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. ^. (Sage & €0.0 €buratJonal ^Series.

A SHORT GRAMMAR

OF THE

ENGLISH TONGUE

WITH

THREE HUNDRED AND THIRTY EXERCISES

^^J-

J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, M.A.,

PROFESSOR OF THE THEORY, HISTORY, AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS.

TO WHICH HAS BEEN ADDED

AIT APPENDIX ON COMPOSITION

FOR USE IN CANADIAN PUBLIC SCHr^L,S.

All knowledge has in Tnith its root,
Surprise its flower, Delight its fruit.

TORONTO :

W. J. GAGE & COMPANY,
1891.

\ .• «

Entered according to the Act of Parliament of Canada, in the yjar 1891, in the
office ot the Minister of Agriculture, by W. J. Gage & Co., Toronto.

. ' .'^

AOADIA COLLEGE UEBAPY

PLAN OF THIS CUIAM.AIAR

VAirv T.
The Parts of Speech or Kinds of AVords :
Adjective Adverb

VERB

Verb-joiners

(Conjunctions)

NOUN

Noun-joiners

( Prepositions)

PART II.
The Divisions of the above Six Parts of Speech.

PART III.
The Changes made on the Six Parts of Speech,

PART ly. .
The Rules for employing the Parts of Speech.

PART V.
The Buildins-iip and Analysis of Sentences. >

PART VI.
The Grammar of Rhythmic Speech or Verse.

PEEFACE

The secret of English Grammar — and it is an open secret
— lies in the knowledge of what word or words go with
what word, and what group of words goes with wliat par-
ticular word. Hence, if I were teaching English Grammar
to a young class, I should keep my pupils for at least six

months answering such questions as " "What does go

Avith]" "What word does it belong tol' "What word
does attach itself to 1"

'•The sclioolboy knows very well tlio fruit of t"io bramble." What docs the first
the go with ? Wliat does %ceU go witli ? What docs very go with ? To what word is
o/</ie 6ro?i( We attached? And so on, and so on.

In this fashion I should prepare the way for a sound and
clear knowledge of grammar — based upon the observation
of the pupil himself. What the learner has once observed
for liimself he can never forget.

The English Language wants this previous and preparatory
examination more than any other European tongue, chiefly
because it, most of all, has stripped itself almost entirely
of its old inflections. In Latin, the eye itself helps the
learner to notice what words go with what.

In this Short Grammar I have tried to sketch in only
the stronger outlines of the build of our mother-tongue. I
have omitted difficulties, subtleties, curious idioms, unusual
forms of speech ; and my single aim has been to give the
young learner regular habits — habits of
accuracy in grammatical thinking. This is
the numerous Exercises given — Exercises which, by requiring
the attention of the learner to only one thing at a time, fix

steadiness and
done chiefly by

the idea or the " one

thing

permanently in his mind. If

the Exercises are slowly and faithfully worked through, the
necessary foundation of grammatical knowledge will be laid
firm and strong in the intellect of the young learner.

^mmm

rRKFAr-E

^Iv c'xi)(!ri('iic(' ;is an Ivxinuinnr for the last tweiitA- yours
is that fow persons ically luidcrstaiHl and know the ''})arts
of speech " — have any firm liold of them. 'J'hey have litth; or
110 liclp from tlio form of tlie "word they are looking atj they
have never had clear and firm practice in ohserving its
function ; and hence they are often at a loss to say what it
is. If they had hcen slowlj- drilled into the perception that
all lan-uage rests upon four simple ideas — those of the
noun and adjective, the verb and the adverb, and that
these ideas repeat themselves in the forms of words, j)lirases,
and sent(nices — they would never have hcen at a loss in cx-
aminin-' their own lan^ua^e or in translatini:; it into another.

The Exercises in this hook are intended to put these four
sim^tle ideas before the mind's eye of the learner at every
possible angle ; what docs not catch the mind's eye at one
angle will catch it at another; and in this way I have tried,
by varied repetition — by repetition without monoton}', to
drum, drill, and work these ideas into the mind of the
young scholar.

The thoughtful, experienced, and well-educated Teacher
knows j^crfectly well what it is best to omit for what
particular age ; and those who arc too hard-Avorked will
thank mo for giving so many exercises — which they would
otherwise have liad to invent themselves. I have tried to
make a firm smooth road for the feet of young learners : no
subtleties, no exceptions, no pitfalls : and to train them to
firm knowledge by clear observation and steady liabits. It
will be found that, when J'oung learners go wrong, it is be-
cause they have not had suflTicient practice in what is right.

(i) It is recommcndeil tliat, in going over this Grammar for the first time, the
youii;; Icarnnr should lie required to prepare only the large type ; and, of course, only
those exercises which hear on the statements made in large type.

(•ii) There are also othr-r parts which the thoughtful Teacher will omit (such as
par. 4, p. 30) until the learner is going through the book for the second or for the
third time.

J. M. D. M.

A SHOTIT GKAMMAR OF THE
ENGLISH TONGUE

INTRODUCTORY

1. When wc speak we use words.

2. A number of words so arranged as to make sense is
called language.

3. The language spoken bj' the people of Great Britain,
Iroland, and our Colonies, is called the English Language.

The word language come, from the French lanyue, a tongue, f.angue itself con.es from the
Latin lingua, a toii«ue.

(i) We use the phrases EnglLh Language, English Tongue, EnglWi Speech ; an.l all
these phrases show that a language is something spoken.

(ii) But a language may also be written or printed. It is plaia however, that we
speak a thousand words for every one we write.

4. The Science of Language is called Grammar.

(i) The science of the English language is called Englirii Grammar,
(ii) All language is either spoken or written.

'ii

(iii:

i) English Grammar treats chiefly of the usages of written or printed speech.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson 1. — The Divisions of Grammar.

1. Words arc made np of letters.

(i) The part of Graniinar which teaches us how to uhc h'tters is ciiUtMl Orthofraphy.
Orthography Is n word maile up of two Greek worila, which iiieaii mrreet wiling.

(ii) Orthography is the Science of Letters.

(iii) Letters are mark* which tell us wha'. Mwub to make with the voice.

2. Words are built up into Sentences.

(i) The part of Graiiimnr which gives the rules for the making of sentences is
called Syntax.

Syntax is a Greek word, which means nnlrr. When a Greek genernl had drawn ui> hit suldleri
iu order of battle, they were suld to be in lyntai.

(ii) Syntax is the Science of Sentences.

3. Words have an origin and a history ; they grow, and,
as they grow, changes are made on thcni.

(i) The story of this origin and the description of the changes made in words are
contained in the part of Grammar c.illed Etymology.

The word Etymology is made up of two Greek words which meRn a true account.

(ii) Etymology treats of the Origin of Words, and of the Changes made upon them.

4. Some language is built up by poets into sets of words
that have a beautiful flow. This beautiful flow comes chiefly
from the accents appearing at regular intervals. This kind
of language is called verse.

(i) Thus we have in Sir Walter Scott :—

The wa'y was lo'ng, the wi'nd was co'ld,

The mi'n strel wa's infir'm and o'ld.

(ii) The part of Grammar which treats of ▼en* is called Prosody.

Protody is a Greek word which mean* a son? sung to miisic. In music there are beatt, which
come at regular intervale ; iu verse tlierc are acc«n(« at regular intervals.

(iii) Prosody treats of verse, its nature, and its different kinds.

oiiTirof.nAPnv S

5. \\'o liiivo, tluMofoifi : a Grammar of Letters ; u
Grammar of Words ; a Grammar of Sentences ; and a
Grammar of Verse.

(i) V k; (Jriiniiiiar of I.t^ttcrs ii called Orthography.

(ii) '' he Or.iiiiiii-ir «)f Wunls is fulliMl ttymology.
(lii' The Graiiiiiuir of St'iityiu'es is calleil BtoUs.
(i / The Gruininar of Vuiho is calk'il Proiody.

Exercise 1. 1. What is the Science of Letters callcfl?
2. What name is given to the Science of Sentences'? 3. What
do we call the Science of the Origin of Words ? 4. What is the
part of Grammar which treats of Verse calleil ?

Lesson 2. — Orthography, i.

1. There are, in speaking, two kinds of sounds : open
sounds ; and stopped sounds (or penned-up sounds).

(i) If we say a, we can keep utterin- that sound as long as our breath will iioKl
out. It is an open lound.

(ii) But, if we say &t, wn stop the flow of the brcnlh with the sound t. Tims v. \.i
a itopped Mond.

2. Open Sounds are called vowe!s.

(i) The vowels of the English language are five: », e, i, o, u. When it is at the
end of a syllabic or word, as in any. y is also a vowel.

(ii) If wand y begin a word— as in wine and yoke— tbey are called lemi-voweli. If
they end a word— as in valley and yellow— they are vowels.

(lii) When two vowels are combined in one sound, they fo.in a dlphthons. Thus
oi in boil ; on in houe arc called diphthongs.

The word diphthong In a Greek word wliich menns two <ounih.

o. Stopped Sounds are called consonants.

(i) There are, in our language, 21 letters used as consonants.

(ii) We may stop a sound with the teeth, as in It, Id. These letters t and d are
called tooth-ionndi or dentals.

(iii) We may stop a sound with the lips, as :u Ip, lb. These letters p and b arc
called Up-letten or lablali.

(iv) We may stop a sound with the throat, as in Ik, ig. These letters k and g arc
called throat-Ietteri or gnttnrali.

4 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENfUJSII TOXGL'Ii

4. Tli(! letters wc employ to write down our thoughts arc
2G ill iiuml)er. ' ' ■ ....

(i) Those 26 letters arc called the Alphabet. ""

The word alphabet is Greek. The two first letters of tlie Greek nlphaliet are alpha, beta.

(ii) Of these 20, three are useless : c, q, ami x. C- either s or k ; q = kw ; x = k«.

Exercise 2. 1. AVhat is an open sound called in Grammar'?
2. "What is a stopped sound called 1 3. Write down the five
vowels. 4. Give three examples of diphthongs. 5. Mention
two sounds that are (i) stopped with the teeth ; (ii) two stopped
with the lips ; and (iii) two stopped with the throat.

Lesson 8. — Orthograpliy. ir.

1. Tv'ords consi.st not only of letters, but also of syllables.

2. A syllable is that part of a word which is produced by
one effort of the voica.

(i) Thus the word dog is uttered with one ctTort ; and is a word of one syllablr.
(ii) But the word dog-ged-ness requires three efforts.

3. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable.

Dog, cat, bark, mew are uionosylhibles.

4. A Avord of two syllables is called a dissyllable.

Puppy, kitten, barking, mewing are dissyllables.

5. A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable.

Comforting, immensely are trisyllables:

G. A word of more than three syllables is called a polysyllable.

Poly comes from the Greek word polijs, maoy.
Comfortable, unsatisfactory are iiolysyllables.

Exercise 3. 1. Divide the following ivords into syllahles:
Behave, commence, commencement, companion, dependent, em-
barrassment, forgctfulness, generosity, humility, resolute, society,
venerable. 2. Write down three monosyllables.

Exercise 4. 1. "Write down three dissyllables. 2. Write
down three trisyllables. 3. Write down si.v polysyllabk-s.

ETYMOLOGY. PARTI.
Lesson 4.~Kin(ls of Words, i. '

«e deer ; of a horjc of sava-t, IJut tl.e L,. ' "' I'li.-.->»a„ts ; of a hn;l

1. The very shortest sentence we can form is made up of
at least two words.

(i) Tims we .say : (i) Lions roar ; (ii) Piys -;n,nt ; (iii) Cows low.

(ii) In these sentences we say about LIohb, that tl.ey roar; about Pi,s, that they
grunt ; about Cowb, that they low. ^

2. The words Lions, Pigs, and Cows, are all Names.

3. A Name in Grammar is called a Noun.

Therefore the wonls Lions, Fig., ami Cows, are Noun..

4. The ANords roar, grunt, and low, arc Avords which tell us
something-they tell us what kinds of sounds lions, pi-s and
cows make. ^ '

5. The words roar, grunt, and loware therefore telling words.
G. A Telling word in Grammar is called a Verb.

n„. will stuke, has been struek," nu.st be h.oke.l o„ as single verb.s.

A SHOKT GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH TONGUE

The verb is the key-stoue of speech. If it is left

out, all the other

words fall
nonsense.

into

(i) If we say "I to
the river willi John, we
talk nonsense.

(ii) If we put in flie
verb went or ran, anil
say : '• I ran to the river
with John," we tiilk
sense.

I I

8. The same word may bo used either as a noun or as a verb.

(!) If wo say a roar, a grunt, a sleep, we are using these words as noons because tliey
are names.

(ii) If we say. The lions roar, the pigs grant, the birds Bleep, we are nsing these
words as verbs, because they tell something about the lions, the pigs, and the birds.

Exercise 8. Select the nouns irit the foUoxoing sentences:
1. The kitten sat in a dark corner. 2. I hung with grooms
and porters on the bridge. 3. The wolves howled in the dark
and dreary niglit. 4. The train ran too fast into the station.
5. The hoy is skating on the pond. C. The birds are singing
in the distant woods.

Exercise 6. Mention {or write down) the names of twelve
things in a room.

Exercise 7. Select the verbs in the sentences in Exercise 5.

Exercise 8. Select the noons in the following sentences:
1. Gas is made from coal. 2. The tap sounded loudly on the door
in the silent night. 3. The hills are white with snow. 4. The
girl carried her basket of eggs to market. 5. The priest threw
his spear at the temple of the false god. G. The sweeps dressed
themselves in leaves and flowers. ^

Ez. 9. Mention {or write doivn) the names qf twelve animals.

LTYJUOLOGY

Ex. 10. ]\Ic7ition (or write doivn) the vanus </ twelve Jloiccrs.

Exercise 11. Select the verbs in the sentences in Exercise 8.

Exercise 12. Write out {or point out) the nouns and the
VERBS said of them in the follow in fj sentences; and place the
verbs opposite the nouns: 1. The Lrown Lear climbed the moun-
tain. 2. The traveller rested on the fallen tr>>e. 3. The hart
swam across the lake. 4. The trout dart here and there in the
pool. 5. The little girl was sewing in the corner. G. Round
his waist was girt a broadsword.

Exercise 13. Insert suitable verbs iido the following non-
sensical collections of %cords: 1. An old woman in the pleasant
valley of Ashton. 2. The billy-goat up the steep mountain.

3. The cruel sailor the seal. 4. Little puss in a dark corner.
5. The hyena fiercely. G. Mrs. Jones quickly her basket.

7. The village boys at the game of football and other games.

8. She was a book in the window-scat. 9. Robin Hood the poor
and the rich. 10, Ducks whenever they take to the water.
11. The swan swiftly over the lake. 12. The dog the rat fiercely.

Exarciso 11. JVorlc this Exercise in the same xcay as Exer-
cise 12. 1. The river falls into the harbour. 2. The dogs barked
quite fiercely. 3. The rain makes music in the waving trees.

4. The sound comes borne upon the sighing breeze. 5. The
milkman's daughter ran to the door. G. The little children })lay
on the floor.

Exercise 15. Place suitajle verbs after f" following noi'ns :

1. The boys. 2. The girls.
C. The spider. 7. Eagles.
The seal. 11. The river.

3. The children. 4. Dogs. ."5. Cats.
8. The lion. 9. The elephant. 10.
12. The traveller.

nices :

door

The

Ithrew

ressed

\mals.

Exercise 16. Place suitable nouns before the following verbs :
1. Fly. 2. Roar. 3. Hunt. 4. Kick. 5. Sleeps. G. Rattle.
7. Totters. 8. Hobbles along. 9. Fell. 10. Howled. 11.
Danced. 12. Speaks.

Exercise 17. Stat" when, in this Exercise, the following
ii'ords are used as nouns, and when as verbs : Box, breakfast,
cart, cloud, colour, cut. 1. The box was sent by the passenger
train. 2. We had a very good breakfast before we started.
3. The cart rumbled slowly over the bridge. 4. A cloud passed
suddenly over the stream. 5. The cloths are not of the same

^*"

A SHOUT (MIAMMAU OI' THK KXCiMSH TONGUE

i ;!

colour. G. There was a deep cut in the'Lark of the tree. 7. The
dogs were boxed up for the journey. 8. Wo breakfast every
morninji; at eiylit. 0. The farmers cart off their young calves to
the railway station. 10. Our prospects "were clouded by the
unhappy acci lent. 11. The boys colour pictures all the after-
noon. 12. He cut his finger while he was making a boat.

Exeroisa 18. Work this Exercise like the i^receding with
the Kordi: Drsam, fear, feast, hammer, hand, head. 1. The
r.ttle boy dreamed a fearful dream. 2. The fear of meeting the
enemy kept us in hiding. 3. Belshazzar the king gave a great
feast. 4. The blacksmith had a hammer in his hand. 5. The
colonels head their regiments in the attack. G. The men greatly
fear the approach of cholera. 7. The kind merchant will feast the
school-children in his splendid mansion. 8. The smith hammered
hard at the bar of iron. 9. The gentleman will hand tlie lady
to her seat. 10. lie h)oks as if he had quite lost his head.

Exercise 19. Vorh //</.•> Ercrciac in the sauie imy v-ith the
words : Hold, hope, hunger, look, move, murder. 1 . The lad lost
his hold of the rope and fell into the sea. 2. Wliile there is
life there is hope. 3. iMnna men hunger and thirst after right-
eousness. 4. The master quelled the riot Avith a look. 5. I
wonder what his next move Avill be. G. The soldier was found
guilty of the nuirder of his comrade. 7. Our tousins hold live
hundred acres of land in Canada. 8. We hope to see you soon
again. 9. The pai. s of hunger drove the boys home. 10. The
mother from the window looked with all the longings of a mother.
11. We nuist move on faster if we Avish to catch the train. 12.
The pirates murder the passengers as Avell as the crew.

Exercise 20. Worl this Exercise in the same way with the
words: Nod, pinch, play, ring, run, salt. 1. I threw him a nod,
and he came out after nie. 2. The pinch made his arm black
and blue. 3. John spentts too much of his time in play. 4. The
girls danced round the tree in a ring. 5. The long run made the
bovs rather tircil. G. The fishermen salt their fish Avith sea-salt.
7. We nod to them Avhenever Ave inect them. 8. They pinch me
on the arm. 9. We play cricket every Wednesday afternoon.
10. The farmer Avill ring the bull because he is so fierce. 11. The
boys run doAvn to the lake every morning. 12. There is no salt
in the house.

i:tymolu(;v

Exercise 21. H'ork thii Exercise in iJie yaiih' way with the
words : Shade, shake, sliip, epoil, stone, thunder. 1. We sat in
the shade of the eliu-trce all tlie afternoon. 2. We had a dread-
ful shake in the railway collision. 3. The merchants ship lar^'o
quantities of goods ou hoard the Vulcan. 4. The Israelites
spoiled the Egyptians when they left, 5. The men stone the
poor foreigners through the streets. G. The Serjeants thunder
at their men. 7. The gardeners shade their plants against the sun.

8. You must shake the hottle before taking the medicine. 9. The
troops brought back immense spoil. 10. The stone of which the
Houses of Parliament are built is very soft. 11. The ship
Teutonic sails everv Wednesday for Xew York. \-2. The thunder
came in terrific pc;ds every few minutes.

Exercise C2. Work this Exercise in the same way ivith the
words: Time, trick, tumble, walk, war, winter. 1. We time the
train and find that it generally arrives to the minute. 2. The
guard played us a very u;:ly trick. 3. Tom and Harry had a plea-
sant tundle among the hay. 4. We are going a long walk this
jifternoon. 5. The Philistines war against the people of Israel.
G. The Danes wintered lor the first time in tlie Isle of Sheppey.
7. It took a longer time to get to Prighton than we expected.
{]. The poor countryman was tricked out of all his money.

9. Tlie boys toss and tundjle the hay about every afternoon.

10. We walk six miles every day. 11. The war between the
Germans and the French lasted nearly a year, 12. Last winter
was a very severe one.

Ex3rcisc 23. irorJc this Exercise in the some way with the
words: Brldgo, station, tap, spear, sweep, round. 1. The engineers
l)ridge the stream with ease. 2. The troops Avere stationed at
the gates of the palace. 3. A low tap was heard at the door.
'\. The Arab speared his enemy on the spot, 5. The servant
will sweep the room in the morning. G, The ship will round the
j)()int with little ditlicuhy. 7. The bridge was swept away by
the flood. 8. The station was filled with armed men. 0. The
beggar will tap at the kitchen door. 10. Goliath's spear was like
a weaver's beam. 11. The road takes a mighty sweep before one
comes to the house. 12. A rouad of beef stood on the table for
the hun-^n-y boys' dinner.

i I

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUK

Lesson 5. — Kinds of Words, ii.

1. We can also say : The hungry lions roar. The fat pigs
grunt. The red cows low.

(i) In the sentence : The hungry lions roar, it is plain that the words the and
bnnsry go with Uona.

(ii) In the sentence : The fat pigs grunt, th« and fat go with plgn.

(iii) In the sentence : The red cows low, the and red go with cowi.

2. (a) A word that goes with a noun is called in Grammar
an Adjective. Or (b) An Adjective is a Noun-marking word.

(i) Adjectives may also be used as nouns. We say : The rich, The poor, The free. The
ftble-bodled, etc. The noun personi is understood.

(ii) But we must observe about this usaj-.e : That the adjective must always have
The before it. We cannot say " A rich" or "A poor."

3. We can go further and say : The hungry lions roar terribly.
The fat pigs grunt constantly. The red cows low loudly.

(i) In the sentence : The hungry Vu .s roar terribly, it is plain that the word
terribly goes with the verb roar.

(ii) In : The fat pigs grunt constantly, ihe word constantly goes with gnnt.

(iii) In the sentence : The red cows low loudly, the word loudly goes with low.

4. A word that goes with a verb is called an Adverb.

Exercise 24. Select {or point out) the adjectives in the
folloiving sentences: 1. The little kitten sat in a dark corner.

2. The fat bear and the lean fox walked together. 3. The stout
ship v/^as wrecked in a terrible gale. 4. The merry lark was
singing his early song. 5. The tall house was lighted up v/itli
countless candles. 6. The hungry wolf looked at the fat chickcms.

Exercise 25. Point out^ in the foUoxoing sentence-', the
ADJECTIVES that are used as names or xouxs : 1. The good
alone are truly happy. 2. None but the brave deserve the fair.

3. Toll for the brave, the brave that are no more ! 4. How are
the mighty fallen ! 5. God rejectctli the proud, but giveth grace
to the humble. G. Only the old arc admitted to this hospital,

ETYMOLOGY

7. That is a school for the deaf and dumh. 8. The haughty
often meet with insult. 9. So long a walk is all very well for
the strong and hearty ; but it should not be attempted by the
old and feeble. 10. The proud and violent are to be shunned.
11. It is good to be found among the congregation of the
riuhteous. 12. England is the land of the free.

Exercise 26. Write out from Exercise 24 the adjectives and
the xoL'NS they go with in opposite columns.

Exercise 27. Aihl suitable adjectives {one or more) to the
followi)i(j NOUNS : 1. Boys. 2. Girls. 3. I)ogs. 4. Pigs. 5.
(ills. G. Ink. 7. Paper. 8. Pen. 9. Prisoner. 10. Whale.
11. Deer. 12. Grave.

Exercise 28. Place suitable nouns after the follmoing adjec-
tives : 1. Tall. 2. Fat. 3. Clever. 4. Active. 5. Dark. 6.
Sweet. 7. Blue. 8. Gentle. 9. Deep. 10. Cruel. 11. Green. 12. Vast.

Lesson G. — Kinds of Words, iii.

1. "We can say : It is a very fine morning.

(i) In tliis sentence, fine goes with tlie noun morning, and is therefore an adjective,
(ii) But what does very go with? Very goes witli fine.

2. A word that goes with an adjective is called an Adverb.

3. "We can say : John swims very well.

(i) In this sentence, well goes with iwimi, and is an adverb,
(li) But very goes with well, and is also an adverb. • ...

4. A word that goes with an adverb is called an Adverb.

5. An Adverb is, therefore, a word that goes with a Verb,
or an Adjective, or another Adverb,

6. We can say : The lark sings sweetly. The work is
extremely hard. The niglitin^ale sings very sweetly.

(i) In the first sentence, iweetly goes with ilogt, and shows ua how the lark singa*
It modiftea the meaning of the verb lingi.

ttMtmm

A SHORT uiiAiMMAu or THK kn(;lisii tongue

I ;

■

(H) In the jspnoTifl sentence, eztremaly goes with luird, and shows us how hard the
work is. It modlfiM ttie meaning of the adjective hard.

(iii) In the third sentence, very goes with iweetly, and shows us how sweetly the
nightingale sings. It modiflei the meaning v>f the adverb aweetly.

7. We now see that an Adverb is a Modifying Word.

8. An Adverb modifies the meaning of Verbs, of Adjectives,
and of other Adverbs.

Exercise 23. Select the adverbs in the foUowing sentences :
1. The train ran quickly into the station. 2. The Hon was
mortally wounded. 3. The fire was burning brightly. 4. The
rector spoke kindly to the old woman. 5. The wind was a very
cold wind. 6. The |K)stman will come soon. 7. His mother felt
exceedingly uneasy about her son John. 8. Fairy rings are very
beautiful. 9. The boat drifted away. 10. The boy was almost
dead with fatigue. 11. The speaker was loudly applauded.
2. The girls are very happy at school.

Exercise 30. Select the adverbs in Exercise 29, and place
them before ike verbs or the adjectives they modify, thus:

ADVERBS.

Quiclily

VERIiS.

Ran

ADVERBS.

Very

AD-fKCTIVES

Cold

Exercise 31. Select, from the foUoioinj sentences, the adverbs
that modify adverbs, and place them, opponk each o'her in
cohimns: 1. I thanked him very much before I left. 2. The
company was very greatly annoyed by hi.s sudden disappearance.
3. Mr. Bright always spoke very slowly. 4. The boy ran ex-
ceedingly fast and gained the race. 5. The children danced
quite merrily round the tree. 6. She is almost always cross
7. We have only just couie. 8. He is much too lazy for me.
9. He comes here rather often. 10. I hardly ever see hi?,i. 11.
The lad was most terribly frightened. 12. Do not walk so fast I

Exercise 32. Add suitable adverbs to the folloioing adjec-
tives : 1. Angry. 2. Dull. 3. Tall. 4. Able. 5. Glad.
0. Great. 7. Wonderful. 8. Willing. 9. Steady. 10. Difficult.
11. Brave. 12. Clever.

Exercise 33. Make titv.lve sentences, each containing one of
the foUowing adverbs : 1. Often. 2. Here. 3. There. 4.

(i)

in)

(i)

(ii)

KTYMOLOr.Y

Soon. 5. Late. G. Almost. 7. Quite. 8. Very. 9. Straight.
10. Oddly. 11. Quietly. 12. Well.

Exercise 34. Write out, in columns, the adverbs in the
follovjing sentences, and, opposite them, the VF.nns, adjectives, or
AW ERBS they modify, thus :

ADVERBS.

VERBS.

1 ADVERBS.

ADJECTIVES,

ADVERBS.

ADVERBS

Fast

Ride

1 Too

Eager

Very

Soon

I. "VVe buried him darkly at dead of night. 2. The poor dog
very soon died. 3. Bruin came very slowly and slily up to the
side of the hive. 4. The snovfjil's so thickly that we cannot
see far. 5. No boy is ever hopelessly stupid. 6. Some boys are
terribly lazy. 7. I am very much obliged for the book. 8. The
mastifl' grows more savage every day. 9. The mother loved her
son only too dearly. 10. The child was very dreadfully bruised.

II. She walked too quickly to the station, sat down carelessly at
an open window, and consequently caught cold. 12. Slowly
and sadly we laid him down.

Exercise 35. Make sentences containing the following
adverbs: 1. Soon. 2. Shortly. 3. Exceedingly. 4, Very,
5. Here. 6. Truly. 7. Away. 8. Cruelly, 9. Nearly.
10. Seldom. 11. Lately. 12. Too.

Lesson 7. — Kinds of AVords. iv.

1. Many Avords are used eitner as Adjectives or as
Adverbs.

(i) If they mark nonns, they are adjectives ; if they modify verbs, they are adverbt.

(ii) Such arc the words :— Fair ; high ; hard ; Utile; long ; load ; low; much ; itraight, etc.
(iii) We can say : To play fair or Fair play ; To aim high or A high wall, etc.
(iv) In " Love me little, love mo long," little and long are hoth adverbs.

2. Some Nouns can be used as Adjectives.

(i) Such as : Gold, Iron, steel ; cotton, lineu ; stone, glass ; Paris, London ; ct^.
(ii) We can say : " Gold " or " a gold ring " ; " London ' or " a London watch."

3. Some Adverbs may be employed as Nouns.

(i) We say " Before now" (=this time). " Since then" (^tliat time),
(ii) Coleridge says : " Ah for the change "twixt now and then!"

!!! -

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENtlLlSH TONCJUK

Exerciss 36. Home words in the following srutnices are vncd
cither an adjixtivks or as advkiujs. Place them in columns be-
fore the nonna they go with or the words they modify, thus:

ADJF.CTIVKS.

Fast

NOTNS.

Runner

ADvrnns.
Fast

VKRH.S.

Run

1. This is the Letter and easier way to the town. 2. Mary sews
better than Liu-y. 3. This ball is too hard. 4. The blacksmith
hammered hard on his anvil the whole day. 5. Tom is still a
very little boy. G. I little dreamt of meeting him in London.
7. Wc have not much money in the bank. 8. My uncle feels
much better to-day. 9. Most people prefer to walk. 10. It was
ii most beautiful sunset. 11. Do not speak .so loud I 12. We
Avere almost deafened by the loud reports of the cannon.
13. This is a worse pen than any I ever had in my hand. 14.
The boys behaved worse than before.

Exercise 37. Male sentences in vAich the follon-ing words
arc used (i) as aovkrhs and then as (ii) adjkctivks : 1. Fast.

2. Quick. 3. Very. 4. Better. 5. Worse. G. Loud. 7.
Much. 8. More. 9. Little. 10. Half. II. Low. 12. Late.

(a) • That is the verj' innn ! '

(b) " Si)cak low, for tlie Old Year lies a-Jying ! '

freight I '

Exercise 38. Ufale twelve sentences, in which the following
words shall he m-'ed first as Ai)JEc:ri\'v.s and then as advkkh.s :
1. Faster. 2. Hard. 3. Much. 4. Most. 5. First. G. Pretty.

Exercise 39. /?!. the folloiving sentences state whe'her the
words gold, Btono, kitchen, cottage, church, Birmingham arc.
used af nouns or as adjkctivks : 1. Marv's uncle gave her
a gold watch. 2. Gold is one of the precious metals. 3. A
stone building will not last so long as a building of good brick.
4. Midlothian is famous for its quarries of freestone. 5. The
robbers found their way into the house through the kitchen
window. 6. Susan is busv baking bread in the kitchen.
7. Lucy was the sweetest thing that ever grew beside a cottage
door. 8. The cottage was almost covered with roses. 9. One
of the church windows was broken last night. 10. Our seat in
chitrch is near the pidpit. 11. Birmingham is celebrated for its

glass.

12. Birmingham glas:^ is both cheap and elegant.

ETYMOLOCJY

IT)

Lesson 8. — Kinds of AVorcls. v.

1. AVc can say: Jack, iii the box. Fly on a wlu-el. Man
witli a gun.

(i) In tlni first iiliiaso, tlio wnnl in joins (Im two nutins Jack and box.
(ii) In till! scccMiil, till! Wdvl oa joins fl/;;iiil wheel.
(lii) In tli<j third, lliu word withjoin.s man r.nd c^n.

2. Tlio ■worils in, on, ami with arc Noun-joining words.

3. Ncun-joining words arc called Prepositions.

4. yVe cat also say : Stupid with cold. Slow at wui 1:.
Alone on tlic hill.

(i) In till} first iiliraso, withjoin.s tliu ronn cold to the adjective ttupld.
(i) In till! si'cond, at joins the noun work to the ;idjcctive slow.
(.i'l) In the third, enjoins the noun hill tu the adjective alone.

f). Prepositions, then, can join Nouns to Adjectives,

G. Wc can also say : The i^amekocncr shot the bird witli a
} istol. The wolves dashed again.'t the door.

(i) In the first .sentiiifc, the word with joins pls'-o". to the vcili shot,
(li) In the second, the \vord against joins door to the virb dashed.

7. Prepositions, then, can join Nouns to Verbs.

8. Prepositions join Nouns to other Nouns, or to Ac'jec
tives, or to Verbs.

Exercise 40. Select the rnEPOSiTiONS in the foUovivg
2jhra.<c.ian(l sentences, and state irlint noins thcij connect : 1. Tho
book on the floor. 2. The grapes on the wall. 3. The bird in
the caye. 4. Tho lads on the ice. 5. The do<r sat between
the boys. 6. Boys at cricket. 7. The man stood before the
door. 8, The bird in the npple-trce. 9. The corner of the
{farden. 10. War l>et\veen Knssia and Turkey. 11. The road
tln-onph the wood is very roii^li. 1-. The seat under the tree
is much liked by tho old folI«

I;,

•w^^^B^F"^iiwt^^»m^

^^^^

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONOUi:

1,1-'

-'ii

I 1 '

Ezerolse 41. Select the PREPosiTioys rn the foUouing phrases
and sentencesy and state xvhat adjkctivks and nouns they connect:
1. Quick at work, slow at meals. 2. I felt quite numb with
cold. 3. York is famous for its Minster. 4. My aunt was
very kind to the boys. 5. She was always careful about our
anmsements. G. No one is so proud of his batting. 7. The
(lo;j is very fond of biscuits. 8. My uncle was sorry for his
servant. 9. The room was bright with Limps. 10. The gvrden
was lovely in the sunlight. 11. He is not very eager about the
match. 12. His nose was quite blue with cold.

Exercise 42. Select the prepositions in the following
sentences, and state what verbs a^ifi tiov as theij connect: 1. The
gamekeeper shot the snipe with his old gun. 2. Mrs. Styles
always travelled with twenty-three trunks. 3. The old lady sat
in her old arm-chair. 4. Paris stands on the Seine. 5. The
.ship sailed from Leith to the Polar seas. 6. The sailor
fell into the harbour. 7. The canary flew to hor mistress.
8. Cardinal Wolsey was born in the fifteenth century. 9. The hat
was hanging on its own peg. 10. The stork is protected by law
in Holland. 11. Reynard trotted along with his tail in the air.
12. The cuckoo visits us in April.

Exercise 43. Add prepositions and nouns to the following
vonns, adjectives, and verbs: 1. Bird. 2. Fond. 3. Struck.
4. The captain lived — . 5. The steam-engine at — . C. My
coat is — . 7. The cart rattled along — . 8. The negroes —
are very h-zy. 9. The king — is dead. 10. The Lord Mayor
— is coming here to-day. 11. The train will arrive — .
12. The shepherd sat fluting — . 13. The church star ds — .

Lesson 9. — Kinds of Words, vi.

1. Wc can say: The man rose and fled. The bear and
the lion are fierce animals. I will come if you are there.

(i) In the first sentence, the word and ji)ins the verb roaa and the verb fled.

(ii) In the second, the word and joins the two sentences "The bear is a fierce
animal ' and " The lion is a fierce animal."

(ill) In the third, the word if joins the verb will com* to the verb «r*.

KTYMOLOOY

2. Tho words and and if arc Verb-joining words.

(i) In the Hentenci! : "Twn and two make four, ' aad iiivri'ly JniiiHthe two adjectives
t>^o mU two. It would be absurd to Hay " Two iiiakeii four ' and "Two makes four."

(ii) And ia therefore tliu only cxceiitiuu to the utatcmunt that conJtiuctionHJuin verbH.

3. A Verb-joining wor** is called in Grammar a Oonjunc-
tion. Or, Conjunctions arc Verb-joining words.

4. The words but, except, and notwithstanding may be
used either as Prepositions or as Conjunctions.

(i) " All went but him ' or " exct'pt him. Here but and ejccepi ore prepositionii.

(Ii) " They went, but hu remained, llere but is a conjunction, Ijecause it joins two
Bcntences.

5. Some Adverbs may be employed as Coi^unctions.

(i) In : "He has since lift the country." linc* is an adverb modifying haslr/t.

(ii) If we Hfly, " I have never seen him since he left the country," since is a conjunc-
i'rin joining two sentences.

Exercise 44. Select the conjunction.s in the following
sentences, and state ivh at verbs thrj connect: 1. Come and dine
with us to-morrow. 2. We shall not go, unless you come with
us. 3. We will stay at home if it rains. 4. The train has not
arrived though the clock has struck ten. 5. We shall all go skating
as soon as the lake is frozen. 6. The bee hummed his thanks aa
• he roamed from flower to flower. 7. I waited at the stile till he
returned. 8. I will come, since you order me. 9. The hoy wa.s
drowned, but the kitten was saved. 10. The wolf laughed at the
fox because he was so proud of his brush. 11. You must take care
lest you fall into the pond. 12. I heard that the ship was wrecked.

Exercise 48. Write out the conjunctions iji Exercise 44,
■ with the VERBS they connect on each side of them, thus :

VERB.

Come

CONJUNCTION.

and

VERB.

dino

VERB.

CONJUNCTION.

unless

VERB.

come

Exercise 46. Select the prepositions and the conjunctions
in the foil Old ing sentences, and state what they connect: 1. An
old owl lived in an oak and hunted mice. 2. Polly put the
kettle on the fire, but Susan took it off again. 3. An Arab lost

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

hLs way in the desert, and wandered about till he died. 4. He
will not come to the dance unless you invite him. 5. The
chicken was plucked before it was quite dead. 6. Willows are
weak, but they bind together other wood. 7. I wonder whether
they will come to the ball. 8. They caught sight of the town
when they reached the top of the hill. 9. My poor dog Tray
went with me wherever I went. 10. I knew by the smoke that
a house was near. 11. I told him that I was going to London by
the Midland. 12. We should get no coals, if the miners did not
work in their mines.

Exercise 47. Place the prepositions and conjunctions in
Exercise 46 i7i cohimns, hehceen the ivords they connect^ thus :

Lived

PAEPOSITIOKS.

oak

Lived

CONJUNCTIONS.

and

hunted

Lesson 10. — Kinds of Words, vii.

1. We now know six kinds of words. They go in pairs :
Noun and Verb; Adjective and Adverb; Preposition and
Conjunction.

2. They can be set out in a Table :

Adjective

which alwayi goes
with a

NOUN

(Pronoun)

Preposition
(which joins a Noun to
some other word).

Adverb

uiiich often goes
witli a

VERB

Conjunction
(which always joins Verbs).

3. The following statements may safely be made

(i) An Adjective dues for a Noan what an Adverb does for a v'erb.
(ii) Or: Adjective : Noun :: Adverb : Veib.
(iii) Prepositions tU) Tor Moons what CoivJanctions do for Verbs,

(Iv) Or i PrepoaltlOM : Nouns . : Ooujuuotiona : Vorbi.

ETYMOLOC!\

^).

Exercise 43. Sihct, in the following senteno'S, the nouns and
the \EiUiS said of them; the adjectives a?irf the nouns they go
icith; the ADVEnus and the words they mod If g. Place them in
columns thus:

NOUNS. VERBS. I ADJECTIVES. X0UN3. | ADVEKDS. WORDS MODIFIED.

Dogs bark I Fierce dogs I Very loudly

1. Our bi'gles sang truce, for the niglit-cloud luid lowered, and
the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. '2. The speckled
deer lie in separate groups here and there in the park. 3. The
nitfhtingale now tells the same tale she told when the earth was
young. 4. The warriors went back to their humble cot^ages
among the grecu hills. 5. The body and I pulled at one rope,
but he said nought to me. G. The clouds are scudding across
the moon ; a misty light is on the sea.

Exercise 43. IVorh this Exercise like Exercise 47. 1. The
wind in the shrouds has ii wintry tune, and the foam is flying
free. 2. The spirit of your fathers shall start from every wave !

3. In the pleasant valley of Dovedale lived an old woman.

4. The little boys play in the evening en the broad village green.

5. Scarce could they see or hear their foes, until at weapon-
point they close. G. He murmured earnest thanks to the fair
ladv for her great kindness. •

Exercise 50. Work the following Exercise like Exercise 47 :
1. The travellers marclied through the dense African forest in
single file, with their guns slung on their l)acks. 2. The sports-
. man emerged from the thicket and ran up to the wolf. 3. He
goes on Sunday to the church, and sits among his l)oys. 4. 1 he
Roman" held Britain for about four hundred years ; l)ut they
left it at last. 5. The stubborn spearmen still made good tlu'ir
dark impenetrable wood. (!. I\ol)in Hood, althougli he was a
robber, never plundered poor people or injured women.

