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I HISTORY OF TURKEY Axn THE WAR IN THE EAST. .1 :?' . r A HISTORY ol- Till- Empire and People OK TURKEY AND THE WAR IN THE EAST, y A full .u count i>( the ori;;in of the Turks ;iiul the ^;rowth of llie Kiiipiri' ; the habits and customs of llic people ; their reli^jmus rites anil ceremonies ; tlie life of Mahomet : the doctrines of the Koran, and the Mahometan and ("irei'k Church reli>;ioiis ; a descri>tion of the country ; Syria and the Holy l.and ; cities and towns ; the mosques, temples, and seraglio ; manu- factures and products; the (lov- ernment, its Sultans, Viz- iers, and Pashas. WITH A NARRATIVE OP THE LATE REBELLION AND BUTCH- ERIES IN THE PROVINCES: AM) THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE TURKO-RUSSIAN WAR ; THE FINANCIAL AND MILITARY CONDITION OF'tHE TWO COUN- TRIES ; BIOGRAPHIES OF LEADING OFFICERS, ETC. BY ' Lift and Writ. R. A. HAMMOND, LL.D., AUTHOR OF " Travtli in tfu ffcly LinJ,' " Egyf>t and tkt Egyptians," ingt of Charles Dickens," etc., ttc. I LLU STR ATE D With about 50 Engravinns of Scenes in the Country, Battle Scenes and Portraits of Civil and Military Officers, Etc. ; and a Colored Map of the Turkish Empire and Border States. TORONTO, ONT. Published by A. H. HOVEY & CO., No. 48 Kiiiy St. East. Branches — Montreal, St. John and Halifax Canada : Detroit, .Mich., U. S. 1878. I I I nicrdi adordiiiR In tlie Act (^f llic I'iirli.Tiimit nf Ciiiiaila, in the yc.u One 1 lioii«.iiu' Ki-ht Hundred .uul ^..vciity-scvon, liy A. II. Ho\uv, in llie (.flicc of tin; .Mini>ier nf Anritultiirc. AGEX'IS IVAXJ'JCn to s,-/l tliis and our other popular and standard sulncriptiou hooks. W't' puI'lisJi and niauiifacturc our book's in Canada, and can Ihcreforc i^ive bettor value and ,^'/7v agents better terms than any general assent ean affont. Address, Jar eireulars and full particulars, A. //. HOVEY & CO., Xo. 4i' King Street East, TDK ONTO, CANAPA. Hl'.l.I., HAWKINS & CO.. C'iiy Steam I'ress, i? Adclaulu Street East, TOKONH). ONT 'I .,, LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. | ^ ^ P«ije. 1 . Turkish Coat of Arms 2 2. Constantinople, Galata and Golden Horn, { ^^','"/,'." 3. Plan of Rustchuk 16 4. Washing Hands 28 5. Abdul llamid II., Sultan of Turkey {full page) 62 6. Alexander II., F^mperor of Russia {full page). . 63 7. Wild Boar of Palestine 94 8. Date Palm Tree 96 9. Group of Jews and Jewesses 105 10. The Moscjue of Omar, Jerusalem 120 1 1. Mahometan l-'uneral Procession 137 12. Street Scene in Jerusalem 148 13. Turkish Caravanserai, or Inn 177 14. Modern Beyrout {/nil page) 207 15. Eastern Court of a House 210 iC. Party of Turks at Dinner 228 17. Syrian Ox 254 18. Joppa — Modern Jaffa {full pai^c) 264 19. The Town of Orfah {full page) 268. 20. An Arab ICncampmcnt {full page) 274 21. View of the Nile at Cairo {full page) 275 22. Port of Smyrna 2S3 23. Ivastern Garments 317 24. liastern Dancing Girl 318 25. Turkish Vine Arbor {full page) 335 26. Bosphorus, and plan of Constantinople 339 27. The Mosque of St. Sophia, Constantinople {full page) 347 28. Interior View of the Mosque of St. Sophia {full page) 348 I I VI. 29. 30. 3'- 32. 33- 34- 35- 36. 17- 3«. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43- 44. 45- 46. 47- 48. 49. SO. I-IST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. View in Constantinople, Soklicr.s Leaving for the Seat of War l(>^ Public Water Carrier n^ Kiisso-Cjrcek Cliurch at Bucharest (full pa^c) . . 407 Eastern Casement {Jnli page) 408 Oriental Cart 411 (irand Diike Nicliolas, Comniantler of the Russian Annies (///// P^gi') 452 General lj,MiateitT ) (A// (iener.il I^Miateiffs Orderly j ptv^e) ^^ Shooting a Turkish .Spy ( {Jn^^ The .Servian General Zach and .Staff... ( page) '^-'^ .Servians Attacking a Turkish lui- )//■// trenchnient >- i ,. ,v 4^ lui^dish Ladies Nursin^f the Wounded j "^■■^^' Map of the .Seat of War in luirope 476 .Sacking,' and Hurnin}^ of a Hul[;arian )//■// Town by the Turks [ yj';! 484 The .Sultan Reviewinj^ his Troops j ^' ^' ' Turkish Infantry of the Line on the S March f (A// g Discussing the ICastern Question at i' page) "^ ^ the Council ) The Hatt!c of Izvor, liul^aria \ Relij^ious Services on Hoard a Turkish J- (///// Man-of-VVar j pagi) ^^^ rortrait of Costan Pasha ) {fni^ .^ Portrait of Mukhtar Pasha ]' page) "^^^ Colored Map of the Whole of the Turkish Empire and border countries 502 CONTENTS. List of Illustrations 5 CuNIKNlS 7 iNlKOUUCritJN It CHAJ'TKR I. ()ri},'in of the Turks — The Saracens — Mahomet, the Pro- phet Othman, the first Sultan Advance into Kurojje — Defeat of the Hunj^arians Capture of Constantinople - Formation of the (iovcrnnicnt— Defeat of the Persians Soliman I., the I.aw-^ivcr Sie^'e of Vienna The zenith of Turkish power Wonderful success— Conquest of Hun<,'ary The terror of Europe— Con(|uest of Persia- Austria pays tribute I'ride, arroj^ancc, and ilisaster- Feebler rulers- Waning power -Second Siej^c of Vienna War with Kussia - Turkish defeat — Destruction of the Turkish licet- The Janissaries -The (Jreek revolution- Continued disasters — Russian victories — Revolt in Kj^ypt- Turkish fanaticism — Outrajjeson Christians —The Crimean War— Battle of Alma — Sebastopol- Turkish weakness and poverty- Massacre of Christians — Commencement of the provincial rebellions Abdul Hamid II 21 CHAPTER II. Turkey in Asia — Its antiquity— Syria — Palestine and Holy Land described — Its fertility— Wealth of the Jews-- The Crusaders — A land of milk and horiCy — The various religions— Palestine under the Turks — Tyre — Ruins of Acre — Ca^sarea — Joppa 63 CHAPTER III. Jerusalem — Description of the city — The monks — Mount of Olives — The Sepulchres — The Mosque of Omar — A sacred enclosure — The magical stone — Superstitions and celebrations 102 Vlll. CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Gethsemane— The potter's field — Mahometan burials — Jewish homes — Synagogues — Armenian customs — Trade and commerce— Oriental habits— Mosque of David — Mount Zion — Street scenes — The Saviour's grave— Adam's grave — Relics— The true cross — The Wandering Jew — Modern tourists — Traditions of the East — Beggars — The Golden Gate 134 CHAPTER V. Bethany — Bethlehem — Cave of the Nativity — The Dead Sea— Heavy waters — Hebron — The Philistines— Gaza — Eastern inns — Tiberias — Jewish tribute — Nazareth — Turkish extortion — The Jordan — Modern Beyrout — Tripoli — Antioch — Turkish misrule — Olympic games — Aleppo 165 i 1,' CHAi'TER VI. Damascus — The famous swords — The modern cit> — Mark Twain's humorous description— Remarkable ruins — Tripoli — The Cedars of Lebanon— Ancient descriptions — Climate and soil of Syria 227 CHAPTER Vn. Countries on the Euphrates and Tigris — An interesting territory— The Assyrian and Babylonian empires— Armenia — Mount Ararat — The junction of three empires — Kars — Orpha — Mosul — Vast dimensions of Nineveh — Mounds and ruins — Wandering Arabs — Bagdad — Oriental magnificence — Babylon — Hanging gardens - Smyrna, the lovely — The fig trade- Ba;:aars— Ruins of Ephesus -- Brusa — Magnificent mosques— The plain of Troy— Angora goats — Trebizond — The savage Kaords Turkishforts— Cyprus— Turkish houses and inns — Eastern baths- Habits and customs of the Mos- lems — Turkish traits — Their dress-Physique and military customs — Military despots 257 CHAPTER VIII. Turkey in Europe— Sea of Marmora — The Balkan moun- tains—The Danube —Climate, soil and vegetation — The II CONTENTS. IX. Vine— -Dardanelles and Hosphorus - IJyron and the Helles- pont—Constantinople — Tlie hiirbor -Description of the city — The mosque of St. Sophia— Turkish cait|ues -The p()|Hi- lation — The rem<;teries--The bazaars- Eatin<,'-houses -The Hippodrome — Mosque of Achmeil The Sultan— The navy- yard— The walls of the city— Naval discipline The liarracks — Arts and commerce-- Pipes and tobacco- The fue brigade — Reservoirs— Schools— Scutari — Adrianople — The Greek monasteries -Thessaly — Mount Olympus— Roving Arnauts —The Montene.^rins — Bosnia — Turkish despotism and ex- tortion 325 CHAPTER IX. Servia — The Sclavonic people — Servian army — Wallachia and Moldavia described — Resources — Hukharost— The port of Galatz — The fortress of Ismail —The peasantry — Bulgaria — The scene of brutal atrocities — The people- Their primi- tive dwellings and mode of living — Sophia, the capital — Victorious Shumla— Widin Silisiria- The scene of Russian battles --The islands of Turkey - Candia Patmos— Mount Ida — Egypt — Tunis- -Tripoli 399 CHAPTER .\. The Mahometan religion Its origin and leading doc- trines — The Koran —Mahomet — Prayers -• Fasting - Splen- dor of illuminated mosques Tlie feasts Pilgrimages — Ablutions— Temperance daniing — Howling dervishes The (ireek Church The Patriarch- -(ireek feasts and fa>ts — Turkish graves and buri.ils I'analicism 420 CIIAPTI'.R XI. Present condition of the Turks- -Population of the empire — The Ciovernment The Sultan -Despotic powers Tiie Cabinet or Divan- Pashas- The Sublime Porie — Turkish dress -Demeanor — Characteristics of the people — Literature — Social customs - Superstitions- Proverbs Marriage laws - Turkish women — Home habits- -Eating -Sleeping — The Harem 436 X. CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. Origin of the Turco-Russian War — Rebellion in the Provinces —Onerous Taxes — Insurrection in Herzij^ovina — Rising in lUilgaria -Abdul Mamid II. — The Bulgarian atroc- ities— Fiendish outrages- Declaration of war by Servia — The contlict- Discomfiture nf Servia — An armistice — The confluence of the Powers-Reforms demanded — The ulti- matum — Rejection of the terms by Turkey— Failure of the conference -Russia's circular -The London protocol -Decla- ration of war by Russia Turkey's re|)ly— t)pinii)ns of the Powers 45? CMAPIKR XI 11. Relative condition and resources of the two Powers - Their armies and navies Alexander II. - Withdrawal of the Kmbassy — Russi. n march to ilic Danube -Sinking of a 'Turkish iron-clail - Siei^^eof Kars Crossing of the Danube- Capture of 'Tirnovaby the Russians — C.iptureof Nicopolis — Russian troops cross the Dalkans -Repulse of the Russian forces at Plevna 471 THE WAR IN A.ilA. The Russians under (irand Duke Michael cross the fron- tier— First blood — Capture of Soukhoum Kaleh by the 'Turk- ish tleet and army — Capture of Ardahan by the Russians - Falling back of the Russians in Asia — Privations of the 'Turk- ish population — IJattle of Shipka I'ass — Fighting on the Lorn — Storming and capture of Loftcha by the Russians — Capture of Nicsics by the Montenegrins — Siege of Plevna A tierce struggle— Defeat of Mukhtar Pasha before Kars — Second siege of Kars -Its capture by storm- Siege of Erze- roum— Panic at Constantinople— Turkey humbled and dis- heartened by defeat 486 to 502 r I N r R O D U C T I O iN We have given in the accompanying work a brief history of the Ottoman lunpire, from the earhest incursion of a horde of marauding Tartars into Asia Minor down to the present time ; avoiding dry details^ yet sufficiently ample to afford the general reader a knowledge of the origin and growth of a power at one time second to none in the ICastern Hemisphere; of the influence which it has cxercisuil upon the politics of JCuroi)e ; of its retrogression from a position of haughty prominence to one of comp.irative insignifi- cance ; and of the causes which have led to its decline. Having furnished the reader with a summary of the history of the Turks as a nation, we then proceed to de- scribe more diffusely, as being the more entertaining portion of our theme, the fertile and extensive country embraced within the boundaries of the Turkish Empire, which is undoubtedly, both historically and geographi- cally, one of the most important and interesting portions of the earth's surface. Beautifully situated as it is upon the shores of the Mediterranean, upon the highway to the East, the coveted prize of many of the nations of Europe, embracing within its area portions of three con- tinents, and including under its sway the whole of that country known as the " Holy Land," and endeared to all Christians as the location of the wanderings, the battles, the hopes, the fears and trials recorded in Holy Writ,, and more especially as the scene of the labors and suf- Xll, INTRODUCTION. ■1 !] I I ferings of our Savior; with all these attractions, there is no wonder that this locality has drawn to itself an amount of attention which few of the nations of the earth are able to command. The Turks are a peculiar people ; and the description tion which we have f,Mven of their habits and customs, from data obtained by personal contact and intercourse with all classes of the population, from the Sultan in the seraglio down to the Bulgarian peasant in his hut and the roving Koord in the mountain fastnesses, cannot but prove interesting and instructive both to the student of history and the general reader. While this Empire and locality demands from its position and surroundings more than the ordinary share of study and attention, there is probably no other portion of the earth's surface, actually peopled by a civilized or semi-civilized population, and constituting a recognized member of tie family of nations, about which so little is known by tht; masses of the English speaking peoples, as this land of :he Ottomans. Only within a very recent time has traxel through the interior been a possibility ; and even now it is attended with a considerable amount of personal danger. The lack of railroads, and even of passable Ciiniage roads, renders locomotion slow and tedious ; while the unsettled condition of the country, the suspicious character of the peo[)le, and the nomadic and predatory bands of Koords and outlaws, suffice to keep the lucUess traveler in a constant state of doubt and watchfulness ; and are anything but incentives to careful study and observation either of the country and its products, or of the population by which he is sur- rounded. A thousand travelers might be summarily disposed of i.i this unfortunate land without anyone being the wis:;r of it or any inquiries being instituted. INTRODUCTION. Xlll. IS, there is an amount earth are lescription customs, itercourse tan in the s hut and annot but tudent of from its ary share ;r portion ilizcd or cognized :) little is copies, as y recent sibility ; amount even of o\v and :ountry, lomadic ifficc to f doubt tives to ■yy and ; is sur- imarily anyone tituted. Under such circumstances only the coolest judLjnient and steadiest nerves will Ccury the explorer safely through, 'lliere is no occasion for wonder therefore, however much there may be for regret, that this country is buried in so much darkness. It is fervently to be praj'ed that, as the result of her last struggle with Ivussia and the demand of other European powers, an improvement in her insti- tutions may be effected, and that this benighted land may behold the dawn of light. It is our earnest h(jpe that this volume may shed some light on a hitherto dark sub- ject, ami that the reader ma\' lind instrucliijn and enter- tainment in studying, in the safety of his own fireside in a Christian land, the wa\'s and customs of this str.inge and fanatical peo[jle. The rapid progress and still more ra[)id decline of the Ottoman power, are .uiiongst the most interesting phenomena in the histor}' of ICurope. Under Solyman J., surnamed the Magnificent, the most accomplished of all the Ottoman princes, when the Turkish I'^mpire was in tlie height of its glory and power, it ranked among the foremost nations of the earth, and perhaps had its turn as ///6' most powerful empire in the world. Only a (cw years later it commenced to decline, and so ra{)idly did this waning [)rocess take place that it seemed like a star plucked from its place in heaven and cast headlong into the abyss below. The Turks have undoubtedly degenerated both in their civil and military institutions ; but their present weakness is to be ascribed more to a lack of ability or endeavor to keep pace with the advancing progress of the world than to a positive decline. Haughty and illit- erate, they have experienced all the fatal consequences of ignorance without suspecting its cause. Other causes have had their influence in elTecting I ! 1 XIV. INTRODUCTION. the downfall of Turkish supremacy. The deposition of the rulers ; the rapacious greed, the extortion and cruelty of the tax gatherers ; the growing effeminac;- of the sultans, who, from the warlike vigor and devotion of tht; ancient leaders, have sunk into a slothful luxury ; the lic'jntiousness and impatience of discipline of the s()ldicr\' ; the jealousies and wranq,lings of different orders of officials ; all these have had a potent influence for evil in Turkish affairs. Tiie very growth of the em- pire, the vast extension of the domain, multiplying as it did the enemies, not the upholders, of the state, was also an element of destruction. Lastly, but not leastly, the Mahometan religion, upon wiiose principles and dogmas the Turkish Government is founded, and which consti- tute its unalterable law, contains within. itself no princi- ple of improvement, and seems incapable of being ac- commodated to any practical .system of reform. It prevents, by its inflexible precepts, any attempt at reor- ganization or improvement in discipline. The reformer encounters at the very outset a multi- tude of deep-rooted religious prejudices, and is greeted by the great body of the people with an almost inexpli- cable hatred, as one who is endeavoring with impious hands to subvert principles establi.shed by the Koran and hallowed by ancient usage. Nothing short of a c:omplete revolution, which shall suffice to remove the whole constitution, and perhaps also the very religion of the empire, will ever raise this unfortunate land to the level of other European powers, and regenerate it to a njw and more enlightened and prosperous existence. If the Turks prove eventually to be incapable of rising to this height and grandeur of intelligence and civiliza- tion, then nothing remains to look to or hope for but foreign intervention, and the utter crushing out by mili- u INTRODUCTION. XV. tary force, at once and forever, of the Turkish name and the Turkish power from amongst the nations of Europe. It now seems as if the final hour of her trial has ar- rived. In recent events the world has not only seen the Ottoman Empire suffer severely from internal convul- sions, but beheld her once again involved in a gigantic struggle with a great and mighty opponent. Again it has witnessed vast armies on either side marshalled for the fray, and contending with each other in deadly strife. The events of the Crimean War have been in a measure re-enacted, and all Europe is watching for results with strained eyes and trembling uncertainty. An accident, a single mismove, may involve the entire Continent in a promiscuous and desolating war. The importance of the issue, the magnitude of the interests involved, the strate- gical and historical renown which attaches to the coun- try which has become the theatre of war, the vastness of the contending forces, all these combine to render the question one of surpassing interest ; and we cannot doubt that a work giving authentic information on the subject, and a truthful description of the countries and people involved, will be heartily welcomed and gratefully re- ceived by the reading and thinking public. The Author. I K O R r I |- I C A T IONS () F K U S 1 S C H U K AND /?y courtesy of •' /'//r Ti-/i-<:^ra»!." <: 1 U R G E V A . ^- "-M^ ;V ^ 1 '. From this weak- ness of the human mind the Turkish jieoplc and their iiistorians cannot claim to be l^ 34 THK MAIIOMKTAN CKtKI). Ml lie had informed Iiimself of the principUs of Judaism, tind the jargon which bore the name of Christianity : it is probable, indeed, that his minil was naturally prone to religious enthusiasm, and that he was a devotee before he became an impostor. His first design seems to liave extended no farther than to bring the wild, intractable, and ardent Arabs to acknowledge one Goil and one king ; and it is probable that for a considerable time his ;imbition extemled no farther than to become the spiritual and temporal sovereign of Arabia, lie b«.\gan his eventful project by accusing both Jews and Christians of corrupting the revelations which had been made to them from heaven, and maint. lined that both Moses and Jesus Christ had prophetically foretolil the coming of a prophet from (iod, which was accomplisheil in himself, the last and greatest of the prophet.^ ; thus initiated he proceeded to deliver detached sentences, as he pretended to receive them from the Almighty, b)- the hand of the angel Ciabriel. These pretensions to .1 divine mission drew on him a recpiisition from the inhabitants of Mecca that he woulil convince them b>- working a miracle ; but he re[)!ied. " God refuses those signs ami wonders that would depreciate the merit of faith, and .aggravate the guilt of infidelity." The unit)- of God was the grand and leading article in the creeii he taught, to which was closely joined his own divine mission ; Allah il allah, Mnhaincd rcsoiil Allali, is their pref.ice to every act of devotion, and the sentence continually in their mouths: which is. "there is but one (iod, and Mahomet is his prophet." The iXrabian tribes, who occupied the countrv- from l^Iecca to the lOuphrates. were at that time known b\' the name of Saracens ; their religion was chiiifl}- gro.ss idolatry, Saliianism having spread almost over the whole nation, though there were likewise great numbers of Christians. Jews and Magians interspersed in those parts. The essence of their worship principally consisted in adoring the planets and fixed stars : angels and images they honored as inferior deities, whose interces- sions with the almighty in their favor they implored : l 'I TIM-: MAIIOMKTAN C KKKD. 'S if Judaism, stianity : it rail)' j)ronc a devotee sign secni.s [ the wild, jc one (lod jn.sitleial)le to become abia. lie Jews and 1 had been I that both )retold the roniplisheil hctM ; thus nteiices, as nii,i;hty, b)- iisioiis to a fruMi the :e them by fuses I hose e merit of The unity the creeil wn divine I //,>//, is e sentence- is but one in try from known by 'A]y -TOSS tlie wiiole inibers of in those • consisted i^els and interces- implorcd : they believed in one God ; in t!ie future punishment of the wicked for a U)nj^ series of years, thouj^h not for <;ver ; and constantly prayed three times a day; namely, at sunrise, at its declination, and at sunset ; they fasted three times a year, liurin^; thirty days, nine days and seven days ; they otTered many sacrifices, but ate no part of them, the whole bein^^ burnt ; they likewise turned their faces, when prayinjL,', to a particular part of the hori/on ; they performed pilgrimages to the city of llarran in Mesopotami.i, and had a griNit respect for liie temple of Mecca anil the pj-ramids of i-gj'pt, im.igining the latter to be tiie se|)ulchres of Seih, also of Mnos and Sabi, his two sons, whom they considered as the founders of their religion, lic^iues the book of I'salms, they had other books, wiiicli they esteemed ecjually s.icred, parti- cul.irly one, in the Chaldee tongue, which they called " the book of Seth." The)' have been called " Chris- tians o\ St. John the liapti.st," whose disciples also they ])rctend to be, using a kind of baptism, which is the greatest mark they bear of Christianity : circumcision was practised by the Ar.ibs, although Sale is silent on that practice, when describing the religion of the Sabi- ans ; they likewise abstained from swine's flesh. So tiiat in tins sect we ma>' trace the essential articles of the creed of Mussulmans. Mahomet was in the t"orticth year of his age when he assumed the character of a prophet. Me had been accustomed for several years, during the month of Rama- dan, to withdraw from the world, and to secrete himself in a cave three miles distant froriS Mecca. "Conversa- tion," says Mr. (iibbon, "enriches the understanding, but solitude is the school c. genius." During the first three years he made only tourteen proselytes, among which were his wife Khadijah ; his servant, or rather slave, Zeid Ali, who afterwards married the prophet's favorite daughter, Fatima, and was surnamed " the lion of God ;" Abubeker, a man ilistinguished for his merit and his wealth ; the »-est consisted of respectable citizens of Mecca. The Koreishitcs, although the tribe to which he belonged, were the most violent Hi 26 THE MAIIOMKTAN CkKKD. I ','< 4 i > opposcrs of the new religion. In the tenth year of his prophetic office, his wife died ; and the next year his enemies formed a desiijn to cut him off. Being season- ably apprised, he fled by night to Medina, on the i6th of July, 622, from which event the Hegira commenced ; he was accompanied only by two or three followers, but he made a public entry into tiiat city, and soon gained many proselytes, on which he assumed the regal and sacerdotal characters. As he increased in power, that moderation and humility, which had before distinguished his conduct, were gradually erased, and he became fierce and sanguinary ; he began to avow a design of propa- gating his religion by the sword, to destroy- the monu- ments of idolatry, anil, without regarding the sanctity of days or months, to pursue the unbelieving nations of the earth. The Koran inculcates, in the mort absolute sense, the tenets of faith and predestination. The first companions of Mahomet advanced to battle with a fear- less confidence, their leader having fully possessed their minds with the assurance that paradise awaited those who died fighting for the cause of their prophet, the gratifications of which were held out to be such as best suited amorous complexions of the Arabians : black- eyed Houries, resplendent in beauty, blooming youth, and virgin purity ; every moment of pleasure was there to be prolonged to a thousand years, and the powers of the man were to be increased a hundredfold to render him capable of such felicity ; to those who survived, rich spoils and the possession of their female captives were to crown their conquests. Of the chapter , of the Koran, which arc one hun- dred and fourteen in number, ninety-four were received at Mecca and twenty at Medina. The order in which they stand does not point out the time when they were written, for the seventy-fourth chapter is supposed to have been the first revealed, and the sixty-eighth tc^ have immediately followed it. The most marked feature of this religion is its strict assertion of the Unity of God. A general resurrection of the dead is another article of belief reiterated in the t \, THE MAHOMETAN CREED, 97 .car of his :t year his ng season- n the i6th mmencfd ; owers, but )on gained regal and 'ower, that tinguished ame fierce of propa- he monu- e sanctity nations of t absolute The first ith a fear- ssed their ted those 'phet, the h as best s : black- 's youth, as there )o\vcrs of o render iurvived, captives •ne hun- reccived n which ey were >os(:d to ghth tc^ :s strict rrection in the I 3 .1 Koran. The pilgrimage to Mecca, praying toward that place, and the ablutions which are enjoined on the most ordinary acts and occasions, together with the adoption of that religious sophism predestination, in its most extravag.mt extent, seem to comprehend the supersti- tious parts of thi'-- religion ; but it has other characteris- tics which betray its spurious origin, and prove its destructive tendency. Besides the Ko;an, which is the written law to the Mahometans, alike as to the belief and practice of religion and the administration of public justice, there is the Sunnah, or oral law, which was selected, two hundred years after the death of Mahomet, from a vast number of precepts and injunctions which had been handed down from age to age, as bearing the stamp of his authority. In this work the rite of circumcision is enjoined, concerning which the Koran was silent ; nor was it necessary to be there commanded, as the Arabians adhered to it before the establishment of Mahometanism. Their children are not circumcised, like those of the Jews, at eight days old, but at eleven or twelve, and sometimes at fourteen and fifteen years of age, when they are able to make a profession of their faith. When any renegade Christian is circumcised, two basins are usually carried after him, to gather the alms which the spectators freely give. Those who are uncircumciscd, whether Turkish children or Christians, are not allowed to be present at their public prayers ; and if they arc taken in their mosques they are liable to be impaled or burnt. The fast of Ramedan and the feasts of the Great and the Little Bairam are strictly observed by the Turks as by other Mahometans ; but a full account of these will be given when describing the habits and customs of the people. They regularly pray three times a day, and arc obliged to wash before their prayers, as well as before they presume to touch the Koran. As they make great use of their fingers in eating, they are required to wash I ■I !', 4 ■il i I ; I I,: 28 TIIK MAIIOMKTAN CRKi:iJ. after every meal, and the more cleanly among them do it before meals. After every kind of defilenienc, in fact, ablution is enjoined. mmm^mm^^ y. wAsniNd hani.'s. By the Mahometan law a man may divorce his wife twice, and if ho afterwards repents, he may lawfully take her again ; but Mahomet, to prc\-ont his followers from divorcing tiieir wives upon every slight occasion, or merely from an inconstant humor, ordained that if any man divorces his wife a third time, it is not lawful for him to take her again until she has been married and bedded by another, and divorced from that hus- band. The Koran allows no man to have more than four wives and concubines, but the prophet and his successors are laid under no restriction. Church government, by the institutions of Mahomet, appears to have centred in the mufti, and the order of moulahs, from which the mufti must be chosen. The nioulalis have been looked upon as ecclesiastics, and the mufti as thc'r head ; but the Turks consider the first rather as expounders of the law, and the latter as the great law officer. Those who really act as divines are the imaums, or parish priests, who officiate in, and are set a.side for, the service of the mosques. No church reve- nues are appropriated to the particular use of the mou- "I 1 THE MAHOMETAN CKKKD. 29 labs ; the imaums are the ecclesiastics in immediate pay. Their scheiks are the chiefs of their dervises or monks, and form relij^ious communities, or orders, established on solemn vows ; they consecrate themselves merely to relifjious office, domestic devotion, and public prayers and preachin^^ ; there are four of these orders, the Hektoshi, Mevelevi, Kadri. and Seyah, who are very numerous throut^hout the empire. The monks of the first of those orders arc allowed to marry, but are oblic^ed to travel throuj^h the empire. The Mevelevi. in their acts of devotion, turn round with velocity for two or three hours incessantly. The Kadri express their devotion by laceratin^^ their bodies ; they walk ihe streets almost naked, with distracted and wild looks. The Seyahs, like the Indian fakirs, are little better than mere vaiijabonds. The Turks appropriate to themselves the name of Moslemim, which has been corru[)ted into Mussulman, signifying persons professinij the doctrine of Maliomet. They also term themseK'es Sonnites, or observers of the oral traditions of Mahomet and his three successors ; and likewise call themselves true believers, in opposition to the Persians and others, the adherents of AH, wlu)m they call a wicked and abominable sect. Their rule of faith and practice is the Koran. Some e.Kternals of their religion, besides the prescribed ablutions, are prayers, which are to be said five times every twenty-four hours, witii the face turned towards Mecca ; and alms, which are both enjoined and voluntary : the fjrmer consists of paying two and a half per cent, to charitable uses out of their whole incomes. Their feasts will hereafter be spoken of Every Mahometan must, at least once in his lifetime, go in pilgrimage, either personally or by proxy, to the Caaba, or house of (jod at Mecca. This religion was gradually espoused by the Turks and has been adhered to by them tb.rough all their vicissitudes with intolerent pertinacity. There can be no doubt also that the intimate contact with their Arabian allies exercised in some degree an enlighten- ing and civilizing influence upon the Turks who now F ■yf i" '1, 1 1 .i t 1 H 1 . I 11 30 OTHMAN, THK GRKAT. became less nomadic in their habits and less quarrel- some amongst themselves. They settled in Persia and became powerful under the caliphs of Bagdad, gradu- ally acquiring the temporal supremacy. Salur, one of the first converted chiefs, called his tribe Turk-imams, or Turks of the faith, to denote their devotion to Islam- ism. They .soon took possession of Khorasan, one of the provinces of Persia, and made Nishapore its capital, a place .still in existence, thougli unimportant. Vigor- ous and able rulers succeeded, and by gradual reinforce- ment of other tribes from Tartary, were enabled to make conquests of neighboring territories. Genghis- Khan, an able chieftain, about the beginning of the 13th century, maie himself master of nearly all Persia and the country around the Caspian Sea ; Shah Soliman, Prince of Nera, pushed westward as far as Syria and made conquests in Asia Mmor. Othman, his grand- son, marched still further west and wrested territory from Greece ; and in the year A.D. 1300, he first assumed the title of PLmperor of the Othmans, or as it is corrupt- ed, Ottomans ; and is recognized as the first of their em[)erors. It is a tradition universally believed by the Turk.s that Othman had a dream of future greatness under the guise of a tree which seemed to spring from his own person and spread until it covered the three continents of Asia, luirope and Africa. The crescent .seemed to be everywhere in the ascendant, and a glittering sabre pointed to Constantinople. His ambition was bound- less and the opportunity was favorable. The Greek Empire v/as tottering to its fall to the westward, while from the en.st he could draw reinforcements from count- less hordes. He pushed forward in Asia Minor and captured Prusa, now Bursa, which he made his capital, routing the Kings of Bithynia. In this city, one of the early strongholds of Christianity, he introduced Mahometan ism. His reign lasted for 26 years and gave an immense impetus to Turkish power and pro- gress ; for while only a few of the tribes acknowledged his sway, yet his valor and conquests tended greatly to ill ! , t 'fS ADVANCK INTO KUROPK. ?I unite the scattered bands into one nation and to lay the foundations of the Turkish Empire. He was succeeded at his death by his son, Orchan, in 1326. This ruler has the honor of beint^ the first to set foot upon European soil. He crossed tiie Hellespont and established him.self in Callipolis, an important post and key of the Hellespont, and also in Tyrilos in 1 354. He divided the domain into provinces, and appointed a Governor for each under the title of Pasha, which literal- !)• means foot of the Shah. The distinctive official sym- bol of the Pashas was a horse's tail ; the number of tails denoting their relative importance. The army al.so, in his reign, was reorganized and formed into companies and corps with regular officers ; a task of no ■'ean dimensions when the equality of their previous p.i.^toral life and their intractable disposition is considered. The army was further recruited by captives taken in war and by the children of Christian subjects. A corps of janis- saries or body-guard troops was established, into which the children of the soldiers themselves were admitted, and thus it became a sort of military caste ; and this body of troops is the first example in modern history of a regular .standing army. Despotic rule now took the place of the former patriarchal form, but the well train- ed and disciplined forces of the Turks now become almost irresistible in their march westward. Against them were pitted the forces of luirope, composed for the most part of the worst and weakest material for an army, the serf* and the nobles. Orchan died in 1359 '^"^ was succeeded by Amaruth I., who continued the conquests of his father and cap- tured Adrianople and Philippopolis, took possession of Servia and invaded Macedonia and Albania. Adrian- ople, founded by the Roman PLmperor Hadrian, became their first European capital and remained such for a century, and even afterwards divided the honor with Constantinople. It now contains some of the largest of their mosques. Amaruth continued to push west- ward and northward in P'urope, which caused such alarm to the Hungarians, the Servians, the Bosnians 'i i I ti: Ii: ■ i 't, ^;'i :ii .32 DKl-KAT OF THK HUNGARIANS. and Walhichians, that they banded to resist his onward march ; but their forces were completely routed in a pitched battle with the Turks at the Balkan Mountains, and Servia was added to the dominions of the con- querors. Amaruth I. was stabbed by one of the captive chiefs and was succeeded by his son, Bajazet I., in 1389, who first took the title of Sultan. This ruler saw the iiiipor- tancc of the control of the Hellespont and strongly fortified Adrianop'e and formed a large fleet of galleys. He thus cut off all supplies for Constantinople. His reign was a brief one of thirteen years, but was a con- stant march of triumphs. He defeated Sigismund of Hungary, and his German and French allies, on the Danube, with terrible slaughter. Ten thousand prison- ers were put to death. The Turks had pushed out to the borders of Germany. Hut the incursion of a power- ful horde of Mongols into Asia Minor called Amarauth in that direction and he suffered a great defeat at the hands of Tiniour or Tamerlane, their leader, and lost his life. Mohammed I. succeeded to the throne in 141 3, but his reign accomplished nothing of special note. Amaruth H. followed in 142 1 and captured Saloniki from the Venetians and converted the churches into mosques. He renewed the war against the Hungarians and defeated H unlades, the self-styled champion of Christianity. The Greek rulers became alarmed for Constantinople. A strong alliance was formed between the Greek and Roman Churches and Hungary against the Turk. They united their armies to resist the com- mon enemy, but were signally defeated at Varna in i4-}4. Again the Hungarians rallied in 1448 and again they were routed at Kassova by the furious enemy. From this time the Christian power succumbed to the South of the Danube and the Mohammedans were supreme. Amaruth H. died in 145 1, and was succeeded by ]\Iahomet H. This youth inherited the ambition of his father, and his craftiness also. He caused his younger CAi'TUKL OF CON'S rANTINOPI.i;. U brothers to be murdered to make himself supreme. Me then directed his attention to the overthrow of the Greci.'ui Empire, and was successful, and fuially captured Constantinople, May 29th, 1453, with one hundred thou- sand troops ; employ in;^ both ancient and modern artil- lery in the sie^e, which lasted some fift>' days. The captive Greeks were made slaves, and the pro[)erty was seized by the victors. i>ut later a proclamation of amnesty to the Cireeks was made, and they continued to reside in the city with the captors; and, indeed, tilled hii;h offices in the service of the Sultan. Tlie\' lia\e ever since been, next to the Turks, the most numerous portion of the population. M.ihomct, witli lari^e armies, added k^pirus and Albania to the Turkish dominions. He subdued the Crimea and captured Ne^^ropont, and also Trebizond, the last vesti;j;e ot' the Greek lOmpire ; and Servia became a province. In 1456 he laid sie;4e to Jieii,n-ade, but with only partial success ; and the same may be .said of his sei^e of Rhodes, which he tlid not, liowever, conduct in person. He crossed the Adriatic and captured Otranto, throwin;; all Italy into disnia\'. The Pope in vain called upon the nations to ally them- selves against the victorious Turks. His victories were ended by his de.ith, in [4S1. The form of government of the Turkish I'Lmpire was elaborated in his reign ; viziers, or ministers of state, were appointed, four in number, of whom the chief was called the grand vizier ; kadiaskers, or generals of the ami)', became cabinet ministers ; as also defterdars, or finance ministers, and nishandshis, or secretaries of state. These constituted, with the Sultan, the Court. He also instituted the bcxly of the Ulema, or learned, including ministers of law and religion, pn^fessors and jurists ; whose duty it was to teach the law out of the Koran, which governed both religion and jurisprudence ; and these officers were paid by the state. The chief of these is the Mufti, who represents the Sultan in a spiritual capacity. Rut none of them can effect an)- change in the organic law, which is unalterably determined by the Koran. This body, as is the case too often with religious bodies having 1 1'l I \ 1 1 !i: !i- 34 DKFKAT OK THK F'LRSIANS. political power, has {rcncrally proved obstructive, and retarded and opposed all progress or reform. Hajazet II. succeeded to the throne in 148 1. He was less warlike than his father, and i^icrely maintained the territories which his predecessors iiad annexed. He was much troubled by internal dissensions and by his brother's rebellion. Constantinople was, in this rei^Mi, extensively damat,red by earthtpiakes, which laid in ruins a considerable portion of the city. Russia, in 1492. sent her first ambassador to the C^ttoman Court. In 1 5 12, Selim I., by the aid of the Janissaries, com- pelled his father to abdicate, and it is said murdered him, and succeeded to the sway of emjiirc. He was of a more warlike nature than his father, and a^ain excit- ing the martial spirit of his people, he drove the Persians back to the Euphrates and Tij^ris. He de- feated the Marmelukes, and coiupiered, in 1517, h-ijypt, Syria and Palestine, and annexed these countries to his domain. The Persians, thous^h equally veneratinfj the Koran, were of a different sect antl often bitt'-rl\' hostile to the Turkish Mahometans. The J'ersian campaign was, therefore, partly for territory and partly fanatical. The Persians were thorouj^hly routed, the more readily as they were unacquainted with artillery. The slaughter of enemies and captives in these wars was terrible. Selim was now the supreme head of Islam, or the church, and commander of the faithful. He enlarged the navy, and built store arsenals for its use. Several hundred thou- sand Jews, expelled from Spain fled to Turkey in this reign, and i-tceived its protection. At liajazet's death, in 1520, Soliman I., the law- giver, succeeded him, and in his long reign of forty-six years, the empire reached the height of its glory and power and the greatest expansion of its territory. Purkish superstition marked this ruler as a powerful and successful monarch, and the expectation seemed to be fulfilled. He selected Pelgrade and Rhodes, the only two points which had succeeded in foiling Turkish ambition, as the object of his attack. The former, though one of the strongest fortresses in Eu"ope, suc- -«r::^sz 35 SIEGK OF VIENNA. ctivc, and i^i. He laintained annexed. IS and by i. in this iliich laid Russia, in m Court, ies, com- mirdered U) was of lin cxcit- rove the He de- ios to liis itincf the y hostile aini)aiji;n anatical. readily auf^diter Seh'm rch, and vy, and d thou- in this le lau'- )rty-six ry and rritory. Hverful med to OS, the urkish oriner, e, sue- I '3 1 cumbcd, and the garrison was slauijhtercd. Rhodes, the stronghold of the western nations in the Mediterra- nean and the key to the Dardanelles, Asia Minor. Syria, and Kgypt, .soon after surrendered. It addetl greatly to Turkish power and j)restige. The mastery of the Hosphorous placed all commerce on the Hlack Sea in the hands of the Turks. It gave them, also, the control of the traffic with Ciiina and the Indies, which then came to the Caspian and Hlack Seas. Solima'.i restricted all commerce on these seas to Turkish sub- jects; but a new route had by tin's time been found by way of Cape Morn. He ap[)ointed Harbarossa, a pirate, high admiral; and ujider his command the navy rav- aged the shores of Italy, Spain, and other countries, ami captured Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, but failed at Malta. In 1525 the first I''rcnch Ambassador was received at the (ittoman Court. He w.is despatched to secure the assistance of Turkey against Austria. An alliance was formed and Soliman marched his forces across the Danube. His march was one continued triumph. Hun- gary was completely defeated and impoverished, and Austria became the object of attack. The huge Turkish army, burning and destroying all before it, reached Vienna on the 27th September, 1529. They had 400 pieces of artillery with them. Tiiey invested tlie city and made many breaches in the walls. But lack of pro- visions compelled them to fall back. The result of this campaign was the annexation of the greater {)art of Hungary to the Turkish dominions. A treaty of peace was concluded with Austria. Another Persian cam- paign \\;as planned and successfully carried out, all the leading places falling into the hands of the invaders. Treaties of commerce were for the first time entered into with foreign nations by the Sultan Soliman. In 1566 he once more led a force, larger than ever before, across the Danube, and captured S/.igcth, a fortified city. IJut sudden death put an end to the campaigns and ambitious projects of one of the ablest of Turkish rulers. Soliman, in the midst of all his campaigns, i Al ; I il \', ■V. ZKMTfl 01' I'OWKR. found time to beautify his capital, and man>- extensive buildings wore erected in his rei|j[n. ICducation also was fostered, and his af;e is accounted one of the most brilliant in Turkish literature, lie fortified the Darda- nelles, rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem and erected several beautiful niosciues. Sclim II. succcedeil him iit 1566. A treaty of peace was now made with Austria, which left the j^reater part of H unitary in Turkish possession, and b\' wliich Austria p.'iid tribute for the remainder. In 1 570 con(|ucsts were UKuie in Arabia, and C'jprus was wrested from the X'enetians. A larjje Turkish fleet was destroyed by the combmed S])anish and Venetian navies, in 1572, at Le- panto. But the loss was rapidly repaired, and two )'ears lati;r Tunis was captured from Spain. The Turkish I'jnpire was now at the ver)- lici^ht of its j^lory and power ; a terror to all the nations of I'lurojK' and th.e undisputed master of the east. A succession of valiant and able Sultans had built up a nation second to none of that a^e, all powerful b)- land, and masters of the .Mediterr.inean, IMack, and Casj)iaM Seas. Their doir.inions included all .Vsia Minor, Armem'a, (ieor'ear, and was followed, in 161 S, by Othman II., who, however, was soon deposed and assassinated by the janissaries. In 1622 Amaruth \\\ succeeded in his minority, disasters followed thick and fast. Magdad was taken by the Persians ; the Hhick sea towns were pillaged by Cossacks, and the Crimea revolted, The Turks, aware that an effort must be made to stay these disasters, marched into Persia, and after great atrocities recovered Bagdad, and put the garrison to the sword. Amaruth died ui 1640, and was succeeded by Ibrihim I., who was assassinatou in 1648, and followed by Ma'nomet IV., a child, under his grand- mother's guardianship. Great confusion followed. Bands of outlaws plundered the villages, and pirates scoured the seas. Grand viziers succeeded each other and were in turn deposed in rapid succession, until Ahmed Kiu- prili, more vigorous than the rest, restored partial tran- quility. Trouble breaking out in Candia, he subdued the island, and also the city, after a siege of nearly three years, in 1669. A war with Poland followed, in which the Turks were defeated by the famous John Sobieski. 38 SIKGF. OF VIKNNA. i I I • : :«! u Kiiiprili was an able statesman and patron of literature, and held the ^r.md vi/.iership for seventeen years. Under him the office of dra^romaii was instituted for the purpose of translating^ forci^Mi state i)apers ; tiie Turks bein^j^ forbidilen by Mahometan law from learning any infidel lan^ua^e, the office was fjenerally fdled b)- (ireeks, and subsequently came to be held in liii^h estimation as a cabinet office. In the year 1682 war aj^ain broke out with Austria and the second sie^'e of Vienna occinred in July 1683. The besiegin<^ army was immense, while the ^Mrrison numbered only 20,CXX) men, and suffered from the scanty supply of provisions. I'ierce attacks were made by the Turks in their determination to carry the place by storm at any loss of life, and the walls were breached and blown up by mines in many i)laces. .Still the f,'arri- son held out awaiting the arrival of promised reinforce- ments. The attacks were incessant and the loss of life on both sides was <;reat. The Turks were famous for conducting sieges, and used artillery, hot shot, and all the improved appliances. Their cavalry, meanwhile, .scoured the surrounding country and scattered liesola- tion in their train. So fierce was the attack that Turkish standards were actually planted on the ram- parts and the garrison was about to surrender. At this moniei.i the Poli.sh army, allied to the Austrians, arrived upon the field under the command of Sobieski, and im- mediately made a furious assault. The Turks were routed and fled, abandoning artillery, baggage and wounded. This battle revealed the weakness of the Turks when opposed by brave and disciplined troops. It relieved western Europe of a load of anxiety, and was the la.st occasion on which the Turks appeared for- midable in Central Europe. They suffered several defeats while retreating, and as a result of this disas- trous campaign, lost most of Hungary and the More-i, The Sultan, Mohammed IV., was deposed in 1687, and succeeded in turn by Soliman II., who only reigned the brief term of four years; Achmet II., four years; and Mustapha II., eight years. These reigns were 4 ■M- i ■^Mh. INTkdDUCTION OF'" Tllli rRINTIN(; I'KKSS. 39 f literature, :ccn years, ited for the the Turks •arniiifr atiy b)' (i reeks, stiinatioM as itli Austria I July 16S3. lie ^'arrison I from the were made •y the placi: re breached ill the <;arri- (1 reiiiforce- ; loss of life ; famous for hot, and all meanwhile, .•red (.lesola- ittack that the ram- At this ms, arrived :i, and ini- "urks were ij^e and less of the ned troojjs. xiety, and jeared for- ed several this disas- the More-T. fd in 1687, ily reigned our years; ■igns were remarkable for nothing but loss of territory and gradual decline of power anil importance. Russia was now rising into prominence as a military nation under I'eter I., who much im|)roved the discipline of his forces, and estabiisherl a tlotilla upon the rivers and seas. In i6<^5 he declared war with Turkey, and captured / '.off. a strong position at the mouth of the Don. In a war with Austria, the Turks were defeated by luigene, ni Zenta, and lost Transylv.mia aui! more of Hungary, and were compelled to sue for peace. Achiuet III. ascended the throne in 170^. and obtained partial successes over the Russians, who h.id advanced too far from their base and supplies. Hut ill a war with the (icrmaii forces the Tmks were again worsted and lost the remainder of Ilungar)-. which was annexed to Austria, h'urther reverses in a campaign against Persia led to the deposition of Achmet, who was held as a state prisoner by the janissaries. This reign is remarkable for the fact that the printing press, which had long been in use in Western ICurope, but of which the introduction into Turkey h.id been bitterly opposed, was permitted to be used in Constantino[)lc upon all books except the Koran and religious works ; yet so indoletit and apathetic were the people that for fifty years only about torty separate works were issued. The gradual decline of Turkey was largely owing to the feebleness and growing effeminacy of her rulers, and to domestic discord and dissensions. The conduct <^f the armies was now entrusted to court favorites, the Sultans remaining quietly at home, inte t upon nothing but pleasure and self-gratification. A degenerate stock had succeeded the early warlike rulers, who always commanded in person and were ever found in the thickest of the fight. Under these weak Sultans the governors of provinces became more and more independent, and less devoted to the interests of the empire. They used their positions for self-enrichment, and public offices were openly sold to the highest bidders. The administration of domestic affairs became corrupt and extortionary, and the dealings lillll 'f ■\. j! i! MS I ill 40 I-OSS OF THE CRIMEA. with foreign powers grew timid and vacillating. General ignorance, slavishncss, and bigotry characterized the masses of the people. Mahmoud I. reigned from 1730 to 1754, and during this time desultory conflicts took -'ace witli Russia and Austria without important results to any party, though the Russians won several victories From 1754 to 1757 Othman III. held a brief term of power. In 1757 Mus- tapha III succeeded him. The Turks allied themselves with Poland in her war against Russia in 1768, and in the engagements which followed the successes of Rus- sia, under Romanzow, were complete and decisive. They coniC[uered all the country between the Dniepc and the Danube. They also took possession of the Crimea, by which name was then known, not merely the Peninsula proper, but an indefinite extent of country behind it, and which had long been a dependency of Turkey and a faithful ally in war. A Russian fleet sailed from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, and in a fierce engagement nearly annihilated the Turkish fleet of over thirty vessels, and remained master of the waters adjacent to Turkey. The situation of the latter country had now become desperate. Numcious Pachas in Asia declared their independence of the Porte ; and to add to the general discomfiture, an extensive plague raged throughout the empire. Mustapha III died in '774 and was succeeded by Abdul Ilanict I., Jiis brother. The war with Russia still continued, and the Turkish army being badly defeated ^y the Russians under Kamenski, the Porte was forced to agree to an ignominious treaty of peace, by which they surrendered to Russia all the territory north of the ri\er Borg, which now became the Turkish boundary. The fortresses in the Crimea were also given up. and to Russia was conceded the right to navigate the Dardanelles and all the adjacent seas. The Porte pledged itself to protect it Christian population and to Russia was given considerable control in matters relating to the Greek CImrch. The independence of the Crimea was recognized for the first time, wliich dissolved a cdh- -J i TURKEY ALLIKS WITH RUSSIA. 41 ;. General tcrized the md during Russia and rty, though '54 to 1757 1757 Mus- thcmsclves 768, and in ;cs of Rus- d decisive. :ie Dnieper ion of the not merely ; of country cndcncy of jssian fleet n, and in a urkish fleet ter of the the hitter ous Pachas 'orte ; and ive plague :ceeded by th Russia X badly th(; Porte of peace, c territory le Turkish also given navigate The Porte ion and to rs relating le Crimea ved a C3n- Tiection of three hundred ycar;^ and greatly weakened the Turkish power. Nine years later the whole Crimea was annexed to Russia. In 1787 Turkey again declared war against Russia, and a conflict, chiefly maritime, followeil, in which \ictory uniformly favored the Russians. In 1789 Abdul Mamid died, and left the throne to Selim III., with a ruinous war as n legacy. The Russians, umlcr Suwarrow, crossed the Danube, captured Ismail, and occupied the surroimding country. Driven by repeated disasters, the Turks again sued for peace, and ceded to the Russians all the territory as far as the Dniester River, including many fortified towns and citadels. Urged by defeats and internal disorganization, the .Sultan feebly attempted some measures of reform in the armv, the administra- tion. and the condition of the people. These long- delayed imp:ovements were much needed, but were fou^dit at every .-.tep by this bigoted and indolent people. He attempted to remodel the ami}', so as to conform it to '.lie armies of other ICuropean coinitries. He attempted also to improve the condition of tlic people, and of their cities and towns. Hut Selim was too weak-minded for the troublous times which wi.re about to follow. Napoleon iiad invaded Egypt, and was carrying all before him ; and, in.-^tigated by Russia, Great Britain, and other nations, Turkey declared war against France, on the 1st of September, 1798, and joined 'he allies. The singular spectacle was now wit- ness:^d of the joint action of the fleets of Russia and Turkey, which had sc lately been pitted against each other in mortal strife. This alliance, however, was too unnatural to last ; and when peace was made with France in 1801 two conflicting parties appeared in Turkey, the one lavorable to PVance, and tlie other to Russia. Napoleon compelled Turkey to be friendly by threats of invasion; and when Russia became ag;.^ressive and occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, the old hostility broke out anew, and war was declared with that [)ower in September, 1806. The weakne.ss of the Ottoman Empire was now apparent. Russia made rapid advances -llf^ !!' M i i;,' J if i 1 1 I I 'I 42 INSURKI-XTION AT CON'STANTINOrLK and the luitjlish fleet forced the passage of the Darda- nelles. The janissaries, rendered furious by the army reforms, whicli lessened their power and importance, rose in open rebellion, and after considerable civil strife and the capture of many stroncjliolds, dethroned and afterwards assassinated Selim. This act was sanctioned by the Mufti, or hi<,di religious di^j^nitary, who declared that by his attempted reforms, contrary to the teachings of the Koran, that ruler had forfeited all righ*- to re:f;n. The disasters which haci followed the army rendered the populace impatient and eager for a change. Insurrection liad broken out in Arabia also, where the Wahebites, so called from VV'aheb, their leader, though Mahometans, differed essentially in doctrine f-om the Turks, and had declared their independence. They captured nearly all the fortified places, and finally Mecca also surrendered in 1803, after a long seige. In the following year Medina als(j fell into the hands of the r"volutionists, and Arabia was for a time lost to the Turki.-^n crown. In this dark- hour of his counlr}-'s history, Mustapha IV. came to the throne in 1807. Nominated by the janissaries, he was completely their tool, and immedi- ately repealed all the reforms of his predecessor. The new army was disbanded and its leaders sain. j?iit the misfortunes continued. The Turkish fle';t was entirely destroyed b)' the Russians at Leiruos, and after thi*- disaster the Pasha I^airaktar a bold and resolute man, though illiterate, deterirlned to seize the capitol and effect a thorough reform in the military .sj'stem of the emjMre. lie therefore attacked and defeated the troops of the capitol with his Albanian forces, and captured the city. The slaughter in Constantinople dining the civil struggle was fearful to contemplate. Each man's hand was raised against his neighbor. Mustapha, to prevent his ow.i deposition, caused the former Sultan, Selim, to be murdered, and endeavored to assassinate also his brother Mahmoud, that he might be the sole surviving descendant of Othman. This pur[)ose, how- ever, was foiled by a slave, who secreted the doomed man in the palace. Mustapha was then deposed in 1808,. i$> iri.K. WAR WITH RUSSIA. 43 f the Darda- by the army importance, lie civil strife throned and IS sanctioned vho dechired he teachings ^h^ to reic^n. rendered the Insurrection .' Wahebites, klahonietans, 'ks, and had ed nearly all surrendered louin}^ year itionists, and ■own. y, Mustapha ated by the nd ininiedi- :e.ssor. The :n. Bv\t the -vas entirely d after thi'-' -■solute man, capitol and •.tern o( the I the troops id ca])tured duriiir^ the ICach man's ustaphu, to mer Sultan, assassinate )e the sole r{)ose, how- he doomed ■^ed in 1808, ■■■ti 11 * % 'm after only one year's rei^n. and Mahmoud II. was placed upon the throne, iiairaktar, now grand vizier, endeavored to restore the new army .system and organi- zation, but the janissaries, the bitterest foes of progress, and opposed to any change which l','ssened their privi- leges and importance, rebelled, and the vizier paid the penalty of his temerity with his life Mahmoud, now left alone, made peace with ICngland in 1809, but continued with vigor the war with Russia, which power had advanced its army to the passes of the Balkan, and now agiiu put forward the claim to be the protector of all the subjects of the Porte professing the Greek religion. Tliis claim being resisted by Turkey, the Czir proceeded to occupy the Uanubian princi[)alities. Tiic outlook was now e.Ktremely dark for the Turks. An alliance was formed between France and Russia, by which, amongst other things, the spoliation of Turkey was agreed upon. But this agreement was of short duration, as Napoleon could brook no hampering alliances. But .so urgent became the necessity of quelling domestic insurrection, that Mahmoud concluded a treaty of peace with Russia at Bucharest, ceding all those portions of Moldavia and H^essarabia lying beyond the Pruth ; together with the for^r<>sses on tlic Dniester and at the munths of the Danube. Servia. Ckeece and Iv;"ypt wece all in rebellion. A treaty with the first named depen- dency in 18 1 5, conceded to the people of that province the atlministration of their locil governnicnt, with a prince of their own choosing, but acknowledging the suprvMnacy of Turkey. In Greece the insurrectionists, under the Pasha Ali, a vigorous but brutal man, defied the armies of Turke}- for u^nvards of two years, wlien they were finally subdued. But the Turks and Greeks could never amalgamate into one nation ; the relation of co.u[U('rors and conquered could nev ,r be forgotten ; and in 1821 the Greek revolution broke out with all its horrors. The most vindictive measures, accompanied by the most violent exces.scs, were instituted against the Greeks in Constantinople and other Turkish cities. Men, women and children were murdered or sold into slavery. . I I I. i III! h 1 : 1^.! ini 44 THE TURKISH FLEET DPISTROYEU, The wildest fanaticism raged. The Greek bishops were assassinated in cold blood. The inhabitants of every town captured by the Turks were slaughtered, and the whole war was a succession of atrocities. Plunder, devastation and murder were the rule of the campaign, and the plan of extermination was adopted. On the 27th of January, 1822, (jrcece declared her complete independence of the Porte, and slavery was abolished. It was in this campaign that Marco Bo/.zaris and Ypsil- anti signalised themselves in the struggle for liberty ; and Byron sacrificed his life in behalf of the Greeks in 1824. For six years the unequal contest continued, yet the Turks were unable to subdue the determined revolu- tionists. At last the contest became so destructive and cruel that foreign nations felt compelled to interfere, and a treaty was formed in July, 1827, between France, Great Britain and Russia for the express purpose of putting an end to this desultory struggle. As Turkey, with characteristic arrogance, refused to accede to any terms, or listen to any foreign intervention, the joint fleets of the three powers sailed for the Mediterranean, and attacked and destroyed, on the 21st of October, the combined Turkish and Fgyptian fleets, under Ibrihim Pasha, atNavarino, after an engagement lasting four hours. In retaliation, the Ottoman power seized all foreign ships in their waters, and enforced a general conscription to fill up the depleted ranks of their army. They firmly refused to acknowledge the independence of Greece, and demanded an indemnity for the destruc- tion of their fleet anci the insult to their flag. y\s it now became necessary for the allies to employ force, a F'rench army was thrown into the Morea, and the Turks were compelled to evacuate the peninsula, and to recog ize by treaty the independence of Greece. By this unfortunate campaign not only was Greece lost to Turkey, but also the adjacent islands, which had largely supplied their fleet with sailors. Their fleet itself was annihilated, and their naval power and control of the neighboring seas were destroyed. This was considered by the lurks to be the severest loss they had as yet I ^> 0, isliops were ts of every ed, and the Plunder, : cainpiiitrn, d. On tlie r complete . abolished. and Ypsii- 'or liberty ; ; ( I reeks in ilinucd, yet ned revolu- ructivc and 3 interfere, :en France, purpose of ^s Turkey, L;de to any joint fleets anean, and ;tober, the er Ibrihini stinjj; four seized all a general eir army. cpeiidence e destruc- ig. As it y force, a and the la, and to ecce. By ce lost to id largely itself was ol of the onsidered d as yet VARNA TAKEN BY THE KUSSIANS. 45 sustained, and the most humiliating disaster of their whole history. So far as France and luigland were concerned this virtually ended the contest. But Russia still continued hostilities. Never was nation more poorly prepared for a struggle with a gigantic foe than Turkey at this hour. Her navy was destroyed, lier troops consisted for the most part of raw levies, ami .'-he was weakened by inteniiil dissensions and difticultics. Russia controlled the Black Sea with a ]Jowerful fleet, and was pouring down an inmiense army upon her. Still tlie Sultan mustered in new recruits from ever)'ijuarter, and entered upon the campaign. Its result was liisastrous. Varna was taken by the Russians ; the Balkan was crossed by their troops, and the capitol threatened. Turkey was forced to sue for peace, and to surrender large territories near the Caucasus and several fortresses (jn the Black Sea ; and, further, to pay a money indemnit)' for the war expenses. Several important strongholds in Asia were also ceded to Russia, and further guarantees given for the semi-independence (jf Servia, VVcdlacl.ia and Moldavia. This treaty was executed in 1827. Meanwhile the constant wish of Mahmoud had been to carry out the reforms inaugurated by his former grand vizier Bairaktar, and which had been the means of bringing himself to the throne. The janissaries were the principal obstacles in the wa\-, and he determined to crush them. In the caj^ital they were all powerful, being thoroughly armed and organized. I\Iahmou.d re- sob.'ed to appeal to the patriotism of the people. He unfurled the sacred standard of the empire, which was popularly supposed to have been the banner carried by the prophet himself, and which was only displayed upon occasions of great emergency, and had not been seen by the populace for a generation. The people rallied to his support around the sacred flag. A force was formed from these recruits, artillery was obtained, and the attack upon the janissaries in the city com- menced. A day of terrible civil conflict with immense slaughter ended in their entire destruction, and the mmmm 'M 46 Tlir. TURKISH AkMY REORGANIZED. f I* '1: corps was entirely abolished. The principal and most dangerous opponents of reform beins.^ now removed, Mahmo'id proceeded to reorganize the army on the Ktiropean basis. I'ants and frock-coats were substitut- ed for the loose flowing robes and bloomer costumes of former times, and a red ca{) took the place of the turban. In training also the troops were compelled to conform to hiodern usage. Stern measures were resorted to, and disaffection and treason were vindictively repressed. I'lven the haughty order of the Ulema were compelled to ado]jt a more modern habit. These and other mea- sures of internal reform were vigorously enforced. The new le\'ics were mostly youths devoid of military experience, but had three imixirtant elements of mili- tary material, implicit obedience, enthusiasm, and tem- perance. Hardly w.is the war with I-iussia closed when a new difficult}- from an unexpected ipiartor menaced the un- fortunate Mahmoud. Mehemet Ali, an able and am- bitious soldier, who had distinguished himself in the campaigns against Napoleon and had risen from the ranks, was made pasha of Kgypt by the sultan, and etuijloyed in suppressing tb.e insurrection of the W.ihc- bitcs in Persia, of which we have already matle mention. In this service he had been uniform!)' successful. He recovered Medina in 18 [2, and Mecca in the following year ; and in the final battle of the campaign he offered five dollars for each head of his Persian foes which was brought before him, and it is said that over six thou- satid of these ghastly trophies were piled up near his tent. The Waliebite insurrection was completely sup- pressed in 1 8 if), and the authorit)" of the Porte re-estab- lishoil. Mehemet Ali hail now established his repu- tation as a brave leatler. jvnd was made vicero)' of all iCgypt. Ujiring the long continued insurrection of Greece, moreover, he had lent effective aid, both with his army and (leet, to the (Jttoinan Government. Hut he was no less ambitious than brave and resolute, and immediately began to use his newly acquired power for the furtherance of his own designs. For this purpose he ■■•iJt^ ED. MEHKMF/r AM INVADKS SYRIA. 47 al and most iv removed, 'my on the re substicut- :o.stumes of r the turban, to conform rted to, and repressed, i compelled otlicr mca- )rccd. Tiic of military iits of mili- n, and tem- A'lien a new- red the un- le and am- self in the n from the iultan, and the Wahe- le mention. >.ssfu!. He L? following^ I he offered which was r .six thou- ip near his Ictcly siip- :e re-estab- his repu- :roy of all •rcction of both with nent. Hut solute, and power for purpose he availed himself of force, reform, and intrigue. As an example of his craftiness and unscrupulousncss it may be mentioned that it became necessary for the further- ance of his purpose to extirpate the Mamelukes, who were devoted to the Sultan. The chiefs of these, with their retinues, were accordingly invited to a grand fes- tival, where they were seized and beheaded and their forces destroyed.. Free from many Turkish prejudices, his troops were armed, equipped, and drilled after Euro- j)ean fashions. He designed to convert F.gypt into a distinct and indepcMuU:nt kingdom, and found a dynasty of his own. In 1S32, without consulting the .Sultan, he sent a powerful army, commanded . by his son, into Syria, assisted by a large licet. The object of this attack was to subject that country that he might pos- sess himself of its troops, as well as its tores of coal and iron, lie soon took possession of all tae strong places. Mahmoucl, in vain, issued orders conmianding him to retire. Mchemct was well aware that after the disas- t''ous Russian and tirecian Ciimpaigns the i'urkish l;o\ vrnment was in no ])osition to enforce its decrees. I'aiiboldened by success he determintxl to march his forces against Constantinople, the cajiital oi" the empire. lie tiefeatetl the tirand Vizier on the 2jst December, 1832, on the plain of Koniah, which left the way open, ^^•ith no force before him capable of opposing his march. His ami)- reached Ikirsa, only three da}'s march from the ISosphorus. The position of Mahmoud was critical in the ex- treme. He was unable to oppose- the I\g}'[)tian army, and many adherents ol" the old system still existed who bitterly opposed his reforms and welcoTued the Egyp- tian leader as the ojjponent of those who had inaugura- ted these heretical innovations. In this crisis he called for the assistance of the most inveterate foe Turkey had ever known, Russia. The fleet of that power was thrown into the Bosphorus and an arm\' was pl.iced on the Asiatic shore, and as a compensation certain conces- sions were maue to the Russians in relation to the navi- gation of the Dardanelles. Mehemet remained in po.s- 48 REIGN OF AHDUI. MEDIID. session of the vice royalty of Kgypt with Syria added to his domains. A sh(irt interval of peace succeeded; of such peace, that is, as tiie Ottoman Ljovcrnment is able to boast. Hordes of outlaws constantly interrujJted the peaceful pursuits of ai^riculture and commerce ; and marauding gant^s infested the country and rendered life insecure. Against these lawless bodies Mahmoud's government directed its efforts, and established a police sj-stem for tlie ca[)itatin joriests. At the same time Russia ai^ain put forw;uxi the claim, by virtue of the treaty of Kainardji in 1774, to exercise a protec- torate over the (jreek or orthodox Christians within the realms of the Sultan. The Turks were placed in a position of groat perplexity. P'rance moved a fleet from Toulon to (ireek waters and staticmed a war ship in the Dardanelles in defiance of the treaty, to influence the Turks. Russia, on the otiier hand, sent Menschi- koff as a special ambassador to Constantinople with a threatening; ultimatum in case the Russian demands '^' ■<¥( 1 each. The i '■-*■■ le of Iliin- ,>; erally sym- ) a further !')uin.Li ^i'^'^' 1 Christians mill, lily all fr. bitter ami 1 Lilace inter- ns worship ;■( nuLjatory. ch troubled i of Arabs. ittle within ribes which % , that any- A ro^ress, or infortunate . % that tlie '■A 1 ned utidis- x-d. The e Crimean - ,s possession : churches. • the rival '% It was a im ■;ia, as the ody, while c interests '-^ : the same lid ' virtue of :^ a protec- ns within ■yS l.iced in a -■d a lleet I war ship 'iia influence Menschi- '^ )le with a ■ i' "tI demands '4mI CROSSING OI- THK I'KUTII liY RUSSIA. 51 were not complied with. An unpleasant dilemma was presented to Turkey. It was evident tliat she was bein^' used as a mere cat's paw to t;ratify the ambitious projects, the jealousies and fears of three or four powerful nations. So weak had she become ami so U)W reduced in the European system, that her views of any cpiestjon at issue were considered of no weii^ht and wlu)lly ij^nored. It l^ecame simply a tpiesti(jn of the stand which other n.itions we.-'.- prepared to take upon any question which mi;4lit arise. 'I'he immediate dis- mi:mberment of the Turkish empire, then antl there, would have fcjlloweil but for tlie jealousies of rival natit)ns. Finally the Turkish ;j;overnment. uri^cd by i'Vaiiee, decided to refuse the Russian demands. The imme- diate result of this action of the Turkish cabinet was the crossing of the I'ruth by two divisions of the Russian army, and the occupation of the Danubian principalities of Wallachea and Moldavia, as a {guarantee for the con- cession ol the Russian demand ;. It was construed as an act of hostility by the Turkish government, and caused great excitement. Turkey, however, was ill- preparcd for war and preferred to treat witii Russia. But it suited the purposes of France and F'ngland, who had already placed their fleets in Besika bay near the straits of the Dardanelles, that the Turks should not yield to the Russian demands ; although their repre- sentatives at the Vienna conference which followed, were forced to acknowledge that Russia liad good grounds of complaint, and tliat the condition of the Christian population of Turkey was becoming intoler- able. They warned the Ottoman government that a continuation of such atrocious treatment would goad the Christians to revolt, numbering as they did, eight to one of the Musselman population in ICurope. Turkey rejected all demands, and as Russia refused to withdraw them, or to recall her troops, Turkey de- clared war on the 5th October, 1853, which gage of bat- tle was promptly accepted by Russia. On the 14th of the same month the allied fleets of ^-Vancc, Kngland, Sardinia, and Turkey, entered the Dardanelles. To- $2 OTTOMAN FI.EKT DKSTROYKI). li.it wards the end of the same month the Turkish army- crossed tlie Danube at several iioints, under tlic leader- ship of Omar I'acha, a Christian reiiej^fade, whose real name was Lattas. Several conflicts between small bodies of troops followed without decisive results. At this juncture the Russian Admiral, on the Hlack Sea, learneil that an Ottoman fleet of a dozen sail had enter- ed the Turkish harbor of Sinope; he immediate])' sailed thither with nine vessels and destroyed the entire fleet, to^^ether with 4,ocx") troops. I'Vance n(jw (1S54), dis- patched a land force to Turkey, under command of Marshal St. Arnud, the two ilivisions of their forces beini,' commanded respectively by t^enerals Canrobert and Uostinet. The luv^lish forces were untliT the coiTi- mand of Lord Raj^lan. These troops laiuled Hrst at Gallipoli, at the entrance to the Sea of the Marmora. They fu'st devoted their attention to fortif\'in.q; the Peninsula to prevent a Russi;in attack upon Constanti- nople ; after which they were moved to the Bosphorus, the Jiritish forces beiiv.; encamped on the eastern side, and the I'^rench near Conslantinoi)le. Subseciuently they were moved to the town of \'arna, on the Bl ick Sea. Here the allied l''rench and 10n_q;lish forces, nunx- berin^; 50,000 men, were bein^i^ rapidly thinned by disease ; the climate was very severe upon the troops. Cholera broke out amonc^st them, and, to add to their trial, the town was near!}- destroyed by fire, which left them shelterless. An ineffectual cavalry expedition, under Lord Cardi^^an, had been the only movement thus far, and the troops were despondent ; in consc- cpience ol' all these discouragements, it was determined to move them at once to the Hlack Sea. They were therefore embarked on the (Sth of September. 1854, and on the 13th 40,000 were landed near Kupatoria, north of Sebastopol, on Ivussiun soil. On the 19th they bL\t^an their march to Sebastopol. But the mismanage- ment was frightful ; all the lOnglis'h tents were found to be stowed away on shipboard, and the troops were forced to sleep without shelter ; th consequent deple- tion of the ranks from sickness was fearful. # ■'.¥ HATTLK Ol Tin; AI.MA, 53 urlcish army r the Iciulcr- :, wliosc real :\vecn small results. At ' HlacU Sea, lil had eiiter- liati.'ly sailed ; entire fleet, (1854). dis- Dininaiul of their forces s Canrobert ler the com- ided first at le Marmora. rtifyin;^ the \ Constanti- ,' Hosi)h()rus, e.istcni side, ubsetjueiitly 11 the Bl icV forces, luiiu- thi lined by tile troops. idd to their e, wiiicli left expedition, movement ; in consc- tletermincd They were r, 1.S54, and itoria, north 19th they ;iiismanacrc- ;rc found to ;roops were uent deplc- 1 I JVleanwhilc the Russian and Turkish forces were enga<;ed in struL,',cjles on the Danube. The Russians crossed the river and occupied several Turkish fiirts anil laid siej^'e to Silistria. SubsLMjuently the Danubian territory was occupied by the neutr.d forces of ^Vustria, with their head-ciuarters at iUicharest. by agreement with the allies. The campaij^n of the summer of ips deprived md comfort itroyed. the ed scarcely Hola sides the allies a Crimean tched mis- oops were "ever; the confusion, thing and re openly had made SUFFERINGS OF TIIF, ENGLISH TROOPS. 55 Tit their expense. The suffering-^ of the French were also great: but P'rcnch soldiers are always more capable of helping themselves, while the English al- ways needed some one to cook for them, and, as it was said, almost to put the food into th(Jir mouths. A;^ain the latter paid exorbitant prices at the will of ihe peasants wl^ose goods they bought : the former took what was to be had, laying down a price which, after fair consideration, was judged to be sufficient. In addition to this, the roads about Balaklava were in a hopeless and impracticable condition, v.hile the French had been enabled, from having men to spare, to con- struct good roads over the whole ground which they occupied. The medical department was scarcely more satisfactory ; the surgeons were indefatigable, but they were without the most necessary resources and appli- ances, and the disorder was almost greater at Constan- tinople than it was at Balaklava. This horrible state of things was in some degree remedied by the self-sacri- ficing devotion of some English ladies who, under Miss Morence Nis^^htingale, went out for the purpose of tending the :-.ick and wounded in the hospitals at Scutari ; and by their aid a very great improvement was . immediately effected in the condition of the troops. But although the siege of Sebastopol was practically suspended, the Russians v/ere not idle ; they scarped the ground in front of their batteries, threw up earth- works v.herever they were needed, and enormously strengthened the whole fortifications of the city. When the siege began, it was comparatively defenceless ; be- f )re the year had ended, it was almost impregnable : and this strength was owing mainly to the fact that these new works were not of stone but of earth, mo'inted with batteries of tremendous power. Perhaps the Russians were right in saying that history furnished few instances in which defences run up in a few months were maintained for nearly a year against all the appliances of the most skillful warfare of modern times. u t I ! il 1^ '^' ^ II 11^ i| IM'. !i Mil I:!t!f 56 STORMING OF THE MALAKOFF. On the 23rd of March, 1855, it became publicly known that the Kingdom of Sardinia had joined the allied forces* The object of this move on the part of Sardinia was to gain the assistance of l^'rance in the then impending struggle for Italian unity. By the terms of the treaty, Sardinia engaged to turnish 15,000 men, and was to receive a loan of i^ i ,000,000 from the British government. In March, 1855, another eftbrt was made to put an end to the war by a conference at Vienna ; pending which the emperor of Russit; died. But all hopes of peace were dissipated by the publication of a manifesto by his son and successor, in which he expressed his determination to carry out the plans of his father, and vigorously prosecute the war. On the 9th of March, 1S55, the Russians made a sortie and captured some small hills, upon which they raised a redoubt and sunk rifle-pits. From this positi(,n the French forces made an ineffectual attempt to dis- lodge them, as they were found to do great execution upon the allied troops. In May of this year general Pelissier assumed command of the French forces, and soon after they took possession of a strong position in front of the central bastion of the Russian fort. 'Ex- peditions were sent out by the allies to capture the neighboring towns, but they were mostly found deserted and burned by the Russians themselves. A general assault was ordered for the i/th of June upon the Russian position, and a tremendous fire from the guns inaugurated it ; but it ended in the complete repulse of the allied troops. Prince Gortschakoff issued an exulting order, congratulating the troops upon their success. This repulse, with care and sickness, so pressed upon Lord Raglan that he died on the 28th of June, and general Simpson succeeded him in command. As sicknet; and disease were making havoc with the troops, it was determined to make another general assault on the 8th of September, at midday, while the Russian forces were at dinner. The agreement was that the French should storm the Malakoff, and when this 11' 'n li KND OK THE CRIMEAN WAR. 57 le publicly joined the the part of ince in the . By the nish 15,000 from the : to put an a ; pending ill hopes of 1 manifesto pressed his father, and iis made a which they his positi(>n npt to dis- t execution ^ar general forces, and position in fort. 'Ex- ;apture the id deserted th of June s fire from e complete ikofif issued upon their , so pressed h of June, mand. As the troops, assault on \c Russian IS that the when this was successfully accomplished, the English were to seize the Redan. The Erench were successful at every point of their attack, but the English completely failed through defective arrangements, which led to inextrica- ble confusion. But it now became clear to the Russians that, as there was no means of obtaining supplies and reinforcements, the city could not longer be held with safety. -During the night which followed they blew up the forts and destroyed everything which could be of value to the allies, and, in good order and without loss of men, evacuated Sebastopol. On the morrow the allies entered to find a heap of ruins. Gortschakofif issued an address to the troops, complimenting them OA theii courage and endurance throughout the siege. On the loth of November General Simpson resigned the command of the army to sir William Codrington. Attacks were made by the fleets on some unimportant coast towns, which, however, were found to be mostly abandoned and the supplies destroyed .by the Russians. .Meanwhile, the condition of the Turkish troops, under the I'Lnglish general Williams, besieged in the town of Kars, was deplorable. Their pay was in arrears for a year and a half; they were scantily supplied with provisions and clothing ; ;'.nd were hard pressed by the Russian forces under Mouravieff. An assault was made on the town on the 29th of September by the Russians, which resulted in great loss on both sides. So closely were they besieged that assistance from the outside was impossible. I'^amine stared them in the face ; the strug- gle could no longer be continued, and General William.s accordingly surrendered, giving up the town and war materials uninjured ; the prisoners of war binding themselves not to serve again during the continuance of the war. General Williams and the other British officers were taken prisoners to Russia. Thus the whole army of Turkey had vanished like a shadow. Thus ended the Crimean War. All parties were tired of the struggle, and negotiations for peace were commenced in December, 1855, and at a conference which followed in Paris, in F"ebruary, 1856, an armistice !r:i Ik,! 1 -I til , I? i i ! Illl I"! i' 58 RESULTS OF THE CRIMEAN WAR. was agreed upon. A treaty of peace soon followed, by the terms of which Turkey bound herself to protect her Christian subjects in all their rights, ^nd guaranteed them perfect religious freedom, and to redress the evils and abuses of her government. The mouths of the Danube were to bo freely opened to navigation. The principalities of the country were to enjoy all the- privileges and immunities previously enjoyed, and which were now to be guaranteed to them by the contractmg powers. The Black Sea was to be closed to the war- ships of all foreign nations ; and neither Russia nor Turkey was to establisli any military-maritime arsenals on that sea. The allies evacuated the Crimea on the 1 2th of July, 1856. The results of this war were immense treasures ex- pended by Great Britain and I'Vance, the sacrifice of thousands of lives and the destruction of vast quantities of property, while nothing whatever was accomplished in settling the vexed question of the status of Turkey. So far as the stipulations contained in the treaty of peace were concerned, they proved not to be worth the paper upon which they were written ; for Turkey was utterly unable to afford efficient protection to her Chris- tian populations, and their greivances are greater than ever ; edicts certainly were issued, but the government was powerless to enforce them : and the perversion of justice and gross corruption continued as before. While, as regards the Black Sea, Russia has completely repu- diated the treaty ; has placed a large fleet thereon, and made her fortifications and arsenals stronger and more effective than ever. The complete helplessness of the Ottoman government was never more forcibly shcnvn than during this war. Officered, drilled and commanded by foreigners, and supplied by the allies with all the material of war, her troops showed a pusillanimity and utter lack of patriotism in marked contrast with the fierce bravery of former times. Criminations and recri- minations followed the close of the struggle in the British parliament, and so great were the differences of opinion that the Ministry was repeatedly changed. ^: followed, by > protect her guaranteed redress the 1 mouths of navigation. njoy all the d, and which contractmg to the war- Russia nor me arsenals imea on the rcasurcs cx- sacrifice of it quantities :coniplishcd ; of Turkey, le treaty of 2 worth the Turkey was 3 her Chris- rcater than government rversion of ore. While, etely repu- lereon, and r and more less of the ibly shown ommanded ith all the nimity and t with tile ; and recri- le in the ferences of changed. INSURRECTION OK (IRLKCE. 59 t i 1 John Bright remarked in debate : " In supporting the Porte against Russia we were fighting for a hopeless cause and for a worthless foe ;" while Mr. Layard, of opposite political leaning, stated that " England was on the brink of ruin, and had become the laughing-stock of all liurope ;" and Lord Derby complained that the governments appeared to be claimants of peace from Russia instead of granting a peace desired by the enemy. The discussion upon the surrender of Kai and npon the Baltic operations was also very 'bitter ; and the terms upon which the peace was concludeil gave very little satisfaction in l^ngland. Throughout the contest the sympathies of Greece had been with Russia, many Greek subjects hdving. by the arbitrarily fi.xed boundary line, been le H H .; m 1- s < ' :■'.{ ' ' ! I 60 MASSACRE OF CHRISTIANS. to fill the private coffers of the Sultan. In i860, one of the Druse.s having been killed, the death was laid to the chart^e of the Christians, and certain villaj^es be- longinj^ to them were burnt and the inhabitants mas- sacred with the Turkish army in sirinc!paliti(js can never attain be subjected to Moslem dcspc>tism. The new ruler, natur.illy feeble in body and miml, <';:;c^ravated his ailments by intemperance, and become wholly unfit for the exercise of an)' power or authority, and was conscciuently deposed on the 31st Auc^ust, 1.S76, and his brotluT Abdu! Ilamid II., the j)resent sovereij^n, was raised to the throne, beini; the thirty- fourth ruler of the house of Othman. His character is as yet unknown, but it is easy to see that it would be utterly impossible at this date for any ruler, however brave or saijacious to resuscitate Turkey as a h*-uri:)pean power from her fallen contlition. Havinj^ thus briefly summarized the history of the Ottoman empire from the earliest time; to the present da}', we shall proceed to _^ive an account of the ideogra- phical and physical features of the country contained in this extensive realm, and of the habits and customs of the peculiar j)eople who inhabit the various portions of it. commencini( our description with the oldest territory Ih'.reof Asia Elinor. URONK. ;y.s armed the :cl and bi^ot- luliscriniinatc d sacked and and horrible :e occasion to ) remark that r canch'd mind ; subjected to (I)- and mind, , and become or authority, 31st AuLJUHt, , tlie present Lj the thirty- s cliaracter is t it would be uler, hcnvcver s a h"ur(:)pcan listory of the o the present f the ,>^eo}j;ra- contained in d customs of IS portions of dest territory V.'l 'J li«f II' „i». if !i' 'I', 1 1* I iiiih li'i I 1 I'll! i '! f ! 'i 111! ; I:.,, I I ' ,! li! '■ If lilf I III hil'! iii 1 ! It iii !f 11 ' r:|ir 11 .;. \- i^ ALKXANI>ER II., KMPEROR OK RUSSIA. TURKEY IN ASIA. CllAI'TER II. f ;, ^■' V i/,i\ ITS II Y - ( ; I ) N K I '. K K A I N V. S S . Turkey in Asia includes the ri;i,Mon in whicii the human race was first jjlanted, as well as that whicli tlie sons of Noah and their inuiiediate descendants first overspread, when, descending from the majestic hcic^hts of Ararat, they directed their steps towards the iMeso- potamian plain, and fixed their habitati as in the lands watered by the Euphrates and theTioris. It comprehends within its limits the territories that constituted some of the most important states in the ancient world, and includes the sites of many amoni;st the nK)st famous cities of antiquity. Nineveh and Habylon, bidon and Tyre, Damascus and Palmyra, Jerusalem and Antif)ch, Ephesus and Smyrna, fall within its limits; and upon the rocky shores of Pluenicia or the classic plains of Asia Minor the traveller can scarcely advance a step without being reminded of by-gone greatnes.s, as the crumbling column or the ruined ar^li cause the histcjric memories of former ages to crowd upon his mind. Tu''key in Asia comprises a large portion of the Asiatic continent — probably not less than 500,000 square miles. This extensive territory forms four great divi- sions — Asia Minor, .Syria, portions of Armenia, and the countries on the luiphrates and Tigris. The first- named of them, Asia Minor, (or Anadoli, as the Turks designate it), is a considerable peninsula, lying between the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and forming the westernmost portion of the Asiatic continent. The second, Syria, is a mountain-tract upon the eastern borders of the Mediterranean, backed by an extensive plain wiiich stretches inland to the banks of the V i I li iC I l^' [Ul| • 64 SVKIA. luiplmvtcs, Armenia, a considcrablL' portion of which is now within tlic limits of tiic Russian empire, is a high and rviggcd mountain-region, occupying an inland position, though nearly approaching the waters of the Caspian aiul the ICuxinc upon either hand, and con- taining within its limits the sources of the principal rivers of Western Asia. The fourth division embraces the ancient Mesopotamia, (now Aljezireh,) situated between the streams of the ICuphrates and the Tigris, in the upper and middle portions of their courses; and Habylonia, (the modern Irak-Arabi,) between and ad- jacent to the lower parts of the same rivers. SVRfA includes I'alestine, or the Holy Land — a region which, though of small geographical extent, is of para- mount importance in the history of Turkey ; and it is with some account of Palestine that we propose first to engage the reader's attention. hVom the land of the ancient Jewish peoi)le we shall pass by a natural and easy transition to the neighboring parts of Syria, and thence to the famous localities of the other divisions of Asiatic Turkey. I'Vom the earliest ages of authentic history, Jud;iia has been the object of a curiosity at opce ardent and enlightened. Not mercl}- Christians at the time of the early crusades and subsequently, but heathen writers of far more distant ages also, looked with vivid interest ii])on that portion of the world; and Palestine and Syria in general, and Jerusalem more especially, have j>robab.ly been surveyed with greater attention, and described with greater accuracy and minuteness than any other portions of the ancient world, scarcely ex- cepting even (jreece and Rome. Uivided as they now are into Turkish pashalics, or held by comparative handfuls of people who combine the discomfort of the savage with the morals of the bandit, those once populou.'