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LYDEKKER LONDON ROWLAND WARD, LiMrr,n. 1898 1 !■ ' If I' 1 ' ' 1 S '! '' 1 1 :'!' 1 i ^ ! i '• II } , li I ■ 1 n (J,: i| II i \ 1] i ^H 1 1 i ^^1 ■ 1- m <:\ i's I 1 .-.-- - _^ 1 'MMBH I 1403. ! 1 PREFACE . In its general treatment of the subject this volume follows the lines of T/w Deer of All Lands ; generic and sub-generic groups, as well as species and sub-species, being, so far as possible, made to have the same relative rank as m the latter. A similar prominent position is also given to the English names of the various animals described. Much that appears in the introductory portion of the companion volume has a bearing on the present work. And it has accordingly been deemed unnecessary to repeat either the distinctive characteristics of the group Pecora, the subdivisions of the Tertiary period, or the names and limits of the geographical regions into which the surflice of the globe may be divided ; all these being detailed in Tin' Deer of All Lamls. One feature of the latter-the numerous photographs of living animals —will be missed in the present volume. But this is unavoidable, as there is no collection in this country of the animals described in the sequel comparable with the one which afforded the illustrations in question. While the majority of the plates have been drawn by Mr. J. Smit, a few are from original and, with one exception, hitherto unpublished sketches by Mr. Joseph Wolf For permission to reproduce these the author is '/ ' i VI Preface indebted to Lady Brooke and Sir Douglas Brooke, to whom the originals respectively belong. His thanks arc likewise due to the Duchess of Bedford, Sir Edmund G. Loder, and Mr. David T. Planbury tor various illustrations ; while acknowledgments must likewise be made tor those borrowed from the works of Prince Demidotf and Mr. H. Z. Darrah. Harpenden, \st Decemher 1898. CONTENTS Im RODUt TORV I. Thk 0\hN— (;cmu» Bo, ... 1. Typical or Taurine (iroup— Siili-(;eiiu> Bos 1. 'V\v: Qmnmm 0\ — Bos tiii/nis ". Kurcp.uM Wild Raec, „r Aurndy.-Bos t„t,n,s prMgaiha (V.n\ I'. N..nl, Alrican Wild Racc-i?», ,„u,-m m„uriu,mm (Kv.inct) '■■ Domesticated Breeds- vSw t.iiinis typhi,, 2. The Narbada ()\—Bos nam.uliais (Kxtinct) 3- The /.elm, or Humped Ok — Bos indiaa . 4- 'I'he Siualik Ok—Bos .nuti/roHs (Kxiirict) ii. Biliovine Ciroup— Siih-CJcuis B/ios 1. 'I'lie (Jaiir— i?o/ j,',////7/.. 2. The (Java!— /.V,., t'roiit.ilis .?• 'I'he Banting— /,'„ ,oiui,ii,iis •I. Javaii Race — Boi sondauiis tsp'uin l>. Burmese Race— ^w soiht.uats hirmaiiiciis •■ Manipiir Ra^c-Bos sohJ.iuhs, var. iii. I.eptoh.nine Croup— SiiMienus Lptohos (Kxtinct) 1. 'I'he Kiru-can Ox-Bo, clatii, (Kxtiiict) 2. falconer's Ox — y?,,,- /;,/,„,,.,./ (1,-^tinct) iu Bisoiitine (Jnmp— Suh-(;eniis iS/>.// I. I he Yak — Bos g^riiiinicth . •:. 'I'he Siualik Bison— ^oj siv.iUmis (Extinct) ,?. 'I'he I'listocene Bison— 5w /)/vVw (Rxtinct) 4. The Kuropean Bison— .fls.. hoiiasus h ct) 5 M 9 10 '4 5 I iS '9 20 22 2,1 ,11 .?6 39 4' 4.? 4« 4*< 5° io 5' 60 61 6+ I ' i I'l vni (><)n tents I. I'm 0\f\ -(Il.■iul•^ /(«! — |,///////^,-,/ V 'I'lic American BImim — iJo/ liisan , ii. I'fiiiric Race — B'/.i ii>c,n ly/iifui . /'. WooilLiiiil Rucc-fl.ij ^/Vc* ,///,///,M,rt' , (>. HiirhiiiV HiMiri — /f« /,ii//rov.i (Kxiinct) . 7. Central American Bison— fl«j j,v//i/w.r>/ (Kxtlnct) y. Hiilialinc (iroiip— Snl>-(;eMii!s BnM,r< I. 'I'lie African ttiiffn\,<—Bo, i.ijftr . ii. Cape, or Ulack Race— 5»; oijrr tyfiiiui h. Abyssinian, or Urou,, \(,wc — Hi,.< oijfr ,r>juiHocti,i/„ .. Sencgambian Race— 5w .d//,-/- />/,(///, ,Tw '/. Congo, or Red Race— 5o^ ,v//;t//,;////j . .■. Lake Tcliacl Race— iSw t.iffer br.uhycroi I. The Algerian HutKalo — ^w aiitiqiius (Kviinct) ,1. The Siwalik Huff.ilo— ^oj platyc-ioi (Kxtinei) 4. 'I'he liulian Hiiffalo— 5w hubiilis , .'. 'I'ypicai Race— ^w /V//W///V//V*. h. Upper Assam Race— ^sj bub,ilis ftilvus , ., Bornean Race— 5oj buhalis hosei V 1,6 I 17 I !'> 'V) 1+2 I4,S i+'> 1^4 '>4 's9 160 16, ( on tents III. I'ln SM^n• -, Mil. Ofv, 'COMtWN,;! \. Tlu- Sli.1, ,,r L.frial — OfVf cv(,'«,v' . ,1. Aslor R.UC -Of./j fig^,-i ,^pi,,, , /'. I'uMJal. R,Kc-Ofv., :vjf*,v , »,A,,rw ■• Kil,it Raic Orh vigMfi k/iiHthnli V 'I'lic Argiili -Of/'; ,/w/«5« . .'. SilKTi,lM R,KC— Ofv; ,//»////,« typi,,, l> Mdngoliaii Riicc— Or/i .tmmon jiih.it.i '■■ Tihctmi Rate— Orv, .iwm'^/i loilponi f>. I.iitlcdalc's Shccp—Otvj „u,mij . 7. M.irtd l',)l()\ Sheep -Of/j /I'j/i . .'. I'aiiiir Kaie— Or// />«// /v;»,V,( /'. 'I'hliiii Sliun Race— Orv. f^o/i i,,r,/t»/ X. 'I'lie BiglKirii— 0:vr ,;in,i,l,;iiis 'I. Soiillicrn Race— Ocv.< auuidcmis lu-lumi . /'. Rnikv M.niiuain Race — Or// (,m,ultmi! IsfU.i . . l-iard Ri\ er Race— 0:v/ ciikuUhsis li„r,kmh ./. North-WcMcrn Race— OcvV cm.idaisu >hn(i f. Alaskan Race— Or/.. ,.m,ui,n>i, ,l,illi ./: Kam^cliaikaii Race -():■/, .,iH.i.i,;i/•,, /vV,//.. /Vi7// . .. Doniesticaied Breeds— C,//>/-,/ ///vz/j /v/t/.v/ .V The Arabian I lie\—Cj//-,/ ///////,;//,/ (k 'I'lie Abyssiiiian llie\ — Cifir.i v.ili IX l'.\l,f. 1 66 "71 "7» '74 '74 "77 I So I Ho 185 ISH 192 >9r 20+ 20H 209 21; 2 1 7 219 22 1 226 226 -i> -?9 242 246 2,-S 260 264. 264 266 270 ! : ; m X Contents II' l\ . J'hk Goats — (iciiiis Ciiprii — continued 7. The Alpine llicx — Capr.i ibex S. The Asiatic I hex — dipra sihiriui . ii. Thiaii Shan Race — Crf/>n/ sihirica ttpiui h. Himalayan Race — Cipra sihirica sncin . c. Dauvcrgnc's Race — Cipni sihiriai dituvergnei 9. The ^\-AxkVQx—Capra fdlconcri •'■ Astor Race — C.dpn, f,ilconcri t\picii h. Pir-Paiiial K:\CQ~C,ipr,i f,i/concri cish/iiricnsis c. Cabiil Race — Caprii fiilconoi mcgaccroi . ". Sulcman Race — Cipr.i f. :-,neri jcrduni . V. The Tahr — Vt^\\\\> Ucmitiwgii . 1. The Himalayan Tahr — tlcmitragiis jcmliiicia 2. The Siwalik TAhr—llcmitnigm situi/cniis (Extinct) 3. The Arabian Tahr — lla/ iigus juinkcri +. The Nilgiri 'V-ihr—llcmitnigHs h^!'' Anoa. From male specimens in the British Museum n. MusK-Ox .2. European Muki.on. From a sketch by Wolfi,, the possession of Lady Brooke 13. Sai.t-Ran<:e Uriai.. From a male in the British Museum l+. Siberian Ar<;ai,i. From a ram in summer pelage in the British Museum . .5. Tibetan Argai.i. From a sketch bv Wolf of a herd in winter pelage in the pos- session ot Sir Douglas Brooke .6. Marco Polo's Sheep, Famik Race. From a male in summer pelage in th British Museum 17. Rocky Mountain Bi(,hor:.. From a male in the British Museum .7A. Kamschatkan Buihorn. Partiv from an immature male in winter pelage i, the British Museum .8. Arui, or Aerican Sheep. From a male in the British Museum, and specimen in the Zoological Society's Menagerie .9. Bharal, or Blue Shmp. from specimens ,n the Zoological Society's Menagerie 20. East Caucasian Tur. From a sketch by Wolf of a male in the possession of Sir Douglas Brooke 'I'o f'lh-C P'lg'' 23 36 5< 64 79 97 106 118 12S '42 '54 166 '74 180 209 22 I 226 231 24.1 {i f I V: f 1:' Xll LJst oF Plates 2 1. Wbst C.Aia-AsiAN 'l-UR. From males in the British IVIiiseum . . . T'j fa.;- p,,^,' 246 22. Spanish Tuk. From a sketch by Wolf in the possession of l.ady Brooke ; the ram ill the t'oregroiiiul was killed in the \'al J'Arras 23. I'krsian Wii.n Com-. From a sketch by Wolt' in the possession of Sir Donglas Brooke .... 24. Asiatic (Thian Shan) Iiikv. From a male in the British Museum 2;;. AsTOR Markhor. From a sketch by Wolf in the possession of Lady Brooke ; the large male being taken from a specimen shot by Captain H. Brooke . 26. Himalayan Tahr. From a sketch by Wolf in the possession of Sir Douglas Brof)ke .... 2;. Nii.(;iRi Tahr. Partly from a male in the British Museum 2i3 260 275 2R6 29; i I'lf TEXT FIGURES I I .s, 9' lO, I I. I z. l.V '4- I V 1 6. 1 -. |S. I'). 20. 2 I. 22. 2.V 24. 2^. 26. Skull of .Auroclis . Skulls of .Algerian IJutValo aiul KxtiiKi Suv Head of Bull (Jaur Bull Gayal Skulls of Boriicau Banting Head of male Burmese Banting Skull of Extinct Etruscan 0\ Skull of male Vak Head of bull Yak . Champas with Yak- Yak at Woliuru .Abliey Head of Bull Yak . Fron'let and horn-core> of I'listoceue Bisoi Skull and liorus ot F.uropean Bison Dead European Bi-on ■American Bison at Woburn .Abbe\ Head of Cape BuHalo Skull and horns of .Aby>sinian Buffalo l-'rontlet and hums ot' aged bull Seneg.imbi Frontlet and horns of male Sencgambiau B Frontlet and horn- of aged bull Ciuigo Buff Skull and horn- of bull Congo Buffalo Skull and horn- of bull Fake Tchad Buff'a Skull of Siualik Butlalo . Head of male Indian Buffalo Head of male Ano.i xV'l 0\ 1 Bufhi flalo llo PAr.F. 10 21 4° 42 49 52 ?5 37 58 39 62 65 76 Si 9; 101 10+ 105 106 i°7 "4 1 1 - 119 133 ».' : * XIV Text Figures Kin. 27- 28. 29, 30. 3'- 32- 33- 3+. 3 5- 36. 37- 38- 39. +0. + '■ +2- 43. ++• + 5- 46. +7- +8. +9- 50. 5'- i2- 53- 5+' 55- 56. ^7 ' ;8. ;9- 60. 61. Skull and liorii-cnrcs of KakciiKTV 'I'amaraii Head of male Cirociiland Miisk-O.v Head of male F.iircipeaii Million Female MiiHoii witli horns Head of male Cyprian Miiflon Head of male Ladak Sha . Skull and horns of male Siberian Argali head of male Tibetan Argali Head of young male Tibetan Argali Littledale's Sheep . Head of Pamir raee of Mareo Polo's Sheef Another head of the same . A dead male of Mareo Polo's Sheep Head of Roekv Mountain liighorii Liard River Bighorn Skull and horns of Kamechatkan Bighorn Head of male Ami Head of male Bharal Head of male Kast Caucasian Tur West Caucasian Tuv Skull and horns of male We^t Caucasi.ui 'I'ur Head of male West Caucasian Tur Head of male Spanish Tur with long beard Head of male Spanish Tur with short beard Head of male Arabian lbe\ Head (if male Himalayan lbe\ Annther view of same Head of male .Astor Markhor Oblique view of same Horns of male Pir-Panjal Markhor Horns of male Suleman Markhor . Head of male Himalayan Tahr Skull and horns of male .Arabian Tahr Head of male Nilgiri Tahr Front view ot another head ot the same PAoe 142 155 156 164 166 178 182 184 1S6 189 '93 201 204 216 222 227 233 H7 250 252 2 54 256 267 276 279 289 290 292 295 298 302 30+ 307 i ADDENDA TO "DEER OF ALL LANDS ' 1 III-: issue nt the present volume affords a convenient opportunity lor recording such amendments and additions to the Deer of all Lands as are necessary. The hind figured on page 103 as that of the Manchurian wapiti proves to belong to the Duke of Bedford's deer. Consequently the redness and large size attributed to the former animal arc not warranted by the' facts. A muntjac from Borneo named Ccrvulns pleiharicits by Kohlbrugge ' in 1895 ^^'^^ overlooked ; but its claims to specific distinction from the Indian muntjac are very doubtful. I he name Dorcelaphus, used in a sub-generic sense (p. 248) for one group of American deer, is antedated by Odocoilcus, Rafinesque, 1832 ; and the latter is accordingly employed by Dr. Merriam.' It was given to a fossil tooth, now identified with the common American deer ; and such an unsatisfactory type specimen mav appear to some a good reason against its ado[ition. The specific name is O. speLvus. Dr. Merriam ■■' also recognises two additional sub-species of the black-tailed deer, which he |iroposes to call Odocoilcus columbianiis sitkensis and Odocoileits coliimbianus scaphiolHS ; the tormer being from Alaska and the latter from California. The same writer ' also names a deer allied to the muie-deer from Cerros Island, Calitornia, Odocoilcus ccrroseiisis ; a second ' from Chiapas, Mexico, O. thonuisi, stated to differ from the common American deer by being red at all seasons; and a third' from the same district, O. nclsoni. The acquisition by the British Museum of a mounted specimen of the marsh-deer (p. 283) shows that the hair on the withers is reversed, as in the pampas deer, although to a smaller extent. The reversal of the hair ir, this region becomes there- toi'c a characteristic ot the sub-genus Blastoccros. ' Wilmirk. 'I'lj.iHh-. Xr.i.r/. ///,/. scr. i, \(il. w . p. 11)2 (iSi);)- - /'/■■/,. S'M-. Il',ii/i):p'y>i, vol. xii. p. 91; (iSyS), publislicd >uli^cipiciul\ t.i D,,r ^r' .ili Lands. Op. iit. \i\\ 100 :iikI 101. ' //;/,/. p. 101. '■ Ibi.l. p. 102. " l/ii.i. p. 10?. ;i:r I ;ii nil lyiiMii i<|Ml| T3" 17ff-"S^t«'"?«» I WILD OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOATS OF ALL LANDS, vn Txj(--, ^^^^IGENDA '^»e= 2«, line- , t° ' '«»"' race. " '-" "•'">»l.) '. :t I 'i( ( '■« than III II, >_ The presence of these iinhranched horns tnu, the members of the funily not only from the Deer and Giraffes, hut likewise from the i>ron-hnck, in which the horns, although of the same s^am I WILD OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOATS OF ALL LANDS, LIVING AND EXI'INCT Iv ♦!- ^ ^^ „,,, ,s stated, a mutlc.M. "^.o.uy that they should All the existing wild members of the great ta.nily Bovl,/,e are readily characterised hy the possession of a pair of bony appendages t<, the skt.M, clothed during life with hollow unhranched horns which are never shed, but grow continuously at the base, while their summits become "-'•e or less abraded and rounded by wear and tear. Although in many ."embers of the family these appendages are conrined to the males in ^^'■"-t all of those forming the subject of the present yolume they 'are developed in both sexes, although frequently much smaller in the females than m the males. The presence <,f these unhranched horns thus sutiices to distinguish the .„e.nbers of the family not only fron, the Deer and Giraffes^ but l.kew.se h-om the Frong-buck, in which the horns, although of the same ifl ^1 (j ) WILD OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOATS OF ALL LANDS, LIVING AND EXl'INCT In the arr of .-/// L,u„h^ „ ,,,„•,,, ,,^^. j,,.^.^^.,^^ ^,^^,^^_^^^. .^ .^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ companion, it has been stated that the fan.ily lioru/a, .r HoHow-horned Rum.nants, form a -n-oup ..f the section />,v..w, in which are also -ncluded the Prong-bt.ck, or Antilncaprhhr ; the (iiraffes, or GV,v#7.. ; and tlic Deer, or CcrvnLc. And as the distinctive features of the Pccora have been mentioned in that voh.me, it is unnecessary that they should be recapitulated here. All the existing wild members of the great familv IWcida- are readily characterised by the possession of a pair of bony appendages to the skull clothed during life with hollow unbranched horns which are never siK-d, but grow continuously at the base, while their summits becme >".>re or less abraded and rounded by wear and tear. Although in manv HK-mbers of the family these appendages are conrined to the males, in almo,st all of those forming the subject of the present volume thev are developed in both sexes, although frequently nn.ch smaller in the females than in the males. The presence of these tmbranched horns thus suffices to distinguish the members of the family not only from the Deer and Giraffes, but likewise from the i'rong-buck, in which the horns, although of the same ^ Introductory pcTMstcnt hoiiy cores. ' *" This bei„„ .,, and a. „„|y ,w„ Hv,i,.„« .„• „,, ,; v »,, „,,„,., ,„■ '", ""■ ''"■""' """""■• " "■"'"'' I- -P-H, „, .,.,.; i,„„ ,|,c ..„„- s, era,,.,,, ..■ all ehc- s,ruc,u,-al pcvuliari.ic-s ,.r ,1,. /,„„;/„, a, a „.|„.lc. The '.■""W,„« p„i,„. „,ay, l,owcv.r, I,. ,„„|,,,. ,„ „,, ,,,, ,.,,,,^^ ^,,,_,^^.^^ " .1,. ,an„ly, cielK. Iivi„« ,„. .„,■„,,, ,„,„,„ „,,,,„ ^.^,„,„^, _^,^,_,^^ ^^^. _^^^^^ wh.cl, arc- ,rc.|ucn,ly .„ s,r„„sly ,|ncl„pal in ,l„. |)„.,. ,,i|„. ,,„,„,,„; when antlc. arc wa,„i„«) ; :u.,l l„ ,1,. rc.y.., „„ H„ll„„. ,,,,, „,:, ck-arly ,n.,rc spccialisc.,1 ,l,a„ ,1,. A,„ln,.-,l R„n,i„a,„s. \'„y , ,a-K ,l„ .l..y sl,o„. ,l,„.- „„H ami ,la„.ls „„ ,|K. I,.„.c.r par, „r ,|„ hi,,,:,,,,, wiml, t„n„ s,Kl, a ci.araccristic ,i,„„r, i„ „,a„v ,„■ ,|,, |,,,, l-urther cvidcK.- ..f „„ .u.-ialisa,,,,,, ,„ I,,,,,' „„,, „, „,^, ,. ,„ .^ ;'"""'"' ;\"'^' '■"•' ""' '"^- "■ -'^ "'• "H. n,c.,aca.pal a,,., .....a.a.al ';:;""• "'■"'' l'^'-^'»' ■■• -■ ■"->• ,„• ,1,. ,)...,■, !.>.. i„varial,lv ,li«,ppcarc..l H.™ a,a,n, ,1. la.nal „., a,v vc-ry s.ncraily roprc-scuc,! nuTcIv l>v .Ik- lateral l,„„,s, al,l,„„gl, ,„ ecr.ai,, case, .„„,e .,„all „.„l,„e. ,„■ |,„„; „:,„;„ .l.cn, represe,,, ,l,e skele,.,,, of .Len- p,„,i,„„ „f „,, |i„,,„. m,,^^,,^,^,^ ". -„e „,en,lK.,-s .,f ,|,e ,a,nily (al.l,,,,,,,,, ,„ ,„„„, „, „„„,. j^,^.,,,^,,,' -e) eve,, ,l,e laaaal l„„„; ,|,e,„»lves have ,|,,,ppea,.e.l, a„.i ,he ,„al„ >-'">> »!"- re,„a,„. |„ ,|„ ,,,,, „„ ,„|.,„„,,^.,._ „,,,,,, . ^.^^^^^^ a.....ng . e Dee,- enhe ,„„y i„ ,„e ,v,„.k, . ah„„. aKvays p,e,e„, a,,,,,,,,, tilt /iov/(/,e. ^ The ge.,j.rapl,ieal .li.„ll,„„„„ ,„-,he H.,ll,nv-h„r„e.l l<„,„i„a,„. ;, ,,„ d.fferen, ,., ,ha, „f ,he Deer .lunily. ,„ p,a,,. .„■ „,„,, „ ^„„ ,„ ^,,,,^,^ A.ne.ea, a„.l „„k„.,w„ i„ Alriea «„„l, .„• ,|,e Sal,a,a, ,l,ev a,e wa,,, ■" the ,„rn,er area a,„i e.v,re,„ely ah,„„la„, i„ „,e la„e,- : luhiopian -\f-i,-a ;;' '■';""■"' '-" '-"^ - '•'- •"-■ -» -■ --i eve,„p,„e„,. They also ev.en.l fi„.,he,. ,„„,|, ,ha„ ,he Dee,, a„.l ,he „„lv extensive ,a,„,. areas ,n„n which ,hey a,, ahsen, are the A,.„.,,a.an re,i„„ a„,l Sonth TV Introductory « and Central Amenta, ..„c cvrinct turin havn.K alo„c pcMictraud int.. the latter area. T'hat the Old \\,„U1 ,s the original lu.rne ..f the h,vi,f,r may he con- sidered as hcyonu dispute. And their paucity in N.-rth America (where they are now represented only hy the Aniencan hison, the mu.k-ox, the Ng-I.or.,, and the so-called Rocky Mountain goat) may not improhahly l>c due to the circumstance that m..st of them are inhahitants of warm regions, and would consequently have been unahle to cross what is now Bering Strait at the time when the Old and .New Worlds were con- nected in that region. 'I'hc few species that did succeed in crossing hy this route are more or less exclusively cold-loving animals, which may account for the family never having succeeded in penetrating into the hot southern half of the New World. (ieologicaJly speaking, the H',vi,l,c appear to he a comparatively modern group. They are unknown in the strata where the earliest deer make their appearance. And although a few antelopes, which are the most general- ised memhers of the family, are known from the Miocene deposits of lun-ope, the oxen, sheep, and goats were not developed, so far as we know, before the l>li..cene period ; and it is even doubtful whether sheep came int.. existence before the Plistocene peri..d, although remains attributed to them have been reported from the Pliocene deposits of the Siwalik Hills in the North of India. With regard to the members of the family forming the subiect ..f the present volume, these constitute the sections or sub-families termed Ihvin.v and Cuprinu' by the scientiric zoologist. As the general characteristics of these sub-families may be gleaned from those given as distinctive of the various genera, it will be unnecessary to derine them in this place. A wore! must, however, be said with regard to the limitations of the term ''goats," which occurs in the title of this volume, seeing that its technical and popular signirications are not exactly the same. One of the four 4 Introductory North American representatives of the family B.vU.e is, indeed, commonly known as the Rocky Mountain goat, and might therefore seem entitled to a place among the animals described in this volume. Zoolo-ncally however, it is not a goat in the proper sense of the term. It appears inore nearly allied to the so-called goat-antelopes, of which the European chamcs and the Oriental serows are familiar examples, and cannot there- fore be included in the sub-family Cc,prin,e. The various members of the extensive but somewhat ill-defined group of Bovni,e comn.only known as antelopes are fully described and figured "> the Boo,', of Antchpcs by jMessrs. Sclater and Thomas. The present vohnne treats of the oxen, sheep, and goats ; and the CcrvuLe have already been described in the Deer of All Lauas. To con.plete the Pecora there accordingly remain the aforesaid goat-like antelopes among the BovuLe^ as well a. the Prong-buck {AntilocaprUu-), and the giraffes and the.r extinct allies (G.v#/.). The groups remaining are therefore some- what m.xed, but it is to be hoped that son.e one will undertake the task of the.r description. And it is above all most important that the extinct forms should be included, as withc.ut the.n no adequate idea can be gained of the affinities and extent of the family last-named. In the groups mentioned in the title, the present volume includes descriptions of all the named living species and races with which the writer is acquainted. But, as in the case of the deer, only such of the extinct forms as are represented by remains sufficiently well preserved to give a fair idea of their atiinities are introduced into the text. In addition to the attractiveness of the wild members „f the groups t-uier consideration on account of the magnificent horns which n,anv of them carry, oxen, sheep, and goats nuist always claim special attention on account of their including the most important of the animals domesticated by .nan for the purpose of affording f,od. The domesticated species comprise (,) the common ox, (2) the humped ox, (3) the yak, (4) the Oxen sheep, and (5) the goat, with their numerous breeds. Of the first the wild ancestral stock, although well known, is now extinct. Of the second and fourth not only is the ancestral stock extinct, hut it is also totally unknown ; while of the third and fifth the original wild form still survives. I. The Oxen — Genus Bos Bos, Linn. Sysf. Naf. ed. ,2, vol. i. p. 98 (1766). C/,aract.rs.-^Sh, generally large, but occasion.^lly medium, or even small ; budd massive and stout ; neck short and deep, and the head carried lH.t l.ttle, if at all, above the level of the back ; frequently a large dewlap to the throat, i-xtremity of mux.le large, I,road, naked, and moist ■ no glands on the face or between the hoofs; four teats in the female; ears large, pointed, and often nearly naked, except on the margins • tail long, cyhndrical, and frequently tufted at the tip, rarely long-haired throughout ; ,nain hoofs more or less pointed, and lateral hoofs well developed. Horns present in both sexes of the existing forms ; generally ""t greatly larger in the n.ales than in the fen.ales, but wanting in females ot so.„e extinct species ; placed on or near the vertex of the skull and •ncre or less separated at the bases ; at first generally directed son.ewbat outwardly, then curving upwards, and son.etimes also inwards at the tips • ■n sect.on varying fi-on. cylindrical to triangular ; externally either perfectly --"th, or .narked with irregular transverse ridges and vallevs ; in colour vury.ng fron. olive-green to black. Felage either short and .Iky, or Ion- ^•nd shaggy ; generally no very marked dirierence, at least in colon,' hetween sununer and winter coat ; general coloration usually uniform, bu^ ." some cases the lower portions of the legs, and rarely the buttocks white, and ,n one or two instances a tew white spots on the sides of the face. Upper molar teeth with very tall and squared crowns, on the inner suie ot which there is a slender cylindrical additional column of dentine i4 ' 'i iHMJiuwHwHili i^ ' ^ Oxen and enamel enclosed in the investing layer of cement. The hony cores of the horns are completely honeycombed with a number of large and ■rregularly shaped cavities. Skull without any pits or fisstn-es below the eyes ; the sockets of the eyes generally not prominent ; the premaxilh. somefmes reaching the nasal bones. Canon-bones short and stout. The gn,up appears to be one of the most specialised and advanced of all the ruminants, as is indicated by the structure of the cheek-teeth and ,ts co„.paratively late appearance in time. Their nearest relatives are not easy to determine. The absence of horns in the fen.ales of some of the extinct species points to descent tVon. a group in which a sinnlar cond.t.on obtained. On the other hand, their molar teeth are very similar ^o those ot the oryx and sable antelope group, and unlike th<,se of all other ruminants. And as this character is not verv likely to have ong,nated .ndependently, a relationship to that group is suggested. Such a connection is in har.nony with the absence of face-glands in the group of antelopes m question, and the small sixe of the vacuities in the skull below the eyes. But, ,t may be urged, in these antelopes lu.rns are developed .n both sexes, and the mu..le is hairy. The latter difference is but of l.ttle importance, as it is quite probable that a naked muzxle is a feature oi comparatively modern acquisition. With regard to the former, if there be any relationship between the two groups, the onlv explanation would seem to be that in the ancestral antelopes the fen.ales were hornless, and that the oxen branched off before horns were acquired bv that sex D/./.te,..-_ Nearly all the habitable parts of the globe, with the except.on of the Australasian and Neotropical regions, but represented ■n the New World only by the American bison and some nearly allied toss.l forms. In time, dating in India from the Fliccene epoch, and represented in Europe in the latter portion of that epoch. The numerical abundance of species, both liv.ng and extinct, in the Old World, and especially Asia, points to the conclusion that the group originated in the Habits Eastern Hemisphere, and not improbably in Asia. Its immigration into Atnca south of the Sahara was doubtless a comparatively modern event • th.s being confirmed by the tact that all its representatives found in thai continent appear to be modifications of a single specific type. Equally modern and equally li„,ited was doubtless also the migration into America; the route of this migration being clearly indicated by the fossil remains oi the bison which occur in Alaska. This emigration mav not unlikely Have been contemporaneous with that of the wapiti, which, like the bison. Has never succeeded in penetrating into the soutlK^rn half of the NeJ World. Ha/>us.~lu the nature of their habitat <.xen display a considerable amount ot variability. Many prefer forest districts, especially where the ground is hilly and rocky, but the American bison was mainly an inhabitant of the open prairies, and the vak is still a deni.en of the bleak Highlands of Tibet. Probably, however, all the n.embers of the group were originally forest -dwelling animals, some of which have been compelled by stress of circtimstances to take to a life on open plains or plateaux ; and the tact that the American bison has a woodland race which is probablv more primitive than its cousin of the prairies, afi^.rds a distinct confirm.^ t-n of this hypothesis. All, or nearly all the species associate m herds of larger or smaller si.e, which may be protected and led by th. bulls, and in some cases may be numbered in thousands ; but in many instance., at any rate, the oldest males separate themselves from the herds to pass a more or less completely solitary existence, and cws take the lead. Of" ^'11 ruminants, oxen are perhaps the m.>st generallv useful to man- kind. .\ot only do they provide riesh of a highlv nutritive and palatable nature, but the female, furnish milk, and the skins of both sexes afford a most valuable supply of leather. The horns and hoofs, too, are largely used tor several purposes; while the American l>ison torn.erly supf^lied rugs or robes that afforded one of the most efficient protections against hi i :' 'i \m < i 8 Oxen extreme cold that is known. But this is by no means all, since in many parts of the world oxen are or were employed as beasts of burden or draught, which in some respects are superior even to the horse ; and were it not for the services of the yak, it would be almost an impossibility to traverse the high plateau of Tibet and some other districts of Central Asia. Several members of the group have been domesticated since very early times, two of these having no wild representatives now living. By many writers the oxen are divided into several genera, although, as remarked by Mr. Blanford, such divisions seem scarcely worthy of that rank. Moreover, zoologists are by no means in accord as to the number of groups into which they should be divided. In the present work the groups adopted are given the rank of sub-genera only. i. Tvi'UAL OR Tairink Groip— Srn-GKNrs Bos Taurus, H. Smith, in Griffith's ^nhini/ Kingdom, vol. v. p. i^y^ (1S27), as a sub-genus. Urus, H. Smith, op. df. vol. iv. p. 4,7 (,827), as a sub-genus. Zchs, Blyth, yoi/ni. As. Sor. Boigal, vol. xxix. p. 2S2 (i860). C;//,^;vn-A7-,f.— Typically the horns quite or nearly cylindrical, situated far apart from one another on a ridge forming the extreme vertex of the skull, which overhangs the proper occipital surface of the latter ; forehead of skull riat and elongated, and a long interval between the bases of the horn- cores and the sockets of the eyes, which arr not tubular; nasal bones relatively elongated. Tail very long, reaching to below the hocks. Line of back nearly straight, flair uniformly short, and legs apparently with- out white " stockinirs." In the vertebral column the neural spine' of the seventh or last ' The ncur.l pines arc the tall vertical proeessc arising trcm, the suninms of the vertebrr aiul tor„„ng the ridge of the baek ; the dors.l vertehr;,. are th..e to uhieh the ribs are attached, the cervicals being thn-e in front and the lumbar^ th-..e immediutelv beh.ind iheni. Common Ox g cervical vertebra is short, the spines of the dorsal vertebnu are of moderate height and slope regularly and slightly away to the lumbar vertebra-, thus producing the straight line of the hack. The upward production o'f the vertex of the skull so as completely to shut out the occipital surfice in a front view, and the abbreviation of the parietal xone, indicate that the present and following groups are the most specialised of all the oxen ; but as regards the vertebnv the bison group is more advanced than the present one. Distn/>i,fk„.~.\i the present day non-existent in a wild condition, but formerly ranging over the greater portion of the Eastern Holarctic and some part of the Oriental regions. I. Thk Common O.v — Bos taurfs Bos taiinis, Linn. Sysf. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 98 (1766). This species being extinct as a wild animal can only be very im- perfectly described. There is no hump on the withers, the horns are perfectly cylindrical, strongly curved, and situated on the extreme summit of the occipital crest of the skull, the hinder surfice of which is very tall, a.ui without any distinct lateral notches. The cry is the well-known " low " of the domestic breeds. The case of species named from domesticated breeds is always a difficult one as regards nomenclature ; and many writers refuse to adopt such name for the original wild race, whether living or extinct. After consultation with my friend Mr. (). Thomas, of the British Museum, I have, however, come to the conclusion that, in the cases of the extinct European ox and the living wild goat, it is preferable to retain the names originally given to tile domesticated breeds. (ilL 1. ! n ii - i \ lO Oxen ^r. KrKoPKAx Wn,o Rack, ck At-k<.c„s-^ Hos rArnrs PK.^,u.K^.^s ( Extinct) Bos prhnigcnias^ Hoja.u.s, Nov, Acta AcaJ C.as. Leop.-C,n: v<,l. xiii. Pt. 2, p. 422 (,827) ; Owen, /?./>. Foss. Mwnn. p. 498 (,846) ; Wilckens" B,ol. CentrMnt. vol. ^.. p. , , , (,885) ; Nchrin^., /.../../.,../. ■/,/,,/, ,,,.' XXV. p. 9,5 (,896) ; Schicmcnz., /W. CcntniUm, V(,I. xvii. p. 79^ (,897). lirick cnrih ,,C |l|,,rj, i'.s^cv. /?- i:i\un-us) un.. U. Sn.ith, in (M-fffith's .y.W A>.cr,A;., vol iv p. 414, V. p. -6 (1827). /^- ..-.., Fleming, /^;>. ^,w. p. 24 (.828); Davvkins, Q.art Journ. Geo/. Soc. vol. xxii. p. .<^, (,,S66). /^.r /.tifrous. F.schcr, /^./^ AV. .V/...., vol. ii. art. 2 (>8,o) MJ», Aca.l. Moscou. vol. iii. p. ,s, (,8,^4), >,,■ U,,|an, ,8,,-. Aurochs J J lios u,nrus prisa., Bosjossilis. Una Jossi/is, Vrus c.lossu.^ and Rr. cu'sans^ Kctcrstcin, Noturgacluchtc, vol. ii. p. uy^ [x'^^^^), lios nanus gigantcus, Oux-n, lint. Foss. Mamm. p. 502 (,846). Bos gigantciLu Davies, Cat. linuly (;.//. p. 47 (.h^^). Bos taurus prinugamu, LydckkcT, Cat. Foss. Manun. Brit. Mus pt ii p. 2 (.HH5). ■ ^ ■ • ///./.,V.-AItlKn,gh the wild ox .,K Europe was originally known - the auroci,s, or nr, latinised into aras, after its extinction thJse names l-an,e transferred to the bison, as the only surviving European repre- -Uat.ve oF the tribe. Much uncertainty long prevailed with regard to tl^e date when this wild bull ceased to exist in its original condition m, the torests ot the Continent. Its remains occur abundantly in the later Phstocene deposits oF Britain, those tn.m the brick-earth of llh,rd in tssex, being remarkable tor their rine state of preservation, and shoJing well the enormous dimensions attained by this n.agniticent animal b.m.lar ren.ains are n,et with in many British caverns, and also in the fbns ot Cambrulgeshire and Lincolnshire ; these latter peat-deposits belonging to the prehistoric period. Other ren.ains indicate that the range of the -Hmal extended southwards uUo North AtV.ca and eastwards into Western ^--\ Northern Asia. The ,uest„.n as to the date of its surv.val in the vv.ld state in Europe has been taken up by Dr. A. Xehring of Berlin, and ^t.ll later by Dr. 1>. Schie.nenx. The most nnportant evidence is a.iorded by one Herbersta.n, who lived fVom ,4^6 to ,566, and in ,,50 published - work under the title of .^T...... ■ This work contains figures of two cpnte d.stmct types of wild Jun-opean cattle, one of uh.ch ^ clearly the b.son, and the other the aurochs, or ur ; and it . -nportant to not.c^ tl>at Herberstan, had no hesitation in referring the latter na.nes to the w,ld ox as d.st.nct fro„, the bison, ilerberstain hin.self appears to have % \ ! i js If \ be depended on, the reds and dims of otu- domesticated breeds nnist apparently be rl-garded as a reversion to the coloration of some older race. Like the bison, the aurochs is known to have been common in the Black Forest in the time of Julius Cavsar ; and was of course still more widely spread in earlier years. In Britain its remains, as already mentioned, occur in deposits as late as those of the fen districts, but none have hitherto iK-en identiHed in those dating from or subsequent to the time of the Roman occupation, when it would accordingly appear to have become exterminated in England. Little more can l)e added with regard to the characteristics of the wild aurochs, except that it must have been a huge animal, probably standing at least six feet high at the shoulders, and with horns not very unlike those of the modern Chillingham cattle, only very much larger.' The horns usually iiave an outward and forward curvature at rirst, after which they bend somewhat upwards and inwards. The following are the dimensions of the horn-cores of some of the splendid specimens collected by the late Sir A. Brady from the brick -earth of Ilford, and now in the British Museum : — MiHiiini N'uihIkt. 45^4^4 45.425 45.426 45.427 Lcnytli ulnng OutiT Curve. 36 ? 3« 38 CiuiinilVri-iKc. 17 .6.5 '7-5 19 Tip til Tip. 28 ? 30 34 i H Oxen MiHiMim Viimkr. I'l'il^ll) .ilong Boinl Outer (.'iirvi'. CiriumliTiTci'. Tip („ Tip. 45.4^« .U '7 32 40 25 32 4S.42y 38 .8.5 4S.4.?0 36 18 45-4.1' 34 18 45.43 i 3' 18 3^ 34 45.433 32 '5 To obtain an idea of tlic full dime.Ksions, allowanu- .n.,st l,c made for the horny shcatlis, which, of curse, have perished. DisMy>ut/o,,.--Duy\wr the I>h-,stocene period nearly the whole ..f lu.rope ranging from the Hritish Islands to the south of Russia, and fron. Scan- dinavia to Spain and Italy; probably also extending into Western Asia. In many parts of Central and Kastern Hurope the species stu'vived as a wild animal till a comparatively late date in the historic period. /k Noh.,, Akkuan \Vn.„ Rac,.:-Hos .Aunrs ^,.u■K. tank ts IE,ti,n,) Bos primigcm,.^ nnwritunia,., 1'. Thomas, B,l/. Soc. ZW. France, ,88,, p. .^6, pi. iii. Bos opisthono,uus, Pcmel, Lartc Gcol. .llga-ic, Mon. 1\,L~-Lcs llv.fs p. 16 (1894). an,nutcrs.~^c-,T\y allied to the l-uropean wild race, but with the forehead shorter, the horn-cores curving less forwards and more down- wards, and the limbs relatively long.r and more slender. The Ihs opisthononua of M. l>omel, which is practically admitted by its dcscrd)er as identical with the H. primignuus nuuo-itanicus of Mr. |>. Thomas is regarded by the h.rn.er wr.ter as enftled to rank as a distinct species • ln.t there can be little hesitation in classing it as a variety of the common ox. £>Zr/./^./,.^.-_Northern AfVica in the districts of Algeria and Tunis, ^''W^'^js^iiiir iz-"^^ Domesticated Breeds '5 probably during tbc l'list„ccnc cpccb, but perhaps surviving int.. the early historic period. r. DoMKsriiAiKn Hrki-.os Uos iacki's rvpici's I'rus scof/aa, H. Smith, in (iritlith's J„iw„/ Khi-^./om, vo\. iv n 4,7 (.827). Ihs si-of/r,/s, p. 28^ (iH^O- /ios /ong;/ro,/s, Owen, Rr/>. lirit. .-h.m. for iH4:;,-p. 2^ (i«44). Ihs frontosu^. Nilsson, ,hw. M,,g. Not. ///,/. ser. 2 vol iv p ^(J (■«49). /^.f tuurus, var. sotinis^ lk-ll and Alston, lirlt. .Q//,,,//v//.,vA-, p. 368 (1874). Ihs tuanu. Lydckkcr, Cut. Foss. Momm. lirit. Miu pt ii p. 16 (1.S85). The domesticated breeds of cattle form, as alrea.ly mentioned, not only tile type of the species Ihs taurns^ but likewise ..f the genus Bos itself, and therefore of the family IW/uhe, .Although, as implied by its title, the present volume does not profess to treat of domesticated animals, a few words are advisable in this place on account of the widely spread idea that the half-wild cattle of fhillingham and some other British parks are aboriginally wild animals. This, however, ,nay be conHdently stated to be an erroneous idea ; and alth(,ugh they may have existed in their present cond.tion for a very long period, it is practically certain they are descended from a domesticated or semi-domesticated breed, possibly n..t very distantly ren^oved from the wild aurochs. Consecpiently, they have no right to the specific name ..v/r/.r, which has been given them. The sanu- remark applies to the names h,„gitr,u and ,/;-.../..,v..- which have been applied to a small breed from the peat of the fens and other superficial deposits conmionly known as the Celtic short-horn, and which undoubtedly appears to have been a domestic animal. lU I *i Hi Ii n » i I »i ■ m — n i6 Oxen cler There being no other primitive vvihl ox in h ivation in the higlicst degree improhahle, it urope, and an lustern is evident that all the domesticated breeds of lu.ropean cattle must trace their ultimate ancestry to the aurochs. It may, indeed, he admitteil that some of the breeds— especially those of Hastern Kurope- may have crossed with African or Indian humped cattle, but this does not affect the general proposition. Taking the aurochs as the ultimate ancestor of all ivuropean domesti- cated cattle, the question narrows itself as to whether any of the British breeds can be regarded as its direct descendants. Some writers have taken the view that the British white park-cattle were derived directly from the aurochs. Not so Owen, who believed that the latter died out as a wild race in Britain, and that the park-cattle are deriveii from the domesticated, and, apparently, importeil race. That this view is probably correct, so far as th • intervention of a domesticated breeil is concerned, mav be admitted. Now we come to a much more difficult part of the question, and one in regard to which much misapprehension has arisen. Professor T. M'Kenny Hughes, in a paper published in the .-Irc/uroiogh, f,,,- iS^/,, expresses the opinion that the British park-cattle are descended from a breed imported into the country during the Roman occupation. And he remarks that "in Kngland no bones which could possibly be referred to the Urns have been proved to have been found with Roman or later remains, and no evidence has been obtained of its ever having been domesticated in this country." If this statement be correct— and if it be also admitted that the aurochs is the ultimate ancestor of all lunopean cattle— it is obvious that all the British breeds must i)e of continental origin. But, as Professor Hughes remarks, " Ca'sar mentions that there were lar-e Iieriis of domesticated cattle in Britain, and we know from numerous excavations into Roman and Roman-British rubbish-pits that these belonged, not to the Vriis, l)ut to Bos I'jfigifrons. This, then, is the native breed with which we Domesticated Breeds 17 must start in all .,ur spcvulati<.ns as tn the origin and (lt:vcl..pnicnt .,f Hritish „xfn. The Koinans found that breed here, and n.. other." We have next t.. nuiuire what was the origin of this so-called Ho, %//;wr, or Celtic short-horn, as it is often called ? On this subject Professor Hughes writes that "before the />//. had disappeared the native short-horn /iw hrnchycaus, or hngifrons, had arrived in Britain." Doubt- less it had, but whence came it, and what was its parent form .? Professor Riitimeyer cnsidered that the Celtic short-horn was a stunted form of the aurochs, and that it existed only as a domestic race." On the other hand, Professor Hughes observes : -It is dillicult to believe that all the scattered ami associated bones of Hos hngifrons which we rind in the fens along with the remains of the beaver, the wolf, and the red deer, are those ..f domestic animals. They may, of course, be those of domestic cattle run wild ; but if /^/,.■ higlfr'm was not indigenous, it must have been introduced by man into this country at a v<-ry remote period. At any rate, from its presence in such great numbers in pre-Roman and Roman times, as proved by excavations, we must admit a strong probability that some of our recent domestic breeds must have been derived from it." I'he latter sentence may be accepted as perfectly true; but where, it may be asked, is the Celtic short- horn—whether a wild or a domesticated animal— supposed to have come from ? If not separately created, it must assuredly have originated from the aurochs, h.r there is no other earlier f.rm to which its pedigree ca.i probably be traced. The great fallacy in all the above is, of course, the recognition of the Celtic short-horn as a distinct species. It is. and can be, nothing but a variety of Bos tanrns, and Riitimeyer's idea that it is a stunted domesticated race (,f the aurochs is almost certainly true. And it thus seems impossible to accept the statement that, if the aurochs " has left its mark in any domestic cattle in the British Isles, it can only be through the long-horned German cattle." In the memoir cited much stress is laid on the ditference in the curva- ! Jl i-ifw{i dw ww'&M«i)i i iV' i tlE! i Lj' ' ' lL'^'l'i#"inii'.it'"- i8 Oxen ture and direction of the horns between the aurochs on the one hand, and the Celtic short-horn and park-cattle on the other. When, however, we admit— as we must— that both the two latter (in common with other European cattle) are the ultimate, if not tlie proximate, descendants of the former, this is really i^egging the whole question. Apart from this, every breeder knows how easily the form of the horns of cattle is altered ; and the more upward direction of the horns of the Chillingham Park cattle, as compared with those of the aurochs, is quite what might be expected to occur when the massive horns of the original wild race became lightened by partial or complete domestication. That a certain similarity in the direction of their cranial appendages is sufficient to indicate that the Chillingham cattle are wholly derived from an Italian breed introduced into Britain by the Roman invaders, does not appear a warrantable supposition, although it is quite possible that some Italian cattle may have been imported to improve the original British breed. In Scotland and the north of England there is not the decisive evidence that the aurochs was exterminated at such an early date as in the south, and it has yet to be demonstrated that the park-brc( ds are not the immediate descendants of a partially domesticated race of the former. With regard to the Celtic short-horn, all tlie available evidence points to the conclusion that it belongs to a thoroughly domesticated race derived from the wild aurochs at a very remote epoch. Indeed, the occurrence of remains of an apparently similar breed in the prehistoric lake-dwellinjis of Switzerland suggests that the breed may have been established prior to the separat jn of Britain from the Continent. 1 2. TllK N.ARliADA ( ).\ — BoS NA.MADKlS {Exthht) Bos ihuiuulictn, 1-^alconcr, Cat. Foss. Vert. As. Soc. Iir//ga/, p. 2:52 (1S59), A//. Mw. vol. i. p. 2S0, pi. xxii. (1S6S) ; Lydekker, A//. /W. {M,„i. Qcl. Zebu 1 19 Surv. hiJ.), scr. 10, vol. i. p. 95, pi. >i (1S78), C.V//. F,ss. Mamm. Brit. Miis. pt. 11. p. 22 (1X85) ; Riitimeyer, A/)/i. sc/ncciz. pal. Gcs. vol. v. p. 176 (1S78). Bos {Un/s) iianiadkus. Falconer, Quart. Jonni. Geo/. Soc. vol. xxi. p. 381 (1865). C/iaractcrs.—TyplcMy very closely allied to the European wild ox, of which Riitimeyer suggested it was only a local race, but in scnne instances the horn-cores more or less Hattened at the base, and thus approximating to the bibovine type. From this feature I was formerly led to hazard the conjecture that the Narbadc ex was the ancestor of the latter group, but it is extremely doubtful whether such a view can be maintained, altlKHiirh there is probably a near relationship between the two. -D/',i7'/7/w//w. - Southern Inch'a during the Plistocene epoch. Remains of this species have been found in association with chipped stone imple- ments. The dying out of this taurine ox and its replacement by the bibovine group wouUi appear a most extraordinary feature, were it not tor the circumstance that the latter appears to be represented in the Narbada deposits. f 3. TllF. Zl'.Mr, OK HlMI-KO ()\ Bos I.NDKTS /iw hh/ia/s, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 99 (1766); Blanford, F(N///a Brit. [//,/. — Ma WW. p. 48^ (i^'9i)- B'M- /)usio, SwainscMi, C/assif. QaaJra/irJs, p. 28^, (iH^^-). Bos (/a'/ti\ Gray, Cat. l'n^a/ata Brit. Mi/s. p. 22 (1852), (.'.at. Ruminants Brit. Mus. p. 9 (1872). Zchus gihivjsus, Blyth, -y'.uru. As. S'h: Bcn^ra/, vol. xxix. p. 2S2 (i860). Bih'is iihlicus, Riitimeyer, IXiil^schr. sclnvciz. Gcs. \'ol. wii. art. 5, p. i-o (1867), .Ihh. S(-/i:c,-i::.. pal. Gcs. \u\. \. p. 189 (18-78). B'js zc/'u, Blanford, Zv//. .Ihyssiiiia, p. zjz (i^/o). g ft-Hlji =3raH P'- i l!!l'jyiyy,..aii 20 Oxen C/w;wrA-rj.— Distinguished from the common ox by the presence of a distinct hump on the withers, by the conformation of the skull, and the curvature of the horns, by the large and drooping ears, the enormous dewlap, and the grunting cry. The presence of a white ring round er.ch fetlock is also very characteristic of this ox. Moreover, humped cattle seldom seek the shelter of shade, and never stand knee-deep in water like the domesticated European breeds. Although in the Indian breeds the horns are in most cases of com- paratively small si.e, in the Galla breed of Africa they attain enormous proportions. Nothing is known as to the ancestry or original habitat of humped cattle. iMr. BIyth was, indeed, of opinion that \hey originally came from Africa, but there is nothing definite in fivour of such a view. £>/>/r/^///b«.— Known only in the domesticated state from India, Burma, China, Siam, Africa, and Madagascar. Properly speaking, therefore, the' species does not come within the scope of the present volume, but since it is important that its right to distinction should be recognised, it has been thought better to give the above brief notice, h may be added that the origin of the name z,/>u is quite unknown, it being foreign to all the native languages of India. 4. Thk Siwai.ik Ox— Bos .vtrniRoNs {Extinct) Bos acutlfrons, Lydekker, Rcc. Geo/. Surv. India ^ vol. x. p. ^o {\^j-j). Pal. bui. {Mem. Gcol. Surv. In./.), ser. ,0, vol. i. pp. ,,2 and 173, pis. xii! and xiii. (187S). C/iaractcrs.—X magnificent species differing from other members of the present group by the convexity of the forehead, the shorter interval between the bases of the horn-cores and the sockets of the eyes, the curvature and pyriform section of the enormous horn-cores, which are set closer together on the forehead, and the form of the occiput. o 1 N^^ // / / '9 -a e M _0 c « DO .•■faSBafxiiatf i tJiat; 22 Oxen In its present broken condition the span of the horn-cores of the type specimen (Fig. 2) is considerably over six feet, from which it may be inferred that in hfe they were httle, if at all, short of ten or eleven feet from tip to tip. D/j7';7/w/'/b«.— Northern India during the Pliocene period. Not im- probably the skull from the same deposits described by myself as lios planifrrjiu may indicate the female of this species. ii. BiHoviNK Groi'I' — Si'h-Gknts BlHOS Bibos, Hodgson, yoiirn. As. Soc. Bcnga/, vol. vi. p. 499 (18:57). Gav(f//s, Hodgson, op. cit. vol. xvi. p. 706 (ios cavif'rons, Hodgson, ^^Joum. As. Soc. Bcnga/, vol. vi. p. 745 (,8^7), Ml i ■ !5 1^ 1 1 \ \ i 1 111) ' i ! f 111 ' 1' *< ^4 Oxen X. p. 449 (.84,), xvi. p. 706 (1S47) ; I<;iliot, AW,v.r Jour,,, vol. pis. V. and vi. (iS^9) ; fl„rsricld, (.W. A'. /,/,/. ,U//,.. " X. p. 227, H OS g'l/o; Simdevall, A'. Svffid;/ l] (1846). p. iSi (1H51). 'A .■//•. //,///,//. foi- 1S44, p. 1^2 Bi7, '>os ^aiinis, (iray, Cat. Hmlgson Coll. p. 24 (1846), Cat. I 'ngiilata Ihit. Fk;. 3.^-Hoaa r,f Bull (Jaur. After F,;r>yil,, ///>//,,W,,- y Cv/Z/v/ /«,/';,,. M/.>-. p. 32 (.852), f.V.A /e/.;;./).,/.;/.r Unt. Mus. p. ,^ (,872) ; Riiti.n.ycr, 7):. GV.,-. vol. xxii. art. 3, p. ,70 (,867), y/M. ,,/,,,v/l-.. /,.;/. OV.-. vol. V. p. ,89 (.878); Davison, Proc. Zoo,. Sor. ,889, p. 447. Bilm asscci, Horsfield, Cat. E. hnl. M„s. p. 181 (1851). Gav.eus gaunn-, Blytli, Jom-n. .As. Sor. Bengal, vol. x.vix. p. 282 (i860) ; Jerdon, Mam»,. hnl. p. 30. (.867); Stcrndalc, Manun. bul. n. (1884). 481 i jaur ^5 Phitr I. Clu (irditcr: B tivel V slioi t) uild massive (the Ixxiy iK-ing deep and the hinhs reh ami size hirge, the height in old I as tnncli as six feet i\ lulls occasionally reaching )iir inc lies (nineteen hands) at the shoulder. K argc. The ridge (.n the hack strongly developed, and end lescent ahoiit midway between the shonld irs a Iiigii riilge on the verte> ling in a sudden crs and the tail. Skull with X, forming a hold arch 1 the horns, and heneath it tl H )etvveen the ha ses of" le orns markedly flattened at the 1 igth profile of the forehead deeply concav( lase, strongly curved throughout tl len- length, with the tips inclining inwards and somewhat backwards- their colour pale greenish or yellowish, with black tips. Tail just reaching tHc hocks. Generally little or no distinct dewlap. Hair short, and b.comn,g very sparse on the back in old bulls ; general colour of the upper-parts in old bulls dark olive-brown tending to become almost black • under-parts paler, but golden-brown at the insertion of the limbs • upper P<'>-t.on of forehead to the nape of the neck ashy-gray, passing in some cases ■nt<. wlntey-brown or dirty white; legs from above the knees and hocks ^io^v-nvards pure white ; mux.le pale-coloured. In cows and young bulls the general coloration rather less dark, and in some cases, especially during winter and in individuals inhabiting comparatively drv and open districts tending to rufous ; calves are stated to have a dark streak down the back. Although a bull from the Malay Peninstda was exhibited in the London Zoological CJardens in iSSy, 1 have never seen a livinsr gaur, and my descriptions are onsecjuently derived from museum specimens and the writings of others. The British Museum possesses a !^ne mounted male and female fro.n India, but additional specimens are necessary before several disputed points in connection with this magniricent species can be deculed. With regard to size, Mr. Blanfbrd, in 1S9,, wrote as follows :_ K J > i z6 Oxen -Large hull, arc .said to cxcx-cci 6 feet u, huylu at the .shouhlcr, hut tH.s .s rare and exceptional, 5 feet S inches to , teet ,0 inches heing the '-.'I height. C-ovvs are nu.ch s.naller, ahout 5 feet high. A huge hull measured hy KIIi.,t, was 6 teet ■ • inches high, , feet 6 inches fVon, nose ^" '-'-f '>^ f^"l> tail 2 feet .0 inches long, girth hehind shoulder S feet. A cow 4 tect ,0,1 inches high measured 7 feet fVon. n ,se to rump over curves, and 6 feet 9 inches in girth." The greatest shoulder-height recorded hy Mr. Rowland Ward is 6 feet 4 mches, in a specimen killed hy Lord I'owerscourt ; a hull shot hy the Maharaja of Kuch Behar co„m,g next, with a height of 6 feet ^ inches Three other hulls measuring over 6 feet are also recorded; one "of these l^^iv.ng heen measured with extre.ne accuracv. Colonel l>ollok. who states that the gaur fron. the eastern side of the Hay of Hen-Ml u-e larger than those hom India, records an Indian hull standing ^6 tbet 4i mches ( h; hands ' i„eh) at the shoulder, a Burmese hull 6 feet 7i "iches (,y hands ^^ inches), and a Burmese cow 6 teet 4 inches (u) hands). If acctn-ate, these latter din.ensions are the largest on record a-ul hear out the statement as to the supe-ior sixe of the eastern form of the species. With regard to the cjuestion whether the Burmese and Malayan animals « -^'l;! he regarded as indicating a race apart fro.n the tvpical Indian torn, the following ohservations may he cjuoted. Mr. Blanford, for instance' states that skulls from the Duars of Bhutan, the Mish.ni Hills, and the Mahw Peninsula are much hroader in proportion across the fo-eheul than those from the Indian Peninsula ; adding that he is uncertain whether th.s hroad-hcaded form is alone found to the east of the Bay of Bengal ^Uthough inclining to the opinion that it is not. He likewise menti^n^ that H, a si"t seldom worn at the tips as in the Indian." Ik- adds, however, that -'cn ,n India gaur are variahle, and that those fVo.n the Western Cihats arc larger, with a profile n.ore like a ram, than ti,ose fVon, the Wynad '1-tnct, thereby resemhling their Hurmese brethren. Further, in' the young Malayan bull, for.nerly living in the London Zoological (iardens -Hi hgured by M,-. HI,,,,,,, „ ,,, ,„^i^^^,,^ ,,^.^^, , ,^^.^.^ . _ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^iorsal ndge ,s represented as terminating in the middle of the back. Although a larger series of specimens „.,y ultimately enable such ^'-s,on to be n.ade. the evidence at present available i. insuflkient to ^ulnm of ,hc gaur fVon, the eastern portion of the animal's range-the sladang of the Malays-being separated as a race distinct fVon. the western form. NN'ith regard to the abnormal skulls fron. the Mish.ni "'"^ and neighbou-hood, I have no suggestion to orfbr, unless it be tha they indicate a strain of gayal blood. Another question relates to the absence or presence of a dewlap M,- Blanford states that no distinct dewlap is 9j 30 16 P 1.. 'rip. Wi. I't IikI'I.'. l..n,llil). 25 4oi (i)iitsidc) Vardi Mallay 24 P .! 38 ? Mysore 25 .1.11 'I'ravancore 23i .ui Kuch Ik'har -°i 32] r 27 ? Western Ghats 2'i} ,12i ? 29 4,1 ( outside) ? 2t ■in ? 12^ 2-;_ J 16 ,15 ( outside) 'IVavaiicorc 22i y\ »» 1 I y-i Kuch Behar 38 4' ( outside) Central Provinces Dht,%utkn.— \\^ larger hilly forest districts of the Indian Peninsula, Burma, the Malay IV-ninsula, and proi.ably Cochin China and Siam, hut the eastern limits not yet accurately dehned. Unknown in the Malay Islands and Ceylon, althougii stated to have formerly occurred in the lattcT island, where, however, it may ha\e been introduced. Regarding the distribution in India, Mr. lilanford writes as follows :—" In India at present its extreme north-western habitat is probably the Rajpipla Hills, near Broach ; an.i west of longitude So^ east the river Narbada forms approximately, though not absolutely, the n<.rthern boundary of its ran-e. It does not inhabit the grass jungles of the (iangetic plain, except close to the Himalayas ; but it is found in the forests at the foot of those mountains. Ul Gaur us far west as Nepal. South of the Ganges it exists in suitable tracts in Chutia-Nagpur, Orissa, and the Northern C'ircars, the Central Provinces, Hyiierahail territories, Mysore, ami throughout the Western Ghats, whcre- ever it has not heen exterminated or driven away." ILi/>lts.~\\\ who have had the opportunity of seeing gaur in their native wilds describe them as displaying marvellous activity in getting over the hilly ground on which they are generally found. Although they nearly always keep to forest or high grass, they are sometimes found away fron'i hills. In the south of India their favourite haunts are rocky hills, with open grassy tablelands at the summit ; and here they are found at eleva- tions of from 2500 to 5000, or even 6000 feet above sea-level, although in the Terai districts of the Himalaya they never ascend nearly so high. Usually they go about in small parties or herds numbering from Hve or six to about twenty head, but occasionally more may be seen together. The old bulls, which, as Colonel Pollok remarks, are so short-haired as to look almost as though they had been shaved, keep much to themselves, and in some instances are solitary; and even young bulls may be seen alone, or in parties of two or three. Although grass, especially that which springs up after he periodical jungle-Hres, forms their staple food in most districts, at certain seasons of the year they browse largely on the y-.ung and succulent shoots of the bamboo, which, after all, is only grass of a larger kind. Feeding at morning and evening, they retire during the heat of the day t<. the depths ..f the forests, or to thick grass-brakes, where they escape the torments of gadriies. The early evening or afternoon appears to be the general time for drinking. Although shy and timid, and for the most part avoiding the neighbourhood of cultivated lands, in undisturbed districts they are not excessively wary and difficult of approach. Neither are they, as a rule, vicious, althoufrh a solitary bull has been known to charge without provocation ; and in all cases when hotiv pursued they are apt to turn on their assailants. C\)lonel Pollok describes 30 Oxen them as at times snorting and stamping when disturbed before making off, and when in headlong flight crashing through tree and bamboo jungle with apparent ease, owing to their enormous weight and strength. The pairing season is stated to take place during the cold weather, and in Peninsular India the calves are, for the most part, dropped in August or September, although a few make their appearance in April, May, or June. The alarm cry of the gaur is a kind of whistling snort ; there is also a sort of mooing cry, and likewise a loud bellow, used as a call. According to Mr. Blanford, none of these sounds are at all like those uttered by the Indian humped cattle. Some difference of opinion exists as to whether the gaur has ever been domesticated ; and as I have no personal information ov. this point, I can only quote what has been written by others. Mr. Blanford writes as follows :— - In India all attempts at domestication of this bovine have been failures. The calves appear always to die in captivity, none, it is said, having been known to attain their third year. But there can be little doubt that the gaur has been tamed and kept tame in some of the hill-tracts between Assam and Burma." A paraphrase of this statement was published by myself in the Roy^f/ N„tnra/ History. CommentiiK- thereon, Colonel Pollok makes the f )llowing statement :— " In a Natural History lately published, it has been asserted that the gaur has been tamed, and that they are kept in captivity by natives on our north-eastern frontier, but this is altogether erroneous." In a footnote it is added that the writer was evidently misled by Sanderson, whereas in reality, as shown above, I have merely quoted Mr. Blanford, from whom some additional remarks on this subject are referred to under the next species. As illustrative of the extreme activitv of the gaur, the follovvin--- extract from a correspondent of Colonel Pollok living in Travancore is worth quotation : — "When the Kaunan Devan Hills in North Travancore were opened out tor tea and cinchona some yea.s ago, the felling of the tea forest Wu.dOaf:n Shkhp^ Goats Plate II. BULL GAYAL /iiOiM/t.W *■,- /(,w(a„.y tv^„ te;[I. Gaval 31 -tncted the wild beasts, p.