Exercise 51. Make^ six scntmces, each containing at hxn^t
one noun, one I'crb, one adjective, and one adverb.

Exercise 52. Make six sentences, each omtaining a noun,
a verb, an adjective, an adverb, and a 2>>'tpi>.<itiun.

Exercise 63. Make six smttncrs, each contain ivg a noun,

a verb, an adjective, an adverb, and a conjunction,

«
I Or tho ssliteiiceii inny l>e si-lectcd froiu tliu RvaUiug<Book.

i .

20 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 64. Make six sentences, each containing a pre-
position and a conjunction.

Lesson 11. — Kinds of AVords. viii.

1. We can say : — That is a nightingale : I hear him sing-
ing. I see the children : they are in the garden.

(i) In the first sentence, him itandi for the noon nightingale.
(ii) In tlie second, they itanda for the nonn children.

2. A word that stands for a noun is called in Grammar a
Pronoun. Or a Pronoun is a word that stands for a noun.

(i) A pronoun d«not«i a person or thing,
(ii) But it never namea him. It is like a 1^

3. There is a kind of word that is (as it were) thrown into
a sentence, but is n»»t built up into it, nor does it form any
leal part of the sentence.

4. A word thrown into a sentence is called in Grammar an
Interjection.

Interjection is a Lntin word which means thrown between,

(i) Such words as 1 Oh I Alu I Hurrah I etc., are Interjections,
(ii) It is plain that any sentence can do quite will without tlieni.

Exerc'se 66. Point out the pronouns in the following
sentences: 1. Tom is liked by everybody; he is such a nice
little fellow. 2. Mary fetched a rose from the garden and
brought it to her aunt. 3. The stories in that book are rather
dull ; at least I do not find them interesting. 4. In winter
hares chanf(e the colour of their coats. 5. The boy went to
meet his father. 6. Tom's uncle gave him a new watch ; but he

ETYMOLOfJY

does not take care of it. V. The cook hns gone into the garden
for some vegetables ; she is going to boil them for dinner.
8. The gamekeeper's dogs are very clever ; they obey him the
moment he speaks to them. 9. The wolf would have attacked
the little girl ; but there were some woodcutters by, so he lot
her alone, and fled from them. 10. Tom's watch has had to go
to the watchmaker : he says it wants a new mainspring.

Exercise 86. Write out, in opposite columns, the pronouns
in Exercise 52, and the nouns /or which they stand.

Lesson 12. — diodes of joining AVords.

*1. There are two ways of joining together two pieces of
Avood. AVe may either drive a nail through both ; or we may
join them by the help of glue.

(i) In the first case, the connecting force is onUide of both,
(ii) In the second case, it comes between both.

2. In the same way, the connecting words which we employ
in our language — the prepositions and conjunctions — may be
used either after the manner of nails or of glue.

3. We can say : Into the room bounced the cliildren. We
can also say : The children bounced into the room.

(1) In both sentences, the jireposition Into connects the nouu room with the verb

bounced.

(ii) In the first sentence, Into is a grammatical nail,
(iii) In the second sentence, into is grammatical glae.

4. Tennyson, in his poem of the May-Queen, makes her
say: *' If you're waking, call me early, mother dear." But
the sentence would give the same sense if it stood thus :
"Call me early, if you 're waking."

fTW^^^^P^^P''?'^!^^

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

I ■

(I) In the first form of llic senti'ii<e, the corijiiiiction if connects the two Rontencts
"You .ire Wilkin^," and "Call me," after the fasliiou of a nail. It stauds outside of
both sentences.

(ii) In the second form, If comes between the two sentences, just as glue comes
between two iiieces of wood.

Exercise 57. State tclidhcr the prepositions in the following
sentence sttnd outside of or conic between the uwds they join:
1. In a barn ^hc used to frolic long time ago. 2. Through the
mighty billows clashed the powerful steamer, 3. Down on hi:*
knees the bi.<hop foil. 4. In a dream of the night I beheld a
vision, f). After him gaily trotted the young foal. 6. Up the
mountain-side we ran ! 7. Down the other side we slid !

Exercise 68. State ichciher the conjunctions in the follow-
ing sentences stand outside of or come between the words they
join : 1. Although the weather improved, he refused to walk
out. 2. You cannot hope to succeed unless you try. 3. I like
hiui because he is always good-tempered. 4. I have not seen
him since we parted at Coventry. 5. He declined to admit
that he was wrong. G. I ran home as it was getting dark.
7. Do not take tlie medicine if you feel better. 8. "When he
entered the room all stood up. 9. As the train did not arrive in
time, we missed our connection. 10. Unless you speak very
plainly, he wUl not understand you. 11. Because he was poor
and ill, people took pity on him. 12. Since the business has
turned out so badly, we must try something else. 13. If you
have ' 'otter from your brother, send it on to me. 14. That
he was wrong he absolutely declined to admit. 10. The porter
could not tcli us Avhen the train left.

First },Iethod of Parsing.
The ship ru.slietl on before the gale.

I. The goes with the noun ship,
'J. Ship i.s a name,

3. Rw' "d tells somoth'.'ig about the ship,

4. On is a word that goes witli the vi-rb ni.^hnl,

6. Before is a wonl tli:it Join* thi- noun iiak to the verb ruslicd,
6. OiUa 18 a uauio,

Therefore it is

an adjective.

a noun.

a verb.

an adverb.

a proposition.

aaoua.

ETYMOLOGY

Exercise 59. Pttrxc ihc imnh in tiic foVimriuij ?i)ilnire
according to the FmsT mktiiod : The ripe j^frapes hau'f on the wall.

Eicercise 60. Pdr.-iC the, folio, ::itig hi the saiuc icmj : The
^iiuuekeeper shot a brace of partridges with iiis ohl gun,

Ex-rcise 61. Parse in the same imi/: The storks Imild
their nests on the toj)s of lionses in Holland.

Ezercise 62. Par.^e in the same irmj : The warriors w;'nt
buck to their hiindde cottages among the mountains.

Exercise 63. Parse in the savie iray : No fanner reaps if
lie sows not.

Exercise 64. Parse in iJie same n-aij: As a fierce storm came
on, the boat.s did not venture out.

Second Method of Parsint;.

Tlic c;irl carried lior basket of eggs to market.

Word

What it does

What It is

The

g'>cs with the noun girl

AiljiTtivf

Eirl

namei

Nonn

carried

tells alKHit tlic girl

Veil)

her

stands for tlic iKHiii girl

rronoun

basket

names

Noun

joins tlie noun eggs to basket

Preiiosition

eggs

names

Nonn

joins tlie noun market to carried

Preposition

market

names

Noun

Exercise 65. Parse the scorns in the folloiritig srntevce
according to the seco.nd mktfiod : The boys went to the hikes
during the holidays.

Exercise 66. Parse in the same way: 1:\ a dream of the night
r- fair vision I saw.

13 : I

24 A SI|ORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercisn C7, Parse in the same way: And thrice ere the
morning I dreamt it again.

Exercise 68. Parse in the same way: The coach passed
through Croydon on its way from Brighton to London.

Exercise 69. Parse in the same way : The little boy walked
on, and soon overtook his friends.

Exercise 70. Parse in the same way: We shall arrive at
ten, unless the train is late.

Third Method of Parsing.
The boy ran after the horse, and soon caught it.

1. The in an adj ctive ; because it goes with tlie noun boy.
•2. Boy is a noun ; because it is a name.

3. E«n is a verb ; because it telli us something about the hoy.

4. Aft«r is a preposition, or noun juiiiing word ; because it joins the noun horse to
the verb ran.

5. And is a sentence-joining word or conjunction ; because it joins the two sentences,
" The boy ran " and "The boy caught it."

6. Soon is an adverb ; because it modiflet the verb cciught.

7. Ckn^ht is a verb ; because it tells us something about the boy.
S. It is a pronoun ; because it itandi for tlie noun horse.

Exercise 71. Parse the tcoi-ds in the following sentence
according to the third method : King Arthur lived a blameless
life in the good old times.

Exercise 72. Parse in the same way : The grizzly bear lives
in the Rocky Mountains.

Exercise 73. Parse in the same way: A small leak some-
times sinks a great ship.

Exercise 74. Parse in the same way: The oldest elephant
in the herd marched in front.

Exercise 75. Parse in the same way: To a level mead they
came, and there they drave the wickets in.

Exerciso 73. Parse in the same way : Pleasantly shone the
setting sun over the town of Lynn.

ETYMOLOGY

ball arrive at

SUMMARY.

1. A Noun is a name.

2. A Verb is a word that tells something about

a noun.

3. An Adjective is a word that goes with a noun. It is
al^o called a Noun-marking word.

4. An Adverb is a word that modifies a Verb, or Adjective
or another Adverb.

(i) Ye« and No are sometimes called adverbs But thi<. i= «...
never Bodilir any other wonl. ""'•'•»»' this .s wronR ; because they

(ii) They are really pro-sentancer " Is he

come?" "Yes'(="Hei8come")

5. A Preposition is a Noun-joining word. \

C. A Conjunction is a Sentence joining word.

7. A Pronoun is a word that stands for a noun.

a An Interjection is a mere sound, and is no essential
part of Jangnage or of grammar.

|i> ill

.III.

1':

I :

ETYMOLOGY. PART IL

Lesson 13.— Kinds of Nouns.

1. Nouns (or Xamos) are of four (lilTerent kinds.

(i) Thus we have : John, Mary, London, Thames, England,
(ii) A second kind is : Boy, girl, town, river, country,
(iii) A tliird kind i;. : Crowd, school, flock, army, shoal,
(iv) A fourth kind is : Whiteness, wisdom, strength, grammar. i

2. Nouns which are the names of particular persons or
places arc called Proper Nouns.

(i) The names John and Mary arc proper to some particular boy and girl (are, as
it were, their property).

(ii) The names Thames and England are proper to a particular river and country.

(iii) Proper Nouns always begin witli a capital letter.

- /■

3. A Noun -which is the name of a person, place, or thing,
regarded as one of a sst or class, is called a Common Noun.

(i) Tlic noun boy is common to every boy ; the noun girl to every girl, etc.

(ii) A Tioper Noun may be xtscd as a common noun. AVu can say : "He is quite a
ITercules " (=:very strong man). " He is no Wellington ' ( = not a great general).

4. A noun which is the name of a collection of persons or
things i-egarded as one is called a Collective Noun.

Thus a crowd is a collection of persons ; an aisay is a coilec'ioa of soldiers ; a shoal is a
collection of herrings.

5. A noun which is the name of a. quality or of a set cf

ETYMOLOGY

thoughts, regarded as abstracted from the things or persons
themselves, is called an Abstract Noun.

(i) Tliii.s Whiteness is a quAlity of white things ; Uzlness in a qn«Uty of lary persons;

ntrengtii is a <iaality o{ strong persons, Thoiigli there is no sucli thing as u;/ufe»e5s apart

from things that are white, we are able to think of whiteness ai)art from white things.

(ii) Grammar is the name of a set of thonghtt about speech or language.

(iii) Tlie following are also abstract nonns ; (a) names of passions, as love, hatred, etc. ;

(') names of actions, as reading, writing, etc. ; (c) names of arts, as painting, poetry, etc,

G. All this can go in a Table :

NOUNS

COMMON-

Dog, bird.

I'ROPEK

Caesar, Foil.

lOI.LKCTIVE

Army, School.

ABSTKACT

Strength, Moslc.

(i) When the names of <Ain(7S are personilied, tlicse names become either masculine or
feminine. A sailor talks of his ship as she.

(ii) Time, Death, Fear, the Sun are regarded as masculine ; Nature, Art, England,
Hope, etc., feminine.

Exercise 77. Arrange the following 7iouns in four columns,
under the headings common, rROPEii, collective, a7i,d
ABSTRACT : Chester, herd, blackness, Tom, fox, mob, huntsman,
regiment, trunk, York, flock, darkness, crew, wood, gentleness,
cruelty, Thame.s, strength, club ( = society), wisdom. Mayor,
Chichester, shoal (of herrings), blacksmith,

Exercise 78, Woi'k this Exercise like the preceding : Caesar,
dog, American, waterfall, flower, sister, Lucy, zeal, ability, Kent,
"Wellington, board ( = committee), fear, sweetness, congregation,
general, gang, covey, ship, poetry, Amazon, baker, sloth (the
quality), sloth (animal), party, dinner, crowd, law, light, republic.

Exercise 79. Mahe abstract nouns out of the folloiv-
ing adjectives : 1, RlcI. 2, Broad. 3. Foolish. 4, Happy.

5. Patient. 6. Prudent. 7. Steep. 8, Strong. 9. Long.

10. Wilful. 11. Obstinate. 12. Perfect.

Exercise 80. Mahe abstract nouns out of the folloidng
verbs : 1. Strike. 2. Grow. 3. Judge. 4, Fly. 6. Convert.

6. Thieve. 7 Thrive. 8. Steal. 0. Think. 10. Sneak.

11. Die. 12. Kob.

28 A sih)i;t (;i!A:\niAn of tifk EN(;r,iS!t ToxcrK

Lesson 14. — Kinds of Adjectives.

iNTRonrKTonv. We cm aiM to nouns vi.tv many kimls of .idji'ctivea. We ran say
of trees tliat they are high trcf.t, h>w trcis, hiftij trre.i, hire tirra, etc. M'f can
Fay of boys that tliey are stron'j hoys, wntk boys, healthy buys, twenty boys, etc.

1. Some Adjectives answer the question: Of what sort?
These are called Adjectives of Quality.

Such are : red, white ; happy, sad ; strong, weak.

(i) There are several adjectives that can be uBed as nonns. Such are : Dine, prom,
etc. ; dark, liglit ; deep, sli.illow ; good, evil ; licattien, Chiistiun ; square, round,
oblong ; junior, senior. Wo can .say " a .square, ' and also "a square tal>le," etc.

(ii) Some of these adjectives even take a jihiral form, as : goods ; greens ; whites ;
eatables ; drinkables ; juniors, etc. " And voices of the love<l o)ies gone before.'

2. Some Adjectives answer llie question: How much?
These are called Adjectives of Quantity.

Such arc : Any, many ; both^ Bome ; few, several ; much, little.

3. Some Adjectives answer the (question: How many?
These are called Adjectives of Number or Numeral
Adjectives. -

(i) Such are : One, two, three, twenty, four hundred, etc.

(ii) If these Numeral .\djectives tell only the number, they are called Cardinal
Numerals.

. y ' . . i

(iii) If they tell the order, they arc called Ordinal Numerals, as first, second, third,
twentieth, etc.

4. Some Adjectives answer the question: Which? TIie.se
are called Distinguishing Adjectives.

(i) Such arc : The ; this and that ; yon and yonder (in poetry) ; such, etc.

(ii) 'Ihc two little words a ami the are sometimes called Articles. A is tlie Indefinite
Article ; and the the Deflnito Article. The form an is used before a vowel.

KTYMOhOCJY

T). All this can go in a Taule

ADJECTIVES

Sour, iweet.

OK QIANTITV

Much, any.

li|STINfil'ISIIIN(i

Thlt, that.

NfMKRAT.

, Cardinal Ordinal

One, two. Flrit, lecond.

Exercise 81. Arrange ihr foUowIng adjectivcA in four
cohimm, vndcr the hradhuj.i adjf.ctivrs of i^l'ALITY, of
QiiANTiTV, DisTiNOUisiiiNG (1)1(1 NUMERAL : Tlold, merry, any,
loiiff, tlii.'<, two, useful, little (foy), little (su^air), five, that, green,
some, the, yonder, dull, no (man), no i^breiul), a, wise, several.

Exercise 82. Phicf, the adjectives in, Exercise 81 with nonnif
to which they arc suitdhJc.

Exercise 83. Classify the ndjcctiva in the folloieiug phrasei
find sentences as in Exercise 81 : 1. That Look. 2. Some cake
and a few oranj^es. 3. These three pretty kittens. 4. Hand mo
the third volume of that famous hook. .'). Three hirf^^e pears for
one penny. (J. All the money was gone ! 7. I hought some
Spanish nuts. 8. I never lieard such stu])id nonsense. 9. The
bread was stale, and I had no butter with it. 10. Many strong
lads were in the playground. 11. This is just the same old
hat. 12. Great cry and little wool.

Exercise 84. Classify the adjectives in the following phrases
■and sentences as in Exercise 83 : 1. This is the first time I ever
saw the ohl man. 2. I had several coins in my pocket. 3. I
had not much time left, so I took the earliest train T could find.
4. Four hundred men were drawn up in (nie long line. 5. Tom
is the second boy in his class. G. Such a noise I never heard
Itelbve ! 7. Both the boys were drowned in the deep lake.
8. He Av'as once a ha[H)y man ; but he had a sad ending.
J). Have you got any api»les ? 10. Xo, but I have some pears.

Lesson 1;5. — Kinds of Verbs.

1. Wc can .say : John built a ship. The .ship floats.

(i) To say " Jolin luiilt " would uot be enougli : we 'need more.

A .SllUUT (MIAMMAU OF TIIK KMILISII lONGUK

! !

1 I

■h '

(ii) Tlio fienso of tlio vorli built hpoius Id paw over ti) tlie lioun ship.
(iii) The BL>ii80 uf tliu Vtiiu float ilueu not pau over tu any thing.

2. Hence there arc two kinds of Verbs : Passing-over v.zd.
Not-passing-over.

(i) The first of these is callcil Traniitive ; iis «trlke, cut, hel.
(ii) The second iu cuUml Intraniltlve ; as run, Bleep, walk,
(iii) A Transitive Verb requires an olject.
(iv) An lutranaitivo Verb dots not lequire an object.

3. Transitive Verbs are of two kinds, as in : " I strike the

do''" "I am struck."

- :/ ■

(i) Tlie verb strike is Active Tranaitlve, because it denotes an ud.

(ii) The verb am struck is Pawive Tiansltlve, because it shows that the person struel:
is paislve under the striking. , ,

4. An intransitive verb may bo used transitively ; that i:',
it may be made to take an object.

(i) We can say; Tlie groom walked liis horse up and down,
(ii) Or : Tlio gardener grows large cabbages,
(iii) In these sentences, walk8=niakes walk ; grow8=niake3 grow.

5. All this can be set forth in a Table :

VERBS

TUAXSITIVE

INTRANSITIVE
Flows, grows.

Active

Sees, strikes.

Passive

Is seen, is struck.

Exercise 85. Point out in the following sentences the
INTRANSITIVE VKRBS that are xiscd in a transitive sense :
1. The boys floated* their ship in the cistern. 2. The poor girl

r.TYMOLOr.V

wopt Jiinny toar«<. 3. Tho vorv star=< shono victory on thoir homls.

4. C'uptaiii AVohb swam l)ov(>r Strait. r». Tho ^Toom lO'lo his
horse at a ^'alli)|). 0. Ho rained shells ami red-hot bullets on tiio
city. 7. IMoxt of tho ships that sail the ocean helonj^ to Kn^dand.
8. The captain told his men to fijfht tho ship as 'onj^ as she could
swim. 0. They ran the poor boy five times round the rin<,'.
10. The woman danced her baby on her knees. 11 Alter fall -
in;:: into the lake, Dick walked his clothes dry. 12. ^Vllat ho
lived M-as more beautiful than what he wrote.

Exercise 86. In each of th' JoUowvkj Rcntnwcit, aluie. nJuthcr
the verb is used as a transitive or as an intuansitivk nrh:
1. He aufjmcnted his fortune, and his ambition augmented with
his fortune. 2. The crowd collected at various ])oints ; and tho
(Toneral collected his troops. f3. The crowd dispersed IxMbro tho
troops came up. 4. Tho surrroon dressed the soldier's wounds.

5. He dressed as rapidly as ho could. G. I felt very unhapj)y
when I hoard the nows. 7. I felt tho caterpillar on my hand.
8. The clouds criithered rapidly while tho children were feathering
flowers in tho meadows. 9. The appearance of the hou>e
improved with time. 10. Improve the present hour! 11. ]{<■
retired into a wood to meditate. 12. The general retired hi-
troops. 13. The crowd broke in all directions. 14. The little
girl broke the mirror. If). Tom is going to fly his kite this
afternoon. 16. Tho bill-sticker sticks his bills everywhere, l)ut
he ■Nvill not stick to the point-
Exercise 87. Arrange the following verbs in three eohnnns,

under the headings active-tuansitivf;, rAssivK-rnANsiTivK,
intransitive : Run, strikes, is struck, talks, blows, howls,
wounds, skates, was seen, behaved, carried, felled, was cut, w;>s
eaten, lived, bring, were caught, end, jump.

Exercise 83. Arrange the following verbs in the same vny :
Dig, was carried, pitched, became, sleeps, lay, valued, found,
bumped, bought, is wanted, presented, sits, left, walked, asked,
travelled, looked, was punished.

Exercise 09. Arrange the verbs in the fnllovnng sentences in
the same way: 1. I met him -walking on the bank of
the river. 2. The stream flowed gently ])y. 3. Her uncle
promised her a milk-white steed. 4. His mother from the
window looked with all the longing of a mother, b. They

vw^ri^^^'^"W''yi^m)!iw^''^f^'^'"^

I I

33 A snoiri' chaaimai; oi' tifk liNousif tONfiCi;

sfnitfht liiin oast, they i>on;^Iit liitn west, tlu'V sought liini all tho
forest thorough. (!. Ho lay down, and closed his eyes. 7. The
bishop fell on his knees. 8. He could hear the gnawing of their
teeth. 9. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either
bank. 10, They saw his crest above the surges. 11. The sun
looked and saw not a single flag. 12. The ball .shivered the
window.

Lesson K). — Kinds of Pronouns, i.

1. AVo can say : Who did it ? I did it. The uuiii who did
it has just gone. One never sees him now.

(i) In these sentences tliere are four kinds of j^'onoiuis.

(ii) In the first, who asks a question, and is calk-d an Interrcgative Pronoun.

(hi) In the second, I nientioni: a, person, and is called a Personal Pronoun.

(iv) It) t'.ie third, who relates to man, and is called a Relative Pronoun.

(v) 111 '.i.e f.turtli, one duos not definitely nientioii anybody, and is therefore an
Indefinite Pronoun.

2. The i)ronoun that asks a qeustion is called an Interroga-
tive Pronoun.

Such are : who 7 which 7 what 7

3. The pronoun that mentions a person is called a Personal
Pronoun.

mil

Lesson 17. — Kinds of Pronouns, ii.

1. There are three Personal Pronouns : (i) the Personal
Pronoun of the First Person ; (ii) the Pci-sonal Pronoun of
tho Second Person ; (iii) the Personal Pronoun of the Third
Person.

(i) The First Person is tho person speakicg : as, I, we.
(ii) The Second Person is the person si>okcn to : as, thou, yoa
(iii) The Third Person is tlie person spoken of: as, he, they. ;

i:tvmol<;>(.v

•J. The [tioiKHiii iii;it relates is calltMl a Relative Pronoun.

(i) III llif sfiil.i'iK I', ■• Tliat i^> lli(j iii;iii who t.tlu's can; at our ijai'li'ii, ' llif u-lalive
I'liiiidUii who relalos tu man.

(ii) 111 ''Tills i.s UiL' book uf which I siMikt;." the iflativi' iiioiiuiiii which rt-Iatcs tu
liiKik.

(iii) Tlu'if IS a l^iiiil nl' Csmpound Pronoun wiiicli is also usuil as a J{i-lati\u ; as, whoto,
whoever, whosoever.

3. A pronoun that does not definitely point to fm\' parti-
cular per.son or person.s is called an Indefinite Pronoun.

(i) III the sentence, " IIu was oil litfoie o;il' coiilil catch liim," the iPionoiih one
<Ii)es no' !UiiI fill any definite i<eis( ii ; and tlicicroi'i; one is an indefinite pronoun.

(ii) In " Sdiik' like oik; thing, sdiiic anollur," the juincinn tomeihxs not i.oint to
any particular per.sons ; aui.1 some is therefoii- an indefinite pronoun.

(lii) The chief indelitiite pronouns are: One, none, any, other, and some.

4. Personal pronouns comhincd witli the noun self or
selves arc called Reflexive Pronouns.

Such arc: Myself, ourselves; thyself, vimiiscIvcs ; licrsclf, hinisrif, ilii>nisclves ;
itself, ouc's-self.

Exercise 90. Arrange iii rnliimns, nuihr thr. henilonji

PKH.SO.NAI,. lNTKRriO(i.VTlVK, RKL.VT1\ K, and l.N DKKIXITK, tilt'

" fnlloirliuj proiiOiDis : Wo ; Tlicy ; Who ! Wliat ! (the iiuir,'
who (came) ; (the fox) that I saw ; r)n(' i 'may say) ; nunc
(i-anie ; I (did not see) iiny ; I (want sonu." ; the book of) whieh
(,t spoke) ; you ; ns ; -whiih i

Exercise 91. i'lasslfif fhr nioNocxs in the follou-i.nj i^m-
ie)trt.<: 1. Wlio is coinino; with me? 2. He certainlv Avill not.
'.\. What did lie say \vheii you met liim ? 4. One woidd never
think of doino; such a thin;^. ."). Which of the two did she jire
fer? (i. I never even dreamt of eominjjf. 7. Tlie soldier who
fotiyht so bravely has dietl of his woinids. s. Whom ilid voii
meet on the road? I). The fox that was hunted yesterday
eseapiMl. 10. He spared himself as much as he coidd. 11. None
spoke a word. \± She hurt htrseif jjreutly by tho lull.

A SHORT GRAlNDIAIi OF THE ENGLISH TO\f:uK

Lesson 18. — Kinds of Adverbs.

1. Some adverbs ans\ver to the question when? These
are called Adverbs of Time.

Such are : Now, then, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, etc.

2. Some adverbs answer to the question where ? These
are called Adverbs of Place.

Such are : Here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, etc.

3. Some adverbs answer to the question How ? These are
called Adverbs of Manner.

Such arc : Well, ill ; pleatantly, crossly ; better, worse, etc.

4. Some adverbs answer to the question How often ?
These are called Adverbs of Number.

Such are ' Once, twice, thrice ; singly, one-by-one, etc.

5. Some adverbs answer to the question How much ?
These are called Adverbs of Degree.

Such are : Very, little ; almost, qnite ; all, half, etc.
/Atlle in the phrase little better; all in the phraae all forlorn ; and ha!/ in the phrane hn'/
drowned.

Exercise 92. Arrange in cohimns, under the headings

ADVERBS OF TIME, OF PLACE, OF NUMBER, OF MANNER, OF

DEGREE, the following adverbs : Here, now, there, quickly, too,
once, little (better), half (dead), crossly, well, hence, hither,
to-morrow, all (undone), swiftly.

Exercise 93. Arrange the following adverbs as in Ercrcisr.
92 : Away much (better), very, bitterly, presen^/, quite, so, ill
(fared it then with Roderick Dhu), unusually, merrily, exceed-
ingly, extremely, always, still, rather, further, wistfully.

SUMMARY.

1. There are four kinds of Nouns: Proper, Common, Col-
lective, and Abstract. * »

r.TYMOLOGY

2. Th'^rc arc four kinds of Adjfx'TIVKs : Adjectives of
Quality, Adjectives of Quantity, Distinguishing, and Numeral.

3. There are two kinds of Vbrds : Transitive and In-
transitive. Transitive verbs liavc TWO VOICES ; Active and
Passive.

4. There arc five kinds of Pronouns : Interrogative,
Personal, Relative, Indefinite, and Reflexive.

5. There are five kinds of Adverbs : Adverbs of Time, of
Place, of Number, of Manner, and of Degree.

Fourth JNIetiiod of Parsing.
Often -when I go to plough, the ploughshare turns them out.

1.- Often is an adverb, because it modifies the verb turns. It is an adverb of time.

2. When is a conjunction or sentence- joining word, because it Joins the two sentences,
" The ploughshare turns them out " and " I go to idough."

3. I is a pronoun, because it stands for the name of the person speaking. It is a
pe .'sonal prononn.

4. Oo is a verb, because it tells about I. It is an intransitive verb, because it does
not require an object.

5. To plough is a transitive verb, because it requires tlie object field (wliich is iinder-
stood).

C. The is an adjective, because it goes with the noun jJovghsharc. It is a dlatinguish-
iag adjective, because it distinguishes this ploughsliare (tchich I vsi) froui others.

7. Them is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun sluUs (understood).

8. Out is an adverb, becau.sc it modifies tlic verb turns. It is an adverb of place.

Exercise 94. Parse the words in the fnJlniriug sentences
according to the fourth method : Three children were sliding on
the ice on the lake.

Exercise 95. Parse in the same way: Take ofT the kettle,
and stir the fire !

Exercise 00. Parse in the same way : ^lary was the daughter
of the kinir who rule?4 this land.

!■:?

.ir,

A SIKHJI' CItAlMMAIi OF TIFi: K\(;l.lS|[ 'ION(;rM

Exercise 97. I'iivm in tin: smnc mnj: TIil- jiiralc kinu' uus
sliiiii 1)V' oriL' <)t'(»iir waniors,

* Exercise 98. Fame hi the same vaij : I, \vlio have seoii s(»
many lands, am now grown very old.

Exercise 99. Fame iu the same vati: Tlie sliijts will sail
fortli, whenever the wind sets fair.

Lesson 19. — Words Difficult to Classify, i.

1. As we have already seen, a \\ov<\ is not always, and
under all circumstances, a noun or a verb, and adjective or
an adverb. It may sometimes be the one, and sometimes
the otliei'.

(i) A bill- of iron may be used as a jioker, as a wcajHin, as a lever, as a crowbar,
or as a haiiiiner.

(ii) If it is employed to pfikc the fire, it is, for tlic lime being, a poker. If it is
used to knock down a burglar, it becomes a weapon. If it is employed to nio\e a
large stone in a certain manner, tlien it is a lever, if it is used to jirise open a box,
t lieu it is a crowbar. If it is employed to knock nails into tlie box, then it is a hammer.

2. In Old English, verbs and nouns had different endings,
and people often knew what a wortl was by its look. ^Nfo.-^t
of these endings have dro})ped oft' and been lost ; and now
we only know what a word is by noticing what it does, or
what word it goes with — that is, what company it keeps.

(i) In the sentence "I found a hard rock,'' Iiard is an adjeeti\e, liecaiise it goes
with the noun rock. '

(ii) In tiie sentence "He work.s very hard," hard is an adverb, bee au.se it goes witli
t!ie verb works. An<l very is itself an adverb, because it goes with the adverb hard.

(iii) Rutin the sentcinco "That is the very man," very is an adjective, because it
goes with the noun man.

3. AVhat a word does is called its function. "We must
therefore, in English, always notice the function of the word.

(i) A word is a verb if it does the work or jierforms (he function of a verb,
(ii) A word is a uoun if it dues the work or iierforn.s the fimctioa of a noun.

KTVMni.(i(;V

•1. Ill llu; tinii.' of Sli;(l<f>|»r,irc ( l.')(l 1 1(5 1 (j^ wiilris iiiiult^
a very free u^50 of Moitis, mid were in llic luiltit of employing
nouns as verbs in the must reckless fashion. Thus Shake-
.si)eare has the expressions: "Grace me no grace I "' ''Sir
me no sirs I " '* Wortl me no words I "

(i) Sliakospt'are lias als.i ; " i;ut me iiu Imts 1 " In this I'lii'.isc, But wliicli is iisi!:il y
a coiijuiK'tiuii, IS useil lioth as a verb ami as a noun.

(ii) He lius also : "Thank nit- no thanks, and in'oinl nu' no inniiilsl"

T). This fashion has held on down even to our own time.

(i) "They ipanieled me at heels " = they followed me like spiiiiit-ls.

(ii) " To voice liiin consul"' = ti> proclaim him. 'To nose liim "—to smell liiii;.

(iii) "She captained ainl sirred him '-slic kijit ( Mllinj; liiiri captain ami sir.

(iv) " Ho battled it long with the lirst Pitt' -lie fought.

(v) We find alsi) the j'h rases : •• Ti lord it, " " Tn clown it , " " To duke it," " To queen
it," = to art as a lord, clown, etc.

Lesson 20. — \Vords Difficult to ClassifV. ii.

1. There are in the Eir'lish langnago a nnmher of words
wliich rc<piire particular attention, hecaiise they are sometinn's
employed in one way — in one function — and sometimes in
another.

2. Above may be used as a preposition or as an adverb,
or even as an adjective.

(i) "The hawk lioveied above th*' ehaffineh." Here above joins chaQnch to ti.e
verb hovered, and is therefore a preposition.

(ii) "The stars that shine al>oV"." Hero above goes wit'ii the voili shine, and is
t'.icrefore an adverb.

(iii) " Tlie above remarks." "Thealiovo rule." In these ]ihrases the v/ord abovs
goes with nouns, and is therefore an adjective.

3. After may be used as a preposition, or as a conjunction,
or as an adverb.

A SHORT r.RAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) In the phrase "Grace after meat, "after is a preposition, because it Joins tho
two noun» grace and meat.

(ii) In tlie sentence " We went out after the rain had stopped," after is a conjnncticu,
because it joins two sentences.

(iii) In the sentence "My uncle came soon after," after is an adverb, because it goes
with the verb came.

4. Any may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) In the sentence "Have you any wool?" any is au adjective, because it goc3
with the noun wool.

(ii) In the sentence "Ho cannot write any better," any is an adverb, because it
goes with the adverb better.

5. As may be used as an adverb or as a conjunction, or
even as a relative pronoun.

(i) " There are as many books on this shelf as on the other." Here as modifies the
adjective many, and is therefore an adverb.

(ii) " Read this as you wallt along ! " Here as connects two sentences, and is there-
fore a coqjnnction.

(iii) "I do not find such a welcome as I used to receive." Here a« relates to the
nuun welcome, and is therefore a relative prononn.

Lesson 21. — Words Difficult to Classify, iii.

1. Before may be employed az a proposition, as a conjunc-
tion, or as an adverb.

(i) In the sentence "The house stood right before him," before is a preposition,
ioining house and him, and governing him in the objective case.

(ii) In the sentence "They arrived before we left," before is a conjunction, Iwcause
it joins two sentences.

(iii) In the sentence "She had never seen the sea before," before is an adverb,
because it modifles the verb had seen.

2. But may be used as a preposition, as a conjunction, or
as an adverb.

(i) In the sentence " All fled but him," but is a preposition joining the prononn
him to the noun persona (understood), and governing him in the objective case.

ETYMOLOGY

(ii) "Many fled, Init he stuoil liis ground." Here but is a conjunction, In-'iause it
joins two sentences.

(ill) "There was but one apple ou the tree." Here but is an adverb, because it
uiodilies the ailjcctivc one.

3. Eaxly may be used a.s an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) " It IS the early bird catches the worm." Here early goes with the noun bird,
and is therefore an adjective.

(ii) " Call mo early, mother dear ! " Here early modifies the verb call, and is there-
fore au adverb.

4. Eke may be used as an adverb or as a verb.

(!) Of John Gilpin it is said, "A train-band captain eke was hu"(=also). Here
eke is a word tliat goes with the verb is ; it is therefore an adverb,
(ii) '• Ho ekes out a precarious living by writing." Here ekes is a verb.

5. Enough may be used as an adjective or as a noun.

(i) " Wt; had not enough room. ' Here enough goes with the noun room, and i.i
therefore ;ui adjective.

(ii) "The boy writes well enougli." Here enough modifies the adverb well, and is
therefore an adverb.

Enouyh may go either after oi befurc the word it belougs to. We cjin say " straw enon^'h "or
"enough straw."

(lii) "The lad has enough to do." Here enough is a noun, because it is the name of
the amount of work the lad has to do. So also iu " We have liad enough of actiuii
and of mot u we."

G. For may be used as a preposition or as a conjunction.

(i) In the sentence, " I gave sixpence for the book," for is a preposition, because it
joins the two nouns sixpence and book.

(ii) "My hat and wig will soon be here, for they are on the road." Here for is a
conjunction, because it joins two sentences.

Lesson 22. — Words Difficult to Classify, iv.
1. Hard may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) "The chest is made of hard wood." Here hard goes with tlie nouu wood, and is
therefore an adjective.

(ii) "The boy works hard." Here hard goes with the verb works, and is therefore an
adverb. In the same way in " Tlio house stands hard by a wood." Here hard
modifies the phrase " by a wood " ; it is therefore au adverb.

to A SHOKT CKA.MMAU oF THK KN<;iJsil TnNCrK

2. Half umy Ik; used as ;i noun, :is an adjective, <>r as a:i
adverb.

(i) " JI;ilf of thf troops wore killed." lli'ri' half is a noun, 'oceans, ii is a iiaiiic.

(ii) "I ilctcst, half iiioasnri'."." Ilcie half is an adjective, bccaiist; it goes witli tlr,;
noun measures.

(ii!) " Tlifi lioy was half dc id with rold and wo(." IltTc half is an adverb, ln'cansw
it modifies the adjective dead.

r>. Little iiui}- l)e ustd as an adjective, as an adverb, or as
a noun.

(i) "I mot a little i((tla\;i' j;irl. ' Here little is an adjective, becansu it i,'ocs with
the noun girl.

(ii) "1 thouylil little of it," Here little is an adverb, heeause it inodilh's t\e verb
thought.

(iii) "Do not ,i;ive me so mr.ea : i onlj- want a little.' Hen; little is a noud, hocansc'
it is a name.

4. Less may bo used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) "Of two evils wc must choose the less (evil)." Here less is an adjective, heeaiisi'
it j^oes with the noun evil (uiidcrstiiiiil)

Another form (if /ess is /■■«<•' We Imve il Jii tin- plir.iscs : " I.o'^ser .\shi ' (for .Isi'i l'»<e<r\ ami
" tlie lesser light til lule t)if tiijflit. " /.cNMr is a " dcmlile coiiiitariitive.'

(ii) " He loves me less now than he tlid before." Ilei-e less is an adverb, beeanse it
modifies the verb loves.

5. Least may be omployod as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) "The boy had not the least idea what I meant." Here least is an adjective,
beranso it goes with the noun idea.

(ii) "And yet lie was the least str.pid of .all tin' boys." Hei-e least is an adverb,
because it iiiodifiis the adjective stupid

G. MuL-h, more, most may 1h< u.scd as adjectives, or as
adverbs.

(i) "I like this much, that more, the other most " Here much, more, .'iinl mort
mollify the \erb like, nncl are therefore adverbs.

(ii) " Jlui^li wool; more wool, niost wool," Here these words arc jilainly
(idjectives.

KTYMULOCJV

Lesson 2:1— AN'ords Dimciilt to CMassilV. v.

1. Next may bo used as an adjective, or an adverb, or a
preposition.

(i) " W>, will take tlie next train." Ileiv next t,'oes with llic iinuii train, nnd U
tlierpfiiio an adjective.

(ii) " Yon fli'e noxt I " Here next j,'oi's with (ho veib fire, anil is tliereforo an adverb.

(iii) "lie wears the locket next hs lieart." Here next joins the noun heart to tins
verb wears, ami is therefore a preposition.

2 No Tiiay be n^cd as an adjective or us an adverb.

(!) "We saw no shiji." No hero goes witli the noun ship, ami is therefore an
adjective.

(ii) " I saw him 110 lunre." Hire no nioilifies the adverb more (wliich itself niodil'ifs
saw), and is then fnre an adverb.

3. Off may 1)C usod as an adjective, as an adverb, as a
preposition, and as an interjection.

(i) "Tlie off Imusc was restive." Here off is an adjective, bfeause itgoes with tl ■■
noun horse.

(ii) " The thief ran o!lV' Here off luoditirs the \crl> ran, and is 1 hen lore an adverb.

(iii) " Tlie boy fell utf the wall." Here off joins wall and fell, and is therefore u
preposition.

(iv) "Off I you thief : " Here off is an interjection.

4. Only may 1)0 nsod as an adjective oi- as an adverb.

(i) "He was the only ;ierson in ihe rooni." Here only j^oes with the noun person,
and i.s tlieref ire an adjective.

(:i) " He has only one eye. ■' Here only niodilies the adjeetive one, and is then fo;!'
.'in adverb.

."). Round may be used as a noun or as a verb; as an
adjective or as an adverb; and it ma\' oveii be employed a-<
a preposition.

(i) " .\ round of beef. " Here r' and is a noun, because it is a name.

(ii) " The hollow Clown that rounds the mort.il ti'iu'iles of n JJni:.'" ITcn- round*
tells r.bout the Woi-d that, anc] is therefore a verb.

. I;

i t

'V. "(''«» (H|t!'l?lf«"»P"|l«U J.IPIiilJlMJII

3 I,

A .SHOUT (;KAMMA11 of 'Jllli KNCiLlSIl TuNCJUE

(iii) " A good round sum." "A round upple." In thu.sc phrases round goes with
nouns, and is tliercfuru an adjective.