* and wealthy regions are now comparatively depopulated and positively poor; but, even yet, the aspect of external nature at cce corroborates all that we read about their former pros- perity, and protests against the misgovernment which I a. '1 ANCIKNT CANAAN OR I'ALKSTINK 65 has in {Treat measure caused their present de^^radation Of the pro}i;ress of the wars between tlie tribes of Israel and their nei^dibors, especially the Syrians, the Holy Scriptures i,Mve so full and so [graphic an account that a mere paraphrase would be idle, aiul would, besides, be out of place in these pa|.jes. We may repeat, however, that, as the reader casts his eyes over tlie maj) of modern Turkey in Asia, he, in fact, surveys the actual sites, thouj^h under otiier names, of all the {jreat ancient empires, and the actual scenes of all the {jreat events which, in the scri[)ture-narratives, so irresistibly appeal to all the nobler feelin^rs of his heart. As we have alreaily mentioned, Palestine, Jud;ea, or the Holy Land, is the chief point of interest in that portion of western Asia with which our readers are at present concerned. Thou^di nominally distinct from Syria, Palestine is physically a portion of that territory. Upon the map of the eastern .shore of the Mediterra- nean, the reader perceives a lonfj strip of country bounded on the east by the celebrated river Jordan, and nowhere exceeding fifty miles in its extremest breadth. This is the ancient Canaan or Palestine, properly so called, from the name of the Philistines, who were oxpelled thence by the God-protected tribes of Israel. Three of those tribes, however, namely, those of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, had territory assigned to them on the eastern side of the Jordan, and thence they extended their conquests and their occupancy by suoduing the hostile and idolatrous peoples in their vicinity. For the sake of distinctness, and in consideration of the impracticability of detailing all the numerous changes of extent which resulted from the almost perpetual wars in which the Israelites were engaged, we may regard Palestine, ancient and proper, as being bordered on the north-west by the territory of Tyre and Sidon, by the mountain-chains of Libanus and Anti-Libanus on the north-east and north, by the Syrian and Arabian deserts on the east and south, and by the Mediterranean — the "Great Sea" of Scripture — on the west. These limits 6^ \ 'I ■.': A (• I i.J i ■ 'i ' ii' '* \ \ f FEKTILITV OF THE ilOLV LAND. comprise a territory measuring about a hundred and eighty miles in the direction of north and south, and (including the country beyond Jordaii) of between seventy and eighty miles in that of east and west. The superiicial area contained within them is probably rather less than fifteen thousand square miles — about double the area of Wales. Limited as this territory was, it is quite certain that its fertility was so great, so actually marvellous, that it supported, not merely in comfort but in great opulence, a population itifinitely more numerous than any other territory of like extent ever supported either in ancient or in modern times. Even in the time of Moses the fighting men nuiv.Ijcrccl above half a million, and when we add to these Lhe individuals so numerous in Israel, who were devoted to the S'.rvices of the altar, besides the women, the young people, and the old and super- annuated, we shall not exaggerate in stating the popula- tion of Israel at evt^n that early day as far nearer to three than to two millions. Coming down to the later period of the revolt of the Jews against the Romans, in the time of Vespasian and Titu.s, we have it on the excellent authority of Josephus that the little province of (jalilee alone furnished ioo,cX)0 fighting men; which, according t® the usual way of estimating the whole population by the number of its efficient fighting men, would give to that small province a population of up- ward.s of half a million. But though, anciently, the po.ssessions of the Israel- ites Were confined within the comparatively narrow limits which we have just now stated, it must be borne in mmd that those limits were frequently and greatly extended by war and conquest. In the time of Solo- mon, for instance, the extent of his kingdom was very great, including a great portion of Syria, and stretching in the north-easterly dircctioii as far as the Euphrates. " For he had dominion over all the region on this side the river, from Tiphsah even to Azzah, over all the kings on thia side the river ; and he had peace on all sides round about him." ( i Kings, chap. iv. ver. 24.) -r a I > S D. WEALTH OK TIIK JKWS. 67 hundred and id south, and of between id west. The is probably miles — about e certain that /ellous, that it reat opulence, lan any other her in ancient of Moses the ion, and when rous in Israel, altar, besides )ld and super- n fierce warriors of the Crescent ; and the whole term 01 ,l^ existence (1099 — 1 187) may be said to have been one long alternation of hollow and brief truce, and of sanguinary and obstinate battle between the Christian and Saracen. The accom- plished and, in many particulars, chivalric and admira- ble Saladin at length conquered Judaea in 1 187, and the various disturbances and changes of which it was the scene after the breaking up of iiis kingdom, rendered it the easy and inevitable prey of the Turkish Empire, by which it was absorbed soon after the commencement of the 14th century, Ar, ..npire so large and so little compacted as that of Turkey, must ^f ecesssity have many actual sove- reigns, even although they be nominally subject to one. And accordingly, though the whole Turkish empire is 72 THE PrtSHALICS OF SYRIA. llj; : I I rr nominally and formally subject to the Suftan, the pasha- lics into which it is divided arc in reality, to a very considerable extent, independent. The late Mohammed Ali, the energetic ruler of Egypt during a long term of years, was virtually independent of Turkish power, and had extended his sway over the whole of Syria, until the intervention of the governments of Western Europe compelled fts restoration to the authority of the Sultan, in 1840. Like other portions of the Turkish empire, Syria is divided into pashalics, of which there are at present four, those of Aleppo, Damascus, T/ipoli, and Acre. That of Acre reaches from near Jobail to within a short distance of Jaffa, comprising a large portion of the Syrian coast and a considerable part of the interior, reaching as far back as the line of the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee. It thus includes part of the ancient Palestine. But a very great portion of Palestine, including Jerusalem, Gaza, Hebron, Nablous, and the country beyond Jordan, belongs to the great pashalic of Damascus. The pashalic of Tripoli extends along the Syrian coast, to the northward of Jebail; that of Aleppo occupies all the northern portion of the interior. The pashalics of Tripoli and Aleppo, however, are beyond the limits of Palestine. The rulers of these pashalics are really viceroys, and almost independent viceroys, of Syria. The Sultan, being not merely a civil sovereign, but also the vicar of Mahomet, and therefore possessed of the religious supre- macy of Islam, it perhaps would not be safe for any pasha, wholly anu in express terms, to throw off his allegiance to the Sublime Porte. But, practically, the pashas are rather tributary sovereigns than mere officers of the empire ; and their dependence is chiefly mani- fested by the large amount of money which they annu- ally wring from the people whom they rule, and remit to Constantinople. So unsafe, however, does it seem to openly disclaim allegiance to the Sultan that even the most powerful of these provincial rulers have seldom ventured upon a Cviurse which proved fatal even to the •I 1 , an, the pasba- ty, to a very e Mohammed I long term of ih power, and f Syria, until astern Europe of the Sultan, npire, Syria is re at present )li, and Acre, within a short lortion of the f the interior, ordan and the )f the ancient of Palestine, slous, and the eat pashalic of ;nds along the that of Aleppo interior. The ;r, are beyond f viceroys, and The Sultan, so the vicar of eligious supre- ; safe for any throw off his jractically, the n mere officers chiefly mani- ich they annu- rule, and remit ices it seem to that even the ; have seldom al even to the PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF PALESTINE. 75 fierce and seemingly invincible AH Pasha of lanina. In a word, a sort of tacit compact seems to exist between the Sultan and his powerful pashas, to the effect that while he, as caliph and vicar of Mahomet, has a right to their annual tribute and to their nominal subjection and formal homage, they, on the other hand, have a right to expect the annual renewal of their appointment. And it is probable that both parties feel themselves inextrica- bly bound by this tacit compact. As long as the Sub- lime Porte will be contented with an annual tribute, paid out of their subjects' purses, the pashas will scarcely be so imprudent as to risk substantial power for a mere word and and a mere form ; but any attempt at degrading one of these too powerful subjects from his high and lucrative post might perhaps produce a revolt serious enough to threaten the dissolution ^f the Turki.sh empire. Comparing the present aspect and condition of Pal- estine with what the Scriptures tell us of its ancient fertility, some writers are inclined to think that a va.st physical change must have taken place in that region, or that there must have been some great errors on the part of early writers in what relates to the vast popula- tion which th;s region is said to have formerly sup- ported. We see no reason for either the one supposition or the other. To us it appears that for either the com- parative depopulation or the comparative .sterility of Palestine, we need seek for no other cause than its past wars and its present government In a country in which to be rich is to be persecuted, visible and /^«^"^/^ wealth, the exposed wealth of the cultivator, is undesirable. In such a country men covet most the wealth which can with the greatest facility be concealed. Gems and the precious metals will ever in such a country be preferred to flocks and herds, to spacious and comely mansions, and to well cultivated lands. Who will willingly build that others may inhabit, or sow that others may reap > When it is notorious that at Jerusalem men of immense wealth live in houses which are studiously rendered squalid and wretched without, though the inner arrange- 1 M in I r i'-.J I m ;ii 11 ■i:l : ,>: 1 ■' il;i 1 : ■; , ''11 1"-; 1 * !'« 1; 1 i iii»| h i; m ill! It I.' rf H I f ni3 lllil ' V !(f 74 A LAND OF "MILK AND HO WEV. mcnts are conifortablc and even cor L\^, can we doubt that the same feeling o( ''is'rust and terror which has produced thi i|jecie.>> ol practical hypocrisy — .i.id which, be it .emembcred, has been in operation for centuries — has still more imperatively forbidden the adequate cul- ture of the land ? The olive, the date, the fig, and the grape, are still abundant and still magnificent in kind where the land of Palestine receives eve i a slight and slovenly culture, and Canaan is still quite truly " a land flowing with milk and honey ;" its pasture-lands being extensive and rich, and its more hilly purtions abound ing in aromatic plants, and consequently also abounding in bees to such an extent that the poor collect the honey in immense quantities, even from the rocky clefts and hollow trees, Ever^'where Palestine itill evidences its natural fertility ; its diminished produce and its dimin- ished population, then, have human folly and human violence for their causes. It has been remarked, that if the advantages of nature were duly seconded by the efforts of human skill, we might, within the space of twenty leagues in Syria, bring together all the vegetable riches of the most distant countries. Besides wheat, rye, barley, beans-, and the cotton-plant, which arc cultivated everywhere, there are several objects of utility or pleasure peculiar to different localities, Palestine, for instance, abounds in sesanium, which affords oil, and in dhoura, similar to that of tj,ypt. Maize thrives in the light soil of Baal- bec, and rice is cultivated with success along the marsh of IIaoul«^. Within the present century the sugar-cane has been introduced into the gardens of Saida and Beyrout, the fertility of which is not inferior to that of the Delta. Indigo grows, without culture, on the banks of the Jordan, and only requires a little care to secure good quality. The hills of Latakia produce tobacco, which is the source of a commercial intercourse with Damietta and Cairo. This crop is at present cultivated in all the mountains. The white mulberry forms the wealth of the Druses, by the beautiful silks which are obtained from the silk-worms that feed on it ; and the ''•>, Y.' PALKSTINK AS IT TS. i J can we doubt ror which has ' — r centuries — idequate cul- c fi^, and the ficent in kind I a slit;ht and truly "a land e-lands being ;ions abound [so abounding lect the honey :ky clefts and evidences its nd its dimin- ; and human .dvantages of f human skill, jues in Syria, of the most )arley, beans, J everywhere, isure peculiar mce, abounds jra, similar to soil of Baai- ng the marsh le sugar-cane )f Saida and ,or to that of on the banks are to secure uce tobacco, rcourse with 2nt cultivated ry forms the ks which are 1 it ; and the v;f ■•fi vine, raised on poles or creeping along the ground, furnishes red and white wine equal to those of Bor- deaux. Jaffa boasts of its lemons and water-melons ; and Gaza possesses the dates of Mecca and the pome- granates of Algiers. Tripoli has oranges which may vie with those of Malta ; Ikyrout has figs like Mar- seilles, and bananas like St. Domingo ; Aleppo is unequalled for pistachio nuts; >d Dan)ascus possesses all the fruits of Europe, api/.es, lums and peaches growing with equal facility ; "'on " rocky soil. The Arabian coffee-shrub might be ulti/atedin Palestine. Palestine has much th ..Jv iitage over the greater portion of Arabia. Hut the ,ii.MJirected energies of man have been potent enc. '1 ; 76 IJY-GONE GRANDEUR. and that multitude of sailors, of pilots, of merchants, and of soldiers ? Where arc now all those laborers, those harvests, those flocks, and all those crowds of living beings that then covered the face of the earth ? Alas ! he surveys a ravaged land. He visits the places which were the scenes of so much splendor, and finds only solitude and desertion. Me seeks the ancient nations and their works, but finds only a trace like that which the foot of the pas.senger leaves upon the dust. The temples are crumbled down, the palaces are overthrown ; the ports are filled up ; the cities are destroyed ; and the earth, stripped of its inhabitants, is only a desolate place of tombs. Palestine in especial, and western Asia in general, are wretchedly deteriorated from their an- tique condition. Sin and suffering ever form a cycle ; sin first, then suffering ; then further sm, and then further suffering ; until the terrible circle is completed and man chastised ; presumption and suffering weak- ness at length call upon the mercy of the Deity, and when was that ever vainly invoked ? Considering Palestine and Syria, or, to speak more comprehensively, considering Western or Mediteranean Asia, as we are bounden to consider it, as the cradle of our race, we feel, if po.ssible, more anxious to give our readers not merely a correct, but a vivid, a graphic, a perfectly lucid notion of it, than we do to give the like notion of other portions of Turkey. Fortunately for our wish, not only is the region in question very limited in extent, as compared to many far less important regions, but it is so circumscribed, and, as it were, staked out by the mountain ranges, the deserts, and the Mediterranean, that, in order to traverse it — in descrip- tion — in a regular fashion, we have, in fact, only to select our own point of entrance ; strongly recommend- ing to our readers not to read one page after we touch upon that point of entrance without consulting the map. He who embarks on board a Greek or Arab craft must make up his mind to assist in a variety of modern imitations of the wanderings of Ulysses and Telemachus; for the slightest gust of wind suffices to drive them from P DISCUSSION ON RLLIGION. 77 icrchants, and aborers, those wds of living :arth ? Alas I places which id finds only icicnt nations kc that which le dust. The ^ overthrown ; ;stroyed ; and ily a desolate western Asia om their an- form a cycle ; in, and then is completed fTering weak- le Deity, and ^ speak more Mediteranean the cradle of s to give our , a graphic, a give the like rtunately for very limited t>s important as it were, erts, and the in descrip- "act, only to recommend- |er we touch ing the map. r Arab craft y of modern lelemachus \ e them from any one corner of the Mediterranean to any other corner of it. and accordingly, all Europeans who have to go direct from any one point to any other point of the shores of the Metlitterranean find it the most expeditious plan to await the arrival of the Kngli.sh packet, which thus well nigh monopolizes the passenger-service of tho.se shores. I'^ery month a mere brig, and that even not a steamer, arrives at and departs from those illustrious cities of the olden tlay. which then were known as Herytus. Sidon,. Tyre, I'tolemais and C.usarea. In general the heat is too great to allow of sleeping in the cabins, and each passenger, consequently, chooses his place upon deck for his night's sleep and his afternoon nap ; while dur- ing all the rest of the day he sits upon his mat or mat- tress and smokes, with his back lazily leaning against the bulwarks. The I^'ranks alone form an exception to- this general rule, and pass the day in pacing the deck, to the no small astonishment of the less locomotive Levantines who can by no means comprehend that squirrel-like activity. It is difficult, not to say impossi- ble, thus to pace the deck without running foul of the legs of some Turk or Hedouin, who, on every occurrence of the kind, makes a ferocious start, lays his hand upon his dagger, and closes a volley of imprecations by pro- mising that he will meet with you at some other time. The bell had just summoned a party of pilgrims, among whom was the author, to breakfast, when a missionary, who had embarked for Acre, pointed out a small headland which is supposed to be the very spot at which Jonah was disgorged by the whale. A little mosque upon that headland attests the reverence of the Mussulmans for that biblical narrative, and the sight of that mosque insensibly led me and the missionary into one of those discu.ssions which are no longer fashionable in Europe, but which naturally and inevitably spring up among travellers in countries in which they feel that religion is everything. " After all," remarked one, " the Koran is only a compilation and summary of the Old and New Testa- ments, edited in other terms, and augmented by certain iif )\'i '"t >'! 1 ^'i| hJlllNi 1'^' ,1 i i . Tij 1 i ;■. 1: n 1 'i' : 1 ; '|: "1 1 hlh 1 ,•1 1 :i. " 1 \ ' ' '! i 1 1 i . .1^ \ r'y wi .J ''^ f ^«MA^ ,J [ , 78 ANOMCAN-ISl.AMISM. directions arising out of peculiarities of climate. Thus, Mussulmans reverence our Saviour, if not as the in- carnated deity, at least as a pro[)het ; they also reverence the Kadra Miriam — the Virgin Mary — and our angels, our prophets, and our saints. Whence, then, arises the immense prejudice which still .separates them from the Christians, and which still renders all intercourse be- tween them insecure.'" " TJKit is not my view of the case," replied the missionary, " and it is my opinion that the Turks and Protestants will one day come to an agreement ; and then an intermediate sect will be formed ; a sort of Oriental Christianity — " "Or Anglican Islamism," interrupted another; "but what renders Catholicism incapable of the same process of fusion and amalgamation.''" " Because, in the eyes of the iMussulmans, Catholics are idolators. It is but in vain that you explain to them that you pay no worship to the sculptured image or to the painted picture, but to the Divine or Holy personage represented by the one or by the other, that you honor the angels and Mie saints, indeed, but that you do not adore tliem. The Mussulmans cannot com- prehend your distinction, which to them is a distinction without a difference. And, in truth, what idolatrous people is it that ever has adored the very wood, the very stone, or the vt ry canvas ? To the Mussulmans, therefor:;, the Catholics are at once polytheists and idolators, while they look upon the various Protestant communions as an approximation to their own." These words caught the ears of a lively-looking young man with a rough black beard and with a Greek cloak, the hood of which, being drawn over his head, concealed his head-dress, that sole Oriental indication of condition and of nationality. But, as to the latter point at least, he left us no very long time in doubt. " Eh ! what !" he exclaimed, " rely upon it that the Pro- testants will no more blend with the Turks than the Catholics will ; the Turks will always continue to be Turks." \ DKCREASE OK THE TURKISH RACE. 79 mate. Thus, ot as the in- ilso reverence ul our angels, en, arises the •lem from the tercourse be- rephec! the [le Turks and L'enient ; and d ; a sort of nother; " but same process ms, CathoHcs 4 exphiin to ptured image ine or Holy iC other, that ed, but that cannot com- a distinction idolatrous y wood, the Vlussulmans, /^theists and s Protestant wn." veiy-looking /ith a Greek er his head, 1 indication o the latter le in doubt, lat the Pro- cs than the inue to be Neither the somewhat unceremonious interruption, nor the very decided provincial accent of the new inter- hxutor, could prevent the company from detectinj.y the nationality of the new comer. Marseilles was plainly stamped upon his every word ; he was a Frenchman. " No. .Messieurs." continued he, " there is nothinfj to be done with the Turks ; but fortunately they are a people that is now fast becoming extinct ! Monsieur, I was at Constantinople lately, and i had to ask my.self, where are the Turks .' There iire no longer any ! There are no longer any of them there !" " You go pretty far, Monsieur," said one ; " believe me, I myself have recently seen no small number (;f Turks." " And do you really fancy that they are Turks whom you have seen .'' Take my word for it they are no true Turks at all ; I mean, they are not genuine Osinanii Turks : reflect. Monsieur, it is not every Mussul- man who is a genuine Turk." "Are you so perfectly sure of that. Monsieur.^" asked another. " Why Monsieur," said he, " 1 was lately in Con- stantinople, and there they are all Greek.s, Armenians, Italians, or Marsellais. All the Turks whom they can lay hold of they turn into Cadis, Ulemas, or Pashas ; or they even send them to l^urope to be gazed at ! liut what would you have ? All their ch'ldren die ; it is a race that is fast becoming extinct !" " And yet they still well know how to keep their provinces .•'" " What ! Monsieur ! Why who is it, think you, who keeps them ? They are kept by Europe, by the great governments who are anxious that no existing arrange- ments should be disturbed, who fear wars, and even revolts, and each of whom wishes to prevent the other from obtaining the advantage ; that i. thf :>c.>.son which holds them all in check, looking int..* the whites cl each other's eyes; and all this while it is the populaticns that •suffer for it! You hear of the Trniies of the •.it'ran ; but of whom do you find that t?;ey arc coini-osed .' '1 liiljl il m !■ ,i /M, !' I i! I' :;, •' ; i 'I |: mi )'!■•» ;| Hf -.^ h 80 THE ARMIES OF THE SULTAN. Albanians, Bosnians, Circassians, and Koords ; the sail- ors are Greeks, the officers alone are Turks What do you suppose the diplomatists will do when the rayahs shall say to them — ' Behold our misfortune; we have not a single Turk in the entire empire ; \i e know not what to do, and we give everthing over to you.' " Though this view of the case is even absurdly over- charged, there yet are some touches of truth in it by which I was much struck. There can be no reasonable doubt that the Turks have very greatly diminished in number ; Llierc are certain influences under which the races of me ; deteriorate even as those of the lower animals do. For a long time the principal strength of the Tuikish empire reposed upon soldiery alien to the lace of Othman ; such as the Janissaries and the Mame- lukes. At the present day it is chiefly by the aid of some legions of Albanians that the Porte keeps twenty millions of Greeks, Catholics, and Armenians, in subjec- tion to the law of the Crescent. And even with that aid could it continue to do so but for the further s'lp- port of European diplomacy, and the armed interven- tion of England .-' When we reflect that this Syria, all the ports of which were bombarded by Engli.sh cannon in 1840 — and that, too, for the profit of the Turks — is the same land on which the whole chivalry of feudal Europe rushed in arms for six centuries, and which our religious recognize and hail as a Holy Land, we may venture to believe that religious sentiment has reached a very low ebb in Europe. The English did not even think of retaining for the Christians the invaded heri- tage of Richard the Lion-hearted !" While we had thus been speculating the packet made land and was gradually brought to, and some of the passengers directed our attention to a white point on the shore : we had made the port of Saida, the ancient Sidon. Mar ElJas — the mountain of Elias, holy to the Turks as w«.ll as to the Christians and the Druses — rose to the left of the town, and the imposing mass of the French Khan speedily attracted our notice. The walls and the towers bore the marks of the English bombard- V. PORT OF SAIDA. 8l ds ; the sail- s do when the sfortune; we \ e know not you.'" jsurdly over- uth in it by reasonable liminishcd in ;r which the )f the lower ; strength of alien to the d the Mame- •y the aid of cecps twenty IS, in subjec- en with that further s'lp- ed interven- lis Syria, all jlish cannon le Turks — is •y of feudal i which our nd, we may las reached d not even ivaded heri- acket made 3me of the e point on the ancient loly to the ruses — rose lass of the The walls 1 bombard- ment in 1840, by which »11 the maritime towns of the Libunus were dismantled. Moreover, all their ports from Tripoli to Saint Jean d'Acre have subse- quently been filled up by Fakardine, prince of the Druses, with the view of preventing the acscent of the Turkish troops, and consequently, those once illustrious towers are now nothing but ruins and desolation. Na- ture, however, joins not in these so often renewed illus- trations and fulfilment of the Scripture maledictions, but still delights to surround those ruins with verdure and beauty as with a framework, and the gardens of Sidon still flourish as in the antique times of the wor- ship of the Phoenician Astarte. The modern city is built at the distance of a mile from the site of the ancient one, the ruins of which surround a little hill, which is crowned by a .square tower of the middle age, which is itself a ruin. We speedily landed, and pro- ceeded to the French Khan, over which the French tri- color was flying, and which is the most considerable building in Saida. The vast .square court-yard, shaded by acacias, and having a large basin in its centre, is surrounded by two ranges of galleries, which below cor- respond with warehou.se and above with the chambers which are occupied by the merchants. That French Khan is a perfect town ; there is not a more impor- tant spot m all Syria; but unfortunate '.y our trrde there is no longer in proportion to the extent of the establishment. We went with our consul to see the ruins, which are reached by crossing some delightful gardens, the finest on the whole coast of Syria. As to the ruins in the north, they are mere fragments and dust ; only the foundations of a wall appear to belong to the Phoenician period ; the rest belong to the middle age, and it is well known St. Louis built the town and repaired a .square castle that was anciently built by the Ptolemic3. The cistern of Elias, the sepulchre of Zabu- lon, and some sepulchral grottoes, with remnants of pila.stt.rs and paintings, complete all that Saida owes to the past. As we returned the consul pointed out to me a house on the sea-shore, which was inhabited by i;i! : 1) I in ill': I'! I i 'It f I I'. 82 SIEGK OF SAINT JEAN D'ACKK. Napoleon at the time of the campaign in Syria. The paper-hangings, elaborately painted with warlike em- blems, were placed there purposely for him, and two book-cases surmounted by China vases still contain the books and plans which the hero industriously consulted. It will be remembered that he advancetl as far as Saida in order r.o establish a correspondence with the Emirs of Syria. A secret treaty put at his disposal a mercen- ary force of six thousand Maronites and six thousand Druses, who were to prevent the army of the Pasha of Damascus froni marching upon Acre. Unfortunately, the sovereigns of Europe damped the enthusiasm of the populations, and the ever politic princes of the Libanus gave their adhesion to the result of the siege of Saint Jean d'iXcre. Thousands of native combatants, how- ever, had already joined the French army out of sheer hatred to the Turks, but under the circumstances their number was insufficient to act with .^ :isive effect. The expectetl besieging i/niUrn-/, too, was intercepted by the iMiglish fleet, which succeeded in throwing artillery and engiiners into Acre. It was a Frenchman, and a former fellow-student of Napoleon, who directed the defences; and thus, perhap.s, it was an old school feud that decided the fate of the world. Again we were under weigh ; the chain of the Liba- nus loomed lower and more distant as we approached Acre, anil the shore became more and more sandy and destitute of verdure. We were soon in sight of Soor, the ancient Tyre, at which, however, ue only lay long enough to take in some passengers. The town is far less importrnt than Saida. It is built upon the shore, and the islet on which the town stood when Alexander besieged it is now covered only with gardens and pas- ture l.inds. The jetty that was constructed by order of the conqueror now bears no traces of human labor, but has the appearance simply of an isthmus of a quarter of a leag le in length. But if antiquity is now iiulicated upon these shores by some fragments of red and grey columns, there are far more imposing vestiges of the Christian age. We can still distinguish the foundations TYRE. 85 ■ria. The irlike em- and two Dntain the consulted. r as Saida the Emirs a merccn- thousand Pasha of •rtuiiately, isni of the e Li ban us -• of Saint mts, how- t of sheer nces their feet. The cd by the illery and i a former defences ; it decided the Liba- proached mdy and of Soor, lay long u n is far le shore, lexander and pas- order of abor, but uarter of iiidicated and grey :s of the iidations of the ancient cathedral, built in the Syrian taste, which was divided into three semi-circular naves, separated by pilasters, and which contained the tomb of Frederick Barbarossa. who was drowned near Tyre, in the Kasi- mieh. The famous wells of living water of Ras-e'-Ain, which are spoken of in the Old Testament, and .vhich are veritable Artesian wells, the creation of wliich is attributed to Solomon, still exist at about a league from the town, and of the aqueduct which formerly car- ried their waters to Tyre, several orf" the immense arches are still visible. And these arc ail that remain of Tyre! Its transparent vases, its brilliant purple, and its precious woods, were formerly renowned throughout the whole earth ; but all those precious exports have now made way for a trifling trade in grain, which is grown by the Metoualis, and sold b\' tl'.c Greeks, who are verv numerous in the town. We entered the port of Saint Jean d'Acre just at nightfall. It was too late to land; but by the clear light of the stars all the details of the gulf, gracefully sweeping between Acre and Kaifa, were displayed by the aid of the contrast of the earth and the waters. Beyond the horizon of sev(;ral leagues rise the crests of the Anti-Libanus. sinking on the left, while on the right the ch.dn of Carmel rises in bold masses towards Galilee. The slecping'town as yet only revealed itself by its loop-holed walls, its sf[uare towers, and the domes oi' its mosque gleaming in the moonlight, l^ut for the solitary minaret of that mosque, reminding us of the presence of Islamism, one might ha\e imagined one's self still gazing upon the feudal city of the Temi)lars, the la.;t bulwark of the Crusades. The dawn dispelled that illusion, b\' displa>-ing the mass of shapeless ruins, the melancholy result of so man}- sieges and bombardments which the place has suffered even down to a recent day. At the first gleaming of day the Marsellais awaked me, and pointed out the morning star shining brightly down upon the village of Nazareth, distant only about n'ght leagues from us. The memories awakened by that sight could \ III' f ■i I;. if 'i|ji;i 1 ««' to speak of some of our friends who had been his comrades. In the midst of our conversation, the evening gun of the port announced the setting of the sun, and a loud burst of drums and fifes called the faithful to prayer. The Pasha left us for a moment, no doubt for the purpose of fulfilling his reli- gious duties ; and then he returned and said to us — "We shall dine in the luu'opean fashion." And, in fact, the attendants brought in chairs and a high table, instead of turning a tabouret up-side down and covering it with a i)lateau of metal and setting cushions around, as is the Eastern custom. We were fully sensible of the true and kindly politeness by which the Pasha's procedure was dictated, and yet we must confes.s, we do not love this gradual invasion of the East by our Euro- pean customs, and we complained to the Pasha that he treated us as though we were some mere vulgar tourists.. "And yet," said he, "you come t-^ visit me in your luiropean costume of mournful or formal black V The reply was just, and we felt quite convinced that we were right. Whatever we may do, and however far we may conciliate the friendship of the Turk, it must not be supposed that there can be any fusion of his fashion of living and ours. The European customs which he adopts in certain cases become a sort of neutral ground, where he receives us without delivering up himself; he imitates our manners, as he uses our language, but solely out of consideration for us. He resembles that char- acter of the ballet who is half peasant and half noble: to Europe he shows his gcntlotian side, but to Asia he is still the Osmanlee. In fact, the prejudices of the people render this policy absolutely necessary. he solely char- ,c)ble: sia he •f the KKY TO PALESTINE. 87 -. We shall now land our readers at Acre, as bcinp^ on several accounts the most convenient spot from which to make our imat,nnary trips to tlie most famous and imjiortant places of Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. A more motley and heterogeneous population than that of Syria it would not be easy to find, consisting as it docs of Jews, Turks, Syrians, Arabs of the Desert, (ireek, Latin, and Armenian Christians, Copts, Maron- ites, and Druses. High posts, whether military or civil, are held in Acre, as in all the other paslialics, almost exclusively by the Turks ; while the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, are the chief interpreters, bankers, fnianciers, and agents, or brokers. Acre is the ancient Ptolemais, and is seated on the northern angle of the bay of the same name, a fine semicircular sweep of bet* ■■•n three and fci r leagues,, stretching as far as Car: :'. Forming as it does the ke)' to Palestine, it was a \A3.c^: of especial consequence and great resort at the lime of the Crusades, when it wa.^ frequently, and very sharply, contested between the Paynim anti the Christian chivalry ; but when the Knighls of St. John of Jerusalem were at length ex- pelled from it, it became almost utterly ruined as well as deserted, and in that condition it remained until the ferocious but active and capable Dje/./.ar Pasha repaired both the town and the harbor, and by his only too notorious capacity and despotism restored it to its former rank and importance. Being the great port alike for import and export, it was especially valuable to Djezzar, who thus could command not iuereK' the general trade of Syria but also its supoly of food. Terribly ferocious tyr.uit as he was, Djezzi.r had never- theless some really great qualities as a ruler, and may even be said to have been magnificent as a founder and restorer of public works. Stripping the vast and beauti- ful remains of Cresarea, wliich he regarded and used as a mere quarry, he built a mosque, a bazaar, and that great Eastern convenience and ornament, a fine public fountain ; and from the time of the exnulsion of the Knights of St. John, Acre has had no greater benefactor jifM k i! » a# aiiMwwaifBeaffa ■p^"- "^'TlTflJJ' ■ 1.: 1 1 vi' ' 1 ' !' ■^i ' ' 1 1 ■•M ^M I ' lllll: i m^ 88 DJE7.ZAR, OR "THE BUTCHER. than this able though terrible man, of whom it has beci: ■quaintly and truly said that " he was himself his own engineer and his own architect ; he formed the plans, drew the designs, and superintended the execution. He was his own minister, chancellor, treasurer, and secre- tary ; often his own cook and gardener, and not unfre- •quently both judge and executioner at the same instant." At the commencement of the present century, when Acre was visited by Ur. Clarke, that fortress and the consequent command both of the coast ami of the inland country were in the possession of Athmet, who boldly and successfully bade defiance to the Turkish govern- ment, and ruled with a despotic and cruel power rarely equalled even by a Turkish ruler. A native of Bosnia, he early in life became a slave at Con!;tantin()[)le. Here, however, where everything is paradoxical, the seemingly hopeless and forlorn condition of slavery very frequently serves but as a stepping-stone to wealth and power. So it was in the case of Achmet, which was his real name ; though when he became possessed of the power which i,e so ruthlessly exerted he took a pride in being known by the name of Djczzar, or the Butcher, a name to which his deeds only too well corresponded. Ik'ing sold as a slave to Ali Bey in Egypt, Achmet displayed so much ability and firmness of [jurpose that he became governor of Cairo, and from that post he speedily rose to be Fasha of both Sidon ; nd Acre ; and when Volney travelled in the Holy L md, as long ago as 17S4, Ach- met had a force of ne: rly a thousand liosnian and Arnaut cavalry, besides a frigate and two or three smaller craft, and his annual revenue was nearly half a million sterling, an immense sum for that time and country. When Dr. Clarke visited Achmet, that ferocious tyrant was sixty years of age, and still in full possession of his mental and bodily faculties, a fact of which he was not a little proud. Dr. Clarke says : " We found him seated on a mat in a little chamber destitute of even the meanest article of furniture, excepting a coarse "MARKED MEN." 89 and porous earthenware vessel for cooling the water which he occasionally drank. He was surrounded by maimed and disfi'^^ured persons, some without a nose, others without an arm, with only one ear or with only one t:yc ; these persons he termed marked vicu, persons bearin;^f siL;ns of their havini; been taui^ht to serve their master faithful!)' ! He scarcel)-," continues the Doctor, ,' looked up to notice our entrance, but continued his eniplo}-ment of drawinj^' upon the floor, for one of his en;^ineers, a jjlan of sonic works which he was then coiistructint^. His form was athletic, aiul his lonus as he was cruel, and not even his really great ability could com- pensate for his merciless and short-sighted extortions. To the port and town of Acre ho may be said to have been a benefactor, but to the country arounfl he was an actual scourge. Not even the fertility of the countiy over which he bore sway could prevent his extortions ■fi'l ( 1 I ;■■ t i1^ i\ I 90 AN EASTERN TYRANT. from inflicting great and even permanent injury upon it, and we cannot better sum up his character than by saying that ht; was a genuine and strongly-marked type of the worst description of Iv'istern tyrants ; reckless of human suffering, profuse of human blood, and quite in- satiable in his thirst after riches. Though Acre is supposed even now to have a i)opu- lation of teii thousand souls, and though from its posi- tion as a i)ort, and from its being only twenty-seven miles from Tyre and only eighty-two from Jerusalem, it must always command a certain degree of prosperity, it yet may empliatically be termed a city (jf the past. It has a vast number of luins, nearly all of which ex- hibit great strength. Maundrell enumerates a great many of these ruins, and among them those of the cathedral church of St. Andrew, accortiing to some, though by others, with but little propriety, called thei)alace of King Ricliai'd. Maundrell also notices the ruins of the church of St. J(jhn, the tutelary saint of the Knights Templars, by whom the town was cal!(.'d Saint jean d'Acre, instead of its ancient name of Vtolemais, the convent of the Knights Hospitallers, their grand master's palace, and man)' other ruins of churclu.s, monasteries, and forts extending above half a mile in length, " all of them displaying," he adds, "so much strength, as though every building in the city had been contrived for war and defence." And there can be but little doubt that such was in reality the case, for Sandys, always careful and mostly accurate, says, " The carcass shows that the body hath been strong, doubly immured (i.c\, double walled), fortified with bulwarks and towers, to each wall a ditch lined with stone, and under these various secret posterns. You would judge b)' the ruins that the city rather consisted wholly of clivers conjoining castles than any way mixed with private dwellings, which witness a notable defence and an unequal assault, or that the rage of the conquerors extended beyond conquest ; the huge wall and arches turned top.sy-turvy, and lying like rocks upon the foundation." All these indications perfectly agree with what we know of the character and history KUINS OK ACRE. 91 of Acre. Ik'inp tlic key to Syria and the bulwark of Christianity against lieathenesse, it was quite natural that all its builclin|^^s should partake of the warlike char- acter. In that often assailed ami valiantly contested city, even the merchant and the priest were as much exposed to the dangers of war as the Christian knights and soldiers werr- ; and its great value as a commercial entrepot rather increased than diminished its need of vast strength as a fortress. Dr. Clarke speaks with contempt of the intcri')r of Acre, as having the common defect of Lev antine towns : " narrow, dirty lanes, with wretched .^ho])s and a.s wretched inhabitants." Hut travellers too .v^. v] vl 7] ./ > ?>' y^ '^ o 7 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 Ik 12.5 1S6 H|^ Bi2 12.2 I.I 2f Ii4 '^ L' 1^ 12.0 II 11:25 i 1.4 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation ,V fV .V •SJ c\ \ o"^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ■^ I ; 92 C^I-LSARKA. ■i ! t 1 i 1? 1 1 11' i ■ J I ■) •■ 1 1 . ! 'Mi ^ • together with large pillars of Egyptian granite, might be observed among the materials employed in build- ing it. The country around Acre is by nature of very great and various fertility, producing corn, cattle, olives, lin- seed, water-melons, pumpkins, and cucumbers, besides a variety of fruits. In the time of Djezzar it also furnish- ed a considerable export of cotton ; but his cupidity and utter disregard alike of the rights of property and the interests of labor were ill-calculat'cd to foster a cultiva- tion at once so important and so delicate. l^attercd and assailed as Acre has so often been from tlie time of the Crusades to Buonaparte's and our own doings there, nothing but its excellent po.sition has saved it from utter desolation. In the hands of a really enlightened government it might even yet achieve all and more than all its former strength and beauty ; but the grasping rule of a Turkish pasha too often tends to neutralize any advantages, however great, of position, soil, or climate. y\part from its historic greatness, Acre Is amply entitled to attention, from its position relatively to the most interesting of all the cities of the Holy Land — Jerusalem ; to which place we now proceed to direct the attention of our readers. Pilgrims to the Holy Ci\y not unfrcquently find Acre their best starting point ; and thither, by way of C;esarea and Jaffa, we now pro- ceed to trace the route. On leaving Acre for Jerusalem by way of the abovc^ places, the road runs for some dis- tance along that coast by which (Acts xxi.) St. Paul returned from Macedonia to Jerusalem ; but .some travellers take the inland road, by way of Nazareth. By far the most interesting place between Acre and Jerusalem is the once magnificent C;esarea. The Arabs still give it the equivalent name of Kaisaria, but where the splendid city of Herod once teemed with busy crowds there is now not a single inhabitant. Perhaps there has not, in the history of the world, been an example of a city that in so short a space of time rcse to such an extraordinary height of splendor as did this ANCIENT AQUEDUCTS. 93 of Cxsarea, or that exhibits a more awful contrast to its former magnificence by the present desolate appearance of its ruins. Its theatres, once resounding with the shouts of multitudes, echo no other sound than the nightly cries of animals roaming for their prey. Of its gorgeous palaces and its temples, enriched with the choicest works of art, and decorated with the most precious marbles, .scared}' a trace can be discerned. Within the space of ten years after laying the founda- tion, from an obscure fortress (called the tower of Strato. as it is said, after the Greek who founded it), it became the most celebrated and flourishing city of Syria. Herod dedicated it to Augustus and called it Ca:sarea, in honor of him. Subsequently it was made a Roman colony by Vespasian, who granted it several privileges. The l.arbor of Ca;.sarea was originally very inferior to its other commercial aptitudes ; but Josephus informs us that Herod, at a vast expense, rendered it one of the most convenient harbors on that coast. The supposed sites of the ancient buildings of Ca:sarea are such mere shapele.ss mounds, that no reasonable conjectures can be founded upon them as to its ancient topography. But aqueducts, running from north to south, still remain to testify by their own va.st- ness the magnificence and extent of the city which they formerly supplied with water. The lower and more •easterly of these acqueducts is on an unarched wall ; it is thirteen feet in thickness, and must have conveyed an immense quantity of water in its arched channel, which is five feet and a half in width. The other is about a hundred and twenty feet nearer to the sea, and is built on arches. They are both nearly buried in sand, but their ancient extent and excellence are still very per- ceptible. The town is said to have been walled by Louis IX. of France, in the time, and no doubt for the advantage, of the cru.saders ; and on a point of land which stretches from the sout^h-western angle of the walls there are the remains ci a very strong castle, full of fragments of pillars of marble, granite, and a very beautiful grey alabaster. As the foundation is formed ';• h\\ -ill 94 REMARKAHLE RUINS. W w. of immense pillars of granite, Captain Mangles infers that it was built upon the ruins of some Roman temple. Within the walls there are great ruins of arched houses, "Which were probably built during the Holy War ; but the ground is so over-grown with briers and thistles that it was impossible to examine any part excepting where there was a beaten path. It is a remarkable resort for wild boars, which also abound in the neighboring plain ; when the Maliome- dans kill them they leave carcases upon the spot, as it would defile them to touch them. There is no i' am.)a:9 i-i,vm^M«vj»sr^va!fif »■ /- '•v^'-nr Other remarkable y!^'n^j^'/y^i^'^l^l/^^^-~.. JJJ' ruin within the walls except a large church, probably the cathedral of the archbishop, who had twenty bishops under him. It is a strong building, and it, as well as the castle, seems, to have been destro>'ed by war. By what I could con- jecture, it seems to have been built in the style of the Syrian churches, with three naves which ended to the east in semicircles, where they have their principal altars. Though the remains of C;esarea were so extensively used as a quarry by Djezzar for his repairs and build- ings, they are still considerable. Various columns and masses of stones are seen lying in the sea, close to the shore. The hi.storic fame of this city of the past is very great. Repeated mention is made of C.xsarea in the Acts of the Apostles. There it was that Paul was so long detained a prisoner, and there, in presence of King Agrippa, he delivered that eloquent address which is preserved in the 26th chapter of the Acts. It is fre- quently, too, named as the port at which the apostles WILD liOAK OK P.\LESriNK. HARAM. 95 embarked or landed, and it is mentioned, also, as the abode of Cornelias the ccntiirian, and of Phillip. After crossing an extensive plain, the traveller reaches the village of Ilaram, where are caves and indications of excavated dwclllings, and thence, fording on the way the small stream of I'J-Arsouf, he at length arrives at Jaffa — the ancient Jopf^a — the often men- tioned port of Jerusalem, and, indeed, one of the most ancient ports of the world. Of its high anticiuity and of its former great importance we have abundant proof Here, as we learn from ScriiJture, it was that Jonah, upwards of eight centuries before the Christian era, em- barked to rtce unto Tarshish ; and here, as we learn from the New Testament, St. Paul recalled Tabithu to life. And these indubitable proofs of its high anticjuity well correspond with its position relatively to Jud;ea, a posi- tion which must necessarily have given it a great import- ance from the very earliest periods of the Jewish history. Its anticjuity, howe\er, and even its important posi- tion, have not sutTiced to preserve Jaffa from those destructive effects of war, which have destroyed so many other cities of Palestine, or reduced them to mere and very miserable villages. Louis IX. of h' ranee forti- fied it in the thirteenth century, but neither his forti- fications nor the efforts of the Christion chivalry could preserve it from ravages so complete, that a celebrated French traveller who was there about the middle of the 17th century, "found nothing at JatTa but a castle and some caverns." Probably tliere is some exaggeration here ; at all events, towards the close of the last century Jaffa had become a considerable and prosperous town, and was well garrisoned. Its connexion with the inva- sion of Syria by the I-'rench, under the first Napoleon, is well known. In the present day Jaffa is a town of moderate size, with about 5,000 inhabitant!^. It ex- hibits no remains of anti(iuity. (lardens a..d gnn-es of orange and other ifruit trees, with olives and syca- mores, extend for a considerable distance outside the town. That its position relatively to Judiea, and [)articu- larly with reference to Jerusalem, to the westward of 96 JAKKA. OR JOl'PA. M-' ; nil i ■ jl ^iri ! 1 ii J ili« I . ( • which it lies at only about forty miles distance, has been the sole means of conferring importance upon Jafifa, is evident from the fact that its harbour, though so much, and during so long a period, re- sorted to, is in reality a very bad or.e. Dr. Clarke, among modern travellers, does, not hesitate to pronoun ce it " one of the worst in the Mediter- ranean." And Josephus, always a high authority on all subjects connected with Palestine, says that " Joppa and Dora are small maritime cities, which are unfit for harbours by reason of their exposure to im- petuous souther- ly winds, which roll the sands from the sea upon the stones, and will not allow of ships keeping their station ; so that the mer- chants and mariners are there compelled to ride at their anchors on the sea itself" In fact, not only the disad- vantage spoken of by Josephus, but, also numerous rocks and shoals, render the actual harbor so incon- OAIE I'AI.M TRKK. ramlah. 99 venient and insecure, that to this day ships usually take up their berths at a mile or more from the town. Quitting Jaffa, tlie traveller 'proceeds in a south-east- wardly direction, to Ramlah, a journey of about three hours, or nine miles ; the hour's journey in those coun- tries being on the average about three miles. The country thus traversed is of an imdulating and some- what wild aspect, tolerably well wooded in the imme- diate vicinitj' of Jaffa, but afterwards almost entirely destitute of trees, e.xcepting a few olives on the hills. This naked aspect is preserved until Ramlah is neared, and then the trees, especially the stately palms, become very numerous. Rafiilah, the Rama of ICphraim, .md long, though without sufficient reason, conjectured to be the vVrima- thea of the New Testament, thirty miles distant from Jerusalem, is situated in a smiling and fertile plain, and is inhabited by about two thousand families. Christian travellers here mostly iind their temporary home in the Latin Convent, which was founded by Philip the Good. Duke of Burgundy, and occujMcd exclusively by Spanish brethren, the Armenians and Greeks have also convent here, but they are far inferior to the one already mentioned. The Turks have two handsome mosques, which formerly were Christian churches. In one of these is a beautiful white marble tomb with bas- reliefs and gilt inscriptions ; it contains the remains of Aayoub Hey, a Mameluke, who had fled on the l^'rencii entering Eg)-pt, and who died here. Lydda, now Lood, where St. I'eter cured Kneas of the palsy, is now but a poor village, though conspicuous from a distance, by the loft)' minaret of its mosque. Near this mosque are the ruins of the magnificent church of St. George, frequently mentioned witli admir- ation by the writers on the Crusades and tlie early travellers. Upon the road between Ramlah and Jerusalem there occur numerous places which mark the sites of localities often referred to in the Bible, and hence po.ssessed of un- dying interest. Amongst these are the village of Beitoor, I till ) ' 'M ■ I iil mil ' ' < ! i ■ i' \ ; i ';,■■' 1 ■ , r 1 j^ 1 h . V -I ■■ ■ \ ■■ f ' ■ t ( r'. '■ 1 i 1^' ' Jk ^ k lOO TIIK MILLS OF JUD.IiA. which represent the Upper and Lower Bethoron ; Va/o, the ancient Ajalon ; El-Jib, the Gibeon of sacred narra- tive ; and numerous others. Many of these phices are now, however, wholl)' without inhabitants, and the entire tract of country — thou^di containin<^ the principal Hue of approach to the sacred city, Jerusalem — is, like most other parts of Palestine, infested by parties of wandering and predatory Arabs. In about two hours antl a half after we left Ranilah we entered the mountain .scenery of the hill country of Judjua. For some time before we reached the moun- tains we kept lookin^f up at their dusky sides, as they rose in towering [grandeur to the heii;ht of about a thou- sand or fifteen hundred feet above our heads ; they were covered with burnt ^rass. here and there di.sclosing strips (jf the bare horizontal rock, and diversified with a few bushy trees that .stood at very forlorn and unfriendly distances from each other. Having entered the moun- tain defile, we moved alonj^ a deep and most comfort- less track, covered with larj^^e and sharp stones, some- time down a steep and almo.st precipitous descent, which obliged us to alight and lead our mules, and at other times along the dry and stony bed of a winter tor- rent, which we liad to cross and rocross half a dozen times in the course of a hundred yards , while at other times we climbed a heavy and lengthened ascent, with only a few .shrubs between us and the edge of the preci- pice. Thus we continued ascending and descending, one whilj round the ^ .ojecting base of the mountain, another while winding in the hollow curve formed by their circular edges, till about one o'clock, when \vc arrived at a well of good water, beside a ruined edifice that seemed to have been erected as i military station to guard the pass. The hills from the commencement of the mountain- scenery are all of a round and handsome shape, meeting in the base and separated at the tops, not in peaks or pointed acuminations, but like the gradual retiring of two round balls, placed in juxta-position. Their sides are partially covered with earth, which nourishes a lOI APPROACHING JERUSALEM. feeble sprinkling of grass, with here and there a dwarf tree or solitary shrub. They are not susceptible of cultivation, except on the very smnmit, where we saw the plough going in several places. They might be terraced, but we saw no traces of their having been so. The features of the whole scenery brought strongly to our recollection the ride from Sanquhar to Leadhills, in Scotland ; and to those who have visited that interest- ing part of our native country, we can assure them, the comparison gives a favorable representation of the hills of Jud;ea. I'assing through a country of this description, the traveller at length reaches that great object of the pil- grim in the Ka.st, the Holy City, Jkku.SALICM. t I I JERUSALEM. CHAl'TKR III. .iji li ii . 1! A niKUS-KV!" Vir.W OK lilK HOLY CIIV. Were an unreflecting; reader to take up various books of travels and turn to their dcscrijjtions of Jeru- salem, he could scarcely fail to be much pu/zled at the «,freat discrepancies in the accounts j^iven by them of its first aspect. All these seemin^L^ discrepancies, however, are completely explained aw.iy by the fact that, inas- much as Jerusalem in reality has very various aspects on its several sides, travellers ai)proachin^ it by different roads necessarily must receive different impressions from its first aspect. Adtl to this permanent cause the varyini; influences of tlie weather, and of the season of the year and the hour of the day, and we ma/ well believe any two of the travellers who tjive opposing descriptions of the first impressions made upon them on approaching the Holy City, to be like the two knights in the fable of the golden and silver shield — both right and both wrong. Thus, for instance. Dr. Claike, who entered by the Damascus gate, describes the first view of the Holy City, from a hill at about an liour's dis- tance, as being a most impressive one. "We had not been prepared," says he, " for the grandeur of the spec- tacle which the city alone presented. Instead of a wretched and ruined town, by some described as the desolated remnant of Jerusalem, we beheld, as it were, a flourishing and stately metropolis." ANOTHER VIEW OF JERUSALEM. i03 Perhaps not a little of the brilliancy with which the Moly City first impressed Dr. Clarke, is explained in those tew words, ^litterini^ in the sun's rays ; though it undoubtedly appears to more advantage from the road by which he saw it than from that which leads from Jaffa. Approacliing by the latter road. Dr. Richardson appears to have been grievously disappointed in his expectations; for he exclaims — "These plain embattled w.ilis in the midst of a barren mountain-tract, do they enclose the city of 'Jerusalem .' That hill at a distance on our left, supp(jrting a crop of barley and crowned with a half-ruined hoary mansion — is that the Mount of Olives .' Where was the Temple of Solomon, and where is Mount Zion, the glory of the whole earth.' The end of a lofty and contiguous mountain bounds our view beyond the city on the south, an insulated rock peaks up on our right, and a broad and flat-topped mountain, furrowed by the plough, slopes down upon our left. The city is straight before us ; but the greater part of it stands in a hollow that opens to the cast ; and the walls being built upon the higher ground on the north and on the west, prevent the interior from being seen in this direction. We proceeded down the gentle descent, covered with well-trodden grass, which neither the sun nor the passengers had yet deprived of its verdure. The ground sinks on our right into what has been called the Valley of the Sons of Hinnom, which at the north-west corner of the wall becomes a broad and deep ravine, that passes the gate of Yafifa, or Bethlehem, and runs along the western wall of the city." Chateaubriand has described it, but is even more than usually guilty of the fault common to the generality of imaginative minds — proneness to exaggerate. To men of this turn of mind everything is extreme ; the scene upon which they gaze becomes, under the influence of their fancy, bright as " a bower of roses by Bendemir's stream," or arid as a desert and gloomy as a graveyard. When seen from the Mount of Olives, on the other side of the valley of Jehoshaphat, Jerusalem presents an inclined plane, descending from west to east. An embattled 104 INTERIOR OK THE CITY. !i' C'l wall, fortified with towers and a Gothic castle, cnconi- passess the city all round, excepting, however, part of Mount Zion, which it formerly enclosed. In the west- ern quarter, and in the centre of the city, the houses stand very close ; but in the ea.stcrii part, alon^ the brook Kedron, you perceive vacant spaces ; anionj; the rest, that which surrounds the mosque erected on the ruins of the Temple, and the nearly deserted spot where once stood the castle of Antonia, the second palace of Herod. The houses of Jerusalem are heavy square masse.s, very low, and without chimneys or windows ; they have flat terraces or domes on the top, and look like prisons or sepulchres. The whole would appear to the eye one uninterrupted level, did not the steeples of the churches, the minarets of the mosques, the summits of a few cypresses, and the clumps of nopals, break the uni- formity of the plan. On beholding these stone build- ing.s, encompassed by a .stony country, you are ri-ady to inquire if they are not the confused monuments of a cemetery in the midst of a desert. Enter the city, but nothing will you there find to make amends for the dullness of its exterior. You lose yourself among narrow and unpaved streets, here going up-hill, there down, from the inequality of the ground, and you walk among clouds of dust and loose stones. Canvas, stretched from house to house, increases the gloom of this labyrinth. Bazaars, roofed over and fraught with infection, completely exclude the light from the desolate city. A few paltry shops expose nothing but wretchedness to view, and even these are frequently shut, irom the apprehension of the passage of a cadi. Not a creature is to be seen in the streets, not a creature at the gates, except now and then a peasant gliding through the gloom, concealing under his garments the fruits of his labor, lest he should be robbed of his hard earnings by the rapacious soldiers. Aside, in a corner, the Arab butcher is slaughtering some animal, sus- pended by the legs from a ruined wall ; and from his haggard and ferocious look, and his bloody hands, you AN ARAB HUTCIIER. 105 would suppose that he had been cutting the throat of a fellow-creature, rather than killin^j a lamb. The only noise that from time to time is heard in the city is the galloping of the steed of the desert, bearing the janis- sary, who brings the head of the Jicdouin, or who returns from plundering the unhappy fellah CROUP OP JEWS AND JEWESSES. Amid this extraordinary desolat-o-' t/ou must pause a moment to contemplate two circunrstanccs still more extraordinary. Among the ruins of Jerusalem, two classes of independent people find in their religion sufficient fortitude to enable them to surmount such i^ S:X - '' ' i ll J'! I m 1 1 1 Pi ill ^1(11 ;«|1!: :til:: h . ;.. io6 CHRISTIAN MONKS. complicated wretchedness. Here reside communities of Christian monks, whom nothing can compel to forsake the tomb of Christ ; neither plunder, nor personal ill- treatment, nor menaces of death itself. Night and day they chant their hymns around the Holy Sepulchre, Cast your eyes between the Temfic and Mount Sion ; behold another petty tribe, cut off from the rest of the inhabitants of the city. The particular objects of every species of degrad- ation, these people bow their heads without murmuring ; they endure every kind of insult without demanding justice ; they sink beneath repeated blows without sigh- ing ; if their head be required, they present it to the scimitar. On the dca'rh of any member of this pro- scribed community, his companions go at night and inter him in the valley of Jehoshaphat, in the shadow of Solomon's Temple. Enter the abodes of these people, you will find them, amid the most abject wretchedness, instructing their children to read a mysterious book which they in turn will teach their offspring to read. What they did five thousand years ago, these people still continue to do. Seventeen times have they witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem, yet nothing can discourage them, nothing can prevent them from turning their faces towards Sion. To see the Jews scattered over the whole world, according to the word of God, must doubtless excite surprise. But, to be struck with supernatural astonish- ment, you must view them at Jerusalem ; you must behold these rightful masters of Judrea living as slaves and strangers in their own country ; you must behold them expecting, under all oppressions, a king who is to deliver them. Crushed by the cross that condemns them, skulking near the Temple of which not one stone is left upon another, they continue in their deplorable infatuation. The Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, are swept from the earth ; and a petty tribe, whose origin pre- ceded that of those great nations, still exists unmixed among the ruins of its native land. A PRECIOUS PRIVILEGE. 107 Such is the outward aspect of the " widowed Queen, forgotten Zion " — "Is this thy place and city, this thy throne, Where the wild desert rears the craggy stone ? Where suns unblest their angry lustre fling. And way-worn pilgrims seek the scanty spring? Where now the pomp which kings with envy view'd ? Where now the might which all those kings subdued ? No martial myriads muster in thy gate — No suppliant nations in thy Temple wait ; No prophet-bards thy glittering courts among,, Wake the full lyre, and swell the tide of song ; But lawless Force, and meagre VVant is there. And the quick-darting eye of restless Fear, While cold Oblivion, 'mid thy ruins laid, Folds his dank wing beneath the ivy shade." There can, however, be no doubt, not only that some travellers greatly exajjgerate the actual gloom, squalor, and deformity of Jerusalem, but that they go thither under the ir.ipression of a somewhat absurd delusion. They appear to have entertained the expectation of seeing the invisible, and of finding the disappeared of mortal vision ! To tread the very soil which eighteen hundred years ago was trodden by the feet of the incar- nate Son of God, to gaze upon the very rocks and plains upon which He gazed, and among which he ministered in life and agonized in dying upon the Cross that man might live eternally, is one of the most precious privi- leges that European wealth enjoys ; and we may justly deem the taking advantage of that privilege a sure proof of high feeling and of cultivated intellect. But to expect to find in semi-barbarous Turkey the resplen- dent Jerusalem of the olden day is surely absurd ! Jeru- salem is no worse than other Turkish towns as to even its general aspect and accommodations ; and it is*iuper- ior to all other cities in the world, at least for this, that, whatever may be the doubts or error of e.xact topogra- phical detail, and luhatevcr may be the impostures and ludicrous inventions of monks and of Jezvish ciceroni, here is the undoubted site of events the most solemn and sacred in the history of Man. " Still the eloquent 'M I 1 08 DESTRUCTION OF OLD JERUSALEM, air breathes, burns " with the accents of David, of Solo- mon, of the Baptist, of the Savior, of prophets, apostles, and martyrs ; and here, too, still rise the rocks, and smile the valleys, and gush the springs, and flow the streams, which monarchs and heroes, the Savior and saints, once looked upon and loved. To gaze upon these scenes is a great privilege, to endeavor to trace out the precise scene of each special event of which we have read in the most precious of all histories, is an employ- ment that does honor alike to the hearts and the heads of those who engage in it ; but to make it matter of marvel and of murmuring that a modern Turkish town does not exhibit the architectural glories of the antiq'.> and holy city which David ruled and Solomon adorned, is simply an absurdity. A moderately attentive peru- sal of the narrative of Josephus would suffice to obviate all such absurdity, by showing how all but literally complete was the destruction of old Jerusalem by the Romans. The site remains, the city has ages agone disappeared, and he who complains of being disappoint- ed because he no longer sees the architectural grandeurs of the sceptered Solomon, might with equal show of judgment and erudition express disappointment that he cannot find, still standing in the Arabian desert, the tents of the nomade Abraham. To men interested in tracing within the walls, anti- quities which are referred to in sacred history, no spec- tacle can he more mortifying than the city in its present state. The mistaken piety of the early Christians in attempting to preserve, has either confused or annihilat- ed the memorials which it was anxious to render con- spicuous. Viewing the havoc thus made, it may now be regretted that the Holy Land was ever rescued from file dominion of the Saracens, who were far less barbarous than their conquerors. The absurdity, for instance, of hewing the rocks of Judaea into shrines and chapels, and of disguising the face of nature with paint- ed domes and gilded marble coverings, by way of com- memorating the scenes of our Savior's life and death, i» so evident and so lamentable, that even Sandys, with ASPECT OF MODERN JERUSALEM. 10^ all his credulity, could not avoid saying, " Those natur- al forms are utterly deformed, which would have better satisfied the beholder, and too much regard hath ren- dered them less regardable." It is a tantalizing thing for the traveller who wishes to recognize in his walks the site of particular buildings, of the scenes of memorable events, that the greater part of the objects mentioned in the descriptions, both of the inspired and the Jewish historians, are entirely removed and razed from their foundation, without a trace or a name being left behind to point out where they once stood. Not an ancient tower or gate, or wall, or scarce- ly even a stone of any of them, remains. The founda- tions are not only broken up, but every fragment of which they were composed, is swept away, and the spectator looks upon the bare rock with hardly a sprinkling of earth to point out the pleasure-gardens of Jerusalem, or her groves of idolatrous devotion. And when we consider the palaces and towers, and walls about Jerusalem, and that the stones of which some of them were constructed were thirty feet long, fifteen broad, and seven and a half thick, we feel scarcely more astonished at the strength, .skill, and perseverance by which they were constructed, than shocked by the relentless and brutal hostility by which thoy were scat- tered and overthrown, and utterly removed from our sight. A few gardens still remain on the sloping base of Mount Zion, watered from the pool of Siloam : the gardens of Gethsemane are still in a sort of ruined cul- tivation ; the fences are broken down, and the olive trees decaying, as if the hands that dressed and fed them were withdrawn : the Mount of Olives still retains a languishing verdure, and nourislies a few of t|iose trees from which it derives its name ; but all round about Jerusalem the general aspect is blighted and bar- ren ; the grass is withered ; the bare rock looks through the scanty sward ; and the very grain, like the starving progeny of famine, seems in doubt whether to come to maturity or to die in the ear. The vine that was brought from Egypt is cut from the midst of the land ; ill ,MI I i' : M\ I 'lil;iT^ I !' i'i"' M^^l Ih I ;;'l 1 10 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. the vineyards are wasted ; the hedges are taken away ; and the graves of the ancient dead are open and tenantless. We have already sufficiently shown the utter absur- dity, alike of expecting to find in modern Jerusalem the architectural aspect of her destroyed predecessor, and of all lamentations about the disappointment of an expectation so egregiously unfounded. We may add, that as a modern Turkish town Jerusalem is of moder- ate extent, its walls enclosing a circuit of about two and a half miles, and that its aspect, as viewed by the proaching traveller, is, upon the whole, good-looking and attractive. Seen from a distance it may be pro- nounced even dignified and imposing. The walls, which are strengthened at intervals with towers and battle- ments, are of stone, and exhibit a massive appearance. All doubts about the present extent o( this famous city, as well as about several of the disputed points in the topography of its immediate neighborhood, have been removed by a trigonometrical survey which was executed by the English corps of Royal Engineers in 1841, after the close of the warlike operations of the British fleet upon the Syrian coast. This survey has been subsequently given to the world, and has been made the subject of elaborate comment by those writers who are interested in disputed points concerning the determination of the sacred sites in and about the city. It is, however, to the measurements made by Mr. Catherwood in 1835, and to the accurate topographical observations of Dr. Robinson (first communicated to the world through the " Biblical Researches " of that able writer,) a few years later, that we are mainly in- debted to the clear and positive knowledge we now possess respecting the situation and aspect of the Holy City of the Jew and the Christian alike. Modern Jerusalem occupies part of a rocky plateau, intermediate in position between the shores of the Mediterranean and the head of the Dead Sea— but nearer the latter. It stands upon ground which is at an elevation of considerably more than two thousand feet Jh.-, MOUNT OF OLIVES. Ill above the level of the Mediterranean. This ground includes the hills anciently known by the names of Acra and Zion, together with Moriah, upon which the Temple formerly stood. A portion of Mount Zion, however, lies without the modern walls, which enclose a much less considerable circuit than belonged to the ancient city in its most flourishing period. The south-western brow of Zion, which is outside the walls of modern Jerusalem, is 2535 feet above the waters of the Medi- terranean. The rocky plateau upon which the city stands stretches far to the northward, in the direction of Nablous. On the other three sides Jerusalem is limited by deep and irarrow valleys ; on the east and south, indeed, by valleys so deep and narrow as to entitle them to be called ravines. The eastern valky is that through which the brook Cedron flows, and which was anciently called the Valley of Jehoshaphat ; it divides the city from the Mount of Olives, which rises imme- diately to the eastward. The valley to the southward of the city is that which the Jews called by the name of Ben-Hinnom, or the Valley of the Sons of Hinnom — the Greek Gehenna: this divides Mount Zion from the eminence entitled the " Hill of \W\\ Counsel." The western valley was formerly known as the valley of Gihon. The Mount of Olives — or Jebel Toor as it is now called by the Arabs — is a long line of hills, with thi'ee conspicuous summits. The central summit, which is the most elevated, rises to 2724 feet above the Mediterra- nean, and is consequently two hundred feet higher than the ground upon which Jerusalem stands. It hence overlooks the entire city, which seems spread out, as it were, in a map, beneath the feet of the traveller who gazes from it upon the ravines below. The view from the summit of the Mount of Olives is, indeed, most extensive : it stretches in the direction of east and south-east over the valley of the Jordan and the upper portion of the Dead Sea, including the whole tract between Jerusalem and Jericho, with (to the southward) w ~ 1 i ;|,'I5'" if* m\\ 112 MOUNT ZION, the count!-)' towards Bethlehem and the neighboring wilderness of Jiid.x'a. The highest portion of Mount Zion is about three hundred feet from the Valleys of Jehoshaphat and Hin- nom, (that is, the eastern and southern valleys), at their point of junction. The highest part of the Hill of Kvil Counsel, to the southward of the city, is nearlv or quite as high as Zion. but not quite so steep. We cannot forbear adding to this account of the site of Jerusalem the vivid and truthful description conveyed in the verses of Tasso — " Jerus.ilem is seated on two hills Of height unlike, and turned side to side ; The space between a gentle valley fills, From mount to mount expansed far and wide ; Three sides are sure inchas'd with crags and hills, The rest is easy, scant to rest espied ; Hut mighty bulwarks fence that plainer part, So art helps nature, nature strengthened art. The town is stored of troughs and cisterns, made To keep fresh water ; but the country seems Devoid of grass, unfit for plowman's trade, Not fertile, moist with rivers, wells, and streams. There grow few trees to make the summer's shade, To shield the parched land from scorching beams, Sa' e that a wood stands si.x miles from the town, With aged cedars dark and shadows brown. B) East, among th'.'. dusty valleys, glide The silver streams of Jordan's crystal flood; Hy West, the midland sea, with bounders tied Of sandy shores, where Joppa whilom stood. 13y North, Samaria stands, and on that side The golden calf was reared in Bethel's wood ; Hethlem by South, where Christ incarnate was, A pearl in steel, a diamond set in brass." The account of the great Italian poet is strictly accurate. The country about Jerusalem is all of lime- stone formation, and is not naturally fertile. The rocks everywhere come out upon the surface, which in many parts is also thickly strewed with loose stones ; and the aspect of the whole region is barren and dreary. Yet ORIKNTAL WATER CISTKRNS. "3 the olive thrives here abundantly ; and fields of grain are seen in the valleys and level places, but they are less productive than in the region of Hebron and Nablous. Neither vineyards nor fig trees flourish on the high ground around the city, though the latter arc found in the gardens below Siloam, and are very fre- quent in the vicinity of Bethlehem. The height of the walls which enclose Jerusalem varies with the irregularities of the ground, being in some places not more than twenty-five feet, and in other and more exposed situations as much as from sixty to seventy-five feet. But on entering the city all the ideas of grandeur which might have been encouraged by its distant appearance arc immediately dispelled, and the miserable reality is brought vividly home to the mind. The streets are full of inequalities, many of which result from the accumulation of the rubbish of ages, and are also narrow and badly paved, being merely laid irregularly with raised stones, with a deep channel for beasts of burden in the middle; their breadth seldom exceeds eight or ten feet. In many places the hou.ses on each side of the street meet over-head, so that the road runs under a succession of archer, which are barely high enough to allow a person on horseback to pass beneath them. The houses are nearly all built of stone, since timber requires to be brought from a considerable distance, and is hence little used ; as usual in Oriental cities, there are but few windows towards the street, light being admitted to the apartments from interior court-yard.s. All the hou.ses are furnished with cisterns, or reservoirs, for the collection of the rain-water, upon which the inhabitants mainly depend for their supply of water duiing the summer months. Many of the larger dwellings are supplied with several of these cisterns, which generally occupy the ground-floor, or cells, formed for the purpo.se below its level, and into which the water that falls on the roof is conducted by means of open pipes or gutters. The greater number of those used in the present day arc probably of ancient construction, being excavated in the limestone rock on which the city I ^i I t i-m h M 1 ■*^;i jy 114 I'OPULATION OF JERUSALEM. is built. A large number of the houses are in a delapi- datcd and ruinous state, and habitations which have a respectable appearance from the street are often found, upon entering them, to be little better than heaps of ruins. The inhabitants of Jerusalem are estimated to amount to 14,000 in number, of which about 6,000 are Mohammedans, about 4,000 Jews, and 4,000 Christians. Jerusalem is entered by four gates, which face the cardinal points. That on the north side is called the Damascus Gate ; that on the eastern sid^ of the city is St. Stephen's Gate ; to the east, the Zion Gate ; and on the western side, the JalTa Gate. The interior of the city is distinguished according to the different portions which its inhabitants respectively occupy, as the Mo- hammedan, Christian, Armenian, and Jewi.sh quarters. The Armenian quarter is to the south-west, the Jewish quarter to the south-eastward, and the Christian quarter to the north-west. The Mahommedans occupy the remaining and larger quarter of the city. It will be interesting to compare with the above the account which Josephus gives of the ancient city, which, as we have said, was of larger extent than modern Jeru- salem. " The city of Jerusalem," says the accurate Jew, " is fortified with three walls on such parts as are not encom- passed with impassable valleys ; for in .such places it has but one wall. The city was built upon two hills, which are opposite to one another, and have a valley dividing them asunder, at which valley the correspond- ing rows of houses on both hills terminate. Of these hills, that which contains the upper city is much the higher, and in length more direct ; according it was called the Citadel by King David ; he was the father of that Solomon who built this Temple at the first ; but it is by us called the Upper Market-place. But the other hill, which was called Acra, and sustains the lower city, is of the shape of the moon when she is gibbous. Over against this there was a third hill, naturally lower than Acra, and parted formerly from the other by a broad valley. However, in those times when the Asmoncans MONKISH TRADITIONS. Its :r city, reigned, they filled up that valley with earth, and had a mind to join the city to the Temple. Tliey then took off part of the height of Acra, and reduced it to be of less elevation than it was before, that the Temple might be superior to it. Now the V^illey of the Cheese- mongergs, as it was called, and was that .hich we be- fore told you distinguished the hill of the u[)per city from that of the Tower, extended as far as Siloam ; for that is the name of a fountain which hath sweet water in it, and that, too, in great plenty. Hut on the outside these hills are surrounded by deep valleys, and, by reason of the precipices on both sides, are everywhere impassable." It is to be lamented that the inherent and inevitable difficulty of identifying sites which the events formerly enacted or the structures formerly standing upon them render so inte"esting alike to our feelings and to our imagination, is still further increased and complicated by the cjuntlcss monkish traditions which prevail throughout the Holy Land. In many of those cases where the monks pretend to show, witii circumstantial minuteness, the exact scenes of sacred events, (even to their smallest detaiLs.) there exists abimdant internal proof of the absurdity as well as the effrontery of the assertions. One of the 'irst places, for instance, to which the devout or curious traveller is conducted is a spacious grotto situated at a short distance from the Damascus Gate, and on the northern side of the Holy City. This grotto, or cave, is boldly affirmed to have been the abode of the prophet Jeicmiah, and the travel- ler's attention is especially directed to a shelving projec- tion of rock, at about eight feet from the ground. This is positively affirmed to have been the prophet's bed, and supposing the grotto to have been his abode, such would not improbably have been the use made of the rocky shelf in question. But there is not a tittle of evi- dence to support either assertion. In this case, how- ever — as, indeed, in respect of every locality in the Holy Land — there can be but little doubt that each site and object pointed out is deserving of attention and regard,. M> I f 1 ' 1l "1 I I 1 16 SErULCHRK OF THK KINGS. •1 i K <^^ 1 ' if 1 1 ■i though perhaps not in connection with the person or the event with whom or with which the monks so boldly and so positively claim connection for it. I.imited as tiie Holy Land is, when compared to the number and the vastness of the events of its history, it may reasonably be afifirnicd that there can be but few sites and still fewer objects which are not, in fact, con- nected with some hallowed name or with some striking event ; and it is especially to be remarked that, as in the alleged abode of Jeremiah, many of the objects which are venerated by the Christians are held in equal veneration by both Jews and Turks — a pretty sure proof that, however old traditions may have been warped or misinterpreted by modern error or by modern fraud, such objects have been traditionally handed down to our veneration or attention. The great danger alike of the reader and of the traveller is that of yielding too implicit a belief to the over precise statements which monkish and other guides make, but which, in many cases they do not, because they cannot, support by a particle of reasonable evidence. The grottos which are so numerous throughout the Holy Land, and more especially in the vicinity of Jerusalem, are favorite places ol monkish, and general- ly unauthenticated, identification. Some of the most remarkable of these are the grottos famous as the Sepulchres of the Kings. In most cases there is but one difficulty in which we are placed by the positive nomenclature of the monks and other guides ; we only wonder how they can be bold enough not only to assert, but also to call upon us to believe, statements which, positive as they are, rest upon no sort of authori- ty, and, indeed, are in many ca.ses obviously incorrect. But in the case of the Sepulchres of the Kings we have a double difficulty to deal with ; of what kings were these caves or grottos the sepulchres ? Of the burial- places of the kings of Israel and of Judah we have pre- cise information from the Scriptures, and we are quite sure that these grottos are not their sepulchres. On the other hand, that they were sepulchres is quite INTERIOR OK THE SEI'ULCHRES. 117 certain, and from their magnitude wc may readily sup- pose them to have been .. ppropriated as the last resting places of royal mortality And it is not easy to imagine why they have been called the Sepulchres of the Kings, were there not some foundation for the title. Maun- drell suggested that here, probably, were buried Heze- kiah, and also the sons of Uavid, spoken of in 2 Chron. xxxii. 33 : Chateaubriand thought that Herod the tetrarch might have been their occupant. The tombs of the Kings lie on the northern side of the city, at a distance of nine hundred yards from the Damascus gate, and nearly at the head of the Valley of Jehoshaphat. Whoever was buried here, this is certain, that the place itself discovers so great an expense of both labor and treasure, that we may well suppose it to have been the work of kings. You approach it on the east side through an entrance cut out of the natural rock, which admits you into an open court of about forty paces square, cut down into the rock, with which it is encompassed instead of walls. On the south side of the court is a portico, nine paces long and four broad, hewn likewise out of the natural rock. There is a kind of architrave running along its front, adorned with sculpture of fruits and flowers, still discernible but much defaced by time. At the end of the portico, on the left hand, you descend to the passage into the sepulchres. The door is now so obstructed with stones and rubbish, that it is a thing of some difficulty to creep through it; but, within, you arrive in a large fair room, about seven or eight yards square, cut out of the natural rock. Its sides and ceiling are so exactly square, and its angles so ju.st, that no architect with levels and plummets could build a room more regular ; and the whole is so firm and entire, that it may be called a chamber hollowed out of one piece of marble. From this room you pass into six more, one within another, all of the same fabric with the first. Of these the two innermost are deeper than the rest, having a second descent into them of about six or seven steps. In every one of these room.s, except the first, were 1^ :3 ^' til' Ii8 A REMARKAHLE DOOR. :r|' I ■ I coffitis of stone, placed in niches in the sides of the chambers. They had been, at rirst covered with hand- some lids, and carved with {^arlands ; but now most of them were broken to pieces by sacrilej^ioiis hands. The sides and ceilini^s of the rooms were always droppinj^, with the damps C(MKlensin<^ upon them. To remedy which nuisance, and to preserve these chambers of the dead clean, there was in each room a small channel cut in the floor, which served t(^ drain the drops that fell constantly into it. lUit the most surprisinjr thin^ be- longing to these subterraneous ch.ambers was the door, (for there was but one remaining,) being loft hanging as it were on purpose to puzzle the beholders. It consisted of a plank of stone of about six inches in thickness, and in its other dimensions e(]vialling the size of an ordinary door, or somewhat less. It was carved in such a man- ner as to resemble a piece of wainscot ; the stone of which it was made was evidently of the same kind w ith the whole rock ; and it turned upon two hinges in the nature of , -vies. These hinges were of the same entire I)iece of sione with the door, and were contained in two holes of the immovable rock, one at the top, the other at the bottom. From this description it is obvious to start a ques- tion — how were such doors as these made } Whether they were cut oyt of the rock, in the same place and manner as the}' now hang ? or whether they were brought and fixed in their .station, like other doors .^ One of these must be supposed to have been done, and whichsoever part wc choo.se as most probable, it seems, at the first glance, not to be without its difficulty. But thus much I have to say for the resolving of this riddle, (which is wont to create no small dispute among pil- grims), viz., that the door which was left hanging did not touch its lintel by at least two inches, so that I believe it might easily have been Mfted up and un- hinged. And the doors which had been thrown down had their hinges at the upper end twice as long as those at the bottom ; which seems to intimate pretty plainly by what method this work was accomplished. kasti:kn carv "; and scumture. 119 From these sepulchres we returned towards the city again, and just by Herod's Gate were shown a grotto full of filthy water and mire. This passes for the dun- geon in which Jeremiah was kept by Zedekiah, till enlarged by the charity of Kbed Melech. (Jer. xxxviii.) Ur. Clarke compares these sepulchres to the subter- ranean chambers which are found lying westward of Alexandria, in Kgypt, and which are known as the Sepulchres of the i'tolemies. " ICach chamber," says that intelligent traveller. " contains a certain number of receptacles for dead boaies, not being much larger than our cofifins, but having the more regular form of oblong parallelograms ; thereby differing from the usual ap- pearance presented by the sepulchral crypts of this country, where the soros, although of the same form, is generally of very considerable size, and resemble a large cistern. The taste that is manifested in the interior of these chambers seems to denote a later period in the history of the arts ; the .skill and neatness visible in the carving are admirable. We observed also sone slabs of marble, exquisitely sculptured ; these we had never ob- -served in the burial places before mentioned," — /. r., the Sepulchres of the Ptolemies. Speaking of some of the smaller chambers or recesses which are entered from the first great chambers. Dr. Clarke says, '* In one of these we found the lid of a white marble coffin ; this was entirely covered with the richest and most beautiful .sculpture ; but, like all the other sculptured work about the place, it represented nothing of the human figure, nor of any animal, but consisted entirely of foliage and flowers, and principally of the leaves and branches of the vine." From the Sepulchres of the Kings the traveller is usually taken to the celebrated mosque of Omar, a building so splendid and adorned with such lavish cost- liness, that it would be highly interesting even had it not the additional recommendation of being reputed to stand upon the exact site of Solomon's Temple. The second Temple, it is reasonably conjectured, was not pulled down, and it may consequently be supposed that 8 fi I'.iin i: . t |i I 20 A PROrHECY FULFILLED. f: ;ii Herod the Great did not entirely rebuild it, but merely- made repairs and extensive additions. These additions, however, nuist have been immense, if Josephus is correct in saying that eleven thousand laborers were employed upon the works for nine years. Jiut, vast and apparent- ly time-defying as the Temple was thus rendered, our Savior said of it to iiis disciples, ' .See ye not all these things .' Verily I .say unto you. There shall not be one :-tone left here upon another that shall not be thrown THE MOSQUE OK OMAR, JERUS.\LEM, Containing the Huly Stone brought by M.thomRl from Mocci. down." (Matt. xxiv. 2.) And this prophecy, which to the proud and unbelieving Jews seemed like an actual blasphemy, was literally fulfilled, for the Roman Titus, when he took Jerusalem after its memorably long and terrible resistance, ordered his fierce legions to dig up the very foundations of both the city and the Temple, and so exactly and ruthlessly were his orders obeyed, that the general, Terentius Rufus, actually drove a ploughshare over the ground on which the magnificent Temple had stood. mosl?:m kelief. I2X The site remained a waste, strewed here and there with ruins, till the taking of Jerusalem by the caliph Omar, A. i). 