart from the course nf the sea- sons at the rate of Um. 10-,^'ijs. per annum. The de- parture accumulating from year to year would amount to a whole day in 129 years, to two whole days in 258 years, to three in 387 years, and so on ; and although it would not be perceptible during the lives of a single generation, yet it must evidently become so after the lapse of centuries. The equinox falling back towards the beginning of the year at the rate of a day in 129 j^ears was thus, in the fifteenth century, thrown back ^^ much as eleven days, and would in the course of centuries have continually receded farther and farther, until it, and consequently the seasons, had successively assumed every possible position in the year. This fact, once ascertained, would of itself have afforded a suffi- cient reason for undertaking a revision and correction of the calendar. The immediate cause of the revision which took place was as follows : § 15. It was the rule of the church to celebrate the festival of Easter at a time not far removed from the 21st March, which was taken to be the day of the equinox, depend- ing, however, also upon conditions connected with lunar phenomena with which we are not at present concerned. If, therefore, the real equinox wpre conti- nually falling back (§ 14) farther and farther from the 21st March, it must obviously happen that the fes- tival of Easter, still related to the 2l3t March, would, in the course of time, fall successively in every season 28 OUTLINES OF I !l of the year. This error began to be fully recognised about the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and after various attempts hud been made to excite attention to the subject, it was taken up in earnest in the year 1577, by Pope Gregory XIII., under whose auspices a re- formed calendar was prepared, which received the name of the Gregorian calendar. Gregory entrusted the superintendence of the whole reformation to Christo- pher Schliissel, better known by his latinized name of Clavius, (+1712 aet. 75) a learned Jesuit, well known to mathematicians as a commentator on Euclid and other ancient geometers; and the changes intro- duced, which were sanctioned by a bull dated 24th February and published 1st March, 1582, were as fol- lows : As at the epoch of the Julian reform, two errors were to be corrected, those of the past and those of the fu- ture. The accumulated effect of the past errors was, that the nominal epoch of the vernal equinox (21st March, the date on which it fell at the time of the Council of Nice in 325) had fallen ten days behind the real date of its occurrence. To remedy this, it was decreed that ten nominal days should be destroyed— an expedient which has since been by some considered unnecessary, and which undoubtedly has given rise to confusion and chronological error. The day which should have been the 5th of October, 1582, was ordered to be called the 15th, so that the ten days from the 5th to the 14th of October, inclusive, were never allowed to exist. The last ten days of 1582, according to the ' --!• ^^acLi, ,Tcrc uius mrown over into 1583 in- r 1 CHRONOLOGY. 29 recognised ; and after ttention to year 1577, )ice8 a re- d the name .'usted the Chris to- ld name of 3ll known uclid and ;c3 intro- ated 24th re as fol- rors were >f the fu- •rors was, lox (21st le of the ehind the s, it was itroyed — )nsidered n rise to y which 1 ordered 1 the 5th allowed g to the 1583, in- V astouch as the 21st of December, 1582, became the 31st of December, 1582, and consequently 22nd December, 1582, became 1st January, 1583. The 11th March, 1583, according to the Julian Calendar, upon which the equinox really fell, thus became the 2l8t of March in the Gregorian Calendar, and the day of the equinox was secured for the future in the undisturbed possession of that date by the following arrangement : We have already seen (§ 14) that the Julian year is too long by 11 minutes lOjVo seconds. This will be found to make 400 years too long by about 3 days ; so that the error may be nearly corrected by reducing 3 leap-years in 400 years to common years. The mode of doing this tvas by neglecting to make leap-years of the anni doinini which end with 00, unless the preceding figures are divisible by 4. Thus 1600 is leap-year, but 1700, 1800, 1900 are not leap-years. In the Julian Calendar every year is leap-year which is divisible by 4 ; in the Gregorian Calendar, the exception is that the secular years (those closing centuries, or ending with 00) are not leap-years unless they are divisible by 400. This correction leares the year still a little too long. The difference would amount to a day in about 3600 years. To provide for this difference, the French as- tronomer, Jean Joseph Delambre (born 1749,+ 1822) proposed, and the proposal was adopted in the French revolutionary Calendar,* that the years of the French * This Calendar was introduced by a decree of the National Convention, dated 5th Oetobei-, x79;J, establi.shing tlie Era of the French Republic, the epoch, or point of departure, of vyhich \yas the midnight at which commenced the day of the autumnal 30 OUTLINES OF Republic 3600, 7200, and 10,800 should not be leap- years. But Pope Gregory did not aspire to legislate for 80 remote a posterity. § 16. Notwithstanding the undeniable reasonableness of Gregory's reform, the adoption of the change was far ft'om universal. Protestant states and the Greek Church were equally disinclined to it, because it ema- equi...,x (22nd September) 171.2. Ea.li subsequent year wa.s ia like ruauucr to counneuco at rniduiglii preceding the day of the true autumnal equinox. The year consisted of twelve months or 30 days each, to which were added in ordinary years 5. in leap, yeaij 6 complementary days. Instead of weeks, the month was divided nito three decades, or periods of ten days. The months received names denoting some characteristic quality. The au- tumnal months (22d September to 20th December) were Vendi- nnaire (VmtBgo month), Brumaire (Fog month), and Frimaire (Hoar-frost month) ; the winter months (21st December to 20th Marcli) were Nivose (Snow month), Ventose (Wind month), and ^luviote (Ram month) ; the spring montlis (21st March to ISth June) were Germinal (Bud month), Floreal (Flower month) and Prairial (Meadow month) ; and the summer months (19th June to 17th September) were Messidor (Harvest month) Ther- midor (Heat month), and Fructidor (Fruit month). The last was followed by the jours compi 4 mentaires, of which the first (17th September) ^^'ils culled la fete du g^nie; the tiecond, la fete du travail; the third, la fete des actions; the fourth la fete des recompenses ; and the fifth (21st September) la fSte de loptnwn The ten days of each decade were called Primidi, Duodi Ircdv, Quariidi, QuirUidi, Sextidi, Septidi, Octidi Aonidi. and Decadi. The last named was the day of rest At the n.i8tance of Bonaparte, by a decree of the Senate, dated 9th September, 1805. to take effect from 1st January. 1806 the re- vohationary calendar was abolished and the Gregorian restored. CHRONOLOOV. 31 i year was iu nated from papal authority: truth was no longer truth >^hen It issued from the Vatican ; or, as it was wittily expressed, they preferred being in opposition to the sun to being ,n harmony with the Pope. The commence- ment of the reform was fixed by the papal bull for the iZlTnTl ''' '""'' '' ^'' ^^^"^'^^ *^-t - to say, the 15th October ; and the change was then adopted in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. It was adopted in France onlOth December of the same year, which was called 20th December. It was adopted in 1584 in the Catholic states of Germany, the Catholic cantons of Switzerland, and the Catholic provinces of the Netherlands. In Poland It was adopted in 1586; in Hungary in 1587. The Protestant states of Germany, having resisted the reform for nearly 120 years, yielded at length : they accepted it in 1700, of which year the 19th February was declared to be the 1st March. Denmark and the United Provinces made the change simultaneously with I rotestant Germany, and their example was followed the subsequent year by the Protestant cantons of Swit- zer and, which commenced the eighteenth century with 12th January, 1701. In England, where the ante- papal spirit was probably stronger than anywhere else the reform was resisted for nearly two centuries, so that the real date of the equinox had come to fall eleven days earlier than the legal one. In 1752, how- ever, the reform was adopted in England,-the 3d be- ing declared to be the 14th of September. The change excited an immense deP.l of dissatisfaction, chiefly no doubt,amongst the lower orders,but by no means confined 32 OUTLINES OF exclusively to that portion of the community. The mob pursued the minister in his carriage, clamouring for the eleven days by which, as they supposed, their lives had been shortened ; and the illness and death, which shortly afterwards occurred, of the astronomer Bradley, who had assisted the government with hia advice, were attributed by many to a judgment from heaven.