(iv) "Brin',' thu pouy round at ten !" Here round niodilks the verb bring, and is
therefore an adverb.

(v) " He has sailed round tlie world." Here round connects the uouu world with
the verb failed, and in therefore u prepoeitlon.

1 1. 1

Lesson 24. — Words Difficult to Classify, vi.

1. Since may be used as a preposition, as a conjunction, or
as an adverb.

(i) " I have not seen him since last spring." Here eince joins the noun spring tt
the verb have leen, and is tlicrcfore a prepoBitlon.

(ii) "Since he will have it, let hun have it." Uvu: rtnce joins together two
sentences, :ind is therefore a conjunction. (It joins tlie.se two sentences like a nail.)

(iii) "We parted at the station, and we have never met since," Here since niodilicj
the verb met, and is therefore an adverb.

2. That may be used as an adjective, as a relative pronoun,
or as a conjunction.

(i) "That man was there." In this sentence that goes with the noun man, and is
therefore an adjective.

(ii) " The man that was theie has come to see you." Here that relates to the noun
man, and is therefore a relative pronoun.

(iii) "I know that John is better." Here the word that joins two sentences, and is
therefore a conjunction.

(iv) When we say " I know that," the word that looks like a noun. But it is really
an adjective ; for it is plain that the noun /act or statement is mderstood.

3. Well may be used as an adjective or as an adverb ; as
an interjection; and sometimes even*as a noun.

(i) •' Tlie king is not well." Here well goes with the noun king ; it is therefore an
adjective.

■\Ve can say " The boy is well " ; but mc o.innot say " A well boy." Hence it must lie observed
that vvll is one of those adjectives tbat may be used jjrcdUatiielt/ (or iu the jircdicate), but
sever attributivct}/.

(ii) " He knew well who had done it." Here well modifies the verb knew, and is
therefore an adverb.

KTYMof.OfJY

(ill) " Wrll ! wt'll I I sliiii.M Mill, liavi' liclicxcl it I" Ilif well is an Interjection.

(iv) " liCiivc well iiloue," llvn: w»U is tlif iinnii' ol a statf i>f tilings ; it in tlierefora

a noun. ' . ' ■" ' . ' ,'

4. Why may hr usccl as an adverb oi- as a coi^junction ;
oven as a noun, aii'l sonictinu'.s as an interjection.

(i) "Wliydjil you sinali in tliat niaiiii'i ? " Here why niodilics tin- vnh did ipeak,
•nml is tlicrcfiiro an adverb.

(ii) "I askcil liini why liu did it." Hfif why cniinecls two sentences, and is
tlierefore a conjunction.

(iii) "Tell me the why .iiid the wlit refoie. " Here why is a noun, in the objective
ease, governed by the ^ell^ ttll.

(iv) " Why I Jessica, I s.iy ! " Hero why is an interjection.

r». Yet may Ix; used as an adverb or as a conjunction.

(i) " Has lie heard the youd news yet? " Here yet niodities the ve'ib hu heard, and
is tlierefore an adverb.

(ii) " I urged it on him, yet he would not answer me." Here yet connects together
two siiilunoes, aii<l is therefiire a conjunction. '

ETYMOLOGY. PART III.

Irred

,but

Lesson 2;5. — The Inflexion of ^Vords.

1. AVortls are clumgod for a great many purposes.

Tlie word inflexion is a Latin word which means n bending,
(!) Tims boy may be changed into boys ; ox into oxen,
(ii) Small may be changeil into smaller, or into imallest. , -_■]■■■, \. .\

(iii) Speak may be clinnged into spoke, or into spoken. i .-.l

2. Nouns may be inflected : as in child, childreil.

V ;^)

i !i !

il'' 'M

m^m"^^'^'^^^^

"^'^^mmm

44 A SHOUT fiHAMMAU OK THK KN'CMSif T()N<!UK

3. Pronouns may bo iiinocU'<l : as in he, him

4. Verbs may l)c infloctcd : as in write, writes.

5. Adjectives may Ixs inflected : as in happy, happier.
r». Adverbs may bo inflected : as in worse, worst.

Ho writuH wona tli.in John ; but Tom writes wont of all.

7. The only kinds of words that are not inflected arc iire-
po.sitions and conjunctions.

Lesson 2G. The Inflexion of Nouns, i.

1. We can say horses, oxen, teeth, to sliow that we arc
speaking of more than one horse, ox, or tooth. Tiiis is
called Inflexion for Number.

2. There are in Grammar two nnmljers: Singular and Plural.

(i) The word Singular inciiiiM Cna.
(ii) The word Plural means More than one.

3. There are in the English language t different ways
of forming the plural : (i) By adding es oi .. ..o the Singular;
(ii) By adding en; (iii) By changing the vowel.

4. First Mode. — The Plural is formed by adding es or s :

SINGULAR.

I'LUnAL.

SlXOULAR.

PLURA L.

Boy

Boys

lirl

Girls

Box

Boxes

Lady

Ladies

Witch

Witches

Loaf

Loaves

Hero

Heroes

Thief

Thieves

(i) The old spelling of lady was ladie ; and this old spelling is preserved in tlic
plural. But this accident has given rise to two Rulei of Spelling :

(a) Y, with a vowel before it, is not changed ui the plural. Thus we write

keyi, valleys, chimneyi, etc.

(b) T, with a conionant before it, is changed. We write ladles, rnbios,

glarlet, etc.

KrYM(^LO(JY

IT)

(il) Notins <li;it oml ill i, th, ch, x, or s tnkn •■ in (lie ptiiral. Tims wo wrilc:
OimilbiiHes ; llslits ; chiirclit's ; Im.xcs ; tnjiMZi's.

(iii) Tlio thill labial f b(>cniiu>s v in tli)< ]>lui.'il : loaf, loavei.

(iv) nut: ClifT, ilwnrf, fife, grief, lioof, rnnf, slril'.', el.'., t^rrp tin- f.

Exercise 100. (flir, or u-ritr don-)!^ thr jJiirala of: Hoy, fov,
galley, ohiinney, ruby, potato, fly, loaf, tliii-f, valley, negro, ealf.

I^essoii 27. Tlic Iiiticxion of Nouns, tt.
1. Second Mode. — Tiio Plural k formed hy adding en or ne :

SINCII.AIl.

VI.VHM..

Hl.S(;fI,AU.

I'l.fllAI,.

Oxen

Chil''

Cliildrcn

Cow

Kiiic

UrDtlicr

Brctlircii

(i) There are, in some of the older English poet.s, such jilmal.s uh Bean (bees) ;
fleen (fleas) ; toon (toes); nml treen (trees).

(ii) Children and brethren arc in reality double j)liirals. There were olil Xorthern
]ilurals childer and brether. It was fnp-iotten tliat these were tri e jiliiials, ami en
was added on.

2. Third Mode. — The Plui-al is forniod by cliaiiging iho.

owe! :

'•

BI.VOnLAR.

ri.CRAI..

SI.NGITLAR.

ri.ftiAi..
Men

Foot

Feet

Man

Goose

Geese

]\Iouse

Mice

Louse

Tiice

Tooth

Teeth

3. Somo English Nouns have two plural forms Avith
different meanings.

SINGULAR.

FIRST PLDRAL.

Brother

Brothers (in a family)

Cloth

Clotlis (kinds of cloth)

Die

Dies (stamps for coining)

■i.

Fish

Fishes (taken separately)

Oenlns

Geniuses (men of great talent)

Pea

Peas (separately)

Penny

Pennies (sei)aratel\ )

Shot

Shots (ads of shooting)

(i)

We say also bed-dottaei.

KF.( OND ri.URAI-.

Brethren (in a Clmreh, etc.)
Clothes (for wearing)
Dice (for gambling)
Fish (collectively)
Genii (powerful spirits)
Pease (collectively)
Pence (collectively)
Shot (collectively)

A STTORT ORAMMAR. OF TTTK KNOUSTI TOXfJl']-;

(ii) We say liz pennies, if six copper coins iivo, infant. But wlicii we say sixpence, it
may mean one coin, or two tln-^e-peiiiiy pieces, etc. etc.

Exercise 101. Give, or write down, the plurals of : Mouso,
tooth, die (2), fish (2), cloth (2), penny (2), brother (2), shot (2).

Lesson 28. — The Inflexion of Nouns, iir.

1. Some Englisli Nouns have tlie same form in the Phiral
as in the Singuhir ; as, Deer, cod, sheep, trout, etc.

(i) In Old English, people said Sixty vintcr. Thirty summer, for winters, eti;.
(ii) We still say : '• A man six foot liiyli " ; "Ten stone weight," etc.

2. Tlicre are some nouns with a plural form but a singular
meaning : such as Gallows, news, tidings, smallpox, measles,
mumps, odds, pains, wages, thanks, etc.

(i) Smallpox = small pocks (or pockets).

(ii) Falni in the sense of taliiuj great pcnns to do a thing well.

(iii) Sli. kesjwarc says : " Tliis news hath made thee a most ugly man." And we
generally say " a means to an end " ; " wages is good," etc.

.3. The English Language has adopted many foreign
plurals. The following arc the most important : —

SINilUl.

AH.

PLUllAI,.

Latin

Datum
Formula

Data
Formulae

Greek

Analysis

Analyses

Parenthesis

rareutlieses

French

Alonsieur

Messieurs
(Messrs.)

Italian

Bandit

Banditti

Hebrew

Cherub

Cherubim

SINOLT-AU.

PI.CRAr..

stratum

Strata

Species

Axis

Axes

riienoiueiion

Phenomena

Madam

Mesdames

Dilettante

Dilettanli

Seraph

Seraphim

4. In a compound noun, the sign of tlie plural must l)e
attached to the leading word, as in :

SINGULAR.

Son-in-law
Hanger-on
I,ool;er-nn

PLURAL.

Sons-in-law
Ilange's-on
Lookers-on

SINni'LAU.

Attorney-General
'^^oiirt -martial
I Fellow-servant

ri.fRAT.

Attorney-Generaly
("onrt-martials --^
? t llow-scrvHtits

ETYMOLOGY

(i) We s.ny ipoonfuli and

handfula, because ipoonful

and handful are re;,'ard

eel as

one

woril.

(ii) Some compound nonns take the plural siyiis in butli

tlif ir parts, as in :

Men-

■ervanta ; Knights-Tenplara ;

Lords-Jasticei, etc.

Exercise 102.

Give, or write (]own

, the

jylurals of:

Pat

nm,

foniir.lii, chenib, analysis, phenomenon,

axis,

parenthesis,

ban

dit,

court-martial, hanger-on, spoonful, son-

in-law.

Lesson 29. — The Inflexion of Nouns, iv.

1. Gender is, in Grammar, the mode of distinguishing sex.

(1) We say : Author, Authoress ; Count, Countess ; Emperor, Empress.
(11) We say: He-goat, she-goat ; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow,
(ii!) We say : Boy, girl ; brother, sister ; king, queen.

2. There arc three ways of marking gender: (i) Dy
Suflixes ; (ii) By Prefixes ; (iii) By Different Words.

(!) A suffix 13 an addition made to a word which conius after it.
(ii) A pre&x is an addition made to a word wliicii conies before it.

3. The following arc the most important Suffixes for
Gender : —

MASCILINK.

KF.MISINK.

MASCn.lNK.

KF.MISINK.

1. aglish

Fox

Vixen

Spinner

Spinster

'2. French

Abbot

Abbess

Lass( = lad"ss)

•

Actor

Actress

Marquess

Marchioness

Ambassador

Ambassridress

Masic"

Mistress

Baron

Baroness

Mayor

Mayoress

Benefactor

Benefactress

Negro

Negress

Duke

Duchess

twt

Peeress

r.miuTor

Empress

Poet

Poetess

Giant

Giantess

Prince

PriiK'c'ss

Heir

Heiress

Pi-nphet

Prophetess

Host

Hostess

Songster

Songstress

Hunter

Huntress

Viscount

Viscountess

(i) The OM English way of forming tlie feminine w;is by adilin;; ster. Tliiis tapper
(one who draws lieer) had tapeter as its feminine

(ii) Wo still have many of these words ; but most of tlicm ha-v become prop( r

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE P:NGLISH TONGUE

niunes. Thus we have Sangster (=a female singer) ; Baxter ( = a bakeress) ; and Webiter
( =a female weaver).

(iii) We also had Flthelater (=a female fiddler), and Raedester (a female reader).

Exercise 103. Gire, or itrrite down, the feminines of: Fox,
duke, spinner, poet, prophet, heir, lad, ma.ster, emperor, viscount,
ambassador, negro.

Lesson 30. — The Inflexion of Nouns, v.

1. The following are the most important Prefixes for
Gender (with some compounds) : —

MASCULINE.

Bull-calf

Billy-goat

Cock-sparrow

He-goat

He-ass

FEMININE.

Cow-calf

Nanny-goat

Hen-sparrow

She-goat

She-ass

MASCULINE.

Jackass

Man-servant

Man

Pea -cock

Turkey-cock

FEMININ?:.

Jenny-ass
Maid -servant
Woman ( = wife-man)
Pea-hen
Turkey-hen

(i) We have also such forms as jack-daw, Jack-snipe— with no feminine for them ; and
Jenny-wren — with no masculine.

(ii) An Old English way of marking gender was by prefixing carl for the masculine ;
and cwen (=queen) for the feminine. Thus carl-fugol = cock-fowl ; aud cwen-fagol=:
hen-fowl.

2. The following are the chief examples of distinguishing
gender by Different Words : —

MASCULINE.

KEMIMNK.

MASCULINE.

FEMININE.

Bachelor

Maid

Horse

Mare

B©f

Girl

Husband

Wife

Brother

Sister j

, King

Queen

Buck

Doe

Lord

Lady

Bull

Cow

Man

Woman

Bullock «

Heifer

Monk

Nun

Colt

Filly

Nephew

Niece

Drake

Duck

Ram

Ewe

Drone

Bee

Sir

Madam

Barl

Countess

Sloven

Slut

Father

Mother

Son

Daughter

Gander

Goose

Stag

Hind

Gentleman

Lady

Uncle

Aunt

Hart

Roe

Wizard

Witch

ETYMOLOGY

(i) Drake was, in an older form, endrake— a compound word wliicli means king of tbe
dnckt (End = duck and rake = king).

(ii) Earl is a Danish word ; coanteu is French.

(iii) Sir comes from Latin lenior (=elder). Madam = ma dame (my lady) is French.

Exercise 104, Give or write down, the masculines of:
Nanny-goat, pea-hen, lady, niece, heifer, filly, goose, jenny-ass,
daughter, nun, doe, maid, -witch, roe.

Lesson 31. — The Inflexion of Nouns, vi.

1. There are in the grammar of our language four genders :
Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common.

(i) Masculine are : Man, boy, hone, brother, gentleman, etc.
(ii) Feminine are : Woman, girl, mare, sister, lady.
(iii) Neuter are : Axe, chair, desk, table, tree, wave,
(iv) Common are : Bird, beast, fish, hawk, parent, servant.

2. Names of things that are neither masculine nor feminine
are of the Neuter Gender ; as, head, book, London, America.

The vord neuter is a Vaiin -word meaning neither.

3. Names of things that may be either masculine or
feminine are of the Common Gender ; as, brute, companion,
cousin, relative.

The gender of the noun is common both to the masculine and the feminine.

4. All this may be set forth in a Table :

GENDER OF NOUNS

Ilascoline

Man, hoy.

Feminine

Woman, girl.

Neuter

(or Neither).
Top, toy.

Common

(or Kithpr).
Dancer, servant.

5, The Common Genders of nouns may be thus contrasted
with their masculines and feminines :

Common.

Masc.

run.

Common.

Masc.

tm.

A88

jackass

jenny-ass

Goat

he-goat

she -goat

Bear

lie-bcar

she-bear

Pig

boar-pig

so\v-pig

Calf

bull-calf

row -calf

Uabl>it

buL'k-rabbit

doe-rabbit

Elephant

bull-elephant

cow-elephant

Servant

man-servant

maid-aervant

ti J

I I

V. \<

■i I

!in

III

50 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 106. Arrange, in four columns, nyider the headings

MAHCL'LINE, FEMIMNK, NEUTER and COMMON', the following

nouns : Boy, huntsman, shepherd, bride, tree, witness, porter,
cousin, sempstress, teacher, duck, colt, stable, wizard, follower,
priest, nun, heir, relative, book.

Exercise 106. Work this like Exercise lOo : Companion, maid,
servant, table, friend, brute, dancer, sempstress, peer, stajir, moor-
hen, child, guardian, sloven, sparrow, trick, toy, vixen, j^ig, liorse.

Exercise 107. Work this like Exercise 105 : Nut, tigress, city,
. - • fiend, class, aunt, fowl, eagle, write, author, poet, table, rock,
cottage, bed, doctor, lawyer.

Lesson 32. — The Inflexion of Nouns, vii.

1. We can say : (!) Henry saw Tom. (ii) Tom saw Henry,
(iii) Henry's hat flew off. - r, :

(i) In the first scnteiife, Henry is the inbject of saw.

(ii) In the second, Henry is the object of saw.

(iii) In the tliird, Henry's shows Henry to 1>e the poueisor of thu hat.
(iv) In each of the three sentences Henry is in ,'i different case.

2. There arc in the Englisli Language five cases :

(i) Tlie Nominative or Case of the Subject ; as. Harry can skate. -.

(ii) The Possessive or Possessing Case ; as, Harry's finger is cut.
(iii) Tlie Dative or Olvento Case ; as. Give the lady a chair,
(iv) Tlie Objective (or Done-to case) or Case of the O'^Ject ; as, lie striiclc tlie robber.

(v) The Vocative or Spoken-to Case ; as, John I poiik; hero !

^^ The only case that has a, form of its own i» the Possessive.

3. The Nominative Case answers the f]ncstiou : Who ? or
what ?

(i) " Who killi'd the sparrow?" " John killt'd tin- simrriiw."
(Ii) *■ Wtatails the boy?" " The toothaoh* ftilx him. '

ETYMOLOGY

' >

)

Lesson 33.- Tlie Inflexion of Nouns, viii.

1. Tlic Possessive Case answers the quesstion : Whose ?

Whose hilt is ttiis? It is Tom'i hat.

(ft) The possessive c.ise of .Vnuru alvays lias a little mark oalloil nn npn^tn'tphf, Tliis Is to show
tliiit an c haa been left out. Tlie old iiDssL'ssivt of /j.iv was Itui/n: tlius '<uj/'s. In tlie
lajt century, people printed hopd^ trttlk'tt, for hojietlf watkeU.

(1)) In the i>os3essive jJiiral, the ' comes a/Irr the «,

2. The Dative Case answers the question : For whom or
to whom ?

(i) I built the boy a little ship. Hero boy is tht; dative ewe ; liecaiise I luiilt the
ship for the boy.

(ii) Thoy ^'ave Harry a whip. Iloro Harry is in tlio dative saie ; because they gave to
Harry a whip.

(iii) In the sentence (in f^hakcsixare's Henry v.) :

(a) Ilcaven sen<l the Prince a liettcr companion 1
Prince is in the dative case : but in the sentetK e

(1)) Heaven send the companion a Ix'tter Prince 1
Companion is in tlie dative case.

3. The Objective Case answers to the question : Whom ?
or What ?

(i) In the sentence " I struck Joan,'" John is in the objective case, because it answers
the question "Whom did you strike?"

(ii) In " I upset tiic table," table is in the objective case, because it answers the question
"What (lid you upset? "

4. The Vocative Case is not spoken-of, 1)ut spoken to.

(i) " Tom I run away : " " Mary I have yon seen your brother?"
(ii) In these sentences Tom and Uary are in the vocative case,
(iii) The vocative c.ise is also called the Nominative of Address.

Exercise 108. Arrnngr ihr. i}oun.^ in the following scnicnrrs
in five cohnnna, niulcr the hriulliitjii : xominativk, pcsskssivk,

DATIVK, OBJECTIVF., (lud VOCVTIVK. 1. Jdlin's hilt fleW off.

2. Tom ! conip atnl ]w]\t mo to lift this stone. 3. T'ncle Sniii
hoiioflit liis lU'iJiow a new liat. 4. Porter I plea.so unlock this
earria'iiv '>. Frank will drive ^Farv to the fair. 0. The coach-

•iti-

^^m

I'll

52 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH TONGUE

iii.an brouglit John's brother Henry lionie from school. 7. The
coachman brought John's brother Henry a rabbit. 8. Hand
Lucy some cherries. [). The girls carried flowers to deck their
mother's grave.

Exercise 109. IVorh this Excrciae lil'c the above. 1. Johnnie,
Ijring Amy .some strawberries. 2. The squire gave every work-
man a goose for liis Christma-s dinner. 3. John's hat fell into
the river. 4. The boys' fathers were all present in the hall,
f). You vilhiins ! leave this house at once ! 6. The gardener
brought the pig some cabbage-leaves. 7. The traveller found a
bag lying on tiie sea-shore. 8. Hand the lady a chair.

Exercise 110. M'ork this Exercise like (he above. 1. Mary,
go and call the cattle home ! 2. And then, amid their scattered
band, raged ihe fierce rider's bloody brand. 3. Only a flower's
brief life was given her, 4. The ploughshare turns out the
skulls. 5. The women trimmed tiie lamps as the sun went
down. G. Britannia needs no bulwarks. 7. We got the ladies
a few ices. 8. John's father built his son a little ship.

Exercise 111. Work this Exercise like the above. His father
giive the boy a watch. 2. The master did the culprits full
justice. 3. The King offered Mr. Pitt a seat in the cabinet.
4. Tell Tom a story, mother ! 5. The elder girls set their
younger friends a good example. 0. We sent the coachman a
turkey last week. 7. We waved tlie lady a last farewell.
8. Bring the gentleman a chair. 9. The old woman fetched her
dog a bone. 10. Forgive the child his error, dear friend I
11. I lent John my copy of Tennyson. 12. The boys played the
old woman a shabby trick. 13. I have just paid my landlord
his rent. 14. The keeper showed tlie boys the lions. 15. The
gamekeeper flung the mastiti' a bone. IG. Grant the schoolboys
a longer holiday ! .

Lesson 34. — Tlie Inflexion of Pronouns, i.

1. The following are tiic Inflexions of the First Personal
Pronoun :

SINGULAR.

ri.LRAI..

i. Kominatlve

'J. POHCHlTe

Mine (or My)

Our (or Ours;

S. DaUve

4. Otd«cUv«

ETYMOLOGY

(ii) Methjiiks means it seems to me, etc.

2. The following are the Inflexions of the Second Personal
Pronoun :

1. Nominative

2. Posseuive

3. Dative

4. Objective

5. Vocative

SINOULAR.

Thii

Thine (or Thy)

T)iee

Thee

Thou

PLPRAL.

You (or Ye)

Your (or Yours)

You

You (or Ye !)

(!) My, tliy. our, an.l your always go with nouns.
(iO Mine, thine, our., and youm, never go with nouns : they always come after then

Lesson 35.-The Inflexion of Pronouns, ir.

1. The following are the Inflexions of the Third Personal
Pronoun:

1. Nominative

2. PosaeMive
2. Dative

4. Directive

MASCULINE.

He
His
Him
Him

SINGULAR.

KEMININIi.

She

Her (or Hers)

Her

NEI'TKU.
It

Its

It
It

PLURAL.

ALL OENUERS.
Thpy
Their (or Tlieirs)
Them
Them

(ii) It. is a modern word. It is not found in our version of the Bible whinh «•
P"....«hed in 16.1 : and it did not ..on.e .nto regular use till the end ofTlev ; J ,;
century. The right possessive of It is His. "evtn.ctntl,

OH) Our., your., her., and their, are double poueaalve.; and they can only be used
apart fr..m no-ms, or 'in the predicate."

2. Personal Pronouns compound^ with self and selves are
called Reflexive Pronouns.

-ins*«^ 'mM^t.i^v.,^\,m!i,/is*jmatte*K^i(.>-J^i :

A SHOUT CltAMMAIl OV TIIi; i:\(;i.ISI[ TONfil-K

(i) "Jnlin hurt hloMelf." Ifcrt! himself is iiMcxivp ; Iw^rans*; flii' innndun reCecta
1).ick, fts it were, I'li John

(ii) "T)iry btiilt tbemielres :i }int." ricii' themselves is ,i r^'flfxive pronoiiii in (lio
dative case.

Exercise 112. Give fhe raac, avd nvmixr offhr. PRON'orxs /». ihr,
foUovnufj scntencr.<i : 1. "We smv lior in tlie ffiir<l(>n. 2. My
uncle bronf'ht mo a watch from liirmin^liiiin. 3. I ijave thorn
the Itooks they wanted. 4. The king's eMest son succeeded him
after hi.s death. '). II;dlo ! v^u ! come here as fast as vou
can ! G. I sliidl not tell you where we found it. 7. The sad
news Avas hrouLrht him as he was walking in his garden. 8. His
cousins played him a very shal>liy trick.

Exercise 113. Ciix the vnmher and cnae of the ruoxouNS in
the following scntfncci^: 1. We have lent them our old football.
2. Will you go with usinrmrcab? 3. She wants you to coiiio
with her to her aunt's. 4. Jack has hurt hisatikle : he sprained
it when he was skating. 5. Tom cut himself with his knife.
G. They have no fear for themselves, but only for their children.
7. jMy son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 8. John,
will you go and fetch me the watering-can ?

Exercise 114. lUpcat (or vritc out) t'lc biJJcxions of I and

THOU. .

Exercise 115.

and IT.

llvpcdt (or write out) the injhxions o/ iiE, SHE,

Exercise 116. (yTal-'. six sentences : two n-ith a pronoun in the
ohjertive caxe ; two with a p7-ono}(n iti the dative case; and two
with aj^rononn in the vocative case.

Lesson 30. — The Inflexion of Pronouns. iii.

1. Pronouns used in asking questions aro calhul Interroga-
tive Pronouns. They are iuflectod thus :

SINGLT.AR AND rf.URAL.

■~^~^

MASili.lxK.

Fn.MININK.

NKnr.u

1 Nominative

Who?

Wh.it?

". PosBessive

Wlinso?

WlldSC?

2. Objective

Wlioin?

Whom?

What ?

•

i;tv.moi.u(.v • :».".

(i) Which? is also usnl us an lNTKKKrM,MI\K (I>lsl liritlllVK.) I'ltuvul n ; as ill llic

S( ntuiict; " Wliich of tlicin did you uicct?'
(ii) Whether? is alsfi an IntprrogativR rrnnoiui ; and it iiicaiis which of two?

2. Tho Inflexions of Relative Pronouns aic as follow >; :

SINCirr.AU AND PLURAL.

1. Kominative

2. Possesdiva
". Objective

MAS(I LINK. IIMISINi;. NKITKU

Wlio \\h« Wliich

Wliosi' Wliosii Wliosi((iir<if wliicli)

W'lioiii 'Vlioiii Wliich

(i)

(ii)
want,

That is aisii a rclat ivi> pronoun ; Iml, it i ■; not inliiMtrd.

What is a coiiiiiotiiid rc'dtivc t'.mt + which ; as in t in' scntmof, " This is what T

Exercise 117. Stale viilrJt of the pminviiia ia ihr follniriixj
.Sfjiirxrc.s' arc iXTKRRofiATlVK fnid uhicit uklativk : 1. The ih)'j;
that l)arko(l so loud and so lon<f \va> sent away. 2, The captain
threatened to shoot the fii'st person who shoultl atteni[»t to leave
the ship. 3. The hoys, -whose lathers weio present, W(>re highly
praised by their master. 4. Who <,a)es there ? o. What did he
.sav to vou ? 0. The cows -which voii saw in the meadow have
heen sold. 7. Which of tlie two do you jji-efer ? 8. 'J'he man
whose house Avas roMied is now in court. 1>. Whose l)ook did
you take ? 10. This is just what I wanted. 11. Whom did he
mean ? 12. What did you hoar alout hiiu ?

Exercise 118. MaJ.r six sciitnirr.'i, in iJnrr, of irhich wiio /x
ni^cd as a nlatirc, and in tliirc as an intivroijatirr, pronain}.

Exercise 119. lleprat (or vri.tc out) tiie iitjli ,io)t^ <*/ wiio and

WHO.

Lesson 37. —The Iniiexioii of /idjeclives. i.

1. The English Adjcctivo has lost all its inflcxion.s fut
Oeudcr and for Case ; but it still keeps two for Number.

We say A good man ; and also A good woman. Then; is no change.

2. These two inflexions arc :

SIN<lCr.AR.

This

I'l.ruAi..
These

sisriii.An.
That

Pl.flMU

Thoie

A RTTORT GRAMMAR OF THE KXGLISTI TONGUE

;

3. Adjectives are also inflected for Comparison.

4. There are three Decrees of Oomparison : Positive, Com-
parative, and Superlative.

The word decree means ttep ; thus

Ulnckcst

Blacker
Black Comparativ*

SuperUtiva

Poiltlve

5. When two things arc compared, wc employ the Com-
parative Degree.

(i) We say nice, nicer; happy, happier ; cruel, crueller.

(ii) But, when the adjective is of tliree syllaMes, or of two syllaliles, the last of
wliich ends in a consonant, we use the adverbs more and most j and we say conifortaMo,
more comfortable, most comfortable.

(iii) The Comparative Degree means a step higher.

(iv) When we say green, greener, the comparative degree is = grPon, but more so.

G. When three things arc compared, avc employ the
Superlative Degree.

(i) We say tall, taller, talleit ; handsome, handsomer, handsomest,
(ii) Tlie Superlative Degree means tlie highest step,
(iii) When we say greenest, tlie superlative degree is = grcen, but most so.

Lesson 38. — The Inflexion of Acljeetives. ii.

1. The following Adjectives arc very irregular in their
mode of comparison :

I'OSITIV

e..

UOMHARATIVE.

SUPERLATIVE.

POSITIVE.

roMPARATIVn.

SUPER!, ATP

Bad

}

Little

less

least

Evil
111

worse

worst

Many "1
Much /

most

Far

farther

farthest

Nigh

nigher

nighest

[Forth]

further

fui thcst

Near

nearer

nearest (or

Fore

former

foremost

next)

Good

better

best

Old

older

oldest

Hind

hinder

hindmost

ehler

eldest

inner

innermost

outmost

Late

later

latest

Out

outer

outermost

latter

last

utmost

KTVMOI.OfjY

(i) WorM and wont nro rcilly from an old Biljectivc weor (=cvil).

(ii) riMt is really a superlative of fore.

(iii) Better and beit arc from an old adjootivc bet (:=good),

(iv) Later and latest rufer t<> time ; latter and lait to position in fspaco.

(v) Kearett rtfi rs to ipace ; next Vi order ii< succcHsion. " Itu was next in siiccc;-
siun to the crown."

(vi) Older and oldest ri'Ter to a number ; elder and eldest to a famil;^.

(vii) Bather is the c<>in]>arative of an old adjective which nieann early, i^lilton xpeaka
of " the rathe i)rinirose."

2. The little adjectives a, an, and the •were at one time
called Articles. An wa.s called tlio indefinite, and the the
definite, article. They cannot be compared.

(i) An is a broken-down form of ane— which was the Nortlicrn form of one
(formerly pronounced oan).

(ii) An has this odd peculiarity, that it sometimes loses its n— and this n has a
knack of cli'aving to tlie next word. Tims «)i oj was the Danish word for a horse;
the n stuck to the og, and it became a nag An ewt ( = eft) became a newt.

(iii) The opposite also happened. Thus a napron (connected with vciilun, luipery,
etc.), became an apron.

(iv) In an old grammar the following mi.sdivisions liave l)een found : a naxe ( = an
axe) ; a neagle ( = an eagle) ; a nearl ( = an earl).

Exercise 120. Compare the following adjectives: Strong,
coarse, fat, busy, big, smooth, stately, fine, old.

Exercise 121. Comjyare the follmiing adjrctives: Splendid,
grand, pleasant, nice, foolish, "wise, large, merry, hoarse.

Exercise 122. Compare the foUowivg adjectives: Welcome,
blue, interesting, -white, happy, holy, magnificent, earnest, lovely.

Exercise 123. Compare the folloioing adjectives: Late, greedy,
evil, near, little, far, remote, true, fore, many, hind, gay.

Exercise 124. Select the adjectives in the comparative degree in
the following sentences^ and place on either side of them the novns
compared: 1. Tom is taller than Harry. 2. St. Paul's is larger
than Westminster. 3. The hippopotamus is a fatter aninud
than the rhinocero.s. 4. !Mount Everest is higher than Mont
Blanc. 5. The east wind is colder than the west. 6. Jane's

11 .

r»8 A SIIOTtT fillAMMArt OF TTIK KXfiTJsFT TuNTII M

cfiiiiploxion is fiiirof lluin finsiin'.^. 7. This imi is moro crowiitMl
lliau the ]>liie J. ion. 8. Mill;iis is ;i liiicr artist tliiin lici^fliton.
f). The road to Ncwhaveii is lonj^iT than th«' road to Brigliton.

Lesson 30. 'I'lic Inflexion of \'crl)s. i.

1. AV(! ciiii sa}- (i) '• 'ilio cat Ki.lcd [ho. mouse"'; or (ii)
" Tlie iiiouso was killt'd l)v the cat." Tlit; verb killed is iu
the Active Voice, the voib was killed in the Passive Voice.

2. AVhcn tho verb is in ihc Active Voice, tlu; subject of
tlic! sentence is tlie doer of the action.

(i) " Till! cat killi'il lliu mouse." Here f lie cat is llio subject of tlio sentence,
(ii) Till' cat is likewise tlie doer nf Die action.

T). When the Verb is in the Passive Voice the subject of
tli(! sentence is tlie object of tlie action.

(i) "Tlic mouse was killed." Here tlic mouse is tlie subject,
(ii) The mome is tlu! object iif the action (if kiUiDg.

4. In changing a verb from tiie active voi^^o into I ho passive
voic(% the object of tlie active verb is altered into liH^ subject
of the passive verb :

(i) The boy c:in-lit tlio liall.
(ii) Tli(! master jiraised the girl,
(iii) We saw the enemy.

rAssivK.

The liall v.as eaujiht by C.u' 1 oy.
Th(! gill was praised by the master.
The enemy was seen by us.

Exercise 125. Place in separate columns the rrrhi^ hi the
ACTiVK, and thof^c in the passive, T'ouv. 1. The landlord had
just killed his pig. 2. The general defeated the enemy. 3. The
boy v/as killed by ]ii,ditning. 4. If I cast the sword away, a
precious thing will be lost. 5. AVo ^^ ' " covered wiih

wraps. G. Edward the f'onfe.ssfir "1 v.ill. 7. The poacher
caught two hares. 8. It is plea be awakened l)y tha lark.

9. The troop; were ])rotocced ilie left by i. rshy ground.

10 The cruel uncle did the poor habesa foul wrong. 11. Tho

ETYMOLOGY

old gentleman carved the goose ; the lady, the turkey. 12. Tho
prisoner was shot at four in tho morning.

Exercise 126. Turn the active vkrus in Exercise 125 into the
PASSIVE voice.

Exercise 127. Turn the passive veuus in Exercise 126 into

the ACTIVE VOICE.

Exercise 128. Turn the passive verbs in the foUoioing
senteyices into the active voice : 1. The ^Aoibition was opened by
the Prince of Wales. 2. The porter w .. sent for by the Director.
3. By whom was this mirror broken ? 4. Many battles were
won by Wellington. 5. The burglar was arrested by X 221.
G. A long letter was drawn up by the Secretary. 7. The Lady
of the Lake was written by Sir Walter Scott. 8. The lawn
was trimmed yesterday by one of the gardeners.

Exercise 129. Turn the active verbs into the passive
VOICE : 1. The lightning struck the church-tower. 2. The
recitation pleased the audience. 3. The thieves robbed the
merchant's house. 4. This baker sells very good bread. 5. The
ploughman robbed the crow's nest. G. The woodman felled
three thick oaks. 7. The sudden noise frightened the horse.
8. The child was teasing the puppy. 9. My mother received
a letter yesterday from Mary. 10. The guide knows the way
well. 11. The reapers drank up all the beer. 12. The sailors
will launch the boat at twelve.

Lesson 40. — The Inflexion of Verbs, ii.

1. We can say : (i) The captain led his men ; (ii) Captain,
load your men on ! (iii) If the captain lead the men well,
they will fight well ; (iv) The captain likes to lead his men.
These are different moods of the verb lead.

' The word mood maani simply manner, manner of presenting a word to the mind.

(i) In the first sentence, the verb led states or asserts a simple fact.

(ii) In the second, the verb lead gives an order or command.

(iii) In the third, lead states not a fact, but a supposition.

(iv) In the fourth, to l«ad is the object of the verb UkM, and is simply a kind of
noon.

« :■

i ^i

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

■ft

2. Thcro arc four moods : the Indicative, the Imperative,
tho Subjunctive, and the Infinitive.

3. Tlie Indicative Mood is the mood of direct assertion,
or it puts a question in a direct manner.

(i) "Joliii lias gniio to Luinloi)." Tluit is a direct aasertioo, and the verb U gona
is ill tlie Indicative Mood.

(ii) "IsJnlin gout) to Loinlnii?" Tliat is a qiiestioti iml in a direct mMuer, and
tho verb i« gone is in tlie Indicative Mood.

Lesson 11. — The Inflexion of \'erbs. iii.

1. Tlie Imperative Mood is tlie mood of command, request,
and entreaty.

(I) " Go on alioail !" That is a command,
(ii) " Please pass tlic salt '. ' Ttiat is a request,
(iii) " Do come liack ! " Tliat is an eatreatjr.

2. The Subjunctive Mood is the mood employed in sub-
joined sentences or clauses.

(!) " I will go, if you will go too." The sciiloiice "(if) you will go too" is rabjoined
to the main sentctuo " I will go."

(ii) "You would not speak so of him, were ha here." The sentence or clause were
he here is suhjoincil to the main sentence "you would not speak so of him."

(iii) The Subjunctive Mood liad at one time a different form from the Indicative; but
this is now very seldom uscil. Thus we said, " If I be, if thou be, if he be," etc. ; but
we now say simply, " If he is," etc.

3. The Infinitive Mood is simply tlie name of the verb.

Tlie word IiiflniUvr iiieaiiit irUh'mf Ihiiitt ; «ml this mood is so c.illed. Ix^cause it i> not liiuited Yy
aaiilucct — or by person or iiuiiilict

(i) Tlie luflnitive beiiij; the name of the vorl), it is really n noua
(ii) As a noun, it m.iy be in the nominative or in the ohjectlve case,
(iii) "To play is ideasant." Here to play is in the nominative case,
(iv) " I like to play." Here to play is in the objective ca; e.

Exercise 130. Arranfje in four rnJuuin/*, mnl r ihr hcndir\(jn

INDK ATIVE, IMPEKATIVK, i,HlJUNCTIVE, aiul INFINITIVE, the Vtrbi

ETYMOLOGY

in the foil oxcing sentences: 1. Mr. Wilson called this morning.
2. Go to the tool-house and fetch me a hammer. 3. The frost
had covered the pond with a sheet of thick ice. 4. If he were
here, he would not permit it. 5. Sleep and rest, sleep and rest :
father will come to thee soon ! (>. " How shall I get better ? "
" Live on sixpence a day, and earn it," was the reply of the doctor.

7. Hear, gentle friends ! Ere yet for me ye break the bonds of
fealty. 8. If what I am told be true, we shall have war before
long. 9. " Break off the sports!" he said, and frowned, "and
bid our horsemen clear the ground!" 10. Though he slay me,
yet will I trust in him. 11. O that those lips had language!
12. " Heave the lead ! " cried the captain.

Exercise 13L Work this Exercise like the preceding. 1. The
maid dusted the room with the greatest care. 2. The roses are
blooming in the garden, 3. Look ! in this place ran Ca-ssius'
dagger through. 4. See what a rent the envious Casca made !

5, If my brother had been here, he would not have spoken thus.

6. Do thou repeat to the first man thou mayest meet, that he
and we and all men move under a canopy of love. 7. If we our
Guide obey, the dreariest path will issue in heavenly day.

8. Lift ! lift ! ye mists, from off the silent coast. 9. If I were
older, I should run faster. 10. We hope to see you .soon again.
11. It is not easy to climb that hill. 12. Be so kind as to
pass the salt 1

Lesson 42. — The Inflexion of Verbs, iv.

1. Wc say: "A loving child," "a running stream," "a
galloping horse."

(i) Tlie words lorlnf, raBBlnc, and g»llopiiif all go with nouns ; and therefore they
.are a^JectiTaa.

(ii) But, as they are aUo paru of the verbs love, mn, aad gallop, they are called
partleiplei.