637. Proud of his conquest, and anxious to commemorate it by building a noble mosque, Omar, we are told by an Arabian writer, desired the patriarch Sophronius to indicate the most suitable site for that purpose, and the patriarch pointed out the site of Solo- . mon's Temple. To the costly but comparatively small mosque which Omar built there, very extensive addi- tions were made by the caliph Abd-el-Malek, who enclosed the rocky site — Mount Moriah — with a wall. The succeeding caliph, El-VValid, made still further additions and greatly embellished the mosque, especially with a gilt copper dome, of which he plundered a church at Baalbcc. \Vhen Jerusalem was taken by the crusad- ers they converted this mosque into a Christian church ; but when the Sultan Saladin in his turn become master of Jerusalem he restored the vast and costly structure to its original Mohammedan uses and character. There is, probably, no one point upon which the religious predilections of the Moslem world are so jealously exclusive as upon that of admitting Christians into the city of Mecca, or into the mosque of Omar. Armed with a government^rwrt/;, or order, the Christian who visits Constantinople finds no difficulty in making his way into any of the mosques, not even that of St. Sophia ; but no Mussulman official, however latitudin- arian in his belief, or however desirous to oblige an individual, would venture so to brave the fury of the Mussulman rabble as to give a Qiristian an order for admittance to the mosque of Omar. Such an order would probably cause an actual revolt against the offi- cial granting it; and it certainly would be no protection to the Christian bearer of it, who would in all human probability be torn to pieces in defiance of it. The monk Father Roger, who visited Jerusalem, and who professed to have made his way into the Temple by dint of stratagem, accounts thus for the singular unwill- ingness of the Mussulmans to allow a Christian to enter this mosque. He states that the Turks are firmly per- i^i ',1 W'i 122 AREA OF OMAR S MOSQUE. :i 1 ijHi : 1! if ImI 1 f'P^iHHIl « III f 1 ' ^Hl I i „ i' ill ; , 1 1; ' t u lii;- iiii 1 1 Mil ll i p ll ■r ■ ! • ■ r ' 'i ';. suaded that were a Christian to gain access to the court of the Temple, God would grant whatever prayers he might ofifcr up there, evffi ivcre he to pray that Jerusalem may fall into the hands of the Christians. So firmly are they persuaded of this, that, not contented with de- nouncing the penalty of being burned alive or embracing Mohammedanism against any Christian entering even the court of the Temple, they keep, it seems, a mos; jealous and constant guard to prevent such an intrusion. Within a more recent period, however, the external appearance, at least, of this sanctuary of the Moham- medan world has become better known to Europeans. The Haram, or outer court of the mosque, has been elaborately surveyed. The entire area of the sacred enclosure was found to exhibit the following dime t- sions: The length of the east wall is 1520 feet, of the south wall 940 feet, of the west wall 1617 feet, and of the north wall 1020 feet. A good view of the whole area, with the sacred edifices which it encloses, is ob- tained from the roof of the governor's house, closely adjoining, and access to which is readily granted on a proper application. Dr. Richardson from whom we have already quoted, really did enter the mosque, and to his courage and in- telligence we owe the best account which we have hitherto received of the interior of that famous edifice. Besides his connexion with a distant English party. Dr. Richardson had the advantage of being a physician, a character to which the Turks attach a sort of sanctity, admitting the Christian physician even to their harems, into which it would be certam death for any other man, even if a Mohammedan, to make his way. The ignor- ance of the native and Jewish physicians necessarily renders the superior skill of the European a matter of absolute marvel to the Turks, and, as Dr. Richardson himself remarks, " Both Turks and Arabs, and even Oriental Christians, are perfect gluttons in physic, and place greater confidence in its wonder-working powers than the more enlightened people in Europe are dis- posed to do." It seems that when Dr. Richardson was ( I.ANDKSTIXK I.N I k.Wi [\ I' > 111'. KMI'I. -.1 at Jcrusalcivi. the Citpo-W'iuh-, i. c. the (ireeii Turban, or M(.)haniiiieihui primate of that cit\-, was not a jot behind tlie re.st of his compatriots in liis love of phj-sic and in his \eneration of the character of tlie physician ; and he thence conceived so great a friendship for the Doctor, that though even he dared not openly give him admission to the Temple, he not only connived at, but facilitated, his clandestine entrance in disguise. All the arrangements having been made tor the Doctor's bold, because really perilous, enterprise, he doffed his white burnouse and arrayed himself in a black abba belonging to his friend the Capo- Verde, and, thus dis- guised, and preceded by a black interpreter, he boldly ascended the south side of Mount Moriah, passed the Cadi's house, and entered the Haram Shereef, or noble palace of religious retirement, which title includes the whole enclosed space by which the mosque is surround^ ed. Within this enclosure, and immediately surrouding the Sakhara, or mosque, there is a s{oa, not, as the name would lead us to anticij^te, a covered porch, but a rais- ed platform paved with fine marble ; crossing this plat- form the Doctor jt.nd his black interpreter and guide speedily reached the door of the mosque, and w-e shall now give the Doctor's account of his visit in his own graphic language. A gentle knock brought up the sacristan, who, hav- ing been apprized of our visit, was waiting to receive us. He demanded, rather sternly, who we were, and was answerd by my black conductor in tones not less con- sequential than his own. The door immediately edged up, to prevent as much as po.ssible the light from shin- ing out, and we squeezed ourselves in, with a light and noiseless .step, although there was no person near who could be alarmed by the loudest sound of our bare feet upon the marble floor. The door was no sooner shut than the sacristan, taking a couple of candles in his hand, show'ed us all over the '"nterior of this building ; pointing, in the pride of his heart, to the elegant marble walls, the beautifully gilded ceiling, the well at which the true worshippers drink and wash, with which we ^h i,i;i- nli I 124 MAHOMET'S SHIELD. also blessed our palates and moistened our beards, the paltry reading-desk, with the ancient Koran, the hand- some columns, and the green stones with the wonderful nails. As soon as we had completed this circuit, pull- ing a key from his girdle, he unlocked the door of the railing which separates the outer from the inner part of the mosque, which, with an elevation of two or three steps, led us into the sacred recess. Here he pointed out the patches of Mosaic work in the floor, and the round flat stone which the Prophet carried on his arm in battle ; directed us to introduce our hand through the hole in the wooden box, to feel the print of the Prophet's foot, and through the posts of the wooden rail to feel as well to see the marks of the angel Gabriel's fingers, into which I carefully put my own, in the sacred j5tone that occupies the centre of the mosque. Sakhara, or the Locked-up ; (over it is suspended a fine cloth of green and red satin, but this was so covered with dust that, but for the information of my guide, I should not have been able to tell the composing colors ;) and, finally, he pointed to the door that leads into the small cavern below, of which he had not then the key. We reviewed a second time the interior of the build- ing, drank of the well, counted the remaining nails in the green stone, as well as the empty holes ; then, having put a dollar into the hands of the sacristan, which he grasped very hard with his fist, while he obsti- nately refused it with his tongue, we hied us out of the gate of paradise, Bab-el-Jenne, and, having made the exterior circle of the mosque, we passed by the judg- ment-seat of Solomon, and descended from the Stoa Sakhara by another flight of steps into the outer field of this elegant enclosure. Here we put on our shoes, and, turning to the left, walked through the trees, that were but thinly scattered in the smooth, grassy turf, to a house that adjoins the walls of the enclosure, which in this place is also the wall of the city, and which is said to contain the throne of King Solomon. Here there was no admittance, and from this we proceeded to a stair which led up to the top of the wall, and sat down THE SAKHARA. 125 upon the stone on which Mahomet is to sit at the day of judgment, to judge the re-embodied spirits assembled beneath him in the Valley of Jehoshaphat. Descending from this scat of tremendous anticipation, which, if Mahomet were made of flesh and blood, would be as trying to him as his countenance would be alarming to the re-embodied spirits, we walked along the front of Kl-Aksa, the other mosque, which occupies the side, as the Sakhara docs the centre, of the enclosure, and arrived at another fountain, where wc again washed our beards and tasted the water. This sacred enclosure is the sunny spot of Moslem devotion. There is no sod like that which covers the ample area of its contents, and no mosque at all com- parable to the Sakhara. Here the god of day pours his choicest rays in a flood of light that, streaming all around upon the marble pavement, mingles its softened tints in the verdant turf, and leaves nothing to compare with or to desire beyond. It seems as if the glory of the Temple still dwelt upon the mosque, and the glory of Solomon still covered the site of his Temple. But the great beauty of the whole enclosure is the Sakhara itself, which is nearly in the middle of the platform, and but a little removed from the south side ; it is a regular octagon of about 60 feet a side, and is entered by four spacious doors. Each of these doors is adorned with a porch, which projects from the line of the build- ing, and rises considerably up on the wall. The lower story of the Sakhara is faced with marble, the blocks of which are of different sizes, and many of them evident- ly resting on the side or narrowest surface. They look much older on a close inspection than they do when viewed from a distance, and their disintegration indi- cates a much greater age than the houses said to have been built in the time of the mother of Constantine the Great ; and probably both they and the aged stones in the flooring of the Stoa Sakhara formed part of the splendid temple that was destroyed by the Romans. Each side of the Sakhara is panelled ; the centre stone of one panel is square, of another octagonal, and thus iil m 1 1 ' t 'ifl 1 ' 1 . 1 ' ■,■'. Mi :''.'■'. ' '" ' !j|i '■ ' t i ■ \2f> [NTI.kl'il; UF nil. SAKIIAKA. iii'rii the)- alternate all round ; the sides of each pane! run down the anj^des of the buildin;^ like a plain pilaster, and give the a})pearance of the whole side of the edifice bcinj^ set in a frame. The marble is white, with a con- siderable tinge of blue, and square pieces of blue marble are introduced in different places, so as to give the whole a pleasing effect. There are no windows in the marbte part, or lower story of the building. The upper story of this elegant building is faced with small tiles of about eight or nine inches square ; they are painted of different colors, white, yellow, green, and blue, but blue prevails throughout. They arc said to be covered with sentences from the Koran ; though of this fact I could not be certain, on account of the height and my imper- fect knowledge of the character. There are seven well- proportioned windows oa each side, except where the porch rises high, and then there are only six, one of which is generally built up, so that only five are effec- tive. The whole is extremely light and beautiful, and from the mixture of the soft colors above, and the panelled work and blue and white tinge of the marble below, the eye is more delighted with beholding it than any building 1 ever saw. The admiration excited by the appearance of the exterior was not diminished by a view of the interior, the arrangements of which are so managed as to pre- serve throughout the octagonal form, agreeble to the ground plan of the building. The inside of the wall is white, without any ornament ; and I confess I am one of those who think ornaments misplaced in a house of prayer, or anything tending to distract the mind when it comes there to hold converse with its God. The floor is of grey marble, and was then much covered with dust, from some repairs that were being executed on the dome. A little within the nbrth door, there is a flat pol- ished slab of green marble, which forms part of the floor. Ft is about fourteen inches square, and was originally pierced by eighteen nails, which would have kept their places but for the amazing chronometrical A M.M.ICU. SToXl'. virtues vvitli whicli tlic)- were endowed. I"or such is their magical temper, that they either hold or cjuil, accordinL,^ to the times ; and on the winding up of each great and cardinal event a nail iias regularly been removed to mark its completion ; and so many of these signal periods have already rolled by, each clenched by an accompanying nail, that now only three and a half remain, fourteen and a half being displaced in a super- natural manner. It is recondite matter, known only to the wise in wonders, how the nails got into the stone, as how they got out of it. Thus much, however, the hiero- phants vouchsafed to communicate, that, when all the nails shall have made their escape, all the events con- tained in the great map of time will then have been unfolded, and there will then be an end of the world, or nothing but a dull monotonous succession till the final consummation of all things. My conductor also gravely informed me that underneath this stone Solomon the son of David lies buried. All of which solemn nonsense it was proper for me to hear, without appearing to doubt either the information or the source from which it came. There are four large square columns, one opposed to each alternate angle of the building, and three small round columns between each of them. Their base rests upon an elevation of the floor, and they are capitalled and surmounted with arches, the .same as in the outer row; this inner row of columns supports the dome* The intercolumnal space is occupied by a high iron railing, so that all entrance to the holy stone, or center of the mosque, is completely shut up, except by one door, which is open only at certain hours for the pur- poses of devotion. This central compartment is elevated about three feet above the outer floor, and the ascent to it is by a flight of four steps. On entering along with the Turks, we there found several rather shabbily-dressed and ill- looking people engaged in their devotions. One of them was a female, of a mean, rustic appearance, and so extremely stupid that she was praying with her face to the west, which so provoked one of my conductors that ' 'i ' i' W m 12S HADIR EL SAKHARA. 1I I A ■■■! ('■/-'■Vi's i' !' 1 ■ '' .*-;! F' ' f :: i ' ■ :, i 111 1 ' 1 1 , 1 ' f !ii li!:,'..!! he went and raised her up from her knees, and, having given her a hearty scolding, turned her round and made her pray with her face to the south, which she did very obediently and without any demur. Within this row of columns the floor is also paved with white marble, and the blue and white columns are so mixed, as, in some places, to form a sort of mosaic. Proceeding on to the right, we came to a round flat stone of polished marble, which is raised high, and attached to the side of one of tlic square columns. This stone, I was informed, the Prophet carried on his arm in battle. It is a ponderous and very unlikely shield. It is broken through the middle, probably by a blow aimed at its master by an infidel hand. Opposite to this, and on the end of the Holy Stone, which I am about to describe, there is a high square wooden box, with an opening on one side of it large enough to admit the hand to feel the print of Mahomet's foot, which he left there either when he prayed or when he flew up to heaven. I put in my hand and touched it, to stroke my face and beard, as I saw the Mussulmans do. It is so completely covered that it cannot be seen. But that to which this temple owes its name — VA Sakhara, the Locked-up, — and its existence, is a large irregular oblong mass of stone that occupies the center of the mosque. It is a mass of compact limestone, the same as that of the rock on which the city stands, and of the other mountains about Jerusalem ; and if I had not been told that it is a separate stone, I should have imagined it to be a part of the native rock that had been left unremoved when the other parts were levelled down for the foundation of the building. It rises highest towards the south-west corner, and falls abruptly at the end where are the prints of the Prophet's foot. It is irregular on the upper surface, the same as when it was -broken from the quarry. It is enclosed all round with a wooden railing about four feet high, and which in every place is almost in contact with the stone. I have already mentioned that there is a large cover of vari- ously-colored satin suspended over it, and nothing can :i ! :* fi\> A LEGEND. 129 li ii' be held in greater veneration than the Madir cl Sakhara, or, the locked-up stone. This stone has other weighty pretensions to the veneration of the Mohammedans than the print of the angel Gabriel's fingers or the Prophet's foot ; for, like the palladium of ancient Troy, it fell from heaven, and lighted on this very spot, at the time that prophecy commenced in Jerusalem. Here the ancient prophets sat, and prophesied, and prayed ; and as long as the spirit of vaticination continued to visit the holy men in the Holy City, the stone remained quiet for their accommodation ; but when prophecy ceased, and the persecuted seers girded up their loins and fled, the stone, out of sympathy, wished to accompany them ; but the angel Gabriel interposed his friendly aid, and grasping the stone with a mighty hand, arrested its flight, and nailed it to its rocky bed until the 'arrival of Mahomet, who, horsed on the lightning's wing, flew thither from Mecca, joined the society of seventy thou- sand ministering angels, and having offered up his devo- tions to the throne of God, fixed the stone immovcably in this holy spot, around which the caliph Omar erected the present elegant structure. The wall of the dome is round, and the sides of the perpendicular part of it are faced up with blue, green, white and yellow painted tiles, the same as the upper part of the building, IMue is the prevailing color. It is divided into alternate compartments of close and reticu- lated work ; and is covered in at the top with lead, the same as the roof of the building. Leaving the Sakhara, we proceeded to the Mosque el Aksa, the name given to the other house of devotion contained within this sacred enclosure ; though a fine and very elegant mosque in the interior, it is greatly inferior to it in beauty and sanctity. It is also called the Mosque of the VV^omen, because it contains a separ- ate place that is assigned to them for jirayer ; and Djamai Omar, or the Mosque of the Caliph Omar, who used to pray in it. The place in which he performed his devotions is still exhibited. This was anciently a f . . j_ .V- r'lii PfilT" l-'*"i| P.- 1 '30 I iii;i'.i'. ( U().^ s of llu: 1 loly C'it)'. w.is C'llk'tl the C'liurch of the I'rc'scnl.ition, incinin^Lj tlicrcby of the infiint Jcsiis ; or, tlic Cluirch of tlic I'urificiition, nicaniiiL; thereby, of the X'irj^iii Mary. A narrow aisle on the rif^ht, off the body of the church, is shown as tlic place where she presented her Son in the Temple. The mosque is in the shape of a long square, and would answer very well for a Christian church at present, were it not for the superabundance of columns in the mtcrior, which assimilate it more into an I'^gyptian temple. The Church of the Holy Sepuklire, one of the very numerous buildings which the Holy Land owes to the sincere but not always very enlightened piety of the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, consists of three distinct compartments, each of which is a separate cluirch or chapel of considerable beauty and tastefulnci-s of design. One of these is called the Church of the Three Crosses, it being alleged tliAt three were miracu- lously found there. Far more authentic objects of curiosity ard interest in this church, however, were two stone coffins, supported upon pillars. These, which con- tained the mortal remains of Godfrey and Baldwin, the Latin kings of Jerusalem, were entire at the time of the visit of Chateaubriand, who saw and described them ; but they have been .so completely destroyed by the Greek.s, that not a ve.stige of them is now to be seen. Of the other two churches or chapels, one is that of the Holy .Sepulchre, properly so called, the other that of Calvary, in which the rock appears with a rent or fissure said to have been caused by the awful earthquake in the dread day of the Crucifixion. In small side-chapels or apartments along the walls of these churches, the Greeks, Latins, Armenians, Maronites, etc., have their places') of peculiar worship; and painful are the scenes of fraud and violence to which the rivalries and cupidity of these various monks occasionally give rise. The manner in which the anniversary of the Resurrection is celebrated by the Greeks, that being one of several semi-dramatic celebrations by which the Greeks, Latins, etc., endeavor to extract coin from the purses of the m CF.I.EHRATION OF TUt: KKSUKRECTION. I U credulous is anything but flattering to their religious principles. The rules of this church do not allow of the exhibi- tion of graven images in their \vo low that it is necessary to enter them stooping, in some cases even upon the hands and knees, and the sides of these doorways are grooved, lor the reception of the massive stones with which they were closed, as indipu- tably were the tombs of the sons of Heth, of the kings of Israel, of Lazarus, and of Christ. Ill f M M i^l II ?ni; m 138 JEWISH HOMES. Though we have felt bound to conduct the reader to the more remarkable monuments of Jerusalem, we are not sorry to turn from tlicm to the inhabitants, the most interesting amongst whom, in many respects, are the Jews. Many of the Jews are rich and in comfort- able circumstances, and possess a great deal of property in Jerusalem ; but they are careful to conceal their wealth and even their comfort from the jealous eyes of their rulers, lest, by awakening their cupidity, some vile plot should be devised to their prejudice. In going to visit a respectable Jew in the Holy City, it is a com- mon thing to pass to his house over a ruinous fore- ground, and up an awkward outside stair, constructed of rough stones that totter under the foot ; but it improves as you ascend, and at the top has a respectable appearance, as it ends in an agreeable platform in front of the house. On entering the house itself, it is found to be clean and well furnished ; the sofas are covered with Persian carpets ; and the people seem happy to receive you. The visitor is entertained with coffee and tobacco, as is the custom in the houses o<" the Turks and Christians. The ladies presented themselves with an ease and address that surprised me, and recalled to our memory the pleasing society of Europe. This difference of manner arises from many of the Jewish families in Jerusalem having resided in Spain or Portugal, where the females had rid them of the cruel domestic fetters of the East, and on returning to their beloved land had very properly retained their acquired freedom and rank in society. They almost all speak a broken Italian, so that convcrsr.tion goes on without the clumsy aid of an interpreter. It was the feast of the Passover, and they were all eatin;^- unleavened bread ; some of which was presented to us as a curi- osity, and \^e partook of it merely that we might have the gratification of eating unleavened bread with the sons and daughters of Jacob in Jerusalem ; it is very insipid fare, and no one would eat it from choice. For the same reason we went to the synagogue, of which there are two in Jerusalem. The form of worshii) % , !^ SYNAGOGUES OK JERUSALEM. 139 is the same as in this country, and in, we believe, every country which the Jews inhabit. The females have a separate part of the synagogue assigned to them, as in the synagogues in Europe, and in the Christian churches all over the Levant. They are not expected to be fre- quent or regular in their attendance on public worship. The ladies generally make a point of going on the Sun- day (that is, the Friday night or Saturday morning) after they arc married ; and b^ing thus introduced in their new capacity, once a year is considered as suffi- cient compliance, on their part, with the ancient injunc- tion to assemble in the house of prayer. Like the votaries of Christian establishments, the Jewesses trust more to the prayers of the priests than to their own. The synagogues in Jerusalem are both poor and small, not owing to the poverty of their possessors, but to the prudential motives before mentioned. The Jewesses in Jerusalem speak in a decided and firm tone, unlike the hesitating and timid voice of the Arab and Turkish females, and claim the European privilege of differing from their husbands, and maintain- ing their own opinions. They are fair and good-looking ; red and auburn hair are by no means uncommon in either of the sexes. We never saw any of them with veils, and was informed that it was the general practice of the Jewesses in Jerusalem to go with their faces un- covered ; they are the only females there who do so. Generally speaking, they are, we think, disposed to be rather of a plethoric habit ; and the admirers of size and softness in the fair sex w'll find as regularly built fatties with double mouldings m the neck and chin, among the fair daughters of Jerusalem as among the fairer daugh- ters of England. They seem particularly liable to eruptive diseases ; and the want of children is as great a heart-break to them now as it was in the days of Sarah. In passing up to the synagogue we were particularly struck with the mean and wretched appearance of the houses on both sides of the streets, as well as with the poverty of their inhabitants. Some of the old men and M 'a. %:f I 'I' ! I " ''1 illi J 40 POPULATION. - mi women had more withered and hungry aspects than any of our race we ever saw, with the exception of the cav- erned dames of Gomou, in Egyptian Thebes, who might have sat in a stony field, as a picture of famine, a year after the flood. The sight of a poor Jew in Jerusalem has in it something peculiarly affecting. The heart of this wonderful people, in whatever clime they roam, still turns to Jerusalem as the city of their promised rest. They take pleasure in her ruins, and would lick the very dust for her sake. Jeru.salem is the centre around which the exiled sons of Judah build, in airy dreams, the man- sions of their future greatness. In whatever part of the world he may live, the heart's desire of a Jew is, when gathered to his fathers., to be buried in Jerusalem. Thither they return from Spain and Portugal, from Egypt and Barbary, and other countries among which they have been scattered ; and when, after all their long- ings, and all their struggles up the steeps of life, we see them poor, and blind, and naked, in the streets of their once happy Zion, he must have a cold heart that can remain untouched by their prayers, and refrain from uttering a prayer that the light of a reconciled counten- ance would shine on the darkness of Judah, and the day-star of Bethlehem arise in their hearts. The Jews are the best guides in Jerusalem, because they give the ancient names of places, which the inter- preters belonging to the different convents do not give. But they are not forward in presenting themselves, and must generally be sought. Though Jerusalem, as we have already remarked, has so various a population, each particular people has a quarter or district which it especially affects and al- most exclusively, inhabits. Thus the Jews, as we have shown, cluster, as it were, around the edge of Mount Zion ; the Moslems chiefly dwell near and around the sacred enclosure of the Haram ; the Roman Catholics near their convent of St. Salvador, '.i the north-western corner of the Holy City ; and people of the Greek persuasion near the Syrian Christian convent of Saint John. ARMENIAN CUSTOMS. 141 To estimate accurately so fluctuating a population as that of Jerusalem is by no means an easy matter. The Jew banker of the governor stated to us that the male Jews within the city are a thousand in number, and the females about thrice as many ; while Dr. Richardson rates the whole Jewish population at as high as ten thousand and the Moslem and Christian population at only five thousand each. The mean of these estimates is probably nearer the truth, though even this would be considerably in excess of the calculation made by later observers. Next after the Jews and their Turkish rulers, the most remarkable of the inhabitants of Jerusalem are the Ar- menians, inferior in number to the Greeks, but far superior to them both in wealth and influence. They are strong and comely persons, of dignified deportment, and both industrious and civil. There are many of them settled at Jerusalem in comfortable circumstances. Their houses are well kept and well furnished. On visiting them, the stranger is received with a warmth unusual even among the Greeks ; and this cordiality is the more agreeable for being sincere. He is treated with coffee and a pipe of tobacco, a glass of liquor, cakes, biscuits, and various kinds of .sweetmeats, which are handed to him by the mistress of the family, her daughter, or servant ; all being usually in attendance, though there should be but. one guest to be served. They take the cup or glass from him when he has done with it, and kiss his hands as they receive it. They pour water on his hands for him to wa.sh after he has done eating, and give him a towel on which to dry them ; and receiving which back they again lay hold of the hand and kiss it, and then retire to the station with the servant near the door. Mother, daughter, and man servant, are all alike candidates to take the cup and kiss the hand ; and, in point of etiquette, it matters not to which of them the guest delivers it. They seldom sit down in his presence, and never without much entreaty, even though the state of their health should be such as to render it improper for them to stand ; afraid that by so doing they should V" .*- ^ j .1, ! [ 1 1 1 i':.i . i'i II r ) .1 "1, if- ^l-s;; ■l■■ fl t hi i - • l^ u kti;. 142 IKADl': AND MANUFACTUkK. be tliouglit deficient in respect to their visitor. The Armenian ladies have a sedate and pleasing manner, with much of the Madonna countenance ; their eyes are generally dark, and their complexion florid ; but they arc rarely enriched with that soft, intelligent expression which characterizes the eye of the Greek or the Jewish female. The Abyssinians and Maronites are but few in num- ber, and as for the Copts, their number is so insignifi- cant that they might well be omitted as a distinctive part of the population. There is still one remarkable part of the motley population of Jerusalem — the Maugrabins. Of these people, who almost exclusively live in the Harat el Maugrabe (that is, street of the Maugrabins,) we may remark that they are a people of western Barbary ; and some of them are said to be descendants of the Moors, who were driven from Spain by T^erdinand and Isabella. These exiles were charitably received in the Holy City; a mosque was built for their use, and bread, fruit and money are even yet distributed among them. The heirs of those elegant architects of the Alhambra are become porters of Jerusalem, and are much sought after on account of their intelligence, and, as courtiers, are esteemed for their swiftness. What would Saladin and Richard of England say, if, suddenly returning to the world, they were to find the Moorish champions trans- formed into the door-keepers of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Christian Knights represented by brethren of the mendicant order ! There is so little either of trade or manufacture in Jerusalem, that a very few lines will suffice for what relates to that subject. The regular and large expendi- ture of the monk sand other wealthy residents, greatly increased by the influx of pilgrims, between Christmas and Easter, furnishes the most important source of sub- sistence and profit to the resident traders. Jerusalem has one manufacture which is greatly in demand, not only for home sales, but for exportation, via Jaffa to Spain, Portugal, and Italy. The flourishing mg of tl AMUI.KTS. '43 manufacture in question consi.sis -^C crucifixes, beads, shells, rcliquiaries, and the like matters. The extent to which these are made is immense, and many Jew and Armenian speculators realize large fortunes by export- ing them. The shells — mostly in imitation of the "scallop shell," inseparable from our immemorial notion of the I'ilgrim to the Holy Land, — are rudely but in- geniously cut. Sometimes they are fashioned into clasps for the zones or waist-belts of the Greek women, and they meet with a ready sale in Cyprus, Rhodes, and other islands of the Archipelago. Strings of beads — no less in u.se among the Moslems than among Catholics — are also very extensively manufactured ; some from date-stones, and others from a very hard wood called Mecca wood, which, after the beads are made, is dyed red, black, and yellow. Some of these beads are large, but the smaller ores are most in request, and those which are old 3*"^- preferred to new ones on account of the polish which long u.se gives- to them. Beads and amu- lets against the plague are also manufactured from the limestone of the Dead Sea ; and it is just possible that these amulets may have some power in neutralizing in- fectious miasmata, from the sulphurretted hydrogen which enters into its composition. With but this one manufacture of any noticeable extent, and relying for internal trade upon the classes already spoken of, the influx of money into the Holy City must yet be con- siderable. Not only are many of the inhabitants, more especially many of the Jews and Armenians, very rich, and an infinitely larger number moderately so, but a heavy tribute is exacted by the Turkish auth . critics. The Pasha of Damascus, within the limits of whose government the Holy City falls, has his own and the Sublime Porte's interests personally attended to by the Mozallam, or military governor of Jerusalem ; the Mufti who is at the head of both the judicial and ecclesiastical departments, and holds his appointment direct from Con.stantinople ; the Capo- Verde, or superintendent of the Mosque of Omar ; the Moula Cadi, or chief of the police ; and the Soubaski, or town-major. .' ii»i 't: m It 144 ORix^NTAL COSTUMES, \ 1 iiui 1 1 t h ; 1 1 f It ' 1 1 j .,1 ,:.,,, ■ i ' '* 1 ri .( 1 ■ 1 ' t i'- j .. ■ :: \t i '; ■5 ( ,':: ^^ ri 111 J U H J^ ■-'■■< Lli; Wc have merely glanced at a portion of Mount Zion ; but ere we leave Jerusalem we must give a brief descrip- tion of it as it now appears in its two divisions — Mount Zion within, and Mount Zion without, the walls. Within the walls, Mount Zion is crowned, on the site, and nearly at the summit, by the building and the sur- rounding gardens of the Armenian convent ; by far the most magnificent in Jerusalem, it contains, besides the accommodations for the mo!iks themselves, a thousand -chambers appropriated to the use of pilgrims ! And even more than that number annual!)' visit the convent from Armenia, Persia and Turkey. Some of these may be, and probably are, too poor to swell the revenues of the convent, but the greater majority pay sums far beyond a mere compensation for the provisions and shelter afforded them. The apartments occupied by the Armenian patriarch and clergy are small, but well furnished, and laid with very rich Persian carpets. The attire, too, of these ecclesiastics is rich and Oriental ; the dresses in which they officiate are the most sumptuous we ever saw, excepting those on some dignitaries in St. Peter's at Rome. Their church has two altars decked with rich mitres, embroidered capes, crosses both of gold and silver, crownii, chalices, and other church utensils with- out number. In the middle of the church is a pulpit made of tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl, with a beau- tiful canopy or cupola over it of the same fabric. The tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl are so exquisitely mingled and inlaid in each other that the work far exceeds the material. Though small it is lofty, and crowned by a central dome, and being entirely free of pews or stalls of any description, looks considerably larger than it really is. The walls are everywhere covered with pictures ; they are executed in the worst taste, yet from the mere profusion of their numbers and gaiety of their coloring, they produce on the whole an agreeable effect. The pillars of the church and offices of the society, as well as the doors leading to it, and the inner walls, arc all cased with porcelain tiles, painted in blue pavei is cai ing smal Jame behej white and ness MOSQUK OF THE PROPHET DAVID. »45 blue with crosses and other sacred devices. The Mosaic pavement is the most beautiful of its kind. The whole is carefully covered with rich Turkey carpets, except- ing only a small space before the great altar. In a small recess on the left is shown the sanctuary of St James, thought to be on the spot on which he was beheaded ; and this is ornamented with sculpture in white marble, with massy sil^'er lamps, and gilding, and painting, producing altogether a surprising rich- ness of eflfect. The door which leads to this is still more beautiful, and is composed entirely of tortoise- shell, mother-of-pearl, gold, and silver, all exquisitely inlaid. Quitting the city by the Zion gate the first object that meets the eye of the traveller is a long and dingy- looking Turkish mosque, situated on the middle of Mount Zion. It is called the Mosque of the Prophet David, and is said to be built over his tomb, which is still exhibited in the interior, and is held in the greatest possible veneration by the Mussulmans. The Santons belonging to this mosque arc the most powerful in Jerusalem. A part of this building having formerly been the church of the Coenaculum, an upper room was pointed out to us as the identical room in which our Savior ate that supper with His disciples to which the Christian world owes its most solemn and touching sacrament. We may very briefly as well as decisively dispose of this as.sumption by calling the attention of our readers to the fact that thirty-nine years after that event not only the walls but every house in Jerusalem had been razed to the foundations, and the ground plouglied up by the Roman soldiers, in order that they might dis- cover the treasures which they supposed that the unfor- tunate Jews had hidden under their feet. Between the right of this mosque and the gate of the city a small Armenian chapel occupies the site of the palace of Caiapha.s, remarkable for nothing but that the stone which closed up the door of the Holy Sepulchre is built in an altar at the upper end of it, to be kissed and 1 I ':j ^H-^tf y:ri ' 1 i' iV ^1 -\'}'i ^ i '^ f ' i ^ l-'' , J t) [' i i ■• ^^ilil i ii 1' . ■AJU ii L 146 MOUNT ZIDN. C.ircsst.d, like other precious relics. It is an unpolished block of com[)act limestone, the same with the rock on which the city statids, and does not, like the block of marble in [>resent use, carry on its face the refutation of its havin^f once served the office attributed to it, though wc confess there is almost as little probability that it ever did so. We may mention a burial-ground a little to the west of the chapel, and dismiss with deserved brevity the places impudently pointed out as those " where the Vir- gin Mary expired and the cock crew to Peter," and pro- ceed to describe the present aspect of Mount Zion. At the time when we visited the sacred ground, one part of it supported a crop of barley, another was undergoing the labor of the plough, and the soil that was turned up consisted of stone and lime, such as is usually met with in the foundations of ruined cities. The Mount is nearly a mile in circumference, is highest on the w .-st side, and towards the east falls down in broad terraces on the upper part of the mountain, and narrow ones on the side as it slopes down toward the brook Kedron. Each ter- race is divided from the one above it by a low wall of dry stone, built of the ruins of this celebrated spot. The terraces near the bottom of the hill are still used as gar- dens, and are watered from the Pool of Siloam. They chiefly belong to the inhabitants of the village of Siloa, immediately opposite. VVe have here another remark- able instance of the special fulfilment of prophecy — " Therefore for your sakes shall Zion be ploughed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps." VVe may remark that Jerusalem must anciently have had a copious supply of water very unusual to the cities of western Asia, and there can be no doubt that to this circumstance much of its beauty and salubrity, and no small part of the fertility of the neighboring country, were due. Mxy not much of its decline in all these respects be attributable to the destruction of wells and aqueducts, consequent, indeed, upon war, but by no means the least fatal of its forms of ravage and desola- tion ? A " KNOHIiY CITY. 147 Wc shall conclude this chapter with M.irk Twain's description of Jerusalem, in order that the reader may have an opportunity of observing how the notable ob- jects, as well as the superstitions of the Holy City, appear when treated by the pen of the huinorist : A fast walker could ^'o outside the walls of Jerusalem and walk entirely around the city in .in hour. I do not know how else to make one understand how small it is. The a[)pearance of the city is peculiar. It is as knobby with countless little domes as a prison door is with bolt- heads. ICvery house has from one to half-a-dozen of these white-plastered domes of stone, broad and low, sitting in the centre of, or in a cluster upon, the flat roof. Wherefore, when one looks down from an emin- ence upon the compact mass of houses (so closely crowded together, in fact, that there is no appe ir.mce of streets at all, and so the city looki solid), he sees the knobbiest town in the world, except Const, mtinople. It looks as if it might be roofed, from centre to circumfer- ence, with inverted saucers. The monotony of the view is interrupted only by the great Mosque of Omar, the Tower of Hippicus, and one or two other buildings that rise into commanc'nvi" prominence. The houses are generally two-story high, built stongly of masonry, whitewashed or plastered outside, and have a cage of wooden lattice-work projecting in front of every window. To reproduce a Jerusalem street it would only be necessary U) up-end a chicken- coop and hang it before each window in an alley of American houses. The streets are roughly and badly paved witii stone, and are tolerably crooked — enough so to make each .street appear to close together constantly and come to an end about a hundred yards ahead of a pilgrim as long as he chose to walk in it. Projecting from the top of the lower story of many of the houses is a very nar- row porch-roof or .shed, without supporters from below; and I have several times seen cats jump across the .street, from one shed to the other, when out calling. The cats could have jumped double the distance without Ih li i 4.M ,IJ1, hM& r \ I Mil j j, I ' H 1 V : It 1 riJ 1 uii 1 iSM IS 148 STREETS OF JERUSALEM. extraordinary exertion. I mention these things to give an idea of how narrow the streets are. If a cat an jump across them without the least inconvenience, it is hardly necessary to state that such streets are too nar- row for carriages. These vehicles can not navigate the Holy City. STREET SCKNK IN JERUSALEM. The population of Jerusalem is composed of Mos- lems, Jews, Greeks, Latins, Armenians. Syrians, Copts, Abyssinians, Greek Catholics, and a handful of Protest- ants. One hundicd of the Litter sect are all that dwell now in this birthplace of Christianlcy. The nice shades of nationality comprised in the above list, and the Ian- THE savior's GRAVT, 149" guage spok^.i by them, are altc^ether too numerou:> to- mention, it seems to me that all the races and colors and tongues of the earth must be represented among the fourteen thousand souls that dwell in Jerusalem. Rags, wretchedness, poverty and dirt, those signs and symbols that indicate the presence of Moslem rule more surely than the cresting flag itself, abound. Lepers, cripples, the blind, and the idiotic, assail you on every hand, and they know but one word of one laiiguage apparently — the eternal " buckshcesh." To see the numbers of maimed, malformed, and diseased humanity that throng the holy places and obstruct the gates, one might suppose that tlie ancient days had come again, and that the angel of the Lord was expected to descend at any moment to stir the waters of Bcthesda. Jerusa- lem is mournful, and dreary, and lifeless. I would not desire to live here. One naturally goes first to the Holy Sepulchre. It is right in the city, near the western gat-.;. It and the place of the Crucifixion, and, in fact, every other place intimately connected with that tremendous event, .ire ini^fcniously massed to ether and covered by one roof — the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Entering the building, through the midst of the usual assemblage of beggars, one sees to his left a few Turki.sk guards — for Christians of different sects will not only quarrel, but fight, also, in this sacred place, if allowed to do it. Before you is a marble slab, which covers the Stone of Uiiv-ticn, whereon the Savior's body was laid to prepare it for burial. It was found necessary to con- ceal the real .stone in this way in order to save it from destruction. Pilgrims were too much given to chipping off pieces of it to carry home. Near by is a circular railing, which marks the spot where the Virgin stood when the Lord's body was anointed. Entering the great Rotunda, we stand before the most sacred locality in Christendom — the grave of Jesus. It is in the centre of the church, and imme- diately under the great dome. It is inclo.sed in a sort of little temple of yellow anc' white stone, of fanciful :^.;: I: '$ 150 PERFORMING MONKS. ■it I !l it'' ^ It Etil iiiiiil '^iiiii^ f • iiiii i • 1 1 i '11 ., L ^lii m design. Within the little temple is a portion of the very stone .vhich was rolled away from the door of the Sepulchre, and on which the angel was sitting when Mary came thitli';r " at early dawn." Stooping low we entered the vault — the Sepulchre itself It is only about six feet by seven, and the stone couch on which the dead Savior lay extends from end to end of the apartment and occupies half its width. It is covered with a marble slab which has been much worn by the lips of pilgrims. This slab serves as an altar now. Over it hang some fifty gold and silver lamps, which are kept always burning, and the place is otherwise scandalized by trumpery cyewgaws and tawdry orna- mentation. All sects of Christians (except Protestants) have chapels under the roof of the Holy Sepulchre, and each must keep to itself and not venture upon another's ground. It has been proven conclusively that they cannot worship together around the grave of the Savior of the world in peace. The chapel of the Syrian's is not handsome ; that of the Copts is the humblest of them all. It is notl.ing but a dismal cavern, roughly hewn in the living rock of the Hill of Calvary. In one side of it two ancient tombs are hewn, which are claimed to be tho^e in which Nicodemus and Joseph of .iramathea were buried. .A.S wi moved among the grc-at piers and pillars of another part of the church, we came upon a party of black-robed, animal-looking Italian monks, with can- dles in their hands, who were chanting something in Latin, and going through some kind of religious per- formance around a disk of white marble let into the floor. It was there that the risen Savior appeared to Mary Magdalen in the likeness of a gardner. Near by was a similar stone, shaped like a star — here the Mag- dalen herself stood at the same time. Mo-^ks were performing in this olace also. They perform every- where — all over the vast building, and at all hours. Their candles are always flitting about in the gloom, and making the dim old church more ciismal than there hard THE EXACT CENTRE OF TIIK EARTH. I5» is any necessity that it should be, oven though it is a tomb. The priests tried to show us, tlirough a snTall screen, a fra;4nient of the genuine Pillar of Flagellation, to which Christ was bound when they scourged him. But we could not see it, because it was dark inside the screen. Ifowcver, a baton is kept here, which the [)il- grim thru^•ts thr6ugh a hole in t!ie screen, ■•■.iid then he no long'M" doubts tliat the true Pillar of Flagellation is in there. He cannot have any tixcu.ie to doubt it, for he can feel it with the stick'. Me can feel it as distinct- ly .-.s he ccHild feel any thing. Not far from here was -i niche wherv. lh:y u-;.;d to preserve a i)iece of the True Cross, but it was gone now. This piece of the cross was discovered in tlu- .-.ixteunth century. The Latin priests say it was stolen , iif-j). I 'f ! ':! i'l '''■■'• ! ' ■ . i 152 A SCEPTIC CONVINCED. n J ^' i* \ . ;■ I ! m be the earth's centre, ages ago, and that when Christ was upon earth he set all doubts upon the subject at rest for ever, by stating with his own lips that the tradition was correct. Remember, he said that that particular column stood upon the centre of the world. If the cen- tre of the world changes, the column changes its position accordingly. This column has moved tin-ee tiu'.es, of its own accord. This is because, in great convulsions of nature, at three different times, masses of the earth — whole ranges of mountains, probabi}' — have flown off into space, thus lessening the diameter of the earth, and changnig the exact locality of its centre by a point or two. This is a very curious and interesting circum- stance, and is a withering rebuke to those philosophers who would make us believe that it is not po.ssible for any portion of the earth to fly off into space. To satisfy himself that this spot was really the centre of the earth, a sceptic once paid well for the privilege of a.scending to the dome of the church to see if the suii gave him a shadow at noon. He came down perfectly convinc':d. The day was very cloudy and the sun threw no shadous at alT; but the man was satisfied that if the sun had come out and made shadows, it could not nave made any for him. Proofs like this are not to be set aside by the idle tongues of cavilers. To such as are not bigoted, and are willing to be convinced, they carry a conviction that nothing can ever shake. If even greater proofs than these I have mentioned are wanted to satisfy the headstrong and the foolish that tlis is the genuine centre of the earth, they are Ifere. The greatest of them lies in fact that from under this very column was taken the dust from zv/iich Adam was made. This can surely be regarded in the light of a settler. It is not likely that the original first man would have been made from an inferior quality of earth when it was entirely convenient to gi;t first quality from the world's centre. This will strike any reflecting mind forcibly. Tliat Adam was formed of dirt procured from this very spot is amply proven by the fact that in six thousand years no man has been able to prove that the m ADAM'S GRAVE. 153 dirt was 7ioi procured here whereof he was made. It is a singular circumstance that right under the roof of this same great churcl). and not far from that illustr: us column, Adam himself, the father of the human race, lies buried. There is no question that he is actually buried in the grave which is pointed out as his — there can be none — because it has never yet been proven that that grave is not the grave in which he is buried. Tlie next place the guide took us to in the holy church was an altar dedicated to the Roman soldier who was of the military guard that attended at the crucifixion to keep order, and who — when the vail of the Temple was rent in the awful darkness that followed ; when the rock of Golgotha was split by an earthquake ; when the artillerv of heaven thundered, and in the bale- ful glare of the lightnings the shrouded dead flitted about the streets of Jerusalem — shook with fear and said, " Surely this was the Son of God ! " VVhere this altar stands now that Roman soldier stood then, in full view of the crucified Savior — in full sight and hearing of all the marvels that were transpiring far and wide about the circumference of the Hill of Calvary. And in this self-same spot the priests of the Temple beheaded him for those blasphemous words he had spoken. In this altar they used to keep one of the most curious relics that human eyes ever looked upon — a thing that had power to fascinate the beholder in some mysterious way and keep him gazing for hours together. It was nothing less than the copper plate Pilate put upon the Saviors cross, and upon which he wrote, " This is the Kino of the Jews." Still marching through the venerable Church of the Holy Sepulchre, among chanting priests in coarse long robes and sandals ; pilgrims of all colors and many nationalities, in all sorts of strange costumes ; under dusky arches and by dingy piers and columns ; through a sombre cathedral gloom freighted with smoke and incense, and faintly starred with scores of candles that appeared suddenly and as suddenly disappeared, or I 1 iCf- 1 ,1 ?! H^! *l r I »54 DOUBTFUL RELICS. drifted mysteriously hither and thither about the dis- tant aisles liUe ghostly jack-o'-lanterns — we came at last to a small chapel which is called the "Chapel of the mockinf^." Under the altar was a fragment of a marble column ; this was the scat Christ sat on when he was reviled, ;ind mockingly made King, crowned with a crown of thorns and sceptered with a reed. It was here that they l.-'lindfolded him and struck him, and said in derision, "l^()phcs}' wlio it is that .^"niuLe thee." The tradition that this is the identical spot of the mocking is a very ancient one. The guide said that Saewulf was the first to mention il. I do not know Sai.widf, but still I cannot well refuse to accept hi.s testimony — none of us can. We pa.ssed on and halted bt fore Ihe tomb of Mel- chisedeck ! \'ou will remember Alelchisedcck, no doubt ; he was the king \vho came out dml levied a tribute on Abraham the time that ];e pursued Lot's captors to Dan, and took all their pn)pert\ from them. This was about four thousand years ago. and .Melchise- deck died sliortlj' afterw.ird. However, his ton^b is in a good state of preservation. When one enters the church of the Holy Si ])ulchre, the Sepulchre itself is the first thing he tlesires to see, aiid reallv is almost the first thing lie does see. The next thing he has a strong yearning to see is the spot where the Saviour was crucified. But this they exhibit last. It is the crowning glory of the j^lace. One is grave and thoughtful when he stands in the little Tomb of the Savior; he could not well be otherwise in such a place — but he has not the slightest possible belief that ever the Lord lay there, and so the interest he feels in the spot is very, very greatly marred by that reflection. He looks at the place where Mary stood, in another part of the church, and where John stood, and Mary Magdalen ; where the mob derided the Lord ; w here the angel sat ; where the crown of thorns was found, and the true cross ; where the risen Saviour appeared — he looks at all these places with interest, but with the same conviction he felt in the case of the LOCAMTV OF THK CRUCIFIXION. »5$ Sepulchre, that there is nothing genuine about them, and that they are imaginary holy pl;lCe^ created by the monks. Hut the i)lacc of the Cricifixion affects him differently. He fully believes thr.t he is looking upon the very spot where the Savior gav; up his life. lie remembers that Christ was very celebrated, long before be came to Jerusalem ; he knows that his fame was so great that crowds followed him all the time ; he is aware tiiat hi entrj* into the city produced a stirring .sensation, and that his reception was a kind of ovation ; he cannot over-look the fact that when he was cruci- fied there were very many in Jerusalem who believed he was the true Son of God. To publicly execute such a personage was sufficient in itself to make the locality of the execution a memorable place for ages ; added to this, the storm, the darkness, the earthquake, the rend- ing of the vail of the Temple, and the untimely waking of the dead, were events calculated to fix the execution and the scene of it in the memory of even the mo.st thoughtless witness. F'athers would tell their sons about the strange atifixir and point o'.it the spot ; the son.s would transmit the story to their children, and thus a period of tliree hundred years would easily be spanned — at whicli time Helena came and built a church uoon Calvary to commemorate the death and burial of the Lord iind preserve the sacred place in the memories of men ; since that time there has always been a church there. It is not possible that there can be any mistake about the locality of Crucifi.xion. Not half a dozen persons knew where they buried the Saviour, perhaps, and a burial is not a startling event, any how ; there- fore, we can be pardoned for unbelief in the Sepulchre, but not in tlie place of the Crucifi.xion. Five hundred years hence '.here will be no vestige of liunker Hill monument K:ft", but America will still know where the battle was f )ught and where Warren fell. The Cruci- fixion of Christ was too notable an event in Jerusalem, and the Hill of Calv-ary made too celebrated by it, to be forgotten in the short space of three hundred years. I climbed the stairway in the church which brings one to ' i i \U I, • ( i I I t* 156 WHERE THE TRUE CROSS STOOD. ';?'« m i't the top of the small inclosed pinnacle of rock, and look- ed upon the place where tlie true cross once stood, with a far more abs(;rbin,<4" interest than I had ever felt in anythinj^ earthl)' before. I could not believe that the three holes in the top of the rock were the actual ones the crosses had stood in, but I felt satisfied that those crosses had .stood no ne,' • the place now occupied by them, that the fi-w feet of possible difference were a matter of no consequence. VVlien o!ic stands where the Sav ior was crucified, he finds it all he can do to keep it strictly befo'-e his mind t'-iat Christ was not crucified in a Ciitholic Church. lie must remind himself every now and the-i that the great event transpired in the open air, and not in a gloomy, candle -lij^dited cell in a little corner of a vast cliurch, up-stairs — ^a sm^dl cell all bejcweled and bespangled with flashy ornamentation, in execrable taste. Under a marble akar like a table, in a circular hole in the marble floor, corresponding with the one just under it 'v\ which the true cross stood, The first thing every one does is to kneel down and take a candle and examine this hole. Me does this strange prospecting with an amount of gr.ivity that can never be estimated or appreciated by a man who has not seen the opera- tion. Then he holds his candle before a richly engrav- ed picture of the Savior, done on a massy slab of gold, and wonderfully rayed and starred with diamonds, which hangs abovr; the hnle w'^hin the al'^ar, and his solemnity changes to lively aumir-aon. He rises and faces the fine wrought figures of the Savior and the malefactors uplifted upon their crosses behind th. altar, and bright with a metallic lustre o*' niiMiy colors. ^Ic turns next to the fig'U'es ciose to thern of thu V'^irgin and Mary Magdalen ; next to the rift in the living rock made by the earthquake at the time of the Crucifixion, antl an extension of which he had seen bef:s could have at last but one effect — they shook his confidence. Since then the Wandering Jew has carried on a kind of desultory to\'ing with the most promising of the aids and implements of destruction, but with small hope, as a general thing. He has speculaterl some in cholera and railroads, and has taken almost a lively interest in infer- nal machines and patent medicines. He is old, now, and grave, as becomes an age like his; he indulges in no light amusements, sa\'e that he goes sometimes to exe- cutions and is fond of funerals. There is one thing he cannot avoid ; go where he will about the world, he must never fail to report in Jerusalem every fiftieth jear. Only a year or two ago he was here for the thirty-seventh time since Jesus was crucified on Calvary. They say that many old people, who are here now, saw him then, and had seen liiui before. He looks alwaj's the same — old and withered, and liollow-eyed and listless, save that there is about him something that seems to suggest that he is looking for some one-- expecting some one — the friends of his youth, perhaps. But the most of them are dead now. MODERN TOURISTS. l6l He .ilways pokes about the old streets looking lone- some, making' his mark on a wall iicie and there, and (.ycing the oldest biiildini^s with a sort friendly half interest ; and he sheds a dw tears at the threshold of his ancient d\veUin{^^ and bitter, bitter tear? they are. 'I'lien he collects his rent and leaves ac;ain. He has lieen seen standing; near the ("luirch of the Holy .ScjjuI- cre on many a st.irli'jiil ni,L;hl, for he has cherished .m iilea for many centuries th.it if he could onlj' enter there he could rest. lUit when he ai)pears the doors slam too with a crash, the earth trembles, and all the liLjlits in Jerusalem burn a ghastly blue! He does this every fifty years, just the same. It is hopeless; but then it is hard to break habits one has been eii;liteen luuulred \'ears accustomed to. The old tourist is far away on his wanderings now. How he must smile to see a parcel of blockheads like us gallopinj^f ab(nit the world, and lookinc^ wise, and ima5.n'iiin<( we are fmclincj out a '^ood deal abcnit it! He mu>t h.ive a consumin'j contempt for the i^morant, complaisant asses that go skurr) ing about the world in these railroading days and call it travelling. We are surfeited with sights. Nothing has any fas- cination for us now but the Church of the Holy Sepul- chre. We have been there every day, and have not grown tired of it; but we are weary of everything else. The sights are too many. They swarm about you at every step ; n o sintrle foot of 'n-ound i n al J erusalcm or within its neighborhood seems to be without a stirrmg and important history o( its own. It is a very relief to steal a walk of a hundred yards without a guide to talk unceasingly about every stone you stc[) upon, ages and ag s to the day when it and d rai you back achieved celebrity, It seems hardly real when I find myself leaning for a moment on a ruined wall, and looking //sZ/rss/r into the historic pool of Bethesada. I did not think such things coii/i/ be so crowded together as to diminish their interest. But in ^erious tnth, we have been drifting about for several days, ueing our eyes and our ears I ! ( i ,.(?' ! ' HI V I'. I ! i ' '" t6: EASTERN TRADITIONS. M I'i^ :[!rt I mm u ii'f 1.? ii ■^1 more frum a sense of duty than any hif^her and worthier reason. And too oftci. we have been glad when it was time to f:jo hoiu': and be distressed no more about illus- trious localities. Our pik^^rims compress too much into one day. One can gorge sight to repletion as well as sweetmeats. Since we breakfasted tliis morning, we have seen enough to have furnislied us food for a year's reflection if we could have seen the various objects with comfort and looked upon them deliberately. We visited the pool of ilczeki.di, where David saw Uriah's wife coming from the bath, and fell in love with her. We went out of the city by the Jaffa gate, and 'of course wero told many tiling: about its Tower of liip- picus. We rode across the Valley of Hinnon, between two of the Pools of Gihon, and by an aqueduct built by Solo- mon, which ."vtill conveys watet to the city. We ascended the Hill of Evil Counsel, where Judas received the thirty pieces of silver, and we also lingered a moment under the tree a venerable tradition says he hanged himself on. We descended to the canon again, and then the guide began to give name and history to every bank and boulder we came to: "This was the Field of Blood; these cuttings in the rocks were shrines and temples of Moloch ; here they sacrificed children ; yonder is the Zion Gate ; the T}'ropean Valley ; the Hill of Ophel ; here is the junction of the Valley of Jehosaphat — on your right is the Well of Job." We turned up Jehosa- phat. 1 he recital went on. " This is the Mount of Olives ; this is the Hill of Offense ; the nest of huts is the Village of Siloani; here, yonder, everywhere, is the King's Garden; under this great tree Zacharias, the high priest, was murdered ; yonder is Mount Moriah and the Temple wall; the tomb of Absalom; the tomb of St. James; the tomb of Zacharias; beyond are the Garden of Gethsemanc and the tomb of the Vngin Mary ; here is the Pool of Siloam, and — " ORIENTAL BEGGARS. 763 We said wc would dismount and quench our thirst, and rest. We were burning up with the heat. We were faih'ng under the accuniuhited fatigue of days and days of ceaseless marching. All were willing. The Pool is a deep, walled ditch, through which a clear stream of water runs, that comes from under Jeru- salem somewhere, and passing through the J'ountain of the Virgin, or being supplied w ith it, reaches this place by way of u tunnel of heavy masonry. This famous pool looked exactly as it lookeJ in Solomon's time, no (ioubt, and the .:)ame dusky, Oriental women came down in tiieir old Oriental way, and carried i)'J jars of the \v Iter on their heads, just as ihey ilid three thousand years ago, and just as they will do fifty thousand years licnce if any of them are still left ..;.iI'J •m ti 166 BLTHANY. vi I'll 3:1' ■J i m" cheat ignoraiice, the fcclinfjs of the thoughtful and rapt Christians are tried by the monks and ciceroni, who, at a short distance from the summit of this peak of Olivet, show an imprt-ssion which they aver to be the print of our Savior's left foot. Unfortunately for the truth of the legend, the very same and indisputable authority which assures us that hence (jur Savior (/id gaze down upon and weep over Jerusalem, al.so, and in the clearest, terms, assures us ihaL he did uo/ ascend from the sight of his wundering .;iul mourning yet exu'tant disciples; f(jr [Luke xxl\'. 50, 51] wc are expressl)- told that Our S.ivior at llothar.)-, and not there, "lifted up his liands and blessed thciii. And il came to pass, while he blessed thcin, he w.is parted lr(;m tiieiu, and carried up to Iieaven." Now lietliany is it no great distance from the .Mount of (,)Iives, not further than the summits them- selves 0. Ml! Jerus;dcm, and (me way to it is over the M(.)ui;t of .Jhv uL [he distance is suft^icient to be decisive upon the point, and to render the imip(xsture of the monks little h.-.s absurd than it is shameless. L'cthany is .lov a small poor village inh ihitcd by Arabs, and kiimvii i)\' the name of iCl-A/.irlyeh, that is, " the tov.ii of l.-azanis." It coishists of about thirty small hovels ; but its situation is beautiful and peaceful. A considerable number of fruit trees — olive, pomegranate, fig and .d:nond-— adorn its neighborhood. The numer- ous pilgrims by whom Beth.an}' is visited are shown a ruinous mass, apparently the reiuains of some t)ld cas- tle or tower, as the house of Lazarus, and a grotto near at hand is indicated as his tomb. The monks show, also, not only the houses of Mary Magdalen and Martha, but also " the identical fig-tree v\hich our Savior cursed." The third and fourth summits of Olivet .stands south of the other two, the fourth being the most southerly of all. On the third are tlie ruins of an Armenian convent, and the fourth h is also a convent o{ the same people. One of the most remarkable things about this hal- lowed mountain is, that the valuable trees to whicli it owetl its name are still, though only in occasional clumps, denizens e>f its soil. It is truly a curious and Mmm m ^i;i KETIILEUKM. 167 an interesting fact that, during a period of a little more than two thousand years, Hebnnvs, Assyrians, Romans, Moslems, and Christians, have been successively in pos- session of the rocky mountains of Pah-stine ; yet the olive still indicates its paternal soil, and is found at this day, upon the same spot which was called by the Plebrew writers M-^init Olive, and the Mount of (Jlives, eleven hundred years before the Christian era. Gazing from Mount Olive over the lower hills upon which Jerusalem is placed, the eye glances across the deep valley of Jchoshaph it, in modern as in ancient times the lavorite burial-place of the Jews. Occasion- ally the rocky .soil is broken by small patches of kind- lier soil, but the rocky formation predominates, and is in all directions excavated into tombs, some of them so vast as to indicate that those whose lifeless forms were laid within them must, during life, have been person- ages of state and station. Many of these tombs, small as well as large, are covered with Hebrew inscriptions. Both Jews and Mohammedans, — both probably guided by Joel iii- 1 1, 12, believe that in this valley all mankind will be summoned by the dead trump to their final judgment. Next to Jerusalem, BETilLKilKM is the most inter- esting spot in the Holy Land to the Christian traveller. I'^ollowing the newer, or more easterly, of two roads thither, the traveller leaves Jerusalem by the Jaffa gate, and descends into the ravine on the left of the Pool of llezekiah, and then turning to the south-west, toils over a rugged and difficult road, a portion of which is the valley of Rephaim, (the frequent battle-field of the Jews and the Philistines,) chiefly of barren rock, though in some parts interspersed with patches of sickly grain, and in others with a more luxurious growth of coarse i^rass enamelled with a variety of wild flowers. Bethlehem, as seen from a distance, present a some- what imposing aspect, being seated on ii.^ crest of a hill that stretches from right to left, and cci^imands t'u^ whole expanse of a deep and wide valley. Rising con- 10 • \i 1 : 4 1 1 ■*• • f A t 'H t; I :i iipiilil^'' m 1 68 CAVE OF THE NATIVITY. 11 spicuously and even grandly above the other buildin,^s, the first object to fix the eye of the beholder is an em- battled and strongly walled monastry, which is erected over the Cave of the Nativity, and which, especially from the most distant point at which it becomes visible, might well be mistaken for some antique and feudal stronghold, ('"rom this point the road meanders round the head of the valley in which the heavenly vision announced to the trembling shepherds who watched their flocks in Bethlehem the incarnation and birth of the great Savior of mankind. The half nomade popu- lation of Palestine have, probably from the earliest days of their existence, taken up their more or less perma- nent abode in natural or artificial grots and caves ; and there is nothing so outrageously improbable in the sup- position that both the humble inn and its dependent stable, which the New Testament assures us was the scene of the Nativit)', were excavations of this sort. The original edifice is said to have been destroyed b)- the fierce followers of Mohammed as early as the year 1263, and the present monastery was probably built at a not much more recent date. The building is of vast extent, and its accommodations are divided, both as to residence and worship, among the Armenian, Greek, and Latin or Roman Catholic monks ; and on certain high festival days they all are admitted to worship before the altars which mark the consecrated spots. An altar here is dedicated to the wise men of the l^ast, and at the foot of this altar, a star, of marble, is said to be immediately under that point of the hea\'ens in which the star of Jk^thlehem stood stationary to mark out the birthplace of the Saviour, and as immediately over the spot, in an underground church, at which that glorious birth took place. The .so-called Cave of the Nativity, an underground church or crypt, is reached by descending some fourteen or fifteen steps and traversing a narrow passage. The walls of this crypt and its floor are of marble. Above this, and beneath an arch cut into the solid rock, is a marble altar ; an'l at about seven or eight yards from f^-t POOLS OF SOLOMON. 169 that, in a low recess in the rock, is a large block of marble hollowed out to represent a manger. In front of it is the altar of the Magi. This imposing crypt, more imposing to the imagination than the most splen- did of all the churches upon the surface of the earth, is splendidly illuminated by thirty-two lamps of various degrees of costliness and beauty which have at various jDcriods been presented by as many Christian princes and potentates. There are other crypts and grottoes shown here, but we need mention only that of St. Jerome, whose tomb is shown — though his remains were carried to Rome — as also is a crypt called his oratory, in which he is said to have made the Romish version of the Bible, known as the Vulgate. This statement has at least the show of probability, inasmuch as St. Jerome indubitably passed a considerable portion of his life here. Bethlehem, being only about si.v miles from Jeru- salem, and placed on a similar geological formation, .shares with it an abundance of water such as is not often met with in the East, and the land around is extremely fertile, producing large returns of figs, grapes, olives, scsamum, and grain, even for the par- tial cultivation which it receives. The present inhabi- tants of the village number about two thousand ; but the numerous ruined buildings attest the extent of Bethlehem as having formerly been greater than it now is. Here, as at Jerusalem, the chief occupation of the people is that of manufacturing beads, rosaries, cruci- li.xes, and other relics, which they vend to the pilgrims. At about three miles to the south-west of Bethle- hem are three pools, called the Pools of Solomon ; which are works of considerable magnitude, worthy of the renowned sovereign whose name they bear. They are fed from fountains in the neighborhood, and serve to supply a perennial stream of water to Jerusalem, by means of an aqueduct which passes Bethlehem. The reference, in Canticles iv. 12, to a "sealed fountain" is commonly supposed to apply to these pools, of which tradition relates that King Solomon shut up these ■ f ■ '! m % i i .■* 1 W i Wt ^' ■: ■ . m ■ 1 ; 170 THE DKAD SEA. <:y t i' ijii ' 1 f R 1 . ! ' : ^ !1' ,' . 11 1 J officers belonging to the American navy, under the com- mand of Lieutenant Lynch, made a few years since, (in 1848) of this famous hike. Lr.unching a boat upon the Lake of Tiberias, they descended the Jordan to its out- let in the Dead Sea. I'rom the measurements and other observations of Lieutenant Lynch and liis party, it ap- pears that tlie whole length of the Dead Sea, from its northern to its southern extremity, is forty-six miles, and its greatest breadth about eleven miles. It is en- closed on either side by high mountains, which rise to two thousand feet and upwards above the level of its waters. The dejJth is very great, seldom less than 1000 feet, and in the deepest part upwards of 1 300 feet. To- wards its southern extremity, lowever, a shallow gulf — in some measure divided from the main body of the sea by a projecting peninsula which juts out from its eastern shores — forms its termination in the direction of the land of I'xlom, and varies somewhat in extent, as the wet or dry seasons alternately prevail. The most remarkable circumstance connected with the Dead Sea, as a geographical feature, is the extraor- dinary depression of its basin — uot merely below the level of the adjoining country, but below the general level of the waters of the globe. The surface of the Dead Sea is ascertained to be upwards of thirteen hun- dred feet lower tlinn the level of the ' fediterranean. The Sea of Galilee, which is sixty miles io the northward, is 328 feet below the same level : so that the river Jordan which connects the two, flows through a deep and nar- row ravine, with a rapid descent. The Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, is, in fact a deep depression, or cleft, whicli runs through nearly the whole length of the Holy Land in the direction of north and south, and which is bor- dered on either hand by high cliffs — the termination of the elevated plateau-regions that lie beyond. Jerusa- lem, which is oily 17 miles in direct distance from the nearest point o»" the Dead Sea, lies at a height of 2500 feet adovL- the Mediterranean, while the surface of the Dead Sea itself is 1300 feet Mozu the .same level. There is thus a difference of not much less than four thousand SPECIFIC GKAVITV OK ITS WATERS. 1/3 feet — or nearly tlirr-e-quarters of a mile — between the two. The deep and precipitous ravine through which the brook Cedron flows is evidence of the fact to the eyes of the traveller. The Dead Sea has no outlet for its waters, which are hence — as is nearly always the case with lakes of such a character — salt; and they are to such a degree which exceeds that of almost any other known body of water on the globe. The water continually [)ourcd in by the Jordan and other streams is of course disposed of by evajioration, whicii is at all times in raj)id jjrogrcss, ow- ing to the intens'> heat of the tract of countr)- in which tlie Dead Sea lies. This heat is a consec[uence of the great depression of the district below the ailjacent coun- tr'', and of its being so entirely shut in by the surround- ing UK^untains. A dense vapor is often seen rising from the surface of the Dead Sea. I'ieces of asphalt, or bitu- men, are found floating on its waters, and arc also collected in lum^js upon its western shores, h'rom this circumstance is deri\cd the name which ttic Romans gave it — the Asphaltic Lake (Lacus Asphaltites). Besides their intense saltness, tlie waters of tiie Dead Sea are distinguished by their great specific gra\ity, consequent upon the large amount oi' brin)' matter whicii they hold in solution. This gravity is as 1.2 ii com- pared to distilled water as 1 ; and nearly twenty-five out of every hundred parts of the water have been found by scientific experiment to consist of particles of saline mat- ter. Coupling this fact with the account of this region given in Deuteronomy, — "a land of brimstone, and sa/t, and burning," — may we not reasonably ci :V' .;)« ■ 9v w W ot^ '74 HKHRON. 'i ',' \f^\^ ■i i\ Ml I Irfi sir!- ill Illation to external nature. Hut it is incorrect to suppose that there is an\-thinj.j destructive to animal life, other than the absence of fooil and shelter ; yet that represen- tation has been carried so far that it has been j^raveiy asserted that birds cannot attempt even to fly across the lake without perishin^^ Later information and espcciaM)- that derived from Lieutenant Lynch and his companions during their sur- vey of this f.imous lake, shows conclusively that no fish lives in its waters, the intense saltnc of which is, no doubt, fatal to animal life. Like all the rest of the superstition connected with this lake, the assertion that nothint^ can sink in its waters is rather an cxaf^j^eration than a [)ositive untruth. Owin;^ no doubt, to its t;reat specific gravity, the water is, in fact, remarkable buoyant. We found when swiin- niiuLj in it that it was indeetl an easy matter to float (mi it and very difficult to sink. The city of I Ikhkox was at once one of the most an- cient [see Hook of Numbers, chap. xii. 22] and one of the most distiiiL^au'shed, of the cities of the Holy Land ; here Abraham was buried, here the warrior and bard Kinp;' David long held his court, and here was born John the Haptist, the !.^reat jicrcursor of our Lord. It was situated in the hill country of Jucl;ea, midway between Philistis and the western shore of the Dead Sea. These high claims to notice caused it to be in former times much visited by the Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem, so that it is at the present day one of the most familiarl)- known places in the IIol\' Land. It is a small town, built upon the sloping sides of a narrow walle}-, in the midst of a district of great fertility, vineyards and olive plantations abountl in the neighbor- ing plains, and the sides of the adjacent lijUs are clothed with rich pastures. The houses of Hebron arc chiefly of stone, high and well built, with windows and flat roofs, on which are small domes ; the streets are in gen- eral not more than two or three yards in width, and the pavement is rough and difficult. Hut the bai:aars, which LAND (>v Tin. i'mi,isTixr:s. /J arc mostly covered, arc well furnished, aiul display .i considerable variety of f,fOods, anionj;' which the ^lass lamps, and riiv^s anil beads of colored [,dass, for the mapui'acture of which the town has loiii; been cele- brated, arc conspicuous. The inhabitants of Hebron have been variously esti- mated at from five to ten thousand, the lower of which numbers is probably nearer the truth ; they are nearly all Mohainmetlans. 'i'herc arc no residi.nt C'histians, but about a hundred families of .lews, to whom a sejjar- ate quarter of the town is allotted ; these are mostly of I'iuropean birth, and have emit^rateil hither for the purpose of havin() and three miles from the sea) is still important and flourishing. Tts situation on the main line of route between Syria and Egypt secures to it considerable caravan traffic. Gaza contains between fifteen and sixteen thousand inhabitants — a greater number than Jerusalem, which it bears the appearance of exceeding in the extent of its crowded dwellings. It is, therefore, the largest town which the Holy Land contains in the present day. The ancient city api)ears tt) have bcc n chiefly situated on a low round liill of considerable extent, and elevated about forty or fifty feet above the plain ; part of this is still covered with houses ; but the greater number stretch -uil NAULOUS. 177 out to the eastward on the plain below, and are mostly built of mud or unburnt bricks, thouL,di those of the bet- ter class are of stone. The town is unwalled. The sea is not visible from Gaza, being hidden by a line of low sand lulls. Around the north, east and south sides of the cit)- are numerous f^ardens, in which apricots, mul- berries, antl othur fruits are cultivated ; many palm trees are also scattered about, and beyond the j^ardens on the north is a vast _!^ro\-e of oli\'c trees, which are hu\L,^e and productive. The soil, indeed, is everywhere rich, and produces [grains and fruits in abundance, ihe town has some manufrictures of soap and cotton ; the bazaars are well supplied v.itli w tires- -1: etter, indeed, than those of JerusShiloh of sacred narrative. The latteT now consists only of ruins ; at the former place theri; is a small vi!la;_^e, with akhan (or caravanserai) for the reception of travellers. l'"ro;n Khan I.ubban tliere is a considerable op'Miini:; in the mountains alonr; the Nablous road, and fruitful and beautifvd \alle\'s lie to the ri^lit han.d. The hills immediately about Xablovis, which close tliis oi)enint^ to tlie north, ha\c .lU imposini;- eiVect. The whole as'pect of the countiy )•' reab;,'uls- the anci^Mit pro\ince of Sa- maria — a])peared to Dr. Wilson much more fei-tile in ^rain than furtiier to the soutli. The town of Nablou.s lies in a beautilul and fertile valle\-, wliicti stretches (in t!ie !;"eneral direction of east antl west) betv/eeii the opitosilc anil twin summits of F.bal and Geri/.im. The form;:r of th.ese moiuitains is to the northw.ird, the latter to the southward, of the valley, ali'ne which they ri^e to an elevation of about oi_i;hl huiid.retl feet. Their absolute elt.v.itioii above the sea is, of course, considerably i,n'eat, for the [^n'ound which forms tlieir base is part of tlie hi;_jh plateau of central I'alestine, and Xablous itself is stated to lie at a hcic^th of 1750 feet abovi,- the waters of the Mediter- ranean. The valley of Shechem presents one of tlu> most beautiful and invitin;.^ landscapes to be found in the Holy Land. It is abundant!)- irrii;ated by the water from numerous fountain^, and ils sides are for a CDUsid- lANKKX. 179 crable distance stutklcd with villages, many of which an. surrounded by cultivateil fields and olive [proves. The town of Nablous stretches ah^ng the north-eastern base of Gerizim, and is partly built upon its lower declivit}' ; the streets are iMrrow, the houses hiL;h and _<,amerally well built of slone; the bazaars good and well supplied. The ijojjvilation is estimated t(,> be about eight thousand, all Mohaininedans, with the e.\c<'[)tion of five hundred Chri>tians of the (ireek church, ab(jut a hundred and fift\' S.uiiruitans, and the saniu r iber of (ews. At the eastern entrance of the \alley, about a mile and a half distant from the town, is the spot tra- ditionally considered as the tomb of Joseph, though the present building is 01. 1\- a sn;all Turkish orator)- with a whitened dome, like the ordinar)' tombs of Mohamme- dan saints ; and a little further to tlu; south is Jacob's well, at which our Lortl conversed with the woman of Samaria (John iv. 6, 7). It is an excavation in the solid ruck, with a depth of thirty-five feet, and is gener.illy well supplied with water. Jknkkn lies at the entrance of the great \al!ey of ]".sdraelon, certainly the plain most remarkable, l)oth physically and historically, in the Hoi}- Land. This plain extends in the direction of east and west ,'bout twenty miles, and is only thirteen miles acro.ss, from north to south, in its widest part. It is known to the i.rabs in the present day by the n.ime of Merj Ibn AiiHr — that is, the plain of Hie sons of Amir, l-'rom Jeneen two roads lead across the plain to Nazareth, which lies nearl)- due north, anjong the hills of (ialilee, here in sight, and which bound the plain to the north and north-west, as the range of Mount Carmel and the northern hills of Samaria bound it to the west and .'^outh. The more (.a.stern of the road.s passes the village of ZcrccH, the Jezreel of Scripture. Mount Tabor stands on the north-eastern border af the jjlain, and the hills of Gilboa stretch along its e.istern side. At a further dis- tance to the north-eastward are the city and lake of Ti- bercas, to whici) we now propose to conduct our readers. ■*ij M£i i8o TIBERIAS. Tli!l",Kl.\s, now called Tubaria, was formerly one ol the chief towns of Galilee ; and received its oriL;;inal name from its founder, Herod, the tetrarch, who so named it in lujnor of his patron, the l-loman emperor Tib eruis. Tin ere is crreat reason hov\e\'er, tor sui)posn\ij that tliere was Ion*; before the time of Herod a consid- erable town on, or nearly on, this site : for we are told that im]:)ortant privile<^res were granted as inducements to people to settle there, a strong prejudice having at first existed against the place on account of its lia\'ing been built on ground thickl}' studded with ancient se[)ul- chres. It is e\en supposed by some, that Herod built his new city upon the site of the ancient Cinnen^th. The Herodian family seem to have taken a great interest in the city of Tiberias, tor Josephus — Anti([uities, book xi.\. entions that Herod Aurii)pa chose it -'s the ch; p. 7- -m scene of a magnificent entertainment which he .,ave to the kings of Comange, Mmesa, the lesser Armenia, I'on- tus, and Colchis. Subsetpiently to the fall (^f Jerusalem. Tiberias was the fax'orite abode of the rabbis and other learned Je ws. )fthc chiell)', perhaps, because it was also the residence o ])atriarch, who was supreme judge among the Jews. This important office became hereditary, and subsisted until the )'ear 429, when it was supj)ressed. Though its walls v.ere rebuilt and strengthened by Justinian, in the sixth century, Tiberias was tr.ken in the year 640, and during the reign of the I'.mperoi' Heraclius, by the Saracen Cali[)h Omar. Tlu cit}- has the lake of Gennesareth. or Sea of Galilee, on one of its sitles, and on the other sides it has high though rudely built flanked with circular t wal ()\vers. which remind the beholder of the Moorish fortresses of Spain. It is situatetl a little to the northward of some ver\' massi\e and extensive The builder of the modern remains o fat o rmer fortre- edifice vras the Sheikh Daker, liimself a native of Tibe- ria>, .md Iv: successfull)' defended the place against the I'n^li I of Sidon, thoutrh his mode of defence was an ex- T,- 1 ■' pr'r'iitive one. He iiad but six iron guns .f ■jiuill -aiiDie IP tl'ie w;u of artillery ; but high and ;on- : PH 1 rOPULATIOX OF Tir.ERIAS. tinuous rows of unccmcntcd stones were laid upon the top of the walls, so that they mi^ht be rolled down and crush the besiegers. The inhabitants of Tiberias have often liad disputes with the I'ashas of Damascus, who have come and planted their cannon a^jjainst the city anil ha\e sometimes beaten down i)art of the walls, but have never been able to take it. The tow n has two t^ates, and one of them is closed up; and thouj:^h the town had formerly been protected by a ditch, it has been filled up with cultivable soil. The Jews would seem to be somewhat numerous here in proportion to the size of the place, for we found two of their synagogues in about the middle of the town, similar in design though inferior in execution, to that of Jerusalem. There are a good though small bazaar, and two or three coffee-houses, but the houses in general are small and mean, some few, indeed, being of stone, but most of them of dried mud. The latest estimate of the population of Tiberias makes the number of its inhabitants fewer than two thousand, about eight hundred of u hom are Jews. There aie only a few families of Christians. Tiberias, with all the neighboring region of Galilee, suffered sexerely from an eartluiuake on the 1st (.'f Jan- uar)-. 1S37, The walls of the cit\\ ;md most of its l)uild- ini-s, were overthrown, and man\- hundred of the inhabi- tants were buried in the ruins. The effects of this awful visitation are ever\'\vliere plainl)- \'isible. The walls are in many places rent, broken, and breached ; e\'en the governor's palace is little better than a ruin. J'he whole place has a mean a[)[)earance from a distance, anil the aspect is not improved upon closer approach. Ikit if the modern Tubaria is thus paltr)-, not so was the ancient Tiberias. Hoth to the south and the north ot the existing town there are numerous and exiensi\e ruins. The old city extended to some distance to the ncM'th of the modern town, and also stretcheil alont/the lake as far as the baths of Emmaus, which are a full mile to the south of the modern town ; and at the northern oxtremit)- of the ruins are the remains of the ancient I '■ 1 '■< 182 ST. i'kti:r's ( iiuRCir. i'i ' ; ■ f ;- f t . i ■ (■ 'i 1 ^ 1; :, i ' i 1 .1 '. 1 j^ , 1 ^ Ml tifii i ./!5W!fI|) lis \..Mm I 1 • ?■*» :>!ff 1 i 1 ' 4 1 1 .1 i ^;^' Hkb rf;| > tv)\vn, which are discernible by means of the walls and other biiildin'^s, as well as bv fra-mie-nts of col unms, S( )nie of which are of beautiful red <{ranite. The waters of Enlniaus, or the baths, which name is still preser\'ed in the ;\rabic llammam, the modern name, have from a very remote period been hii;hly cele- brated for I'fficacv' in tumors, rheumatic pains, and even !^uut. The water is so hot that the hand can not endure it, and even after the water has ri'mained twelve iiours in the bath, to cixd it sufficienlK' for use, it is often at a temperature of abo\e lOO det^. These waters contain a strong solution ui common salt, witli a considcrabl-' ad- mixture of sulphur and iron. It has a strontj; sulphurous smell, and tastes bitter, and something like common s.i It. A moui^ the most interesting^ objects in Tiberias is an ancient cliureh dedicateil to St. Peter, and erected by tiu i-lmjjress Helena upon the spot on which (John xxi. I) our Lortl appeared to I'eter. This buildin^^, which stands close to the bank of the lake at the north-eastern ;uiL^le of the town, is a vaulted room about thirty feet lonL; In' fifteen in \\ idth and hei_t;ht. with four arched and open window s on either side, and one small window over the door. posltioti in the ■\'\\ e citv <■) f Tib erias (.)ccupies a hicrh rej^ards of the Jews, as it is one of the four Holy Citie; of the Talmud, because- Jacob is supposed to have re- sided here, ami it is supposed by the Talmud that from Lake 'l"il)i'rias the expected Messiah of the Jews is to rise. And it is an established belief amoni;' the Jews that the \\()rld w ill be resohx'd into its oriirinal chaos unless pra\ers be iieldressed to the (iod of Israel, at least twice in e\ er\' week, in each of the Holy Cities of the Talmud -namely, Tiberias, Safed, Jerusalem, and He- bron. When it is added that the Jews have the most entire reli^n'ous liberty here, it will readily be imagined that d'.'