* The last country that adopted the change was Sweden, which in 1753 reckoned the day following llih February as 1st March. The Russians, and in general, the schismatic Greek Church, still adhere to the Julian calendar ; and accordingly, by the further accumulation of the effects of the erroneous length as- signed to the year, the Russian legal equinoxes are now (since 1800) twelve days behind the real equinoxes. In the year 1900, the difference will amount to 13, and in 2100 to U days. § n. At present, throughout Christendom, the civil year commences from midnight of 31st December, that is, with 1st January ; but this uniformity of reckoning is of modern and almost recent date. Amongst the French, in the time of Charlemagne, the year commen- • The great promoters of the change in England, and the par- ties by whom the bill was introduced into the llouse of Peers, wrre the Earl oi' Macclesftold and the Earl of CliosterfleM, bot!i pupils of thft celebrated niathomatician DeMoivro. Lord Ches- terfield alludes to his hand in it once or twice in his letters to his son. The last survivor of those whom they consulted was Charles Walmesley (born 1721,-1-1797), a Benedictine monk, af- terwards viear apostolic of the western clistviet of England, well known as a mathematician, and a member of the Royal Society. tJHRONOLOGT. 33 nity. The lamouring osed, their ind death, istronoraer t with hia ment from Lhe change (r following as, and in . adhere to the further , length as- ces are now equinoxes. ; to 13, and 3 civil year )er, that is, eckoning is nongst the IV commen- , and the par- use of Peers, iterflol'l, both . Lord Ches- I letters to bis onsulted was inc monk, sif- V^r.Erland.. woll Uoyal Society. 4; ted on Christmas-day : amongst the same poeple, under the monarchs of the house of Capet, it commenced on Easter-day ; and this was a very general date in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries : in England down to th§ change of style in 1752, it commenced on Lady-day (25th March). § 18. A matter of more importance than the day of the year's commencement is the mode of computing by years, so as to be able to refer historical events to distinct times as the times of their occurrence. This is most conve- niently done by selecting some remarkable event to which the other events of history are to be referred as having occurred so many years before or so many years after it. Such an event is termed un epochj and the period of which it forms the commencement or point of departure is termed an era. The number of epochs which have been used by different nations, and by the same nation at different periods or for different pur- poses, is considerable. The Jews employed as epochs, the Exodus, the Building of the Temple, the Accession of Herod, the Destruction of the Temple ; and the epoch from which they now date is the Creation of the World, which they reckon to have taken place 3761 years be- fore the Christian epoch. The Greeks used to count from Cecrops, from the destruction of Troy, from the official years of the Ephori in Sparta and of the Archons in Athens. About 300 years before Christ, Timeus, a Sicilian historian, introduced the practice of reckoning by Olympiads^ or the quadrennial recurrence of the Olyitfpic glomes. Tfarae games ^vcre celebrated oqob u OUTLINES 01* 4- 1% n 1 every four years between the new and full moon first following the summer solstice, on the banks of the tiver Alpheus, near the city of Pisa in the Peloponne- sus and lasted five days. Their original foundat.on is obscure, and has been connected with legendary t^les about Pelops and Ilerakles. After having been ne- glected during several centuries, they are said to have been revived by Iphitus, King of a canton of Elis, in con- cert with Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta. This much is certain, that they were finally established in the year B C. 776, when the practice was introduced of inscrib- ing in the gymnasium of Olympia the name of the vic- tor in' the contests. The first who received this honor was Coroebus ; and the games in which he was victori- ous were celebrated about the time of the summer solstice in the year just mentioned, which accordingly is the first year of the 1st Olympiad, and also the 3. ,j8th year of the Julian period (See. § 21 ), and 23 years before the foundation of Rome, according to Varro. The 293d and last Olympiad occurred A.D. 394, after which the games themselves were suppressed as heathenish by the Emperor Theodosius. The Romans used to reckon from the building of the city (A. U. C), from the years of the consuls, and from the years of the Emperors^ The consulship having become extinct in the reign of Justinian (A.D. 541),themode of computing by consular years then necessarily ceased for the future. After the sixth General Council (A.D. 681), the prevailing epoch amongst the Greeks was the Creation of the World, _.,-.. -u *.,n««5n«» +hP Sftntuaeint version of the Old Tea- . tattent, they placed 5508 years before the Christian % t ,t -\ > 4 CHRONOLOOV. 35 moon fint ks of the 'eloponne- indation is idary t|ile9 : been ne- lid to have lUs, in con- This much in the year of inscrib- of the vic- this honor ras victori- he summer .ccordingly the 3j. iSth fears before 'arro. The after which sathenish by id to reckon m the years 3 Emperors- the reign of ; by consular . After the ailing epoch the World, the Old Tea- be Obristian >i i: t epoch. This era, called the era of Constantinople, was long in general use throughout the Eastern Empire, and continued to be employed in Russia ^-^r both civil and ecclesiastical purposes down to the year 1700, when the Christian era was introduced by Peter the Great. In the Western Empire, the era of Diocletian, commencing with the accession of that Emperor (29th August, A.D. 284), and called also, from the ten years' persecution of the Christians which occurred in that reign, the era of the Martyrs, seems to have extensively prevailed. In Egypt it continued to be the civil era down to the conquest of that country by the Arabians ; and, down even to the present day, it continues to be used in the ecclesiastical calendar of the Coptic and Ethiopian Christians. In the sixth century, the Abbot Dionysius, surnamed (by himself, from modesty) Exiguus, or the little, a Scythian by birth, but who died in Rome about the year 556, proposed the year of our Saviour's birth as a chronological epoch ; and this epoch, giving rise to the Christian era, has since come to be generally adopted amongst Christian nations. A proposal ex- ceedingly similar had already been made (A.D. 465) by another churchman, Victorinus or Victorius of Aqui- taine,— the chief diflference being, that Victorinus had proposed dating from the year of Christ's crucifixion, not of his birth. The latter event (his birth) Diony- sius was led to conclude had occurred on the 25th De- cember, in the 753d year from the foundation of Rome ; and, according to the mode of reckoning finally adopted, the year I A.D. was that which commenced at midnight between 3Ut Dece»l3cr of the 753d, aad let Jaonaryof 86 OUTLINES or the 754th year of Rome, — that being the year in which Christ was supposed to have completed the first year of his age. In fixing upon that year, however, it is ob- vious that Dionysius has fallen into error. It appears from the narrative of Saiint Matthew (c. ii. v. 1-19) that our Saviour was born towards the latter end of the reign of Herod the Great ; and as Herod died, accord- ing "o Josephus, in the year of Rome 750, at which time Jesus was with his parents in Egypt, his birth must have taken place at least four, and probably six years earlier than Dionysius computed. This cir- cumstance, however, does not in any respect affect the value of the epoch for chronological purposes ; because, whatever may have been the actual year of our Saviour's birth, it is the first day (Ist January) of the