(iii) " lie stocxl caressing his horse." Here careuing is an adjective, because it gnea
with the ]irououu ha.

2. A Participle is that part of the verb which does the duty
of an adjecbive. Ueiice a Participle is a verbal adjective.

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) The Compound Perfect Participle Active is: "Having written," "Having
struck," etc.

(ii) The Compound Perfect Participle Passive is : " Having been written," " Having'
been struck," etc.

3. Wc say : " A walking-stick," " a frying-pan," " a fishing-
rod." Now the words walking, frying, and fishing all end
in ing ; and all look exactly like loving, running, and gallop-
ing. But though they look alike, they do not do the same
work ; they do not fulfil the same function.

(i) " A walking-stick " ia not " a stick that walks," but " a stick for walking."
(ii) " A frying-pan " is, in the same way " a pan for fryliig."
(iii) And so "a nshing-rod" is " a rod for iUhing."

4. These words walking, frjring, and fishing arc not adjec-
tives, but verbal nouns. If a verbal noun governs another
noun, it is called a Gerund. «

5. Gerunds arc verbal nouns which govern other nouns.
(They govern them, because they are not only nouns, but
verbs also.)

(!) " I am tired of dreaming dreuins." Here dreaming is a verbal noun, which
govemi the other noun dreami.

(ii) "This book is good enough fur watting time." Here waiting is a verbal noun,
which goveroi the other noun time.

(lii) " Mary dislikes reading history." Here reading is a verbal noun, which govenu
the other noun taiitory.

(iv) In such sentences as "He is fond of iwimming," " He docs not like reading,"
the words swimming and reading are smiply verbal nonna, and not gemndi.

(v) The word gerund comes from the Latin verb gero, I carry on. It is so called
because it carries on— not only the meaning — but the jxnver or fnndion of the verb.

Exercise 132. Point out, in the foUoiving sentences, the
PARTICIPLES that are used as simple adjectives : 1. The
glitterinjf liehnet scared the child. 2. Gone are all the barons
bold. 3. Here it runs sparkling, there it lies darkling. 4. She
is a most loving companion. 5 Tho grey-eyed morn smiles on
the frowning night. G. Ye mind me o' departed joys ! 7. Mis-

ETYMOLOGY

taken as we were, we yet persevered. 8. Something attempted,
something done, has earned a night's repose. 9. His withered
cheek and tresses grey seemed to have known a better day.
10. Thou shall not make unto thee any graven image ! 11. She,
dying, gave it me. 12. Broken in his power, he yet rejected all
offers of peace.

Exercise 133. A rrange in separate columns, under (he headings
PARTicin.Ks, GKHUxns, and vkkhal xoins, the words in ing
in the following phrases and sentences: 1. A running stream he
dare not cross. 2. Mary is a most loving child. 3. I do not
care much for fishing. 4. I hate walking when I can ride.
5. Always wash your hands before eating. 6. Susan is too fond
of readin<j novels. 7. Mr. (Jladstone is fond of fcllinj; trees.
8. Seeing is believinj;. 9. Travellini; alon<' the banks 6f the
river, I saw a snake. 10. The prisoner escaped by crossing the
river. 11. The boy was punished for robbing the orchard. 12. A
trotting horse. 13. A frying-pan. 14. A creaking door. lo. The
acting secretary. IG. Fond of running. 17. Fond of running
races. 18. Nice in his eating.

Exercise 134. Work this Exercise like Exercise 133. 1. Stand
not upon the order of your going, but go at once ! 2. And more
stately thy couch l)y this desert lake lying, with one faithful
friend but to witness thy dying. 3. We watched her l)reathing
through the night. 4. We thought her dying when she slept,
and sleeping when she died. 5. Plain living and high thinking
are no more. 6. Thou lin''erin<r star with lesseninj; rav, awiin
thou usher'st in the day ! 7. Ayr gurgling kissed his pebbled
.shore. 8. I cried in mv passionate lon''in<f. 0. Iliadinif makes
a full man ; writing an exact man ; and conversing a ready man.
10. The time of the singing of birds is come. 11, I carefully
avoided seeing the gentleman. 12. I prefer taking a general
view of the subject. 13. 'Tis the blest art of turning all to
gold. 14. By dint of travelling hard, we reached home before
nightfall. If). Of makin'' manv books there is no end. 10. The
loud waves lashed the shore, return or aid j)reventing. 17. And
talking is not always to converse. 18. Who would have thought
of seeing you here !

Exercise 135. Make six sentcncis : two containing a present
participle; ticoagcrnnd; and two a verbal noun.

A SHORT GRAMMAR OV THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 43. — The Inflexion of Verbs, v.

1. We say : (i) I wrote yesterday, (ii) I w.ite, or am writ-
ing to-day. (iii) I shall write to-morrow. In these three
sentences there are three verbs with three times : — the time
of yesterday, that is past ; the time of to-day, that is present ;
and the time of to-morrow, that is to come — or that is future.

2. The Time of a Verb is called, in Grammar, its Tense.

3. Every verb has three main tenses : the Past, the Pre-
sent, and the Future.

TENSES

Part

I wrote

Present
I 'vrite

Fntnre
I shall write

There are also three main conditions in each tense : Com-
plete or Perfect ; Incomplete or Imperfect ; and Indefinite.

(i) " The letter is written." Here written sliows that the work is complete,
(ii) " He is writing the letter." Here writing shows the work is Incomplete,
(iii) " He wrltei now and tlien." Here the time of writes is Indefinite

Exercise 136. Arrange in three cohnnns, UTider the headings
PAST, PRESKNT, and FUTURE, the verbs in the following sentences:
1. Mary died last week. 2. Their friends will come to-morrow.
3. The gardener planted several rows of peas. 4. The wind
blows a regular hurricane, f}. My heart leaps up when I behoUl
a rainbow in the skv. G. Her sails from heaven received no
motion. 7. I looked to heaven and tried to pray. 8. The waves
flowed over the Inchcape Rock. 9. John comes here every
Saturday. 10. Will he not come back again ? 11. The green field
ble3ps in the sun. 12. We bathed in the open sea last summer.

Exercise 137. Give the past, present, and future of the
following : Awake, beat, come, cut, do, hop, hunt, make, meddle.

KTYMOLOfJY

30
IC

' >

Lesson 44. — The Inllexioii of Verbs, vi.

1. "We have therefore, in our language, nine tensc-fornis,
or, put more simply, nine Tenses. These are :

« f(&) Preient Imperfect ....

(>) S - (1>) frtmnt Perfect

£ (.(c) PreMBt IndeftniU

'g((a)
(Hi) I -(b)

) PMt Imperfect
(b) PMt Perfect (or Plnperfect) .
Uc) Put Indefinite

Fntnre Imperfect
_ , Fntore Perfect
^ ((c) Futnre Indefinite

I am writing
I liiive written
I write

I was writing
I liad written
I wrote

I sliall he writing
I sliall liave written
I sba I write

t^ U tlie Teaclier ttiinVs it l«etter and more cnmlucMie to clenrneaa. lie iiiiiy use the tenne
Comfilfte mill /nntmjjrtf iiiKtrad ii( /'rrfrrl iiiiil /jiijur/fct.

(iv) (a) The verb " I have been writing" is called Tresent Perfect Continaooi.
(li) " I liad Wen writing "' is Past Perfect Continuoui.
(c) " 1 shall have been writing " is Future Perfect Contlnnoni.

(v) Wliat is called the Hlitoric Present is used in lively narrative to give an appear-
ance of the action going on before our eyes; as, " lie comes; he sees Uie enemy ; he
(lashes at hiiu ; he puts him to ruut."

2. The above may be set forth in a Tap.m:, thus :

TIMK

... ,,

CONDI T I () X

iNDKFixm:

INCOMPLETK

COMPLETE

K (

Preient

1 write

I am writing

I have written

•<

Past

I wrote

1 was writing

I had written

Fntvra

I shall write

I shall be writing

I sliall have written

H (

Preient

It is written

It is being wntlcn

It has been written

So-
cc 1

Put

It was written

It was being written

It had been written

£[

Fntore

It shall le written

(Want in-)

It Hhall have been
written

3. Verlis are al.>^o inflected for number.

writes " and "They write."

say

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) "Write* " is singular, because it is said of tbc singular pronoun ht.
(ii) "Write" is plural, lK!caime It is said of the plural pronoun thty.
(iii) In Old English ( = Anglo-Saxon), the plural ending of verbs was ath— WrtUtk.

4. Verbs arc also inflected for person. We say : (i) "I
write." (ii) " Tliou writest." (iii) " He writes."

(i) The fonn writ* is said to be in the Int ptnon, because it goes with the first
I'lTsonal pronoun.

(ii) The form wrlUst is in the ■•ceod parson, because it goes with thoa.

(iii) The form wrlUs is in the third perton, bpratisc it goes with ha

EzercL'3 138. Rej^cat {or write out) the nine tenses of Strike.

Exercise 139. Give (he tkxsks of the verbs in the following
sentences, a7id also their conditions (i'kkfect, impkrfkct, or
indefinmte) : 1. I shall be walking down Main Street at ten
o'clock. 2. The baby was sleeping. 3. The .sun, in Norway,
rises in the north at inidsuinmer. 4. We shall not be shooting
to-morrow. 5. We lift our trusting eyes from the hills our
fathers trod. G. With thee, my bark, I'll swiftly go athwart
the foaming brine. 7. They have been dancing for two hours.
8. One lovely hand she stretched for aid. 9. He will by now
have been working for six hours. 10. They were drawing when
I allied on them. 11. The warm sun is failing, the bleak winds
are wailing. 12. With dying hand, above his head he shook the
fragment of his blade.

Exercise 140. Arrange in cohimnSy nnder the headings im-
perfect, PERFECT, iXDKFiN'iTh:, and coN'TiNiof.s, the verbs in the
following sentences : 1. I am writing my cousin now. 2. They
have been sending to the Ilall every other day. 3. The Secretiiry
has just written a letter to the Board. 4. I shall have finished
my work before the bell rings. H. They were weeding the gjir-
den when we called on them. G. We visit the Hospitid every
Saturday. 7. I had written to Uncle before he called. 8. I shall
be walking in Rotten Row at four to-morrow. 9. They will tell
you when they want you.

Exerciso 141. State {or write down) the mimber ami person of
each of /'•- verbs in Exercise 155.

lit

Kn'MOLOGY

Lesson 45. — Tlic Inflexion of Verbs, vii.

1. We say: (i) Write, wrote, written; and (ii) Love,
loved, loved. The first is said to be a Strong Verb ; the
second is a Weak Verb.

(i) Writ* ia also called a Verb of the Strong Conjugation,
(il) Lot* is a Verb of the Weak Conjugation.

2. The difference between Strong Verbs and Weak Verbs is
known by their way of forming their past tenses.

3. A Strong Verb, to form its past tense, changes the
vowel of the present tense, and never adds anything.

Abide, abo4« : b«(lii, begui ; bruUi, broka arc all itroBf Ttrbi.

4. A Weak Verb, to form its past tense, always adds an
ed, ad, or a t ; wliiie it may or may not change the vowel
of the present.

(i) Sell, sold; Tell, told; buy, bought; say, said; spck, sought; teach, taught,
are all w—k verbs, liecause they add d or t tomnke their past tenses.

(ii) Meet, met ; feeil, fe<l ; lead, led ; nil look like strong vcrbn. But tl.ey are in
reality weak ; l>ecau8e their older forms were met-t», fed-d«, led-da : the ending do has
dropped off.

5. Weak Verbs are of two kinds : Regular Weak Verbs
and Irregular Weak Verbs. The Regidar Weak always add
ed for their past tenses, and make no other change.

RROl'LAR WKAK

IRREULLAR

WEAK.

Attend

attended

Ilcn.l

bent

Correct

orrected

corrected

Catch

caught

Deafen

deafened

denfeneil

Deal

dealt

(i) The

*d in the \u

Ast

tense '« a

-down

fonn

of did

Thus

I lov«d = I

loTOdld.

(ii) All BOW verbs follow the woak conjugation, and all that have onie to us Irum
foreign languages. We say : Telegr.iph ; telegrajphed ; telegraphed.

Exercise 142. A rrange in columns, under the headings stuoxo-
iiEGULAR WEAK, and iiiueollar weak, the following verhs :
Love, write, abide, be<^in, break, attend, come, meet, deepen,
bend, feed, seek, teach, observe, tell, sell, catch, say.

' h

A SHOUT (iUAMMAIl (»!•' TllM I:N(;LIS1I TOXGL'E

Bzerclse 143. Give the exaci definition of (i) a Strong Verh ;
(ii) a Regular Weak Verb; and (iii) an Irregular H'eak Firh,
uiuler the headings of (a) Changinff and (b) Adding.

The following is an

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF STRON'O VERBS.

(All strong verl>» except tliosc which have a prefix are luoiiosyllabic.)

The forms in italics are weak.

PRES.

PAST

PASS. PART.

PREiJ.

PAST

PASS. PART.

Abide

abode

80 Find

found

Arise

arose

arisen

Fling

flung

Awake

awoke

Fly

new

flown

{awaked)

{awakeiJ)

Forbear

forbore

forborne

Bear

bore

born

Forget

forgot

forgotten

(bring

fffrth)

35 Forsake

forsook

forsaken

5 Bear

bore

borne

Freeze

froze

frozen

{carry)

Get

got

got, gOttili

Beat

beat

beaten

Give

gave

given

Begin

began

begun

wenl

gone

Behold

behehl

beheld

40 Grind

ground

Bid

bade, bid

bidden, bid

Grow

grew

grown

10 Bind

bound

Hang

hung (or

Bite

bit

bitten, bit

haiige

1) hanged)

Blow

blew

blown

Hold

held

Break

broke

broken

Know

knew

known

Burst

burst

45 Lie

lay

lain

Ij Chide

chid

chidden.

Ride

rode

ridden

chid

Ring

rang

rung

Choose

chose

chosen

Rise

rose

risen (not

Cleave

clove

cloven

passive)

{split)

Run

ran

run

Climb

clomb

(climbed)

50 See

saw

seen

Cling

clung

Seethe

sod (seeth

'ft) sodden

20 Come

came

come

Shake

shook

siiaken

Crow

crew

crown

Shine

shone

(crowed)

Shoot

shot

Dig

dug

55 Shrink

shrank

shrunk

did

done

Sing

sang

sung

Draw

drew

drawn

Sink

sank

sunk (or

26 Drink

drank

drunk

sunkjn)

Drive

drove

driven

Sit

sat

Eat

ate

eaten

Slay

slew

slain

Fall

fell

fallen

60 Slide

slid

SliJL

Fight

fought

1 Sling

slung

■lung

KTYMOLOCiY

>»RES.

PAST

PAHS. PAllT.

PRE3.

I'AST

PAHS. PAKT.

Slink

Blunk

slunk

Swing

swung

Smite

smote

smitten

80 Take

took

taken

Speak

8t><ike

spoken

Tear

tore

torn

65 Spin

spun

Thrive

tlirove

thriven

Spring

sprang

sprung

(thrived)

Stand

stood

Throw

threw

thrown

Stave

stove

stoved

Tread

trod

tro<lden,

Steal

stole

stolen

trod

70 Stick

stuck

85 Wake

woke

iwuktd)

Sting

stang

stung

{waked)

Sttnk

stank

stunk

Wear

wore

worn

Stride

strode

sfridden

Weave

wove

woven

Strike

struck

Win

won

T< String

strung

Wind

wound

Strive

strove

striven

90 Wring

wrung

Swear

swore

sworn

Write

wrote

written

Swim

swam

swum

Exercise 144. Conjugate { = give the jninc'qtal parts of) the
following verbs : Arise, bul, blow, burst, choose, cling, dig, do,
drink, eat, fling, fly.

Exercise 146. Conjugate the following verbs: Forbear, pet,
grow, hang, lie (down), ride, ring, run, seethe, shine, shoot, shrink.

Exercise 146. Conjugate, the foUowivg verbs : Sing, sink, sit,
sting, spring, stick, stride, strive, swim, tear, swing, take.

Exercise 147. Conjugate the foUowinrj verbs: Thrive, throw,
tread, stray, wear, write, wring, weave, win, wake, wind, sting.

The following is an

ALIMIAUETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS.

Class I.

PRF.S.

PAST

PAST PAIiT.

PRES.

PAST

PAST PAUT

BtTcave

iMTI'ft

bereft

Dwell

dwelt

Beseecli

besought

Feel

felt

Brint;

brought

Flee

fled

Burn

burnt

Grave

graved

graven

5 Buy

bouglit

bought

15 Have

had

Catcli

caught

Hew

hewed

hewn

Cleave

cleft

Hide

hid

hidden

(spUt)

Keep

kept

Creep

crept

Kiie«t

knelt

Deal

dealt

20 Lay

laid

UiJ

10 Dream

dreamt

Lean

leant

' k

ir w

A SHOUT GRAMMAR OP THK ENGLISH TONfJl'R

PRK8

PAST

PAST PART.

PREB.

PART

PAST PART.

I^am

learnt

Shear

sheared

shorn

Leap

leapt

Shoe

shod

Leave

left

40 Show

showed

shown

25 Lose

lost

Sleep

slept

slept.

Muko

made

Sow

sowed

sown

Mean

meant

S|)ell

spelt

Pay

paid

peid

Spill

spilt

lift

pent

45 Strew

strewed

strewn

(penned)

Sweep

swept

8wei>t

80 Rap

rapt

Swell

swelled

swollen

(toi

ranKport)

Teadi

taught

Rive

rived

riven

Tell

told

Jtot

rotted

rotten *

50 Think

thought

iir

said

Tie

tied

tight •

Saw

sawed

sawn

Weep

wept

35 Seek

sought

Work

wrought

wrought*

Sell

sold

(worked)

Shave

shaved

shaven

Rotten,

tight, and wrought are now used as adjectives, and not

aa past parti

ciples ; cp. wrought iron, a tight knot, rotten wood.

Ct.AS«

1 11.

PRBS.

PAST

PAST PART.

PRE.S.

PAST

PAST PART

Bend

l)ent

bent

Meet

met

Bleed

bled

Put

put

Blend

blent

Read

read

Breed

bred

Rend

rent

5 Build

built

25 Rid

rid

Cast

cast

Send

sent

Cloth*

clad

Set

set

(clothed)

Shed

shed

Cost

cost

Shred

shred

Cut

cut

30 Shut

shut

10 Feed

fed

Slit

slit

gilt

gilt (gilded)

Speed

sped

Gird

girt

Spend

spent

Hear

heard

Spit

spit

Hit

hit

35 Split

split

15 Hurt

hurt

Spread

spread

Knit

knit

Sweat

sweat

Lead

led

Thrust

thrust

Lend

lent

Wend

wended

Let

let

(or went)

20 Light

lit (lighted)

Wet

wet

ETYMOLOGY

Exercise 148. Conjugate ( -^ give the chief parts of) the folloxo-
ing verbs : Beseech, cleave, creep, dream, flee, grave, hew, lay,
hide, lose, pen, rive.

Exercise 149. Conjugate : Say, saw, shave, shear, shoe, sow,
spill, strew, swell, teach, weep, work.

Exercise 180. Conjugate: Bend, cast, clothe, cost, cut, hit,
lend, meet, put, read, rid, set.

Exercise 181. Conjugate : Se'.: shed, shut, sleep, .split, spread,
sweep, thrust, think, tie, wend, wet.

Lesson 46.— The Auxiliary Verbs
Have and Be,

1. Have and Be are the two most useful verbs in the
language ; and they do most work. Hence it is necessary to
learn how to conjugate them before attempting to conjugate
other verbs.

2. Conjugation of the Verb HAVE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Freient Indefinite Teue.

SINOULAR.

PtURAL

2.
3.

I hare
Thou ha-rt
He ba-i

1. We have

2. You liave

3. They have

Preient Perfect Tenee.

I have had
Thou hast had
He has had

1. We have had

2. You have had

3. They have had

(i) H»rt=li*T«rt. Compare e'en and eren.

(ii) H*d=haTed.

Fart Indefinite TenM.

1.
2.
3.

I had

Thou had-it
He had

1. We had

2. Touhad

3. They had

iJ L.fi

W V

A SHORT GUAMMAK OF TMK ENGLISH TONGUE

HINOULAR.

1. r had had

2. Thou hadst had
8. lie iiad had

1. I shall liavfl

2. Thou wilt have

3. He will have

faat Pirfeet (or Plap«rf*ct) T«dm.

ri,unAL.

1 Wo liad had

2 You had had
S. Tlioy had hail

ratv« Io4«talt« Tcnaa.

1. W« ihall have

2. You will have
8. They will havo

1. I shall have had

2. Thou wilt have had

3. He will have had

Futvre PcrfMt Tame.

1. We shall havo had

2. Yuu will have had

3. They will have had

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PrtMnt IncUlnlUi TenM.

8INOULAR.

1. (10 I have

2. (10 Miou have
8. (lOlieliavo

1. (Though) I have had

2. (Tliough) thou have had

3. (Ttiough) he have had

1. (10 1 had

2. (10 thou had

3. (10 he had

PLURAL,

1. (K) we have

2. (10 y(»i have

3. (10 they have

PrMtnt tnttci Tibm.

1. (Though) wc have had

2. (Though) you have had

3. (Though) they have had

Pott Zadtflnlt* T«M«.

1. (10 wo had

2. (10 you had
8, (10 they had

Put Perfect (or Plnperfect) Tens*.

1, (Though) I had had
2 (Tliough) thou had had
3. (Though) he had had

1. (Though) wc had had

2. (Though) you had had
S. (Though) they had had

Imperative Mood.— 5inyu?ar; Havel Plural: Have!

Infinitive Moou. — PreMnt Indaflalt* : (To) have. Perfect : (To) have hod.

PARTioiPLES.—Preieat Imperfect: Having. Part (or Poulve) : Had.

CoapoRBd Perfect (Actii'e) : Having had.

3. Tlic followiii

SINGULAR.

1. I a-m
■-'. Tlioti nr-l
3 Ho is

1. I have been
2 Thou ha.st been
i. He has been

1 I wai

-. Thou wast or wert

3 lie was

1, I had been

■J, Thou hatlst been

lie had been

Future Indeftnlta Teni

1 shall be, etc.

KTV.MOLOUY

;,' are tlie jwirta of the verb BE :
INDICATIVK MOOD.

Pr«t«nt IndeBnlta Teni*.

PLURAL.

1 AVp ara

2. Yiiu are
.'!, They are

PrtMnt Perfect Tenie.

1. We have been

2. YiMi have l>een

3. They have been

Paet Indefinite Tenie.

1. We were

2. You were

3. They were

Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tenie.

1. We liad Ijccn

2. You liad been

3. "ilicy had been

SINGULAR.

1. (10 I be

2. (If) tliou be

3. (If) he be

Future Perfect Tense.

I shall have been, clc.

SUBJUNCTIVK MOOD.

Preient Indefinite Tense.

ri.URAL.

1. (If) we be

2. (n)youlw

3. (If) they be

Present Perfect Tense.

1. (Though) I have been

2. (Though) thou have Ih!cm

3. (Though) he liave been

1. (Though) we have been

2. (Tliough) you have been

3. (Though) they have been

Past Indefinite Tense.

1. (10 I were
'.. (IP thov wfir>
3. (10 he wer*

1. (10 we were

2. (10 you were

3. (10 Hay were

■?l

;r'[

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Put Perfect (Pluperfect) Tente.

BINOULAR. PLURAL.

1. (Though) I had l>een 1. (Tliough) we had been

2. (Though) thou had htien 2. (Though) you had been
8. (Though) he had b«»en 8. (Though) they had l«en

Fntore Indefinite (Oomponnd Form).
1. (10 I should bo 1 (10 we should be

2 (10 thou uhould be 2. (10 you should Ite

8. (10 he should be 3 (10 they should bo

Fntiure Perfect (Compound Form).

1. (Though) I aliould have been 1. (Though) we should have been

2. (Though) thou should have been. 2 (Though) you should have been

3. (Though) he should have been 3. (Tl-.ough) they should have been

Imperative Mood —,Si»i(]ru?ar; Be: I'tural : Be!
LvFiNiTivE MooD.—Preient Indeflnltf : (To) be. Present Perfect : (To) have been.
rARTiciPL&.s.— Preient : Being. Pael : Been. Compound Perfect : Having been.

(i) It is plain from the above that the verb Be is made up of fragments of three
different verbs. As when, in a l>attle, several companies of a regiment have been
seveiely cut up, and the fragments of those that came out safely are afterwaid^
formed into one company, so has it been with the verb Be. Hence the vci b ouglit to
be printed thus :~

Ara

was

(ii) Am is a difTerent vcib from was and been. The m in am > the same as the m in
ue, and marks the first person. The t in art is the same as iU *M in thou, and marks
the second person. Com {tare wil-x and shal-t,

(iii) (a) Be is a jiriucipal verb when it means to exist, ns "Oo<i is. {h' It is also a
principal verb wjitn it i.s used as a joiner or copula, as in the sentence, "John is n
teacher," where the is enables us to connect John and tearhtr in tlie miml.

CONJUGATION of the Actiyk Vkrh STRIKE.

PRESENT.

Strike

PAST.

Struck

PAST OR P,\3SIVB PAHTICIPLK.

Struck

SINODLAR.

1. I strike

2. Thou strikest

3. He (or she) strikes

INDICATIVE MOOD.
I. Pkk.se\t Tenses.

I resent Indefinite.

PLURAL.

1. We strike

2. Ye (or you) strike
8. They strike

An old-fMhloiiMl (hlnl iMmoii aingulnr eniled In cfA, " He atrikcth. " Thin U stUl tg be found in
the KngUiih YtT^-imi uf the Bible of Kill.

SINOt'UR.

1. I am striking

2. Thou art struing

3. He is striking

1. 1 have struck

2. Thou hast struck

3. He has struck

1. I have been striking

2. Thou hast l)een striking

3. He has beeu striking

fiTYMOLOGV
Pr«Mnt LniMrfMt.

TLUIIAU

J 1. We are striking

2. You are striking

3. They are striking
PrMent Perfect.

1. We have struck

2. You have struck

3. They have struck
Present Perfect Continuou

1. We have been striking

2. You have been striking

3. They have been striking

II. Pa.st Tknsks.

1.
2.
3.

2.
8.

1.
2.
3.

smacLAR.
I struck
Tliou stnickcst
. He struck

I was striking
Thou wast striking
He was jitriking

I had struck
Thou hadst struck
He had struck

I had been striking
Tliou hadst b-en striking'
He had been striking

Put IndeSnite.

PLURAL.

1. We struck

2. You struck

3. They struck
PMt Imperfect.

1. We were striking

2. You were striking

3. They were striking
Pait Perfect (or Pluperfect).

1. We had struck

2. You liad struck

3. They had struck
Paet Perfect Contiooouf.

1. Wf had been striking

2. You had been striking

3. They had Wen striking

SINGULAR.

I shall strike
Thou wilt rtrlke
He will strike

i shall be striking
Thou wi;t I..' Htrikuig
He will be nvriking

III. Fl;ti:rk Tk.nsks.

Future Indo&fiUe.

I'LUUAL.

1. We shall strike

2. You will strike
.T They will strike

Future Imperfect.

1. We shall be striking
2 You will lie striking

3. They will be •triking

A SHORt GRAMi\tAR Ot TIIK ENGLISH TONOffi

rijJoUlAb.
1. t .shall have f;truck
2 Tliou wilt have struck
3. He will have struck

Fvtttr* P«rf«ct.

H.t'RAI..

1. We shall have struck

2. Vou will liave struck

3. They will have struck

Fnture Perfect Continnoni.

1. I slinll have been striking 1. We shall have been striking

2. Tlmii wilt have been strikinjj 2. You will have been striking

3. lie will have been striking 3. They will have been striking

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

2. Strike I

3. Let him strike '.

2. Thou Shalt strike I

3. He shall strike !

Praiant Teuto.

PLUnAL.

2. Strike!

3 I.ct rhem HtrHtr'

Fntnre Tenie

2. You sliall sfiike I

3. They shall strike I

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
I. Prk.sk.nt Tknsks.

Present Indeflnite.

SINGULAR.

1. (If) I Strike

2. (10 thou strike

3. (10 be strike

PLURAL.

1. (10 we .strike
'.'. (10 you strike
3. (TO they strike

Preient Imperfect.

1. (Though) I be striking 1. (Though) we be striking

2. (Though) thou be striking 2. (Tliougli) you be striking
8. (Though) he be striking 3. (Though) they \>e striking

1. (10 I bave struck

2. (10 thou liast struck

3. (10 he has struck

Present Perfect.

1. (10 we bave struck

2. (10 you have struck

3. (10 they have struck

Present Perfect Continuous.

1. (Though) I have been striking 1 (Though) we have hetu striking

2. (Though) thou hast been striking 2. (Tht>ugh) you have been striking

3. (Though) he has been striking 3. (Tliough) they have been striking

ETYMOLOGY

fitK'crLAft.

1. (10 I St nick

2. (10 thou struck

3. (10 he struck

iL Past Texsks.

PMt Indeflclte.

ri.fRAL.

1. (10 we struck

2. (IOy<ni struck

3. (10 they struck

Paat Imperiect.

1. (ThouKh) I were striking j. (Tl.ough) we were striking

2. (Though) thou were strikintj 2. (Th<.ut<h) y..u were strikJug

3. (Though) he were striking 3. (Though) they were striki.itf

1. (10 I hail struck

2. (lOlln'U liad struck

3. (10 he hid struck

PMt Perfect (or Plnperfect).

1. (10 we hud struck

2. (10 you hail stiiick
S. (10 tliey liud struck

Past Perfect Contlnuon*.

1. (Tliough) [ luid been striking

2. (Tliougli; thou had l)een striking

3. (Though) he had been striking

1. (Though) wo li.id been striking

2. (Thougli) you had been striking

3. (Thougli) they had been striking

III. FUTI-IIK Tknses
Future Indefinite.

HiNon vn.

1. (10 I siiouhl strike

2. (10 tliousliuuid strike

3. (10 he should strike

PLURAL.

1. (10 we si .mill strike
'-'. (10 you should strike
.'!. (10 they should strike

Future Imperfect.

1. (10 I .shonid be striking 1. (,f) „,, ,,.„„,,, ,,„ ^„.^,,,^,

2. (10 thou should be striking ,.. (,f) y,.,. ,,,„„,., ,,^. ^^,.^„,^,

3. (ro he should be striking 3. (iq ti,,y «i,ould be striking

Future Perfect.

1. (Though) I .svould have struck ,. (Though) we .should have struck

2. (Thou^d. , thou should have struck 2. (Thou^-h) you should have struck

3. (Though) he .should have struck ;!. (Though) they should have struck

Future Perfect Continuooi.

1. (TO I should have Iwen striking

2. (It) thou should have i.v-"u striking

3. (10 he should have been stnk'.ut'

1. (10 we should have been striking

2. (10 you shoiild iiave been sinking
3 (10 they should liave been striking

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH TONGUfi

INFINITIVE MOOD.

2.
3.
4.

Prcient IndeflnlU ....
FrcMnt Iap«rf«ct ....

PrtMDt Perfect

PnMBt Perfect OoBtlnnotu .

PARTICIPLES.

(To) strike
(To) be striking
(To) have struck
(To) have been striking

2.
3.

Preeent Imperfect ....

Preeent Perfect

PrfMBt Perftct OontlBnoiu .

Striking
IlaviiiK struck
Having been striking

GERUND.

Present, . . Striking. Perfect, . . Having struck.

(a) " I don't like striking liim ;" (10 " I don't like having struck him."

Exercise 152. Give the tense and mood of the following verbs :

I. We strike. 2. We have been dining. 3. You had finished.
4. You will have been walking four hours. 6. We were talking
together. G. If he fold you so, it must be true. 7. He shall
go ! 8. They had already stopped work. 9. He has been
working at it for the last six hours. 10. They wrote yesterday.

II. We shall be standing ut the gate. 12. He will go as soon as
possible.

Exercise 183. Give the tense an^ mood of the following rerh:

I. Htrike, but hear ! 2. Though we have been waiting for two
hours, we see no sign of his coming. 3. If he wrote you, where
is the letter ? 4. Though we had been walking for eight hours,
we were not in the least tired, f). It I should write him to that
effect, he wouhl come. G. When writing at the window, I heard
a noise in the street. 7. If you wore waiting at the door, how is
it you missed them ? 8. They shall come ! 3. You are asking
for what you will not get. 10. You have asked for too much.

II. They had mad«» many inquiries before they found the right
street 12. You will wait here, please, till I return.

Exercise 154. Give the tense and mood of the verbs in the
foUoxoing sentences : 1. I found the bird lying dead at the foot
of the tree. 2. what a happy life were mine, if I were only
back in England once more ! 3, If I lift the hanuner in this
way, shall I strike the nail fairly ? 4. Rest, rest, on mother's
breast ; father will come to thee soon. 5 The ship wdl now
have been driving before the gale for two days. G. It is not an

ETYMOLOGY

easy thin;,' to play on tho violin. 7. It is sweet to l»e awakened
by the lark. 8 Ikt'collcctin^ his mistake, he ran back to the
house. 9. They made a moltiMi image, and set it up on high,
and there it stand.s unto this day to witness if I lie. 10. It
would be impossible for water tc i)orform these offices, were
there no hills for it to run from, no valleys to run through.
11. Clerk, ilraw a deed of gift ! \-2. 1 pray you, give me leave
to go from hence.

CONJUGATION of the P.v.ssjvk Vkiuj TO BH STRUCK.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
I. Pkk.sknt Tknses.

I am struck

1 . PrcMBt Indt&nlU
'2. PrtHBt Imp«rf*ct
:i. FrtMiit Ptrfect .

r am bcint; Rtnick
I have becu struck

II. P.VST TKNSK.S.

1. Put ladcfalU

2. Put Imparftct

3. Put Pcrftct

I was Btrnck

I \vf»s Id'iiit; struck

I lia<l been titruck

III. I'm i:k Tknsks.

1. Fntar* IndaAnlt* .... I .sliain^o struck

2. FotDr* Impel feet .... — •

3 Fntar* Pcrftct ..... I sliall have been struck

I.MPER.VTIVK .NfOOD.
I. Present Ten-'je.

HINGl'LAR.

2. Dc (healed) t

2. Thou slialt »)c struck !
8. He sliall be struck!

ri.iUAi..
2. Be(heal(Ml)!

II. Fl t: UK TknSB.

2. You shall be struck !

3. They .shall be struck I

11. RTM ( ■ I wuiiM l« g<M<<1 ill frmmmar: I'lit l« I in •rii«r. Ili-iit-x Hk Hr.AtEDt hM h««n lub-
•tlltitcJ. CulcrtJge, lu uue ul l.is sliuit i>u«iii<, i\»* " ll<- : rullicr lliau lit catUd » cbltd u(
UodI*

SCBJUXCTIVE MOOD
I. Present Tex.sks.

1 . PrtMBt Indttalta

2. PrtMBt Imptrftct

>. rrtMBt P«rfMt ....

(10 I b(( struck

(If) I have been itrucK

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

II. Past Tknsks.

1. Put IndcflniU

2. PMt Imporfect
S. Put Perrtct

(10 I woro Btruck

(If) I Were lii'liii" strmk

(10 I I'li'l I'fi'U struck

III. Fltiki: Tknsks.

1 . Fator* Indaflnlt*
'.'. Futur* Imp«rf«ct
3. Future Perfect .

(10 I Hliould be struck
(10 I sliotilil have been struck
IXFIXITIVK MOOD.

1. Preieut tndefliiite

2. Preeent Perfect

(To) be struck

(To) havu been struck

rARTICirLKS.

1. Indeanlte Struck

2. Present Itriiig Ktriick

3. PMt IIaviii){ bcci> struck

(i) Thfi passive participle conibiiies witli both am nutl have. We say : I am struck ;
and I have Htriick tlin target The last is = I inm.sesH the tar^i't ^frucA; ; so lh.it the
]>articiplc struik is iwi.ssiM' so far ns tin- tar^'t't is ruuciTin'il, tlioui,'li we say that / /i(ir«
struck is the jK'rffct tciisi' of tli«; active veil" T>i sinhv.

Exercise 156. (I'irr the tk.nsk tnid mood of the turhg in thti
folloiriuij Hi iifiuir.< : 1. \V(> wiTo inmh struck with liis appcar-
anco. 2. Tlit-v had boon jjrcatly tipsct l)y tho iiows. 3. If we
had lu'on tohl sooner, we should not liavo i^'onc. 4. If I had
been earlier informed, I .should have written him. 5. You shall
he arrested I (I. We shall he nuieh surprised if he comes.
7. To have hecn apprised of the event in time wa.s much in
itself. 8. llavin;; heen struck hv the paraj^^raph in the news-
papers, I wrote to the Secretary. !i. I was heinj^ drajrj^ed off
hy two soldiers, wlu-n the colonel appeared. 10. If he ha<l
heen met sooner, it would have h«'cn better. 1 1. They ha\o
heen misinformed. lii. Bcinjf spoken to on the subject I
naturally replied.

Exercise 156. Gire thr tknsk (dkI .Vood of the rerbii in the
folloiriiKj sriili neeit : 1. It is unpleasant to he chetited. 2. She
was thorou;;hly exhausted with skatinj^. 'A. The chains were
easily broken. I. Leave niv loneliness unbroken ! T). Ilis
{ihudow is thrown uj)on tho Hour by the lamplight streamin;;

KTYMOLOfiY

over liim. G. She was called Lonoro. 7. When brothers
quarrel, they are easily injured. 8. Tell me that our lovo is
reiueiiibered, even in the skv. !>. We saw the forehead of the
luouiitain lit by the risiii;^ sun. 10. Sceptre and crown are
luatle eipial in the dust with the scythe and the spade. 11. If
it were done, M'hen it is done, it were well it were done (piickly.
12. The tux waa expected to raise two niillious a year.

Lesson 47. Auxiliary \'erbs. i.

1. Thoso verbs 'which help other vorbs to conjugate them-
selves are called Auxiliary Verbs. They aid in the formation
of Voice, Mood, and Tenso.

The word auiiliary comet from tlio I.atin auzaium, aid.

2. The most important Auxiliary Verbs are: Have, be;
shall, will ; and do.

3. Have is the auxiliary for the Perfect Tenses.

(i) Preient Perfect
(ii) PMt Perfect
(iii) Fatnre Perfect

I have Htnick

I had struck

I slmll b*ve struck

4. Be is the auxiliary for the Passive Voice.

(i) Preient Imperfect
(ii) Preient Perfect .
(iii) PMt Perfect

I Am being struck
I linvn been Ktrnck
I liml been .struck

5. Shall and will are the auxiliaries of the Future Tense.

Lesson 4S. — ^Viixiliarv \'crbs. ii.

1. Shall and will are the auxiliaries of tlic Future Tense.

2. The following is the Conjugatiou of the verb SHALL.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINOt'LAR. PI.rRAL.

I. PreeentT.M*. I. Sl.nll. 2. Shalt. 3. Shall. | 1. Shall. 2. Shall. 3. Shall.
JL Pm( '.esM, I. bhuuld. 2. Khoiiltlust or |

nhouiait. 3 Should. 1. Should. 2. Should. 3. ShouW.

A SHORT (UlAMMAIl OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(I) The old meaning of ilut)! is to ow«. Hcnco " Thou slialt not steal "=" Thou
nii(;hte<tt not to steal." This sense of dntjr reappears iu the past tense " lie should go,
if he is a wise man."

(li) Shall is nn auxiliary of time in tin* Ant person only.

3. The following is tlm Conjugation of the verb WILL

INDICATIVK MOOD.

HI NT, r LA R.

I. rrM«BtT«n*« 1 Will. -2 wilt. 3 will.

II. rautTsnM. 1. Woiilil. 2 woulilst. 3. woiiM.

ri.rnAL.
1 Will. 2. will. 3. will.
1 Would. 2. would. 3. would.

(i) An old form of will wao wol. This was cumliinid with not into wol not, wliidi
l>rcauiu woln't, and lastly won't.

(ii) No is the old negative for not. Ne will was contractrd into Bill. Then " nill he,
will he" (= whether he will or nu) was contracted into "nillywilly."

Lesson 40. — Auxiliary \'crbs. in.

1. May, can, and must, are also au.xih'aries of a mood
called the Mood of Power or the Potential Mood. We say :

(i) "He may go." (ii) " He vaw go." (iii) " He must go."

But the right way of liMikiU',' at " He may kc" is to rcj;ard <jn as the infinitive niuod,
governed by the verb viaij. " He may to go " — " He is at liheity to go."

'2. Do is iis<mI as the auxiliary <»f the Mood of Emphasis :
as, (i) " I do love you.'' (ii) " I do dotost tlie thing."