\(itees and pilt^rims flock from time to time especially as lari;e con- t fo to eacli ol these tour cities tri'^utions are made for them by missionaries sent for the jjurpose throuc;"h Syria, ah^nt; the shores of Africa ANNUAL TRIBUTE OF THE JEWS. 183 from Damictta to Mogadorc, along those of Europe from Venice to Gibraltar, and to Constantinople and the neighboring countries. As the missi(.)naries vehement- ly urge the dangers consequent up(jn the prescribed prayers being neglected in the Holy Cities, the Jews in all parts contribute most liberally, especially those of London and Gibraltar, the latter of uliom are said to send from 4000 to 5000 Spanish dollars annually. It is probable that great numbers of Jews annually pay a visit to each of the Holy Cities, with a view to ultimately settling in Jerusalem, and whatever toils and privations they may encounter on the way are held to be amply recompensed by the privilege of laying their l)ones in the land of their fathers. The large sums sent to Tiberias by the Jews of other countries seem to have had the seriously evil effect of causing a vast proportion of the population to fall into a state of sloth ; in a word, while all must live — and it is stated that no Jew can live tolerably at Tiberias at less than £'^0 per annum — the intelligent and the skilful are but few, and the devotees overwhelmingly numerous. The natural consequence is, that mercantile spirit and its concomitant wealth are but little known here. When we were at Tiberias there were only two resident mer- chants among the Jews, and the}' were contemptuously spoken of by the devotees as being mere kafcrz-, or un- believers. At the khan at the foot of Mount Tabor there is every Monday a market held, called the market of the khan, and thither the people of Tiberias repair to exchange their merchandise for other commodities, chiefly cattle. Most of the inhabitants are said to be more or less engaged in the cultivation of the soil ; but though it produces whcr/c, barley, tobacco, graj)es, and melons in su'~'> profusion, in pro[)ortion to the labor be- stowed, that upwards of three hundred weight of fine melons may commonly be bought for about eight shil- lings English, the same indolence is shown in agriculture as in trade. Situated as they are upon the very edge of tlie splendid lake, one would at the least suppose that they would avail themselves to the utmost of its fiany II m '■'W m (TiJi; isii U',:: III •"^-Hj^ti 184 LAKF. or TiniCRIAS. treasures. But they fish only by casting nets from the shore ; and not a single boat of any description was to be seen on the lake. TliK Lakh ov Timf.RIAS, also called the Lake of Gennesareth, and the Sea of (ialilee, is a mo.it interest- ing feature of this ncigliborhood, connected as it is with our Lord's sublime rebuking of the wind and the raging waters, as related in Luke viii 23, 24. Josephus informs us that this lake, through which the stream of the Jor- dan passes, IS 'u»..c',veen se\'enteen and eighteen miles long, and from five to six miles broad. The observa- tions of Dr. Robinson and other recent travellers show that tlie measures given by the learned Jew are not greatly wide of the truth. The Lake of Tiberias is about fourteen English miles in length, and about seven miles across in its widest part. Its waters cover an area of about seventy-six square miles. The water of this lake — unlike th..t of the Dead Sea — is perfectly sweet and pure, and refreshing to the taste. It abounds in fish, and is the res.ort of great numbers of the feathered tribe. The hills -;se in general steeply from its shores upon either side anc attain to the eastward a height of a thousand fett above its waters. Shipless and even boatless as this lake now is, we learn from Josephus that during the obstinate and san- guinary wars between the Romans and the Jews, consid- erable fijets of war-ships floated upon its waters, and very sanguinary battle: took place there. One engage- ment, especially, mentioned by Josephus, when the Jews had revolted, under Agrippa, was most sanguinary, Titus and Trajan being present, as well as Vespasian, who commanded the Roman forces. The terrible de- feat by the Romans untier Titus, of the revolted Jews at Tariche;e had caused vast multitudes of the fugitives to seek safety in the shipping on Lake Tiberias ; but the in- defatigable Romans speedily built and equipped numer- ous vessels still larger than those of the Jews, and the latter weie totally defeated ; and, according to Josephus, both the lake and its shores were covered with blood ;id- :\vs ry. an, to in- ler- the lUS, 3od SANGUINARY NAVAI, ENGAGEMENT. 185 and nianpjlcd bodies to such an extent tliat the very air was infected. It is added that in this battle on Lake Tiberias and the previous en^fa^ement at Taricheie up- wards of six thousand perished ; and, as if this horrible amount of carnajjje were insufficient, twelve hundred were subsequently massacred in cold blood in t)ie an:- phithcatre of Tiberias, and a considerable number were presented to /\.^rippa as slaves. The present aspect of the lake is little calculated to call up any idea of that dread day of strife. Thoufjh occasionally the violent winds wl.ich descend from the neii^hborini^ mountains lash the waters of " deep Galilee" into a tempest, those tempests are usually as brief as they are violent, and at other times its bosom is as un- moved as the Dead Sea. Hemmed in as at is on either side by mountains, the general view of its broad ex- panse calls up the idea of sublimity rather than that of softer beauty ; and it is probably their preference of the latter kind of beauty that has caused some travellers to speak somewhat depreciatingly of the lake and its sur- rounding scenery. The Lake of (lennesareth is sur- rounded b}' objects well calculated to heighten the sol- emn impression, and affords one of the most striking prospects in the Holy Land. The appearance of the lake is grand, though the barren and unwooded scenery arovmd gives a shade of dullness to the picture, a dull- ness which deepens down even to melancholy as we gaze upon the unbroken calmness and silence of the waters ; a calmness and silence unrelieved even by the form of a boat, or the splashing of an oar. The shores of the Lake Tiberias were formerly stud- ded with towns, of most of which the last traces are so completely swept away that it is difficult to conjecture their sites with anything like tolerable correctness. The village of El-Mejdel, a few miles north of Tiberias, no doubt marks the site of the Magdala of Matthew xv. 39 ; and some ruins which bear the name of Khan Minych, (further to the northward, on the shore of the lake,) per- haps represent the Capernaum of the Gospel narratives. The latter point, however, is matterof dispute, and some I' I : ' •.''■.'..iff 'i( 4 1 86 CASTLE OK THE I'lGEONS, 4 more considerable remains of an ancient city, bearing the name of Tell Hoom, have been also claimed «s the site of the city which was " exalted unto heaven." They lie still further to the northward, a short distance frum the point where the Jordan enters the lake. We now prcKeed to an antique fortification which stands at a mile and a half or two miles to the west of the supposed Ma^fdala, and which is called Kalaat Ha- niam, or the Castle of the l'ij;eons, on account of the vast nunibsrs of those birds which have their abode there. The old fortification chiefly consists of two ex- tendin^j peaks of a lofty clifl', formint;', with the addition of a very strong though very rude wall of masonr}', the enclosure of a considerable triangular space. The Cas- tle of the I'igeons slands on the northern side of a pass or gorge which is called \Va(iy Hymavi,QX the Valley of the rigeons, there are on the south of it, and iiv the plain of llottein, the ruins of a town or village of con- siderable size. This locality was the scene of a bloody and decisive battle between the Christian and Saracen armies, during the period of the Crusades, (A.D. 1187,) the result of which was disastrous to the followers of the Cross. The crusading army was .ihnost annihilated in this contest, which led to the immediate submission of nearly all Palestine to the arms of Saladin, who be- came, three months afterwards, master of the Holy City. The Latin writers generally speak of this contest as the battle of Tiberias. Of the numerous villages which formerly clustered around the shores of the Lake of Tiberias, few traces now remain. The exact site of Ik-thsaida of Galilee — the birth-place of Andrew and Peter, and Philip — is un- discovered. Chorazin, mentioned in companionship with it (Matt. xi. 21 ; Luke x. 13), is found in some ruins which bear the name of Gerazi, lying a short distance from the north-western shore of the lake. A second ]5ethsaida, situated, not in Galilee, but in the district of Gaulonilis, beyond Jordan, is found marked by some ruins which bear the name of Kt-Tell (i.e., the hill or mound), a short distance above the point where the MOUNT OK TIIK r.KATITUDES. 187 Jordan enters tlic- lake. The latter Hethsaida is fjenerally regardetl by modern critics as the scene of the miracles recorded in Luke ix. 10. and Mark viii. 22. I"'rom Tiberias, tlie traxeller frecjuently proceeds — by a road whioji leads throu;fh the intervenins^f hills — to visit Nazareth, passing many interestin<; localities on the way. At abcjut six miles distant from Tiberias on this line of road, we came to a sp(jt called I ! :djar-el-NasrAtriil: ; the Stones of the Nazarcnes — i.e.. Christians ; and on this spot arc four or five blocks of black stfine, upon which our Savior is said to have reclined while addressin;_j the multitude during the miracle of the five loaves and two small (ishes (Luke ix. 10), of which this neij^hborhood is the traditional scene. All the country hereabouts is hilly. The soil is both t(ood and deei), and pro .ictivc of excellent pasture, j^ut the indolence of Tiberias .seems to be in equal force here ; fur with this excellent pasture the people have but poor stocks. At about three miles distance from the Stones of the Nazarcnes is an obloni; hill, which has at one of its ex- tremities a double [jrojecLing" summit, [''roni these sum- mits the natives ha\'e i;iven the hill the nami; of the ifortts of Ilotteiit, but the Christians call it the Mount of the Beatitudes. .Set^n from the [)lain, to the southward it has the aspect o( a low ritl^e of uneven rock with a loftier mount at either end, but on the east^-rn mount thtre is a level surface, clothed with very fhiL iierbai^^e. About the centre of this moLint are the foundations of a small church, about two-and-twenty feet square, on a somewhat elevated site, and occupyinf^ the sjiot from which our Savior is said to have deliverv'd his suolimc Sermon on the Mount. This legend requires no other refutation than the fact Miat our Savior descended from the Mount directly to Capernaum, ■hr^'i consequently must have been in its immediate vicinity. The distance of the so-called Mount of the Beatitudes from the shores of the lake (upon which Capernaum undoubtedly stood) is too great to admit the supposition that it is correctly named. ' ly ^, .CU, ""v.^ \v\^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A ,V4 1.0 I.I lis 28 |Z5 1^ 12.2 us 2: i;s iio 1.8 1.25 |U |i6 < 6" ► V] >^ /A Photographic Sciences Corporation ^> i\ ,v ^ ■^ O % yi '^U'^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 I '■feli j ■"( - ,1 i 1 '.A I:i . ^ , f l\ i88 MOUNT TABOR. The whole road hence is surrounded by grand and striking scenery. For its grandeur, independently of the interest excited by the different objects, there is nothing equal to the IVImmt of the Beatitudes in the Moly Land. I'^roni this situation we perceived that the plain over which we had been riding — from Turan — is itself very elevated. I''ar beneath appeared other plains, one lower than the other, in regular gradation, reaching eastward as far as the Sea of Galilee. This lake, almost ecjual in its appearance to that of Geneva, spreads its waters over all the lower territor}', e.xtending from the north-east towiu'ds ihc south-west. Its eastern shores exhibit a sublime scene of mountains towards the north and south, and ihey seetr. to clcjsein at either e.xtreniity. The cuitivate.1 plains reaching to its borders, which we beheld at an amazing depth bel-nv, resembletl, by the various hues their dilfereut })r()tluce [)resented, the mot- ley pattern of a vast carpet, towering beyoiK-l a series of intervening mountains. To the south-west, at the dis- tance of only twelve miles, we beheld Moutit Tabor, having a conical form, and standing cpiite insular, upon the niirthern side of the wide plain of h".sdrael'")n. 'i'he mountain whence this superb view was presented, con- sists entirel)' of limestone, the pre\ailing constituent of all the mountains in Greece, Asia Minor, .S)-ria, l'hench, that they were seized with a ])anic, and fled in the utmost disor- der. 'I'liousands of then' were put to the sword in this panic (light, and a great munber were tlnnvned in the stream of the Daboury, which inundated the plain. i\I()lJNl' TaiidR has constantly been spoken of as the scene of the Transfiguration, and we arc but little inclined to aid in any attempt ut disturbing this general belief of all Christendom from the earliest ages. I'Yw l)ilgriins to Nazareth fail to jiroceetl thence to Mount Tabor, and it is freciuentiy \isited on the road between that place anil 'I'iberias, from sevx'ral points of which it is \-isible. After proceeding eastward from Nazareth between low ranges of hills lor about six miles, the road o{)ens upon the fine plain of ICsdraelon, and at little more than a (piarter of a mile further the noble form uf .Mount Tabor rises abo\e the plain. This m.)untain presents the appearance of a truncated cone, th.e sum- mit forniing a deliglitful table-land, with gently sloping sides. It is one of the finest hills we ever beheld, liav- ing a fine soil productive of the richest herbage, and adorned with cluini^s and grove- t^f trees. The height of this famous hill does not appear to exceed a thou- sand feet aliove the [)lain, though the winding asci.nt by which the sr.mmit is reached makes the apparent altitude very much more considerable. The top, wliicli is about half a mile long and a ([uarter broad, is sur- rounded by a wall, built by Josephus in the incredibly brief space of fort}' da}-s. Tabor, in fact, was crowned by a strong cit}', which Josephus calls Atabyrion ; and a wall ran across the whole summit of the hill from east to west, dividing the south side, on which the city stood. from the north side, which seems to have been used as a THE TRANSFIGURATION. '93 place of exercise, and, probably, of religious solemni- ties. On the north side, within the outer wall, are deep fosses, which seem to have been the (juarries which fur- nished stone for the wall, and which are also tliou^ht to have been used as cisterns for the storincj of rain water. On the south side similar but deeper fosses are sunk outside the wall ; these were |)robahly intended to strengthen the city on that side, the hill being easiest of ascent there. Some of the gates of the city were still remaining. This liill-fortress was besieged and t.tken by Antiochus, king of Syria, ami subsequently by Ves- pasian ; it was after this l.ist event that Josepluis built the strong walls \\iu'eh are to be traced even to the present day. Other writers have given .descriptions of Mount Tabor which materiallv differ from the above, but the discrepancies seem to spring cliiefly from the different mode and rate of travelling. All. however, agree alike as ti) its main history and as to its singular beauty and fertility ; just the .-xene with which one wouUl fain con- nect the glorious Transfiguration, l"'rom the top of Tabor you have a jM'ospect which, if nothing else, will reward the labor of ascending it. It is iiiipossible for man's eye to behold a more gratifj-ing sight of this nature. On the north-west you discern at a diNtance tile Mediterranean, and all around you ha\'e tlie sj) icious and beautiful plains of ICsdraelon and (ialilee. Turning a little southward, you liave in view tiie high niount^iins of (iilboa, fatal to Saul and l.is sons. Due east, ) ou discover the Lake of Tiberias, distant about one day's journey. A few points to the norfli api)ears that which they call the Mount of the 15eatitudes. Not far from this little liill is the city Sapliet ; it stands upon .i very eminent and conspicuous movmtain, and is seen far and near. At the foot of IMount Tabor, on a rising ground to the westward, is a small vill.ige called l)ai)ourah. It has been somewhat hastily imagined that this village takes its name from the prophetess Deborah ; and some think that a reference to the fourth chapter of Judges •i •il Hi '"$ i \'!>\'A j'itf ,^.1 ~n| 'in J I'll ¥■*!;;• ii III 1 1 It 194 SAPHET. will sufiice to show the probability that this is the place at which Deborah and Barak united their forces to {^0 in pursuit of Sisera. liut it has been truly ur.ijed that the verj' name of the villat^e is the Hebrew name of the nei^hborint; mountain, with only the usual corruption by Arab pronunciation ; and it is far more likely that the villae;c takes its name from the mountain. SaI'IIKT we recently mentioned as one of the four Holy Cities of the Jews. It lies at a little distance to the north-west of I.ake Tiberias, and about six miles distant from its shores. The town is built upon an eminence which rises to upwards of two thousand five huntlred feet above the level of the sea, and the view from which commands the country for many miles round. Saphet, prior to the earthquake of 1 int; in their syna- (^o;4iies, of which there are, largi: and small, abtiut thirty. They also have a collci^e or university here, where x'milii are instructed in Hebrew and the learning of the Tid- mud. The incessant extortions to which the Jews uf Saphet arc subjected must lonij since have been too strong for even their stubborn fanaticism, were it not that large sums arc sent to them by tiieir brethren in Constantinople, Smyrna and European cities, especially those of Kngland and Spain, This town suffered severely after the retreat of the Trench from Acre in 1799. On that occasion the Turks completely sacked the Jewish cjuarter of the town of Saphet. More recently it has .*utTered (in If whicli had been overthrown) were in course of bin'm- rebuilt, but it will be long before the pi. ice assumes its former appearance. The tract within which Nazareth is situated forms i I I 'H\' i ii^! K/) NORTHKKN ClALIf.KFv pari of the ancient Galilee, the northernmost of the tiu'cc provinces — Galilee, Samaria and Jiul.ea — into which I'alesline, west of the Jordan, was divided durin;^ the period of Roman dominion. Tlie aspect of Galilee in the [)resent day exliibits less of decay, with ^Meater evidence of natural fertility, than belon<,f to other parts of the Holy Land. The hills are more thickly wooded, and tile plains covered with a richer pasture than else- where. Here, as • •• a j^reater part of the llnly I",.iiul, the country consists of a succession of alternate hills and valie)'s, the former risinp^ in ji^entle slopes and undu- lations, while numerous runnin!^ streams fertilize the plains beneath. The southern (.livision of (ialilee com- prises the extensive plain of l-^sdraelon, of which we have already sjjoken ; part of this is now under the plouj^h, ant! the remainder forms a rich natural pasture- ^roup.d. The northerly division of th I ' ■I 210 TRIPOLI. ifj- f-f , II ,, ,:^'i m I'' The plain of Tripoli (a portion of the general plain which stretches alonp the Syrian coast, but which is hero of wider limits tlian generally belong to it) is one of the most productive in Syria. Tripoli itself or — Tara- bulus, as the name is also written — a considerable sea- port, and the capital of the pashalic of that name, is on all hands admitted to be one of the neatest and hand- somest towns in Syria, though it has the serious disad- vantage of being rendered frequently insalubrious by the miasmata that arise from the marshy soil by which it is environed on the land sides. This place was called TkH'OI.I, or Three Cities, from its being a colony originally founded by immigrations from the three cities of Tyre, Si- dun, and Aradus. Most of the houses are handsomely built — f o r t h c East, that is to say — of a remark- ably fine stone, and the gardens by which it is backed, and, as it were, framed, give it a delightful and picturesque as- pect. Tripoli is a bustling seaport, with not only a con- siderable domestic trade, but also a large exporting trade, the chief articles being sponge, soap, and raw silk. To this last article che Tripolitans, indeed, chiefly owe the periodical unhealthiness with which they are afflicted, the swampy soil owing its origin to inlets of water for the irrigation of the extensive mulberry-plantations re- quisite for rearing the silk-worm. The population was about fifteen thousand, one-third being Catholic. The population is probably increasing at the present time ; indeed the port is itself a populous little town of ship- wrights, sailors, calkers, etc. COURT OK A noUSK, Showing Kastcrii style of .irchiti:rturc. !, from rations three (•rc, Si- ^ratlus. houses omcly >r the is to jcmark- stonc, rardcns it is id, as it jd,give ;ful and uc as- a con- lorting .\v silk, y owe icted, .tor for ions re- Ion was The time ; )f ship- ANCIENT LIBRARY. 211 Many parts of the town of Tripoli are crossed by lofty Gothic arches, probably erected about the time when the Crusaders took the city — that is to say, early in 'the twelfth century. Under liertrand, son of Ray- mond of Toulouse, the former of whom was made count of Tripoli, six fine and massive towers, which still remain, were erected for the defence of the place. Un- fortunately, the Crusaders were not always either so wisely or so benevolently emi)loyed. When they took possession of the place it could boast of one of the finest and most precious libraries in the I'last. Manu- scripts, especially Persian and Arabic, were obtained from all parts of the ICast, and if it be true that as many as a hundred skilful copyists were constantly enj^at^ed in copying them, we shall have no reason to doubt the statement that as many as a hundred thousand volumes had been accumulated. That the collection was very , extensive is certain, and that it was valuable in charac- ter there is no reason to doubt, and it is impossible to reflect without indij^nation, as well as grief, that a col- lection which infidels had so laboriously made was destroyed by the ignorance and fanaticism of a Chris- tian priest ! This man, being directed to examine and report on the character of the library, found several copies of the Koran, and he immediately stated that the only works it contained were the impious ones of the impostor Mohammed, which all good Christians ought to destroy ; and forthwith, one of the mosL valuable literary collections in the East was consumed by fire. The port of Tripoli is anything but a safe one, the rottenness of its bottom rendering the anchorage very unstable, especially during the tremendous gales that blow there during the exquinoxes. North of Tripoli, and at something less than forty miles distance, following the direction of the coast), are the massive walls of Tartoos, the ancient Tortosa, which must have been a city of great importance and strength, if we may judge from a handsome church of the Cor- inthian order, and the remains of an inner and an outer "d ,1 'i : • % 1 212 LATAMA. I I U '*^i li'i 3 ,t wall, the former of which is fifty feet in heijjht, aiul pro- portionally solid. On the road from Tripoli thithei', the traveller crosses the Nahr el-Kebir — the t'lwcr Eient/irrus of antiquity — which collects the waters wiiich descend from the western slopes of the Ansarian mountains, to the northward of Lebanon. SlKjrtly before arrivini^ at Tartoos, the little island of Ruad, which Hes about two miles distant from the coast, recalls the memory of a place that was famous in the histor}' of the ancient world. I'Vom this island of Rouad, the Arpad of Scripture, and the Afadus of the Greek and Roman writers, the Tyrians were wont to man their fleets ; but it is now a barren and uniniiabited rock, having only the cisterns that are cut in the solid stone, and a few masses of masonry to .show that it was once inhabited. Among the most thriving and important places in Syria is Latakia, the ancient Laodicea, which is sit- uated forty-eight miles to the northward of Tartoos, and is about ninety miles distant from Aleppo, nearly in the direction of S.W . It is divided into a lower town, consisting of two streets along the shore, chiefly inhab- ited and resorted to by sea-faring people, and an upper town, far more extensive, but very much injured by fre- quent earthquakes. The two towns are prettily and tastefully separated from each other by extensive gar- dens ; ane in the upper town tiiere is a noble and very ancient triumphal gate, which .some think to have been erected in honor of Julius C;vsar, and others, of (ier- manicus. The dilapidated state of the upper town, and the shabby aspects of the bazaars, would by no means im- press a stranger with a ju.st ideal of the actual amount of business that is done, and the profit realized. The grand staple of the trade of Latakia is its far-famed tobacco, which is very largely exported, and which is eagerly sought after at highly remunerating prices, not only in the various ports of the Levant, but even in France and England. There is also some export of MdUNT CASIUS. 213 cotton-silk, nut-}»all, wool and wax ; but the trade of Latakia has declined with the rising importance of Hey- rout, and the population has decreased from 20,000 to little more than a third of that number. Laodicea was founded by Seleucus Nicator, anil was named in honor of his mother. ICven prior to the Roman confjuest of Syria it had already become a [dace of considerable consequence. Julius Cesar visited it on his way to I'ontus from I'^^ypt, and there are medal.s on which, in honor of him, it is called Juliopolis. The ruins of the old towns are very extensive, and are the ([uarry from which the modern inhabitants obtain materials for buiklintf and repairing; their dwellinj^s. It was a Chris- tian see at a very early i)eriod, and at the time of the Crusades was in the possession of the Christians, but it siibsc(iuently fell into the hands of Saladin, and at icnj^th, in 15 17, became what it has ever since remained — a part and parcel of the Turkish empire. i '>j Vvom Latakia the travellc may either proceed northwardly to Antakia, (the ancient Antioch). or, in the direction of north-east, to Aleppo. The latter route crosses the valley of the Orontes. The road between Latakia and Antioch leaves the line of the coast at some little distance to the west, and proceeds inland, amonj^fst the hills. The whole distance !■ 'tween the two places is between fifty and si.xtj' miles, i.. .i'lout two-thirds of the way the traveller has to the left :.ie peak of Jebel Okrah — the Mount Casiiis of antiquity — which rises immediately above the sea-coast, and a short distance to the south of the point where th** Orontes discharj.jes its waters into the Mediterranean This mountain we found to reach 5318 feet above the sea — a much less considerabl<> elevation than had been assigned to it by Pliny, who speaks of it as beincj four miles in altitude. The celebrity of Mount Casius in antiquity dates from a very early period ; it was lon<; the seat of super- stitious rites, and it concealed, at a later period, the early proselytes of the Christian faith. The inhabitants -fi^ "'M 1^1'-'^ \ ili'l i HI'' ! 1 ' I : :''iiPi«i ? !)• 214 ANTiocn. of Antioch were accustomed to celebrate festivals upon its summit ; and even as late as the time of Julian the Apostate, sacrifices were made by the monarch on the sunmiit of this nKuuitain. The appearance of Casius is striking, standing: apart as it does from the neighboring hills. Upon the left bank of the Orontes (at a distance of about fifteen miles in direct measure from its mouth) is Antioch, .'or Antakin, as it is now called), famed alike in commercial and in religious lore ; for not only was it the seat of an immense commerce with every known portion of the globe, and long the abode of the kins;s and nobles of S\ria, but it was there that Barnabas and Paul very early preached the gospel: "Then departed liarnabas to seek Saul : and when he had found him, he brouL^ht iiim unto Antioch. .\nd it came to pass, that a whole year they assembled themselves with the church, and taught much j^eople. And the disciples were called Cliristians first at Antioch." ^ Acts xi. 24, 25.) Stately with palaces, abounding in wealth, and honored with the presence of iMiipi ors and of the Roman gov- ernors, Antioch sc/emed destined, and doubtless its luxurious inhabitants deemed it to be so, to a perpetuity of grandeur and prosperity. Within its walls were four districts so vast that each might in itself be called a considerable city. But such have been the calamities inrticted upon it by both man and nature, that though its population was anciently about half a million ot souls, it has now ('windled down 1.0 some five or i^i-x thousand, chiefly Tinks and Arabs. Volney describes the asi)ect of the whole town in his time as the most miserable that can be imagined, its houses being for the most part mere huts, constructed of straw and mud, and later travellers have given a similar picture. Turkish misrule, has, no doubt, achieved a part of this desolatitm, but Antioch seems to have been a doomed city during successive ages. Jonathan Macca- beus and Demetrius put no fewer than ten thousand ot its inhabitants to death nearly i 50 years B.C., and it was FAMINK, PESTILKNCK, AND WAR. 215 almost utterly destroyed, under Trajan, by an carth- (jiiake so terrible that the cm[)eror only with great diffi- culty, and not without some personal injury, escaped bciiiLj killed. ICveii yet the nii.;cries of /\ntioch were not at an end. Situated as it was upon the Orontes, the wars between Persia and Rome, when the latt«_r power beL,^ln to decline, could not but indict :;reat iiijury upon An- tioch, whicli was no fewer than thr^^'e tinu"; t ilcen by ass uilt, by .Sapor, the Persian m march ; wht) was so irritated by tlie resistance that he experienced uj)()n the last occ.ision, tliat he not only !.,Mve it up to ])illa;^rij^ hut destroyed the wiiole of its s[)lendid public buildinj^s. In the year 331 o( the ChristicUi era, and on several subse- quent occasions, famine was its doom, and fifty 3'ears later it w.is assailcil simultaneously by both ijestilence and famine. Six years later the imposition of a new t;th succeeded in appeasing the people, and in dissuadiuLT them from the violent and disorderly conduct to which they .ip[)ear to h'!! 'i\ 111 2l6 MODERN ANTAKIA. mond, erected it into a principality. Subsequently, this principality was ravaged and invaded by the Sultan No'^ieddin. The city still held out, indeed though the sultan captured l^uhemond III. in i»6o, and detained him in captivity for the long period of fifteen years. But in 1268 the Mameluke Sultan of Kgypt took the ill-fated city ; and thence it became annexed to the Turki.sh empire. Much as this admirable city lias suffered from war. pestilence, and famine, its most terrible ff>e has been earthquake. Jksides the awful visitations of that kinil of which we have already spoken, another occurred in 525, another in 598, another in 1759, and, finally, another as recently as 1822. On this latter occiision ne;ir!y every building in the place was thrown down, and between four and five thousand persons perished. The modern Antakia covers but a small part of the ancient site, the remainder being for the most part occu- pied with mulberry-groves, vineyards, and fruit gardens. It contains several baths, a .synagogue, a Mohammedan college, and fourteen mosques ; the houses are Turkish as to plan, but of inferior construction : usually of stone, thougii frequently consi.sting of a wooden frame filled up with sun-dried bricks, and having a pent roof covered with red tiles. Exterior staircases lead from a court shaded by orange and pomegranate-trees to corridors and balconies ; and the doors and the windows of the buildings generally face the west, for the sake of the good breezes coming from that quarter during the greater part of the summer ; the streets are narrow and dirty, being but partially cleansed by a gutter in the centre. In the immediate neighborhood of Antioch stood the grove and sanctuary of Daphne, so famous in antiquity, and the luxurious enjoyments of which are so glowingly described by the historian of the Roman Fmpire. At the distance cf five miles from Antioch the Macedonian kings of Syria had consecrated to Apollo one of the most elegant places of devotion in the Pagan world. A magnificent temple rose in honor of the god of light, and his colossal figure almost filled the capacious sane- OLYMPIC GAMIiS. 217 tiiary which was enriched with f^old and gems, and adorned by the skill of the Grecian artists. The deity was represented in a bending attitude with a golden cup in his hand pouring out a libat'on on the earth as though he supplicated the venerable mother to give to his arms tlic cold and bea.itiful Daphne : for the spot was enno- bled by fiction and the fancy of the Syrian poets had trans- planted the amorous tale from the banks of the Peneus to those of the Orontes, and the antique rites of Greece were imitated by the royal colony of Antioch. A stream of i)rophecy which rivalled the truth and reputation of the Delphic oracle flowed from the Castalian fountain of D,t[)hne. In the adjacent fields a stadium was buik which by a s])ecial privilege had been purchased from I'llis ; the Olynlpic games were celebrated at the ex- PC11-.C of the city, and a revenue of thirty thousand ster- ling was annually devoted to the public pleasures. The pcr[)L'tual resort of pilgrims and spectators insensibly formed in the neighborhood of the temple the stately and populous village of Daphne, which emulated the splendor without acquiring the title of a provincial city. The temple and the village were deeply bosomed in a thick grove of laurels and cypresses, which reached as far as a circumference of ten miles, and formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable shade. A thousand streams of the purest water, springing from every hill, preserved the verdure of the earth and the temperature of the air : the senses were gratified with harmonious sounds, and aromatic odors, and the peace- ful grove was consecrated to health and joy, to luxury and love. The vigorous youth pursued, like Apollo, the object of his desires, and the blushing maid was warned by the fate of Daphne against the folly of unseasonable coyness. The soldier and the philosopher wisely avoided temi)tations of this sensual paradise, where pleasure, as- suming the character of religion, imperceptibly dissolved the firmness of manly virtue. But the groves of Daphne continued for many ages to enjoy the veneration of natives and strangers ; the privileges of the holy ground were enlarged by the munificence of succeeding ^J\' 218 SUADEIAH AND SCANDEROON. ,1 . 1 ^ :.'. emperors ; and every generation added new ornaments to the splendid temple. Village and grove, statue and temple, have, howccr, alike disappeared, and the inquiring traveller searches almost in vain for the relics of Daphne. A spot called l)cit-':l-MolL\ where a few remains of ancient buildings are found in conjunction with numerous fountains, prtjb- ably marks the site. The distance of this place from Antioch, about five miles to the southward, coinciiics with the statements of the ancient writers in this respect A few miles to the W. S. W. of Antakia, the poor and struggling villagt; of Snadciali, on the coast, repre- sents the ancient Seleuci Picria, built by .Seleucus Ni- cator in the third century before the Christian era. This was the place whence I'aul and Barnabas took ship, upon the first of the Ai:)ostle's missionary journi,)s (Acts xiii. 4). The plain around Suadeiah contains num- erous mulberry and lemon plantations, as also does the tract adjacent to Antakia, from which place it is only twelve miles distant. To the southward, this plain ex- tends over the lower course of the Orontes ; to the north- ward, it is limited by the high ridge of Akma Dagh, the Mount Rhossus of antiquity, Eetween this ridge and the chain of Jewur Dagh, (of Amanus,) which extends further to the northward, along the coast, the narrow pass of Beilan conducts to Scanderoon, the port of Aleppo. Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, occupies the south- eastern angle of a fine inlet of the Mediterranean coast — the Gulf of Sranderoon. As the poit of Aleppo, ifrom which it is between sixty and se^'ent^' miles distant, in a direct line,) it commands considerable trade. Galls, silk, cotton and fruits, are exported thence ; rice and other grains, with salt, and various articles of l^ritish and other manufacture, are imported. But Scanderoon is, nevertheless, a wretched place, surrounded on the land-side by swamps, which render it extremely un- healthy. M AI.KPPO. 219 TliK Town of Alkpi'O, the modern capital of Sy- ria, which has been been well dt^scribcd as being only a sort of outpost of that country, ai.d, in f.ict, half belong- ing to the desert, is most favorably situ' of the C)ri)ntes on ils eastward side. 'I"1h: fortress is supposed to rc[)resi.'nt the ancient Apamea, one of the many Syrian towns eid.irL;ed by Seleuciis Nicator, and ujion which he also bestowed the Macedonian name om lloms to Damascus is a further dist.uice of about ninety miles, nearly in the direction of due south. CIIAI'TICR VI. liAMASCUS I'ASI AM) PKF.SKNT. I).\.MAsy(US, SO called frDin the ancient Hebrew name Damask, is known to the present inhabitants of Syria by the ap[)ellation of ICl-Shani, antl is iMo niiK:s south of Aleppo, 60 east of Heyront, anil 140 north-east of Jeru- salem. It is m(wt cleli;.;htfully sitn.iteil in the fertile plain of the same n.inie, on the eastern side of Leba- non, anci uMt'jr(.,'(l by nnmerons streams which llnw fioni the nu)nnt 'in into the desert ; and its situation is no less advantat^eous than dciiL^hlful, as it must always command a vast trade, from llio circumstance of its hciiic,' directly in the route of the ;.;reat car.ivan to Mecca, to which \'ast multitud.cs nf Mohamnu.'dan pil- [:,nims resort, most of whom combine tiie situs of trade with those of piety, as th'.-y arc warranted in tloin;..; by the e.-cpress word ; of the Prophet ICvcn in the time of Abrah.im we find Gi'iiesis xiv. 15 ; also XV. 2) mention made of iJamascus, and it i.s a;^^ain and a;.,^ain mentioiucl as the abode of the jjower- fill rivals and opponents of the kinL,s of Israel. The plain around, Un>, h.is ever been famed for its exceed- iiiLi beauty and fea'tility, which it owes to the streams that, descending,' from the Jici-^hborini;' chain o[' Anti- Lebanon, unite and form the Hai'rad 1, which ri\er after- wards divides and fltnvs in sevi.'ral branches throuidi the town. The Harrada represents ihc river Clir\sorrhoa.s of the classic writers, and some of its numercais branches no doubt correspond to tiie "iXbana.uid rhar[>.ir" -.0 warndy extolled by Naam-in Ijcfore tiie prophet of Israel (2 Kin<^s v. I 2;. Ijeiii;^' complete!)' encomp.issed with i^.u'dens of fruit trees, it has ihe i>.p[)caran(:e (.>t a city in the midst of a vast wood. Durin<,f the middle aLjes the snord-biades of Damas- cus were renowned throu,i;hoi:t the world, and few of" the fii.'rce chieftains of that turbulent time, probabl)', would have felt completely armed had their knii^ditiy harness li 'M '.m ,i t'f 228 DAMASCUS SWOKD IH.ADKS. not iiu hulcd a true Dani.iscns blade. These swords seem to !ia\e been tiiade of thin sliiets of stiil and iron wekled toi,u:ther, so as to \\\)'\\v ncxihiht)' with a keen ed_L;c. TcMiiour carried oil" the workmen to I'ersia, and this and various otiier causes ha\c' diprived Damascus of its re- pulatitn as to tiii> manulactiu'c', and have aL;nost wholly \'U{ an tnd there to the manufacture itself. lUit it has still .N.omr \ery extensive and profitable manufactures, esjiecially of .silk, cotton, jewellery, saddlery, ami dried fruits ; the last named articles, produced in the j^nxate.st profusicjii in the ad- joininjr plain, and prepared with much skill b)' the luuner- ous confecti(tners of the city, are in ;.;reat demand all o\er UK- Turk ish empire • the j^reat source of iJa- mascene jirosperit)-, however, is its ex- tensive trade, both home and export. The frecpient and \'astinflaxof stran;^- ers causes an im- mense consumption of food and other daily necessaries. Damascus is cele- brated for its numerous colVee-houses and shops of con- fectioners and bakers, besiiles its abundant supplies of meat, rice, vi j^etables and fruits for the ordinary wants of the inhabitants. 'Jiiere arc about 400 public cook- shops, in which ready-made dishes are prepared for sale, which are well patronized by pilgrims iind travellers of all nation.s. The city is still remarkable for its silk manufactories, and for its jewellers, silversmiths, white and copper smiths ; also for its carpenters, trunk and tent naakers ; but perhaps the various articles of leather I'AKIV Ol- rni-IKS A'l OINM'R. |J:J' \ I'l.Arros OF wousiiii'. 22<) arc the most prominent m.inufictiircs. Tiu'rc arc lioots, sIuH's, slippers, saddles covered with velvet, and bridles lii.;lily ornamented with cowrie shells, besides tlu- trap- piii'^rs of camels and the commoner eiiuipmenls of a cara- van, such as tents, stroii;^^ net baj^s, water skins, etc. ; indred. no where else in the Ivist cm carav.m prep.ir.i- tions be m.ide wiih the >.i;ne adv.inta;.;e and spj(rd. riiere are in the city ei;;hl syMa.,fO'.jues, oae L.itin. and thrte I'ranciscan convents, in addition to four eiiurci !(..••;, and some others now conviTi d into mo-.(|iies. t)rihe laller there ar*: about two hundred, 'die (in,.'si of which was once a cathedral djdicated to St. Joim of iJam is- ciis ; it occupies the siie of a ''oiinthian temple, some of whose columns (of !_;iMiiiu.) slid remain. HesiiKs the hiiily of the Christian structure, widi its tine ilonie, tli^'re arc two courts ; the smaller h.u'iii;.', on mr-ie .sides .i por- tico of heij;hten the effects, and over it and about it a drowsing .lir of repose to spiritualize it and make ii seem ratlicra beautiful estra,' from the m\steri(ius worlds we \isit in dreams, than a substantial tenant of our coru'se. dull L^lobe. And when you think of the leagues of blii^lited, blasted, sand)', rocky, sun-burnt, ul;1)', ilrear)-, inlamous country )-ou ha\e ridden o\er to _L;et here, you think it is the most beautiful, beautiful jiicture tliat ever luiniaa eyes rested upon in all the l^roatl universe! If I were to i;"o to Damascus aL;,u'n, I would camp on Mahomet's hill about a week, and then 1,^0 away. There is no need to i^o inside the walls. The Prophet was ^vise withi>iit knt)wing it when he decitled not to go down into the paradise of Damascus. There is an honored old tradition that the immense ^anlen which Damascus stantls in was the the Garden of Mden, and modern writers have gathered up n ;'.iiy chapt I's of evidence tending to show that it 'call)' was the Garden of I'alcn, and that the. rivers Pharpar and Abana are the "two rivers" that watered Adam's Para- dise. It may be so, but it is not i),iradise now, and one would be as happ)' outside of it as he would likely to be within, it is so crooked and cramped and dirty that one cannot reali/.e that he is in the splen.iid city he saw from the hill-top. The gardens are hidden by high mud walls, ;Mid the paradise is become a very sink of pollution ami uncomliness. Dami^scus has plenty of clear, pure water in it, though, and this is enough, of itself, to make EARLY HISTORY OF DAMASCUS. 233 an Arab think it beautiful and blessed. Water is scarce in blistered Syria. We run railways by^our large cities in i\mc.'ica ; in Syria they curve the roads so as to make thcai run by the meagre little puddles they call " foun- tains," and which are not found oftener on a journey than every four hours. But the "rivers" of Pharpar and Abana of Scrip|urc (mere creeks), run through Damas- cus, and so every home and every garden have their sparkling fountains and rivulets of water. With her forc:^t of foliage and her abundance of water, Damascus nnist be i. wonder of wonders to the IJedouin from the desert. Damascus is simply an oasis — that is what it is. For four thousand years its waters have not gone dry or its fertility failed. Now we can understand why the city has existed so long. It could not die. So long as its waters remain to it away out here in the midst of that howling desert, so long will Damascus live to bless the sight of the tired and thirsty wayfarer. '• Though old as history itsel'", tliuu .iil fresh as the breath of spring;, bloomiiicj as thine own rose-biui. and fraj^rant as tliine own oranj^^e flower, O 'Damascus, pc«rl of the East." Dainascus dates back anterior to the days of Abra- ham, and is the oldest city in the world. It was found- ed b}' Us, the grandson of Noah. " The early liistory of Damascus is .shrouded in the mists of a hoary anti- quity." Leave the matters written of in the first eleven chapters of the Old '^'e.starnent out, and no recorded event has occurred in ti.e world but Damascus was in c.\istcnce to receive the news of it. Go back as far as you will into the vague past, there was always a Da- mascus. In the writings ol every c.-ntury for more than four thousand years, its name has been mentioned and its praises sung. To Damascus, years are Oiily inoments, decades are only llit;ing trifles of time. .She nic isurcs time, not by days and riionths and years, but by the einpires she has seen rise, and pr()S[)cr and crumble to ruin. Slie is a type of immortality. She saw the foundations of Baalbec, and Thebes, and ICphe- sus, laid ; she saw these villages grow into nn'ghty 14 Uh \ V '"i w luwm: 234 TIIK KTKRXAL CITY cities, and amaze the world with their grandeur — and she has lived to sec them desolate, deserted, and given over to the owls and the bats. She saw the Israelitish empire exalted, and she saw it annihilated. She saw Greece rise and flourish two thousand years, and die. In her old age she saw Rome built, she saw it over- .shadow the w orld with its power ; she saw it perish. The few hundreds of years of Genoese and V^enetian might and splendour were, to gra\e okl Damascus, only a trifling scintillation hardly worth remembering. Da- mascus has seen all that has ever occurred on earth, and still she lives. She has looked upon the dry bones of a thousand empires, and ^\ill see the tombs of a thousand more before she dies. Thougii another claims the name, old Damascus is by right the Internal Cit\-. We reached the city gates just at sundown. They do sa\' that one can get into any walled cit}'- of S\Tia after night, for bucksheesh, except Damascus. Hut Damascus, with its four thousand years of respectability in the world, has many old fogy notions. There are no street lamps there, and the law compels all who go abroad at night to carry lanterns, just as was Lhe case in old days, when heroes and heroines of the Arabian Nights walked the streets of Damascus, or flew .iway toward Bagdad on enchanted carpets. It was fairl\- (.lark a few minutes after we crot within the wall and we rode long distances through wonderful crooked streets, eight to ten feet wide, and shut in on either side by the high mud-walls of the gardens. At last we got to where lanterns could be seen flitting about here and there, and knew we were in the midst of the curious old OlV. In a little narrow street, crowded with our pack-mules and v.ith a swarm of uncouth Arabs, we alighted, and tb-ough a kind of a hole in the wall, entered the hotel. We stood in a great flagged court, with flowers and citron trees about us, and a huge tank in the centre that was receiving the waters of many pipes. We crossed the court and entered the rooms prepared to receive four of us. In a large marble-paved recess between the two rooms was a tank IwVSTI.RN I.U.\rK\' -'3S of clc;u". cool water, whicli was kept runninjj over all the time by the streams that were pouring into it from half a dozen pi])es. \othing, in this scorching, desolate land, could look so refreshing as this pure water flash- ing in the lami)-light ; nothing could look so beautiful, nothing could sound so delicious as this mimic rain to cars so long unaccustomed to sounds of such a nature. Our rooms were large, comfortably furnished, and even had their floor clothed with soft, cheerful-tinted car{)ets. Jt was a pleasant thing to see a carpet again, for if there is anything drearier than the tomb-like, stone- paved i)arlors and bed-ro(jms of I^uropc and Asia, I do not know what it is. They made one think of the _c;iMve all the time. :\ vcvy broad, gail\' caparisoned di\aii, some twelve or fourteen feet long, extended across one side of each room, and opposite were single beds v;ith spring mattrasses. There were great look- ing-Ljlasses and marble-top tables. All this luxury was as grateful to s\-stems and senses worn out with an ex- hausting day's travel, as it was unexpected — for one cannot tell what to expect in a Turkish city of e\'en a quarter of a million inhaliitants. 1 do not know, l)ul I think they used that tank be- tuLun the ruins to draw drinking water from ; that did not occur to me, however, until I had tlipped my baking head far down into its cool depths. I tlKuigh of it then, and superb as the bath was, 1 was sorry 1 i.ad taken it, and was about to go and explain to the landlord. Inil a finely curled and scented poodle dog frisked up and nipped the calf of my leg just tntn. and before I had ti' le to think, I had soused him to the bottom of the tank, and when I saw a servant coming in with a pitch- er I went off and lefi the puj) tr)-ing to climb out and not succeeding \'ery well. Satisfied revenge was all 1 needed to make me feel perfectl}' happ)', and when I w.Uked intt» supi)er the first night in i3amascus I was ill tliat condition. We hiy on those divans a long time, after supper, smoking narghilies and long-stemmed chibouks, and talking about the dreadful ride of the day, and I knew what I had sometimes known before — m ,11 ^*A ■(■ ! ! , /I -M i \ m ^m^' 236 STHEK ; I'l^lkAMl'.Ur.ATION. that it is worth while to get tired out, because one so enjoys resting afterward. In the morning we sent for donkeys. It is W(jrthy of note tliat we had to .sr/i> war with them again, I hope ICr.glaiul and iM-an.e will not find it good breeding or good jutlgment to interfere In Damascus the}- think there are no such rivers in all the world as their little Abana and Pharphar, The Damascenes ha\e always thought that way. In 2 Kings, chapter v., Naaman boasts extravagantly about them. That was three thousand )-ears ago. lie sa}-s : " i\re not Abana and I'harpar rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel } May I not wash in them and be clean .'" Hut some of my readers have forgotten < 3w II ■ n, ,4 Wm 3 '•■■■M , ^:ai!| \'M 'r ♦t', '• 340 A l.III'KK HOSriTAL t I mk% (Mii who Naaman wa.s. lon^^ aj^o. Naanian was tlic coin- niaiulcr of the Syrian armies. lie was the favorite of the king and lived in j^freat state. " Me was a mighty man of vak)r, but lie was a leper." Strangely enough, the house they pointed out to you now as his, has been turned into a lejjer hospital, and tiie inmates expose their horrid deformities and hold up their hands and beg for bucksheesli when a stranger enters. One can not ai)preciate the horror of this disease until lie hjoks u])on it in all its ghastliness, in Naaman's an- cient dwelling in Damascus. Hones all twisted out of shajie, great knots protruding from tlie face and body, joints deca}"ing and dropi)ing away — horrible ! hVom J)amascus two places of striking interest are readily accessible to the traveller, Haalbek and I'almjra, each of them famous for its magnificent remains of an- cient art. The former is distant betwean thirt)' and forty miles (in direct measure) to the north-westward : the latter is at a distance of about four day.s' journc}' in an eastward ly direction. The line of route from Damascus to Baalbek winds along the banks of the l^arrada, frequently crossing the stream in its course: the ravine through which the stream flows is shaded b}- poplar, mulberry, and other tree.-, and the outline of the hills upon either side is strikingly pic- turescpie. The ascent to the mountain-region in which the river originates is verj' rapid, and hence its waters flow with great imi)etuohity ; forming, in one place, a fine escapade, and elsewhere foaming along the rocky bed of the stream. Upon the left hand side of the stream, at a village called Souk W'ady liarrada. some ruins mark the site of the ancient Abila of Lysanics, the chief city of the district of Abilene, referred to in Luke iii. I. Passing the head of the l^arrada, the road leads by a winding course over the high chain of Anti- Lebanon, {Jebei esh-Shiirky, in modern geography,) whence the traveller looks down upon the fine valley, or plain of the Bekas — the Code-Syria of antiquity. The valley — a 'IHl-: LIIY or Till", SIN. 241 broad plain of from six to ci^ht miles across — cxtuiuls in a north and scnitli direction hctu'ecn the p.irallei chains of Lebanon and iVnti-Lebanon, the former of which bound its western, the hitter its eastern side. The nortii- cni and wider portion i:f the valley bears the name of Hehul H.ialbel^ -that is the district of H.ialbek ; the suutiiern li.df is distin},fuishc(.l as the Heka. Haalbek it- self, which is now a ruined and almcjst deserted town, stands near the head of the Liettan>' river (the ancient Leontcs) previousl)' mentioned. Hut it is amply d" scrvin;4 of visit, for the Std', in- deed, sneers at the idea of Solomon iK'.vinf; erected a Corintliian temple. This objection woul'.l not be tleci- sivc unless all the ruins were of Corin.thian architecture. Hut so far is that from bein^^ the case, that we have Doric and Corinthian columns there, Saracenic i^ates and wall, and Gieek and Roman inscriptions. On a close scrutiny wc clearly disco* ered beneath the (ire- cian orders a trace of Jewish foundations, and fouml that the cuttings of the stones is of Jewish workmaiv-;hip. What more probable than the oi)inion that the ori spinal structure here was the House of the l''orest of Lebanon whicii Solomon built for his ICgyptian wife .-' If Solo- mon himself was somewhat idolatrously inclined, some of his successors were altogether idolaters ; and as after his death the House of the Forest of Lebanon would ac- B I /v. I ^)m ' M*e;1 %'Wu i I" I >)!; iii i '* ■ i » I ,1 ,i>ij li I f 'i - / .;;:*!; - ^ 'f :i ! 1 ll 1 1 s P T ' 1 .k f u |l; ^ 1 1 lyj i 1 242 KLMARKAHLK KlINS. cnic lo cacli of his successors, in common with all the other royal ai)[)ana^cs, there is ni^thinj^ unreasonable in imaj^n'ninc^ that idolatrous kin^^s surrounded their favor- ite (lueliinL;, m the course of time, with a city esjiecially dedicated to Ikial. On this theor)' wc may readily account for the Jew- ish architecture and the Jewish st)'le of stone-cultini.^ dis- covered beneath ami amidst Doric, Tuscan, and Corin- thian ruins ; for we know that \\hate\'er the otij^iiial buiKlintf of the cit\', it in more modern times passed suc- cessively l.)eneath the sway of tlie rersi.ms, Greeks and Romans, was plundered !)>• the Arabs, A.D. 635, and after sufrerini; cruelt)' under other assijilants, especially during" the Crusatlcs, Mas sacked antl dismantled by Tamerlane and his Tartars. To decide u[)on the ori;4inaI of the i^'linlc of ruins so vast by the order of architeciure of a column, or even a tem]-le, is surely presumptuous. 'i'he sijlciulid C(.>ri!ithian temple, on which v'olney l^ri/unds his sneer at the idea of Solomon's Mouse of the J^'orest of Lebanon having" been the oric;inal of these maLinificent ruins, he ascribes tcj ;\ntonius Tins : the Ro- mans were mai^niticent builders wherever they held swa\', and a Christian writer of the seventh ceiiturj', John of Antioch, distinciJy mentions that that empenM* actually did erect a tem])le here. Hut there are three ruined tcjpples, one of the most mai,mificent extent and admir- able workmanship, ami two sn.aller ones ; and the fu'st named is, on apparently excellijnt i^n-ounds, supposed to be that which John of Anti( ch states to have been erected b\' Antom'us Tins. This splendid ruin presentee! lofty .uul massive walls, ami columns of a richnes.-, ui which mere words cannot pcvssibl)' c,nve even the shadow of an idea. By what was e\identlv the princifial ;j;ate, which is at the \cr)- entrance of the town, \ou nialcc \"our way into a court the iliameter of which is 180 and 190 feet, almost the whole area of which is strewed with massive fr;i^'metus, includinc:^ the most mai^nificently ornamented capitals, and the most imposint;, at once, a:ul most elegant columns ; and around this noble court are ruins of the most richly decorated edifices. Traversini; MASS INF'. COLUMNS. 243 this court \\c reach ;i second j^atc, leading; to a scci^iul court which is siirrouiulccl and, as it wltc, formed by various chambers adorned with sculiJturc, the richness of which it is impossible to describe. Some doubt has boon expressed as to the use to which these chambers were api)ropri.ited. May they not h;ive been the lod;;- iiii^'s of the ministers of the temple, or of some of the nununjiis attendants of some of the numerous sovereij^Mis that have, at least temporaril)'. kept their court here ? i\la\' not the traveller who ^M/.es u[Mjn these ch.imbers j^nizc upon the ver\' objects which once re-echoed the connnands of .^Vntonius Pius — or the conniients of hi.s servitors upon him .' Traversin}^' this second court wc reach the [.grandest feature ol this ruin where all is _t;rand — the most beautiful where all is be.iutiful ; the peristyle (.»f the chief -hrine, indicated by six lofty coUunns, the shafts of which are tift)'-eiL;ht feet in heiL;ht, and their circumference twent\'-ei^ht, while the scpiarc 111 uked out by their pcdiuienls is two hundred and si.\ty- cii;iit feet by two hundred and fort)'-six. That this was the princijjal shrine, the main attrac- tion of the sincere tlu)u;4h errini; worshippers, seems iiulub'table, antl takiu;^' that to be the case, what more priih.iljle than that llie chandlers surrounding;" the second rc.ill}' were the aboiles of the ministers and servitors of the temple, whensoever or b}' whomsoever (.:rected } To the left of this perist\-le is a smaller temple without a court, which probably once sei\ed as what we should now call the private chapel to the sovereii^ni dwehers in and masters of this once L;ori;eous place. There, jier- chance, in the threat temple, w iiere now shattered capital and prostrate column lie in dust-defiled masses around us, a prostrate people adored in mistaken fervour ; here, in the smaller one, princes worshipped — or sneeretl. The blocks comjiosinj^ the columns are of enormous dimensions, held toi,^ether so closely by iron clamps that it isalfirnied that even the slender blade of a small knife cannot be inserted between the junction-surfaces. In 1751 nine columns of the i,n-eat temple were still erect and perfect. When we were there, three of the nine had ■ ■As* ■tf^ fli til;' : I i ■•■ ' .?44 JOURNKV TO Tkiroi.l. um a f i T: i '::'% u liccn overthrown and nv.tilatcd. Some notion may be formed of the spectacle which these edifices must luivc presented when the)- were perfect, from the fact that one of tlie stones lyinj; prostrate is 69 feet lon^, and no fewer than three of them 5.S eacli. So massive indeed were tlie blocks used in the construction of these marvellous buildings, that ti/ough iron clamps are jiretty plentifully used, the mere weiglit of the masonry itself is the only fastening by wiiich some portions have been held in their places amidst the eartluju.''.l:e and the tempest of ages ; in truth, it would .'ppear that it is human barbarism rather than any co'.v'ulsion of nature that has destroyed many portions of the stupendous works, which have been undermined and overthrown by the inhabitants of mod- ern Baalbek for the sake of the iro.i clamps. I'-ven with arch destroyetl, column o\-erthrown, pilas- ter broken, and capital defaced, so vast, at once, and so ex(iuisitivel)' beautiful in desig*" and sculpture, are the ruins which here surround the traveller, that we scarcely wonder at the fond superstition which leads the ii.'tives to aver, and stoutly maintain, tliat masses so '■'■':.;lity were never tiansported antl upreared by human hands but that t'ne cnce magnificent and now ruined l>aalbek was built by the Cienii, reluctantl)' yet irresistably coerced to their Titanic labors by the mighty power of the Seal of the wise son of Da\ iti. I'"rom Baalbek a mountain-road leads, across the chain of Lebanon, to Tripoli, on the coast- — a distance of nearly forty miles to the north-westward. The journey across the plain, to the foot of the Lebanon range, occupies — to a traveller mounted on horseback— between two and three hours. The mou! tain-top (here called Jebel Makmel) is crossed at an elevation little short of 9000 feet abo\-e the sea, and commands a maL(- nificent prospect. v\t some distance immediately below are the famous Cedars. As first seen from Jebel ?»Iak- niel tiic}' appear merely as a speck of green beyond the snowy \vreaths which inter^-ene between them and us. Th.e perpendiculai fall of the mountain to them is 2400 rilK CKDARS OF i.l.HANON. ^45 fcot, for they arc 6ocxD feet abiw.- the si a ; but the road winds sv:) cautiously down the side ot the mountain, that loaded horses and mules can t^et to them without much difficulty. They stand on what may be called the shoilder of Lebanon, on i4round of a varying level. They cover about three acres. The venerable natriarcli trees, which have stood the blasts of thousandis of win- ters, amount only to twelve, and i'ksc not standinc^ close toi^ethcr in the same clump ; but those of a secon- dar)' and still },-ouni^er i^rowth amount, as nearly as can bo reck()aed, to three hundretl and twenty-five. A per- son can walk easily round the whole i;rove in twenty minutes. One anions; the lars^^er trees mea.sures forty feet ir the circumference of its trunk. In the whole rauL^c of Lebanon there are, in the present day, onl\- one or two other clumps of cedars, and these of no threat extent. The cypress and the juniper are abundant on Lebvnon and in other parts of Syria. The more southward portion of the T^ebanon ran-^e, from the parallel of iieyrout to below Sidon, is in the l)ossession of tlie Druses, a Mohammedan sect of war- like habits, ami whose peculiar reli!4":'ous tenets, as : I as the." social organization, have been the subject of much discussion. The whole re';ion of Lebanon— in- cluding the district inhabited by the Maronites- -is under the government of the l'2mir, or Prince of the Druses. The population of the entire mountain-regii.Mi, accortiing to a recent authoritx', is not less than fou.r hundred thousand. Most travellers in the regicMi ha\e described Dier-el- Kainar, with Us clu-'tered and Hat- roofed houses, rising in successive tiers upon an i'brui)t mountain, like the tower of some ruined Isabel. Heiteddeen, the ancient residence of tlic Ivndrs of the Mountain, occupies an- other peak, which, seen from a dista'.Kc, seems to touch the hrst-named, though in icality tlie\' are scparateil b)' a deep and not very narro'v vale. If fi'om IJeir-el- K;unar you look over at IkitedcLcn, you may almost luicy that j'ou are gazing at some fairy palace. Its arcades, its bold aiul o\erhan:.^ing terrace-, its pavilion-., ', H 246 RUINS Ol I'AI.MVRA. i? . ■ ! I ; ,.; i li . ! r < ;i and its towers, present a mixture of all styles which is more dazzling as a whole than satisfactory in its details. This palace, in truth, is a s}'mbol of the policy of the I'jnirs who inhabit it. It is I'agan in its colonades and painting, Christian in its towers and arches, Mussulman in its domes and its kiosks; and it includes in its building the temple, the church, and tlie mosque. At once palace, prison, and seraglio, there is at present but one part of it that is inhabited ; that part is the prison. Froni the coast-region '>ve now return to the interior, in order to describe the ruins of I'AL.MVI^A. Plungnig into the S\-rian desert, the traveller has to make his way along a nalced plain, except when, at long intervals, lie finds a little cluster of huts, unworth}- of the title ex'cn of a village, but in which he sometimes most opportunel)' obtains rest and shelter during the intense noon heats. i\t th last of these cultivated hovels, called the village of ivarieteen, (which is about sixt)--five miles to the N. 1'",. of Damascus,,'* he com- mences a wearying march < if twenty-four miles, or about six hours, over utterl\- desert plains, with not even a sincriptions from the Koran. Hut it is less on account ,: I £.d* W m -'Hi ' i m ■ ■ / 'if if if'viiipri jii lii'i 'i^ r ! t; - 1 ■'! , \ 248 ANCIKNT INSCKII'TIONS. of the grandeur and beauty of any individual ruin here tlian from the vast extent of tlie wliole that ]\'ilm}-ra so strongly impresses the tra\'eller who suddenly enters ujDon this grand sight from the desert, and sees only the desert beyond. The tops ami sides of the adjacent emircnces are occui)ied by se|)ulchies, sc]uare towers of from two to four stories in height. l'"or the most part these are utterly ruinf)us, and crumbled, or fast crumbling, iril(j mere heaps of dust, but one (jr two of them are entire, and each story of these forms a distinct sepulchre, divided into niches for the reception of the bodies. I'lach of these sepulchres has walls of white stucco, and its ceiling is ornamented with white stars on a blue ground enclosed within a tliamond-shaped bordering; some, tloubtless the sepulchres of those who once were eminent or weahhy, are still further ornamented with sculptures, some of which are in state of almost perfect preservation. Over most of the doorways are inscrip- tions in both Greek and Paln)3-rene. On the columns, erect or prostrate, that encund)er nearly the whole site of this city of the past, there are numerous inscriptions, both in the now lost language of Palmyra and also in Greek. ;\s might be anticipated, those which are in Greek, and are still legiole, are usucdly commemorative of the virtues and services of the individual to whom the senate and the people erected the column, and some also include his pedigree for several generations. What a mockery to our li\ing vanity this scarcely legible lauda- tion, sculptured upon columns rarely seen fe^r ages pa>t by any one who could reatl it in the one language, and not seen by one who could read it in the other ! Though ph'.ced in the very heart of the desert, the industry of ages surrounded Palmyra with an ija>is ol great fertility. Pliny speaks of it as a noble town, \w<- sessing a rich soil ami excellent water, and as being always the first care of the empires of Rome and Parthia alike, when those powers v.cre at war. .Situateil us it was between them, and owing its wealth and imijorlaiice to its adinir.ible situation for the trade between the iptions, also in arc in lOrativc lom the mo also What a landa- :cs p;i>t e, and :.scrU ili^' o.i>i> '>l \vn. iio-^- is bcin'^' Vanhi;i led aS it: ccn the SEAT OF COMMERCE AND ARTS. >49 eastern and the western world, it was th.? obvious policy of the Palmyrenes to preserve the most perfect good understanding with both Parthia and Rome— a policy only terminated when the '/ictories of Trajan so com- pletely secured the ascendancy of Rome that it became an advantage as well as an honor to Palmyra to be con- verted from its long inde[)cndent condition into a Roman colony. " It was during that peaceful [)criod (remarks Gibbon, with obvious justice), if we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the Palmyrc- nians constructed those temples, porticoes, and palaces whose ruins, scattered over an extent of several mile::, have deserved the curiosity of our travellers." But this condition of things did not long remain. The ambition of the Palmyrenes led them to declare their independence of Rome and to defy the emperor and his forces, but Aurelian was not the man to be tlius bearded. That warlike and active emperor counter- marched his force on the instant, took the city by as- .sault, and, in his own words, slew men and women, the old and the infant, and even the very rustics around. He also very effectively prevented Palmyra from again becoming formidable by razing its walls to the very foun- dation. From this blow Palmyra never recovered ; as Gib- bon says : " the seat of commerce and of the arts sank into an obscure town, a trifling fortress, and at length a miserable village." The present village of Tadmore, or Palmyra, shelters a population of scarcely more than a hundred souls. These people, who occupy about thirty mud-walled huts, arc poorest among the poorest population of the i^^a.st, deriving their subsistence from the rearing of a few sheep and goats, and from miserably ill cultivating a few scat- tered patches of that land which once teemed with plenty and smiled in the gladness of the rich harvest, So pass away the glory of this earth ! There only remains, to com[)lete our account of the topography of Syria, to mention the extensive tract of '5 ■ h»1a \ E\ iX m 1'^ ^llill 250 HAURAN. The Hauran, to the southward of Damascus. The Hauran embraces a tract not less than seventy miles from north to south, by fifty miles in the opposite direc- tion. The greater portion consists of a vast level plain, distinguished as l<2u-Nukrah ; this is bound to the cast by a hilly tract, called Jebel Hauran. The whole re- gion is destitute of running streams, but derives, in most seasons, a sufficient supply of water from the rains, which are preserved in under-ground tanks or cisterns, as usual in the East. The plain of Hauran is almost destitute of inhab- itants in the present day, but bears the evidence of for- mer cultivatien, and is thickly covered with ruined vil- lages. In the hilly tract to the eastward there are sev- eral populous villages. The principal place in the entire region is Basra, (the Bostra of the Roman writers and the Bozr,-'h of the Old Testament,) which was formerly a city of considerable importance. Its ruins are .'■tii! extensive and are fully described by Burekhardt and other writers. Under Trajan, Bostra became the cap- ital of the Roman province of Arabia, and was subse- quently made a Roman colony by Alexander Severus. We have described at some length the most famous localities of Syria and the Holy Land, but before leav- ing those interesting portions of the Turkish empire we must place before our readers some observations upon the climate and natural productions. Syria, including Palestine extends along the caster.^ shore of the Mediterranean and has for its eastern boun- daries the Euphrates on the north and north-cast, and the great Arabian desert on the south-east and south. A narrow lowland strip on the coast and vast inland plains assuming more of the desert character as they recoil into the interior, with an range of high mountains between them, are the mountain chain referred to, di- vides into two branches called Lebanus and Anti-I.e- banus, inclosing between them the valley called hol- low Square, and terminating on the northern borders of Palestine, but is continued through it by lower ridges CLIMATE OF SYRIA. 251 oi the Jordan, formiriff the hills of Galilee, and the mountains around Jerusalem. Owing to its niouptains, Syria, which is generally considered to be a warm country, has, on the contrary, especially in the central parts, almost every variety of temperature, sometimes witliin the sho. c space of one day's journey ; and the climate is in consequence very trying to the European constitution. In those tracts which are most pet pled there are three kinds of temper- ature, viz. : the cold, the warm and humid, and the warm and dry. The first belongs to the country between the higher slopes of the Lebanon aiige and the mountains on whose summits lie perpetual snow ; throughout this tract a sharp winter like that of the north of Germany, is ex- perienced from the end of October to April, when a comparatively mild spring succeeds ; this is followed al- most irnmediatcly by the powerful he.it of summer, and th'.' rapid growth of the vine, the white mulberry, the olive-tree, the cotton plant, etc. The second embraces the slopes adjacent to the coast of the Mediterranean, together with the adjacent plains of Akka, Tripoli, Baalbek, Antioch, Beyrout, and Tyre, also those in the interior, :^uch as ICsdrachion, part of Perea, the western side of Damascus, the valley 'of the Jordan, etc., in which tracts the winters are so mild that oranges, bananas and other rich fruits, flourish in the open air. The summer, however, brings with it a clammy and oppressive, althr'igh fertilizing heat, and the winter and summer have each a rainy season. The first continues at intervals from November to Januarj', anr' the second, settling in at the beginning of April, speedily fills the grain. A comparatively mild winter prevails with some rain, and occasional intervals of frost and snow, in the third climate, which compreliewds the south-eastern parts ot Syria ; the snow, however, only remains on the ground for a short time. A high degree of temperature, accom- panied by dry parching winds, belongs to the summer in this zone. The winds here al'uded to come from the ■'1 ■! : . 1 f '< 1 i! ! f' 1 1 i 1 : i i n f r ■ i • i I i .ti>"'>. Il^ I '»lii |:f' 252 THE PLAGUE. bordering desert, and sweep over the tracts stretching southward, as well as the pasture-grounds northward and eastward of the capital ; and their effect is increased in consequence of those tracts being screened from the humid winds which prevail between the coast and the western slopes of J .ebanon. The latter ])ortions, and indeed many other parts of he Syrian terrii >ry, are insaliii^rious, as is shown by the number of deaths in the princii)al towns; for Jaffa. Acre, Saida, Tripoli, Latakia, Tortosa, J'Jcyrout, and even Damascus, suffer at certain times from fever ; and to this may be added the r.ivages of the small pox. The rest of the territory, particularly the plains towards and border- ing upon the desert, may be considered healthy, al- though the mortality is considerable, especially during the ..isitations of the plague, which from patients being abandoned by their friends, (through fear of contagion rather than from the violence of the disease itself,) sweep away thousands. Not even in the west does the patient who is attacked get anything like a fair chance of recov- ery, being wholly or partly deserted ; though the dis- ease seems to be only a form of typhus fever. In the districts of Tripoli, Acre, and the Damascus, three descriptions of soil prevail. In general that of the mountainous parts of Palestine and central Syria is dry and stony, being formed in a great measure from the debris of rocks, of which a large portion of the surface of the districts of Lebanon, the Hauran, and Ledja, with the mountainous countries of Judc-ea, are com- posed; it is m'xed, liowever, with th'j alluvion constantly brought down by the irrigating streams. The natural harshness of the ^oil is overcome by industry, and the slopes and terraces are rendered sufficiently fji tile, whi.e the lower parLs of the countr}"- are naturally productive. The second and riciiest district are the plains of J^s- draelon, Zabulon, Baalbeck, part of the Decapolis, and Damascus, as well as the valleys of the Jordan antl Orontes, which for the m-'^st part consist of a fat, loamy soil, like that of the plain of Umk and other tracts in northern Syria. Being almost without a pebble, it be- SOIL AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 253 comes, when dry. a fine brown earth, like t^arden mould, which, when saturated with the rains, is almost a quag- mire, and in the early part of the summer becomes a marsh : when cultivated, most abundant croi^s of the finest tobacco, cotton, and t^rain, are obtained. The remainder of the territory chiefly consists of the plains called Barr by the Arabs, and Midbar by the Hebrews, each word signifying simi)ly a tract of land left entirely to nature, and being applied to the pasture tracts about almost every town in Syria, as well as those spots where vegetation ^Imost entirely fails. Such spots pre- vail in the tracts towards the eastern side of the country, where the soil is mostly an indurated clay, with irregular ridges of limestone hills separating different parts of the surface. The better description of soil is occasionally diversified by hill and dale, and has very much the ap- pearance of some of our downs, but is covered with the liquorice plant, mixed with aromatic shrubs, and occa- sionally some dwarf trees, sucii as the tamarisk and acacia. Many of the tracts eastward of the Jordan are of this description, particularly those near the Hauran, which, under the name of Roman Arabia, has Bozra for its capital. The inferior tracts are frequently coated with pebbles and black flints, having little and sometimes no vegeta- tion; their cheerless and monotonous aspect being re- lieved at intervals only by the phenomenon of mirage. Such are the greater portions of the tracts southward of Gaza and Hebron, and that part of the Damascus pashalic which borders upon Arabia Deserta, where scarcity of water has produced a wilderness, which at best is only capable of nourishing a limited number of sheep, goats, and camels. Its condition is worst in sum- mer, at which season little or no rain falls throughout the eastern parts of Syria. Mineral productions, as far as they arc at present known, appear to be but few. Iron is abundant in the Kcsrouan, and coal is worked near Beyrout ; silver, quicksilver, bitumen, and iron, have been found in the Anti-Lebanon and near Kasibiyah ; and, as in the time if :. M *f 4* '' \'\ If. It jil !! ;f ^•1 ^r 1 : ' ,:, ■ \ rl: ^ 1 ' i ' , . ' ^i U: i t * ■ ' i ? , ; s ill ^v ll 1 1 i i C^ m bJeII iSi 1''^ ^ ■ 'I'- 254 DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS. of Tacitus, bitumen is collected at the Dead Sea ; rock- salt is also found in the same neighborhood. As yet, however, there is not any appearance of either copper, tin, lead, or gold, in the coiuitry ; althoivfh, from these metals being mentioned in the I Iebrc\ • writings, it is probable that they will be e\'entually found. As in northern Syria, jackals, foxes, hyaenas and wild boars arc numerous ; and there are leopards, por- cupines and some bears. The other animals, including such as are domestic, are the same in both divisions of the country, excepting, perhaps, lions antl wolves, which probably are no longer found southward of the Aleppo district, liut tlie wild goat, the bouquetin of the Alps, ajjpcars in the Ilauran and other parts. Camels and horses are nunu.'rous, chiefly of the Arabian breeds ; but of the former, the lieavier and more enduring animals, produced by a mixture with the race of Turcomania, are wanting ; the asses and mules, especially the former, are, however, greatly superior to those in other parts of Asia. The cows and oxen are a peculiar breed ; and the heavy-tailed sheep, VKGETAHI.KS AND FRUITS. 355 and j^oats with long hair and pendant cars, are the ordinary animals of these classes. The fine Macedonian greyhound with a feathered tail is also conimonly em- ployed by the amateurs of the chase ; while in almost every ruin throughout the country a covey of grey partridges may be flushed, and one or two jackals started. Flock.j of a kind of jiigeon-quail, calkl Katta, and a green parrot, noticed by Diodorus Siculus, abound in the spring The eagles, vultures, falcons, owls, and other birds, do not differ from those of Aleppo; nor i.s that scourge of the husbandman, the locust, wanting as the grain advances. Tile extremes of temperature experienced in this country give a corresponding variety of vegetable pro- ductions. Besides the trees mentioned elsewhere, as the terebinth, oleander, cypress, poplar, acacia, juniper, and tamarisk, there are many others — amongst them the cedar, the butm or wiUl ]:)istachia, the nopal, a kind of broom of large size, the kharub or locust tree, the date, the dede, the orange, the lemon, the fig, and the pomegranate. Almonds and other common fruits, as grapes and olives, are more flourishing in the central and southern than in the northern parts of Syria. Tlie sweet-honied reed, the well-known sugar-cane, is still grown where the Crusaders found it in the eleventh ccn- turv. Indigo is cultivated on the shores of the Dead Sea, and in some places along the Jordrm ; and cochi- neal has recently been introdced about Tripoli. At the latter plaice, and around Ikyrout, as well as Damascus and in the interesting districts of the Lebanon, silk is produced, but with a pn^iiortion of hemp, tob.vcco, and occasionally in some few places, a little cotton. The grains cultivated in central Syria and Palestine are wheat, dhourra, barley, j invar, Indian corn, and sesame; and besides artichokes, melons, pumpkins, etc., the ada, an excellent kind of lentilc, the badintohaus, or egg- plant, with the other vegetables of northern Syria, are cultivated. The grain harvest, which is the principal one, takes place at the end of May or early in June ; later, the hummus, a kind of vetch, comes in with other ■, '■ * '' """^4 iif ,;h; ill* |5iiij:f i#«i'i:!^ 256 GRAIN CROPS. crops, but on a sniall scale ; but apathy, the bcscttinj;^ sin of the Turk, causes tlie quantity, particularl)' of grain, to be regulated by tlie actual consumption of the people rather tlian by the capability of the soil and the advantages of an export trade. COU NTR I ES ON \H\. EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS j> »\' CHAVTKR VII. V, K O t; R A P H I C \ I, I) K s c R I I' 1 I n N . Wc have now completed the description ol Syri;i (inckiding Palestine), historically the most important and interesting portion of the C)ttoman empire in Asia It now remains to describe the two remaining tlivisions of Asiatic Turkey, namely : the countries watered by the luiphrates and Tii^ris rivers (including Armenia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, and Irak- Arabi), constituting the more easterly portions of the em])ire ; and Asia Minor, the most westerly portion of Turkey in Asia and of the Asiatic continent. These three divisions, or Asiatic Turkey, comprise more than two-thirds of the entire empire, and arc estimated to c(M"itain some 43 tingui.^hed alike for their prosperity and their probit}'. A considerable portion of Armenia was given up to the Russians by tlie treaty of Adrianople, and in 1827 that power obtained the whole of the fertile province of Erivan ; and there seems no reason to doubt that its rule over this portion of Armenia has been beneficial. h'orrW- ci'.y nun>crous petty chieftains vexed and spoiled the peaceable inhabitants with ever-recurring plunder and violence. All these disorders have been sternly and corapletely stopped by the Russian pouer ; anil life and property are so well protected in the Riir,so-Annenian territory that you may travel in perfect securit}' with post-horses from the mouths of the Phasis to the Kour and the Caspian, through countries in which, as recently as 1S15, the roads were all but inii)racticable, and ex- posed to the unrestrained attacks of robbers and other banditti. The power of Russia to produce subjection to * >' H '5, 1 .'i4 (' ,' 'i; I I-' f ^ 1 1 • i 1 I. ( 1 i > ■ > 1 1 I ■!«; 260 MOUNT ARARAT. her will in conquered lands is tolerably well known, and order reigns (whether at Warsaw or elsewhere) wherever the double-headed eagle is reared as a standard. I'Lxcepting the Jews, there is no people so widely scattered over the face of the earth as the Armenians. They are to be found in both Africa and America. In Constantinople and its vicinity there are said to be nearly a quarter of a million of them, about forty or fifty thousand in India, and about a fourth of that number in Hungary and the adjoining territories. The whole num- ber of Armenians has been estimated at about two millions, which is probably below than over the mark. The Armenians are Christians, not differing from the Greek Catholics. Their priests are not merely permitted but even obliged to marry, while the bishops and patri- archs are vowed to celibacy. The officiating priests arc elected by theit flocks, and derive their support, not from a fixed state allowance, but from fees and perquisites ; but they are commonlj- said to be both illiterate and in- attentive, and far from being irreproachable in their morals. The great majority of the Armenians reject the authority of the Pope, and acknowledge that of the Patriarch Echmiadzin, whose official seat is the cele- brated Convent of the Three Churches at Erivan, the capital of Russian Armenia, from which city it is about thirteen miles distant to the westward. Mount Ararat, the Armenian name of which is Macis, is about thirty miles to the southward of Erivan, and is on the frontiers of the Russia, the Turkish, and tlie Persian empires. The summit of this famous mountain, upon which tradition say; that the ark of Noah rested on the subsidence of the waters of the Deluge, has been found to be 17.323 feet above the sea, or upwards of fifteen hundred feet loftier than the high- est peak of Mont Blanc in Switzerland, and is perpet- ually crowned with ice and snow. It was until so lately as 1829, deemed an impossibility to reach the summit, but in that year that difficult task was successfully achieved by Profes.sor Parrot, of Dorpat ; and Abich, another Russian traveller, has since accomplished the lich is Erivan, sh, and famous ark of of the the sea, le high- pcrpet- o Lately summit, cssfully Abich, hed the TURKISH ARMENIA. 261 same feat. The mountain consists in reality of two peaks, distinguished as the Great and the Little Ararat. The latter is 13,093 feet above the sea. The word Ararat, as used in the Bible, ap[)ears to apply to Armenia in a general sense, so ijiat by the expression "the Mountains of Ararat," any of the numerous hills which cover the .surface of that country may be under- stood. Amonost these mountains Hl-s Lake Van, an extensive body of water 200 miles in circuit, and renowned amongst the (Orientals for its beauty. The Turkish portion of y\rmenia comi)rehends the important pashalic of Krzeroom, together with the smaller pashalics of Kars, l^ayazid, Moosh, and Van. These territories occupy the space that extends from the government of Trebi/.ond (along the shores of the luixine) tc the source of the I'.uphrates, and thence to the foot of Mount Ararat— a liigh plateau, with a climate that exhibits the severest extremes dike of summer heat and winter cold. Ercerooin, the principal city in this region, stands upon a plain that is upwards of 6000 feet above the sea. Owing to its extreme ele- vation the cold is intense. The wells were frozen over in April, and vegetation was very backward in July. The description of its winter aspect might serve for the experiences of recent Arctic navigat •■•s A bright sky there was, with the sun shining away as if it was all right, but his ray gave no heat, and only put your eyes out with its glare upon the snow. The glare has an extraordinary effect, sometimes bringing on snow-blind- ness, and raising blisters on the face precisely like those which are produced by exposure to extreme heat. A curious phenomenon might be observed upon the door of one of the subterranean stables being opened, when, although the day was clear and fine without, the warm air within immediately congealed into a little fall of snow. l'>zeroom is a flourishing city, with some manufac- tures of leather, carpets, etc., and a considerable transit trade. The present population, estimated at thirty ■ '' f ■ It i 4 SI il* s f h i ' 1 ' if (flf 1 :i! i r |ii| ) , 262 KAKS AND MOOSII. thousand, is, however, much below its amount at a form- er period. Erzeroom is 115 miles in direct distance from Trebizond, in the direction of S. E. The town of Kors ! 12,000 inhabitants) lies in the direction of N. K. from Krzeroom, at a distance of iio miles, and not far distant from the frontier line between the Turkish and Russian empires. The stream beside which it is built (and which bears the same name) flows into the Arpa-chai, which joins the river Kour. The houses of Kars are nearly all built of black basalt. This town also stands at a great elevation above the sea, and the climate is consequently cold and bleak. Throuj^hout this high region no one thinks, except in cases of great emergency, of travelling for eight months of the year, owing to snow, ice, and intense cold. As a protection against it, most of the houses we found to be constructed wholly or partly underground. Kars has acquired an important place in modern liistory from the gallant (though unavailing) defence made by its brave garrL-^bn during a prolonged siege by the Russians in 1855. The ruins of Anni — once the capital of an indepen- dent Armenian kingdom, now only marking the site of an ancient and deserted town— lie twenty miles to the S. K. of Kars, upon a rocky peninsula that overhangs the stream of the Arpa-chai. The plain of Bayarnd is further to the southward, The town of that name (150 miles H. S. E. of Imv.c- room, and not far distant from the base of the lofty Ararat, is famous for a magnificent monastery, but is now in a ruinous condition, and in great part deserted, its present population is only 5000. Moosh, a badly built place, with only 5000 inhabit- ants, though the capital of a pashalic, lies eighty miles to the southward of l^rzcroom, upon a conical shaped hill. The stream of the Murad-su, as the eastern arm of the Euphrates is called, flows at some distance to the northward of this town. The bazaars of Moosh are well supplied. The chief part of its population is Armenia. DIARBEKIR. 263 inluibit- ty miles sliapcd tern arm :e to the )osh arc ation is The town of Van, upon the eastern shore of the lake already described, has 15,000 inhabitants, and the usual cliaracx'ristics of Oriental towns — dirty, narrow, and ill-paved streets. Its citadel, now in a ruinous con- dition, crowns an adjacent height. The pashalic of DiARHEKiR is situated en a lower Iccl. in a fine plain watered by the upper course of the Tigris, and terminated to the north by the high moun- tain range of Asi-Kour, the ancient Niphates. The town of Diarbekir stands upon an elevated rocky range, stretching from the citadel, at its north- western extremity, towards the south-west, in the shape of a boat, and is about 200 yards from the river at the nearest point. The citadel is on a precipitous mass of volcanic rock, to which the walls of the town are joined. These are high, well built, and strong, being flanked by 72 towers, which, like the walls and even the houses, are constructed of lava, mixed with the ruins of ancient buildings. The walls enchase a space of which the cir-^ cumference is about five miles. The houses are fl't- roofcd and two stories high, the lower one of stone, and the upper of clay ; and the buildings rise in stages, like a succession of terraces, one above another. The streets are paved, and there are sixteen mosquws. most of them covered with lead. The Diarbekir in its prosperit)' containct' •"'^000 housc.-i, with numerous cotton-looms constam.^ and it enjoyed active trade in gall-nuts, not only with Koordistan, but also with India, on one side, through l^agdad, and with luu'ope, through Aleppo, on the other; but at present there are scarcely 800 houses, ami its commerce is almost annhilated. The situation of Diarbekir is admirably calculated for that of a gi-eat commercial city, and nothing appears necessary to revive its ancient importance but the re- moval of the chief cause of its decline ; namely, the in- security of its commercial communications with S>ria, Asia Minor, and KoordisU.., and with the estuary of the Shatt-el-Arab. l,l 'Li 264 KOORDISTAN. •■k; I n m iNlU^'''i! iiii jj 1 1 . ! '■■,■> 1 ' : 1 :^m J !■ m ^Lt; The manufactures have sunk t ^ the lowest ebb, the tr;ide with Aleppo and l^agdad has become very triflinjij, and the Koordish robbers have devastated the adjacent villages, and are so audacious and so utterly unchecked by the government that it is unsafe to leave the protec- tion of the walls excepting in numerous and well armed parties. The natives call the town Amid. y\bout thirty miles to the north-wesiward of Diar- bekir, and not far distant from the source of the Tigris, is the town o( Argana Madcit, with 400 inhabitants. It derives some importance from its rich coi;pcr-mincs. Kebaii Mndoi, another mining town, with four or five hundred families, is further to the N. \V., on the left bank of the l^uphrates. Its mines yield argentiferous galena. Hoth places lie within a rugged and mountain- ous district, and one which is rich in iron and other ores, besides those named .ibove. Crossing to the eastern bank uf the Tigris the traveller reaches the mountanious country of K'JOKDls- TAN, inhabited, as the name implies, b)- the Koords, a singularly warlike and fierce people, whose subjection to the Ottoman Porte can scarcely be called more than nominal. lUtlis, on the northern frontier of this dis- trict, ranks as the capital, but the Koords for the most part dwell under their several leaders (or Khans) in strong mountain fortresses. The town of Bitlis is com- manded by one of the strongest of these forts, and con- sists of well built stone houses, nearly all of which are surrounded by spacious and pleasant gardens, whicl afford the population an abundance of fine fruits and vegetables ; but it has but little external trade, owm'ng to the predatory habit--: of the Koords. Bitlis is situat- ed in a wide ra.vine, traversed by a stream which joins the Tigris, and about ten miles to the south-westward of Lake Van. Its populati(^n, consisting of Koords, Turks, and Armenians, numbers about 10,000. The town of Scrt, supposed to represent the ancient Tigranocerta, is about forty miles S. W. of the last- mentioned town, but thougli formerly the capital of the brief empire of Tigranes, it is now merely a large village w ^liMiis iiii „ §.■ ^1 if l^^'iStel 1 m m> ^A !■ it I P. :: ", 'll'lli Ml , I, ; ,.!li;rii:'i:.':l: . ifi^^^^gfe. ?^?^<«. :Smx '\ iSI'^'i '=:S:fi'l R 5!'. U^i:,. ■'/'''-■ . T I; /■ * yy 1 i§i ^r s Wi4 ex ^ ill 'H'4 iiWf ■ ^in nlfflD. H M 1 ' •;'■■!' ill 1 r: ! ii# '''111 t Hi" I i i'^ m ! r M.W 'K^HI^H Bi{. "■'!'■' ■■^H w k 1 I^^H ■ M ' 1 ) 1^9 '''''i^^^H 1 r '' %[iWrmlr ^: ► TOWN OF ORPIIA. 269 *• of scattered forts, protected by both walls and moats. The Koordish chiefta'ns who own these isolated castles boast that they can trace their pedigree back to Noah ; till') h".\ _ power of life and death over their followers, whom, however, they generally treat with kindness and familiarity. On the upper Euphrates, and in a south-westwardly direction from Diarbckir, where the mountain land - of Armenia gradually descend to the flat cUid desert : :as of Mesopotamia, is the small pashiilic of Orfah. ih-^ Town of Orfah occupies the site of the ancient F;;?-^si, a city of great note and importance under thf "cc ^'^- sors of Alexander the Great, as also in tiie time ol ')ie Crusaders, to one of whose leaders it gave tl\e title ot Count, it has about twenty thousand inhabi; s, ..nd is remarkable for a magnificent mosque dedicated to the patriarch Abraham, who, with his father Terah, dwelt at Haran when " they went forth from Ur of the the Chaldees," which place Orfah is supposed to repre- sent. Haran is found in a village which still bears that name, situated about five-and-twenty miles to the south- eastward of Orfah. Racca, anciently called Nicepho- rium, and a favorite town of the celebrated Caliph Haroun al Raschid, — Bir, which has a bridge of boats to afford a passage across the river, — and the ancient Zeugma, now called by the name of Eoum Kala, and where there is a fort which defended the great Roman military road, — are all places of some consequence that enliven the banks of the Euphrates. Descending from the mountains, the traveller enters the great plain that lies between the Tigris and the Euphrates. This plain, the Mesopotamia of ancient ;,'cography, is now known by the name of AlJEZiREir. The eastward portion of this tract, with the narrower plain on the opposite bank of the Tigris, formed the ancient province of Assyria, and the whole region was included in the wide-spread limits of the Assyrian empire. Though portions of the Mesopotamia plain * 16 'i'!li?'lf'!'M'f 1 1 1 1 . 