year of Rome 754, that connects the Christian with the ancient chronology. In order, therefore, to convert any year of the Christian era into the corresponding year of Rome, it is only necessary to add 753 to it. Thus the year 1 A.D. was the year 754 of Rome ; the year 20 A.D. the year 773 of Rome, and so on. § 19. Since, according to the Christian chronology, time is counted thus prospectively forward from the birth of Christ, the year after that event being taken as the first year of the series, it might by analogy be presumed that, in counting time retrospectively, the year before the same event would be taken as the first year of the backward series. Thus, while the year after the birth of Christ h 1 A.D., the y^tir before that of the bhtb of CHRONOLOOr, 87 I year in which the first year of rever, it is ob- or. It appears (c. ii. V. 1-19) itter end of the d died, accord- 750, at which jypt, his birth and probably ted. This cir- respect affect ical purposes ; actual year of 1st January) of Christian with 'ore, to convert corresponding fidd 753 to it. of Rome ; the so on. ronology, time from the birth g taken as the ^y be presumed the year before rst year of the after the birth of tire bhrth of Christ would be the year 1 B.C , and consequently the year itself in wl.ich Christ was born would be either A.D.orO B.C. indifferently. By suchamode of expressing dates, the interval between any day in any year A.D. and the corresponding day in another year B.C. would be found by adding together the numbers expressing the years. Thus the interval between Ist July 1 A.D. and Ist July B.C. wa3 1 year ; the interval between Ist July 1 A.D. and Ist July 1 B C. was 2 years ; the in- terval between Ist July 15 A.D. and Ist July 14 B.C. was 29 years, and so on. And this is, accordingly, tho mode of expressing dates which astronomers employ. Unfortunately, however, it is not the mode which has been adopted by historians and chronologists. Ac- cording to these, the year 753 of Rome, in which Christ is supposed to have been born, is the year 1 B.C., and consequently all their dates B.C. exceed the corres- ponding dates of astronomers by 1. Thus the year which astronomers call 500 B.C.,historians call 501 B.C. To find, therefore, the interval between any day in a year A.D. and the corresponding day in any year B.C. when the historical dates are used, it will be necessary to add together the two dates and subtract 1 from their sum. § 20. Historical events are often referred to as having oc- curred in a particular century. A century is a com- plete period of a hundred years. Eighteen such periods have already elapsed since the commencement of the Christian era. and wp nm nnrtr Mrri^^ x^ *i ;_-^-_ .i , .. — „ .iTiiig in nic liiiiuiufnm. The first century commenced at the insUnt of mid- 38 OUTLINES OP night preceding the 1st January 1 A.D. and ended at midnight of 31st December 100 A.D. The eighteenth century commenced with 1st January 1701, and ended with 31st December 1800. In like manner, the first day of the nineteenth century was Ist January 1801, and the last will be 31st December 1900. § 21. Down to the latter part of the sixteenth century, chronology, as a science, can scarcely be said to have existed. All ancient history had been written in a servile and uncritical spirit, copying dates as it did everything else from the authorities immediately under the compiler's eye, with little or no endeavour to recon- cile discrepancies, or to point out any principles of computation. In 1583, however, Joseph Scaliger, per- haps the most learned man either of his own or of any other age, published a work on the rectification of dates (Z)e emendatione temporum), to which nothing that the age produced was superior, or perhaps equal, in origi- nality, depth of erudition, or vigorous encountering of difficulties. It was a work requiring, besides much at- tention and acuteness, an amount of erudition, of which he alone in Europe could be reckoned master. He has been censured for introducing too many conjectures, • and drawing too many inferences from conjectural data. But, whatever may be his merits in the determination of particular dates, he is certainly the first who laid the foundation of chronology as a science. It is to him we owe the invention of what is termed the Julian period. which was meant as an era of common reference to I OHRONOLOGY. 39 . and ended at rhe eighteenth 701, and ended inner, the first January 1801, jenth century, >e said to have written in a ates as it did ediately under vour to recon- principles of Scaliger, per- )wn or of any nation of dates thing that the qual, in origi- icountering of lides much at- tion, of which ,ster. He has J conjectures, • jectural data. Jetermination first who laid It is to him Julian mriod. reference to which dates referred to other eras might be reduced, so as to form a common standard of histori-cal and chro- nological time. This he found might be effected by taking a cycle of 7980 years, of which he fixed the commencement at the moment of noon for the meridian of Alexandria on 1st January 4713 B.C., and by the employment of this period, according to the testimony of the best modern ehronologists, light and order were for the first time let in upon the obscurity and confu- sion in which ancient history and chronology were in- volved.* § 22. About twenty years after Scaliger's death, Denis Petau or Petavius, a Jesuit (born 1583, died 1652), with learning scarcely inferior to Scaliger's own, published ai very valuable work on the same subject. Using greater caution than his predecessor, and dissenting from many of his conclusions, he assailed him rather rudely, and displayed too great anxiety to refute him whether right or wrong. But his work was clear and methodical, and long served as a text-book in the uni- versities. The first important contribution to the sci- ence made by an English writer, was Archbishop • Since the year of the birth of Christ was the 4713th of the Julian period, the order of any later year of the Christian era in the Julian period will be found by adding 4713 to the year. Thug for example, the year ISM is the 1859-f 4718=(5572d vcar of the current Julian period. To find the order of any year bofoi« Christ in the Julian period, it will only be necessuiy to subtract the year from the order of the year 1 of the Julian period, that ig froiii 4714. Thus, the date of the battle of Cannae being 2ia J3uC^ i*s date in the Julian period is 4714—216=1498. 40 0UTLINE8 OF Bshert Annals of the Old Testament, the first nart „f wh.ch .as published in .650, and .he' second pa "„f lonans , and, having also been followed by the conti Lope r"" """""" ch^nologioal'sohemeof Europe. In our own day the chronologist of most we^ t and reputation is probably Christian LudwTg a f n/tfr' '"l"" '"""""^ "' ''""»• fro" whose wr e ^0 . ™'^' """'' '""" ""-'« of •he other jnters just named, and from a learned work Z'arl t tlV" """' '•"•'"'''^'' "^ ••"» Beoe^cti'nfs S>. Ma,r, the more popular recent works on chronolo J l>ave mostly been compiled. cnronology § 23. To the study of History, the science of ChronoWy forms a necessary and one of it, n,„o. • "'"""'oey iliariea Tf i. , ... . °^' "npor'ant au.\- na»rfes thJh 'v • '" '""' of "'«»»"yl'».orious nquirres that have been instituted and pursued within flciou! "'* "" "o-J""'"" ; and the most jnd.cous inquirers have of late been coming to the Z::;^!^^"" '■^"-"P"-. there'are no s ve view o hi,. " ?""''""' '» »'""■' " «°>»Prehen- 8>ve new of historical events without marshalling them ZZITT'""" " ^"^^"^ '"■''^ --cidence and r:^!!?".