3. The following in the Conjugation of the vt'rb MAY.
INDICATIVK MOOD.

RINOri.VR.

M rnvt,,

I. Proicnt Tenia. I May. 2 ni.iyest or mayst. , 1. May. 2 may. .1. may.

3. may
II. raatToBS*. 1. Might. 2. mightest or mightst. 1. Mi^lit. 2 might. 3. might.

.T might. I

Tlio f in nay represents an old f, which reap^iears in the past tcnsc mifht,

ETYMOLOOY

4. The followini' is tlio Conjugation of the verb CAN.

INDICATIVK MOOD.

PLURAL.

1. Can. 2. ran. 3 can.
1. Colli-' 2, could. 3. could.

RIKOl'LAR.

T. PrcMDt Ttu*. 1. Can. 2. canst. 3 can.
II. Paat T«ns«. 1. CouM. 2 couldst. 3 could.

The old way of 8|>ellin); could was cond. Tin- I lias no ImsiueHH in tlic word at all.
There is no I in can. People kuw would and should each wilh an 1 , and tlicy reasoned
—wrongly— that there ought to be aD 1 lu could.

Lesson 50. — Auxiliary \'crbs. I v.

1. The auxiliary verb Must i.s not inflected at all.

2. The following is the Conjugation of the verb DO :

INDICATIVE MOOD.

HINOULAR. I ri.l RAl..

I. rrMcntTem* 1. Do. 2. doHt. 3 docs or doth. 1. Po. 2. do. 3. do.

I
II. PmITodm. 1. Did. 3. didst. 3. did. ! 1. Did. 2. did. 3. did.

SURJUNCTIVK MOOD.

HINOUI.AR.

I'l.lRAU

I. Pr«Mnt T«ni«.

1. l>o.

2. do.

3. ilo.

1 Do.

2. do.

3. do.

II. PMtTOBM.

1. Did.

2. did.

3. did.

1. Did.

2. did.

3. did

IMPKRATIVK MOOD.

2. Do!

3. Let them do (it) I

BlVnil An. PLURAL.

2. Do!

3. Let him do (it)!

(i) The verb do is also used (i) as an ouxiliary of lnterro;;alion : "Do you come
with ns?" (ii) of negation ; as, "1 do not know."

(ii) In tlie sentence '•How do you do?" the first do is quite difTcrent from the
second, thou^,'h «|Hlt in the same way. The first do is from the Old English verb doan,
to do ; the second from dngan, to thrive.

TliA iliig In ilu'jun U nUo found in doughty =t^rf>ng.

(ii) The grcnnd do (from dufan) is also found in such phrases as " This will never
do!" "Will this jilaii do?" "I can do (=^et ou, or thrive) without It."

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 51. — Defective and Impersonal Verbs.

1. There are in our language a number of verbs wliich do
not possess all their })arts — which are wanting in several.
These are callcl Defective Verbs.

2. The most important Defective Verbs arc : Dare and Owe.

3. The following arc the chief parts of the verb DARE :

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SIV<.t'I.AR. Pt.iJRAI,.

I Present Tenie. 1 l">nn'. 2. dari^st. 3 dares or dare. 1. Dare. 2. dare. 3. daro.
II. Put TeiiM. 1 Durst (iii all persuus and both

muubers).

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

1 Present Tense. Dare (in all persons and both numbers).
11. PMt Tense. Durst (iu all persons and both numbers).

Dare In the sensn of "to challenge ' takes an oriliuary iiast, dared.

4. The following are the chief parts of the verb OWE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINOULAR. I PLURAL.

T. Present Tense. 1. Owe. 2. owest. 3. owes. 1. Owe. 2. owe. 3. owe.
11. Put Tense. 1. Ought. 2. oughtest. 3. ouglit. 1. ought. 2. ought. 3. ought,

(i) When owe means to owe money, its iwst is regular owed,
(ii) The past ought is now used as a present, in the sense of duty.

5. Impersonal Verbs are those which have no real '* person "
to go with them, but only it for their subject ; as, " It rains,"
•' It freezes," etc.

(i) In these sentences the pronoun It stands for " something unknown."

(li) In some impersonal verbs, even the It is understood, as in methinks,
meseems, etc.

la Old EuglUh there were twoverh* thlnean, to seem, aud Ihenean, to think, U \m the firs^
ivbicb Bp|<ears m tnslhinK* and yjielhoufht,

ETYMOLOGY

(iii) Tho verli to b« mny \>e used as an iniperHonal verb, as in such phraaei M : "16
U cold," '• It iH growint <lurk," It IS very late."

(iv) The inonoun It is also used in tins " impersonal " fashion as an objective : as in
" Come and trip it as ye go, on tlie liijlit fantastic tc>e I ' And Shakespeare has to kiii<
It ( = to act the king), to qneen It, to lord It, etc. etc.

Lesson 52. — Adverbs.

1 (a) An Adverb is a word whicli modifies the meaning of
Verbs, Adjectives, ov other Adverbs. Or
(b) An Adverb i.s a Modifying "Word.

2. Adverbs are of two kinds: (i) Simple Adverbs; and
(ii) Conjunctive Adverbs.

(i) A Simple Adverb is a woril like very, extremely, t< o, in the sentences : " He is
very ill. " " Siie is extremely naughty. " " He is too abst rd."

(ii) A ConJanctiTe Adverb is an adverb which does not only its own work, but also
that of a conjonctlon. That is. it not only inoilifles, but connects " I will come when
1 am ready." Here the adverb wben niodlQes the veib come ; but it also connects the
two sentences " I will come "and " I am ready."

3. Adveil)s, as we have seen, are of many kinds. The
most important are Adverbs (i) of Time; (ii) of Place; (iii)
of Manner; and (iv) of Degree.

(i) OtTime: Now, then ; to-day, to-morrow ; when,
(li) Of Place : Here, then ; hither, thither; hence,
(id) Of Manner: Well, ill ; slowly, quickly ; liettcr, worse.
(IV) or Degree • Very, much ; almost, quite ; too, entirely.

4. AVe liave a complete set of adverbs relating to place ;
but some of them arc falling' into <Iisusc :

This place.

That place.

Here

Hither

From

Hence

There

Thither

Thence

The place . . . which.

Where

Whither

Whence

(i) Here is an old dative case,
^ii) Hente (formerly henii-es) is an old possessive,

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86 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 5.3. — The Inflexion of Adverbs, i.

1. Adverbs, like idjectives, are inflected for compaxison.

2. Adverbs, like adjectives, have three degrees of com-
parison : as soon, sooner, soonest ; hard, harder, hardest.

(I)

Harry came soonest of all

JolUi came soon

Tom came sooner

Comparative

Superlative

Positive

(ii) The motlera way of making an adverb is by adding ly (a broken-down form ot
like) to an adjective ; as, wiia, wii«ly.

(iii) In Old Englisli, the dative of an adjective was used as an adverb ; as, brigbte
( = i)rightly). faste ( = fast). Then the ending e fell iway; and hence there are in our
language a number of words that are both adjectives and adverbs: as loud, fMt, quick,
near, early, itraight, etc. (We can say: "He runs fast"— when fait is an adverb
modifying runt ; and " He came by a fast train ' —when fast is an adjective marking
the noun train.)

3. It is only Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time, that
admit of comparison ; as, well, little, soon.

An adverb of fixed time, like now, then; or an adverb of place, like here, there,
cannot be compared.

Exercise 157. Some of the words in the following sentences are
used as adverbs and also as adjectives ; place them in separate
columns: 1. John is pretty well, thank you. 2. What a pretty
view there is from your bedroom window ! 3, Harry shouted
loud and long ; but no one came. 4. He read out the names in
the long list in a loud voice. 5. The hill of knowledge is in
some places hard to climb. 6. The blacksmith works hard all
day. 7. She little thinks that her boy is ill. 8. I hope the
little boy will recover. 9. He aimed high and missed. 10. The
house is the only high one in the street. 11. The child must
learn to walk straight. •

Exercise 168. Work this like Exercise 157: 1. John writes
wors^ than ever, 2, The ptient is much worse, 3, Th^

ETYMOLOGY

doctor gave him too much medicine. 4. Is this a quick train ?
6. Run quicker, or you will not catch it ! 6. The boy paid dear
for his whistle. 7. Provisions of all sorts are dearer this winter.
8. You must not write so close ! 9. The room was very close.
10. He ran past as quick as he could. 11. The verb is in the
past tense. 12. The ploughnuin ploughed deep in the stiff soil.

Exercise 169. Make sic sentences in which the following
words shall he used alternately as adverbs and as adjectives :
Better, hard, ill, little.

Exercise 160. Work this Exercise like the preceding: Quick,
half, more, cheap.

Lesson 54. — The Inflexion of Adverbs, ii.

1. Adverbs, as we have seen, have degrees of comparison.

(i) "John works hard." Here hard is in the positive degree.
(ii) " Tom works harder." Here harder is in the comparative degree,
(iii) " Philip works hardest of all." Here hardeit is m the inperlatlTa.

2. Adverbs of one syllable take er and est ; adverbs of two
or more syllables employ the adverbs more and most.

(1) Fast, faster, fastest. Far, farther, farthest.

(ii) Wisely, more wisely, etc. Cleverly, more cleverly, etc.

^- 1:

3. The following Adverbs are irregularly compared.

Poiltive Comparative Superlative

111 (or badly) Worse Worst

Well Better Best

Much More Most

Little Less Least

Nigh (or near) Nearer Next

Forth Further Furthest

Far Farther Farthest

Late Later Last

(Rathe) Rather

(1) HI is an adjective in "He is ill ' ; n: adverb in "He writes ill." In the first

Bentence, 111 goes with be ; in the second, it modifies wrltei.

•; '

A SHORT GRAMMAR OP THE ^-NGLTSH TONGtJJ!

(ii) Much is an adjective in " Much corn "; an adverb in " Much better."
(iii) Little IS an adjective in ' • A little boy " ; an adverb in ''He is very little better,
(i V) Nigh 13 an adverb in " Draw nigli ! ' next in the phrase *' Next best."

(v) Far 13 an adjective in " A far land " ; an adverb in " He walked far."

(vi) Rathe is an old word Meaning early. In an Old English book the sentence
occurs : " The star rose rather and rather." In .Si..isex tliere is an early apple called
the "lathe ripe." Rather is still sounded wilb a long a in Ireland.

Exercise 161. A rrange in separate columns under the headings
of TIME, of PLACE, of MANNER, and of DEGREE, the following
adverbs : Very, now, too, soon, quick, thither, entirely, ill, worse,
there, nmch, quite, nearly, enough, terribly, to-dayj steadfastly,
just, upward, only.

Exercise 162. Work this Exercise like the preceding : Slowly,
loud, here, hence, bitterly, again, downward, always, often,
lightly, tenderly, carefully, slenderly, so, never, yet, unjustly,
far, everywhere, further.

Exercise 163. Compare the following adverbs : Far, forth, ill,
late, little, much.

Exercise 164. Make six sentences, each to contain one of the
adverbs in Exercise 163.

Lesson 55. — Prepositions.

1. A Preposition is a noun-connecting word.

2. It connects nouns with verbs, or with adjectives, or
Avith other nouns.

(i) " The book lies on the t.'ible." Here on connects the verb liei and table,
(ii) " He is fond of football." Here of connects the adjective fond and footlMiil.
(iii) " The man at the door is waiting," Here at connects man and door.

3. Prepositions are of two kinds : (i) Simple j and (ii)
Compound.

(i) Simple Prepositions are : At, by, for, in, of, on, to, with, etc.

(ii) Comix)und Prepositions are made up of two words :
Throughout (=through+out), into ( = iii+to), upon (=up+oii), within (=with+in).

KTYMOr.OGY

(iii) There is also a kind nf C<iiiiiioiunl Preposition, which is made up of two or
three words that are not Joined; as, According to; aluin; witli ; htcause of; on
account of, etc.

4. A Preposition is sometimes used as an Adverb.

PRKPOSITIONS.

1. The lioy ran up the hill.

2. The book lies on the lable.
3 Jump off the chair !

4. He walked pwt the church.

ADVKRBS.

la. Stand up !

2a. Come on, my hoys !

3(1. Be off, you lazy fellows I

4a. lie walked quickly put.

(i) In the first .sentence, up is a preposition, because it joins ran and liill. In 1«, it
is an adverb, because it modifies itand.

(ri) In the last sentence, past is a preposition, because it joins walked and church. In
4((, it IS an adverb, because it modifies walked.

Exercise 166. In the foUon-ing Exercise, some words are nsed
as PREPOsiTio.vs and also as aovkkiss ; ^j/ace them in separate
columns: 1. He roamed up and down in the forest. 2. They
walked tojjether u;) tlie hdl. 3. I saw the hovs runninsx down
the road. 4. Tlie lecturer said a good de.il about lobsters.
5. The ship v/as at once put about. G. The hound ran after the
hare. 7. We went on ; and they came after. 8. The ship went
on rif^ht before the wind. 9. I am sure I told you this before.
10. They stepped inside the coach. 11. The omnibus was full
inside. 12. The hou.se near the church is empty. 13. Evil
spirits, come not near !

Exercise 166. Work this Exercise like Exercise IG.') : ]. Mary
was walking in tlie playground. 2. I was writing a letter, when
who should walk in but uncle Tom ! 3. Take the lid otl" the
kettle. 4. The wind was .so strong that his hat flew off. 5. The
steady workman Avas placed over the other men. G. Come over
and help us ! 7. I have not seen him since Christmas. 8. The
book lay under the table. 9. The poor slaves were kept terribly
under. 10. Ho went off without his greatcoat. 11. It is rain-
ing ; but he persists in remaining without. 12. Walk on in
front of me ; but do not walk on the grass !

Exercise 167. Make tivrjre sentences, emploifing the foU.-i.ing
words first as adverbs, and then as prepositions : About, after,
ground, down, oflf, through.

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 56. — Conjunctions.

1. A Conjunction is a sentence-joining word.

2. As verbs are the most essential parts of sentences, a
conjunction may also be called a verb-connecting word.

3. Conjunctions are of two kinds : Co-ordinative and
Subordinative.

(0 Co ordlnative Conjanctioni are those which connect sentences and clauses of the
same rank; such as, And; but; either-or; neither-nor. Take the sentence "Neither
he nor 1 will go." This js a compound sentence made up of two sentences ; " Neither
will he go ' "Nor will I go " But both sentences are of the same rank , the one 4
Just as important as the other.

(ii) Subordinative Conjunction! are those which connect inbordinate lentencet with the
principal sentence. "I hear that he has gone from home." Here the sentence "Jio
has gone from home "is subordinate to the principal sentence 'I hear. " The con-
junction that, which joins tliem, is therefore a subordirative conjunction.

(iii) The following are the most important subordinative conjunctions: That; U;
while ; tinco ; nnlen ; though ; aa ; lest.

(iv) The prepositions after, before, ere, till, lince, and for, may also be employed as
subordinative conjunctions.

Exercise 168. Arrange in separate columns, under the head-
ings CO-OUDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS and SUBORDINATIVE CON-
JUNCTIONS, </te conjunctions in the foUoxoing sentences: 1. Come
with us, and you will see him. 2. We all went, but Mary
remained behind. 3. We have heard that he is gone to Australia.
4. The hunter trembled when he saw the lion. 5. Neither Tom
nor Harry saw their Avther. G. She would not speak lest she
should waken the child. 7. Either the king was weak or hi.s
ministers were stupid. 8, Though he slay me, yet will I
trust in him. 9. The bell was ringing just as we entered the
station. 10. If he says so, it must be true. 11. Unless you
write me, I shall stay at home. 12. While I was reading the
paper, the train came up.

Exercise 169. State whether the words in italics are pre-
positions or SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS : 1. I Walked after
him. 2. No one spoke after he left. 3. Since you say so, I

ETYMOLOGY

quite believe it. 4. I have not seen him since five o'clock.
5. I will wait here till he comes. 6. We were obliged to wait
till eight. 7. I paid sixpence /or the book. 8. I am sure of the
fact, for I saw the whole thing myself. 9. He had gone before
the" entered the room. 10. He walked out before me.

SUMMARY.

1. There are five kinds of words that are inflected : nouns;

PRONOUNS ; VERBS ; ADJECTIVES ; and ADVERBS.

2. Prepositions and conjunctions are not inflected.

3. Nouns are inflected for Number, Gender, and Case.

4. Pronouns are inflected for Number and Case ; and the
Third Personal Pronoun for Gender also.

5. Adjectives are inflected for Comparison only.

But two adjectives are inflected for Namber— Thii (which makes Theie), and That
(which makes Thoie;.

6. Verbs are inflected for Person, Number, Time, and Voice.

(!) Penon : I write ; he write i.

(ii) Komber : lie write • ; they write.
(!ii) Time: I write; I wrote,
(iv) Voice : I strike ; I am itmck.

7. Adverbs are inflected for Comparison only.

Fifth ^Method of Parsing.

When the lady saw the grim robber approaching, she
turned and fled with all speed.

1. When is a coojanctive adverb. It is an adverb, because it modifies the verb taw.
It IS a conjnnctlon, because it joins the two sentences "The lady saw'' and "Slie
turned." (It is a kind of "grammatical nail.")

2. Lady, a noun . . . common ... of the singular number ... in the nominative
case. It is the subject of, or nominative to, the verb saw,

3. Bnw is a »troiig verb . . . active-transitive . . . past tense . . . Indicative

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

mood . . . 3(1 jiprson . . . singular number. It governs robber in the objective
case, and agrees witi. its nominative lady in nunibiT and jjcrson.

4. Orlm is an adjective of quality . . in the positive degree. It qualifles the noun
rubber. (It is spelled with two m s when compared.)

5 Robber is a noon . . . common ... of the singular number ... in the objec-
tive case. It IS governed by tiie tiansitive verb saw.

C. Approaching is a participle or verbal adjective. It is the present participle of ihft
verb approach ; and it is an adjective, because it marks the noun robber.

1 She is a pronoun . . . personal ... of the 3d person , . . singular number
in the nominativt; rase. It is tlie subject of, or nominative to, tlie verb turned.

8. Turned is a weak verb . . . intransitive ... in the 3d i>crson . . . sing<;'iar
number ... in the past ten.se . . . indicative mood. It agrees with its nominative
she in number and jierson.

9. And is a co-ordinative conjunction, joining two sentences of the same rank :
"She turned" and "She fled."

10. Fled is a weak verb . . . intransitive ... in the 3d {)erson, etc. (see Txirned).

11. With is a preposition, joining the noun speed to the verb fled.

12 All is an adjective or nouu-marking word. It marks the noun speed. It is an
adjective of quantity.

13. Speed is a noun . . . common . . . of the singular number . . . in the objective
case. It is governed by the preposition tvith.

Exercise 170. Farsc the words in the following sentence
according to the fifth method : If it had not been for tlie
generous aid which he received from his wife, his task would
have been an impossible one.

Exercise 171. Parse the folloxving in the same way: The
general, knowing that the enemy was weakened by long marches,
wished to act on the defensive.

Exercise 172. Parse the following in the same way : If the
prisoners escaped the jail-fever, they were cut off by famine.

Exercise 173. Parse the following in the same icay : Sir
"Walter Scott was one of those who was struck hard by the
money-panic of 1825.

Exercise 174. Parse the folloxoing in the same way : George
IV. 's visit to Ireland was the first peaceful visit that had ever
been made by an English king.

Exercise 175. Parse the following in the same way: The
Duke of Wellington showed his high ability in the Cabinet, us
he had before displayed it on the field.

■ ' I

ETYMOLOGY. PART IV.

THE MAKING AND BRANCHING OF AVORDS.
Lesson 57. — Accent and Pronunciation.

1. Every word in our language of two or more syllables
has an accent placed upon one of them. Thus, in the word
comprehend, the accent is on the last syllable ; in the word
merrily, the accent is on the first.

2. The change in the position of an accent brings about a
change in the kind of word. Shift the accent, and we turn
a noun into a verb.

(i) Thus we say : Liverpool is a trading city with large <xportt. Here <xporta is a
noun. But, if we shift the accent and say : Liverpool expirti iron ware, then the
word export! is a verb.

(ii) In the same way, when the word iccent has the accent on the lint syllable
dcceat), it is a noun ; when on the last syllable (»cc«nt) it is a verb.

3. The following are the most important words that alter
their function when they alter their accent : —

NOUNS.

VERBS.

Accent

Compound

Compdund

Concert

Cbnduct

Conduct

C6nflict

Conflict

Consort

Contract

Convert

Convict

Exile

Extle

Export

Extract

Eztiict

NOUNS.

Import

Increase

Insult

Object

Perfume

Permit

Produce

Protest

Rebel

Record

Siibject

T6rment

VERBS.

Import

Increase

Insult

Object

Perfume

Permit

Produce

Protest

Rebel

Rec6rd

Subject

Torment
93

•■y

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

l>'I i'

1 1

4. From the above we may collect the rule : If a dis-
syllable hu.s the accent on the first syllable, it is a noun ; if
on the last, it is a verb.

5. A slight change in the pronunciation (and spelling)
will also produce a change in the function. Thus we have :

NOUN.

VERB.

NOUN.

VERB.

Cloth

Clothe

Price

Prize

Grass

Grazo

Use(=ce)

U8e(=ze)

Grease (=ce)

Grease (=z(')

Lesson 58. — Nouns and Verbs.

1. The same Avord may be used either as a noun or as a
verb. Thus we can say : " We have had a good run ; " and,
" They run as fast as they can."

(i) In the first sentence, run is a noun, because it is the name of an action,
(ii) In the second sentence, run is a verb, because it tells something about They.

2. We can make sentences such as these where the same
word is alternately used as a noun and as a verb.

- NOUNS.

l\ We saw a large ihip

2. She showed her love too plainly

3 Tom IS very fond of work

4. I have no fear of him

5. We kept watch a long time

(3. The carpenter's plane is sharp

VERBS.

1. We will ihlp the goods to-morrow

2. They love each other well

3. We work eight hours every day

4. They fear the long journey

5. They watch every night

6. They planed it quite smooth

3. The following words, and many more, can be employed
either as nouns or as verbs :

Ait

Care

Cloud

Dream

Blow

Cart

Colour

Fear

Bottle

Case

Cover

Feast

Bound

Catch

Cure

Fly

Box

Challenge

Cut

Foot '•

Breakfast

Chisel

Double

Hammer

dis-

Q :

s a
nd,

Tliunder

Time

Top

Trick

Trumpet

Tumble

Turn

Voice

Walk

War

Waste

Watch

Winter

Work

Wrong

Exercise 176. Make six pairs of sentences, each containing the
name of a tool, which may be used either as a notin or as a verb.

Exercise 177. Make six pairs of sentences, each containing the
name of a motion of the body, first used as a noun and then as a
verb.

Exercise 178. Make twelve sentences, with the following words
used alternately as nonns and as verbs : Blow, colour, dream, link
nurse, shade.

Lesson 59.— Nouns from Nouns and Verbs.
1. Some Nouns are formed from Nouns by a change in the

ETYMOLO(iY

Hand

Love

Roost

Hate

Mind

Run

Head

Murder

Salt

Hoe

Nerve

Saw

Hold

Nod

Seal

Hop

Nuise

Shade

Hope

Pinch

Shal<e

Hunger

Plant

Image

Play

Ship

Iron

Plunder

Show

Keep

Praise

Smile

Knife

Pull

Split

Letter

Right

Spoil

Link

Rint;

Stone

Look

Roll

Thirst

vowel,

Band
Cat
Chip
Cock

Bond

Kit (or Kitten)

Chop

Chick

Goat
Gold
Stake
Top

Kid
Gilt
Stock
Tip

2. Some Nouns are derived from Verbs by a change in the
vowel.

VERBS.

Bear

Bite

Bless

Click

Deal

NOUNS.

Bier

Bliss

Clack

Dole

VERBS.

Gape
It

Scrape

Sing

Sneak

NOUNS.

Gap

Knot
Scrap
Song
Snake

Set also comes from Jmit. The k has dropped off In the spelling, as It had previously fallen away
fiom tha pronunciation. A net is a liag made by knitting cord into knot*.

A SHORT OnAMMAll OF THE ENdLISII TONGUE

3. Some Nouns are formed from Verbs by a change in the
consonant.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

Bake

Batch

Prove

Proof

Break

Breach

Say

Saw (a saying)

Dig

Ditch

Speak

Siieech

Gird

Girth

Wake

Watch

Bhakeipeare hai the phrnse " tnU of wine sawb and niiHlern initancei." This means " full of wise
MytnKS and (ashionalile exuniples (ur illustratiuns)."

4. Some Nouns are formed from Verbs by changing botli
Vowel and Consonant.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VFRBS.

NOUNB.

Choose

Choice

Hold
Lose

Ililt
Loss

Weave

jWeb
' Weft

Exercise 179. Make nouns from the folloiving verbs : Bake,
bear, bite, break, choose, click, dig, deal, gape, gird, hold, knit.

Exercise 180. Make sovya from the following verbs : Lo.se,
prove, say, scrape, sing, speak, sneak, wake, weave.

l^esson 60. Verbs from Nouns and other Verbs.

1. Some Verbs are derived from Nouns by a change in
the vowel.

NOUNS.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VERBS

Blood

Bleed

Gold

Gild

Brood

Breed

Loan

Lend

Doom

Deem

Sale

Sell

Drove

Drive

Tale

Tell

Food

Feed

A doom la a Judgment. To deem is to judge. A Judge in the Isle of Hnii is called a Deemtter.

2. Some Verbs are derived from Nouns by lengthening
the vowel.

NOUNS.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VERBS.

Bath

Bathe

Grass

Graze

Breath

Breathe

House

House (z)

Cloth

Clothe

Thief

Thieve

6\as«

Glaze

Wreath

Wreathe

KTYMul.ouY

irii*

ce,

?e,

S.
in

3. Somo Verbs ;iro tlerived from other Verbs by changing
tlie vowel.

Cliop
Din

Oiip
Dun

Rise

( Raise
\ Rouse

Drop

j Drip
. Drooj)

Sliake

Shock

Sit

Set

FftU
Ply

F«U

Plee

Sniff

Sop

Snuff

Sip

Stroke

Rest

Roost

Strike

Make
.Stick
Wring

Matcli
Stitch
Wrench

(a) To dun Is to keep dinning the fact of hi« <lel>t Into the ean of a debtor.

(b) Tu/cll i» to make U,/iilt ; Just aa to set ti to make to lit.

4. Somo Verbs are derived from other Verbs by a chuMgo
in th(! final consonant.

Clink Clincli

n«.» i Draw

( Dredge
Drink Dreiuh

To drench U to make f . drink ; jnst a^ to r,->' i<i to make to/all.

Exercise 181. Make vei.bs from the following nouns : Bath
blood, breath, brood, cloth, doom, drove, gUtss, grass, gold, loau!
sale, thief, wreath.

Exercise 182. Make vkubs from tic foUowma veiirs • Chop
clink, din, drag, drink, fall, fly, make, rest, rise," sit, snitf, stick!
strike, wring.

Lesson 61. Nouns from ^^erbs.

1. There are many ways of forming nouns from ver])s.
tim?^ if we wish to speak of the dogr of a thing, we add er,
and say baker, fisher, speaker, grasshojiper, cooler.

(i) Sometimes we use ar, or or, and say beggar, li ar, sail or.

A tailor is a man who sails ; n goo<I nailer la a tliip that sails well .
(ii) The Normans taught us to put in an I era y, as in glazier, clothier, collier (a
man who carries coals) ; lawyer, sawyer, l.owyer (a man who made bows).

(iii) In some words a t or a d has crept in : as in braggart (a person who brags)
dastard (a person who is dazed with fear), drunkard, sluggard (a person who is lazy
like a slug). '

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

2. That which is done is indicated by a d, a t, or a th,
at the end of the word : as in deed (=that which is done)
from do.

t, and tk are all tooth-letters (or deutals). We <:an easily see thii for ourselves, If we saf
id, U, and ith.

(i) Flood comes from flow ; teed from sow ; thread from throw.

(it) Drift comes fiom drive ; rUt from rive ; theft from thieve ; draft (or draught) from
draw ; aud weft from weave.

(iii) Berth (in a ship) comes from bear ; death from die ; 4arth from ear (an old word
which meant to plough) , and tilth from till.

3. The suffix m also makes nouns out of verbs, as in bloom
from blow.

(i) We have In this way :

Bloom

from

Blow

Qualm

from

Quell

Game

•»

Seam

Sew

Gloom

Glow

Steam

Stew

Groom

Grow

Stream

Stray

Harm

Harry (to

lay waste)

Team

•t

Tow (to drag)

(ii) The old Norman word for royal was re-al ; and this, wit a the addition of m, gives
us realm.

4. The prefix s seems to strengthen the verb ; as,

Scratch

from

Crack

Scramble

from

Ramble

Scrunch

Crunch

Smoulder

Moulder

Scud

Cut

Spatter

Patter

Saw

Hew

Steep

Dip

Shout

Hoot

Strain

Drain

Shove

Heave

Strew

Throw

Smash

Mash

Stumble

Tumble

Smelt

Melt

Swing

Wing

Exercise 183. Make nouns from the foUcwing verbs : Beg,
die, do, ear, fish, flow, hop, he, sail, sow, speak, throw.

Exercise 184. Malce nouns from the following verbs : Blow,
draw, go. glow, grow, harry, quell, sew, stew, stray, till, tow.

ETYMOLOGY

ie)

••r

ard

tin

res

Lesson 62. — Nouns from Adjectives and
other Nouns.

1. Many nouns are formed from adjectives. Thus we
liave width from wide ; length from long ; and breadth
fiom hroiid.

(i) In the same way we get dauth (=scarcity) from dear ; mirth from merry ; ilotb
from slow ; and health from hale.

(a) The old sp<>tling of iloth wm tlovth ; and this Is still felt in the pronunciation o( iloth.

(b) In length, ttrength, vidth, and breadth, the vowel has been modified by the addition of the th.

(ii) We also make nouns out of adjectives by adding neu. Thus we have darkncu,
holliMU, weakneu, and wearlneii, from dark, holy, weak, and iveuvi/.

(a) Take note that the final y becomes i when anything is addeU to it.
(h) irU<{erneu='WiId'deer-neu.

2. Nouns are also formed from other nouns by the p,ddi-
tion of such endings as dom, hood, herd, kind, man, ship,
and Wright.

(i) Dom gives us Kingdom, Christendom ( = the region of Cliristians), thraldom (=
the state of being a thrall or slave).

(ii) With hood we make childhood, livelihood, manhood, prleithood.

(iii) Witli herd we make shepherd ( = sheep herd), iwineherd, gooieherd.

(iv) Kind gives us mankind, womankind, etc.

(v) Man gives us bellman, chapman (=a man who sells in cheaps or market), diut-
taan, ihipman, workman.

(v ) Ship (=state) gives us apprenticeihlp, friendihlp, lordship, wenhip(= worth ship),
and also authorship, generalship^ seamanship, hardship, etc.

(vii) Wright ( = workman) gives us playwright, shipwright, wheelwright.

Exercise 188. Make nouns from the following adjectives :
Broad, dark, dear, hale, holy, long, merry, slow, strong, weak,
weary, wide.

Exercise 186. Make nouns from the following nouns : Bell,
child, friend, general, goose, lord, man, play, priest, seaman,
sheep, ship, swine, thrall, wheel, woman, worth,

100 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 63. — Diminutives and their Opposites.

1. Nouns are also formed from other nouns by adding such
suffixes as ie, kin, le, let, etc. The words resulting are called
diminutives. Thus we have :

Lass

lassie

Butt

bottle (of hay)

Lad

laddie

Mouth

muzzle

Dog

doggie

Nose

nozzle

Man

mannikin

Pot

pottle (of strawberries)

2. Increase in size, on the other hand, is expressed by such
prefixes as bull, horse, and torn.

Bullfinch

Bullrush

Bullfrog

Bulltrout

Tomboy

Tomcat

Horse-chestnut Horse-laugh
Horse-leech Horse-radish

Tom-fool Tom-tit

Lesson 64. — Verbs from Nouns, Adjectives,
and other Verbs.

1. We can also make verbs from nouns and from adjectives
by adding er, or en, or le.

(i) Er makes (a) chatter from the noun chnt ; glimmer from gleam ; glitter from glow ;
and loiter from lout. It makes (b) linger from the adjective long ; lower from low. It
also (c) makes fritter from fret ; flutter from the verb Jlil ; ipntter from sj)/^ ; and
■wagger from sway.

(ii) En makes (a) madden from the adjective mad ; deepen, deaden, fatten, sweeten,
sharpen, itiffen, thicken, whiten, from deep, dead, etc. etc. It ahso (b) makes ftrigtaten,
heighten, lengthen, lighten from the nouns fright, height, etc.
(iii) Le or I enables us to make :

Crackle from

Crack

Joggle

Dabble „

Dab

Prattle

Dibble (to plant) „

Dip

Sparkle

DribbU ,,

Drip

Startlo

Dwindlt „

Dwine

Waddle

OrappU „

Grab or Grip

Kneel

from

»»

Jog

Prate

Spark

Start

Wade

Knee

ih
id

ETYMOLOGY

101

Exercise 187. Make verbs from the folhioing nouns,
ADJECTIVES, and verbs : Chat, deep, dead, fat, fret, fright,
gleam, glow, height, light, long, lout, low, sharp, spit, stiff, sway,
sweet, thick, white.

Exercise 188. Male verbs from the folloioing : Crack, dab,
dip, drip, grab, jog, knee, prate, spark, start, wade.

Lesson Q5. — Adjectives from Nouns, Verbs, etc.

1. AVe make adjectives from nouns by adding the suffixes
en, fast, and ful (=full).

(i) We have :

Flaxen from Flax
Golden ,, Gold
Heathen ,, Heath
Hempen ,, Hemp

Oak# from Oak
Silken „ Silk
Silvern ,, Silver
Wooden „ Wood
In old Knglish this was a very favourite ending; and we had such words as athen, beechen,
birchen, wheaten, yewen, glat$er>, firen (=of flrel, etc.

(ii) Fait gives us steadfast (=fast or fixed iii the stead or place), root/ast, soothfast,
(=flrm to the truth).

(iii) Ful makes for us hateful, alnful, wilful, etc.

Note that will and /till each drops an ?. , '

2. Adjectives are also formed from nouns and other
adjectives by the addition of ish, less, and like— which is
softened into ly.

hb (a) makes bookUh, booriah, childish, churlUh, outlandish, waspish. It also (b) makes

from adjectives, blackish, whitish, reddish, etc. It also (c) makes adjectives of

nationality, as Danish (from Dane) ; British (from Britain) ; EnglUh, French ( = Frank ish).

Exercise 189. Make adjectives from the folloioing nouns

and ADJECTIVES : Black, book, boor, child, flax, gold, heath, red,

■ silk, silver, sin, wasp, white, wood.

Lesson 66. — Compound Nouns.

1. We make Compound Nouns by adding a noun to a
noun, as :

Bed-fellow
Cart-horse
Dog-kennel
Edgo-tool

Fish-wife
Hand loom
Hymn-book
Kut-cracker

Prize-ox
Ship-mate
Time-piece
Vine-yard

102 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) It will be seen that the firat noun acts as a kind of adjective on the second, and
limlti its meaning. A cart-hone is a hone that is only employed in carts.

(ii) Sometimes one of the nouns takes a different form and disguises itself. Thus
we have :

By-law Gospel Nightingale

Daisy Huzzy Orchard

(a) A by-law wu originftlly a lait for a by (Danlih for town, as In Whitby, Orimiby, etc.).
(b) Daisy = Day's eye. (c) Gospel = God's spell (or story), (d) Huzzy = Housewife.
(c'l Nichtiugale^Singer iu the night, (f) Orcbard=>Wortyard (or herb garden).

2. We make Compound Nouns by adding an adjectivs to
a noun, as :

Blackbird

Midnight

Redshank

Freeman

Quicksilver

Redstart (=tail)

Hotspur

Redbreast

Twilight (=two light)

3. We make Compound Nouns by adding a verb to a noun :

Bakehouse Grindstone Spendthrift

Cutpurse Pickpocket Wagtail

Godsend Pinfold Washtub

4. We make Compound Nouns by adding a verb to an
adverb :

Castaway Farewell Welcome

Drawback Income Welfare

Exercise 190. Make compound nouns otit of the following:
Bird, book, cracker, eye, horse, kennel, light, loom, man, mate,
night, ox, piece, silver, shank, vife, yard.

Exercise 191. Make compound nouns out of the following :
Bake, cast, come, cut, draw, fare, grind, pick, pin, spend, wag,
wash.

Lesson 67. — Compound Adjectives.

1. We make Compound Adjectives by joining a noun to
an adjective :

Blood red

Headstrong

Nutbrown

Threadbare

Bloodthirsty

Heartsick

Purseproud

Thunderstmck

Brimful

Irongrey

Seagreen

Watertight

Claycold

Lifelong

Snowwhite

Wayweary

Footsore

Lilywhita

Stoneblind

Weatberwise

ETYMOLOGY

103

2. Wo make Compound Adjectives by joining a noun to a
present participle (=an adjective) :

Death-boding Home-keeping Night- waking

Ear-piercing Life-giving Sea-faring

Heart-rending Night-faring Spirit-stirring

(i) Man has been defined as " a tool-and-weapon-using " animal,
(ii) Another definition is that of " a fire-using-and-cooking " animal.

3. We make Compound Adjectives by joining a noun to
a past participle (=an adjective) :

Air- born

Book-learned

Copper-fastened

Eagle-eyed

Earth-born

Forest- born

Heart-broken

Iron-bound

Hoss-clad

Moss-grown

Moth-eaten

Sea-girt

Sea- walled

Snow-crowned

Tempest- tossed

Thunder-struck

Weather-beaten

Wind-dried

4. We make Compound Adjectives by the formula Noun

rnoun+ed:

Angelwinged
Arrowwounded
Clubfooted
Doghearted

Finfooted
Harebrained
Ironhearted
Lilylivered

Lilyhanded
Lionhearted
Oarfiuned
Trumpet-tongued

5. We make Compound Adjectives by the formula
Adjective + noun + ed :

Barefooted

Bareheaded

Black faced

Coldblooded

Dullwitted

Emptyheaded

Evilminded

Fourfooted

Foursided

Greyheaded

Goodhumoured

Exercise 192.

iny: Blood, brim

Goodnatured

Highminded

Hardhanded

Highsouled

Hotblooded

Light fingered

Lightheaded

Longbreathed

Longsighted

Longwinded

Narrowminded

Newfashioned

Openhearted

Shortwinded

Sweettempered

Thickheaded

Thmlipped

Threecornercd

Threestoried

Two! egged

Twomasted

Whiteheaded

Make compound adjectives out of thefolhw-
, clay, death, ear, foot, head, heart, home, lip,

104 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

lily, night, nut, purse, sea, snow, spirit, thread, thunder, water,
weather.

Exercise 193. Make compound adjectives out of the follow-
ing: Air, angel, book, dog, eagle, earth, fire, forest, iron, lion,
moss, moth, oar, sea, snow, tempest, thunder, trumpet, weather,
wind.

Exercise 194. Make compound adjectives ovt of the follow-
ing: Bare, black, cold, dull, empty, four, grey, good, high, light,
long, new, open, sweet, thin, three, two, white.

Lesson 68. — Compound Verbs.

1. We make Compound Verbs by joining a verb and a noun :

Backbite
Browbeat

Hamstring
Henpeck

Hoodwink
Kiludry

2. We make Compound Verbs by joining a verb and an
adjective :

Dumbfound

Fulfil (=fiU full)

Whitewash

3. We make Compound Verbs by joining a verb and an
adverb :

Cross-question

Overdo

Outstrip

Doff (= do off)

Overdrive

Understand

Don ( = do on)

Overlook

Undertake

Outdo

Overturn

Withdraw

Outrun

Overwork

Withhold

Overcome

Outshine

Withstand

(!) The with in wlUutand, etc., is not the common preposition ivith. The old
me&n'ms of with ia against. Therefore withstand = stand against.

(ii) The word drawing-room has dropped the with. It used to be withdrawing-room.

Exercise 198. Make compound verbs out of the foUoioing :
Cross, dumb, full, off, on, out, over, under, with, white.

ETYMOLOGY

105

Lesson G9. — Compound Adverbs.

1. We make Compound Adverbs by adding an adjective
to a noun, as :

Always

Likewise

Meanwhile

Half-way

Otherwise

Meantime

Straightway

Awhile

Sometime

2. We make Compound Adverbs by adding the preposition
a to a noun, as :

Aback
Abed
Abroad
Abreast

Adrift
Afield
Afloat
Afoot

Agog
Aground
Ahead
Aloft

Apace
Ashore
Asleep
A^vay

(0 The preposition a is a broken-down form of an (the old form of our modem on).
(ii) The word gog is an old noun which meant eagerness.