-tia.la,-ly the elephants and ga.r, when pass,n, acrcss the estate, t.. one or two pathways. One particular track was, however, lert to then, tor about ten years, when turther cultivation 1-i at last to the blocking up ot even this right of way. The animals were at hrst much pu.xled, and both elephants and gaur took to wander- ■ng about the cultivation. The elephants accommodated themselves to the aI-.-ed condit.ons and used the estate paths. The gaur, ,„ore suspicious t;H.k a straight line for their gracing grounds over the rotten telleJ t. mber and through the older cinchona plantations, but were often brought ^.P by the sight of white-washed walls surn.ounted bv a corrugated L -oh At last they settled down to a pathway between the old cinchona and a natural belt left between it and the new clearing. A pit ,0 feet Ion. S teet wuie and H feet deep, was dug on the boundarv, covered with a mat ■nade of reeds and ba.nboos, over which earth and dry leaves were scattered The suK-ll of the fresh earth, however, turned then, off. Once a gaur got h.s f.,re-feet down the suie of the pit, but made a bold jump and cleared it." The title of biM.n commonly give.i to this species by Anglo-Ind sportsmen is a misnomer. iiaii .... ./,. S.: Ha>su/, vol. xxxi. p. ^,S (,S63); I>. L. Sclater rr.: /.ol. Sor. .S66, p. ,, pi. , , Sarbo, i/,/./. .SS.^p. ,4. ; HKm^.rd, i/.W. •Hyo, p. 593, fa,;,, lirit. bulia^^Munn,. p. 4S7 (,89,); W. L. Sclater Lot. Mn„,u. L,.L M,,, pt. ii, p. ,,6 (.S,;.); Uuet. B.//. Sor. Accluu P^^ns. vol. xxxvii,. p. nc. p. .74 (.896) lios gav,au^ Colebrooke, ./,.. A'..,,v,.v/.,...-, vol. viii. p. 4SS (.So,-)- Hodgson, >.;... ./,. S.C. /y,v^-.A vol. X. pp. 4,, and 470 (,S40 m 32. Oxen Bos syllu'ttmiis, F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. Mamm. pis. 41S, 419 (1824). Eos {Bison) gavceus, H. Smith, in Griffith's Aiiinni/ Kingdom, vo). iv. p. 406, V. p. i-j^ (1.S27). Urns gavicus, Svvainson, Classif. Qjjih/nipcJs, p. 280 (1S35). Bison syllh'tanus, jurdiiie, Naturalist's Lihran — Mamm. vol. iv. p. 257 (.836). Bihos frontalis. Gray, List Mamm. Brit. Mas. p. 151 (1843), Cat. Ungiilata Brit. Mi/s. p. 31 (1852), Cat. Ruminants Brit. Mas. p. i^ (1872). Gavmis frontalis, Hodgson, Joi/rn. As. Soc. Bengal, \o\. wi. p. 706 (1847) ; Horsfield, Cat. E. Ind. Mus. p. 179 (1851); Blyth, 'yourn. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xxix. p. 294 (i860) ; Sterndale, Mamm. India, p. 486 (.884). Bihos gavcens, Riitimeyer, Av/zJ-jt///-. schvciz. Gcs. vol. xxii. art. ^, p. 170 (1867), Abh. sclruriz. pal. Gcs. vol. v. p. 189 (1878). Plate II. Characters. — Generally very similar to thc;se ot" the preceding species, hut the size smaller, the limhs relatively shorter, the dorsal ridge somewhat less prominent, the dewlap always well developed, and the skull and horns ot a markedly different type. The head is decidedly shorter, having almost a triangular form, with the region of the forehead perfectly tiat, and the ridge on the summit hetween the hases of the horns forming a horizontal straight line ; the horns themselves are blackish in colour from base to tip, and are but very slightly curved, inclining outwards and more or less upwards, but with no inward bending; in the skull the nasal bones are decidedly shorter than those of the gaur. Hair somewhat longer than in the latter, and the colour distinctly darker, the head and body beintr dark blackish-brown in both sexes, and the legs from above the knees and hocks to *W. hoofs pure white or yellowish. Although the domesticated race— app. itly the only one of which entire specimens au known — is usually )^t Cjayal 33 u"ift>rn.Iy coloured, individuals are not unfrcquently observed more or les^ spotted with white, while a few are wholly white. Although very .nassively built, the gayal, at least in the semi-domesti- cated state, stands very considerably lower at the shoulder than the gaur The horns of a wild bull measiu-ed by Mr. Blanford had a length of 14 ■nches, and the same basal girth. In a domesticated specimen measured by Mr. R.>wland Ward the length along the outer curve of the horn is given a^ 15 "iches, the basal girth .,1 inches, and the interval between the tips L Fk;. 4. — Bull Cav.il. |-' -rom a photograph of a specimen i,, the Calcutta Zoological Gardens. oK the two horns 26? inches. In a second example, of which the horn- length IS only ,2i inches, the basal circumference is zyl inches. Distnhtr,, Vov a long period there was great doubt whether the .aval "•• '"'than, as it is called in Assam and Chittagong, existed at all in 'the w.Id state ; and the opinion has indeed been expressed that the animal is •nothing more than a domesticated breed of the gaur. Mr. Blanford hc.wever, records a typical skull in the private collection of Mr A ()' ii'-'"c, obtained by the late Mr. ^^^ Davison in Tenasserin. and Klc-nt.hed by the latter as belonging to a w,ld animal killed bv himself in Tenasserun, between Len.yne, 66 miles south bv east of Moulmein and Tenasserun town. Th.s accordingly appears to rix Tenasserin. as Ivin. I,'' ri 34 Oxen within the distributionul i of the species, the limits of which have vet to he dctincd. But it is distinctly remarkable that since the publication ot Mr. Blanford's note in 1S91 not a single word in confirmation of the existence of wild gayal has been recorded either by a sportsman or a naturalist ; while Burmese sportsmen with whom 1 have conversed deny the existence of the animal in a wild state in the Tenasserim district. As mentioned under the head of the preceding species, great confusion has arisen in the descriptions of travellers between gaur and gayal ; and the question as to which form some of the animals kept in domestication bv the tribes living in the districts to the northward of the Bay of Bengal belong, is still iiwolved in great obscurity. Mr. Blanford's remarks on the question are as follows: — '' Bos frontd/is was described by Lambert and Colebrooke as occurring both in the tame and wild state in the hills of Tipperah among the Kukis; and Lambert gave a tletailed account, furnished by Mr. M'Rae, of the capture of wild animals and their domesti- cation by these tribes. It has since been ascertained that tame ' mithans ' or 'gayals' are fcnind in possession of particular tribes both north and soutli of the Assam valley, around Manipur and C'achar, and in the Tipperah, Chittagong, and Lushai hills as far south as the neighbourhood of C'hitta- gong. But the wild bt)vine of the area in general was ascertained by Blyth, Sarbo, Anderson, and others to be B'js gdiirus. The latt , evidence is confusing. Peal {Nutiirc, 5th November 1SS5, p. 7) states that both wild and tame animals are called niit/uni in Upper Assam, that they are perfectly distinct, and no intermediate forms ever occin- ; whilst Sanderson ['i/iirtirn Tears iumng the ll'ild Beasts of India ^ p. 250) declares that in Chittagong the two forms, wild aiul tame, are similar. Lastly, Mr. \\. C". Steuart Baker {Asian^ 6th March iS9i,p. 35H) in the north C'achar hills confirms the old story ot the wild mithans being reclaimed by the Kukis. ... It is very probable that some of the domesticated mithans are B. gaiirus^ the domestication of which by the Kukis was described by Blvth on information f Gayal 35 from a misMoiiary, M. Barhc [yoiirii. As. Sm\ Bciiga/, vol. xxix. p. 294). This would explain the old accounts of Mr. M'Rae and the recent one hy Mr. Baker, [lotii of which have eveiy appearance of authenticity." The domesticated herds of gayal enjoy a large amount of lihertv, roaming and feeding at will during the daytime through the forest, and returning at nightfall of their own accord to the villages of their owners. They never appear to he used either as heasts of hurden or for draught ; and their main use seems to he for food. It has indeed been stated that they are also milked, hut as the majority at least of the Indo-Chinese tribes hy whom these animals are kept are not milk-drinkers, this seems more than doubtful. Gayal breed freely with the Indian humped cattle, and in the London Zoological Gardens a hybrid l)etween a bull of the latter ami a cow gayal proved fertile. The pedigree of the product of the pair, crossed with a male American bison, is as follows : — Hull /uhii Cow Cj;i\';i1. i .1 ■ ./ ilvbricl Cow Hull HiM)M. H. HvbiiJ Cow Hull liison. ('.. H\ brnl Cow. The hybrid cow B. was thus the product of three perfectly distinct species ; so distinct, indeed, that they are regarded by manv writers as representing as many genera. And yet the animal was perfectly fertile. As might have been anticipated from the preponderance of bison blood, the hybrid (.'. bad lost almost all traces of the characters of the original parents, and become practically indistinguishable from its sire. 'i i ^ lil 36 M Oxen 3. ThK liAMINd — Bos soNDAicrs Bos h'ucoprymmis, Ouoy and CJaimarJ, Voyage dc P.htrohi/h- — Zoo/. yo\. i. p. 140 (1830). Hos sondiiiciis, Miillcr and Schlcgcl, J'cr/uiitJ/. Wulcr/unJ Gcs. vol. i. p. 195, pis. xxxv.-xxxix. (1S40); Blyth, yoiini. ./s. Soc. li,'//ga/, vol. xi. p. 445 (1842), xxxi. p. 336 (1862); Hlaiitord, Proc. Zoo/. Sor. 1890, p. 593, F,i/m/ Brit. Iih/hi~Maiiiiii. p. 489 (1891); W. L. Sclatcr, (,',//. Mmiini. Ind. Mas. pt, ii. p. 127 (1891); Hiict, Bii//. Soc. Acc/iin. Paris, vol. xxxviii. p. 13 (1891); Hos. . M(i»iniii/s of Borneo, p. 64 (1893); I-lvans, yotirii. lioiii/hiy Soc. vol. x. p. 78 (1895); \Vard, Rccon/s of Big Game, p. 278 (1896); Wood, Zoo/ogist, ser. 4, vol. i. p. 489 (1897); Lydekkcr, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1898, p. 277; Pollok, Zoo/ogist, scr. 4, vol. ii. p. i (1S98). Bo'! />ante»g, Wagnc-r, Schrebcr's Saiiget/iiere, vol. iv. p. 517 (1844). Bos /)afiting, Siiiulcvall, A'. Sveiis/;a Vet. .Ik. Hand/, for i S'44, p. 152(1 846). Bi/)os /hinting, (Jray, Knoics/ey Menagerie, p. 4S (i8:;o). Cat. Vngii/ata Brit. Mus. p. 35 (1852), Cat. Rioninants Brit. Mtis. p. i :; (1872); Horstield, Cat. K. hid. Mas. p. 1S3 (1851) ; Jcntink, Notes Leyden Mas. vol. XX. p. 125, pi. ii. (1S98), Gavra/s sondaicus, Blytli, yourn. .Is. Soc. Bengai, vol. xxix. p. 296 (i860); MacMastcr, Notes on Jerdon, p. 131 (1870); StcTiidalc, Manini. Ind. p. 4S8 (1884). Bi/ios sondaicus, Riitiiiieycr, Wnksc/ir. sc/neei-z. Ges. vol. xxii. part 2, art. \, p. 170 (1867), .//;//. sc/ncei-z. pa/. Ges. vol. v. p. 189 (1878); \\ L. Sclatcr, List Anim. Zoo/. Gardens, p. 1^4 (188^). P/ate 111. C/iaracters. — Height ranging from 5 feet to at least 5 feet 9 inches at the withers ; build lighter than in the two preceding species, with the legs Wild OxBN.SuKtJpAGoATS Pi.atk 111. ''":\i lAVAN BANTING. P'tlijjf.t^i hv .Hnv;«nu* Viarxt i td II' i Banting •SI rcLuivdy l„„«..,, „„. ,,,,! „„„,, ,„„^^. ^,,„„^^,,_^ ^_^^, anulopc-likc, ,|,e nd„e "" T "";''"" '"" '''"'"'"■■'• ^' »' •"""■■"« ^' 'limine, l„„„,,, „,. ,l.wlap -.„„.. .,., ,„■ „. „.,™.. TH. .an .., „„■,.,, a,:, .,a,Hi,„! ,., J c ,„cks. H„r,. c.,„„para,ivc.|y .nail an,l >lc,ula-, in ad.l.s Ha„c,K,l a. e a.,c,,r,.,„ wl„cl, ,l,ey ac fi.e ..v. „,„.a,,is a,,., „,,„..!. I„„ ...ward. , „ '; """":"" ""^■^"■""'^ -" "-"* ^ "• y .8 ......... cylindrical l>.....g:K,.,.. Cental c„I,„„. „f y„„n,, „„,,, ^nd fcn.alc.; a. all a^cs red rown, appr„ac,,i,,,, c„c.„„., and l,cc.„„in, „,„c„ |i„„cr on .„c nnder" •■■N >vl„ch ,„ay he win.c, ,„■ wlmi.h, a. arc .l,c n.ncr .ides .„■ „,e leg, c ,„ner .,r,aces „f .,,e ears, and .l,e lip. ; ,.,. ,„■ ad„„s „.„,„ above .he' ::„;""' "";'" r ""■ '-'■^ """^- •"• -^-^^ '--le. and generally - ;lc., y. a larse wl.i.c pa.cl, „„ .„e l,„...,ck. .nrronnding, l,„. „„ -^ edd,.i,.|,r.,„n. Y.,nng wi.h .he ,.„.er side of .he leg ches.nu. ""■';f ' "■ '•"«"■• ^""' ^ -^ --^ ''■"- ehe n,iddle .„-.he hack There are .cv ,ne,„her,s o.' .he presen, group o.' anin.aK ahon. which ' '" "" ^ ""- "'-"I.l«e .han ,. i, in .he pre.en, ease ; and onr "" V? "'^' '•-'- i» -l>-e„.ed in .he Na.ional follec.ion by -J-i Ml .ron, ,,a.., .Von, which n,„ch o.- .he hair ha. heen rnilh vely dib.Mic. races are recognisahle. M ^ ) ,11 hrced .recly w,.h don,es,ic ca..le, a„^^ I r s ,: ""'^"T' ^'"""""" "^ "-'■"- '-'- •"■"« "'■ '"= M^iay -H .tr e . „ was .o a halt-hred race .ha. .he nan.c «,, /,v,c*™», w,, ^""*^'" "" ""--■ 'i""y -- «-.a.l, and i. is ,„r .hi. .casi'I; 2 m^ ijii ;i 38 Oxen iiiime is not cniploycil as the designation of tfic species. The late aequisi- tion of the blackish colour by the aihilt males ot' the typical race, ami the permanent retention of the red by both sexes of the seconil race and by the cows of both, as well as the slighter and smaller horns, point to this species being a less specialised type than either the gayal or the ganr ; and it is not improbably a near relation of the extinct I'itruscan ox described below : — The following horn-measurements of this species are recorded by Mr. Rowland Ward : — Li-nglh .ilim(! (T Cvirvc. n.iB.il CirciiinlVrrnii-, li). I. Iil.. (ircili-t Wiiith lini.lr, l.oiMlitv. }° 17 ? ? Java 28.1 '5 26i .I6f y^ ^si 16^ 2C| 26| Malay IVninsula Hi '2i '5^ 24i Java zri •H '.U •9i Borneo M '^1 '«i 22i 1 19 "i^ 18 aif Java '7| 10^- 7h Hi Boriifo '7i io| ■7l 20| Si;im 16.'. .o^< 9i Ui Borneo Distrihiitioii.~-]A\'A, Borneo, probably Sumatra, Mali, the Malay Pen- insula, Burma as far as Northern Pegu and Arakan, thence apparently through the hills to the east of Chittagong to Manipur, Siam, and probably other parts of the ailjacent districts. Very little has been recorded of the habits of the Javan race of the banting, but some notes are given below relating to those of the Burmes and Manipur races. Mr. Blaiifoid remarks that, from the greater pr portionate length of its limbs, the banting is probably less addicted to climbing rocky hills than the gaur, and is more restricted to the plains ot high grass ; and this is confirmed by the observations recorded below. se o- favan Banting >/r//w//v/._Burma, Pegu, and Arakan ; possibly evtendi.ig southwards to the Malay Peninsula, and perhaps northwards to the ranges eastward of Chittajionir. Ha/^/fs. The Burmese tsaing, according to X^-t.-Capt. luans, is t,. be met in most parts of the cuntry where suitable grazing and covert occur. They generally go about in small parties numbering from eight to a doxen ' Zoologist, ser. 4, vdl. ii. p. 2. (1S9S). Manipur Banting 43 head, althougl, in some instances as many as twenty, or even nu.re, may be seen ,n company. Kach herd is led by an old bull, but the band may HKlude two or three younger anin^ils of the same sex. When the bulls advance in age, they are frequently expelled from the herd by their younger and more powerful rivals, and are then compelled to live in sohtude. As a rule, they avoid the neighbotn-hood of villages and exposed cult.vated land, although in secluded Jungle clearings they may inflict con- Mderable damage on crops. Their food includes grass, leaves, and fallen triut, young bamboo-shoots being a very favourite nutriment. Although •n cloudy weather they continue till a later hour, their usual feeding-time .s h-om early morning till nine or ten o'clock, after which they retire to the shade for repose. i>asturage and other kinds of food appear to be the ■nducements for considerable local migrations on the part of these animals, tiie young snoots of the bamboo attracting them to the jungle during the early part of the rainy season. Hut at this time they are also often driven >nto the open by the persecution of riies and mosciuit.)es. During the hot season they seek the deep shade of the dense jungle, but at other seasons of the year prefer thinner and more open covert. Occasionally they visit the lower hills, but never seem to ascend to any great elevation, be,ng thus very unlike the gaur. Ivvc. .t when wounded, tsaing seem indisposed to charge the hunter ; the i>erds dashing off at a rapid pace when flrst dis- turbed, but soon settling down again. Solitary bidls d.. not appear more vicious in disposition than tiiose with the henis. <■■ M WII'IR Raik Ijos SONDAKIS, V.AK. (.%nvrArs. -Smaller than the preceding race, the height of the adult >"ale being 5 teet at the shoulder, anei distingm-shed by the red adour of th.s sex at all ages and the absence of a white patch on the buttocks, which IS, however, developed in the female. Male with the ears rel; itively il S ! 44 Oxen short ; genenil colour dark red, passing into grayish-vvliite on the face, under-parts, and inside of hmhs ; no dark hne down middle of back ; no white patch on the buttocks ; front of fore-legs above the knees reddish- black ; tip and front margin of ears jet black ; a grayish-white ring round the eyes; front and sides of upper part of head tawny white; muzzle grayish-black. Female with the ears larger ; the general colour light red, with a dark line down the back, and the under-parts and a large patch on the buttocks white ; no black on front of fore-leg or on ear. Height at shoulder 4 feet 10 inches.' The above is an abbreviation of the description given by Surgeon- Captain H. S. Wood of an adult bull and cow shot by himself in the Kubbu Valley, between Manipur and Northern Burma. From the condi- tion of its front teeth, the bull was regarded as a very old animal, its age being estimated at about twenty years. Presuming it to be a truly wild animal, there can be no question as to its distinctness from the typical Javan race ; and it would likewise seem distinct from the Burmese form, but until specimens are available for comparison, it had best be left unnamed. The forehead of tlie bull showed the usual callous mass of horny structure between the bases of the horns; a distinct dorsal ridge, ending abruptly at the middle of the back without forming a hump, and the dewlap slightly developed. The following are the dimensions of the bull shot by Surg.-Capt. \\ ood, viz. : - i k'ight at shoulder . . . . <; o Length (nose to tip of tail over hack) . . 14. o l.L'iigth (nose to tip of tail across hod\') . ' i '> Length ot head and neck (above) . . , 3 10 Length of head and neck (iielow) . . . 30 Length of tail . . . . . 211 Length of ears . . . . . 010 In tlic ilcM'ripiion limited, ilic liciglu is f;i\cii .i-. ^ t'ccl lo irKlii;-, Inii tlii^ scciiis an crmr. ': t Manipur Banting 45 ft. in. 7 lO 7 O o I '5 6 3 lO I 1 1 I "i I 2 o lo urve) 2 9i curve) . 2 I 7 4 I 5 2 ~i 7 .1 2 Girth (middle of body) (Jirth (chest) Girth of fore-leg above knee Girth of hind-leg above hock . Girth of neck (middle) Girth of haunch Length of skull anteriorly Distance between orbits Breadth of forehead (between horns) Length of left horn (base to tip round c Length of right horn (base to tip round Girth of right horn (base) Girth of left horn (base) Distance between tips of horns . Distance between convexities of horns Distrihiitloii. — The Kiibbii Valley, between Manipur and Northern Burma ; perhaps extending to the ranges eastward of Chittagong, where this form may intergrade with the Burmese race. Hdhits. — The following notes on the habits of the Manipur banting, or tsaing (tsaine) are given by Surg. -Capt. Wood: — "These animals," he writes, " are found in herds varying from ten to thirty in number ; and in the large herds there are generally found two or three small bulls whose heads are not worth obtaining. The largest horns, as is the case in other bovine animals, are found in solitary bulls who keep to themselves, and only occasionally mi.x with the cows during the breeding- season. When the green grass sprouts up after the yearly fires, the old bulls wander over large areas, and seldom remain in the same locality for two successive days ; while, like the gaur, they are almost always on the move, feeding as they go along and only lying down during the day when the sun is hottest. The tsaing can go for days without water, and the Burmese say that they only drink once in seven days. I have come across herds in absolutely dry districts, miles away from water. 46 Oxen !) I''! Another peculiarity c,f tlic tsaing is that it docs not seem to mind the bites of the gad- or horse-riy, with vvhicli the teak-forests abound at the beginning of the monsoon. The wild buffi.h,, which has apparently a much tougher skin, is almost driven tnad by these pests, and is compelled to take to the rivers and swamps t<. avoid them, whereas the tsaing will never resort to the water, hut prefers to lie down in the forest stu-rotuided by these buz/ing tormentors, when no doubt its long and bushv tail assists i" driving off the bloodsuckers. During the rains these animals hetake themselves to the low hills, where they feed on the bamboo, with which the hills are covered ; and after the yearly rires they all descend into the valley, and wander through the vast teak-forests Unlike the gaur, they n'.,.er come down to the r,cc-f,elds of the villagers, and this is pnibably owing to their extrenu- shyness. The cow calves during the rains, and the yomig is <.f a light red co!.u,r, only one being produced at a birth. At the beginning of the rains tsaing are always to he f.und at the foot of the low hills, where they browse on the tender new bamboo-shoots. These animals also travel great distances to visit the so-called salt-licks, one or two of which are generally tmmd in places where the species is obtained, though many of these salt-licks are nothing more than a mixture of mud and water which has a slightly saline taste. These salt-licks are also visited by hundreds of parrots, green and imperial pigeons, and also by elephants, gaur, pigs, and sambar. The tsaing is often shot at these places In the hunter, who squats up in a tree close by. CJaur and tsaing are never met with together in a herd, although I have found both beastt within the radius of a mile of each other. The spoor of the tsaing is heart-shaped, and very pointed anteriorly, quite unlike the track of a gaur ; this is owing to the hoofs „f the former being much more pointed and deer-like. These animals, both when feeding and lying down, always have a sentry, generally a cw. When lying down, they generally re^t in a circle ; and when the sentry suspects danger she either s.amp. her Manipur Banting aj foot or gets up, and witli a ' psiicu ' and a snort the whole herd stampede, with their tails in the air. Tlu.s ahu-med, they go miles hefore stopping,' and it is useless pursuing them under such circumstances. They are always in good condition, although at times subject to cattle disease. All specimens which I have shot had splendid coats, smooth and shining, like that of a well-groomed horse. The skin is much prized by the Bur'mans for making shoes. The under-parts (,f the body in one cow were covered with small warts, varying in size from that of a pea. to a hazel-nut. The neck of the bull is generally covered with scars, the result of wounds received in ccnbat." In a private letter the following additional particulars are communi- cated by the same gentleman :-- There is no doubt of the animal being wild ; its shyness, keenness of scent, and habit of charging when wounded being sufficient to show this. But whether originally wild, or whether formerly domesticated, it is impossible to say. My idea is that it is the original wild ox from which the present domestic Burmese cattle have sprung; in fact, it is impossible to help remarking the similarity in colouring and general appearance of the cow in b..th breeds ; the differ- ence lies in the absence of the dorsal ridge in tiie d..mesticated cow and the general gameness and antelope-like form of the wild one. In the domestic Burmese bull, on the other hand, I have seen nothing approaching the size and magnihcence of a solitary bull tsaing. Such an old bull is one of the rinest animals I have ever set eyes on, and I regret that I had not a camera with me to take the specimens shot. An old bull gets almo.t an iron-gray colour, while the younger ones are dark brown. I have never noticed the white patch on tiie rump of the male, although this is a marked feature in the female." ,r.5\'" I* If ;!' :> iM 48 Oxen iii. The Leptobovine Grohi' — Sub-Genus Leptohos {Extinct) Leptobos, Riitimeyei, A/>/i. sc/nvciz. pal. Gcs. vol. p. .67 (.878) Lydekker, Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Miis. pt. ii. p. ^6 (1885). C/w/v/f/frj.— Apparently allied, especially in the shortness of the skull and its nasal bones and the curvature of the cylindrical horns, to the banting, but with the horn-cores of the bulls situated far below the vertex of the skull, midway between the occiput and the orbits, and the cows hornless The sub-genus, or genus, was originally described on the evidence of hornless bovine skulls from the Tertiary deposits of the Val d'Arno, which were regarded as specifically distinct from the horned Ihs <•/,s) rtn,sa/s, Kiitiineyer, yW//. .u'/i^irlz. pal. Ccs. v..l. 49 V. p. 154 Lcphbos stroz-zi'u RiitimcytT, op. elf. p. 167 (1878). Lcpt',/>os i'hifus, Forsytli-Majoi, l\ /'. Soc. 7 'jsciuki, I Hyo, p. 75. Fi<:. -Skull ;„Kl l,or„-corcs ol ,1,. Kvtinct lunhc.n Ox. Fn.m a >pc.in,.n in tl,o Mu,., at KlcirciKc. AtKT RiitinKvcr. aK the banting, with the hnin-cres of the male diverging at first ahnost directly outwards, and then curving gradually upwards, with a decided inward inclination at the tips. The limb-hones indicate a comparatively slightly built animal ; and the lower molar teeth have a small additional column on the inner side. Distrlhution.—Vr.xncc and Italy during the late Pliocene epoch. V r » I! i I I 50 Oxen 2. FaMONKkV ()v — HoS lALCONKRI [Extllht) Lcptoho.1 fiilcoiii'ii, Riitiintvcr. /A//, sc/nvciz. pal. (irs. vol. v. [1. 157 (1878) ; Lydckker, Cif. i/ss. Mamni. Hrit. Mas. pt. ii. p. 36 (1HS5). Characters. — Inipcrtectly known, hut appiircntly di.si igiiished fi\>iii the liist species hy the more slender tonn of tiie skull of the male and the more upright ilirection of the horii-corc.\ or wiiich the liases aloiu are preserved. Dhtrihuti'in. — India during the early Pliocene period, the remains occurring in the freshwater deposits of the Siwalik Hills. An allied species, li'/s frascrl, said to he still more ncarlv allied to the hanting, occurs in the Plistocene deposits of the Narhada N'alley, India. iv. Till. HisoMiM (iRori' Srii-(»K\(s Bison Bis',11, il. Smith, in CirilHth's .liiliiial Kin^i/'iHi, vol. v. p. j^/^ (1S27), as a suh-genus ; (Jrav, C.iir l'ii)- (•''''• (ngn/'ita Hrit. Mas. p. ;^9 (1852). Ho/iasas, Wagner, in Sclireher's Saagct/a'crc, vo\. iv. p. 515 (1844), as a suh-genus. Har/aiiiis^ Owen, Prrjc. Acad. Phi/adc/p/iia, \ 846, p. 94. Characters. — Typically the horns cvlindri d, widely separated from one another, and situated on a ritlge helow the extreme vertex f the skull, so that in a front view the summit of the crest of the true occiput is visihlc ; the forehead of the skull relatively short, wide, and more or less convex, the interval hetween the hases of the horn-cores ami the sockets of the eyes i a .1 \ i L ¥■ 1 . \ U ;: I Wii.r l)xF,N i'niEKvMQQAr^ Pj.atkIV. I YAK. 11 ruUiah^l hs'Kanlaiu/ WaJd lid tkIV. Yak 5' relatively small, the sockets of rh,. eyes t.,l,ii!ar, ami the nasal huncs comparatively short ami widely separated tn.m the pre.naxilla.. Witliers liiMh ; ribs varyinjr f,,,.n huuteen to rtftecn pairs. 'I'ail reaching about to the hocks. LoMjr hair developed either .,n the fore-quarters or Hanks; j^eneral colour either uniform black or brown. In the typical nambers of the group the neural spine' of the seventh cervical vertebra is elevated, so as to form a continuation of those of the ^inrsal series, which are very tall and descend rapid.ly and suddenly to the l^-nibars. Whether the same feature exists in the yak, I have been unable to ascertain. Ft is the most specialised development of this part of the skeleton met with among all the oxen. /)/.//v/v.//.//.-rhe Ilolarctic and Sonoran regions, extending during the I'liocene period into the Oriental, and in the Plistocene into the Neo- tropical region. 1- I ni. Yak — -Hos uruwikns Hos ^nanuc.u L.nn. .S>/. Sut. ed. ,2, vol. i. p. <;<; (,7^6) ; Simdevall, A-. .S;,v;,,/v /•,/..//•. ILnul/. tor ■S44, p. ,-. (,S46); Radde, /^./.v// O./- Slhlrlcn, p. z-2 (1S6,) ; .Scvert/oli; Ann. Mag. AW/. Hi,f. ser. 4, vol. xviii. p. ;,^6 (1S76) ; Kinloch, /.n-oy (;,u„r S/,ootifig,xo\. ii. p. 5 (,876) ; Fl„\vcr anil Carson, (,',//. 0.,7.-V. Mns. Cll. Surg. pt. ii. p. 227 (1H.S4); W . L. Sclater, Cat. Mumw. In./. Mns. pt. ii. p. , 2S (1S91) ; lilanford, Funna Brit. In./ln Mannn. p. 490 (iS'91); Ward, Rcc.rJs ',f IM^ Vn,mc p -^77 (1S96). IWi p',cfy/u,gns, II. Smith, in CJrifl^th's ylniniu/ Kingdom, \'ol. iv. p. 404 (1S27); Pallas, /.'„gr. K,ss,-AsMt. vol. i. p. 24S, pi. xxii. (iSii); Hodgson and Biyth, y',nrn. yh. So,: lirngn/^ vol. xv. p. ,4^ (,846). n.s [His'nt) p',ify/u!gns, II. Smith, in (iritlitirs .///w,,/ A7//(.vAw, vol. x ' See note mi p. S'. H ' l| 5^ Oxen ll Bison poc]„aigiis, Jardine, Nntiiralisfs Library— Mnmm. vol. iv. p. 259 (1836) ; Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. x. pp. 449 and 912 (1841), xvi. p. 708 (1847). Poep/uigiis griiiniicns. Gray, List Mai/nn. Brit. Mi/s. p. 153 (184-^, Cat. Vngulata Brit. Miis. p. 40 (1852), Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1853, p. 19,, pi. xxxv., ^.,_A..- FiG. S.— Skiill (iMii;iIc Yak. Cat. Ruminauts Brit. Mas. p. ,4 (,872) ; Horsficld, Cat. E. but. M„s. p. 184 (.851) ; Adams, Proc. Zo,l. Soc. 185S, p. 529; Stcmdalc, Manw.: /av/. p. 489 (1884); Frezewalzki, Cat. Zool. Coll. p. 13 (1S87V Poephagiis mutiis, Prezevvalzki, Cat. Zool. Coll. p. 1 5 (18S7). Bos {Pocpluigiis) grininicns, Hiict, Bull. Soc. .Icclim. Paris, vol. xxxviii. P- 334 (1 891). Yak 53 Plate IV. Cluimctcrs. — Skull rchitivcly long, with the turchcad nearly flat, and only a small boss of bone above the true occiput showing in a front view. General build massive and size large ; the withers being relatively high, and the back nearly level, without any marked falling away of the hind- quarters ; height at shoulder reaching at least 5 feet 6 inches. Limbs short and thick ; hoots large and rounded ; muzzle and ears small ; dewlap wanting. Horns very large and massive, black in colour, smooth and generally cylindrical, although slightly compressed at the base in very old animals ; their curvature at first upwards and outwards, tlien forwards, and finally inwards and upwards, with a slightly backward inclination at the tips in some examples. Fourteen pairs of ribs. Hair of upper-parts and sides comparatively short and smooth, but on the lower portion of each flank produced into a long fringe extending across the shoulders and thighs ; a tutt ot similar elongated hair on the chest ; and the terminal half of the tail enveloped in a huge tuft of still longer hair, which seldom descends much below the hocks. General colour dark blackish-brown, with a little white in the neighbourhood of the muzzle, a sprinkling of grav on the head and neck in aged individuals, and a rusty tinge on the back of t)]d bulls. Although 5 feet 6 inches at t!ie shoulder seems tt) be the maximum height ot wliich there is any definite reconl, it is stated on good authority that oKl i)ulls will reach nearly, if not quite 6 feet. A bull of -^ feet 6 inches at the shoulder measureti 7 teet 3 inches from tlie horns to the root ot the tail ; the length of the tail being ;, feet 4 inciies, and the girtli of the body round the chest 7,1, teet. Mr. II. M. Biddulpli has, iiowever, recorded a specimen measuring S teet and ,', inch from the horns to the tail : and a girth at the chest of 9 teet i ', inches has been measured. The 54 Oxen 200 weight of a wild bull yak has been estimated at between 1 100 and i pounds. The following measurements of horns are given in Mr. Rowland Ward's Records of Big G(i»ic :— Length on Outer Curve. eirciiintVri'iu-i'. Tip 10 Ti| oH 17 •9 .15-1 Hi 17 34 12 20.', 32^ i6i 27I 32 '3l '5i 3i| Hi .8] 31 H ? 30;^ '3:^ ■°' ^9i H 1 2 29I '3i 1 1 28 16 \'?-. Insi.l,-. 3'i ^ ? '6'* The name /?^y ^ir/y^w//;.;;., ^a^ douinless given by Linna'us to the domesticated breed of yak, and Prexewalzki has proposed to designate the wild race as B. muUis. If the latter term were used at all, it should be employed in a subspecirtc sen c, but since many of the semi-domesticated yak of Rupshu and some of the other higii plateaux in Tibet are practicallv indistinguishable, except in size, from the wild race, it appears unnecessary. Whether the latier never gives vent to the grunting cry characteristic of the dcjmesticated breeds, I have no inh)rmation. Domesticated yak, which are always much -mailer than rheir wild cousins, with very inferior horns, vary much according to locality. In Rupshu they are very large, and generally, if not always, of the unifnin colour of the wild race. They run half-wild for much of their time, and are unable to live except at very high elevations. \t lower levels in various parts of Ladak and the Himalaya pied d,,mestic breeds are common ; and it is from the tails of these that the Hv-whisks, .,r cbou ris. Yak 55 used ill India are made. Near Darjiling there exists a very small breed of yak, some individuals of vvhicli are black, and others black and white. Of this and other breeds living at comparatively low elevations there is a polled form, whicli probably keeps true. Domestic yak are freely crossed with the ordinary Indian cattle. It is only the comparatively lowland breeds of \-u.. () (Ickl nf Hull V.ik. I'lnm D.uiMir- .Sforf u! //,■ lligH.i„J> ,4 K.L'hnir. yak wbicli will ^tand the chmatc of India even for a sliort time, and it is such alone tliat are exhiliited alive in luu-ope. In the characters of the skull, yak are to a considerable extent inter- mciiiate betwcdi the taurine oxen and the true liisons. Tiie comparative len-th and narrowness of the forehead, as well as its datness, are taurine characters, as is also the want of prominence of the sockets of the eyes. On the otiier hand, the occipital region shows a distinct approximation t(^ the bison-. In place, however, of the summit of the true occipital surhice being seen in a front view of the skuli, as in the latter, onlv a small boss I % "Mf,l^ i J , 1 H ; > f If' i\ ]■ ^ '■■•■■ 11 lUBf S6 Oxen I i u I ! of bone surmounting the crest of that surhicc is, as ah-eady saiii, visible. The whole occipital aspect of the skull lakes the form of an inverted V. the summit of which is formed by the af iresaitl boss. The presence of tourteen pairs of ribs is an essentially bisontine character; and it seems highly probable that the mass of long hair on the flanks, as well as the uniiorm coloiation, are also indicative of affinity with that group, The premaxillary bones of the skull ditfer from tho.se of the taurine group and resemble the bibovine group and the bisons in not extending upwards to join the nasals ; but tiie interval between these two l)one^^ is, as in the gaur, considerably shorter than in the bisons. On the whole, it ^,ecms preferable to regard the yak as an aberrant member ot the bisontine group, rather than the representative of a group by Itself. This view is supported by the occurrence of the under- mentioned extinct species, which on distributional grounds appears to connect the vak v\ith the livinu: bisons. Distrihuti',n. The plateau of Tibet, extending eastwards as fu- as the proviiK-c of Kansu in China, and northwards prohablv as fir as the Kuen I.un. The south-western range embraces the north-eastern [lortioiis of Ladak in the neighbourhood of the Chanuchenmo vallev and the Pantrkontr lake. In sumiTKT yak are found at elevations from about 14,000 or 15,000 to 20,000 feet above the sea-level. Raines. — ihn Ladak the regions inliabiteti bv the wild yak are of the most duKiry and desolate description, where the pasturage even in summer ct)nsists only of patches of a co.irse, wiry grass apparentlv ill-titted tor the nutrimemt of buerds of such lary< animals. Nevertjieless, both yak and argali tfcrive u}>on it ; and althougb 111 Ladak itself vak are now com- parativrfy tern-, m Chinese territory tlicv exist in great number^, and are tound in herds numbering from ten to a hundred he.id or more. The oKI bulls are, however, kir the most part solitary, or go about in small bands of three ox four. ■ ^^Sy^ai«-jM Yak 57 As ;i compensation for its ariti and desolate- nature, the rock-scenery of parts ot the yal<-c()iintry in Ladak is prohably unsurpassed in the world for brilHancy of coh)ration. When to tiiis is added the presence of a hu-ge sheet of water like the I'angkong hike, the whole ellect is magniricent. Taking his stand at the north-western extremity of the lake at Lukung, the traveller has for foreground a smooth beach of dazzling white sand, beyond which lies the broad expanse of the clear blue water of the mighty lake ; Fui. 10. -Ci i.unp.i^ uiih Vak~. :'r,;.n D.iir.il.'. ii[,,rt in tic lli^H.ir.d, ',t K.L.rr:.^. while, on either side, there rise rugged clirt^ of brilliantly coloured slaty rocks. The contrast of the white beach, blue water, and manv-col.,ured bare rock^ shimmering in the da/zling light of the midday nuii, has left on my memory an imiiression ne\ei to be forijotten. Yak are in the habit of wandering for considerable distances ; and during the i.\.\yt'.^ ■■ ;ire accustoiiied to repo>e on some steep and barren hillside, whence tb< ; can obtain a good view of the country. Their feeding-times, m LadaK at any rate, are chieriy the early mornings and evenings. Water 1 r\i sv S8 Oxen is essential to their well-being, and in winter they eat snow. In avoidin--^ their enemies yak seem to rely chieHy on their sense of smell, whieii is very aeiite ; their hearing and sight being apparently le>s keen. Beyond Ladak, where they are more or less seeure from persecu- tion, yak are tar less wary. The large herds of cows aiu! young bulls wander over vast tracts of country, anti in summer make tlieir appearance on grassy plains which are deserted in winter. The solitary bulls, on the •'ii.. 1 I. C;nuip lit p "t doinc-iicaica V.ik in ilic purL ,a W„i,urri Abl>cy. l-'r,,„i a |v the l)iithi.>s of BcclturJ. Other l-.and, are s.n\l to remain in the same districts tiinnighoiir the year. In all parts of their habitat their favourite feeding-grounds are the patches of grass bordering the streams. When alarme.i, the oKlcr ows and bulls take up their position on the front and Hank^ of the lard, buf on the near approach of intruders the whole herd gallops otf. Although natiuMlly timid and wary, an old bull when wounded will charge viciously, and there a.c several accounts of narrow escapes by sportsmen from their onset. Little or nothing lias been recoriled regarding the breeding habit, of yak ,n H! M>: Yak 59 tlic wild state, hut in tlic ilomcsticatal comiition the calves are said to he horn in the autumn. Witliin the territories of the Maharaja of Kashmir yak are of more importance to tiie nomad inhabitants of the Rupshu phueau tlian to any otiier trihes. At tliis elevation neither ordinary cattle nor half-hred yak can exist, and the animals kept by the Rupshu people are all f large size and black in colour, beiiiL; distinguishable from the wild race merely by their inferior dimensions. Tliev are but little tamed, and after a longer perioil of rest than usual are often dillicult to load, sometimes in- deed throwing their burdens as soon as loatletl. The numlier of yak kept in Rupshu some years ago was between 400 and 500, and on the earn- ings of these animal., which carrv merchandise of larger bulk, .uul on tliose of their sheeji and goats, which bear smaller bunlens, the Ruf^shu people depend largely tor their means of sub- sistence. Between C'(.'ntral Ladak on the one hand, ami (iartok in Chinese Tibet, or Lahul in British territory, on tliL other, they are kept well employeil in f )rwar(iing traders' goods ; and for this service they receive good pavmeiit, eithc-- in coin or in kiiul. The one Lrrcat draw- back to the purc-bretl yak as a beast of bunlen in a desolate country is tliat it will not eat corn, but vleneiiils for its subsistence on '>-rass All the yak that I ha\ e seen in Riipslui were pure bl.ick, but it is stated that will! cown are occavi..nally ob->er\etl with patches of white or gray here and there. 11.. 12. Head nf Bull Yak. (Riiwlaiul Ward, R,ojr,i, of /iJx C "V.) l^f 60 Oxen 2. Till- SrwAi.iK HisdN— Bos sivai.knsis [FA-fiiict) Bos sha/r/ws. Falconer, Pal.c.nt'jhghuil Memoirs, vol. i. p. 555 (,H6S); Lydckkcr, Horns mid Hoofs, p. :;o (iKt;^). Bison siva/cnsis, Lyilckkcr, l\,/. l„d. ^Mcn. Geo/. Surv. A/,/.), scr. ,0, vol. i. p. ,22, pis. vv. an/,•//.////.//.— Northern India, Java {vUc Martin, op. ,•//.), and probably the intermediate countries, during the Plioceijc period. 3. Thk Plistocenk Bison — Bos pRiscits {Extinct) Una priscas, Bojanus, Nrjva Acta Acad. CWs. Lcop.-Qir. vol. xiii. p. 427 ('H27); Owen, Rep. Brit. Assoc, for 1H43, p. 232 (1H44). Bison prisci/s, Owen, Brit. Foss. Manvn. p. 491 (1S46) ; Dawkins, quart. Joion. Geo/. Soc. vol. xxxi. p. 246 (1S75) ; Wilckens, Biol. Ccntral- />/att, vol. V. p. 117 (1SS5); Allen, Mem. Mas. Harvard, vol. iv. p. 5 (1876) ; Tscherski, Mem. Acad. St. Peters/nurg, vol. xl. art. 1, 75 (1S92). Bison anti^iias, Leidy, Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, vol. vi. p. 117 (1S52) ; Allen, Mem. Mus. Harvard, vol. iv. p. 21 (1S76) ; Wilckens, Biol. Central- blatt, vol. V. p. I ,7 (,HH5) ; Kh.nids, Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1895, p. 247, 1897, p. 501 ; Stewart, Kansas Quarterly, vol. vi. p. 127 (1.S97). Bison crassicornis, Richardson, Zool. J'oy. Herald, pp. 40 and 1^9 (1859). Bison honasiis prisci/s, Lydekker, Cat. Foss. Ma mm. Brit. Mas. pt. ii. p. 24 (.885). Bison alaskensis, Rhoails, Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1897, p. 490. Characters.—^kuW and horn-cores considerably larger than in the living Kuropean and American i)isons, with the forehead relatively broad and riat, and the horn-cores not inclined liackwardly at the base, which is thus situated nearly in the plane of the front border of the socket of the eye. The born-cores themselves 1. ng, and generallv more or less curvin„m a spccmcn ■„ ,Ik- l!rit,..|, M>,.a,m lii^covcrcil in ihc I'li-KKcMi.' hrii. k-cartli nf Kssov. Leidy's H. ,iutirji„is, while the second has been referred to yet another species under the name of />'. aLjskcnsis. The Hritish Museum has other specimens from the Plistocene deposits of tlie Porcupine river, C'anada ; and, taking I-uropean and American specimens together, tlic whole series, in my own opinion, should umpicstionably be referred to a single species. Moreover, so far as I can see, the American specimens presenr no dnser approximation to the living New \\'<.rld bison than do those from biurope to its relative of the Old World. It may also be pointed out that during the Plistocene period Asia and North America were almost certainly ' The tun .knll, „r ,|,c Kur„|Kan .pc.ic. rcpK>cnt.cl ,m F,g. ,+ .|,„u a conMjcrablc .cvnal a.rtLTcncc in the uidtli „t tlic tnrchcad an.l the .i/c and cunatnrc of the h„rns. ■ lit . t. mi ■ ' " ' '•■■^S«wi[ ! a Bi! B ia »agw '«?-^«#^o"^ ■^-- ,0. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT^3) /> t^. 'i^, <;° L<>- [/a fe 1.0 I.I 1.25 WUl. R nil 1.6 VI ^ /}. 'V /^ 111 4.^ .U» riiuiugidpiuu Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14380 (716) 87i2-4503 '^"^ iV 4^ \\ #> ^ ?i? > -<'^- o '^ 0- C/j 64 Oxen NunibtT. 45.392 44.063 M. 5,440 M. 5,064 24,589 Li-ngtli along Basal Outer Curvr. CircunitVrfnc 23 I8A '4i '4 13 16 '3i 1 1 1 1 to Tip. Frontal Wi ith. Locality. 39i '3i Ilford ? '3 Eschscholtz Bay 26A I I Twickenham 30 '2i Crayford 32A 12 Porcupine river Distrihuthii. — The northern portion of both hemispheres, ranging in America from Alaska and the Porcupine river at least as far south as Texas and Georgia. In the Old World it ranged as fir west as Yorkshire, and as far south as Spain and Italy, while it was also widely spread over Eastern Europe, whence it extended into Northern Siberia and the New Siberian Islands. Rather than divide the Plistocene bison of the circum- polar countries into one eastern and several western species, it would, in my opinion, be preferable to regard both the living forms as sub-specific modifications of the primitive stock. This has, indeed, been suggested by Prof. Dawkins,' who remarks "That in former times the herds [of bison], now rapidly being destroyed by the hunters in the tract of country extending from New Mexico into the British Dominions, were conterminous with those of Asia." In Britain remains of the bison occur in the river-gravels, brick-earths, and cavern-deposits, but are unknown from the peat of the fens, at the time of deposition of which the animal would consequently appear to have been exterminated. 4. The European Bison — Bos honasus Bos homuus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 99 (1766) ; Radde, Pnc. Zool. Soc. 189^, p. 175 ; Satunin, /mL Ja/irh. Syst. vol. ix. p. 104 (1H96). Bos tinis, Boddaert, Elcncluis Aiiini. p. 150 (178S); Fischer, Synop. Maiiim. p. 497 (1S39) ; Huet, liii//. Soc. Accl'mi. Paris, vol. xxxviii. p. 344 (1891) ; Ward, Records of Big Game, p. 279 (1896). ' Eiirh M,iii in liiil,iin, p. q- (iSSo). I'N Wild Oxen.SheepA Goats PlateV. EUROPKAN BISON. I'liK'slifri (ivS.wim,rfW,iiv//../ '1 1 u 1 ijJ'l 1 r *' M^^l , f fM :8« M^^^l'l i'1 V i' ('!! " IH 1 jl ij ■:r1 i! iH u European Bison 65 Bo, bmn, H. Smith, in Griffith's A,,i,„.,l Kwg.h,,,, vul. iv. p. ^H (1827), „„, Linn. ,766 . Sundevai:, K. W*« K,/. ^^•. H,W/. tW .84+. P- '54 (1846) ■ Blasius, SSm-Mtiv DMschlmJi. p. 49^ (1857)- i),; (B«) /».», H. smith, in Grifli.h's A,,i,n.,l Ki„g.h«., vol v. p. 1,7'^ (1B27). Un. ,.s,r.u, Boianus, m-a Aca Aca.l. C. Uot-On: v,,!. x,,,. p. 4. 3 (■827)- Bos (B«uu.„) km», Wagner, in Schr>=b=r's »«.rt.-r, vol. iv. p. 5- 5 ""!:,, .»,,,™,-, owe.,,, Pr.: -M. 6V. ,848. P- -6, ».. «» -/'-. G,„elin,' ,788 ; RiitinKycr, AV,/,. G.. ««„v/, scr. a, v.,,. iv. p. 33, (.86; , A,.l,. .In.... pa,. 6V,. voh v. p. .39 (.87«) ^ ''-v^'"'. '«'•<' '^"" '" «,v>„;», p. 98 (,880); Schicmenz, B-W. CaUrMl.m, v„l. xv„. p. 479 '"'L /«„»..», Gray, AW,, «.»«-. p. 48 (.850). C... V^uU.U, Bri,. M,n. p. ,6 (.852), 0„. R.mmwI.. Br!,. Mm. p. .4 ('872). ,,. .04. ,;8«) i. ,o.„„k,l ..„ > J",»»>i= "»■ 'l~">'"' ■""" >'"■ '" • • iUndtilir liii. M.I Pllh S., i.il. i. r- ri". K i mmmmmmmm !.1 \ ' |i 66 Oxen Biso// bomisus. Flower and Garson, Cat. Ostcol. Miis. Coll. Surg. pt. ii. p. 232 (1884) ; Biichner, Mem. Acad. St. Petershourg, ser. 8, vol. iii. No. 2 (1896) ; Westberg, Festschrift Ver. Riga, 1896, p. 267. Characters.— Wtighx. at shoulder 6 feet i inch to 6 feet 2 inches. Horns relatively long and slender, curving upwards, forwards, and inwards, set well forward on the forehead, which is comparatively flat and broad. Hind-quarters relatively high ; pasterns long ; tail reaching to the hocks, or below. Mane of bull in summer pelage curly and of moderate length and not extending very far back on the body, leaving the heavily fringed ears quite distinct, and forming a longer and thicker mass on the head, neck, throat, and the middle line of the chest. In the cow confined to the nape of the neck, forehead, and middle of lower part of face, throat, and median line of the chest. General colour uniform chestnut-brown throughout, without perceptibly darkening on the mane. In the skeleton the neural spine of the seventh cervical vertebra moderately elevated, and that of the sixth inclined forwards. The above description is taken from four mounted specimens in the British Museum— namely, an adult bull from Lithuania presented by the Emperor of Russia about the year 1848, a younger Lithuanian bull, and a bull and cow from the Caucasus presented by Mr. St. George Littledale. Between the Lithuanian and Caucasian examples there appear to be no difl^erences even of sub-specific value. It is true that the large Lithuaniai: bull is considerably taller than the Caucasian specimen and has a sho.tc. tail, but the former difl^erence may be partly exaggerated in the mounting, and the latter seems due to imperfection ; the smaller Lithuanian bull, which is mounted in a lying-down posture, having the tail of apparently the same approximate length as in the Caucasian examples. In both the latter the otherwise black hoofs have yellowish-brown margins, which are not apparent in the Lithuanian specimens, but this may be due to the hoofs being Ipss worn in the former than in the latter. European Bison (^7 Compared with the American bison, the skull is characterised by the marked flatness of the forehead and the very tubular orbits ; the horns extending at first outwards in the plane of the forehead, and then curving forwards, with no backward flexure, and very little incurving towards the tips. The nasal bones are likewise shorter and wider. In all the above respects the European bison is much nearer to the Plistoccne bison than is the American species. The male and female Caucasian skulls in the British Museum show that in the bull the horns at their origin are directed more outwardly and then bend inwardly more suddenly than is the case in the cow, in which they are much more slender and form a more regular curve. The male skull, moreover, is of a shorter and wider type, especially across the forehead, than that of the cow. In the case of fossil skulls very similar differences appear to have been reckoned as of specific importance. The following dimensions of horns are recorded by Mr. Rowland Ward :— Length on Outside Curve. Bnsnl CirciimftTcnc •8i •4 i8 i7i 10 •5i 8 13 8i Tip to Tip. 16 6" 9^ Wi.iMt Insi.lc. ■9i 20 p ? >4 Sex. Locitllty. Male Lithuania >i Caucasus >» Lithuania eniale ? ») Caucasus In a Caucasian bull killed by Mr. St. George Littledale the length from the nose to the root of the tail measured 10 feet i inch, the height at the shoulder 5 feet 1 1 inches, and the girth of the body approximately 8 feet 4 inches. Distrihiition. — As already stated, the Plistocene bison ranged over the greater part of Europe and Northern Asia, and it is now impossible to say at what date its descendants became dwarfed into the modern form. It is. n "«S?WP?S«*W>«wp»W^»MS(^. il ' J 1 68 Oxen however, certain that bison were abundant in the Black Forest at the time of Julius Gusar ; and they doubtless survived in many parts of Germany and other districts of the Continent to a much later period. Owing, how- ever, to the confusion which has arisen in regard to the application of the names aurochs and bison, it is frequently impossible to determine which animal is the one referred to by many of the older writers. At the present day bison appear to be restricted to the Caucasus and the forest of Bielo- witza, in the government of Grodno, the old Lithuania. Whereas, how- ever, in the latter locality they are strictly preserved and almost in the condition of park-animals, in the Caucasus, according to Mr. St. George Littledale and Prince Demidoff, they are truly wild, although also under Government protection. In the Caucasus, Dr. G Radde states that the bison is at present confined to the districts around the sources of the Laba and Bjellaja, on the north side of the range, extending eastwards to the springs of the Zellent- chuk. " It is scarce everywhere, and generally seen in twos and threes ; only once have the tracks of seven together been noticed, although occasionally as many as five have been observed. Evidently the bison has discontinued its settled habits, and has taken to winder about in this, its last refuge. Through the ever- increasing encroachments of the settlers, and the consequent dispersal of the wild animals, and also, in many places, owing to the new supervision of the forests, the bison is driven more and more towards the higher ridges of the mountains, and wanders about in the thick forests which border the lower portion of the Alpine pasturages. "The most likely places to find this animal are at present near the sources of the Little Laba. and especially on its western confiuent, the Urushten. This river is joined by a small stream, the Alaus, in the valley of which the bison is often met with. It is from 7000 to 8000 feet above the sea-level. Formerly, 30 or 40 years ago, it was met with much lower wm^ European Bison 69 down, about 5000 feet, and it was also more common. That the bison has now passed over the mountain range, and is wandering southwards is pretty certain. There was an instance oF this in 1H74, in which year an example was killed not far from Romanonskoje, about a day's journey from Sotschi on the coast." Till recently even the natives of the Caucasus seem to have been scarcely aware of the existence of the bison, or zubr, as it is called in Russian, in their midst. Prince Demidoff, in Hunting Tri/^s to the Cmiaisiis, writes as follows of its range and habits in that district:^ — "Not so long ago the bison used to haunt most of the valleys of the Kouban territories, such as the Zellcntchuk, where there are said to be some at the present time, both the Great and Little Laba, Urushten, and elsewhere. But so shy an animal could not long continue to live within easy reach of men, and had constantly to retire before advancing civilisation. It is now concentrated in the dense forests overlooking the valleys of the Kiska, and fifty vears hence it is to be feared will have entirely disappeared. There is no doubt of the existence of the bison on the southern part of the Caucasian range, between the hills and the Black Sea ; but I have never visited that side, and was told it was much harder work to approach them there, for the slopes are tar steeper, and covered with virgin and almost impenetrable forests. When frightened, they wander great distances without taking rest, and are not stopped even by the highest ridges, over which thev climb, notwithstanding their weight, which attains 1700 lbs. or more. There is no proof that they do not travel to and fro over the main range in the Kouban district, and I do not see why they should not. I have myself seen their tracks on the snow in September at an altitude of 8000 feet. Some thirty years ago, as I was told by native hunters, the bison used to be seen in herds of fifty or sixty head, but at the present time one rarely sees more than five or six together. Two years ago the Grand Duke's head ' 111 llio extract I hav..- iciitiircd to siib>titiiti; tlic word bison for aurochs. w WM^a^S^iai^iA,'^: ■ ' TOWHBWwiWIJWIgWIf*.- 70 Oxen keeper, who went to inspect their haunts, counted nine together. He told me they stood hefore him for some time, gaxing at him without seeming at all frightened, and after a good three minutes' standing they turned round and walked slowly away." In iH87a male and female bison, now mounted in the British Museum, were killed by Mr. St. CJeorge Littledale in the Western Caucasus. In .895 a third was shot by the Grand Duke Sergius Mikhail..vitch, and a fourth by (Jeneral Schildcr ; while Prince Demidoff's personal experiences during the same year are detailed in his work. In Bielowitza a pair were shot by Major A. Hebcr Percy in 1879. For the latest information with regard to the bison in the forest of Bielowitza, naturalists are indebted to a valuable memoir by Dr. K. Biichner, published in the Memoirs of the St. l\fcrshourg Academy of Sciences. of which the following is a summary: With regard to the early history of the herd, there is unfortunately a dearth of information, although since the year 1H32 an almost continuous count has been kept of their numbers. It is, however, certain that during the Polish War of ,812 the bison had a bad time of it, although accounts differ as to the number of head that sur- vived. Thus, it is stated by Brincken that, at the close of the war, the number of bison was diminished to ^^joo. This, however, may perhaps refer only to full-grown animals, since Baumersrod states that during his journey through Lithuania in 18 13 there were 500 head of all ages. On the other hand, Sachnicki repeats the statement that between 181 j and 18 17 the herd numbered scarcely 300. Again, in 1820, Kichwald speaks of 350 as the number of bison then living in the forest ; and Dolmatoff at the same time gives the total as 300. There must, however, certainly be some error in their accounts, for, in the official count made early in 1821, the number is given as fully 500. Whatever may be the truth as to the exact number to which the herd was reduced during the war, there is no doubt that after 1813 it once it! European Bison 7' again enjoyed more prosperous times, ami began rapidly to increase. As early as the winter of 1821 it is stated, for instance, that the number of head of all ages totalled over 700; while in December 1828 Kichwald estimated the number in Bielowitza at 696. In addition to this, from thirty to forty head were at the same time living in the forests of Count Tyschkiewictz. In 1829 the number was set down at 71 1, of which 663 were adult and 48 young animals ; and in the following year the herd was variously estimated at from 700 to 772 head. Kichwald, who is the authority for the latter number, further states that during the first Polish revolution of 1831, the herd lost 115 head, thus reducing its number to 657. Some error seems, however, undoubtedly to exist with regard to this number, since the first of the regular ofiicial counts, which took place in 1832, gives the total number of bison at that time as no less than 770, of which 712 were adult, and the remainder young. Since that date till 1872, with the omission of certain years, the numbers are tabulated as follows, viz. : — '8,1.1 '«.14 '«.15 1836 '«.17 1840 1841 •84.1 1844 1845 1 846 1848 1849 1850 Ailiilt. ^'tulny, T.iMl 7'5 5.1 768 757 53 810 777 68 845 780 7« 858 802 58 860 852 54 906 886 46 9r- 782 35 817 875 71 946 875 109 984 ? ? 993 945 80 1025 1018 77 1095 1156 108 1264 1254 100 •354 1390 170 1560 Ij STWW^ ii h mi ■ III 7^ Oxen 1851 . 1H52 . 'H5,? ■ IHS4 . IHSS . 1H56 . 1857 . 1858 . i860 . 1861 . i8r,2 . 186;! . 1865 . 1868 . 1869 . 1870 . 1871 . 1872 . It will be seen tV inaxiiniiin during th Ailiill. Viiung. ■roi.li. 1552 90 1642 1 600 1+8 I74« .642 160 1802 1655 169 1824 ? i 1824 ? ? nil f ? 1898 ? ? '4.14 ? ? '575 ? f '447 1124 127 i2sr 795 79 874 639 «S 724 45' 108 559 49a 49 54' 498 44 54i 477 5' 528 ? ? 528 oin tlic torcgoing figures that the herd attained its years 1H51 to 1H60, md that after the latter date a steady but irregular decline tot)k place. The absolute maxiniuni was in 1857. Some of the causes of the decline are noticed later on. From 1H73 to iSya the author furnishes us with another series of tables. From this we learn that while the greater portion of the herd is now contained in the Bielowitza forest, a small number are preserved in the adjacent forest of Swisslotsch, and a third division in the Zoological Cnirdens of Bielowitza. This table is as follows, viz. : — Hirlowitz;). U:ir.li'ns. Swiiistiitfic)). TmI.iI 187.1 429 44 46 527 1874 (Jan.) 450 32 44 5.16 „ (Dec.) 481 28 49 558 1876 486 28 52 561 1877 (Jan.) 480 26 5.1 559 „ (Dec.) 482 27 5^' 565 mi European Bison 73 Bidiiwlljiii, tiiinlrn*. SwUaliilach. 