1 i 270 MOSUL. f. are sandy and rocky, most of it might be profitably tilled, but a fierce and nomade population of Arabs and Koords causes it to be much neglected. The eastern portion of Al-Jezireh falLi M'ithin tiie modern pashalic of Mosul, which extends along either side of the tigris. The capital of the pashalic is the town of Mosul, situated on the right or western bank of the Tigris, at a distance of nearly two hundred Miles to the south-east- ward of Diarbekir, and two hundred and twenty tniles distant from 15agdad, in the direction of N. N. VV. Mosul is enclosed by walls, which are entered by eig!)t gates, and has upwards t)f fort)- thousand inhabitants. It is more flourishing and prosperous than Turkish cities in } vneral, and enjoys a considerable share of caravan tmffic. The houses of JJagdad and Mosul arc provided with underground ajiartments, in which the inhabitants pass the day during the summer months. They are generally ill-lighted, and the air is close and frequently unwholesome ; but still they offer a welcome retreat during the hot weather, when it is impossible to sit in a room. At sunset the jjeople emerge from these sid)terranean chambers, and congregate on the roofs, where they spread their carpets, eat their evening meal, and pass the night. M'.\sul is of some fami" in Oriental history, in con- nexion with the events of the nn'ddle ages : its walls withstood the fierce hosts of Saladin, and the ferocious Tartar conc|ueror Gcniji;< Khan once deluged its streets with blooil. JUit its pre;*ent interest is derived chiefly from the fact of its constituting tlie starting point for that field of Assyrian research wliich has yielded so rich a harvest to the enterj)rise of our countrjinan Mr. Layard. and the French savant M. Botta. Mosul stands oppo- site to the ancient Assyrian capital, Nineveh, whcse monuments, buried during ages — which in themselves have sufficed for the successive historic periods of younger nations, and within the compass of which the ri.se and fall of other empires have been again and again enacted, — are now restored to the light of day, to afford instructions and delight to the scholar and the unlettered THK RIVKR TIGRIS. 271 ' : ' ^ "I il fitably )s and astern ishalic : tiL^ris. Mosul, is, at a h-east- y miles N. VV. y ci«;!)t bitants. rurki.^h 1 1 arc of osul arc lich the months. osc and vt Iconic fisiblc to ni these roofs, meal, n con- s walls rocious streets chieOy )int for so rich a Layartl. oppo- whosc msclves iods of the rise d a-,^ain o afford lettered alike. The Nineveh of Scripture ; the Nineveh of the oldest historian ; the Nineveh — twin sister of Habylon — gloryinpf in a civilization of pomp all traces of which were believed to i)c gf)nc ; the Nineveh in which the captive tribes of Israel had labored and wept — has, after a lapse of twenty centuries, been again brought to light. The proofs of ancient splendor have been once more beheld by living eyes, the enterprise of the explorer has revealed to an astonished and curious world the teinplos, pala.es, and iduls of ancient Assyria, and by the aid of the draftsman's skill has familiarized th(.' na- tions (if the west with the representations of warfare, and with the triumphs of peaceful art, as i)ractised by the Asyrian people. A bridge of boats across the Tigris — there about four hundred feet wide — connects Mosul with the oppo- site or eiistern bank of the river. That huge and mis- hapen mounds of earth and rubbish c.vtended along these banks and stretched some distance inland, and that these mounds coincided with the sit(; assigned to Nine- veh, had long been Icnown, and the fact had attracted tlv.: curiosity of inany iiupn'ring travellers. Rich and Niebuhr, with others, had ex.imined them, but without any important result. Nor was anything of importance relative to the remains of the bvu'ied city brought to lii^liL until the date of the e.vcavations coinmenced bv the French consular agent at Mosul, M. Uotts, at the close of '1842. The difficultie.s in the way of such ex- plorations, amidst a disorganized p^ipulation such as that of Turkey, are greater than can readily be conceived by those who have nf)t studied Oriental usages aiid pre- judices. The insalubrity of the marshy tracts which often ailjoin the mounds, and the insufficient means of procuring a supply of steady and regular labor, are the least of these difficulties. Tlie obstacles constantly thrown in the way by the Turkish authorities are of greater moment, and the superstitious prejudices of an ij:;norant Moslem population are more obstructive still. Orientals always connect the idea of such researches with the thought of buried treasures, (not of ancient art, f •''! 1 \.m %\ ■TT IIWIII 1 1 \ 1 i: ; f ' 1 .1 1 "'1 ' ' ' j I t :'«¥l| |jk. 1^,1)' S^i lilt ,ii iiii .,';m 272 VAST DIMENSIONS OF NINEVEH. as the Assyrian monuments really arc, but of gold and silver,) which they fancy that the explorer strives to discover. The inscriptions uhicii the investii^ator copies with so much care, are in the eye of the Moslem the talismanic j^uardian of these, or point out the spots where they are hidden. Some of them— acuter, as they doubtless deem themselves, than the rest — resort to ii still stranj^er supposition in order to account lor the fondne.ss of the bu.sy and inquiring; Frank for monumen- tal inscriptions : the\' imajrine that their country form- erly beloni:;ed to the mfulels, and that the latter si.arch for inscriptions in order to discover the title by which their rights may be proved, and by the means of which tiiey may one day lay claim to the Ottoman empire ! Tlie vast dimensions of Nineveh — which, (as well as those of IJabylon) considerably exceeded the area of London, even in the widest extent which its spreadiuLj suburbs give to the British metropolis in the present day — embraced a parallelogram that measured, accord- ing to JJiodorus Siculus, 150 stadia upon each of its two longer sides, and 90 stadia at either extremity ; the cntif^e external boundary being 480 stadia, equal to 60 (or, according to some authorities to 74) mik . The prophet Jonah, it will be remembered, sjieaks o{ the Assyrian capital as being an exceeding great city of three days' journey — a measure which doubtless applies to its circuit, and which coincides with he dimensions assigned hy the classical writer. Thou jh of superior dimensions, however, Nineveh was prob; bly much less populous than London — the number of i,':s inhabitants not exceeding, there is reason to believe, 600,000. Within the vast space which its walls embraced, there were, doubtless, large open areas, including gardens and even fields, as is the case generally in Oriental towns in the present day. Mr, Layard thinks that the whole space between the mounds of Khorsabad and Nimroud — embracing the banks of the Tigris, opposite Mosul, for a distance of nearly forty miles — was included within the vast circuit of the ancient city, an extent which seems greater than RUINKD MOUNDS. 273 even tlio wide dimcnsioiis assigned to the Assyrian capital warrants. Hut traces of biiildiiifjjs arc observable upon ncMrer examination, and the whole si»rf.ice is found to he strewed '.vith fragments of pottery, covered with writinfjf in the cuneiform characters, bricks, pieces ot pavement and here and there a remnant of a bas-reUef. A small l)uild;:i^ on its sumnn't — once a Christian church now a Mohammeilan moscpie — is dedicated to the divine messeni;er who was sent to warn the Ninevite jjcopie, and is reverenced as cont.iiniiip; the proplict's remains. On the plain of Babylon, to build a hill has a mean- ing ; but there was a strange adherence to an anticpie custom in thus pilincj brick upon brick, without re^'ard to the cost and value of labor, where hills innumerable, and ecjuall)' good and elevated sites, were easily to be found. Although reposing upon solid rock, (red and brown sandstones,) still almost the entire depth of the mound which was in parts upwards of 60 feet high, and at this side 90^ yard-, in extent, was built up of sun- burnt bricks, like the MujcUibeh or su|)[)osed tower of ikibel, without inter\ening layers of reeds. On the sides of these U^fty artifi' ial cliffs numerous hawks or crows nestled in security, while at their base was a deep slop- ing declivity of crumbled materials. On this northern face which is the most perfect as well as the highest, there occur at one point the remains of a wall built with large square-cut stones, levelled and fitted to one another with the utmost nicety, and bevelled upon the faces, a.s in many Saracenic structures ; the toi> stones were also cut away as in steps. The south-western rampart displays occasionally the rcmTins of a wall constructed of hewn blocks of gypsum, and is everywhere bounded by a ditch, whicli, like the rainpa, ', encircles the whole ruins. All 'ner this great surface we found traces of foun- dations of stone edifices, with abundance of bricks and pottery, as observed before, and to which we may ado, bricks vitrified with bitumen, as are found at Rahab di, Bab)'lou, and other ruins of the same epoch ; bricks with impressions of straw, etc., sun-dried, burnt aud .« I m if i.*1 :': fli ^.f"* 1 A 11 ii*lii -i.^'l i I ■ \ 1 iJ^ (« iy ki 274 NOMADIC ARAKS. vitrified ; and ])aintcd pottery with colors still very perfect ; also a briclc, on which were well defined and indubitable a.rrow-headed characters. llavintj thoroi!;^fid)' examined these historic and in- tercstin;.j ruins, we pursued our course southward, throuLjh a dry but tropical plain. Althouc;!! jjcstered by sand-Hies, we stopped a few .iiinutcs and breakfasted on bread and wild leeis.s, which arc abundant every- where, and frequently enamel with their n)seate and clustered umbels the lichen-clad space that intervened between the dark-green bushes of wormwood. ChanL;inc^ our r'.>ule we started to tl.r north-west, in which direction wc arrived, after one ,-,i\d a quarter hours' ride, at a v.ille\^ bom,.' ' m places ])y rock ter- races of gypsum, which indicaied a wady and a winter torrent, or actual water. To our jo\' we foiuul the TIku- thar flowing alotig the bottom of this vale, and to our great comfort the waters w ere very potable. The stream, though narrow, was deep, and hence with didiculty ft/r- dable ; on its b.ii.ks were a few reeds and scattered bushes of tamari-.k' We proceetled u[) the stream in a direction in searcli of a i\/rd, wliich we found after i mc hours' slow and irregul.ir journey, and we li)st half an hour reiVeshing ourselves with a bath. We afterwards followed the right bank of the .stream, being unwilli-ig, as nighfwas coming en, to separate; ourselves from l!ie water so necessar)' for ourselves and hor.ses. Tlie river soon came from a m.)re westerly direction, flon'ing through a VcUley c\erywhere chid v.itii a luxuriant vege- tation of grasses, sometimes nearly half a mile in widdi, at otlu;rs only three hundred or four nundred yards, and again still more narrowed occasi(jnally by terraces of g\'l)su!ii. lleie we perceived the tents (;f tl.e i>eiion;n-i. extended uW and wide within tlie ruins and scatteieti over the valley. This entire tli.^trict aboutids with noma- dic A.iabs and warlike Koonis, rendering exploration and discovery extremely unsafe. The country to the west and south of Mosul bclonL;s chiefly to the extensive pashalic of Bagdad. Within Ill m 1H ■ 1 ,i 1 m L f jJ'PP*^ : R jilw ^ ' ■ 1 l^^,lii|||||K:i:| " 1 ji 1 ^ r™'ii' 1 1 1 ■ i 1: 1 ■ j ■ ■ ■ , , ! 1 ! ' : ' 1 1 i r i 1 1 1 1 1 i ,. 1 '' ir 1 1 .11 ■ ■■! '"l i MARDIiT. 75 the extreme northerly part of this district is the city of MardiN, the Roman Maride, the walls of which are still in tolerably good preservation, and which has a popula- tion of 15,000. The houses of this town rise in succes- sive rows above each other on a branch of the great mountain-chain of Masius. About twenty-three miles to the S. K. of Mardin, some ruins, which bear the name of Danr, mark the site of the ancient Daras, the strong fortifications of which were once the bulwark of the Roman frontier on the side of Persia. The massive foundations of towers and other ruins are still traceable ; the pkice has now a few hundred inhabitants, among whom are a small number of Armenians. Further to tlie S. K. (about forty miles distant from Miirdin) is Nisibin, the ancient Nisibis, which withstood the Parthians, and, subsequently to its cession to them, the Romans. The foundations of its once impregnable walls are traceable to the extent of about three miles ; but the site of the place is covered with ruins, dotted here and there by the black tents of the Koords. Upon or near the Eui)hrates, or between that river and the Tigris, arc several small towns. The noble plain which lies between the luiphrates and Tigris, and which bore iu antiquity the various names of Mesopotamia, li-ibylonia, and Chald;ea, forms the 7\1-Jezirch and Irak-Arabi of modern g(-'Ography. In one portion of this region (to the westward of I'Jag- dad), a spcvce of little more tlian twenty-five miles separates the two great rivers. Here, as further to the .southward, (where their courses diverge to more than double that distance), the plain is a dekli (/Ar.nAv?). The coal-field e.xtends from seventy to eip^hty niilc.«, and bi^loncjs to the true carboniferous formation The plain of Kutarah is 6,o- inferior to those of Constantinople, either in the extent, variety, or magnificence of the arti- cles offered for sale. The fruit-market, however, is a real curiosity, and as such merits a particular descrip- tion. The great fig season is soon over, but the various operations connected with or dependent upon the fruit- trade, such as coopers, sorters, packers, etc., continue the whole year round. They after the fig season receive and pack raisins, which daily unload from the catnels in the market-place. The raisins are trod into barrels by the feet, which information may furnish our tidy house- keepers with a hint to wash them previous to use. These raisins are generally of the small sorts used in pastry; indeed, we do not recollect to have seen any bunch raisins in the market. We noticed enormous quantities of a very dark-coloured raisin, which is chiefly exported to the Hlack Sea. Among the many varieties, the sul- tana raisin was pointed out to us, as coming chiefly from the district of Karabournou. This is a very deli- cate yellowish raisin, without seed.s, and in much request for superior articles of confectionery. The names of Smyrna and figs are so intimately connected, that we should be inexcusable were we to pass over this luscious fruit in silence. Smyrna has long been celebrated for its figs, and at the present day they form one of its most valuable exports. The season for the packing of figs does not last more than three weeks, and of course much expedition is required in preparing them for market. It is not uncom- mon during this period to witness the daily arrival of t'4 THE FIG TRADE. 287 1500 camels, each loaded with 500 or 600 wcijjlit of figs, and some of these come from a distance of 70 and even 100 miles from Smyrna. Many of the principal mer- chants have from 300 to 800 hands employed in prepar- ing and packing them, and for this purpose men, women, and children are indiscriminately employed. Their wages arc from two and a half to twelve cents per day, and they are allowed besides to eat as many as they please, but to carry none away. As soon as the fresh figs arrive, they are carefully assorted for the different markjts, the best being selected for the English trade. They are then washed in salt-water, rubbed between the hands, and after a final squeeze, which produces a con- cave and convex surface, they are handed over to the packer. This person arranges them in such a irsanner that the conve.K surface of one fig is received into the concave surface of aiiothcr, and when the box or drum is filled, a few laurel leaves are spread over them. It was stated to us by an intelligent merchant, that the quantity of figs and raisins annually exported amounted to over 100,000 tons, costing upon an average, about $60 per ton. The whi>le of this sum, deducting the ex- pense of transportation, is clear gain, for the fig-tree requires no attention whatever, and flourishes upon a barren soil. The preserved fig, as prepared by house-keep- ers in Smyrna, is a most deh'cious fruit, and far superior to the ordinary figs of commerce. The opium of Turkey is the finest in the world. Madder and Persian berries for dyeing, otto of roses, gum, etc., constitute other arti- cles of export. The unsettled state of many of the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean render it necessary for most of the European nations to keep up a large naval force in these seas. Smyrna is of course a convenient harbor, and almost every day witnesses the arrival and departure of .some foreign man-of-war, and the flags of nearly all nations are constantly floating in the bay. The Greek population of Smyrna, according to the authority quoted above, are an idle race. The numer- ous fasts and festivals of the Greek church encourages \M I 1 H !-|iiii m :i\ *(r. ill ft ■. t; ! 1 ■ i 1 i , 5 1 il i i 288 saints' days. this indolence. One-third of the number of days in the year are kept holy in honor of the saints. Upon these occasions the men pass their time chiefly at the street doors, and the women at the windows, gazing at what passes below. But who that admires the ever-enduring classic grace of the Ionian Greeks would interfere with the last-named propensity. Who would disturb tlie .saints' days of the beautitul Smyrniotes .'^ Disturb their saints' days ! Oh, no ! for as you move through the narrow streets of the city at these times of festival, the transom-shaped windows suspended over }-our head on either side are filled with the beautiful descendants of the old Ionian race ; all (even yonder empress throned at the window of that humblest cottage) are attired with .seeming magnificence ; their classic heads are crowned with scarlet and laden with jewels or coins of gold — the wliole wealth of the wearers, their features are touched with a savage pencil, hardening the outline of e)es and eye-brows, and lending an unnatural fire to the stern, grave looks, with which they pierce your brain. Endure their fiery eyes as best you may, and ride on slowly and reverently, for, facing you from the side of the transom that looks longwise through the street, you .see the one glorious shape tran.scendant in its beauty ; you see the ma.ssive braid of hair as it catches a touch of light on its jetty surface — and the broad, calm, angry brow — the large eyes Jeeply set, and .self-relying as the eyes of a conqueror, with all their rich shadons of thought lying darkly around them, — you see the thin fiery nostril, and the bold line of the chin and throat disclosing all the fierceness, and all the pride, passion, and power that can live along with the rare womanly beauty of those sweetly turned lips. But then there is a terrible stillness in this breathing image ; it seems like the stillness of a savage that sits intent and brood- ing day by day upon some one fearful scheme of ven- geance, and yet more like it seems to the stillness of an immortal whose will must be known and obeyed witli- out sign or speech. Bow down ! — Bow down and adore the young Persephonie, transcendent Queen of Shades ! RUINS OF EPIIESUS. 289 Smyrna, however, possesses Interest of another kind than that here adverted to. It is a town of great antiquity, and much historic fame. It was one amongst seven cities which hiid claim to have been the birth- place of Homer, and was a member of the Ionian con- federacy. The Apostle John addresses it in the Revela- tion as one of the Seven Christian Churches, and it is the only one of the number which has retained its im- portance down to modern times. Of the other six churches of the Apocalypse, ICphesus now consists only of a few scattered remains beside the village of Aiasa- look (near the coast to the southward of Smyrna). Per- gamos, (now IJergamo,^ on the bank of the Caicus, and Thyatira, ^now Ak-hissar, or IV/iite Cusllt',) on a branch of the Hermus, are both inconsiderable towns,— Sardis, or Sart, to the eastward of Smyrna, is at present a wretched village, — Philadelphia, further in the interior, is a small and misurable town called Allah-*.hehr, — and Laodicea, now l^ski-hissar, (/. c. Old Castle,) is entirely in ruins, and without inhabitants. The ruins of liphcsus — insignificant as they are com- pared with the greatness of the city whose site they mark — possess a surpassing degree of interest. Here was, in ancient times, that f.imous temple erected to the goddess Diana, and accounted one of the wonders of the world. C)f this magnificent structure we have an elaborate description in ancient writers. It was 420 feet long by 220 broad. Of the columns, which were 60 feet in height, one hundred and twenty were the donations of as many kings. Kven this site is now sought with difficulty, for the unhealthiness of the plain of Aiasalook (from malaria) makes it an unsafe residence during six months of the year. Part of the ground on which I^phesus formerly stood is now under the plough. Fragments of ruined buildings are scattered about ; after dark the mournful cry of the jackal is heard upon tht; spot, while the night-hawk and owl flit amongst the ruins of departed greatness. The remains of the theatre are still of vast extent, and must have been capable of accommodating at least 30,000 persons. *9H ,«l 290 SAUDIS. i1 \ 'i i 'i The ruins of Sardis, once the proud and opulent capital of Lydia, and known as "the lady of kinj^doms," present an equal scene of desolation. The wretched village of Sart, which occupies a portion. of the ancient site, is to the eastward of Smyrna, a few miles distant from the southern bank of the Gediz-chai, or ancient Hermus. The little rivulet which anciently bore the name of Pactolus runs beside the ruins, but no lon;;cr— as in former da}s — flows over golden sands. It rises in the mountain-rage of Kisilja-Musa-Tagh, (as the lurks call it,) the ancient Tmolus, to the southward, and joins the Ilcrmus. After snow or rain, it is a rapid torrent, but becomes reduced in summer to a mere thread of water. The ruins of Sardis are, with one exception, more entirely gone to decay than those of most ancient cities which we visited. No Christians reside on the spot, two Greeks only work in a mill there, and a few wretched Turkish huts are scattered among the ruins. We saw the churches of St. John and the Virgin, the theatre, and the building styled the palace of Crtesiis ; but the most striking object at Sardis is the temple of Cybele. We were filled with wonder and awe at beiiold- ing the two stupendous columns of this edifice, which are still remaining; they are silent but impressive wit- nesses of the power and splendor of antiquity. This edifice is said to have been built while Solomon's Tem- ple was yet standing. liven of the two remaining columns here adverted to, one has since been over- thrown by the Turks to be burnt for lime. Kverywhcre in Western Asia it is the same — the traveller gazes on the ruins of departed greatness, which the modern inhabitants of half-populated towns and miserable villages regard either with suj^erstitious won- der, or treat with ignorant contempt, using the archi- tectural marvels of a former day as quarries whence to replace their own ill-built and crumbling edifices. Ephcsus, Sardis, Miletus, Laodicea, Xanthus — where are they now .' All in ruin and decay I The fortress of Boodroovt, upon the south-western coast of the peninsula, stands on the N. side of the fine !:.||^ ;:.'!;: MAKMARAS AND UK USA. 291 inlet called the Gulf of Kos, in a commanding; situation. It occupies the site of the ancient Halicarnassu.s, the birth-place of Herodotus. Cape Krio, the S. W. point of Asia Min(jr, is the extreniitv of a narrow neck of land, which forms the soulliern boundary of the j^ulf, and exhibits the remains of the ancient city of Cnidus. The small tuwn of Mniiiiaras, further to the east- ward, stands on the shore of one of the most magnifi- cent harbors in the world. The entrance to it is between liiLjh promontories on cither hand, and is so narrow as to exhibit, at a short distance off, no appear- ance of any inlet. When, however, the [)rojectini( point which conceals the bay is passed, a vast basin of water, presentin'ni.in monarchy. It occu- pies the lowCTst slopes of Mount Olympus, chiefly on the western side of a river and vallc)', which descend north- ward into the plain : the castle .md part of the city, with some of the ancient walls, (ap[)ertaining to the time of the Lower ICmpirc.) stand on elevated ,L,fround .it the foot of the mount.iin ; an 1 beneath is the principal street with the chief part of the town, running east and west. Towards the former extremity there are six bridges crossing the valley ; and some of these have on them rows of houses, forming the continuation of the the principal streets, which are now paved and clean. The houses of Brusa are better and more substantial than they are in other parts of Asiatic Turkey, and the kiosks, gardens, baths, and other public buildings bor- dering the rich plain, constitute part of a luxuriant and 292 MAONIFICKNT MOSQUES. pleasing landscape. The caravanserai.s arc superb ; and the bazaars, especially those for shoes and leather, arc scarcely infcri ir to those of Constantinople. The liithyniaii cajjital has this one distinctly • fea- ture ; that it .sceius to be a city of mosques, having', great and small, 365 of these buildings, though there are .scarcely 70,000 inhabitants ; but these fine structures being more than sufficient for the inhabitants, many of them are merely well-kept ruins ; of the others, the most striking are Yeshil Jami, luiiil Jami, and Oli Jimi, or the magnificent. The last is a massive building, with four graceful minarets, and the usual enclosure, with fountains, etc, about it. Its splendid dome is tastily covered with mosaic porcelain of different colors; and sixteen small cupolas covered the rest of its spacious roof, which rests u[)on pointed arabesque arches, sup- ported by slender columns in the same style, lietween these, at from tei\ to fourteen feet from the floor, which is carpeted or matted, according to the season, thou- sands of variously colored lamps are suspended in fes- toons ; the walls are white, bordered with green, and covered with sentences from the Koran. A reading-desk and a pulpit, having on each side a colossal wax-candle, constitute all the furniture of the interior. Around Hrusa there are some remarkably prolific warm springs ; and different spots in its neighborhood mark the final resting-places of Osman the First, with five of his con([uering successors. The chief wealth of the inhabitants is derived from spinning and preparing silk, which is extensively cultivated in the fine plain beyond the city. lirusa, however, suffered severely from an earthquake in February, 1 85 5. The shocks lasted during a period of four days, involving, it is said, mosques, houses, and bazaars in one conmion ruin. Nearly eighty mosques were injured, many of them completely destroyed, and a great number of the inhabitants perished. Large masses of rock were detached from the neighboring heights of Olympus, and came crashing down into the outskirts of the city. ISNIK AND IZMID. 293 iqiKike period js, and In the neighborhood of Hrusa, to the eastward, are the poor remains of two seats of fallen greatness, — Isnik, which represents the ancient Nid;e.i, fatuous for its ecclesiastical councils held during the period o{ the Lower l'2nii)ire — anil I.':»ii(i, the former Nicomedia, the residence of the liith)*nian Ivings, .•ind, during a time of short-lived splendor under Diocletian, exalted into the capital of the Roman empire. Isnik is forty miles dis- tant from Hrusa, in the direction (jf V.. by N., and on the shores of a considerable lake. Izmid is upwards of si.\ty miles N. K. of the same point, it the liead of a long and narrow gulf of the Sea ench fleets durin^i; the idly i)assed sum- mer of 1853, immediately prior to the'breakiMg out of the Ani^lo-h'reiich and Russian war. Upon the same coast, but further southward, is the port of J'lski-Stain- boil/ — or Alexandretta, as it is sometimes termed by the Franks— the ancient Alexandria Troas, which commands some portion of the trade of the Levant. KIJTAYA. 295 Kutaya (the ancient Coty.Lum) is one of tlie most coiisider.ible amonjj the towns in the interior of Asia Minor, and has a population estimated at 50,000. It lies on the direct line ol hij^Ii-road between Constanti- iu)|)le and Alejipo. Kvit.iva ranks, indeed, as tlie capi- tal of Anatolia, or Anadoli, as all the western portion of the peninsul.i is called, and is the scat of a pashalic. It possesses no ancient remains of any importance. .Ijlooin Kani-hissar-, that is, Opium lilack Castle, Irom tlic larj^e (piantity of opium ^rown in its neighborhood), .some distance to the stouth-eastward, is also a considera- ble town. U[)on the line of rwute which extends thence in a south-westerly direction, towards AIepp(\ is Koni- ych, a larf^e but decayinhon's account of the retreat. to trace the precise line of route throughout, but unless the face of the country be entirely changed, the pass by which he crossed the mountains in order to reach Tre- bizond must be the same now in use, since no other is l)racticable in winter, and it w as during that season the passage was effected by the Greeks. At the period that the Romans exercised dominion over Asia Minor, their trade with India is supposed to have })assed through Trebizond ; and in later times the Genoese brought the produce of Jlindostan from Ispa- han to Trebizond, and from thence conveved them, through Caffa, in the Crime^i, and afterwards through Constantinople, to Europe. ♦ The sovereigns of Armenia permitted the Genoese to establish a line of fortified stations through their kingdom to the frontier of Persia. Trebizond was the first, and l^ayazid the last, of these stations. They w ere between twent)'-five and forty miles apart, and were always in commanding and defensible positions, .'^ur- rouniled by solid and extensive walls, within which were quarters for the guards and .slielter for the horses and merchandise of the cara\ans. In their progress from station to station, jn order to secure their safety, the cara- vans were furnished with escorts, more or less numerous. MOSQUE OF ST. SOPHIA. 301 according to the state of the country. Baiburt and Erzeroom were two of llieir strongholds ; and the solid- ity and extent of the fortifications there, and at other places, show the importance the Genoese attached to their trade ; the profits of which must have been very large, to have sufficed not only to meet such immense expenses, but also to have enriched the republic. After the expulsion of the Genoese from Caffa, about the middle of the fifteenth century, and the extinction of the independent principality of Trebi/.ond on the capture of the city by Mahomet II., which occurred nearly at the same time, the commercial relations be- tween Trcbizond and Europe ceased entirely, and the Euxine became closed to the navigation of Christendom. There are no remains in the city, nor in the neigh- borhood, of buildings of a more remote age than the Christian era. The number of churches is great ; for, independent of nearly twenty churches and chapels still retained for the service of the Greek church, almost all the mosques have been Christian churches. The hand- somest is that of Saint Sophia, which is situated a mile to the west of the city ; it is still in a good state of pre- servation externally, and, although it has been converted into a i^osque, it is seldom used by the Mohammedang. The town is built on the slope of a hill facing the sea ; part is surrounded by a castellated and lofty wall, and is in the shape of a parallelogram. On either side of the walled portion of the city is a deep ravine filled with trees and gardens, and both ravines are traversed by long bridges. Overlooking the city is a citadel, which is rather dilapidated and neglected ; it is com- manded by neighboring heights. The gates of the city are closed at sunset, and the walls in sufficient preserva- tion to serve as a defence against an attack by troops unprovided with artillery. There is no port for ships ; a small open bay at the eastern extremity of the town is used as an anchorage (luring the summer. Alter the autun'.nal equinox, the Turkish and European vessels resort to Platana, an open roadstead about seven miles to the west of Trebizond. 18 V- kt llf "^'j-Jfii;!:!'! ■ • ■ I 302 IMPORTS AND KXPORTS. The houses of Trcbizond contain for the most part a ground floor alone ; and all having a yard or garden with a few fruit trees, scarcely a house is visible from the sea, and the town has the appearance of a forest when the trees are in leaf. The city contains between 25,000 and 30,000 inhab- itants. The Greeks may be estimated at 3,600 to 4,000, the Armenians at 1,600 to 2,000, and the Moham- medans at 20,000 to 24,000. The walled part of the city is inhabited solely by the latter ; and that portion with- out the walls contain the Christian population, some Mohammedan families, as well as the ba/.aars and Idians, The natives of all sects, whether Christian or Moham- medan are unfriendly to luu'opeans, and are an ignor- ant race. From the period of the expulsion of the Genoese and the captiu'c of Trcbizond by the Turks, its commerce dwindled into insignificance: previous to 1830, it con- sisted in the export of a few products of the country to Constantinople ; in the import of iron from Taganrog, a Russian port in the Sea of Azov; and in a traffic with Abassia carried on in small craft, which transported salt, sulphur, lead, and considerable quantities of the manu- factures of Turkey, receiving in exchange from/he un- civilized tribes of the Caucasus their various raw pro- ductions, as well as a great number of male and female slaves. The country immediately around Trcbizond has few productions that form objects of commercial exchange with Europeans. Tobacco, bees'-wax, hazel-nuts, honc) , butter and kidney beans, are exported thence to Con- stantinople. The neighborhing mountains abound in rich veins of copper and lead ores, but the system of working mines in practice prevents the development of this ricli source of national wealth. The present impor- tance of Trcbizond is derived almost solely from its being the most convenient point of debarkation for mer- chandise destined for Armenia and Persia. The picturesque beauty of the east in the neighbor- hood of Trcbizond is particularly striking. The moun- KAISARIYEH. 303 has few cchaiigc , h(>nc\ , to Con- und in stem of mcnt of : impor- rom il^ or nicr- [jighbor- moun- tains rise immediately from the sea from 400 to 50a feet, clothed with dense forests, composed principally of chesnut, beech, walnut, aldar, poplar, willow, and occas- ionally small oak, elm, ash, maple and box, the higher parts being covered with fir. No ship building is carried on in this part of the coast, and there is no is exporta- tion of timber (a general prohibition existing against it in Turkey,) so that the forests supply only ch ircoal firewood and timber for the construction of houses, and of boats used in the coasting trade and fisheries. The country is so wooded and mountainous that it docs not pr(xluce grain sufficient for the consumption of tlie population, yet not a spot capable of cultivation ap- pears to be left untilled. Corn-fields arc to be seen hanging on the precipitous sides of mountains at which no plough could arrive. The ground is prepared by manual labor, a two-pronged fork of construction pecu- liar to the country, being used for this purpose. Indian corn is the grain usually grown, and it is seldom that any other is used for bread by the people ; what the country does not supply is procured from Guriel and Mingrella. The people are a hardy, laborious, and bold race, they are skilled in the use of a short rifle, which every man carries slung at his back, whenever and on what- ever occasion he moves, and they enjoy a high reputa- tion as soldiers. A demand is always made on this country by the I'orte to supply a certain number of men for the arsenal at Constantinople. But we must return to the interior, in order to notice the city of Kaisariyeh, and the high mountain of Arjish, at tlie foot of which it is situated. Kaisariyeh is in the paslialtic of Karamania, which embraces a large portion of the interior in the eastern half of Asia Minor, as well as part of the southern coast. It lies a few miles to the south of the course of the Kizil-Irmak, and is about 120 miles distant from Sivas, in the direction of S. W. Kaisariyeh is a town of great antiquity. Under the name of Mazaca, it was the capital of Cappadocia, at the time that the Greeks knew it only from the reports of J-ih ''I J I.IJ i^* i ». fi' I? •'"n't'' I li'- K ■ " ' ' ' i 1 j£ i ^Ji 1 iiiiif 304 MOUNTAIN OF ARJISH TAGH. casual travellers. In the time of the early Roman em- perors it took the name of Ca.'sarea, but still preserved its original name as a terminal. Its modern appellation is merely a Turkish corruption of the ancient name. Ca.'sarea Mazca appears once to have been a larpje and populous city, and is supposed to have contained as many us four hundred thousand inhabitants. After the captivity of the unfortunate Valerian, its Roman gover- nor Demosthenes resisted for a time the progress of the Persian arms — not so much by the eonmiission of the emperor, as in the voluntary defence of his country. The triumphant progress of Sapor was for a time arrested, but at last Ca.\sarea was betrayed by the perfidy of a physician, and its heroic governor escajied only by cuttin^f his way through the Persians, who vainly attempted to take him alive. Thousands of the inhabitants of C;vs- area were, however, involved in a general massacre. The modern city of Kaisariyeh is walled ; some of the houses are well built, but the streets are narrow and dirty, and the place has, upon the whole, a ruinous and neglected appearance. The population is 30,000— of which 5000 may be Turkish, 2500 Armenian, and 500 Greek. The high mountain called Arjish Tagh — the ancient Argaius — rises from the plain immediately to the south- ward of Kaisariyeh, and attains an elevation which greatly surpasses that of any other summit in Asia Minor. We ascended this mountain, starting from the village of Everek, at its south-eastern ba.se. It rises up almost to a single peak from a broad and extended base, consiht- ing entirely of volcanic rocks and scoriaceous cinders of different kinds. Its sloping sides are studded all round with numerous cones and craters, the effects of volcanic action at different periods. Near the foot of the mountain is a little cultivation, but a few solitary wild pear trees or stunted oak coppice are the only trees upon it. Its appearance is therefore peculiarly barren and rugged, which, added to the black and cindery nature of its rocks, give it a wild and inhos- pitable look. There is considerable danger in ascending PREDATORY KOORDS. 305 t!* the steep part of the cone after the sun has thawed the surface of the slopin'i' throujjh a nar- row cjor^e, amitlst lofty limestone precipices, which one woulil think a handful of men could convert into an- other TiiermopyliL'. Helow the pass, vcjjjetation becomes very luxuriant, and many changes in its character afford abundant evi- dence of a change in climate on the Cicili ui side of Taurus. The forests consist almost exclusively of pines of fine growth, but not so lar>;e as in the llik Tai-jh. I'lane-trees i^now by the water's edge, while the bottom of the valley is filled with a dense covcrincj of ever- green, oak, bay, laurel, quince, wild fv^, wild vine, and cedar. The pink cj'clamen and blue crocuses arc in flower, but the myrtle and arbor Jud.e do not ap[)ear till a little lower down, where the wild olive anil jujube become common, and the b.mks of rivulets are clothed with the brii.jht red oleander. We may be allowed to remark, independently of its interesting geographic d features previously noticed, that it would also be impossible for any traveller to ride through the whole length of this i)ass without bjing much struck with its varied beauties. The Golek Uog- haz contains by far the most numerous and varied p.jints of bold and inassive m )untaia-sceaery of any of the passes. The superior height of the m Kintains, and the gigantic scale of the scenery of the Alps, does not allow of their being fairly compared witii the chain of Taurus, in every respect inferior to them in lieiglit, but it will be more difficult to decide upon their peculiar claims to distinction In this range mountain succeeds to mountain to tlie right and left, and vast semicu'cular precipices su[)port broken glaciers pile.l am upon another in such profuse confusion anil ininiitatable grandeur, that it is impossible to tear oneself from a scene which, wherever one turns, presents a new won- der. In its more roclcy, craggy scenery, the Golek is, as far as we have seen, quite unrivalled ; such a succes- i'ii ! ( ;: !Hf-'t f"!» "i,! I; 308 ADANA AND TARSUS. sion of fallen masses, rocky projections, and steep cliffs, will not admit of description ; nor would they be re- presented by the Taurus ten times magnified. We need not mention the vej^etalion, or the habitations of men, as adding to the peculiarities of these scenes ; but one thing is deserving of notice— the condor of the Alps i.s rarely seen by the traveller, except at heights at which its size and strer.gth can only be conjectured ; but the great bare-necked vulture, which represents in Taurus the condor of the Andes and the Alps, and is a larger bird, may be sometimes seen in dozens together, wait- ing till some surly shepherd.s' dogs iiave had their fill of a newly-killed animal, and they are never wanting amidst their favorite crags. Adafia, which forms the seat of government for the pa.shalic to which its name is given, is a small town on the right bank of the Seihoon, surrounded by groves of mulberry, peach, apricot, fig, and olive trees, and vine- yards, and with about ! 0,000 inhabitants. Tarsus, which lies twenty-four miles distant, to the W. by S., surpasses Adana in historic fame, and is dear to the memory of the Christian student as the birth-place of the Apostle Paul. It lies near the banks of a small river called the Tarsus-chai — the ancient Cyndus, famous for the coldness of its water, in which Alexander the Great is said to have nearly lost his life from bathing, and which actually occasioned the death of a later mon- arch, Frederick Barbarossa. Yet the water of the Cyn- dus is not colder than that of the other rivers which biing down the melted snows of Taurus. The modern town of Tarsus has not more than 7,000 inhabitants. The plain of Cilicia is watered by three rivers — the Cyndus, or river of Tarsus, the Seihoon, (or ancient Sarus,) and the Jaihan, or Pyramus of antiquity. The two latter possess considerable length of course, and derive their waters from the high table-lands of the eastern interior, passing through deep and abrupt gorges in their descent from the mountains to the coast. The Seihoon enters the Mediterranean a short distance to the eastward of the mouth of the Cyndus. The Jaihan^ THE I.Sf.ANDS OF ASIATIC TURKEY. 309 or r^'rmmis flows into the Gulf of Scamlcroon, as the extreme north-e.istern ^)ortioIl of the Mediterranean waters arc termed ; the lower course of this river has altered its channel in modern times, the former outlet havinjj been several miles to the westward of its present entrance. The upper portion of the valley of the Jaihan falls within the pashalic of Marash, which extends eastward to the banks of the l^uphr.ites and the border of Ar- menia. The town of Afanis/t lies a short distance above the ri^ht bank of the Jaihan, and contains about 3,500 houses. The wooded heights of the Taurus rise imme-- diatoly above the town, to the north-eastward, and on one of their lower slopes is the castle, which overlooks an extensive and fertile j)lain. The Islands yet remain for mention in order to complete our survey of Asiatic Turkey. Hy far the largest of these is Cyprus, in the most eastward portion of the Levant. Cyprus measures 140 miles in length between its most easterly and westerly limits, and has an area of three thousand square miles. Two ranges of moimtains stretch respectively along its northern and southern coasts ; a fertile plain lies between them, and occupies the interior of the island. This plain is watered by the stream of the I'edia, or river of Lefkosia, which is a mere winter torrent. The whole island possesses great natural fertility, but has been brought by the misgov- crnment of centuries into a condition of neglect and comparative desolation, from which, however, it appears to be now gradually emerging. Scarce / more than a twentieth part of its surface is estimated to be under tillage, and the present population is little more than a hundred thousand — nearly two-thirds of whom arc Greeks. The Turks, who arc the dominant race, do not number more than 30,000. The isle is oeautiful ; from the edge of the rich, flowery fields on which we trod, to the midway sides of the snowy Olympus, the ground could only here and B"H i,] it. yi i**] ■Ml 5 n Hi 'i Tr CTmKSH D !l H il \ mn^K^^i tmi !'' [ cFS^^MH^ff i ij I. -I :. rn^m^ 15 »r!»Ki-,i;; 1' iti* li n i rJ 14'.^ IK 310 CYPRUS. there show an abrupt crag or a high straggling ridge that upshouldcred itself from out of the wilderness of myrtles, and of the thousand bright-leaved shrubs that twined their arms together in lovesome tangles. The air that came to our lips was warm and fragrant as the ami rosial breath of the goddess, infecting us — not, of course, with a faith in the old religion of the isle, but with a sense and apprehension of its mystic power — a power that was still to be obeyed — obeyed by us ; for why otherwise did we toil on with sorry horses to "where, for her, the hundred altars glowed with Arab- ian incense, and breathed with the fragrence of garlaiuls ever fresh ? " The bewitching power attributed at this day to tlic women of Cyprus is curious in connection with the wor- ship of the sweet goddess who called their isle her own. The C\'priote is not, I think, nearly so beautiful in f.ice as the Ionian queens of Izmir, but she is tall, and ■slightly formed ; there is a high-souled meaning and expression — a seeming consciousness of gcMitle empire that speaks i" the wavy lines of the shoulder, and winds it.self like C3Liierea's own cestus around the slender waist ; then the richly abounding hair (not enviously gathered together under the he.id-dress) descends the neck, and passes the waist in .sumptuous braids. Of all other women with Grecian blood in their veins the cos- tume is gracefully beautiful, but these, the maidens of Limasol — their robes are more gently, more sweetly imagined, and fall, like Udia's cashmere, in soft luxuri- ous folds. The common voice of the Levant allows that in face the women of C)-i)rus are less beautiful than their majestic sisters of .Smyrna, and }et, says the Greek, he may trust himself to one and all the bright cities of the yEgean, and may slill weigh anchor with a heart eiUirt, but that so surely .is he ventures upon the enchanted Isle of Cyprt's. so surely will he kiujw the rapture or the bitterness of love. The charm, they say, owes its power to that wh.ich the people call the astonishing " politics" of the women, meaning, we f mcy, their tact and their winning ways ; the word, however, plainly fails to m HISTORY OF CYI'RUS. 3ii express one-half of that which the speakers would say. Wc have smiled to hear the Greek, with all his plente- ousness of fancy, and all the wealth of his j^enerous laii^ijuage, yet vainly struggling to describe the ineffable spell which the Parisians dispose of in their own smart way, by a summary " jc ne scai quoi " (I do not know what). Cyprus forms a .separate j)ashalic, of which Nicosia, (or Lct'kosia, as it is also written), in the centre of the island, is the capital. The other cities arc f.i uuisol Viwd Larnaka on the southern, with Famagousta on the east- ern coast. Near the last-named place are the ruins of Salamis, anciently the princij^al city of the is'.uid. Vnijja, the ancient Paphus, is a small i)lace upon tlie south-western coast, now a poor \-illagc, with little in its aspect to reward the enthusiasm of the traveller, ubcun classic recollections impel (as they did the writer) to visit it. The ruins (the fragments of one or two prt)strate pillars) lie upon a promontory, bare and un mystified by the gloom of surrounding groves. ihe history of Cyprus embraces a varied — and, were there time to pursue it in detail, an instructive — pano- rama of action. It seems to have been origin. dly peo- pled by the Plujcnicians, and was after color.i/.ed by the Greeks, by whom the splendid and lu.wnious shrine at I'aphos was dedicated to the gjddess of Love. Tlie island belonged in succession to the monarchs of Persia and I'^gypt, and afterwiirds to the Romans and the later Greeks oi the Byzantine empire. The .Saracens next possessed it, but were compelled to }'ield it to the arms of Richard Ccjcur de iJon, who gave it to the princes of the Lusignan family, by whom it was held until the latter end of the sixteenth century. It was taken from them by the Turks in 1570, and has subse(|uently rcniaimxl a Turkish possession, excepting during an interval of ten years (1830 — 40), when it ownetl the mastery of the then Pasha of Lgypt, Mohammed Ali. The other islands of Turkey in Asia adjoin the western and south-western coasts of Asia Minor, and I i !(■! h :| lii!''^'' Mn.! It 4 H htl ) (■ i V ^ 4: ('!.' • 312 RHODES. arc mostly within the limits of the Archipeligo. They embrace Rhodes, Cos, Sanios, Chio (or Shio), Mitylcnc, and numerous others — all famous in olden history and song, but which our limits forbid us to dwell upon in detail. Rhodes, which embraces an area of 460 square miles, is a beautiful and fertile island, enjoying a delightful climate, and attracts the admiring regards of the visitor by its remains of the classic and the mediie- val periods alike. Its chief city — of the same name — is a small place at the northern extremity of the island, with 10,000 inhabitants, which is equal to a third of the entire population of the island. Rhodes belonged, as is well known, to the Knights of St. John, after their e.vpulsion from the Holy Land, and those stout war- riors long baffled the efforts of Solyman to expel them from their stronghold. At length, however, in 1523, they were forced to yield, and retired to Malta, there to renew their acts of gallant daring in opposition to the threatened domination of the Crescent. To the southward of Samos is the small island of Patimo — the ancient Patmo.s — the place of exile of the Apostle John, whose inspired visions there are recorded in the book of Revelation. The general features in the political condition of Asiatic Turkey arc the same as those that distinguish the European portion of the Ottoman Empire, of which we shall speak hereafter. The construction of the houses in the towns of Asia Minor is almost uniform. The better description have their basement stories of stone, but the upper part is a wooden frame filled in with clay or burnt bricks, gener- ally flat, but occasionally having a tiled sloping roof, below which may be seen latticed openings through the otherwise dead walls. The monotonous appearance ot these places is. however, in some degree relieved by the public buildings, as the bazaars, khans, baths, madreshcs and numerous mosques. The long galleries of the first, which are either covered with Arabesque arches in brick work, or with simple matting, are allotted in portions to KUANS OR INNS. 3»3 saddlers, shoemakers, and other traders, and contain the different kinds of merchandise ; and as every transac- tion, small and great, is carried on in this building, the streets being, as it were deserted, the bazaars may be said to represent the town itself. The caravanserais take the next place ; and in Asia Minor, as in other parts of the East, they are almost uniform as to plan, — having a single entrance through double gates into the interior cjuadraiigle, about which are spacious vaulted stables and numerous double rooms, each pair consisting of an inner and outer or open apart- ment. A fountain occupies the centre of the space, and around it, at small distances, the nie.chandise is neatly placed in heaps: these edifices are atlmirably adapted fo^ the commercial dealings of the Ka*. being substantially built of stone, and admitting of the property being safely deposited within the enclosure during the halt. Turkish khans seldom exceed one story, but those of Persia generally have two, and are not only larger but finer specimens of architecture. A strong tower at each angle flanks the exterior, and also defends the ap- proachc.5 to the entrance, which is usually through a fine Saracenic gateway. At all the angles mterior stair- cases lead to the upper story, and also to the top of the building, which is partly covered with small domes, and consists in part of a level terrace ; the latter portion is the usual sleeping-place in warm weather. The khans of the I'last are either constructed by government and let at a fixed rent, or are founded by charitable bequests. In either case the expense to the traveller, even at tho::e in the towns, is triflmg, whilst at those on the high-roads it is almost nominal ; the khanji or keeper being content with a trifling gratuity in addition to the income which he derives from supply- ing barley for the animals ; and rice, fowls, milk, char- coal, etc., for persons who desire to purchase them. T!ie distance between these buildings seldom exceeds an ordinairy day's jonrney with loaded animals ; and it is not unusual to find that, in other places, through the 11; ■■ r* '« ''%M\ .; ;.!!('«• 11. 3'4 KASTKRN HATIIS. {generosity of the Moslems, there have been constructed fountains or cisterns to wliich, in case of drought, the inhabitants bring supplies, in order that the traveller may have the comfort of finding water without incon- venience or delay. The object next in estimation among Eastern peo[)lc IS the bath. This also is a square substantial stutie building, which is covered with one large and several smaller domes ; and, like that of the ancients, it has several apartments, which, in succession, are of higher degrees of temperature, up to that of vapor. Shampoo- ing, cracking the joints, and the rest of the ceremou)-, being completed, coffee, pipes, and a little sleep ternuii- ate an every-day luxury which comes within the means of the poorest individual. The mosques likewise differ but little from one an- other. A paved court surrounds each, and from it a spacious flight of steps leads to the entrance of the building: within the court is a fountain, and usually a flock of blue iMecca pigeons. A scarlet curtain being removed, the x'isitor is at once inside of a spaci(M.is s(iuare apartment, which is either carpeted or matted according to the season ; and, with the exception of a few sen- tences from the Koran which are inscribed on the walls, the interior is remarkably plain. It is at the same time rather imposing, owing to the* effect of the light, which by day is introduced beneath the dome, and at night is re- flected by thousands of colored lamps arranged in fes- toons. To the finest of these buildings there are four minarets, which are carried up separately from the ground, and terminate in a cone ; and within each there is a s))iral staircase leading to one or two galleries sur- rounding the turret. A building with two or more minarets is called a jami', whilst that with a single tower of this description, or none at all, is designated a mesjid. The fixed inhabitants of the peninsula are composed of Turks, Armenians, Greeks, and Jews ; and the nomadic people consist of Turkomauns, Koords, Yoo- ruks, Xebeques, and some gipsies. The prevailing lan- guage is that of the dominant or Turkish race, which MODE OF SUHSISTENCK, 315 has been here adopted even by the Greeks. The Arme- nians and Koords, however, have preserved their ancient toni^ues, and the hitter speak a dialect of ancient Persian. The Mohammedan is the most ^i^eneral rehgion ; and,, bcincr at once Uic basis of the civil as well as the moral law, it seems to influence every act of life ; but. most happily, it is no longer characterized by that fierce and uncompromising spirit which at one time impelled the followers of the Koran to have recourse to the sword as the means of making converts, liven the desire to in- cn;ase their numbers by gentle argunu-nts docs not now prevail to a great extent among the Moslem.-., all hope of making pnjselytes liuviui^ been abandoned. Owing to the villages being situated at a dist.mce from the great routes, the traveller frecjuently passes an extensive tract without seeing more than a few tents (lotted here and there over the wide-spreading plains ; and he may at first conclude that the rural population of this peninsula consists only of persons whose occupations are pastoral. Agriculture is not, however, by any means, neglected ; and the supplies in tlie niunerous ba/.aars prove that the husbandman's labor is rewarded by ample return.s, whilst the state of the villages shows that the inhabitants enjoy a considerable degree of comfort, both with respect to food and clothing. The former is plciUi- ful and at the same time sufhciently good, though, as usual in the liast, much of it consists of vegetables. Kaiinak (a sort of clouted cream), sometime^, with the addition of a piece of hone)-comb, whipped cream, }'o- ghourt (a pre[)aration of new milk, almost of the con- sistency of jelly), and other ])repar.itions o( lebbeii 'milk), rice, burghool (boiled wheat), bread, cheese, eggs, honey,, pckuiez, and other sweet-meats, hot griddle-cakes, and occasionally animal food, constitute the fare of the vil- lagers, and, it may be added, of the towns-[)eople like- wise ; but the latter have a greater abundance of meat„ rice, fruits, and coffee. A heavy dull figure, with long mustaches and a high cylindrical cap of black felt, with a long robe and a shawl of a dark color, distinguish the Armenian citizen ■HP. ■|:ii .)! !|*i >'1i V '•) il'P , i^; '\: i' * !n';v f*. ;i *: 'Milt; "%. i| 1 hmU: >... ,il fi I,' . f liilP^ h>, 316 ARMENIAN TENETS. from the peasant. The latter wears a dress of brown freize, with a cap of the same material. The women's faces are jiartially covered, and their hair, which is care- fully braided, is much ornamented with ^old coins ; the rest of their attire is of cambric-muslin, and they show more of the person than is customary with the Turkish dames. They live, however, almost as secluded ; and they employ their time in e.xecutincj fine work, such as embroidered handkerchiefs, napkins, bai;s, and purses. Agriculture, commerce, and working in silver or other metals, are the employinents of the men. who, besides, are bankers, and occasionally occupy places of trust, which are occasionally given them by the Turks in con- sequence of that passive steadiness of character for whicli they are so remarkable. Thoughout the Armenian families and communities the patriarchal system of government prevails, and luider it there is the most complete harmony. The religion of the Armenians is nearly that of the Greeks, but in many particulars resemble that of the Romanists. The first two denominations of Christians, however, differ from one another on a few fundamental points. The Arme- nians, for instance, believe that Chri.st had but one nature, while the Greeks contend that he had two, and that the lioly Ghost is derived from the Father only : the secular clergy belonging to each of these two sects are permitted to marry once before they arc ordained. Like the Roman Catholics, both the Armenians and Greeks have the seven sacraments, and believe in tran- substantiation ; fasts are also strictly enjoined, not only every Friday, but more particularly at four periods of the year. At such times their food consists of dried or .salted fish, olives, and bread ; but during Lent the Ar- menians are restricted to the last two. A light and active figure in a short Turki.sh dress, with a black turban, distinguishes the Greek from the Armenian, although, like the latter, he wears long nuis- taches and no beard. The Greek women are less sechulcd within doors, and less covered without, than those ot the Armenians. Their attire is also lighter, and at the ORIENTAL COSTUMKS. 317 same time more ornamented, particularly the hair, to which from their infancy arc appended numerous gold and silver coins of all sizes ; they are equally expert in the use of the needle, and, it may be adcled, they are no loss deficient in education. The fishing and coasting trade of the peninsula falls chiefly to the Greeks, who display in it considerable activity, not, however, without the commission of occasional acts of piracy. In the interior the latter people are shopkeepers or agricul- turists, and are naturally quick and ver\,' intelligent. A taste for bright and gaudy colors prevails among the Koords of Asia Minor, who wear a flowing, gay-look- ing, striped turban, with a deep fringe sometimes hanging on one side, but generally down the back. The peasant wo- men wear about the per- son a simple dress fast- ened in front b)^ a broad brass clasp over the trousers ; their chief or- naments are small silver coinsand beads attached to the hair, whilst those of the rich ladies consist of gold or coral, sparing- ly used : these last have a high-pointed head-dress, no less remarkable than that of the men, and is composed of a great many colored silk handkerchiefs.. Household occupations, spinning goats' hair or wool, and making bags, carpets, etc., are the employments of the women. Out of doors their faces are sometimes covered, but this is not the case within. They arc passionately fond of dancing and other amusements, which they enjoy in common with the men ; and their fideliry shov/s that they appreciate the confi- dence which is reposed in them. The character of the Koords of Asia Minor is anything but commendable. Among them theft and 19 (11)1 EASTERN .GARMENTS. ]?:r ; « I'M"' J ^\lk Si ' 1 3'8 CHARACTERISTICS OK TIIK KOOKD. robbery, indifference to their ill-understood religion, the absence of truth, and relentless revenge, extensively prevail. These bad ([ualities seem to be the natural result of their half independence, and of the bloody feuds which are carried on amongst themselves. Yet it cannot be denied that the Koord has some redeeming '(riiiii; FA^T^:R^■ n wt iN<;-f;iRl.. point.s : he is a good h\isband and father, a faithful mem- ber of the patriarchal community to which he belongs, and is ever read\- to show hospitalit)- to strangers. He engages freciuentl\- in athletic exercises, and he enjoys in a high degree n-.iisic. dancing, and similar amusements. THK TURKOMAUNS. 319 Kf ■y' 111 niL-m- bclongs, jrs. Hi-" L'lijoys in ir.cntN. The dress of the Yooruk and otlier Turkomaun tribes may be said to hold a middle place between that of the Armenians and of the people just mentioned ; the cloaks which they wear are generally white, and of rough, home manufacture, liut the most remark. ible portion of the dress is the red tarboosh, which is allowed to fall behind over the folds of a white turban. The figure of the Turkomaun is good and athletic, but his countenance is not prepossessing, bcng broad and Hat, with sunken eyes, flis arms are a lance, a sabre, and a short gun or pistols. Horse exercise, smoking, and tending their hocks, are the sole occupations of the men. The women do not cover their faces, nor do they stain the skin. They arc brunettes, and are generally ruddy, with expressive countenances ; their figures are good, and their persons are cleanly, without being knid- od with ornaments. They have yellow boots, crimson trowsers, and a white upper dress of ami)le dimensions. Some wear a red tarboosh, tailing towards the front in- stead of behind, as is tlie case with that of the men, whilst others braid their black hair in tresses beneath a band formed of Venetian sequins or other gold coins ; and it is usual to have a ring through the left cartilage of the nose. Hesidcs culinar}- occupations, the women are employed in spinning wool and nicd-cing carpets, bags, and tents. The Turkomauns came into Asia iMinor towards the beginning of the 12th century, and they may be said to belong to a modern period compared with the Koords, who are probably the descendants of one of the earlier stock of nations ; but the Turkomauns have greatly the advantage over the latter i)eople in quietness and sim- plicity of character. Nominally they are followers* of the Koran : but its precepts and tenets have scarcely reached these wanderers, who are at the same time nearly free from the crimes of theft and depredation. The pride of birth to which the Koords and others attach such importance, is almost unknown among the Turkomaun tribes ; and they differ from Easterns in general in giving portions with their daughters, in.stead ■''■'m ii; 'II ■:iili' % m 320 TURKISH TRAITS. mil If) Hi wm ,* ♦ >'\i I I' ill M of receiving a compensation on the occasion of a mar- riage. Camels, goats, slieep, and oxen constitute tlioir wealth ; tlie last are used as beasts of burden. The simple fare already mentioned satisfies their truly primi- tive wants. Tlv: sun-burnt and athletic Xcbeque maybe readily distinguished from all the other inhabitants of the peninsula, by his sinewy bare legs, his showy vest, and towering, half Turkish, half Kourdish turban, with pen- dent silk fringes partly shading a deeply-coloured manly countenance ; but more especially by the display of a broad waist-belt, containing his numerous weapons. The latter usually consist of a brace of very long silver- mounted pistols, an ornamented yataghan, a dagger and a knife, all of which are most inconveniently placed in front of his person. The masters of the country have so much in common with the people above noticed that they may readily be recognized as an offset from the same stock — the Turk being the warrior, as the Turkomaun may be denomi- nated the shepherd branch. The former has been often pronounced to be ignor- ant, ferocious, vain, bigoted, and incapable of civiliza- tion ; as an inferior, cringing and servile ; but over- bearing, presumptuous, and tyrannical when in power. There is no doubt that many abu.ses have been current in the administration of Turkish authority. But the contumely with which even the very name of Turk was long received among western nations is perhaps not wholly deserved. It is possibly in a great measure because their prom- inei^ failings are not concealed, that so many of the darRest shades of the human character have thus been given to the descendants of those conquerors whose names belong to the early history of the country. Ikit whilst it is admitted that the people have greatly changed since the formation of the empire, it will proba- bly be found that the Osmanlee deserves a less unfavor- able character than that which has generally been given to him. r prom- of the US been whos.- •. But greatly proba- nfavor- PHYSIQUE OF THE TURK. 321 Frugal in his diet, and almost entirely free from the stimulating effects of wine, or the agitations of European society, the Turk has a well-formed and robust frame, which is preserved in a healthy state by his equable temper, his regular life, and the practice of manly exer- cises. A quiet eye and a grave, yet expressive coun- tenance, indicate his habitual silence ; while in his con- duct there are not wanting traits of gentleness and kind- ness, joined with the most perfect ease of manner in every station of life. On the other hand it must be owned that he is lamentably deficient in education, from which cause, and the love of ease, which induces him to neglect all exertion, the powers of his mind are not developed. The European is often induced to tax his bodily and mental powers to the utmost in the hope of enjoy- ing a state of repose at a future day : but the Turk is content to loll upon his divan, to pass the time with his guests, his chibook, and his coffee, till the appointed time comes round of visiting the mosque, the bath, or the coffee-house, or of repeating his prayers at home. Games of chance being prohibited by the Koran, chess or draughts take their place ; and when surrounded by his friends he may, after briefly despatching a simple meal, be found listening with deep interest to Eastern tales and proverbs, or else enjoying the amusement of public dancers ; and occasionally also he indulges in the forbidden pleasure of wine or opium. Up to the close of the last century, fanaticism and intolerencc characterized the Turk, and caused him to exercise the utmost harshness of conduct towards the rayah, who was often compelled by blows to obey the command.^ of his haughty master. The condition of rayah has, however, of late been greatly mitigated ; and the firmaun of Sultan Mahmoud has done something to secure equal privileges to all classes of his people. The callings of the mechanic or artisan, with the visits to the bazaar, a coffee house, or a khau, are the principal employments of the men in towns : those of the country, like the ancient Greeks, are at intervals ilWl "mifk i'il , f-ii ,1, , \kl ',f',^ 322 REFORMS IN DRKSS. cn^iif^'cd in spinning cotton. Apjriculturc is not held to be bcnejitli their cliL;nity ; the fields in conse([iience are well tilled, and the crops wc-ll cleaned ; but cultivation is still carried on to a verj' limited extent. A former Sultan's laudable attempt to lessen the evil of smoking, and his reforms in dress, have made their way very partially into the Asiatic portion of the Turkish dominions. The short jacket, ample trousers, sash, and ^^raceful turban, still retain their i)Iac(js in Asia Minor; the small tarboosh, with the close blue frock and trousers of the Europeans, which, by dimin- ishinij the fij;ure, contrast so wonderfull)' with the old dress, beinj^ as yet only worn by the Pashas or other public functionaries. The <;enerality of the Asiatic Turks continue to wear loni; beards and llowiuL,' ;j[ar- nients, and to have their heads covered ; they also re- tain the ancient posture in sittinij ; and they affect the utmost simplicity both in their household furniture and their travellin^^ e(iuipaii toruTtsv. i^i towards his cliiklrcii ; and he makes no diflcrcnce between them and his sUives or other servants. I n additicni to alms jjiven the widow and orphan, his 'generosity is frecjuently exercised in constructing mos([U('s, khans, and fountains : trees and burial-^Mounds are In's deh'^ht ; .md houses, do^s, cats, and piijeons, share in his consideration. Scarcel)' anj-where else are bids so tame, ami so much linked with mankind as they are in Turkey ; even chil- dren respect their nrsts ; antl it is ni)t b\' anj' means un- common to fiiul tombstones on which, in addition to the sculi)tured tlevices indicating the vocation, and some- times also the manner of death, of the deceased, a little basin has been hollowed out b)' the workmen, in which the smaller birds And a sujjpl}- of water. These tomb- stones are usually beneath the shade of a cyi)ress-tree or a rose bush. In summinjT uj) his character, it ma\- here be observed that openness and candor, contentment and entire resij:j- nation to his lot, are (pialities seldom denied by any one to the Turk; his memory is e.vtraonlinar)', and his judf^ment is generally sound ; while the safety of trav- ellers, as well as the attenti(Mi commonly paiil to them, sufficiently prt)ves his fulelity and hospitality. I lis ideas of reli;.Mon founded upon the Koran, i)ervadc almost every act of his life, and mix with e\-er}- occu})ation. Frequent prayer is universal!)' ])ractised, whether the individual be in the bath, the I'leld, the coffee-house, or mos(|ue ; but the result of his reli|^Mous trainini^ is un- yielding bigotry and intolerance. Amongst men of the higher class, the strange meet.s with a measured and distant but a refined manner ; and among all a ready attentii)n to his personal wants : the chief inconvenience which he feels whili; in the country arises from the retardation of his progress, which is caused by the general indolence and procrastinating dis- position of the people. At the conquest of the country, the Turks allowed the people to retain a number of their ancient customs ; and they made the rulers whom they placed over the different provinces nearly independent of one another, ^%'M I II Itl 1 1 ■ 3^4 MILITARY DESPOTS. as they had been under the reif;iis of the ancient Persian nionarchs. This kind of government exists at the pres- ent time, the rulers being, as in Europe during the mid- dle ages, so many military despots, of whom the Sultan is the chief ; and except some few restrictions which have been imposed on him by the Koran, the power of the latter is absolute. TURKEY IN EUROPE. ciiAiTKR vnr. StTK.RKIClAI, AKKA OK KIROPKAN TURKKY. The luiropcan portion of the Ottoinan Knipirc, that division of it which has for many years back been the subject of so much poHtical discussion, and which is now the seat of an important and desohitive war of races and of rehgions, embraces a hirge territory in tlie south of luirope, inchiding part of the most easterly of its three peninsulas, and a considerable portion of the adjoining mainland. It is bounded on the north by the Hunga- rian provinces of Austria, and the south-west part ot Russia ; on the east by th'. Black Sea ; on the south by the Sea of Marmora, the Archipelago, and the kingdom of Greece ; on the west by the Mediterranean, the Adri- atic Sea, and the Austrian provinces c f Dalmatia and Croatia. ill its greatest extent from north to souih, Turkey measures about seven hundretl miles, and its extreme dimensions fron\ west to east are nearly the same ; but the average length and breadth are considerably less, and its southern portion is narrowed '.nto the peninsula lying between the .fVrchipelagt; and the Ionian Sea. The superficial area of European Turkey is about 210,000 square miles. Its maratime frontier embraces part of the shores of the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmora, the Archipelago, the Ionian St -, and the Adriatic : the har- bors on the latter sea are not generally good, but on other parts of the coast there are many excellent anchor- ages. On the west the coast-line stretches from the Castle of St. Stepheis, below Cattaro, in Dalmatia, to the sandy promontory of La Punta, at the south entrance i ( : ! !i a 326 THE SEA OK MARMORA. of the Gulf of Arta, of celebrity as the scene of the naval battle of Actium between Augustus and Mark- Antony, 31 B. C, which secured to the former the dominion of the Roman world. On the east, the mari- time frontier extends from the northernmost mouth of the Danube to the Gulf of Volo, and makes a close ap- proach to the shores of Asia at the channel of Constan- tinople, or the old Thracian Hosphorus, and at the famous strait of the Dardanelles, the Hellcs]:)ont of" early times, lietween the two straits is the I'ropontis of the ancients, a small, deep, and beautiful expanse of water, now called the Sea of Marmora, from an island of that name situated in it, celebrated for its marble. These narrow waters have been the scene of Ljreat mili- tary and commercial movements, from a period kinij anterior to the Christian era to the present day. They were crossed by the armies of Darius and Xerxes in- tent upon the invasion of the west, and by that of Alexander contemplating the conquest of th ..1st, while they were navigated by vessels freighted with corn for Athens. In the middle ages they were tra- versed by the merchant-galleys of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, till the Turks established their dominion on both sides of *the channel, and closed the entrance to die flags of the western nations. Tn our own time their waves have born one of the mightiest annaments ever collected, British, h^'ench, and Sardinian, despatched to preserve the Ottoman rule on the soil of Kunipe, to expel which, four centuries ago, conclaves were held and crusades projected — a striking, but not uncommon, in- stance of revolution in public policy. Turkey is crossed in an east and west direction by the system of the Balkan Mountains. They naturally divide the countrj' into two distinct regions: first, the provinces to the south an(' south-west of the mountains, and belonging to the basin of the Mediterranean ; and second, the territories to the north of the mountain- chains, which belong to the basin of the Danube. The latter, again, are further divided into two portions by the corrse of the river Danube. IHE liALKAN MOUNTAINS. J-/ The interior of Turkey has for its principal super- fcial feature an extensive central nucleu.'-: of hi^^hlands and plateaus, under the meridian of 21 degrees, which culminate in the peak of Tshar-dagh, covered with snow nearly all the year; and form a kind of mountain-knot, from which various ranges diverge in different directions. North-westward stretch the Uinaric .Mps, whicli join the great Alpine system of l-Lun^pe. Eastward, the chain of the Balkan, ancient Hwinits, exteiuis to the bold head- land of Cape Kmeneh, on the shore of the Hlack Sea. South-eastward, a loftier ridge, the Despoto-dagh, runs into the plains which border the north coasts of the Archipelago. Southward, the range of Pindus follows the direction of the peninsula into Ci-reece, of whicli, the classical mountains, Olympus, Pelion, and Ossa are off- sets on the Gulf of Salonica. These cliains, to a con- siderable extent, render communication between con- tiguous provinces rare and tlifficult in a country where art has not been employed to soften the features of nature, owing to the apathy of the present inhabitants ; and where the ciigineering works oi its ancients masters — Greek and Roman — have suffered largely from the ravages of war as well as from the dilapidations of time, with scarcely an effort to repair them. The only route across the Balkan to which nuicii attention is v)a:d, is on the line of communication between Constantinople and Vie'.ma, which bears tiie name of Porta 'I rajaii;, in memory of uhe emperor who rendered the pass a prac- ticable thoroughfare. A few of the Turki.^h mountains attain the elevation of froin 9,000 to 10,000 feet, as Olympus, the loftiest. 9,754 feet ; but they are gener- allymuch below that altitude. The lowlands are ch;eily maritime, and are not scparatel}' of any great extent, except on the northeast, where vast marshy levels lie on both sides of the Lower Danube. Tlie provinces situ- ated to the south of the Balkan are generally hilly, and their level districts are of small extent. The Balkan Mountains, protecting the heart of the country, are of great importance as a line of military defence in the event of invasion from the north. They •\m ?. ;i .■ rtiii \^^^ 1 ? m t\4 328 SHUMLA AND VARNA. from those which fall into the Danube gradually diminishes from west to east form an undulating range separating Roumelia from Bulgaria ; and the waters which flow to the Archipelago Their height Towards the lilack Sea it is inconsiderable, and here the fortified positions of Shumla and Varna close three of the passes. In the opposite direction it rarely exceeds 4000 feet. Mount Merrikon, the culminating point, rises 6395 feet, and doeh not lose its snow at the summit till the; sum- mer is somewhat advanced. The tops and sides of the chain are clothed with thick woods through almost the whole of its course, and it is only along the declivities of valleys and gorges that any extent of bare rock appears. A range of hills along the base, intersected with ravines, is also so densely covered with brushwood as to be scarcely penetrable. The difficulty of leading an invading army across these mountains is not owing to the height of the passes ; the forests are the chief obstacles, with the want of roads better than the rudest mule-paths. When the Russians, under Marshal Die- bitsch, effected the passage in July, 1829, pioneers were sent in advance to hew ways through the woods and jungle. The soldiers marched in caps, linen trousers, and uniform. Each carried a knapsack containing pro- vision for ten days, and a change of linen. Baggage of every other kind was left behind. The Turks them- selves rendered this operation successful, Varna having been surrendered by the treachery of the governor, while, as if bewildered by its audacity, not a hand was lifted to oppose the passage of the enemy. Vet, under these favorable circumstances, it was with extreme difficulty, after the lapse of a month, that the invaders reached Adrianople ; and had not their com- mander c? ifully masked the condition of his troops, and the infatuation of his opponents blinded them, they would only have accomplished the feat to become prisoners of war. The Russian line of march was by the defiles parallel to the sea-coast from lowan Derwish to Misivria ; which seems to have been the route taken, but inversely from south to north, by Darius. Alexander »i.-' SIIARRA-TAGH, 329 probably forced one of the westerly passes. He found the barbarians in arms to defend their mountains. They were strongly posted on the summmit of a steep acclivity, guarded by precipices on each side. Their front was protected by a line of wagons which served as a rampart, and were also intended to be rolled down so as to break the phalanx as it advanced up the height. But anticipating this design, the general provided against it. On seeing the machines put in motion, the phalanx opened its ranks, where the ground admitted of the operation, and where it was impracticable, the soldiers lay down under the shelter of their interlinked shields. Thus the vehicles either passed harmlessly through, the spac^^s suddenly opened to admit them, or with little injury rolled over the bodies of the troops defended by a solid bra/.en canopy. Near the eastern frontier of Servia, towards Bulgaria, is the subordinate chain of the North Balkan Mountains, which advance close to the banks of the Danube, immediately opposite to the Southern Carpathian system, and narrow the valley of the river into the defile of the Iron Gate. Their interior forms in many places a high [)lateau, elevated more than two thousand feet above the level of the sea. The mountain-knot of Sharra-tagh has its summits covered with snow nearly all the year round, and many parts of the chain of Pindus are of scarcely inferior elevation. The valleys by which this region is intersected are generally narrow in their upper or east- ern portions, but widen towards the west, and in the middle part of Albania a plain extends along the shores of the Adriatic tor a distance of nearly ten miles inland. This plain is bounded on the south by the range o( Mount Khimera, an offset of the main chain of Pindus ; the range terminates at Cape Linguetta, a bold promon- tory at the eastern entrance of the Adriatic. In north- ern Albania and Herzgovina the mountain chains are immediately adjacent to the coast, and rise by a suc- cession of terraces towards the interior, the only open- ings being those by which the river-valleys communi- cate with the sea. • U !i. ir i. ■i riVt,:.:i 33t THE DANUfJE. The portion of Albania which is to the south of Mount Khiinera nearly coincides with the ancient pro- vince of Kpirus. Middle and northern Albania fall within the limits of the ancient Illyriciini. The northern pro\ inccs are watered by the Danube, which receives many important tributaries from each. the Morava, which, with its branches, waters nearly the whole of Servia. the Isker from JUil<^aria, the Alula and Jalomnlit/.a from Wallachia, the Sereth and I'ruth from Moldavia. It drains all the middle and northern pro- vinces of Turkey, and forms the threat channel of com- munication between these jjorcions of the empire. It.-, chief affluents, however, are outside of the I'urki.sii boundar}-, the Save and Drave and the Maros and Thuso from Austro-I lunj^ary. This noble stream has lonijr been navigated b\- rafts similar to those of the Rhine, and is now, by steamers, an important channel of communication between Tm'key and the rest of luirope. It acf[uires ^reat expansion at intervals, and is often split into several channels by numerous small islands, which, with the occurrence of sand-banks and rapids, render the navigation intricate. Soon aflcr reaching the Wallachi.in fi'ontier, the river enters the Iron (jate, a defile bordered on both sides by steep and lofty cliffs, which contract its bed and encund^er it with rocks. The confined waters rush through the pass with violence, and form a succession of rapids. Towards its termination the asp^cct of the stream is remarkably dif- ferent — as unpicturesque as possible. It flows througli a vast Hat of swampy ground, covered with bulrushes, of which pelican and other large birds, frogs and rcj)- tiles, are almost the only inhabitants, but is rife with mosquitoes in hot weather, and choked with immense accumulations of mud and sand. The course of the Danube is singularl)- tortuous through the Turkish dominions. After a long curving sweep from west to east, it approaches to within forty miles of Kustendij on the Black Sea, then makes a great bend to the north, turns again to the east, and adds nearly two hundred miles to its length by this detour. It finally dischargo *"'■ IH TURKISH RIVERS. 331 into the Black Sea by four principal channels — the northern called Kilia ; the central, or the Sulina ; the third, }'!!drilli.s ; and the southern, or St. Georges. The two former arc the most used by .shipping, but both are much obstructed by sand-bars, and the temporar\- or permanent stranding of vessels on them is a common incident. The Edrillis, or Georgeffian arm, forms part of the frontier between the Turkish and Ru.ssian domin- ions. The most scnithern channel passes through the considerable lagoon of Rasclm. Steamboats avoid the difficult and tedious navigation of its lower course by landing goods and passengers at the village of Chcr-i/o- i^uxia (at the point where the Danube make a great bend to the northward), whence a road leads across the isthmus to the port of Ku.stendij, on the Black Sea, a distance of thirty-eight miles. .Since the year 1858, imder the auspices of a com- nii.ssion constituted in pursuance of the Treaty of Paris at the close of the l\.u;>so-Turkish war, the Sulina mouth has been much improved. The ])eninsula formetl by the gixal northern bend is the Dobrudscha, a well-known s\va;r.p\- and pestilential tract, formerly crossed b>- an embankment, traces of which ruinain, under the name of Trajan's Wall. A railway now intersects it, connecting Techernavado on the Danube with the port of Kesien- dij, by means of which passengers are spareil liie most tedious part of the river navigation. Rivers ;ire nunier- uus in other parts of the country, but are not of impor- tant size or of much navigable \alue. Some of classical interest are reduced to threads in the summer heat. The Maritza, ancient Utbnis, which is the most consid- erable, admits the passage of small vessels as high as Adrianoplc (106 miles) during the winter and spring, but in summer they can only ascend a portion of that distance ; the Struma, or Stryjuou, which anciently formed the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace ;. the V'ardar, or Axius, and the .Salembria, or J'aieus, flow into the Archipelago ; the Drin, the Boyana, and a considerable number with short courses descend irom the mountains westward into the Adriatic. The course Si 11 I'i I- 11,;!. J;. J I i|^ t nt M'H, iW '».!< I- M H! ,^9'i? *'^'' 332 I'RINCIPAL LAKES. of the Drill (the principal branch of which has its origin in the Lake of Ochrida, at the western foot of Mount Pindus) exceeds two hundred miles — a greater length than that of any other river entering the eastern side of the Adriatic. The lioyana, further to the northward, flows from the Lake of Skutari into the sea, and is navigable for small vessels for a distance of fifteen miles above its mouth. The principal lakes are those of Skutari, Ochrida, and Janina, all these situated in Albania — the two for- mer in the middle and northern ])ortions of that pro- vince, the last-named in Southern Albania. The Lake of Skutari is about 145 scjuare miles in area, and abounds in fish. Lake Ochrida, about nine-five square miles, lies at a considerable elevation above the sea, and is surrounded by mountains, l^csides these, are many of smaller size, situated in the mountainous districts, as well as some of considerable magnitude, immediately adjacent to the north bank of the Danube, and formed by the occasional overflow of its waters. Great diversity marks the climate, owing to the varying elevation and exi)osure of the surface. On the extensive plains of the Lower Danube the winters are intensely cold, and the summers correspondingly hot. The Romans were astonished at the severity of the former season in this region. In the age of Augustus, the poet Ovid, banished from Rome by the edict of the emperor, and ordered to resitle at Tomni, a colony near the mouth of the river, had some years' acquaintance with the spot, then on the confines of civilization. Poeti- cal epistles sent home to his friends are crowded with complaints of everything — the land, water, and sky — the air, the people, and especially the winter. " The snow lies deep ; and as it lies, neither sun nor rain can melt. Boreas hardens it, and makes it endure for ever. Ilenee, when the former ice has not yet melted, fresh succeeds, and in many a place it is wont to last for two years. I have seen the vast sea covered with ice, and a slippery crust covered over the unmoved waters. To have seen it is not enough. I have trod upon tin; i. t THE CLIMATE. ^5 hardened ocean, and the surface of the water was under iny '""''t, not wetted by it." The thermometer now sometimes descends to fifteen degrees below zero, and the sledge is used for travelling. hut probably in former times the winter was in more violent antagonism to the summer than at present. Only the most north- erly ports of the Black Sea are now annually ice- bound ; but in 401 .\. I)., large tracts of it were strongly frozen, and when the weather broke up, such mountains of ice drifted by Constantinople that the inhabitants were terrified. In the reign of Constantine Coprony- mus also, people walked across the Hosphorus on the ice, from the European to the Asiatic shore. ICither of these events would now be quite a phenomenon. Eastern Roumelia also experiences great extremes of tempera- ture. At Constantinople the mean annual temperature is lower than that of places in Italy and Sjiain at the same latitude ; and great changes are suddenh' exper- ienced from the shifting of the wind to opposite quar- ters, north and south, a fall of several degrees often occurring within the space of one hour as the wind shifts from south-west to north, Jiut in all the inland districts south of the Balkan, except at high elevations, and on the shores both of the Archipelago and Adriatic, the climate is delightful, and the vegetation lias a south- ern luxuriance. On the coast of Albania a north-east wind called dor-a, which brings down the cold air from the summits of the mountains, is dreaded not so much on account of its violence as of the suddenness with which it sets in. The south-east wind, or sirocco, which ijcnerally blows for t-hree days in succession, raises the temperature of the air, and is often accompanied by much rain. A great difference exists between the vegetation of the provinces within the basin of the Danube and those to the south of the Balkan mountains. The northern provinces have extensive woodlands : whole forests of apple, pear, cherry, and apricot trees, with the oak, beech, lime, and ash. South of the mountains these trees are confined to their slopes, while the lowlands are 20 i jji 'Tr m If' .14^..; II I ^ ■^ % f 1 . 4;m, I! ^h i I'' 1^1 Mj: Jll 334 NATURAI- PRODUCTS. clotiicd witli the almond, wrilrnit, plane, chestnut, maple, and mulberr)', cj'prcsscs, and sycamores of enormous dimensions, besides the myrtle, laurel, box, and other everj,'reens. In sprinj^ the surface is ;.^•^y with flowers, amon^ which the narcissus, violet, and hyacinth apjKar in profusion, with j^ardens of roses, jasmine, and wild lilac. In the extreme south the olive becomes the most conmion fruit-tree, while the mulberry and fi;^ are abundant, and the orani^e thrives in sheltered situations. In the plain of Skutari, (south of the lake of that name,) the most fertile part of Albania, all the fruit.i met with in the southern countries of 1 ■uro{)e are tnown in abundance, as well as e\'ery kind of j,n-ain. with tin- exception of rice. In iiosnia the plum takes its place, and a favorite beverage, slivovitan, is made from its juice. Melons, cucumbers, peas, beans, and cabbages, which form a principal part of the ordinary food of the Turks, are raised in ji;reat quantities ; but some of our common vec;et.nbles arc scarcely known, and the i)otat(t has a \er)- restricted cultivation. The grain cnps maize, wheat. r)-e, barle}', and millet — are sufficiently abundant, not onh* for the home demand, but for ex- portation, and ton times the produce nn'ght l)e gained by skilful husbandr}-. Roumelia is one great garden, in which, however, the Meeds contend with the fruits of the earth, for the master}-. Rice is grown in the south- ern pr(\'i'-!ccs, where there are marsh)* tracts of limited extent ; but the sujipl)' being insufficient for home con- sumption, this is the only grain which is imported. Tobacco, flax, hemp, cotton, and silk are other [)njducts of th'j soil. Both agriculture and horticulture arc every- where in a very backward state, the implements beini; of the rudest description, while the long unsettled state of society has so far checked industrial efforts, that a va.st proportion of the surface is not brought under any kind of cultivation. Herds of oxen, flocks of sheep and goats, with bees producing large quantities of wax and honey, constitute the chief wealth of the inhabitants ol Wallachia and Moldavia ; and, to a less extent, that of the mountaineers in Albania and Bosnia. i'^\ GROWTH ()!•• THE VINE. 335 maple. ->rmou.s 1 other llowcrs. appear k1 \vil(-l lies tlie I fio- arc nations, of that ic fruits- e in-own with the ts place, from its abl)a;j;es, id of 'the c of our ic potato cri lis fficieiitly [ for ex- iL- c^aineil ; warden, fruits lit lie stnith- If limited Ionic con- nii)ortcd. products ,rc cvcry- lits bein;^ led state s. that a ndcr aiiy Iheep and Iwax and_ litants of t, that of The vine is jjrown over the whole of Turkey, but the fruit produced in the northern provinces is inferior in (juantity of saccharine matter to that obtained on the shore of the Archipelago. The southern base of the Jialkan is remarkable for the exhuberancc of its vegetation, which consists of gardens of roses, jasmine, and wild lilac, vineyards, and ri.RK.tSH VlNK^ARIiOK. perfect forests of fruit-trees ; and the plain of Adrian- oplo is distinguished for the abundance of its roses, from which the celebrated attar of roses is distilled. The extensive forests give shelter to numerous ani- mals, among which are wild boars, bears, wild oxen, (leer of varius kinds, lynxes, wild cats, foxes and wolve.