3. We make Compound Adverbs by adding tlie preposition
a to an adjective, as :

Abroad

Acf)ld

Afar

Alike
Along
Aloud

Amid
A near
Anew

Around

Aware

Awry

4. We make Compound Adverbs by adding a or an to
numeral adjectives, as :

Anon

Atween

Atwixt

Atwo

Anon=an one (that is, at once). It was the common cry of waiters in the sevea-
teenth century. It used to mean at once ; but it soon came to mean by-and-bye.

Exercise 196. Male compound adverbs out of thefoUowivg :
All, back, broad, cold, drift, far, ground, half, like, mean, new,
other, pace, shore, some, wry.

(ii'

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS
IN ENGLISH.

The English Lanodaqe which we all speak was brought over to
this island in the fifth century by a number of persons who were
called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and who came from the north-west
of the country we now call Germany. When they came to this
island, they found a people who did not speak English, but who
spoke a language called Celtic, very like that which is spoken in
Wales and in the Highlands of Scotland to this day. The English
Language which these Angles and others brought with them remained
pure and unmixed for about six centuries. At length hordes of
Norman-French came over in 1066, and brought with them a kind of
French, many words of which found their way into our English
speech.

When the English tongue was pure and unmixed, it was in the
habit of " growing " its own words ; and from what is called a root
many different words sprouted and came into common use. Thus
there was an old verb, sclr-an, to cut, which brought forth quite a
number of very useful words. It gave us, for example, shear ( = to
cut) ; shire, a piece of land cut off ; share, a piece of anything cut off
and divided ; shore, the line of land cut by the sea ; score,^ a deep
cut ; sheer, as it were cut sharp off (said of a cliff) ; short, with too
much cut off ; shears, instruments for cutting ; sharp, easy to cut
with ; and others.

But, when the Norman-French came and brought with them
thousands of French words, many of these words mixed with the
language. From that time the English gave up growing their own

1 When aihepherd wm "telliag his Ule" of ahecp— that is, counting bis flock, he made a notch on
• piece of sUck for each slieep ; but, at the tweutieth, he made a deep ctU ; and that d«ep cut was called
aicor*.

104

fiAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 107

English words in tlieir own English (or Saxon) garden ; and, when
a new word was wanU'd, they l)orrowed it from the Normans, and
did not go to the English tree of their own growing for a new word.
Many of the Norman words pushed out the old English and more
homely words. Thus the Erenth carpenter pushed out the English
word wright (grown from work) ; agaln-risinc^ was displaced by resur-
rection ; Haeland ( = " The Healing One '') was pushed out to make
way for the word Saviour. The English dropped the word wanhope,
and adopted the Frenc'.i word despair ; the p^ice of learning-knight
was taken by disciple ; book-hoard had to give way to library, gold-
hoard to treasury ; and earth-tilth was thought too homely a term,
and the long PVench (or Latin) word agriculture took its place.

But, before the coming of the Normans, we had a large number of
pure English or Anglo-Saxon roots : and the following is a list of the
most important of them : —

ANGLO-SAXON KOOTS.

^cer, a field : acre, acorn ( = fruit of tlie
liulil). Itis?iot =" oak-corn." Chaucer
has the phrase "acorns of oaks."

iEithele, noUe : Athcling, Athelstan,
Ethelred.

Bacan, to bake : bake, batcli, baxter
( = bacster, female baker).

Bana, a murderer : bane, henbane.

Beatan, to itrike : beat, beetle (a mal-
let).

Bed, a prayer : bead, bead-roll, beads-
man.

Belg", a bag: bag, bagpipe, bellows,
bulge.

Bellan, to bellow : bell, bellow, bull.

Beodan, to bid or proclaim : bid, bidding,
forbid, beadle.

Beorgran, to protect : borough, burgh,
Edinburgh, burgher, Bury St. Ed-
munds, Canterbury, borrow, burrow.
(In the south of England the softer
form hury prevails.)

Bindan, to faaten: bind, bindweed,
woodbine, Iwind, bond, bundle.

Bitan, to bit« : bite, bit. bitter, bait,
beetle (insect).

Bl6wan, to blouom : blow (of flowers),
bl(;ssoin, blood.

Bot, advantage : bootless, to boot.

Brecan, to break : break, breach, break-
ers, breakfast.

Bre6wan, to brew : brew, broth, brew-
ster ( = female brewer).

BugrB.n, to bend : bow (to bend), bow (a
weapon), buxom (= in O. E. obedient).

Byrnan, to bum: bum, brand, brim-
stone.

CeAp, market : cheap, Cheapside, East-
cheap, cliapman, chaffer, Chepstow,
Chipping Norton ( = Marketing Nor-
ton).

Ce6wan, to chew : chew, jaw.

Cle6fan, to ipUt : cleave, cleaver, cleft.

Com, grain : corn, kernel.

Ctinnan, to know : cunning, can, could,
uncouth, con.

Cwelan, to die : quail, qualm, quell.

CwlC, living : quick, quicksilver, tjuick-
sand.

Cyn, a tribe : kin, kinsman, kindred,
king.

Deegr, day : day, holiday, daisy, dawn.

108

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Dsel, a ihare : deal (a quantity), deal (a

board), deal (to distribute), dealer, dole,

dale, dell.
De6r, » wild animal : deer, Derby, Dur-
ham. (Shakespeare calls mice "small

deer. )
De6re, precloui : dear, deartli, darling

( = little dear).
Die, a ditch; dike, ditch, dig.
D6ai, Judgment : doom. Doomsday, king-
dom, deem, deemster (a judge iu the

Isle of Man).
D6n, to do : do, ad<i, don ( = do on), doff

( — do off), dout ( = tlo or i)ut out).
Dragan, to pull: drag, draggle, draw,

draught, draught-board, draughtsman,

draft, drawl, dray.
Drffan, to drive : drive, drift, adrift,

drove, drover.
Drincan, to drink: drink, drunkard,

drench, drown.
E&, water : island (in O. E. caland),

Chelsea, Athelney
"Ei&ge, eye: Egbert, eye, daisy ( = day's

eye).
Eal, all : all, altogether, always, also,

alone, withal.
Eald, old: old, elder, eld, alderman
Faran, to go: fare, farewell, welfare,

thoroughfare, field-fare, wayfarer, ferry,

ford.
Pe6wer, four: four, fourteen, forty,

farthing ( = fourth part).
Fle6iran, to iiy : fly, flight.
Fle6taD, to noat: fleet (verb), fleet

(swift), fleet (of ships), float, flutter.
F6da, food: food, fodder, foster, feed,

feeder.

Plil, foul : foul, filth, defile.

Gangran, contr. g^n, to go: gang,
gangway, go.

Geard, an encloiore : yard, vineyard,
orchard ( = wort yard).

God, God : God, godfather, godly, gospel
(=God's spell or story) gossip ( = sib
or related in God), good-bye (=God be
with you).

G6d, good: good, goods, goodly, good-
will.

Grafan, to dig : grave (to carve), grave
(for the dead), graver, engrave, groove.

Grfpan, to Mize: gripe, grip, grope,
grasp.

Qyrdan, to eneloie : gird, girdle, girth.
Habban, to have : have, behave, liaft.
Hdl, whole ; b^ligf. holy : heal, health,

wassail, whole, wholesale, wholesome ;

hallow, holy, holiday, hollyhock.
Hand, hand : hand, handle, handsome,

handsel, handy, handicraft, handiwork.
Haneria.n, to hang : hang,hanger,hanker.
Hebban, to ralie np : heave, coalhcaver,

lieavy, heaven.
HlAf. a loaf: loaf, lord (=hl4ford). lady

( = lilu;fdige), Lammas ( = hlafiiiHSse).
HwA, who : who, what, which, when,

where, whether, why.
Li&d, a path : lead (verb), lode, lodestar,

hnlestone.
Licgfan, to He down : lie, lay, lair, layer.
Man?, a- crowd, a nnmber : among, cos-

teriiiongcr, mongrel, mingle.
M&wan, to mow : mow, mead, meadow,

math ( = a mowing), aftermath.
M6t, a meeting : witenagemot, shiremote,

moot, meet.
Nedb, nigh : nigh, neighbour, near, next.
Nether, below : nether, nethermost, be-
neath.
Nosu, the note : nose, nosegay, nostril

( = nose-thirl), nozzle ( = a little nose).
Pennan, to encloie : i)en (for sheep),

pent, breath-penning (=consonantX
Raed, advice, counsel : Ethelrcd, rede,

read, riddle.
Sceapan, to form : landscape, shape,

friendship, worship.
Sceotan, to ihoot : scot-free (without

payment or coiitrbiition), shoot, shot,

shut, shutter, .shuttle.
Sceran, to cut : shear, shears, share,

ploughshare, shire, shore, short.
Sittan, to elt : sit, set, settle, settee.
Spinnan, to spin : spin, spindle, spin-
ster, spider (^spinder).
Stede, a place : stead, .steadfast, steady,

instead, bedstead.

Stician, to itlck : stick (verb), stick
(norm), sticky, stickleback, stitch,
stake, stoke, stockade.

StigrO'n, to rise, climb : sty (in the eye), sty
(for pigi), steward ( = sty-ward), stile,
stirrup ( = rope for rising), stair.

Stdw, a place : stow, stowage, bestow.
Chepstow (=market-place), Waltbani-
■tow.

SAXON, LATIN, AND CREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 109

Strangr, itrong: Hlrong, Btroiighold,

stieiigtli, string.
Talu, a number, a tale : tale, tell, tell-

tale.

Thyrllan, to pierce : thrill, nostril.
Tredan, to tread: tread, treadle, trado

(a way ofliff).
Tre6we, tme ; true, trow, trutli, trotli,

betiotlie.
Twa,two; two, twain, twelve, twenty,

twice, twin, twine, twilight, twist,

■ etween, betwixt.

Weer, cautloni : wary, aware, beware.

Weorc, work : work, wiought, wright.

Witan, to know: wit, witenngeniote,
witness, witch, twit( = at wit), wot.

Wrecaii, to wreak : wreak, wreck,
wrack, wretch, wretched.

Writhan, to twlit: writhe, wrr.itli,
wreathe, wroth, wrath, wrist, wrist,
wrestle.

From the well-known and fateful year 1066 the kind of French
.spoken by tht Normans was the language of tiie ruling classes in
England for nearly tliree hundred years. It certainly was the only
language used in the law-courts of this country till 1362 — that is, for
three hundred years all but four.

Now French is only Latin which has undergone a change by long
residence in France. Latin is the language tiiat was spoken by the
Romans — a short, swarthy, active, brave, and very intelligent people
of Italy, who at one time held the whole of the known world within
their grasp. The Romans planted military colonies in all parts of
Gaul (which was the old name of France) ; and these Roman soldiers
mixed with the Celtic people of Gaul, and taught them also to s[)eak
Latin. In course of time they learned it ; but, in the learning of it,
they made great changes both in the look of the word and on the pro-
nunciation of it. Both the spelling and the sound were altered.
Thus the Romans had the word populus ; the French people of the
South turned this into peuple, and the French people of the North
into people. The Romans said caput ; the French softened it into
chef, which gave us our word chief. The Romans had the word
factum ( = a deed) ; and the French turned this into fait, which gives
our English word feat. French has been called " Latin with the ends
bitten off,'' and this description is true. Several thousands of these
French words have come into our English language ; and we u.se many
of them every day. Such are, debt, perceive, assist, precise, etc.

But another very remarkable thing happened to our language in the
fifteenth century. The Turks marched over from Asia, attacked and
took (in 1453) the great city of Constantinople, which was the dtj

110 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE KNGLISH TONGUR

that formed the connecting link between the trade of the East and
the trade of the West. Constantinople "was full of students, scholars,
and learned men ; full of books and libraries. Now the Turks have
always been mere soldiers ; and they hated and still hate learning
and study, students and scholars. So these scholars had to put their
Greek and Latin books under their arms, or on their backs, and run
iiway from Constantinople, for fear of the dreaded "unspeakable
Turk." They departed and spread themselves over Europe, found
their way into Italy and Spain and France. Some came to England—
to Oxford, and to Cambridge, — and taught Greek tiiere. Then began
what is called the Revival of Learning. Men and women in England
began to study Greek and Latin with the greatest zeal. Queen
Elizabeth (who was born in 1533) could read Greek, and could speak
Latin ; Lady Jane Grey (who was Queen of England for nine days)
could do the same. Then many thousands of Latin words began to
pour into our language with hardly any change. Thus opinionem
became opinion ; the end of notionem was chopped off and it became
notion ; and the same thing was done to separatum, which became
separate.

The following are a few of the more important Latin words which
have come into our language ; and they too come from roots. But
these roots did not grow in our soil ; we have simply borrowed the
Latin words all ready-made, have imported them, and now use them
every day. But though we use them, they never were English in
origin ; we did not grow them, we only adopted or imported them : —

ij'

LATIN ROOTS.

Agrer, a fltld : agrarian, agriculture.

Ago, actum, I do : agent, agile, agitate ;
ai't, actual, active.

Altus, high : altar, altitude, exalt.

Amo, amatum, I love : amorous ;
amatory.

Amicus, a Maud : amicable, amiable,
amity.

AngiUus, a cornar : angular, angle, tri-
angle. ,

Anima, brtath: animal, animate, in-
•aimatB.

Animus, the mind: animosity, anim-
advert, unanimous.

Annus, a year: annals, annual, anni-
versary, triennial.

AppellO, I call : appellant, appeal, re-
peal.

Aqua^ water : aquatic, aquarium, aque-
ous, aqueduct.

Ars, artis, iklU: art, artist, artisan,
artifice.

Audio, auditum, I hear: audible,
audience, audit, auditory.

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 111

Bene, wtU: benediction, benefactor,
benefit.

Cado, casum, I tm: cadence, de-
cadence ; case, casuul.

CaedO, caesum, I cat, I klU : decide,
suicide ; excise, concise, jnecision.

Cano, cantum, I ting-, cant, canto,
chant, enchant.

CapiO, captum, X t*k« : capable, capa-
cious, receive ; captive, capture, except.

Caput, capitis, the head: capital, cap-
tain, chapter, chief (through French
chef).

Cedo, cessum, I go or yield : cede, pre-
cede; exceed, jiroceed, excess, proces-
sion.

Circus, » ring: circular, circle, circum-
ference, circuit.

Cito, citatum, X c»U: cite, excite;
recitation.

Clamo, clam&tum, x ihont : clamour,
proclaim ; exclamation.

Clino, X elope: incline, decline.

Cor, cordis, the heart : courage ; cordial,
accord, discord.

Corpus, corporis, the body: corps,
corpse; corporal, corporeal.

Credo, creditum, X tnut, beUeye:
creed, credible, credulous ; credit.

Curro, cursum, Xmn : current, occur ;
course, cursory, excursion.

Dens, dentis, a tooth : dental, dentist,
indent.

DiCO, dictum, X say : diction, predict,
contradict.

Doceo, doctum, X teach: docile,

doctor, doctrine.
Dominus, a lord : dominate, dominion,

don, dame (Fr.), madam (Fr.).
DUCO, ductum, X lead : reduce, duke ;

ductile, conduct, conduit (Fr.).

FaciliS, eaey: facile, facility, difficult
(Jormerly diflRcile).

Facio, factum, X do: suffice; fact,
manufacture, ettect, feat(Fr.), counter-
feit (Fr.).

Fero, latum, X carry: transfer, refer,
translate, relate.

Fido, Xtnut: confide, diffident, fidelity.

Fingo, Actum, X fadilon, pretend : feign
(Fr.) ; fiction, fictitious.

Finis, an end : fine (apai/menf), " in fine,"
|lual, conQn^,

Flnio, flnltum, X make an end : finish ;
define; finite, definite, Wwe {adjective).

FIuo, fiuxum, fluctum, i flow:

fluent, influence ; flux ; fluctuate.
Fra(n)8ro. fractum. X break: fragile,
.•ail (Fr.), fragment ; fraction, refract.
Fundo, fusum, I ponr : foundry ; fu.se

{verb), confuse, jirofusion.
Oradlor, gressus, I itep; gradient,

graile, gradiiai ; progress, digression.
Habeo, habltum, Ihave, Ihold : habit,

prohibit, exhibition.
JaciO,Jactum, I throw: reject, subject,

l)rojectile, jet (of water, Fr.).
Judex, Judicls, a Jndge: Judicial,

judicious, judge, prejiulice, judicature.
Jungo, Junctum, X nnlu : join (Fr.) ;

junction, juncture, adjunct, joint.

Lego, lectura, I cbsoie, Iread : legend,
legilde, diligent; lecture, intellect,
select, elector.

Linquo, lictum, X leave : relinquish ;
relict, relic (Fr.).

Locus, a place : local, locomotive, locate,
allocate.

Loquor, locutUS, X epeak : eloquent,
colloquy ; elocution.

LudO, lusum, I pl*y : interlude, elude ;
delusion, illusion.

Magnus, great : ningnate, magnanim-
ous, magnify.

Malus, bad : malady, malice (Fr.), male-
volent, malefactor.

Manus, hand : manage, manual, manu-
facture, maintain (Fr.).

Medius, middle : medium, mediate, im-
mediate.

Memor, mlndfnl : memory, memoir
(Fr.), memorable, remember.

Metior, mensus, l meamre : immense
( = not measurable), commensurate,
measure.

Minor, minus, leu: minor, minority ;
minute, diminish.

MittO, missum, X tend : intermittent,
permit, remit ; mission, dismiss.

Modus, mearare, manner : mc Je, model,
modify, modulate.

Moneo, monltum, X advlM : monitor,
admonish.

Moveo, motum, X move : move,
mobile (Fr.) ; motion, motive, promote

112

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

■t

Nomen, nomlnis, a name : nominal,
oniinate, noun.

N'umerus, a nomber : numeral, numer-
ous, number.

Nuncio, I umonnce : pronunciation,
pronounce, renounce.

omnibus, omnipotent,
ordinal, ordinary.

Omnia, ftU

omnivorous.
Ordo, ordlnis, rank

ordain, order (Fr.).
Pando, pansum, passum, i stretch :

expand ; expanse ; pass, passage, tres-
pass, pace (all these four through Fr.).
Par, eqnal : par, disparity, pair, peer

(Fr.).
Paro, I prepare : pare, prepare, repair

(Fr.), separate.
Pars, partis, a portion : part, party,

partial, partisan, participate, parcel

(Fr.).
Pater, patriS, a father : paternoster,

paternal; patrimony, patron, jMitriot,

parricide ( = patricide).
Patior, passus, I suffer : patient ;

passion, passive.
Pax, pacis, peac . pacific, pacify, peace,

appease (Fr.).

Pello, pulsum, I drive : rejiellent, ex-
pel ; pulse, repulse, exjiulsion.

Pendeo, I hang : pendant, pendent, de-
pend, i>cn(lulani.

Pendo, pensum, i weigh, i pay, i
ponder : susiiend, expend ; susiieusion,
expense, pwisive ; poise (Fr.).

Pes, pedis, the foot : pedal, biped,
pedestrian, expedition.

PetO, petitum, I seek : compete, re-
jM^at ; jietition.

Placeo, I please : placid, complacent,
complaisant (Fr.), please(Fr.), pleasure
(Fr.).

Piico, I bend : applicant, complicate,
apply, ply, pliant (Fr.).

Pono, posltum, I place : postpone,
exponent, expound ; position, deposit,
post.

Populus, a nation : popular, populace,
people (Norman-French).

Premo, pressum, I press : press, re-
pression, expressive.

Primus, first : prime, primrose, primi-
tive, premier (Fr.), prince (Fr.), princi-
pal {adj.), principle (noun).

Probo, I prove : probation, probable,
prove.

Pungo, punctum, i prfck : pungent,
poignant (Fr.) ; punctual, compunc-
tion, point (Fr ).

Radix, radicis, a root : radical, eradi-
cate, radish.

Rapio, raptum, I seize : rapine, rapid ;
rapt, rapture.

RegO, rectum, I mle : regent, regi-
ment, regal, regular, royal (Fr.), rule ;
rector, direct.

SaliO, saltum, I leap : .salient, sally
(Fr.), assail (Fr.) ; assault, insult.

Scribo, scriptum, l write : scribe,
describe ; scripture, description, manu-
script.

Sedeo, sessum, ' sit: sedentary,
supersede, preside ; session, assize
(Fr ).

Sentio, sensum, I perceive : sentient,
sentiment, sentence ; sense, sensible,
sensitive.

Sequor, secutus. I foUow : sequence,
consequent, second ; persecute, con-
secutive ; sue, suit, suite (all three Fr ).

Specie, spectum, i look: species,
specious, si)6cimen ; siiectacle, spec-
tator, sjiectre, aspect, perspective.

Spondeo, sponsum, I promise : re-
spond ; sponsor, responsible.

Sto, Statum, I stand : stable ; state,
station, statue, stature, statute, con-
stitute, institution.

Sumo, sumptum, I take : assume,

resume ; assumption.
Tango, ta.ctum, x touch: tangent,

tangible, attain (Fr.) ; tact, contact.

Tempus, temporis, time: tense
(Fr.); temporal, temporary.

Tendo, tentum, tensum, i stretch :
tend, pretend, attendant ; tent, con-
tention ; tense (adjective), tension, ex-
tensive.

Teneo, tentum, I hold : tenant, ten-
able, tenement, contain (Fr.), con-
tinent ; content.

Trabo, tractum, I draw : subtrahend ;
tfiict (of country), tract (a pamphlet),
contract, trait (Fr.), treat(Fr.), treatise.

Utor, usus, I nse : utensil, utilise;
use, usual, abuse,

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 113

! ■'i:f,

Valeo, I un itrong : valiant, valid, in- , Vinco, victum, I conqner : convince,

valid, value, prevail (Fr.). j invincible, vaii<iuish (Fr.); convict,

Venlo, ventutn, X come : convene, victory.

convenient; adventure, prevent, in- j Vivo, Victum, I lire: vivid, revive,

vention. j convivial ; victuals (Fr.).

VertO, versum, I turn : vertex, ^ Volo, I wUh : voluntary, volunteer,

convert; ver.se ( = turjed speech), ver- ! voluptuous, benevolent.

sion, perverse.

Verus, true : verity, veracious, very,
verdict, aver.

Video, visum, l we : provide, evi-
dent; vision, visible.

Voveo, votum, l vow : vote, vow,
devote, devout.

Vox, VOCis, the voice : vocal, vocifer-
ous, advocate, provoke, voice (Fr.)
vowel, (Fr.).

There are also a good many Greek words in onr language ; and the
following are the most frequently used of these ;—

GREEK ROOTS.

AngSloS, a messenger : angel, evan-
gelist.

Anthrdpos, * man : misanthroiie ( =
man-hater), philanthropy.

Arithmos, number : arithmetic.

Biblion, a book: bibliography, Bible
( = the Book).

Chronos, time : chronic, chronology,
chronometer.

Demos, the people : democrat, dema-
gogue (= leader of the people), epi-
demic.

Gr&pho, I write : graphic, biography,
grammar.

Hddos, a way : .xodus, method, epis-
ode (=a by-the-way).

Logos, a word, speech : logic, dialogue,
geologry, astrologer.

Mdtron, a measnre : metre, metrical,
thermometer, geometry ( = earth-mea-
surin;;)

Monos, alone, only : m< nustery, mono-
gram, monopoly, monk,

Naus, aship : nausea, nautical, nautilus.

Ode, a song, a poem : ode, melody, parody
(= a song like another), comedy,
tragedy.

Onoma, onyma, a name : anonymous,
synonym.

Orthos, correct : orthodox, ortho-
graphy.

Pathos, feeling : pathos, pathetic,
apathy, sympathy.

Philos, fond of : philosopher, philan-
thropy, bibliophile.

Scdpos, a watcher : scope, microscope,
bishop (=episc6pos, an overseer), epi-
scopal.

Theos, a god : theology, theism, poly-
theist, atheist.

:|i !

SYNTAX

1. When we use words, we use theju in sentences. When
we use them in sentences, we arrange or put them together
according to certain rules and customs.

2. The collection of rules and customs for putting words
together is called Ssmtax.

I. Syntax of the Noun.

Rule 1. The Subject of a sentence is in the Nomina-
tive Case.

(i) We say I write, he writes. I is the subject of write ; he is the subject of writes.
Both subjects are in the nominative.

(ii) Every nominative must have a verb; but sometimes the verb is nnderstood
" Wiio is there ? " " I " ( = " I am "). " He is stronger than you ( = arc strong). "

Exercise 197. Point out (or ivrite doim) the subjects m the
following sentences: 1. The squirrel ran up the tree. 2. The
hawk hovered over the poor little sparrow. 3. The castle's
lK)und I wander round, amid the grassy grjves. 4, Round the
rujjtjed rocks the raLjued rascal ran. 5. A little boat darted out
of the creek. G. The treachery of a single servant might have
ruined the enterprise. 7. In the bright October morning Savoy's
Duke had left his bride. 8. From her nnillioned chamber,
casement smiles the Duchess Marguerite. 9. Down the forest-
ridings lone, furious, single horsemen gallop 10, 'Mid the
Savoy mountain-valleys, far from town or haunt of men, stands
a lonely church unfinished. 11. On the work the bright sun
shines. 12. There they found her on the mountains.

Exercise 198. Worlc this like Exercise 197 : 1. The lightest

wind was in its nest, the tempest in its home.

2 Less oft is

SYNTAX

115

peace in Shelley's mind, than calm in wate ; seen. 3. From far
the lowrngs come of cattle driven home. 4. He waved his
proud hand, and the trumpets were blown. 5. Man cannot
cover what God would reveal. 6. What steed to the desert flies
frantic and far? 7. Their hoof-beaten bosoms are trod to the
plain. 8. A steed comes at mornin<^f : no rider is there ; but
its bridle is red with the sign of despair. 9. Their swords are
a thousand, their bosoms are one ! 10. Never shall Albin a
destiny meet so black with dishonour, 11. Rome, for empire
far renowned, tramples on a thousand states. 12. Other Romans
shall arise heedless of a soldier's name.

Rule 2. When one noun is used to describe another noun
(or pronoun), both nouns are in apposition; and they are
always in the same case.

(i) " William the Conqueror invaded England." Here " the Conqueror" describes
" William. ' But "William " is in the nominative case to " invaded." Therefore " Con-
([ueror " is also in the nominative case.

(li) "The soldiers heard Peter the Hermit." Here "Peter" is in the objective
case, governed by heard. But "the Hermit "is inai)positioi. with "Peter." Therefore
" the Hermit" is also in the objective case.

Exercise 199. Point out the youxs (or pronouns) in ap-
position in the following sentences: 1. Peter the Hermit
preached a Crusade. 2. John the Baptist was put to death.
3. From Vienna, by the Danube, here she came, a bride, in
spring. 4. The gnats whirl in the air, the evening gnats.
5. William the Conqueror won the Battle of Senlac. 6. It is
the lark, the herald of the morn ! 7. Sage beneath the spreadi:ig
oak sate the Druid, hoary chief. 8. Whang the miller was a
very idle fellow. 9. Our good father Tiber bare bravely np his
chin. 10. So we were left galloping, Joris and I. 11. ! was
there ever such a knight, in friendship or in war, as our
soverei<rn lord, King Henrv, the soldier of Navarro? 12. We
behold their tender buds expand — emblems of our own great
resurrection, emblems of the bright and betu . land.

Rtjle 3. The verb to be (with many verbs like it) takes
the same case after it as before it.

(i) " General Wolseley is an able soldier. ' Here WoUeley is the subject of, or the
nomiuative to, the verb U. 3ut WvUete^ is the t^UUcr aud the loldier is WoImUjt;

I ■• ^

116

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

lli

therefore the noun soldier is also in the nomiDative case. Whatever is true of the
one word is true of the other.

(ii) " I found him to be a forger." Here him is in the objective case. But the
person indicated by the pronoun him is the forgtr ; and the forger is him. Therefore
the noun forger is also in the objective case.

(iii) The verbs become, live, prove, leem, remain, etc., are in this respect like the
verb be, that they talte the same case after tlicm as before them. Thus we say :
Tom became a soldier. He lived a hermit all his days. She seemed a fairy. "Bhe
moves a goddess ; and she looks a qneen." In this last sentence, she, goddess, And qneea
are all in the nominative case.

(iv) These verbs are sometimes called apposltlonal verbs. In the same class may b«
placed the passive verbs is made, was appointed, Is proclaimed, is thought, will b«
created, etc.

Exercise 200. Point out the nouns (or pronouns) in the same
case before and after be, become, live, etc. : 1. John Brown is a
carpenter. 2. Harry grew up a fine young fellow. 3. He
remained a dunce all his days. 4. She seemed a goddess in our
childish eyes ! 5. It is the nightingale, and not the lark !
6. We heard that the man had turned-out a swindler. 7. Mr.
Jones was born heir to a great estate. 8. It is an ancient
mariner. 9. Mr. Carnegie returned to Scotland a millionaire.
10. She was born a milkmaid, but became a duchess. 11. The
man proved a complete deceiver. 12. She looked the loveliest
woman in the whole room.

Exercise 201. Point out the appositional verbs in the
following sentences, and mention the nominatives that go before
and after them: 1. He looks a low fellow. 2. The man was
found lying near the river. 3. George i. was proclaimed king.
4. Mr. Smith will be appointed manager of the railway. 5. He
seems an honest man. 6. John was called a hero. 7. The
Duke was created commander-in-chief. 8. The boy was thought
a very noble lad. 9. She looks a i:oddess, and she moves a
queen ! 10. The child was named John.

KuLE 4. "^Vhen a ncan is in company with another word
or words, but is not connected with any part of the sentence,
the two or more words are said to be in the nominative
absolute.

The word abioltttt means ftttd. The nominatliv ab$olut« meiini thst thii nuroinntlre ense U
Crf4 Irom any conaecttoo wUh or dependence ou any other word in the senteove,

SYNTAX

117

(i) "Dinner •ver.'we went np-stairs." Here the two words " Dinner over" have no
connection with any other word in the sentence ; and Sinner is in the nominative case.

(ii) "The wind ihlftlng, we had to alter our course." Here the three words "The
wind shifting" have no connection with any other word in the sentence, and the
noun wind is in the nominative case.

Exercise 202. Point out (or write out) the nominativr
ABSOLUTE 171 each of the following sentences: 1. Good Friday
falling next day, we could not go. 2. The signal having been
given, off went the train. 3. The wind having fallen, we dropt
anchor in the bay. 4. The ruined merchant went to bed, his
heart heavy with fear and sorrow. 5. She earns a scanty
pittance, and at night lies down secure, her heart and pocket
light. 6. The trial having ended, the Court rose. 7. No
further news having been received of the " Midge," the ex-
pedition returned. 8. The business over, the committee broke
up. 9. A customer coming in, Mr. Gilpin had to go and attend
to him. 10. Loop and button failing both, tiie cloak flew away.
11. My pipe broken, there was an end of my smoking. 12. The
turnpike gates flew open, the toll-men thinking that Gilpin
rode a race. ,

Rule 5. The pronoun it is sometimes used as a nomina-
tive. (It is used to prepare the way for another word.)

(i) Thus we say "It is hard to climb that hill." Here It la the nominative to U.

(ii) But what is it? It is a pronoun which stands for the noun to climb. The
other form of the sentence would be " To climb that hill is hard." But this would be
a clumsy form.

(iii) The poet Pope says : "To err is human ; to forgive divine." But this, in prose,
would be : "It is human to err ; it is divine to forgive."

Exercise 203. State (or write down) for what it stands m
each of the follotoing sentences: 1. It is not easy to tell. 2. It
is pleasant, with a heart at ease, to make the shifting clouds be
what you please. 3. It is plain that you have not heard the
news. 4. It rains. 5. No ! it hails. 6. Come and trip it as
you go, on the light fantastic toe ! 7. It is said that he has left
the country. 8. It is necessary to make arrangements before he
comes. 9. It is doubtful whether he will succeed. 10. Who
was it that told you so? 11. It is an ancient mariner. 12, 'Twft^
{lutumn J and sunshine ^rose on the way,

■ til

118 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 204. Work this Exercise like the preceding. 1. It
is rumoured that the manager has fled. 2. It is necessary to
provide yourself with a circular note of credit. 3. I cann
think it right to take that course. 4. The judge made it qui
clear that the man was guilty. 5. It was moonlight at the tim
6. It is time that we were going. 7. It was then that the
general gave the order to advance. 8. "When was it that they
arrived ? 9. It is very doubtful whether he will come. 10. Who
was it said so? 11. It is the porter that we want to help us.
12. It was you we saw.

Rule 6. The nominative can be omitted when the verb is
in the Imperative Mood.

(i) We say Come along ! for " Come (thou) along ! "
(ii) We say Go on ! for " Go (you) on ! "

Exercise 205. Supply the nominative to the verbs in the
Imperative Mood: 1. Be good enough to come in! 2. Have
done with your nonsense ! 3. Begone ! 4. Welcome ! 5. Let
go ! 6. Fly for your lives ! 7. Stop thief ! 8. Stand at ease !
9. Unhand me, sir ! 10. Dawn on our darkness and lend us
thine aid ! 11. See what a rent the envious Casca made !
12. Strew on her roses, roses, but never a spray of yew !

Rule 7. The possessive case is governed by the noun
which is the name of the thing possessed.

(i) We say John'i gan, Tom's hat. Here gun, the name of the thing possessed,
throws John intu the pocseEsivo case.

(ii) When two nouns are.ioined together, it is only the last that takes the '•— or sign
of the possessive. Thus we say : "Smith and Norgate's shop."

Exercise 206. Put the following nouns into the possessive
CASE and supply a suitable noun to each : Man ; men ; birds ;
Moses ; Simpkin and Marshall ; ladies ; son-in-law ; England and
France (as allies) ; the Duke of Wellington ; Marshall and
Snelgrove ; William the Conqueror ; King Alfred ; Holden the
publisher ; Smith the grocer ; an M.P. ; his Highness,

V.VffiKl

SYNTAX

119

11. Syntax of the Adjective.

EuLE 8. The distributive adjectives each, every, etther, and
neither, cannot go with plural nouns or verbs.

We say "Each boy gets an apple." But we cannot say "Each boys" or "Eacli
boy get."

Rule 9. The adjectives well, unwell, ill, alert, aware,
afraid, glad, sorry, worth, etc., cannot go with nouns, but
can only be used predicatively of them.

(i) We can say " The gardener is well." But we cannot say " The well gardener.*
(ii) We can say "The workman was sorry to find,' etc. But, if we say "A sorry
workman"— then we mean something quite different.

(iii) In the first instance, the adjective is said to be used predicatively; in the
second instance, attribatively.

(iv) The verbs become, leem, grow, etc., are looked on as of the same character as be.

(v) In poetry we often find the adjective placed after the noun, even though it is
used in the ordinary attributive sense :

(a) He smote the warder hoar. ^

(b) Gloucester, that doke so good.

Exercise 207. State xchere the adjectives in the following
sentences are used predicatively, and where attributively :
1. We were all glad to hear the news. 2. Glad sight whenever
new and old are joined through some dear home-born tie !
3. The rector is very unwell. 4. We were all sorry to find
him out. 5. We were afraid to cross the field. 6. The girl is
much worse to-day. 7. I met with a piece of ill-luck. 8. Worse
fortune than befell him I cannot imagine. 9. We met a sorry
hack on the road. 10. "A silly thought to say a sorry sight ! "
said Lady Macbeth. 11. Thou bring'st the hope of those calm
skies, and the soft time of sunny showers. 12. These simple
joys that never fail shall bind me to my native vale.

III. Syntax of the Pronoun.

Rule 10. Pronouns must agree in gender, number, and
person with the nouns for which they stand.

(i) *• Where is Jane 7 She is in the garden." Jane is feminine ; and ihe is feminine,
(ii) " Where are the boys 1 They are in the house." Boys is plural ; and they ig plnral.

120 A SHORT GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGtJE

(iti) " The girl is here ; ih* is looking for her mother." Olrl is in the third perron ;
and lb* is in the third person.

Exercise 208. Point out {or arrange in separate columns) the
PRONOUNS in the following sentences, and the nouns they stand
for: 1. Down in a green and shady bed a modest violet grew ;
its stalk was bent, it hung its head. 2. The father called his
child. 3. Here Llewellyn hung his horn and spear. 4. In a
crack near the cupboard, with dainties provided, a certain young
mouse with her mother resided ; so securely they lived, in that
snug quiet spot, any mouse in the land might have envied their
lot. 5. The field-mouse is gone to her nest. 6. brave hearts
that went down in the seas, ye are at peace in the troubled
stream ! 7. Not an eye the storm that viewed changed its proud
glance of fortitude. 8. Neither the master nor his assistant
taught his pupils writing.

KuLE 11. Pronouns take their case from the sentences
to which they belong.

(!) " I have lost my book ; it was left on tlie table. " Here the noun book is in the
objective case. But tlic personal pronoun it, which stands for book, is in the nomina-
tive case— the nominative to was left.

(ii) " The boatman whom we met is ill." Here the noun boatman is in tlie nomina-
tive case to is ill. But the relative pronoun whom, which refers to boatman, is in the
objective case, governed by the active-transitive verb met.

(iii) Bclative and Intorrogative Pronoun* have tliis peculiarity : they are governed by
verbs that follow, and not by verbs that precede them. "Whom did you meet?"
" The man whom I met'

(iv) All this may be set forth thus :

(a) " The man who spoke to me was the lieutenant" (Nominative).

(b) " Tlie man whom we saw was tiie mate" (Objective).

Each of these tlirec words, who, whoie, and whom, belongs to a separate subordinate
sentence of iti own.

(v) Pr. Latham gives the following examples to illustrate the fact that a pronoun —
and especially a relative pronoun— takei iti caie (Tom iti own lentence :—

1. John (who trusts me) comes here (nom.).

2. John (whom I trust) comes here (obj.).

3. John (whoie trust is in me) comes here (poss.).

4. I truKt John (who trusts me) obj. and nom.

In the first tiiree sentences, the noun John is always in the nominative case ;
while the relative goes through three different cases. In the last sentence John is in
the otUective, but the relative is in the nomloatlTe.

SYNTAX

121

£z6rcige 209. Point out {or lorite ont) the relative pronouns
in the following sentences, and give their case, and also the case
of the notms they represent : 1. The book that the boy brought
me is not mine. 2. You may gather garlands there (that) would
grace a summer queen. 3. Mrs. Gilpin had two stone-bottles
found to hold the liquor that she loved. 4. Then might all
people well discern the bottle (that) he had slung. 5. He
loved the bird that loved the man, who shot him with his bow.
6. Under the keel nine fathoms deep, from the land of mist and
snow, the spirit slid ; and it was he that made the ship to
go. 7. The look with which they looked on me had never
passed away. 8. The owlet whoops to the wolf below that eats
the she- wolf's young.

EuLE 12. After such, same, so much, so great, etc., we
must not use the relative pronoun who — but as.

(i) Milton says : " Tears surli at angels weep."

(ii) We can say : " This is not the same coffee m I had before."

Exercise 210. Point out the antecedents of as in the following
sentences: 1. She wore just such a bonnet jis you describe.
2. This is not the same volume as I had before. 3. The sale
did not bring so much as I expected. 4. The author is not so
great a man as he fancies himself. 5. I felt such a pain as I
formerly had. G. Bring such flowers as you have. 7. It is
impossible to pardon such conduct as his. 8. Such as it is, I
give you the dog. 9. I did not receive such a welcome as I
formerly had. 10. Such an affection has sprung up between
them as cannot fail to last. 11. His health is not such as it was.
12. Such a sight as we saw coming across the moor !

IV. Syntax of the Verb.

Rule 13. A Finite Verb must agree with its nominative
in number and person.

We uy " A Finite Verb," liecauie a rerb in the Inflnitive Hood is never changed (or uumber or
penou, and cannot be said to ayree with any nominative.

(i) "The men are here." Here men is plural ; and are is plural.

(ii) " Bbe lingi better than I tlnr " Here ahe is third person ; and dugs is third

person. Z is flrut person ; and ■ins is first person.

(iii) We could not say I tiagt, because I would be flrat person, and sings third person ;

und the two would not " agree."

122 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGT^E

-!',

£zercl8e 211. Give the number and person of the vcrhn in
the following sentences : 1. The ruddy apples dropped from the
tree. 2. Tom and Harry have gone to the Exhibition. 3. His
sword was in its sheath. 4. You should not go so near the edge
of the clilF. f). Cromwell, I charge thee, Hing away ambition !
G. Nay, master, we are seven. 7. One touch of nature makes
the whole world kin. 8. The Lives of the Poets was written by
Dr. Johnson. 9. Has Mr. Smith called this morning ? No ! he
has not been here. 10. She must weep, or she will die ! 11. The
House is still sitting. 1-2. Mr. Pecksniff, having received a
knoA on the head, lay placidly staring at his own door.