'I'oOl. 485 26 60 57' 49.1 24 62 579 486 i4 64 574 509 20 71 600 501 16 67 592 324 6 54 384 349 8 76 433 331 K 86 4^7 335 1 1 92 43 « 274 10 96 380 279 12 100 39" 294 12 97 403 363 '5 101 479 375 '5 101 49' '879 IH80 i8Ki I 88! 188.1 iHS5(Jan.) .. (Dec.) 1886 1887 1889 i.S9o(Keb.) „ (Dec.) 1891 (Dec.) 1892 (Jan.) This tabic shows that from 1H73 till 1HH2 the herd was gradually recuperating itself, l)ut that hetw^en iH8^ and 1H85 it suffered a very heavy loss, from which date it went on rapidly diminishing till the end of 1890, when a considerable rise was established ; this increase being also markeil in the two following years, when the counting ceased. Regarding the gradual diminution in the number of the Lithuanian bison, the following are some of the data furnished by the same author. It appears that bison-shooting — unless by special permission — was pro- hibited in the Hielowitza forest by an imperial ukase in the autumn of 1802. How many animals have actually been shot since that date it is difficult to estimate, as the official records do not seem altogether reliable. It is stated, for instance, that between 1832 and i860 only eighteen bison were shot ; but Dr. Biichner says that this does not include an example killed in 1848 for the museum at Kiew. In i860 an imperial hunt was organised in the forest, when twenty-eight bison (eighteen bulls and ten cows) were slaughtered. In 1865 a pair were shot for the museums of Strasburg and Gottingen, and in 1871 one was killed for Helsingfors. Between 1873 and 1892 a total of fifteen head were hunted and slain. '•m li ?ysr«sgss^eip^^^8p¥w 74 Oxen m yU|. i[i Of these, eight hulls were shot during a hunt organised hy the Grand Duke Sergius Mikhailovitch in Decemher 1895. With the exception that perhaps more cows were killed than is justi- riahle, the damage done to the herd during these sixty years hy actual hunting was certainly not excessive. But the atter-ertects of these hunts- due to the frightening of the animals by the heaters— appear to have been hir more serious. I'his seems to be most iiK:rked after the great hunt of 1H60, when, as already said, upwards of twenty-eight fell to the rifles of the sportsmen. In i860, as shown in the first table, the total number of bison in the forest was believed to be is75, but as only 1447 were counted in the following season, the herd had suffer. -d a total diminution of ,28 head ; and it is greatly to b. feared that the mortality was mainly due to the ultimate results of the great hunt. The official records are silent as to the •lumber of bison killed by poachers from ,832 to 1872, although sporting journals and popular literature sho^v that the total must have been by no means inconsiderable. Between 1873 and 1S92 the number thus lost is officially given as thirty-six. This is by no means heavy ; and since of late years'still greater precautions have hen taken in guarding the forest, i't may be\afely concluded that very little harm is now done by poaching. A certain number of bison have been from time to time captured ;;1ive in the forest and presented to various zoological gardens. Foren.,.st among these was a pair captured in 1847 and sent to London in 1848; the British Museum also receiving a .skin, which is still exhibited in the mammal gallery. About that date a second pair was presented t<. a Russian park, a thn-d to the /....logical (hardens of Schcinbruner, near Vienna, and a fourth to the jardin des Plantes, Paris. In .864 a bull, cow, and calt were sent to Moscoiv ; and the same year the Zoological Ciardens of that city received a bull and cow, together with tw.. calves, the two f.rmer of which had been captured with the Lond.,n specimens in 1847. European Bison 75 In the spring of 1S65 four bison were presented to the Prince ot' I'less, in Silesia, and in iS67the Zoological (Jardens of Gatschina received seven examples, and others two years later. In 187:? a pair was presented to Constantin.^ple, and a second pair to Berlin. A total of thirty-one head are thus known to have been presented up to 1S7;?, since which date there is no definite record that any live bison have been exported, although there is a statement that in iSc;^ five head were sent to the Prince of Pless for tile replenishment of his small Silesian herd. Mention ! as already been made of the diminution of the herd durin" the first Polish uprising, when it lost 115 head. A similar loss occurred at the second revolution. And whereas in 1S62 the herd comprised 1 124 adult and 127 young animals, in the following year the number of the former fell to 795 and that of the latter to 79 ; the total loss thus being !,■]■]. Although it is commonly stated that the loss was due to the revolutionists snooting ihiwn the bison in mass, this is incorrect. The true cause was that Bielowitza lay right in the line of conflict between the revolutionists and the Russian troops, so that the animals perished in a miscellaneous manner. Human foes are not, liowever, the only ones against whom tiie bison have to contend, bears and wolves 'heing their deadlv enemies, while it is probable that many calves are killed by lynxes. As far back as iS^,- we reatl that in the summer a great war of extermination ivas waited a-'ainst the four-h)oted foes of the bison. Another great hunt took place in 1S61, when the bears were well-nigh extirpated. In 1S7V. forty wohes, one bear, and fi\e Ivnxes were accounted h)r ; while in the followiiii'- vear the number killed comprised sixty-three wolves, one bear, and five Ivnxes. A commission whicii \isited the forest in 1S71 took especial pains in the f)rmation of [ilans lor the ilestruction of the carnivora, with, the result that woKes became so scarce that in 1SS9 onlv one, in 1S90 rive, and 1S91 six, were all that couKl l)e killeii. In the otticial tables the number of bison ; .1 76 Oxen Ih' killed by wolves and bears is approximately given ; and it appears that in the earlier years from six to eight bison not uncommonly fell annually to wolves, while in one year bears accounted for rive. From the years 1H73 to 1893 only ten head are known to have been destroyed by the former marauders. Indeed, for the last twenty years the devastation to the herd caused by wild animals may be regarded as of no practical importance. With regard to epidemics, there is no doubt that the herd has suffered Fi'.. lv""I)cad KiiropcMii BiMiii. I'ldiii I'rliKc DcniidMltV ///////.v/i; Trip. :n tlr C,iu,d>:is. much from diseases of this nature. It appears, however, that bison ciijov an immunity both from rinderpest and the so-callctl Siberian pest ; domestic cattle afflictctl with these diseases having on se\eral occasions come into contact with their wild cousins in the forest. Another disease, formerlv attributed to the ill-effects of a certain grass growing in the Bielowitza swamps, is now ascertained to be due to liver- tluke. (Jenerally this disease does not do much harm, but in 18H4, aiui again in 1S92, it assumed a virulent and almost epidemic form ; in the former year %i European Bison 11 nine, and in the latter upwards of" twenty head falling victims to this scourge. Passing over certain losses attrihuted to the hat! condition ot' the fodder in some years, we may conclude with a hrief reference to the author's views as to the gradual waning of the Lithuanian hison. This he attrihutes to continuous in-and-in hreeding, the slowness of hrecding of the cows, and the large percentage of hulls to the latter. So long ago as iS:5o Jarocki recorded that the cows seldom, if ever, calved more than once in three years ; while it has heen suhsequently ascertained that frequently for manv years they remain perfectly sterile, although afterwards they may again hreed. So slow is the increase, that among some fortv adults, it is hv no means uncommon to see not more than four calves, while six is an ahnormally large numher. Although it is now, uiifortunatelv, impossible to determine what was the original rate of increase of the hison, judging troni its American cousin, and other considerations, it was almost certainlv higher than this. IVIoreover, the production of a high percentage of males seems an evident sign of degeneration on the part of the females. Habits. — In its general habits, to which some allusion has been made in the preceding paragraphs, the European bison appears to lie verv similar to the woodland varietv of thy American species ; both being essentiallv forest animals. Major Heber l*ercv states that manv of the trees in the Bielowitza forest are magnihcent linies ; ami he also mentions that the bison are tond of grazing on a coarse aromatic kind of gi'ass known as zubr grass, which communicates its aroma to the animals themselves. Other writers state, however, that thev are eipiallv tond ot browsing on the leaves, voung shoots, bark, and twigs of trees, those of the ash being their especial favourites. In pursuit of this food thev will strip whole trees as high up as thev can reach, while saplings are tram[iled complete! v ilown. In winter thev are driven to subsist entirelv on buds, twigs, bark, and such patches of drv irrass and fern as remain. Duriii'' sprin" aiul sununer the hei'ils 1 I'l II' I I ii I m 78 Oxen tVequent the moister districts ot" the forest, hut with the luivent of winter seek drier spots where the covert is less dense. The oUl hulls are solitary, hut younger animals consort in summer in parties of from fifteen to twenty head, although in winter they collect in herds of from thirty to titty, liach herd has its own particular grazing ground, from which it seldom wanders tar. Till the commencement of the pairing season, which takes place in August and the early part of Septemher, peace reigns among these herds ; hut when two strange herds meet quarrels not unfrequently arise, and during the pairing season the old hulls engage in desperate encounters amon"- themselves for the possession of the cows. Bison are active hoth during the daytime and the night, but their chief feeding times are during the early mornings and evenings. Although their large size and stout build might suggest the idea that their movements are slow, vet such is by no means the case ; their first pace when disturbed is a quick trot, whicli subsequently quickens into a gallop, during which the head is lowered nearly to the ground, and the tail elevated and carried nearly horizontally. Major Heher Percy thus describes a bison-drive in Bielowitza : " We waited in perfect silence for about half an hour, and then I heard the breaking of sticks and crashing of branches as the herd approached at a gallop. There were about fifteen of them, all thoroughly alarmed, and presenting exactly the appearance of a herd of American bison, the same carriage of tlie head ami the tail carried in the same manner. Though 1 had but one short view of them, t)ne bull immediately caught my eye as being much larger than the others. At that moment they ilisappeared in the brushwood, but 1 could hear them coming straight on towards me, so cocking my ritlc, I waited tor them to cross the glade to my left. Louder came the noise or the crashing of branches ; and out burst the leading animal across the clearing about eighty yards from me, closely followed by the second and remainder of the herd. Directly the second appeared, 1 fired at it and rolled it over." I i'l It 1 .V'l 'iH Wii.u Oxen. Sheep A Goats Pirate VI AMKRKAN HISON. hiHiikni (,. Aiiw,,,*,,.' i*„i T j_- 1^«— '-^ T VI I American Bison 79 I.ikc their Anicriciin cousins European bison tlcarly love a mud-hath, and at times when the tlies are troublesome they may frequently be seen plastered over with a coat of dry mud, which forms an efficient protection against their tormentors. During the time tiiey are changing from the winter to the summer coat, the old pelage hangs loosely to parts of the i)ody, and comes away in large blanket-like masses. The cows give birth to their ()rt;pring in the thickest and nK)st secluded portions of the forest during the month of May or early part of June, and display great boldness in defending them from the attacks t)f prowling wolves or bears. It is seldom that more than a single calf is produced at a birth, and, as already stated, in Bielowitza the cows now breed but once in three years, although it is by no means certain that the rate of increase may not formerly have been less slow. At the conclusion of the pairing season, the old bulls once more forsake the herds with which they have temporarily consorted, to resume a solitary and unsociable existence. Altliough a full-grown bull bison in his prime might appear a match for all foes, it is stated tliat during winter, when struggling through snow-drifts, even such spl-ndid animals may occasionally lie pulleil down by packs of wolves ; and, according to Prince Demidotf", they are also attacked liv leopards. 1 ' '! ' 5. Tnr. Ami-.rican Bisiis - Bos hison /io< hiioi,^ Linn. Syst. \at. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 99 (1766). lios amcrhanus. (imelin, Syst. A',//, vol. i. p. 204 (17SS) ; Richardson, h\u(ii<, IW.-.lmcr. p. 1-,^ (1S29); Jardine, Naturalisfs Library Mnmii. vol. iv. p. 252 (iS;6); Sundcvall, K. S-.xn^ka I'ct. .Ik. llaiull. for 1S44, p. 154 (1S46) ; Hairtl, Mamm. X. .Imcrica, p. 6S'2 (iS'59) ; W. L. Sclater, Cat. Mamm. Iml. Mas. pt. ii. p. 1^1 (1S91); Huet, Hal/. Sw. Acclmi. Peris, vol. xxxviii. p. ;44 (1S91); Ward, Records '4' Bh^ Came. p. 269 (1H96). 'Mt 8o Oxen ♦ fi, f» Bos {Bimi) (imcriainus, U. Smith, in Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. iv. p. 401, V. p. 374 (1827). Vnis iimericanus, Swainson, Chissif. Qjiiu/riipals, p. 280 (1835). Bos {Bonasits) umcricamis, Wagiicr in Schreber's Siiitgct/iicrc, vol. iv. p. 516 (1844) ; Turner, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1850, p. 174. Bison timcricanns, Gray, Knoivslcy Mcnagcri,; p. 49 (i8:;o). Cut. Ungti/uta Brit. Mns. p. 38 (1852), Cut. Ruminants Brit. Miis. p. 14 (1872) ; Riiti- meyer, Dcnksc/ir. sc/nvciz. Gcs. vol. xxii. art. 3, p. 91 (1867), Ah/i. sc/mriz. pal. Gcs. vol. V. p. 189 (1878) ; Allen, Mem. Mas. Harvard, vol. iv. p. 36 (1876); Flower and Garson, Cat. Ostcol. Mns. Coll. Surg. pt. ii. p. 231 (1884); Hornaday, Rep. V. S. Mas. 1886-87, p. 378 (1889); Herrick, Mamm. Minnesota, p. 260 (1892). Bison bison, Rhoads, Amcr. Naturalist, vol. xxviii. p. 526 (1894), Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1895, p. 244, 1897, p. 501. Characters. — Height at shoulder typically about 6 feet. Horns in the typical race, usually, shorter, thicker, blunter, and more sharply curved than in the luu-opean bison ; also set further back on the forehead, which is very markedly convex, so that their bases are considerably behind the plane of the front margin of the sockets of the eyes. Hind -quarters relatively very low and weak in comparison to the withers ; pasterns shorter, and the tail less elongated than i.i the European species. Mane ot bull in summer pelage much longer and more shaggy than in the latter, extending further back on the body, and attaining much greater develop- ment on the head and neck, where it completely conceals the ears and buries a considerable portion of the horns. In the cow likewise much more copious on the forehead and neck, and leaving but little of the ears exposed. In very old bulls the greater part of the body almost bare when the summer coat is first developed. During winter the whole pelage very coarse and shaggy ; the mane of the bulls forming a huge mass of long hair completely concealing the outline of the head, neck, fore-quarters, and -sssaaaarsi'-i^a"' American Bison 8i logs. The inmic on the head, neck, eliest, etc., dark lilackish-brown, that on the withers a paler brown, and the pehige of the hind-qiiarters a kind of cinnanion-coloiir. In the skeleton the neural spine of the sixth cervical vertebra' is up- right, and that of the seventh relatively taller than in the hluropean species, while the spines of all the dorsals are absolutely higher. These features I'k^ l6.-.\nuriiaii Bi-nn aiul W.ipiii in the Park at Wohiirn Ahbcy. From a pliotograpli by tlic Dudleys (it' Hcdt'orJ. seem undoubtedly indicative of the greater specialisation of the American as compared with the luu'opean animal, as is also the marked convexity of the foreheaii. And assuming the New World form to have been derived from the luiropean species, such greater specialisation is exactlv what might have been expected. In atldition to a calf, the British Museum possesses a mounted adult bidl from the Yellowstone river, ami the head of a second from Colorado, the latter presented by Lord W'alsingham. Hoth appear to be in summer ' Sec note on p. K. M -igj !!i 'r ' , - v '' '-** ' "i i '.- » 'i* t j.d.ajiii.3M>>iir ,flftl* i,M>aef^ (I ■| : 82 Oxen pelage, and are therefore well adapted for comparison with the specimens of the Kuropean species in the collection, all of which were likewise killed at the same season. For comparison of the cows of the two species, reference may he made to the excellent figures in the memoirs of Messrs. Allen and Hornaday. No one who has seen the British Museum examples can fhil to he struck with the very marked difference hetween the males of the European and American forms. In stating that the latter, so far as the typical race is concerned, has generally shorter horns than the former, I am aware that Mr. Rowland Ward has recorded dimensions reached hy American specimens exceeding any of those he tnentions from Europe. But it must he remcmhered that in the case of the former animal a vastly larger series of specimens is availahle for selection ; and average specimens are decidedly inferior in size to the few availahle male skulls of the European hison. An adult hull bison weighed by Mr. Hornaday turned the scale at 1727 Ihs. ; and Mr. Rowland Ward states that the general weight may be estimated from about 15 to 20 cwts. The following are some of the largest horn-measurements mentioned in Mr. Rowland Ward's book; probably No. ,0 and certainly No. 11 belong to the woodland race : — l.rn^tli 111 B.i^;il Outer Curve. CircumftTi-ric 20,4 '5 19 1 2 }, 184 '4^ '«! '4 18 14 '7:/ '2;^- i7i 12 J, i-l 12 i7i I'if riM..Ti|,. WiMcii In.i.i,.. Locality. 30k Wyoming ? W. Montana i6| ,. ^(>i 29 Sioux Country ? .? Montana '5i ? p ? ? S-W ivr,,nf..„ i6i 16! •4i 1 2 1- ? 24 ' 9 s' 25* '7i ? ? Wyoming Bighorn Mts. Wyoming y American Bison 83 nistri/mtion. — Startii)g from I'ciinsylvauia, which fornicd its eastern hmits, the Amcritaii bison, according to Mr. Hornaday, originally "ex- tended westward, through a vast tract ot" dense forest across the Alleghany Mountain system to the prairies along the Mississippi, and southward to the delta of that great system. .Although the great plain country of the west was the natural home of the species, where it flourished most abundantly, it also wandered south across Texas to the burning plains of north-eastern Mexico, westward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico, Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake itself" To the northward of the United States the western limits of its range appear to have been formed by the main chain of the Rocky Mountains, along the rianks of which it extended to the Mackenzie river ; and the northern shore of the (Jreat Slave Lake seems to have been its most northerly limit. In British territory its easterly range did not extend beyond the plains lying to the west of the highlands bordering Hudson Bay, so that it was entirely absent from the region north of the great lakes. It will be noticed that in the passage quoted above the bison of the plains is regarded as the original form. This, however, as will be subse- quently mentioned, is an error, the woodland form being doubtless nearer the primitive type. Regarding the eastern extension of the animal in Pennsylvania, it is known to have ranged as far as Lewisburg within a comparatively late period, the last individual having been killed in Butfalo Valley, near that town, sometime between 1 790 and 1800. Farther east, the bison, according to Mr. S. N. Rboads, had probably been driven from the Delaware X'alley considerably before the advent of the white man in the New World. The same writer adds that, "from the scarcity ot its remains and the absence of reliable tradition of its presence in this locality, it is unlikely that this species was ever more than a straggler in the regions east of the Susquehanna river drainage." (f, i '\ I iM) y. III'' ((i ieii i |flatea«ilh'^ ii Mi rtMi ^ llii 'a Il III ^4 Oxen r^ I'kviKii R.MK IJuh iiisoN rvi'iirs C/ninicfi-n. Generally those given above, the distinctive points of the woodhnui race heing nieritioned below. Dhtrif)ittm.—T\\M portion of the range of the species lying t(. the south of the distril)iitional area of the woodland race. H.i/>/h.So much has been written on the habits and extermination of the American bison of the prairies, that it is iMflicult to know what to select, while it is obvious that nothing new can now be written. The best accoinit of the extermination of the bison from the prairies is one by iVIr. W. T. n,,rnaday; while for a graphic description of the enormous herds which formerly covered these pastures the writings of Colonel Dodge may be consulted. Mr. C. L. Herrick, in his Mu,m,a/s 0/ Miimcs'.t,,, gives an excellent irsiiiin- of the general habits of the animal, and Dr. |. A. Allen's memoir will always remain as the most copious history previous to the extermination we yet possess. In the time of its abundance the bison was an essentially gregarious animal, congregating in hertis of such vast magnitude as actually to darken the prairies as far as the eye could reach. Possibly its numbers may have been rivalled by the herds of spring-buck which formerly wandered over the Transvaal ; but with this exception, it was probably unique in regard to numerical abundance among Tngulates, and no ..ther animal of equal bodily dimensions ever approached it in this respect, (iregariousness as has been well observed, necessarily implies periodical migration when the herds are large ; and the bison of the prairies was a thorough wanderer. Seasonal changes compelled them at one time to travel in the direction of the mountains, and at another in the opp<.site direction ; while variations in the supply of food and water entailed minor movements in addition to their regular wanderings. Such thousands of \^ American Bison 85 animals vvoul.l s.-.m iommihh- aiul licstn.y vast areas of herbage ; ami it has cvfii Ik-cm suggested tiiat ut the time ,,t' the maximum cieveiopment of the race the vast prairies <.f the iw.rth-west were none too large tor the sustenanee of the huds nt hison with which they were covered. The course of streams and river, marked out to a considerable extent the main direction of migration ; but mkIi lines .,f march were often altered owing t<. the occurrence of prairie fires ,.r the presence of devastating hordes „f locusts. Previous to the days of railroads, which aided so materially in putting a term to the existence of the race, the periodical migrations of the bison to anil fro were so constant and regular that the time f.,r the arrival and departure of the hen! in any one locality could be predicted with a close approximation to correctness. When the herd was alarmed or in danger, its members, as is so generally the case with animals associating in large bodies, seemed to lose all sense of individual responsibility, and rushed madly forwards, heedless of objects which would have ellectually stayed the progress ..f solitary animals. No danger in front would indeed stop the advance of the herd, although unwonted interruptions in its rear would give rise to hopeless confusion. As an example of this state of allairs the following account from the pen of Colonel Dodge may be cp.oted :— - The winter of 1S71-72 was unusually severe in Kansas. The ponds and smaller streams to the n..rtb were all frozen solid, and the bison were forced to the rivers for water. •I-he Atchison, Topeka, and Santa bV railroad was then in course of construction. If a herd was on the north side of the track it would stand stupidly grazing and without sympt.-m of alarm, though fbe h.c.motive passed within a hundred yards, if on the south side of the tr.ick, even though at a distance of one or two miles, the passage of a train set the whole herd in the wildest commotion. At its full speed, and utterly regardlos of consecpiences, it would make tor the track on its line of .,«i^'^"-iiT: ■;■;- 86 Oxen retreat. If the train happened not to be in its path, it crossed the track and stopped, satisfied. If the train was in the way, each individual bison went at it with the desperation of despair, plunging against or between locomotives and cars just as the blind madness happened to take them. Numbers were killed, but numbers still pressed on, only to stop and stare as soon as the obstacle was passed." Although when direct and level lines of transit were practicable these were preferred, bison displayed remarkable activity and agility for animals of their sixe in descending and ascending the steep blufts bordering many of the prairie rivers ; and even now the gorges made by the herds in breaking down the banks are still visible as mementoes of a vanished race. Neither would broad and rapid rivers whose currents were encumbered by masses of ice check the course of the host ; such transits were, how- ever, frequently accompanied by heavy losses of life, more especially when numbers of animals crowded upon the ice. Arrant stupidity, as in the instance above cited, seems indeed to have been one of the most marked traits in the life-history of the bison. In reality, however, timidity may account for much of this apparent stupidity, although in defence of their young both sexes displayed un- daunted courage. And many anecdotes have been told of the devotion of the cows to their offspring when threatened by imminent peril. " The bulls," writes Mr. Herrick, "invariably range themselves about the circumference of the herd, while the cows and calves remain in the centre. The larger herds when feeding break up into smaller groups, whicli preserve the same arrangement .n obedience to instinct. It appears that the notion, long prevalent, that certain old bulls stand as sentries upon the outskirts oi the herds is fallacious, most observers claiming that it is the females, with anxiety quickened by the maternal instinct, which are usually the first to perceive danger In some cases it is the males upon whom the office of •^rotection devolves, especially in case of attack by wolves. ii ^S^»»^' American Bison 87 Wolves were the only animals molesting the bison nntil the advent of man, and before their numbers were so reduced by hunters these marauders constantly harassed the herds. . . . When separated from the herd the mother was often obliged to pass the night in sleepless vigil, pacing about her sleeping calf" In reference to the last statement, there have been observed in many places on the prairie circles of five or six feet in diameter of taller and greener grass than the ordinary sward, which appear to have sprung up on the tracks of a cow thus protecting her calf Much more rarely similar half-circles have been noticed, which are attributed to a cow walking between her recumbent calf on one side and a watchful wolf on the other. An instance has also been recorded where a party of bulls combined to rescue a newly-born calf from the jaws of one of these devourers. Although calves doubtless formed the chief prey of the wolves prowling round the confines of the herd, it was not by any means to these alone that the attacks of the latter were confined. Old, sickly, and wounded individuals of both sexes from time to time fell victims ; and Catlin has given a sad picture of a feeble old bull standing on the defensive against a pack of hungry wolves and gradually succumbing. In many of their habits bison were more like buffalo than domestic cattle. In their fondness for rubbing they resembled both ; and traces of this habit are to be found in tMe polished surfaces of the few masses of rock which project above the level prairies, as well as in the smoothed bark of the small number of trees dotted over the same. In their par- tiality for wallowing in mud they were much more like buffilo. And so ingrained was this habit that old bulls were accustomed to make '• wallows " for themselves when ready-made ones were not to be found. " Finding in the low parts of the prairies," says Catlin, -a little stagnant water amongst the grass, and the ground underneath soft and saturated with moisture, an ..Id bull lowers himself upon one knee, plunges his horns into the ground. '■]'. m i It. IS' iil'J 88 Oxen throwing up the earth and soon making an excavation into which the water tricicles, forming for him in a short time a coo] and comfortable bath, in which he wallows 'like a hog in the mire.' In this 'delectable lava' he throws himself Hat on his side, and then forcing himself violently around with his horns, his feet, and huge hump, phnighs up the ground still more, thus enlarging the pool till at length he becomes nearly im- mersed. Besmeared with a coating of the pasty mixture, he at len-^th rises, changed into a 'monster of mud and ugliness,' with the black mud dripping from his shaggy mane and thick woolly coat. The mud soon drying upon his body ensures him hours of immunity from the attack of insects. Others follow in succession, having waited in their turns to enjoy the luxury ; each rolls and wallows in a similar way, adding a little to the dimensions of the hole, and carrying away a share of the adhesive mud. Hy this means an excavation is eventually made having a diameter of 15 or 20 feet, and 2 feet in depth." Such wallowing holes remain as another sad memento of one of the noblest of American quadrupeds. The pairing season on the prairies took place in Julv and August, varying perhaps a little in time according to latitude ; and the young, which never exceeded two at a birth, were born from the following March to June. The calves always went about with the main herd. In the breeding season constant conHicts took place between rival bulls ; but owing to the shortness and form of their horns ar.d the large mass of hair on the fore-quarters, little damage was in most cases indicted, althou-h the bellowing of the enraged combatants has been described as terrific. The saddest point in the history of the animal was its rapid and practi- cally complete extermination, which was a surprise even to the hunters themselves. And additional sadness is added to the story from the fact that thousands were slaughtered tor so-called sport, and other thousands for no adequate retur-i at all, perhaps merelv for the sake of the ton-ue or some other dainty morsel. The story is to,, l,,ng to be told here; l)ut it American Bison 89 may he mentioned that hetween the years 1H70 and ,875 the annual rate oi destruction has heen estimated at fully two and a half million head. The final act in the drama was the completion of the Union Pacific Railway, which cut the main herd in two. The southern half of the divided herd was rapidly exterminated, and it was not long before the northern half followed suit. The American bison breeds freely in captivity with its own kind, and less readily with cither .pecies of cattle. Mention has been made above oi the hybrids produced by a union between the bull bison and the cow gayal ; and in America a breed has been raised by crossing a bull bison wth a domesticated cow. Such hybrids are fertile either /«Av se, or when aga.n crossed with domesticated cattle. A herd of partially hybrid bison was forn.erly kept at Garden City, Kansas. Bison have been kept in at least two Knglish parks. Mr. C. J. Leyland, of Haggerston Castle Northumberland, has a small herd, of which the first members were ■mportcd fron. Lincoln Park, Chicago, in the summer of ,890. Others were imported in ,89,, and a bull bred in the Regent's Park was also added. About ,893 tour halt^breeds were raised in this park-three females -Hi one bull. A small herd of bison is also kept in the park at Woburn Abbey, the n.en.bers of which share a large paddock with wapiti and other deer (rig. 16). In America, a.nong other localities, a herd has been establisncd n Stony M.uuuains, Manitoba. Starting with five calves in ,878 the owner had raised the number at the commencement of ,887 to sixty one head, the greater number of which were pure-bred, and the remainder Hal^breeds. Although living in the open prairie, and feeding on the M..w-covered grass, even in January they were tat and sleek, ^vhen the thermometer was much below xero. 1' ' ft H 90 Oxen /'. Woodland Rack— Bos hison a niAHASCiT; lit- ! Ihson hison athalnuca-. RhoaJs, Pr.c. JauL Pluhuklplua^ ,897, p. 498. Cy..,;v;.Av.. -Distinguished from the prairie race by its superior si.e tim-ker and more silky pelage, of which the colour is darker, and hv the much longer, ,nore slender, and n.ore incurved horns, which are also more widely separated from one another at the bases. The description of the type specimen, which is mounted in the Geological Museuni, Ottawa, Canada, and appears to have been killed near the (ireat Slave Lake, is as follows. Pelage uniformly dense and silky • short and hne over much of the hinder half of the body, but becomin- very dense, h.ng, and curly anteriorly, especially on the shoulder, and neck' as well as the front of the head. Colour along the crest of t'>e hun.p and the nmkile line of the back light brown, shading in every direction into darker brown, and becoming ahnost black on the head, under-parts and hndxs ; the ears, mu.xle, and lower half of the tail, as well as the horns a'Hl hoofs being completely black. The horns long and strongly curved nnvards so as to come within a couple of inches of the line of die base of the eyes. ir.trihut.u.^Th. wooded uplands of the western territories, formerly extending from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains to the 9,th -ncndian of longitude, anu fVom latitude 6,, to 5, N., ,,,, ^„,,,,h,, '•anguig as fu" south along the line of the Rockv Mountains as the Tnitcd States. Hahits. -Htuners and trappers have long been convinced of the chst.nctness of the bison of the wooded northern districts fron, the one ■"habitmg the plan., but it is only recently that naturalists have ventured to separate the two. Fnun the accounts of several observers familiar with ■t ■■> ^.rmer days .,u„ted by M,-. Rboads, it appears that the woodland American Woodland Bison (^j l^ison never left the wocded districts, and that when it niet the prairie variety on the borderland of their respective habitats, the two kept con.pletely apart. In this respect they resembled the woodland and harren-grc.und races ot the reindeer ; the tw,. races being stated by the aforesaid observer t.. be as well entitled to rank as sub-species as are the two former. Although they graze occasionally, the woodland bison are stated to std.sist chieriy on the leaves and twigs of the birch and willow, whereas the prairie animal is solely a grass-eater. Never, apparently, very numerous, the woodland race is now approachin-. cxter„,ination. Mr. II. I. Moberly informed Mr. Rhoads that in ,897 he estimated the total ntnnber remaining at between 2,-0 and ^00 head which were divided into two herds. One of these bands frecp.ents the districts lying to the north of the lower part of the Peace river, extending H-om close to the CJreat Slave Lake at Peace Point, which is about yo miles below Fort \'ermilion. The second band is on the upper part of the Hay river, ranging between the Peace and the Liard rivers and along the foot of the Rocky Mountains for a distance of about 250 .niles. Fro.n the fact that the Huropean bison is a forest-dwelbng animal -Hi that the Old World n.ay be regarded as the original home of the group, it seems most pn.bable that the wo(,dland bison is the older type of the two, the prairie race being a somewhat degenerate later development which has taken to a lifo in the open cotmtry at a comparativelv recent date. And it is noteworthy that in the width of the skull this race makes an approach t.. the fossil form descrdK-d as R laufrons. which occurs tvpicallv in Kentucky. It may be well to mention that in his account' of the extermination of tnc b.son Mr. llornaday believed that the woodland r^ice was the smaller of the two, and that it represented a species in course ot evolution from the prairie form. II wKSi^^ 92 Oxen r i 6. Harlan's Bison— Bos latikrons {Extinct) Bos latifrrjns, Harlan, Vcwna Ammcmui, p. 273 (1S25) ; H. Smith, in Griffith's Anhnal Kingdo,,,, vol. iv. p. 4,0 (.S:,;) ; Lydckkcr, Horns \un{ Horfs, p. T^J (1H93). /^/W/ ^/^;r.;„, Leidy, Proc. ylauL PhiUuklphui, vol. vi. p. 1,7 (,852), /i-v/m-/ Vcrtchn,ta IVcstcrn Territories [U. S. Geo!. Survey), pp. 253 and ^, i H (1H73) ; Allen, Mem. Mt,s. Harvard, vol. iv. p. 7 (,876) ; Wilckens, IMol. V.entralhlatt, vol. v. p. ,,7 (,885); Lydckkcr, Cat. Foss. Ma»,m^ Brit. Mas. pt. ii. p. 27 (i8!!5) ; Rhoads, Proe. .lead. Philadelphia, 1895, p. 245, 1897, P- 500; Stewart, Kansas Quarterly, vol. v. p. 127 (1897). Characters.— rX^i, enormous size, wide. Hat forehead, and long, nearly straight horn-cores seem to indicate the specific distinctness ofthis southern form from Bos pHscis. In a skull in the British Museum from the Brazos river, Texas, the horn-cores, alth(,ugh very imperfect, measure 45 inches along the curve, with a basal girth of ,6^', inches ; the frontal width being 14 inches. When complete, the length along the curve must have been a^ least 60 inches. Distrihution.-i:\^^ southern United States, especially eastern Kentucky and Texas, during the Plistocene period. 7. Tmk Ckntrai, Amkrkan Bison— Bos scai-hockros {Extinct) Bison scaphoceros. Cope, 'yourn. Acad. Philadelphia, 1895, p. 457; Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1897, P- >oo- Cln,racters.~Thc extreme southern range of this form is in favour of its right to specific distinctness ; and, in any case, renders it of special interest as marking the extreme southern limit reached by any member o\ the hollow-horned ruminants in America. The horn-cores are remarkable fi)r their abrupt curvature, and are also relatively stout. Bubaline Group q-. Distrihutm.—Thc inoimtainous districts „f Southern Mexico and Northern Nicaragua, it is said, during the Fh'ocene period. V. Bt'HAI.INK GroCI'— SiH-Gk\CS Bt'HAU'S liii/>u/,u, II. Smith, in Griffith's .hiuin,/ K/,;gJom, vol. v. p. 371 (,827), as a suh-genus; Ciray, C (iS/H)- (;//,//v/ 'I. C'\IM, i)|< Ml,\(K R \( I iios (AIIKK IVl'UCS (:/Mr,nt,;s. Si/e lar-e and huil.l very heavy and clumsy, the heit^ht at the shoulder reaching to from 4 feet 10 inches to 5 feet ; skull massive, with the pn.fde inunediately helow the horns deeply cmcave. Hair. evcept on the mar-ins of the ears an.l at the tip .,f the tail, where it is Ion-, coiiiparatively scanty in the adult, Nut thicker in the young ; general colour hlack, fre.piently with a reddish tinge, most marked on the legs and in young animals. Il.uns large and massive, exceeding twice the long diameter of the skull in length; at first .lirected mainly outwariis, l>nt also dipping boldly d.,wnwards and backwards so as to be depressed much behind the plane of the eyes, then curving upwards, forwards, and inwards, but their tips widely separated, and not coming within the lines of the lateral borders of the skull ; their basal anterior surfaces in old bulls raised into huge convex bosses, nearly meeting in the middle line <,f the forehead ; in cws these basal bosses much less developed, and separated by a broad, hairy space. Alth.uigh the profile of the bead immediately below the horns is markedly concave, that of the lower part of the face is as distiiKtIv coiuex. I'he following are the dimensions of the twelve largest pairs of horns recorded by Mr. Rowhuul \Nard in the 1 S96 edition of his A',vo/',A ./' 7^/;; (id/ih' :■ — 10 til! Hi 1— - f 1 : lii 98 Oxen Cr.Ml t-^t Width. Insilk'. Ti|. ,„ Tip. Wi.lth (il I'ixp.insioii. Locality. 49i 43il 30I \2 Sabi River 47 41 28i 12 Limpopo 47 40A ? '2^ E. Africa P 40i 26 p 46i 44i 37i 6i Pungwi Rivci 45'/. 4ii 37A ? S. Africa 4S:/ 40 ^8-], 12 Nyasaland 45i 41 30 p 1'-. Africa 45i ? ? "■'. Kilinia-Njaro 45 39^/. 36i 14 K. Africa 45 ? ? ? Nyasalaiui 44:/. 39i ^7i "1 K. Africa D/,f/;7/;////>.,'/.— Southern Africa, extending from the t'ape to the soiitli hank of tlie Congo on the west side, and aiv)ut to the equator (\'ietoria Nyanza) on tlie cast side of the Continent. In Angola, aeeorch'ng to l^rofcssor Barhoza du Hocage, the Cape hut^alo is ahundant right up to the Congo, lieing found both near the coast in the neigiihourhoo/ts. — Like its kindred, the Cape but^-alo associates in lar-a- herds and when feeding generally moves in compact bodies almost always led by a cow. Their feeding-grounds, at least in J^ast Africa, are either among open bush, or in clear pasture in die neighbourhood of bush. After feed- ing during the night and early morning on such ground, they generally seek tiiiek covert for repose during the heat of the day. In undisturbed districts, even when covert is at hand, they will, however, sometimes prefer to lie out in the open during the day, probably to escape the attacks of riics. The old bulls, except chu-ing the pairing season, frequently separate from the herd to wander about either alone or in parties of three or tour. Such bulls have frequently been stated to lie more dangerous than those accompanying the herd, but this is denied by Mr. I'. J. fackson in his article on this species in the nudminton Library. As regards the ilisposition of the animal, it is indeed very difHcult to arrive at a satisfactory concluM'on, since ilitierent sportsmen difler much in their accounts on this subject. Mr. Oswell, for example, in another article in the >ame vohnne, gives the C'ape butlalo a very bad character indeed, more especially when stalked in thick covert, where it will craftily double back alonuside its track, and then suddenly rush out on its unsuspecting pursuer. On the ! I m wm ■■ I . I! M I #i lOO Oxen other hand, Messrs. Nicolls and Kgh-ngton state that tlie reputation <,f the animal h.r ferocity Ikis heen nnich exaggerated, and tliat vvlien disturhed it generally prefers to seek safety in flight rather than to Initiate an attack. They admit, however, that on occasions a hull that has not previously heen wounded will make an unpn.voked charge, even in the open ; and they are in accord with other writers as to the danger of following a w.)unded hull in thick covert. Mr. Jackson mentions the extreme caution always necessary in hutfalo-shooting, and recommends the sportsman t.. get within such a distance as to ensure killing or disabling his quarry at the first shot. A huffido when charging rushes forward with its muzzle held nearly straight out and its forehead almost horizontal ; and even when within striking distance the head is not lowered, but turned to one side, and the foe knocked down or gored by a sideway sweep of the massive horns. This attitude is shown in the central rigure in the well-known ilh. .tration in Livingstone's Mls.u,m,ry Travels, although a second individual in the same plate is depicted with the head lowered ; and in all the animals the tail is represented as elevated instead of held straight out. Like the rhinoceroses, buffaloes are frequently attended by the so-called rhinoceros-birds and egrets, which perch on tl. -ir broad backs f)r the purpose of feeding on the insects swarming around them ; and xnIkmi thus attended they are much more dithcult ,.f approach than when alone. Buffalo are seldom if ever found far away from water, and they are in the liabit of refreshing themselves with a bath both before and after grazing. The calves, of which but one is produced at a birth, are born „, the summer months from January to March ; and f-r the tirst few days after their ap-carance in the world are securely hidden among tall grass by the cows, who at such times separate themselves from the herds to remain in the neighbourhood of their otfspring and attend to their peri..dical wants. During the pairing season frequent Hghts take place among the old bulls. Next to man, the greatest foe of the buf^al.) is the li<.n ; and although a u Abyssinian Buffalo lOI single lion would probably be unable to pull down unaided an old bull in the prime of his strength, one instance at least is on record where three of the felines have combined forces to effect their object. h. AinssiMAN, OK Hkown Rack — Bos cafi-kr yiuiuiNocTiAMs nuluiltis cfcr .r'jmii'jctialis, Blyth, Proc. ZooL Hoc. 1866, p. ^71 ; Pechuel-Loesche, ZW. 'ynhrh. Syst. vol. iii. p. 713, pi. xxvii. (1H8H). liiih,i/iis pi/»il/ns oricnhilis^ Brooke, Proc. '/mI. Soc. 1H73, p. 483, pi. xlii. Fk;. iS. Skull ;inJ linni. of Aln>.ini,in Butlal,.. (Roul.uul W.ird, A',, ,;v.. ',t' Bi^ Came.) Hn/>,i/iis wqiiiu'jctiilis^ Brooke, Proc. Zool. Sor. 1S75, p. 457 ; Pousargues, y/////. Sr/\ A'nging to an adult (Fig. 20), although not aged, In.ll, are in the possession of Sir R. B. Llewelyn, the (iovernor of "the (Ja.nbia, from which colony they were obtained. They are in a fine state of preseryation. with the points sharp and shgiuly di'rected backwards ; and are important as indic.-ing that the types .i phnuccros and ccntrain were likewise obtained from Senegambia or the adjacent districts. A young bidl from Senegal mounted in tl,e I'aris Museum appears likewise referable to the present race, although it is la!)elled R p,nnih,s. On the tore-quarters the colour of the hair is reddish-bn,wn, but elsewhere ' IM ,l,c ILuuU,,, „, ,^:^, crroMonMy Mated ,„ l,,,vc hcci, .olleetcd by Dr. Halklc. \ M Scncgambinn BufFalo 105 on the Ix.dy the tint is darker than in n.nms, while- the mux/le an.l h'mhs are lighter ; there is no hiaek mane al-nj; the neek, and the hint;e ..n the HKU-in ..f the ears is less eion^rated, and the vvh.-Ie interior of the ears l)laek. The ii,,rns are comparatively small, and from their immaturity present no very distinctive characters. At the same time, it must he rema- ked tliat it is frequently very ilitliadt to distinguish imniature examples of thi. race from specimens ^^\->umns from Sierra I.eone, where the horns never seem to attain the form !•■..;. .o.--|.'r„„,|c, .,ul lu.rns „l ,n,,lo Scn.gaml,l,,M l?uH:,ln. |.',.„n, :, .pccinun .|,o, ,„i till' (;;ini!il;i iji ihc p,,s>cs.-ii()ri <,rSir R. H. I.lcwclvn. characteristic of adult males tVom ,he Congo. This is conrtrmed hv Monsieur Pousargties, who remarks that in the Western Sudan and I'pper (Juinea there occurs a hlackish-hrown huttalo regarded hv some zoologists as a mere variety of /,..;.,//,.,■ ( ;,,,,,,,,), i,,,^ ,,, „^,^^.,.^ ^^^ ^^ ^,i^^j_^^,^ ^^^;.^,.^_^ ...uler the name of cn>tn,/is. That it intergrades hoth with the northern ^"'•'" -^' """"-^ ■•'•Hi with p/.nnrcn., I have, as already stated, little, douht; a>Hl if this he so, it certainly cannot rank iiigher than a suh-species. nisfr;/,„tion.-^rh, interior of Senegamhia, Upper (iuinea, and the IM-C'cl, Sudan that is to say. to the north and east of the typical West African forest retiion. '!! '■''■ \' ini' ji Ifil ; ■1 ■*ii I 1 06 Oxen ,/. C'oNdo, OK Rid Rah 15. .^ t \imk \ \\i s lios >nnms, M.ul.l.KTt. l'./r>n/ms .hum. p. 1,-.^ (i^S-) ; w,,,|^ /^.,,,,^,./, ,^^ li{ii a.iwr, [). .:-^- (iS(;6), in p;iii. Hos t»,mil„s. Ken-., .////w. AV/y,A.,,. , . ;.,o (,;,;,) ; Turiun. 7V,;,;./. /.,,,,,. .Vn7. A'.v. vol. i. p. ,,, (,So6) ; I hut. /W/. S.c. .Uriini. r.ni.,vn\. xxxviii. p. .^4.^ (iS(;i),,n p;,rt; I'lou rr ,nul I ,ulrkkn , .V//,/r o/' ,l/.m///,/A, p. ^^i (iSgi) ; Hri'liin, />;■/■/, Av/, S///^,;,///. vol. iii. p. ^1,; (iS.;i). ••""■• ^>. iMoiula .uKi l„M„, .„ ,,,^,.1 l,„!| ,„ ,|k. l-..„,.„ It„,r,,|„, l-V ,lu- u|v ^lv\iiiR-M ill liu- Uiuisl, .Mum inn. /^.A.^. .,v/v.:, Hlvth, /'... Z./. .s., ,s^;, p. , ,s ; (i,-,n, (;„, /,,,,: "rf>i»;;i ' r!| jea»:^^P™>*^. 11 CONGO BUFFALO. HiHuiliKl iiv li,mla„,i W.,r.l I.M il!l ■ 'i m' m i ■ .,_. p w» mg> :« ^SJSSkfi: Coiiijo Buffalo 107 (Jarsoii, (alt, Osti'J. Mils. CJ/. Surg, part ii. \\. 2^0 (1HH4) ; I'l'cIuicI- I.ocstlic, /mL 'Jd/ir/). Syst. vol. iii. [1. 711, pi \.\viii. Hgs. ;, 4 (iHHH); I'oii^iirgiic.s, .Inn. Sii. Nat. '/.'i',l. scr. 7, vul. iv. [1. H3 (1S97). Huhiilus piiniihii 'niiJcnlii/ls, Brooke, /'/■'/<. /W. Soc. 1X7^, p. 48^. Hiilnilus hrachyccrus^ IJocagc, (, S'/C. I.ish'jn, scr. 2, vol. ii. p. 25 (1H90) ; MatM-'liic, .SV/V/^i;<7///<7v 'iopgchhics , p. 19 (189^); ntC (irav, 18^7. /V./A /■///. C/hinictcrs. ^ Size comparatively small and the Iniilil light and slender, the height at the shoulder heing about ^ feet 6 inches. Forehead of skull nearly Hat, without any concavity in the prutile below the horns. In tully adult bulls from tlie Congo the horns closely a|ipro\imateii at their bases, where they are rugose anil much expanded and tiatteneii ; their direction at first mainly up- wards, after which they become smooth and are suddeidy bent inwanls and backwards, to terminate in long slender tips, which may be very close together, anil thus situated directly above the forehead (fig. 21). In younger bulls (fig. 22) less expanded and a|i|iroximated at the bases, and more widely se[iarateil .it the tips, in cows the horns are likewise often less flattened and expanded, and more widely separated at tiie bases and tips ; in some specimens from the Congo they are almost cylindrical, and in most examples from Sierra Leone they are widely separated on the fin head and diverge outwardly more in the manner oi irnO\///s. Hair on the body moderately thick and close, very long on the margins of the ears and the middle line of the neck and back, where it forms I'l. 11. Skull aiul lioriis lit' liiill Coiigii HiilKiilo, iVom iliu Niycr icrrilnry. (Rnul.iiul W.dJ, R,;-jrM 'jf Big Ci,:m,\) \ '\ K mt,, 1 11 io8 Oxcii a short ui.iiic. (a'licr.il olciir ,.f upptT-parts liiiylit yellowish or rccldish- oraiigc, hupicMtly very similar t.. that ..f the hiish-pig fn.m the sanu' regions ; l.mg liairs on middle ..Murk .iiui hack and part of those on h.wer margin of the ears hlaek, as are the legs tVom ahove the knees and hoeks downwards, and the tuft at the tip uf the tail ; ..n the upper hurder of the ears the l,.ng hairs are pale yellow; and the interi..r of the ears, except for a hlaek pateh near the lower horder, is als.. yellowish, 'i-hc pits on the forehead of the skull are very small. 'I"he history of the niare, as this dwarf reil hullalo is called at the(;ahun, is somewhat eurious. 'Ihe type speeimen is the frontlet ami horns „f an old male (Hg, .:i), formerly in the possession of the Royal S,.eiety of Lond.)n, but now preserved in the British Museum, where ,t is the hnest specimen representing this race. it was hrsi deserihed as long ago as the year i6S6 hy (irew in his l<„n//,s at r„r.slu,m 0;ll,gc^ and was again deserihed, and als,. rigured, hy i'ennant ' in 1771. {n 17S5 Hodd.iert named it H.s lunnu, while Kerr in 1792 and 'I'urton in i,So6 ga\e it the title of H. f>,inil/i,. Gray, .hw. M.,^. X,,. Ilht. ^cr. 4. u,'. xii. ,.. 4,)>; (.S:.,) ; siii. ,, ,;S (,S;4), o,n.KlcrcJ ,l,,a K. pm>n/,o „t IV'iui.iiit u;,^ touiuica on ,ho el».,rf ..^ -t IKi.n In.in Mnn,co, ; ^.'c Hrookc, ./. ,7/. ^ 111. xiii. p. I ;i). m Coiiiio BufTalo 109 otiicr til an immature animal. An immature skull in tlif same museum tn.m the (ial)un (91, ;, 36, 1) has horns very similar in shape to the type, the tips almost mtctin-, hut smaller ami less rugose. I'lic frontlets and horns of a hull and cow from the Congo figureii in Dr. I'echuel-Loesche's memoir are almost identical with the type, although the interval hetw.en their tips is greater; and Messrs. Rowland Ward recently had a series o\ specimens of horns of both sexes, probably from the Congo, exhibiting the same torm. in a ipiite young specimen from the (iabun, in the british Museum, the horns are in the torm of straight upright spikes. Dii Chaillu describes the niare of the Ciai)un as having horns very similar to those of the type specimen, although they are ill-represented in bis figure. In the type specimen the length of the horn along the outer curve is 2\l inches, the iiasal circumference i2'^ inches, and the interval between the tips of the two 2 j. inches. The Hritish Museum possesses the mounted skin of an immature cow of tliis bullalo shot by Major A. J, Arnold in tlie Niger territory ; two skins have been described by Sir \'. Brooke, and there are two others in the I'aris Museum. Of the latter, the Hrst is an adult cow from Sierra J.eone which was living in the jardin des Plantes about the vear 1 S44. Althou'rh the hair has been almost entirely worn ofl", sutlicient remains to show that the general colour was yellowish-orange, with a black muzzle and legs. The horns are broad ami Hat at the base, with the tips incurveti, but not forming a sudden bend. The second is a n immature bull brought from the Congo by M. Dybowski ; the general colour is light vcllowish-oran-c with the hinder part of the inner margin of the ears, the mane on the neck and withers, the tail-tuft, and lower portion of the legs black. The horns are small, and show no incurving at the tips, indicating immaturity. Of the specimens referrcul to in Sii V. Brooke's memoir of 187:;, one IS a cow from Sierra Leone, formerly living in the Surrey Zoological (lardens, and of which a sketch is preserved in the Library of the Zoological 1 1 1 n \n> .H I lO Oxen Society. The second is likewise a cow from Sierra Leone, whicli was living in the Zoological Gardens at Antwerp in iHj^, and is figured (together with tlie head of an immature bull) by Sir V. Brooke in the ProcceJhigs of the Zoological Society for the year 1875. The general colour is described as bright yellow. On tiie shoulders and anterior parts of the body there is a strong tinge of brown, caused by an intermixture of brown and yellow hairs. On the flanks and belly the yellow shades gradually into deep rufous. Upper-parts and sides of the head and neck pure yellow, lower surface of head and neck paler. Kntire upper and lower lip, fore-legs from above the knee, and hind-limbs from the hock downwards black. Hair on the upper rim of the inside of the ear )cllow, on the lower rim and tip black; as is also the tail-tuft. The horns are widely separated on the forehead, and directed to a considerable extent outwards at first starting, and have no sudden inv\ard bend at the tips, being apparently not unlike some specimens o\ p/tii.iccr'js. The animal was, however, not an aged one, being only about three years old ; ' and it is possible that if its life had been prolonged the liorns might have approximated at their tips. In the British Museum mounted female from Nigeria the horns are of a somewiiat similar type, iieing well tiattened at tiie base but not bent in at their tips. This animal was, however, still vounger than the last, all the milk-teeth except the first pair of incisors being retaineti, so that the immaturity question again comes in ; Init it is noticeable that in a series of horns from the same district sent liome bv Major ArnoUl (one of whicli is shown in fig. 22) none exhibit the market! inbendinii of the typical Congo form. The same is also the case with the To'-o specimens figured by Dr. Matschie. The hair in the British Museum specimen is very sparse, and less reii than in many other examples. 'I'hc height at the shoulder is :; feet S inches. ' All ihc iiiilk-uclli luul Ik-cm rcphic 1 ^ll<)rlly liclorc ii- dcatli. Congo Buffalo III Of four skulls obtained from the Congo by M. Dybowski and pre- served in the Paris Museum, two are those of males and two of females. The horns ot the ailult bull are strongly convergent, and much resemble the type pair, but those of the second and younger bull are not distinctly convergent at the tips. The horns of one of the female skulls are of nearly similar curvature to those of the adult male, but much thinner, and nearly cylindrical, while those of the second are more expanded and riattened. Specimens are urgently needed before the variations according to age, sex, and locality of the horns of this race can be fully worked out ; but it appears to be the case that horns precisely comparable to those of the type specimen are to be met with only in the Congo and perhaps Lower CJuinea, and that as we advance towards Sierra Leone these appendages apparently tend to become more tlivergent, anti consequently more like those of the Senegambian race. Hence it may lie inferreti that the type specimen was in all probability obtained somewhere between the Congo and the mouth t)f the Niger. The leading characteristics of the race are to be found in the general yellow coloration, the yellow inner surface of the ear, save for a black patch on the lower margin, and the black muzzle, mane, tail-tuft, and legs. Taken by itself, there would be no question that the Congo buftalo should be regartied as specitically tlistinct from its gigantic black relative of the Cape; but it appears in tiie northern part of its range to pass imperceptibly into the larger \ariety pldiiu:ros, which again is closely allied to the still larger its. The Congo hutfalo is described as being very shy and diriicult to approach, for which reason, as well as on account of the unhealthy nature of the climate of most of its habitat, but little is known of its mode of life. They apparently prefer districts covered with thick bush, especially narrow valleys, to more open country ; and in such covert remain con- cealed during the hottest part of the day. Hills of about a thousand feet in height are their favourite resorts, and from these they descend before daylight t.> drink, after wliich thev graduallv make their wav up a-ain feeding as they go. Although at times associating in herds, it is stated tliat they are more commonly found in pairs, or even solitary. Although harmless when undisturbed, native reports say they are given to charge when wounded, and the experience of Major Arnold points to the prob- abilitv of this beiuLr correct '•• Lakk 7\h.\i) Rah:-— Bos iaiikk iiKA( iivckros /W;J-/ist Rmmn„nts /hit. A/us. P- Si (1S7O; Hlyth, /';r„: ZW. .W. iS6>, p. ,-7. /h,s hra,lnrcr,<^ Sundevall, K. SvaisL, Jet. . //•. //uiull. for 1 S44 p ,-> (.S46). ' '^' 1 ', \ Lake Tchad Buffalo 113 Bi//h!/i/s piimilus, Brooke, Proc. Zonl. Sor. 1873, p. 482, 1875, p. 455, ill part. (?) "CJray Hiiffiilo," I'cchiicl-Locsclic, Zoo/. y^r/ir/>. Sysf. vol. iii. p. 721, pi. xxviii. hl lake- llic 'MK' xieu a- t., ihc sexes ,ii/i/s (Uitirjims, Duvernoy, C R. Acnil. Paris, vol. xxxiii. p. 595 (1851) ; CJervais, '/m/. <7 P.iL (h'/icrah's, ser. i, p. 93, pi. xix. (1S67-69) ; Riitimeyer, Ahlunull. sclmrrz. pal. Cns. vol. v. p. 145 (1S7H) ; P. Thomas, Bull. Soc. '/.o'll. France, iSHi, p. ^o, pi. ii. ; Lydekker, Cat. Foss. Mainiii. Brit. Mas. pt. ii. p. 29 (1SS5) ; Poniel, Carte Gcul. J' .llgcric—Pal. Moii. l,t\< Biihaihics ( I S 9 :5 ) . Biihaliis haini, Seeley, Cn"4. Mag. decade 3, vol. viii. p. 192 (1S91). B'lS antiqiiiis, Lytlekker, Horns and Hoofs, p. 45 (1X9^). Cliarartcrs. ~-\ gigantic species with the nasal hones of the compara- tively short type distinctive of the existing .African hutfalo, hut with the rims ot the sockets of the eyes much less prominent than in the Cape race, and tlie liorn-cores (tig. 2, p. 21), which are of enormous extent, widely separated on the forehead, and with a curvatin-e not unlike that of the Cape and north-eastern races of the living African species. In their tiownward curvature at the hase, and comparativelv slight angulation for the 'n-eater [>art ot tlieir length the horn-cores come decideiily nearer to the African than to the liulian Initlalo ; and tlie slight prominence of the orhits is only an exaggeration of a characteristic featiue of the former, which is most apparent in the smaller races. Specimens ha\e heen descrihed, measuring at least i i teet along the curve v\ the horn-cores, and in one example the s.une measurement has heen estimated at 14 feet. in adtlition to this, the length ot the portions of the horns tiiemselves ccn'cring the tips of the horn- cores has to he taken into account. Remains ot this magniticent huli'alo occur tvpicallv in the superticial ileposits of Algeria, hut skulls from the correspomling tormations of the Cape, ;ii i: ii6 Oxen described under the name of li. /niiitl, are apparently specirieally indis- tinguishable. Rude scul es on rock-faces indicate that in Algeria the species was coexistent with man. Regarding its affinities, the observations of Monsieur P. Thomas are significant. He writes that, apart from certain differences, nothing is more like the skull of this species than one of the Indian buftalo ; but, on the other hand, the body-skeleton comes much closer to that of the Cape species. If a very large arni skull were affixed to the skeleton of a Cape buffalo, we should have an animal very like the fossil. Monsieur Pomel is of opinion that the present species is equally distinct from both the African and the Indian buffalo. The resemblance to the Indian buffalo, in my own opinion, is probably largely due to the excessive development of the horns, and therefore superficial ; and I think it is much nearer to the African species, of which indeed it may not improbably be regarded as the ancestral form. It is important to observe that its horn-cores are much more like those of the Abyssinian than those of the Cape race of the modern African species, from which it may be inferred that the helmet-like mass formed by the horns on the forehead of the latter is a specialised feature oi' late origin. Not less noteworthy is the greatly inferior length of the horns in all the races of the living species. At the same time, seeing that many African mammals appear to have been derived from extinct Indian types, the present species may have retained some indications of affinity with the Indian buffalo. /)/:.7;7/w/^//.— Africa during the Prehistoric and Plistocene periods, ranging from Algeria to the Cape. 3. lnK SivvALiK Bi'iiALo--Bos I'l.A r\ cKkos [Extinct] Bii/hilus p/,!fyccros, Lydekker, Rcc. Cwol. Surv. In,L vol. x. p. ^i (1S77), /V/. /W. {Mem. ikrl Slav. In,/.), .er. 10, vol. i. p. 127, pi. .vviii. (1S7S), C.tit. Foss. Mci/n/n. Hrit. Miis. pt. ii. p, 29 (1HS5). Siwalik Buffalo 117 Hii/hil/i.s sivalciisis, Riitimcycr, .V/V/. sc/nvciz. pal. Gi's. vol. v. p. 138 (;//(//v/(7,v,r.- Allied to the Indian buffiilo, hut with the forehead nearly Hat, and the horn-cores, which are perfectly triangular in section, more widely separated at their bases, set much more obliquely on the forehead, situated more in advance of the plane of the occiput, and with their front face in Fk;. 24.— RcMorovl skull nt'tlic Siuallk Biirflih). the plane of the forehead. Tiie horn-cores tapering regularly and rapidly, ami directed upwards, outwards, and somewhat inwards, in a symmetrical curve. In correlation with the position of the horn-cores, the occipital surface of the skull is more distinct from the ridge between the horn-cores than IS the case in the living Indian buftalo. Tiie approximate span of the horn-cores in the type specimen is 29 inches. Ihis well-marked species is represented by a somewhat imperfect skull in tile Indian Museum, Calcutta (tig. 24), and a still more imperfect one in tiie British Museum. II il t i iiS Oxen III the riattciK'd hiiclicacl, as well as in the positioi) and setting-on of" th'.' horn-eores, this speeies makes a cieeided approach to the anoa and its extmet aUies, which it thus serves to connect with the Indian hndalo. /)/',.7/7/w//'///.— India during the PhOcene period. 'Hie known remains occur in the Siwahk Hills, extenchng from the Simla district to the Punjab, hut the species probably had a witler range than these limits. 4. Tni, Indian Himiaia) Bos hihams Hoy /'///>,//h\ Linn. Sys/. A',/.', ed. 1 ^, vol. i. p. 99 (1766). /f /wA////.,, Cmelin, Sy.sL A",//, vol. i. p. 206 (17SS) ; H. Smith, in (Iritiitii'.s y////m,/ Ki)i^J',iii, \o\. iv. p. :;92 (1S27) ; Mutton, J'^tini. .-Is. Sor. R'//-;,//, voi, \v. p. 14:: {1S46) ; Suinlexall, K. .SV,7/.,/v /',■/. .Ik. Ihnhll. for 1S44, p. 15; (1S46) ; W. L. Sclatcr, dii. Mtmui. hid. Mas. pt. ii. p. 129 (1S91) ; Blanford, Iuihn.i Ihit. India — Mniim. p. 491 (1S91); Hose, M,imiii:,/s '.f H'>i;u-o, p. 64 {iS9;0; Ward, Records '.f li/o- (nuih\ p. zbb iiS96). Ii'>s i/r/hY, Kerr, Linn.'s .///////,// Ki/ii^,/',m, p. :; :;6 (1792); (irav, Pruc. '/.'/jI. S'm-. 1S55, p. 17, pi. \|. lies /v///,7//y, Hlumeiibach, liundhiuli Wit/n-^^rstdiiJitr. eti. 10, p. 1 :; 1 (1S21) ; Flower and l.vtlekker, Sti/dy •,/' Miimiihi/s, \\ \()\ (1S91). A'w ,//•///, II. Smith, in (Iritlith's .Itiiuhil Kin'^d'.m, vol. iv. p. ^ScS (1S27) ; Sundexall, A'. SvcHska I'ct. .Ik. ILiudl. fir 1S44, p. 15^, (1S46). /i'/.v [Hiilhiliis) iiiiu\\ II. Smith, ',/'. cit. \()|. w p. ^72 (iS^"). H',s {Hiilhilus) I'li/hi/iis, II. Smith, Ac. lit. (1S27). Hn/hi/i/s ,/r//i\\ jardiiie, \,/////u//xf'.< l,//>r»i>n,nts Hrit. Mas, y. 9 (.H72) ; Kdaart, rro,l>.»>us luuau, Zcyll. iv. p. ;,H ^,S65), IX'''hr/,r. sr/ncri... Grs. vol. xvi.. part z, art. ,^ p. 5^ ('«^7). ///;/;. .r/KC',7^. />.!/. C'- vol. v. p. 1S9 (1S7S). /i.^,//.- Z.-//;//., Ruti.ncycr, Dr.U/n: u-/n;rr:.. Gc. vol. xx,i. part 2, ,,t , p. ;z (.S67); StcciT, /Vv. /W. -V'-r. .SSS, p. 4> v /i,#/... s.uJ.n-.s, Ruti.ncycr, /V.^.r^''. .^.■^^^•.■/^- f'''- v-l- x^ii- P^-'t ^> ,,t. ;! p. ,2 (.S67), ./A^. sr/ncvi:.. fu/. G.s. vol. v. p. .S9 (.S7S). no description," ncc Ho. s'.ubicus. MiUlcr and Schlcgcl, .S40. /W.//.»- <.v., Jcrdon, Mnnn:. Ind. p. ;,o7 (.H67); Stcrnd.dc Mu,m. l„d. p. 4