^. r till ■, i^ It ■ ^f^mm »l!i:| -m ^■M - i t'''\ JMifT! '!'tif!^>l . ^ s :■! 336 I'OLrnCAI, DIVISIONS OV TURKEY. A species of wolf, smaller than that of the hills, fre- quents the plains borderin<^ on the Uaniibe, and finds shelter in the marshes or amonj; the reeds. The part- ridge and the bustard abound in the valleys, and ^'ame is plentifnl in tiie mountain districts of Albania. Of domesticated tpiadrupeds, the shei.p and the [^oat are most numerous, the hitter especially in Albam'a .uul the other mountainous districts ; lartje herds of oxen are reared in the provinces borderint^- on the Danube, ami horses are numerous in Moldavia and Thcssaly. The political divisions of Turkey are arbitrary and fluctuary. The limits of the provinces over which the subordinate officers of ^overiuiient exercise their author- ity depend, in great measure, upon the individual power and energy of tlie respective i)ashas, as these personages are termed. The nominal division of the (Mnpire, for administrative purj^oses, it into lyalets ; each of which is under the government by a vizier : the eyalets are subdivided into sandjaks, or pashaliks, each under the rule of a pasha. The provinces that compose European Turkey constitute four eyalets — those of Roumelia, Bosnia, Silistria, and Jesayir; besides the territories of Servia, Wallachia, and Moldavia, which are in a medi- ate condition, under their native rulers, though subor- dinate to the authority of the sultan. The eyalet of Roumelia comprehends Albania, Thessaly, and the western part of Roumelia Proper. The eyalet of Bos- nia includes the province of that name, with Herzego- vina and the Turkish portion of Croatia. 'The eyalet of Silistria comprises Bulgaria and the eastern part of Roumelia Proper, including Constantinople. The eya- let of Jesayir — or the islands — embraces, with a small part of Roumelia, (including Gallipoli and the northern side of the Dardanelles,) the Turkish islands in the Archipelago, Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, Lcmnos, and a few others, besides the larger island of Candia. We proceed, however, to notice the topography of Turkey under the heads of the geographical divisions referred to in a preceding page, with the names of which English readers are most familiar, and which, S||Siii#i T01'0(;RArUY OF TURKKY. ii7 indeed, arc most intimately associated with the fjreat occurrences of Ottoman history; for Turkey is best known by old geopraphical divisions, those of Roumelia, Thessaly, and Albania; Montenegro, Bosnia, Herze^jo- vina, and Croatia; Servia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bulj^aria. The Turkish provinces to the south of the Halkan and their western [)rolongation, the Dinaric Alps, consist of Roioiidia, which extends from the IMack Sea on the east to the chain of Mount I'indus on the west, and lies along the Sea of Marmora and the Archipelago ; T/tcs- sci/j', a small territory to the south-west of the above, and lying between the hiiores of the Archipelago .ind Mount I'indus ; Albaiiia, an extensive province to the westward of Rounirlia and Thessaly, and situated between the chains ol Mount Pindus and the high mass of Sharra- tagh on the east, and the Adriatic Sea on the west ; and Hir::goviHa, to the north-west of Albania, lying between the principal chain of the eastern Alps and the Austrian province of Dalmatia, which laltcr tract divides it from the immediate shores of the sea. The provinces to the north of the mountains, and limited northward by the course of the Danube or its tributaries, are Ihilgaria, which extends from the Black Sea nearly to the meridian of 22" east longitude ; — Senna, a large territor\- to the west of the above ; — Bosnia, further to the westward ; — and a part of Croatia, adjacent to the Austrian territory of that name. The northern frontier of Croatia, l^osnia, and part of Servia, is formed by the course of the river Save ; the remain- der of Servia and the whole of Bulgaria are bounded on the north by the main stream of the Danube. To the north of the Danube are the two provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, the former of which lies between the river and the chain of the Southern Carpa- thians ; the latter stretches along the eastern slope of the Carpathians Proper, and is bounded on the east by the course of the river Pruth, which divides it from the Russian province of Bessarabia. ! . t' -< ^, \% i^lh ■•:;!, ''■fiM . -• ¥ t mmM t -ri ' * 1; ' h 338 THE B(J.SPlIORUS. J': I RouMEl.iA comprises the country between the B.i- kan Mountains on the north and the Arciiipelago on .'^e south, and corresponds in its eastern limits to ancient Thrace and its western to Macedonia. It contains the capital, and is the only {)r()vince in which the Turks arc found in lari;e comj\ict bodies. The points of natural inteiest are the shores, particularly those of the two nar- row straits, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, where he European portion of the empire closely approaches tlie Asiatic part of the territory. It exceeds any of tht,' other pr.:vinces in si/e, and cont.u'ns Constantinoijlc, the capital oT the M^dunnetan world. Some of its river val- leys expand into co.isitlerable plains, as that of Adrim- ople, watered by the river McU'it/.a, or ancient Hen-! us. The l^osphorus connects the J^lack .Sea and the Se,i of Marmora. It extends about eit^hteen miles between receding ana advancing shores, which form se\'en bay>. w;th corresponding promontories o])posite, and cause the breadth to vary from rather less than half a mile t.» two miles. This fine natural canal is bounded b\' ranues of undulating hills, crossed at intervals by slo[)ing \al- leys of delicious verdure, clothed with oriental trees and flowering plants. Heing the resort of the wealthy classes from the capital, the sides of the liills are thickly studded with their residciices, surrounded with gru'deiis anfl plantations, in which the orange, plantain, vine, and fig-tree are interinixed with flowers of e-vcry hue. Un the shores of the Hay of Huyukdere, which lie open to the fresh and cooling breezes ot the Black Sea, .ue the sumii-er palaces of the British, French, and Russian ambassadors, with the Giant's Mountain, the highest hill on the channel, nearly opposite on the Asiatic side. In the midst of tliese charming 1 'treats, castellated ruins occur here and th(MX-, which tell of the struggles and vicissitudes of the past, and give picturescjucness to the beautiful landscape. Nearly midway, at the narrowest part of the strait, are the Castles of Europe and Asia. s(j called in relation to the continents on which they stand, and also styled the castles of Roumelia and Anatolia, in ailusioii to the Provinces in which they are situated. , H , i *' >,' CASTLES OF KUROl'K AND ASIA. 339 The fortificatiu.iM >*■-!. erected to secure a point consti- tuted by nature the hii;ii-road for both continents, w here Darius made liis bridge of boats when he niarclied aijainst tlie Scythians, and tlie Ottoman armies crossed in h'ke manner prior to the fall of (."onstantinople. Durini,' tile rule of the janissaries, the Castle of Kurojjc was the prison to uln'ch refractory members of that body were committed. An endji'a- sure on the lower rampart is still filled b)' the lary,e l;uii. which was fired on tlie execution of ^reat crim- inals, to announce the event to the sultan in the capital. The Castle of Asia was the prison of t'ne b(jstanjis, or laniards, who were immured or MARMORA ■-- 1 Mi!f liOSI'Hi)iat to save him t'"j trouble. To eltcct a hostile entry into the Sea of Marmora, an enemy would have first to encounter the fire of two lower castles at the entrance of the Dardanelles, besides several water-batteries along the shores, and the fire of the succession of castles and defensive works already referred to. Although these present a formidable aspect to an enemy, yet their importance has. we imagine, been greatly overrated. A debarkation on the Thracian peninsula would take the works on the European shore with great ease, and those on the opposite side would fall of course. The real enemy, and the one most to be dreaded, is far in the rear of all the.se formidable works; and past experience should have instructed the Turk that Russia does not depend so much upon her ships as upon her armed battalions. CONSTANTINOPLE. 34.5 Near the northern extremity of the strait, the Turks effected their first passac^e into luirope, about a century before the fall of Constantinople. Solinian. the eldest son of the second sultan, having been a[)])(>inted govern- or of the province on the opposite Asiatic shore, visited the spot where the populous and wealthy maritime city of Cyzicus had flourished. Its broken columns and marble edifices in ruins, .scattered over the turf, filletl him with awe and admiration. He loved to wander on the beach, lost in reverie, amid the remains of what SL-emed wondrous palaces built b\- the genii of the air. One evening, as he sat wrapped in contemplation, he beheld the pillars and porticoes of the desolate temples of Jupiter, Proserpine, and Cj'bjle reflected by the light of the moon in the trantiuil waters, while .i few lleecy vapors hung over the waves. It seemed to him as if the city were emerging from the deep, restored to former beiuty, girdled with the wliite sails of its ancient lleet. The n urmuring waves and whis[)ering winds broke upon his ear as mysterious voices from invisible beings, while the moon a]Ji)eared to unite with her beams the opposite coasts of Asia and I'lurope. Immediately the purpose was formed to have both sides of the strait blended in his own inheritance. With a chosen band, on the fol- lowing night, he crossed the channel on a raft, and seized the Castle of Tzympe, now Chim", near (iallipoli. In memory of the landing, a rocky strand or mole still bears the name of the Victor's Harbor; and at a little distance, a hill crowned with a scanty ruin is said to he the spot where the Turkisii standard was first planted on the shore. CONSTANTINOii.E, or Stamboul, as it is .dways called by the Turks, the capital of the empire, in lati- tude 41" north, longitude 28 55' east, commemorates by its name the founder, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor of the Roman world, who com- menced the city on the site of Hy/.antium, 32S a.d. Its history has, in all ages, been eventful. As Byzan- tium, it dates back to the seventh century before the ? A (iKANlJ I'ANOkAMIC VIFAV. deep! TliL- appearance of Constantinople at a distance i< sin«j,ailarly imposing;, as the principal mos(]ues crown the the suniniits of the seven hills ; while the siirroundinf^ scener)' is beautiful in the extreme, h'roni the Seras- kier's Tower in the cit)-, or the Tower of (ialata, or the heii,dits above Scutari, the eye overlooks «! fanciful mix- ture of domes and cypress <;roses ; j^littcrinj; mosques, ruitietl aque.lucts, a.ul solemn cemeteries ; t^raceful slopes and castletl crags ; with the windint(s of the blue and brilliant sea, over which thousands of boats arc _t;lidiiij4' ; while eastwarrl, the ;^"rand panorama is bc)un(lc(i by tile hi'ls of Mysia and ilitiiynia, amid \\hich, and above a", rises the 'ofty head of the snow-crowned C)l\-mpu.. The principal mostiue, that of St. Sophia, (-ccupii's the summit of the first of the seven liills, rcokc>nin(^f from the ]5os[)horous, and adjoins the Seracj- lio. and tliese two are tiie most strikini( of the public buildini^s. 'I'he moscjue is ■ ,»•) iM- ■lliiill imposed upon the .sovcrcijj;i\ for the time bein^t^, from wliicli, under no pretence, except that of dan^'erous ill- ness, can he be exempt. About ten o'clock the par- ticular mosques to be visited becomes known ; and the road from the water-side is cnnvdcd by luinibers of the faithful, and of forei<^niers in the city. The .show b\' water, amid military music and the fire of artillcr)-, is v'ery imposing. Not less so is the spectacle by land, as the chief of Islamism and his grandees proceed slowly on richly caparisoned steeds led by attendants, while the multitude maintain the most perfect silence. ]5ut perhaps the most delightful hours of the sojourner are those devoted to gliding up the winding liaven, and visiting the Valley of Sweet Waters, which is only a short walk from its .urHier end. This is a quiet and shady glen, with deep green grass and .shady trees, much resorted to by pleasure parties in the summer season, and occasio'iaily the retreat of the sultan, who has here a kiosk. A stream flows througli in a canal lined with marble, the work of Achmet III., who also laid JUt the grounds. An enormous plane-tree rises in the centre of the valley, the trunk of which is 47 yards in circumference, while the branches affc^rd a sliade for 130 yards around it. Among the European capitals, Constantinople ranks after London and Paris in the number of its inhabitants. The whole circuit of the city, not including the suburbs on the harbor, is about twelve miles. Though not known with certainty, the population is probably not le?s than 700,000, including that of all the suburbs. After the Turks, the most numerous body are the Armenians, next the Jews, tlien the Greeks, with a very motley a.ssemblage of lonians, Germans, Italians, Maltese, Austrians, French. Rus.sians, British, and Americans. The city very well resembles the Tower of Babel. In Tera they speak Turkish, Greek, Hebrew, Armenian, Arabic, Persian, Ru.ssian, Slavonian, Wal- lachian, German. Dutch, Italian, French, Hu:igarian, English ; and what is worse, there are ten of these languages spoken in one family. The Turks are chiefly TMK CEMETERIES. J30 found in the city, though they are numerous also in the suburbs. The Armenians, Jews, and Greeks occupy distinct quarters in the capital, while diffused to some extent throut,fh it, and formint^ a considerable clement without the walls. The Turks have thei'" newspapers, of which the Jcridcli Hmvadas, the Record of News, is the most important, conducted by an lini^lishman. The Armenians have likewise their weekl}' chronicle, the Mcjviooai Haivadas, the Collection of News. There is for the Imij^HsIi the Levant Herald, and for tl:e I'Vench the Jountal dc Constantinople. However intermingled in life, e;.ch of the principal nations has a separate resting-place in death ; and very extensive, beautiful, and picturesque sites are the ceme- teries. The Turks plan' the everL^reen cypress, Cupres- siis sempctvircns, near every new grave, and do not allow it to be employed for the same purpose by the other races. They adopted the practice from the con- (juereJ Greeks, who derived it froin their ancestors, by wl om the tree was considered an emblem of immor- t.Mity, on account of its reputed longevity, and the durability of the wood. Their cemeteries have become in some instano'^s extensive forest-like tracts, owing to che invariable usage of o[)ening a new grave for every fresh corpse. The common memorials are truncated pillars, surmounted with sculptured representations of the turban or of the fez to distinguish the men ; and inscriptions in Arabic letters, generally richly gilt, set- ting forth the name, titles, and merits of the deceased. The most important burial-grounds on the European side of the Bosphorus, are near Pera and at Eyub, clo.se to the upper extremity of the harbor. But the great home of the dead is on the Asiatic shore, in the imme- diate vicinity of Scutari, where a magnificent forest slopes towards the sea, and stretches away inland for miles, the cypresses of which have grown to an immense size, .vhile multitudes are still in their infancy. Crossing the Golden Morn when on one of our journeys, we were soon landed on a low wooden wharf on the opposite side. Making our way through narrow V \\^^ »!.• «tr» 1 ,i' #1':;, I'i IV t, ■i'.i ':*: il Pb: M, ■j!^' I I i. 354 TURKISH BAZAVRS. rough-paved streets, we soon found ourselves in the most striking part of Constantinople. It is needless to state that we wee in the far-famed bazaar. The gen- eral effect is splendid and imposing ; and yet, when e.x- aniined in detail, there is little to create surprise or ex'cite wonder. It is in these bazaars that the internal trade of Constantinople is carried on. The bazaar, as every one knows, is a collection of shops where goods are sold by retail : it covers several acres, and contains numerous streets crossing each other in every direction. A description of one shop will serve for all. It is a little stall, about ten or twelve feet square, hung round with the various articles exposed for sale. They are entirely open in front, and are closed at night by hanging shutters, which serve as an awning during the day. The floors of the stalls are raised two feet from the ground, and upon a small rug spread out on this floor, sits tjie cross-legged Turkish or Armenian shop-keeper. A small door behind opens into a closet or store-room. It is necessary to be extremely careful in making purchases, as almost all the dealers are ready to take advantage of " greenness." The bazaars are covered overhead, and in many places arched over with stone in a substantial manner. As you traverse them, astonishment is raised at their apparently endless extent and varied riches. Here, as far as the eye can reach, are seen ranges of shops filled with slippers and shoes of various brilliant hues ; there, are exposed the gaudy products of the Persian loom At one place drugs and spices fill the air with their scents, while at another i long line of arms and polished cutlery flash upon the eye. Each street is exclusively occupied by a particular branch of trade, and we trav- ersed for hours the various quarters in which books, caps, jewelry, harness, trunks, garments, furs, etc., were separately exposed for sale. The crowds which thronged the bazaars were so dense that it was with no little dif- ficulty we made good our way ; and when to this arc added the numerous persons who are running about, holding up articles for sale, and crying out the price at f * EATING-HOUSES. 355 the top of their voices — the sonorous Turkish .icccnts predominating over the various dialects of Europe — with the running: accompaniment of the ceaseless Ciroek chatter, one may form a tolerably accurate idea of the noise and bustle of the scene. In many districts, such as the seal-cutters, diamond-workers, pipemakers. etc., the same little stall serves both as a place to sfll their wares and as a workshop to manufacture them ; thus tjiving an additionnl air of life and movement to the bustle which continually pervades these rccjions. No person sleeps within the walls of the ba/.i.ir. it is closed near sunset by twenty-two iinmense gates, which lead into as many different streets ; and tlie shop- keepers, at that time, may be seen returning to their homes in dilferent parts of the city, or filling ilie numer- ous caiques which then literally darken the waters of the Bosphorous and the Golden Horn. In the course of oiu" rambles through the streets our astonishment was excited by witnessing tlie enormous loads carried by Turk'isl) pr>rters, and their capabilities in this respect prove, if an\' proof indeed be wanting, how nuich sobriet)- and rigid habits mT temperance add to the physical powers of man. W'iicn the article to be transporteil is exceedingly heavy, it is suspended by ropes to poles, of wliic'' tlie ends rest upon the shoulders of two men, similar to what is seen in the ancient j):iint- ings found in the catacombs of Rome. Upon our return we were induced b\- curiosity to enter a Turkish eating-house. Tlic chief article of food is pilaff, or boiled rice and mutton, wliich is much hner fl.ivored than any we ever tasted in America. Ascend- ing a high platform, we crossed our legs with becoming gravity, and had the pleasure of seeing our diimer cooked before our eyes. The mutton is cut \.\p into small pieces of the si/.e of a quarter of a dollar. .V spit, not much larger than a tlarning needle, is thrust through a do/,en of these bits ; aiul when the re([uired number is prepared, the spits are placed over a charcoal fire. They are roasted in this way very cx[)editiously. A soft, blackish cake of rye, previously browned, is lit ■' "C" • ■ h'i lie II I ''\': ; 5,38 I 4 !, 356 KHANS, OR INN.S. K h t placed upon a large tinned plate of copper; melted j^n'ease, with fmelj- chopped herbs, is poured over the cake, and the miniature mutton-chops, or kcbanbs, are scraped cfif upon the copper ; (jver the whole is poured a quantity of sour milk; and the dish is then prepared for eatini;. It was placed upon a small stool, about six inches high, before us ; and as knives and forks were, of course, out of the question, we ate witii our fingers, after the fashion of the ancient Romans. We found the ke- baub to be a most savory disii ; and, notvvitiistar.ding the absence of forks, we contrived to make a hearty meal. Water was afterwards presented, with towels and soap, to wash oin* hands and beards ; and a large goblet of clear iced water concluded the repast. The khans in Constantinople form a conspicuous fea- ture in this oriental capital. These massy buildings originated in the benevolence of wealthy individuals, who raised them for the accommodation of travelling merchants. The difficulty of procuring lodgings, or a suitable place to display and vend their wares, formerly rendered such buildings peculiarly necessary, and a trifling present to the porter was all the compensation required. In the course of events, trade was managed in a different wiy, and Hiese khans became individual or corporate pro]ic:-ty. Merchants now^ rent apartments in them, and man)- become permanent residents. We ex- amined one of them, rather larger than its fellows. It is a n(,)ble building of stone, and fire-proof, 300 feet l(Mig, and 100 broad, built round a court, three stories in height, with open galleries in the interior. There are .said to be no less *-han 180 of these khans in the city of various sizes. The ground-tloor of tiie khan which we entereil was occupied b)- a row of coffee-shops. In the second floor was a rich dispki}' of jewelr}', while the third containetl an endless wiriety of Cashmere shawl-;. The demand for these articles was formerh' greater among the Turks than at present ; fo" no one of an\- consideration could be seen in public w itlu^ut an expensive turban o'i C'ashmere, and another to be used as a girdle. Unfortunate!)' lor Tin: lilJRNT COLUMN. J3/ the lovers of the picturesque, these expensive fooleries ci-.il!\- laid aside b)- '^ood society, and of are nt)u Lreii course their \'alue is niucli tlinii nislu W e were sliown superb shawls at the prici: of S300, which five years ago would ha\e readily sold for $800 or $1000. The most \-aluable, perhaps we should say the most costl)-, of these shawls are twelve feet b)' four feet wide, and of st) fine a texture as to [)a;- tht T\ rougn the compass o fa fi nt:er-rlnL^ ley are constantly ke])t m screw presses, •hich pre- serves their <^los., and gives them a new and fresh appear- ance. This khan is on ground so uneven that we passed out of its third stor}- immediately into tlie street. Not far from this is a bdysestcen, which term originally (.lesignated a cloth market, but the building is now de- voted to other purjjoses. It seems to be occupied chiefly b)- druggists, and differs from other bazaars only in being of a more loft)' and solid construction. These, together with the bazaars, are under the guard of kayh.iiyas, or officers appointed by the government, and are consid- ered, particularly b)- the baysesteen, t ^ be places of such afe deposit, that the Turks are in the habit of entrusting there their most wiluable effects Tl le property o f widows and orphans is likewise frequently placed there for safe-keeping. Our course next led us past an unsightly monument* called, very appropriatel\\ the ]ii"-'i^ Column. It is said to have been originally I2u .^_. i ' and was sur- mounted b)- a statue of the Trojan Ai)ollo, which repre- sented the Emperor ConstcUitine himself. The Greeks have a tradition that Constantiiie deposited under its base a nail of the true cross and a bit of bread which formerly belonged to one of the five miraculous barley lu.ives ; hence it wa ; formerl}' cor..-.idered as a sacred spot, and ever\.-()ne who rode past, not even excepting the emperor himself, alighted to pa\' it homage. The- h.ise is of white marble, eighteen feet high, .uid ai)pa rcnth- circular ; but this we coukl not deternn'ne. .is it \Vd s been v . led uj* ever since the great lire ol I 7M'J m this nei<'hb:)rhood. The col; imn itselt is compose d of soli d blocks of red jjorjjlij-ry or jasjicr, eacli about te n ■ <)■ i Ute m i ' fF ■ b 1 ': If 1 I 1, M ( i'ii- ■'?! fl He .'» II l\ ■^ .^ ■'; ^J'l • " |! 1 , I' '\ , ill mh'' I I I '!■ iii'i 358 THE PROGRESS OF REFORM. feet hij^h and twelvi feet in diameter, and, when perfect, must have been one of the most imposing structures of its kind in the world. It is now a ruined, tottering mass, kept togetlier by several iron bands, and blackened and defaced by frequent conflagrations. ( )n the summit is a marble capital, carved above, with an inscription. Hav- ing satisfied our curiosity by examining this remarkable monument, which has withstood repeated conflagrations and the corroding influence of fifteen centuries, we liastened to a more interesting object. The vivid description of the Flippodrome in the pages of Gibbon had left such an impression, th.it, when one of our companions exclaimed " This is tlie Atmeidan," we could scarcely believe the evidence of our senses; and yet here was tiie l-'gyptian obelisk and its miserable rival the column of 1'orphyrogcnit.us, and between them the remnant of the brazen tri])i)d from which were once delivered the omcles of tjic Delphi. There could be no mistake?, for these were the monuments that established its identity. VVc were in a small unpa\'ed and sandy area, 350 ])aces long and nearly 100 paces broad, and surrounded by high build- ings, which had the effect of making its actual dimen- sions ajjpear still less. Under the Cireek emperors it was termed the liipj)odrome, and was then much larger, for the burnt colunm was contained within its precincts ; but its true appellation is ^■itiiiiiiian^vv place foi horses, a translation of its Grecian name. Under the (jreek emperors the Hippodrome was devoled to athletic sports and exercises ; under the hrench monarchy, to jousts, and tilts, and tournaments; ami in the hand:.- of the Turks, to the exercise of tiie siiort spear or jeered. Alas for the progress of reform ! 1 he IIil)podrome is now deserted, and the only remnant of Ottoman chivalry we saw, was a ragged lad kicking and whipping a sorry nag over the parched and solit.uy arena. On its south side it is bounded by the magnificent mosque of Achmet, and on the opposite side by large buildings, of which ♦'he most conspicuous are the \ rs' THE EGYPTIAN OHELISK. 359 mcnajreric and the palace of Ibrahim Pacha, now the headquarters of the cavalry staff. Towards flie eastern extremity of the Atmeidan is the I'^f^jyptiaii obelisk, said to have been brou_i;iit from Rome by Constantine, when he laid the foundation of the Eastern ICmpire. This suberb monolith is sixty feet hi;^h, and at its base is twelve feet in tliameter ; it is of the reil h-cjyptian t;ranite, and the carved heiro,L;Iyphs look as fresh .ukI as sharp as if tlicy were cut but yesterday. The s])eci- fic i^ravity of this granite is 2.6^, and hence its ap[)roxi- niale weight must be one lumdred tons One ts natur- ally led to enquire how such an enormous mass could have been transported in the Hrst [)Iace to Ivome, antl subsequently to Constantinople. The small size of vessels of tiiat era, and the imperfect acquaintance of the ancients with navigation, would seem to j)rechKle the idea of its having been transported in a single ves- sel, and the union of two or more vessel-; ai)pears scarcely more probable. Charnock, in liis History of Naval Architecture, seems, however, to le.m towards the idea (jf a large \'essel having l)een employed fortius purpose, lie mentions that Constantine had caused an immense obelisk, 115 feet high, and weighing 1500 tons, to be floated liown the hill from Ilelioj)olis to Alexandria, intending to adorn with it his new seat of empire. Death, however, frustrated his intentions, and his son caused it to be transported to Rinrie. I'lie supposed labor of {piarrying and pre[)aring tliese gigantic mounments has been much overrated. The mechanical skill required was inconsiderable, and the manner of operating, in all probability, has for ages been the same. In our own day we h;'.ve an op,portunity of ascertaining the amount of labor «.:x[)ended upon a similar monument in Russia. Tlie monolith erected in honor of the I'Lmperor Alexander is twelve feet in diameter antl eig!U)'-four feet high. This recpiired the labor of six hunchx'd men for two )-ears. At a short distance from tiie obelisk stands the twisted brazen column, which in the neighborhood of gigantic monuments jv^pcars to be comparatively insig- IS i:iF !l if irl'l * Hi ■'■; i i M .,;fl|| 1; f^irlii ■ HP ■< • iM r 1 ', ■ Kfll!l Illif »i;^r! 360 TIIK I'.R\Z1-:N Cf)l,UMN. nificant ; and vet its liistorv tccir.s with intcre^ ' ft is a liolhnv lastiii!^^ of bronze, now twelve feet ),' 'Ii. i. re{)rcsents three twisted columns, and is for its a^e and as a specimen ni the ;ul'. the i.v ,; .11, hemic monument of antiquit}- in exisicnce. There i.s some doubt ex- pressed by tra\-ellers whether its original position has not been reversed, but its cji'adnal taper upwards as it now stands, dispnn'es this idea. It formerly terminated .',t the top in three serpents' heads, and Gibbon relates that when the victorious Mohammed entered the city, either flushed with the excitement of victory, or desirous of exhibiting;" his personal strength, lie struck off one of the serpent's heads at a single blow. This brazen colunm once belonged to the Persians, wlio assigned to it the highest anticpiity. It was cap- tured from tliem, with many other trophies, at the battle of Plat;ea, and formed for centuries the celebiated tripod from whence the priestess delivered lier oracles at Delphi. Some have sui^posed it to be one of the brazen serpents alluded to in Exodus, but without going so far back it n)ay be reasonably supposed to have been at least 500 years in the possession of the Persians. Upon this hypothesis, we are now looking upon a specimen of humaii art which has lasted for nearly thirty centuries. It lias already been mentit)nod that one of the sides of the Hippodrome is bounded by the perLstyle of the royal mosque of Achmed. This peristyle forms a vaulted galler)-, the arcades of which are supported by granite and porplnritic columns of large dimensions. In the centre of tiie court are fountains, for the ablutions which precede ever\' act of worship among the Moham- medans. We did not attempt to enter, but through the windows we were enabled to perceive a vast matted hall, and from the ceiling depended thousands of little colored glass lamps and ostriches' eggs to within seven or eight feet o( the floor. With the general form of the moscjues, the Turks have also borrowed from the Greeks these peurile decorations, which greatly impair the other- wise s)>lendid interior. These childish ornaments may be seen in the oldest Greek churches in Asia at the r.j MOSCjU". OF ACIIMKO. ?6l present d.iy. When the nio.s(jues are opeii.uixjii public oecasiCiis for evening prayers, the i^d.ire from these myriads of lamps is said to be ahiiost overpoweriiiL^, and to exhibit the whole of the interior in its most imposing form. Near this mosque is the toorba)-, or mausoleum, of its illustrious founder. There are several of these distributed over various parts of the city, and one which belongs to the present reij^ninj; fami' merits a particu- lar description. It is a marble e :ric built in the oriental style, with gilded grating *crr the windows. In the interior are a number of c^i.^s. :>iumounteil by turbans and covered by Cashmer \'i.\ 's, which are said to be of immense value. From th. i.eUing were sus- pended costly silver and gold ! imps, which are kept continually burning, while a lac ? bis knees was whin- ing through his nose a dismal canticle, analogous prob- ably to the service in other countries for the repose of the dead. Unlike most monuments of royal vanity or ostentation, these mausolea are of some utilitv to the living, for to each of them is attached a public fountain for the benefit of the poor. In approaching Constan- tinople frt)m the Sea of Marmora, the Mosque of .\ch- ined, with its six long and slender minarets piercing the skies, is one of the first objects which designates the imperial city. On a trip up the Golden Horn we passed, on our right, the engineer barracks, and. our left, the mosque oi Eyoub, or Job, a disciple of the prophet, and whose bones were miraculousl)' found here, and who is revered as the patron of Constantinople. It is the only mosque which strangers arc not jjcrmitted to enter. The walls are said to be encrusted with the rarest marbles, and the floor ct)vered with the richest car[)ets. There is preserved here a piece of rich brown and \\hite marble, bearing the print of t!;e pro[)het's foot. The tomb of the saint is surrcnmded by a balustrade of siUer, and near it a well of nu'raculous water, which is tlrawn up in siK'er buckets, and presented to the faithful in vases ot the same metal. In this mosque is preserved the M ^;^ ti 362 THE SULTAN. mm> 'S! I i 1 mmr^- sacred banner of tlie prophet, which wc are informed is only unfurled on j^reat occasions. On the dii>tant ahove are the infantry barracks, where the sultan took up his residence durintr the war with Russia in l»<57. As we proceeded up the harbor the water became very shallow, and a number of red painted posts served to mark out the channel. Here we saw, rottinjf at the whar\es, numerous state barLjes. jirobabl}' the last re- ])res{.'ntatives of row-j;alleys in existence. The land on each side now became a level marsh, while the barren treeless hills beyond were covered with Jewish and Armenian cehieturies. As we proceeded the river Lucas, the termination of the (iolden Horn, dwiiulled to a petty creek, frini;ed alonj; its banks with unpictiir- es(]ue brickyards. On our return to the city we were treated to a sij^ht of the supreme head of the state and church, the '^ultan himself, lie was on horseback, riilinf.f from the seraj^dio tf) the mosque, with a smrdl retinue. The sultan wore on his head the ordinarx- red fez of the country, and his person was enveloped in a fawn-colored silk cloak, fast- ened round his neck by a brilliant diamond clasp. His majesty rides on a l'',uroi)ean saddle with long stirrups, and has the reputation of Ijcing a fearless rider. As the sultan ai)proached, those who had i>etitions to pre- .sent for redress of ;4rievances held them over their heails, and upon a ;_,nven si<.;nal handed them to an attendant, by whom they wer laide before the sultan on his return from the mosque. In these cases we are informed si)eedy justice is obtained ; if favorable, the applicant is immediately sjjratified ; if unfavorable, he receives his petition torn in two, and from this there is no appeal. We took off our hat.s as the sultan approached, and lie did up the honor of examininj:^ us with much atieii- tion. y\i;reeably to the homely adai;e that a c.it may look upon a kini;, we returned the royal stare with ecpial freedom and minuteness. He is by no means a remark. ible loukin;j[ person, and has not inherited much of the commanding dignity of his ancestors, but has TIIH NAVV YARD. i^^H jrmcd is nt above lie up his ' became ts served Iff al the last re- : land on ic barren iish ami he river dwindled iinpictiir- (> a >v,-\ht he '^ultan : sera!.;li(j Itan wore r, and his oak, fii.l- is|). Mis stirnip<, t ii If I I' kAi' f 1^1 f^ "4 iy«.pl ^' t'.tt Aii'^ ^r''' •1^' '. \ n \ 364 TUKKISII NAVV DISCll'LINK. of an ah!i l-'rcnch ciit^iiUHr, Two or three war-sliips were in the ilt)ck.s uiuierj^oin}; repairs. Since the Greek revolution, ni)(ireeks are permitted to serve in any capacity on hoard their tieet. and tliis re^'ulation is strictly enforceil. They regard tiie eiii- j)loyinent of forei^^neis in tiieir ser\'ice with suspicion, ami indeed have much reason for it. A few J*'rencli and l'.n!.;lish offici.'rs have occasionally ai)peared in their service, but they were careful to cany with them the pro- tection of their own countrj-. Tlie ill et'fects of this were visible at Navarino, where they were compelled to aban- don the fleet i)revious to the action, as they were threatened by the I'rench admiral to be treated as pirates or rebels if they were taken. The Turks have some ^.^ood qualities as sailors, and others which will for a loni^ time continue to operate ai^ainst them. We do not speak of the men, for th.ey are capable of bein^ made fnst-rate sailors, as they arc able, active, clean, and subordinate. The fault lies with the officer^, who, under the existin-^^ regulations, seem to take no pride in their rank, and indulge in the indolence and apathy which mark the character of the Turkish effendi. We have seen crowds ( f young naval officers in attendance at the levee of a grandee, who instead of exhibiting their c|uartcr-dcck i)aces in the ante-chamber, were snugly stowed away upon a divan with their heels tucked under them, and .vaiting for hours in the same position without the slightest indication of impatience or uneasiness. It is fair X) presume that the same sort of and or watch is kept on board ship, and that there is not much difference in fact between a watch on deck and a watch below. There is, moreover, no respect or etiquette kept up between the officers of different ranks, and blows are distributed rather more freely among the officers than upon the crew. An admiral wdl pull a captain by the beard without ceremony ; a captain will kick a com- mandant, the commandant tweak the nose of a lieuten- ant, and a lieutenant whij) a score of middies belorc breakfast, upon the slightest provocation. Nor is this u |iill'»i*l|ii' Ji ,K.i, .[,1 u TlIK WAI.I.S OF aJ.NSr.\NTIN()l'I.i:. all ; the captain pacha has the power of lite and ileath over all his ofTu'crs and crews, a power wliii h he e.\»;r- cises without ceremony or responsibility. \o such thint; as a court of iiitiuiry, court tiiartial, or jud^jc advocates are ever heard of. although these have; been within the last two months attempted to be introduced uito the army. Tile ration of the Turkish sailors are jjood. and amply sufficient for all their wants. Their pa\- is $5 62J j cents per month, ami they are also furni.sheil with clothes. They are diviiled into as manj' messes as there are cannon, and the number of seamen att.ich- ed to each ship varies accordiii;j[ to circumstances. The usual complement of a 'hip of the line is stateel to be 1200; but the fondness for lari^e retinues, which dis- tinguish all orientals, increases this number to an enormous amount. Ivach district of the emi)ire is bound to contribute a certain number of sailors, and tipon their return from a cruise they are permitted to visit their friends upon furloucjh. Should they exceed their furK)u;^di two or three weeks, little notice is taken of the trans<.jression. This is, however, obviously wron^j, and is one of the many causes which prevent the {government from fittin-; out an expedition upon the spur of the moment. The walls of Constantinople are built of alternate ran;^es of stone and brick, are of consiilerable thickness, and till retain their ancient battlements and towers. The outer ditch is twenty-five or thirt)' feet wide. As military defences the}' are utterly worthless ; for tlie very first discharcn; of artillery will shake these totter- \ng and earthquake riven walls to their foundations. An appearance of streni^th is kept up by lar.i^e square towers distributed at certain intervals alonj^ the whole line of wall ; but nothin;^ can be moie dece])tive, for these towers are hollow, and are in the siim.: ruinous state with the rest of the structure. Tlicro arc a few places alon^T the line of the wall which are open to the sea. and small qua)'s near them admit tiie m.irket-boats which belonii to various 'Dorts alone tluj .Sea of Mar- t •I ; > r M J I :Hf||js i 366 Tin-: r.ARRACKs. iiiwra. One of the most ai^rccablc streets in tlie city- runs aloiii; tlie wall for its entire lenc;tli, .ind the houses located u])oii it arc t^eneral!)' of ir.rcc stories, and much better th.ui the averaj^e. A Hue across the peninsula is the base of the triaiiL^le, within which the city is situat- ed. This area is surrounded b)- triple walls on the land side, the most assailable ]")oint, and have a fosse in front. They were built chiell)- b)- the second Theodosius, and retain in various places their original appearance, except that lary^e trees have sprung up from the fosse, and from the rents made by repeatetl eartlu[uakes. The triple raP|4"es »'i:'.c one above the otlier, and are streni;"thened !))■ hlty towers, stpiare. circular, or octagonal. The in- tervals betweer *'■"; walls are about eighteen feet, but are in many places choked up with earth, and masses of the fallen ramparts ; and the fosse, twenty-fivi- feet broad, is now converted into herb gardens and cherry orchards, with here and there a solitary cottage. So lofty is the innermost wall that to those following' the road on the outside, none of the moscpies or other buildings of the capital arc visible, except an occasional tower. Six gates open into the city tVom the land, one of which, the third in succession from tiie Golden Horn, is the Top Kapoussi. or cannon-gate, which formerly bore the uanie £. A the >1k)c. ccMifvCtioniTv. c>'.pi)er, wood-turnin;;, cap. le mechanic artsa'pijcar and to be various other district- it a low ebb, to judge from the speciniLiis ar<.)und u^ :ii* ;!' \ i m m. "14 ' I'f 11 fill 'i\iA aV h t ,!ij i ' kjli iiLJ ^.miiB UM| Ml!i 368 TURKISH EXTRAVAGANCE IN PIPES. The blacksmitli's work is exceedingly coarse and imper- fect ; tlie cabinet-maker would deem it absurd to attempt to make a perfect j(jint ; the turner works with an ordinary hand-bow, while his toes afford him no in- considerable assistance ; and the shoemaker supplies, by means of paste, gimi, and plaster, the deficiencies of his thread. The trades in ^\ hich the greatest proficienc)- is displayed are the coppersmiths, wood-carvers, and pipe- makers. The culinar)' utensils of the Turks, and indeed of all the Eastern nations, are of copper, and the busi- ness of the copi)ersmiths is consequently ver)' extensive. Fine castings of brass are well executed, and their brass cannon, for taste and beauty of finish, \, ill compare with those of any nation in Europe. Thecar\ers in wood. for whose productions also there is a great demand, (jxecute their work, which consists chiefl}- of fruits, llow- qTs, and arabescpies, with great taste and ingenuity. In no article, perhaps, do the Turks displa}' more ostentation and extra\-agance than in ti.."r pipes. This is carried so far, that for a single amber head we have known the sum of $300 to be paid, and have heard even a larger sum mentioned. Nouses are run up in Constantincjple with a celerity which would gladden the heart of one of our own con- tractors. Two or three weeks suffices to run up an ordinary structure. We should consider, however, u hat a Turkish house really is before we give \\a\' to aston- ishment at the c[uickncss with width the)' are con- structed. The mosques and a few publi.^ buildings on!)- are of stone. The houses, even to the palaces of the sultans, are entirely of wood, and have no fire-places or chimneys. Ihe frame is of the smallest possible size: the clapboards are of such thin stuff that they '. ' ,1J \ 1 uiii 1 •'« ,::..! !llii>#i ' ^ , lit ^'^^ \ ill rli ^i-f*^ i ■ ( i ■ , 1 1 f ' i( 370 BY WATER EVliRYTHlNG LIVES. " Fire there is ! Fire there is ! " to assemble the firemen and alarm the inhabitants. The tower of Galata is used for the same purpose in the suburb. If it is day- light, flags are hung out, ♦:o indicate by their color and arrangement the direction of the fife, and by ni.'^lu other signals for this end arc adopted. Fountains of fantastic design, and gaudily decorated, but some of them ornamental, are numerous in liic city, .and are t)ften inscribed with the text from the Kor.m, " i-?y water ev- erything lives. ' The water is not carried inU* the houses by pipes, as witii us, but the pei)- p 1 e s u p p 1 y t h e m s e 1 v c s from the foun- tains. TllLTC are also public water carriers, who make a living by dis- tributing water through the cit\'. Baths ;ire indulged in by persons of both sexes and all classes, as is uniformly the case with Mahometans ; and of these establishnieiUs there are not less than 130 for public use. Though .some are built of marble, their external appearance is not remarkable ; but the interiors are spacious, ami supply all the aj^pendages necessary to the com- plete enjox'ment of the first orieiUal luxuries. i he w.itcr is brought by aqueducts, partly above ami ]), make .1 by tli.^- .itiuL,^ water u'^h ^1>^ Baths are <'ed in bv nsoiboih and all es, as i> )rniiy the lli^hnunUs ThouL^h jearanee is icious, aiul the coni- .'s ines. he ;ibove and nciLjhbor- TIIF, KESDRVOIRS. 37 r hood of Helijrade. ^ villa.'.^e fifteen miles north of tiie capital. It is impossible to travel anywhere in ♦^lie vicinit)- of Constantinople with. nit beiiii^^ struck with the '/jcuc l).iins taken b\- the Turks to treasure up every rill, or Tl leso the niiiuite'-t trickle from the face of the rocl are carefully collected in marble or brick reservoirs, and the surj)lus is coiive\'ed b)' pipes to the main stream, in passintr throuiijh seciuestcred dells, the traveller tre- tjuentl)- comes suddenly upon one of these scul])tured mar ble f( untain- hich adds just enou;4h of ornament iv embellish tlu: rural scene. The\- are frequently deciviated with inscriptions setting forth the ijreatncss and ^'oodness of Pro\idence, .md invitinc:^ the v/ear)' traveller to make due ackiiowledijments for the same. L'nlik e our civilizi.'d ostentation, the name of the bene- \oIent coiistruct(>r never a[)pears on these scul})tured stones. The ([uaint Turkish ada_i4"e', which serves as a rules of conduct, is well e.Kcmplified in diis a.-^ well as in inanv other instances Do L'Ood and throw it into the sea : if the fishes d'ni't know it, (jod will." Among tlic hiils at various distances, from fifteen to twenty miles from the city, are constructed larp;e arti- ficial reservoirs. Adwintaue is taken of a natural situa- tion. mountain^ such as a narrow vallc)' or j;or;.^fe bet ween two and a stroncr and sut itiai work of masonr)' is carried across, sufficient!)' ^di to give the ^vater its required level. The i;reat of the (Ireek emperors for sui)[)l)ing the city wii fresh water are still to be seen, and sur[jass in e.xtenl an\'thing of the kind found at Rome. 'l"hc\' nicKu ihe ilen.i, which conn acpiediic t of ects th.e thirtl .nd fourth of the Cit)- (ioth s seveii h\ 11,- consistmcr of a M I Die row o ic arche s. now in a ruinous f forty .st.ttc. thou<:rii still serv- ing to convey water ; and a \'ast subt-.-rranean construc- tion, called the im])erial cistern of Constantine ; also the Palace of the Thousand and ' )i ■ Pillars, desif.'-ned to retain a supply of water in the event of a siegable of holdiuLj more than from six to seven hundred persons. It has no statues, but the walls (jf ilu- inner s.'uictuar)' are decDrated with some paiutitu;s and a ci)arse mosaic, representing" the \'ir<^in. Thwse who are credulous may here see an episcopal chair (4" burnished wood, and bolieve it to be the veritable cithedr.i from which Chrysoslom dcliven . i'" ho!"i"iiiii.s, with a pillar ■" kind ;;i\es a .stranye, silent character to the streets, luunediately behind (ialata, onl}- separat- ed from it by a wall, is I'er.i, on the upper slopes and summit of a hill. This suburb is the head-quarters of diplomac}' ; tiie residence of the luu'opean amb.i.ssadors and consuls. It has notliin;;- oriental in its aspect, but rusembles a second-ra''e town of Italy. Galata is con- tinued eastward to tl. : Bosphorus by Tophana, which derives its naine from . cannon foundry at the spot. It contains, ;dso, the artilery barracks ; and its fuie c^uay is the usual place of en^ibarkati(.)n for Asia. Co!(istantinoj)le, it will be recollected, is ne;u'ly in the same parallel of latitude with New- York, but it en- joys a much finer climate ; for oran<^e-trees live wiui slit;ht protection durini; t!ie winter, au'.'. olive is enabled to withstand the slight fiosis which occasionally occur duriiiL^ that period of the }'ear. The climate is truly deli;4htful, and I know of no spot on the ylobe more health}- : .-ituated between two seas, the sultr)' effects •.:il i CLIMATE OF CONSTANTINOrLK. 375 of the south winds arc t cmpcrou in summer bv tl le coo brcc/.es frie to sudden changes of temperature. In summer the heat is at times excessive, and during this period the foreign ambassad(.)rs, and nuiny otliers so- journ up tile lM.ispii()rus at IJuyukdery, to whicli [)lace we made an excursion, and found it to be a prett\ vil- lage, overlooking the Hhick Se;i, ami adi)rned with manv so-called " {jalace.-'.'" 1 hese structures are higii [jiK.s of black boards outwardly, but within are [)rovided with handsome courts, filled with orange, rose, and oleander trees, halls of marble, and handsome reception rooms. When sailing down the IJospluirus on our relurn trip wo could not but admire the beauty of its scener}-. 'I'tiis natural canal winds throughout its whole extent, the outlet of the JMack Sea, ij^tween high mountains, now- wild and jjicturesque, now sloj)ing down with vendure t(.) the water's edge. It is about twenty miles in Lngth, an d varies from three cviarters to t wo mile les in breadth. It n eceives the waters ol some twent)- small streams m it.-^ progress. On its banks are pal.ices, the castles of Rounielia and .Anatolia, (at its narrowest j)oint,; and (loing towards Constiinti- several forts and vIWai lopl e we were much mipresse d with tl le superior ettect of the cit}' at a distance, to that i)roduced by a cU)se inspection. With eyes riveted on the expanding splen- dors, we watched, as thev rose out of the bosom of the surrounding waters, the pointed minarets, the swelling cupolas, and the innumerable habitations, either stretch- ing alom.'' the iai-'ged shore, or reflecting their im.ige in the mirror of the deei), tjr creeping u[) the crested mouri- tain, and tracing their outline in the expans:; of the sky. i\t first agglomerated in a single confused mass, the lesser parts of this immense whole seemed, as we ad- \anced, by degrees to unfold, to disengage tliemselves from each other, and to grow into various groups, divid- ed by wide chasms and deep indentations ; until at last 111 > ', , h i .,} i jl:, . 1 >i ]k& i-f'H i li 1 ik 376 SCUTARI. the cluster, thus far still distinctly cotiiiocttd, became transformed, as if by ma^ic, into three distinct cities, each individually of prodij^nous extent, and each separ- ated from the other two by an arm of that sea whose silver title encompassed their base, and made its vast circuit rest half in luifope, half in Asia, jlntranced by the mac^nificent spectacle, we felt as if all the faculties of our souls were insufficient fully to embrace its c^dorics. We iiardly retained power to breathe, and almost ap- jjrehendeil that in doinjf so we mi^lit di.jjcl the ^^d^jrious vision, and fnul its v.hole fabric onlv a delusive dream. This is not the lan;^ua;^fe of exa^r^eration ; but it is e(|ually true that close inspection is as di>appointinc^ as the distant prospect is attractive. Immediately op])ositc to Constantinople is Sci'l'ARl, .situate-d upon the coast of i\sia, antl formint; the start- h)<^ point of the roads leadintj to the Asiatic i)rovinces of the empire. ScuttU'i is rec^arded as a suburb of the the Turkish cajDital, thoui^h the arm of the sea which flows bi'tween is 5,750 feet (or rath( r more than a mile) in witlth. Scutari acquired, dm^ini.; the vVnglo-French camjKUL;ns dijainst Russia in 185.J.-5, a txainful notoriety, in connection with the sulTerinL,fs of our fellow country- men, for whose use hospitals were established there. In order to reach Scutari from Constantinople, it is necessary to ascentl tlie Hosphorus as hi,L,di as Ikschik Tash, and then the curreiit sweeps }ou to the ojipusitc side. On the passatje we noticed a larj^e buildint,^ near .Scutari, which is a public p;ranary : here and in similar buildinc^^s is stored all the -^rai:: reipn'red for the metro- polis. In imitation of tiv anciei'ts, Lorain is a oovern- ment monopc)ly, and this s)-stem is one of the most effectual that could possibly be devised to keep the people in a state of abject poverty. The governuicnt and the various officers intrusted with its manaj^ement all contrive to make monev' out of it as it p.isses throu;4h their hands ; while the poor cultivator is, pcr- liaps, deprived o[' the fruits of his honest industrx'. It is inconceivable how far rapacity blinds them to the POrULATION OF '^lUTARI. hn tniL' interests of the country. If tliese gnmaries were burnt to the L^round — if every man could t)rin^ iiis v;rain to the city, and sell it at the best jirice — the city would be far better su[)plied, .lud at a cheaper rate. Hut it is not the price of j^MMin alone which is thus improperly attempted to be rci^uiated by l.iw. lCver_\' article of food has a fixed price, whether sold by wholesale or retail ; .md from the lordly dealer in oil, down lo the humble vender of ro.istetl chestnuts, all are liable to fine, imorisoniufiU, bistinado, or ilecapit;ition, for the least infraction of the law. The streets of Scutari atTord a slronj, contract with those of the capital, bein_L( wiiie and air}', and apparent- ly laid out with much more re^uhirity. Its position on the [jjentle slope of a hiil, which descend . towards tiie irmora. would be Hi )sphorus and overlooks the .Sea .f .M covisiilered as eminently beautiful, and would attract more i^fenera! admiration, were it not for its vicinity to that maLjniiicent city and li rbor which is almost with- out its parallel in the world. Com[)arin;4 it i!;)parent size with that of Const. mtinople, we should 1. ■ inclined to assi<.;n to Scul iri a po[)ulation of So.ooo. It is almost e.vclusively inhabited b)- Turks ; and the neatness and order which prevail in the place strikiiv.,d\- contrast Vv'ith Galata and I'era. ()n the heij^-hts are the extensive barracks erected by sultan Selim, whicli were converted into hospitals for the sick and wounded of the Ihiti.-^h anny in the Crimea. l'"rom the upw;.'r i^art of the town the eve takes in at a glance the whole sea o f .M irmora, the snow \' toi Ih ere Olympus, and the windiu"- of the l^jsphoru- are numerous c>t.iMishmviits for silk weavin;^ in the town, and coarse cotton L^oods are always manulactured. It is here also that tlic devotees assemble f^- the annual pilLjrima^^e to the Shrine of tl\e .Mecca. Lar<;e bands of men, .m.M-i, and children, rmi)elled by mixed motives of devotion, curiosity and trade, and v.'illiiv^ to lulurc dan<_,rers and privations, journey throucj^h a desolate c>)un- try, and are honoured with the tit! of hadji ui^on their return. This pi'Ljrimage is strictly enjoined upon every ^l!i 1 % liiiii ,1 . J . ..^... IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) ^' y. <" ^ p^ r vl 7] y /^ 1.0 ■^ U^ IIIII2.2 y^ I.I I 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1 1.6 4 6" — » Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 .^<^ > Ul .;^t 37S MAMMOTH CKMKTERY. true mussulman b)' the Koran, but the wealthy are per- mitted to perform it b\" proxy. Many of the pilgrims also visit Jerusalem and Medina. But Scutari is i^Lfhaps most noted as containing the great cemetery of Constantinople, said to be the largest in the world. T^rom one spot we could take in its wliole extent with the eye, and estimated it to contain about five iiundred acres. The formal and gloomy cypress, the emblem of immortality of the ancients, on account of its extreme durabilitj-, defines precisel)' the limits af this marble cit\' of the dead. So long, and so busily has time been at work to fill this chosen sjjot ; so re- jieatedly has Constantinoiile i)oured into this ultimate rcce])tacle almost its whole contents, that the capital of the living, spite of its immense population, scarcely counts a single breathing inhabitant for every ten silent inmates of this city of the dead. Already do its fields of blooming sepulchres stretch far away on every side, across the brow of the hills and the bend of the valleys; already arc the avenues which cross each other at every step in this domain of death so lengthened, that the weary stranger from whatever point he comes still finds before him man\- a dreary mile of road between mar- shalleil tombs and mournful cyi)resse:-> ere he reaches his journey's seemingly receding end ; and yet, every }'ear does this common j^atrimony of all the heirs to decay still exhibit a rapidly-increasing size, a fresh and wider line of boundary, and a new beltof }oung planta- tions growing up between new flower-beds of graves. There lie, scarcely one foot beneath the surface of a swelling soil, ready to burst at every point with its fes- tering contents, more than half the generations whom death has continued to mow down for nearly four cen- turies in the vast capital of Islamism. There lie, side by side, on the same le\el, in cells the size of their bodies, and only distinguished by a marble turban somewhat longeror deeper, somewhat rounder or squarer personages in life far as heaven and earth asunder, in birth, in station, in gifts of nature, and in long-labored acquirements. There lie, sunk alike in their last sleep — AUklANOri-E. 3/9 alike food for the worm that lives on death — the con- queror who filled the universe with his name, and the peasant scarcely known in his own hamlet ; elders bend- ing under the weight of years, and infants of a sin';le hour ; men with intellects of angels, and men with understandings inferior to those of brutes ; the beauty of Georgia, and the black of Sennaar ; virgins, beg'^^irs, heroes, and women. AORlANorLK, the capital of Kuropean Turkey frt)!n 1366 to 1453, stands near the banks of the Muritza, north-west of Constantinople, with which it is connected by rail, and ranks after it in extent and consequence, containing about 140,000 inhabitants. The name com- memorates its founder, the Roman luiiperor Hadrian. It stands on a beautiful plain, watered by the Maritza, and celebrated for its plantation of roses, from which a considerable quantity of attar ol roses is made, it has some manufactures of leather, and considerable inland traffic. Like all Turkish towns, it has a mat^nificcnt ap[)earance when viewcil from a distance, but du enter- ing it the streets are found to be narrow, crooked, and dirty. The city is a collection of wooden houses and narrow streets, the latter darkenetl by projections from the opposite dwellings, and the whole besprinkled with mosques, baths, khans, bazaars, and ganlens. Anion;.; the bazaars, that of Ali Tasha is remarkable for its size, being three hundred >-ards long, built of alternate red and white bricks, and devoted U) the s.ile of the more costly commodities, as shawls, muslins and jeweller)- Among the forty mosques, that of Sultan Selim i.-^ jire eminent, one of the largest and most beautiful edifices of Mohammedanism, a monument of its founder's partiality for the city. It has four lofty lluted minarets of very elegant construction, ascended by spiral stair- cases, 1000 windows, and an e.xterior court paved with large slabs of white marble. Long after Adrian(jple ceased to be the capital, several of the sultans made it their residence, :?■. Mohammed IV., Mustapha 1 1., and Achtnet III., a preference which so e.xasperateil the ■; f 1 11 ««► ft ,'' « '■ Si ' pi' "■ 380 GALLIPOT,!. Janissaries, that it was one considerable cause of the rebellion which led to their suppression. The Russians held possession of it for few weeks during their hostile entrance into Turkey in 1 829, and concluded there a well-known treaty. There are several towns of consider- able si/.e in this part of the country, but without any features of special interest, except a few on the coast which are historical sitt I'.iios, at the mouth of the I\Iarit/.a, is the port of Av ' ""pie, and a place of about lO,cx)o inhabitants. GalUpoli, a port near the northern extrcmit)- of the iJardane'.les, the Callipolis of ancient ^feograph)-, and within the narrow tract which formed the ancient Tracian Chersonese, and is 130 miles west- south-west of Constantinople, and has a shipping trade in corn, wine, and oil, with manufactures of morocco leather. It is the largest town on the Hellespont, and is pleasantly situated in a bay on the slope of a hill, and a picturesque rocky bluff" juts out from the town, sur- mounted by a venerable octangular tower, which for- merly served the purpose of a lighthouse. Twelve minarets point to the skies. We observed in the town a large ruined tower, and the remains of a .still greater one, which are not devoid of hi.storic interest. They are .said to have been built some four hundred years ago, by the celebrated Moslem conqueror Bajazet, sur- namcd Yiderim, or the Thunderbolt. Gallipoli is like- wise memorable as the first town in hAirope occupied by the Turks under the learned and virtuous Amurath The barracks for soldiers appear to be very extensive, and the town has an artificial harbor for small craft, with a small light on one of its piers. Here, during the Crimean war. the British and French troops first encamped on Turkish soil. In the town and neighbor- hood are seen many remains of ancient sculpture and architecture, the most noteworthy of which are the magazines and cellars built by Justinian. Cnvalhi, a small port on the north coast of the Archipelago, is the ancient Neapolis, the landing-place of St. Paul on his voyage to Macedonia. Here Mohammed Ali was born, who, after being engaged in its shipping trade, the SALONIKI. 381 export of cotton and tobacco, rose to be Pasha of Es^ypt, and acquired such power that the intervention of the Wertcrn Powers was necessary to prevent him from subverting the Turkish empire. Ten miles inland is the plain which witnessed the memorable defeat of lirutus and Cassius by Agustus and Mark Anthony, 41 11 C. A wretched village and a few ruins lu-re repre- sent Philippi, a city founded b)' Philip of Macedon, the scene of the Apostle's imprisonment, and the first place in I'Airope where Christianity was proclaimed. Saloiiiki, on the Archipelago, at the head of the gulf of that name. rc])resents Thessalonica. associated with his life and labors, and now ranks after Adrianople in the number of its population, 70.DOO, and is ne.xt to Constantinople in the extent of its commerce. It has considerable manufactures of leather, cotton, carpets, silk, and metal. Monuments go back to primitive Christian times, and to the prior age of Greek and Roman heathenism. It has an imposing aj)pearance from the sea, mosques, minarets, and domes rise up from the shore, tier above tier, to the summit of a hill, capped by a strongly-built citadel. The minarets are always prominent features in Turkish towns. They are slender towers, about ten feet in diameter, anil from forty to eighty feet high. A spiral staircase within leads to a projecting balcony near the top, from whence the muzzim, or parish clerk, calls the faithful to prayer. These minarets arc always painted white, and their summits terminate in a black conical roof. They are always connected with a mosque, and produce a pleas- ing and picturesque effect in the distance, in spite of the ludicrous association excited by their grotesque form. They have not unaptly been compared to a gigantic candle surmounted by its extinguisher. Near- ly half the population of Saloniki are Jews, who have a large scholastic establishment, numbering 1,000 pupils. Greeks also are numerous. Previous to the Turkish capture of the city under Amurath II., many of the in- habitants left it, and, anticipating the permanent con- quest ot the country, they settled themselves in other I,; !^ ■'% ^ I ^■ h* ' . i -' i ^^■^ mm ^82 MOUNT ATIIOS. lands. Among these refugees was the celebrated Theo- dore Gaza, who repaired to Italy, rapidly acquired the Latin lanijuage, became rector of the university of h'cr- rara, and contributed to the revival of letters in Wcst- <.'rn Europe. A very remarkable region bounds the Gulf of .Salo- niki on the eastern side. This is a peninsula projecting into the Archipelago, which forms three minor peninsu- las at its termination, advancing like a trident into the sea. The easternmost ])rong is of great interest, as the Ihigion Oros, or Holy mountain of the Greeks, the Monte Satitcy of the Italians, otherwise Mount Athos, the denomination, prc^perly speaking, only of the high peak at the extrcmitj'. This minor peninsula is about forty nu'les in length, and on an average four miles in breadth. It is connected with the larger by a low nar- row isthmus, through which Xerxes cut a canal for his fleet, to save some tedious and dangerous navigation, a few traces of which are still distinctly visible. l'"roin the isthmus the ground rises in undulations, until it forms a steep central ridge, which runs like a backbone through the entire tract. Towards the southern end it attains an elevation of about 4,000 feet, and then, after a slight depression, suddenly throws up the vast conical peak of Mount Athos, 6,400 feet high, the ba.se of which is washed on three sides by the sea. Lateral valloNs and deep gorges run down from the central ridge to the coast, with magnificent v'egetation clothing their sloj)es. Above are forests of beech and chestnut ; below are oak and plane trees, with the olive, cyj)rus, and arbutus, upon which luxriant creepers have fastened, and hang in fes- toons from their branches, l^he peak itself is, from its height and solitary position, its conical and delicate color, a most impressive mountain. It rises several thousand feet above the region of firs in a steep mass of white marble, which, from exposure to the atmosphere, assumes a faint tender tint of gray, of the stranije beauty of which some idea may be formed by those ^\ho have seen the dolomite peaks of the Tyrol. Its pyramidal outline we wero able to see from the plains GREEK MONASTERIES. 383 of Troy, nearly 100 miles off, towering up from the horizon, like a vast spirit of the waters, when the rest of the peninsula was concealed below. So great is the distance that it is only visible at sunset when the faint- ncss of the lii^ht allows it to appear. I'rom its isolated position it is a centre of attraction to the storms in the north of the yEgean ; in consequence of which the Greek sailors have so great a dread of rounding it in winter, that it would be no unreasonable speculation for an enterprising government to renew the work of Xerxes. Mount Athos was one of the stations of the fire-beacons which carri3d Agamemnon's telegram to Clytemnestra. The architect Dinocrates proposed to carve the huge peak into a statue of Alexander. Pliny reported that when the sun is going down, the shadow of the mountain stretched as far as Myrrhina in I.em- nos ; and the island of Skiathos is stated to derive its name from the fact that at the summer solstice, at sun- rise, the shadow is projected to it over the intervening sea. From a remote period this singular peninsula has been occupied by a large number of Greek monks, who discretely came to terms with the sultans, prior to the conquest of Constantinople, and have ever since been tolerated in the exclusive possession of the territory, on payment of a tax (^4,000 per annum), which a Turkish officer, the only Mohammedan within its bounds, col- lects. There are twenty monasteries, most of which have five sea-views, and have more the appearance of feudal strongholds than religious houses. They have libraries stored with manuscripts, abandoned to dust and neglect, from which hopes have been entertained, but have not yet been realized, of the recovery of literary treasures supposed to be lost. In the middle ages Mount Athos was the centre of Greek learning, and of Byzantine art. The monks who follow the rule of Basilius, number about 8,000. The general interests of the communities are governed! by a representative body, with an annually elected president at its head, who has the style during his term of office of the " First Man of Athos." No woman is allowed on any account i 'A ': M m^M' )!' «t| .^1 1#''L'^«£' A I,' '^l I. '■'■•» . ■■ ■"■ ■' '^i!(i'^-*'uii»(i 384 " ANTI-WOMAN " DISTRICT. to step into the district ; and the restriction is extend- ed to female creatures of every kind. Not a hen, cow, sow, mare, or she-cat is tolerateii ; but all the monas- teries have hufije tom-cats, procured of course from the Gullying' world. The communities arc kept up by the admission of members from without, and as some of these have entered the peninsula in very early life, and have never (juitted it, the imaye of womankind has fadeii completely from recollection. We were j^ravcly asked by one of the fraternity : *' What sort of liuman creatures are women }" It was elicited from the in- quirer that he had only seen his mother, and had for- gotten even her appearance, as he had been placed when four years old under the care of an uncle in one of the monasteries, and had not since mingled with the outer world, a period of twenty-four years. The monks never eat meat, but subsist on fish, fruit and vegetables. They arc engaged in agriculture, gardening, and the care of bees ; and a considerable trade is carried on in amulets, images, crufixes, and small articles of furniture, all their own manufacture. These are also tlie pursuits of a fluctuating body of seculars, who seldom amount to less than 3000. They form the population of Kary.x's, or " The Hazels," the only village in the district, cen- trally situated in the midst of gardens and vineyards, and certainly the only place in the world with the resemblance of a town where no marriage is celebrated, no births occurs, the inhabitants being all bachelors. Here resides tiie Turkish officer who collects the annual tribute for the government, but even he is not allowed to have his wife with him. Once a year, on the fes- tival of the Transfiguration, some of the monks go up Mount Athos, and celebrate mass at the summit. The peak rises to so sharp a point as only to have room for a little chapel on one side, from which the crags descend in tremendous precipices, and for a small plat- form on the other, a few feet wide, from which again the clififs fall away rapidly. Philippopoli, 250 miles north-west of Constanti- nople, on the upper waters of the Maritza river, is a city ROUMELIA. 3S5 ot about 35,000 inhabitants. It ts the terminus of the railway from the capital. It has considerable local trade, and some manufactures in silk and cotton. Us- kinjjs is a place of some 15,000 souls, in the extreme north-western corner of the province of Roumelia, on the head waters of the Vardor, and is the capital of a pashalic. Monaster, in the south-western portion, is also the seat of (Jrovernment of a pashalic ; it lies near the foot of Mount IMndus ; has a po[)ulation of 15,000, ami IS a picturcscpie as well as bustlinj^ town. The majority of its inhabitants, as in many of the provincial towns of Turkey in Europe, are Greeks and Bulj^arians, the only Turkish residents bc\n<^ the garris(Mi and officials. The province of Roumelia, which we have been considerin- shirc, but is upon a much grander scale. Ledges of the cliffs are covered with wood, and wherever space is afforded by the water-side, ivy-vdad planes, oaks, and MOUNT OLYMPUS— LARISSA. 387 other forest trees ai)i)e.ir, of very remarkable size, wliich thr{)\v tlieir branches over the river, and at intervals ahnost hide it from view. Mount (Olympus, famous in antiquity as tlie f.ibled habitation o( the ^ods, wliere Jupiter sat shrouded in mists and clouds from the eyen of mortals, rises to the hei-^ht of 9754 feet. Fine woods of chestnut, beecli, oak, and plane, clothe the lower slopes, and dark forests of pine the upper. The brow is bare, and scarcely ever free from snow. Once a year, on St. John's Day, the 24th of June, some Greek priests from the neij^hbqrhooc' '^n up to a small chapel near the hijjjhest point, to perform mass. Lnrissa (Turk. Ycfiitsc/iir), the chief town of Thes- sal}', is delii;htfully situated towards the centre of the fertile [)lain on the banks f)f the Selembria, environed with groves of oranges, lemons, citrons, and pomegran- ates, from which arise the slender and daz/.lingly white minarets of numerous mostpies. It carries on an im- portant transit-trade, with manufactures of silk and cotton-goods, and Turkey-red dye-works. Population, 25,000. Twenty miles to the south, l\rsala, a i^mail l)lace, represents PhCirsalus, where Pompey was over- thrown by Cajsar, 4S IJ.C, and did not rein in his steed in fleeing from the battle-field until he gained the Vale of Tempo. The Thessalian plain is still as celebrated for its breed of horses as when Alexander the Great received his famous charger, Bucephalus, from its pastures. Remarkable monasteries, at Meteora, occupy a high lying valley on the eastern slope of the range of Pindus. Mere a number of isolated rocks occur, which have a character perfectly unique to the eyes, as if formed by the art of man, rather than by the more varied and irregular operations of nature. Some are quite conical in shape : other arc single pillars of great heigth and very small diameter ; others are nearly rhomboidal, and actually incline over their base ; not a few are perfect oblongs, with perpendicular sides and level summits. They rise from the midst of splendid vegetation, which also partly fills up the intervals between them. Their I : 388 STRANGEI.V-SITUATKI) lAVKI.MNGS. « hi ^'r ;l 1 i ih'. ,n. elevation varies from 200 to 300 feet. It is on tlu tops of these pinnacles and towers, which seetn iinapi)roach- able by tlie foot of man, that the relij^iuiis hoiisi;s arc placed ; and in some instances they so entirely cover them that the precipices di-sccnil from every siiie of the buildings into the ilcep-wootlcd hollows below. 1 he mode of ^ainin^ access to these aerial buildings is either by nets in which tlie visitor is drawn up from above, or by ladders of wootl and rope, niatie in separate joints, and let down over the face of the cliff. We preferred liu' former method, the least hazardous, tht>ii.L;h not without its trial to the nerves. We fired off a jjistol to attract the attention of the monks, when lon},^ before the echo, reverberated by the cliffs around, had died away over I'indus, two or three cowled heads were thrust out from imder the covered platform j)rojectin{.j from the summit of the rock. The rope is worked by a pulley and wind- lass. After reconnoitring us for a moment, the monks threw down a strong net, lowering at the same time a thick rope, with an iron hook at its end. Our guide spread the net on the grounil, and we seated ourselves in it cross-legged. He then gathered the meshes together over our heads, and hung them on the hook. The monks above then worked the windlas.s, and in about three minutes and a half, we reached the sunnnit, a dis- tance of between 200 and 300 feet, swinging to and fro in the breeze, and turning like a joint of meat before a slow fire. These remarkable rocks appear to have been known to the ancients, but are supposed to have under- gone a considerable change in their site and form ^\illlin a comparatively recent period, r'ormerl}', twent)-lour of the strangely situated monastic dwellings were num- bered, but not half of them exist at i)resent, and only about four or five are inhabited. These are destined to perish in the lapse of time, as the rocks on which they arc built are composed of a loose conglomerate, ex- tremely liable to delapidation and decay. The province of Albania, on the coast of the Adri- atic, the ancient Epirus, to the west of the Pindus chain, TIIK MOUNTAIN RK(;iON. 389 is one of the most mountainous portions of Turkey, and answers to the meaning of its name, " mountain-rej^ion," bein{^ bounded on the east by a boUl chain from north to south, intersected by j^or^^es of extraorchnary ijr.in- deur, sometimes ^doomy and terrible. Their interior forms in many places a In'^h plateau, elevated more than two thousand feet above the level of the sea. The mountain-knot of Sharra-taj^di has its summits covered with S.10W nearly all the year round, and many parts ot the chain of IMnchis are of scarcely inferior clev.ition. The valleys by which this re<,don is itilerstrcted are gen- erally narrow in their upper or eastern portions, but widen towards the west, ami in the midille part of Albania a plain extends aloni; the shores of the Adri- atic for a distance of nearly len miles iidand. This plain is boup.ded on the south by the riuv^c of Mount Khim- era, an offset of the main ch.iin of Tindus ; the raiij^e terminates at Cape LiiiLjuetta, a bold promontory at the eastern entrance of the i'Vdriatic. In northern ^Mbania and Ilerzgovina the mount>'»in-chains are imm^-diately adjacent to the coast, and rise by a succession of ter- races towards the interior, the only openiiij^s bein^ those by which the river-valleys communicate with tlie sea. The portion of Albania which is to the south of Mount Khimcra nearly coincides with the ancient province of I'^pirus. Middle and northern Albania fall within the limits of the ancient lllyricum. Gibbon wrote of this district, as "a country within si^d\t of Italy less known than the interior of Africa." liut since his day it has been amply illustrated by the descriptive traveller, the classical antiquarian, the landscape painter and the poet. Agriculture i;; not much prosecuted in si)ite of the excellence both of the climate and soil, but herds of cattle and sheep are numerous, and the olive ivnd mulberry are common. The inhabitants, mostly de- scended from the ancient Illyrians, mixed with Greeks and Slaves, are as rude as their native hills ; of frank bearing, but of haughty, excitable, and vindictive tem- perament ; with a picturesque costume. They are commonly called Arnaoots, but they call themselves ■ t J-?* v."' ■;■■'.[' Si:'. fri :| 390 THE ARNAOUTS. Skypetars, and generally profess Mohammedanism, but have never been scrupulous in the observance of its pre- cepts, while they have ever been turbulent subjects of the sultan. Little was known of them till their lonjr successful resistance to the Turks introduced them to the civilized world ; and since that date, their history, as known to us, is a succession of revolts and scenes of violence, up to the time when Ali Pasha, of Janina, suc- ceeded in establishing a sort of organization, held to- gether by bands of iron. When he at length fell, the Porte commenced a series of measures to quell the turbulent spirit of the people ; but as the execution of these purposes, was based upon self-interest and aided by treachery, scarce- ly any result was obtained. Then Sultan Mahnioud's reforms were to be enforced, to bow the necks of chieftains and cancel the immunities of tJ.e tribes who had hitherto enjoyed a practical independence. The application of force led to violent opposition and resis- tance ; and hence resulted the insurrection, which at last, in 1835, amounted to war, in the district of Scutari. So ill-managed both in political and military bearings, that even after the Turks had finished a campaign with a large army, the Arnaoots lost nothing but a great portion of their loyalty to the Padischah. New inju- dicious attempts led to further rising, and it is only very recently that the clannish tribes appear to have succumbed to authority, and to be prepared to join heart and hand with the Osmanli Turks. Even at the present day they are insubordinate and impulsive, quick to resent any injury or slight, and requiring to be treat- ed rather as allied provinces than as integral portions of the empire. A recent pasha employed coercive measures to get men to serve in the Nizam, or regulars : "If the Sultan requires soldier.s, we will send, not 6,000, but 60,000," they replied ; " but they .shall be dressed and fight as they please, not be made puppets of, in that dispicable Nizam." The Pasha, too hasty in employ- ing force, was driven back into his stronghold, and in three days saw the heights around him covered with JANINA — MONTKNKGkO. 391 30,000 armed men. From this dilemma lie was only ex- tricated by the arrival of a pasha from Constantinople, woh knowinfj his own men better, negotiated so suc- cessfully, that the pacified Arnaoots returned in quiet to their homes. Janina, in the south of the province, once a larcje and flourishing city, situated on the shore of a spacioue mountain-lake of the same name, recalls to the memory of many European visitors the famous rebel chieftain Ali Pasha, in the early part of thu present century, who made it his capital and stronghold, and raised it to con- siderable importance. Commerce and population have both greatly declined, and now barely number 15,000, the Greeks and Jews being most numerous. It h;is numerous mosques and Greek churches, and maiuifac- tures gold-brocade, gold-lace, morocco leather, and silk and cotton goods. The banks of the lakes are highly picturesque, and enclosed b\- loft\- mountains. The temple and grove of Dodona, the most famous oracle of r.ntiquity, destroyed before the Christian era, stood at the south extremity of the lake. Scutari, in the north, is at present the principal town. It contains 40,000 inhabitants, and stands at the southern end of a lake of the same name, on the river l^oyana, which dn.'.ns the lake into the Adriatic. This town is the chief outlet for the produce of a highly fertile district around it. Its merchants export wool, hides, beeswax, tobacco, and dried fish; and import manufactured goods largely in return, for the suppl)' of the province. A/vona,X\\o\.v^\\ only a small place of 5000 souls, is the principal port on the long Albanian coast, opposite to Ital)-. Diirazao,di small fortified port on a rocky peninsula, is of interest as the Dyrrachium of the Romans, where I'ompey was beleaguered by C;esar, and where passengers ordinarily landed from the Brundusium, in Italy, on their way to Greece. Brundusium and Dyrrachium have been appo- sitely styled the Dover and Calais of antiquity. A small but remarkable territory lies immediately on the north, with the Italian name of Moxti:negR(), but H\-i \y „< ;>i Mi i m''' 392 A ROCKY COUNTRY. called Kara-tagh by the Turks, and Tzcrnagora by the natives. The three terms have the same meaning, " black mountain," alluding to the dark pine forests which once almost entirely clothed the surface, some traces of which remain. It is only about sixty miles in length, by rather more than thirty in breadth, and cor- responds in its area to that of the county of Surrey. The popul.'ition does not exceed 100,000, all Slavonians and members of the Greek Church. Yet such is the difficult nature of the country, that this small commu- nity, scarcely affording 20,000 men capable of bearing arms, successfully maintained its independence down to the present period. l'"or generations, although inde- pendent, the Turkish government continued to regard them as subjects in continued insurrection, although unable to subdue them. Only within the last thirty years has the acknowledgment of allegiance been en- forced by a powerful Turkish army. It is altogether a mountain region, lying amongst the elevated ranges of the Dinaric Alps. The general aspect of Montenegro is that of a succession of elevated ridges, diversified here and there by a lofty mountain peak, and, in some parts, looking like a sea of immense waves turned into stone. Trees and bushes grow amidst the crags ; and in the rugged district of Cevo the fissures in the rocks are like a glacier, uliich no horse could pass over without breaking its legs. The mountains are all limestone, as in Dalmatia ; but in no part of that country do they appear to be tossed about as in Montenegro, where a circuitous track, barely indicated by some large- loose stones, calling itself a road, enables a man on foot with difficulty to pass from the crest of one ascent to another. And some idea of the rugged character of the country may be formed from the impression of the people themselves, who say that " v/hen God was in the act of distributing stones over the earth, the bag that held them burst, and let them all fall upon Monte- negro. The government is vested in an heriditary chieftain of the family of Petrovich, who takes the title of Via- THE MONTENEGRINS. 393 dika, or " rul?r," who unites in his person the civil, mili- tary, and ecclesiastical functions, and is assisted by a council of elders. The Vladika is commander-in-cliief of the army, and he is the only romainining instance of the military bishops who played so distinguished a part in the wars of the middle ages. Nor is he inferior to tiiose of former days in courage or warlike prowess ; and no man in the country can point a cannon or a rifle with more precision than the Vladika. This dignity, instead of descending from father to son, has generally gone from uncle to nephew, in consequence of the prince being usually also the metropolitan bishop of the Greek church, and therefore incapable of contracting marriage, But in 185 1, when anew chief succeeded, he refused to take holy orders, and the bishopric was conferred upon another member of the family. ICxcept in times of public peril, the people have little respect for authority, but do that which is right in their own eyes, and are specially prompt to redress injuries with the strong hand. It is deemed imperative upon the eldest son to avenge the murder or the violent death of a father. If of tender years, he is trained to consider himself the minister of retribution, to be executed on reaching maturity. The Montenegrins are a tall, good- looking race, excellent marksmen, and brave to excess. In cases of emergency, even the cripples are carried on the backs of women, and lodged behind bits of rock where they can load and discharge their guns. War is waged with most revolting ferocity, the heads of slain and wounded enemies being invariably cut off, and ex- hibited as trophies. In habit they are rude and warlike ; approaching to semi-barbarism, and regarding with something of contempt Uie ordinary pursuits of industry. Such labor as is necessary is generally imposed upon the women, whose social position is far from enviable. The men are seldom inclined to carry anything, or take any trouble they can jwssibly transfer to the women, who are beasts of burden in Montenegra. They are therefore very muscular and strong, and the beauty they sometimes posses.s, is soon lost by the hard and •.i I ) *■ 1 ■ik ht .^■1 imi: m \ lid:.. ifd'-i: \k ; ir 'ix; ' i^f'i^i: \:% ..■•,.. 394 AGRICULTURE. course complexions they acquire, their youth being generally exliausted by the laborous and unfcminine occupations they follow. The sheaves of corn, the bun- dles of wood, are all carried by women ; while the men are supposed to be too much interested in the nobler pursuits of war or pillage, to attend to meaner labors. As soon as the tillage of the land is completed, they think they have done all that befalls man ; the inferior drudgery is the produce of woman. The men, therefore, are content, to smoke the pipe of idleness, or indulge in desultory talk, imagining that they maintain the dignity of their sex by reducing women to the condition of slaves. The Montenegrin woman not only kisses the hand of her husband, as in the Kast, but also of stran- gers ; and a traveller, as he passes through the country, is surprised to receive this strange token of welcome at the hou.se where he lodges, and even on the road. The Montenegrins cultivate the ground to .some ex- tent, and raise crops of maize and potatoes, besides other vegetables ; but their chief dependence is on their numerous flocks of sheep and goats. Their surplus pro- duce (including smoked mutton, skins and coarse wool, cheese, tallow, bacon, bee.s'-wax, and live stock) is for the most part disposed of at the neighboring Austrian town of CiUtaro, whence they obtain in return arms and • gunpowder, wine, .spirits, salts, and various manufactured articles. The road between Cattaro and Zettinie, although the principal commercial route of the country, is a mere mountain-path, not practicable in all places even for beasts of burden. There are, in fact, no artificial roads in Montenegro, and the inhabitants do not make them, lest they should give facilities to invaders. The paths which connect the hamlets or small villages with each other are in general impracticable excepting on foot, and goods consequently require to be carried on the backs of the mountaineers. In the early part of the last century (1712), the people of Montenegro took up arms in favor of Peter the Great, of Russia, and defeated a numerous Turkish BOSNIA. 395 army near Mount Vrana, since wliich time the more in- accessible part of the country — the canton of Katunska, as it is called — has considered itself, until very recently, quite independent. The inhabitants of the more south- ern districts have placed themselves under the sway of the Vladika durin;^" subsequent periods. The mountain tribes immediately to tlie eastward of Montene^aa, proper (within the valleys of the river Moratslia, and its tributary, the Zento) liavc only joined the confederacy within the present century : the)' are known as the Bcrdas. Tlie Russian sympathies of tlie -MontencL^rin moun- taineers — arising;, it may be presumed, from community of reli-jious faith rather than from any other niotive— have been displayed in recent times. Tiiese sympathies with the coincident feeling of hostility towards the Turkish power, have been industriously fostered b\' the agency of the Austrian government. Cdti^iic, the resi- dence of the Vi»dika, is a mountain village of some fifty houses, a few miles to the suuth-east of the Austrian part of Cattaro. HOSNI.A, with that part of Croatia which belongs to Turkey, and the Herzegovina, a district so called from the title of its ancient [)rinces, I Icrrsoj;, " duke," form.s an eyalet of the enquire, and is its most lujrlli-westerly section. It is largely traversed for more or less elevat- ed ranges of the Uinaric Alps, and inhabited b}' a rude population, who, though .Slavonians, profess .Moham- medanism t(i the extent of about one-half their nun'-bcr. Like the Albanians, tiny adopted the religion of ti eir conquerors from political motives, to preserve their .social inqjortance ; and, like them, the}' have not been dutiful subjects cither of the Snltan or the Prophet. Their women are less scchuied than in cc^mmon untler the Moslem law , and have long enjoyed the libert}' of appearing in ijublic very slightly veiled. Still, while allowing themselves every licence that is convenient, the Mohammedan Hosniaks are much more int(»lerant to others than the Turks themselves ; and have fiercely , !?!»; i ! ,1 i • ' I UH ^' f ^: ^1 B' i'i ■ ',• i \ MB f. ,■ v.f; V * ;ii 396 I50SNIA-SKRAI AND TRAVNTK. opposed the project of the government to put all sub- jects upon an equal footin^j irrespective of race and relif;ion. It was in quelling an insurrection in this district in 185 1, caused by the reforming policy of the authorities that Omar I'asha first obtained prominence. Bosiia-Setai, the capita , nearly 500 miles north- west of Constantinople, and 122 miles south of ikl- grade, stands on both sides of the small stream called Migliazza, an affluent of the Bosna, which in turn Hows into the Save, and contains 70,000 inhabitants, engaged in trade and various manufactures. It lies nearly 500 miles uorth-west of Constantinople. Four liandsonic sto'^e bridges cross the stream. A ^'ast number of fine trees mingle with the houses, and give that garden-like aspect to the town which has caused it to be styled the Damascus of the North. Not less than 122 moscjues, with their gilded domes and minarets, further orientalise the view which the ej'e commands from the lof^y rock of the old castle. This building now in ruins, was erected by the Hungarians prior to the Turkish con- quest. Important iron-mines and mineral baths are in the neighborhood. One half of the population are Turks, an unusually large proportion for this neighbor- hood. Jews and Greeks are also numerous. It has consiilerable inland traffic which extends its relations to the neighboring provinces of Hungary, and even to a small extent with Germany. Its manufactures are fire- arms and other articles of iron and copper, also of leather, cotton, and woollen goods. The chief agents in prosecuting trade are Jews. Travn'ik, a small town on the nrrth-we.st, is the head-quarters of the military and the usual residence of the pasha, as the most central and advantageous posi- tion in the whole province. It is approached by a pretty glen, stands on a rapid stream, from which the high rock of the citadel rises up boldly, and possesses the gaudy tomb of Djelaudin Pasha, who, being defeated by the anti-reforming Mussulmans, destroyed himself by poison. An instance of suicide has rarely occurred in the past history of Turkey, and is very unusual in HERZEGOVINA AND HOSNIA. 397 Mohammedan society anywhere. The other towns of Jiosnia, as well as those in Crotia and Ilerzccjovina, are of small size, though some of them have considerable inland trade, and in several of thein mining and work- ing in metal U an important interest. Zoornik, on the left bank of the IJoina, has 15,000 inhabitants. Mostar, the capital of llerzigovina, is a sni.ill town on the Nar- cnta with some 10,000 inhabitants. The river is crossed by a beautiful Roman bridge of a single arch, Hanial- uka, in Crotia, is a busy commercial town, as well as an important military fortress. The Herzegovina and Bosnia together have a popu- lation of about 1,216.000, of whom 575,000 are Chris- tians of the Greek Church, 440.OOO Mussulmans, and 200,000 Roman Catholics. Though nominally separate, these provinces may properly be considered as one. Of the Mohammedan population, the greater number are the descendants of Christians who embraced the religion of Mahomet when their country was conquered by the Osmanli. To this descend, perhaps, it is owing that they have always exhibited a spirit of opposition to the central authority of Constantinople. The old Bosnian nobility, whose forefathers became perverts from the Catholic or Greek (akh, have been metamorphosed into Begs and Agas, and are distinguished by fanatical hatred to the Greek rayahs, who, in their turn, hold them, the descendants of apostates, in greater detesta- tion than even the true Osmanli ; and these, again, hating Christianity, while they oppress the rayahs, despise and contemn the Beg or the Aga, whose ances- tors adopted the true religion only under the compulsion of circumstances. The Mussulman population fills the towns, while the Christians chiefl'y occupy the villages scattered far apart, Bosnia may be considered as the most barbarous of the provinces of Turkey in Europe. The mass of the people are ground to the dust under their present rulers. There is no development of the material resources of the country, no means of employment or occupation, which might enable the poor to meet the ever-increasing. l'.