^!'' "" f""" f™- «»e very outset of — .w.v..v..».uu,es 10 recur, at least provisionally, to CHRONOLOGY. le first part of icond part fol- chronology is 7 English his- by the conti- lin, it formed cal scheme of gist of most itian Ludwig ^, from whose of the other work, L^art nedlctines of a chronology Chronology »ortant aux- ny laborious •sued within very remote nd the most aing to the lere are no J the Olym- 2omprehen- alling them idence and y outset of lionally, to 41 some chronological system, even though we may utterly distrust its near approach to correctness. As we de- scend the stream, our chronology becomes gradually more reliable, until at last the date of every important occurrence may be ascertained with precision. The value of the following tabular exhibition of the more prominent events of universal history will pro- bably consist less in the aid which it may afford to the pupil's imagination in combining these events into con- nected groups, than in the assistance which it will afford the memory, in recalling to it, by means of a word or a sentence, the substance of a lesson. The divisions and subdivisions into greater and lesser his- toncal periods are those which are most usually adopted for the purpose of tuition. The three great periods of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern History, although they imp-v no interruption of continuity In the march of events, but on the contrary are linked closely together by multifarious ties, are yet characterized by features so essentially different, and by peculiarities and con- trasts so striking, that each of them may in a certain sense be regarded as a separate and independent whole. An attempt has been made to indicate in a few sentences the general features of each; but any thing like a nearer consideration of these would lead us far beyond the limits of the present outline. 42 OUTLINES OP ANCIENT HISTORY. B.C. 4000— A.D. 476. Ancient History, embracing the period from the crea- tion of man to the overthrow of the Roman Empire of the West, contains first, the primitive history of the human race from Adam to Noah, and the division of peoples which took place shortlyafter the Flood ; second- ly^ the fabulous history^ or mythological period, of the earliest nations ; thirdly, the historical period, or pro- per history, of the earliest nations of Asia, and of the sfittlers alo ag the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. FIRST PERIOD. B.C. 4000—B.C. 555. fROM ADAM TO CyKUS. Primitive history of the human race from Adam to Noah. — Diffusion of Noah's descendants over the earth. —Foundation of the first great empires in Assyria and Babylonia. — Overthrow of the New Babylonian Empire by the Medo-Persians. — During this period Asia is the principal scene of historical events. B.C. 4000. Adam and Eve in Paradise. Central Asia the Original abodo of the humuu lucc. Cain, Abel, Seth. ^1 s X r. i r^ul. CHRONOLOGY. 43 K$9 I? > % B.C. 2300. 2000. 1900. 1600. 1500. 1300. 1250. 1200. Noah, the second universal parent of the human race. The deluge. Noah's sons, Shem, Hara^ and Japheth. The Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob. The first great states, Babylonia and Assyria (Baby- Ion and Niniveh). Ninus and Semiramis. An- cient civilization of Egypt. Memphis, Thebes. Joseph in Egypt. The Phenicians the most an- cient of trading nations. Their cities. Tyre and Sidon. Foundation of Colonies. Invention of letters, glass, purple. Emigration of the Pelas- gians from Asia Minor into Greece. Athens founded by Cecrops from Egypt ; Thebes by Cadmus from Phenicia. Danaus from Egypt in Argos. The Greeks, or " Hellenes," in Hellas. Moses in Egypt. Exodus of the Israelites. The law given from Mount Sinai. Conquest of Pales- tine. The Judges. Sesostris in Egypt. Immigrations into Greece from Egypt and Phe- nicia. Pelops. Argonautic expedition. Hellenic heroes : Jason, Hercules, Theseus, (Edipus. The musicians Orpheus and Amphion. Trojan war. Destruction of Troy. Grecian he- roes : Agamemnon, Menelaus, Achilles, Ajax, Ulysses. Trojan heroes: Priam, Hector, Paris (the husband of Helen), ^neas escapes to Italy. Ascanius builds Alba Longa. The Latins ; the Elruacana. 42 A tion the huQ peo| earl per sett Not — P Bal by prii B. • 40Q 44 B.C. OUTLINES OF 1000 888. 116. 1 100. Samuel, the last of the Israelitish judges. Saul, the first of their kings. His successor, David. Jerusalem. Codrus, the last king of Athens. Greek colonists settle in Asia Minor, Sicily, and Lower Italy. Solomon, under whom the Hebrew monarchy at- tains its highest splendour. Its division, on his death (975), into the kingdom of Judah, under Rehoboam, and the kingdom of Israel, under Jeroboam. Homer. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver. Carthage, in Africa, founded by Dido with a Phenician colony. Sardanapalus, the last ruler of the Assyrian em- pire. Media forms an independent state. Commencement of the Hellenic mode of compu- tation by olympiads, or periods of four years, so named from the games celebrated once in four years at Olympia, in Ells. Delphic oracle. Rome founded by Romulus and Remus. 1. Ro- mulus first king. 2. The peaceful Numa Pompi- lins. 3. The warlike Tallus Hostilius conquers AlbaLonga. 4. Ancus Martius. 5. The wise Tarquinius Priscus. 6. Servius Tullius. The kingdom of Israel, with Samaria the capital, destroyed (in the reign of Hosea) by Shalmuneser, king of Assyria. Isaiah prophecies in Judah. Destruction of Sennacherib's army before Jeru- salem (715). 600. The New Babylonian emnire founded .in t^A rni«ei ■of the Assyrian by Nabopolassar. The city of 754. 722. litish judges. Saul, is successor, David. ist king of Alliens, ia iMinor, Sicily, and [ebrew monarchy at- Its division, on his om of Judah, under m of Israel, under fiver. Carthage, in a Phenician colony, of the Assyrian em- jndent state, nic mode of compu- )ds of four years, so )rated oace in four )elphic oracle, md Remus. 1. Ro- ceful Numa Pompi- Hostilius conquers tius. 5. The wise ius Tullius. 5amaria the capital, a) by Shalmaneser, )phecie3 in Judah. army before Jeru- tunded on the ruins ssar. The city of CHRONOLOGY. 45 B.C. 600. Tyre destroyed by his son Nebuchadnezzar, a contemporary of the Athenian legislator, Solon. 688. Destruction of the kingdom of Judah under its last king, Zedekiah. The prophet Jeremiah. Babylonian exile : The prophets Ezekiel and Daniel. Croesus, king of Lydia. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. The seven wise men of Greece : Solon, Thales, Periander, Kleobulos, Pittakos, Bias, Cl.eilon. .«Escp the fabulist. Pythagoras the Philosopher. 560. SECOND PERIOD. B.C. 555—B.C. 333. PROM CYRUS TO ALEXANDER. Prom the foundation of the second great empire to its overthrow by the third,--the Graeco-Macedonian. — Rise of freedom and civilization in the West : their struggle against the power of the East in the Grseco- Persian wars: Victory of Grecian culture, and its dif- fusion by means of Alexander's expedition. — Beginnings of the Roman power in Italy. — Renewal of the Israelitic state. — Western Asia anu South-Eastern Europe form the main scene of events. B.C. 555. Cyrus, the founder of the Medo-Persian empire, cbuqwrB Orareus, gubdwJs Asia Minor and Ba- 46 B.C. 556. OUTLINES OF 609. 493. bylonia, and permits the Jews to return to Pales- tine (under Ezra and Nehemiah). Re-building of Jerusalem. Death of Cyrus (529). His son and successor Cambyses conquers Egypt, and reduces it to a satrapy of the Persian empire. Zoroaster, founder of the Persian religion (Zend- avesta). Confucius, founder of the Chinese re- ligion. Expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king of Rome. Brutus and Collatinus, the first consuls. Porsenna and t! e Etriscans. Revolt of the Greeks of Asia Minor against the Persians. Occupation of the Sacred mount by the Roman plebeians. Menenius Agrippa. Tribunes of the people. 490. Coriolanus, banished from Rome, takes refuge amongst the Volsci, and becomes the leader of an expedition against his native city, which is saved by the intervention of his mother. First war of the Persians and Hellenes. Darius Hys- taspis conquered at Marathon by Miltiades the Athenian. 480. Second Graeco-Persian war : Xerxes : Heroic death of Leonidas with 300 Spartans at Thermo- pylae. lYaval victory of Themistocles at Salamis. Aristides the Just. 479. Mardonius defeated by Pausanias and Aristides at the battle of Plataea. Themistocles, banished rro» Athens, dies in Asia Miaor. Oimon, the son 4 ^ % I 3 I CHRONOLOGT. 47 B.C. 479. 444. 1 of Miltiades, defeats the Persians atEiirymedon by sea and land. End of the Persian wars (466). Pericles, orator and statesman, at the head of the Athenian republic, now at the height of its pros- perity and importance. Phidias the sculptor. Herodotus, the father of history. The three great poets ^schyloa, Sophokles, and Euri- pides. The painters Zeuxis and Parrhasins. In Rome, the decemvirs : laws of the twelve tables • Appius and Virginia. 431. Peloponnesian war in Greece betwixt Sparta, the head of the aristocratic (Dorian), and Athens, the head of the democratic (Ionian) states. Plague at Athens, and death of Pericles (429) Hippocrates. 404. End of the Peloponnesian war. Sparta is now the most powerful of the Grecian states. War betwixt Cyrus the younger, and his brother, Artixerxes. Socrates condemned to swallow aQ« A^°T' ^^' ^^^^l^'-s Plato and Xenophon. 396. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, vanquishes the Per- siaus in Asia Minor. Rome sacked by the Gauls under Brennus. Camillus, the conqueror of Veii created dictator, and defeats the Gauls ' Philip II. king of Macedon. His Athenian oppo- nent, the orator Demosthenes. 338. Battle of Chaeronea. Philip master of Greece Boman wars with the Samnites, ending in the 360. 48 OUTLINES OF THIRD PERIOD. B.C. 333— B.C. 30. FROM ALEXANDER TO AUGD8TU8. After a brief period of splendour, tlie Macedonian empire is rapidly dissolved. Meantime, the fourth great empire, the Roman, is gradually rising, until, mistress of the East as well as of the countries border- ing on the Mediterranean, the history of thp Roman state becomes the history of the known world.— Under the influence of internal corruption and violent political revolutions, the two triumvirates end in the establish- ment Qf the Empire.— Italy becomes the centre Oi the " orbig terrarum." B.C. 333. Alexander the Great, son of Philip II. of Macedon, founds the great Graeco-Macedonian empire; crosses the Hellespont at the head of 55,000 men ; gains three great victories over Darius Co- domannus; subdues the Persian empire, and penetrates to India. Foundation of Alexandria in Egypt. His contemporaries Apelles, Aristo- tie, Diogenes, Zeno, Epicurus. 323. Alexander dies at Babylon. Out of the ruins of his vast empire, various smaller states are founded by his generals :— Seleucus in Syria ; Ptolemy in Egypt. Translation of the Old Tes- tament into Greek (Septuagint). Alexandria becomes the seat of Greek learning under the PtDiemies. Pyrrbus, king of Bpirus, at war in •| CHRONOLOGY, 49 I. 5 Macedonian i, the fourth rising, until, ntries border- f the Roman orld. — Under )leni political he establish- lentre oi the . of Macedon, lian empire ; id of 35,000 iv Darius Co- empire, and f Alexandria jlles, Aristo- the ruins of r states are IS in Syria; the Old Tes- Alexandria ? under the 9, at War in B.C. 323. 264 to 241. 218 to 201. Italy with the Romans, who defeat him and sub- duo Tarentum, thereby establishing their do- minion over all Lower Italy. First Punic war (betwixt the Romans and the Car- thaginians) arising principally out of disputes abo :t Sicily. First naval victory of the Romans, under Duilius. Regulus in Africa, at first vic^ torious, afterwards a prisoner ^ wr t ^71" ^''- ^'''''^ ^"^ ^'°°» SP*^-, which had been subdued by his father, Hamilca^ Barcas, Hannibal, at the head of 59,000 men enters on his Italian expedition : he defeats the Romans in four great battles, at the Ticinus, the Fabius Maximus Cunctator, '« the shield," and Marcus Alarcellus, "the sword » of the Romans Archimedes defends Syracuse against the latter" Hannibal in Capua. 202. BattleofZama in Africa, where Hannibal is de- /eated by P Cornelius Scipio Africanus. Peace concluded following year. 200. Romans at war with Philip III. of Macedon • vie- tory of Plaminius at Cynocephal*. Roman war m Syria against Antiochus III. (the Greats 183. Death of Hannibal and of Scipio Africanus Ro 168 Ba^ttle ^f ^f ^^^^l^^' ^nnius, Plautus, Terence: 168. Battle of Pydna, where ^milius Paulus defeats Perseus, king of Macedon. In Palestine the Maccabees head a Jewish revolt a.^aina* a-h ochusIV. c.-». A^ti- 69 OUTLINES OF B.C. 149 to 14G. 133. 111. 101. 88. 63. 60. 49. Third and last Punic war. Carthage destrojed by P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus the younger. Africa a Roman province. Corinth destroyed by Muramius. Greece a Roman province. Popular disturbances in Rome instigated by the two brothers Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. Commencement of permanent civil discords (Agrarian law). War against Jugurtha, king of Numidia^ conduct- ed, first by Metellus, afterwards by Marius and Sylla. The Cimbri and Teutones defeated by Marius at Aquaj Sextiaj. Social war (90). Civil war betwixt Marius and Sylla. Defeat by the latter of Mithridates, king of Pontus. Ma- rius and Cinna in Rome. After their death Sylla's reign of terror. Complete reduction of Mithridates by Lucullus and Pompey. The ser- vile war, which had broken out in Italy under Spartacus, extinguished by P< mpey and Crassus. Catiline's conspiracy : discovered and defeated by Marcus Tullius Cicero ('< pater patriffi"). First triumvirate, formed by Cn. Pompey, C. J. Cajsar, and M. L. Crassus. Outbreak of the civil war between Pompey and Caesar : the latter crosses the Rubicon : Battle of Pharsalia (48) : Pompey murdered in Egypt : Death of Cato the younger at Utica : Battle of Munda (45): Caesar dictator: Aspireb to the. crown. 'Ml CHRONOLOGY. 51 ige destrojed the younger, ath destroyed rovlnce. igated by the us Gracchus. ;ivil discords dia, conduct- ty Marius and by Marius at ,. Defeat by Pontus. Ma- their death reduction of sy. The ser- 1 Italy under and Crassus. md defeated patri.e"). )mpey, 0. J. Pompey and icon : Battle id in Egypt : :a : Battle of pireb to the. <,( *>( B.C. 46. Julian Calendar : year of confusion. 44. Murder of Caesar by Brutus, Cassius, and others 43. Second triumvirate: M. Anthony, Octavian, and Lepidus. Battle of Philippi, and death of Bru- tus and Cassius. 31. Civil war between Anthony and Octavian. Battle of Actium. Anthony and Cleopatra die at Alex- andria. Octavian sole ruler, under the name of Caesar Octavianus Augustus. End of the Roman Republic and commencement of the Empire. Rome now a city containing about two millions of inhabitants. Maecenas a statesman and pa- tron of letters. Horace ; Virgil ; Ovid ; Corne- lius Nepos. Golden age of Roman literature. FOURTH PERIOD. B.C. 30— A.D. 476. PROM AUGUSTUS TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS. Embraces the histor,- of the Roman Empire until its division into the Empires of the West and the East (Rome and Constantinople)._Conquest of Christianity over Heathenism—Decline of Roman power and civilization. —The West is overpowered by the Teutonic nations, and the East again becomes Greek.— Commencement £,..., ,.,n^ .luiii iiasi to west. — Uulture pro- gresses towards the North. 52 OUTLINES OP A.D. •1. Jesus Christ born at Bethlehem. 9. Varus defeated by Arminius (Hermann), leader of the Cheruscians. 14. Augustus dies, and is succeeded by his step-son, Tiberius. 33. Crucifixion of our Saviour. 37. Caligula. Claudius (41). Commencement of Roman conquests in Britain. 64. Nero: First persecution of the Christians. Galba. Otho. Vitellius. to. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. Roman war in Britain. 79. Titus Emperor. Eruption of Vesuvius : destruc- tion of Herciilaneum and Pompeii, and death of the elder Pliny. Britain subdued by Agricol^ : his son-in-law Tacitus the historian. ' 100. Trajan : the Roman empire at its greatest extent. Pliny the younger : Plutarch. Hadrian. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 180. With Commodus begins a series of bad emperors, amongst whom is the infamous Heliogabalus, the priest of the sun. The Roman empire at its lowest pitch of internal corruption. A very few good emperors, as SeptimiusSeverus, Alexander Severus, and Aurelian, the conqueror of Zenobia of Palmyra. * See Introduction, § 18. CHRONOLOGY. 53 Oman war est extent. A.D. 300. Tenth and last persecution of the Christians, nn- der Diocletian and Galerius. Partition of the empire amongst joint rulers, under the titles of "Augnsti" and " Caesares." Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian (305). 333. Constantine I. (the Great), son of Constantius Culorus, overcomes his five rivals, and obtains the sole mastery of the Roman empire. He makes Christianity the religion of the state, and removes the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, thenceforth called Constantinople. Council of Nice (the first oecumenic council) : condemnation of the Arians (325). 375. Commencement of the great migrations : the im- pulse given by the Huns (Mongols) in the East. The Goths cross the Danube, and gain a victory over the Emperor Valens at Adrianople. Trans- lation of the Bible into Gothic by Ulfilas, bishop of the Goths. 395. Theodosius the Great divides the empire betwixt his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, giving the Eastern (Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt) to the former, and the Western (Italy, Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain) to the latter. Ambrose, bishop of Milan : his two celebrated scholars, Augustine and Chrysostora. 