,i/ns huhiilus, Meyer, .-Ihli. Mks. D/rs./rfj t'or 1H96-97, No. H, p. 14 (.H96). /'/,//,■ IX C/itinictirs. Size typically very I.irge, the height at the shoiiKler varying from 5 feet to as imich as 6 teet 2 inches in adult hulls. Mead relatively long, with the niuz/le moderately hroad, and the nasal hones of the skull elongated ; the prohle of the whole head nearly straight, and the convexity of the forehead moderate. Horns hlack, very long, distinctly triangular, tapering regularly from hase to tip, with irregular transverse ridges and grooves for the greater part of their length ; their hases widely separated, and their curvature not varying much from one plane, although typically there is a distinct recession hehind the plane of the centre of the forehead ; typically the curvature is upwards, outwards, and slightly hack- wards, markedly increasing towards the tips, where the direction is inwards and slightly forwards. In some examples of the tvpical race the horns are, however, directed almost outwards till near their tips, when they are curved sudilenly upwards. Those of cows longer ami more slender than in hulls. Ivars comparatively small and tid)ular, without heavy fringes of long hair on their margins. Tail reaching ahout to the hocks, with a small terminal tuft. Hair coarse and sparse, nearly disappearing in the adult ; that on the middle line of the hack reversed, so as to he directed forwards from the haunches to the occiput, and forming a whorl in front ot the pelvis ; the colour varying from ashy hlackish-gray to dun, the legs sometimes dirty white, more especially in the domesticated race. It is somewhat remarkahle that all the existing species of Asiatic huftaloes arc at once distinguished from their African cousins hy the reversal of the Indian Buffalo I 21 hair on the luidiilc hnc of tlic hiitk. They likewise ilitVer hy the hum of' the skull and horns, .mil ulthoiigh these display a tonsiderahle degree of variation in the different forms, yet they are essentially of the same type, and present a more or less complete passage from one variety to another. The Asiatic- hiiti^"aloes seem, therefore, to form a closely allied groiifi of species, which, owing to their isolated habitats, have become more difiercntiateii from one another than have the races of the African buffalo. lYistrihiiti'in. In the wild state, India anil apparently other parts of the Oriental region. (/. Ts I'liAi, R.Mr Hos itr.ixi.is i x pu cs i./iiirintcrs. — (ienerally those given above, the horns being large and distinctly receding from the plane of the forehead, and the colour ashy blackish-gray, with or without whitish on the legs below tlie knees and hocks; lower lip whitish. I'orehead moderately convex, and facial [lortion of skull long. .Although the older writers, like Brian 1 lodgson, stated that old bulls of the Indian butlalo stood as much as 6,', feet at the shoulder, such dimensions were doubteil by Colonel A. Kinlocli, who suggested about 5 feet 4 inches as the maximum height. A bull shot by 11.11. the Maharaja of Kuch Behar measured, however, 6 feet 2,', inches .it the shoulder, with a length of 14 feet z inches from the tip of the muxzle to the root of the tail, and .1 maximum girth of 10 feet S inclie>, that at the shoulder being :: feet less. As it is unlikely tb.it this specimen was the largest that ever lived, Hodgson's measurements are probablv but little, if at all, in excess of the truth. A second bull killed bv the M.diaraja stood 5 feet 10 inches at the shoulder. There is 110 exiience that the speci- mens with outwardly directed horns inhabit an area a[iart from those with more regularly curved horns, so that the two types cannot be regarded as I •'■< m i i' 1 1 122 Oxen indicating separate suh-spccics. The following dimensions of horns are recorded by Mr. Rowland Ward ; some of the specimens from Assam possibly belonging to the next race: — I.i'iiytli ;ili>nj; Outer Ciirvf. 77,ii 70.1 (k] 62 61 • 61 1 S« 57 57 56 56 55i 54i B.is.il Girlii. Tip 1,. Tip. Wi.lrsl Irisi.lr. s,-«. •7A p ? ? 18 64 78 I'tllKllc .oj ? ? ? 18 4^i 66 I'cnialc 18 ? 60 Male ' 7^,' lOI ? r- '5^ 2 1 ' 45} r 16 22 48 Male '5 46.'. 59 I'V-malc iS.i 4'.!> 60 p •5 49 52 ? '9! .1,1 A 50.i I'eniale ■5!. 55i 58 ? iH.', ^9 44 ? '«,i 3«] 48A ? l.nc:ility. Assam Kiich Bchar Assam Central I'mvinces Assam Kuch Hehar ? ? Distri/)iitioii.-~\n a wild state, India, throughout the plains of the Bramaputra and Canges valleys from the eastern end of Assam to Tirhut, the Terai as far west as Rohilcund, the plains in the neighbourhood of the coast in Midnapur and Orissa, as well as the plains mi the I'astern Central Provinces, including the districts of Mandla, Raipur, Sambalpur, Bastar, etc., at least as far south as the valleys of the Codaveri ant! i^-anhita ; also the northern parts of Ceylon. In Burma and the Malay IVmnsula and Islands (inclusive of the Philippines and Celebes) bulFaloes are f)und indistinguishable from the present race, :..nd some of which are now in a wild condition. Whether, however, tlicy have reverted to th-> state from domesticity, or whether they are indigenous inhabitants of die countrv they occur, is a moot point. Some of them have the leg^ whiiish as far as Just above the .knees and hocks, but a similar condition obtains in manv of Indian Buffalo 123 the doint'sticiUed hiitialocs ot India. The lios keraluw appears to have been named on hulFalocs of this type from the Mahxyan Ishinds which, judging from the tigure given by Brehm, can in no wise oe distinguished from the present race. In a half-wild domesticated condition buffaloes are now met with in Italy, Hungary, Turkey, Kgypt, Algeria, and all Western Asia as tar as Afghanistan. It is generally considered that these Kuropean and North African buffaloes have been introduced from India or other Oriental countries, but it should be remembered that there is a Plistocene European form to which it is just possible their ancestry may be traceable. Hdh'its. — In India the wild bull buffalo is properly known as the arna, ami the female as the arni • but the animal is very commonly spoken of as jangli bhains, or wild buffalo, bhains lieing the Hindustani term for the ilomesticated breed. Other dialects have different titles for the wild race, to which it will be unnecessary to allude on this occasion. Wild buffaloes generally go about in herds of considerable size, and, like the domestic breetl, always carry their heads very low. The near neighbourhood of pools or lagoons of water, in the mud of which they can wallow when so disposed, is essential to their existence. They are consequently generally touiul near swamps, and never frequent hilly ground. Brakes of reeds, or tlie tallest anil thickest grass-jungles are indeed their favourite haunts, although they may occasionally be met with on plains covered with low bushes or short grass, but it is very rarely, if ever, that they are met with in true h)rest. (Jrass constitutes their chief nutriment ; antl, like most members of their tribe, their fectlintr-times are the earlv morninLr and evening. During the heat of the day they sleep much, and it is said that a bull l)uffalo if roused from his middav slumber bv lieating with elephants is much more prone to charge than is one stalked on foot while tcetling. Doubtless this is largely due to surprise ami fear, for it is a well-known tact that the more suddenly a wild animal is rouseil the more likely is it to prove dangerous. It, so to speak, loses its heaii, and cannot '!i ii ;'i!: Ill Vfl 1 1 124 Oxen collect its thoiiirhts sufficiently to seek safety in Higlit. General Kinloch states that lie has known hull hutfalo to charge elephants hoth when wounded and hetore heing hit. When they have once decided to attack, they generally charge home ; and a heast with horns like the larger specimens in the British Museum must he difficult indeed to avoid. For hunting on toot the hest time is in the hot season during the months of April and May, when much of the tall grass has either heen hurnt or dried up and water is scarce. Fresh tracks in the neighhourhood of pools should then he looked for, and when discovered followed up. So fond are these hutialoes of water that, hoth in the wild and domesticated condition, they will frequently stand for hours with only their heads ahove the surtace. In disposition they are somewhat sluggish animals, and show hut little fear of man even when in the wild state. Indeed, much damage is done to crops hy wild huffiiloes in districts where they are common. The innate ferocit\ of the wild race is well illustrated hy an anecdote told hy Captain Lamh, who states that on one occasion a hull huf^alo that dropped to his rifle was immediately attacked hy a second and larger hull, which rolled the wounded animal over and over each time it attempted to regain its legs. Eventually the pair were bagged hy the luckv sportsman. Both in the wild and tame condition the [miring season takes place in autumn, and the young, which may he either one or two in number, are born the following summer, after a gestation of about ten months. I)ome^ticated buffaloes, which are frequently hut half-tamed, differ chiefly from the wild race by their inferior bodilv size and smaller horns. And although pale-coloured, or e\en albino varieties mav not unfrequentlv Ik- observed, no distinct tame breeds have ever been produced. Neither will they ever interl)reed with the Indian or luiropean domestic cattle. Reganiing the date of introduction of the Indian buflalo into h.'gypt there appear^ to be no definite information, but it seems to ha\e been m Indian BufFalo 12.5 subsequent to the period of the ancient frescoes, in which the animal is not represented. Although at the present day it may he seen wallowing in the swamps of the Jordan valley as commonly as in those of the Ganges, Canon Tristram states that it does not appear to have been known to the ancient Israelites, and was probably introduced into Palestine at a later period. To Italy, according to the testimony of a contemporary monk, they were introduced about the year 600, in the reign of the Longobardian King Agilulf Regarding their place of origin, Messrs. Ilehn and Stallybrass ' write as follows : — " It seems probable, as thev appear in company with wild horses, that they were a present to the Longobardian kings from the Khan of the Avars, for this Turkish race of nomads, who at that time dwelt near the Danube and scourged the Roman lunpire with feartul devastations, were on friendly terms with the Longobardian court. If King Agilulf sent shipbuilders to the Avarian Khan to supply the vessels necessary to taking an island in Thrace, that Khan mav well have sent presents from the heart of Asia in return." Regarding the occurrence of the Indian buffalo in a semi-wild state in Tunisia, Sir H. Johnston writes as follows : — " In the distr-ct of Mater in Northern Tunis there is a rather remarkable herd of butfaloes, about fiftv in number. They are said to be descended from a few domestic buffaloes ot the Iiuiian species presented forty years ago or more bv a King of Naples to the Bey ot Tunis. They were placed on a propertv of the Bev's where there is a large swampy lake, in the middle oi which rises a mountainous island. Here they have resumed the feral state, and, judging from several heads I ha\e seen, are developing mucii longer Iiorns than those of the domestic buffalo of Italv." Domesticated buthdoes are kept chietlv tor agricidtural labour ami as beasts of burden, and also for their milk, which is richer than that of the cow, although somewhat ropv in consistence. ' 7/V ll'.m.iiiiNg) i/ Pl.iHts .;nJ Ji!i":.i!,, J.diuIoii, 1SS5. ' i ' 126 Oxen I i.i hi M I h. Ui'i'KR Assam Rack — Bos urnAi,is iri.vrs Bos buhaius f'ulvHs^ Bhiiitbrd, Vaunti Brit. India — Miiiinii. p. 492 (1H91). C/uinicters. — Distinguished tVoiii the typical race hy its iinitormly dull colour, the more convex forehead, and the shorter facial portion of the skull. The race is definitely known by a mounted head in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and hy a skull and horns presented by Mr. A. O. Hume to the British Museum. Distribution. — The upper districts of the Assam valley. c. BoKNKAN Rack — Bos huhalis hoski (.'./liirihtcrs. — Size small, the height at the shouUler being about "^ feet H,|, inches, with relatively short horns, which are continuous witli the plane ot the forehead, without any backward curvature. General colour ashy-black ; the lower lip, a narrow gorget on the throat, the fore-legs from above the knees downwards, the front of the tliighs and of hind legs below hocks, except for a triangular patch on the fetlocks, dirty white. This form is represented by a mounted specimen in the British Museum sent by Mr. C Hose from Borneo, purporting to be that of a wild animal. In point ot size and general appearance tlie specimen is almost exactly intermediate between the tvpical Indian buffalo and the tamarau ; and it agrees with many examples of the latter in the wliite gorget on the throat. Mr. Hose mentions that bufi^does exist in a wild state on the Miri and Baram rivers, and it is quite as probable that there should Ik" a native race of butfalo in Borneo as in the Philippines. Accordingly, the present form is provisionally reckoned as such. It appears to be a mucii smaller animal than the so-called B. kcrahau., which has long horns, no white gorget on the throat, and seems indistinguishable from the domesticated Indian buffalo. Distribution.- — Borneo. V • I % \ Narbada Buffalo (I. Narkaua Raik "Bos huhalis I'Ai.yEiNDii cs [Extinct) 127 Bos pald'indictis^ Falconer, Cat. Foss. Vert. As. Soc. Bc/igti/, p. 230 (1H59), Pa/. Mem. vol. i. p. 2S0, pi. xxii. (1H6S). lii/Jf'c/i/s fiii/(('iniiiciis, Riitimeyer, Fcr/i. Gcs. Btisr/, ser. 2, vol. iv. p. ^^4 (1865), Dcnksc/ir. sc/nvci-z. Gcs. vol. xxii. part 2, art. 3, p. 52 (1H67), Ah/i. sc/nvciz. pill. Gcs. vol. v. p. 1S9 (1H7S). Hii/xil/ts pdlieindicus, Lydckkcr, Pdl. bid. [Man. Gcol. Siirv. Lid.)., scr. 10, '. ol. i. p. 132, pi. xix. (1H7H) ; Riitimeyer, -^/V/. sc/nvc/z, pal, Ges. vol. v. p. .41 (1H7S). Uuhaliis iiamad'icas^ Dawkins, Cave Hunting, p. 42S (1874), nee Bos naniadiciis. Falconer, 1859. Bnhalus huffcliis pa/icindiciis, Lyiiekker, Cat. Foss. Manun. Brit. Mas. pt. ii. p. 28 (1885J. Characters. — Very close to the typical race, hut of larger dimeiisioiis, with a more convex forehead, and the horns apparentlv always directed to a great extent outwardly. In the horn-cores themselves the transverse section is also somewhat different, tending to become quadrangular, instead of being strictly triangular. Distribution. — India iluring the Plistocene period; found typically in the ossiferous gravels of the Narbada river, but also occurring in those of the Ciodavari and Pern Ganga. Buffalo skulls discovered in the top- most Siwalik rocks of the Punjab probably also belong to the same form. e. Imroi'KAN Rack Bos hiuai.is i'Ai.i.asi [Extinct) Bos pa/Iasii, Baer, Foss. Mamm. Prussia, p. 27 (1823). Buhalus pallasii, Riimer, Zeitsc/ir. deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. xxvii. p. 435, pi. \i. (187;;) ; Riitimever, I'er/i. Ges. Hasel, \o\. vi. p. 320 (1875), A/di. sc/rweiz. pa/, (ics. vol. v. p. [43 (1878). ( ,ii 'h n !ii H (;ii i\ \ I I 128 Oxen CJuirdclcrs. — Apparently (iistiiigiiishahle tVoin the Narbada hiirtalo merely by its somewhat inferior dimensions. Distrihiithn. — Central and Southern luirope tluring tlie Plistocciic period. This forni is typified by an imperfeet skull from Dantzig, where a second and smaller skull was subsequently disecn'ered. Additional remains haye been recorded by Professor Riitimeyer from the pre-glacial deposits near Rome and other districts in Italy. 5. TllK TaMARAII, ok MlNDOKo HcKIAI.O Hos MINDOKI'NSIS Biihdliis niiiiil'/iriisis^ Heude, Mcni. Hist. Not. Kuip. C.hiii'/is^ vol. ii. pp. 4 and 50 (iSSS), ihld. p. 204. pi. xix. (1S94) ; H.ller, .'//;//. Miis. Drculcn, 1S90-91, No. 2, pp. ;^ and ^i (1S90); Nehring, ///j/. y}iizclt^ci\ 1S90, p. 448 ; Jentink, Notes Lcydcii Mus. yol. xvi. p. 199 (1894) ; Meyer, .//'//. Mils. DiYSi/i'N, 1S96-97, No. 6, p. 12, pis. vii. and \'iii. (1H96) ; Thomas, Trd/is. Zoo/. Soc. vol. xiv. p. 410 (1S9S). yh/oii miihlorcnsis, Steere, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. iHSS, p. 413 ; Oustalet, Bii//. Mils. Piir/s, 1S95, p. 202. Pro/ni/ia/iis /iiiih/oiynsis, Steere, /oc. cit. (iSSS). Bos miiu/orcnsis, 'LyL\ckkc\\ Royd/ Nut. Hist. vn\. ii. p. 206 (1S94), (icogr. Hist. MiUiDii. p. 47 (1S96). P/atc X. Fig. I. C./idi-iicters. — A small, ratlier stoutly built species, in many respects intermediate between small forms of the Indian butfalo (such as the one from Borneo mentioned on p. 126) ami the anoa ; the height at the shoulder being somewhere about 3 feet 6 inclies.' Horns short but stout, marked with very ileep irregular transverse grooves and pits for the greater part ot their length ; their direction mainly upwards, with the tips some- ' 'I'lic incaMirci'.iciit takoii tnnii the l?riti-li Mii-ciim ixamplc, uhiili i^ ^.ilil m h.nc licch iii.uk' tim 1(U\ iiiid too thick in tliu nioimtiiig. M k ■*.'.: -«Sa ■mij i i ' jB- "»'*ifs.— The tamarau seems to he distributed all over Mindoro, although chiefly found in the neighbourhood of marshes and near the mouths of the rivers. Professor Steere, by whom the British Museum specimen was procured, gives the following account :'—" The animals are burtalo-like in habits ; they come out upon the sandy reaches of the rivers at night to right and to escape the insects, and gather together in hands of some size. They separate by day, going two or three together, or solitarily, into the low bottoms at the back of the streams, feeding on the wild Migar- cane, and making their way to the little forest streams and pools, in which they bathe in the water and the mud like the buffaloes. The domestic buf. 'o, the only beast of burden here, has escaped from its owners in the island of Mindoro in large numbers, and is now found wild, and is called cimmarone. The tamarau and these come into frequent conflict ; the tamarau being said to attack the buffaloes at rirst sight, and, thougl-. much smaller, being quicker and stronger, to drive the buffaloes back." Mr. J. Whitehead, in a letter to Mr. (). Thomas, lurnishes the following ' M,//i. l/i..t. X,,/. Emp. CHmi>, vnl. ii. p. 205 (1S94), iii. ,,. |„ pi. v. (iS(/)). ■•' SB. (us. n.iliirj. liii/iit, lS()4, p. 1S5, ■■ O/i. ,it. p. I ^. ■• Owing cither to a misprint or an error, tlic animal is tcrmcJ ilic " tamamn " m the original. I' i Anoa I'; I )tnninn lukiitioiKil particulars: "This iiitc-rcsting little hoviiic is not mu-ot ill the luigf virgin forests that cover nearly the entire island of Mindoro. It is, however, .litliciilt to hunt tlie animal successfully unless a number of beaters, accompanied by i, od liogs, are employed. I fooli^hlv employe(i a professional native hunter for sevcial days; but, although we found a number of fresh tracks, we never saw a sign of a tamarau. II, tamarau, as the natives name this animal, is also found high up on the mountains. I have seen regular tunnelled pathway through the thick bamboo under- growth which covers the mountain-sides above 6000 feet. Hut the animal is so small that one has to bend double or go on one's hands and knees, making it quite impossible to follow up the tracks. On mooidight nights the tamaraii might be heard bellowing on the mountain-side, generally far away and above my camp. The aboriginals of Mindoro told me that they never att.ick the tamarau, being too much afraid of it ; the oidy reduction of its numbers is caused by a icw sporting Spaniards and one or two professional Indian hunters." 6. Tin: .'\\o.v, or Cki.k hi-.s HniAi.o — Bos deprksskornis Antil',[yc [An-.n) Jcpiyssic^niis, H. Smith, in CirifHth's Aninial KiiigJom, vol. i\ p. 29.^, v. p. :,^^ (1H27). lios {.Inoii) Ji-f^r,;^sic;niis, Ciray, Spicil. Zo'J. p. 12 (iH2S^ Jntilopc ihprcsMornis, (hioy an' Gaimard, ,/////. Sci. A', vol. \vii. p. 62^^ (1S29), I'rAuigc ,/<• rAsfrol.if —/.r,o!. vol. i. p. I-/) (iS;;o). Ah'h! ./rpn:<.//s, .^wainson, (,/. ,.,.7; Qath/n/piu/s, p. 2S6 (iS;;;) ; Grav, List. Mj„i»i. Hrif. M,i<. p. 15;; (1H43), C<,t. Vn-iihita Brit. Mi,s. p. 2y (I ,-2), (.',//. Rniniuonts Hrit. Mus. y.. i :; (1S72); Sundevall, K. Svr/i.d;/ r,t. ,ik. /7,W/. f(M- iS ^, p. ,4s (1S46); llelKr, /;,;• Ur/Hifc/^ctc, p. 5 (1.SK9); Ward, K,r',n/s of Bi^ (uiiiic, p. 28 1 (1S96). .Intihpc (I'ciiirotmgiis) iLprcssn-'jiitis, Wagner, in Sclii 'kt's Siiu^ct/iinw vol. iv. p. 539 (1S44 I I. ' 1 It: :jI Hi n m ■■ f ; I .HI '3^ Oxen li///>,i///.< ,/i'/»;:(.. 1 7H ; I'lowcr uiul (iarson, Car. Oxtcnl. Mhs. (.V/. .S>//y. pt. ii. p. 22'^ (1HH4). Prnhtilniltis cclchcinis, Riitimcycr, l\r/„in,l/. (in. Ii,i.u-/, scr. 2, vol. iv. p. ,7 ^^4 (1H65), Druk.u/ir. .u/nci'iz. (h\i. vol. \\ii. part 2, art. 5, p. (;2 (1H67). y^//',ys.Uionih, Kiitiincycr, IX;/hr/ir. .(r/niv/z. (ir,. vol. xxii. part 2, art. .;, p. 26 (1S67); I follinanii, . /M. A///,. /);v..v/,7/, 1SS7, No. .^ p. 26. l'ir>h„lnilu^ {.ht'ni) u'h'hcnsis, Kiitiincyn-, .//>//. sclncck.. paL f,V..-. vol. v. p. 1S9 (1H7S). H'>s Jcptcsiiconiis, Hrchm, 'licrlclh'ii S;iiigcthicn\ vol. iii. p. 44S (1K91) ; riowcr and Lydckker, .SWv uj Mnnmals, p. ^61 (1S91) ; W. [.. Sdatcr, (.' M '\>- becona- lost .„ tnc adults of the larger kinds. It ha. hc.:n ur.cd that the ^uioa exhibits .nany traits of affinity with the antelopes ; anioni; these -'.ny the comparatively strai-^ht form of the horns u)d the frequent presence of the white spots on the sides of the head and sometimes on other pai-ts of the body. The animal is, however, evidently very closely allied to the tama.-au, and has probably become dwarfed by its island '^^^bitat and the length of time during which it ha. been separated from its kindred. So that althougl, the anoa is probably to a certain extent a primitive type, some of its generalised features may be due to degeneration. With regard to the two spots frequently developed on the sides of the lower jaw, the antelopes in which similar spots occur are the kudus (S/n-/,- ■'v-'.,-.-By reas(,n of its shy and retiring habits, very little is known in regard to the anoa in a wild state. It has, however, been ascertained th. it inhabits elevued woodland districts, where it goes about in pairs ; being in the latter respect quite unlike the larger bulFaloes. It alwav. frequent's localit.c. tar horn the haunts of men, and is partial to the neighbourhood ot water. Vum^ captive individuals it has been ascertained that the period of gestation is thirty weeks. The riesh, especially that of calves, is tender and well riavoured, and therefore much sought after. Its favotu-ite pace is a kind of trot, but it occasionally leaps in a clumsy sort of manner. In ^■■•Ptivity the bulls tVequently display a pugnacious and spiteful disposition ; and it was found necessary to put knol)s on the horns of a bull kept at VN'olnu-n Abbey. The first specimen exhibited in captivity of which there is anv record was in the \'iceregal Menagerie at Harrackp,.re, near Calcutta, where it was dcscrilK-d in iSi6 by (ieneral llardwicke. IlimiiiMi ytfi-rrn :A " ! I !! 136 Oxen Two mules were subsequently hrought to Paris by MM. Ouov and Giiim;M-(i, one oFwIiicb was e\eban-ed in 1S45 witb tbe Karl of Derby tor an eland. It lived but a sbort period at Knowsley. In 1H6;, the /oologieal Cardens at Rotterdam received a male anoa ; and from that date tiiere has been a continuous succession of these rare and interesting little bovines at that establishment. Between iS6_^ and 1SS9 the Rotterdam Cardens have possessed no less than eigiiteen examples, ot" which ten were bulls and eight cows, three having been born in the (Jardens. I'rom Rotterdam the London Zoological Gardens purchased a young male in 1S71, and they acquired by exchange a female in iSSo. Specimens Iiave been exhibited in other public menageries, and at the present time there is .. pair livin-- at W'oburn Abbey. 7. 'I'mK SiWAI.IK Ta.MAK.M — Hos IKKj^ K1 KICOKMs [lix!i,uf) Pr'Jwhdlus shalciisis, Riitimeyer, l\;h. (ns. Huscl, ser. 2, \ol. i\. p. 5^4 (1S65), no liescription, iXnksc/ir. sr/ii.rh. (ns. vol. xxii. part 2, art. ^ p. 5 (>S67). Hu/>a//fs {Hc/iii/'os) trirfuctricniis, Rutimeyer, Wiiksclv. yr/i^.rh.. C,V.. \u\. xxii. part 2, art. 5, p. 2:; (1S67). {:) li',s 'ncipitiilis. Falconer, /',//. Mm. vol. i. p. 2S0 (iS'6S) ; Lytlekkcr, H'>ni.s ,iiiJ II'.' fs, p. 4S pSy:;). Hcmih'^s triri„ctrica-'.s, I'alconer and rautley, in l\dconer's /',//. M,),. vol. 1. p. 546 (i,S6S) ; Lydekker, /',//. ///,/. {Mem. Ccl.Surv. bid.\ ser. 10, vol. i. p. 145 (1S7S). (.= ) l\-nh',s occipit.ilis, Ly.iekkci-, /',//, ///,/. (.l/,w. (.W^J. Siirv. ///,/.), ser. 10, vol. i. p. 141 (iS7,S). Prohiilnihis [I-Lniiks] tri'iKctricrnis^ Rutimeyer, . //V/. u/n.riz. (1,1/. C,V,v. \ol. \. p. 122 (1S7S). Pro/'i//'. ,7'/. p. 1S9 (iS-^S). li Falconer's Tamarau i - 7 (?) Hcmi/,os .capitolh, Lydckkcr, Pal. In,/. (A/,,,,. Qco/. Surv. ///,/.), scr. 10, vol. i. p. 17^ (iSS'o). (?) Bii/uihs occipita/ls, Lycickkcr, Cat. Foss. Mam,,. B,/t. Min pt ii p. 30 (1SH5). Characters.— ^c:xv\y allied t„ the next species, hut the h<,rn-c,.res rising from a more prominent frontal ridge, sloping more away from the plane of the forehead, and their proper front surface directed 'm<,re towards the frontal aspect, heing thus nu.re like the tamarau. In the typical form the liorn-cores are markedly triangular, hut in the specimens descrihed under the name of orcipita/ls the front outer angle is rounded ofF, so as to give a pyrih.rm section, and the tips are curved forwards. Hy the late ProfcL.r Riitimeyer these two variations were not considered worthy of speciric separation, the second heing distinguished as the trochoccros form. /J>/.v/;v/w//w/.— Northern India during the Pliocene period. S. Fai.kim-.k's Tvmakac -Hi,s .\i c nc orms (Rvz/z/r/) .-/////.////-..,• a,atn',r„is^ Riitimeyer, frr/,. f;,,, Basel, ser. 2, vol. i\'. p. -, (-S65), n,. description, . /M. sr/„cei::.. [,al. Ccs. vol. v. p. ,47 (.878); Falconer and C'autley ,n Falconer's l\,l. M;„. vol. i. p. -^7'(,S6S). Pr'Juihalus aciitu;r„is. Riitimeyer, J'crh. Ccs. Base/, ^er. 2, vol. \y. p. .vU ('SC'.O, no description, De„/,sc/,r. se/neciz. Ges. vol. xxii. part 2, art. ;;, p. -^1 (1S67). Ba/,a/,L^ {,h„p/,;/,,s) acticniLs, Rutimeyer, \\'„/a/„^ aratlr,r„is, T.ydekker, Cat. l\ss. Mn,„u. Brit. Mu. part ii P-.^^('««5)- T III H« ( '38 Oxen ..'.. I Ihi (H-iiticoniis, Lyilckkcr, Horns luul Hoofs, p. 4S (1S93). ChiiracWrs. Si/c .ipp.ircntly much tlu- sami.' us in the taimiaii, hut the horns longer. Skull generally hke that of the tamirau, hut the horn-cores more tlistinetlv triangular in section, with their front outer angle hrought !•■ 2- ->;.iill aiui liorri .(irc^ ..| I'.iKoikt'^ ■|'.iin,ir,iu. RcMnrcJ Iroin a ^pcclincn in ilif Hrili-h Mii-iiiiii. m uch more on t. the frontal aspr* x of the skull, and the proper frontal surface ot the '^..i-n-o>res consequently directed to a great extent upwanls, insteail ot ahi; St immediately firwards. Horn-cores long, pointed, .md directeil upwards and outwards, with the front outer angle firming a suh-spiral curve arising at it'- base near tlie middle line of tlu horn-iores, as seen from the front. *'^ fe lbii f. .W..^_^ i '39 4i iiulics 27 ^> 33:^ 11 3^ n 12 i» Musk-Oxcn The foIl(;wiiig arc the cliniciisions t)f the HL,Mire(l specimen : — Width (;f skull beneath horn -cores Length of horn-cores rlong greater cnrve Interval between tips .... Diameter of inner surface of base of horn-core Basal girth of horn-core .... Interval between bases of horn-cores . . 2'-' Distrl/'iitl'/ii. Northern India tiuring the Pliocene epoch. InCKK IVI'. Sl.DIS .■hi'ni .uinh'/i^, Dubois, AW. 'iijj. NcJcrl. liul. vol. li. pt. 1, p. 96 (1S91) ; jentink. Notes Lcydrii Mux. vol. \iii. p. 220 (1S91). Named on the evidence of an unrigured and insutlicientlv described skull obtained from the superJicial deposits of Java, and said by its describer to indicate an aininal allied to the anoa of Celebes, which may still be living in the inland. The evidence is considered insutlicieiit by Dr. lent ink. II. TUI. MlSK-()\l,\ Cil.MS ()v I BOS Ovih'js, De Hlainville, Hull. S',c. P/ii/'jiii. Piiri.s, i S 1 6, p. 76; CIray, Cit. I'n^iiLitu Hrit. Miis. p. 42 (1S52); Riitimeycr, .7/'//,//. Gcs. vol. V. p. 10;, (1S7S); ,. "homas, />////. .S--. /W. i'nuur, iSSi, p. 25; Khoads, Pioc. .icihi PhiluJclph'ui, 1S9:;, p. 142 ; Matschie, SH. V,cs. initiirf. Hrr/in, 1 S9S, p. ^o. Ihot'icriiim, I-cidy, Pnc. JcdJ. PluLulilpliid, vol. vi. p. 71 (iSqi). i'.hiiructK'n. — Size medium ; buiUi stout ami clumsv ; the neck short, and th-,- head carried only slightly above the level of the back : no devvl p. I'.xti mi;\ ot mu//le moderately broatl, and, except f )r a narrow strip on the u'ncr margins of tlie n<>strils, and a triani-ular natch where these two 'i il .iii I' ifnr (He 140 Musk-Oxen ill 1 H r lines converge infcriorly, covcrai with short Hnc hair; n.. gliuuis on the Face; prohahly two teats in the teinale ; ' ears short and thickly hairai ; tail very short and rudimentary, entirely concealed amid the long hair oi the hind-quarters ; main hoofs large, flattened, hroad, and slightly unsymmetrical, the outer one heing more rounded and the inner ..ne more pointed; lateral hoofs also large; under surface of teet partialiv c.vered with hair between the hoofs. ||„ri=s present in both sexes, ,nuch larger in the male than in the female ; tho.c of the former more or less appro'xi- niated at the hases, arising dose to tiie occiput, and when adult extending nearly to the sockets of the eyes, expanded and Hattened at the hases, where they are marked hy coarse longitudinal groovings, at the tips smoother, their curvature outwards, or outwards and then d,.wnwards at first ; those of female always widely separated af the hases, situated midwav between the occiput and the upper border of the sockets of the eyes, so as' to leave a broad parietal zone above the.w, n .arly cylin.h-ical throughout the greater part of their length. I'clage long and shaggy ; and general coloration nearly unih.rm. Upper m<.lar teeth with tall Iv.t comparativelv narr< crowns, on the inner side of which there is no distinct ad.htional' colum Skull without either pits or fissures below the eves ; the sockets of the eyes greatly produced and tube-like; the premaxilla. separated from the nasal bones, which are short and wide ; and a distinct, broad parietal xone on the anterior aspect above the frontal bones. C'ann..n-bones short and stout, as in the oxen. In young musk-oxen .he horns are in the f,rm of simple spikes gnnving straight out from the sides of tl,e head, and widelv separated at tlieir bases on the f.rehead, whicli is thickly haired. The true relationships of the musk-,,xen are still far from clearly ascertained. At one time they were reoarded as intermediate between the nxcn and the sheep, while at a later period they were considered to lv I h.nc ln.-i.-ii iinabk- 1,, .i-ccrtam ik- iiiiml>cr. )W n. vl Characters more nearly rclatal to the latter, which they approach in the structure of" tlieir inohu- teeth and hairy imizzles. The rudimentary condition of tlie tail, which is shorter than in any of the sheep, widely separates them from the oxen ; hut, on the other hand, their short and wide cannon-hones are similar to those of the latter animals and quite different to the corre- sponding bones of the sheep and -oats. From the study of fossil forms Mr. Rhoads has been led to sug-est the existence of a transition between the musk-oxen and the bison, but the structure of the molar teeth and the rudimentary tail seem to nei,Mtive any near relationship between the two groups. Some years ago Prof. A. Milne-Iul wards su--ested an afhnity between the present genus and the Tibetan takin [liiuhcos), and the two genera were subsequently placed in juxtaposition by the late Prot. Kiitimeyer. The idea of this latter relationship has recently been developed by Dr. Matschie, who regards the two genera as forming a sid)-family by themselves, the Ocih'n-'nuc. As indications of their mutual atlinity, he notices the short and broad trout caimon-bones, the structure of the skull and form of the horns, the small ea -s, the hairy muzzle, the short tail, the clumsy main hoofs, ami the large size of the lateral \\\\x. As regaids the horns, the structure of the sheaths is quite difVerent in the two, and 1 caiuiot sec that such resemblance as exists in their form anil curvature is Iikel\ t(, be anything more than superficial. The skull of Hi(,l',rcds lacks the projecting tubular orbits of the musk-oxen. The form of the camion -bones equall\ atliliates the present genus to the oxen ; and the characters of the ears, tail, and hoofs I caiuiot rcartl as of much classiricatorv value. Mr. nianford has placed Hiuhr.is in die neighliourhood of the serows {\\-ni',r/,,f,ln,), and at presr -t I fail to see anv sufHcient reason for denartiii"- from this arrangement. This leaves Ovi/>os without am near cxistin-.- relatives, and since palaontology throws no light on the subject, it must III \l v'. ■I^ I ■ ,i; ( I 142 Musk-Oxcn apparently be regarded as a iiiDrc or less isolated ami speiialiseil type, with some afliiiitv to the sheep. l")istrihiitf,)i. — The central and northern parts ot' the llolaretie rcLiion to the northern portion ot" the western halt" ot" whieh it is restricted at the [iresent da\. I. Till (Jkikmami MisK-()\ — Ovinos Mos(ii\irs H',s iii'ist/iitus, /iniinerinanii, (It-'^gra/y/i. (irsc/iii/itc, vol. ii. p. SY) (i/S'o) ; lluet, Ihi//. S'M\ .liilim. l\iris, xol. w.wiii. p. ^46 (1S91). Oiv'/'v..- msc/hifiis, De IJlainxille, Hi///. S'n. P/ii/'.iii. Purls, 1816, p. 76; Desinarest, Miunma /')gii\ vol. ii. p. 492 (1S22) ; II. Smith, in Critlith's . ////'w,// Kingd'im, vol. iv. p. ;7:> (i^^7) ; Richardson, lunniii B',i\ .-lino-, p. 27 q (1S29) ; O-ilhy, Pi'n. y.vj. S'm: 1 S;,6, p. 1^7; (J ray, L/.i7 A/,/ww. Ih/'t. Mas. p. 15,; (1S4:;), (;,//. Viii^ii/ut (1SS5) ; y,i:\\um, I'rrtc/fr-.it,! ';f' P/i'„riir Dcf>oslts 'jf Hrhd'in {M-m. GVo/. Surv. I'liit,-./ Kiz/gJow) , p. 22 (1S91); l"eilden. Zv.Ac;-/.,/, ser. ;, vm|. xix. p. 4, (i,S9;J; Ward, RcY',n/, '/ Wg (i,lllh\ p. 260 (1S96). Or/7">,,- p,i//,infi.<, II. .Smith, in (iritlith's .hii/ihi/ KingJ',//i, vol. iv. p. —,- (1S27). m\ '•■^Sftkc^. , Wild Oxi'.'n .Siii-.Ei'ckGo/vrf;, Pi.atk XI , ■/•■' ' '-ii MUSK— OX Pahitahei (jyit«R-.a*Ti£l'fj/%(/fci r\u, I» '!' ( > I Greenland M sk-Ox '43 Ihs pulla., I)c Kay, .h,„. Lye. AW. Y.rk. vol. ii. ,,. ar; (.SsS^^.r /ker, iH2^ H'^s cmoli ,l„t„s, richer, .U.w. ./,-,/,/. A/,,,.;/, v..I. iii, , .H; ^^4) l>,M.s >».u/,.m,s, ()v,,.n. (^,nt. :hun,. Cc.l. S,c. vol. xii. ,, , .^ ('^56). /'/s a long fi-inge on the chin, throat, and chest, although no dew- lap 1.^ developed ; on the nui./le and lower portion of the b:nbs. as well as on the strip of sk,n between the horns, shorter and finer than ebewhere • a M.ft woollv under-tur at the bases of the longer ha.rs wh.ch ,s shed ni stmuner. (leneral colour of pelage very dark brown, beconung st.ll darker or even bh.ck.sh on the forehe.ul, the throat-tringe, and the sides of the l"Hiy; a saddle-shaped patch of n^.tted hair on the middle of the back as well as the short ha,r between the horns, on the .nu/zle, and on the limbs below the knees and hocks, bufiish or yellowish-white. There is no evidence that the musky odour' to which the animal owes Ml I jl 1 1' 1 1 J f ' i :;\ %^^. ^:\ wk\ M ^f^ >* '°-!. 26 >» 24 ? 30 N. America 24 9i 23^ ^» ^H 9} i9i Grinneil-land. 2li 9 27 ? Good horns of females measure between 18 and 19 inches along the outer curvature, with a basal expansion of about 4 inches. Distrihiitioii. — At the present day Arctic America, eastwards of the Mackenzie river and northwards of the 60th parallel through Parry Islands and Grinnell-land (lat. 82 27') to the north of Greenland, on the western coast of which it extends as far south as Melville Bay, and on the eastern coast to Sabine Island. Unknown in Spitsbergen or Franz Joseph Land, as it is in Alaska, although it formerly extended at least as tar as Eschscholtz Bay. During the Plistocene period a large part of Europe and Northern Asia, ranging as tar as the Alps and Pyrenees. Colonel Feilden states that at the present day the distributional area of the musk-ox includes about two-thirds of the coast-line of Greenland. He concludes that the advent of the animal in that country has lieen from the westward, and that the progenitors of the herds now living on the east coast rounded the north of Greenland and spread southwards until they Greenland iMusk-Ox H5 encountered some physical obstacle, such as the glaciers of Cape P^arewell, capable of barring their further progress. Probably the same has been the case also on the western coast, wheni the great glaciers debouching into Melville Hay would appear to have set a limit to the wanderings of the animal in this direction. "The distribution of the musk-ox alon--- the shores ot Greenland," continues the same writer, " covers an immense coast-line ; we have traced it from Polaris Bay, on the north-west side of Greenland, from about HT north to Independence Bay on the north-east coast in about the same latitude, and from there as tar south as the seventieth parallel. On the east coast of Greenland the range of the musk-ox in a line drawn over the map from north to south embraces at least 700 geographical miles." The British Museum possesses skulls of the existing musk-ox from the frozen superficial deposits of Eschscholtz Bay, Alaska, found in company with those of the Plistocene bison and the mammoth. The Russian naturalist Pallas discovered two skulls of the musk-ox in the superficial deposits of Northern Asia, one on the banks of the Obi, and the other farther north in the Siberian tundra. It was these specimens that were mentioned by Holl as Bos ///osc/nift/s, and much later on by De Kay as Bos pallasi. Subsequently other remains were discovered i)v the late i'rot. Lartet in Perigord, in association with remains of man, the reindeer, and the bison. They have also been fiiund in various parts of Central Kuropc, notably near Ulm, in W'iirtemberg, in association with bones ot the reindeer, the mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros. Similar remains have been dis'iiterred from the Plistocene gravels of several districts of luigland, such as those of Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield near Bath, and Barnwood near Gloucester, as well as from the brick-earths of the Thames \'alley at Crayford in Kent. In i S83 Mr. W. B. Dawkins described the imperfect skull of a musk-ox found at Trimingham which there seems every probability was derived from the Norfolk forest-bed, forming the < I'^i 'll W ; m mv\ )l I- I i h i If t ■ 146 Musk-Oxen base of the Plistoceiie deposits, and antedating the glacial epoch. A second specimen, described by the same author and preserved in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge, is believed to have had a similar origin, although dredged from the bed of the North Sea. Hnhits. — The musk-ox has, I believe, never been brought alive to luirope, and indcjd would probably be unable to withstand transportation from its icv home to more <4eni;il climates ; naturalists are therefore compelled to rely exclusively on the accounts of its habits given by explorers and sportsmen, like Colonel Feildeii and Mr. Warburton Pike, who have seen the animal in its native haunts. Musk-oxen associate in herds numbering from about twenty or thirty to as many as eighty or a hundred head. The herds appear to be largest in winter, the big bulls during the summer being for the most part solitary, and the herds consisting of cows and calves which go about in small bands of from ten to twenty. The movements of the herds are described by Colonel Feilden as very sheep-like, the old bulls, when present, taking the lead, and the whole assemblage crowding together when alarmed, much after the manner of a flock ot sheep. The single calf is proiiuced in May 01 June, and the cows are reported by the natives to breed onlv once in two years, so that the rate ot increase is shnv. In summer their fooel, according to Mr. Pike, con- sists almost exclusively of the leaves of the small willows scattered here and there over the Barren Grounds ; but grass, moss, and lichens are also largely consumed, and in winter these two last, with perhaps bark, must form the sole nutriment. To obtain lichens and moss the snow is scraped away to a great extent by the hoofs, which from tiieir shape are admirably aiiapted tor this purpose, as they are for climbing rocky ridges. The horns are, however, also said to be brought into use for clearing away snow. By the end of the short northern summer musk-oxen have generally fed themselves up into [>rime condition, but in April, when thev are first hunted by the natives of the Barren (Grounds, they are miserably thin. Although it has M w^ rt i wi Nwwt^agglilpgg^ Greenland Musk-Ox H7 been reported that in winter the musk-oxen on the mainhmil come south to the wooded districts, this, according to Mr. Pike, is an error. In spite ot" their comparatively short and massive limbs, musk-oxen can run with considerable speed ; and when thoroughly alarmed they are stated to take to hilly ground, where they display marvellous agility in climbing precipitous cliffs. Where thev have not been much molested, and especially when far away from water, the herds mav be approached with- out difficulty, and the sport of shooting is consequently comparativelv tame. In spite of stories to the opposite effect told by the Indians, IVtr. Pike is of opinion that even old bulls are by no means dangerous animals ; and even when wounded they seldom, if ever, charge. .Although the flesh of old bulls is rank and musky in the extreme, that of cows in srood condition is stated to be palatable enough ; calves, however, afford but an insipid and unsatisfvinij food. The skins of musk-oxen are largely used in Canada for sleigh-rugs, and since the extermination of the bison the demand for, and the price of these "robes," as thev are termed, has considerably increased. In 1S91 the Hudson Hay Company sold 1,^5^ of these skins at prices varying from six shillings to six pounds apiece. To procure the skins, hunting parties are organised by the Canadian Indians, and large numbers of the animals slain. In winter the herds are rounded up with dogs, and wholesale slaughter takes place. In summer, according to Mr. Pike, no dogs are used, but the animals are ilriven into tlie waters of some small lake, upon which canoes are launched ami the whole band quickly exterminated, the animal being but a poor swimmer, and apparently rinding considerable difficulty in keeping its head above water. Mr. Caspar Whitney, who is also one of those who have successfully hunted the musk-ox, writes that, in general, Indian dogs, strange as it may seem, are not of much use in the pursuit. "Theirs is a craven nature, ami but tor the urgency imparted by the pangs of hunger, they would be of 148 Musk-Oxcn little use ill bringing the musk-cattle to bay. . . . The musk-ox usually stops when wounded, and shows little inclination to go on ; and, as a rule, they will stand until the last one has been killed, narrowing their circle as their numbers diminish." When attacked by their great enemy the wolf, they also form a circle, \yith the cah'es in the middle, and the lowered heads of the adults facing the enemy. In spite of the wholesale slaughter, Mr. Pike is of opinion that even on the mainland the musk-ox stands in little, if any danger of impendin- extermination. Kven on the most frequented hunting-grounds it is still met with in vast numbers, and all these tracts are situated only on the extreme verge of the musk-ox country, which extends to the desolate regions bordering the Arctic Ocean, where only a few Kskimo eke out an existence near the coast. This impenetrable country probably serves there- fore as a feeder to the hunted districts farther south. ilii 2. Harlan's Mi'sr-Ox — Oviuos homhikrons [Extinct) Bos h'jiiihif roils, Harlan, Fmnid .Imcriciina, p. 271 (1H25). Bootlwrium hoiuhifroiis, Leidy, Vvjc. .-Ictul. Ph'iliidclphin, vol. vi. p. 71 (.S52). IWJthcrium cdvlfrons, Leidy, A/c. cit. (1S52). Ovi/ns prisciis, Riitimeyer, Tiv//. Gcs. /i^^v/, ser. 2, vol. iv. p. ;2S (iS6r Ovi/)os homhifr'jiis, Dawkins, Q/w;7. ""f'jiin). (icl. Sor. vol. \xxix. p. :;jj (1SS3) ; Lydekker, Cat. Foss. Mii/iim. Brit. Miis. pt. ii. p. :?(; (1X85). Ovihos cnvifr'j>is, Dawkins, /oc cit. (1SS3) ; Lydekker, op. cit. p. 40 (1SS5) ; M'Gee, Amcr. yoiir/i. Science, ser. 3, vol. xxxiv. p. 217 (1SH7). (.'Juiractci '. — Horn-cores of male directeil mainly outwartls and some- what downwards at the tips, without tlie close approximation to the siiies of the skull characteristic of the existing species ; their bases much less expandeii than in the latter, and apparently less approximated in the middle Sh eei 149 line, possibly also smoother. In the female cylindrical and rugose, with an outward direction, so as to form a regular curve with the convexity in front. The small skull described as Boot/icriiini homhifroiis is, I think, rightly identified by Mr. Hoyd Dawkins as indicating the female of the animal of which the male is represented by the skull subsequently named B. cavifrons. In the latter the centre of the forehead is deeply excavated and the bases of the horn-cores are nearly smooth, but (judging from the cast in the British Museum) it appears that these features are largely due to injury or imperfection, as may also be the relations of the frontal plane to that of the sockets of the eyes. As regards the curvature of the horns, this species would seem to be less specialised than the last, thereby suggesting an American origin for the genus. Distrihutloii. -North America during the Plistocene period ; the skull described as Boothciiiim homhifnns was obtaineti from Kentucky, and the one named B. icivifrons from Arkansas. III. Tim. Shk.ki' — Gkms Ovis Ovii\ Linn. Syst. Nut. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 97 (1766). (.'Jun-dch'rs. — Size medium or small ; build of moderate stoutness, with the limb^ ratiier loni,^ ;iiul slender ; neck of moderate depth ami lentfth, and the head carried well above the level of the back ; no dewlap. Muzzle narrow, pointed, ami covered with short fine hair, save for a small naked area immediately above and between the nostrils ; glands invariably present between the hoofs of both feet, and frequently also on the face below the eves ; two teats in the female ; no beard or stron<> odour in the males ; ears moderate, upright, pointed, and well haired ; tail in all wild species except one short and pointed ; main hoofs 'SO Sheep symmetrical, rather small, narrow, and upright ; lateral hoot; also small. Hoth sexes generally provicicd with horns, which are large and spreading in the males, h„t, except in one case, small and upright in the females; those of males directed at rtrst outwardly fro.n the sides of the head, with the upper i,order convex at starting, and then generally forming a circular or spiral curve, with the tips pointing outwards; in section generally more or less distinctly triangular, and the surface, of which the colour is usually s.,me shade of yellowish-olive or brown, in m<.st cases marked hy fine parallel transverse wrinkles. Pelage usually consisting of close, short, stiff hair, which may he elongated int., a ruff on the chest and throat, and in one instance is long and shaggy on the whole of the throat, chest,' and front surface of the fore-limbs ; coloration usually some shade of rufous, brown, or tawny, becoming lighter on the under-parts, and in some cases with blackish markings between the dark and light areas and on the limbs Upper niolar teeth with tall, narrow crowns, on the inner side of which there is no additional small column comparable to that of the oxen. When Hice-glands are developed, the skull has shallow pits below the eyes for their reception, but only very small unossified vacuities. Cannon-bones in both limbs relatively long and slender, and thus quite unlike those of either the oxen or the musk-ox. As additional characters of the skeleton, it may be mentioned that the skull is broadest across the sockets of the eyes, which are fairly prominent hut -mt distinctly tubidar ; below these it narrows suddenly,' and thence tapers gradually to the nn.zxle ; the planes of the forehead an'd the occiput (the latter of which includes the parietal bones) meet one another nearly at a right angle, the true occiput being almost Hat. Although very closely connected with the goats, the relationship of the sheep to other members of the family Hovn/,c is still very obscure. They appear to be an essentially modern group, possibly evei, of later origin than the oxen, as it is douinful whether they are represented in the "zsam Characters 151 Siwalik deposits of India, where remains oF the hitter are ahundant. That they have no intimate rehitionship with the oxen, may he considered fairly certain; and it seems more than douhthd if they have any very near kinship with the musk-oxen, trom which they difter markedly in the structure of the horns and in the form of the cannon-hones. Antelopes, so far as our present knowledge goes, are among the oldest of the hollow- horned ruminants, and since the ga/elles and their allies have molar teeth of the same general structure as those of the sheep, it is possihle that the latter may he a specialised oH^shoot from the ancestral stock of the former. From the point of view of the systematic naturalist sheep form an excessively ditHcult group to deal with. In the first place, several of the local forms are so similar to one another that it is almost impossihle to decide whether they should he regarded as species or races. And, in' the second place, the more aherrant memhers of the group exhihit so many characters common to the goats that it hecomes a question whether, on the one hand, it would not he advisable to include both sheep and goats in a single genus, or whether, on the other, the sheep themselves might not be divided into at least three genera. As a compromise, three distinct sub- genera, or groups, of wild sheep are here recognised. In addition to these, the various breeds of domestic sheep {Ov/s ar/rs), which form the type of the whole genus, are perhaps entitled to constitute a fourth and typical group. Here it may be mentioned that the ancestral form of these domestic breeds, which differ from all the wild species save the arui by the length of the tail, is at present totally unknown, so that no detailed mention of the typical group is made in the present work. The woolly character of the pelage, which forms such a marked feature in the European breeds of sheep, might seem another feature distinguishing all the domesti- cated kinds from the wild species. This, however, is not the case, since many of the domesticated breeds belonging to less civilised tribes, like 1 I l-l 152. Sh cc X'p several of those oF Africa, have more or less distinctly hairy coats ; ami it is stated that this type of pelage tends to reappear in the woolly breeds of domesticated sheep which have run wild. "Sheep," writes Darwin in his Animals und V hints uiuLt Domcstkati'm, "have been domesticated from a very ancient period. Riitimeyer found in the Swiss lake-dwellings the remains of a small breed, with thin, tall legs, and horns like those of a goat, thus differing somewhat from any kind now known. Almost every country has its own peculiar breed ; and manv countries have several breeds differing greatly from each other. One of the most strongly marked races is an Eastern one with a long tail, includ- ing, according to Pallas, twenty vertebra', and so loaded with fat that it is sometimes placed on a truck, which is dragged about by the living animal. These sheep, though ranked by Fitzinger as a distinct aboriginal form, bear in their drooping ears the stamp of long domestication. This is like- wise the case with those sheep which have two great masses of fat on the rump, with the tail in a rudimentary condition. The Angola variety of the long-tailed race has curious masses of fit on the back of the head and beneath the jaws. Mr. [Brian] Hodgson, in an admirable paper on the sheep of the Himalaya, infers from the distribution of the several races that this caudal augmentation in most of its phases is an instance of degeneracv in these pre-eminently Alpine animals. The horns [irescnt an endless diversity in character, being not rarely absent, especially in th'.