Rule 14. Two or more singular nominatives, connected by
or or nor, require a verb in the singular.

(i) "Eiiher Tom or John ii going." Here Tom and John are taken separately and
■iagly; and tlierefore the verb must be tingulftr.

(ii) "Tliere wai neither sound nor sight to serve them for a guide." Here the
■onnd nnd tlie light are taken seimrately and lingly ; and therefore the verb wm must
be iu the dngnUr.

Rule 15. Two or more singular nominatives connected by
and require a verb in the plural.

"Tom and John are going." Tom is one person; Jolin is one person; one+
one-two. But two singul.ar iiersons = one plural; and tlierefore the verb are
is in the plural.

Exercise 212. Give the number of the verbs in the following
sentences ; and state in each case why the verb is singular or is
plural: 1. Soup and cold lamb will not make a bad dinner.
2. At one point in Baden the Danube and the Rhine are only
twelve miles from each other. 3. John and I pulled the boat
up on shore. 4. A wet sheet and a flowing sail are what I like.
5. Neither the gardener nor his boy had returned. 6. Time
and tide wait for no man. 7. The lark and the nightingale are
seldom heard together. 8. Neither the port nor the cliff is in
sight. 9. The general and his army surrendered. 10, There
was neither sound nor sight to serve them for a guide. 11. Bush,
and tree, and sky were hidden in the mist, 12, My hat and
wig will soon be here !

SYNTAX

123

Rule 16. When a Oollective Noun has tlic notion of unity
uppermost, its verb is in the singular.

"The jury WM discharged.' "The army U on the march." " The crowd wm easily
dispersed." lu nil these nouns, jurj, army, and crowd, the notion of nnlty is uppermost.

KuLE 17. When a Collective Noun has the notion of
plurality uppermost, its verb is in the plural.

(i) "The jwoplo were unwilling to meet in council. ' "The flower of Scotti.sh
youth were slain at Flodden." In the first L'entence, we think of the 2fople as com-
posed of a number of indlvldaaU, all of whom were unwilling. In the second, the
flow«r=the choicest men.

(ii) We also say : " The jury were not agreed."

(iii) " One half of mankind do not know how the other naif lire." " The people of
England aro jealous of their rights. "

Exercise 213. State why, in each instance, the collective
NOUNS in the following sentences have a singular or a plural
verb: 1. The army is marching on Constantinople. 2. The
public was not satisfied with the minister's statement. 3. The
fleet is under orders to sail to the West Indies. 4. Our
regiment was terribly cut up in the action. 5. The House of
Commons were of very different opinions on the subject. 6. The
jury were unable to agree. 7. The nation was thoroughly
united and acted as one man. 8. The School Board meets
only once a month. 9. Mine are the cattle upon a thousand
hills. 10, Parliament was dissolved in July. 11. People say that
he is not all he seems. 12. The meeting has elected its chairman.

Exercise 214. fVork this Exercise like the preceding one.
1. The crew was commanded by Captain Millar. 2. The family
was once a very happy one. 3. The whole nation is rising like
one man. 4. The jury was a very intelligent jury. 5. The
whole household were assembled. 6. The court were seated for
judgment. 7. The government is in possession of all the facts of
the case. 8. The English people declare they are grossly in-
sulted. 9. England has a people who love the sea. 10. The
cavalry was ordered up at full gallop. 11. Stonewall Jackson's
army was composed of veteran soldiers. 12. The whole family
were in tears. 13. The assembly were unable to agree. 14. The

124 A SHORT (JltAMMAR OF THE KNOLISH TONGUE

crew, rc<,Mr(lloss of the woiiipn and rhiMron, woro nmkinfj for the
boats. 15. The majority of the electors were \n favour of tlieir
old member. IG. The regiment was ordered alnoad.

KuLE 18. An Active-transitive Verb govoriis the objective

case.

(i) " We mot him." " Wc saw h«r." Here him and her are governed by met and law

(ii) A participle \a an adjective which retains the power of the verb fnun which it
comes. Hence a jiarticiplc, like its verb, can govern the objective case. "Seeing tlie
rain, I went back." Here the participle Seeing (which goes with I) governs the nouit
rain in the objective case.

(ii;) A gdmnd is a noun which retains the power of the verb from whicli it comes.
"Loving one's neighbour is enjoined by the gospel." Here Loving is a noun in the
nominative case to tlie verb la enjoined. But it is also a [gerund governing neighbour in
the objective case.

Exercise 215. ^lafe (or write in separate columns) the objkc-
TivES in the following sentences, and the vkubs that govern them:

I. Mary called her sister. 2. The soldier threw his sword
away. 3. The rector preached a long sermon. 4. Cast thy
bread upon the waters ; and thou shalt find it after many days.
5. The train passed the signal. 6. The counige and skill of the
captain saved the ship. 7. The prince held out his arms to
catch his sister. 8. You can see on the map two small i.slands
in the west. 9. The children led a happy life in the cotmtry.
10, The shrill note of the lark woke him from his slumbers.

II. He was carving the goose when he spilled the gravy.
12. We buried him darkly at dead of night.

Exercise 216. Select (or write in separate columns) the objkc-
TiVES in the following sentences, and the rARTicirLKs or
GERUNDS that govern them : 1. Edward the Confessor made a
will, api)ointing Duke William his successor. 2. Flogging a
dead horse is useless. 3. They joined in desiring him to speak.
4. Meeting my frier'd, I turned back with him. 5. Forgetting
< my hat, I ran out of doors. 6. It is better using France, than
trusting France. 7. We reached the town before ending onr
conversation. 8, It is useless his exerting himself so much.
9. The old father proposed accompanying his son. 10. Throwing
down my bundle, I ran to the gate. 11. I carefully avoided
seeing him. 12. Seeing the heavy clouds, I hurried back.

SYNTAX

125'

Rule 19. Active-Transitive verbs and prepositions govern
tho objective case.

(i) " Wc m«t the
objective case.

■Ml." Here tho active-transitive verb mat governs

in tho

(ii) " Wo walked with the man.
objective case.

Ilcre tho pre})Ositiou with govurnii man iti tint

Exercise 217. Arrange in columns the objkctivem in the
following sentences^ iinthr the headings oovkknkd nv vkrbs and
GovEUNED BY PREPOSITIONS : 1. So he wove a subtle web in a
little corner sly. 2. Lambs have play and pleasure, but not love
like ours. 3. The brother with his fin<'ers lonj' makes fimires on
the whitened wall. 4. A gentle hand they hear low tapping at
the bolted door. 5. Open your hospitable door and shield mo
from the biting blast. 6. The little children flocking came and
chafed his frozen hands in theirs. 7. Close beside the fire they
place the poor beggar-man. 8. Close by my cot she tells her
tale to every passing villager.

Rule 20. Verbs of teaching, asking, making, appointing,
etc., take two objects.

(i) We can say " IIo teaches me," " lie teaches grammar," and then "He teachea
me grammar." In all these sentences m« and grammar are in the objective case.

(ii) "They made him their leader." In this sentence made has two objectives ; and
such verbs are called factitive verbi.

(iii) " I am tatight grammar." Here the active verb teach has been turned into the
passive verb am tanght. But one of the objects is retained even after a pissive verb ;
and this object is called the retained object.

(iv) Caution! But, in the sentence "He was made their leader," the noun leader is
not a retained object, it is the nominative after ivas Tnat/c— which is a verb like beccwiic,
seem, etc. etc.

Exercise 218. Point out the two objects after the verbs of
teaching, etc., in the foUoxcing sentences: 1. The archbishop
crowned Duke William king. 2. My mother taught us French.
3. The judge asked the prisoner only one question. 4. Hia
parents called the child Richard. 5. Many Normans thought
Prince Arthur the rightful king. 6. The Directors appoinved
him inspector. 7. We do not think Dr. S. clever. 8. Many

126 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

deemed the man an impostor. 9. The French proclaimed Louis
king. 10. The regiment took six hundred men prisoners.

Exercise 219. Turn the verbs in the above into the passive
VOICE, and keep one of the two objects as a retained object.

Rule 21. An Intransitive Verb can take an object, if the
object be of the same meaning as the verb itself.

(i) We can say : To die the death ; to dream a dream ; to run a race,
(ii) Such an objcctivo is sometimes called a cognate objective.

Exercise 220. Arrange in three columns the objective cases in
the following sentences, under the headings, double objectives,
RETAINED OBJECTIVES, and COGNATE OBJECTIVES : 1. He has
fought a good fight. 2. They made him president. 3. He lived
a thoughtless life. 4. I was shown the place where he fell.
5. The 'k vs ran a race. 6. The porter was paid sixpence.
7. The master tauglit the boys Latin. 8. The whole meeting
shouted applause. 9. The girls danced a country dance. 10. He
laughed a laugh of merry scorn. 11. The 8coc:> called James vii.
king. 12. The soldiers took the General prisoner.

Rule 22. Verbs of giving, promising, telling, showing, etc.,
take two objects — an indirect object and a direct object.

(i) Thus we say : (a) He gave her a fan ; (l>) My uncie promised me a shilling ;
(c) They showed him the picture. Here :!ier, me, and him are all indirect object*.

(ii) The indirect object is in the dative caae.

(iii) When a verb is turned from the active into the passive voice, either the i>A.:ect
Object or the Indirect Otject may be turned into the Subject.

Direct Object used aa Subject.

Indirect Object nted as Snbject

(a) A fan was given her. I (a) She was given a fan.

(b) A shilling was promised me. (b) I was promised a shilling.

Exercise 221. i^tatc (or write down) which arc the direct
OBJECTS a7id which the indirect objects in the follotving
sentences: 1. The servant handed the lady a chair. 2. Build
me a cottage in the vale. 3. Send us a basket of strawberries.
4. His uncle left Robert all his fortune. 5. The porter refused
him admittance. C. The king offered his friend a peerage.

SYNTAX

127

7. The statement did my partner a cruel wronf^. 8. The ap-
pearance of the river promisetl the angler a good day's sport.
9. I did not deny him the favour. 10. The book cost me three
shillings. 11. The general granted him leave. 12. The watch-
man showed us the castle.

Exercise 222, Turn all the verbs in the above sentences into
the PASSIVE VOICE making the direct objects svbjeds.

Exercise 223. Turn all the verbs in the above sentence into
the PASSIVE VOICE making the indirect objects subjects.

Rule 23. Acti^'e-transitive Verbs of giving, promising,
showing, a./ such like, govern the direct object in the
objective case, and the indirect object in the dative case.

(i) " I frave Wm an apple." Here apple is the direct object, and is in the objective
case. Him is the indirect object, and is in the dative case.

(ii) If we say " An apple was given him," him is still in the dative case.

(ill) If we say " He was given an apple," then apple is still in the objective case, anil
is called a retained object.

Exercise 224. Point ont (or write in separate columns) the
direct objects and tht indirect objects in the following
sentences: 1. The parrot replied, "Give the knave a groat!"
2. I sent her a basket of strawberries. 3. My father bought me
_ this knife. 4. Fetch the lady a chair. 5. He kindly saved
them all trouble. 6. His fiither promised John a sailing boat.
7. The picture-dealer showed me over his gallery. 8. " Tell us a
story ! " .said the children. 9. I handed the wood-cutter his
axe. 10. "Heaven send the prince a better companion!"
11. "Heaven send the companion a better prince !" 12. "They
laid him down upon the floor, to work him further woe "
13. Her uncle left her all his fortune.

Rule 24. The Infinitive Mood is the subject or the object

of another verb.

(1) " He is learning to swim." "He hates to walk." Here the verbs U learning
and hate* throw the verbs iwlm and walk into the infinitive ni(».d, or they may be
regaided quite simply as the olJecU of the transitive verbs.

(ii) The infinitive is often the robject of the verb: "To rido in the morning is
very healthy."

(iii) The Influitive in such cases is a nosa.

f'i

128 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE EX(?LISH TONOtJE

Exercise 226. Jn the following sentences state whether the
Infinitives are the subject or the objfx'T of the verb they go
with: 1. The master promised to give us a holiday. 2. To
laugh were want of decency and grace, but to be grave exceeds
all power of face. 3. The general resolved to besiege the city.
4. To obey is better than sacrifice. 5. The mother hoped long
to see the face of her son once more. 6. The sorrowing sister
refused to play with her brother's friend. 7. He tried hard to
learn Chinese. 8. The captain ordered the soldier to carry the
letter. 9. John wishes to see the Exhibition. 10. The surgeon
tried to stop the bleeding. 11. It is hard to climb that hill.
12. The man was forced to serve in the navy.

KuLE 25. The Infinitive Mood is sometimes dependent on
Nouns and Adjectives.

(i) "The dnairo to learn lielpcd him on." Here the infinitive to le&ra is connected
with the noun deilre. lu the same way we say • Tlie wish to go ; a way to make you ;
time to go to bed : anxiety to sli»w.

(ii) " He is eager to learn." Here the infinitive to lears is connected with the
adjective aager.

Exercise 226. Select the verbs in the infinitive mood, and
say whether they are governed by other verbs, or are dependent on
nouns or on adjectives: 1. The little boy has learnt to read.
2. Ability to speak French is a necessary qualification. 3. They
were quite ready to stone me. 4. The boy is ripe to look on
war. 5. I intend to call on him. 6, Mine eyes are hungry to
behold her face. 7. He forgot, as we are all prone to do, the
facts against him. 8. He had the presumption to resist me to
my face. 9. These caitiff nobles had neither the courage to be
great, nor the wisdom to be honest. 10. He showed reluctance
to obey the summons. 11. The little lad was eager to go with
us. 12. The other boys refused to stir.

EuLE 26. The Simple Infinitive (without the sign to) is
used with auxiliary verbs, such as may, do, shall, will, can,
muRt, etc. ; and also with let, bid, see, hear, make, feel,
observe, and others of the same character.

(i) I let him do it. I bade him come. I saw her go.

SYNTAX

129

(ii) It is also usual to say : "Better stay ( = to stay) lure tlian lose your way."

(iii) In i>oetry, too, wo find : " Better dwtll in the midst of alarms, than reign in
tliis liorrible place I"

Exercise 227. Point out (or wife down) the infinitives that
have no to before them, and state ichat verbs govern them: 1. He
hade the captain look to it. 2. Diil you not hear nie speak ?

3. Your deeds would make the statues of your ancestors Wush.

4. Sometimes I saw you sit and spin. 5. She marked iiis banner
Itoldly fly. G. In other hands I have known money do good.
7. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 8. The
bleak wind of ^March made her tremble and shiver. 9. We
perceived him shrink when she spoke. 10. I observed tears
come into her eyes. 11. Montague discerned something stir
behind the hangings. 12. His eyes will ne'er behold another
day break in the East.

Rule 27. The gerund is both a noun and a verb. As a

noun, it may be in the nominative or in the objective case.
As a verb, it governs nouns or pronouns.

(1) " Cracking nuts injures tlie teeth." Here cracking is a gerund, and, as a verb,
governs the noun nuts. But, as a noun, it is the subject of the verb injures, and is in
the nominative case.

(ii) " He dislikes playing football." Here the gerund playing is a verb whieh
<^i)vevnii fnolhall in the oWjectivc case ; but it is also a noun, au<l is itself in the objec-
tive case, governed by the verb tUsUkes.

(iii) A gerund, ■which is a verbal noun, and a present partirijile, which is
a verbal adjective, both alike have the power of governing the same cases as
their verbs. "He is tired of fighting the enemy " (j;erund). " The girls are teasing
Mary " (participle).

ExerciEe 228. Point out {or icrite down) the gerunds in the
following se7itr)ices ; state ivhethcr they are nominatives or
on.rECTivES, aiid what ^vords they govern: 1. I distinctly re-
member meetinof him in Fleet Street. 2. Disbanded lefjions
freely might depart ; and slaying men would cease to be an art.
3. He declined throwing away words on the subject. 4. He did
not mind taking liberties with the law. 5. I recollect throwing
down m" fishing-rod on the bank. G. I have not the pleasure
of knowing the gentleman. 7. Catching salmon is an intensely
interesting pursuit. 8. The King congratulated the general on

r 1

■'i^

130 A SHOUT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

gaining so complete a victory. 9. She spent too much time in
reading novels. 10. The old miser always hated spending money.
11. The master grew tired of teaching boys so dull. 12. After
hearing the result of the Barrow election I came away.

Exercise 229. Work this Exercise like the preceding one.

I. Harry is fond of studying mathematics. 2. Such a course
runs the risk of setting fire to the sails. 3. Tom Brown was
excused fagging for the rest of the term. 4. Mr. Wilson is a
person well used to making sacrifices. 5. Fortune seems bent on
favouring us. (3. There can be little doubt of the tree's having
reached its maturity. 7. An act was passed for preventing ob-
struction in Parliament. 8. After having been writing all the
morning, my hand feels tired. 9. Of making many books there
is no end. 10. The angler was tired of flogging the water.

II. He piques himself on his skill in driving a ball. 12. I con-
gratulate you on having defeated your enemy.

KuLE 28. The Subjunctive Mood is always dependent on
another clause in the sentence.

(a) The word Subiiinctiet means lubjoin^-l or dependent. The clause in which the Subjunctira
occurs IS de|>enileut on the prhtciitOi clause in the sentence.

(bl The subjunctive mood is generally introjuced bya conjunction— such as: //, though, unleu, ete.

(i) " If you go, I will venture." Here the verb go in the first clause is in the sub-
junctive mood ; and the first clause is dependent on the second.

(ii) Sometimes the conjunction is omitted. Thus we say " Had I known it,
I would not have called." Here Had 1 is=-l/ 1 had; and the verb had is in
the subjunctive.

(iii) The use of the subjunctive mood is going out of fashion. Jane Austen, a writer
in the early part of this century, employed it with such conjunctions as Ere, untO,
whatlur, etc. But we no longer say " If he be willing, ' but simply " If he is willing."

Exercise 230. Point out (or write down) the verbs in the
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD ill the foUoicing sentences, and state upon
what clanse each is dependent : 1. If he is content I am. 2. See
that a guard be ready at my call. 3. I will not say whether
this be so or not. 4. I will not go, unless he come also. 5. And
if indeed I cast the brand away, surely a precious thing will then
be lost. 6. Foul deeds will rise, though all the earth o'erwhelm
them, to men's eyes. 7. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in
him. 8. I wish it were better weather. 9. Had she lived a

SYNTAX : 131

a twelvemonth more, she had not died to-day. 10. Leisure can-
not be enjoyed unless it be won by labour.

Exercise 231. Wotk this Exercise like the preoding.
1. It IS better that he die than that justice depart out of the
world. 2. It is the king's pleasure that the queen appoar in
person before the Court. 3. It is time that I were gone.
4. Go ! bid thy mistress, when my drink is ready, she strike
upon the bell. 5. I pray thee. Cardinal, that thou assert my
innocence. 6. See that a guard be ready at my call. 7. I wish
it were in my power to be of any service to him. 8. Will your
majesty give Richard leave to live till llichard die ? 9. Blow
till thou burst thy wind! 10. You must beware lest his
blundering destroy your hopes of success. 11. Here let us rest,
if this rebellious earth have any resting for her true kin.^'s
queen. 12. If solitude succeed to grief, release from pain "is
slight relief.

V. Syntax of the Adverb, Preposition, and
Conjunction.

Rule 29. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs.

0) " He writes well. " Here the adverb weU modifies tlie verb writei.
V-0 " John is very ill." Here the adverb v.ry modifies the adjective lU.
CU) " Tom ran very fast." Here the adverb very mmlilies the adverb fut.
(iv) Nouns or noun-phrases may be used as adverbs. Thus we can say "He
was bound hand and foot." <'I don't care a button." "Wait a bit-" Here
the noun-phrases "hand and foot,' "a button." and "a bif modify the verbs
bound, care, and wait.

(V) Caution. The word button is not the oy^t of the verb care, but the m,«ur,
of the caring.

^ Exercise 232. Point out (or write in columns) the adverbs
tn the following sentences; and state tvhcthcr thnj modify vfrbs
ADJECTiVKS, or Other ADVERBS : 1. He heard again the langua.re
or his native land. 2. The siege was pressed more closely
3. We rose very early. 4. He left almost immediately r. These
rich people never knew adversity. 6. Charles early showed a
very strong liking for music. 7. He too scornfully thrust aside

132 A SHOUT (illAMMAll OF THK KNGLrSH TONCJUK

our apologies. 8. He is old cnoiirrh to know better. 0. Tread
softly and speak low, for the old year lies a-dyin^^ 10. Take
her up very tenderly. 11. The master spoke extremely loud.
12. The fire burned away too fast.

Rule 30. Adverbs sometimes modify prepositional phrases.

(i) " He ran up to me.' Here the adverb up cloes not modify tin; verb ran, but the
prepositional phrase to me.

(ii) " He ran down to the river." Here the adverb down modifies the jirepositional
]>)irase to the river.

Exercise 233. Point out the adverbs in the following sen-
tences, and state, what prkposition-al phrase-s they modify:
1. We traced the fox up to his hole. 2. The cup was full nearly
to the brim. 3. He drained the bitter cup nearly to the dregs,
4. Their height was the same almost to an inch. f). The people
i'^se, almost to a man, against so wicked a law. 0. They argued
J; *te from the point. 7. The robber Avas stabbed almost quite
'hrough the heart. 8. There remained no green thing almost
throughout the land of Egypt. 9. The boom was stretched
'uite 1 ^ss the stream. 10. He meets nie every day almost at
the san fc time. 11. The body lay entirely in the river.
1 2. Always in sleep I hear the mournful sound.

Rule 31. The adverb should always stand as close r-s
possible to the Avord it modifies.

We ought to say "He gave me only three shillings," because the adverb only
modifies the adjective three. We ought not to say " He only gave," etc.

Rule 32. Prepositions govern the objective case.

" He came with me." Here me is in the objective, governed by with.

Exercise 234. Point out {or write down) the objectives in
the followinrf sentences, and the prepositions that govern them:
1. We buried him darkly at dead of night. 2. That trot became
a gallop soon in spite of curb and rein. 3. He grasped the
mane with both his hands. 4. From far ^ the lowings come of
cattle driven home. 5. The gnats v/hirl in the air. 0. Our ship
made little way asjainst the Avind. 7. He returned from wander-
ing 2 on a foreign strand. 8. Here lies poor Tom Bowling, the

1 Far here must be regarded as n noun, because it is used as a noun,
i Wandering Is a verlMl noun.

SYNTAX

133

diirlinf,' of our crew. [>. Mirth is tiirnocl to melancholy.
10. The horned moon lose with one bright stiir within ih.>
nether tip. 11. The look with which they looked on nie liad
never passed away. 12. 'i'he tempest «rathered o'er her.

Exercise 236. In the following sentences and jih rases state
whether the loord in i'alics is an adveub or a ruEPosiTiox. //
the former, mention the verb it goes with ; if the latter, the Nof.v
it joins: 1. The book is lying o/< the table. 2. Thus spake o/t
that ancient man. 3. The room went roimd with me. 4. "We
all ran round the ring. 5. Tlie swing went np and down
famously. G. We walked together vj) and down the street.
7. Sir John jumped immediately o/^' his horse. 8. The Jockey
was thrown off just at the beginning of the race. 9. The
children were playing in the field. 10. The man said : " I have
just looked in for two minutes." 11. Do not walk on the flower-
beds. 12. Walk on ! I will join you in a minute.

Rule 33. Certain verbs, nouns, and adjectives require
special prepositions.

(i) Many i)ersoiis say " This is quite different to that." But they wonM not say
"Tliis differs to that." They would say "This differs from that." If the verb
differ! takes from, the adjective different must also take from.

(ii) The following is ;i list of the chief of these special and appropriate preiiosif ions :

Comply with
Confer on (-give to)
Confer with ( = talk witli)

Absolve from

Accord with

Acquit of

Adapted to (by intention)

Adapted for (by nature)

Agree with (a person)

Agree to (a proposal)

Alienate from

Antipathy to

Assent to

Avert from

Bestow npon

Bltish at (the mention of a thing)

Blush for (an act)

Boast of

Capable of

Change for (a thing)

Change with (a penon)

Confide in ( = trust in)

Confiile to ( = intrust to)

Convenient to (a jierson)

Convenient for (a purjiose)

Conversant with

Correspond with ( = write letters)

Correspond to (a thing)

Deficient in

Deijendent on (Vmt independent of :)

Devolve npon

Differ ftom (a statement)

Differ with (a person)

Different from

Disappointed of (what we cannot g

Disappoiated in (what we luva got)

■

134

A RTTOTtT flHAMMAll OF THE ■RNf'.TJRII TOXdlTE

Disappointed with (a tliiiij,')

Dissent from

Distingnisliod from (anotlier tliiny)

Distinguished by (a mark)

Kager for

Enamoured of

Endearod to

Exception from (a rule)

Exception to (a statement)

Exclusive of

Expert at (liis work)

Expert In (his profession)

Foreign to

Glad of (a possession)

Glad at (a piece of news)

Grieve at

Guilty of

Indifferent to

Inseparable from

Inured to

Involved In

Martyr for (a cause)

Martyr to (a disease)

Need of or for

Overwhelmed with (shame)

Overwhelmed by (kindness)

Tart from (a person)

Part with (a thing)

Front by

Provide for (a person)

Provide with (food, etc.)

Provide against (disaster)

Reconcile to (a person)

Reconcile with (a statement)

Significant of

Taste of (food)

Taste for (art)

Thirst for or after (knowledge)

Triumph over

Wait on ( = visit)

Wait for ( = spend time waiting)

Warn of or against

Exercise 233. Place suitable prepositions after the follow-
ing words: 1. Adapt. 2. Agree. 3. Assent. 4. Bestow.
5. Boast. G. Distinguish. 7. Exception. 8. Expert. 9. Foreign.
10. Charge. 11, Confer. 12. Correspond.

Exercise 237. Add suitable prepositions to the following :
Differ. 2. Glad. 3. Inseparable. 4. Overwhelmed.

8. Taste. 9. Triumph.

5. Part. G. Provide. 7. Reconcile

10. Wait. 11. Warn.

KuLE 34. Conjunctions arc words which join verbs or
sentences. They do not interfere with the action of a
transitive verb or a preposition.

(i) " We saw her and them." Here the conjunction and does not interfere with the
action of the verb saw. Saw governs them as well as her.

(ii) "He will not go with either you or me." Here the preposition with governs
the pronouns you and me in spite of the conjunctions either and or coming between.

Exercise 238. Select the conjunctions in the following
sentences^ and state what verbs they join : 1. He came in the
afternoon and dined with us. 2. Some wept, and all kept silence.

SYNTAX

135

3. I do not Know wnctlier ho is arrived or not. 4. I often miss
but he never does. r>. He felt sorry that he had si)oken. 6 He
waited tdl we came out of the hall. 7. So I told them in rhvme
for of rhymes I had store. 8. The cataract pl„n-os aloti-r ks if
It were waging war with the rocks. 9. My th.ys and niglUs were
never weary, though many called mv life' forlorn. " 10 All
bloodless lay the untrodden snow, and\lark us winter was the
flow of Iser. 11. The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark
(— ), when neither is attended. 12. We shall not skate if
the ice is thin.

w-
w.

jn.

J-
id.

•h.

Rule 35. Certain adjectives and conjunctions require
special conjunctions.

The following is a list of the most important :

Both (atij.) requires and

Either ,, or

Neither „ aor

^'w ,t not

* „ or

Rather than

Such (adj.) requires ai

A" ., as

«• ag

B'nce ,, therefore

Though „ yet

II or

Whether

Rule 36." The .subordinating conjunction that is often
omitted.

(i) " Are you sure lie is come ?" Here that un.lerstood joins two sentences.
(ii) " Brutus says lie was ambitious." That is also understood iu this statement.

Dr
a

BAD GRAMMAR CORRECTED, WITH

REASONS.

■i;. ■

1. No one seemed to act as if tlicy were friendly.

.Vn one is tin^lar ; the pronoun vchich Btaiidii fur It, ought aliio to Iw aluKUlar.

2. Homer, as well us Virgil, were studied on the banks of
the Rhine.

Alter the poaillon of the clauses ami say : " Homer was studie.l ... as well as Virgil.'

3. Nothing but grave and serious studies <lelight liim.

The nouiiuative to the verb la Xuthing. A'othing is siiigulnr ; therefore the verb ought to ba
singular.

4. It is better for you and I as it is.

For is a preposition, which governs the objective case ; and /ought therefore to lie me.

5. Without you agree, nothing can be done.

Without is here used as a conjunction,— an old-fashiouetl usage. The l>est writers now employ it
only as a preposition.

6. Whom do you think was there 1

Alter the order into: Whom was there, do you think? Here we see that the Rul)ject nf unu is
whom, which ought to be who in the nominative case,

7. He offered a large sum to whomsoever would assist him.

This sentence looks all right ; Viecause whomtnever seems to be govemetl in tl » olyective case by
the preposition to. But the verb inmlU iimint wants a nominative ; and the only nomina-
tive it can have is who.ii>evcr. What, then, does (u govern? It manifestly governs the words .
an;/ person (understood).

8. Men are put in the plural number, because they mean

many.

This also looks right ; because the plural nominative mm requires a plural verb art. But the
trtw nominative is the word Men ; and hence the sentence ought to run : " .V<^>i is put, 'etc.

/ 9. Dr. Johnson's Lives of the Poets are an interesting book.

The sentence ought to run : " lives is," etc. ; because Johnson's Livei is oue book, no matter how
many Lives it may contain.

-10. Do it like I do!

Here like is used as a conjunction. But good writers and speakers always employ it as an »diMtlTai

ise

BAD GRAMMAIl COURECTED, WITH REAbOiNS 137

11. I was told it Avjis him.

Il bIiuuUI )>e irus he. '] lie iKiinlniitive ti) trnt is it; tlio viili In M' Iihk Die aHiii* raitr after It ai
Itrfore it ; t^ is iii tlie iiouiiuative ; tlierefore him iliuulU be 111 the uuiuiuativealto— ttiat w,
should Im) Ae,

12. "We sorrow not as tliem that have no liope.

^ It hlioiild lio lu thry. I. .(» in not a iircpnsiliDii. wliiili Kciverii!* tlio olueclivi-. 2. Tlie verb

sorrow u UDderaluoU ; mid tlie full coustructiuu is " \Vu soriuw iiut na tliey kurruw. '

^13. I have met your friend, lie that is the sailor.

Friend Is in tlie ulijcctive case ; he U lu apiMjsitidii v\\\i friend ; tliurcfi)re he ouj^lit to lie /iiiii.

^14. He was angry at me fjuitting the house.

Quitting is licrc a geniud, because it guverus the uuuu huii^e, Iiut a ){Kruud m a ihmiii , tlii>refor<i
vie ought tu bo tni/.

15. The King with the Lords and Conniions form the
I.'jgislatm'e.

This ought either to lie the King and, or the King, tcith . . . farms. With it never a coi^ujiction,
but always a |>re|>ositiuD.

IG. A versilier and poet arc two different things.

A veriifter and i>u>'t means one and the same inTsmi. It ought to Lh! .1 rersijler unit a jioet,

^-^ 17. The book ■will be read by the high and low.

This reads as if the same net of jicrsous were both "high and Inw" — whith Is iiii|H>nHili1«. Tv»'i
different sets ofiwisoiis are uieaut ; aud the phrase oinjlji to l)e "The high and the low."

,18. Cromwell assumed the title of a Proteetor.

This reads as if Cromwell had takeu the title of some one else. It ought to lie of Protector.

19. A great and a good man aims at higher things

I'ut so, the sentence speaks of two men— one great and one good. Iiut it is plain that only one
man is meant ; and it ought to be " A great and good man."

20. She fell a-langhing like one out of their right mind.

C'/ie is singular; the pronoun referring tu it ought to lie singular ; therefore 'AeiV ought tu !« »<t.

21. There are five compartments : jnit it in cither of them !

Kithcr=oue of two. It canuot mean one of Jirv. It ought to be any or any one.

22. This opinion is lield by one of the greatest philosophers
that has ever existed.

The antecedent to that is phiJoiophen. But philotophers is plural ; that is therefore also plural :
aud Ai« ought also to be pluial.

23. Those sort of books are useless.

Sort is singular; the adjective those ought to be singular; and the verb arc ought alio to b«
Btugtiiar. The seuteuce ought to ruu i That sort of books is useless.

138 A SHOUT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

21. Tlie quotation is to be found on the second or third

[.age.

Thii mMni ihut *h«re li only on« page ipokfn of, which page U leeonil or third. Thli ii

ituiiosaible, 11 iiti|;lit tii l>c : Ma U'fond or tin third.

25. Our cliniato i^ not so sunny as those of Fiance or Italy.

Tlili lenteQce may be corrected in two wayi : "Those of France an(< Italy." Or ' that of Franc*
ur of Italy. In the latter case each cltoiate ii taken by Itself,

2G. In France tlio peasantry goes barefoot.

In the collective noun pfmniiiry the lilea <if plurality Is uppermost. From the point of view
of wtfiiriug sboes, we caiinut think of the French peasaotry as cue *<l body.

27. His family are large.

In the culiective uouu/((mi7y the iilea of unity i^ upiK-rniuat ; and art ought to be U.

28. The fleet have sailed.

The collective uuun fleet indicates a united body, with a single head ; have ought therefore to
be hat.

29. Art thou the man that comcst from Egypt 1

The antecedent to that is man. nut man, being a noun. Is In the third person. Therefor* that
Is In the third i>erson ; and comeit ought aUo to lie in the third person.

30. They who have the courage always to speak the

truth choose for thy friends.

The active verb chno»e governs tlie oluective case. They ought therefore to !« them. This wonU
be at once seen if we altered the order and said s "Choose them for ' friends, etc.

31. Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign

The olilect ot arraign is JTiou, which ought, therefore, to b* TKee.

32. Not enjoyment and not sorrow are our destined end
or way.

Here the two nominatives enjoyment and lorrote are taken and thought of separately. " Enjoy,
meut is not our end." " Sorrow is not our end." Hence are ought to be i>.

33. I had intended to have gone to London.

When you were intending, the going was pretent to your mind, and future as regards your
action. Hence it cuuld not possibly have l^en jxiit. Hence tu have •/one should lie tojo.

34. He is a stronger man than me.

Thati is really a conjunction Joining the two sentences : " He is a stronger man than I am. "
Hence me ought to be /.

35. That is the best of the two.

The superlative degree is used when three things are comp«red ; tb« compuative wfcen m^Y two.
Hence bett uugbt to lie better.

liAD GUAMMArw flOIlRKCTED, WITH REASONS

139

3G. Let each o-steem (ttlins better thuii tlioiusclvcs.

Kuch it ft wnril in the KluRUlar nuiiilirr. The reflexive pronoun that Tvtvrtt to it oiiKht iklio to Ix
■inioil»r, .tnil llinntelvet ou^lit theiefure to b« himtet/.

37. Xt'itlicr })rcc('pt nor <lisci})line arc so forcil»l»> as
example.

Here the two nomlnatlven prfivpt and ilitil/Jhif nre thoiiijlil of «»i>nr»teljr ami nre each Mpnr-
ately cuuipareJ witli vjiiimiile tli'iice llic vt rl> urc uiixlit tu Im it.

38. And many a lioly text around slic strews,
That teach the rustic moralist to die.

7Vjr/ it ningnliir ', tlie relative pronoun thai in tliurefure iingular ; iin'' hence tlie verh timh
ought tu Lx liiiuular.

39. What art thou, speak, tliat on designs unknown,
While otliers sleep, tinis range the camp alone ]

Thou i» tlie m'coml pemoii ; Hint in tlierefure in tlie Kecoml jierKon ; anJ hence the virli range
ought to be in the HFcunil |iertiiii.

40. Sense, and not liches, win esteem.

Itouxht to be toi/it. The nuniiniitive to the vfiIi U <i'>i«' ; and rnhrs is cxpreaolir exuludeil.

41. We can easier walk than lidc.

F.tuivr onglit ti> Ih) more eai>ily. The «uril tlmt HHnlitles a vorli must \m an a<lverl), not an
Hdjective.

42. I knew it to be 1

1 '.

two.

It ought tube: to be him. The word it \i in llie objective cMse. governed h-yknrto; the verb fo
6e has the luuiie case after it as before it ; hence lie ahonld lie Aim.

43. They all slept sound save she who loved them both.

she ought to \>e her. Niiiv (like cxrept) is a vreposition governing the ob.iei'tlve cii»e. (.\» a
niiitter of fact, l>oili save aud ejcfj,t are verlm iu the imiierutive mood— but tmeil an |ireiiu8i-
tions.)

44. They arc the two first boys in the class.

There cannot !« two first. It ought tu l« first ^ini— that is, the two iHiyn who are highenl in the
claM.

45. Nor want nor coM his course delay.

Ill thiil sentence unnt is thought of and 8i>ukeu of separately ; so is coftf. Hence the verb ought
to be singular.

46. This offence I shall neither attempt to palliate nor deny.

The word neither should come tiefore to palliate ; as the neither and the tior 'u meet the j/alliai*
and the Ufiiy.

47. Hoping soon to see you, believe me yours truly.

Hoping is an adjective. With what noun or pronoun does It gof It must go with the pronoun
yr<u underatood alter belierv. The sentence is therefoie-" Believe you, hoping. ' etc. But
the person who hopes is the writer of the letter. The sentence ought therefore to be,
" Uopiiig to see yuu, I am, etc.

140 A SHORT ORAMMAll OF TttE ENOLlStt TONOtTH

48. Failing in this attempt, no second attack was made.

Failing U an adjectlvei With what hoiin dops it agree? The only noun it can agree with i« tht
noutt attack. But this wuulil make nonsense. Ttie sentence ougtit to be : " Failing in
this attempt, they made no second attack. "

49. I never have and never will believe it.

It ought to be : " 1 never have Itelieved,' etc. We emiiiot say fco»c6«?iVM.

50. The sons of false Antimaclius were slain ;
He who for bribes his faithless counsels sold.

Be is in apposition with Antimacliui. But Antimachiu is in the olvective case, governed by th^
preposition «/. Tlieiefure lie ought to lie Eim.

51. Everybody trembled for themselves Oi- their friends.

Everybody is singular. Therefore tlie pronoun tliat stands for it ouglit to )jc singular. The
seutenue ought to run thus : '* for himself or for his friends.'

h2. This is one of the best books that has ever been
published.

The anteoedAnt to that is bonlis. Rut Imakii is plural ; therefore that Is also plural ; and therefore
the verb ought also to lie jilunil.

53. Nothing but scientific studies delight him.

The nominative to the verb delight is nothing— a noun which is singular. Hence delight ouglit to
be delightl.

54. The ends of a divine and human legislator are vastly
different.

There are two legislators. Heme the sentence ouglit to run : " A divine and a human. '

55. The knife was laying on the table.

It ought to be lylny. Lay is the transitive (or causative) form of lie ; It is=fna>:e to lie. In the
same way, we tiave let and <i( ; /cU and fall, etc.

56. The cavalry Avears helmets.

It ought to Xm wear; liecauHe the idea of plurality l» uppermost in the word cavalry, when we
think ot all of tliem wviiring helmets.

57. Any one may have this : I care not whom.

The full construction is : "I care not v'.:o (has it).'° Hence whom ought to be who.

58. Every thought and feeling are opposed to it.

" Every thought and every feeling ' are each taken singly ; and therefore the verb ntight to he
•lUfuiar,

Uth«
ing in

I'HE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

yth«

The

fore

tto

Lesson 1. — The Kinds of Sentences.

1. All -words go in sets or groups.

2. When a group of words makes complete sense, it is
called a sentence.

3. If the sense is not complete, it is called a clause or
a phrase.

(i) Thus " Wherever he went" does not make coin pleto si-nso, ami iscitlled aclaiue.
(ii) " la the river ' does not make toiinilete sense, ami i.s called a phraie.

4. A sentence is a complete statement.

(i) "The horse gallops." " Fishes swim." These are complete statements. There-
fore they are seiitcDCPS.

(ii) "Wi'.i a gun." "In the house." These are groups of words; but they are
not statements, because they contain no verb. They are called phrase*.

(iii) "Wherever I went." "If you come." These are statements. Tliey contain
verbs ; but tliey are not complete. They are therefore not sentences.

5. There are three kinds of sentences : Simple, Compound,
and Complex.

(i) A ilmple lentence consists of one complete statement : "The boy runs."