410. Rome plundered by Alaric the Visigoth. Carthage conquered (429); and Rome plundered a second time (455), by Genserich the Vandal. Vandal kingdom in Africa. Suevi and Visigoths In wr W OUTLINES OF A.D. 410. Spain. Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks in Gaul. Saxons, Thuringians, and Alemanni in Germany. 450. Arrival in Britain of the Anglo-Saxons under Hengist and Horsa. Defeat of Attila, the Hun, at Chalons, by the Romans and the Visigoths (451). 476. Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor of the West, dethroned by Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, who becomes king of Italy. End of the Western Roman Empire, and of the great migra- tipns. •»m\ I tTHRONOLOGY. 55 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. A.D. 476—151?. Medieval history embraces a period of more than a thousand years, extending from the conquest of Teuto- nism orer Romanism in the Western Empire, to the liberation of Northern Europe from the spiritual usur- pation of Rome, by the Reformation. It exhibits the northern nations becoming permeated by the civilisa- tion of Greece and , ae ; their separation into Ro- manic and pure Te u: nationalities ; but at the same time the comprehension of both under the feudal and hierarchical systems,-the former represented and head- ed by the new German "Empire of the West," and the iatter by the waxing power of the papacy. Struggle be- twixt these two powers. Central Europe becomes the snain theatre of events. FIRST PERIOD. A.D. 496 — 814. FROM ODOACER TO THE DEATH OP CHARLEMAGNE. ^ End of the great migrations.-Rise of Mohammedan- ism lathe East—Foundation of the new Empire of the A.D. BOO. Theodoric the Great founds an Ostro-Gothie empire in Italy. Chlodovic, first a heathen, H 56 A.D BOO. 655. / 668. 600. 622. 711. 732. 752. 768 to 814. OUTLINES OP afterwards convert to Christianity, founds a Prankish empire in Gaul. Justinian 1. Emperor of tlje East. Codification of the Roman law. By his generals, Belisarius and Narses, he overthrows the Vandal kingdom of Africa, and the Ostrogothie of Italy. Upper Italy conquered by the Longobardi (Lom- bards), under Alboin. Pavia their capital. Ra- venna and the Exarchate remain Greek. Gregory I. (the Great) Pope. Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. Mohammed, " the prophet," founder of Islamism : converts and conquers Arabia : his doctrine con- tained in the Koran. His successors, the chalifs, great conquerors in Syria, Persia, Egypt, and Northern Africa. Conquest of Spain by the Arabians : battle of Xeres, and death of Roderick thelast of the Goths. Charles Martel, the Prankish Mayor of the Palace,, gains at Tours a great victory over the Arabs, ■which arrests their progress in Europe. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, deposes the last of the Merovingian " sluggard kings," the successors of Chlovis, and assumes the title of King of the Franks. Diffusion of Christianity in Germany by the labours of the English monk Winifred or Bonifacius. Charlemagne, son of Pepin, chief founder of the orrpaf ^•'onlriqH ■»in'»»pr Ws^ n«y.>^!-~ ^ s._ from the Eider to the Tiber, and from the Ehro / CHRONOLOQT. 67 founds A )dif]cation Belisarius kingdom • rdi (Lorn- ital. Ra- ion of the slam ism : trine con- le cbalifs, jypt, and battle of he Goths. le Palace,, le Arabs, , deposes 1 kings," I the title ristianity ish monk er of the CA tends the Ebro kf A.D. 814. to the Raab. His wars against the Lombards, Arabians, and Saxons. Kis care of the church, of schools, and of science. 800. Charlemagne crowned Roman Emperor, on Christ- mas-day, oy Pope Leo in.(4-814,) His contem- porary the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid. SECOND PERIOD. A.D. 814—1096. FTlOM THE DBATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE FIRST CRUSADE. Struggles betwixt Christianity and Islamism in the East, and betwixt the ecclesiastical and secular pow- ers in the West. — Commencement of the political pre- ponderance of Germany in Europe. AD. 814. Louis the Gentle (le D^bounaire) succeeds his father, Charlemagne : divides the empire with his sons : their rebellion and wars with each other. 843. Treaty of Verdun : division of the great Prankish empire. Lothaire receives the imperial title, Italy, and "Lorraine"; Charles (the Bald), France ; and I ouis (the German), the kingdom of Germany. The Grand Dukedom of Muscovy founded by Ruric. 8?L Alfred the Great begins to reign in England (4-901.) 58 OUTLINES OP A.D. 895. 919. 987. 1000 1017. 1024. 1039. 1066. 1073 to 1086. Rollo or Rolf sails up the Seine with a party of Norman pirates ; establishes himself in Neustria, thenceforth called Normandy; and embraces Christianity. Henry the Fowler, Tmperor : he annexes Lorraine to the empi.e, and extends his dominion to the Oder. Extinction of the Carlovingian king? by the death of Louis V. Accession of Hugh Capet, Duke of Francia (whose dynasty reigns till 1328). Christianity now diffused over all Europe. Canute the Great begins his reign. England under Danish rule until 1041, Conrad II., first of the Franconian or Sal? ; em- perors of Germany. Henry III. Emperor. Imperial power at its height. He tries to reform ecclesiastical abuses. Expul- sion of the Danes from England (1041). Norman invasion of England. Batt! of Hastings. Gregory VI. (Hildebrand) elected Pope. His disputes with the Emperor Henry IV., whom he excommunicates. He frees the church from sub- jection to temporal authority, and promulgates the law of clerical celibacy. At last Henry suc- ceeds in deposing him (1084) ; and he dies in ejfile the following year. s'l- L CHRONOLOGY. 59 ith a party of If in JN'eustria, .nd embraces exes Lorraine ainion to the 3 by the death ipet, Duke of 1328). Surope. :n. England or Sal' ; em- • at its height. ises. Expul- )41). of Hastings. Pope. His v., whom he ch from sub- promulgates 5t Henry suc- d he dies in ^ THIRD PERIOD. A.D. 109G— 12T0. FROM THE FIRST TO THE SEVENTH CRUSADE. This is the most brilliant and distinctive period in the history of the Middle Ages. In the crusades we have the coalition of the two great elements of medie- val life, — monach'sm and chivalry. In the contests of the House of Hohenstaufen with the Popes, we are presented with the second act of the great struggle between the civil and ecclesiastical i)Owers, terminating in the victory of the latter. — Germany's political pre- ponderance ends with the decay of the empire ; the spiritual supremacy of Rome is established throughout Europe ; but arts, science, and commerce flourish amongst the western nations. — The whole of Romanic and Teutonic Europe, together with a portion of Wes- tern Asia, is embraced in the theatre of events. A.D. 1096 First crusade of the chivalry of Europe against to the Saracens in Syria and Palestine, incited by 1099. the preaching of Peter of Amiens, ordered by Pope Urban II., and led by Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine. Some of the other leaders were Godfrey's brother Baldwin, afterwards king of Jerupalem, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert, Duke of Normandy, son of William the Con- queror, and Tancfed, the impcrsonuiion of chi- valry. After the conqueuL of Jeruiiikni, i'.jim- 60 OUTLINES OP l> I A.D. 1099. dation of the orders of Knights Templars and Knights of St. John. 1138. Conrad II[. (-fll52) commences the series of German emperors of the Suabian house of Ho- henstaufen : undertakes, along with" Louis VII. of France, the second crusrde (1147-1149). Bernard of Clairvaux. Abelard, the scholastic philosopher. Arnold of Brescia. 1152. Frederick I.(Barbaro33a),the Great Hohenstaufen. His power and influence in Italy and Germany. 5 His wars with the Lombard cities, and his con- tests with the Pope. Vanqu'^hed in the great battle of Legnano (1177), he is forced to an ac- commodation with the Pope, and to allow the Lombard cities the right of self-government. 1155. Henry II. of England, the first Plantagenet. ■ Thomas a Becket. 1190. Third crusade, under Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I. of England. Death of Barbarossa : truce with Saladin : death of the latter (1193), during Richard's captivity in Germany. 1203. Fourth crusaae. Revolution at Constantinople. 1215. Magna Cuarta granted by John Lackland. In- nocent III., the most powerful of all the Popes in the Middle Ages. The Inquisition in the hands of the Dominicans, who, with the Fran- ciscans, are called the begging orders. St. Ffaaeis of Assisi. Aibigenses and Waldenses. I CHRONOLOGY. 