- female sex, or, on the other band, amounting to four or even eight in number. The horns, when numerous, arise from a crest on the frontal bones, which are elevated in a peculiar manner." The important feature in this passage is Hodgson's theory that the length of the tail in the domesticated breeds is due to degeneracy. And if this be true, and bearing in mind that the Iioriis of many of such breeds are of the same general character as those of several members of the Caprovine group, it is quite possible that the latter is really identical with the typical. giggg ^;^'mnM wt-"n ' nistribution and Habits I S3 or Ovine group. Fur the present, however, it seems preferable to allow the former to stand as a siihiiivision of the genus. Distrihution. — The Holarctic ami Sonoran regions, with one species just impinging on the north-western frontier of the Oriental region. The headquarters of the genus are tlie highlands of Central Asia, where there occur two out of the three groups into which its wild members are divided. In America there is but a single species, represented by a local race in Kamschatka ; and North Africa has likewise only one species, which is, however, very distinct from all the others. In most respects the distribu- tion of the sheep is very similar to that of the genus Ccrrus, especially in having one peculiar type common to Eastern Asia and North America, but it differs in the marked distinction of the African from the European form. In a fossil state sheep are not definitely known previous to the epoch of the Norfolk forest-bed, forming the earliest stage of the Plistocene epoch, although there is some evidence that they may be represented in the Indian Siwaliks. Habits. — Sheep, like goats, are essentially mountain-dwellers, associ- ating either in small parties or in large flocks, the latter of which arc, however, formed during the greater part of the year by ewes and young rams alone, the old rams keeping apart. In Asia sheep generally inhabit more open and undulating ground than that tenanted by goats, and do not frequent precipitous cliffs. The rams, more especially during the pairing season, are extremely pugnacious animals, fighting by charging one another from a considerable distance, and receiving the impact of the charge on the forehead. In these contests the majority of the species do not raise themselves on their hind -legs when butting, after the manner of goats, although this is the case with the bharal, which is structurally the most goat-like of the group. From the absence of any strong odour in the males, the flesh of all the species ot wild sheep is of excellent quality. X \\\\ '54 Sh ccn P iiiii i. C'ai'kovim, Ckdii' Sni-diMs C, i-Kuvis Ciprovis, HoilgM.n, y^^/v/. Is. S',r. li.f/i^a/^ v.. I. \vi. p. 702 (1H47); dray, Cu. Vn^ii/,ilii Hrif. Mus. \\ 171 {1S52). Miisimii, (iray, Kii'Ai's/cy Mm,iri'rn\ p. ^6 (1S50), („//. L'ngiihih, lint. Mks. p. 172, as a Mih-gciuis. .■lij,i/i, CJray, Kii',ws/,y Mau,^rrh\ p. ^7 (1S50), (,',//. Tz/jf///,,/,, y^//. Mils. p. 174 (1S52), as a siil)-gciuis. VJuuiUtos. — Horns of' males h.rmiiiy a ciniiKir or .spiral curve, stroiinly angiilatcd (at least wlicii yoiiDg), and with more or less liistinct transverse wrinkling. Face with small and indistinct glands, and depressions in the skull helow the eye-sockets tor their reception. A clearly defineii black line between the fawn of the hack and the light of the under-parts, and distinct hlack markings on the tVont of the limbs are frecpiently wanting, alth.nigh present in some species. \o long fringe extending from the thro.it to the fore-legs. Tail \ery short. Distrihiitm. Coextensive with that of the genus, except In not extending into Africa. I. TlIK b;i'l,!. \(.|. i. p. 5 - (1H29). Ovis /iiusim',11, Wagner, in Schreber's Su//i^r//ii,'/y, vol. iv. p. 242 (1S44) ; (Jray, Kirrics/.y Mcmii^a-ir, p. 36 (1S50) ; Hlasiiis, .S/w-. •////, 7 v DciitschLnuls. V- 47' C'S-?)- U) « o O o 'A O a. O X I I' I 1 ; 1l\ A ■ m H H ' li »i Mi II ('H47); < Mils. p. 51 Miisim Gniells, A Cluirih inches ; fci I'l'i. 2(). Strongly wri the trout oil! of the honis tips hcmiiiisr helow the ei of the rams European Muflon '55 c;,v>,,„', „„„«, H,„ig„,„, 7»,,, ,,, ,,,, «„„^,„/_ ,,„, ^^. Mils. p. 56 (1H72). /lf//./>... ;...„, (iervais, Hist. Nat. Man.n,. v.,I. ii. p ,., (,Hcc)- Gradls, Men. Ac. M.ulrnl^ v.,I. xvii. p. 369 (.897). /V,/A' XIL C/nn-artrrs. -Si.c s.nall, t'-c height at the shoulder heing ahout 27 .nches; females usually hornle.s. n.rns oF „Ktle fairly large, stout, and •-^- -). -Hoad oMn.lc F„n,pc:.„ M„ll,„, K„.,„ , .^,,,i,„,„ ,„ ,,^ ,5^. .^|_ ^,^^^^^^___^ (I<""1.iik1 «-Mrd, KMr.l, of Bifi (;.,n,:) strongly wrinkled ; the fn.nt surfa.-e markedly distinct tVo.n the outer one the h-ont outer angle rounded o.i; hut the inner one d.st.nct ; the curvature of the horns forming a close spiral of ahout one complete circle, with the t-ps iKnchng fi,rwards and outwards m, as to he situated almost immediately iK-low the eyes. Hair close and thick, elongated in winter on the throat ot the rams to for.n a chVinct fringe, and with a thick coat of woolly ill ' 4 II 156 Sh eep ii ^ \ \ • under-fur at the same season. General colour of adult rams in late summer or early autumn bright rufous-brown, or foxy-red, becoming chocolate- brown on the head and face ; sides of neck, throat, chest, a line on the flanks, a streak down the withers, a saddle-shaped patch on the back, the front and sides of the fore-legs above the knees, and the front and inner side of the hind-legs above the hocks black. Ears grayish externally, white on the margins and part of the interior ; muzzle and chin grayish- white, passing into a grayish-rufous patch in the centre of the black area on the throat ; hinder border of black saddle marked by a broad band grizzled with white. All the under-parts, except a narrow dark streak between the fore- legs, and the buttocks, pure white, which stands out in brilliant contrast to the black band on the flanks. A narrow white streak on the hinder surface of Fk;. 30.— Female Muflon with horns. Fn.ni both pairs of Icgs abovc the knccs and a photograph bv the Duchess of Bedfon). ,11 • ,• ,- 1 1 • hocks ; lower portion or rore-legs white, with a variable amount of black on the front surfice between the knees and the pasterns ; hind-legs below the hocks similarly coloured, but with less of pure white. In winter the colour darkens and tends more to chestnut-brown, while the saddle-like patch becomes larger and squarer, and assumes posteriorly a yellowish or whitish tint, which is apparently most marked in the very old rams. The face-glands below the eyes are comparatively small. The description of the autumn cohjration is taken from a very Hue mounted ram in the British Museum shot by Mr. F. Cj. Barclay in the mountains of the interior of Sardinia. The ewes seldom have horns, and when present these are usually about 2 inches in length, as shown in the illustration. European Muflon 157 The following horn -measurements of this species are recorded by Mr. Rowland Ward : — 1 Li-ngth along Front Curve. Basal Circumfert'iici'. 34i 8^ 29I 8f 29 8:,' 28| 8^ 28f 9 27 8.', 27 9l 26 .0;: 25i 8| Hi 9^ Tip tu Tip. 16;; 1 1 1 1 21 10 10 lOi 10.^ 10 9A Locality. Sardinia Corsica Sardinia Distrihuthri. — At the present day the mountains of Corsica and Sa'-dinia. Said formerly to have inhabited Greece and the Balearic Islands, though this requires confirmation. With regard to the reputed former occurrence of the murion in Spain, Brehm believes this is due to it having been confounded with the Spanish tur ; much the same view being taken by Senor Graells, in his monograph of the mammals of Spain quoted above. Hahits. — Muflon are restricted to certain mountain ranges in their native islands, and there frequent only the higher portions, generally selecting peaks which enable them to take a wide survey of the surround- ing country. They are remarkably wary, employing their senses of sight, hearing, and smell ; and, according to Mr. Buxton, are in the habit of seeking for spots where currents of air meet. When thus situated they are quite unapproachable, even when their station is otherwise most favourable to the stalker. The ground they generally frequent is broken rather than mountainous ; many of the valleys being filled with forests of ilex. When, however, pigs are brought up to feed upon the acorns of the latter, the muflon betake themselves to less disturbed situations. Formerly, at any rate, muflon were found in flocks of very large size, J \\ 'S8 Sheep I ' I ! «' which at the pairing season split up into small parties consisting of one old ram and several ewes. Mr. Buxton speaks of never having seen more than a dozen in company ; and also states that the old rams were sometimes solitary, hut more often in small companies hy themselves, while the young rams generally went ahout with the ewes. During Decemher and January the old rams are much given to fighting among themselves. In April or May the ewes give birth to their young, of which there may he either one or two at a time ; and these are able to run with their mothers within a few days of their appearance in the world. If suffi- ciently hung, the tlesh of the rams is excellent for the table when the animals are in good condition ; but in the latter part of the winter they become excessively lean, and the quality of the meat is then inferior. As is the case with the bharal, the meat is probably in its best condition about September. Mufion will breed with domesticated sheep. Mr. Buxton's account in Short Stalks of the muflon in its native haunts is so excellent that it may be quoted in cxicnso : — "Though he lives on ground more or less steep, it is easy, and he has no occasion for any remarkable feats of agility. On the other hand, his best safeguard lies in the dense macquia which covers the hills. At this elevation it is exclusively composed of the tall ' bruyere ' heather, from which the so-called 'briar- root' pipes are made. This grows from two to six feet high. If this covert were continuous, it would of course be impossible to see an animal which stands little over two feet, but much of it has been burnt, and there are natural openings beside. It is in these openings that he must be sought when feeding. As all wild sheep are constitutionally restless, and never remain long in one place, it will lie understood how difficult it is, even when thev have been spied, to hold them with the glass. Thev are constantly disappearing in the macquia, and have to be retouiid again and as^ain before a stalk can he successfully efiected. When thev are alarmed or ' at gaze,' thev have a habit, or at least the rams have, of placing them- ^ i Asiatic Muflon 159 selves ill the middle oi' a bush of inacrjiita, or in the shadow which it casts. The ewes, who are naturally less conspicuous, do this in a less degree. The niurion are also assisted by the wonderful alertness of their eyes. I do not think that they see at a great distance, but they detect an exceedingly slight sign at a moderate range. . . . When startled they whistle as a chamois, and as a Highland sheep occasionally does." 2. Thk .\siAru' MrFLoN — Ovis orikntalis Ovis iiiKsiinon oricnhilis, Brandt and Ratzeburg, Mctl. Zoo/, vol. i. p. 54 (.829). Oris gmclini, Hlyth, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1 S40, p. 69; Brooke, //W. 1875, p. 526 ; Blanford, Eastern Pcrshi, vol. ii. p. 88 (1876) ; Danford and Alston, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1877, p. 276, 1880, p. 55; \V. L. Sclater, Cat. Mamm. hid. Mns. pt. ii. p. 139 (1891) ; Ward, Records of Big Gcinic, p. 258 (1896) ; Satunin, Zoo/. Ja/ir/). Syst. vol. ix. p. 312 (1896). Ovis oriciita/is, Keyserling and Blasius, IVir/h'/t/ikrc Kiirop. p. 29 (1840); Wagner, Schrcber's Siiiigct/iicrc, vol. iv. p. 507 (1844) ; Nehring, Zoo/. Garten, vol. xxviii. p. 378 (1887). Ovis [Miisimon) oricnta/is, Clrav, Kiion's/cy Menagerie, p. -^6 (1850). Caproi'/s [Mi/simon) oi-ieiitaiis, (Jrav, (-'-at. Vnga/ata Hrit. Mas. p. 172 (1852), (.'.at. Ruminants Brit. Mas. p. 56 (1872). Ov/s anato/ica, \'alencienncs, CR. Ac. Paris, vol. xliii. p. 65 (18^0). C.aprovis orienta/is, (irav, Hand-iist Ruminants Brit. Mas. p. 1 -^ i (187-5). C/hiracters. -Typicallv of larger size than the European mutlon, the height at the shouhler reaching to about 2 feet 9 inches, [''emales horn- less. Horns ot males rather large, curving at first outwards, upwards, and slightly backwards, and tlicn backwards, downwards, and inwards, so that their tips are situated over the withers, instead of curving forwards Ik'Iow the eyes ; th. s, iral usually forming onlv about one half of a circle ; in I i6o Sheep : nil I -< transverse wrinkles on the front and lateral surfaces usually bold and widely separated, but becoming approximated in old animals ; inner front angle always well developed, but the outer one either distinct or com- pletely rounded off. General ..olour of upper-parts some shade of russet- yellow or foxy-red, with the under-parts and lower portion of the legs white, but lacking most (,f the black markings of the male European murion. There is, however, a dark mark on the fore-legs above the knees, a darkish stripe on the chest and Hanks, and more or less indistinct traces of a light saddle-mark in the adult rams. Typically the neck thick, with a fringe of elongated hairs on the throat. Face-glands well developed. D/str/h/im/. —Thv mountains of Klburz in Northern Persia, of Armenia, the Taurus range of Asia Minor, and the central chain of Cyprus. a. Armenian Rack — Ovis orientalis t^i'ica C7,c/racn'rs.—Siyx relatively large, the height at the shoulders reaching to 2 feet 9 inches. Horns of adult rams generally with the front outer angle well marked, so that the front surfice is clearly defined from the outer one. Neck thick and bushy. General colour of head and upper-parts of adult male russet-yellow or foxy-red ; under-parts and lower p(,rti(,n of legs white; a space before the eyes, nose, chin, and the inner surfaces of the ears whitish ; a dark purple-brown mark above the knees on the fore- legs, and a darkish streak down the chest ; the ridge of the neck and back somewhat darker than the rest of the upper-parts. In older males the general colour reddish, witli a whitish saddle-mark. Specimens of this sheep are rare in collections, and I have had to depend for the description of the coloration entirely upon the writings of others, as I have never seen a perfect skin. The British Museum possesses the skull and horns of a male, with some portions of the skin, ^^^^^^^ssas^s Armenian Muflon i6i fr<»,. Ivr.eru.n, forming the type of BIyth's Ovis gmclini (No. SS^ '2, 24, 396), and presented by the Zoological Society in 1855. Also a complete' skeleton presented by Mr. Danford. In both these the horns are of average dimensions ; but the museun. also possesses a skull, said to be H-om an island in the Mediterranean, and presented by Mr. W. B. Baker, in which the horns are greatly larger than in any other known example,' ■^^nd are Further characterised by the great number and fineness of the trans- verse wrinkles. The latter is, however, a character which tends to be developed at the base of horns of old individuals ; and as the pair under consideration agree in form and curvature with normal examples of the present species, there seems every reason for referring them to it, although they may possibly indicate a distinct race. The dimensions of this magnificent specimen occur first in the list following. Although the distinct development of the front inner edge is in general a marked feature of the horns of the mainland race, Messrs. Danford and Alston describe specimens which approximate both in this respect and in curvature to the Cyprian form. Mr. Rowland Ward records the following horn-measurements :— OutiT Curve. 40! -"lit 24 CiT^llinlt-lrncf. lO.I 9i Tip t(, Tip. 1:! Some degree of confusion has arisen among zoologists as to whether O. ',nr/u.///s or O. gm-//m is the proper name for this sheep. In 1876 Mr. W. T. Blanford' wrote as follows on this question : "No such name as O. .y/iv/A///. was given t.. this sheep by J. C. CJmelin ; he simply called it in Cerman the Oriental sheep (,/,,.,• vav/A ///,.■,//,• Sr/iaf), and apparently ' Eastern Pen':,!, \ki\. ii. p. SS. ^i! h li ■ " I 62 Shec P I ! 1 , !.1 considered it the same as the argali of J. G. Gmeliii (O. iunmn, Linn.). The name O. '/rifiitd/is appears to have heeii first given, as troin Gmelin, hy Keyserling, and Hhisius in the li'irklthicrc Europas. The date on the title-page of that work is i S40, and in the same year Mr. Blyth pubhshed the name O. gmcl'mi, which should, I think, be retained for the species, since Keyserling and Blasius's title is erroneously quoted as CJmelin's." So far as it goes, this passage is perfectly correct, but the author appears to have been unacquainted with Brandt and Ratzehurg's O. tiiiisiiii'/ii oriciitii/is, which antedates the names given both by the English and German zoologists mentioned above, and is therefore, so tar as the third name is concerned, entitled to stand t'or the species. The Ovis musini',)! onciitiilis of Brandt and Ratzeburg is stated to in- habit the Armenian mountains of Persia, the Greek Islands, Cyprus, and probably the Taurus, and to be distinguished from O. musimoii occu/ciita/is by the backward and inward inclination of the tips of the horns. As Persia is mentioned before Cyprus, the name evidently belongs to the Armenian rather than to the Cyprian variety. Distrihiiti',11. — The mountains of i'Jburz in Northern Persia, those ot Armenia, and the Taurus range of Asia Minor. In Transcaucasia (Armenia) Dr. Satunin states that this sheep occurs in the neighbourhood ot Kars and Kriwaii, but extends some distance farther north. Habits. — Messrs. Danford and Alston write as follows concernin"- this sheep : — " It seems hardly ever to occur on the southern slopes of the Taurus, preterring the barer districts of the north. Ilerr Kotschy, otherwise so accurate in his observations, must have been misled into stating that ten to twenty wild sheep are killed yearly at Gallek, as at that place, which is situated on the south side of the Bala Dagh, we were assured that the species is not found. Specimens were obtained trom the district of l{regli, where they are common, and frequent the salt-licks in large t^ocks. Winter is the easiest time of year to uet at Cyprian Muflon 163 them, the deep snow vvhicli generally covers that part of the country impeding their movements. At other times they are shy, and, owing to the scarcity of covert, very diriicult to approach. The severe winter "^* ^^7^-7-^^ which was so fatal to the tame breeds of sheep, also destroyed a great number of the wild species. Cimelin's sheep is a very graceful animal, deer-like in its appearance, having long, tine limbs, and in the male a thick, bushy throat." />. C'N I'RIAN RaiK OviS OKlKNr.ALIS OlMIION Ovis 'jphioii, Blyth, Prnc. Zoo/. Soc. 1H40, p. 69; Brooke, //;/,/. 1H75, p. 526 ; Alston and Danford, ihi,/. i KSo, p. 59 ; Biddulph, //;/;/. 1HS4, p. 594, pi. Ixviii. ; Langkavel, Zoo/. Giirtcii, vol. xxxii. p. 1S3 (1X91); Ward, Rccort/s of Big G(i//h\ p. 256 (1H96). Ovis (•)'/»■///.(, Blasius, Siiiigct/iicir Dciitsc/i/aiu/s, p. 47:5 (1S57). Ctiprovis op/lion. Gray, Cut. Ruminants Brit. M/is. p. 56 (1S72). (.■////;v/rAv.>'.— Smallest of all wild sheep, the height at the shoulder being only about 26 {, inches. Horns of male with the outer front anele so completely rounded off that the outer and front surfaces are mer7i filCllMltiTrllCr 1\ Tip I" I'ip. 4.', s% 6 Plistocene Muflon •'''S Although tlic c'oiiiplftc roiiiuiing-ort' u{ the outer tioiit angle ot the horns is considered distinctive ot" the Cyprian race, Messrs. Alston and Danford, as mentioned ahove, have recorded examples ot' the typical main- land race in which the same feature is displayed, so that the two forms are evidently very closely allied. Distrihuthn. — The Troodos Mountains of Cyprus. These mountains form the western central portion of the island, with their central peak rising to a height of 6500 feet ahove the sea-level. " Here," writes Col, Biddulph, " the wild sheep have a considerahle area of pine-clad mountain to wander ovei , disturhed only hy occasional wood-cutters and peasants herding goats and sheep. At the time of the first occupation in 1H7H it was supposed that the wild sheep had heen exterminated with the exception of a single Hock of twenty-five memhers, and a check was placed on their slaughter. Since then their numhers have increased, and it may he hoped that under modified restrictions mutlon-stalking in Troodos may long continue to he one of the sports of Cyprus." 3. TiiF. Plisiocknk Muflon — Ovis savim [Extinct) Ciiprovis stiv/'/ii, Newton, Geo/. Mug. decade 2, vol. vii. p. 449 (1S80), Vertehrata of Forest-Bed {Mem. Geo/. Sure. UiiiteJ Kingdom)., p. 49, pi. x. (1882), Verte/mitii of P/iocene Deposits f Britain [Mem. Geo/. Siirv. United Kingdom), p. 22 (189 1 ). Ovis sdvini, Lydekker, Brit. Mtimm. (Allen's Ndt. Li/'n/ry), p. 309 (■«95)- C/i(iriieters. — Founded upon the imperfect right half of a frontlet with the greater portion of the horn-core attached, now in the British Museum. In size and general curvature this specimen agrees very closely with the corresponding portion of the skull of the Armenian race of the Asiatic mutlon, to which species it seems prohahlc that the Plistocene wild sheep ' M 'f 1 66 Slice p was allial. In the fossil skull tin- posterior siirKuc of the honi-toiv is inarkcil hy a scries of" deep riiitinLjs, not ohserv.ihic in the existing kind. The outer front angle is, moreover, imuh less f>rc.ininent, hut as this is a feature ohscrvahle in the Cyprian nuitlon. it would nut appear .o he of any very great distinctive value. Dixtrifuithi. The east of luigland (and prohahly other parts of I'lurope) during the earlier portion of the IMistoeene perioil. 4. Tmi Sua, or I'kiai,. ()\is Vl(,\| I Oris I'iir//,-/, Hlyth, /'r^/r. /',o/. Sor. 1S40, p. 70; (Jray, /.hf. Mowni. tint. Mils. p. 169 (1X4^0 ; I'. L. Selater, /*/■'/(•. '//,o/. Sof. 1S60, [1. 127, pi. I\\i\.; Brooke, //'/,/. 1S75, p. 526; Sternihi.le, Miiniin. India, p. 4.^ 5 (1.SS4); Hlantonl, \'\iiiii(i Hi it. Iiii/id — Miiiiiiii. p, 497 (1S91); W. L. Selater, (.',//. Miiiiini. III,/. Mils. pt. ii. p. I ;S (iS'91) ; True, Prr^. r. S. Mus. vol. wii. p. ^ (1S94) ; \\ aril, Ri\',r,/s >jf' lii]r (;,iw,\ p. 2^0, 1 S96. ():is [Miisliii',11) T'/^'M7, (irav, Kii'Ai-s/cv Mcihiircrit\ [1. :;6 (iS'^o). (.'.(ipr'/Vis [Miisiiii',11) vi^ih'i, Cirav, (.'(//. l'ii^ii/tite,-ally seen on .carped ,-ocky hillsides than a.nong bush and jungle Many of the n.cks ,n the Salt Range where urial are co.n.non consist of '>nght red .narls and sandstones, against which the rufous coat of the sheep - ^''--t ,nv,sible ; and this local colo.-ation of the ,-ocks ,nav be the .eason that the Punjab ur.al is a bngh.e,-colou,-ed animal than the sha of Ladak I I'e iHunber of .-avines, separated fVo,„ one another bv nar.-ow ridges of ,-ock -upled with the slight elevat.on above the sea-level, ,-ende.-s u,-;al-stalkin.; - the Salt Range far less fatiguing than the pu,-suit of any other kind e^' w.ld sheep access.ble to Indian spo,-ts,„en. The number of nuiiv.duals in a riock of ur.al varies fn„n th,-ee o,- fun- to as ,nanv as about twentv or thirtv • -Hi although the ,-a,ns fVe.juently sepa,-ate the.nselves during so.ne part of tiK- sum.ncr, hoth sexes ai'e c.nmonlv found ,n c.npany. i'li \'. IJO Sh eep ;; 'i 1 1 Although less active cli.nhcrs than bharal and tahr, Punjab urial d.splay a great amount of agility u getting over the rough ground which ^orms then- haunts; and in this respect are decidedly ahead of the larger sheep ot Central Asia. When alone, their call is a kind of bleat not unl.ke that of domesticated sheep, but when alarmed they utter a shrill vvh.stle, at the same ti.ne stamping with their fore-feet. The period of gcstatu.n is probably about six months, the pairing season occurring in September ,n the Punjab, but apparently considerably later in Astor where tlK- young are born in June. There n.ay be either one or two lambs at a l^n-th ; and the species will cross readily with domesticated sheep, while it has been known to breed with the Tibetan argali. General A. A. Kinloch writes as follows of this sheep in the Punjab : ''The urial is found am<,ng low stony hills and ravines, which' are generally more or less covered with thin jungle consisting principally of t'--ny bushes. During the heat of the day the urial conceal themselves a gcod deal, retiring to the most secluded places, but often coming down to feed HI the evenings on the crops surrounding the villages. Where not nn.ch disturbed they will stay all day in the neighbourhood of their teed.ng-grounds, and allow sheep and cattle to teed amongst then, without concern, but where they have been much fired at they usuailv go Ion-, ^l.stances before settling themselves tor the dav. Thev are genendlv tound on capital ground for stalking, the chief drawback being the stony namre of the hills, which renders it difHcidt to walk silentlv. When rired at m-ial usually go leisurely away, stopping to gaxe every now and then so that several shots may be rired at one herd. . . . I'rial appear to be partly migratory, as they are nou plentiful where thev were not so common formerly, and places that were once famous for them are now neaHy deserted. This is doubtless in great measm-e caused bv the way in winch they are hunted and shot at, wherever they are known to" be plentitid." Sha or Urial j-j o. AsjoK Rack Ovis vkjnki tvpua Chan,ctcrs.-^^-,^ relatively large, the height at the shoulder reaching to 36 inches. Horns <,f male generally thick and forming a wide circle with the tips more or less divergent ; the front angles n.ore or less rounded ofh apparently never forming distinct heads, and the transverse ridges on the front surface never very coarse. RulF 0,1 throat and chest apparently less developed than in the next race, and the summer pelage le-s distinctlv red. Specimens of the Astor and Ladak sha of different ages, and showing the pelage ot the two seasons, are much required in English collections. There has heen considerahle discussion as to whether the horns can in all cases he distinguished from those of the Punjah race, and in some instances this is Pn.hahly impossible. Nevertheless, 1 have not observed horns of this race bearmg the distinct beads so frequently seen in those of the following one It nn.st he borne in mind that some of the skulls in the British Museum labelled Northern India may perfectly well have come from Ladak ; a-ui th.s may have been the cause of some confusion. Mr. W. L. Sclater states that the present race is redder than the Punjab form, but this I bcl.eve to be a mistake, specimens of the latter in the British Museum from Afghanistan and Peshawur being almost foxv-red in colour. /)/./.v/..//w/.-Typically tVon. Astor, where it is known as the urin but rang.ng into /anskar Lach,k, and other parts of Tibe^ where ,t is tern.cd sha, the male having the special designation of shape and the female of slKuno. J^astwards the range extends through (Jilgit to the borders of Afghanistan, where the typical sha probably intergrades w,th the true I'.rial. \k I m y. r ? f ] i 172 Sheep /'. PcNiAH Rack— Ovis vu-.nki cwi OC I'.RdS :' tfi 'fi Ovis cyc/oceros, Hutton, Ca/c,/th, y„in,. Nat. Hist. vol. 'i. p. 5,^ (1H42) ; P. L. Sdiiter, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1H60, p. 12S, pi. Ixxx. 1SS7, p. 6^7 ; Jerdon, M/./.^y;. huiia, p. 294 (,H67) ; Kinl„ch, Large Game Shooting, pt. j' p. 29 (1H69) ; Bhmford, Eastern Persia, vol. ii. p. S7 (1S76) ; Stcriulalc, Manini. In./ia, p. 4^5 (,884) ; Thomas, Trans. Linn. Soc. scr. 2, vol. v. p. 6:;' (1S90) ; W. L. Sclater, Cat. Manini. hid. Mas. pt. ii. p. 1 ^S (1S91). Ovis arkal, Blasius, Siingct lucre Dentschlands, p. 469, rigs. 24.^, 244 ( i 857). C. c//. p. 56 (1H72). Character s.~<.W.^ ^"'-iHer than in the typical race, the hci-Iit at the shoulder seldom exceeding ^2 inches. Piorns usi.ally slightly spiral, forming a less open and more compact circle, with the tips convergent, and thus approximated to the eyes ; the two front ridges frequentlv'x'ery strongly developed and forming distinct nodose beads, between which the front surface of the horn is concave and carries bold and widelv separated transverse wrinkles. Ruft' on throat and chest very strongly 'developed, and its upper front portion more or less completely wliite in old males. That the urial, as this sheep is termed in the Salt Range and other districts of the Punjab, is not entitled to specific separation from the sha ..f Astor and Ladak, may be folly admitted ; but, at the same time, it seems to have a distinct claim to be regarded as a more or less well-marked small local race. I have never seen Astor ,.r Ladak horns slmwinn the prominent bead-like front ridges displayed in the old male from Afghan- istan in the British Museum forming the subject of phue xiii. Althl.gh many other specimens display similar beads, and equally pronounced and widely separated transverse wrinkles on the front surface, it must not be supposed that these foatures are distinctive of all individuals of this race ; quite the contrary. For instance, in a yo.mger mounted tnale specimen' ;is! Sha or Urial 173 from Peshawi.r fn the British Museum the development of the two front ridges of the horns is comparatively shght, as is hkevvise the case in two older mounted heads from Afghanistan in the same collection. All that can he said is that similar prominent beads on the front angles of the horns, and similar bold transverse ridges on the surface between them, appear unknown in Astor and Ladak specimens. The differences cannot be explained by differences in age. The specimen figured in plate viii. is a very old male, but some young specimens show equally strong front angles to the horns. On the other hand, the Peshawur specimen mentioned above, in which the front angles are but slightly developed, is an immature animal, while the heads in the British Museum from Afghanistan are those of old individuals. Horns of the latter type are, as Mr. Blanford p(,ints out, very difficult to distinguish from those of the Ladak sha ; and in some cases it may be impossible to refer specimens to their proper race. It may i)e added that, in addition to the distinctive features indicated above, very different physical conditions obtain in the typical habitats of the two; the Astor and Ladak animal dwelling at very high elevations, where the winter temperature is of excessive severity, whereas the other form ..ccurs in the hot low ranges of the Punjab, Sind, and neighbouring districts. The sheep described under the name of Ovis arkal comes from the Turkoman country, on the eastern precincts of the Caspian— that is to sav, from the neighbourhood ,,f Khiva or Bokhara. Where the type skull hgured i)y Blasius is preserved, 1 have no means of knowii ' ; but the skull and horns of a ram in the British Museum (No. 94, 5, ;; i , 2) from the Turkoman country agrees with the figures given by Blasius, and doubtless belongs to the same form. It is clearly referable to the present species, and as it shows the strongly marked and beaded front angles and bold transverse ridges found in many iiorns of the Punjab race, coupled with tlie fact that it is the latter which inhabits Afghanistan and Persia, it i I 17 74 Sh eei ^ippcars ,nu,st probably that the T„rk,..nan slicc-p is inseparable fro.n the race inhahitiiin; the former ilistriets. the /:>/r/;-/;^./m. ^^Typically the Salt Ran^e of the Puniab, but extending t„ C.s-Indus Ranges oKthe Punjab and Sind, and thence int.. Afghanistan, Southern Persia, and apparently Russian Turkestan r. Ki:i,.\r R.\i i,— Ovis vkjnki lu.WFoKn, Ov/s hlanfonli^ Hu.ne, >.;. As. S.,: lic»ga/, vol. xlvi. p. ^27, pi. iv. (1HS7) ; \\ L. Selater, Proc. ZW. .W. iSS;, p. 6^9. (././.v/rAvx-Horns of male relatively large, with the two front angles a.stinct, and the curve forming an open spiral, instead of lying almost or quite ,n the sa.ne plane, as in the two preceding races ; the tips being thus v s-.l 1 1 - 1 2 1 .^I , 1 .VI ■^fl 5- I "I Akc; \|,| ( )vis wiMox ^.V'A- ™.., ,,„„,,,.„, .W. ed. ,.,vol. ,. p. ,;(,;66); K.scher, Sy/iop. Ma mm. p. 4S7 (iS'29). O... ..,..//, Pallas, Spinl. Z.,!. fasc. x,. p. 20 (,777-So); HIasius, Suu^cth.nr DcutsrhLuUs^ p. 46S (,S57); Radde, Rci. Ost.-Sihcr. p. 2;6 W[i,dOxfn,Shf:rpAGoats Pi atk XIV. SIBERIAN ARGALl. Ai4.'ij>.; K'fi.-.funW Wjrd^u I "I r ■ i. i u Sha or Urial ^7S (.H62); Scvc,-t.,.,i; 7W ,V. Mosro., vol. viii. ..,. ., ,,,, , -, ,„, '54 ('H7,0. o„:, „„„„,„, i.:,.„.,,,„, ,,,,, ,v„, .^,„„„, ,,, ,j„ „^^^j ^ ,,^ ^___, ^^^ .^ (... h.l, s ./„„„„/ A„,,./™, v„l. iv. p. ,„7, V. ,,. ,5, (,«,„ ^ „, ,^,, ,,,„_, /%^r.7V,- ,,;;^wA; |>ai|;,s, /,^,, /e,,,,... /,,,,. ,„,, i_ ^,_ _, ^_^_^^_ (1.S52), (;,//. Rt/iiiiiuints, lirif. Mus. p. 57 (1.S72). A//../.ym ,..-i;v,/;; (;crvais, ///,/. N,f. Mannn. vol. ii. p. ,,^, (.s^-) Uu,nutrrs. S,xc larj;cst of all living .hccp, the height at the shoukic -Klnng h-o,n ,, tcct 9 inches to 4 feet, and the build proportionately stont "'"•- "^ -iult .nale exceedingly ,„assive, their basal girth being very -n-e 7"-^'' ^'-' ^-'t and lateral surfaces relatively broad; tVe.uenti; both tl- .nner and outer „ont angles rounded off near the base, and the' trans- It verse wrn,kles numerous and elosely approximated, with the intervenin.^ .^M-ooves deep, and strongly developed hot!, on the front and lateral surfaces' -n soMie eases, and more especially in the Tibetan race, the i,orns with tl>c front angles much more distinct; curvature of the horns forming a ^P'-I varvu,g fVo.n somewhat less to considerably more than one co.npLe a-vle. in females the horns short, erect, curving backwards and outwards -Hi becoming thin and strap-like near the tips. Hair short, coarse, and close n, wnner; in su.nmer, especially in old rams, still shorter and much ^•'-H--- ; .n so,ne cases a ruff on the throat, (ieneral colour of upper-parts hght brown in winter, mingled brown and white in summer, at least in old cre, it is m the Altai, where they would most likely be found, since the typical race ..f the former ranges into the northern districts of that area, while a variety of the latter inhabits the more southern parts. And in the Hntish Museum there are certain Altai sheep referred to below which ,n ■f ^i Siberian Argali ^11 regard tn their horns arc- t.. a certain extent intcrmciiiatc hetwren the typical „„„„'.„ and the variety of /..A named kan'lini. Hut these sheep are incol.,.,,- so different fmm h.-th that, in the present state ..finfurmation. It appears desirahle to keep rheni a[)art. '•'he weight .„• M.ales nf' the T.hetan raee has been estimated to reach f>--in 250 to :,^o Ihs. ; one specimen is known f. have weighed 205 Ihs., and a seconil :; 1 1 Ihs. irntnh,,,;,,,.^ The e.u.ntries hurdering the (iohi Desert, heing derinitely known from Mongolia, north of I'ekin, through iustern Siheria :uul N.Mthern Mongolia to the Semipalatinsk Altai, and thence through the Kuenlun, and perhaps the district north of the Mustag, f. the Tibetan plateau. Although it is not dehnitely ascertained that the range is eon- tiiu.ous from North-Kastcrn Mongolia to the Kuenlun, vet ii ,- most Pn.bahle that th,s w,ll be found to be the case. Apart fn.n this, it see.ns ^lirly evident that the distributional area of the „„nw,n type forms a hollow ellipse, or perhaps a b..rse-shne, on the north-western border of which are situated the districts inhabited by the /,.// type and the sheep here tailed O. uiircihis. r,r. ZW. Sor. 1840, p. 6^-; P. I.. Sclater, ///) ; Hutton, //W. vol. xvi. p. 5^'« ('«47)- ' Oris ,n>n>,.,u Horshcld, C^/. K l>"i. Mi7^' (>«50, ncc O. kc, /A/,/. ,H75, p. 521; Stcrndalc, .U<,w.^/. ///-/a/, P- 4.U ('««4)^ .T""^-^'- ^^^^^''^"0' N,L Hist. Soc. vol. i. p. :.5 (>«S6) /'r.r. /v7. .V.r. .SH6, p. 205. (?) Ovis d,ihv-lonuc. I'rc/cwalski, Cat. /W. (.>>//. p. 16 (1HS7). /V,/A' AV. (;/,,/;w 4''.'> 46 44 s 44.', 44 4^.', Circuinf'frfiKv '«[ r6 17 1-' i6i Ti|.tuTi,.. "> f 23 ? 21 20 ? ? I 2 2.;. '9i 19 In tliL' male specimen tormiiin; tlic sulijcct of plate xv. the trout angles ot the horns are distinct ami stroiiyjy dcvelopeil, hut they are much more indeii ot^-' in the head represented in tiy. :;4. There appear indeed to he two suh-varieties of this race, dit^eriii^ in this respect, hut whether these are confined to particular localities, I have no means of ascertaining. As already said, the development of the front angles of the horns appears, on the whole, to he decidedly more markeil tlian in the Siherian race. The Orw /-/v//// of Severtzott' was founded on specimens of this sheep in which the outer front edge of the horns is roundeil oft". lYislnhuli,)!. The plateau of Tihet, from Northern Ladak to the districts north of Sikliim, and prohahly farther east ; northwards it extends to the Kuenlun, and perhaps hevoml the Musta-, while eastwards the ran-a- may extend along the southern horder of the Ciohi Desert to join that ot tne preceding race, witli which the present form may interumde. I'nknown to the southwarti of the main axis of the Himalava. In Western Tdiet not tound in summer helow an elevation of ahout 1 i;,ooo teet ahove the sea-level, hut in winter descending locally to some 12,000 or 1000 feet ahove the level of the town of Leh. I am indehted to Dr. I'. Biichiier, of St. I'etershourg, for the I '( :i \ V ', ', I 1 1 1 II!. m iM h it ' > i! 84 Sh ccp iiifonnatioi) that O. ,/ P pr()|ial)ly idciitieal with tlic prcsL-iit race. //,,/,/A._AIthoiigh I have- .ecu large herds ,.f ewes ami y„img rums of the Tibetan race of this species, I have only once come acn.ss a full- grown ram, and my notes on its habits must consequently he taken from the writings of those wh.,, like Cieneral A. Kinloch, have enjoyed more favourable opportunities for observation. I can, however, Jonfirm the 1-'k.. .^5.— Hcati ot y„ui,g imilc •I'ilK'taii .Argall. (From Dairaii's .V/.,,/ ,>, //,. Iliglliiiuis ',/ Kdshnir. ) testimony of others as to the magniricent appearance and carriage of the adult rams, and I can even now recall the sight of the individual I beheld standing on the top of a low pass in the C'hangchenmo district of Ladak. In the latter country during the winter these sheep iidiabit the lower and more protected valleys, where snow does not accumulate to anv "reit depth ; but with the advent of summer the old rams separate from the riocks to resort to more secluded situations at higher levels. According to General Kinloch, these sheep are very particular in their choice .^f locality, resorting year after year to the same sp,,ts, and entirely neglecting (,ther hills which apparently possess sinn'lar advantages with ;'! I Littlcdale's Sheep «5 rcganl to pasture and water, Tl ic open nature ot" the ground they Sequent renders the old rams exceedingly difficult to stalk, and even when they resort to more hroken ground, where the actual stalking is easier, their extreme wariness often defeats the most carefully laid plans of the sports- man. The hreeding-season is in December and January, when the Hocks are at a comparatively low elevation ; and the young are horn about the following May or fune. Sib f 6. Li I ri.KDAi.F.'s Sukkh — Ovis saikiasis C;//,//v/r/,7-y.— Size smaller than in either O. ,o,/ or O. /.-.//, the height at the shoulder being about 3 feet 2 inches. Horns of adult male in some respects intermediate between those of the two species named, forming a close spiral of rather more than a circle ; decidedly more massive than in M with the front angles rounded offi, and thus more like the typical race of .n,/„/o//, although considerably smaller ; those of immature males distinctly angulated. CJeneral colour <.f the upper-parts of adult male in summer pelage full rufous-brown, becoming blackish-brown on hinder part of head, withers, loins, rump, tail, outer surface of thighs, and under-parts ; face, except muzzle, which is dirty white, gray-brown ; legs gradually more and more speckled with white hairs, till from just above the knees and hocks downwards they become white ; sides of head, neck, and throat speckled brownish-gray, becoming impure white in the middle of the chest. Immature males nearly uniform rufous-brown throughout. Females rufous- brown on the upper-parts, with a broad black streak extending from the back of the head to the loins, and widening into a patch in th- neighbour- hood of the withers ; under-parts and legs nearly white. In the adult male the horns, of which the tips are broken, measure 46J inches along the front curve, with a basal girth of about 15I inches, and an in- terval of 27 inches between the tips. The basal girth of the horns is 2 H I '■', ' '^' ( ll 1 86 Sh cen P absolutely greater than in specimens of O. poll kiiir/iir, with horns of greater length. lYistrihuti'ii). — The Sair, or Saiar Mountains, situated in the Great Altai on the north-western border of Mongolia, nearly due east of . point mid- way between the Semipalatinsk and the Seniirechinsk Altai, in latitude i / W'^^^.^ ''*>*^ J^-^ / / r* U- Kk;. \(^. r.ltik'd.ik''- SliL'cp. l-'r<,ni the lypc ^|K■^■ilMcll in the British Miisciiin. S6^ K. longitude 47 N. Also at Semitau, north of the Jair, or jai; Mountains,' lying in latitude H4 K. and longitude 46 N. The distrib tional area tlierefore lies a little to the eastward of the line approximately dividing the habitat of O. amnion typka from that of O. poU karclini, and impinging on the eastern bouiularies of both. C'jmpiU-is'ms. -This sheep is typiried by three specimens (Nos. 90, 4, ^,0, ^5) in the summer pelage presented to the Hritish Museum by Mr. St. ' Marked ill .M;ip -- (K. i) ,,l"ihe 7/w,^ All.h. Littlcdalc's Sheep 187 'im CicM.igf I-ittluialf, vvIh. shut them in the Sair Mountains. 'I'hcy include an adult and an immature male and an adult female, the first of which may he taken as the actual type. It is, moreover, most prohahle tliat a skull (No. 9', (>, 17. presented to th: Museum hy the same gentleman, and ohtained from Semitau, north of the jair Mountains, helongs to the same f.,rm. That this sheep is (hstinet from all tiie three races of O. <„>wi,„ referred to ahove seems to he beyond douht. It clearly appears t.. he ecpially distinct from the typical race of O. />.//, <.f which specimens in summer ilress are available for comparison in the British Museum ; while Sevcrtzoff's plate shows the winter coat, which is almost identical with that of /)o// /■r//v//w. So far as can be determinetl from comparison with specimens of O. />'.//■ /v//v//w in winter dress, there seems also good evidence of distinctness from that form, although in the matter of coloration it comes nearer to that animal than any other ; both showing some brown on the upper part of the face and a dark streak down the back oi the female. 1 cannot, however, think that O. P'^li karclim in its summer dress woidd have the tiark umler-parts and rump of the present form, while it certainly has not horns of the same massive type, ar.d is altogether of larger bodily size. Moreoxer, it p'Ji karclini became thus dark in summer, it would differ so much from /.o// typiai as to be entitled to specific distinction. As already said, the horns are stouter than in O. p'>li k,nr/iiii. As I cannot identify it with either of the insufficiently described sheep named by Severtzoll", and tail to see tliat it comes decidedly closer to O. u/iimon than to O. poll, I am tain, at least provisionally, to regard it as representing a separate species. The summer coat of the aelult male dithers broadly from that of both , miiioii and po/i typ/r,/ by its darker colour, and more especially b) the absence of a white caudal disk and by the dark under-parts. From po/i typicd it is tiu-ther distinguished by tlie dark outer surface oi the thighs ; wb.ile the females of both anwi'^n and p',li typiat lack the broad, blackish dorsal stripe characterising that sex in the present form. M \\\ 'M !i i88 Sh ccn P Ot the slicfP described l)v Scvcrt/olK, (). //.w.i/ ami O. nhrnw^ntiiihi were n.mic'il on the cvitlciux- ot' skulls alone. The tornK-r wa^ ohtaiiicil imich more west than Mr. LittledaleV sheep, roininji; from Tokm.ik, situated in the Southern Semireehinsk, between the Alevamlrovski Mountains and the .-Matau, and therefore within the ilistributional area of O. />'///, of which, at most, it probably forms a race. O. nigiim'jiitiUid , ^n\ tlie other hand, is from a point mueh south of the habitat of the [iresent form, eoming from the Karatau, or lilack Mountains, lying to the south-west of Kulja,' wwA cast of the Alatau. Living specimens seen at a ilistance by its ilescriber are stated to have shown a white cauilal tlisk ami under-parts ; and the small length of the horns in the type specimen ( ^S inches) is suggestive of atHnity with the iinini'iii tvpe. i i - M 7. .MaKco I'ol.o's SmKI,!' — Ovis I'oi.l Ov'is P'jH, Hlyth, Pi-fA. '//j'jI. S',c, 1S40, p. 62, .hill. Mag. Xiti w„ni ,'w nil ^i' j. h 1 i 'i • it! fli 'lit in It r Marco Polo's Sheep 189 O.iwmirjii^ and the build perhaps rather lighter. General characters very similar to those of the latter, hut the horns thinner and frequently longer. Horns ot adult male long, slender, and forming more than a complete circle; typically the front angles well developed, the wrinkles on the front surface placed rather far apart at the base of the horns, and those on the lateral surface frequently but slightly developed. Hair of summer pelage longer than in O. ainmon ; general colour of upper-parts of adult male in summer F... jr. -ll.,,a ,,1 I'.nnn- r.uc m M,no, \\,\n\ Sliccp. I'n.in ,i >pcclmcn in ihc pu^sc»iuri ,>f Mr. D.niii 'I', n.uiliiirv, pelage light speckled brown ; most or all office, throat, chest, undcr-parts, buttocks, and legs white, the white extending largely on to the outer surface of the thighs ; a black streak from the nape to the withers ; no distinct rutt' on the throat. In winter the hair considerably lon-er, and ' Majnr C. S. Cinnhchiiul, .is .,uutcd by Mr. RouIiikI W,m\, states th.u thi. s|,ccp yrows to + tcct .u the slu,„Mcr, iMit Mr. Hl.tnC.r.l, in his h,tcs, n.cinoir on that species, speaks of O. ,,/,/«',« k^iMg probably the larger aninnl of ,he two, ;mkI I eanno, li„d any reeorj of i,s eveceding + feet. Mr, TittleJalo's male of O. ,/w.v.// in the British Museum measures about 3 teet ., inelu. a, mounted, hi. ,-./; , tect ^ inches, arui his .,;.vv//./., j teet ; inches ; but there may h.t^e been ^ome shnnk.ige in the skills. I. !i I If I 190 She ^ep I'h ,■■ I 'i^ " If forming a well-marked white ruff on the throat and chest, and a darkish line oi somewhat elongated hair extending from the nape to the vvitliers ; the upper-parts showing a more or less rufescent tinge, especially towards the border of the dark area. In females the neck is brown in front in the winter pelage ; while in the summer c:)at there is typically no blackish stripe extending from the head to the root of the tail, although this is present, at least in the winter coat of the second race. Horns of female generally similar to those of O. ammon. Twenty-two stone is given as the approximate weight of an adult ram. The two points whereby this magnificent sheep may be most easily distinguished from its fellows are, firstly, the relative slenderness of the horns ot the rams, which in the typical race are longer and extended more outwardly than in any other sheep ; and secondly, the large extent of white on the hind-quarters, which includes the greater part of the outer surface of the thighs. Between the horns of the typical races of the present species and of O. (uniiio/i even the most superficial observer would not fiil to easily recognise the difference. Those horns of O. po/i kair/ini in which the outer front angle is rounded off are, however, much more like those of O. a/iiiiion typha in form, although tiie marked difference in stoutness and depth forms a ready distinction between them. In the British Museum this species is represented bv ;i magnificent series ot skulls and horns from tlie Pamirs, and also by a mounted male and female in summer pelage presented by Mr. Littledale. All these belong to the Pamir race ; Init the Thian Shan form is likewise represented by several mounted specimens of various ages obtained during the Second Yarkand Expedition under the leadership of the late Sir Douglas Forsyth. These latter are, Iiowever, all in tlie winter pelage, and it is thus, unhirtunately, at present impossible to compare tlie two races at the same season, at least so tar as the Hritisli Museum collection is concerneil. Ill the aliscnce of the original specimens, it is difficult to sav whether Marco Polo's Sheep 191 the sheep called hy Mr. Selater Ovis arkar is the present species or O. tiiiimon. On the one lnuul, urkar is the Turki n;iine of O. f)o/i, hut, on the other, the skulls mentioned hy Mr. Sclater were reported to have come from the Altai. Distrihiition. — From the Thian Shan and the plateau north of Hunza through the Semirechinsk Altai and the Pamirs to the valley of the upper Amu Daria, or Oxus. By Prezewalski it has heen recorded from the Altyn-tag, to the south of the (iohi, hut this reference is very douhtful, and it is prohahle in that district its place is taken hy a memher of the (/wwy// group. The definitely known distrihutional area is therefore situated on the western horder of the hollow ellipse occupied hy the amnion group, the typical and most highly specialised race inhabiting the extreme western portion of the area, and the less modified Thian Shan form occurring in the country between the Pamir race and the typical O. amnion. History. —Although met with by Marco I\)lo during his Asiatic journeys, this sheep was first definitely made known to Kuropean science by skulls obtained by Lieutenant Wood, R.N., in 1H3S, on his return from his journey to the source of the Amu Daria, when detached from Sir Alexander Hume's Mission to the Court of Cabul. These specimens, one of which is preserved in the British Museum, and the other in the Royal College of Surgeons, were obtained on the high plateau near Lake Siri Kol, at an elevation of about 16,000 feet above the sea-level, and apparently from near the same locality as the one mentioneii bv Marco Polo. Two years after their discovery the species to which they belonged was named O. poll by Blyth. So tar as I am aware, nothing more was known in Lnglaiul with regard to the species till the return of the Second '^'arkaiul Expedition in 1H74, when several skulls of the typical I'amir race, and also skins from the 'I'hian Shan, then rcganied as belonging to the same form, were brought home. Some of these skins were described by Dr. Stoliczka as the true y :1 ii'- II : V 111 I h \\ ill m 192. Sheep O.V.,- pol,. It happened, however, that as far back as about the year , H40 the Russ.an explorer Karelin obtained some hu-ge wild sheep fn.n the Alatau near Sem.rcchinsk and due north of Lake Issik Kul, which in ,873 were named in his honour O. k.rdnn by his countryn.an Severt.off. In ,87c Sir V.ctor and Mr. B. B.ooke referred the specimens brought h,>me bv\he ^arkand Expedition from the Tbian Shan to O. karclun ; and four ^ears later this species was accepted by Mr. Bianford, in bis account of the "mammals of the expedition, as a valid ..ne. Later on, however, the same writer, from the study of additional specimens, came to the conclusion that O. karchn, was, at most, merely a variety of O. /,.//; and this view was subsequently adopted by M,-. \V. L. Sclater, who wrote as follows : -fhe above, I think, is sufficient to justify the combination .>f the Famir typical tonnand the Tbian Shan specimens brought back bv the Varkand Kxpedi- t.on, under the nan.e of Or/.v M even if the sheep described by Severt.ofF as O. karcliui shoidd turn out to really differ from the typical O. W/ of the Pamir." i/,r.-Since the habits are fully described under the beading of the two races, it will sufHce to state here that the typical Ovis p.li is but rarely found at elevations below ,0,000 and , ,,000 feet above the sea, and some- times at much higher levels ; the Tbian Shan race is, however, stated by Severt^ofT to descend as low as 2000 or .,000 feet. It .s essentially an ■'^'^^^'^■tant of open, hilly, grass-clad plains; and only takes to the mountains f'»- the purpose of concealment, avoiding even then the more r.>cky and precipitous localities. r>t.l '/. Pamir R \( k Ovis i.,,i., 1 ^ i-,, .\ (;^m;rAvx-Sixe large; horns of adult males of gn t length, with '''>-'^ t, iront angles usually well developed at the base, and the spiral, wbi.-h .ay be either comparatively close or extremely open, forming .¥^ Marco Polo's Sheep 193 'm.ch .nore than a single co.nplete circle. Frequently, although by nc, means .nvariably, the wrinkles on the outer lateral surface of the base of the horns are but slightly developed. In the sun.ner pelage the face of the male is pure white, and there is much white on the under-parts and rianks ; winter pelage of san.e practi- cally .nd.stinguishable from that of the Thian Shan race. Females in sumn.er unifl^nnly dark blackish-brown above, without a distinct n.edian dorsal stripe, and still more white on the rianks and thighs Of this race the British Museun. has a mounted n.ale and fennde in Fi<^. 3s.— Marco I'olo's Sliccp Head. the summer dress ; while the winter garb is well shown in Severt.off's plate in the Tra//s. Soc. Moscoit for 1H7:;. The following are some of the largest horn-measurements given by Mr. Rowland Ward ; the t^fth in the list being an additional specimen, now in the collection of Sir \i. C;. Loder :— l.c-lliltll allllli; K 1.1111 C'liivc" 75 73 71 69.'> B.is.il t'iuuilllWi-lHi-. 16 '5 ■5[ 2 C Tip I,, Tip. 54i 4« 56 'i (' 194 l.i'nglli .ilciiij. I'niiit Ciirvi'. 68.^ 68' r,8 67 6GI 66J 66 65 65 ^>5 64.1 ('4! 64,1 62 Sheep Bnsiil CircuintiTcniT. Hi 15 17 16 16 164 '5f '5i 16 16 .6i P 16.1 ■ 6.', 'Si i6i i6| •5| I'ip tci 'I'in. 39 35^ 43 52 S2 42 46 ? 44 5.^ 44.'> 49i 46 41 .39 46.1 5' 40 ft>,„to„„._Thc l>a„,ins, f,„,„ Hun., ,„ „e:,r ,he .„.,a., „f ,„e Amu Daria. //././,,_The following excellent account of the habits , r M.rc., Polo's sheep on the Pamirs is given hy Viscount K. de i\.ncins -^^ As . rule, Ovis poli are not at all fond of difHcult and rocky .nountains Their true ground is the long rolling plateau or the rounded hills of the J^.nirs 1 never saw one in a really bad place. They are not very wary, but often d.thcult to stalk on account of the ground. A close shot is 'a rare occurrence, and 200, 250, or 300 yards is the common range. "They are commonly found at a height from 18,000 feet up to the ■snow, the little patches of grass along the snow lines over broad st.>ny -.lias being their favourite resorts. They feed in the early morn.ng and keep moving about till ten or eleven o'clock in the day ; then the. lie ^!'!'i f^ Marco Polo's Sheep '95 >iown, »,me,i,„es „„ ,|„ .,n,c s,„„, „r oft.„„ ,hey g„ „p s„,„e bare hill where .l,ey scratch the gr.H„„i and make a «,r. „f big .f„™,. , ,,, „,„ notice ,ha, ,bey are a, all i„„ rule, they dislike snow and are ve,-y cautions when in .leep new snow. I once saw tbnr repeatedly try a glacier covered with new snow not ,n„re than +00 yards fron, ,„e. 1, was wonderful the way in which they avoided the bad places. The one in front went very slowly, trying the g,ound, and every now and then went sh,«dde,-deep into the snow He then d,ew back and tried other places without success, and then saw „,e " .Alter keep.ng very cp.iet all day, about three or four o'clock they go again to feed. Once 1 saw three ntales fighting on the wav to the graz.ng-ground. They were butting each other exactly as .sheep do and som«i„,es ran alongside each other striking sideways agains, the' nbs and anks. The points of the horn.s being at right angles with the hne ot the neck, they ,„„st hurt each other in this wav much more than \v 196 Sh eei . lu when knocking their heads together. When engaged in such a fight they utter a kind of low grunt, and the noise of the horns against each "ther can he heard a long way o^K. They do not ,„ove ahout at night except .'hen disturbed. -One has to be very cautious when watching O.vV M', as they have excellent sight and are wonderfully keen-scented. If they see anything they all stan.i looking at it, crowding against each other and striking the ground with the fore-feet, often coming some paces nearer. All at once one bounds away, all the herd follows, and before long all stop again and turn to 00k at what has distcu-bed the.n. Then they start again and stop agaui, sonu-fmes every two or three hundred yards. . . . They nearly always resort to the san.e places and the same nullas. Hig herds always cons.st ot females and young .nales. When about rive vears old the n,ales herd toge.!.er in small parties of two or three, s.^metimes more, but scarcely ever exceeding; eight or ten. Once only I saw twenty-three. These herds of males spend the summer in the highest and most remote nullas. but in winter they come lower down, and many die of starvation in the spring when, atter a bad winter, the food runs short. One can see on the ground' many heads of old individuals which died in the spring. In some places they are to be seen by do.ens, and by the n.ore or less decayed condition of the horns and skulls one can guess how long thev have been lying on the ground. During the summer there is not a single big male to be seen near those places where the horns are found, and it is evident that they only come in winter. . . . When galloping they have a peculiar way of keeping the head quite erect ; this is certainly due to the great weight of the horns, which would be felt much m.>re if the head were kept straight out. All the same, they go very fast indeed downhill, and their gallop is a long stnde even when going uphill ; but I noticed more than once what a peculiar stiff action they have in the shoulder, which is dt,e to the way they carry their heaiis." i. ir m :tli |i Marco Polo\s Sheep 197 The weight oF a good ra.n's head is estimated by the Viscount at about 40 lbs.; and to support this cnonnous burden great strength of neck ■s rec,uisitc. This is effected by an excessive developn.ent of the great tendon of the neck, the h'gamentu.n nucha- of anatomists, which is like a cable Some idea of the numbers in which these n.agniHcent sheep are found on the Pamirs nK,y be gathered fro„. a staten,ent of the same wnter, to the effect that he estimated the nun^ber he saw during a single day s hunting at not less than 600 head. Such a profusion of large animals >s only to be n,et with elsewhere in Africa, and formerly on the American prairies. I>. T.iiAN Shan Rack— Ovis poli karklim (?) Ovh sculptonn,,^ Blyth, Proc. ZooL Soc. i H40, p. ,a; Flower and Oarson, CV,/. Ostco/. M.s. Co//. S.rg. pt. ii. p. 245 (.8H4). Ovis l.ur//„i, Severtzoff, Tr.„s. Sor. Moscou, vol. viii. art. 2, pp ,50 =»'^d .54, pi. i. (.87^^), yl„, Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. xviii. pp ,7, aio, and 2:7 (.H76) ; Brooke, Proc. Zoo/. Sor. .Sjs, p. 5.2; Blanford.' KfSH/ts y }ar/:a/,,. p. 80 (1879). (?) Ovis co//iu,n^ Severt.off Trans. Soc. Moscou, vol. viii. art 2 p , r. (1H73). '* ^^ (?) Ovis /,a»sii, Severt.off op. cit. pp. ,50 and ,54 (,87^) ; Brooke, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. ,875, p. 517 ; Frezewalski, Cat. Zoo/. Co//, p. ,5 (,887) Ovis po/i, Stoliczka, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. ,874, p. 425, pj. 1;;;. Cy.,;v.Ar.r.-Distinguished fron. the typical race by the following characters .-Horns of adult n.ale shorter, their spiral seldom much exceedmg one complete circle ; the .