\ I : i-.i 1 i 398 EXTORTIONS. o'li 1 1 , .i. taxation, the cxt'^rtion of the officials, and the heavy exactions of their own clcrj^y. These last are almost inconceivably ignorant, superstitious, and greedy. The Turks are the locusts : the priests constitute the plague of lice and flies fullowing the locusts. In liosnia proper there are many tracts of soil of marvelous fertility, differ- ing in this respect from the Iler/.egovina, which may be fitiv described as a limestone ilesert. ^ K () \' 1 \ (.: I . O F S I ; K \' I A . The principiility of Si;k\ lA, whicli has excited so niucli atleiUion of l.itc d,i)'s is nearly in(lei)ciulent, and lies aloiit; the south bank of the D.inube, and embraces ahnost the whole basin of the Morava, one of its prin- cipal atlluents. The southern ])orti(jn forms hii^h plat- eaus, but towards the coiu'se of the Save and Jj.mube. the country spreads out into extensive [)lains. Near the eastern frontier of Servia, towards Hult^aria, is tlic subordinate chain of the North lialkan Mountains, which advance close to the banks of the Danube, immech'ately opptjsite to the Southern Carpathian s\'stem, and nar- row the river into the defile of the Iron (iate. Tiie sur- face has fine upland scenery, and presents a L;lorious panorama from the hit,diest peak of the Kopaunik, being overlooked in nearly its whole extent from Hosnia to Bul^.u'ia, from Roumclia to Hungary. There is also great sylvan beauty, even where habitations and enclos- ures are entirely wanting, the country looking like a garden in one place, a trim lawn and [)ark in another. It has an area of more than iS,000 square mil ^nd a population exceeding one million, consisting >. lOst entirely of Serbs. Tiiesc people form one of the many branches of the Sclavonic family, and have preserved their nationality in its full integrity. Mostly peasants, they occupy villages in the gorges of the mountains, or in the depths of the woods ; live in rude mud or log dwellings in a very primitive manner, and draw from the land the food they re([uire, voluntarily assisting each other in getting in the grain as soon as it was ready, without fee or reward. The common fruit tree is the plum, from which a kind of brandy, slivovitrsa, the ordinary beverage of the country, is made. iVlmost every village has a large plantation in its vicinity. Vast 24 p r ■il: wm 400 NATURAI, I'RO DUCTS. numbers of swine arc reared, which fatten to an enor- mous size in the woods, and are sent to the markets of l*esth and Vienna. Servia ha.s no towns of any c(>n- siderable size, but its popuhition are actively eii^a^'cd in the varicuis pursuits of aijricultural and commercial industry, and the province has of late years made con- siderable proj^ress in wealth and general importance. Tliere are valuable mine.i, including ar;..;entit"erous copper, lead, and iron, in many parts of the province. The {)eople possess an extensive collection of popular sonj^s, and a nati\e literature of hi^h class has been created in the i)resent century. After beint; an independent kiiiLjdom, the 'I'lnks obtained the mastery of Servia, under Amarutn I., by tile battle of Kossova, in 1363. Hut many of the people took refuge in the more difficult highlands, where they became freebooters, rather thati submit to the foreign yoke. A race of outlaws was thus perpetu- ated by them under the name oi /loitf ticks, who success- fully defied the whole power of the government to root them out of their retreats. They infested the roads and passes, levied contributions upon travellers of the domi- nant class, and found shelter in the cabins of the peas- antry, with whom they were connected by the ties of a common descent and religion, during the severity of winter. The virtual independence of Servia is of recent origin, and dates its commencement in a series of insur- rections during the earl}' years of the present century — movements prompted by the misgovernment to which the province had been subject under Turkisli sway. The first of these outbreaks, in i(Soi, was head- ed by George Petrovitch — known as Czerny, or Black George, who put himself at the head of the national party and succeeded in obtaining important concessions from the Porte. Subsequent contests, though attended by various fluctuations of fortune, have ultimately left the Servians to the nearly uncontrolled management of their internal affairs. Milosch Obrenoritsch, the success- ful leader of an insurrection in 181 5, was declared heredi- tary sovereign of the country, but after a vigorous rule rOPULATION OF SERVIA. 401 of sonic years was ultimately obliged to abdicate his power. In 1S30 the country was constituted a princi- pality, under a prince or hospodar, electin*,' its own ruler and inan.iging its internal affairs, but acknowledgini^ the supremacy of the sultan by a small annual tribute, and submitting external relations to his control. Alexander, grandson of C/ern\', reigned as third prince from 1.S42 to 1S5S, having been elected by an assembly of the people. I'rince Milan is now the head of the local government and of the Servian rebellion. The population of Servia by the census of 1S72 is i, 100,000, the greatest number being Christians of the Cireek Church, the Mohamme- dans numbering about 5000, the Roman Catholics 3500, with a few huntlred Protestants, and nearly 25,000 gyp- sies. Jews to the number of 1800 are only tolerated in one city — Ik'lgrade— where they are confined to one part of the town. Servia has just been st}-led an inde- [jcndent principality since I1S29. J lowever, like Moldavia and Wallachia, it has paid a j'early tribute to the sultan, amounting to $100,000. liesides this annual paj'ment, on the accession of each new Servian ruler 100,000 piastres is presented b)- the* prince to the sultan, who in return sends the " berat " of investiture. In 1S76 the arm\' proper numbered 4000, with a militia strength of 70,000. The revenue of the princi- pality in the same year amounted to $3,556,000, which was all expended, Servia, however, being without any public debt. The soil is fertile and productive, but three-fourths of its surface arc uncultivated. The people are avetse to labor, either as cultivators or artisans: the jKasants, rather than \\()rk for themselves, employ for the construction of their cottages itinerant masons and carpenters from the adjacent Turkish province of Alba- nia. As indicative of the inclinations of the people, it may be remarked that while the Greek Christians acknowledge in some measure the primacy of the Patri- arch of the Greek Church at Constantinople, they know nothing and acknowledge nothing of the supremacy of the Patriarch. Kragojcvatr:, a small central town, is the principal seat of government. The Turks, until the 1: !i ?i ^ f ; : 1 .t..< M \ H ;1' !f M-. .,1, ■ 1. 1 •w'::> rt; 1 40: BELURADK. rccL'ut uprisin^f, retained the ri^ht of garrisoning' sitnic frontier places, and were in lorce at Ik-lj^rade, on ac- count of the strati).MC ini|)ortan(.\.' of tlie site, .it the conluience of the Sa\e with tiie Danulii-, the nior-t advanced post of the Mohaniniedan power in the (hrec- tion of the heart of luiiopc. 'I'his city, of historic celehrit)' as the sctiie of man)' a blood)' sinij;_L,'le between the soldiers of tile C'ross and the C'rc-ctiit, thoiij.;ii now (kca)ed, still contains a population of 30,000. /.'(/i7v/c/i' is seated on the southern bank of tiie Danube, opposite to the conllueiKe ot tin' Save, in a j)osition of ^reat natural strength and importance. Durinj; a [)eriod of three centuries and ;i hall, its pos- si'ssion was the frecpient object ot conti-st l)et\\een tlie Turks and the Austri.ms, and it withstootl repL.iteil siei^es on the part of either powei'. 'I'lu: most famous of these was in 1717, when I'rince Lui^ene sat down before it with .an army of 90,000 men, and defeated a Turkish army of more than double th.it nundjer which .'ulv.'inced to its relief. Since 1791 it has remained permanently in the Turkish jxissession. until the present rebellion and for a short periotl durini( the Ser\i;m insurrection in lcSl3. The former manufiictures ;ind tniile of Jjel^umde hiive declined : its houses iU'c me;ui, its streets dirty, m.any of the fortifications in ruins, and the whole ii'-pect of the i)kice w retcheil, but it is still tlie Ottomim fortress. the advanced post of the j)()wer sxniboli/.etl b\' the Crescent — historic Jiel^jnitle. splendid in the stories of the past. It is here tluit the luiropean traveller first comes in contact with Oriental dress and usaj^'es. ini- mediatel)' ojjposite Ik'li^rade, in the anj^le formed be- tween the Siive and the iJanube, is the ^Austrian town of Sendin. The two frontier towns of these two n.itions are less than a i;un-sliot .ap.'irt, antl the two nac;s arc constiintl}' f.ying, as if in defiance of e;ich other, on the castles (Ml opposite sides of the river. J5el^t;r;ide had till recently .Sei\ i;in and Turkish quarters, the former slop- ing down to the Save and the latter to the Danube, with a strong; fortress jutting out exactly at tlie point of con- fluence of the rivers, of w Idch a pash.a was the cumniand- WAI.LACHIA AND MOLDAVIA. 403 :mt. wlio rcprcsftUctl the suzerainty of t!ic I'orto. A siiiLjular-liDKiii^ siiL-ct, the L,uv,'e (i.is-,c, coin[)i)-,tnl of (liUpiil.itetl hoi.i-ies of oni.iiuciU.il iircliiteetiire, c>ni- iiieiuoiMti-s the Aiistriiin occu[).ition of t\vent)'-t\vo years at {\\r. Ijc'imiinj; of the last i"i'iilur\'. Most of the tiir- f)a!K:il race liiVyferin^ij hi the touii are pour, and follow lunnble occupations, wootl-splittin;', \vater-carr)'in^, portera;^e on the (uiay, antl boatin;_,f on the river. They are also, with few exceptions, the barbers, ami have th.it superior dexlerilN' which ili^tiuLmishis the craft in the East. Hel^MMile has its name from tiie .Slavonic />!f the united pro\inees, stamls in the nn'd.st of a vast marshy i)I.iin, on a na\iL;able tributar)-, and about fort}' miles p.i.irtli, of the Danube, and contains a ptipulation of Go.CCO. The name, siL^niiyini^ " cit\- of enjv;\-ment," alludes to the aj^reeable em'irons ; but the place is one of the most dissolute in luirope, all classes beiuL;- inveter;ite fj,ani- blers. The bo}'ars ride in i;ilt carrias^es, \yay court to the prince, play faro, and attend the opera ; while all around them exists the most sc[ualid and deplorable poverty. The women are less closely veiled and watched than in more southern Turkc)'. T^ town co\ers rui immense area, owin^ to the houses htra^""linLJ\ aritl hav- ing larL;e gardens interspersed among them. The trees, many-coU)red roofs, the convents, with the towers and domes of more than sixt\' churches, render the distant view extremel)' pleasing. It is, however, mainly a col- lection of wooden tenements and mud and clay Iwxels, divided by irregular and ill-paved streets, with few dwellings of the better class, and scarcel\' a public building of importance except the churches. The com- merce is cxtensixe in the expx)rt of tind^er, grain, wool, salt, wax, and other raw ])roduce, for which manufac- tures are receixed, chieil) from Germany, but also irom Transylvania through mountain-passes. In 18 12 the treaty by which Turkey ceded the province of Bess- arabia to Russia was signed at Bukharest. Gutn^rro, its port, a trading town on the Danube, opposite to Rustchuk, is one of the principal steamboat stations on the W'allachian side of the river. It was originally a Genoese mercantile settlement, called S<". George, wlicnce the present name. Annually, on St. Peter's IJa}', a great fair is lield in the neighborhood, as in all Eastern Europe, upon a vast barun plain, without ver- dure or shade. Coarse cloths, furs, and other articles ot attire, with all descriptions of food, are the chief com- \sscs, of a(K;in- by the J uni'icd ly 1)1. lin, s nurtli, 6o,cco. lucks to ;hc most to (jain- coui't to vhile all plorahlc watched Lners an ind h.'iv- he trees, vers and : distant ly a col- y h()\els, ih few l>ublic 10 corn- wool, anufac- so from 812 the f Ikss- osito to :ions on finally Gcor.<;e, Tcter's as in all out ver- ticlcs of cf coni- ui il! i il, III' I! I IF, Vi I Km '^■■ WW ' ' M"; 1 ! •VI ■ 1 ■ Hi :. :i ll'rl ;i il •t Pi; ■'' ^ ■ I'i If il. ,1. ■' % JASSV AM) CALATZ. 409 moditics with which thi.^ stalls are funiishcd, but plea- sure IS c|uite as inucn the o Th bjcct 111 view as business. IS Ljatherinf^f picseiils a very wild scene, strikiiiL;!)' illustrative oC the \"aricties of costume and habits aniMiuf the inhabitants of Danubian [)r th ovinc'. Wli. )1C towns and \'ula_L;'i;s puwr in tlieir tiiotisands to mix with l^f\'psy musicians aiul nioiintebanl^s in rude Jiiiarily. Ibiail or Ih-ali'Joio, the cin'ef p.ative produce, ^nipi )1!V. p .1 rt f> is a lortiiicv-l l-iaiiubian town t the Aloldavi.m fronti er. /V/'( t/< ,7, near the Sin )r the owards the in n- opi)osite part of the province, is a handsome town, co tainiu'^ manv residences of the boy.'irs, ;ind is conimercia lik ewise, with an active trade in sa t. I L IS CollMcl'jl'eC the cai)ital of Western or Little W'.dlacli la. Prut! Jassy, the Aloldavi.m capital, a few miles from the is jiictiiresi juely 1 ant 1 the Hessarabian frontier, seated on a s^eej) slope of the Kopober^h AbHintains, and. presents an acn'ceable appeanince to the ap[)roach- inu" traveller, with its white houses in tlie the midst of gar roo den fs. T s, shimiip- si)ires, ami iu_;h build iih'S with i/reell :hu le cnurciies iire numerous. /V fi ew resK len ces of the rich boyars are mansions, but the most wretched hut s are to be seen in tlieir imnu'tliate vicinitw Tiie populatit^n is 30,000, nearly onedialf of whom are Jews, who are the moiiey-chanL;'ers, brokers, and business- people, with all sorts of ICiv^lish and German haixlware?, woollen goods and stuffs in their shops. Onedialf of the town w;is burned down in 1S22 b)- the Janiss.irii.'S, and its has never regained it importance. Large ileal- ings take place in tiie agricultural produce (.)f the province. Galatz, the only port, of great commercicd conse- quence, is situated on the north bank of the Danube, about midway between the disciiarge into it of the Trut h and the Sereth. These streams briiiLT d(.)wn the [•t of gram Irom the nitenor, cliieily wneat, m the expor which a fleet of foreign merchantmen is employed. It is the emporium of trade for Moldavia, aiul the adjacent portion of Wallachia. Nearly the whole business is in the hands of Greeks, who are generally under the pro- 1! I ' I \\ |U, ! . ■! ., V -1 . I,"' {•11 :^t^ 410 ISMAIL. tcction of Greek, Russian, Austri.in, or Enf;lish pass- ports. The place has not attractions, besides bein^^ very unhealthy duriiiq' the summer months, owini; to exhalations from the adjoining marshes. Corn specula tions offer the only inducement to a residence, hy a simi)le arrangement ships are loaded and cleared while yet in ciuarantine. For half a mile in front of one por- tion of the town a brick wall separates it from the river. This IS pierced by a number of holes, through which the grain is thrc)wn by means of spouts, and received in bags held by quarantine porters, who carry their loads through tile shallows of the river to the vessels, /smdi/ a fortified tow n, on the northern or Kilia mouth of the Danube, is of tragic notoriet}-, from its capture by the Russians under Suwarrow, in 1790, who ]:)ut the garrison to the swortl. The town reverted to Turkc}- by the treaty of Paris in 1850, along with an adjoining portion of l)ess;:rabia north of the Danube and east of tlie Truth. Considering their fnie natural advantages, in poses- sion of a \'a.st extent of fertile soil and ample river irrigation, few narts of luirope are in such a backward condition as the Molda-Wallachian provinces. This is the joint effect of frecpient occupation by foreign arnu'es, a long period of political insecurity, and exclusive at- tention to the interests of their class by the landholders. The ro.ids are ever)-where bad. Travelling is perform- ed in the rudest manner, and is almost impracticable in unfavorable weather. The peasantry are hardy, inured to the most opposite extremes of temperature, but are in a very low social condition. In some parts the}' are semi-subterranean in their dwellings living in holes scooped out of the ground, roofed over with branches of trees and earth. The existence of such vilLages is chiefly indicated to the traveller by the smoke rising from them. Their farming implements, utensils, and carts are of the rudest description, and their system ot farming is very primitive. The territory at the mouth of the Danube has from time immemorial been the high- road and field of battle for all the barbarians who enii- PROVINCE OF BULGARIA. 411 grated from Asia into luiropc. Here the light Sarmatian horsL-man fought against th-j lica\'y Roman legions ; and the Ilun, more brutal than tiie Sarmatian, pursued the scattered Goths. Many others established here an ephemeral empire. The Turks displayed the victorious crescent, and the Polish eagle fled before it. The Bul- garians, the Wallachians, and Moldavians now retain pos- session, but at the price of their liberties ; and now the Russian hosts threaten its absorpti(Mi. .Such is its mo- mentous history. ORIENTAL CART. The province of Bulgaria, an integral jxirtion of the empire, which has won such an unfortunate promin- ence during the past \ear, as the scene of the reckless plunderings and brutal atrocities (if the liashi-Ba/.ouks, and other lawless bodies of Turkish soldiers, represent- ing the ancient Jltcs/a Inferior, extends from the Servian frontier to the Black Sea, between the southern bank of the Danube and the range of the Balkan, and constitutes a considerable portion of the valley of the ' ij :''■ t t,'* ' , ) !■ 1.f If 1 412 TllK nULCAKIANS. lower Danube. The surface descends fn^in the iiioun- tiiius by a succession of terraces, and assumes the char- acter (jf a j>Iain towards both the river and tlie sea. it is {^-cnerally level except in its southern p.irts ni'ar the I'alkan. The niaj'aMl)- of the [Jopulation are ot' 'J'ari.u' ori;.;!ii, .K^'iloi^^ous to tiiat of tiie Turks. 'I'hey nn'L;rated originally fr.'in t'",e ban!uiL;'arians we can sj.Kak of in the liii^hest tetni.-., havin;.;" had s^'ood opportunities oi Hbserv- ins^ their ciiaracter. I hey are simple, kind, aflectionalc, industrious, and scrupulousl}- honest, with benevolent countenances and C(aclia! manners. The attire of the {peasants is i^eiicrally coarse \vhite cloth and sheepskin caps ; in dress and diet the\" are extremel)' lruL;;d. Com- pared with their Servian neighbors, they are rather slow in intellii;ence. This may account for the fact that thty have proved, of all the r.ices subject to Turke}', the most submissive to the Turkish yoke. Part of the [^(jpulation, howe\-er, livini;' in the mountains have loiu; used the natural advantat^xs of their position to claim and enjoy freedom .md independence. J>e)-ond Ids power as they are, tin; 'J'urk car. not brinj;' them back to tlicir alle- giance, and S(^ Ik. revenues himself b\- branding; theni with the liated name v\' hmdonks, or bri^inids. The i^ul- garians h.ave sou.L;ht at intervals to gain their independ- ence, but their etiorts have alwa\-s been wanting either in the s|'irit or the resources necessary to secure it. The HUl.OAUIAN 1>\VKI.I.IN(;S. 4' 3 latest attcin[)t to rise against their rulers was so feeble and half-hearted that it has even been stoutly denied that the attenuit was uuule ; but the civilized world is still shudderiii^f o\er the reniendjrance of the terrible atrcjcities bv' which it w.is remorselessly subdued. We were entertained at a Ihdi^iiriau iunise, and it will serve for a type of the usual cbvellin'^s. It i> a low, one- storied buildini;", built of woial .uul mud. \'ou mount three or four ste[)s from the street, ani.1 lind yourself ii\ a low, d.u-k, but lari.je room, lii^'hted mdy by two door>, without the assistance of windows, 'riic floor is of ear' h, dry, uneven, and dusl\'. loarc of m.ittini.;' or aii}'lhinL; lo relieve its nakedness. There are no divans around the walls; there is no funiilure i.ut; three or f(.)ur three- le^y;ed stools. In one corner is a heap o( several bushels of threshed wheat, and in the middle of the lloor is the one rcdeemiiu;' feature of tlie [>lace-- a fire burnini^ pleasantly, and sending' up its smoke throui^h a jjymm- idal chimney whicli yawns in the ceilini;', i Mm mi m ' ■i'A I'V:" i'i 416 CANDFA. Sea, forms the marshy re^Mon of the Dohrudschih A line (Ir.iwii hetwecii tlic port of Kiistendij on the lilacU Sea. and the small town of kassova, at the iinrlhuard bend of the iJamdx:, marks tlie southern iimit of this tract, and nearly coineides with the (hrietion lA an aniHiit work, the remains of a wall built b\' the kdinan eni|M Tor Trajan. The Doiirudseha was the seene of military events of some importance durin;; the Tiuco- Russian campal<;ns of 1.S53 and 1S5.4.. It is a thinl\' in- habited and unlualth)' tr.iet of ccnmtry ; but its pcjsses- sion enables the hul'ler to commantl the navij^^ation of the lower iJanubc. ("andia (the ancient Crc/c, called by the Turks A' /V/V/), extends about 160 miles east and west, but is narrow throui^hout, and contracted in places to loss than ten miles in breadth. It is traversed by a chain of hijdi mountains, one of which, Mount Ida (now called i psilviilcs), near the centre, rises to 7600 feet i^bove the sea, and is mj-tholo^ically associated with Jupiter as tile scene in which he passed his youth. Durin;.,^ the pre;ent century, owin^f to civil distractions, the popula- tion has <;reatly decreased, and does not now number more than 150,000, two-thirds of whom are (jreeks, and the rest mostly Turks. In the rural districts many of the (jrceks are Mohamme Inns, their ancesters haxini,' embraced the creed of the concjuerors in order to secure the temporal advantaj^'es connected with it. Its natural fertility is \ery threat ; si)rinf^s are wry numerous, and amoni;" its productions are olive-oil, silk, wine, raisins, wool, carobs, valonia, wax, and hone)', oranges, lemons, and varit)us other fruits. The hills are covered with forests, amonLj which arc numerous animals, includinj^ wild bears and wolves, and the wild goat. Wheat, barle\', and oats are grcnvn, but nt»t ia sufficient quantity for the consumption of the island ; flax and cotton are also cultivated. The pastures are cjood and cattle abundant, but their exportation is prohibited. The principal manufactures are those of soap, leather, and spirits ; the soap made in Candia is lii;;hly TIIK TOWN OF CANDIA. 417 esteemed in the Levant, and fetches ah i^^li price in the niarlcct.s of Ti-ieste. IJiitisli and other ni.inulacliired fjoods are iinpoitrd, but the amount of tratle is very incDMsidcraljIc. The roads in the interior are wntclicil- \y had, ami scarcely passable even by mules. Candia, with I'le small adjactmt isk-ts of (io/,o and t)thers, forms one of tlu: [)a-ihald( Candi.i, Krtimo, and Cane.i. 'I'he town of Candid, the ca[)ital, contains 12,000 in habitants, and has fDiiifications r.iist'd by the Vene- tians. It is situattal on the north coast, alon^' with Rctiuh) and Qinea, the only otiier places above the rank of villa^e.s. Interestin;; sites are on the S'tutii coast, where the harbor of Lutro and that of Kalos Limenas correspond to the Plicni'C and the I'air Ilixvctts of St, I'aul's voyaj^c in the Mediterranean, from Ciesarea to Rome. The island came into tlic possession of the Venetians in 1204, and w.is held tlirouijh four centuries anil a half It was (inally wrested from them by the capture of tlie capital in 1669, after the tjarrison had endured, with heroic firmness, a close blockaile of two years and six month.-;. 'J'he sie^Lje was conducted in person by Ahmed Kuprili, the j^reatest of all the Turkish granil-vixiers. IJut tlie whole war lasted over a period of twenty-four years. A shm't time before its com- mencement, Cyril Lr.car, a native, who hatl risen to the patriarchate of Con.'-^tantinople, presented the Codex. Alexamlrinus to Charles I. of Enh the medium of tiie JJritish ambassador. This is now one of the rarities of the library of the British Museum. Mount Ida is a m.iss of i^ray limestone, scantily clothed with shrubs, and has a hill at its ba^e in which are some curious excavations. They appear to corres- pond to the labyrinth for which ancient Crete was famed, often referred to by the classical writers, as by Virgil in the Aincid : " As the Cretan labyrinth of old, With wand'ring ways, and many a winding fold, Involved the weary fcetk'ithout redress. In a round error which denied recess." 2S H i I '''^ ■,:t m 418 EGYPT, TUNIS, AND TRIPOLI. The excavations consist of a number of chambers, connected by low, narrow, and winding passages, wliich extend full three-quarters of a mile, but formerly much further, many passages being now ciossed up by the falling of the rock. We explored the place, and found the entrance so low as not to be passable without stoop- ing. Proceeding onward with torches, a thousand twist- ings, twinings, sinuosities, and turn-again lanes appear- ed, defying the efforts of the traveller to penetrate to the further end, or, having done so, to find his way back withoat some precautions being observed. The method adopted was to scatter straw along the ground, and attach numbered scrolls to every difficult turning. Numerous incriptions in the interior with dates showed that the labyrinth had been often threaded, one of which, in Italian, commemorated a Venetian visitor — " Here was the valiant Signor John de Como, captain of foot, 1526." The African territories include EGYPT, TUNiS, and Tripoli. Egypt pays tribute to the sultan, and owns him as its suzerain. In all other respects it occupies the position of an independent kingdom. Under the present ruler the country has greatly advanced in material prosperity ; but the expenditure has been on an exces- sive scale, which has led to financial embarrassment and to a forced unification of the Egyptian debt. The debt now stands at upwards of ;^ 100,000,000. The soil of Egypt repays the slightest attention of the husbandman with the most abundant harvests, but the rulers take from them, in the form of taxes, all their surplus revenue. In this way they grind them to the dust, and exercise, through subordinates, the greates'. cruelty and oppres- sion. As a consequence of th.is oppression, Egypt is a country of paupers. The Egyptian chief is supreme and his will is law. The viceroy has, however, been much more ready to avail himself of foreign advisers in st.ite affairs, and in the army and navy, than the Turks, beinj; without that vanity which characterizes the latter, and, as a consequence, his army'iis much more effective than that of the sultan. EXTENT OF TRIPOLI. 419 Tunis, during the eighteenth century, was subject to Algiers ; afterwards it became virtually independent, but sent a yearly tribute to Constantinople. Recently, by a decree of the sultan, it was made an integral por- tion of the Turkish empire. Tripoli comprises the coast region lying between Tunis and Egypt. It came into the possession of the Turks in 1552. Up to 1835, however, the sultan had merely the shadow of authority. In that year the ruling dey was deposed, and a Turkish pasha appointed with vice-regal powers, and the countiy made an eyalet of the empire. r f ¥ III liil ' ^ - '^%; THE MAHOMETAN RELIGION CHAPTER X. LEADING DOCTRINES OF THE MAHOMETAN FAITH. The religious belief of tlie Turks Is so peculiar and distinct from our own, that we hope a brief expo.sitioii of its leading doctrines, with a sketch of the Hfe of its founder, will not be unacce[)table to our readers, especially when it is considered that the religious ques- tions from so important an element in the ever-recur- ring eastern question, which now seems to demand a final settlement ; and when it is further remembered that it is the basis of the intolerance of the more fanati- ^ cal portion of the Turks, and the cause of the recent \ atrocities. Indeed, a scheme of religion which is embraced by more than 150,000,000 of people, and which is even at the present moment extending its empire through the centre of Africa, cannot fail to excite much interest. The Turks are strongly imbued with religious feeling and rcguhir observers of the ordi- nances of the Mahometan faith. No stronger appeal can be made to them than a call in the name of the prophet. Nothing can so arouse their passions and natioi ul spirit as any question touching the ascendency of the -• religious faith. Among the various costumes of Turkey, the eyes of the traveller are naturally attracted by persons who still retain the ancient Turkish dress, and whose heads are still disfigured hy immense turbans of various fantastic forms, but of one uniform green color. These are the cele- brated emirs, or descendants of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, by Ali his disciple. Hence they are offen '•ailed Alidays, or descendants of Ali. They have all genealogical charts to certify to the purity of their •&j ' THE EMIRS. 421 sions and descent, but, as there is no regular officer to verify their claims, it i.s belivcd that many have crept into the order in an improper manner, altlioufjh, if detected, they are liable to fine and imprisonment. The law of descent authorizes one to be an emir by the si'lo of his father or mother, and this explains why they are so numerous. It is si;p[)osed that they form a thirtieth part of the Ottoman population. An emir is entitled to much consideration and respect, and their rank gives them p':rsonal advantage in every career into which they may choose lo enter. They have a chief called Nakeeb Eschraf, who exercises solemn sovereign authority over them, and decrees all punishment. The existenoj of this botiy has no doubt powerfully contributed to keep alive the spirit of Islamism among the people. The religion of the iVIahometans, as inculcated in the Koran, is termed by then: Islam (resignation to the will of God), and hence we have the word Islamism, This is divided into two parts, — I man, theory or f.'.ith, and Dill, religion or practice. Under the first head is included a belief in (rod, in his angels, in his Scriptures, in the -csurrection and day of judgment, and lastly, in God's absolute decree and predetermination botli of good and evil. Tiie simple unity of God is the basis of their religion. Un ler the second head, of religious observances or practices, are included several particu- lars which, as tlie^^ seem to have been lightly passed over by former traveller., we think may be usefully inserted here. The first religious observance, and one to which the greatest iin[) jrtance is to be attached, is prayer. This privilege is called by iM ihom :t the [)illar of religion and the key of paradise ; and when a certain tribe daring his mission sent in their adhesion to Iiim, renouncing their i;Jols, but begging a diipei\-;atioii from prayer, he nobly and firmly an-wered, "Thit there could be no good in that religion wlurein there wis no prayer." According to the creed of the Mussulm ms, this is to be performed at least three, and generally five times every twenty-four hours : i, in the morning, forty minutes before sunrise ; 2, forty minutes after twelve at ii, ' II '^ H.I :*, 422 EXCLUSION OF WOMEN FROM PRAYER. :^ 1 . :l!l '!« \u\ '% '.i!^i'-^ ..ii E^ilM noon ; 3, twenty minutes after four ; 4 and 5, at any time between sunset and daybreak. These prayers are always silent, except upon great or solemn occasions in the mosques when they are repeated aloud. At the appointed time they break off all business, and, regard- less of place or person, kneel and prostrate themselves in silent prayer. One of our party, whose business leads him frequently in contact with officers of this gov- ernment, assures us that he has frequently been shown into their offices, and found them engaged in prayer. They would be perhaps surrounded by numerous per- sons waiting respectfully for the termination of their devotions. Those who arc acquainted with the Turks will not accuse them of ostentation in these public demonstrations of piety. The Moslems always turn their faces towards Mecca when engaged in their devo- votions, and go to prayer in their ordinary clothing. It is probable that antecedent to the Christian era attention to the points of the compass was esteemed a point of religion. They are, indeed, called upon to di- vest themselves of all sumptuous dress or decorations, if they happen to have any on. This appears to be a proper and reasonabls regulation, but we are inclined to believe that in our refined state of society such a provision would find but few advocates. Our churches on Sunday would not perhaps present such a gay spec- tacle, but a more devout and humble frame of mind would advantageously supply its place. Upon another point connected with prayer, the Turks, as we think, are entirely in the wrong, although supported by the authority of the early Christian fathers. We allude to the exclusion of women from the mosques during the hours assigned to prayer. According to the Koran, they are to perform their devotions at home, or in the mosques at hours when ^iie men are not there. In several mosques we have remarked that a portion is latticed off for the exclusive use of the women ; and, for the same reason, the Jewish and Greek churches have a similar partition. This appears to have been a very ancient practice in the Christian Church ; for Cyril, TREATMENT OF BEGGARS— FASTING. 425 writing 350 years after Christ, says "that such was the arrangemenc in his church at Jerusalem." The Maho- metans argue, but as we apprehend very inconclusively that the presence of women during prayer is incompat- ible with rigidly pure and pious worship, as it may in- spire a different kind of devotion from that which is required in a place dedicated to the worship of the Deity. The Turkish proverb, " All that you give you will carry with you," beautifully expresses their belief in the importance and efficacy of alms. The giving of alms is frequently impressed as one of the highest duties of the believer ; and we are told that at one time the practice was carried to such an extent as to produce a decree from the ulemah that not more than a fifth should be given to the poor. At present we are inform- ed that it is upon an average about two and a half per cent. In no country in the world are beggars treated with more kindness and consideration than in Turkey, or their wants more speedily relieved, Poverty, in fact, appears to be a passport under which a beggar will not only thrust himself into the highest public offices, but even in the council chamber of the divan, with the cer- tainty of having his wants relieved. Fasting is another observance much insisted upon, and is not confined to simple abstinence from food, drink, and tobacco alone, but is taken in an allegorical sense, to restrain the ears, eyes, and tongue from sin, to abstract the heart from worldly cares, and to refrain the thoughts from every thing but the Deity. They have one tjreat annual fast during the Ramadan, which lasts from one new moon to the other, and is rigorously ob- served a'^ Ii>ng as the sun is above the horizon. Then the Mosques burn witli countless lamps, and the wor- ship of the Prophet is celebrated with a splendor which even Rome herself can hardly eq lal ; the interior be- comes a sea-surging and kneeling forms. Ivicii worship- per has put off his shoes, for the place where be stands is holy ground. It is a moveable fast, and, from the nature of the Mahometan computation, which is by lunar instead of by calendar months, it passes in succes- ,|:i; 'I I 424 THE FKAST OF I'MRAM. . t sion through every season of the year. Wlien it occurs during the long days of summer, it be.irs with great severity upon the laboring classes, as tliey are not only deprived ot food, but also of even a drop of water in an oppressive climate, but they n^>ver flinch from its strict observance even at the risk of life itself There arc, liowever, exceptions made in favor of women who nurse their children, aged persons, the sick, and the infnni. To compensate for this, the sick upon their recovery are bound to fast an equal numljer of days. As soon, liowever, as the evening gun announci;s that the sun Jias sunk in the west, the pipe, the hrst indulgence thought of, is ordered ; then a gluttonous ft;' siry to these infuiels than bread, makiuL,^ use of it in repeat- ed daily ablution enjoined by their danniable relij^ion, empknin!:;" it in baths, and in a thousand other idle and cxtravat^ant modes of which rcr S/^iniiiirds and CJnis- iiails make little account." These continual ablutions are not taken in a literal sense alone, but are a[)plied to cleansini^ the members of the botly from all wicked- ness and unjust 'ictions, and the heart from all secret vicious inclinations. In all these senses Mahomet declares the practice of relif^ion to be founded on cleanliness, in which he coincides with .Sh.iftesbury, who argues that a virtuous man must necessaril)' be a cleanly one ; and even the pious Wesley seems to have entertained simihir ideas with the n the actions and li\'es of its professors we have already tie;ited, and it only remrdn.s to add that its tendency is in some detjrec to counteract and mitii;ate the severity of des- jjutic Governments, which in the l-'ast have always found a coni^enial soil. It [)roduces an equali/.in;.^ effect, and is, in fact, a sort of reli^^nous republicanism. It furnishes an absolute title to any olTice short of the throne itself. The Christian reatler oi' tlie Koran will be _<;"ratified to fmd how close its mor.d precc;pls coin- cide with those of the New Testament, from which, indeed, much of it is coi)ied. The Koran inculcates that (jod at various times ])ad made known his will to several proj)hets, such as Aloses, David, Jesus, and Ma- homet. As a consequence, the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospels, and the Koran are inspired writings ; but it is contended that the three former have betin so much corrupted by Jews and Christians, that althouL,di they may contain some part of the Word of God, little credit can be i^iven to them, from the impossibility of separat- ing the genuine parts from the Tdse interpolations. We might mention here the l-lastern Dervishes, a peculiar sect of Mahometans, to show that even that religion of uniformity has not been able to escape the effects of schism. These impostors are found through- out the empire as well as in Arabia and other eastern countries, some of their number being known as howl- ing dervishes, from their cries and screams. We visited one of their chapels, a fine building, on the main street '■S DANCrNCi DKRVrsiIES. 429 of Pcra. On tlic left is .1 small cemetery for the repose of tlitrso sainls whose lives were supposed to have been such perfect motlels here below, that their inrttieiui" ami intercession with Alahomet is thou-'ht to bo cuiisider- able in the rc;^ions above. Carefully takintj off our boots and shoes at the door of the cha[)el, a.iid c.irryiitij them in under our arms, we cntereil just as the exercises h; tl be^un. Within a lar^c area in the centre of the chai)el, and railed olf from the spectators, five dervises were spinniii;^ round like *ops,. while an instrument like a llainjolet, but l)l(nvn ihrou^ii the nose, poured forth frotn the 5^'allery a monotonou:; and hii^nibiious air. The he, ids of the dervises were coveretl with a hiL,di conical cap, a ti<^dit slKjrt jaclcet enveloi)ed the body, and a coarse loose [,'own completed their attire. An aj;ed dervisc .stood at the eastern side of the enclosure, anil appeared to be at the same time the master of ceremonies and the chief object of the adora- tion of tile others. While they were performin!:j their gyrations their e\'es were closed, their hands steadfastly extended, and their fowns oi)ened out bv their revolu- tions in the manner of " making clieescs," as practiced by our little folks at home. Gradually the music assumed a louder tone, and a tambourine and kettle- drum struck in with tlie wild and plaintive strain. At the expiration of about five minutes the nni^^ic and the spmniny; ceased, and then commenced a series of bows,, which would have been deemed j^raceful even in a Parisian salon. After perfonnin;^ several of the salaams with divers ad lihiiuhi. variations, and the perspiration oo7M-\^ from every pore, they aj.^ain began sjjinning upon the carefully waxed floor, while several male voices now joined in the plaintive chorus. At two o'clock the music, the spinning, and the singing cea.sed ; the waltzcrs dropped on their knees with their faces to the ground, while the attendants threw over them thick cloaks to prevent their cooling too suddenly. We left the chapel with mingled feelings of contempt at wit- nessing such monstrous absurdities, practiced under the i iii V II M ^5 . t i ■', ' : ;i i 1 ' .; i ■1 IV w i 1 111 430 THE PATRIARCH OF JKRUSALEM. name of rclipfion; and pity for the audience, who seemed disposed to consider them in the lifjht of divine inspira- tions. Wc visited on o?ie occasion the patriarch of Jerusa- lem, wiio always resides at Constantinople, and exercises sovereign sway over Palestine. I'rocecdin^r throiijjh a scries of lofty but plainly furnished apartments, we at lcn<,'th reached the room where the patriarch was in wait- injj to receive us. It was fitted up with a divan in the Turkish manner, and the patriarch was seated cross- ley^ed on the floor in one of its anodes. All the attend- ants about the place were officers, and some of them dif^nitarics, of the church ;^but when they addressed the patriarch it was always on their knees, and with all the flourishes which accompany oriental homage. Here, for the first time in our lives, we were served by clerical attendants. A papas gave us water ; a proto-papas cups of coffee ; and a deacon brought us pipes and tobacco. On the Golden Morn can frequently be seen vessels decorated with various colors, all of which display crosses of various shapes and hues. At the mainmast head will be seen a large ensign with a huge cross in its centre, surrounded by four smaller ones. Not a single national flag appears. The foreigner will be much sur- prised to observe so many crosses at the capital of the crescent, and upon incjuiry will find the vessel to be one of the pilgrim ships which carry a promiscuous assort- ment of Greeks, Armenians, and Jews to the holy city of Jerusalem. The scene presented on board would be difficult to describe ; but any one who has seen a ship loading with passengers for America on the coast of Ireland can readily form an idea of the noise, the filth, and the confusion which reigned on board of this pilgrim ship. It may not be amiss here to give a rapid sketch of the composition and nature of the church to which by far the greater part of the European population of the Turkish empire, including all the revolting provinces, pay their allegiance ; .vhich acts as a common bond between Russia and the struggling millions of Sclavonic t;'»';ii:i| THE GREEK CHURCH IN TURKEY. 431 subjects of the Porte ; the church witliin whose pale 70,000,000 of people bow in reverence ; the cider sister of the church of Rome. The Greek church in Turkey has four patriarchs, namely, of Constantinople, of Antioch, of Jerusalem, and of Rome. The first-named patriarch is elected by the votes of the bisho[)s in his vicinity, atid must be confirmed by the sultan, for which he pa)s the trifling siuti of about $30,000. He nominates the other three patriarchs, and they also pay a hiuksish to the Conuuander of the l''aithlul for the confirmation of their appointments. These offices are no doubt hit;hly desir- able, and between the scramble for them on the part of the clerL!;y, and the desire of the sultan to obtain a fre- quent baiksish, tiie republican doctrine of rotation in office is not unfrequently exercised. The various duties of the chnrch are performed by a series of functionaries, from archbishops dow n to subdcacon.s. Tlie following are the principal distinctive characteristics of the follow- ers of the Greek Church. They reject the supremacy of the pope, and of course his infallibility is prostrated along with it. They have no images in th.eir churches, although they have many pictures ; but we have never yet seen one which could by any possibility be supposed to "nr^ingc upon the second commandment. They be- lieve in transubstantiation, and cheerfully assist in pro- pagating the Scripture. They scrupulously dip three 'times in baptism, use no instrumental music in their churches, and their priests may marry before receiving ordination. There two strongholds of faith an 1 prac- tice arc contained in the belief that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father, and not, as the Roman Catholics believe, from the Son as well as from the Father ; and in the due observance of feasting and fast- ing. However unimportant some of those observances and opinions may appear to us, yet to the importance attached to them by the Greeks we may fairly attribute the destruction of the Greek empire in the ICast. In the year 1438, or fifteen years before the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, an attempt was made to unite the Latin and Greek churches, which would have r 'M {'•11' " % ! i h 432 GREEK FEASTS AND FASTS. furnished them with the requisite aid. Rather, how- ever, tlian adopt any conciliatory course with their Christian bretiiren, by p^iving up doubtful sulijocts of faith and practice, they preferred, after an ineffectual struj^^i^le, to submit to the dominion of an infidel power. Like some narrow sectaries, who appear to have more charity for an open unbeliever than for a brother Chris- tian not of their cuuimuniori. The fasts occupy 230 tla)'s m the year, and most of them are scnpulousiy observed. althouL;h some are much more rii;id lIi.ui others. Generally they abstain from meat, milk, ei;e,s, cheese, and butter, but on the more severe fast day. the\' eat nothin;^ but o)sters, clams, muscles, and cavair, althoui^h it is very rcm.u-lc- able that wiriC may be used in any quantity. The ob- servance of their feasts no doubt giv<-s them a j^reater zest for their feast days, which are at^recably sprinkled throup^h the lemainder of tne year to the number of fifty-ei^ht. We .-:an have no idea ..t home of the im- portance which the Greeks att.xh to the observance of these fasts and feasts, but an anecdote which we derived from an eyewitness will serve as an illustrati >n. A Kuro[)ean vessel had been cap^tured by some Greek pirates some yi'ar.-. since, which they robbed, after nuir- derinj;' the crew. Two of them were seized, carried into Malta, and huni;-. On the tried, the rinij-lcider was asked why, after robbin;^ the ship of ever)'thin[,r porta- ble, he had i:ot carried off also a fine piece of beef which hung up on the deck. " Would you have me cat meat on fast days ! " was the shuddcriuy; reply of the mis- creant. Indeed, it was owing' to the beef been un- touched that they were first suspected of the pirac)'. The priest who attended them to the gallows assured us that the criminals were rc'iy religious men ! (3n , i iiti VJI:> , ^nV 1'! i.. I* ■,'':. ill' 440 PASHAS AND THEIR PRIVILEGES. penser of both civil and criminal justice ; with the power of life and death, of making peace or war, in short, of doing almost what he pleases, so long as he can secure the continuance of the f.ivor of the Sultan and his court which is best accomplished by the transmission of a heavy provincial revenue, extorted by every possible means from his unhappy subjects. In default of this favor, the pasha not unfrerpicnlly sets his sovereign at defiance, and maintains for a time a wholly independent rule in his province. Formerly every village had its governor, wliose duty it was to collect the tithes and maintain order; and a judge to determine civil causes. Those who were oi)pressed had then a shadow of redress by appealing to the judge ; but the same indi- vidual is now collector and judge. Every vestige of these institutions has disappeared, and the pasha ap- poi.its and dismisses all officers at his pleasure. Some- times ihe pasha orders all the grain in a certain district to be delivered to him at a fixed price, and thjn dis- poses of it at double the cost. To avoid the onerous taxation much property is made over in fee to the mosques, and becomes church property, tlie church pay- ing .so much annuity for life. This, togetlier with the strong religious fanaticism of the Turks, and their fre- quent donations, accounts for the immense properties of the church, amounting in some places to one-half of all the estates. Tyranny and injustice have been too frequently the prevailing characteristics in the pro- vincial administration of the affairs of the empire, especially in regard to the collection of the revenue. The Christia.i iuljccts, both Greeks and Sclavonians, have been cruellv oppresed in the past, and still gioan under an oppressive rule. Tlu government at Constan- tinople l:as alv\ays been too weak, even if disposed, l,7 check the rapacious greed of provmcial officials, and all attempts to place the different races and religion;; upon terms of equality, have failed through the intolerant bigotry of ever-zealous Moslems. The Tu'ks originally belonged to the great family of nations thinly spread over the plains and table-lands of : iM\ ■V . vf <t shape of one, but uirhout any slit. Instead of movini; the hand he moves tlie pa[)er in the process. Different lanf^aiaj^es, however, are spoken in different districts of the i-nipire. I'he Turkish jjrevails around the capital ; north of the lialkans the Albanian, lulj,fypt. In their general demeanor the Turks are c,'rave, solemn .and taciturn. They have a hiL,di repute for inte,t,frity in commercial trans;i.ctions. In dress, and also in many of their customs, the\' differ strikin^^ly from the peojjle of ICuropean countries in <;eneral ; and, notwithstandini;- recent chansi^es, the Turk still dis])l.iys abundant evidence of liis Asiatic oricjin. The national costume is loose and flowin<,r. That of the women differs but little from that of the men, with the excep- tion of the lii.^ht veil worn by the former in public, and the turban of the latter. Wat amon<;- the hii^her classes of the capital, the turban has been largely discarded for the round fez-cap, and tight-fitting clothes have been substituted for llowing robes. Hut the change has scarcely improved their appearance. They seem out of their element in our garments, and generally liave a seedy look. Tiie up[)er classes have abandoned their graceful Oriental costume, but they have not yet succeeded in dressing like gentlemen. There is .some- thing alwaj's vaguely but radically wrong about their boots, their linen, or their sturtouts ; they all look, in short — Pashas, Ik^ys, and Efifendis, as they may be — as though they had purchased their attire in a hurry at a second-hand slop-shop. Those of the lower clas.ses who yet adhere to Eastern dress utterly spoil its effect by the introduction of some absurdly incongruous modern element. The Turks have remarkably preserved their oriental characteristics during the five centuries of their inter- course with Western nations. Most of their usages arc in direct opposition to our own, of which the following If ^' i FRANKS VS. TURKS. 443 arc familiar examples: Tlic beard is with them a mark of dignity. Shavint^ the head is with them a eustom ; witli us a punishment. W'e enter an apartment u ith tiie heail uncovered; they enter with the feet bare. W'itli us the women coinmonly appe.ir in ii^.xy colors, and the men in sombre ; u ith them it is exactly the reverse. In our rooms the roof is white, and the w.tlls colored ; in tluirs the walls are white, and the ceiling colored. Amongst us, inasters recpiire a character with their sir- vants ; in 'I'urkey, servants incjuire into the character of masters. In ocr fashionable circles, tlancing is consid- ered an accomplishment ; they deem it a disgraceful cmployinent. A I'Vank is astonished at what he calls the absence of public credit in Turkey ; the Turk will be ama/ed at our public debt. The l''rank will esteem the Turk unhappy because he has no public amusements; the Turk will reckon the man miserable who w.mts amusements from home. Hut polygamy and the seclu- sion of women are the most important distinctions be- tween l^astern and Western customs. The Turks have a respectable literature, consisting of translated and original, poetical and historical, com- positions in manuscript and print. Hut letters are only cultivated to a limited extent, chieily by the class intended for government employment, or for expound- ing the Koran ; and the general ignorance in high life i.s amazing in relation to topics of ordinary knowledge with the humblest grades amongst western nations. The madrcsses, or colleges, many of them richly endowed, are attached to every mosque. Hut the studies pursued in them, under the guidance of the Ulema, or sacred council, are not of a character calculated to enlarge the mind, or to exercise any practical influence on the con- cerns of active life. They are limited to the metaphy- sical subtleties that belonged to the rhetoric and logic of the dark ages; to discussions respecting the com- parative merits of Abu-bekr, and Omar — the immediate successors of the Prophet ; or to such knotty theological questions as whether the feet, at rising, should be wash- ed with water, or only rubbed with the bare hand. The i I! <\ «1'''^t Tv! .■':';M^ ;l m ^ir.. ^' \ r>u2," i;' -^ 444 SOCFAI- STANDING OK TIIK TURKS. Turks arc ii^tioraiit of the most coninion instruments in natural |)hiloso[)liy, — the telescope, the mierosc()|)c, tlu; electrical machine - which, if presented to them, are merely shown as obj-.xts of childish curiosity. Persons* of the hi<,diest rank scarcely know anythinjr of countries beyond the boundaries of the empire, and their i,^nor- ance of anj- ton;.;ue but their own, compels tjie ministers of foreign powers to deal with them throuj;h adra^'oman or interpreter, usually a (ireek or J*'rank-, lonj^ resifleiit in Turkey. Tiiis office often becomes hereditary, and gives ct)nsiderable influence as the occupant often becomes the confidenti.d friend and .adviser of the min- ister. Their personal acquaintance with the characters of the officials render their services highly im[)ortant ; a power wiiich tiiey often use for selfish and improper purposes. Hut in tliis, as in other social regards, some cfTorts at improvement have been made within the last quarter of a century, principally forced upon them, however, by outside pressure. Tlie main body of the Turkish people arc certainly uninstructed, but not much more so tiian the mass of the population in many other ICuro- pean countrie.-;. The uninstructed Turk occupies a higher rank in the social grade than is usual, in conse- quence of the great lack of education among.st the higher classes of Turkey. lie is at least free from the drunkenness and brutal vices which belontT to tlie illilcr- ate of most nations. Many young men of talent and intelligence have of late years been sent by the Turkish government to complete their education in France or England, with the view of their acquirements being made serviceable to their countrymen on their return home, and becoming the medium of introducing the improvements of western nations into the Ottoman empire. The chief difficulty to be overcome in such attempted reforms arises from the prejudices of the Moslem priesthood, who view with horror anything that savors of enlightenment, beyond what can be drawn from the pages of the Koran. Attempts have been made to introduce European methods of instruction, FIRST PRINTING PRESS IN TURKKY. 44$ with the various usages of western nations ; and these endeavors have been attended with some measure of success. The first press for printinj^ in Turkey was established at Constantinople under Achmet III., in 172S. The project encountered strong' opposition, as thousiinds of scriveners gained their subsistence by copying manu- scripts. At the very rumt)r of the threatened innoviition, there was a great storm among tiie " vested interests " of Constantinople. Turkish doctors and divines — like the hierarchy of Western nations two centuries pre- viously — dreaded the diffusion of knowledge which the printing-press might become the means of bringing about. Imaums and muftis repeated in the eighteentli century the fears and prejudices with regard to printers* ink which cardinals and monks had entertained on the same subject in the sixteenth century. The ulema fore- siiadowed their downfall in the rise of the press. They pretended that the creed of Islam was endangered by the new-fangled process of communicating tiiought and diffusing intelligence. It was finally arranged that the Koran and theological works shoulil still circulate only in manuscript, and printing be allowed for other books. In the first twenty-eight years, ending with 1756, the press produced eighteen works, and a total number of 16,500 copies. Through the next twenty-seven years it was entirely inactive, but was re-established in I7 1 [■' 1; ! 1 1: 1 1 : 1 I 1 f : 1 V ■ t , 'I n ; m 27 i I w ■ M-i li"f THE TURCO-RUSSIAN WAR. CHAPTER XII. m.. i ORIGIN' OK THE REBELLION AND WAR WITH RUSSIA, The collection of onerous taxes, the employment of Turkish officials in positions of authority over peoples of a different race from themselves, as well as the strong rc'ligious antipathy existing between Christians and Mus- sulmen, have been the prime causes of the uprisings and local discontent which have so much retarded the pro- gress of Turkey, and plunged that unfortunate country into a state of practical anarchy. The troubles which resulted first in local insurrection, then in a bloody civil war, and finally culminated in one of the most Titanic and exhausting wars which the world has had the mis- fortune to witness, date back as far as the year 1874. The collection of taxes in the Province of Herzegovina and other Provinces was resisted in that year, and the attempt to replenish an exhausted treasury by that means proved abortive. This led to renewed attempts on the part of the Turks to collect them by mounted troops, who rode through the Provinces, sword in hand, unscrupulously levying tithes, and blasting and destroy- ing where they could not enforce immediate payment. Protest and complaint to the authorities led only to derision and punishment. The peasants resisted, but were compelled to fly to the rugged steeps of Mor.lc- negro, there to find a welcome by a brave and hardy people in almost chronic insurrection iigainst the Tuik. The Sultan's forces in contact with these hardy nujun- taineers met with almost constant defeat, an '^fifect, and in the sprint,^ of 1876 the Herzegovinian in.uirrection broke out with renewed violence, and the Roumanians also refused to pay fur- ther tribute to the Sultan, and placed themselves in a state of semi-independence and defiance to the I'orte, The whole Northern country was now in open rebellion, and the more strictly Turkish J'rovinces were invaded by the Christian insurgents. Intense bitterness characterized the struggle. 'Ihe Turkish troops, more especially the Bashi-liazouks and irregular forces, were remorseless and vindictive. Early in May the Bulgarians, who had hitherto taken no part in the struggle, goaded to desperation by the tyranny of their rulers and the rapacity of the tax-gatherers, broke out into insurrection. This was followed by some of the most revolting and horrible atrocities v^■hich the world has ever witnessed in any age of intolerant bigotry or bloodthirsty tyranny. On the 6th of May the French and German Consuls at Salonica were cruelly massacred in the mosque Saatli-Djami. This building is of great age and before the Ottoman conquest was dedicated to Christian worship, but is now the leading Turkish mosque of the town. Here, close by the cemetery and within a stone's throw of the Governor's residence, the murder was perpetrated. The occasion of this outburst of fury was the abduction by the Turks of a young Bul- garian girl for proselytizing purposes and her rescue by the American Consul. A riot ensued, and the French and German Consuls were murdered in the attempt to restore order. The excitement spread throughout Tur- key, and foreign nations felt that the position of affairs was so critical, that the various fleets were ordered to rendezvous in Turkish waters. * 5 ATJDUL IIAMID U. 455 The ks and Early 10 pait mny of 31-okc of the world )try or rench sacred great ted to urkish ry and ce, the utburst ng Bul- cue by French :mpt to ut Tur- ■ affairs cred to During the exci*^ MTicnt Murad V. was deposed on the alleged ground oi his insanity, after a reign of only a few months, and was succeeded in August, 1876, by his brother, rvbdul Hamid II. This Sultan was borti Sc' 'ember 5, 1842, the second son of Sultan Abdul Medjid, who reigned in Turkey during the Crimean war. By Turkish law a brother is preferred to a son for succession to the throne, on account of seniority; and even a cousin will take precedence on the same ground, the right of succession belonging to th^ oldest male descendant of Othman, the founder >i 'lis dynasty. The mother of Hamid II. was :\ Wi- in slave. His education was of the scantiest d. Tin. «„, 'i. In 1867 he visited the Paris Ivxposition, atv' 'ftc-'vards adopted European costume. During hi.-. ' '• tcher's reign he was confined in the palace as n dangerous aspirant to the throne. On his accession ' ■ D' .ver he promised to extend educational fricilities a;.d grant reforms, pledges which he has but poorly redeemed. Shortly after his accession to the throne came that series of horrors which have accjuired a world-wide celebrity as the Bulgarian atrocities. Never has human feeling been more deeply shocked than it was when the news of these brutalities — the burning of Christian villages, the fiendish outrages, the massacres of old and young — was flashed by the telegraph and carried by the press or by word of mouth to almost every house and hamlet in every civilized land. It is difficult to arrive at any complete or trustworthy account of these deeds, nor is it probable that they will ever in all their sickening details be fully known. The most reliable accounts were contained in despatches from Sir H. G. Elliot, the British Ambassador to Turkey, enclosing reports from Mr. Schuyler, of the American, and Mr. Baring, of the British, legations. Mr. Baring in his report estimates that in the Sandjak of Philippopolis 12,000 Bulgarians and 200 Mussulmans were killed, and 52 villages burned. He states that the most fearful tragedy of the whole insurrection occurred at Batak. Hearing that preparations for a revolt were going on I', I 1 I I ^ r- 456 THE BASHI-BAZOUKS. here, Achmct Agha was ordered to attack the town. He summoned the inhabitants to ^ive up their arms, but distrusting his intentions tlicy refused to obey. A desultory fight succeeded, lasting two days. On tiie 9th of May the inhabitants had a parley with Acliinet, who solemnly swore tha. if they gave up their arms not a liair of their heads would be touched. The villagers thereupon surrendered their arms, when all the money in the place was demanded, after receiving which the liashi-Hazouks set on the people and slaughtered them like sheep. About 1,500 took refuge in a church, which baffled all attempts to fire it from the outside. The IJashi-Hazouks finally climbed to the roof, tore off the tiles, and threw burning pieces of wood and rags dipped in petrole .m among the thickly packed mass of human beings below. At last the door was forced open, and the massacre was completed. The inside of the church was burned. The only survivor of this slaughter to be found was an old woman, she alone remaining alive of a family of seven. Mr. liaring con- tinues : — "I visited this place on the 31st of July. Hardly a corpse had been buried. Where a man fell there he now lies. In the streets at every step lay human remains rotting and sweltering in the sun. The stench was overpowering. Five thousand in all were killed here, and about eighty girls were carried off. The surviving inhabitants live in wooden huts outside the village in great misery. To Aclimet Agha and his men belongs the distinction of having conunitted per- haps the most heinous crime that has stained the history of the present century. Nevertheless he has been decorated by his government, as have also several other leaders in these cruelties. There was undoubtedly a revolution which had to be crushed by armed force, but the Government is to blame for calling out the liashi-Hazouks, for had it sent regular troops earlier the liashi-Bazouks would . have been unnecessary. The manner in which the rising was suppressed was inhu- man to the last degree, fifty innocent persons suffering for every guilty one." SCHUYLER'S REPORT. ;iy 'he ere off. idc bis )er- tae has cral dly )rce, the the The ihu- ring 457 Mr. Schuyler, on the 22nd of Au^'ust, reports to the American Government that the ouiraj^es of the Turks were fully established. He proceeds as follows : — " An attempt, however, has been made — and not by Turks alone — to defend and to palliate them, on the j^round of the previous atrocities which, it is allej^ed, were com- mitted by the Bulgarians. I have carefully investigated this point ; and am unable to find that the lUiIgarians committed any outrages or atrocities, or any acts which deserve that name. 1 have vainly tried to obtain from the Turkish officials a list of such outrages. No Turkish women or children were killed in cold blood. No Mussulman women were violated. No Mussulmans were tortured. No purely Turkish village was attacked or burned. No Mussulman's house was pillaged. No mosque was desecrated or destroyed." Mr. Schuyler estimates the number of the murders to have exceeded 15,000, and gives a heartrending narrative of the scenes of bloodshed and suffering. Turkey lost by these massacres the sympath)', if any remained for her, of the civilized wo? Id. The i)eople, the politicians and the press were alike outspoken in their xlenunciations. Mr. Gladstone wrote in relation to them : — " The Turkish Government has been guilty of excesses than which none more abominable have disgraced the history of the world. The daily mis- government has given place to wholesale massacres, ' Murder, most foul as at the best it is, lUit this most foul, stranyc, and unnatural,' the elaborate and refined cruelty — the only refinement of which Turkey boasts !— the utter disreg.ird of sex and age — the abominable and bestial lust — and the utter and violent lawlessness which still stalks over the land." No attempt at punishment was made, and shortly after a complete amnesty was announced to cover all those implicated. Meanwhile Servia had (or a long time been collect- ing and massing her forces in hcjstility to Tiuke)', of which country she was, as we have seen, a sort of semi- independent province, and now having drilled some :| ni I" 45 S SKRVIA I)Kc:i,AR[:S WAR. 'fi" ! ^ JW I • ■fl^ m' go.ooo incii, she declared war aj^aiiist the empire on the 29th of June, 1 876. On the 2nd of the following month she marched her troops across the frontier and formed an alliance with Montene-^ro. It isallej^ed that licr decision was the result of Russian instij^Mtion, and certainly she was materially assisted by Russian soldiers who joined her .irmy in larije numbers thouj^h in an individual wa)'. X'ictory rarely percheil upon the Ser- vian banners, the troo[)s beinj; badl)' drilled and ineffi- cient. The I'owers now proposed an armistice which Servia declined. Hut it was finally forced upon her, notwithstanding,^ the op[)i)>ition of Tcliernaj'eff, the Russian General of the Servian forces. The latter caused the army to proclaim I'rince Milan, Kin<^ of Servia, but Russia interfered and caused him to refuse the empty title. Hostilities were, however, soon resumed between Servia and Turke\-. The s)nipathie.s of I'Liu'ope wt.'re with Ser\ia, and numbers of ['".nj^dish ladies assumctl charge of the hospitals and nursed and cared for the wounded. Numerous flights and skir- mishes followed, with varyin<^ results, .success, however, general!}- remaining with the Turks. Tchernayeff bravely marshalled ami skilfidly disposed his forces, and was abl)- assisted by General Zach, of the Servian arm)', and by the Russian volunteers ; yet, notwithstanding this the Servian forces were badly defeated before Djunis, which place was taken by the Turks. Another great struggle followed before Alexinatz, which is known as the battle of Morava. The Turks fought fiercely, but were badi)- ofticered and manteuvered. Their sol- diers met the Servians in front of their own positions and decided the fortune of the da)- by personal braver}', A correspondent on the field of battle thus describees the fierce struijfilc : — " We had been watching the masses of Servian troops on the somewhat distant hills, and some of our guns had actually taken a shot or two at them for some time, when we became suddenly aware that their advanced guard was very considerably nearer to us than we had imagined. So rapidly had they, indeed. W^. rM tl ' II i-;kisu inianikv ok ihk link on iiii maucit. Jt: ' ns )C.-. Ian )ur lie Icir us ifiij SACKING AND HURNING OF UKRKOVATZ, nULGARIA, I5Y THF, TURKS. sr * :H ' ii'vi at bi V, ^ m \k^\ IHE SULTAN, ABDUL HAMID II. REVIE 'ING HIS TROOPS IE TURKS. L Pife ■ 15ATTLK ()!• MOR.WA. 461 -3 already engaged and driven in our outposts, that it was clear a very greaf force was immediately in our front, and that we should have to bear the brunt of the battle. I do not know how ever\' individual Turk felt at this supreme moment, but of this I am certain — that every man I saw lo( 'jd as though he were ready to spring immediately at his hereditary f(jc, and would be glad when the order was given. Many of them had not long to wait, for the trumpets sounded, they ' fell in,' and were soon rushing down the hill, not as though they were in fear of the enemy, and were anxious to gain the cover of their trenches, but as though they longed to get at and grapple with him. It was fraught with danger to the Turk, but it was terribly grand. Many a man was stretched on the turf ; man\' a man returned slowly and painfully to the lines from whence he had come, but on went the companies, one after another, till the bottom of the slope was gained and the enemy confronted. Then opened such a fire as can never be described. It was the m.eting of desperate men — of Serbs urged forward b\- reckless Russian leaders, of Turks longing to strike their enemj-. The quesiion was. which could be reinforced the longest and the quickest. Fresh Servian battalions were coming into action every moment and extending the line of attack ; fresh Turks were coming down the slope, and, gaining the sheHer-trenches wh'ch, as I have before remarked, the Turks, with admirable forethought, had constructed. At first the men could not be persuaded to lie down ; they wanted to go forward, and I expected every moment to see them charge with the bayonet. Hut they were gradually prevailed upon to avail themselves of cover, and hence the great disparity between their less and that of the Serbs. Among these latter we could see that great slaughter was taking place, for their line, although continually fed, did not appear to increase ; while in addition to the rifles of our infantry, our guns were able to throw whole volleys of shell in among the blue-coated soldiers. With what a yell went those terrible missiles on their way ! They seemed to break, every one of them, exactly where wanted, and to I X J ; I 462 DEFEAT OF THE SERVIANS. Ii4*t ^^ strew the ground with dead and dying every moment. The rifles, quickly seconding them, added to the car- nage which took place in that valley. I will not pre- tend to say whether the Servians actually crossed the bridge over the Morava ; by some who were on the spot it is denied, by others admitted. I thought at the time that they did. Moreover, as the fight progressed, our line wavfcred as the Servians in increasing numbers were hurled against our left flank. But this was only for a while ; the men were simply borne back, not dis- heartened, and fresh troops were hurrying up to succour them, Hafiz Pasha himself being among the foremost in that gallant fight. It was a fearful struggle, truly, and seemed to extend all along the line at this moment ; indeed, it is believed that sixty Servian battalions were at that moment engaged. But all to no purpose ; the steady courage of the Turks prevailed against the newly- found bravery of the Serbs, and was making itself more and more apparent every moment. The ground was covered with disabled Serbs, and still that astonishing roll of musketry maintained itself along the Turkish fro.'it, the men firing each five or si.x shots a minute. At len-Tfth the crisis came. I'he Servians made one more great effort, there was a tremendous crash, a fearful roll, as if of thunder, and then the enemy begin to give ground. Witii a wild shout, the Turks rise and pour volley after volley into their retreating ranks. Our guns fire shell, which burst over their heads, in front of and behind them, dealing death and destruction all around every moment. The Servians turn and fly ; their effort has been in vain ; they must seek the .shelter of their guns or be killed to a man. Without further delay they rush to their haven ol" comparative safety, leaving their dead and d}'ing on the ground, and the Turkish forces alone in their well-earned glory. No wonder that next morning 1 lafiz Pasha and his colleague who aided him and was woiuuled, Lahlmed Pasha, were raised to the grade of Divisirn Generals from that of Commanders of lirigade. Ihey had fought a grandly sustained fight, and had fairly won their admirable suecess." TFTE RUSSIAN ULTIMATUM. 463 Our ,t of all fly; icUer •tbei" |fcty, the No lague Iwcre lit of Indly l-ablc This battle resulted in the capture of Alcxinatz in October, 1876, and practicallyetjded the Servian war, the remaining encounters being confined to slight skirmishes. An armistice of six weeks' duration, arranged by the powers, followed. As no improvement had been effected in the internal affairs of Turkey, Russia now declared that the misrule of Turkey should be summarily ended by armed interposition of the powers. General Igna- tiefif, Russian Ambassador, was instructed to present to the Porte the ultimatum of his government, which he did on the 31st of October, in the following language : "The events which have taken place during the past year in some provinces of the Ottoman lunpire, and which have ended in the war between Turkey and the principalities of Servia and Montenegro, could not be regarded with indifference by the Imperial Cabinet, after hav ng found a deep echo in the Russian nation, united by various ties and secular traditions to the Christian population of the Balkan peninsula. His Majesty, the Emperor, has shared the sympathies of his people, and in accord with the other great cabinets, has tried to re- establish peace and order. The guaranteeing powers having agreed to lay down as the basis of a pacification the maintainance of the status quo ante in Servia and Montenegro, the military operations now being executed by the Ottoman troops constitULC a useless effusioii of blood ; and as the carnage of the past few days has assumed proportions which wound the sentiment of humanity without being able to lead to any result, the Emperor, my august master, cannot any longer tolerate it, in presence of the delay experienced in the neg(jlia- tions for a restricted armistice. 1 am, therefore, charged to declare to the Porte, in the name of his Majestx', that if, in the space of twice twenty-four hou'-s after the de- livery of the present note, an effectual and unconditional armistice of rom s i.x weeks to two months, embracing all the combatants be not concluded, and if perempt(iry orders be not sent to the Turkish commanders to cease all military operations immediately, I shall be bound to leave Constantinople with all t.\\c personnel oi the Impe- rial l^mbassy." 1*1 i H 1, 4' i M 'A^ 464 ASSEMHLING OK THE POWERS. "1?^'^:li'W' ::l The discussion of the question of joint occupation, led to the proposal for a conference to settle the whole mat- ter at issue, which proposal was finally a^^reed to, and Constantinople was fixed upon as the place of meetint;^. ^n consequence of this agreement the det-^rmination whi. . Russia had arrived at t occupy Ikil^^aria with her troops was abandoned, and all hopes for the time centred in the conference. In due time the repre- sentatives of the various Powers assembled. General Ig^natieff represented Russia ; Turkey sent vSafvet I'asha and lulhem Pasha, the former of whom, accordini^ to diplomatic usat^e, becantj president, the rieetiiv^ beinf^ held in the capital of Turkey. I'^rance sent Comte Chiiudordy and Comte Bourt^oini; ; Austria, Count Zichy, her Ambassador, and Haron Chalice, Consul- Treneral in Roumania ; Count Costi represented Italy ; Lord Salisbui')- and Sir Henry P^lliot, luiyland ; while G litany sent a delegate who' . antecedents were ominc.iis, inasmuch as he had been Ambassador at Copenhagen before the Danish war, at X'ienna before the Prusso- Austrian can.paign, and at Paris before the late P'rench war. The delegates met at the Admiralty Palace, and at their first meeting placed upon the table the proposals which they had previously agreed to submit to the Turkish representatives. At the second meeting, on the 28th of December, 1876, an armistice of two months was agreed upon. It soon, however, became evident that Turkey resisted all interference, and was determined not to accept any of the numerous proposals ofTeretl. One after another of these were rejected, and delays were constantly caused by the Turkish delegates. Penally the commissioners became convinced that the Turkish (jovernment had no intention of bringing the negotiations to a satisfactory termination, and ^hat further discussion would be but a waste of time, fhey therefore agreed upon the following terms as their ulti- matum, with notice to the Turkish Ambassadors, that unless accepted by the Ottoman Government, the lega- tions would be withdrawn from Constantinople. The final terms offered were as regards Montenegro, the rec- Sia .;S:- Wm cting, f two :camc I was )Osals and rates, that inging ^.hat fhey ulti- , that lega- The he rec- SKRVIANS ATiACKINi; A IL'KKISH KNTRKNCHMKNT Al' liAlilNACI.AVA. ENGLISH I.ADIKS Nl'KSlNG TJIK WOl'MU.I) SKkVl.-.SS. 't! VI "i H H^ IK » ji ■■, i t ( in ji ft iM I'll; ;:■« I B^'^'''' pj^'i P-J: *' <'i* ' ' ' ■'!- m ^^mi SIIOcrnXG a VUKKISII >1'V. I;Y THI'. iiKDi.,;^ oi- ditchichi. NIK SI:RV1A\ ClNKItAI, .-AC H A \ 1 1 SIAII ^ i*r^' TKRMS OF TIIF. IREATV. 465 tification of the frontier and the annexation of some small outlying territory, and perfect freedom of tlie navi- gation of the Boyna. As regards Servia, that principality was to be restored to the ante war condition, and her frontier to be regulated upon the Bosnia side ; and in relation to both of them, the evacuation of their terri- tory by tile Ottoman troops, and of the Turkisli terri- tory by the provincial troops ; an exchange of prisoners of war and a general amnesty to be proclaimed on both sides. As regards Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria, their Governor-Generals to be appointed fur tiie rn>t fi\e years by the Porte, with the previous consent of the powers. Tiic provinces to be divided into sandjaks, with mutessaries at their heads whom the Boite was to a])- point for a fixed number of years ; and also into cantons of from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, with local authorities chosen freely by the people of each com m unit}-, whose sphere should embrace all questions of " 'c..' interest to the canton. Provincial assemblies, to be , v.>.ied by the councillors of the cantons, and these assemblies to fix the budgets of the provinces, and to appoint administra- tive councillors tor them, whose advice the Governor- Generals should accept, and who should have the right of appeal to the Porte. To ameliorate the system of taxation, the provincial assemblies were to fix and distribute all the taxes, with the exception of customs, duties, telegraph receipts, and the taxes on tobacco and spirits. Panning out the taxes to be entirely abolished, and all arrears of taxes to be cancelled. The budgets to be fixed every five years for each province in conformity with the revenue ; one por- tion to be applied to the payment of the general debt, another to the uses of the central government, and the tnird tc local uses. The administration of justice to be reorganized, and the judges made independent. The provincial governors were to appoint the judges for the civil and criminal courts, with the consent of the council. .Members of the courts of appeal to be appointed by the I'orte, u[)on nomination by the governors, all proceedings of the ::j 1 1 1 " : 1 ■' t -1 !;l I :■ 1 ; J \ f ii| Mi- iJ 111!: :i •r. Ni i m ii 466 THE TREATY UEJECTED 1?Y TURKEV m: PiH ^ ,:V .1 '.y m courts to be public. I*'or speciiil affairs of the different religious comniuiiitics, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiasti- cal courts was to be maintained. Complete freedom of relii^ious worsliip was to be decreed. ICach community to maintain its own clergy and all religious buildings and establishments for public education. All the various languages wi-re to be upon an etpial footing in the tribunals and in the offices of the government The acquisition of the state lands by immigrants was to be f.icilitated. To ensure the execution and maintaiiK;nce of these reforms, the powers were to have the rigiit to apj)oint two commissioners of control, to superintend and enforce the treaty stipulations, and to assist the local authorities with advice in rdl me;).sures relating to public order and security. Such commissioners to be governed by special instructions. After fully stating their positions in relation to the required reforms, the various plenipotentiaries formally announced that they had orders from their respective governments, to withdraw from the capital, if they were rejected by the Porte. Safvet i'asha, one of the Turkish Plenipotentiaries, expressed his opinion most decidedly ♦ hat his govern'nent could not accept the two points relating to foreign surveillance ; but added, that he would communicate the terms to his government, who would undoubtedly take them into respectful considera- tion, and asked until the end of the week to return the final reply of the Porte. Agreeably to his promise, the dete mination of the Ottoman Government was communica, ed to the oleni- potentiaries shortly thereafter. Their an swer stated that Turkey acceded to all the conditions oftlu treaty, except- ing the appointment of the governors, with consent of the powers, and the clause for the employment of foreign commissioners to advise and oversee These two points she reject-ed unconditionally, as derogator)- to the dignity and ndependence of the empire. Thus the conference, which England had been so earnest in pushing forward, ended in complete failure, THE FROTOCOI- OF THE POWKRS. 467 and the diplomatists returned home chai^riiietl and dis- appointed, and all hopes of a peaceful solution of the questions at issue seemed to be at an end. Russia afterw.ird issued a circular-note to the powers, askinj^ what was to be done in the then existing condi- tion of affairs, and dispatched General Ii;naticff to the several courts to learn the views of the various govern- ments on the subject. This led to the issue of i\ protocol, which was signed in London on the 31st of March, 1877, by representatives of the various powers, in which they announced their determination to watch ca;efully the manner in which the pron^iscd reform.-, in T irke>' were carried out, and concluded by saying that they reserved to themselves the " right, in common, to consider as to the means best fitted to secure the well being of the Christian population and the interests of the general peace." Most of the signers made some reservation, England, that both should di.sarm ; Russia, that Turkey should send an ambassador to St. Petersburg to discuss disarmament ; and Italy, that she should be bound no longer than the common agreement was maintained. This document was rejected by Turkey with indignation, and was called a measure of intimidation, to which she could not and would not submit. She finally declared that, " strong in the justice of her cause, and trusting in her God, Turkey had determined to ignore what had been decided without her consent and against her." She persistently refused to make any concession which interfered with the integrity of her territory, or questioned her sovereignty and independence. She would carry out reforms only in her own way. War, she declared, was preferable to wearisome suspense. Thus, the destinies of peace or war hung in the balance, and all eyes were turned to Russia, as the power most for- ward in pres.sing reforms and intervention, to see what action she would now pursue. The world was not long held in suspense. On the 24th of April, 1877, a declara- tion of war against Turkey was issued by the Czar, couclied in the following language : " Our faithful and beloved subjects know the strong ii' \ l! |l i I 1; il ■V: f m W:. ■i\' Jl .::| 468 RUSSIA UECLAKKS WAR. "1 ■• I r^j i interest we have constantly felt in the destinies of the oppressed Christian population of Turkey. Oui desire to ameliorate and assure their lot has been shared by the whole Russian nation, which now shows itself ready to bear fresh sacrifice to alleviate the position of the Christians in the lialkan Peninsula. The blood and property of our faithful subjects ha\e alwa}-s been dear to us, and our whole ici'^n attests our constant solicitude to preserve to Russia the benefits of peace. Tiiis solici- tude never failed to actuate us duriiiy^ the deplorable events whicli occurred in 1 [er/.cj^oviiia, Bosnia and Bul- garia. "Our object before all was to effect an amelioration in the position of Christians in the Mast by means of pacific nec^otiations, and in concert with the ^^reat ICuro- pean powers, our allies and friends, for two years we have made incessant efforts to induce the Porte to effect such reforms as would protect the Christians in Posnia, Ikilf^^aria and Her/egovina from the arbitrary measures of the local authorities. The accomplishment of these reforms was absolutely stipulatetl by anterior engage- ments contracted bj' the Porte toward the whole of Europe. Our efforts supported by diplomatic represi n- tations, made in common with other governments, have not attained this object. The Porte has remained unshaken in its formal refusal of any effective guarantee for the security of its Christian subjects, and has rejected the conclusions of the Constantinople Conference. Wishing to essay every possible means of conciliation in order to persuade the Porte, we proposed to the other Cabinets to draw up a special protocol comprising the most essential conditions of the Constantinople Confer- ence, and to invite the Turkish Government to adhere to this international act, which states the extreme liniits of our peaceful demands. But our expectation was not fulfilled. The Porte did not defer to this unanimous wish of Christian Europe, and did not adhere to the con- clusions of the protocol. Having exhausted pacific efforts, we are compelled by the haughty obstinacy of the Porte to proceed to more decisive acts feeling that i/'i- • 01 Tllli SULTAN S ADDKKSS TO llll. AUMY. 469 our equity iiinl our own (Ii;^Miity enjoin it. Hy her refusal, Turkey [)laces us under the necessity ( our most faithlui subjects that the moinL-nt foreseen when we pronounced wonis to which all Russia res|)(jiided with complete un.inimity, has now arrive(.l. We ex])ressed the intention to act inde|)endently when we djcmed it necessary, and when Rus-.i,i's honour shouKl demaiul it. In now invok- ing; the blessin;^rol (lod upon our valiant armies, ue \^ivc thei'i order to cross the Turkish fr(Mitier. (.Si^nied^ "AlK.XANDKR." i\ circular from I'rince Gtjrtschakoff, embodyin<^f the Czar's declaration (jf war, was also communicated to the Powers, in which he wrote : — " You will brin;4 this res(jlution tn 'he coc;ni/ance of the Government to which you are accredited. In fulfdlinj^f tlie duty which is imposed upon him by the interests of Russia, wliose peaceable development is impeded by the con.stant troubles in the East, Mis Majesty is convincttd that he at the same time responds to the views of Europe." (Si^nied) " GuRT.sciiAKoi-K." To this circular Turkey replied by a counter-note from SatVet i^isha, in which he asked the object of Russia in declaring war, and appe.ded to the mediation of Europe under the guarantees of the Treaty of I'aris. He called upon the Powers to arrest the threatened conflict — "a conflict of wh.ich he Sublime Porte can justly repudiate the entire responsibility." The Sultan also issued an address to the army, urijing them to devotion and bravery, and concluded as fol ows : — "As Russia has declared war, u i- are forced to take up arms. We have always wished for peace and tran- quillity, and have listened to the advice of the Powers in this respect. Hut Russi.i wants to destroy our iiule- pendence and our soil. Russia attacks us. (iod, who protects rit^ht and justice, will j^^rant us victory. Our soldiers will defend with their blood the country ;;ained 28 ,>U I I * IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) "3 (? / 1.0 I.I 1^ |2B 1 2.5 «^ ^ IIIIIM 11.25 III i.4 Photographic Sciences Corporation m 1.6 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 ' *^!^ r s> 470 OPINIONS or FOREIGN POWERS. by their ancestors, and, with the help of God, maintain the imlependence of the Osmanh. The nation will pro- tect the wives anil cliildren of the soldiers. Should it Be mcessary, tlie Sultan will ^o to the army, and raise the Standard of tlic Khalifat and of the Sultanat. Ti>e Sultan is ready to sacrifice his life for the honor and independence of the country." The sympathy of Germany was decidedly with Rus- sia, as was also, thouj^h perhaps in a less marked dej^ree, the countenance of Austria and Italy. Hetween the first three of these it was "generally understood that an alliance of some sort had been formed. The sympathy of the l-lngli-sji liberals was also decidedjy with Russia, almost every spark of friendliness towards the Turks having been stifled by the cruelty and rapacity of the latter. All the leading English liberals were outspoken in their denunciations of the I'orte. The government of the day, however, took a different view, and their opinion on the subject may be gathered from the despatch of Lord Derby to Lord Loft us, in reply to Gortschakoff's circular. This memorandum is dated May ist, and sets forth that Her Maje.>>ty's Government received the news with deep regret, and that they cannot accept Prince Gortschakoff's statements and conclusions as justifying the resolution taken. The Porte, though protesting against the protocol, had again affirmed its intention of carrying out the promised reforms, and the British Government could not, therefore, admit that its answer had removed all hope of deference on its part to the wishes and advice of Europe. The despatch then refers to Prince Gortschakoff's assertion of the belief that Ru.ssia's action is in accordance with the sentiments and interests of Europe, and points out that it is a contra- vention of the Treaty of Paris (1856), by which Russia and the other signatory Powers each engaged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Otto- man Empire. Lord Derby goes on to say that the Czar has separated himself from the European concord hitherto maintained, that it is impossible to foresee the consequences of such an act, and that tiie British CON'UITFON AND RESOUKCF-S. 471 Govern incut foci boiiml to st.ite that the decision of the Cz.ir is not one which can liavc their concurrence or approval. I'll CIIAPTICR XIII. RKL.\TIVK CONDITIOM AND UKSOURCliS OF RU.SSIA , AND TURKKV. Before proceedinij to detail the events which followed fast upon the declanition of war between the f^reat ICin- pire t)f Rnssi I ami tiie Ottoman DiMninion. it may be interestiiifj to examine for a moment tiie relative con- ditions of the combatants, and C()mpare the resources of tiie two countries. The Ivmpi're of Russia, the largest in the world, embraces one half of lu'irope and about one third of Asia, much of which, however, is cold and uninhabitable. Her population is not very accurately jjiven, but is estimated to number eijjjhty million souls. This immense poi)uIation £];iv('s her a threat advanta^je in recruitintj and strenj^thenin^ her army. Vov adminis- trative purposes Russia is divided into districts, each under a military commander. This officer has charge of the recruitinjT in his district, and is responsible for the efficiency of the troops. There are numerous military academies scattered throujjhout the country for edu- catintj oflficers for regimental and 1; r 11! V ■ I ' 1 472 SKKTCH OF THK I.IKK. nK TUF. (ZAK. of the troops. Hut in consequence of the lar^e popu- lation niihtary service presses less heavily upon the people than in most other countries of Iuirf>pi>. The troops in service are generally very poorly fed, the diet bein^ l)lack bread and rice and a small ration of meat for soup, and some (jiiass or beer. The pay of a jirivate is les-; than a penny a day. By tlic rules of the (ircek Clunch 169 days in ih.e year are fast d.iys, d'U'in^^r which he receives no meat. Yet the Irnojjs are liardy anil capable of c^rcat exertion. His clothin.f is coarse and ill-made. Me carries a heavy knapsack and rifle with bayonet always fi.ved, and sliort sw(>rd at his side in addition, together with ninety rounds of ammunition, yet is equal to loni,^ marches. With horses Russia is well supplied, havin;^ more than France, Ciermany and Britain combined. The arm most!