61 Templars and 3 the series of 3 house of Ho- rith' Louis VII. 5 (1147-1149). I the scholastic tHohenstaufen. t and Germany. IS, and his con- id in the great orced to an ac- j to allow the overnment. ; Plantagenet. •barossa, Philip i I. of England. Saladin : death lard's captivity /onstantinople. [iackland. In- r all the Popes uisition in the vith the Fran- ; orders. St. id Waidenses. ' A.D. 1217 to 1228. 1241. 1250. 1265. 1270. Fifth and sixth crusades, — the latter under the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II. Genghis Khan establishes a great Mongolian empire, ex- tending from China to Russia. Progress of the iMongols in Europe arrested by the battle of Wahlstatt, near Liegnitz. Com- mencement of the Uanseatic League. Trouba- dours : Minnesingers. Frederick II. dies, excommunicated by the Pope, deposed by the Council of Lyons, but fighting to the last. His death finishes the two hundred years' conflict betwixt the Church and the Em- pire : the former comes out victorious, and the latter falls into decay. Commencement of the great interregnum in Germany, which lasts till thB election of Rodolph of Hapsburg. First regular House of Commons assembled in England by Simon de Montford. Seventh and last crusade under Louis IX. of France (St. Louis). FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 1270—1517. FROM THB TERMINATION OF THE CRUSADES TO THB COM- MBNCBMKNT OF THE REFORMATION. This period exhibits the restoration of the German Em- pire in a more limited form than during the preceding period. — A gradual decay of the papal power, ending 02 OUTLINES OF in its total subversion in the northern countries of Eu- rope.— Decline of feudalism, of the hierarchy, and of monachism.— The German princes become politically and ecclesiastically independent of the empire; Avhereby the latter, losing its political unity, loses also its posi- tion as foremost of the European powers.— Flourishing conditio \ of the cities in regard to commerce, industry, and the arts, until, by the discovery of America, trade is drawn away to the maritime towns.— A new direc- tion given to the human mind by the invention of printing and the restoration of classical learning. A.D. * 127^ Rodolph of Hapsburg chosen emperor. The empire begins to recover from the confusion of the interregnum. Rodolph defeats Ottocar, King of Bohemia, deprives him of the Duchy of Aus- tria, and confers it on his own son Albert. 1282. Insurrection of Sicilians against Charles of Anjou : " Sicilian vespers." 1305. Bertrand, Archbishop of Bordeaux, being elected Pope (Clement V.), removes the papal see to Avignon, where it remains for a period of seventy years, called by the Italians the " Seventy years' captivity." 1308. The Helvetic cantons of Schwytz, Uri, and Un- terwalden revolt against Albert of Hapsburg, and lay the foundation of the Swiss confederation : Stauffacher,, Furst, Melchthal, William Tell. Their wars with Austria : battle of Morgarteu (1315). 1356. The (Jolden Bull, settling the constitution of the lilL CHRONOLOGY. 63 A.D. 1356. 1386. 1397. 1414. 1429, 1453. 1455. tution of the 14Y7. 1492. J498. German Empire, and vesting the choice of the emperor in the seven "Electors," issued by Charles IV. Battle of Poictiers : Edward, the Black Prince. Battle of Sempach gained by the Swiss. Union of Calmar : Succession of the three^can- dinavian kingdoms, then ruled by Margaret, " the Semiramis of the North," settled on her grand-nephew. Council of Constance convened at the instance of the Emperor Sigismund. Burning of John Huss and of Jerome of Prague. Battle of Agin- court (1415), where Henry V. defeats a French array eight times as numerous as his own. Joan of Arc raises the siege of Orleans. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Council of Basle (1431). Constantinople taken by the Turks : end of the Eastern Roman Empire. The first printed book—a copy of the Vulgate- issues from the press: printed by John Gutenberg, John Fust, and Peter Schaeflfer. Wars of the Roses in England (1454-1484). Austria acquires Burgundy by the marriage of Maximilian with Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Rash. Louis XI. of France. Discovery of America by Columbus. Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Ferdinand and Isa- bella. Discovery of sea-route to India, round the Cape of Good Hope, by Vasco de Garaa, a Portuguese. 64 OUTLINES OF MODERN HISTORY. A.D. 1617—1859. Modern History commences with the breaking up of the feudal system and of the Romish hierarchy. — The religious life which is the immediate product of the Reformation, by degrees becomes colder, and interests of a more secular sort acquire the ascendancy in pon- tics. — The range of European influences is extended bejond the limits of the old world by the establish- ment of colonies in the new. — Meantime culture is pro- gressive in Europe, especially towards the North and the East. — The Slavonic race begins to make a figure in history. — Germany continues to decline as a political power, and is split up into numerous sections with separate, and frequently opposing, interests. — The monarchical form of government attains its highest development, to be at length overthrown by revolution and afterwards partially restored, whilst the commons are continuously growing in education, intelligence, wealth, and political importance. Science, and the knowledge of classical antiquity, are progressive. FIRST PERIOD. A.D. 1417—1648. FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PEACE OP WESTPHALIA. Ecclesiastical separation of Northern (Protestant) from Southern (Catholic) Europe. — Embittered contest, CHRONOLOGY. 65 WESTPHALIA. by sword and pen, of the two ecclesiastical and politi- cal parties. — Political preponderance of the House of Spain and Austria. — Religio-political character of the period. — Total dissolution of German unity into a number of petty states, composing a nominal Empire, and decline of its material prosperity in consequence of the altered direction given to commerce by 'be disco« very of America, and of the route to India by the '^ape of Good Hope.— Bngland, in conflict with {: paio, la> : the foundation of her greatness by directing Iw^r ewr* gies to the attainment of maritime superiority ; a :, after be- coming united with Scotland into one kingdom, passes through a period of domestic convulsion which results in a temporary overthrow of the monarchy. A. D. 1517. Commencement of the Reformation ; m Germany by Luther's 95 theses against indulgences; in Switzerland by Zwingle and Calvin. Leo. X. Henry VIII. 1621. Luther before the diet of Worms, presided over by Charles V. His imprisonment in the Wartburg. Translation of the Bible. Raphael. 1525. Battle of Pavia : Francis I. of Prance defeated and taken prisoner : " All is lost but honor." 1530. Diet of Augsburg. Melanchthon. Confession of Augsburg. 1631. Henry VIII. proclaimed supreme head of the English Church : suppresses the monasteries (1535). *»»•>-• v»iAvr VI til's vcsiuis luuuucu UY IgcatlUB Loyola. It becomes the most important engine for opposing the Reformation. 1540. ;..-uja t 66 A.D. 1543. 1555. i! ; 1568. 1666. 1512. 1582. 1587. 1689. >5t8. 1605. OUTLINBB or Copernicus of Thorn propounds a new system of astronomy. Religious peace of Augsburg^: liberty of doctrine and worship guaranteed to German Protestants. Abdication of Charles Y . severs connection be- tween Spain and Germany. First Index Expur- gatorius published by Paul IV. Church of England established on its present basis : thirty-nine articles. Dissolution <^ the Council of Trent (assembled originally 1545)^ and ibrmal ratification of ita decrees by Pope Pius IV. Revolt of the Netherlands : Cruelties of the Duke of Alva : Execution of Counts Egmont and Horn with 18,000 others: Foundation of the Elepublic of the Seven united Provinces, with William Prince of Orange (William the Silent) asStatt- holder (1679). Paris massacre of St. Bartholomew. Fope Gregory X^III. relbrms the calendar. Execution of Mary, Queen of Soots. Equip- ment of the Invincible Armada: its destructi terrorists. • 3 by Piehe- artition of gn : battle Areola aiotu A.D. 1801. I mi. Jh.. render of Mantua. Peace of Campo Formlo. Dissolution of the Venetian, and formation of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics 1798. Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. Battle of Aboukir : destruction of the French fleet by i/eison. Pope carried prisoner to Prance. Italy and Switzerland revolutionized. 