>uter front angle in some specimens completely rounded <,ff at the base, but in other examples sharp. In the winter c(,at apparently rather less white on the buttocks and thighs, and the upper part of the face, at least frequently, brownish instead <,f pure wh.te ; female in winter coat (according to Dr. Stoliczka's Hgure) with a if i 198 Sheep I *. ;i!. 1 , 1 :> dark stripe from the hack of the her.il to the root of the tail. Ikiyht at shoulder ranging from 3 feet 6 inches to 3 feet H inches. Ovis karclhu was first descrihed upon the evidence of specimens ohtained from the Ahuau, north of Lake Issik Kul in the Semirechinsk Altai, the translation of Severtzoff s original description running as follows : "The horns are moderately thick, with rather rounded edges; frontal surface very prominent ; orhital surface rather flat, narrowing only in the last third of its length. The horns are three times as long as the skull. . . . The neck is covered hy a white mane shaded with grayish- brown. The light brown of the back and sides is separated from the yellowish-white of the belly by a wide dark line. The light brown of the upper-parts gets gradually lighter towards the tail, where it becomes grayish-white, but does not form a sharply defined anal disk. On the back there is a sharply marked darK line running from the shoulders to the loins. I did not find any soft hair under the lung winter hair in October. . . . Height at the shoulder 3 feet 6 inches ; length of the horns from 44 to 45 inches." This description obviously applies to animals in the winter coat. In the continuation of his memoir Severtzoff' states that the same sheep inhabits all the neighbourhood of Issik Kul, to the south of which it is met with, although not very commonly, on the northern fianks of the Thian Siian, which are more or less wooded. Now during the sojourn of the Second Yarkand Expedition at Kashgar numerous large sheep were brought in, which were in the winter drjss and had been transported from the Thian Shan, apparently in a frozen condition. Although described by Dr. Stoliczka as the true Ovis pol/, they were subsequently identified by Sir V. Brooke with the O. karcliiii oi Severtzoff, and from the locality whence they came, and their general agreement with the description of the latter, there can be little hesitation in accepting the identification. Dr. Stoliczka's description of the coloration of the male is as follows: "General Marco Polo's Sheep 199 colour above honry brown, distinctly rufescent or fawn on the upper hind neck and above the shoulders, darker (.11 tlie loins, with a dark line ex- tending along the ridge of the tail to the tip. Head above and at the sides a grayish-brown, darkest on the hinder part, where the central hairs are from 4 to 5 inches long; while between the shoulders somewhat elongated hairs indicate a short mane. Middle of upper part of neck hoary white, generally tinged with fliwn ; sides of body and the upper part of the limbs shading from brown to white, the hairs becoming more a.Hl more tipped with the latter colour. Face, all the lower-parts, limbs, tail, and all the under-parts, extending well above towards the loins, more white. The hairs on the lower neck are very much lengthened, being from 5 to 6 inches long. Ears hoary brown externally, almost white internally." Several of these specimens are now mounted in the British Museum ; and all of them show more or less brown on the upper half of the tace, while the dark line on the tail is not apparent. Otherwise they accord well with the description. As already mentioned, it is most unfortunate that there are no means ot comparing these specimens with the corresponding (winter) dress of the typical poli. But it seems most probable that at the same season the general coloration of the two forms would be very similar ; and, apart from other features, it is thus unlikely that kan-li„i would in summer assume the dark buttocks, thighs, and under-parts of O. suiraisis. Still, as has been stated above, in the dark upper part of the face and the blackish dorsal stripe of the female the present form does lead on from the typical poll in the direction of the latter. With regard to the horns, one of the Thian Shan male, in the British Museum has the outer front angle completel) rounded off, as is well shown in the hgure given by Sir V. Brooke in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1875, p. 5,2, figs. 2 and ^ In the other examples, however, both front angles are very strongly marked indeed ; and it does II' W i^ 200 Sheep not appcnr that this anguhiticn can he attrihutal t.. immaturity, one <.f the specimens being taller than the animal in which the front edges of the horns are rounded otY. Tins roimding of the horns cannot, therefore, be taken as an invariable point of distinction between /..// /v//v/////, and />.// fy/>u,i. Neither, 1 think, on inferiority of sixe in the f<.rmer be so regarded, one of the specimens with angulated horns in the museum measuring ^ feet H inches at the shoulder, and thus considerably exceeding Mr. Littledale's mounted example of the Pamir race. And' 1 think it most probable th.it in the Western Semirechinsk the two will be found to intergrade completely. The Oris sailptonim of BIyth is founded on a single horn in the Museum <'■ the College of Surgeons which was regarded both by Severt/ot}" and Brooke as probably identical with the present form. And if such identity could be deHnitely established, Blyth's name, as the earlier, should be adopted. In the absence of any such certainty the name generally in use has been retained for the present. Now comes the cjuestion as to Ovis /avW, nameil on the evidence or skulls obtained from Tokmak, situated in the Southern Semirechinsk to the north-west of the Issik Kul lake and to the north-east of the Alexan- drovski Mountains, and thus within what ought to be the range of the present species. And, so far as the available evidence goes, 1 cannot see how O. //,7//.,7 can be differentiated from the present race of O. poli, and, at any rate, that form cannot .ipparently be more than another race of the same species. D/:f//7/;////Vv//.— Typically from the Alatau, but apparently extending over the greater part of the Semirechinsk and Sapliski Altai to the Thian Shan and south-west to the Narin river, where its range is said to overlap that of O. poll typica. Tokmak and the Alexandrovski Mountains, the former of which is the typical locality for the so-called Ovis hcnw, are included in this area. M arco Polo's Sheep 20I lU'iru-- The ni.ulc- nHifc „fthc Thian S),an race is d„uhtlcs. identical with that of the typical O. /,.//. Scvcrtzoff writes as follows :~" Ovh kan-lh,K like other sheep, does not live exclusively amongst the rocks, as 's the case with the different species of V.„pn,. It is not satisried, like the Fk. .,9- a >1c:uI ,„,,1c of M.ro, l'„l„V Sl.ccp. Fn,,,, ,, ph„.„,r,,ph In M,-. IXu ij T. ll,,„ln,rv. latter, with small tufts of grass gr..wing in the clefts of rocks, hut requires more extensive feeding-grounds ; it is thereh.re more easily driven from certain districts than is the case with V.aprn. In the neighbourhood of Kopal, for instance, the goats are abundant in the central parts of the steppes of Kara, whilst the sheep have been partially driven from these places, visiting them in autumn. On the southern ranges of the Semi- rechinsk Altai, in the vicinity of the river Hi, wherever good meadows 2 D I ij 202 Sh eep li and rocky places are found, Ovis karclm, occurs at elevations of from 2000 to 3000 feet ; at the sources of the rivers Lepsa, Sarkau, Kora, Karatala, and Koksa it goes as high as 10,000 feet, and even to 12,000 feet in the neighbourhood of the Upper Narin. In winter it is found at much lower elevations." In the FicU of 5th November 1898 Capt. R. B. Cobbold writes that owing to rinderpest, which has raged throughout the winter all over the Pamirs, 0,v> y^.// " has, for the time being, become practically extinct. All over the Russian Pamirs, and in the Taghdumbash also, hundreds of dead animals may be seen ; and in nullas where last October I saw hundreds, in July last there were only skeletons. On the Tagh- dumbash the rinderpest has not been so severe as on the Russian side ; but large heads, owing to the numbers that have been shot by British sports- men, are i^^ and for between. The nullas in Chinese territory which hold Mare in the north, the nullas near the Karaart Pass at the head of the Kuntemis river ; but there is no head of 50 inches in any of them. Farther south in the Taghdumbash, the Kungerab, Oprang, Bayik, Kukturuk, and two nullas near Bozai Gumbax, still hold a few small heads ; but I saw no head of 50 inches in any of them this summer. The big heads I killed last autumn, and which were lately mentioned in the Field, were killed in the neighbourhood of the Bayik Pass ; and at that time large males were numerous on the Russian and Chinese side of that pass, but they have literally died in hundreds." I' "i! • Inokrt^ Skdis Ovis nigvimontiuui Ovis nigrimoutana, Severt;^off, Trans. Soc. Moscou, vol. viii. art. 2, P- 154 ('H73) ; Brooke, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1875, p. 5,7 ; W. L. Sclater. cj. Mamm. I/iJ. Miis. pt. ii. p. i ^2 (1891). ^Jayt|||)|i^t^-^.^A.^.b...i^-^^.»^^.: Ovis darwini 203 Description.— Th<^ translation of Severtzoff's original description is as follows :—" The horns are not massive; the fronto-nuchal edge is very sharp, the other two edges are also not much rounded ; the frontal surface is narrow, but prominent ; the other two surflices pressed in, rendering the edges sharp, especially the fronto-nuchal edge. A section of the base of the horn shows the orbital and nuchal surfaces to be nearly equal in width, each of them being about li times as wide as the frontal surface. The ridges of the horn are sharp, straight, and regularly parallel with each other. . . . This species is, like Ovis /wiiisi, only know;, from skulls ; amongst these is one of an adult male. Through a telescope I saw that the colour of the animal is a light grayish-brown, with a white belly and rump. It is considerably smaller than Ovis karcliiii, being one of the smallest and weakest of all the Central Asiatic sheep." The length of the horns in the type skull is given as 38 inches. Bearing in mind the known variability in the horns of these large sheep, the above description does not appear sufficient to define this form, and there are no specimens in the British Museum from the typical locality. Mr. W. L. Sclatei is, however, probably right in his suggestion that O. nigrimonhuui conforms to the ^wunon type, of which it may constitute a small race, its distributional area being on the western border of that of the latter species. If it be true that this sheep has a white caudal disk and under-parts, it seems, as already mentioned, unlikely that it can be the same animal as Littledale's sheep. Distribution. — The Karatau, or Black Mountains, lying to the south- west of Kulja on the Mongolian frontier. Ovis daricini Ovis ,/,/ricini, Prezewalski, Cat. Zoo/. Coll. p. 15 (1887). The brief description of this sheep being in Russian, I can say nothing either as to its characteristics or its habitat. i; il 204 Sh eei I ! i Ml //7/w/m.— Typically from the western and north-western districts of North America, but also ranging into the countries bordering the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk and parts of North Siberia. In America the bighorn and its various races have a very extensive range. They are found throughout the whole extent of the Rocky Mountains, both on their eastern and western slopes, and extend as tar south as Sonora, Northern Mexico, and the southern extremity of the Californian peninsula, so that on the Pacific coast they occur on all the lesser mountain chains from British Columbia to California. Northwards they extend throughout Alaska to the shores of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Their distribution in the Eastern Hemisphere is noticed later on, but it may be mentioned that they probably occur on the Asiatic coast of Bering Strait, so that the American and Asiatic forms are separated by a comparatively small distance. The habits of bighorn may be more conveniently referred to under the heading of the various races. 208 Sh eep I i ' ■! a. SourHKKN Rack — Ovis canadknsis nklsom Ovis nchoni, Merriaiii, Proc. Soc. Washington, vol. xi p 218 (•«97)- C/wrai-Avj-.— Somewhat interior in size to the typical, or Rocky Mountain race, and much paler in colour, with the molar teeth decidedly smaller. The general plan of coloration is stated to he very much the same as in O. auuuknsis s-fonci, hut the pallor ;, even more marked when compared with that tbrm. The light caudal disk is small and com- pletely divided in the middle hy a dark line; the tail is relatively short and slender; and the cheek-teeth are unusually small. Oeneral colour of upper-parts, except the caudal disk, pale dingy brown ; under- parts much darker, and contrasting strongly with the white areas ; ab- dominal region, together with a streak in the middle line, continued forwards nearly to the fore-legs, inner side of thighs, and hinder surface of legs white. Dr. Merriam remarks that, compared with the north-western race, "The contrast in colour is even more marked, but the pattern seems to be the same, and the darkening of the under-parts is also a character of stoned No mention is made in the original description of the size and shape of the horns, hut from Mexican specimens that have come under my notice these seem to be generally similar to those of sfonci. Distrihtion.—TyxyxcAWy the Grapevine Mountains, on the boundary between California and Nevada, a little south of i^f N. latitude, prob- ably also including the semi-i)arren desert ranges of Mexico and the Southern United States, from Texas to California. y,h 2lH rn'-v'"'^rt"'i ••'ii-"-iit i!i-"i i Ik II 1 !^ '!;( i. i&; Ik. Wild Oxen. Sheep. &. Goats Plate XVIL ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIGHORN. f^jituihucl Iry KmtlandVlardLU .ATE XVJL Rocky Mountain Bicrhorn 209 /'. R(H K\' MocN r.AiN RAir. -Ov.s canadknsis rviMcA Plate XI H. (:/>.raarrs.^S\zc large, the heiglit at tlie slu.ulcier apparently rangin-r fn.m al)out ., feet 2 inehes to ,^ fc-ct 6 inclK-sJ Skt.ll long and narrow ""■•'^^ "f adnit n.ale (fig. 40) very massive and thiek, without a distinct keel -n the onter front edge, and with the spiral short, so that the tips, which arc generally blunt and broken, are directed nearlv forwards. I^'ars broad pointed, deer-like, and nioderately clothed with hair, being apparentlj a tnrie larger than in the argalis. No long ,nane on the back of the head -Hi nape of neck. Caudal disk large and continual on each side of the dark streak connecting the back with the tail well on to the upper surface -t the hind-c,uarters. (ieneral colour of upper-parts somk- shade of grayish- l>nuvn, darkening along the niiddle line of the back, where there is a more or less distinct dark streak ; in winter and spring the prevalent tinge more dccdedly brown, and in autun.n more distinctly gray ; old males,^u least -n the sunmier coat, very pale coloured, so that the caudal disk is scarcely 'i.st.nguishable fVon, the darker are.. The under-parts, the inner and lender surfaces of the legs, the buttocks and a streak on each side of the l>ase of the ta,l, the ch,n and mux.le, and a spot on a grayish ground near tl'c upper part of the throat white or whitish ; face and outa- surfl^ce of cars bght ashy-gray ; fVont surfaces of legs a darker blackish gray-brown ti^an the back, and the upper surface of the tail lighter than\i;e dorsal streak. Light area on .uuier-parts not .sharply defined. Such is the best description I an, at present able to give of the coloration ^...a',,";::;:::;:::;i;;;:;:::;!i:;:^^^^ "Ugh, , .„>K „( ,|,c cues at tins r,n,o woighing .. .n.uh .,. ,1,. rtvc-vc.r ,.K1 r,,„,. Ml 2 K 2IO Sheep •' •ihi ot the typical race o'' this species, the Brlti-^li Museum heing siiiguhirlv deficient in examples. Indecti, almost the only L';<)od skin it [lossesses is that i)t an old male, which is mounted and exhibited. It is apparently in the winter coat, judging from the length and thickness of the I lir, and remarkable for its extreme paleness, but whether this is normal or due to fading, 1 am unable to say. Mr. K. S. Cameron informs me that in autumn and winter tlie pre- vailing tint is the same as that of the mule-deer, namely, a dark iirownish- gray, and when the two animals are placed side by side no diflerence can be perceived in the colour of the upper-parts. In the sheep the under- parts anteriorly, portions of the legs, and the tail, are brown ; a narrow strip ot the brown colour of the tail being continued across the white of the rump and meetin^ii the gray of the back. The tail itself is very short, only 4 inches in the largest rams, surrounded by an extensive patch of yellowish-white extending between the thighs and to the groin. Measured from the root of the tail this disk reaches H,', inches above and H" inches on either side in full-grown examples, and is thus very conspicuous in the bad-lands where these sheep show up like a band of pronghorns more especially in early summer. The muzzle is of the same yellowish-white colour. A broad yellowish-white stripe extends down the inside of the fore-legs and on tlie outside of the hind-l(;gs ; or, in other words, the legs are half-white and half-brown ; but I have seen old rams in which this white was much circumscribed. In the spring the sheep gradually bleach out lighter and appear of a dun colour until they shed the coat, which mav be liny time from the end of May to the middle of fuh. according to the season. The following are some of the largest horn-measi.rements of the present and other American races recorded by Mr. Rowland Ward :~ Rocky Mountain Rifrhorn 21 I Lt-nglli .tlitiig Kfmt C'iir\i-. Baiiil fircMnifcrcmi'. 1 ip ti, Til.. I.nciilily. 45 p > p 4^i >^>.l 2Sl Lower C'iilit'on/ui 4-i r6 ? Wyoming ' '7.1 ? »i 40] 16! ? Yellowstone 40 'si ? Uocky Mountains 40 1. ■51 ^oi p .19s -5';i ? Colorado }9k i6i 24'i'. Montana }9l '5.i 19 ? .V> ■s-,' ^ ? ''1 '4i 18^ Rocky Mountains 3»fi i5i ^ ■) ? 3«1 •5l 19 Montana .^>^l 16,:; p Bighorn Mountains .^« '7 ? North-West Territorv ?!^ '5 ? British Columbia .rl. '5i ^.il; Mexico M1 ,r,| 2 1 1 British Columhia Ml '5 ir, „ 37 16 .]i N\ joining ,17 ,r,j ? Montana ^'•■f ly '5 British Columhia .v>1 i5i 22.1 Wyoming '4.'- '4:1 '4 NN'yoming h lie horns seldom mcasiiix- more than 15 inehes alon^ the curve. .Mr. Ward sa- that "large horns ot' the male are now very ilirtieult to obtain, and 1 have seldom ot" lute years seen fresh-killed spc 'nen- who-c horns e.veced 3S inches on the curve from base to tip. .\hk can sports- men are \erv keen to . 'itain horns ot' large circiimtcrence, and, as will he seen tVoin the records here given, they very seldom exceed 16 inches." DistnlnitioiL-y >r dehnitely derined, Init emhracim; the mountainous m 212 SI iL'Cp '[ I ilistricts ..f western North America from the desert regions of the Colorado river and Arizona northwards into British t'ohmihia, where the present race not improhal,ly intergrades with the next. Kxamples th.m the Yellow- stone river, hke the mounted ram in the British Museum, have somewhat less massive horns than those from Wyoming and Coh.rado, hut in other respects appear to he iiulistinguishahle. H„/>it.^.~U is the custom of American sportsmen to spc-ak of the Rocky Mountain highorn as inhahiting the most inaccessihie precipitous chtfs. thus giving the idea that in its mode of life it is more like a goat than' the wild sheep of the Old W..rld. Acc.rding, however, to Mr.^ Hnlhps- VVolIey, in his account of this animal p.ddishe.i in the H,u/»,mh>, Lihurv, th.s is cjuite a >nistaken notion. H.ghorn, he observes, are undoubtedly sometimes found in ditikult and even dangerous places, but to describe sheep-shooting as anything like chamois ..r ibex-hunting is a mistake. In this respect, therefore, the bighorn does not depart so widelv from the liabits of other wild sheep as might easily be imagined to be the case from the accounts given by many writers. For the following notes I am indebted to .Mr. K. S. Cameron : Hig- hr.rn are found in the "bad-land." of the Yellowstone, Missouri, and l^.wder valleys, and are met with in docks of from rive to rifty individuals; they are very gregariou:-, and in my experience luuler n<. circumstances ever remain alone for long. The Hocks, when undisturbed, seek the prairie to feed at daylight, returning to the bad-lands at nine or ten o'clock to rest until the afternoon, when they will again rise to (^cd among the bad-lands, often returning to the prairie in the evening, and graxing until dark. So' far as 1 am aware, they never feec) at night like the mule-deer. Their f ,od consists of grass and three varieties of sage-plant, known locally as sweet sage, sour sage, and salt sage, but 1 have never known them t.> ea't anv wild fruits or berries such as are sought by the d-er. Like these, they obtain their food in winter by scraping away the snow, and in sunmier they graze like :l 'i Rocky Mountain Bighorn 21 ; the domestic merinos, with which they sometimes associate on the prairie. J 'I" -'..t think that they can he rearc! in captivity without some kind of wild sage. They resemhie mul.-dcer in tVecii.enting a certain range of had- hunls, and always watering at the same spring, hut are more shv,\ieserting the locah-ty at the first alar.n. In tune of security the riock is' led hv an "hi lam, but when danger threatens he becomes a rearguard, and a ewe assumes the lead. This ram (excepting during the pairing season) would appear to he the usual sentinel, as he may he seen on the top of a high hutte, while all the rest of the ri -ck are hidden in gulches below but no demoralisation occurs if the leader is killed, another sheep taking the initiative, and the Hock quickly vanishing. .\b..nt the second week in xNovember the old rams Hght savagely for the ewes ; but the young rams pair earlier, and i shot a five-year-old which had collected some ewes on 29th October. The victors collect and herd as many ewes as they can, from rive to a dozen being a usual number with one ram, while the disappointed males wander about alone ; but the possessor of ewes may lo.e them at any time, solitary rams being always on the lookout to give battle. The yearling and two-year-old rams remain with the ewes ; and although occasionally chased away by him, in the main the leader pays but little attention to them. \\licn the pairing season ,s over the sheep of all ages and both sexes riock together again until May, when the ewes drop out singlv from the "lain body to bnng forth their lambs. At this time large Hocks of rams .nay be seen, locally called -buck herds" ; twenty-three of all ages, from yearlings upwards, having been counted in the bad-lands opposit'e Terry. 'I-he ewes generally have a single lamb at a birrh, although rarelv thev are followed by twins. The dam carefully conceals the newlv-b'orn lamb a.nidst sage-brush or weeds in the bad-lands, from which she never goes anv considerable distance. In three or four days the lamb, which resemMes the parents in colour, comes out of its concealment to follow the ewe, and . ( • 1 •! ' 1: J. IJI 214 Sheep I III ' , 'H i I ' about :i week at'tcr the hitter rejoins the tlock. Th.e six-inoiitiis-old lamhs constantly lose themselves, to wander about in a bewildered state. The ewe is a devoted mother, ami although by nature these sheep are exceed- ingly timid, should her oftspring be injured she will not desert it. On the other hand, an old ram severely wounded in a place from which he cannot leap, seems mail with rage and tear, as, with hair turned the wrong way, lie charges desperately when closely approached. A lamb makes a charming pet, and a male which was brought up in Miles City used to run about the cantonment; and so superior were its leaping powers, that when chased by dogs, or otherwise alarmed, it grace- fully bounded on to the roofs of the houses, which consisted of one story. Remarkable as are the leaping powers of these sheep, the facility with which they walk up a sheer clitl" seems even more remarkable. Tliey will walk a little way in a /ig/ag manner to stop and lot-k, then ad\ance a little farther and again stop to '••.■connoitre on a face of rock steep enough to appal a cat, until they finally disappear over the top. This they are able to do by the structure ot their feet, the exterior antl interior line of each hoot being perfectly straight, while the oes aie bevelled on the inside in such a way, tl .t e;ich iii\ision of tiie hoof c-tches in the soft rock like the blade of a [lairof shears. In consei|L;ence of this, they make a square track, which can never lie mistaken fir that of tleer or prongbuck, e\en by an un[M-actised eve. Bighorn possess a strong scent, readily [lerceptible to human nostrils if they are in any numbers and the wind fax oural/le. Horses quickly smell them, ami my horse once sto[>ped, refusing to proceeti along the "diviile" on vJiich I was riding. Ivvpecting some fierce beast, 1 crawled to the 1. 'ge, oidy to discover a solitary ewe. Another horse, accustoinci' to carry deer, became frenzied when two shee[i were [nicked on him. Although they never stay in them, sheep ha\c no ol)lection to passing through woods. I occupied a ranch at the foot of the Bighorn Mountains, to which they ,!|, Liard River Bighorn ^15 were known to ilescend in winter, threadinti the dense forest of the mountain slope, and in this locality thev constantly traverse the pine anti cedar thickets. Thev will also frequent isolated huttes on the prairie, tVoni which they must cover a long distance to reach the had-huuls, and in such situations they have often l)een pursued hy horsemen. In these chases the rams outstripped the ewes. I have shot them on level ground, on which, in my opinion, tlicy can run as fast as mule-deer ; Init they offer an easier mark for the rifle than either deer or pronghuck, having neither the houndin"- "jait of the former nor the incredihle swiftness of the latter. 1 have seen a whole tlock lie down at once in the had-lands, hut this is not a favourahle time to creep up, as many are on the ledges ot high huttes commaiuling the entire country, except to windward. Rather when they are feeding over ridges, and moving inceshantly, can the coveted chance he obtained. As may he inferred from the above, these sheep are not so rare as generally supposed, and in out-of-the-way places they may still he seen in considerable numbers. In November 1H95, on tiie bad-lands above the Missouri river, Montana, 1 saw a larger tlock than I had imagined could be found in this region. Signs ot their presence hail been noticed, when a large dock moved slowly over a small ritige about ;oo yards tlistant, and passed out of sight, being immeiliately followed by a procession of twenty-fi\e othcs in single lile, among which were some enormous rams. As the first division was tienselv masseti, thev could not be countcil, but there must ha\e been at leaNt fifty indivi(hlal^ in the entire tlock. r. LlAKI) Rl\KK Rm\. ( )\ Is l ANADI.Nsls I.I A HDKNs I S »'ljl (.'./unuhtri\\.- — Stature about equal to that ot the Rocky Mountain race. Horns of adult male sleiuler, with a sharp keel on the outer front eilge, and their tips pointed, entire, ami directed l.ugelv outwariJN. l'!ar> small, short. 1 i I Hi i li ,i 2l6 Sh eep '"Hi bluntly pointed. In winter a thick mane of h,n. ha.rs on the crown of the head and nape of neck. At this season the face and sides of the head dirty white, forming a marked contrast with the dark of the upper-parts of the hody ; the mane grayish-brown ; hair of rest ..f neck mingled »rav and 1^ K":. 4i.--I,i,,rJ RiuT M,j;l,„rn. l-'mm the ivpc ,„:,lc in tho Mrm.h M„-c„in. '"•own, gradually passing into the dark bnnvn of the bndv ; n>, ch\t,uct ' orn 217 This race is typified by an adult .nounted ,nale from the L,ard river in the Bnt,sh Museun, partially descr.hed by C.I. J. Biddulph ..„ pp 670 and 6S0 oFthe /V.-,.,.^, „• ,,, ^.,.,,,^i^^, ,^,^.^^^, ^__. ^^^^_ ^^ .;. ^ ^7> wnuer pelage, and appears to he nearly allied to the north-western race 'H.t ,s as large as the typ.^al representative of the species. TntortunatelJ tHc north-western race is described from specimens beheved to be in the -"-r pelage, and it is theretore by no n.eans u.probable that ,n winter tHey m.ght develop a sim.lar mane, and d.splav e.nal lightness in the "''""■ '' ^'" '''•' ''' ^-"f^--' -'^'^ that of the bodv. Kvn,, however ,f s-h were the case, the present form would apparentlv be d,t^rent,ated In ■ts larger s,.e, and s.nce ,t inhabits an area lying between that of .^... and .^/-v, ,t may at least prov.sionaliv be allowed to rank as a sepnrate'r-.ce /^../.v/^./A..-Tvpically the neighbourhood of L.ard river, near the northern evtrem.ty of the Rockv Mountains, in about latitude ,, X '/. XoKTH-WKsrKKX Ru, Ovis CANAI,..As.S s TON Ov/y s/'M7\ ]. \. Allen, Mu//. 1.1 , . , ^ ■^'"■'''' ■'^^"'- ^'"l' '■^. P- ",, pis. ,i. and iii. (•^97); Nelson, \ut. Gr.gr.;,/,n- AL,.. vol. ,x. p. ,,s (,Sc;S). an,nn-trrs. The original description of the adtdt male, apparently ,n tl- sununer pelage, runs as follows :-^^ Above grav, torn.cd bvan -tnnatc .mvture of whitish and blackish-brown; face, ears, a„d s.d^s of ncvK lighter and m<,re whitish, being much less varied with blackish- '^'■-^" ; ^vhole posterior area and lower-parts from hinder part of back '•"^"•^^ •''•'' -"' ^''---^ -'-i.ng the posterior aspect of thi.hs, and the ^•'>''"n^cn, white, the white area narrowing anteriorlv and terminat,,.. in •' ' "^''''''"' '^""^ "" ^''^ "-'^"^' "^- tHc chest ; also a broad sharplv-derined '^^'"'' "^ -'"tc nn the posterior surf.ce of both tore- and hind-limbs extending from the bodv to the hoofr, and ab.n e including also the mner -'•^^'^■^; t-nt of ,H..k, fr,„„ base <,f lower , aw posteriorly to the white :: I 'U ! f \V 2l8 Sh eei ot the ventral surface, inchulfn^u the hreast ar.i -n-eater part of the chest and thence alon-^ the sides to the th.ghs, nearly hlack ; the lateral extension alony the flanks heu.nes narrower posteriorly, and the neck is some^yhat .rixxled u,th yvhite ; outer surface of hoth fore and lund-lnnhs hlackKsh-hrovvn, either unifor.n or in some specimens varied vyith a slight m.xtureof ^vhitish; hack of head with a broad area of hk,,k, narrowmg posteriorly and continued to the ta,l as a well-derined dorsal stripe- t^'I wholly deep hlack, except a few white hairs on the ,n,d<]le of its lower surface; a narrow blackish chin-bar, varying ,n breadth and distinctness in different individuals ; hoofs black ; horns light brown/' In its relatixely small sixe this sheep agrees with the- Alaska,! race as it does ,n the form of its horns. It differs in that its prevailin-' coloration is either dark gray or blackish-brown, according to the area in question, instead of being a nearly uniform dirty white colour. With tl^e typical race ,t agrees in a general way a^ regards its pattern of coloration, but the umber or wood-brown of the f.rmer is everywhere replaced in the present animal by blackish-brown, or black. -I'lK-'stature '" the present race is, moreover, considerably inferior, and the horns are less massive, with a more outward cur\ature at the tips. n/sfr//„r.o..^STh. upper part of the Stikin \'alley, British North-West Territory, near the Xlaskan frontier, at an ele^ation of between 6000 and 7000 feet abov« sea-fcvcl, and about .,-0 .niles south of the area knoun to Ik' inhabiteii hy the Alaslcjn race. Mr. Stone, rhc di>.,,^crer of th, apparently well-marked race of l>.ghorn, wntc^ a. rollovvs t,. Dr. Mien, its ck'.criher The only specimens ,,f this sheep I had the opportunity of discoyenng were the males which I found during the months of August and September ,n the "lost rugged part^ ,.,- the mountains, entirely above the timher-hne. I otten found them singly, and at no time did 1 discover more than fuc ,n one bunch, thot.gh one of my p.rty reported having seen < l.ven together. !) Alaskan Bighorn 219 1 saw perhaps Hfty head, and secured twelve speei.nens. I was very careh.l ,n ,ny study of these interesfng anunals, and I found the.n to h^ ^'"'^onnly .narked, both in colour and genera! characteristics. "The youngest of the three now in the nu.seun, was secured August ^th ,896, ,n a very deep and rocky canon, just at the base of one of the -^hest peaks u, th.s part of the .nountains. At the time I discovered '-" I- was all alone, carefully n.aking his way d.nvn the canon, and fVo„, what I afterwards learned I an. very .nuch inclined to believe he was then ■" quest of the ewes, lan.bs, and yearlings in the edge of the tin.ber farther '1-vn tne n.unuain side, and ,t is epn'te likely that he had not yet regularly taken up the con.pany of the older ra.ns. The two older spccnnens were taken on August ,oth, about f^ve n.iles distant fh.n ti- in.U uul were the only ones ,„ the bunch. I watched them an entire afternoon before k.lling then,. They passed the tune alternatelv '"'>'^'-,g at t,nv bits of g,.ass occasionally seen peeping fron, crevicJs -" the rocks, and play.ng or lying d.wn on patches of snow and ice ll^cy were verv fat. Specin.ens taken two n.ontbs later possessed the same markini-s." ■• Al ASK V.N KaiI. OvIs lA\.\l,I.Ns,s DA 1.1.1 Or. :v.r ,r,,^,n;a ././//, Xdson, /'.... C.s. M„s. vol. v,i. p. , ^ (,SS4). f>^vV „/.///, j. A. Allen, Hu/L ,l»,a: Mus. vol. ,x. p.' ,,. (,s,;-,). ''™"' ''•^'- '^-- ^^-^^>^— 1. .,. p. „, (,S,7);Xelson, A.; O,-.-;-,//.///,- M,g. vol. ix. p. ,:S (iSgS). Uu.nutcrs. -Stature not ascertained. Kars short and chicklv ba.red Horns of aduh .-K- apparently generallv sumlar to these of the L.a-d nver and North- ^Vestern races. 1„ summer the coloration nearly unif^.rm 'i"-tv white, so that the caudal disk ,s mvisible ; the d "ver the entire body and limbs be linginess of the w bite g apparently ilue to the tips of the t m ti till I \h I 220 Sh eei i-irs h.in, dull rusty, thus .nakin, the tur look a. though it ha-i hccn slightly singed. In winter pure white. /)/..v^./...-TypiealIy tVon, the L'pp.r Yukon \'allev, Alaska near wl--e ,t crosses the British houndary, and extending as tar north as ^''>-t latitude 70 . The following passage occurs in Mr. Nelsor', ori-inal d-cnption :--^- Vnnn Mr. M.H.est.n, and various other tin-traders .don- the ^ukon and elsewhere, 1 learned that the range of this torn. ..ve,' nearly all the n.nnland of Alaska where there are nu.untains, exceptin- the v.cnnty of the Her,ng Sea coast. it is linmed strictlv to the nui,;. land, and occurs only among the higher parts of the n.ountains south of al-|.t 6S of latitude. In. north of this it is tound on lower ground, and - the n.ountains give place to low hills and rolling plains near\he Arctic coast, It descends nearly or quite to the sea-level. -Among the natives] have seen typical skins fn.n the mountains -ith ot the Ippcr Kuskoqunn river; from the headwaters of the l-'-'''=^nun the Kadiak Peninsula near Hering Str.it ; also tn.n, the -Hintains east and north-east of Kotxehue Sound, and, durn,g the sun.ner "f iSS,, while cruising hetween Kotxehue Sound and i>oint Harrow we -V 'uindreds of skins among the Kskimos, who mvariablv pointed to tHc low range of n.uintain. a tew miles hack tnun the coast! when asked where the sheep were fouiul. "\\-hile hunting near Cape Thompson, on the Arctic coast in the -'i^i'e of July .SSi, 1 .uv a pair of these animals w,th,n about rive miles -f the coast, at an elevation of not over ,,00 feet above the sea Thev were feeding on a„ open grassy plain at the foot of a series of low hilN "ver which they ran the moment they caught wind of me, as 1 tried tJ approach along the bed of a small -i,]i.. " In a later paper Mr. \elson writes as'follows concerning this sheep : "Two species of mountain sheep, quite diflerent from one another and f-H the Rocky Mountain bighorn, are known m Xorth-V\ estern An^erica ■•■5fc-".,S hccii • M < I •a o: to z o 9 '' ■;! 2: o X o S ii 2: 66 O X o 2; < < X o < 1 3 11 iUross Kamscliatkaii Bighorn 'I'lic (irst ..f these, a supul) sn„\v-\vliitc animal, was descHIx-d by the writer M.me years ay„ as Or/.. ,/,//// in honour of Prof. W. H. Dall, 'the pioneer scientirie exph.rer on the ^'ukon. The specimens ..pon which mv de- scription was l)ased were obtained from the P'ort Rehance country hy Mr. J.. N. M'Uuesten. Dall's mountain sheep is found over a wide area, fn.m the h.w hills beyond the tree limit near the Arctic coast south the ^'uk.on and Kuskoquim to the Alaskan ran'^c- " I'l-om this it would appear at hrst si^Ljht that the animal is pure white at ;dl seasons, but the ori-inal description shows that this is not the case; and a mounted specimen in bad condition in the British Museum has traces of pale tawny on the neck and fore-lind.s. Hence it would seem probable that the pure white is assumed only in winter, and not always then, since the Hritish Museum example is apparently in the winter coat. Mr. Walter Rothschild has a pure white head from Alaska in the Museum at Trinn I'aik. ./. K\.Ms(n\iK\\ Rah ( )\ is tanadiasis mvuoi.a (k'is >:v.r ///r/i-./,/, hischscholt/, Zoo/. .///„,, p. i. p], j. (,s.<,) . H,,,„i,,^ /v,,. /oo/. S'.: 1S75, p. -,, . (iuillemard, //W. 1SS5, p. 675; Hiddulph, //v,/. P- ^'79 ; Tscherski, .U,w. ./,-,/,/. S/. /',•>, vV^o///-, vol. xl. art. 1 , p. 1S7 (iS(;i) ; Wanl, R,ron/s 0/'% (nn//,\ p. 241; (1896). 0;vV >^fo„fumo; Middendorri; Kris, ZW. p. 1,6 (iS.-i), mv C'uvier .S,7. (:) Or/r /;o/,v///,,-, Severtzot^; Tnnu. .SV. Mosco//, vol. \iii. p. ,-, (iSr.O; I'cters, M^Mf/s/ynWiA' Ak.ul. IWIni, 1S76, p. , So ; Biuine and Toll, l\xpcJ. Scusihir. Inscln mul y^na-LarJc^ p. ^4 (,SS6); Nehnnt;-, 'I'liliJrcP tiihl Sh-ppcn, p. ;;/) (iS(;o). L I, ' ! 222 She en piiuc xni.i. i.lumu-tcrs. Sixc large, the hciylu at the ^l>.„>Klei- reacluny f.. ah„nt 3 feet 2 inches. Hars very small, abruptly truncated, and vc-ry thickly Haired ; nu distinct mane n„ the nape c.f the neck ; hair much l.inger and hncr than in either ..f the foregoing races; and the white caudal d.sk mn.sually small and n.-t extending on to the upper surface of the hind- Fi-. 4^--Skdi and nurn. ..t K.nn^ch.uLu, I5,gl,.,n,. (RouLmkI Ward, R,,.rJ, ,, li,^ c..u,n:) quarters. Skull very short and broad, wth the orbits much ,nore prominent t''^>" -n the Rocky Mountain race, and the p,ts below them almost obsolete Hnrns of adult n.alc generally si.nilar to those of the L.ard river and Alaskan races, being slender, very smooth, with a distinct keel on the tn.nt outer angle, and the spiral comparatively open, so that the tips, which are generally sharp and entire, are directed largelv outwards! (icneral colour of upper-parts (b.,tb in summer and autum'n) grix.led grayish-brown, becoming more distinctly gray on the head and neck than elsewhere; an ill-dehned patch on the forehead below the eves, and the ^■■"nt of the legs rich uniform dark brown, as is the verv broad .tripe 22 Kamschatkan Hiuhorn ^tculing fV.wn the du-k of tin- hack through the caudal d.^k to th tail • Mppcr ;nui under hp ^uMvish-whitc ; eaudal disk, middle ul unde,-,,arts' ^"^'' ^> -.n.vv I.nc ci... . th. ,der Muthce of each leg white, there hcing also ..me white „„ . „.. , p,,, ..f- h,c inner MU-tace of the metatarsal segment of ,he hind-legs. , he white on the under-parts and posterior surface „l legs is fairly well defined from the a.ijacent hrown areas, l'"t not so Sharply as in lh,ninnis. the amount of white on the Iin,hs I-ing nuuh less than ,n the tw<. preceding races. In winter apparently t.n-n,„g white, either ,n some districts or invariahly. \ full-grown ram in good condition will dgh ahoiir ;; .q Ihs. The following din.cnsions of horns ^f this race are given In Mr. Rowland Ward : — l.ill^lll .ll.iMs; ^||'n^ Curve. ,14 1-1 K.H.ll CifiliUlttTCIUf 14 1 I ; 14 ■ri|- 1 1 -lip, 26 2<.' I 2.1 26 21 Not having had the opportunity of seeing sk.dls of the three northern nices of American highorns, I am unahle to say how far these dit^'er from tlnit of the present form. The race is, however, sufiieicntly characterised hy the ahsence of a mane on the nape of the neck, the long and woolly l-air, the small si/e of the white caudal disk, the great width of the .ncdian dark streak hv uhich it is traversed, and the narrowness of the white area on the Ics. At the present time the Hritish Museum possesses the mounted skin <'f^>" immature male, which from the great length of the hair is evidently IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. / 1.0 !ria IM II I.I 11:25 III 1.4 M 12.2 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation # i\ ^>^ '^ ^ '<^j^^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. I4S80 (716) 872-4503 '^\S <^ >> f/i ^A '^ 224 Sh eei .1 I :, in the winter coat, although of the usual dark colour. And examples shot hy Dr. Guillemard in Septemher, which had likewise assumed their winter dress, were also dark coloured. In the Museum at Tring Park there is, however, the head of a white highorn killed in Kamschatka during winter. From this it would seem that these sheep are dark- coloured on the Hrst assumption of the winter coat in autumn, hut that as winter advances the hairs of this coat turn pure white, precisely in the manner of those of the common stoat in many parts of its hahitat. Whether, however, all the individuals of the race thus whiten, or whether the change is restricted to those inhabiting the coldest districts, remains to he determined, D/:r//7/w//w;.— Typically the countries forming the northern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, namely the peninsula of Kamschatka on the east and the Stanovoi Mountains on the west, and apparently also the Chukchi country to the north, so that the distributional area not improbably includes the districts bordering on Bering Strait. There is also con- siderable evidence that the range probably extends eastwards through Northern Siberia near to, if not to, the valley of the Yenisei. Middendorff, for example, convinced himself of the existence of a wild sheep eastward from the Yenisei in about latitude 67 N., in the Sywerma Mountains, near the sources of the river Cheta. And it is probably the present or a closely allied race that Sexertzoff described under the name of O. /w,v///>. The sheep in question was hrst obtained from the Chalunga and Pjasina valleys in Northern Siberia, and was said to be intermediate between awm,^, and wv/ro/a, although much nearer the latter, of which it might turn out to be only a variety. Subsequently the same naturalist wrote of it as lollows: " Very near to Ov/s nnicolu is another, as yet not properly identiHed sheep from North Siberia, from the mountains which separate the basins of the rivers Nyjnaya and Tiuigasca, tributaries ..f the Yenesei, fr<.m that • : . Kamschatkan Bighorn of the Chalunga and Pjasiiia. Several perfect specimens of this animal were obtained by Mr. Schmidt's expedition for the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences at Moscow." More recently the same sheep has been recorded by Messrs. Bunge and Toll, in the account of their journey to the New Siberian Islands, from the Upper Lena districts. No specimens are available in England for comparison with the typical Kamschatkan form of this race. If the Siberian form should prove to be distinct, it would have to be known as O. aunukiisis horcaits. A point of special interest to determine is whether it really shows any resemblance to the amnmi type, as suggested in Severtzoff's original description, since, on distributional grounds, such an approximation might reasonably be expected to occur. Habits. — In the peninsula of Kamschatka, according to Dr. Guillemard, the bighorn, although not unknown in the interior, exhibit a preference for the slopes of the sea-cliffs, where they are found in small flocks of from three to tivc individuals. Somewhat curiously, all those met with by his partv were adult rams, so that the ewes and younger rams evidently herd by themselves for some portion of the year, perhaps keeping to the more inland districts. Some idea of the rugged nature of the ground affected by the rams may be gleaned from the following account given bv Dr. Guillemard in the Cruise of the Marchcsa : — " Passing beneath the cliff at the entrance to the bay we witnessed the death ot a bighorn under unusual circumstances, for these animals are in general as sure-footed as a chamois. A couple of them had been driven into a corner by some members of our party at the top of the cliff, but one broke back almost immediately. The other, perched on a little pinnacle at the edge of the precipice, seemed about to follow its comrade, but hesitated, turned, and ran back. As it did so its foot slipped. It checked itselt tor a moment, slipped again, made one desperate effort to regain its footing, and was over in an instant. The creature never moved a muscle 2 G 226 Sh eei I ' II i : as it fell, and hit the rocks 400 tcct hclow with a dull scrunching thud, hrcakini,^ one of the massive horns short olF, and converting the hind- quarters into a shapeless, hleeding pulp." In the course oi' ahout a day and a halfs shooting no less than nine adult highorn rams were hagged hy Dr. CJuillemard's party. ii. A.M.MOTRA(;lM.: (JroCI'—ScH-GkMis AMMOPKAcrs .■/>.mtrag.s, Blvth, Pr.r. 7,.l. .V... ,840, p. ,^; (Jray, Kn.wslcx Mciinga-ic, p. 40 (1S50), Cat. Vngulah, Brit. Mus. p. ,7,^ (,,S52). (;//,.';v/.Av.r. -Horns of .nales of the same general type as in the next group, hut transversely wrinkled when immature ; those of females large. No tace-glands, and no pits in the skull for their reception. Colour unif.)rmly tawny throughout. A fringe of long hair on the throat, chest, and upper portion of fore-legs. Tail much longer than in any other memher of the genus, and with long hair on its h.wer half Distri/>i/tio)i. — Northern Africa. Tiir, Arii or Airu.w Shikp ()\is i.ikvr.A .hitihpc /crvM, Pallas, Spiel/ /.,,/. fisc. xii. p. ,2 (1777). Ovis trogclapluLs, Cuvier, Rcg„c .Iniuud, vol. i. p. 26S (1S17); Desmarest, Mammahgic. vol. i,. p. 4SY, (iSaa); II. Smith, in (iriffith's minimal K,ng.'/ ^>V , i w«iii»^- 'r — Ami 227 Ammotnigus tragcloplun. Gray, K,mvslcy Menagerie, p. 40 (.850), Cat. Vngu/ata Brit. Mas. p. , 7,; ( , K52), G/A Ruminants Ihit. Mus. p. , 34 ( ,872). Musimon tragclaplua, Gervais, Hist. Nat. Mamm. p. 192 (1855). 6y^,;v/.Y,7x-Size cmparativdy large, the height at the shoulder hc.ng about 3 feet 3 inches. Withers relatively tall, and hind-quarters l-i'.. +,?. -Hoaa of male Ami. (Roulaiul WarJ, Records of Big Came.) low. Head rather long, without face-glands below the eyes, and no pits in the skull for their reception ; ears relatively large. .A short upright mane extending from the nape of the neck to the middle of the back, "in males a fringe of very long and perfectly straight hair commencing on the throat and continued down the middle line to split on the chest and terminate at the origin of each fore-leg; after a short interval continued on the front and outer surface of the leg to a short distance above the knee, below which the hairs depend. Tail long, tufted in its terminal half, and i '1 1^ i .28 Sheep I reaching to within about 5 inches of the hocks. In tcinalcs the- hair shorter. Horns of adult males generally similar in form and curvature to those of the hharal {hifn,, p. 2;,2), hut with a distinct keel in the middle of the front surface at the base, and with the tips directed inwards, or inwards and downwards, without any upward tendency ; in young specimens the whole horn is marked with prominent sinuous transverse wrinkles, which are often retained at the tips of adult specimens ; these wrinkles are wanting in young horns of the bharal, although adult horns of both species show the same sinuous lines of growth. Horns of females only slightly smaller than those of males. General colour of head, upper- parts, outer surface of limbs, and tail unift)rm rufous tawny, becoming rather darker on the mane ; ears, chin, middle of under-parts and inner surfaces of limbs whitish ; a few dark bars on the long hair of the throat. Horns yellowish-brown, becoming darker in old animals. The plate is drawn from an adult mounted male in the British Museum presented by Sir E. G. Loder. This specimen exhibits the average amount of long hair developed on the fore-quarters in the wild state. Menagerie specimens show a much greater profusion of hair. In the characters of the skull and horns the arui is almost as much a goat as IS the bharal, although the retention of the transverse wrinklings in the horns for a considerable portion of lifl- is an ovine character. The Ien«] 74 '7;,: 9^ •7 7i P to lip. LciCillity. I8| Algeria i5i North Africa '7^ n '7i Algeria •7 North Africa •3i >1 '9.1 p 11 'Si Atlas '5i »i 16^ Djohel Matlil >4l North Africa '3^ ? Atlas 1" this list the last and antepenultimate specimens are tlu.se of females. D/sMhti.,,-Thc mountains of North Africa, from near the Xtltntic seaboard to i-:gypt. I„ the Atlas confined to the arid sot.thern slopes vv.thin sight of the desert, and unknown in the interior of the range in the neighbourhood of the coast. //.//./>.r._The uniform tawny coloration of the arui is of itself sutiicient to proclaim that the animal is an inhabitant of comparatively bare sandy or rocky districts ; and this we rind confirmed by the accounts of those who Iiave seen it in its native haunts. Among recent observers, Mr. K N m<^ 230 Sh eep !i i I I ■'''t Buxton has put ..„ rc-o.rd M.mc excellent n.-tcs on the hahits of the animal, from which the following is paraphrased. Arui inhahit districts where the clilFs are formed of reddish and yellowish rocks, among which the rufous tawny of their coat renders them so inconspicuous that, although hy no nK-ans uncmmon, they are extremely d.mcult to detect. Throughout the district water is extremely scarce and, according to Arah reports, the sheep seldon., if ever, drink niore than' once in tour or rive days, so that thev are easily ahle to undertake long lourneys in search of Iic,uid. They never enter the cedar forests, where the cl.mate is moister. and appear to inhabit much more broken and precp.tous gromul than the nK.joritv of wild sheep ; this trait conrirming then- affinity to the goats. As the Arabs have taken possession of all situations in the mountains where water is to be met with, the arui have been compelled to accustom themselves to the near presence of man and the riocks of domestic goats by which, in these districts, he is accompanied To avoid the n.unads and their flocks, the arui are constantly shifting their quarters; and they have by long use grown accustomed to selecting sites Un- repose where, while practically invisible themselves, they can obtain a good view of their surroundings. Arui generally go abl.ut in small parties of four cr rive, not unfrequently a ewe being seen accompanied only by a pair of yearling lambs. In captivity they thrive well and breed treely ; the lambs, of which there may be either one or tw.. at a birth, being produced after a gestation of about one hundred and sixty days. It may be noted that the coloration of the arui is almost identical wiih that of the bubaline hartebeest iIM,a//s hosclaphus) which inhabits the deserts of Northern Africa, although it has now retreated south of the Atlas. In the edmi gaxelle {iiazclla cuvicn)^ which inhabits actually the same districts as the arui, the colour of the upper-parts is rather paler, while the undei-parts and much of the legs are white, and the tail-tip black. Both the edmi and the arui assimilate so closely to their surroundings as to be S«*W*-.- % y w I I i I m Wild Oxen, SnF,tu6i;GoATa Plaik XIX ?. > iJ ' I, BHARAL, OK, BLUF. SHEEP. PithUshed Iv RMflati(/ Y^ard !U W 1 0i Bharal 2;i very difficult nf .Ictcction. A siih.f„^sil canm.n-b-.nc from ...ic ..f the Frciuh caverns has hccn referred t.. this species, hiii it seems extremely doiihtfid if the determination is really correct. Although the arm' is undoubtedly very distinct from all other wild sheep, perhaps even more so than the hharal, I cannot bring myself to regard it as worthy of generic distinction. Its most aberrant features are the mane of long hairs on the fore-quarters, the length of the tail, and the relatively large si/e of the horns in the female. II 1 iii. i'si-.CDoviM r.Rori'— Sih-CJkacs PsKtmois Puf/./w, Hodgson, y,/,n/. .Is. S'm: ll;,g.,/, vol. vv. p. H:^ (1^4^)) ; Cray, Ciit, Vngii/iitii lirit. Mils. p. 177 (1S52). C/„ir,ntcr.<. H,,ri,s ..f ,n;,]es forming an S-shaped curve, rounded or subquadrangular at the base, nearly smooth, without distinct transverse wrinkles ; those of females small. No fice-glands, or pits in the skull for their reception. A clearly-dehned black band between the fawn of the back and tlic white of the under-parts, and distinct bl.ick markings down the whole front of the legs. No fri„gc „f bair on the throat and fore-lcLrs. Fail rather longer than in the caprovine group. Distri/>uti',ii.— V\hi:t and ailjacent tlistricts of Central Asia. !l ti 'I'm, Hll \R \1. ()\l,s NAHIKA Ovis niiyiiii)\ Hodgson, As'uitic Rcsciirchcs, vol. wiii. pt. 2, p. i ;^ (i8';>), in part ; .Matschie, .S7^. i]cs. luitf. lirr/hi, 1S96, p. 97, 1S97, P- 72. Ovh ii,i/r,',r, Hodgson, Proc. /.','./. Sw. i S h, p. 107, y',iir„. .Is. Soc. Pr/iira/, vo]. X. pp. 2.;; I and 29; (iS4o),xi. p. 2S;, (1S42), P. L. Sclater, Pro,: Zo'^l. Srjc. 1S60, p. 129; Kinloch, Large Cuimc S/r^oting, pt. i, p. 25 (1S66), Milne-Kdwards, Rah. Mi„w,. p. ^57, pis. Ixviii. and Ixix. (1S6S-74) ; W. L. Sclater, Cat. M.imiii. liiJ. Mus. pt. ii. p. 140 (1S91). m ^3^ 8h * I eep Ovis hurrhcl^ BIyth, Pr,c. ZooL Soc. ,840, p. 67, W.;. M.g. Nat. Hist. sen ,, vol. vii. p. 248 (,841), Jou,;. ,1s. Soc. B,,^ga/, vc.l. x. p. 868 (184.). Ov/s mihura. Gray, List Momm. Brit. Mns. p. ,70 (,843); Jerd(,n Mamm. India, p. 296 (1867) ; Blanford, Journ. As. Soc. Br„gJ, vol. xli.' p. 40 (1H72), rar^and Miss.-M.„m. p. 85, pi. xiv. (i^jg)^ Fau^ta Brit. Lniio-Mamm. p. 499 (,89.); Ste.-ndale, Momm. bulia. p. 438 (.884) ; Ward, Records of Bin: Gam; p. '^c:t^ (1896). Pseudois mimr. Hodgson, >r«. .V.. Soc. Bengal, vol. xv. p. ^,^^^ (,846), xvi. p. 702 (1847) ; Horsfield, Cat. E. Ind. Mus. p. 176 (185,) ; Gray,' Knoivsley Menagerie, p. 40 (.850), Cat. Ungn/ata Brit. Mns. p. ijy (,852)' Cat. Rnminants Brit Mns. p. ,^^:, (1872); Adams, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. ,858,' p. S^7-^ Lydekkcr, >,;v/. .V,r. Soc. Bengal, vol. xlix. p. ,3, (1H80);' Prezevvalski, CV//. ZW. Col/, p. 16 (1887). M/./W../ na/,oor, Gervais, ///.y. .V./A M;,,;;,;. vol. ii. p. h;i (,855). Psendois />nrr/ie/, Prezewalski, Cat. Zoo/. Co//, p. ,6 (1887). Psendois na/un-a, Nathusius, ZW. Anzeiger, ,888, p. ^.^.y, Langkavel, Zoo/. Garten, vol. xxx. p. 298 (1889). P/ate XIX. i 'I *'' (;^,;w,/,;x-Sh:e medium, the height at the slu ulder being aix.nt 3 feet. Head lo.g and narrow ; hair of uniform length throughout, show- Hig no trace of either mane or ruff; cars short; horns of adult .nales rounded or std)quadrangu!ar at the base, nearly .mooth, with the distinct transverse wrinkles of the more typical sheep replaced bv widelv separated sinuous lines of growth and also by hne stri.f, arising close together, curv- ing outwards at first upwards, then downwards, and finally backwards, so that the tips, which are inclined inwards, are situated over the withers. ' In females the horns are short, curved slightly upwards and outwards, and suboval in section, with their longer diameter transverse to the head. I Bharal ^^n General colour of upper-parts brownish-gray, with a tin.e of slaty-blue becomu^g brown, in sun.mcr, and more distinctly slaty-grav. washed with brown, ,n winter; under-parts, inside and back of limb,, and buttocks as ^- as the base of the tail white ; in adult rams the f.ce, chest, a stripe down tbe whole front of the legs except the knees, which are white, a band along the lower part of the rianks bordern.g the white of the under-parts, and the ter- -nal two-thirds of the tail white. In the females the black markings on the iV'"' "Si/-^ Fi(i face, chest, and rianks wanting. Colour of horns blackish-olive The weight of a full-grown male bharal is about i;^o pounds. With regard to the systematic position of the bharal, Mr. Bri.n Hodgson long ago pointed out that it differed from the more typical sheep by the absence of face-glands and the pits for ..eir reception in the skull • th.s bemg a feature in which it resembles the goats. He also pointed out' that the tail ,s more like that of a goat than of a sheep. In a paper co.n mun.cated to the >..vW ./' M. ..snulc Society of II;^,/ in 1880, I pointed -t other fixtures in which the bharal diritrs t^-om the tvpical sheep and apprc.xnnates to the goats. It is there stated that an important caprine i-ature ,s to be found in the form of the basioccipital bone, or that element forming the hinder extremity of the base of the skull. 2 M ^34 r-r % : 1 !i h ■i^ <:%■'> ( Mi I Sheep I" the true goats this hone is oblong in shape, with a pair of tubercles at the posterior and anterior extremities ; of these, the posterior pair are considerably the larger and „,ore pron.inent, but both are situated in the -me antero-posterior line. In the true sheep, on the other hand, the bas.occ.p.tal .s always considerably wider in front than behind, while the anterun- tubercles are nn.ch larger than the posterior pair and are placed h.rther apart. The basioccipital of the bharal agrees exactly with that " the goats, and is consequently widely different fron. this part in the sheep. In the structure of its horns the bharal again presents capr.ne affinities In the true sheep the horns are always thrown into parallel transverse wnnkles extending completely round them ; the colour of the horns is l.ght or greenish -brown, and the direction of the extremity of the first curve ,s downwards and forwards. In the goats, on the other hand the lH..-ns are never thrown into coarse and parallel transverse wrinkles, but are marked by finer stri., and may or nKw not carry knobs antcr.orly. Then- colour is olive- or blackish-brown ; they are generally „,ore or less angulated, and the extren.ity of the first curve is directed backwards and upwards. In the bharal the structure and colour of the horns are the ^me as ,n the goats. It is true their angulation is less n.arked and their cln-ect.on ,s more outward than in ordinary goats, but in both respects they are paralleled by the horns of the Hast Caucasian tur. Indeed, the re- semblance between the horns of these two animals is so striking, that the o- last-named is frequently spoken of by sportsmen as the Caucasian --■al- It .nay be added that the upward twist of the extrenmies of the '-•- ot the bharal presents an approxin.ation to the spiral horns of the 'narkhor, and is quite dirterent from the curve of an ordinary sheep's horn As already mentioned, the Asiatic mufion n^akcs the nearest approach of anv .nend)er of the caprovine group to the bharal in the curvature of its horns. Bharal ^35 Kxtcrnally, the I^haral is distinguished tVc.n the goats hy the ahsence oi any strong cniour ,.r of any trace of a heard in the males. There are glands hetween the hoofs of all four feet in the hharal ; and in this respect the animal agrees with the sheep and differs from the goats, in which these are either present in the fore-feet alone or are wanting altogether. The black markings on the head, body, and limbs are very like those tbund in some of the goats. In concluding the paper from which the above extracts have been paraphrased, I considered that the bharal should be generically separated fn.m the sheep, and made the type of a distinct genus, for which fiodg- son's name PsruJo/s should stand. The same view has been subsequently urged by Dr. Matschie, who has recapitulated the foregoing observations, a>Hl added that in its thick and clumsy legs and the form of the feet, the bharal is decidedly more of a goat than a sheep. So far as the structure of the skull and form of the horns are concerned, this must, I think, be admitted ; but, on the other hand, the absence of a beard, as well as of the characteristic odour of the goats, in the males, and the presence of o,a„ds in all the four feet are essentially sheep-like characters. And in so.ne undoubted sheep, like the bighorn, the face- glands are so small, that it would only be what we might expect to rtnd them wanting in another species of the same genus. As to the characters -f the legs and tail, on which Dr. Matschie lays considerable stress, I fail to see that they afford any decisive evidence one way or the other. It is urged that the tail of the bharal is thinner and more pointed than in the -slicep ; but in the larger sheep like O. ,..