}' in use by the trt)ops is the Berdan rifle ; and the field pieces are four to ten pounder breech-loadinjj steel cannon. The navy is principally distributed in the Baltic and Black Seas ; and there are smaller fleets in the Caspal, Aral, Sibe- ria, and White Sea waters. The total comprises 108 men of war, 1,477 officers, and 7,217 seamen. The iron- clad fleet of war comprises the powerful turret ship Peter the Great, eight frigates, three corvettes, fourteen turret monitors, and three floating batteries. The entire fleet now consists of 225 steam vessels, with 521 iruns, and a total tonnage of 175,501. The Roumanian army in alliance with Russia num- bers about 40,000 infantry, 2,ooo cavalry, and 1 10 guns, under command of Prince Charles. Thcie arc some territorial troops or militia in addition to these. Monte- negro has about 25,000 men of all arms. Alexander II., the present Emperor of Russia, was born on the 29th of April, 181 8, the eldest son of Nicholas I. and Charlotte, formerly Princess Charlotte of Prussia. His education was supervised by the Rus- sian poet and scholar, Joukowski ; and his military training by the German General Morder. He entered the military service in 1831, and four years later was attached to the Grenadier Regiment as Colonel ; and STATISTICS OF TUKKKY. 473 still Liter became Inspector of the mi'itary schools of the Mnipire. In 1840. he travelled in Germany, and afterwartls married the I'rincess Maria of Hesse-Darm- stadt. In March, I035. durinj^ the Crimean war, he succeeded his f.illur on the throne, iiavin;^ been crowned at Moscow with f;reat pomp. He has effected threat .-fo th reioi nis m tne laws anc d ad ministration of liie luupire, the crowninj^ W(jrk of which was the total abolition of the national curse of serfiiom, where twenty millions of re set free. He inherits the Russian ambition people we for territorial aggrandizement, and h.is m.ide consider- able acquisitions in Central Asia. His eldest son is the Grantl iJuke Ale.xand'.'r, now commanding: in liid^arin, who was iiurn in 1845, a nd m irrictl in 1866 to the Princess Dairmar, sisUr of the I'rincess of Wale.'' Tht Emperor has four other sons, Vladimir, Alexis, Scrf.^iu.s and Paul ; and one dau;,;iiter, Marie, married in 1 874 to Prince Alfreil of MiiL;l.ini!. i iie two brdhers ot the P.mperor, the (jrand Dukes Ni».holas and Michael, lu»ld important commands in the Russu- lui ki.sh war. The 'Purkish Mnipire has ;i jiopulalion of about 32,000,000 SOI lis ; but this number inclutles a ilo/.ei diverse race«, and many provinces in actual insurrectior H cr armv on a war fo(«tiiii^ prior to the iiisurrectii>n of the provinces, was I 28,oco int,intr>', 20,COo cavalry, and 552 ^uns. In addition to this force there were lar<^e numbers of Kashi-Ha/.(v,,ks, Spahis, Hedcnhns and other armed, but irre^ailar, troops. The Turkish private soldier is by nature and tradi- tion warlike. He believes in the destiny of the Ott 'in 1 ■ ! I i 1 ' ( ■K t ! 1 1 j^ tL 474 MILITARY STKIiNGTH OF TURKKY. some meal in a bajj, and a small iron pan, in which he bakes eakcs on arrivinjj in camp. VV.mt i)f transport prevents proper cookinj^ utensils bein^ carried. Since the commencement of tiie war with Russia, Turkey has massed 200,000 men north of the lialkans; 80,000 in Armenia ; 25,000 in Montenegro ; 17.000 in Herzegovina and liosnia ; 13,000 in Albania, and about 30,000 south of the Balkans ; making in all a force of about 365,000 men of all arms, exclusive ol small gar- risons scattered throughout the emjjire. The infantry are armed principally witn Peabody and Remington rifles, from the United States, a contract having been made for half a million of these guns, and two hundred million metallic cartridges. She has 40,000 horses and 508 pieces of cannon ; the latter comprising many Krupp breech-loaders. Every battalion of cnasseurs destined for mountain warfare is provided with two mitrailleuses, portable on mules' backs. She has also 500 pieces of siege artillery for the armament of the forts of the Hos- phorus and other exposed positions. Tiie nav)- comprises 32 ironclid vessels, some of them of the largest tcjnn.ige. In addition to these, there are about a dozen ships of the line, twenty frigates, and a considerable flet^ of corvettes and river gunboats. The most formidable ironclad is the " Mesoudiye," heavily armored with twelve inches of iron, and carr\ing 12 guns of eighteen tons each. Tlure is no great disparity in the naval power of the two nations. The weakness of the Turkish navy consists in the unseaman-like character of the men, and the lack of dashing and able commanders. The declaration of war by the C/,ar was, of course, preceded by the withdrawal of the Russian I'Lmbassy from Constantinople, and no time was lost in despatch- ing troops towards Turkish territorj' ; indeed, the Turks complained that some of the Russians were over the frontier before the declaration was actually issued. Within a fortnight they were swarming in RounKiiiia, that government having signed a convention giving the Russians the right to use the ro;^is, rivers, railways and telegraphs, Russia on its side guaranteeing the inviola- bility of the country. COMMENCEMENT OF HOSTILITIES. 475 Durinp the first two or three weeks the military ope- rations in P2urope were confined to the march forward of the Russians towards tlie Danube, and the successive occupation of the cliief towns and strongholds on the Roumanian side, with now and then an attempt, unsuc- cessful by either party, to effect a passajje of the river. In Asia, about the middle of IVIay, the Turks cap- tured Soukhouni Kaleh, whilst the Russians scored a victory at Ardahan, an important fortress, which they took by storm. The destruction of a Turkish ironclad at Ibraila caused j^reat excitement and rejoicinj; in the Russian lines, the Russians believing that it was the powder magazine on board that ignited by one of their shells dropping down the funnel, although the only Turk who escaped to tell the tale, declared that it was the result of an accident. As time went on the events became of a more exciting character. The Russian advance on the Danube was continued steadily and rnethodically, and there were frequent artillery duels between the opposing batteries on either side. The Turkish flotilla was very busy, and claimed a victory over some Russian gunboats, but whatever advantage they may have gained was counter-balanced by a bril- liant exploit of two Russian lieutenants, who commanded four small boats, in a torpedo attack upon a Turkish monitor, which tlicy succeecled in destroying. In Asia, the troops under the Grand Duke Michael began a vigorous siege of Kars, and there was a good deal of fighting round Hatoum. On the 15th and 16th of June there was an important engagement at Zeida Khan, of the right wing, under Mehemet Ali, who lost 1,000 of his men, the survivors being tiriven back upon Delibaba. In li^jrope, Suleiman Pasha, having succeeded in relieving Niksics, and formed a junction with Ali Saib Pasha, advanced with him toward Cettinjie, their [)ro- gress being disputed inch by inch by the brave Monte- negrms. The river Danube, which divitles the provinces of Turkey from Roumama, hac' been relied upon by the Turks as their front line of defense, and looked upon as' H II ill j ♦ 1 ! i ii I! * 4 476 RUSSIANS CKOSSIXO THK DANIJPI'.. A forniidahlir barriir to tlie Russian march sonfliunrd. In this thi-y wiio dodni'cl to be ch'sappointttl, for the Russian army, instead of massinjf httuecn J'J" 1 tPr w/ - t/'KRA.IOvV, L\fruscHitvATZ -^ ^•7 ""^ '7^ -\ .^^ s^t hoJ' A^V : W^-V-.-.? NOV! BAZAR VI K ^s^oriAr , ;;^,/^ ••';;;: „).. ,M s"-«>-,:,\ ^ 5 ■> „ 'ASI ,., POSITIONS or THE rWO ARMIES RKKORE THE RUSSIAV3 CROSSED THE DANUB3. 1 RUSSIANS CKOSSING THK DANUIiK. 47; th.it wliilc the Turkish trorips were massed hujrtat force .ilonj; the bulk of the more westerly jx^rtioii of thf river, th'- l)robriKhch.i, or h^wcr Dimibe, w.is almost deprived of troops. Before serious opposition could hi. offered by tlie Turks, the Russians h id thrown a bridt^'e across the river. Tin; lJanul)e was still ViT)- hiidi. A .threat part of the valley was still under water, which, however, was rapidly subsiiljuj^f. The bridge \\as constructed from both sides of the river at once, for the 'I urks allowed tile Russians to cross over and bi-j^in the biid'^e on the Turkish shore at the same time thai it was bc^om on the Roumanian. A Ljreal i)art w.is constructed on trestles, ami it was only in the real channel, where th'.- w.iter is swift and deep, consisting,' of a space of perhaps ;i ihou- saiid }Mr(ls wide, that j)ontoons h.id been used. J he pontoons had been floated to their places, anchored to trestle woik constructed on both sides at the same time, the trestU' work bein_!j^ continuetl aloti^^ the old <:liannel towards Matchin. on the road to the latter place-. (jcneral Zimmermann cros- ed the Damdie duiinu' the nl^ht with [,500 iuf.inl!)' of the icrps ifaniict', and 2,cco men of the 40'Ji Re;^iment of Infantry cr(;sscd in front of Galatz. The .secret of the crossinc^ was will kej)t, and the opiTation was conducted with unexampled darin;^. The men and horses crossed m Hat boats, while the cannon were brou;.;ht across on bar^^e-s. After they had crossed, the two detacliments carried after them, throuf^h the inundated marshes on the river side, a num- ber of boats and rafts. Ne.xt day 2,500 men of tlu,- 7th Rcj^imcnt of Infintry, with their cannon, crossed diuin^f the day. and joined their companions, under the com- mand of Hrioailier-General Giikoff. The troops, which had come from (ialatz, took u[) their positions oti the first breast-works on tiie chain of mountains separated by a deep valley from the other heiglits which com- manded Matchin, and establi:ijhed themselves in the villages of Garbina and Vaharci, nine miles to the south- east of Galatz. At three o'clock in the morning; the first cannon sliot was fired from the Turkish batteries. At six o'clock a violent cannonade commenced. As the iili n\ 478 BATTLE OF MATCH IN. Russians had neither cavalry nor artillery, their infantry had to attack the Turkish cavalry with the bayonet, but on the arrival of a Russian cannon the fij^ht assumed a different aspect. The Turks stopped fiiin;^ and with- drew. The Russian troops liavin^f been reinforced by the reniaininj^ j)ortions of tiie brigade then obtained a firm footing; on the Hudjak heights. The Russian official report said that the troops displayed admirable valour, and that the loss was seven officers and forty-one men killed, and two officers and eighty-eight men wounded. On the night of the 2 2nd the Czar, with the Czarewitch and the Gr.md Dukes Vladimir, Alexis, and Sergius, arrived at Galatz, and paid a visit to the hospital. Immediately after this General Zimmtrmann took possession of Matchin, which had been abandoned by the Turks, and was occupied by the Russians without figiiting. The clergy and Christian population received the regiment with great ceremony, crosses and sacred pictures being carried in procession. The regiment marched in with colours flying, and the band played the Russi.m National Anthem. After occuj^ying Matchin the Russians opened right and left, capturing Toult.scha on the east, and Hirscwa on the west. A second crossing of the Danube was effect .■(! by the Russians on June 27th. Very early in the morning a cor/>s d\innir, under (ieiierai Dr.u,Mmiroff, crossed in boats, protected by iron shields, at Simnitza, ami, not- withstanding some sh irp firing from the Turkish bat- teries, effected a landing by daybreak, by which time no fewer than 208 boats had made the passage. The Turkish troops then retired from their position at Sis- tova, which was immediately occupied by the Russian.s, the (irand Duke Nicholas crossed' over u ith reinforce- ments, and the Czar at once issued a proclamation to the Bulgarians, announcing the entrance of his army into their territory, where it had already several times fought for the sake of the Christians, and promising that " 1 Ienceft>r\\ard the Russian arms should protect every Christian against all violence, and that all crime should be followed by fitting punishment." The Bulgarians Tllli CZAK CROSSES llIE DANUBE. 479 were then told that " as the Russians advance the Turkish power will be replaced by regular ()rf^anisati(.)ns in wiiich the Hul^'ari.ms will be summoned to take an active part, anil now Hul},'arian lej^ions will be formed in order to maintain onier and security." On the 28ih June the Czar himself crossed over ti^ Sistova, where he was received with the utmost enthu- siasm by the Christians, llavinj; established themselves at Sistova, the Russians at once bejjan to complete the construction of a pontoon bridge, and this, notwith- standing a violent g.ile, and the interference of a Turkish monitor, was ready in three days, when a lar^'c force was enabled to cross, and a general move forward was maile. The invaders continuetl to advance, and as each town was taken by the Russians a municipal administration was at once (jr[janised, and Matchin and Sistova were placed under Christian magistrates, elected by the inh.ibitants from amonj^ their own citizens. Meanwhde the batteries on either side of the river at other places were not idle. I*or a distance of 230 miles along the Danube, from Widdin to Silistria, the bom- bardment was being carried on with more or less activity. Tims by a skilful ant! unexpected move the Ru>sians had overcome what was expected to be a great difficulty in the way of their progress southward ; antl in place of suffering a long ami exhausting delay on the northern bank of the iJanuhe, found themselves at once in the heart of Bulgaria, and close upon the second 'lurkish line of defence — the lialkan range of mountains. Continuing their advance into the interior, tin- Rus- sians oht.iined posse-^sion ol Tirnova, the ca|)ital of the province, a tortificd town, which stands on a basaltic hill, 1. 000 feet high. The garrison, which numbered 3,000 Nizams and a large number of Redifs, were sur- prised and driven out of the town, leaving their camp and ammunition in the hands of the Russians. As usual, the Christian portion of the population welco'.ied the invaders with a religious procession, and ^aiig a Va Deum in their honor. Hiela also was oc^uj)ied, being '>i' ! r ■ I' .. 1 I. .- \\-- ! lil i i % iili ■ . I 4''n ( MUISTIANS WKI.COME THK RUSSIANS. evacuated Uy the links vvitliout .iti)' --liow of i<' .is'.uict 'liu; Russians hail imw about I20.oi|is, on the upper JJanube ami only a fuw miles from I'levna, afterw.irds the scene of such threat slau^diter. 'I'he Russians had been heavily bombarilint,' this town for more than a week, assisted by the Roun)anian batteries on the other side of the river. On Sund.iv, the I5lh of July, the attack was renewed with pjreatcr activ- ity, under Lieut. -General liaron Krudener, and the Ru.s- sians, ^.lininij possession of the heij^hts commandinL,^ the town, commenced to pour in a hurric.uie of shells. Uf)on this the garrison attempted a retreat, which was pre- vented by the Russian infantry, so that at daybreak on Monday morning the Turkish commanders, Achmed and Hassan I'.ishas, agreed to surrender, and the town, with its garrison of 6,000 men and 40 guns, together with ri RUSSIANS I'ASS TIIK MAI, KAN MoLNIAFNS. 481 ' r tw(j intinitors, fell into the h.iiuls ()f the l', surprised tlie small Turkish f >rce which was posted there, and ;,fained pij.ises- sion of the piss. Next i\.xy (u'lieral (iourko atlvanccd still farther, fou^'ht .mother en;4ai;ciTient near /\rz i/.are, and sent forward to Ycni Sa<,fra, a station on the Adrian- ople railway, a detachment of C'oss.icks, who created .1 terrible panic amongst the inhabitants and officials of the district. Marchin;^ from I'^ski Saj^^ra (leiier.ils Cjourko ;ind Mursky boldly attacked and captured Ke/.anlik, a town at the Roumelian eiul of the Shipka I'ass, .md .subscciuently made an att.ick on the Turkish entrench- ments in the p.iss itself The first .itteinpt f.iiled, and the Russians were driven back, but a second attack proved successful, and the Turks abandonii^}^ ei^ht splendid positions, all well fortified, t!ic pass was occupied by the Russians, whose success was in a ^reat me.isiire owint; to the Hulgari.in j^uiides, who led the advance guard over small passes known onl\' to themselves, and consequently in no way defended by the Turks. The news that the Russians had so easily succeeded in cross- in}^ the much-dreaded Halkans, h;id a \er\' dispiriting.'; efiect upon the Turks, more especially as their troops seemed nowhere to be op[)osin^ any really efficient resistance to the Russian advance. About this time the conteiulinj^ nations betjan to accuse each other of practisinj^f the most horrible cruel- ties towards the sick and wounded soldiers who fell into their hands, and also upon defenceless women and chil- dren. A circular issued by the Porte to its represent. i- I' 1! ' ■ J i /:l , 48: CRUELTIES TOWARD SICK AND WOUNDED. \ .^ tives abroad detailed the various villai^cs burnt and the number of inluibitants massacred by the Russians and RulLjarians. Replying to the Turkish accusations, the Grand Duke Nicholas iii his report asked how the Mussulman author- ities, who took to flight on the approach of the Russians, testify to such occurrences. He also reuiarked that " If isolated acts of vengeance are committed by the Bulga- rians, who had been oppressed for centuries, they cannot be {jreventcd by the Russians," and said that the foreign military attaches and newspai)er correspondents can attest that no act of cruelty has been committed by Russian soldiers. He explained that the four vessels laden with stones which had been sunk at the mouth of the Danube, had been placed there to prevent Turkish monitors from entering the river, and would be removed as soon as hostilities should ceasL. "I?' the Shipka Pass," he says on the 28th Jul}', when tlje Turks were attacked on the southern side, and found it impossible to continue ti.e defence, they hoisted the white flag. The Russian troops at once ceased firing, and the 13th and 15th battalions of riflemen advanced to take possession of the entrenchments, but were suddenly assailed with a discharge of grapeshot and rifles, which inflicted very severe losses upon them. " On the following day when General Kobelofif occu- pied the position the Turks had abandoned, he found by the side of some of the Turkish wounded a heap of heads of Russian soldiers who had been wounded and taken prisoners in different engagements. The foreign military attaches and the Correspondent of the /"/;«<•.? were called upon to certify to this fact." Besides these instances of treachery and cruelty there had been a massacre of Christians at Kavarna, near Baltchuk, on the Black Sea, the women and children being treated in a manner which quite precludes description. On the application of Mr. Layard, the J^ritish gunboat Rapid was sent thither to take off any of the survivors. Another report spt)ke of the niassacre of the Christian inhabitants of Yeni Sai^ra by the Turks. These mutual accusations were afterwards rf ' jjj CHANGES IN MINISTRY — TURKISH SUCCKSSKS. 483 repeated at intervals, fresh Instances of "atrocity" being reported every few days. A panic at Constantinople was caused by the con- tinued advance of tiie Russians south of the Balkans without any important check, the inhabitants entertain- ing, perhaps, little more dread of the invader than of the Turkish irregular troops, who might be forced back upon the capital. The situation had now become so serious that several changes were made in the Turkish Ministry, and poor old Abdul-Kerim, whose policy of " masterly inaction " had been taken advantage of by the Russians, was recalled {rom the seat of war and tiueatened with court-martial, and Mehemet AH was appointed com- mander-in-chief. The effect of this change was soon manifest, for now the Russians met with energetic resistance from three quarters — from Osman Pasha at Plevna, from Mehemet Ali, who advanced from Osman Bazar, and from Suleiman and Reouf Pashas south of the Balkans. The tide of fortune now turned decidedly in favour of the Turks, who beat the invaders back from almost every one of the advanced positions which they had attained. General Gourko was driven back into the Balkans, and, although he managed to hold the Shipka Pass for some days, he was at length ordered to with- draw to the other side of the mountains, as his position was isolated and very dangerous. The same bad luck seemed to follow other of the Russian leaders. General Zimmermann being unable to effect a junction with the Czarewitch, who, having set himself the task of besieging Rustchuk, was obliged to abandon the enterprise on account of sickness amongst his troops. On the 21st of July the Russians before Plevna suffered their first defeat, and General Schilder-Schuldncr, who commanded them, was sent home to Russia in disgrace ; and on the 30th and 31st Osman Pasha tried conclusions with General Kudener, when the Russians were again defeated. The second attack on Plevna resulted in a disastrous and crushing defeat of the Russian?. Owing to the !i ' % I'll 1 I 1 [,IJ 4«4 SKCONIJ ATTACK nS I'l.KVNA. ) ( J lailure of the previous assault dm the 19th .itul 20th of July it h.id been (Kcideil to attack the town in force. The Russians only numbered some 32,000, while the Turks, who were commanded b)' ( )sni.in I'ash.i, witre able to brinij reinforceiiK'nts from Widdin which broa^lu their number ii|) to 40,000 am[)le w.is speedily followed by I'rince Schackoskoy. These were cummons with a glaii cheer, and moved forward in one long undulating line down into the valley. They were warmly received by the Turks, but neverthel ess pus hed on the rcser\es, rapidly filling up tiie gaps tnade by the Turkish deadly fire. Tile Turkish positions were neared, and suddenly the otticers uavet.! their swords, the soldiers closed uj) into one concentrated mass, antl then .1 general charge was made upon the intrenchments. which after a bloody re carried. The main earthworks being sub stru; we sequently abandoned by the Turks, the Russians thus became masters of '.he first Turkish position. Flushed with success, tieneral Schackosko)- now ordered his una 1 RUSSIANS RE-CROSS THE BALKANS. 48; to charge the second ridjjfc, but allhoii^li lliis position was occupied for a few moments by the Russi.ins.' ihe Turkish fire proved too deadly fur them to ix^ld it, .md about 6 P.M. Turkish reinforcements coming up coin[)elletl the Russians to retire, after a most determined contlict. Then ammunition f.uled the Russians, and though reserve after reserve appeared, it was only to swell the slaughter, the retreat at last became general, .uid the Turks ad- vancing in swarms, recaptured their Hrst posiliijn, and began to shell the ridge from which the Russians origi- nall\- began the attack. .About 9 r..\I. the Staff (juilled the ridge, and then came a night of horrors. 'I'roops retreating in all directions, wounded men ever\- where, limping along the pathway, prostrate on the grass, or hiding in the ravines ; artillery, cavalry and infantry, promiscuously mingled, a flying mass of men, liorses and wagons in the full tide of retreat. By the middle of August all the Russians who Iiad crossed the Balkans had been com[)elled to return, although they still occupied theShipka P.iss. The trans- Jialkan three weeks' campaign cost the Russians i,Co3 killed and wounded, while their entire lossu p to July 28th, according to official sources, amounted to 14,459 killed and wounded. While the events before recorded were taking place in European Turkey, another division of the Russian forces, under the Grand Duke Michael, was engaged in Asia. The army of the Caucasus, numbering 130,000 troops, with 300 guns, besides irregulars and Cossacks, crossed in four places. First blootl was drawn near Alexandropol, f« ronie for Kars, with result, accordir.g to Turkish accounts, of the loss of 800 of the enemy, while the Russians claimed to have captured lOO Turkish pris- oners, with loss on their side of only one Cossack and a few wounded. So far, however, as can be gathered from the evidence, the Russians appear to have had b\- far the best of the contest at the outset. But they advanced too rapidly, and without sufficient caution, and the result was that they were ultimately be.iten back with great loss. Early in May a severe engagement was fought 29 III Ji: Bli Si- !il \ i|i 486 TURKS LOSE FORTRESS OF ARDAIIAN. near IJatoum, whicli resulted in a complete route of the Russians. The Turks, who claim to have left 4,000 dead Russians on the battle field, fought behind en- trenchments on high ground with great bravery, and from the nature of their position lost fewer men than the Kussians. The news of the victory caused immense enthusiasm among the entire Turkish armv in Asia, and was received with acclamation in Constantinople and at th'.' scat of war on the Danube. Another notable 'J'urkish success was the capture of Soukhoum Kaleh. After a bombardment by three iron- clads, a large bod}' of troops were landed, and, after a severe struggle, took possession of the fortifications. This news created much enthusiasm in Constantinople, and large sui)plics of arms and ammunition were sent, together with emissaries, to endeavor to incite an insiu'- rection among the Circassians. This project, however, failed of success, as the uprising was speedily suppressed by large bodies of Russian troops. The Turkish fleet was dispatched to capture exposed Russian sea-board towns ; but little was accomplished in this direction, only a few minor places being bombarded. As a set-off to the loss of Soukhoum Kalch the Russians obtained possession of the important frontier fortress of Ardahan. The attack was vigorously commenced on the 15th of May by General Loris Melikoff, who succeeded in carry- ing the heights which commanded the town, and which by some strange negligence do not appear to have been in any way adequately fortified by the Turks. On the 17th the Russian artillery effected a breach in the walls of the town, which was subsequently .stormed by a col- umn 17,000 strong, the Turks making good their retreat to Erzeroum, the road to Kars being blocked by the Russians. The Turkish loss must have been large, as the Russians claim to have buried 800 bodies, while 82 field and siege guns, large stores of ammunition and provisions, and the whole camp equipment on the banks of the River Kura were taken. The capture of Ardahan was a very important success for the invading army, as m lie Is )1- lat MOUKIITAR PASHA S SUCCESS. 487 it not only opened the roads to Er/.croum and Kars, but the troops enf^ac:^cd in besieging the town were thus set free to march forward to the assistance of the force before Kars. The operations against that city, under General Komarofif, were still energetically carried on, but the Turks wore well able to hold their own, the fortifica- tions having been greatly strengthened during recent years. The Russian General 'rchukelaieff. who was wounded in the attack on Ardahan, subsequently died of his wounds. Leaving a strong force before Kars and Batouni, the Russians now [jushed forward towards Erzeroum, gradually forcing back Aloukhtar l*asha, who attempted to withstand them in the Soghanli l*ass. The Russians afterwards advanced to within two miles of Moukhtar I'asha's position. On the other iiand, the Russians around Hayazid were defeated by Faick Pasha with a detachment of Kurds from Van, wlvlst Hatoum was relieved from the dreaded occupation of the Russians by Dervisch Pasha, who, on the 23d, completely routed the attacking force. The greatest success, however, was obtained by Moukhtar Pasha, who took a noteworthy revenge for his former defeat in the Delibaba Pass. He began a forward movement from I'Lrzeroum on the 3 1st, and, after two days' hard fighting, not only succeeded in dislodging the Russians from their positions, but drove them back in disorder upon Zeidi Khan. On the 25th there was a great battle at Zewin, in which General Melikoff, who wished to prevent Moukhtar Pasha from going to the relief of Kars, lost a very large number of men and suffered a very severe defeat, so that according to Turkish accounts communication was restored with the besieged city, Moukhtar Pasha being encamped at 'less than a dozen miles distance. Early in July the Russians commenced to retreat along the whole line in Asia, confessing that they had underrated their opponents' strength, and had committed an imprudence by trusting to isolated columns without supporting them by reserves. Thus the right wing, under General Oklobjo, retired into Russian tv.-rritory, the centre, under General Melikoff, also retreated, while >* 1 , 1 1 ''1 « 5h 'I i I IM H 488 RUSSL.NS RLTIIIE FROM ASIA MINOR. the left wiiv^ mili-T General 'rcrijiikas.soff ciulcavorcd to relieve the citnlel of H.ij-azid, whuse i^arrjsoii was still closely be>ic.;cil by I'ue Turks under I'^aick I'asha. Not- witlistandiiiL^ tiieir numerous defeats, the Kussi.uis carried on the b )nibardnient of K.irs more vi^^orously than ever, but they were unable to prevent the atlvance of Moukhtar I'asha, who, with the main bndy of the Turkish forees, ariived on the 7th at iJjievlikia, about live miles distant from Kars, and Djjciied c'lmmuiiic.ition with the (garrison, the new (jovernor, Menemenli I\i.iha, haviuLj been [previously enabled to enter the city with a reinforcement of 4,000 men. On the lOtli of July. General Ter<^idllow an accidental encounter, and sometimes give rise to serious alarm. Meantime the war continued to rac.ye in ICuropean Turkey, carr^'ing devastation in its waki;. The dre.idful sufferin!4s of the non-combatant portion of the jjopulation of the invaded districls is al:iio;L b.'yond belief. The track of e.ich army is everj.wiicre marked b\- burnt vil- lages, the inhabitants of wiiich, who were fortunate enouLdi to «.'sca|)e butcher)-, ware seen n\'in;4 for shel- ter to Constantinople. Adrianople, riulii[)opolis, and other places. Not less tlian loO.OOO fu,j;ilives were gathered in the three places nameii ; most of them '-Id men and wonnai, aiul \oung chililien, t'macialed, stpialid, and in ra;_;s. 'I'iie smaller towns wcie likewise crowded with refugees. So great was the suffering, and so ex- hausting the drain of .d)le-bodied men, tiiat it became more and more e\ident tiiat tlu: ultimate ccjncpiest of Turkey was only a cpie^tion of lime. Alter the abantionment of the Trans-l^alkan cam- paign the Russian torces returned into the mount;iin fastnesses, of which tlu- Shipka Pass was the most im[)ortant. At this place the\' entrenched themselves and vigorously resisted attacks made upon them by greatly superior Airces oC the Turks. On the 2!st August, an im])ortant engagement took place here, the Turkish forces pushing u|> the steeps directly above the village of Shipk.i. The Russian garrison in the works of the pass then consisted of the Bulgarian Legion and one regiment of the 9th Division, both weakened by previous hard fighting, and probably reckoning little more than 3,000 bayonets, with about forty cannon. No supports were nearer than Tirnova, a distance of forty miles — a grave omission. The garrison t I 1 ' 'I ' il ? U M 490 BATTLE OF SIIIPKA PASS. fought hard and hindered the Turks from j;aining any material advantage, though they forced the outer line of the Russian shelter trenches on the slopes below the position of Mount St. Nicholas, the highest peak of the Shipka crossing. The Russians had laid mines in front of their trenches, which were exploded just as the head of the Turkish assaulting parties were massed above them, and a large number of Moslems were blown into the air in fragments. The loss to the Russians on the first day's attack was but 200, chiefly of the Hulgarian Legion. On the second day the fighting was not iieavy. the Turks being engaged in making a wide turning nuive- ment on the right and left flanks of the Russian posi- tion, and these attacks were developed with great fierceness and pertinacity. On the following day (the 23rd) the Turks assailed the Russian position on the front and flanks, and drove in the defenders from their outlying ground. The radical defects of the position became painfully apparent, its narrowness, its exposure, its liability to be out- flanked and isolated. ^^Jrtunately reinforcements had arrived, which averted the mischief which had other- wise imminently impended. Stoletoff hit his hardest, full of energy and force after four long days of intense mental and physical strain, but he could not perform impossibilities with 50,000 men thundering on his front and flank. Hut there had come to him, swiftly march- ing from Selvi, a brigade of the 9th Division, com- manded by another valiant soldier. General Derot- chinski, and this 'timely succour hatl been of material value to Stoletoff. The fight lasted all day, and at length, as the sun grew lower, the Turks had so worked round on both the Russian flanks that it seemed as though the claws of the crab were about momentarily to close behind the Russians, and that the Turkish columns climbing the Russian ridge would give a hand to each other on the road in the rear of the Russian position. The moment was dramatic with an intensity to I5ATTI.E OF SIIII'KA PASS. 49' which the tamcncss of civih'an life cm furnish no par.'illcl. The two Russian generals, expecting momen- tarily to be environed, had sent, between the closing claws of the crab, a last telegram to the C/ar, telling what they expected, how they tried to prevent it, and how that, please God, driven into their positions and beset, they would hold t. .se till reinforcements should arrive. At all events, they and their men would hold their ground to the last drop of their blood. It was six o'clock ; there was a lull in the fighting, of which the Russians could take no advantage, since the reserves were all engaged. The grimmed, sun- blistered men were beaten out with heat, fatigue, hun- ger, and thirst. There had been no cooking for three days, and there was no water within the Russian lines. The poor fellows lay panting on the bare ridge, reckless that it was swept by the Turkish rille fire. Others doggedly fought on down among the rocks, forced to give ground, but doing so grimly and sourly. The cliffs and valleys send back the triumphant Turkish shouts of " Allah il Allah !" The two Russian generals were on the peak which the first position half encloses. Their glasses anxiously scanned the visible glimpses of the steep brown road leading up thither from the Jantra valley, through thick copses of sombre green, and yet more son'''M-e liark rock. Stoletoff cries aloud in sudden excess ■ xcite- ment, clutches his brother general by the a.m, and points down the pass. The head of a long black ■column was plainl)- visible against the reddish-brown bed of the road. " Now, God be thanked I" says Stoletoff, solemnly. Both generals bare their heads. The troops spring to tiieir feet. They descry the long black serpent coiling up the brown road. Through the green copses a glint of sunshine flashes, banishes the sombreness, and dances on the glittering bayonets. Such a gust of Russian cheers, whirls and eddies among the mountain tops, that the Turkish war cries are wholly drowned in the glad welcome which the Russian soldiers send to the comrades coming to help them. I'! D 492 RUSSIAN KK-INFORCKMKNTS AKRIVK. It is the- l-iiflr liri^Mde. The same which followed General (ionrko in his victorious advance and ch((jiR:red' retreat, and which, alter niarchin}.; thirty-five miles strai^dit on. without cookin;; or skepin;^, now j^oes at onci; into action without so nuich as a b''catliiii<^f halt. Such is tlu; stuff of which thorou;^h ;;ood soldiers are made. Their general, the j^allant Tzwiliu'-ky. accompanies them, anil pushes an attack on the enem\''s position on that woodeil rids^i- on the Ru>sian ri_L;ht. lUit kadelzky, who himself brought up the tirailleurs, and so at the least reckonin;;' sa\ed the day, marclu ■■ on up llie ro.id with his staff at his back, runs the tiinlc i;auntlet (d" the 'I'urki-h rille fire, and joins the otlu.'r two generals on the peak hard b}' the battiries of the fust position. ^As senior and highe,-t officer present, he at once took" commaiul, complimentinij General SloU.'toff, whom he relie\'etl, on the excellence of his disi)ositions and stubbornness of defence. The lUdgarian peasant l)o}s displa\( d singular gall.mlr}", by going down into the actual l).:ttle, right into the first line, with stcMie cmeks full of w.iter lor the fighting men. This water w.is fetched from far in the rear, along a bullet-swejit road. One lad had his crock sniasheil bj' a bullet as he passed, and he wept, not for joy at his fortunate escape, but for sorrcnv at tlie loss of the article which enabled him to be of service. On the morrow at daybreak tlu; attack was renewed by the Turks. TiiC fighting was continuous in the valley, and the reinforcements of the 9th Division sent down greatly helped the Russians. About nine, Dragimiroff arrived with two regiments of the 2nd Brigade of his own division, tlu- Podolsk Regiment, He left in reserve near the khan the J itomer Regiment, and marched up the road to the first position. There was no alternative but to traverse that fearfully dan- gerous road, for the lower broken ground on its left was impracticable, and swarming with Bashi-Bazouks. The J itomer men lost heavily while making this pro- menade, and having reached the peak, found no safe HATTI.E OF SIIIPKA PASS. 493 slultcr, for the Turkish rillc fire was coming from two quarters sinuiltiincously. S(^ tlic iufcUit ry were stowed away till wanted ii\ the ditch of the rodouhf. Ray the victory of Karahassankoi the Turks became masters of the coun- ^try lying between the two branches of the Ltmi, the "Ak," or White I.om. to the east, and the '' Kara," or Black Lom, to the west. Another engagement between portions of the two contending armies of the Danube took place at Kech- lowa, between Turkish columns commanded by Kyoub and Sabit Pashas, and the 12th Russian army corps. The battle in itself was not important, but the crossing of the Danube by the Turkish troops cau.sed a complete :ccl us- .1 of m- hc or RKI ,i(;i()i,'s si:kvuh> i>n '■" AKI> A hkki-^ii M \\-' I \V\k -< ^ Ul s S u N a. Ul 2 ? BATTLE OF LOFTCHA. 497 hegira of the Bulgarian peasantry, who retreated by every available route, choking up the narrow roads and impeding the march of the armies with innumerable ox- carts, piled up with children, household effects, pigs, fowls, bed and beddmg, which they were vainly endeav- oring to save from the pillaging Turks. On the 2d of September the Russians attacked the very important Turkish fortified stronghold o<" Loftcha, a town of only about i2,ooo inhabitants, but a very valuable strategic jjositioii. The Russian force engaged consisted of the 2nd Division aud a rifle brigade which had returned from Gabrova, marching fifty-five miles, one brigade of the 3rd Division, and Skobeloff's brigade of Circassian Cossacks. None of the Russian troops, except the last brigade, had been previously engaged, and their strength may be reckoned at about 22,ocx) men, whilst the Turks numbered only 7,000, but had the advantage of very strong defences. General Skobelofif en the previous evening marched from Kakrind, his previous defensive position, and car- ried a position on the northeast of Loftcha, which rendered the place virtually untenable. In the night, therefore, the Turks fell back on the fortified range of heights behind the town, and there awaited the attack. This was begun with artillery at sunrise, and the Rus- sians' advance was so conducted that their artillery, pass- ing south of Loftcha, took up a position enfilading the range of heights held by the Turks, and also cut off their retreat into the Balkans over the Trajan Pass. The last and strongest redoubt of the Loltcha fortifications was garrisoned by Turkish regulars, who fought stubbornly, and were only to be driven out by liantl to hand fighting. A ruse was planned by the Russian comuiantler, and a small force was sent against the strong southern face of the fort. Whilst the attention of the Turkish force was thus diverted, the main attack was pushed forward by the Russian troops in open order and strongly supported by reinforcements up the eastern slope of the redt)ubt. When all was in readiness, wiih a wild hurrah the Rus- sian troops leaped forward, and despite a perfect shower 498 UATTLK OF LOFTCIIA. of sliclls and bullets, tlicy reached the ditch, leaped into it and cKunbercd up the parapet. A fierce striigj^le fol- lowed ; then the Turks retreated in disorder, but firinj^ as they ran. Vaiidy they endeavored to join their army at Plevna. The way was blocked by Skobeloff's artillery ; only the road to tlie west was open, and this they f /llowetl. The\- dared not yield, for they i^nienibered full well how lliey had served the wounded Russians at Plevna, and tliey knew that the remembrance of that day was animaiiiiLT the Russians n ow. Tl le enemv s tire was deadly upo!i tin.' retreatin;^ Moslems, ana tiieir loss was great. The pur.^uit w:\< kej)t uj) for miles by the Cos- sack ca\alry. .After the fi^^ht the grountl w.is luaped with di-ad and wounded of bot'n arp.iies, many of tlieni t and b;:\"onet wnuntis. A iiard torn \.i!.li ooLli bulle battle had been fouLjht ; \ ictory perches upon the Rus- sian banners, and Loftcha was theirs. The Turks had lost one of the most important defensive [)ositions north of ihr P.alkaus. A week later the Turk:; met with another loss of importance in the capture by the AIontenet;rins of the \\'A\ autl )rti!u town of Xicsics, which the former lad made such i/'reat saciiiices to retam. I- ive times the now brave ]\Ionlenei;rins had bcsiei^ed this place, and with all its stores and armament it fell into their hands, and the\' were left masters of the situation almost with- out an opposinij force. The Russian armies by the fall of Loftcha were left free to concentrate around the last stron 'lu)Id of \he Turks north of the Jj.dk an rantic, the fa mous batti ground of Plevna. On the 6th of September a vigorous cannonading was commenced by the Russian artillery upon the chain of forts and breastworks which constitute this position. A number of the Turkish guns having been silenced, a vigorous infantry assault on ti.e south- ern front was begun on the iith of September. As Skobeloff and Meritinsky moved their men up to the attack, the Turks opened a fierce defensive fire along the whole line, from the Loftcha road through Plevna and alonj^ the Kadis on a ridge. Close to this ridge the RUSSIAN ATTACK ON I'l.F.VNA. 499 Russians had planted some tliirty <^ans not above i.joo yards from the Turkish trendies, which were .i conlinuai source ot anno}'ancc and ilaiv^er lo the 'rurks. The latter determined to dipture tne i^uns, if possible, and made a fierce assault for that purpose. Tliree attacks were made by tiieir troops, but each time the assault was rejndsed with ,t;reat loss, the Russians reservinj^^ their fire until the enemy came within a Imndred \-artis, iind then opcniuL;' a sudden and deadly fusilade uj)on the foe. This was more than human power could endure, and the Turks sullenly fell back to their own positions with a loss of over 2,ooo men. Flushed with success the Russian attack now bet^an m earnest. Kruder commanded on the rii^ht, Skobeloff to his left, and Kriloit" to the left of the latter. The battle raged unceasingly for the space of two hours, the Russian artillery keeping up a continuous fire into the redoubts, and the infantry into the trenches, as the attacking column advanced slowly and cautiously under cover of smoke and fog. A field of corn was also used for a protection. Gradually the Turkish return fire slackened, and the Russians charged with a shout. Close up to the parapet they rush, when suddenly the Turks rise up once more and pour down upon them a fire so deadly that nothing could withstand its destructive fury. The Russians wait one moment for reinforcements, but none come, and the next moment they are flying back through the field of corn in sad confusion and terribly decimated. The struggle and carnage had been in vain. Kriloft" had neglected to afford assistance, and what was left of the attacking party fled back to a friendly shelter. A second attack was more easil\' repulsed than the first, and then the day's fighting was over. On the I2tli of September a determined assault was made by the Roumanian brigade upon the Grivica redoubt, one of the strongest positions in the series of Plevna fortifications. Three battalions of Russian troops acted as reserves. The first att.ick met with a repulse ; the second was successful in taking the works, but the Turks rallying drove out the allied troops. A third 500 (iENERAI, TCULKHKN. attack made at 7 o'clock, p. tn., met with better success, and the works were finally captured. This success was of great value to the Russians, the position beincj a eoni- mandincr one. ^\nother redoubt which covered the road to Loftcha was stormed by (General Skobeloff and car- ried with a fearful loss of 4,000 men, but only to be re- taken after six vmsuccessful assaults by the Turkish forces, with a loss of 5,000. .^\t this juncture, (icneral Todlebeii, the engineer of Sebastopol, arrived at the seat of war, chari,''e(.l with the superintendence of the Russian fortifications at Plevna. Under his directions a series of parallels and strong earthworks was immediatelj- commenced ar(nuid the whole front and eastern face of the Tur!~:ish worlcs. Constant artillery duels were ke[)t u[) between the hos- tile forts, and the losses on both sides, from wounds and siclcness, were appalling and greatly weakened the offen- sive power of both combatants. On the 23rd of October, General Gourko's forces succeeded in capturing an important redoubt which partially covered the road leading to Sofia, one of the few reinaining roads left open to the Turks for transporting reinforcements and supplies. By these successes the Russians were gra- dually completing the coil which should hem in the Turkish forces ^and prevent both the re-victualling of the beleaguered forts of Plevna and the retreat of the Turkish army, in case that step should be determined upon. By Todleben's advice, a regular siege of the Turkish position was determined on, which should suc- ceed either in taking their works by gradual approach or in starving the Turks into an unconditional surrender. Plevna was full of sick and wounded men. The rations were being reduced, and nothing seemed open to the force hemmed in by the Russian coil but a violent ^or/i'c' to cut througii the Russian lines and retreat to the lialkans, unless reinforcements should come to their succor sufTicientl)' numerous and powerful to raise the Russian siege and drive back the invading arm}'. The closing of the Sofia road left only the roads in the direction of Widdin and V'enatza still open to the Turks, DEFEAT OF MUKHTAR PASHA. 501 I better success, s success was of )ii beinij a com- overed the road )beIoft' and car- t only to be rc- ))■ the Turkish the eni^nneer of haryed w ith the tions at I'levna. Icls and stron},^ ed around the Purkisli works. :twcen tlie hos- )ni wounds and :ened llie (jl'fen- :3rd of October, capturin;;^ an ercd the road nn'^ roads left forcemenis and uis were c^ra- hein in the victualling of retreat of the DC determined iei,re of the 1 should suc- ual approach nal surrender. The rations open to the out a violent nd retreat to come to theii- to raise the arni\'. The oads in the to the Turks. and these were but poor substitutes for the important hi<;hway lost to them by Gourko's success. The Mus- covite army was now in the rear of Plevna as well as in the front, and the situation constantly became more and more desperate for the Turkish forces. They had besides lost some jo,000 men as prisoners of war in the various Ru.ssian successes at Loftcha anil I'levna. To add to their discomnture a Russian cavalry detachment captured Veratza early in November, 1877, and another road thus became sealed to further use by the Turks, and communication with the army of Mehemet y\li at Orchanie became more and more difficult. Osman Pasha, the Turkish commander at Plevna, in vain attempted to reca[)ture the |)ositions taken by the Rus- sians, and suffered severe loss without any favor.ible residt. His losses within the works from the fire of the Russian artillery were j^reat, and his men were worn out and dispirited. Consternation prevailed at Constan- tinople at the position of affairs which was f^reatly incre.ised by the renewal of the siesi^e of Kars by the- Russian forces in Asia, and the crushing defeat of the army of Mukhtar Pasha on the r4th of October in front of that town. This battle was a most important one. The Russian troops pushed forward unexpectedly and drove the Turks out of Orlok and occupied that position, thus completely turning Mukhtar's right wing. They then directed a heavy cannonade against Olya Tepe, the key of the Turkish position. This the Turks were not able to endure, and General Heyman, with about 15,000 troops, b)- a sudden and vigorous assault, ca;>- tured this important position, comi)leteIy severing tlie two- wings of the Turkish army. Immense slaughter ensuetl, and the Turkish left wing fled in the greati st confusion, pursued by the Russians towards Kars ; the right nearly surrounded by the Russian forces, and driven from one position to another with im- mense loss, finally surrentlered as prisoners of war, at eight o'clock in the evening, with forty guns and all their supjilies and ec]uii)age. Seven pash.as were the prisoners. Moukhtar himself escaped to among 502 FALL OF KAKS. the fortifications of Kars. Kars was nearly surrounded by the Russian army, and its fcdl bec.une merely a cjues- tion of lime. On the l/th of Xovenibc-r (n'neral MelikolT directerl the att.ick on its fortific itions, with about 15,000 men, who climbed the steep rocl;s, ramparts and walls, and stormed the forts, (.le>:)erately iij^htincj the Turks in headlon;^' nic;ht cn'i.-r their (litches and para[)ets, C'MiipcIlin;; llnni to die or surrender. The principal attack was made on the southern Outs, (jeneral Laze- rclT commindod the rif^ht wini;'. The aitaclc bei^an in the centre at ze- rouin, \yas also besief^ed by a Russian force, and all communication completely severed. Thus every force of any account possessed by the Turks was thrown upon the defensive, hemmed in and besiej^ed by powerful Russian armies, and their power for offensive operations was completelx' destroyed. The pride of the Turks was liumbled, their customarv boastful self-confidence and reliance u[)on a protectin,;.^ fate was measurably de- stroyed, and they found themselves almost at the feet of that power which they had but recently so boast- fully and haughtily defied. nearly surrounded me merely a ques- V General MelikofT with about 15,000 in parts and walls, tjhting- the Turks les ami par.ijiets, r. The principal ;s. (Jener.d Laze- e attack beijan in iiiiiL;', when Count Khanii redoubt, jjtain Kwatlmicki, enter the redoubt, s cut clean out of pierced. The re- nef and the three he capture of the ianvarri, and Fort t by daylit^ht on ad made proijress uiii^di. The other ce until 8 o'clock Lhat could escape lost 4,000 killed >o cannon and all 10 men. ks in Asia, l^rze- ;in force, and all Thus every force was thrown upon ::^ed by i)owerful ensive operations of the Turks was If-confidence and measurably de- most at the feet xently so boast- 1 I ii"i;Akr i'\-H.\. 10 I iS. Vr/' CHAPTER XIV. FALL OF PLEVNA AND CLOSH OF TIIK WAR. \Vc have seen in a previous chapter that when, in the control of the Russian armies, rank of birth j^ave way to military ability and strate' miles on the only possible lines of Turkish retrea-t, were captured. (jorni-Dubiiik fell after six hours of sharp fighting, 3000 Turks surrender- ing. The forts were then strengthened and occupied by I 5o8 RAPID PROGRESS OF TIIK SIKOK. the Russians. Tcliclic and Dolni-Diihuik, fortified places, next fell before the Russian arms. Chefket Pasha, who was striving to defend the Turkish rear, was attacketi and defeated at Radorniirzy. The fortified town of Teteveu was stormed and captured siiortl}' after. Tile defeat of Chefket Pasha led to his remov.d, and to the appointment of Meheniet Ali to the command of the Turkish army aiming at the relief of Plevna. The new commander arrived at Sophia on the i8th of Xovember, 1877, to assume command of demoralized forces, which could hardly be called an army, though numberin^^ some 50,000 men. The work of reor^^ani/inj^f this botly and rendering it effective was too j^reat and re([uired too lonsjj time to enable Mehcmct Ali to afford any material assistance to the beleaiijuered forces in Plevna. The Russian successes in their attacks upon the fortified places surrounding Plevna continued. The Pravitza Pass was captured, and Pravitza itself occupied with small loss. JCtopol, in the Jialkan range, also fell before their victorious advance. These Russian victories left the 'T'urkish army in Plevna without a single communication open in their rear, with no possibility of any succour from without, and with no fortified place to afford shelter even if they were able to cut their way through the investing Russian lines. On the River Lom, a severely fought battle took place on the 26th of November, at IVIechka, an attack on that place having been made by the Turks, ceasing at seven o'clock in the evening, with indecisive results, but with heavy losses to both contestants. On the 2 1st of November, the Roumanian allies of the Russians attacked the Turks at Rahova, on the Danube, and carried that position after a protracted struggle of three days, during which both parties fought with great bravery. This lel't no fortified stronghold northwest of Plevna still in the hands of the Turks save only the well-known fortress of Widdin. This also the Roumanians contemplated investing, but were stayed by the events at Plevna. The opening of December found Osman Pasha and r TIIK INVKSTMKNT COMrLETi.D. ;o9 his army cooped up in Plevna bcj'ond the possil)ility of escape cr siicco ir ; the Turkish -Army of the Loin decini.'ited by an unsuccessful attack, ami too far away to be of an\' service to the other forces ; their i^arrison at Widdin cut off", and Meheuiet y\li's troo[)s soutii of the Jialkans in helpless inactivity. The dispositit)n of the Russian forces was as follows: the army under the more immediate control of TodK'l)en at Plevna, numbered iJ5,ooo men; 8,000 men under the command of the Czarewitch constituted their army of the Lorn; a force of 20,000 occupieil the Shi[)ka Pass, under General Radetski; while the reserves were located at Tirnova. Sistova and points in the rear. Meantime, General Gourko, by occupying; the l)rid;^^c over the river Vid, liad completed the investment (^f the Turkish positions at Plevna, upon which tin: attention of the world was now directed. Near this bridge the Turks held one of the most important redoubts of their defen- sive lines of Plevna fcjrtifications, knowri as the Krishine redoubt. An impi)rtant eminence, the (ireen Hill, ])ar- tially commanded this position, and a movement w.is arran<;ed by which this lieit;"ht should be stormed and carried Ly the combined forces of (ieiierals (ioi.rko ;uul Skobeloff. Under cover l a fog they pushed forward, and, notwithstanding tlie heavy fire of the Turkish forces, they succeeded in capturing and fortifying the coveleil elevation. On three successive nights the Turks, with furious attack, sought to regain the position, but in vain. The Russian lines, under cover of the fire of the Green Hill batteries, were pushed to within one hundred yards of the Turkish ram[)arts. A ct)ntinuous fire of artdlery was kept up by Todleben from some portion of tlie 400 guns encircling the Turkish position night and tla)-, for the purpose of harassing and exhausting the garrison. One hundred guns at a time belched forth their blintiing smoke and deadly missiles. No rest was allowed to the beleaguered forces. The situation in Plevna was dail)' becoming more unendurable. Meat was only served out once a week and then in very small rations. Three-quarters of a i)ondu 510 FALL OK PLKVNA. of bread daily per man kjpt the Turkish troops from actual starvation, but little more. A Council of War was held, and it was there annouiuxil that the store of bread was nearly exhausted, and the ammunition for heavy artillery at a low ebb. Nothing was left to do but make a desperate sortie with a view to escape, or an outri^dit suriender. The former was decided u])on. On the ni^ht of the 9th December, I1S77. the entire army, save only a few troups left to garrison the reduubts, was pushed forward into the Valley of the Vid. At two o'clock in the morning they commenced crossing the stream by live bridj^e.s, one permanent of stone and (vur extem])()ri/ed structures, bcj quiet was the movement that the Russians were \U)t aware of it until the Tiu'kish skirmishers approached to within one hundred yards of their lines. The riy;ht of the 'I'urkish attack was de- fended by six j^uns ; the crossin;^ on the left by eleven guns on the high ground near the stone bridge under the immediate commantl of Usman I'asha. The cross- ing of the army was impeded by the crowd of citizens of rievna, who insisted on accompanying the army. At daybreak the cannonade commenced. The bridges were completely swept by Russian artillery, and the destruc- tion of life and property was immense. Soon after one of the temporary bridges was destroyd. Still the Turks pushed on to the attack, and carrieu tne first Russian lines. Again they pushed forward, and captured si.\ guns of tlie Russian .second line. At this critical jimc- ture tne Turkish shell gave out. The Russians then turned their flank ; Osman I'asha was wounded in the leg and his horse killed ; and before one-half of the Turks had crossed the stream, the day was lost, and the entire force laid down their arms, and the fall of Plevna was an accomplished fact. The prisoners of war numbered twelve I'ashas, 120 superior officers, 2,000 subordinate officers, and 50,000 men, including the sick and wounded. 80 guns and a large quantity of ammunition were also cajjtured. The Tierceness of the struggle to escape is attested by the loss i>R the part of the Turks of uver 4,000 killed. The I'KorosAi.s lou i'i;.\ci;. 511 Russians found upon their triiiniph.il entry into IMcvna some 20,000 men I)'in<; disabled frDin sickness, starvation and wounds. Great rejoiciiv_j took place throu.c^hoiit Russia and Roumania at the news of the fall of this impre^Miable i'urkish stroni^hoid, and of the eapture of the last effec- tive army which Turkey had in the field. 'i"o the Turks the news was not unexpected. The)- had lon^ antici- pated such a result, and the utmo^^t the)' had daretl to liope for was that the army of Mehemet AH would be able to afford sucii outside assistance to ()sman as to enable him to break through the investing lines and escape to Sophia. Plevna fell on lhe<;th December, 1S77. On the 12th the Turkish Government issued a circul.ir note to the 'J'rcaty Towers askin;^ their medi.ition for peaci\ In this note the Porte stated with their accustomed boldness, that wliile not })leadin^f as a vanciuished .State, ainl havin;^ still two lines of defence, and animated still by a deter- mination to fi^dit to the bitter cn(\ for the integrity and honor of the nation, they were yet willintf to treat on the basis of the acceptance of the proposals made by the Conference, ami wliich Turkey had previously so disdain- fully and hau<;htilj' rejected. On this basis a peace, she claimed, mit,dit still be made without affecting the dignity (jf either belligerent. It is needless to say that these terms were promptly rejected by Russia, and were coldly received by the other powers, who seemed to be much more ready to discuss the partition of Turkey from the standpoint of each one's selfish interest, than to at'ford her any assistance in preserving the Ottoman iiitegrit)'. All negotiations for peace at this juncture fell through. On the 4th December, Suleiman Pasha made a mighty effort to drive back the forces of tb.e Grand Duke Vladimir at IClena, on the River Lom, and to ca[)ture Tirnova. In the attack upon Klena they were successful after a desperate struggle, in which the Russians lost 2,000 men and several guns. I'or the three following days the fighting continued, but the Russians being ( ii \-'- 512 AIiVAN'CE UrON SOF'IILA. reinforced drove back tlic Turks, and Suleiman was finally forced to burn and evacuate the dearly bought Elena. On the 1 2th of the same month Suleiman made a vi£Torous attempt against IMechka, a strongly entrenched \illage. He advanced with strong artillery force and began a furious cannonade. Six times the lurks charg- ed, and six times were driven back by a storm of shot and shell, and finalh- forced back across the Lom with a loss of over 2,000 men. At the time of the fall of Plevna, General Gourko was at Orkhanieh, with his force, planning a winter cam- l)aign against the Turkish army at Sophia, under com- mand of Mehcmet Ali. Almost insurmountable difficul- ties opi^osed an advance upon So]^hin. The Balkan range lay bctv/cen ; its narrow and rugged pa.sses were filled with snow and ice ; artillery could only be carried over by being drawn up by hand; the cavalry could only cross with the greatest difficulty by one route ; and every pass was beset by Turkish sharp-shooters. Yet in the face of the obstacles the passage was made. Christ- mas morning was the time set for the commencement of the forward movement. Steps were cut in the ice, and up the slippery paths the soldiers crej)t. Each night they lay down to rest in hoUs scooped in the snow, or by watch-fires on the ice. The coldius-; was so intense that many ot" the scouts were frozen to death though re- liev'jd every half-hour. At length the summit was reached, and below the Russian ami)', on the other side, was seen the valley of.Sophia and the Tu-kish entrench- ments. The descent was as slow as the ascent, and then two days' delay was caused by the non-arriv-u of the de- tachments which took the more distant passes. The movements on the south side of the JJalkans were in sight of the Turkish forces, and great cau'don was necessary. The passage cost the Russians 1,200 men. But the flanking mo\'enient was successful and the Turks at Kur- marli were completely severed from those in Sophia. An immediate attack on the Turkish position was made, and Chaker I'asha, who had superseded Mehemet Ali, / . THE TURKISH ARMIES ANXIIIILATKn. 513 resolved upon a hasty retreat, in which movement lo lost 2iooo men. Meantime Suleiman Pasha, now appointed Commander-in-Chief of all the Turkish forces, arrived at Sophia, but concurred in the necessity for a retreat. The Russian troops entered the town on the 4th of Januarv, 1878. On the 9th of January, General Radetsky achieved one of the greatest victories of the war in the ca()ture, at the Shipka Pass, of tlie whole Turkish ami}' at that [)oint, in all, 25,000 men and all their guns, deneral Gourko cap- tured the Iktiman defile on the I ith of the same month. Consternation now prevailed iu the Turkish camps and amongst the populace. Suleiman Pasha determined upon a retreat to ^Adrianople. The retreat of the army was imjiedcd by the crowds of men, women and children who left their homes and fled before the atlvaneiiig Russians. This immense horde of citizens, constantly swelling, soon numbered over 100,000 souls. Thousands perished from hunger, cold and exposure. The line iA the Turkish re- treat was known as "The Road of the Dead." Suleiman fired the town of Tatar-Hazardik ; but so close upon his heels was Gourko, that he extinguished the flames. The latter succeeded in effecting a junction with Gencals Skobeloff and Karassoff, am.! pressing the Turkish rear, a great battle was fought near Philip[)opoli • lasting from the 15th to iiSlh January. vSuleiman's force was reduced by battle, and by exposure, hunger and cold, to barely 40,000 men ; and in tlii.'i battle he suffered a loss of 10,000 in killed and wounded and over 3,000 prisoners, together with nearly all his gims. Compelled by these reverses to abandon the hope of reaching Adri- anople, he struck for the coast at Kalava and awaited shipping to transport his army to ConsicUitino[)le. l\Ie- hemet Ali evacuated Adrianople e;i the 191)1 Januar}-, burning the stores and magazine; Skobeloff entered it on the 20tli. The Mussulmans had all fled to Constantinople and the Russians were welcomed by the (j reeks and Bulgarians who remained. This ended the active operations of the war. The Turkish armies were nearly annihilated. Their "two ^ 514 MONTKNEGRIN AND SERVIAN CAMPAIGNS. lines of defence" were gone, and Constantinople lay at the feet of the conquerors. Meanwlnle, the Montenegrin campaign had resulted equally disastrously for the Turks. Following up the advantage gained by the capture of Nicsics, in which assault they inflicted a loss of upwards of 7,000 men on the Turks, the hardy mountaineers pursued a vigor- ous campaign and soon became masters of the Duga Pass, of Coransko, Bilek, Pera and the strong redoubt of Crikvica, defeating the divisions of Mehemet Ali and Ali Pasha. In December and January they cap- tured Antivari, Dulcigno, and had besieged Scutari, when the campaign was stopped by the treaty of Adria- nople. Servia, also, embittered by the unsuccessful campaign of the previous, year, declared war on the 12th December, 1877, and on the iSth General Leschjanin captured Mcamor, and soon after Kursumlje, cutting off communication with Nissa. On the nth January Nissa itself was taken, with 150 guns as trophies. Shortly after the Servians captured Pristina, the capital of oUl Servia, and laid siege to Widdin. Thus nearly all of Old Servia was in the hands of the Serbs when the Rus- sian peace negotiations put a stop to the campaign. They captured Vranja PV^bruary 1st, after the treaty was signed, but before it was known to the Servians, this being the last act of open hostilities. At this point we might note that the losses during the war in killed and disabled had been almost unparalleled in the same duration of time. The Russian losses could not have been less than ^ 50,000 men ; while the Turkish loss exceeded this number. The loss of the latter in prison- ers of war was upwards of 130,000 men. If the deaths from massacres and from cold and starvation amongst the populace be added, the total losses of this frightful conflict would without doubt exceed half a million per- sons sacrificed to the demon of war. The Turks, thoroughly disheartened at the disastrous resuT: of the last campaign and the loss of Sophia, opencw ii.-j.'^tiations on the 8th January for an armistice. The Grand Duke Nicholas replied that no armistice PEACE NEGOTIATIONS. 515 could be granted except that the terms of peace should be simultaneously considered. The latter had rapidly puslied his headquarters forward from liogot to Loftcha, Kesanlilc, and thence to Adrianople. At the last- named place the commissioners met, the Grand Duke and General Ignatieff acting for the Russians, and Server and Namyk Pashas for the Turks. The terms provided for tlie Russian advance to the Archipelago and sea of Marmora and to the fortifications of Constantinople. The Danubian fortresses were to be surrendered by Turkey and demolished. Roumania, Servia, and Monte- negro were to be independent, with territorial conces- sions and indemnities to each, Russia was to have Batoum, Ardahan, Kars, 15aya/.id and adjacent territory and a large war indemnity, and the Russian troops were to remain in occupation until the indemnity was paid. The autonomy of Bulgaria was to be conceded and its boundaries enlarged. Reforms in administration were to be introduced into what was left of Turkey. Russia to superintend the navigation of the Danube. In any other position of affairs Turkey would have hesitated to accept these terms ; but with the Russian army pressing upon Constantinople no alternative re- mained but to accept the inevitable. The neutral powers were greatly excited over the terms of peace, notably Austria and England. In the latter country public opinion vvas divided, the Liberals generally sympathizing with Russia, and the Conserva- tives with Turkey. To the vacillating policy of the English government Turkey largely owed her humilia- tion and defeat. By that government and its hostility to Russia, she was induced to reject all the conference proposals which led to the war ; and afterwards she receiveo none of the expected assistance. After the fall of Plevna and when Russia had it in her power to exact any desired terms, the relations between Russia and England became most threatening. Had either power really desired war it would have fol- lowed with amazing celerity. But both preferred to con- fine themselves to threatening epistles, which were 5i6 THE TREATY OF SAN STEFANO, showered in wonderful profusion at both capitals. The rapid advance of the Russians led to the passapje of the Dardanelles by the British fleet, on the 13th February, and its anchoring off Constantinople as a counter move- ment. The Russians immediately pushed forward their armies and occupied San Stefano, on the sea of Mar- mora, and the country immediately under the forts of Constantinople, thus checkmating the British and ren- dering the occupation of Constantinople a certainty should necessity require it. Here the negotiations for peace were continued, the plenipotentiaries being Generals Ignatieff and Nclidoff, Safvct Pasha and Sadoolah Bey. The treaty was finally signed on the 3d March, 1878. ]^y the terms of the San Stefano treaty, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania were to be independent with indemnity for war expenses and increase of territory. Ikdgaria to be an autonomous tributary province, with its frontier largely extended southward, and a Prince to be elected by the population and confirmed by the powers ; but no member of any ruling family to be eligible ; the Turkish army to evacu- ate the province and the fortresses to be razed. Russian troops to the number of 50,000 to occupy the province for two years. An agreed sum of tribute to be paid yearly to Turkey. Tlie fortresses of the Danube to be destroyed and vessels of war to be excluded from the river. Reforms to be carried out in what remains of Turkey, l^ull amnesty to be accorded to all belligerents. A war indemnity of 1,410,000,000 ($1,057,000,000) rou- bles to be allowed Russia ; but of this sum 1,100,000,000 roubles to be taken in territory, including the Dobrudscha, Ardahan, Br.yazid, Batoum and Kars. The liosphorus and Dardanelles to be open at all times to neutral vessels of commerce. The Russian army to evacuate Turkish territory in Europe except Bulgaria, within three months, and Asiatic territory within six months ; they to administrate in occupied territory until the evacuation. Prisoners of war to be exchanged. Such was the San Stefano treaty, which at once excited the bitter ire of Austria and l'>ngland ; the for- A GENERAL CONFERENCE PROPOSED. $iy mer objecting to the considerable extension of Monte- negro and Bulgaria, the latter to the treaty in toto. Again the aspect of affairs became threatening. Pro- posals for a general conference of the powers were made ; but difficulties as to the place of meeting and especially as to the matter to be submitted to that body for a time seemed insurmountable. On the 30th March the British cabinet determined to call out the reserves and to employ Indian troops in European warfare. Car- narvon and Derby had both resigned office in conse- quence of the warlike measures adopted. Salisbury took the post of foreign secretary, fully committed to hostility to the San Stefano treaty, the objection being that it rendered Turkey entirely subservient to Russian domination and control. ! ^ I ■ iii • CHAPTER XV. TIIK I'.KRMN TREATY. The meeting of a cc>i\c,n'css of luiropcan powers wa.s stronijly iirL,a'd by l>isinark. ami was finally arrancjed on the basis of the consent of ICn^land not to ojipose the territorial acquisitions of Russia, in consideration of which Russia agreed to submit the treaty of .San Stefano to the consideration of the Con^n-css. Herlin was finally agreed upon as the place of meeting, .uul the llrsl session took place on the i_Uh June, Russia, 'l"urke\% (jermany, V'raiice. I'higland, Austria, and Italy being represented by their prime ministers, tlu.Mr minislers at ISerlin and a iliplomat specially ap])')inted. 'i"he deliberations ex- tended o\er an entire niontii ; the fmal session taking place on July 13th, when the .igreements ct)nstituting the " Treaty of iicrlin," were signed by the representa- tives. The more important articles we give in full and state the substance of the rest as follows : ArtK'LI'. I. Jiulgaria is constituted an autonomous and tributary principality, under the su/eraint}' of the Sultan, with a Christian govermnent and a national militia. Art. 2 gives the boundary* lines of I'ulgaria. The southern boundary to be the Halkan mountains. Art. 3. The {)rince shall be elected b)' the popula- tion and confirmed b\' tiie Porte and tlie Powers. No member of a reigning l-luropean d)-nasty shall be prince. In the event of a vac;uicy a new prince will be elected under the same conditions. Art. 4. The plan of government will be prepared by an assembly of nobles, convoked at Tirnova, before the election of a prince. The rights of the Turks, Rouma- nians, Greeks and others will be taken account of in whatever relates to the election or government. /,\>^ /-.■i THE CZAR0WIT2. GENU TODLEBEN. 1^ 11 i P.^INCE MILAN. ABDUL KERIM PASHA. PRINCE BISMARCK. President of tlio Peace noiifrress. THE EARL OF BEACONS-IELD. (Prime Minister of England). COUNT ANDRASSY. (Austro-Huiigariiiii Minister of ForeiHn Affairs). S^?5^!^^^ PRINCt GORTSCHAKOFF. (Im|.cri;il Chaneollor nf Hu-nia). PEACE COMMISSIONERS AT BERLIN. PUBLIC LAW OF liULGAKLV. 519 " Art. 5. The following shall form the basis of the public law ^f Bulgaria. " Distinction of religious belief or confession shall not operate against any one as a reason of exclusion or in- capacity in what concerns enjoyment of political rights, admission to public employment, functions of honor, or the exercise of the different professions and industries. " Liberty of public profession of all creeds shall be assured to all the returned population of Bulgaria as well as to strangers. " No trammels shall be imposed on the hierarchic or- ganization of different communions or their relations with their spiritual chiefs." Ak'1". 6. Until a permanent organization is completed, Bulgaria shall be governed by a provisional organization, directed by Russian Commissioners, who will be assisted by delegates of the great Powers. Ar T. 7. The provisory government shall not be pro- longed over nine months, by which time the organic government shall be settled and a prince eU;cted. Art. 8. Treaties of commerce, etc., between the Porte and other Powers, regarding Bulgaria, remain in force. The people and commerce of all Powers are to be placed on a "footing of equalit)-, Art. 9. The tribute to the Porte shall be settled by the Signatory Powers at the end of the first year of the new organization. Bulgaria shall bear a part of the pub- lic debt of the empire. Art. 10. The principality shall carry out existing railway conventions between Austni-Hungary, Servia and the Porte. Art. II. The C)ttoman p/my shall evacuate liul- garia ; all the fortresses shall be destroyed within a year and new ones shall not be erected. Art. 12. Mussulmans who remove from the princi- pality can retain their real property by allowing it to be administered by third parties. A Turkish-l^ulgarian Commission shall be engaged two years with the regula- tion of all matters relative to the transfer of Staie pro- perties and religious foundations. t^ i 520 rRf)VINCK 01' KASTKKX UOUM l.l.IA, Art. 13. There is formed south of the Halkiiiis tlu; Province of I^;istern RounieUa, uiiiler the (Hrect political authority of the Sultan, having administrative autonomy and a Christian (jovernor-General. AkT. 14. ICastern Rounielia is bounded on the north and north-west by liuli^faria, and takes in the territo/y «outh of tlie Balkans that is included in the Principality of liul^niria by the Treaty of San Stefano, except that no part of the Greek district is included. i\Kr. 15. The Sultan shall fortify the frontiers, keep troops there, employ no irret^ulars nor cpiarter troops on the inhabitants. Internal order shall be preserved by a native <,fendarmerie and local militia, in the composition of which account shall be taken of the religion of the in- habitants where they arc stationed, the officers to be named by the Sultan. Ar'I'. 16. The Governor may call on Turkish troops if security is menaced. Art. 17. The Governor shall be appointed for five years by the Porte, with the assent of the Powers. Art. 18. A luiropean Commission shall determine in three years the powers of the Governor, also the judi- cial, fmancial and administrative rei[uirements of the province. Arts. 19, 20 and 21 provide that all international ."..rranj^ements applicable to Roumclia be continued in force, and insure religious liberty. Art. 22. The Russian army in liulgaria and Rou- mclia shall not exceed 50,000 men. They shall begin to eviicuate the territory in nine months, three months being allowed them to complete the e\'acuation. "Art. 23. The Sublinic Porte undertakes scrupu- lously to apply in the island of Crete the Organic Law of 1868, while introducing into it the modifica- tions which may be considered equitable. Similar laws adapted to local necessities, excepting as regards the exemption from taxation granted to Crete, shall also be introduced into the other parts of the Turkish Empire for which no special organization has been provided for by the present treaty. Special commissions, in which MONTENEGRIN INDEPEXOKNCE RECOGNIZED. 52 1 the native clement shall be largely represented, shall be ciiarged hy t!ie Sublime I'oite with the elaboration ot the details of the new laws in each province. The schemes of orgam'zation resulting; from these labors shall be .-ub- mitted for examination to the Sublime I'orte, which, before promulgr'.tinf^ the Act;, for putting them into force, shall take the atlvice of the ICuropean Commission instituted for Eastern Roumelia. "Akl". 24. In the event of the Sublime Porte and Greece being unable to agree upon the rectification of frontier suggested in the thirteenth protocol of the Con- gress of Jk-rlin, Germany, Austro- Hungary, I'rance, Great liritain, Italy and Russia reserve to themselves to offer their mediation to the two parties to facilitate the negotiations." Ar'I". 25. Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austro- Hungary, with the exception of the Sandjak of Novi-Bazar. Art. 26. The independence of Montenegro is recog- nized. Art. 27 applies the conditions of Article $, respecting religious liberty to Montenegro. " Art. 28 fixes the new boundary lines for ]\Iontc- negro. Art. 29. Antivari and the sea-coast belonging to it arc annexed to Montenegro under the follov/ing condi- tions : — " The districts situated to the south of that terri- tory, as far as the Bo3^ana, including Dulcinjo, shall be restored to Turkey. The commune of Spica, as far as the southernmost point of the territory indicated in the detailed description of the frontiers, shall be incorporated with Dalmatia. I^Iontenegro shall have full and entire liberty of navigation on the Boyana. No fortifications shall be constructed on the course of that river, except sucli as may be necessary for the local defense of the stronghold of Scutaria, and they shall be confined within a limit of six kilometres of that town. Montenegro shall have neither ships of war nor flag of war. The pcjrt of Antivari and all the waters of Montenegro shall remain closed to the ships ot war of all nations. The fortifica- 31 4 ( ( i a h ;22 ORGANIZATION OF MONTENEGRO. tions situate on Montenegrin territory between the lake and the coast shall be razed, and none can be rebuilt within this /one. The administration of the maritime and sanitary police, both at Antivari and along the coast of Montenerrro, shall be in the hands of Austro-Hun^ary by means of lij,^^ coast-f^niard boats. Montene^'ro shall adopt the Maritime code in force in Dalmatia. On her side Austro-I lungary umlertakes to grant consular protection to the Montenegrin merchant flag. Monte- negro shall come to an understanding with Austro- Hungary on the right to construct and keep up i.cross the new Montenegrin territory a road and a railway. Ab- solute freedom of communication shall be guaranteed on these roads," Art. 30 prescribes for Montenegro the same provi- sions as Article 21, except that the Turco-Montenegrin Commission continues three years. Art. 31. The Principality of Montenegro shall come to a direct understanding with the Ottoman Porte with regard to the establishment of Montenegrin agents at Constantinople, and at certain places in the Ottoman Empire, where they shall be decided to be necessary. Montenegrins travelling or residing in the Ottoman Km- pire shall be subject to the laws and authorities of Tur- key, according to the general principles of international law and the established customs with regard to Monte- negrins. "Art. 32. The Montenegrin troops shall be bound to evacuate in twenty days from the date of the ratification of the present Treaty, or sooner if possible, the territory that they occupy at present beyond the new limits of the principality. The Ottoman troops shall evacuate the territory ceded to Montenegro in the same period. "Art. 33. As Montenegro is to bear her share of the Ottoman public debt for the additional territories given her by the Treaty of Peace, the representatives of the Powers at Constantinople are to determine the amount of the same in concert with the Sublime Porte at a fair valuation." Art. 34. The independence of Servia is recognized on the conditions prescribed in the following article. 1.1 SKRVIAN INI)El'i:NI)liX( !■: UKCOGNIZED. 5-^3 Akt. 35. An application of the conditions of Article 5 to Scrvia. "Art. 36, Scrvia receives the territories included in the subjoined delimitation : — The new frontier follows the existing line alon;^ the thalweg' of the Drina from its confluence with the Save upwards, leaving; Mali Zworiiik and Sakhar to the principality, and continues alon^ the ancient limits of Servia as far as Kopaonik, leaving' it at the summit of Kanilu5,^ I'rom that point it follows at first the western boundary of the Sa-uljak to Nisch by the counterfort to the south of Kopaonik, b)' the crests of the Marica and Mrdar I'lanina, which form the water- shed between the basins of the Ibar and Sitnica on one side, and that of the ToplicacMi the (;ther, leavin^^ IVe- polac to Turkey. It then turns to the south by the water-shed between the lirvenica and the Mcdvedja, leaving the whole 1 the basin of the Medvcdja to Ser- via ; follows the ci csts of the Goljak I'lanina (which forms forms the water-shed between Kriva-Kjeka on one side, and the Poljanica, Veternica and Morava on the other,) as far as the summit of Poljanica. It then foUows the counterfort of the Karpina I'lanina as far as the conflu- ence of the Koinska and the IMorava, crosses this river, snd ascends by the water-shed between the Koiuska brook and the stream vvhich falls into the M(jrava near Neradovcc, to gain the Svcti Ilija Planina above 'I rgo- viste. From thence it follows the crest of the S\eti Ilija as far as Mount Kljuc, and passing by the [)oints marked 1 5 16 and 1547 on the map, and by the I)abina (jora it reaches Mount Crni Vrh. Setting out from Mount Crni Vrh, the new line of dehmitation coincides with that of Bulgaria — i.e., the line of frontier follows the water-shed between the Struma and Morava b)- the summits of Strscr Wilogolo and Alesid JManina, passes Gacini, Crna Trova, Darkosvka and Drainica Planina, and then the Descani Kladance, along the water-shed between the Upper Sukowa and the Morava, le.uls straight to the Stoi, and descends from thence to intersect the road from Sopiiia to Pirot at a point one thousand metres to the north-west of the village of Segusa, It then ascends in a straight ( 524 ORGANIZATION OF SERVIA. provides that, until new treaties by Strvia with Austro-Hungary, between the Forte and line on to the Vidlic Pianino, and fiom thence to Mount Radocina on the chain of the Kodza Balkan, leaving the village of Doikinci to Servia, and that of Senakos to Bulgaria. From the summit of Mount Radocina the frontier leads along the crest of the Balkans to the north- west by Ciprovec Balkan and Stara Planina to the ancient eastern frontier of the Principality of Servia, near to the Kula of Smiljova cuka, and from thence follows that ancient frontier t , ihe Danube, which it reaches at Rakowitza." Arts. 37 and 38 shall be entered into and other foreign powers, tliose the same shall obtain. Art. 39 is substantially an application Oi the provi- sions of Article 30 to Servia. Art. 40. Until the conclusion of a treaty between Turkey and Servia, Servian subjects travell! ;g or sojourn- ing in the Ottoman Empire shall be treated according to the general principles of international !aw. Art. 41. The Servian troops shall be bound to evacu- ate within fifteen days from the exchange of the ratifica- tions of the present Treaty the territory not comprised within the new limits of the principality. The Otto- man troops shall evacuate the territories ceded to Servia within the same term of fifteen days. A supplementary term of an equal number of days shall, however, be granted to them as well for evacuating the strongholds and withdrawing the provisions and material as for pre- paring the inventory of the implements and objects which cannot be removed at once. "Art. 42. Servia having to support a part of the Otto- man public debt in respect of the new territories anne\;d to her by the present Treaty, the representatives at Con- stantinople will fix the amount of it in concert with the Sublime Porte on an equitable basis." Art. 43 recognizes the independence of Rc^umania on the conditions prescribed in Art. 44, which applies the conditions of Article 5 to Roumania. THE MARQUIS OF SALISBURY. Z •''!■.. Secret:iry of Mate foi Forci.'ii Affairs). M. WADDINGTON. (French Minister of Foit',ri Affairs), . HERR VHN BULO. ((German L'nilcr-SeLV. vt Si ito for ForuiKn Affairs). PRINCE HOHENLOHE. ((Jirnian Ani'ia^sailur at I'aris). PEACE COMMISSIONERS AT BERLIN, li I ! I COMTE DE ST. VALUER. (French Ambassador at Berlin). LORD ODO RUSSELL. (British Ambassador a' ISirlln). ^:EHEMET ALI PASHA. (MiUtary rit'iii])otcntiary of Turliej). COUNT SCHOUVALOFF. (Russian Ambassador ti. Great Britain). PEACE COMMISSIONERS AT BERLIN. INDEPENDENCE OF ROUMANIA RECOGNIZED. 527 "Art. 45. The Principality of Roumania restores to His Majesty the Emperor of Russia that portion of the Bessarabian territory detached troin Russia by the Treaty of Paris in 1856, bounded on the west by the waterway of the Pruth, and on the south by the waterway of the Kilia branch and the mouths of Stary-Stamboul. "Art. 46. The islands forming the Delta of the Danube, as well as the Isle of Serpents, the Sandjak of Toultcha, comprising the districts of Kilia, Sulina, Mahmoudie, Isaktcha, Toultcha, Matchin, Babadagh, Hirsovo, Kestendje, Medjidic, are added to Roumania. The principality receives, in addition, the territory situated south of the Dobrudja as far as a line starting eastward from Silistria and terminating in the Black Sea, south of Mangalia. The frontier Hne shall be determined on the spot by the European Commission charged with the delimitation of Bulgaria. "Art. 47. The question relating to the division of waters and fisheries shall be submitted to the arbitration of the European Commission of the Danube. "Art. 48. No transit dues shall be levied in Rou- mania on goods passing through the principality." Articles 52 to 57 regulate the navigation of the Danube. The fortifications on the Danube from the Iron Gate to its mouth shall be razed. No ships of war shall navigate the Dr^nube downwards from the Iron Gate. Guard-ships of the Powers at the mouths of the river may, however, ascend to Galatz. The commission of the Danube, in which Roumania and Servia sliall be represented, is remaintained. It will exercise its powers henceforth as far as Galatz, with complete indcpcr.dence of temporal authority, and all arrangements relative to its rights are confirmed. The work of removal of the obstacles which the Iron Gate and the cataracts cause to is entrusted to Austro-Hungary, Articles 58 to 6r relate to the Asiatic possessions of Turkey. Ardahr':i,Kars, and Batoum are ceded to Russia ; Khotoor to Persia ; while Bayazid and the valley of the Alashgerd, ceded to Russia by the Treaty of San Stefano, are returned to Turkey. Russia engages to erect Batoum navigation I I tvi 528 CESSIONS TO RUSSIA. I N into a free port, essentially commercial. The Porte engages to carry out the local reforms necessary in the provinces inhabited by Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds. In Article 62 the Porte promises religious liberty and the security of the Holy Places. Article 6^ reaffirms the Treaties of Paris and London in all those provisions which are not abrogated by the pre- sent Treaty. Before the Congress adjourned, quite a surprise was prepared for it by the British Government. On July 9th the terms of a defensive alliance between England and the Porte, together with the official correspondence relating to it, were communicated to Parliament. The convention had been signed as early as July 4th, and the fact of its having been witheld from the knowledge of the other Powers as well as the sweeping character of its terms caused it to be received with general surprise. The convention, after the usual introduction, provides : " If Batoum, Ardahan, Kars, or any of them shall be retained by Russia, and if any attempt shall be made at any future time to take possession of any further terri- tories of his Imperial Majesty the Sultan in Asia, as fixed by the definite treaty of peace, England engages to join his Imperial Majesty the Sultan in defending them by force of arms. In return his Imperial Majesty the Sultan promises to England to introduce necessary reforms, to be agreed upon later between the two Powers, into the Government, and for the protection of Christian and other subjects of the Porte in these territories ; and in order to enable England to make necessary provision for execu- ting her engagement, the Sultan further engages to assign the island of Cyprus to be occupied and adminis- tered by England." In an annex to this convention, signed on July 1st, it was provided : I, That a Mussulman religious tribunal shall continue to exist in the island, which will take exclusive cognizance of religious matters, and of no others, concerning the Mussulman population of the island. o PROVISIONS FOR GOVIiRNMENT OF CYPRUS. 529 II. That a Mohammedan resident in the island shall be named by the board of pious foundations in Turkey to superintend, in conjunction with a dele<:^ate to be named by the British authorities, the administration of the property, the funds and lands belongint^ to mosques, cemetries, Mussulman schools, and other religious establishments existing in Cyprus. III. That England will pay to the Porte whatever is the present excess of revenue over expenditure in the island ; this excess to be calculated upon and determined by the average of the last five years — stated to be 22,936 purses — to be duly verified hereafter, and to the exclusion of the produce of State and Crown lands let or sold during that period. IV. That the Sublime Porte may freely sell and lease lands and other property belonging to the Ottoman Crown and State (Arazii Miriye ve I^^.nilaki Humayun), the produce of which does not form part of the revenue of the island referred to in Art. III. V. That the English Government, through their com- petent authorities, may purchase compulsorily, at a fair price, land required for public improvements, or for other public purposes, and land which is not cultivated. VI. That if Russia restores to Turkey Kars and the other conquests made by her in Armenia during the last war, the island of Cyprus will be evacuated by England, and the convention of the 4th of June, 1878, will be at an end. The aggregate of the territory which Turkey lost by the Treaty of Berlin is estimated at 71,500 square miles. This includes the former dependencies of Roumania and Servia — to both of which some additional territory was ceded — and the territory ceded to Montenegro and and Russia. Roumania, as constituted by the Treaty of Berlin, has an area estimated at 45,800 square miles, with 5,100,000 inhabitants. Servia has gained still more, and her territory now extends over 19,860 square miles, with 1,640,000 inhabitants. The small principality of Monte- gro has been more than doubled in extent, having increas- ed from 1,560 square miles to 3,160 square mile.s, and it^ 530 TURKISH LOSSES BY THE WAR. population now numbers 220,000. Russia has added to her dominions some 12,000 square miles, with 800,000 inhabitants, in Asia, and the formerly Roumanian part of Bessarabia in Europe. The aggregate population inhabit- ing the ceded territories may be estimated at 8,000,000. But these figures are far from e.Kprcssing the entire loss of Turkey. The new principality of Bulgaria, which comprises an area of 23,000 square miles, witli a popula- tion of 1,700,000 persons, though nominally a dependency, is actually as independent as Servia and Roumania were before the war. The new province of East Roumelia is likewise nearly independent; it has an area of 13,000 square miles and 1,000,000 inhabitants. liosnia and Herzegovina, with an aggregate area of 23,000 square miles, and a population of 1,500,000, will pass under the administration of Austro-Hungary, and it is quite com- monly expected that they will never be restored to Turkey. A part of the territory bordering upon Greece must, according to the Treaty of Berlin, be ceded to that country. The island of Cyprus* is under the adminis- tration of England, which will likewise be in no haste to return it. Thus, it will be seen, the Treaty of Berlin seals the doom of Turkey. The final reconstruction of the Balkan peninsula will yet bring on many grave com- plications and may lead to new fierce conflicts ; but Turkey henceforth will be too weak to play a promi- nent part in them. The occupation of Bosnia and Her- zegovina by Austro-Hungary threatens to bring on a new Eastern complication. The Afghan trouble with England, and the race and religious ties of the former with the Tiu'ks, even now. (November, 1878), threaten a renewal of complications and discord, if not actual conflict. But our duty ends with the close of the Turco-Russian War and the narra- tive of the events connected therewith down to the acceptance by the various Powers of the results of the Berlin Conference and the occupation of Turkish Pro- vinces as stipulated therein. "For a description of Cyprus and its people, sec page 309. :*5 i-^. ■^--jt*'' 'luhri :M,ir,i,iii,l VeUvrav x TT :-' -- < - ;. ^ ,4, I V;.. " •- ■ '. '•7].,,„ /■^»>.-.- ,'«'-■ Hi'»--k-. i, V, \ li/-. -fj'lllf,! , Hosiu. fe I --[■?>' EMPIRE OF TURKEY I Piiblislioa ov A. H.HOVEY. TaBONTD DNT. i 11177. '■ ■•'•■'. ■: Hf/ iii;, !.•!, III,,,..: ^, Ji<»Ji; / A .1 1 "' '\^ *> ii ^'. ^-^f'/'itt Mttr.f^'n JA^, "^ 7fr,/^ MMASCUS rl- / ^ I// )8US2i ' / '