1799. Second coalition against France. Austria and Russia take the field. Suwarrow's campaign in Italy. Bonaparte's return from Egypt. Over- 1800 n\7 °^.'^.' J>irectory. Bonaparte first consul. 1800. Battle of Marengo, won by Bonaparte, and of Hohenlmden, won by Moreau. Peace of Luneville : whole left bank of Rhine ceded to France. Secularizations in Germany. I^lnler r^ ""'"^'' ^^' «"--^«^ '^ J802. Peace of Amiens betwixt France and England 1803. Renewal of hostilities betwixt France and Eng- land. Occupation of Hanover. Abolition of ecclesiastical sovereignties in Germany 1804. JJapoleon proclaimed Emperor of the French. Crowned the same year. 1805. Napoleon crowned King of Italy. Third coali- tion against France, composed of Great Britain. Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Ulm surrendered by General Mack. Battle of Austerjitz compels Austria tn tha r.p««^ _^ t. . vuiupms . #n - , ' "" ^ "^ "' x-resspurg. Battle of Trafalgar and death of Nelspn. OUTLINES OF A.D. 1806. ■;|i Confederation of the Rhine. Dissolution of the German Empire. Francis renounces the title of Emperor of Germany, and assumes the new title of Emperor of Austria. Joseph Bonaparte is made King of Naples, and Louis Bonaparte Kinir of Holland. Battle of Jena. 1807. Battles of Eylau and Friedland. Peace of Tilsit Jerome Bonaparte King of Westphalia. Conti- nental system. Bombardment of Copenhagen. Portugal occupied by the French : Portuguese court removes to Brazil. 1808. Napoleon's interview with Charles IV. and Fer- dinand VII. at Bayonne. Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. Murat king of Naples. Outbreak of the Spanish war : Wellesley (Wellington) ,«no ^cto'io^s in Portugal. Congress of Erfurt. 1809. Austria renews hostilities against France. Bat- ties of Eckmuhl, Aspern, and Wagram. Rising of the Tyrolese under Hofer. Peace of Schdn- brunn. Kingdom of lUyria ceded to France. Wslcheren expedition. Battle of lilavera Revolution in Sweden : Oustavna IV. deposed.' i«in t ^f' '''''^^ ^^""^^^ ^"^ ^^^^^^'^ ^ his stead. 1810. Napoleon at the height of his power ; his divorce from Josephine,and marriage with Maria Louisa, Arch-Duchess of Austria. The States of the Church, Holland, and Northern Germany united to the French empire. Bernadotte Crown Prince of S^^eden. Wellington in Spain: lines of Torres Vedras : siege of Cadiz : Revolt of Snani«h South American Colonies. t CHRONOLOGY. 75 lution of the s the title of the new title •onaparte is aparte King ice of Tilsit. lia. Gonti- Jopenhagen. Portuguese V. and Fer- Bonaparte Outbreak Wellington) Erfurt. iiice. Bat- tn. Rising of Scbdn- to Frftnoe. Talavera. '. deposed, L his stead. bis divorce ria Louisa, ;es of the inj united wn Prince lines of )f Spanish A.D. 1813. 1814. -'5*- > 1812. Napoleon's expedition against Russia : the Grand Army : Smolensk : battle of Borodino : Kutu- sow : burning of Moscow : Rostopschin : Napo- leon forced to retreat : battle of Malo^arosla- witz : passage of the Beresina : annihilation of the Grand Army. Wellington in Spain : battle of Salamanca. Germany rises against Napoleon : liberation war : Austria and Sweden join the coalition • Scbwarzenberg: Bliicher. Battles of Dresden Culm, and Leipzig. Dissolution of the Rhenish confederacy. Peace of Kiel : Norway ceded by Denmark to Sweden. Wellington gains the battle of Vittoria. The allies enter France : battles of La Rothiere. ■MoKtmirail, Laon, and Arcis-sur-Aube : Paris taken : battle of Toulouse : Napoleon abdicates at Fontamebleau, and retires to Elba. First peace of Paris : France confined to her boun- danesin 1792 : restoration of the Bourbons: Lnuis XVIII. : the Charter. Congress of Vienna : Austria receives an accession of t^^-ritory in 1816. Kingdom of the Netherlands: Abolition of the Slave trade. Constitution of Germany as a €oi,federation of thirty-eight states. Napoleon escapes from Elba and lands in France : the hundred days : battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo : WelUngton, Blusher. Paris occupied "y me auies. Second resf^iation of Louis XVIII 76 A.D. OUTLINED .0^ r.-i i .'iff 1816. Napoleon sent i r'sone- to Sf n«i dies in ift9i \, , ^® ^^- Helena, where he a es in 1821. Holy alliance betwixt Austria Russia, and Prussia. -Austria, J818. Congress of Aix-la-ChanellP • v, hoi> alliance. ^ ' ^ '''''' J^^^'^ ^^e 1824. Death of Loul XVlfl ' ^'"' "«» Greece, brother Charirx " ' "" "'''''""' "' "' Qo^njotU.. ,t St. Pete.h„g= a. Jionlf 1827. Intervention of Enfflanrl Pm^- 1828. Duke of Wellington premier. Russian ■• -=• Of Turkey. Capo d-Istria, PreslT „f r ;:" a French army in the Mor.,. Don- a T the throne of Portugal ^ ""?» 1829. Th' _,",'"='''" Field-Marshal Diebitsch crosses m mUn. Treaty of Adrianople. Inden" lena, where he twixt Austria, tiicto joins the Naples, and u. Death of allachia, and • Don Pedro Lord Byron ign secretary itism restor- r in Greece, sion of his t Taganrog^. f ession cf d Russia in K^avarico. n ' asion 3f r oeco : Uf isurps h crosses Indennn- - ^- -_ . I cbronology. A.D. 77 1829. dence of Greece recognized by Turkey Cathnl.V emancipation in England. ^ ^' ^''^°^^° 1830. Accession of William IV. Algiers taken hv iv, French. July revolution at S abdiLV Of Charles X. : Duke of Orleans called to ^ throne, by the title of Louis Philipp KilVof 1831 T. T^""' ^''«'''' ^^^ P°^'3h revol dons recli^n sr ''T ^° ^"^«^«- ^^'"^""nsur. rection suppressed, and the kingdom of Poland ncorporated with the Russian empire. London conferences : Leopold of Saxo Pnh., ?^°^°° King of Belgium S^'^e-Coburg chosen 1833. MeetZof tf ?'".'''^ '"''"^ '^ ^^«'^-^- litiolof ? ^^^t '«fo"°ed Parliament. Abo- Iition of slavery in he British colonies wkht compensation of £20 > o nnn tr. *u . ' * 1834. Don Miguel exnpTll/f ' ^ ""' slave-ownerg. in ° f.'^"®i,®^Pe"ed from Portugal. Civil war 1837 1 ^ ^°^^^t^«^ of the German Zollverdn ■1037. -Accession of OuPPn v;«*^ • t ^""^erein. Canada '*''"*• ^"^""ection in »Pprehens,ons of a general war : removed by 1' 1841. Resignation of Melhn,in»« • • . o vu ui jueioourne minia*'"^ t» i v. fir I 78 A.D. OUTLINES OF 1843. ActWty of .ho Anti-Corn Law League John Bright returned for Dnrh.m ^ '"'■ ■'<>'"' •nd Prince AlbertvisH the K' T" ^'""" .nd .he King of e B ^ial""!;' T ^"'"' ^3^^e..fo.o:xr=r"---- 'oT^rded^'^'orT r--- «»«-- land. "'"'<»sor. Kailwajr n,a„ia in Eng- 1845. Continued activity of .he A nti p„ t Great bazaar at Yoldot where" the" '^"?"'*- amount to i-35,000 B»ii„. . ""''P*" •Mains its height ..^^°""''"''^''e'«»'J amount o^ 'etl, S;""','" *"" ■>»"■'"'- Annexation of Texa..„.i,rr • "'" '**'""«• established be.lr„ ^'"'"' ^'"'»''- Steam »«. The spanth'tz':xrc!r "n- ■ twiit the courts of q» T*' Coolness be- . Abolition of he Corn' t"°"' T^ ""= """""'<"• "a«o„of.h:v:;,^;,i7\:tir''^"=*- of the treaties of Vienna, seizeroto""'""" -corporates it with her Cd ; ^f^^ "''' "'"' ' Loula on of Hong ilnese porta. t ; murder o( at the Cabul nited Statea. igue. John en Victoria the French al meetings nation, and rested and Mogadore its Queen I in Eng- (T League. ' receipts SSngland ! nominal sterling. 3. Steam ' York. " ness be- Jilleries. >7 resig- iolation ow, and Louis A.D. CHRONOLOOr, 79 by ordinal M«SrIe,tf :rf l" '""««"<• of Plus IX ' "'"' '»''«« 'he title Ifnited States F^h """" "'"'^ «» the jutionsat Vie„„: :Jr. r Se'h; '"'• J^^"'"' Insurrection ^"^hleswig-HoIstein volutionar, Z^ZZToZ"! """■'• «'" gary. Kossuth. Revolu io„ -T^"^ "* «""' by Prussia; in flu ™ ^ » '" '"PP«»sed 1850. Battle of Id ,11 a„/^ ^ '""^■■»- Hoisteiuir:f:rrra::r *'"""'''''* and Prussia. ' *^^ between Denmark 1861. Great industrial PThii,;*- . eoup d'etat Na.io?;'»; " '':'"'"'■ ''"»'='. """apoIeondectredprtT'"^ ''^''''" »P. ftr ten years. Ccove^ ",' "'""* ^''P^blic tralia. "•^''oveTy of gold fields in Aus- 1853. The Earl ' form dissolves parliament ~'':''?''''=''^^^st ministry, Paniament, but is soon forced to -■- -■■~---.--.-'--T»..- ^^o■»■x>y^q->3Fffilr»>^/^^ ,_^ ■I t M n 80 OUTLINES OP CHRONOLOGY. A.D. 1852. resign : Lord Aberdeen becomes Premier. Louis Napoleon proclaimed Emperor of the French, as Napoleon III. 1853. Russia invades the Danubian principalities ; destroys Turkish fleet at Sinope. 1854. Great Britain and France declare war against Russia. Landing of the allies at Varna : thej invade the Orimea. Battles of Alma, Balaklava, Inkermann. Siege of Sebastopol. 1865. Sardinia joins the allies : south side of Sebas- topol taken : Russia proposes peace. Treaty o^ peace signed at Paris the following year; A~ ^'\eie(^