// and O. u.m.. this appenda-a- when covered with the thick winter coat looks broad and blunt, while m the summer pelage it appears thin and pointed. That the bharal allords a connecfng link between the m..re typical sheep and the goats, must luidoubtedly be admitted by all ; and if any change in the generally accepted systematic arrangement were made, it () \i'n 236 Sh i( i!! -Ml / eep appears to me that it would I,e desirable to include both groups in a single genus. Without proceeding to this extreme course, the difficulties of the case may be fairly ,„et by regarding the bharal as the representative of a separate sub-generic group of Ov/s, leading on from the caprovine group in the direction of the goats. On this difficult point Mr. Blanford writes as follows :- ' This animd in structure is quite as much allied to c:a/,ra as to Ov/s, and is referred to the latter genus n.ainly because it resen.bles sheep rather than goats in general appearance, and hence has been generally classed with the fornK-r Hodgson distinguished it as Psr.Jo/s^ and there is much to be said in thvour ot the d.stmction, but the sheep and goats are so nearly allied that an inter- n-chate generic fi.rn. can scarcely be adnmted." The t;,lh>wing are some cvf the largest measuren^ents of the horns of this species recorded by Mr Rowland Ward:— ^ Front t'lirv,-. 3^ 28.^ 28 27i 27 27 26^ 26i 26.{ ^H 26| 26 25I H,,s,,i CiictiMit'crciKc p I I I "■;; I I "°l I I 3 1 1 I 2 Tip t„ Tip. ) •) -> I — — o 26.1 10 -'•i _? 28 ^.^ 20 ^■1 .^ ' .'> .It' Mil r^-aa I.i'ngtii along Frimt Curve-. '-Si ^4 Bharal CircunitVrcncc, ii.'> ^37 1 1 -> I. 1 1 •lip I.. Tip. ? 26 22^ D/./r//;/.//,,,. -Tibet, fro„. the ncighh„urho„d ..F Shigar in Baltistan i„ the west to Moupin i„ the cast, and from the main axis of the Himalaya HI the south, or in ph.ccs in tlic high country somewhat southwards, to the Kuenlun and Altyn-tag in the north. .Apparently never descending below an elevation of about , o,ooo feet above the sea-level, and in summer com- monly met with at elevations of from about ,4,000 to ,6,000 feet, or even higher. //A-.-Bha,-al is the Hindustani title of this ve,-v aber,-ant and peculiar sheep, but its proper Ladaki name is na or s'na. Bv Knglish.nen it is very co,nmonly known as the blue sheep, a name ad,ni,-ablv denoting that peculi- anty ot coloration whe,-eby it is so strikingly diffe,-ent fn.m all its kindred As structu,-c is inti.nately con-elated with habits, it is n,.t surprising to find the blue sheep displaying ,n its habits featu,-es common to the goats on the ""c hand and to the sheep on the other. For instance, while\ese,nbling sheep ,n dwelling on open undulating ground, and in displaying a tVequent tcMuiency to .-epose during the midday bou,-s on its feeding- places, the ''•'^"•^^l nvals the goats in its climbing capabilities, being able to ascend precipitous clitft with h,cil,ty, and when disturbed generally resorting to y-ound which it would try the ,nost skilled and active n.ountaineer to ascend. Although these observations a,-e not ,ny own, I a,n able to conhrn. their accuracy tnwn the results of personal experience. On one "^•casion, wh-n travelling in Ladak, on the southen, side of the .n-eu 'nountain-barr.er bordering tlie south side of the Indus opposite the tmvn "f Leh, 1 came suddenly and unexpectedly on a la>-ge dock of bha,-al, the i:\ ^38 Sheep 'Ik members ot which were lyh,g on the grass of an open vallev, and on being disturbed .mmediately took to the precipitous hills on each side. Although It was late in summer, the herd consisted both of rams and ewes ; male WKiral at this season sometimes herding by themselves, but in other in- stances remaining with the riock. Before taking to riight, some of the adult rams turned round to look, as is so generally the custom with both sheep and goats ; and the skulls of two are now in the British Museun. The number of individuals in a riock usually varies from ten or less to about hfty, although sometimes as many as a hundred may be seen together In much of the bharal-ground in Ladak there is no covert of anv description lH.t some of the valleys are clothed along the botto.n with thick E/rag.u. jungle, the resort of numerous hares. The bharal, however, always avoid covert ot any description, keeping entirely to the open. The slaty-blue of then- hair harmonises so exactly with the general tint of the slaty and gneiss rocks so common in Ladak, that a riock of bharal lying down in a grassy valley where masses of rock protrude through the turf are very ci.thcult to distinguish ; and on the occasion referred to above, it is doubtful ■f I should have recognised the presence of the bharal in time to shoot had .t not been for my Tatar guide. In Ladak, at least, these sheep do not appear to have any particular feeding-times, but graxe and repose alternately during the day as the inclination takes them. In some districts on the Upper Indus not only do the rams separate themselves from the rest of the riock, but actually betake themselves to difFerent vallevs during the summer Bharal and ibex have been seen on the same ground but not actually feeding together, although bharal and tahr have been observed grax.ng in company to the south of the Niti Pass. The pairing season and the length of the period ..f gestation do not seem to have been accurately determined. Bharal thrive well in confine- ment, and have bred freely ,n the London Zoological (iardens. They show no tendency to cross with domesticated sheep. I i Goats 239 Where hhural „ccur at all, they are usually met with in ahundance, and ■n undisturbed districts are perhaps the easiest of all Tibetan big game to stalk. General Kinloch states, however, that in places where they have been much hunted they soon become extrenaely shy and wary, and require great care in stalking, as they are frequently in the habit of stationing sentries in commanding positions while the other members of the flock are grazing. The tiesh of all the wild sheep of Central Asia is of excellent qi.ality, and in this respect that of the bharal stands second to none. I a.n informed by a correspondent that, unlike domesticated rams the male bharal in the London Zoological Gardens, when charging each other, r.se on their hind-legs after the manner of goats previous to the impact. I\'. Tmk C;oats— Gknts Cai'ra Capruu Linn. Sy.t. N.t. ed. ,2, vol. i. p. ^4 (,766) ; H. Smith, in Griffith's Ammal Kingd',,,,, vol. iv. p. ;,oo, v. p. 356 (,827). Hinus. Boddaert, KIcnclu. Mn..,l^ p. 147 ^,^^]) , Qrav, Cat. Vn^ulata Brit. Mm. p. 153 (1S52). JV.goccros, Pallas, '/Mgr. Rosso-Asiat. vol. i. p. 224 (iSi 1). //v.v, Hodgson, :fourn. As. Sor. licng./, vol. xvi. p. 700 (1S47) ; Gray, List Ostcol. Brit. Mns. p. 59 (1S47). Mgoccros. (Jray, Cat. rnga/ut. Brit. Mm. p. ,48 (,852), Cat. Ru>ni>nwts Bnt. Mm. p. 52 (1S72), mr Pallas, 181 i. r;//,/;v/r/,7x-C-Iosely allied to Ovis, with which this genus agrees in almost all essential characters. Si/e medium and build rather stout. Tail sb..rt. No glands either on the face or in the groin, and foot-glands either wanting or conHned to the fore-feet. Muxxle hairy ; a more or less distinct beard on the chin of the males. Female with two teats. Hard callosities present on the knees and sometimes also on the chest. Males with a strong unpleasant odour. Horn, present in both sexes ; in the adult males arisin! illi iM 240 Goats close tota-ther on the head and of great length, more or less compressed and angulatcd, and rising above the plane of the forehead either in a scimitar-like curve or a spiral ; those of females much smaller and placed further apart at the hase. Skull without gland-pits helow the eyes ; broad across the sockets of the latter, and narrowing somewhat suddenly below ; the planes of the occiput and of the forehead meeting one another at an obtuse angle ; occipital and parietal region much rounded ; proHle of face concave. Comparing the above definition with that of the genus Ovis given on p. 149, it will be found that the points of difference of the goats are the absence of glands in the hind-feet, the presence of a beard in the males, the strong odour exhaled by the latter sev, and certain details in regard to the conformation of the skull. The horns form no criterion, since those of the bharal are very like those of the ICast Caucasian tur, in which also the beard is but very slightly developed. Had we only the sheep of the caprovine group on the one hand and the more typical goats on the other to deal with, there would be hesitation in admitting the propriety of assigning the two groups to separate genera. Hut the arui, the bharal, and the tur form sucl^ a connecting chain that the advisability ot the distinction appears to me doubtful. This was recognised as far back as the year iSii by the Russian naturalist and traveller Pallas, who referred all these animals to his genus Mgoceros, although of course d/yni ought to Iiave been employed in the same sense, as coming in the Linnean system before Ovis. Similarly Bennett' in [S:;5 wrote as follows :—" There are two principal ditiiculties in the natural history of the sheep, each involving questions of considerable importance, but neither of them admitting, in the present state of our knowledge, of a perfectly satisfactory solution. The first relates to the propriety of the generic distinction between the sheep and goats, which ' 'I'/r C;,i,;lrHs .„„( Me/i.ig.r,,- 0/ i/r Zoohgical Socicts Dr/ine.it,J, \t,\. i. pp. 259 uiul 261. Distribution 241 naturalists have horrowal fnmi the vulgar (.lassification, adopting it in many instances against their better jiuigrnent. . . . The horns, too, vary so ex- tensively in both cases, and the convexity of the line of profile is subject to so many modifications, as to render the distinctions drawn from their characters of no practical value. On the presence or absence of the beard it would be absurd to dwell as ofH-ring the semblance of a generic character, to distinguish between animals which actually produce together a mixed breed capable of continuing their race. From all these conclusions we are led to infer that the sheep and the goat cannot properly be said to form the types of separate genera." With this judgment I am very much inclined to agree, although, in order to avoid complicating matters by a change of names which may not meet with acceptation, I have thought it advisable to retain the ordinary scheme of classification. By Dr. (iray the goats here included umier the heading V.apra were divided into (i) /Eiroccros, (2) G//.r,/, and (3) Hires; the first division including the tur, the second the ibex, and the third the common -^oat and markhor. This, however, is obviously incorrect. If such divisions, whether generic or sul)generic, are adopted at all, Cihm obviouslv belon-^s to the common goat. In Palhis's description of his genus /F.goccns the species first mentioned is ,¥,. /7>rx, so that this generic term must stand tor the ibex group, thus superseding the later //v.v of Hodgson, and leaving the tur without a separate designation at all. Bearing in miiul, therefore, that if sub-generic divisions of C/fym are adopted, a new term would be required hir the tur group, and seeing that the various groups of goats intergraiie to a very great ilegree, I have considered it advisable to make no such divisions at all. Distrihutt'^n. At the present day the mountainous districts of the I'.'astern Holarctic region, impinging on the Oriental region in the Himalaya, and with one outlying species in the mountains of tlie north- 2 I IT^ 242 GoatJ I 'I ' I I ,1 I ' 1 1 ■•■"7" ''""7'- "'""■ '•■' I"- ^^ ■ c^.™ .„„,. .„ r.„. „„„h •Ik u,U c,„Hi,„„„s >vl„cl, .,l„.,i„„| i„ ,,„, ,„. „,^. ,,,^,„^,^,,,^, J- »,.pc-ar .,. I.V. „e.„ „„,. „. „,, „, ,„,„,,. „^.,.,. ,„^, ^^., ,^.^,^„ ^^^ ^ H cc. IKU ,„, been .lescnlx-,!, TIk- .Hi., a,,,,.,. ,., „„. ,.,,„ „ „,,,,,„ .' ■" "■"■l--"""-'.v ■ ^■l"^«."" .i...vc. ,lK.s.,,.„,, ,„.„,„|,u. „,,,,,;„; ..ai..,.ow., „,„„„,„„ .„,.,..,,,.,„„,,„.,,, ,„^„,^. .;.„.;, ' '" ""■ '"''" ^""■'' "'■ "- -'."■-■- P. w„K..,. . „„.,;„„„,„ "'";"• '"■^■'", "'''■ ""•« '^'"^v^ -d pla,.,„s. Tl. „, „„. ., »" Wa-,.y aK„ H. Kan,..,,a,k..,, ,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,, ,„„,„,„_; "f till- need (iC L'cncTica k eh „„,„. , . •" ''l""-""V >lK- .w„ ;.,■„„,,, All ,1,. vari„„. J : '" ?:""^ ""'■'■^- '"- ■■■■ "-"- ^ ■'■^'-. .--■ a.. .; ■ .''''"-'"''■ '" "nu. g„a,. ,U. ,,„i„d ,„■ ges,a,i„n, acc,„,l,n,, ,„ |„k|..;„„ '^ about 160 (lays. '"Hij^snn, I ^•"""^•^/^''//•'S'W.i^Wc-0/,,Vnl. V,v.p.,;oS,pI. ,vi. (,S4,). i I J \k Wild Oxen.Sheep.A^Ooats, Plati; XX. li I EASl' CAUCASIAN I'Uk. I Puhh.tkfti \r/Ri'wlnnd Ward lui ATt; XX. I East Caucasian Tur H3 f. ■'//)/,/ i,nti;is/t,i, Kcyserling ami Ula-siiis, //'/V/v////. /v^/v/.. |,. 2H (1H40); Ulasius, S.n,ir,f/,. l\utuhl,nuh, p. 479 (1H57); \\ L. SUatcr, /'/.<. /,,/. .V;,. 1SH6, p. ;i5, nci I'allas 1 7S ^ Ovis piilLisi, Kfichcnhach, Nuturgcschkht,' iri,',hrk,iihr, pi. \li\ (1H46). /%'/C<7w (V/z/r,/.)/,',/, CJray, ^',//. l'n^ii/,it,t Ihit.Mns. p. 14S (1H52), iicc f.'r//>/,/ iiiiiiiisici, I'allas, 17H;. (.V/y^/v/ />,///„../•, Kaiicic, /•/■',, /,,/. .sv,, 1HS7, p. 55;; W.ud, /v.rvv/.,- ./' lii^ Vuinh\ p. 2^5 (1H96). V.itpni cyl'tHilric'.ni'n, Hiichiicr, Win. JuiJ. St. I\'tcrs/>',uii^, vol. \\x\. No. H, p. 21 (1SS7); McnxhicT, /'/■.,■. /W. .SV.,'. 1HH7, p. 61S; Satmun, /W. y „/„/>. Syst. vol. ix. p. ^,2 (1H96); Ward, Ra.rJs of lii^ (i„»n; p. 2:,-^ (iS.;6). /Vr//,' A A". f.7/,//v/,7,v.,-.— Hiiild heavy and cliiiiisy, with the head rather short and l>liuit ; height at shoulder ahoiit ;,S inehes ; horns lar-e and massive, widely separated at the hase, nearly eylindrieal in section, with more or les. indistinct transverse rihs, hut no knots; their direction at t^rst outwards •md slightly upwards, .uul then hackwards, downwards, and inwanls. Heard confined to the chin ; in the torm of a short, broad tVinge, curling distinctly forwards. |>elage (rin winter) moderately long and thick; its general colour uniform dull hrown, except on the chin, the tip of' the tail, the fVont and inner sides of the hind-legs, and the tVont of the f,.re-legs hclow the knees, which are hiackish-hrown or hiack ; no white on the legs. Heard similar in colour to the rest of the pelage; horns dark hhKkish-oli\e. Although typical specimens of the present species are so widely different from the next, there has been an extraordinary amount of cont'usion between the two .unmals ; .nid lertain specimens of horns occur which are in some Ji s\ I I 244 Cjoats respects, intermediate between the typical torni of cacli. Dr. Raddc, for instance, remarks that he has seen very old horns referred to the present species, which curve almost in a single plane, with the points turned in a half-crescent shape towards one another, and thus very like those of tlie western species. These horns not improbably belong to the presumed hybrid form referred to under the heading of the latter. In common with the following, this species is known locally as the i''i(:. 4;. — Hl;iJ of iiKilc l'',;i^t Cmiiii^Ihii 'Pur. (Rowl.nul W anl, f!n',i;/< v/' />Vi; iSd'/h-.) tur, a name which may be well adopteii in luiglish. i^ sportsmen it is tretpiently termed the Cauca^-ian bharal, and its lioriis are certainly \erv like those of the true bliaral. Hut it is \erv doubtful if there is anv specially close relationshiji between the two animals ; tlie similaritv in tlie form of the horns being a character u hich miglit reatblv be acquiretl quite iiule[ien- dently. The bharal has no beard, and its coloration is totally th'tierent from that of either of the Caucasian tur, which are remarkalde aniont' the goa tor the unif )rmlv lirown tint of their pchige. Tlie following horn - dimensions arc recorded by Mr. Rowland Ward :— 1* - East Caucasian Tur ^45 Length ;ilong Frnnt Ciirvi-. 38} 34i 33iJ 3' 29.1 28i 26.1 22i 2oi c rciimfiTrii 1 ■> ' 10;^ 12 I I 12 t 1 1 1 "O^f 10 Tip t(i Tip. ? 20 18 I I.', Distribiithii. — The I-lasteni Caucasus, t'lom Dau;licstau to Kashe':. Hah'its. — Few I'Jiglish sportsmen have followed this tur in its native haunts, ami accounts of its hahits are therefore scant and imperfect. Accord- ing to Mr. C. Piiillipps-Wolley, who has given some brief notes on it in the liiiil/iinitoii ] ,i/>i-(ir)\ this tur inhabits the higher mountain crags in situations where eitiier large springs of iron-impregnated water, or "licks" of the same occur. To sucli springs or licks the tur, if possible, descend at least once liuii ng the twenty-foui' hours, ami it is then tliat so many of them tall \ ictinis to the concealetl watcher. At least during the summer months, from the beginning of June till the end of August, tlie tur tiuring the dav- time keep to the bare crags well above tlie snow-line, free from attack by eitlier man or insects, ami in a situation where the sun's ravs do not strike with the force they exert in the \allevs below. With the approach of night the r.ittling of stcMies from tlie moraines of the glacier proclaims to the hunter that the tur are descemling to \\:t:d upon the patches of upland pasture ; their [presence in t!ie gathering gloom being revealed bv tlie shrill bleat from wliich thev gain tiieir local name of tiiik-vi. Acconling, however, to native reports, it is onlv the vounger rams and ewes, whicli associate in larne herils, that come down to the licks and pastures duriiiii the summer, the oKl rams keeping themscKes apart, and li\ ing entirelv above the snow- line among almost inaccessible fastnesses. !t is there that the sportsman must [K'netrate it he desire to hag trophies worthv of his reputation durint; I ill 246 Goats tlic suinincr months. Like ibex ami Dtlicr goats which live where ava- laiu-hes are constantly tailing and stones are disloilged from glacier moraines at e\ery movement, the tnr is very indilFcrent to noises of all descriptions, anei relies tor safety on the keenness of its senses of scent and vision. i; I' I »• 2. TnK W'lsr C".\ctAsi.\\ Tik — C'.\i>ka (\rc.\suA Ciiprd Ciiuctisicii, I'allas, .Icta .had. Prtrop. vol. iii. pt. 2, p. 27^, pis. xvii \. wiiii. (17SO ; Dinnik, ./;///. J/,/o-. AW. ///>/. ser. 5, vol. xi\. p. 4;;o, pi. xiv. (1KS7) ; Hiichner, Mem. .Lad. St. l\'tcrsh',nrg., vol. xxxv. No. S, p. 16, \A. 11. (1SS7) ; Menzhier, Pror. Zod. Soc. 1.SS7, p. 61S; Satunin, '/m/. •yalu-h. Syst. vol. ix. p. ^ 1 i (1S96) ; W'arel, Records ',f Hig Game, p. 227 (1S96). /V.goccros amnion, i'allas, '//>',gr. Ross'^-.lsiat. vol. i. p. 221 (iSii), nee C.af^ra amnion, Linn. 1766. Capra scirrtzoi,-!, Men/hier, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1SK7, p. 619. Capra .srvrrzoK'i, Satunin, Zool. yalirh. S\it. vol. ix. p. \\z (1S96). Plate XXL C.haraeter.-.- Build hea\y and masM\c, with the face short and hhnit, the height at the shoulder being about ;7', inches. Horns large ami massive in adult male, widely separatctl on the f)rehead, nearly ipiad- rangular in section ; the liroad anterior surfice hearing in its basal half low riat ribs, ami its terminal half bold knots or knobs ; from the skull the horns diverge at an angle of about 45 degrees, and curve u(nvards, outwanls, and backwards neai'ly in the same plane, except near the tips, w here thev are inclineii somewhat inwards. in the xdung male thev are shorter, with knots along the whole length of the front surface. Heard confined to the chin; long ami narrow in summer; broailer in winter, when in young males it torms oidy a short fringe. Summer pelage short ami (.lose, of a unifirm bright t hestnut-brow II colour, with the lower li[i, ihin, the I'oot of the beard, the tip of the tail, and the tVuut ..f the legs bel.iw the knees and hocks Wild Oxen.SheepA Goats. Plat j^ XXI. , • %' "^ ■-■'■•"■A ■ '^■"''.. ■^"'jS^.' I WEST CAUCASIAN lUR. i i* i : ( u6u.-./i,-.( w KmlM,U WarHIU M , West Caucasian Tur ^47 hhick or l^hukish ; a in,„T ,„• k-ss distinct lii,Mit stripe on the iiack of' the lower portion <,f tlie leL;s, and a white spot on tlie fore-pasterns above the deft of tlie hoofs; n.. dark hue on haek. In winter tlie hair niueh longer and eoarser. In yonn- males at this season tlie -eneral colour is light yellowish- brown, witli the same dark markings on the chin, tail, and legs, and also an V .1 I' ••> - - - I'k.. \(>. Wc-l C.iui.i-i.iii I'lir. (I'n'Mi I'riiuc I), iiii.lctl'-. /Av'.v.'Vi; 7;v/. /, //,■ C.mc.i.'tii.) ill-defined dark line down the middle of the back ; the margins of the lips being whitish, and the white spot above the front iioot's wanting. In youn- females more white is shown on the muzxie. Heard, except at the roots, similar in colour to the rest of the pdage ; horns and hoofs deep Idack. The torm of the horns, tluir wide separation at the base, the unif >rm chestnut hue of the summer pelage on the upper-parts, the white spot 1 1 248 Goats ^! \ -: I, ! . (in the front pasterns, ami the siniilaritv hetween the colour ot" the long narrow heard and tiie hack are eharai ters amply siitHcient to distinguish this species t'roiii all its kindred. This splendid goat was originally descriheil hv Pallas from specime ns collected hv (iiildenstlidt, near the head-waters of the rivers Terek and Kuhan, which rise in tlie Central Caucasus on the north side of the ch \ni hetween Klhru/ and Dvch-tau. Tiie tigured specimens comprise a female (plate xvii.A.) and the head of an adult male (plate wiiii. tig. 1). In the male head the heard is long and narrow ; ami the horns, which appear to curve in a single plane, are holdlv knotted on the front surface of their terminal half As they are not those of a verv oUl animal, thev are separated hy a considerahle interval at their tips. In the Proi-(Y(////^:< of the Zoological Societv fir 1S86 Mr. Sclater hclieved Cdfyru ry/iiiJriiornls to he inseparahle from this species, Am] de- scrihetl it from specimens of the firmer. But in 1SH7 1 lerr Dinnik descriheil and figured characteristic horns from the Western Caucasus, while others were tigured hy Dr. Biichner in the same vear. None of these specimens helong, however, to \erv old animals, so that the interval between the tips of the horns is relativelv large. In the latter part of 1SS7 Dr. M. Menzhier communicateil a [\iper to the Zoological Society in which he restricted (.'i//'r'\ Fic. 47. — Skull ;iiul lloriis of' male West Caiicasiaii 'I'lir. From a •.potimcM -.luit hv .Mr. St. (Jcnrgo Littlcilalc. head from the Central Caucasus figured by Pallas, I can detect no variation except such as is due to dirt-erence of age, the beard in the original figure being of the long and narrow type. And since I have shown the alleged wide inter\al between the tips of its horns to be solely due to immaturity, the so-called (.'. srvr>-tz'Ai'/\ so far as its horns are concerned, is evidently inseparable from (.'. iiittcdsiiii of Pallas. With rci^ard to the beard, it is first neces>arv to show that the West Caucasian Tur ^51 iinmutiirc specimens in the Hritisli Museimi from the Central CaucaMis, in which the hearil is short aiui wide, are inseparable, so tar as their iiorns are concerned, from the adult males. I have compared the horns of the larger of these immature males, which, as already said, are knotted in front throughout their length, with the ti[is of those of the adult specimen shown in hg. 47, and have found that the two correspt)nd in every respect. This indicates that the short horns, knotteil in front throughout theii- length, belong to young animals ; while long horns with such knotting restricted to the terminal third or half characterise the adult. In respect to the beard, specimens in early winter pelage belonging to Prince Demidoff have this appendage consisting of a broad and short basal fringe extending the whole width of the chin, in the centre of which is a long narrow tuft like that of the adult male in the British Museum. And it accordingly seems that whereas in immature animals the winter beanl consists merely of the broad short fringe (tig. 4S), in older individuals at the same season the long central tuft is superadileil. On the other band, adult individuals in the summer entirely lose the basal fringe ami retain only the long central tuft. .MI the alleged points of ditFerence between the so-called C.'. .wirr/zoici and (.'. Ciiinuisicii being now shown to be inconstant, the evitience for the specific separation ot the latter must be regarded as viilueless. In this view I am contirmeii by Dr. Biichner, who has written to me that, in his opinion, there are but two species of Caucasian tur, namely, (.'. cyliudric'rn'n from tlic eastern, and (.'. caiicdi'ha from the western half of the range. .Mr. St. (Jeorge Littledale has, however, in his possession a skull with horns of a very remarkable type obtained by himself from the neigiibourhooii of Mlbrux, which at hrst sight might seem to suggest a thirti tonn. .Althouifh beloni'in!' to an adult male, the horns are considerably shorter than those of the typical (.'. catiCiis'ha ; and in their curvature and the direction of their tips, as well as in the total absence ot knots lvun\ the „: M I I \Si Cioats antcTi..,- smtacc, arc ,„ M„n. respects i.,tcr.ncJiatc hctwcc-n the f-nncr and tl>..sc oU;. ,yM-non,/s. It was suggested to their present owner hy the natives of the distnct that they indieateci a hvhrid hetwxen the two well- cstahlisheci species; and I an, at present .„able to suggest any nu,rc Pn.hahle explanation of the ditlieulty. That analogous hybrids do now and I 1 i'^il I"- 1^ llca>l ,„ ,„.,le W,., C...K .,„,,„ r„r. (Fr,„„ I'ruKc DcmkIuHV lliiiiliii^ Trip, ill l/r Cot/., 1,11,). ayain o.ot naturally ,s proved by the well-known case of O.vV /.r.okri in /anskar. The circumstance that these peculiar horns are in some degree inter- 'ncd.ate between those .AC. cylnulno.nis and the tvpical c.,n.u,a,. together -'tl' the fact that they eonie from the same locality, suggests thai^ they belong to the same kind of animal as the one to which the latter name i's .-cstr,cted by Dr. Menxbier. It is true that Dr. Menxb.er speaks of knots "" the front of h,s specimens, which are wanting in .Mr. Little.lale's in i*''H li iM WlLDOxEN.SHIin&tGoATfi Pi. AT K XXII i*^ i I SPANISH TUR. hihU.th^ iy Howiiuui Ward l.tj h. ^ nil. Spanish I'ur 2'53 example ; l>iit it* as may In* possiMc, a raio uniyhrids is from timi- to time ilcvclopcd I. II tlic tidiiticis (it the two v.iliil spceics, siuli variations vvoiiUI naturally l»c cxpcctcil to otinr. In any vase, it is clear that the specimen uiuler consiileration is not the typical (.'. tiiucducti, and it' (prohahly together with Dr. Menzhier's specimens) it should indiiate a new form, such species or suh-species will reipiire a tresh name, i may adil that Prince Demiilotl", in his flt///fi//g Tr/ffs // f/ir Ciu/cru/i, firmly helieves in the existence ot" hybrids ot" the ahove type between the blast and the West C'.mcasian tur. 'I'he tnllowing dimensions ot" horns .ue recorileil in' Mr. Rowland Ward :— l.innlli iliiin; Oiilfi Ciiru'. ii.i^ii Ciri iiniti'tfiu 4oi *2i M '•a »0A I9i IOm ri|. t.. ri|>. '5l ir.i; . , I -- 1 l.iii.illly. W. Caucasus. L'.uici-ius. bJhru/. 16 Number tour in this list is the abnormal specimen. /)/,i7;7'/v///'///. -i'he western halt ot' the main chain ot' the C'auc.isus, t'rom the neij^libourhood ot' Dvch-tau and bdbru/. westwartls. In habits this s[K'cies is proliabiv \erv similar to the preceiling. ^. Tmi Si'.wisu 'I'rK — C'ai'ka i'\Ki\\ir\ (,'ik.u/ir. .u/ixciTZ. (nw vol. ii. p. 9, pis. ii. and iii. (iS^S) ; (irav, A'W'Um/.v Mr/zi/ii^rrh-, p. ^; (iSjjo) ; Hlasius, Sii//if<'f//, I)i7/f.u/i/ii//(/.u p. 4S0 (1S57); Husk, 'i'liiiis. '/.'I'll. S'jc. \dl. X. p. iiS (1S77); l.ydekker, (-',; Chapman ami liuck, Wild Spain^ p. 129 (i^^O ; \N'ard, Rccrdi 'if' Hin; (iiiiiir, \\ 2:S (1S96) n ! ii > £1; Si ■ ill 1 tIJ 1 1 ^ 11 , ij ' ' ■ 1 ; i ' i 1 i ^ i ^54 Goats /Egocrros pyicnuica, CJray, ^-''//. Vngulata Brit. Miis. p. 147 (1H52), Cat. Rumimints Brit. Mia. p. 52 (1872). /Aw pyrenaicus, Gerviiis, Hist. Nat. Maiiim. vol. ii. p. 188 (1H55); Graells, Mon. Ac. Mudrid, vol. xvii. p. 353 (1897). Ammotragits {?) pyrenaicus., Nathusius, Zoo!. Atizeigcr, 1888, p. 333. Plate XXll. Cliaracters.-'QuM lighter and tace larger and narrower than in either I'll.. 49.- -SiJl vii-'u ot' hcul (>t;uliik iiKilu Spaiii-li 'I'ur witli llic beard luUy dcM-'lupcd. of the Caucasian species ; the height at the shoulder reaching to 32 inches. Horns rising close together on the skull ; triangular, with a sharp inner edire, and the front surface irregularly knohbed towards the extremity (where it becomes posterior in position), at base ridged ; the torm an open semi-spiral, the direction lieing at first upwards and outwanls, but Spanish Tur ^55 ci- ty an ut afterwards backwards and inwards, freqiic-ntly with an upward and slightly outward terminal Hexure, although, as in the other tur, the tips are generally turned inwards. Beard confined to the chin ; long and narrow in old males in the winter pelage (fig. 49) ; in the summer pelage, and in young males at all seasons, reduced to an insignificant tuft (fig. 50). Summer pelage fine and short ; winter dress longer and more shaggy. In the former the g-^neral colour dark grayish-hrown, with the nape of the neck, a line down the middle of the hack, a band on the fianks, and the greater portion of the limbs black or blackish-brown ; sides of tace brownish-white. In winter the upper-parts light brownish-gray, with the nape of the neck, a line down the back, a broad collar on the chest, the shoulders, flanks, tail, the outer sides of the thighs, and the greater portion of the legs blackish ; inner sides of thighs and back of legs whitish. Beard and horns black. The above description is taken from mounted specimens in the British Museum, one of which is evidently an adult male in the summer dress, while the other, judging from the slight development of the beard and the length of hair on the head anti liody, seems to be an immature male in the winter pelage. Heads of males with the full winter beard are figured by Messrs. Chapman and Buck in JVI/J Spain. In the form and character of the horns the Spanish wild goat is clearly intermediate between the tur of the Caucasus and the true ibex, although nearer to the former than to the latter. In its parti-coloured coat the species is. however, more like the Persian wild goat and some of the ibex ; but it may best be called a tur rather than an ibex. The under-mentioned are some of the largest horn-measurements of the Spanish tur given in Mr. Rowland Wanl's book: — 256 Goats m !i I! Li'ii^th iilong Otitrr Curve. CirciinitVrfiu"''. Tip ti) I'M'- I,(io;ilit). .11 H ? Pyrenees .301 9!. ? Spain 29'-,' H 2.3i Almeira 28 9l ^.lli Spain ^n 9 25 i> 10;! >9.^ Pyrenees ^-si «-i '^ Spain 24.^ 10 •4 V'al d' Arras 22 fi •4 Spain Huhits. — The habits of this tur, the cahra montes ot" the Spaniards, Pi,-, -o. SiJc view ot' Head ot iiiiilo Spanish I'lir uiili \\\c Iumi\I rcjijccd to a tiilt. (Rowland Ward, R,; .r.i, ',f Jl/t: C.imr.) have been well described by Messrs Chapman and Buck in Hi/,/ Spain, and by Mr. K. N. Buxton in Short Std/tu although in one respect there is an apparent discrepancy between tlie two accounts. Mr. Buxton, tor instance, states that the Spanish tur, unlike the ibex of the Alps, takes t'ull advantage of the covert art^tH-ded bv dense scrub, and suggests that to this habit is due the incurving of the points of the horns which t'orms such a characteristic feature of the present species. On the other hand, Messrs. Chapman and Buck, in the passage cited under the heading of the Andalusian race, speak of the rams frequenting the highest mountain peaks at elevations of some Pyrenean Tur ^57 10,000 feet. Possibly the apparent discrepancy is due to the different seasons at which the observations were made. According to the generally received account the old rams keep apart from the ewes and younger rams throughout the year, except during the pairing season, which takes place in the month of November. The flocks may be very large, comprising often from 100 to 150 head each. During the spring and summer months, when the old rams are said to be on the highest peaks, the younger members of the same sex and the ewes frequent the warm southern slopes of the mountains. And in winter, under the pressure of cold and hunger, these latter will descend at times even to the near neighbourhood of the higher villages. The kids are born in the latter half of April or the early part of May, after a gestation of about twenty weeks, or perhaps rather more. Very soon after birth they are able to trot after the ewes, which at this season resort to the southern slopes to avoid the cold winds prevailing in other situations. When among bush-covered country, Mr. Buxton states that it is im- possible to bag adult males of this tur without resorting to driving, the hollows in the rocks, and the abundant vegetation by which they are covered, rendering it almost impossible to detect the game with a glass. ii. PvKKNKAN Rack — Capka I'\RKNAICA tvpua C/unuh-tcrs. — Clenerallv those given above, the horns of old males being large and massive, with the ridges tending to disappear. Mr. Busk gives the following description : — "The horns are thick, rounded in front and on the outer side, internallv flattened, and behind compressed into an acute angle, whence the transverse section is pyriform. They diverge at first abruptly, and afterwards are twisted spirally inwards and liownwanls ; so that exeiituallv the inner surface comes to look outwartls, and tlie anterior 2 1. 258 (joats inwards and downwards. In tlic female the horns are short and simply curved, Hattened before and behind." Sir Victor Brooke, in a note to Mr. Abel Chapman, published in the Bihhiiinton Library, makes the following observations : — " The Fyrenean ibex are much larger beasts than those of the Southern Spanish Sierras, in tlie Pyrenees they are scarce, and live on the worst precipices I ever saw an animal in ; they go into tar worse ground than the chamois, and are very nocturnal, never seen except in the dark or early dawn unless disturbed." Distribution. — The Spanish side of the Pyrenees. 'ii h. Andah'sian Rack — Capka pvrknaua hisi'.amca Ciipra hispiiiiica, Schimper, CR. .Ic. l\iris, vol. xwi. p. ;, i S (1S4S) ; Rosenhauer's 'I'/iicir Aiulalusiciu, p. 4 (1S56) ; Busk, 'I'nms. //,';/. Soc. vol. x. p. iiS (1877); Chapman and Buck, Wild Spain, p. 129 (189^). Ibex hispanicus, Gervais, Hist. Nat. Miunni. vol. ii. p. 1S9 (1S55) ; Graells, Mem. Acad. Madrid, vol. xvii. p. :^57 (1S97), C/uiractrrs. — \'ery similar to the typical race, from whicli it is distin- guished by its smaller size, and by the horns of old males being thinner and more compressed, with the basal tranverse ridges well dexeloped. The short beard, which has been regardeii as liistinctive, does not appear to be a character. Distribution. — The Sierras Nevada and Morena, together with the hill- ranges of Andalusia and Kstremadura. Although found throughout the elevated Cordillera of Central Spain, this race has its stronghohl in the Sierra de Credos. "This elevated pMint," write Messrs. Chapman and Buck, " is the apex of the long Carp to-Vetonico range, which extends from Moncayo through the Castiles and Estremadura, forming the water- shed of the Tagus and Douro ; it separates the two Castiles, and passing the frontier of Portugal, is there known as the Sierra da Mstrella, which (with ^, Common Cioat 2-59 the Cilitra Hills) cvtciuis to the Atlantic- scahoartl. Along all this extensive Cordillera there is no more favourite ground for the ibex than its highest peak, the Plaza de Ahnanzor, 10,000 teet above sea-level. During the winter and early spring the wild goats have a predilection for the southern slopes towarils Estreinadura ; but in summer and autumn large herds make their home in the environs of Ahnanzor, and the lonely Alpine lakes of Credos." In the Plistocene epoch this race appears to have extended as far south as Ciibraltar; the goat remains from caverns there described by Mr. Husk being tentatively assigned to the present form. 4. TiiK Common CJoa r — L'ai'r.a niKc:('s Ciipri! hirciis, Linn. Syst. Ndt. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 9^ (17^)^))- C/hirii iters. — CJenerally those of the wild races, as given below, the beard being confined to the chin, and the horns, which are dark olive- brown, or blackish, sweeping backwards in a bold scimitar-like curve, with a sharp front edge, quite unlike the broad and knotted front surface distinctive of those of the true ibex. The domestic race of this goat is the type of the gerius Caprn as well as ot the present species ; and the reasons tor the adoption of the name /iircii.'i tor both the domesticateil aiui wild races are the same as those given above under the heading of the common o.\. Distrihutloii. — In a domesticated or feral condition, the greater part of the habitable i^lobe ; in a wild state, as detailed below. Althou"h domes- ticated, aiul frequently hornless, breeds are \videlv spread through Africa, 1 am not aware ot the existence of any feral race in that continent, although such mav occur on its northern confines. II raBti'i]m"7n,-^'n»t'i :; •,-^mmm,g ^ j , ,|, m <■• il 260 Goats "M ; II a. I'kksi AN W'li.i) Raik, o\< I'asanc; C'ai'ra iiiKcrs .I'Xjacikis Capiii (Vgiignis^ Ginclin, .S'v,i7. Nat. \c\. i. p. 193 (17^^) ; Desmarest, M,!iiii>i(i/',gir, \o\. ii. p. ^S ^ (1S22); Uutton, dilaittd "j'jiiiii. Nut. Hist. vol. ii. p. 521, pi. xix. (1S42), y'jiini. y] . ■ llngn,\ vol. xv. p. 161 (1S46) ; Blasiiis, Siiugct/i. Dctitschhinds, p. .:i.83 ;j ; P. L. Sclatcr, Pruc. Z'j'jI. S'jC. 1S74, p. S9, 1SS6, p. 31 5, pi. \xi. ; Biaiitord, Pi'jc. ZooI. S'ic. 1H74, p. 24S, y^,iini. .Is. S'd-. Br//g,i/, vol xliv. p. 1 5 (1S75), Eiistcni Persia, vol. ii. p. S9 (1S76), Fa///ia Brit, bid — Mamm. p. 502 (1S91) ; Dantord, Pr'n\ '//j'jI. Soc. 1S75, p. 45S ; Dantord and Alston, Pnc. ZvjI. Soc. 1S77, p. 276; Stcrndalc, Mamm. Iiu/ia, p. 4S6 (1SS4) ; Raddc, Proc. Z',o/. S'a\ 1SS7, p. 552 ; W. L. Sclatcr, Cat. Mamm. hut. Mas. pt. ii. p. 142 (1S91) ; Satunin, Z'/,l. ya/nh. Syst. \o\. \\. p. 311 (1S96); Ward, Rn-^ju/s of Big (iamc, p. 229 (i S96). Aiitil'jpc gazclla, (iniclin, Syst. W/t. vol. i. p. 190 (i7Sl n ■'H Asia Minor +6 n 1 1 Sind 45 ! 8 "i ,, 44.', «A 2liJ Caucasus 44.^ K I I (?) Sind 4,1 H 22j| ? ^y; H •4^ p 4,1 9 •5^ Taurus Mountains 4.1 9i ? Asia Minor In the ^SM// newspaper of 2nd August iH()H, Mr. j. Strip, of the Customs Department in Sind, gives the following account of a living specimen whose horns are reported to exceed all the foregoing in length. The r.nimal was seen at Karachi on hoard ship, in charge of an agent of Mr. C. Hagenheck, and had heen ohtained from Luristan, in Persia. " My measurement," writes Mr. Strip, "with the aid of Mr. judd and the owner, who helped me in iiolding the animal and placing the tape Persian Wild Goat 26-^ II DC ss. al ic ■t, ir )ii is carefully over the curve, showed the left horn to he -^!, inches, and the right, which was liroken, 50.I inches, and hetween the tips 24 inches." D/../r//w//w/.— The islands, .fSouth-Kastern Ivurope (fr.,ni most ..fwhich it is now extermi Mted), and the mountains of South-lvastern luin.pe and South-Western Asia, from the Caucasus through Persia to the conHnes of Baluchistan, where it prohahly intergrades with the Sind race. Although exterminated in the islands of the (Jrecian Archipelago, where it was formerly ahundant, the wild g„;it is stated hy Dr. ['..rsyth Major still to survive in the island of Tavolara, situated olf the north-east coast of Sardinia, where its fossilised remains also occur. According to Dr. Radde, in the Caucasus this species is found in the Little Caucasus, or Armenian Highlands, from the sea-level to heights .,f ,2,000 feet, and on iVIount Ararat up to i4,,.oo feet. I le also records it tVom the Upper Ardon, Western Daghestan, forming the western extremity of the Great Caucasus. Il,/>its.—\u Asia Minor, according to Mr. C. (J. Danford, the wild goat is found either s..litary or in small parties or herds varying in numher from ten to twenty up to as many as one hundred head. During summer the old hucks keep to the higher mountains, heing often met with on the snow, while the does and kids frequent L.wer elevations. In winter hoth sexes keep much more together, living at elevations of from 2000 to ,^000 feet on rocky grounel among hushes (,r scattered pines. In certain districts they may even descend almost to the sea-level. Although at other times^ extremely shy and wary, during the pairing season they can he approached with ease, a.ui may he attracted within range hy a oncealed hunter rolling a few stones down the hillside. If surprised, they utter a kind of short snort, and immediately make off in a canter. Their agility among rocks is little short of marvellous, hut if dri^■en down to the lowlands they can he easily caught hy dogs, as is done in Afghanistan. When danger threatens, the oldest male takes command of the herd, and carefully surveys the line of advance or retreat hcforc permitting tlie others to follow. Grass, the h 1 z6^ Goats young shoots of ilwarF oaks and cedars, ami berries constitute their staple t'ood in these districts. The kids, which arc usually either one or two in number, are liorn in May. ! ! n I h, SiND Wild R.\c k— Cai'Ka iiir< us lll,^ riii Vuipra h/yt/ii, Iluine, Pfoc. As, Soc, licngti/, 1S74, p. 240, no description. Characters . — Si/e smaller than in the Persian race; the front edge of' the horns of the males either totally ilcvoid of knots, or with only a very tew and these very small ; and the ground-colour of the pelage very much paler, but the face-markings darker ami more sharply defined. From the table on p. 262 it will be seen that, length for length, the Sind race has the tips of the horns closer together than in specimens from other districts. The name (-'. /Vy//// was applied i)y IVIr. Hume to the Sind wild goat in order to distinguish it from (-'. dimasica, with which it had been confounded, but as no description was given, the name must date frotii the present use. A skull and horns presented by Mr. [lume to the British Museum (No. 91, H, 7, 160) may be taken as the tvpe, their place of origin iieing Sind. Distri/)iith/ii. — Sind and Baluchistan ; in the eastern districts of the latter country probably intergrading with the Persian race. |v:| c. Do.MKsiKA ri:n Bkki-ds — Cai'KA hirccs ivi'itA /Egoccros liiriiis, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Ashit, vol. i. p. 227 (iHii). Hirciis (egagn/s. Gray, Ccif. Uiigiilatd Brit. Mas. [>. 152 (i.S,2), nee Ciiprd (I'giigrm, Gmeli'i, 17H8. Capra donas, Reichenow, Zoo/, yahrh. Sxst. vol. iii. p. 591, pi. w. (iSSH), Zool. Gaitcii, vol. xxix. p. 29 (iHSS). The domesticated goat of Sweden, which is the typical representative of the species, is certainly the descendant of the wild ffg(/gr/fs, as are also Domesticated Breeds 265 prolubly most otlicr iloincsticMtcd brmis, whether still kept in captivity or reverted to the wilil state, as they have in many countries and islands. To describe any of these breeds woiiKI be beyond the province of this work, as they do not come under the title of wild animals, in the projier sense of the word. Many of them have received distinct technical names, although none are entitled to rank as separate species, or even sub-species. The goat of the Island of Joura, near iudnra, ha. been regarded as truly wild ami ilescribed as C. ,/on;i.u but 1 am informed by Prot. !•;. Hiichner, who has seen living specimens in Ik-rlin, that it is nothing more than a domesticated breed run wild. .\ distinction between most, if not all, domesticated goats and the wild races is to be found in the presence of a beard on the chins of the females of the former, but this is evidently an acquireti character. Although, as already mentioned, at least the majority of the liomesticated breeds trace their ancestry to the wild ,f^;ign/.i ;uul />/)■////, many appear to have been crossed with other u ild species, such a^ ibex and markhor, both of which will readily breed in confinement with tame goats. in the Himalaya and Tibet it i.-> by no means uncommon to meet with domesticated goats having spiral horns of the markhor type, and it is not impossible that some of the breeds with such horns may be descended from the markhor. As a rule, however, the spiral in tame goats runs in the reverse direction to that obtaining in the markhor, the first turn of the front ridge of the horns inclining inwards. Hut Mr. Hlantortl states that he has seen exceptions, one being a Nepalese head in the British Museum. It may be added that the Kashmir shawl-goat develops a considerable amount of under-fur, or pashm, at the base oi' the lon-a-r hairs, which is the material employed in weaxing. Since similar pashm occurs in the w\\d goat, and is wanting in the markhor, an adilitional argument is pre- sented m favour of the origin of the domesticated breeds from the former species. Mr. Schreiner, the author of an interesting little volume on 2 M ^' i iW f W ( W W | i^ . W w gi« ww n w n w 266 Goats "( : I'c \ ' I' i T/ii' Angora Goiit,^ is ot opinion that the long silky hair of that breed — tiie mohair of commerce — represents an excessive development of the pashm of the Kashmir and wild goats, the so-called " kemp " of the Angora being the remnant of the ordinary hair of the original outer coat of the former. 5. TiiK Akahian Ikkx — Cai'ka nthiana (.i/>. P/i\s. Zoo/. \()1. i. pi. xviii. (1828) ; P. L. Sclater, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1S86, p. 316, pi. xxxii. ; \N'. L. Sclater. C.df. Mamm. Lui. Mm. pt. ii. p. 144 (1891) ; Ward, Records of Big Cuiinc, p. 229 (1896). Cdpru ara/ucd^ Riippell, }siuc ll'iri)cit/i. A/>\ssiii. p. 17 (iS:?:;) ; Flower and Ciarson, Cat. Ostco/. Mas. Co//. Surg. pt. ii. p. 249 (1884). /Egoccros Av/i7/, Wagner, Schreber's Siii/gct/iicir, vol. v. p. 1 ^o^ (18:56). Cdprd /h'i/i'ii, Blasius, .Siingct/i. I)ciitsc/i/dih/s, p. 482 (i8:;7); 'I'ristram, Proc. Zoo/. Soc. 1866, p. 8:5, l''d!/ih! P n I.iicility. North Africa South Arabia North-West of Suakiii North Africa Upper Egypt Suakin Siiiaitic IVninsuhi North-West of Suakin Siiiaitic I'eiriviula Arabia Siiiaitic I'eninsula This and the three following species may properly be recognised as ibex, although that name is often also applied to the Spanish tur. Thev are all characterised by the scimitar-shapetl horns, of which the front surface is more or less broad and carries a scries of knot-like widely- separated transverse ridges. In the relative narrowness of this front surface the present species approximates, however, to the wild goat ; and all the members of the genus are so closely connected that, as already mentioned. It appears impossible to divide them itito sub-generic groups distinguished by well-marked ami sharply-dehned characters. i' i Arabian Ibex 269 D/stn7)//no//.~Thc mountains of Southern Araliia, Palestine, the Sinaitic Peninsuhi, Upper Egypt, and thence apparently into those of Morocco and the interior of Senegamhia. The type specimen is a pair of horns preserved in the Museum at Paris. In the same collection are two other pairs stated to have heen obtained from Senegal. With regard to these latter, Mons. Pousargues considers that we should await further evidence before definitely adding North-Western Africa to the distributional area of the species, .\dditional evidence in favour of such western extension is afforded by a small but characteristic pair of horns in the possession of Dr. Guillemard, which was obtained by him some years ago at Tangier, where it was stated by the former owner to have come from the Atlas. It was scarcely likely to have been exported from I^gypt to Tangier ; and, taken together with the Paris specimens, seems to indicate that the species is really an inhabitant of the little known mountainous districts of the interior of North-Western Africa. //,//,//.,■. — The general mode of life oi the Arabian ibex is probably very similar to that of the b.'uropean and Asiatic species. In Arabia Petra'a the animal is stated by Canon Tristram to be very common, while even in Palestine it is less rare than is often supposed. Like other ibex, thev are verv shy and wary, keeping to the upper regions of the mountains, where their colour renders them very diriicult to distinguish from the rocks among which they dwell. An observer, quoted by Canon Tristram, states that the kids, before they are able to accompany tlie old ones, are concealed by the mother uiulcr some rock, and apparently are only visited at night. He once caught a young one whi'-h ran from under a rock as he was climbiii"- a mountain. The little creature luui evidently heard the intruder approach- ing, and ran out uiuler the impression that he was its mother. I f .1 270 Goats 6. Thk AinssiNiAN Ikkx — Cai>k,\ vali tl III Ciipm liuilic, Riippell, Ncnc U 'irk' It hie re Ahyssin. — Siiiigctli. vol. i. p. 16, pi. vi. (1S35); \\ L. Sc-Iater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1SS6, p. :;i6. Cipra va/ir, SundeviiU, K. STi'//s/:a /',•/. .//•,////■/;. Mia. 1S96, vol. i. p. 221 ; Ward, Rccon/s f Big G'r/wr, p. 227 (1H96). Ca/)ra alpliia, (Jirtanner, '^'Aira. Ph\sl'jiu\ vol. xwiii. p. 224 (17S6). /V.g'Hwr',s l/hw, Pallas, Zvjgr. Ross'^-./slat. vol. i. p. 224 (iSii), in part, //v.v a/plaas, (Jray, List Ostc.l. Brit. Mas. p. 59 (.847); Nehring, 'ianJrcii and Stcppcn, p. 206 (1S90). llh-x car',pa-a, Hodgson, yoarn. .Is. S',c. Bengal, vol. \vi. p. 700 (1H47). Citarartrrs. Size ami build generally similar to that of the Arabian ibex, the height at the shoulder reaching to about 40 inches. Kars relatively small ; bean! of males, which is confined to the chin, short and small. Horns of male long, scimitar-shaped, sweeping backwards in the usual curve ; tlieir front surface wide, with a slight bevelling of the outer angle, the transverse knots more or less strongly developed, but usually thinner than in the next species, with their outer portion sloping awav towards the margin of the front surface of the horn. Horns of females small and upright, the usual length being from 6 to S inches. Pelage coarse and thick, but varying accortling to the season ; in summer shorter, finer, and more shining ; in winter longer, rougher, antl duller, with a II 272. Goats I I ''!|"i short thick iiiulci-h.. ; at all .sc;ist)iis longer on the back oi the neck, where it forms a kind of short mane in the old bucks. In summer the general colour of the upper-parts reddish-gray, in winter yellowish-gray ; uiider- parts paler, and separated from the dark of the back by a chocolate-brown streak ; a light brown stripe down the middle of the back ; foreliead, cheeks, nose, throat, beard, upper surtace of tail, and the lower portion of the legs dark brown ; on the chin, in front of the eyes, beneath the ears the colour tending to rusty ; ears fawn-brown externally, whitish intern- ally ; hinder part of abdomen nearly white. With advancing age the coloration tends to become more and more uniform. Horns yellowish or olive-brown. At the present day it is diHicult to be certain that specimens of the ibex have not some intermixture of the common goat in their pedigree ; and it is probable that to such crossings are due certain deviations from the coloration described. For example, a mounted specimen purchased by the British Museum in 1S97 shows a whitish ring roiuui each eye, and a spot of the same colour on each side of the upper jaw behinti the lip, and another on the lower jaw ; the middle portion of the hinder surface of the cannon-bones has also whitish hair, as in the Him.davan race ot the Asiatic ibex. In other specimens in tin Museum, procured many years ago, these light markings are wanting, and thev are accordingly regarded as aberrant. The distinctive features of this species, to w hich the names ibex and steinbok are properly restricted, appear to lie the broad front surtace of the horns and the small size of the be.n-d of the males, touether with the relatively short ears. All three teatures readilv serve to elitrerentiate the species from tlie Araliian ibex; while tlie shortness of the l)eard dis- tinguishes it from tlie Asiatic species, to which, howexer, it is much more closely allied. The horns are, indeed, verv ditlicult to ilistinguish from those ot the latter ; but they never appear to attain sucli large dimensions ; i i; Alpine Ibex ^73 Length iilntig KriiiU Curvr. B.is.il CirciinitiTi-nn'. Tip 1.. 'I ^si 9 ,Gi .u.'. 9i ? .u! 9 26 .uL 9 ,^9;; ;.••,' 9h iSii 30,', 9i ^9^f .^0 9 2 .6-' 8^ 1 . 1 — s -'■i 8^ 14A and, so tar as iiiv own observations go, they show a distinct tendency to beveUing of' the outer angle ol' the front surface, while the transverse knots are generally thinner and tend to have the outer half less developed than the inner portion. Mr. Rowland Ward gives the following measurements of horns of the Alpine ibex : — l.iic.ility. Aosta Styria Aosta n Savoy Aosta Aosta In tornier tiavs it is not improbable that somewhat longer specimens might have been obtained, and Brehm gi\es the maximum known length as about 40 inches. Disti-i/>iitl'/;i. The Alps of Sw it/crlaiui, Savov, and the Tyrol, where the species is now [iracticallv exterminated, although small hertis are [ireserveil in a few \allevs on the Italian side of Monte Rosa. The extermination oftlic ibex, or steinbok, as it is called in the (ierman-sj^'Mking cantons, appears to h.ue been brought about at a very earlv date. I'acii in the sixteenth centinv it seems to have become \erv rare and local. In the valley of Martinswaiul the last iiuiividual is stated to have been killed in the year 1540,' while from the canton (llarus it was exterminated in 1550, and in 1574 it was ditHcult to find a buck in CJraubunden. At the commencement of the seventeenth century it had become very scarce in HergcII and tlie I'pper Mngadine, where in 1612 it; destruction ' K.hir, '/.i-Un-lrift ,/,■/■ Vnrdiii.inMum, fur 'DrJ, ,t,. m-t. ^ vul. \li. p. 30: (1S97). 2 N S !■ h J ^74 (joats ,1, , was prohihitcd uiulcr a Hue oC hfty yolil crowns, ami twcnty-onc years later liy a still heavier penalty. At the elose ot'thc seventeenth eenturv it was still toiind in the inonntains arountl Baynethal, antl at the coinnienee- ment ot'the eighteenth century in Wallis, since wliich date it has completely disappeared troin Switzerland. Its date of' extermination from one of the valleys of" the Tyrol has heen already inentioiietl ; in the vear 1666 a tew head still survived in the /illerthal. in 1694 there were known to he 72 Inicks, S :; tloes, and 24 fawns living in the Tvrol ; Init hy 1706 the numher had iliminisheil to 5 Inicks and 7 iloes, since which elate none have heen seen. On the i'iedniontese siile of Monte Rosa, thanks to (Jovernment protection, the ihex has heen more fortu- nate, and, as already saiil, herds exist in several vallevs, although it is douhtf(d whether all these are pme hrcel. In 1S65 Tschiuli reported them to he comparatively numeious, since w'lich date several fine speci- mens have, hy special permission, heen shot. In earlier ilays ihex must have heen very ahundant, since it is stated that hetween one ami two hundred head were on more than a single occasion exhihited alive in the Roman amphitheatre. In Prehistoric and Plistocene time> the distrihution of the animal was much more extensi\e than at a later date. A horn has heen found in one ot the Swiss pile-villages, hut this, of course, might liave heen hrought from the mountains hy some earlv hunter. I leer, in his .Iniioit S\iit-z.crl.iHd, states that horn-cores ha\e heen touiul in the gravel of Oherried in the Rhine valley, ami a skull in a glacial moraine at Pontegana. And Xehring also mentions the occurrence of similar remains here and there in the superficial deposits of \arious districts in Central and Western luu-ofie. He is, howe\er, of opinion that the ihex remains discovered in Hoheniia helong to the Asiatic rather than to the luu-opean s[iecies. I leer likewise states that fossilised ihex hones ha\e heen ohtained from manv [xu'ts of Italy, e\en as far south as Naples. And it mav acconlinglv he consideied mmmmmm- ic years ntiiry it iinciiL-c- iplctcly OIK' C)f ir I 666 know II I ; Init s since Monte tortii- li it is .■[lorted sfieci- \ must ul two live ill 1.1 1 w.is unci in rouglit . Ilh ■/'( -Ht iK-rried And 1 til ere uiro[K'. ilieinia kcwise arts of ^idel•e^i IJ ,1 f 1 I . ,1 W'ifl- ' 'XKM, ShL-KImNjI 'OmTS i'l.nTK ■/// w7/AW.s p. 4S i (1S51) ; Raddc, A',7..v Ost-Si/h-riciu vol. i. p. 24;, \A. \. (1S62) ; Se\ crtzot^-', Ann. .\A/i;. Wit. Hist. scr. 4, vol. xviii. p. ;, ^ ^ (1S7S) ; Blantord, Sricnt. Risnits S,i',n,l )\irkinhl ExpcJ. — Munini. p. S6 (1S79) ; Fiiiifiii lirit. bui. — Mnnni. p. 50:; (1S91) ; Scullx , Pr'.c. Z'i',1. S'>c. iSSi, y. 20S ; \\ L. Sclater. Pr.i-. 7.0'. I. S'.c. ISS6, p. ^16; Prezewalski, Cat. /v./. C',IL p. 15 (1SS7) ; W. L. Sclater, (,',//. Mainni. In, I. .Mns. [U. ii. p. 14^, (1^91) ; True, /';•/(■, l.S. Mils. \(il. xvii. p. 6 (1S94); Ward, R,\',i;ls ^f Hi;j; Canir, \\ 224 (1S96). >'•' ' ;.' M ! 276 Goats /F.goicros i/hw, r.illas, Zoogr. R'jsso-J-ihit. vol. i. p. 224 (iSii), in part. L'ti/in/ /)(///f/.i7, Schinz, /V.v/.' Dcnk.u/ir. u/ruY/.:.. drw vol. ii. p. y (iH^H), iicc /^Igocrr'jx />(r//ii.iri(ih, Ncliriiig, '\'ii)hh-cii iiihl Sh'[^f>rn, [>. ill (iHyo). (l-'riiMi D.irr.ih'- tip:,)! in ih IliglLiiuii i,f Fk.. \i.- — ObliqiK- vii;\v ot Hcail of ill ill c HiniMlay.in Ibcv. A',/.i/w//-.) Plate xxir. C/iiiriirfrrs. -Height at sliouhicr rcatliiiiL; to troiii 40 to 42 inches. Hiiihl and general appearance verv similar to the Arahian ihex, the heard ot" the males, which is coiitined to the chin, heing long and pointed, the ears relatively large, and the horns scimitar-shaped and very long. The front surface of the latter \erv hroad. with no hevelling of the outer edge, and hearing verv [irominent and thick transverse knots, ot which the outer Asiatic Ibex 2'77 side is almost as much ik-vclopcii as the inner ; the section i-..inpletely triangular, with the hiiuler angle compresseil. Horns of female much smaller, |>laceil wider apart on the head, coarsely rugose, or ringed, with an oval section at the hase, Ixil compressed al)ove, ami inclining slightly hack- wards. Hair coarse ami brittle, torming a rather elongated ridge along the i)ack in the male, and in winter underlain by a dense, soft, woolly under- t'ur or pashm. (Jeneral colour of upper-parts in summer some shade of brown, i^ecominii chocolate in old male^, with a more or less distinctly dctined dirtv white saildlc on the miildle of the back, scarcely paler on the under-[iarts ; in late winter the general colour yellowish- white, more or less tinged with brownish oi grayish, but in the early part of the season old males much tlarkcr, being frequently full brown with a large, dirty white saddle-sha[ieil [iatcli on the back ; generally a dark line down the middle of the back at all seasons ; beard and tail ilark brown at certain times of year, as are the legs, which may or may not ha\e a large white streak on the hinder surface of both cainioii-bones. Horns yellowish- or oliye- hrovyn. There is no dilliculty in ilistinguishing the horns of this species, the finest of the group, from tiiosc of the Arabian ibex. They attain much larger dimensions than those of any examples of the Alpine species now- extant ; and it i^ probable that the latter, eyeii in its prime, neyer attained similar dimensions. Alpine ibex horns, juiiging from such examples as haye come under my own notice, -cem always distinguishable by tlie slight, although distinct, beyelling of the outer external angle ; and by the trans- yerse knots being either altogether smaller, or by haying a less development of their outer portion. The smaller ears and slight development ot the beard are also ilistinctiye dili'erences in the Alpine species. The following are some i'\ the l.u-gcst dimensions of the horns ot this species recoriied by Mr. Rowland Ward : 78 Length iilong Ras:il FnitU Curve. Ciriumtt'iencf 54,ii ■ o.[ 53i loA 51^ ? 5ii roi 5' 9* 5° 'oi 5° II 49i. loa 49.^ loi 49 •°i 48.', 9^ 48.1 9« 47i ro| 47 ■ 0.1 46.'> I 1 46 93 451 9i 45 !0.', 45 ■0.1 44, i .0^ 44.'. 44.'> 44i 43^ 43g 4,V'> 4.3 i Goats 10 9.'> .0]- 93 93 Tip 111 Tip. ^5 ? 16 28J 21 25i 42 9i 30a 344 20 25 '^4(. 26 29 26 '9 ,U ■ 6.1 '9 Gilgit i» Kashmir ? ? ? ? ? Kashmir Baltistaii ? Gilgit ? Kashmir >> ? Baltistan Astor I.adak ? ? Ladak Kashmir ? 1 liiiialava Kashmir Female horns generally measure about 12 inches in len-^th. Mr. Hlanford, who derived his information from (Jeneral Kinloeh, gives the height at the shoulder at about 40 inches; but Mr. Rowland Ward records measurements ranging from 40 to 42 inches. The speci- mens in the British .Museum, as mounted, stand about ^S inches, but the skins of these have probablv shrunk. D/.str.'/>//fio//.~Thc mountain ranges of Central .Asia, from the .Altai to the Himalaya, and from the neighbourhood of Herat to Kumaun • in Asiatic Ibex 279 Kashmir unknown in the Pir-Panjal, and, I believe, the Kajnag ranges ; in Central Asia, ranging as far east as Lake Baikal, and in the Himalaya at least as tar as the source of the Ganges. Ha/)its.—¥oY the last forty or fifty years the Himalayan race of this handsome species has formed such a favourite object of pursuit to English sportsmeti that naturalists, from their writings, have become thoroughly V\v„ \y — l'"ni 111 view of liciii uCnuilo lIliiKilay.ui lbc\. (From D.irrali'-, Sport i/i Highland > '4' K,i,hmir.) the acquaiiitcii with it^ life history. 'I'lic usual result of sucii pursuit is, however, making itself severely felt in the neighbourliood of the Kashmir \ alley, even if not also in districts still more remote. And whereas Colonel F. .Markham, whose Shooting in the llinialtnuis was publisiied in the year I S54, speaks of herds of ibex numbering a iuuuired or more individuals, ver\ much sma.ler parties are now the rule. The thick coat of pashm, or iHuler-fiu- at tiie base of tiie longer hairs of the coat renders the kel, as tln\ ibex is called in Kashmiri, pnuticaily iiulepeiident of cold, and there- \\ I 28o Goats S : I I 'i fore a hardier animal than its longer coated relative the niarkhor. And it is stated that, as a rule, even in winter they do not descend to very low levels, although 1 have seen a dock driven down hy a sudden blizzard to the level of the Indus valley in Ladak during summer, and the villagers of Tilel and Maru-Wardwan report killing them at no great height above their habitations during the depth of winter. When they keep at con- siderable elevations during the long winter season thev are stated to select positions where the steepness of the ground prevents heavy accumulations of snow, and where consequently a precarious subsistence is to be picked up at all seasons. About October the old males descend from the high uplands where thev have spent the summer to consort with the females; the pairing season taking place in winter, and the young are born during May and June. Previous;^ to rlv.. latter event the males have once more separated themselves to seek the mountain peaks. When on these eleva- tions they often spend the day in slumber far above the limits of vegetation among wastes of snow and ice, descending regularly every morning and evening to graze on the Alpine pastures at lower levels. Such descents are the sportsman's opportunity ; and the most wearving thing about ibex -shooting is the long middav wait when the game are reposing on the almost inaccessible crags. In spite of their excessive wariness, ibex are not excessively difficult to approach on account of the broken and rugged nature of the ground thev frequent, which aflords abundant means of concealment for the stalker. To [irotcct themselves they relv both upon sight and smell, although it has been stated that the former sense is considerably the more acute of the two. Their chief natural enemies are the wild dog and tlie snow-leopard, or ounce, and since these probablv in most cases approach them from below, it is to that direction tiieir vigilance is directed, as thev either have no fear of avalanches, or are sufhcientlv warned by the noise tliese make in descending. Accordinglv, the object of the sportNman should be to get Thian Shan Ibex 28 well above his game, from vvliieh point oF vantage he may stali< them with comparative ease. Where ibex are much harassed they acquire the habit ot posting two or three of their niituber to act as sentinels, while the rest of the herd are grazing ; the ahirm-signal being a h)ud kind of whistle, on hearing which the whole company immediately take to flight. And there are few finer sights than to see a herd of male ibex making their way at headlong speed across apparently impassable crags, glaciers, and gorges. When in Hight they invariably make for higher grounds. In parts of the Himalaya ibex are hunted by the natives with dogs, ar,( where they have been thus harried, or after they have been pursued by packs of wild dogs, they are almost impossible to approach. They are, however, by no means always scared by the sound of shooting in their neighbourhood ; the ririe-report being apparently mistaken for the crash of the avalanche. Moreover, like other mountain game, they are frequently unable to ascertain the direction whence the first report proceeds, and being thus in a state of bewilderment, aflbrd easy opportunity for a second or even third shot before making up their minds as to their best line of retreat. Many ibex are killed during the long winter in the remote Himalayan valleys, not only for the sake of their tiesh, but likewise for the valuable pashm, or under-wuol, which, like that of the domesticated -:oat of Kashmir, is woven into the fine soft cloth locally termed pasbmina. The Balti name of the ibex is skin, or iskin, which has been Latinised into the scientific title of the Himalayan race. ; hinder surface of Ivl !•'. '5 I I : nil)! I t 282 (joats fore -legs also white between the hitenil hoofs and the knees ; iinder- parts whitish. This ibex is represented, in addition to skulls and unmounted skins, by three mounted males in the British Museum, two of which are from the Thian Shan, while the third is from the Altai, the latter locality being apparently the one from which the species was first described. They are all in the winter pelage, which is of the yellowish-white colour tinged with brown or grayish usually seen in specimens shot by English sports- men, most or all of which are killed in the late spring. From Baltistan a verv dark-coloured ibex has been reported, but was considered by Dr. Scully to be merely the old male in winter pelage. Two skins from the same locality have been subsequently described by Mr. F. W. True, who writes as follows: — "They are in winter pelage and very dark. The colours of the two skins are almost identical, and the markings are very sharply defined, in which latter feature thev appear to differ from ordinary specimens of (,'. .i//w7rv/." The following is a description of one of these skins : — " Face, neck, breast, fore-legs, shoulders, the lower part of the Hanks, the thighs, a line along the spine, and the tail, strong umber-brown. The hind-legs are also brown, but have a sharply-defined, large, oblong, white (or cream-coloured) mark on the postero-external part of the metatarsus, extending from the hock to the outer false hoot, and prolonged between the latter ami the true hoof. A white mane (tinged with brown at the extremities of tlie hairs) extends along the spine from the middle of the nape to the shoulders. The brown of the shouklers follows, and behind this the whole back is occu}>ied by a large elliptical white mark, or sadtile (somewhat washed with brown), whicti is bisecteil longitudinally h\ -^ dark brown spinal line, as already stated. Bellv whitish ; ears white at the base anteriorly, brown elsewhere. The l)card i^ blackish-brown, with a tew soiled white hairs at its base. A narrow white area surrounds the anal region. All tlie hairs are white or Thian Shan Ibex 283 whitish iit the hiisc — purest where the extremities are merely tinged brown, anil less so where they are dark." In the white on the lower part of the hind-legs, as well as in the whitish under-parts, these specimens agree with the British Museum examples trom the Thian Shan and Altai, hut differ by the much darker upper-parts, on which the whitish saddle alone accords with the general coloration of the latter. They agree, however, in their general darkness with Dr. Radde's description of an ibex in the winter pelage from the Sajan Mountains of Kastern Siberia, which is undoubtedly the typical C. sihir'ica. The explanation of the difference appears to be as follows : — The specimens described by Mr. True were shot, respectively, on the 19th and 2 I St of December, and were thus in the comparatively early winter pelage. There is no record of the season at which the Altai anil Thian Shan specimens in the British Museum were killed ; but, as already said, practi- cally all the ibex shot by English sportsmen in tiie Himalaya and Baltistan are killed in the late spring. Now it is a well -ascertained fact that the lighter-coloured portions of the winter pelage of the wapiti bleach con- siderably as the season advances ; and it appears highly probable that a similar fading takes place in the case of all the races of the present species. In Mr. True's description it is stated that the hairs of many parts of the body are merely tipped with lirown ; and nothing is more likely tiian that such tips should bleach to a dirty white after exposure to tlie storms of winter. Dr. Scully's explanation that the dark individuals are old males in the winter pelage, although true to a certain extent, is insufficient, l)ecause the majority of specimens shot by English sportsmen are likewise old males in the winter pelage, and yet are light-coloured. Distri/uiti'iii. — From the Altai and Sajan ranges through the Thian Shan to the 'I'rans-Indus districts of (Jilgit and Baltistan, not extending east of Lake Baik.d. The ibex obtained by the luiiilish Boundary C'ommissicMi li 1; ill I' ^^1 i] 284 (joats from the Panipomisus Mountains of Afghanistan is doubtless this race, whose southern and soutli-eastern limits arc probably defined by the Indus. P i I W] /). Hl,MAI..\\AN RaiK— CaTKA SllilRll'.A SAflN Caprii /7h'.\\ Hodgson, '"founi. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. x. p. 913 (1H41), xi. p. 2S3 (1H41), ncc Linn. 1766. Capra stikccn, Hlyth, "joiini. .Is. S'jc Bciign/, vol. xi. p. 2H3 (1841). Cdpit! i/hw hoiitiliiyaiuis., llotlgson, {'.alciitta yoiini. Ndf. Hist. vol. ii. p. 414 (1S42). /Egocrros skyn, Wagner, Schreber's Siiiigct/iirir, vol. iv. p. 491 (1H44). Copra hi/iia/ayana, ScIuiK':, Syn^/p. Mamm. vol. ii. p. 46^ (•^45) ; C'l'ay, Knoicshy Menagerie, p. 33 ( 1*^50), Cat. Vngidata lirit. Mas. p. 150 (1H52) ; Adams, Proe. Zool. kSoc. 1S58, p. 523. I/h'x sakiii, Hodgson, Jourii. .Js. Soe. Bengal, vol. xvi. p. 700 (1847). Capra sihirica, Jerdon, Manini. India, p. 292 (1867) ; Kinloch, Large Game Shooting, pt. i. p. 30 (1869) ; Sterndale, Mamm. India, p. 444 (1884) ; Thomas, 'Trans. Linn. Soe. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 64 (1889). Capra skyn, Severtzoff, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. xviii. p. 334 (1878) ; Prezevvalski, Peters. Mittli. Erzl>. vol. xii. p. 5 (1878). Capra sakin, Blanford, Fauna Brit. hid. — Mamm. p. 504 (1891). Charaeters. — -Apparently distinguished from the tvpical race by the legs being uniformly dark brown throughout, and also bv the darker under-parts. With the luuidreds of Himalayan ibex yearlv shot bv I'Jiglish sports- men, it is somewhat surprising to rind Mr. Blanford remarking that he had only been able to examine one undoubted skin from the Himalaya, and was therefore unable to decide whether the dilFcrence in the coloration of the legs formed a constant distinction between the Himahu.in and Thian Shan forms. Although years ago I have ^een scores of •kiiis, I am at the Himalayan Ibex ^85 present time in no better position to decide the question, which must consequently iivvait Further eviileiice. From the analogy <>t the Tibetan and Siberian argalis, anil the ditlerence between the markhor of Baltistan and that of the Pir-Panjal, I am, however, of opinion that the Himalayan ibex is probably sub-specihcally distinct from the Thian Shan and Altai form, and therefore retain the name which has been proposed for it. Distrihiifioii. — The higher elevations of the Himalaya, exclusive of the Pir-Panjal, from the bend of the Indus above Gilgit eastwards, at least as far as tie source of the (ianges. Mr. Blanford remarks that this ibex "is not ki vvn to occur farther east in the Himalayas nor in l^astern Tibet, and althougi) it is included in Hodgson's lists of Nepal mammals, there are no specimens in his collection ; but when in Northern Sikhim I heard from Tibetans of an animal, probably this species, inhabiting the mountains north ot Shigatze, and Hodirson obtained similar information as to its occurrence north of Lhassa and Digarchi." Mr. Rowland Ward has, however, recorded ibex heads from Ladak, and I believe that 1 myself have heard of the existence of the animal in the southern parts of that district. '\ I . II, Nj (■. Dauvkkcnk's Rack — Cai-ka sihiricw D.\rvKi<(;NKi Cap: a dairccrguci^ Sterndale, '"f'lHru. Boinhiiy Ncif. Hist. Sor. vol. i. p. 24 (1HS6); Blanfoni, Fiiiiiui Brit. IiiJ. — Mamni. p. 504 (1S91). Cluiractcri. — \ provisional race founded on a head purchased in Kashmir, which it is suiruested may have come from the districts to the west of that coiMitry. Tiie horns are very dark-coloured, much more curved round than is ordinarily the case in the Himalayan race, and are devoid of knobs except near the tips. The latter peculiarity is strongly suggestive of an abnormality. Three specimens are recorded, in the longest of which the horns measure ^2 inches along the curve. 286 Cioats 9. Till'. M.ARKIIOR -CaI'KA I Al.lOM'.KI MgOiYi-os (G//)yv/) /;//rw/,77, Wagner, Mii//r/i. gr/r/irf. y//r.:rign: vol. ix. p. 4.^0 (1H39). /V.goccros fiilc'^ncr'u ^^^lglKT, Schrchcr's i^:itigcthici\\ vol. iv. p. 499 (i(S44). Ctipni J.i/cihii, Wagner, in Hiigcl's Knsc/ii/iir, vol. iv. p. 579 (ic and contour ot ;hc horns, together with their black colour, so dilferent tiom that of the true ibex, arc strongly suggesti\ e th.it its loMst nflinities are with tin Sp.mish tur. Its coiuKction with uic [parentage of ^he wil' goat has been alreailv referred to uiukr the heading of < /r,/ /i/nz/y. With reg, .1 t.. its al' j^cd snake killing pro[H-nsities, it may be nientioneil that, while there is no derinite inormation available .is to their truth or otherwise, preci ely the same attribute is assigneil to the common go.it in Siotl.iml. If 2S8 Goats Tlic hnl)its ot this iiohlc species in.iv l>c best consiiicreii iiiuicr tlic heading ot'the ilirferent t.kcn. Intnnnatioi) i> imah ncedeii whether these show any liillereiRe in the tolciration of the pehige, or whether thev iliHer solely in respect of" tlie horns ami size. lyntfihtiti'iii. — The Kajnag and I'ir-i'anjal ranges south ot" Kashmir to as tar east as the valley ot' the C'hinah ; the ranges ot' Maltistan, Astor, and (iilgit to the north ; Ilazara and several ot" the hill-ranges ot" Atghanistan, such as the Suleinan range as tar south as (iendari Hill near Mithankot, and likewise Takatu and C'hehiltaii near (juetta. In tin- I'liocene epoch the plains ot" the Punjab. The weight ot' s[K'ciniens ot" the larger races of the inarkhor ranges from I So to 240 lbs.; the .ictual reconls being 1S4, 204, ami 240 lbs. (/. As I OR R \(. 1— C'ai'ka I ai.c om ki i \ i-u a Copra flilchih'ii. Ward, Rccrd:; 'if Big (hnih\ p. 2^6 (1H96). V.hiU-iJctci . — Size large, probably t"ullv equal to that of the next race. Horns ot males torming an extremelv ofieii spiral, apparently never exceeding one antl a half turn^. nisfrihiiti'iii. Astor and lialtistan ; apparently intergrading with the next race on the confines of Hazara and (Jil"it. Hdhits. — Like the other races of the species, the Astor markhor frequents the most difficult and preci[Mtous ground, where, in spite of its size and yveight, its agility is t'ully ei]ual to that of any other member of the genus. So [irecipitous, indeed, is the country where it is found, that a consiiierable pro|ii)rtion of the heads shot are irretrievably ruineil by hilling trom the clitls into the \,dley> below. Congregating t"or a consider- able part of the year in heriN, t'rom which, however, the oUl bucks separate themselves in summer, they live almost entirely in the open, resortinp- to Astor Markhor 289 the patches ot forest only when driven thereto in order to escape the torments inflicted hy the swarms of gadflies during the hot months of the year. In the winter, especially after heavy falls of snow, they are driven down h\ the cold from the higher grounds to the clitls overhanging the main streams, or occasionally to even still lower levels, Colonel |. Hiddulph I'll;. ^4. I'Vont \ic\v lit IK'.iil lit male A-^tor Markhor. (Knim Darrah's iS'/i;,;-/ in the lliil//,iihi' :/ K,i!hriir.) relating that he once c,i[nured an ailult buck in the Residencv garden at Gilgit. The absence of the coat of under-fur, or pashm, is doubtless the reason that the markhor is so mucli more susceptible of coUl than its relative the ibex. In May these animals once more ascend to join the ibex, which in this district afipear nc\er to leave the higher pastures; and in June botli ibex and markhor mav be seen feeding together^ — ^a somewhat 2 !■ ^^1^ I ;i I 290 Goats rt'inarkiible association, when it is rcnicmbcrcd that the former species is unknown in the typical habitat of the Pir-Panjal race of the hi'iter. In Astor and Gilgit the young, vviiich may be either one or two in number, are born in May and June. Markhor, probably of tiie Pir-1'anjal race, have repeatedlv bred in captivity with the domestic goat. I. I«l Fk;, ;;.— Obliiiuc \i<.'\v ol' Hc.iil ol ni.ilc .\>liir MarkiiDr. (l-'roiu D.irraliV iV/>'.;7 //, llr Uigl-hiihl, ',t' K.iJ-mir.) /'. I*iR-i*ANiAi. Rack — L'apra iai.ccni-ki t ashmiriknms C/iiiracfiTS. — Size large, the height reaching to 4.0 or 41 inches at the shoulder. Horn^ of males with the spiral less open tlrin in the typical race, and showing in fine e\ain[iles h-om une to two complete turns. As observed by Mr. HIanforti, the horns of this race pass intu those of the last and the next bv exerv conceix'able gradation, probab'v on the confines of their respective distributional areas. The tollowinif are some of the lariicst dimensions of horns of this and the preceding race recorded bv Mr. Rowland Ward ; m^'m M Pir-Panjal Markhor 291 Lcnyth ;tl(ing Outur Curve. l.i'nt;tll ill Str.nght Linr. IJ;is;i! CircumtVn-iKi.-. ■i-ip t.. lip. Liicilily. 59 ? 40.1 p 10 p 384 Pir-Panjul Gilgit 56 J p p Astor 56 55 54i p ■3:1 r ? p 26 i p 54 p 10,^ 33.1 Astor 53.1 424 M.l 5^ »» 5,^ r 9; 26 p 53 3S'I 9-I. 354 (iilgit 52J 39^1 ■^i 33']. Astor 52 35 <>.', 4^4 (iilgit 5'^ 37i 10 ^^ Fir-l';inj;il S^k p "8 49 s Astor 51 37 1 1 4^ ,, 50 3^^-'. 12 36 Chihis 49.i f 10 39 K;ijn;ig 49 ■^'■'^ lOJ 43 (iilgit 49 r 1 I 35 Mar.iniosh 49 . ?- r 4^ Astor 484 48i 4/-> ^ f p "A 1 1 45 11 Pir-l'anjal 47 36 ",s 39 i> Distrihiition. — Tlic Pir-I'aiijal ami Kajiiag raiiycs 011 'he south siik- of the valley <>t' Kashmir, uiikii i\\ 11 (Ui tlic iiortlKMii siiic of that vailcv, and not cvtcMuiing tartlicr cast than tiic C'iiinaii ; to the north-west in Ilazara and (iilgit. In not exteiKling to the iiorthwuni of the \ ale of Kashmir, the distrihution of this race is similar to that if tiie Himalavan tahr, although it is more cxtemled to the north-west in that it crosses the Ihelam valley to include tiie Kajnai"- raiiLre. ILi/'its.- The I'ir-l'anjal markhor is ^^\^v of the animals in imminent danger of extermination in its typical habitat, unless the new f )rest laws of the Kashmir Ciovcriunent are sutiiciently striniient to enable it to ^ \'M iif ij^irij-'^-' "nfmmmmmmmm ^Ml^ii ^'\Ul\ 292 Goats recover its numbers. At the time th;it 1 knew the liistrict, markhor were nearly always to he met with at the heaii of i small valley flowing into the Jhelam near its bend below Naoshera ; hut of late years, 1 am informed, tliey have become extremely scarce there. Unlike the Astor race, the Pir-Panjal markhor is a thoroughly forest- dwelling goat, its true home being the precipitous clilis in the thick forests of its native range, from which it sallies forth at times to graze on ^ ill I m' I l«l|| '! ll Fif;. 56. — Horn- "i iii.ik l'ii-1'.iiijul M.irklior, tile higher slopes of tlie mountains. After tlie ■-torms which are so frequent at many seasons of the vear in the Paniul ami Kajnag ranges, markhor are almost sure to show tbemscKe- in the open glades at the first gleam of sunsliine ; and it is consetpientlv at siuli times that tiiey should be most tarcfullv looked tor bv the s[iortsnian. The forests in which the markhor dwell are chietlv ot pines and birch, and these iiltiiuili with sicep grassy slopes and precipitous clitK of slatv or tra[)pean roi.k. I)uiing the ilav the markhor remain con- cealetl in tlu most secluded dipths of the forest, issuing tortii to teeel only \» Cabul Markhor 2-93 in tin- inoniings iiiui cvt-iiings. In the spring individuals oi all sizes and ages are to Ik- seen together in the herds, hut as the summer advances the does usuallv retire to the more open ground ahove the forest helt, while the old males restrict themselves still more exclusively to the latter, and are consequently almost impossible to discover. And here it may he remarked that hv the shikaris ot" the Pir-l'anial the name markhor is applied exclusively to the hoary olil bucks, the younger males being termed rind, and the females bakri, or she-goat. According to (ieneral M'Intyre, the does appear generally to produce only a single kid at a birth, as none were observeti by him with twins. Owing to the bailness of the ground these animals frequent, markhor- shooting is one of the most dangerous of Himalayan sports. As (Jeneral Kinloch observes, thev "must be followed over steep inclines of short trrass which the melting snow has left with all the blades riatteneti liownwards ; and amid pine-trees, whose neeille-Iikc spines strew the gnunul and render it more sli[ipcry and treacherous than ice. if one falls on such ground one instantly begins to slidi' dow n t!ie incline with rapidly increasing; velocitv, anil unless some friendly hush or stone arrests one's progress, the chances are that one is carrieii over some [irecipicc, and either killed or severelv in'iureti." i c. C'.Miii. Rack — Cai'ka iai.com-.ki mk(,ai. i.kos C'lip)-,! wri;vAvr'Ai-, llutton, i'.dhiitta '^f'juni. .\,//. Hist. vol. ii. p. r ^r, pi. XX. (1S42), yw//7/. .7.,. .V'.,'. Hriig,i/, vol. w. p. 161 (1S46) ; Ward, /\',vw,/,i- ;V /% (uui:i\ p. 236 (1S96). C./i,ir, liters. — Size .ipnarentlv meiliuni. Horns of male nearlv strai'ijit but still showing a slightly open spiral, being in fact intei-metliate between those of the Pir-1'anial ami Suleman races, w'th hotii of which they inter- grade. lYistrihiiti'.)!. — The Trans-lndus liistricts in the neighboLU'hooil of Cabul, and [K'rhaps t'artlier south ; thus forming tlie extreme north- westerlv limits ii" 294 Goats ot the species. Nothing'; seems to have liccii recorded with regard to the habits of this race. i> i^ (/. Sri.KMAN Rack, — C'.ai'ra iai.(o\kki ikrdom Cdpi ii jcrd yiii, II '.line, Proc. .Is. Soc. Br//gti/, 1S74, p. 240; Kinlocli, lAirgc Cuiine S/w'jtiiig, pt. ii. p. 15 ( i S76) ; W^ird, Rcr^rJs of Big Gtiiih\ p. 239 (1 S96). CJhinicti'i\^. Si/e relati\ely small, the height at the himlder not exceeding 3H inches. Horns ot" male comparatively short, and forming a pertectlv straight cone, upon which the front and hinii keels are wound in a sharp spiral, so a^ to ^how in tine specimens two or three complete turns. Beard said to he less developed than in the two fir^t races. The above are the characters of the horn.-- of tliis race tVom the Suleman range, but manv of those from neighbouring districts show a complete }V«ssage into those of the Cabul race. The tollowing are the measurements of the h(>rns of the present and preceding races gi\en in Mr. Rowhuui Ward's hook : — Li-nglh in a Stniiglit Line. Basai CirctimtiTi-nce 38i 10.^ m f 34-' lOl .1.1 9|. .r-i iO y-\ 9i w^ ^ -» — 9 J* 81- 10 Tip u> Tip. f l.nC.lllt). Afghanistan )* Baluchistan Afgh.inistan Buiui Sulcni.ui l^.mgc H.iliiLhist.ui Shc;k Budm i> i Sheik Hudm I'., Afghanist.tn 1 J ,( Suleman Markhor ^95 DistrihuiirjH. The Tr;iiis-Ii,diis hill-ranges of the I'uiijah frontier, Afghanistan, and Hahichistan, eAtendiiu-; in the Sulenian range as far south as the neighhourhood of Mithankot, and also foiuid in the (hietta district. Colonel Percy, in the Btidiiiiiiton Lihrary, remarks that the straiglu-horned markhor, as he terms the }iresent race, " is found all over the low ranges that run parallel to the right huik of the Indus helovv Attock ; it used to he found in fair numhers near Sheik Budin, a small station near Dera Ismail Khan, and in the hills, or rather the steep ravines, in the plateau behind Dera CJhazi Khan." I have never seen a skin of this race, which is known to me onlv bv the skull and horns, of which there are several good examples in the British Museum. Habits. — As the gi-eater part of the distributional area ot this race is more or less inaccessible to iun-opean sportsmen, verv little is known as to its habits. The hills on which it is foinul are, however, for the most part at least, bare ami tiesolate, with a summer climate ot' great heat. in this res[iect the present race is analogous to the Punjab uri.d ; antl, as with that race, its relativelv small size is prob.ablv due to the hot climate, both sheep and goats appaj ,tlv attaining their maximum size, both of bodv ami horns, in legions where the temper.uure is comparativ elv low. Fii.. ;7. Hurii^ of mail.- Sill Lilian Markliiir. (k.-whuul Ward. R,- i',r,l, '/ h'iji (l.im,:) ii| <•. Siw AiiK R \(i. C'ai'ra I \i,(om,ri I'lNi ahiinsis [Extinct] {'.iiftni, sp., Lvdekker, P-t. hid. Mm. pt. i. p. 17 (1SS5). Cliarmtcrs. — Known oidv bv three broken horn-cores in the liulian 296 Tahi Museum, Calcutta, which appear td have lieloiiged to iiiiinatuie individuals most nearly related to the Cabul race. D/'stri/wtio//.- The Potwar, ami prohahlv other districts of the Punjab. M v. Till- TaIIR- — CiKNl'S Hk.NM IRAfTS Hcinitragiis, Hodgson, y,iini. As. S'h\ Ji-//gt/ /, yo], x. p. 913 (1S41); Gray, (.'. Horns always black. Distr:/>iiti'/H. -The Ilimalava, the Nilgiri, Anamalai, and some of the other ranges ot South.ern India, and the mountains of South-l^astern Arabi.i ; in the outer Himalaya elating trom the Pliocene epoch. The distribution of this tfenus is tlecidedly remarkable, its earliest known occiu-rence is in Northern India ; .Hid in t'ormer times it would appear to have existed at or near the sea-le\el, at an epoch when there was a freer land communication with Arabia than is at present the case. \\ ith an increase in tem[ierature, one species woukl appear to have taken refuge in the Himalaya, a second i!M:!b|i: V! s il. M Jl < 10 f • o O u. w w lO ^. X P a: Himalayan Tahr ^9 / in the inoiiiitaiiis of' Southern India, ;iiul the third in tliose of Soiith-lvastern Arahia. In habits tahr are very similar to the true y-oats. I. TiiK I IiMAi.w AN Tahr — Ih. NH IKACitS |I:MI. AlfCS OS % i'.apra jcmltiiiica, II. Smith, in Cirillith's .Ininuil Kiii^,l',iii, \i)\. iv. p. -508 (1S27) ; V. L. Sehiter, Phh. /v./. S'h. 1SS6, p. ^17. Ciipi-ii jcuilohici!, II. Smith, '.p. cit. vol. v. p. ^58 (18^7); jardine, Natiifdlnt' s hihiutrv Miuinii. vol. iv. p. 117 (iS^6). Ciiprti jhciFd/, Hodgson, Asiatic Rr.u; c/h's, vol. wiii. pt. ii. p. 129 (1S33), Proc. Z'.',l. S'H-. iS;4, p. 106, yw/n/. .Is. S',c. Ji,'//ir,//, vol. iv. p. 491 (iS;,5). Ci/pr,/ rji/,iJri»i(iininis, Hodgson, y',!in!. .-Is. Sor. Ilv/ga/, vol. iv. p. 710 ('^,vO. \'- P- -54 ('^,^^))- /{,-////fr,/g//s 'fiiiulriiiunuDtis, \'el j/hird/, Hodgson, '//'. cit. \'ol. v. p. 91;, (1S41). UciNitri!//itrd!^//s) /.//i/dic!/s, Steriuiale, Mdiinii. bid \>. 449 (1SS4). i'.dprd jcni/dicii. Flower and Ciarson, dit. Ostcd. Miis. i'.-,ll. Siic:^. pt. ii. p. 250 (1884); W. L. Selatcr. Cdt. Mdn;:)i. bid. Miis. pt. ii. p. 146 (1891). 2 1,;^ 298 Tahr /Vr/A AAV 7. 1 i.'i C/hiri!ChT.i. -Size large, the height at the shoulder ranging between 36 and 40 inches. Build somewhat heavy and clumsy, with the face long, narrow, and straight. Horns almost or quite touching at the base, greatly compressed, flattened on each side from a short distance above the base, the sides distinctly ridged transversely, and the front inner angle forming a sharp nodular keel, diverging from the base and curving backwards sharply, but somewhat convergent at the tips. Head covered with short hair ; the hair on the body soft and much longer, and on the neck, shoulders, and chest elongated so as in old males to form a shaggy mane reaching at least as low as the knees, dcneral colour rich dark or reddish-l)r()wn, darkest in old males, hut in some cases paler, and the fore part of the mane in old males generally whitish or hoary ; the indiviiiual hairs pale at their base and dark brown towartls the tips ; face and front surface of the lees \ erv tlark brown, sometimes almost l.„. ;s.-H.,k1 of ,n.>K. Hi,,.,- lil'i^'k > '^ ^l'^'''^ ^^reak down the middle of the layanTalir. (Wird, ^,v'./-,/ [^.^^.j^^ which is, howcver. Very indistinct in old of Big (tiimr.) males; hinder surfaces of the limbs pale or n ty red in the males ; immature individuals grayish-brown, and kiiK very pale- coloureti. Tail short, flattened, and naked on the under siu-face ; knees anti cliest furnished with callous pad^ ; and the females with four teats. An adult male will weigh about 200 lbs. The distinctive features of this, tlie typical, species are the large size, the sharplv-keeled nodose, compressed horns, the long soft mane of the males, and the four teats of the females. li i , Himalayan Tal,. 299 Mr. Bliintord records a iniixiinum horn Iciifrth of i6Ji inches, hut the folh)wiiig ai some ot the largest nieasiireiiients iveii M* (owhiiul Ward's book ; — '4^ ■4i '4i «4 Ml 'Vf. Circiimfironii'. «A 9 9 8 8.1 T,|. t., ■rip. H Distribution. The tore liistritts of" the iiiuidle Hiinalava, from the Pir-Faiiial to Sikhim ; al)iiiulaiit in the h)\ver Wardwaii, Kistwar, and C'hamha (hstricts, as it is in (iahrvvah Apparently iinkn(-\vn in the Kainag range, anti not occurring in the ranges to the north of the valley of Kashmir, its limits in these districts heing thus hountleii to the north ami north-west l)v the valley of the fhelam river. Hdhits. \\\ the Simla district the name of this species is tahr or tehr, hut in Kistwar it is known as kras, and in Kashmir as jagla. Although I have hunted tahr in the vallev of the Chinah, I have had hut little opfior- tunitv of studying their hahits in detail, and am theiefore compelled to quote from the writings of those who have heen more favoured. Among these accounts that of (ieneral A. A. Kinloch is one of the best :--"'rhe tahr," he writes, " is, like the markhor, a forest-loving animal, and although it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills, it generally prefers the steep slopes which are more or less clothed with trees. Female tahr may frequently he found on open ground ; hut old males hide a greai deal in the thickest iimgle. Nearly perpeiulicular hills with dangerous preci- pices, where tiie forest consists of oak antl ringal cane, are the favourite IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /> ,. 5 IS 300 Tahr haunts of the old tahr, who chmh with ease over ground where one would hardly imagine that any animal would find a footing." General Macintyre, whose account is likewise good, also bears testimony to the difficult nature of the ground frequented by tahr :— " This ruminant," he writes, " is plenti- fully distributed over the precipitous rocky slopes just below the snow-line, and is occasionally found on some of the higher parts of the middle ranges, where, however, it appears not to attain the same size as it does in the higher regions below the snow-line. I have never seen a more truly wild- looking animal in the Himalayas than an old buck tahr, with his long frill-like mane and shaggy coat of dark grayish-brown, short sturdy legs, and almost black face. . . . An old buck stands over 3 feet at the shoulder. The doe, called ' tehrug,' is smaller, lighter in colour, and less shaggy, with horns of the same shape, but much smaller than those of the buck. The great old bucks herd separately during the summer till October, generally betaking themselves to the wildest and most un- approachable places. Their colour is often so dark as, at a distance, almost to look like black, more especially in the autumn. The tiesh of the tahr is considered by the hill-men to be a great medicine for fever and rheumatism ; and shikaris often dry the flesh and sell it, and even the bones, in places where fresh tahr-meat is not procurable." So bad is much of the ground frequented by these aniinals, that specimens when shot frequently sniash themselves into a pulp in their fall down the frightful precipices. The pairing season takes place in the winter months, and the kids, of v\'hich usually only one is produced at a birth, are born in the following June or July, so that the period of gesta- tion would appear to be about six months. In confinement tahr thrive well. They have been tried in the park at Woburn Abbey, but some of the males developed the extraordinary habit of ripping open the fallow deer with their sharp horns, and consequently ' lllndii-K'jl\ Edinburgh ami Ldruioii, 1S91. -1 Arabian Tahr -1 301 had to be destroyed. It is to this pernicious habit that the British Museum owes the two handsome specimens now exhibited in the lower mammalian gallery. 2. Thk SiwALiK Tahr — Hkmi ikacjus sivalknsis {Extinct) Capra siialcnsis, Lydeki g '4.^ '4li '4l '4! '4i 14 14 1 2^; Circiimffrviuc. ? H H H H H n H 8 8 8§ 7§ 7^ ■I'ip to -rip, si 7 A 6 4-I Si 4i 5i 6i 4^ The largest female horns on record have a length of i i i inches, with a basal circumference of 5'/ inches. Distrihiition. — The mountain ranges of Southern India, namely the Nilgiris ami Anamalais, ami the Western Ghats from the Anamalais nearly to Cape Comorin ; generally at elevations between 4000 and 6000 feet above the sea-level, although occasionally considerablv lower. With the exception of tiie Arabian tahr ami the Abyssinian ibex, the present 2 R i " 3o6 1\Uir ;m is the only species of wilil goat living southwani ot' the northern tropic. Habits. — The Nilgiri ihex, as it is commonly called hy I'Jiglish sports- men, has sutFered much from incessant pursuit, in consequence of which its numbers have been greatly diminisheil. The Madras Government has, however, recently enacted forest -laws for its protection, and a special permit is necessary for shooting, so that there are hopes it will once more increase. The best accounts of its habits are those given by Col. Douglas Hamilton, " Hawkeye," and Mr. Blanford. From these it appears that the Nilgiri tahr was formerly found in herds numbering from 5 to 50 or 60 head, although occasionally, from the temporary amalgamation of difterent herds, c(»nsiderably more might be seen together. Their favourite haunts are the crags and precipices above the forest level, the interspersed slopes of grass affording their feeding grounds ; i)ut they occasionally venture on to the open grassy tracts forming the plateau at the summit of the hills. Like other goats, they feed during tlie mornings and evenings, reposing beneath the shelter of rocks during the dav. Thev are exceedingly difficult to stalk, being as acti\x' and wary as their Himalayan relative, but, like that species, suspecting danger from below rather than from above, and the old does acting as sentinels to the herds. Their chief foes are leopards, though a few tall victims to prowling tigers, and others doubtless to packs of wild dogs. Two kids appear to be generally produced at a birth ; and as kills may be seen with the herds throughout the greater part of the vear, there does not seem to be anv definite breeding season. The following extract from the pen of " Hawkeye " admirably describes the wariness of the species : — " Usually before reposing, one of the herd, generally an old doe, mav be observed intently gazing below, apparently scanning every spot in the range of her vision, sometimes for half an hour or more before she is satisfied that all is well ; strange to say, seldom or ever looking up to the rocks above. Then, being satisfied on the one side, she !SE3SJ!ESrr.''-. Nilgiri Tahr 307 V observes the same process on the other, eventually calmly lying ilown, con- tented with the precautions she has taken that all is safe. Her post as sentinel is generally a prominent one, on the eilge and corner perhaps of ,.ome ledge, well sheltered from the wind and warmed hv the sun, along which the rest of the herd ilispose themselves as inclineil, fully trusting in the watchful guardian whose maniruvres I have heen describing. Should the sentinel be joined by another, or her kill come and lie down by her, they invariably place themselves back to [)ack, or in such a manner that they can keep a lookout on either side. A solitary male goes tiirough all this by himself, and woiulerfuliy careful he is, but when with the herd he reposes in security, leaving it to tlie females to take precautions for their mutual safety." From the conspicuous grizzled mark on the loins, the old males are commonly termetl by sportsmen "saddle-backs." 11 I ! Fiti. 6i."- I'VoMt licw cit llciiil cirni.ilc Nilgiri 'Palir. l-'rcnn ,1 ^pcfiiin;!! in tho posscssiciM lit' Mr. St. Cicori;!.' I.iitk'iialc. «lili«IIMP APPENDIX HIHLKX.KAI'IIV ()!■ WIM) OXI-.N. SIIi;i:i», AND (iOAIS Thh following list, which makes no prcfoncc to Iv tompjuti.-, inciudi's only works and memoirs ilcvotfd exclusively, or almost so, to the groups ilescrihed in the present volume. I. Oxen Ai.i.i-N, j. A. The American Bisons, Living and I'Atinct. Mem. Miis. Harvard, vol. iv. No. lo ( 1H76). Ai'1,1), K. C. 'I'he Wild Cittle of (ireai Brit.iin. .Inier. Nittiiralist, vol. xxii. pp. 4<>H-50(j (1S88). Bla\h)I2-5(>y, [ilate xlix, Bi.vrii, I',. A Note on African Buftaloes. Op. ai. 1866, pp. ^71-^7^. BoiviiK, !',. I,. L'l'Atermination du Bison Anieric.iin. /,(• Siiliiit/(i\ S'di. lli.U. Soc. vol. \. pp. 78-82 (1895). II H ^ t .;*l ri! 1^^ 310 Appendix Grav, J. K. On Bos hrnchyceros, the West African Biiffilo, and the Dwarf Buffalo of Pennant. Ami. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. xii. pp. 499 and 500 (187.1). — On Boi pimiliis. Op. cit. vol. xiii. pp. 258 and 259 (1874). Hei.i.er, K. M. Die Urhiiffel von Celehes, .Inoa depressioniis, H. Smith. Dresden, 1889, 4to. Hei'ue, p. M. Note sur un Buffle de Mindanao, Bubalns niHaiiiteiisis, Heude. Mevi. Hist. Nat. Emp. C/iiiiois, vol. iii. pp. 45-47 plate x. (1896). Hodgson, B. H. Description of the Gawri (inu of the Nepal Forest (Bi/m SHbJiemachdus). Joiini. .Is. Soc. Boigal, vol. vi. p. 499 (1837). — On the Bihs, Gauri Ciau, or Gaiirika Gau of the Indian Forests [Bibos cavifroHS, B. classictis, B. aristotelis). Op. cit. pp. 745-749 (i8V/')- — Illustrations of the (ienera of the Bovin.v ; part, i, Skeletons of Bos, Bihs, and Bison, the individuals examined being the Common Bull of Nepal, the Gowii Gao of Nepal, and the ak. Op. cit. vol. x. pp. 449-470 (1841). HoRNAD.AV, W. T. The Extermination of the American Bison. Rep. U.S. Mus. for 1886-87, PP- .1^9-548> plates i.-xxii. (1889). HuET, J. I.es Bovidcs. Bull. Soc. .Icclim. Paris, vol. xxxviii. pp. 1-15 and ^34- ,350 (1891). Hughes, T. M'K. On the important Breeds of Cattle which have been recognised in the British Islands in successivi; periods. Arclhcolo^ia, vol. iv. pp. i 25-158 (1896). Inveraritv, J. D. The Indian Wild Buffalo. Jonru. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. X. pp. 41-52 (1895). Jen'iink, F. a. On Bubalus fniiidoroisis, Heude. Notes heyden Mus. vol. xvi. pp. 199-204, plates viii.-xi. (1894). Keller, C. Das afrikanische Zebu -Rind. Festschrift (les. 7,itrich, 1896, PP- 454-4*^7- Langkavel, B. On the Geographical Distribution of the F'uropean and Caucasian Bison. Zoologist, ser. 3, vol. xix. pp. i-io (1895). LvDEKKER, R. Crania of Ruminants from the Indian Tertiaries. PaLrontologia hidica {Mew. Geol. Siirv. hid.), ser. 10, vol. i. pp. 88-iSi, plates (iH-8-80). On the Geographical Races of the Banting. Proc. Zool. Soi. 1S98, pp. 276- 278, plate XXV. Nehring, H. Die Herber?;tain'schen Abbildungen des \J\- und des Bison, l.and- ivirtsch. Jahrb. vol. xxv. pp. 915-9,3.1 (1896). OusTALET, I'',. Note sur V/lnoa inindorensis, Sieere. Bitil. Mus. Paris, 1895, pp. 202, 203. r4 i II ii Appendix 311 PKcm-Ei.-LoEscHE, I{. Afrikaiiischc Biiffcl. Zool. Ja-irk .Sysl. vol. iii. pp. 704- 724, pliites xxvii. ;iiui xxviii. (1888). P01.LOK, F. T. Indian Wild Cattle ; the Tsine and the Gaiir (miscalled Bison). Zoologist, ser. 4, vol. ii. pp. i-io (1898). PoMKL, A. BuI/iiIhs antiquum. Pal. Man. Alghie, 1893. B(Eiifs 'J'aureaux. Ibid. 1894. Radde, (j. On the present Range of the luiropean Bison in the Caucasus. Proc. Zool. Soc. 189-5, pp. 175-177. Rhoads, S. N. Distribution of the American Bison in Pennsylvania, with remarks on a new Fossil Species. Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1895, PP- 244-248. ^'"f^'^ "" ' '^''"g 'I'l'-l i'.xtinct Species of Vorth American Borid.v. Op. cit. 1897, pp. 483-502, plate xii. RoMER, F. Ueher C. K. von Baer's Bos pallasi aus dem Diluvium von Danzig. Zcitschr. deutsch. Geol. Ges. vol. xxviii. pp. 430-441 (1875). Sarbo, J. The Wild Ox of Assam. Proc. Zool. So.: 1883, pp. 142-144. ScHiEMENz, P. Hat das LJr-Rind (Bos primigeuius, Boj.) noch in historischer Zeit gelebt : Biol. Centralblati, vol. xvii. pp. 793-798 (1897). Stewart, A. Notes on the Osteology of Bison latijrom, Leidv. Kansas Unarterly, vol. V. pp. 127-135 (1897). Thomas, P. Recherches sur les Bovides fossiles de I'Algerie. Bull. Soc. Zool. ln-anct\ 1881, pp. 1-47, plates ii. and iii. Wood, II. S. Description of, and Natural History Notes on the Biu-mese Wild Bull. Zoologist, ser. 4, vol. i. pp. 489-49- (1897). II. MlSK-OxKN Feii.dev, H. W. The Distribution of the Musk-Ox in (Jreenlaiid. ser. ^ \'ol. xix. pp. 41-44 (1895). Zoologist, III. Sin;i:i' wd (ioAis Ai.i.E\, J. A. Preliminary description of a new Mountain Sheep from the British North-West 'lerritory. Bull. Amer. Mm.\o\. ix. pp. 1 11 -1 14. plates ii. and iii. (1 89-'). BiDDii.iMi, J. Remarks on the Wild Sheep met with duruig his recent jr/irney to Varkand. Pmc. Zool. Soc. 1875, PP' '5" •'"'■1 '5^- ^12 Appendix i. \- fen' til '■'^'^;:;;:;i;. ^" '^^ ''"' ''--' -^ "^^^-^- ^'•- ^-^- ^'- •««- pp- 593-596, - On the Geographical Races of the Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Op dt ,88 c pp. 678-684. ^ ^ 5' Bi...NFo,u,, W. T. Renurks upon a ser.es of Heads of Ovis pelt. Op. at 1884 pp. 326-.V29. "^ y • 4, ~ Remarks on heads of Ovis ammo, from the North-West Altai Central Asm obtained by Major Cun,berland. Op. at. ,896, pp. 7«7 and 788. Bm-th L. Monograph of the Species of the genus Ovts. Op. dt. 1840, pp ,. 248-26; (I'r'' "' """■ ^'^' """' ''"' ""■• '' ^'"'- ^"- '^'^- ''^^"°'' '^"^ '~n. t ^rT^Co' '^^ '^^^^'^^ "' """' '''-'■ '— ''■ ""• '"''-' -'■ - —- Der Himalaya-Steinbock. Frortep Noti.,e„, vol. xviii. pp. ,,7-1,9 (,84,) Brook., S,k V. and Mk. B. On the Large Sheep of the Thian ShaVand the _ other As,at,c Argali. Proc. Zcol. Soc. ,875, pp. 509-526 BucHNHR K Zur Geschichte der Kaukasischen Ture {Capra auuasia, und L. cyhHdruonus). Mem. Aaid. St. Petershtog, vol. xxxv. No. 8 (,887) B.x•,■o^, K N. Notes on the XN'ild Sheep of Algeria. Pro. Zoo). So ,890, pp. 361-363. ^"' 1).-K0K,>, G. Notes on the \\-ild (ioat, Capra ..gagna, Gn,elin. Op. at. ,875 pp. 458-468. ' '^' D,NN,K, H On the Caucasian Mountain-Cioat (Capra a,tuasua, Guldenstadt). ^Im. Mag. Aat. Hist. ser. 5, vol. xix. pp. 450-454 (,887). G.„.,.HM.R„ K. H. n. Remarks on Ov,s >uvicola. Proa Zool. Soa ,885, pp 675-678. ^ ^* Hoo.sos-, B. H. The Wild Goat {Capra jaral) and the W,ld Sheep (Ovis -nv|«'-) of Nepal. .W. Researdus. vol. xviii. pt. ., pp. ,,,-,,8 (,831). . On the Characters of the Jharal {Capra jaral, Hodgs.), with observationi'on the distinction between the genera Capra and Ovis. Proa Zool. So. ,8u pp. 1 06- 1 ,0. ■ "^' On the Wild Goats and W,ld Sheep of the I Imu.lava, u,th rema.-ks on the gcnent C,^;-. and Ovu. Jo„r„. .!s. Soa Bengal, u.l. ,v. pp. 4,0-494, and 710(1835). ^' ^^^' - On the two W,ld Species of Sheep {Ovu ammouoides. O. nahoor) inhabiting the Himalayan Region, with some brief remarks on the Craniological Characters of Ovis and Its Allies. Op. at. vol. x. pp. 230-234 (1840). i !! I N Appendix o r o HoiJGsoN, B. H. On the Wild Sheep of Tibet (Ovis ammom'ides, niihi). Op. cit. vol. XV. pp. 338-343 (1846). HuET, J. Liste des Especes connues et decrites jusqii'a ce jour dans les Families des Ovides et Caprides. Hull. Soc. Acclini. Paris, vol. xxxii. pp. 241-255, 369-380, 470-478, and 561-570 (1891). L.ANGKAViiL, B. Die Kuropaische Miiflon, das Mahiienschaf, und der Cyprische Muflon. Zool. Garten, vol. xxxii. pp. 180-185 ('^9 0- LiEBENWAi.DE, J. M. Dickhomschaf {Ovis monfana) und Felsengebergziege (y//>/o- ier/, iSi amnion, Ovis, 1-4., iSi amnion lypica, Ovis, 1 "" Animoiragus, 226 Ampliibos, 93 anatolica, 0\is, I :;9 Andalusian uir, 2;S Angora goat, 26f) Anoa, 93, 131 antiqiliis. Bison, 61 antiiiuus. Bos, I 1 ; antiiiuus, Biibahis, I 1 ; Arabian ibex, 266 Arabian taiir, 301 arabica, Capra, 266 Argali, lj;4, 174 argali, /Egoceros, 17^ I argali altaica, Ovis, 177 ' argali, Argali, 1 7; argali, Caprovis, 17^, iSi Argali, Mongolian, iSo arg.ili mongolica, Ovis, 177 argali, Mii^imon, 1 7i argali, Ovis, I 74 Argali, Siberian, 177 Argali, Tibetan, 1 So aiies, Ovis, I ^2 arkal, Caprovis, 1 72 arkal, Ovis, 172 Arkar, 19:; arkar, Ovis, iSS Arna, 123 arna, Biibahis, 1 iS arnee, Bos, 1 iS arnee, Biibahis, I iS I Ami, 123 ' ami. Bos, I I S ami. Bubal us, 1 20 Arui, 266 I Asiatic ibex, 27^ i Asiatic iiiuflon, 1 ^9 I Assam burtalo, 1 2^) : asseel, Bibos, 24 ' Astor marklior, 2SS Astor iirial, 1 71 Aurochs, 10 baiiii, BubaUis, I 1 ; Banting, 36 banting, Bibo>, 30 banting. Bos, 36 beden, ^"Egoceros, 266 beilen, Capra, 266 \ Bharal, 231 ' Bharal, Caucasian, 244 Bibos, 22 I Bibovine group, 22 ! Bighorn, 204 ' Bighorn, Alaskan, 2 19 'iighorn, Kamschatkan, 221 • . ,-iiorn, Liard river, 2 1 , B't;horii, North-Western, 217 Bigiii)rn, Rocky Mountain, 209 Bighorn, Southern, 20S Bison, io Bison, American, 79 bison athabasca'. Bison, 90 bison. Bison, 65, So bison, Bos, 65, 79 Bison, Central American, 92 Bison, European, 64 Bison, Harlan's, 92 Bison, Plistocene, 61 Bison, prairie, S4 Bison, Siualik, 60 Bisoiitiiic group, 30 bison typicus, Bos, 84 Bison, wooillaiul, 90 blaiitbrili, Ovis, 174 Blue sheep, 237 blythi, Capra, 264 blythi, Ovis, iSi bcniibi trolls, BoiUheriuiii, 14S Bonasus, io \ bonasus. Bison, 66 ' bonasus. Bos, 64 bonasus priscus. Bison, 61 BoiUherium, 139 borcalis, Ovis, 22 1 Bos, 3 brachicheros. Bos, 106 brachyceros, Bos, 106, 112 braclivceros, Bubalus, 107 brookei, Ovis, 1 S 1 Broun buffalo, 101 Bubaline group, 93 ! bubalis, Bos, 1 iS j bubalis t'ulvus. Bos, 1 26 bubalis hosei. Bos, 126 bubalis pala-iiulicus, Bos, 127 bubalis palhisi, Bos, 1 z~ bubalis typicus. Bos, 1 2 1 Bubalus, 93 bubalus, Bos, 1 iS bubalus, Bubalus, 1 20 Bull'alo, Abyssinian, 101 Butlalo, African, 9+ Buffalo, Algerian, 1 1 3 Burialo, Assam, 1 26 Buffalo, black, 97 Buffalo, Bomean, 126 i 316 Index Hiirtalc), broxvM, loi Huft"iilii, Ciipe, 97 HiitKalo, Cclclus, I 3 I Burtal", Congo, 106 Burt'alocs, 94 Biirt'iilo, European, 127 Burtalo, gray, i 1 ^ Buffalo. Iiuiiuu, I iS Buffalo, Lake Tcluui, 1 12 Buffalo, Mindoro, I 28 Buffalo, N.irbada, 127 Buffalo, red, 106 Buffalo, Sciiegaiiihian, 10? Buffalo, Siwalik, 1 16 Buffclus, 93 buffclus. Bos, 1 18 huffelus, Bulialus, r 19 liuffeluspahviiKlii;us, Bulialus, 127 Burmese banting, 41 burrliel, Ovis, 2 \z burrlicl, Pseudois, 232 Cabra montc, 2;6 Cabiil niarklior, 293 c;i'saris. Bos, I i caffcr ;equinoctialis, Bos, 101 caffer a-i]uinoctialis, Bubalus, 101 caffer. Bos, 94 caffer brae liyccros. Bos, It2 caffer, Bubalus, 94 caffer, Buffelus, 94 caffer nanus. Bos, 106 caffer typicus. Bos, 97 califbrniana, ()\is, 205 canadensis, Argali, 20:; canadensis, Caprovis, 20; canadensis dalli, Ovis, 219 canadensis liardensis, Ovis, 2r; canadensis neisoni, Ovis, 221 canadensis nivicola, Ovis, 221 canadensis, Ovis, 204 canadensis stoiiei, Ovis, 2 t 7 canadensis lypica, Ovis, 209 canaliculatus. Bos, 143 Cape buffalo, 97 Capra, 239 Caprovi<, I ;4 Caucasian bliaral, 244 Caucasian tur, 244 caucasica, /Egoceros, 243 caucasica, Capra, 243, 246, 2^10 cavitVons, Bibos, 23 ca\it'rons, Boiitlieriuni, 14S cavifrons, Ovibos, 14K celebensis, Anoa, 132 celebensis, Probubalus, 1 ^2 Celebes buffalo, 1 3 1 Celtic sliort-liorn, 1 3 Central American bison, 92 centralis, Bjs, 101 centralis, Bubalus, 103 ccrvina, Ovis, 204 collium, Ovis, 197 colossus, Urus, 1 1 Common goat, 239 ConinioM ov, 9 Congo buffalo, 106 crassicornis, Bison, 61 cycloccros, Caprovis, 172 cycloeeros, 0\ is, 1 72 cylindricornis, Capra, 242 cylindricornis, Ovis, 242 Cyprian muflon, 163 cyprius, Ovis, 163 dalai-lam;i', Ovis, I S 1 dalli, Ovis, 2 19 dante. Bos, 19 darvvini, Ovis, 203 dauvergiiei, Capra, 2K3 Dauvergne's ibex, 283 dcpressicornis, Anoa, 131 depressicornis, Antilope, 131 dcpressicornis. Bos, 1 3 i depressicornis, Bubalus, 132 depressicornis, Taurotragus, I 31 Domesticated goal, 264 Domesticated ox, 1 3 Domestic sheep, 1 32 dorcas, Capra, 264 East Caucasian tur, 242 clatus. Bos, 4S elatus, Leptobos, 49 Etruscan ox, 48 ctrusciis, Bibos, 49 etruscus, Bos, 48 europx'a. Ibex, 271 europa'us, Bison, 63 europ:inis, Bos, 63 European bison, 64 European buffalo, 127 European mutlon, 1 ^4 European wild o\, 10 i falconeri, >^goceros, 286 falconeri. Bos, 30 Falconeri, Capra, 286 falconeri cashmiriensis, Capra, 290 falconeri, Hircus, 286 falconeri jerdoni, Capra, 294 falconeri megaceros, Capra, 293 falconeri punjabieiisis, Capra, 293 falconeri typica, Capra, 288 Falconer's ox, 30 Fcchstal, 229 t'ossilis, Bos, I 1 fossil is, Urus, 11 frontalis, Bibos, 32 frontalis, Bos, 3 1 frontalis, (laveus, 32 f'rontosus. Bos, 1 3 1 ' Gaur, 23 gaur. Bos, 24 gaurus, I5ibos, 24 gaurus. Bison, 23 gaurus. Bos, 23 gaurus, Ciava-us, 24 Gava'us, 22 gavauis, Bibos, 32 gava'iis. Bison, 32 gavauis. Bos, 3 1 gavanis, Urus, 32 gaya'us, Bos, 23 Gayal, 3 I ga/ella, Antilope, 260 gazella, Hircus, 260 gibbosus, Zebus, 19 giganteus. Bos, I 1 gmelini, Ovis, 1 39 Goat, Angora, 266 (joat, common, 239 Goat, domesticated, 264 Cioat, Persian, 260 Goats, 239 Goat, shawl, 263 {joat, Sind, 264 I gour, Bos, 23 Gray buffalo, 1 1 3 Cireenland musk-ox, 142 grunniens. Bos, 3 1 grunniens, Poephagus, 32 Harlan's bison, 92 Harlan's musk-ox, 148 [ heiiisii, Ovis, 197 Hemibos, 93 Hemitragus, 296 himalayana, Capra, 284 Himalayan ibex, 284 Himalayan tahr, 297 Hircus, 239 I hircus a'gagrus, Capra, 260 i hircus blythi, Capra, 264 t hircus, Capra, 2 39 hircus typica, Capra, 264 hi^panica, Capra, 238 hispanicus. Ibex, 238 hodgsoni, Ovis, 180 Humped ov, 19 liylocrius, Capra, ^03 hylocrius, Hemitragus, 303 liylocrius, Kenias, 303 Ibex, 2 39 Ibex, Abyssinian, 270 ibex, /Egoceros, 271 Ibex, Alpine, 271 Ibex, Arabian, 266 Ibex, Asiatic, 273 ibex, Capra, 271 Ibex, Dauvergne's, 283 Ibex, Himalayan, 284 li Ind ex ibc\ liinialayaiui!-, Capra, 2K4 llicx, Nilgiri, 30? Jbcx, Spaiiisli, 2 i ^ Ilicx, 'I'liian Shan, 2S1 Imliaii hiiHalci, i iS iiullcii:., BiliDs, i<) imiiciis, Bds, 19 iiuiicus, Biihalus, 1 19 iiuiicus, Biitt'cliih, 1 19 Iskiii, 2S1 Jagla, 299 Javaii baiiliiig, 39 jayakcri, Hcmitragu^, 301 jcinlaliica, Capra, 297 jcnilaica, Capra, 297 jcmlaiciis, Hcmitragii'-, 297 jcmlaiciis, Kciiias, 29; jcmlaiiica, Capra, 297 jcrdoni, Capra, 294 jliaral, Capra, 297 jliaral, Hcmitragus, 297 jiibata, Ovis, iSo Kamschatkaii bigiiorn, 221 karoliiii, Ovis, 197 Kclat iirial, 174 Kcmas, 296 kcrabaii, Bos, 1 19 kcrabai], I5iibalii», 120 Kras, 299 Lake Tcliad Initliilo, 1 1 2 lalitVoiis, Bisim, 92 lalilrcms, Bos, 10, 92 I.cptobos, 4S Lcptoboviiic group, 4S Icrvia, Aiitilopc, 226 Icrvia, Ovis, 226 IciicopryiuiuLs, Bos, ^6 l.ianl River bighorn, 2 1 ^ Littk-dalc's sheep, iS^ b)ngit'roiis, Bos, I ^ IVlanipiir banting, 4^ Mareo l'oU)'s sheep, iSS Markluir, 2K6 Markhor, Astor, 28K Markhor, Cabiil, 29^ Markhor, I'ir-Panjal, 290 iVIarkhor, Siwalik, 29; Markhor, straight-hornej, 2 Mr.rklior, Siileman, 294 niegaeeros, Capra, 2K6, 293 Miegaeeros, Hi reus, 286 mengesi, Capra, iMi niiikiorensis, Anna, 1 2S Miindorensis, Bos, 1 2S niiniloreiisi-., Bnbahis, 1 2S niindorerisis, Probnbabis, 12 Mindoro butl'ahi, 1 2S Mithan, 33 Mongolian argali, 1 So I niontana dalli, Ovis, 219 I moniana, Ovis, 166, 204 niontanus, Miisimon, 205 moiitanns, Ovis, 22 1 mosehatus. Bos, 142 nioschatiis, Biibahis, 143 nioschauis, Ovibos, 142 Mulloii, Asiatic, 1 59 Million, Iviiropean, 1 ;4 MliHoji, Piistocene, 163 Musimon, 1 54 musiinon, ^goceros, 154 I miisinion, Caprovis, 15? ! mtisimon occidentalis, Ovis, 1^4 iiitisimon orientalis, Ovis, 1 ^9 mtjsinion, Ovis, 1 ^4 Musk-oxen, 137 , Miisk-ox, (Jreenland, 142 j Musk-ox, Harlan's, 14K musnioii, Capra, I ^4 nuisnion, Musimon, I ^ ^ niusnion, 0\is, i ^4 iiiiitus, I'oephagus, |;2 I nahoor, Musimon, 232 nahoor, Ovis, 2 ? I nahoor, I'seudois, 232 nahura, Ovis, 231 naliura, I'seudois, 232 naniadieus. Bos iS namadicus, Bubalus, 127 namadicus. Urns, 1 S nanus. Bos, 106 Narbada butlalo, 1 27 Narbada ox, iS iiayaur, Ovis, 2 ? 1 jielsoni, 0\is, 20S nigrimontana, Ovis, 202 Nilgiri ibex, 306 Nilgiri talir, 30 ? nivieola, Ovis, 22 i North-Western bighorn, 217 nostras, Urus, 6^ nubiana, Capra, 266 occipitalis, Bos, 1 36 occipitalis, I'eribos, 1 36 ophion, 0\is, 163 ' opisthonomus. Bos, 14 ); orientalis, Caprovis, 1^9 ori'.'ntalis, Musiiuon, I ^9 i orientalis ophion, Ovis, 163 orientalis, Ovis, 1 ^9 ornata, Ovis, 226 Ovibos, 139 Ovis, 149 Ox, African wiKI, 14 ^ i Ox, coninion, c; 0\, dnnie^tieaied, 1 ; Oxen, ; Ox, Ktruscan, 4K Ox, Kuropcan wild, 10 Ox, Falconer's, 30 Ox, humped, 19 Ox, Narbada, i« Ox, Siwalik, 20 paia'indiciis, Bos, 127 pahvindicus, Bubalus, 127 palii'indicus, Buffelus, 127 pallaiuis, Ovibos, 142 pallasi, j^goceros, 242 pallasi. Bos, 143 pallasi, Capra, 243, 276 pallasi, Ovis, 243 pallasii. Bos, 127 pallasii, Bubalus, 127 Pamir sheep, 192 Pasang, 260 Pcribos, 93 Persian goat, 260 picta, Capra, 260 Pir-I'anjal markhor, 290 planiceros, Bubalus, 103 platyceros. Bos, 1 16 platyceros, Bubalus, i 16 Piistocene bison, fii Piistocene mullon, 163 Poephagus, 50 poephagus. Bison, 32 poephagus, Bos, 3 I poli karelini, Ovis, 197 poll, Ovis, 1 88, 197 poli typica, Ovis, 192 Prairie bison, 84 primigeiiius. Bos, 10 primigenius mauritanicus. Bo .' + priscus. Bison, 61 prise us. Bos, 61 priscus, Urus, 61 Probubalus, 93 Pseudois, 231 piimilus. Bos, 106 piimilus, Bubalus, 106, 113 pumilus occidentalis, Bubalus, 10 piimilus orientalis, Bubalus, toi Punjab urial, 172 pusio, Bos, 19 pygargus, Ovis, 203 pyrenaica, ^"Egoceros, 234 pyrenaica, Capra, 233 pyrenaica hispanica, Capra, 238 pyrenaica typica, Capra, 237 pyreiiaiciis, Ammotragus, 234 pyrenaicus, ibex, 234 Pyreneaii tiir, 237 ipiadrimammis, Capra, 297 iiuadrimamniis, Hcmitragus. 29- 3i8 rcclinis, Bubalus, lo6 Red buffalo, 106 Rocky Mountain bighorn, 209 saircnsis, Ovis, 185 sakccn, Capra, 28^ sakin, Capra, 28^. sakin. Ibex, 284 santcng, Anoa, 1 39 Sapio, 39 Sapi-utan, 37 savini, Caprovis, 163 savini, Ovis, 163 scaplioccros. Bison, 92 scaphoccros, Bos, 92 scoticus. Bos, I 5 scoticus, Urus, 1 5 sculptoruiii, Ovis, 197 Scncgambian liuftalo, 103 scvcrt'/.owi, Capra, 246 scverzowi, Capra, 246 Sha, 166 Sliawl-goat, 265 Sheep, 149 Sheep, blue, 237 Sheep, domestic, 152 Sheep, Littledale's, 183 Sheep, Marco Polo's, 188 Sheep, Pamir, 192 Sheep, Thian Shan, 197 Siberian argali, 177 sibirica, Capra, 273 sibirica dauvergnei, Capra, 28; sibirica. Ibex, 276 sibirica sacin, Capra, 284 sibirica typica, Capra, 281 sinaitica, Capra, 266 Sind goat, 264 sivalensis. Bison, 60 sivalcnsis. Bos, 60 sivalensis, Bubalus, 117 sivalensis, Capra, 301 sivalensis, Hemitragus, 301 sivalensis, Probubalus, 136 Siwalik bison, 60 Siwalik buftalo, 1 16 Ind ex Siwalik niarkhor, 29; Siwalik ox, 20 Siwalik tahr, 301 Siwalik taniarau, 1 36 Skin, 281 skyn, ^goceros, 284 skyn, Capra, 2 84 Sladang, 27 sondaicus, Bibos, 36 sondaicus birmanicus. Bos, 41 sondaicus. Bos, 36 sondaicus, Burtelus, 119 sondaicus, CJavauis, 36 sondaicus typicus. Bos, 39 ! Southern bighorn, 208 ' Spanish ibex, z;,^ i Spanish tur, 253 stonei, Ovis, 2 I 7 Straight-horned nuirkhor, 29^ stro/./ii, Leptobos, 49 subhemachelus, Bibos, 23 Sulenian nuirkhor, 294 I sylhetanus. Bison, 32 I sylhetanus. Bos, 32 Syncerus, 22 'I'ahr, 296 Tahr, Arabian, 301 Tahr, Himalayan, 297 Tahr, Nilgiri, 303 I Tahr, Siwalik, 301 Taniarau, 128 Tamarau, Falconer's, 137 Taniarau, Siwalik, 136 Taurine group, 8 Taurus, 8 taurus. Bos, 9 taurus giganteus. Bos, 1 I taurus mauritanicus. Bos, 14 taurus primigenius. Bos, I I taurus priscus. Bos, 1 1 taurus typicus, Bos, I 3 Thian Shan ibex, 28 1 Thian Shan sheep, 197 Tibetan argali, 180 tragelaphus, Ainniotragus, 227 tragelaphus, Musimon, 227 tragelaphus, Ovis, 226 tritjuetriceros, Hemibos, 136 trii]uetricornis. Bos, 136 triquetricornis, Bubalus, 136 triquetricoriiis, Hemibos, 136 triquetricornis, I'robubalus, 136 Tsaing, 37 Tur, Andalusian, 238 Tur, Kast Caucasiaii, 242 Tur, Pyrenean, 257 Tur, Spanish, 233 Tur, West Caucasian, 246 Udad, 226 Urial, 166 Urial, Astor, 171 Urial, Kelat, 174 Urial, Punjab, 172 Urus, 8, ;o urus. Bos, 10, 64 urus, Taurus, 10 vali, Capra, 270 vignei blantbrdi, Ovis, 174 vignei, Caprovis, 166 vignei, Musimon, 166 vignei, Ovis, 166 vignei typica, Ovis, 1 7 1 wall, Capra, 270 Warri-atu, 306 warryato, Capra, 303 warryato, Ibex, 303 warryato, Remas, 303 West Caucasian tur, 246 Woodland bison, 90 Yak, 5 1 Zebu, 19 zebu. Bos, 19 Zebus, 8 Zubr, 69 in I, KM) /'tiii/f