(i.) A compound sebtence of two or more comphte statements, all of eqaal rank.
"John was lishin^' . Mary was sitting on the bank ; and Tom was gathering llowers.'
Here there are three complete statements, But they are all of equal rank or import-
ance ; and hence the sentence is a compound lentence.

(iii) A complex lentence contains one chief sentence, and one or more sentences that
are of TObordlnate rank. "Ths is the book that you asked for." Here the principal
MnUncais "This is the book." The clause "that you asked for," is a rabordlnate

141

■I

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONCtE

■ent«ne« which has attached itself to hook. This sentence, then, contains a piiaeipftl
and a lubordinat* sentence : it is therefore a complex lentonc*.

Exercise 239. State which of the following are sentences,
which CLAUSES, aiul xvhich mere phrases : 1. Tom ran quickly
to the station. 2. The boy whom we met. 3. For so much
money. 4. Close to the lake. 5. "We met at the church door.
6. In the market-place of the town. 7. Every turf beneath their
feet. 8. Whenever I meet him. 9. War has been proclaimed.
10. Swiftly, swiftly blew the breeze. 11. The spirit that
plagued us so. 12. Under the table.

Lesson 2. — The Simple Sentence, i.

1. A Simple Sentence consists of one subject and one
predicate.

(!) The BntjMt is the thing (or person) we speak about. What we speak about, we
must luup*. We must tlierefure use a uuna or a noun. Hence the Snbject is always
a noon.

(ii) The PredicaU is what we My about the subject. To say anything, we must use
a Mylng-word or t«Uing-word or verb. Therefore tlie predicate is always a verb.

2. The Subject is the person or thing we speak about.

(i) "The man snores." About what do we here speak? The man.
(ii) " The lion roars." What do we speak about here? The lion.
(lii) "The trumpet .sound.s." Here we speak about the tnunpat.
(iv) " The ball rebounds. ' Here the subject is the ball.

3. The Predicate is what wc say about the subject.

(!) " The cannons roar. " What do we say about the cannons? That they roar.
(ii) " The ploughl)oys snore." What is saiil about the ploughboys ? That they anore.
(iii) " The lark sings." Here ainct tells about the lark,
(iv) " The bell rings." Here rtngt is the predicate.

4. There are six kinds of subjects in a simple sentence :

(i) A noun, as in "The fair breeia blew."

(ii) A prononn, as in " It is I." ■ \ _

(iii) A verbal noun, as in "Walking is healthy."

elpal

kly
uch
)or.
leir
ed.
hat

we
ays

use

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES . U3

(iv) A gemnd, as in "Reading too many books is unprofitable.

(v) An InflnltlTe, as in "To iwlm is not difficult."

(vi) An adJectUe with a noon undentood, as in "The blind (iiersons) receive their
sight."

5. The subject is cither a noun, or some Avord or words
equivalent to a noun.

Exercise 240. Point out {or arrange in two columns) the
SUBJECTS and predicates in the following: 1. The horses
galloped all over the field. 2. The dogs disturbed us with their
incessant barking. 3. The deserter was shot. 4. Charles i. lost
his head. o. The people love their king. G. Richard iii.
murdered his nephews. 7. The elephant dragged the gun from
the morass. 8. Columbus discovered America. 9. Nelson won
the battle of the Nile 10. The blackbird began his merry lay.

11. The drums beat at dead of night 12. Robinson Crusoe
built himself a house.

Exercise 241. Supply suitahle predicates to the folloicing
subjects: 1. The trout. 2. The elephant. 3. The ship. 4. The
tiger. 5. Ink. G. Tlie gunpowder. 7. The snow. 8. The
Thames. 9. The reaper. 10. The wind. 11. The Queen.

12. The regiment.

Exercise 242. Suj^j^hj suitable subjects to the folloicing
predicates: 1. Barks. 2. Roar. 3. Neighs. 4. Was punisheti.
5. Was rewarded. G. Sang. 7. Has succeeded. 8. Is sorry.

9. Shone. 10. Shouted. 11. Rang. 12. Departed.

Exercise 243. Arrange the subjects in the following snitnices
in six columns, thus :

NOl'NS I I'RONOINS | VERBAL NOUNS j GERUNDS [ INFINITIVfS | ADJECTrVrS

1. Swimming is a very healthy exercise. 2. The captain Kd
his company into action. 3. The skipper had taken with him
his little daughter. 4. The idle will certainly receive their
reward. 5. We saw them bathing. G. To err is human ; to
forgive divine. 7. Lying is a hateful vice. 8. Lifting heavy
weights tires the arms. 9. :Many are called ; few are chosen.

10. How are the mighty fallen I 11. The good are sometimes
unhaj)py. 12, Travelling in t!ic desert i.^ unsafe,

'1.:

144 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 3. — The Simple Sentence, ii.

1. There are five kinds of predicates :

(i) A verb, as in " God li." " Rivers flow."

(ii) The verb to be + a noun, as in "John Is a carpenter. "
(-.11) Tlie verb to be + an adjective, as in "John 1b 111."
(iv) Tlie verb to be + an adverb, as in " Tlie man li here. "

(v) Thfj verb to be -f a phrase, as in " Tliey are in great poverty.

2. Tlie predicate is either a verb or some words equivalent
to a verb.

3. "When the predicate contain.s an active-transitive verb,
that verb requires after it an object, to make complete sense.

4. Sucli an object is called a completion, because it enables
us to complete the sense.

5. As there are six kinds of subjects, so there arc six kinds
of objects or completions. These are :

(i) A noun, as in " Tlie e(»\v gives milk."

(ii) A pronoun, as in " We conhl not. find him."
(iii) A verbal noon, as in " We dislilii- flshinn. "
(iv) A gerund, as in " Tlie gamekeejier declines letting traps."

(v) An infinitive, as in " We like to ilt here."
(vi) An adjective with a noun understood, as in " Tlie blind lead the blind."

6. Verbs of giving, promising, offering, handing, take an
indirect object in addition to the direct object.

(i) "The sight of him gave ut great pleasure." Here us is the indirect, and pleasure
the direct object. s

(ii) The indirect object may 1)0 changed Into a prepositional phrase. " I gave the
man a shilling" may )ie altered into " I gave a shilling \o the man." Dnt to the man is
ptiU the i|id:rtct object,

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

145

ent

>rb,

se.

>]cs

Exercise 244. Arrange in Jive columns the different kinds of
predicates in the folloioing :

VERBS I TO BE + NOUN | TO BE + ADJECTIVE | TO BE+ ADVERB | TO BE+PHRA8E

1. The lions roar. 2. The boys played all the afternoon.

3. Harry is a fiirmer. 4. The ladder was very lonfj. 5, The
messenger is here. G. The deserter is still at large. 7. The
wind is very boisterous. 8. Napoleon was a great general.
9. Sir Robert Peel was a great statesman. 10. Lead is a soft
metal. 11. The lad is of incurably lazy habits. 12. The family
is in great poverty.

Exercise 245. Place in two columvs the direct objkcts and
the INDIRECT OBJECTS ill the folloH-ing sentences: 1. The lad
never gave his parents a moment's anxiety. 2. He handed the
lady a cup of coffee. 3. The doctor brought him a bandage.

4. The traveller threw him his purse. 5. His father left Tom a
very pretty fortune, G. Nobody will now keej) him company.
7. He procured the fat rogue a fat olhce. 8. I got her an opera-
box. 9. He wrought the castle nuich annoy. 10. He never di<l
us any good. 11. He bought his little girl a nice pony. 12. God
grant him a safe voyage ! 13. Send me your photograph, please.
14. The saddler made me a leather muzzle.

ids

Hire

the
1 is

Lesson 4, — Enlargements.

1. An adjective or adjectival phrase added to the subject
or to the object is called an enlargement.

(i) We can say " The traveller paused." We can also say " The poor old traveller,
sick. and weary, paused (a* the gate)." ilere the adjectives poor old before the subject
and the adjectives sick and weary after it, are all enlargements of the subject traveller.

(ii) A subject may have a very liirgt) iiuniberof enlargements.

2. There are six kinds of enlargements in a simple sentence :

(i) One or more adjecttvei. "The two old pristuiers were released."
(ii) A noon (or nouns) in apposition. " Peter the Her.itlt preached to the crowd."
(Hi) A noun In the possei>jlve. " A stranger filled the Stoarts' throne."
(iv) A prepositional phrase. " The soul of muaic lives in her voice."
(v) An adjectival phrase. "The chieftain, nnconscious of his son, lay dead."

(vi) A participle or participial phrase. "A rolling stuno gather.s no moss." Warned by
^f iM'dener, the boys went otT."

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

3. An enlargement is always an adjective or a phrase
equivalent to an adjective.

Exercise 246. Arrange in columns the six Jcinds of enlarge-
ments in the following sentences, thus :
Adj. I Noes in Appos. | Possess. | Piikp. Phrase ] Adj. Phrase | Part. Phrase.
1. The lame old man hobbled slowly along. 2. The princess'.s
death was much lamented. 3. The pigmies, ■with long black
hair, were discovered in the great African forest. 4. The fire,
having seized the storehouse, could not be subdued. 5. The
governor, relying on the general's promise, defended tiie town.
6. Alexander the coppersmith did me much evil. 7. The rising
moon shone brightly on the calm waters. 8. Paul the Apostle
was a great traveller. 9. He enters through the lliver-gate,
borne l>y the joyous crowd. 10. The sound of nuisic and
laughter was heard throughout the town. 11. Three long weary
days passed. 12. The boy, afraid of the consequences of his
action, fled from the town.

Exercise 247. Turn tue exlaugemkxts in the following
sentences into adjectivks : 1. The opinion of the people was
little heeded by Lord Derby. 2. The castles of the barons were
pulled down by Henry ii. 3. The pride of a woman, and the
dignity of a queen, sustained Marie Antoinette during her trial.
4. The power of the king docs not reach so far. 5. The jurisdic-
tion of the bishop is incomplete. G. The hand of a friend
was stretched out to aid us. 7. No person of judgment woul I
give such an opinion. 8. A man of sense and courage is needed.
9. An artisan without skill botches his work. 10. A cargo
of great value was placed in the ship. 11. The deeds of
heroes were displayed in the Crimean War. 12. The eagerness
of a child misled her.

Lesson 5. — Extensions.

1. The adverbs or adverbial phrases that go with the
predicate arc called Extensions of the Predicate.

2. There are six kinds of extensions ;

<) All adrtrb. "Thoinas works hwd,"

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

147

(ii) An adverbUl phraie. "Mr. Wilson siwke very forcibly. "
(iii)Apr.po.mon»lphr»... " Mr. Thomson sin^ke with gr.»t oloquenc.
(iv) A noun phrase. ' We walkc.l iWe by ilde."

(V) A participial phrase. "The rocks came rolling down. "

(v) Ag.r«ndlalphr.«, '•Hcdia it to ln«.lt us" ( = for the purpose of insulting n..).
Tl.e participial phrase may be a nomina,i,e absolute. •• The battle bei,.g lo.l, U.e foe retreated. "

3. All extensions of tlic predicate are either adverbs or
equivalent to adverbs.

4. We can now see that all the (lifTerentpaits of a sentence
group themselves round either the Subject or the Predicate.

Thus we liave :

Enlargcnients Extensions

SUBJECT • PREDICATE

(Objects)

^ Exercise 248. Arrange in sic columns the extensions in the
foUoioiufj sentences :

Adverbs | Adverb. Phrask | Pkkpositional Phrase ,' Noun Phrase '
Particiimai, Phrase | Gerlndiai. Phrase '

. 1 The hoy walked slowly to the hou.se. 2. Mr. Ericrht spoke very
elo(iuently. 3. We cheered our journey with .sin<rin^r. 4. Around
the hre, one wintry night, the farnier'.sro.sychiI.hen. sat. ,5 The
ship IS lost beyond a doubt. 0. In all likolihoo.l, I'arliauient
M'lU close soon. 7. Our troop.s fought with the utmost bravery
8. Stanley laade his way with the greatest caution through the
t(«rest. t). The train came into the .station with too rrreat^speed
10. Our journey done, we rested at home. 11. He came walkin-r
along very slowly. 12. AVe eat to live ; but w^ do not live to
eat. 1.3. The nymphs in twilight .shades of tangled thickets
niourn. 14. The lecture over, wc left the hall. 15. The timid
J^helred, year after year, coaxed the sava-o sea-kinrrs away
10. IJeptiles seldom, indeed hardly ever, attack mankind.

Exercise 249. Add appropriate exten.sk.ns (o the foil ou-inq
sentences: 1. The regiment fought. 2. The bov sh.mted 3 The
flcrk writes, 4, The hussar -alloped. 5. "The engineer ex.

ti;

148 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGUSH TONGUE

amined the bridge. 6. The magistrate left the chair. 7. The
orator rei)lied. 8. They talked over the matter. 9, The army
retired. 10. Stay! 11. The expedition ended. 12. He stuck
to his opinion.

Lesson 6. — Cautions.

1. We must take care not to mistake the noun in an
.)solute clause for the subject of the sentence.

(i) "The train having st.irtcil, we went V)ack to the liotel." Here we is the subject,
riie absolute clause " the train having started " is an adverbial phrase modifying the
predicate " went back."

(ii) " How shalt thou hope for mercy, rendering none ? " Here " rendering none " is
not an absolute clause, but a participial phrase going with the subject thon. " How
canst thou, who dost not render any mercy, hope for mercy?"

2. Sometimes an object is compound.

(i) "I saw the abip link." This is = "I saw the ship" + "I saw the sinking
•f the ship."

(ii) " I heard the thunder roar." Here "the thunder roar" is a compound object.

(iii) Verbs such as to call, to name, to appoint, to proclaim, etc., are called verbi of
Incomplete predication. Thus we say :

(a) He called them knaves.

(b) He appointed Mr. Jones manager.

(d) The lieraltls proclaimed James ir. King.

Here the verbs He called, He appointed, etc., would not give complete wnie. The full
verbs are To call-knave. To appoint-manager, To take-priioner, etc.

3. Sometimes a subject is compound.

(i) " To save money is always u.seful." Here the subject " to save money" is com-
pound. To aave money is the complete subject ; but it contains an ol^ect " money."

(ii) " To rebuke him is more than I dare venture on." Here " to rebuke him " is
the comi)ound subject.

4. The nominative of address (or vocative) can never be
the subject of a sentence.

(i) "John, come here ! " The subject in this sentence is not John, but the pronoun
yon understood,
(ii) A nominative of address (or yocfitiv^) is no organic part «f AOjr s«pte|ice. l\ |f

purely int<rjectional,

THE ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES

149

Lesson 7. — ^Mapping.

1. To form a clear idea of the build of a sentence, it is
often useful to map it out ; and thus to show the relation of
each part of the sentence to the whole,

(a) It is a goiid thing tu try the mapping-out flrst on a shitc, then in pencil uu a piece u( piiper.

It is imt always easy at once to bit on the right form.

(b) It is also important to cniisider at first whether the larger iiumlier vt wonU and phrases goes

with the Mubjfct or with the jjreUUute,

2. "The poor old man went wearilj'' along the meadow."
This sentence may be mapped-out thus ;

The

poor

wearily

man

went

meadow

The

' represents thojoiuiug-word or preposition along.

S. " All day long through Frederick Street

Sounded the tread of marching feet."
This sentence may be thus represented to the eye :

The

all-day-long

tread

sounded

marching feet

Frederick Street

150 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

4. "Him shall no sunshine from the field* of azure, no
drum-beat from the wall, no morning-gun from the black
fort's embrasure, awaken with its call."

No sunshine - - nu- M.'kis orazuiT

No drum-beat ^ the wmii

shalh
awaken

No morning-gUn-the fons cMnh^;t^iure

him

its call

5. " Hearing the imperial name coupled with these words
of malice, half in anger, half in shame, forth the great cam-
paigner came slowly from his canvas palace."

The great

lu>H"-m-anfjrei-

hearing-

1' ' T-in-shame

Uio iinppn.'il ii.iiii' ' ■ i.i' •. 1 .;! I

. 1 o u- K'

campaio-n<^M^

came

tur, ciiiv.'is })alacf

fortli

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

151

C. " The Queen sat in her parlour, eating bread and honty."

The

Queen

sat

eatin;:

iitf.i'l :i'.\<\ iiDUi

hci i):iil

7. "The heavy bell from the convent loudly announced

the arrival of the distinguished travellers."

The

heavy

loudlv
•

bell

( .

announced

the arrival

the Convent

the di^tiuRUislied tr;iveller:;

8. In such a night stood Dido, with a 'svillow in her hund,
upon the wild sea-shore.

such a niglit

Dido

stood

li I ,^■ 111 h'T liai K

v.iiil ::i\[

1152 A SHOUT GRAMMAP. OF THE ENGLISH TOXGtE

TABULATION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES

A Simple Sciitenco may bo set forth in a Table, as well
as in a Map.

Let us take the sentence : " Hearing the imperial name," etc.

It ii very ndvlaalile not to k" too iiiurh into dolnil, hut to allow the build of the untenre to itaud
urt clear and plalu bvfure the vye and bvfuru the iiilnd'a eye.

SI'IUF.CT.

KNI.AIKIK.MKNTS.

I'KKDK ATI:.

OH.IK(T

(if any).

TKNSIONH

Cftm palmer

(\) girat

(•J) lieariiijj, etc.

. *

came f jrtli

(1) Slowly

(2) lialf-in-anger

(3) half-in-shaine

(4) from liiH palace

Lesson 8. — The Compoiiiul Sentence.

1. A Compound Sentence U one which consists of two or
more Simple Sentences packed into one.

" The way was long, the wind was cold, the minstrel was Infirm and old." Ilere
there are three sentences. And, if we turn llie last sentence into two ("The minstrel
was infirm " + " the minstrel was old "), there are four sentences,

2. A compound sentence may l)c contracted in the subject.

(i) " Caesar came, saw, and conquered." Thi.s compound sentence consists of three
simple sentences : "Caesar came," " Caesar saw," and " Cae.sar conquered." But, as
it is useless to repeat the subject, this compound sentence is contracted In the rafaject.

(ii) " The moon rose and lighted up the landscape." This sentence is also contracted
In the inbject.

3. A compound sentence may be contracted in *->ie object.

(i) " John met, hut William addressed him." The fir ■• ire has the object him
tinderstooil ; and the whole compound sentence is aa ontracted In th '>tOect.

(ii) " I knew him well, and every truant knew." 1 i lie object him is understood
in the .secoud sentence. This coni]iound sentence is i.ii< lefore aid to be contracttd
in the ot^ect.

TBS ANALYSIS 01* SfiKTEKCES

183

ict.

, him
:t.

tood
eUd

4. A compound sontonco may bo contracted in the predicate.

(i) "Either a knavo nr a fool lias clone this." Thin compound Bentence i8 = "A
knave has dona thU"+"Or a f(K)l has done this." But the predicate is omitted
after one of the subjects ; and hence the sentence is said to be contncttd In th« prtdlcaU.

(ii) "Worth makes the man ; the want of it the fillow." Here the predicate makti
is omitted after the second subject, and this compound sentence is therefore oontract«d
la Ui« piTtdioat*.

Exercise 280. State whether the follow^ •< sentences are con-
tracted (a) in the subject, (b) in the iUkct, or (c) in the
ruKDicATK : 1. Tom ran into the lx)okin;;-oftice and bought his
ticket. 2. John and William ran a race, 3. We stood and
■waited for an liour. 4, The constable chased, but the carpenter
captured, the robber. T). The vulgar boil, the learned roast, an
egg. G. Then niaycst thou be restored, but not till then.
7. Some men with swords may reap the field and plant fresh
laurels. 8. Fools may admire, but men of sense approve. 9. The
widow and her child returned to England. 10. Bcroof'e went to
bed again, and thought and thought and thought it over and over.
11. Believe, and look with triumph on the tomb ! 12. Heaven
help thee, Southey ! and thy readers too ! 13. He chid their
wanderings, but relieved their pain. 14. Some praise the work,
and some the architect. 15. The needy sell it, and the rich
man buys. IG. The king is sick, and knows not what ho
does. 17. Yes ! let the rich deride, the jjroud disdain, these
simple blessings of the lowly train. 18. Neither witch nor
warlock crossed his path .

Lesson 9. — The Complex Sentence, i.

1. A Complex Sentence is one which contains one Principal
Sentence -{-one or more Subordinate Sentences (or clauses).

2 There are three kinds of subordinate sentences : (i) the
adjectival ; (ii) the noun ; and (iii) the adverbial.

3. An adjectival sentence is one that goes with a noun.

It It no mattar whether thU noun be the tubject, or the object, or a noun in aphraie.

4. Or. an adjectival sentence does the work of an adjective.

154

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONOUK

(i) " Tears, ineh aa angeiii weep, burst forth." Hero the subordinate spTitcncn (or
rlausp) " sucli as angflls wooi)" k<>ps with the. noun teari, and is therefore «dJecUv»l.

(ii) "Yo shall find a colt whereon never man eat." Iloro the subonlinate icintenre
" whereon never man sat" yoes with the noun colt, and is therefore adJectivaL

Exercise 251. ,^.Iect (he ad.tkctival skntknces in the foUoir-
\nfj, and state to what xoux cnvh attaches itself: 1. lie tires
betimes, that spurs too fast lietimos. 2. The wretch that work.s
and weeps without relief has One that notices liis silent grief.

3. He never does anything that is silly. 4. The .shop contains
nothing that I want. '>. I would hear once more the voice wliich
was my music. G. Those that fly may fight again. 7. Somo
few friends .she had whom she really loved. 8. Mountain.s
interposed make enemies of nations who had else been mingled
into one. 9. Not all who break liis lirod are true. 10. They
are rude as the rocks where' my infancy grew. 11. This is the
cell wherein^ the pale-eyed student holds talk with .science.

12. Knowledge is the wing wherewith^ we fly to heaven.

Exercise 252. ^]'ork tJii.-i Exercise like Exercise 251. {In
some of the sentences the rdaliirs arc omitted.) 1. The coach-
man took me to the ]»lace whence ' the stage was to stiirt. 2. We
are come into the land whither- thou sentest us. 3. The reason
why^ the seven stars are no more than seven is a ])retty rea-son.

4. Assig.i the cause why"' you denied a lionian maid her liberty !
f). 'Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view. C>. The
grapes I had hung up were jjcrlectly dried. 7. She has a grief
admits no ciu-o. 8. He's not thai abject wretch you think him !

9. Her face .seemed whiter tlian the white dress .she wore.

10. He des])atched all the soldiers he overtook. 11. He honoureth
them that fear the Lord. 12. Him whom thou hat'st I hale.

13. Handsome is that handsome does. 14. Who ri-k the most
that take wronj; means or right ?

Ijcsson 10. — The Complex Sentcnee. ii.

1. A Noun-seutenco is one that fiillils tlio function of a
noon. Or, a Noun-sentence docs the work of a noun.

(i) "That he la 111 is certain" The subordinate sentence "That ho U ill "i^ the
subject of the verb li. Being a subject, it fulfils the function <'f n noun, and
U therefore a noun-eenlence.

> Where -auiuug which.

* Whereui-m which.

■" Wherewith -with wliich.

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

155

iUy

(ii) " He told me that Tom had gone to sea." The subordinate sentence " That
Tom had gone to sea" is the object- of the active verb lold. Being an object, it fulfils
the function of a noun, and is therefore a Bonn-ieiitence.

(fii) "The fact that be •leaped is undoubted." Here the subordinate sentence "that
he escaped" is in apposition with the noun fact. If it is in apposition with a noun, it
fulfils the function of a noun, and is therefore a noon-Mntence.

2 An adverbial sentence is one that is attached to a verb,
an adjective, or an adverb.

(i) "We walk at-long-ai It U light." Here the subordinate sentence "as-long-as it
is light," is attached to the verb walk, and is tiierefore nn adverbial sentence.

(ii) " His grii'f was such that all pitied him." Here the sulmrdinate sentence, " that
all pitied him," modifies the adjective rach, and is theicfure nn adverbial sentence.
(It gives the measure of the " such-ness.*)

(iii) "She was as gentle at a dove (ia gentle)." Here the subordinate sentence " as a
dove is gentle,' modifies the adverb aa (which stands before the first gentle), and is
therefore an adverbial sentence. (It gives tiie measure of the " as-ness.")

3. Any number of subordinate sentences may be attached
to the principal sentence.

This is best seen in the story of " The House that Jack Built."

(a) This (house) is the house that-Jack built.

(b) This (malt) is the malt that-lay-in-the-house, etc.

(d) This (cat) is the cat t'lat-killed-the-ratthat-ate-thc, etc.

Exercise 263. Point out the xoun-.sentexces in the follow-
ing; and state n-hethcr th(]i occupy the place (a) of the subject,
or (b) of the object, or (c) whether they are in apposition : 1.
Montague knows well that England is safe. "2. Both kings
agreed that a council should meet. 3. Critics admit that he
was a great poet, but deny that he was a great man. 4. My
friends told me that I wa.s much too shy. 5. I'he people boasted
that they lived in a land flowing with milk and honey, (x That
he was a wonderful child was evident to all. 7. It is not good
that, nian should be alone. 8. It seems that he held a high
place in the class. 0. The fact that he has disjippeared is un-
questionable. 10, He declared his opinion that the minister
must resign. 11. Whether the house is lea.seable or not I do not
know. 12. I wonder what Miss Watsoa is thinking about ?

156

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 254. Point out the AnvKuniAi, skxtkn'cks in the
following, and state to irhat (a) vkkh, or (b) adjkctjve, or (c)
ADVERB each sentence is attached: 1. The children wept when
they Jieard the sad news. 2. AVe shall rejoice if good fortune
conies. 3. The man started as if ho had seen a ghost. 4. When
({reek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. 5. His comrade
bent over him, while his life-blood el)bed awa\. (!. The children
lingered Avhero the violets grew. 7. lie was so* ill that he
could not speak. 8. Wherever I went was my jwor dog Tray.
9. The gentleman called while we were out. 10. The boys
■were tired after they had walked ten miles. 11. The girl cried
till her eyes were <[uite red. 12. Heaven does with us as
■we with torches do.

Exercise 266. JVork the foUoxclng like Exercise 254 : 1. Fly
thither whence thou fled"st ! 2. O lead me wheresoe'cr I go,
through this day's life or death ! 3. When Cohunbus arrived
at Cordova, the Court looked like a military camp. 4. The
Bchoolmaster had scarcelv uttered these words when the stranger
entered. 5. Now thou art gone, we have no stall", no stay ! (!. He
rose as I entered. 7. As ended Albert's simple lay, arose a bard
of loftier port. 8. The book may go to jiress as-soon-as you will.

9. Ages elapsed ere Homer's lamp appeareil. 10. H' the fire of
genius failed her, she had at least intellectual honesty. 11. If
their lungs receive our air, that moment slaves are free. 12. If
he Avas little loved, he was greatly respected. 13. Though He
slay me, I will trust in Him.

Exercise 266. Distinguish heturen the adjectival, noun, and
ADVKRiuAL SENTENCES f'/i the following : 1. How the government
can be carried on is a pressing question. 2. He went on work-
ing till it was quite dark. 3. One sleeps where foreign vines
are drest. 4. This frank declaration ]tleased me so nuich that I
handed him my purse. 5. After he had dined with his friends
he voted against them. G. Soft is the music that would charm
for ever. 7. He '11 prove a buzzard is no fowl, and that a lord
may be an owl. 8. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel
just. 9. He little knew how much he had wronged her.

10. The "wicked llee when no man jmrsucth. 11. When clouds
are seen, wise men put on their cloaks. 12. The postman re-
ported that the general was dead.

! It

* ThA (ulTcrUal Mnteui;*, "th.it be could uut spcHk,' is atUclied to *o.
hit illneis.

It ihowi the " lo-neH " at

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

157

4. It is i)lain, from all that we have seen, that an Enlarge-
ment may be one of three things : (a) a word ; (b) a phrase ;
or (c) an adjectival sentence.

(i) The man'i hat flew off.

(ii) The man with the white h»t is standing there,
(iii) The man whom you law is at the door.

5. In the same way, a Subject may be one of three things :
(a) a word ; (b) a phrase ; or (c) a noun-sentence.

(i) John is a carpenter.

(ii) rUylng footbaU is sometimes dangerous,
(iii) Th»t he bM gone »wfty is certain.
(iv) AH the above is true aLso of the Object.

6. In the same way, an Extension may be one of three
things : (a) a word; (b) a phrase ; or (c) an adverbial sentence.

(i) The regiment f^>ught bravely.

(ii) Tlie regime 't fought with the greateit courage. 1

(iii) Tlie regiment fouglit ae it wai expected to light.

Lesson 11.— Directions for the Analysis of
Complex Sentences.

1. Find out the principal sentence.

2. Find out the subject of the principal sentence.

3. Find out the predicate of the principal sentence.

4. If the predicate consists of an active-transitive verb,
find out (i) its direct, and (ii) its indirect (if any), object.

5. Collect all the words and phrases that are attached to
the subject.

6. Collect all the words and phrases that are attached to
the predicate.

158 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

7. Collect all the words and phrases that are attached to
the obje'»t.

8. The following is the Order :

1. Principal Sentence. 2. Subject. 3. Predicate. 4. Oliject.

■_'(t. Words an<l
lilirases that
{JO with thi)
Subject.

3fi. Words and
phrases that
go with the
Predicate.

f.n. Words and
I'hrases that
go with the
Object.

\ 1

«'ii

Lesson 12. — Cautions in the Analysis of
Complex Sentences.

1. Do not oe guided by tli<^ part of speech that introduces
a subordinate sentence. Consider nothing but the function
of the subordinate sentence.

(i) Docs it do the work of a noon? Thrn it is .1 noonientence.

(ii) Dues it do the work of an adjective ? Then it is nn adjectival sentence.

(iii) Does it do the work of an »dvrrb? Then it is an adverbUl lentence.

(iv) "I do not know wlicre Jie is." Ilrro the advt-rli where intrixluces the sub-
onlinatc sentence. Btit, in sjiitc of this fact, the subordinate sentence is simply a
nonn-ientence, t>ecause it is tlic object of the verb 'know,

(v) "Tliophice where he is buried is unknown." Here the subordinate sentence
"where he is buried," is introduced by an adviTb. lUit the sentence " where he is
liuried " is attaclied to and fjoes witli tlie noun place ; and it is therefore an
adjectlral sentence.

(vi) In the same way, when, whither, whence, hour, why, etc., may introduce adjectival
: 'ntences.

2. A connective may be omitted.

(i) " Is this the lxM)k you want ?" We uuist supply the connective or relative pro-
noun that ; and the subordinate .sentence " that you want " is an adjectival sentence,
because it goes with the noiui book.

(ii) This omission of the connective (or relative) is very common in poetry. Sliake-
speare says : " I have a brother is condemned to die." Shelley has : " Men must reap
the things they sow."

THE ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNCKS 150

Lesson 13. — The Mapping of Complex

Sentences.

The single lines represent prepositions ; the ilonlilc lines - coMJnnctlons ; ami tlie ilcmble

lines with a liar across relative pronouns.

1. Let us take a seiitenco : " As I walked dong tlie High
Street, I thought (that) I saw the old soldier who was
wounded in the Crimean War." This car be mapped in the
foilowing way :

^r,

I walked alony the Hif^h Street

; V' ■■

thought

I saw the old solduT

was uduiuleii ill the (', \S';ir

2. Let us try Longfellow's verso :

" Spake full well, in lanL,Miagc quaint and olden.
One Avho dwelleth by the castled Hhine,
AVhen he called the flowers, so hluc and golden,
Stars that in earth's firmament do shine."

■i:

160 A SHORT (JIIAMMAU OF THK ENfiLISlI TONOTTK

(i) The Rubonlinatn adysrbUl lentence "when he called," rto., dots iidI iiiodify the
verl) ipftk*, but the adverb well.

(li) It was then tliat he iiiK)ke w«U " when he railed the floweiR," etc.

3. The following is from Horace Smitli's " Addn'ss to a
Mummy : " '

"ThoU'COuMst (levpiop — if that Avithoiod tongue;

Might tell us what these sightless orljs have soon —
IIow tlie world looked Avhen it was fresh and young,
And the great Deluge still had left it green."

(i) Tlic what iu •' what these orbs have seen " must be broken up into that which.

(ii) "IIow the world looked" is a noun-sentenco, because it is the object of tho
active verb develop.

TIIK ANALYSTS OF SEXTEXCES

161

Lesson 14. — Tabular Analysis of Complex

Sentences.

K in not atallad'liiable to ride the «yiiteni <.f iiimlyiiii to ilcatli, or to overload it witli aciinihr<nu
»imI ilifflciilt (.•nninoli.gy. TliU !•< t- .l.f.nt tl.r xerj- purixme of aiialy»i«-wl,l.h in (■> make
the huild (if ,1 seiiteii.e bIhiiiI out j.laiii and cUar to iht- eye and to the mind. Tlie min<ir
deUiil* qiiiikly fiill into tlieir proper places, if the main |.arf« of tlie nenteme art- cliiirly xeen
and tlioroiiglily gnioped.

ORDKR OF
CI.Al'.SEH.

KENTKNCE.

KIND OF sKNTKSiK.

A Olio si.ako full w.ll | rriiK-ii-al sentence

CnNXEfTIVK.

,.., ,, „ ,, , ,, A'ljpctival sentence to

wli.) (hvell.th l,y the ' \vlio(ii relative or .'..n-

of A)

(when) lie call.-.l the A. Iverl.ial sentence to
flowers stars Hie a<lvcrb weU in A

(thai) shine in earth's Ail jeetival sentence to
firnianieiit the noun lUn in c

nertive pronoun)

wlien (an a<lverl>ial
Conjunction or con-
nective adverh)

It i» advisable to deslKnale all priuii|ml leiiteneea »«y capital Utters A. B, r, etc ; and the sudor
Jiiiate by imal! letters h. r. ,1. etc. Tlien »c can i.ay that A is co-ordinate with B or with C
aiiJ that b U suburdiuate to A, etc. etc.

!i.

A -i

THE GRAMMAR OP VERSE, OR PROSODY.

Lesson 1. — What Verse is.

1. Verse or measured language is the form inwliich Poetry
is written.

(i) The word vana means turned', a "verse" means "turnnl speech." It is so
tmlled because the writer or jirinter does not print straight on, as he does in prose ;
but, when he gets to the end of what is culled "a line," Iiu tarns, and begins a new
line, even though the miim has not ended,

(ii) ProM means straightforward speech; and the length of "the line" deponda
entirely on the size of the page— that is, on the pleasure of the printer.

2. Verse consists of measured speech ; and it is measured
by the number of accents.

(i) An accent is a itroke or beat on a particular syllable. Thus U'uly lias the accent
on the flrst syllable ; comjiil has the accent on the last syllable.

(ii) We have, in English verse, to notice not only the number, but the poiiUon of
ine accents.

3. English Verse is made up of lines. Each Jine contains
a Axed number of accents.

No foot Fitz-Jiimes in stirrup stdyed,
No gr.'tsp upon the sdddle Idid.
Each of these lines coutuius four accents.

Lesson 2. — Feet. i.

1. One accented s\ liable -f- one or two unaccented syllables
is called a foot.

(i) Thus mirry is one kind of foot ; mirrUy is another. The fln. has two syllables ;
the second has tliree ; but each Tout contains only one accented syllable.
1G2

-*'>*■. Vi**i.^..%.-» -. J**. •»- ,■>-«.

)lcs

ties;

THE GRAMMAR OF VKHSE, OR PROSODY 1C3

(i!) It is usual to cnll the accented syllable a ; and the unaccented z.
(iii) The feet used in English verse have Greek names.

2. One accented sylla})le preceded by an unaccented syllable
is called an Iambus. It is indicated by xa.

(i) The following words are iambuses : Perhdp^, condhnn, begone.
(ii) The following jihrases are iauibuses : At nst, in ixu'ii, etc.

3. One accented syllabic followed by an unaccented
syllable is called a Trochee. It is indicated by ax.

(i) The following words are trochees : Gintlr, hhly, cuming, ever.

(ii) The following iihrases are trochees : Lit me, vow that, etc.

(iii) Coleridge says :

Idm|l)ic8 march | from short | to hing.
This line contains four iambuses ; and its formula is 4xa.

(iv) lie also says :

Trochee | trips from | hnig to | short—:
This line contains four trochees ; but the las^ trochee wants an unaccented syllable.
Its fonnula is 4 ax.

Lesson 3. — Feet. ii.

1. One accented syllable preceded by two unaccented
syllables is called an Anapaest. It is indicated by xxa.

(i) The following words are iinai>aests ; Comprehend, disappiar, intercede.

(ii) The following phrases are anapaests : / am here, are you there f

(iii) Coleridge says :

With a leap | and a bound | the swift anapaests throng I
This line contains four anapaests ; and its formula is 4zza.

2. One accented syllable followed by two unaccented is
called a Dactyl. It is indicated by axx.

(i) The following words are dactyls : HAppily, merrily, similar.

(ii) The following plirases are dactyls : Ilurk to it I Fast thy co^ne!

(iii) The Greek wonl dactylos means a finger; and it will be observed that a flngei-
has one long Joint and two short ouea.

104 A SHORT GRAMMAIl OF TIIK KXtiLISlI TONfJUK

3. All thcso four fcot may bo shown in a Tap.i.e

NaMK (iK l''(>fJT.

(-'llAUArTKU.

Hnis.

EXAMI'I.Ert.

laiiibuH
Aiiiipacst
Tnicliee
l>nptyl

1 Accent iMt
!• Arccnt flrit

za
zxa

ax
azs

Revenge, Infer
DiHupiM'ar, coiniinlit'iiil
CilniKin, cc'iining
Merrily, hii^pily

Lesson 4.— Kinds of Verse, i.

1. The most common kind of verse is Iambic Verse.

2. The most usual kimls of Iambic Verse arc 4xa and 5xa.

(i) Iambic verse of four feet, or4xa, is tlie measure in wliieli Sir Walter Scotfc
wrote the " Liuly of tlie Lake," tlie " Lay <if tin- Lust Minstrel," " Marmion," etc.

(ii) Limbic verse of live feet, or Oza, is flie most common of all verse in onr
Knglisli Poetical Literature. It is the verse of Chaucer, of Shakespeare, of Milton, of
I)ry<len, of Pope, of Cowjier, ami of Crabbe.

3. AVhcn 5xa is rh3nned, it is called heroic verse ; when it
is unrhsrmed, it is called blank verse.

(i) Chaurer's " Canterbury T;iles " are written in heroic vene. So are Crabbe'a poems,
(ii) Milton's " Paradise Lost" is written iu blank veri«. !5o arc Shakesi>eare's piuys.

Lesson 5. — Kinds of Verse, ii.

1. AVhcn 4xa is alternated with 3xa, and when the second
and fourth lines rhyme, the verso is called Ballad Metre.

The ice was liere, tlie ice was there, s 4xa

The ic« was i'lU iin'iiind ; = 3xa

Itcrdcked and gn'iwled, itrodred and liowled,- 4xa
Like noises iu a swoi'ind. 3xa

2. Trochaic verse is not usual ; but when found, it h
generally in the form of 4az.

cott

onr

I, of

ms.

11(1

THE HRAMMAU OF VERSE, OR PROSODY 165

(i) TliiH ia tlio metre of Longf.llow's " lliawaUm " :
Tl»-n the little Hiawatha
rx;iirn"a of ^v'ry bir.1 the language,
Lcjirned their names ami all their secrets,
Ui,w they built their nests in summer.

00 Longfellow's " Xorman Baron '■ is in rhymed iax :
In his chamber, weak and d^ing
Was the Norman baron lying.
(lii) Tennyson's -.Locksley Hall" is writ.-n in .ax(with one syllable wanting)-

3. Dactylic vorse is very uncommon ; and tne few examplt's
to 1)0 found are in 2axx. •

■i) Tennyson-s ■• Charge of the Light Brigade " is in 2a„ ;

Cannon to I right of them,
Cannon to | left of them,
Cannon be hind them —
Volleyed and I thundered —.
i^ The last two lines are eacli dencient in an unaccented syllable.
(11) Scotfs " Gathering Cry of Donald the Black • is also iu 3azz :

Pibroch of | D6nuil Dhu,
Pibrodi of I Drtnuil — I
Wake thy wild I voice anew.
Summon Clan I Conuil — I
tS- The secon.l and fourth lines are each deficient in an unaccented syllable.

Lesson 6.— Head-rhyme.

1. The Okl-Engli.sh rhyme Mas head-rhyme, not end-rhyme.

(i) H.»d.rhym« was u.sed in England from the 5th to the 14th century,
(ii) End-rhym. was in.,K,rted from France and Italy in the 14th century.

2. AVriters did not make the ends of the words jin-le
together; they made tlie first letters correspond.

(i) They did not care to make .in. rhyme with brin, ; or .on, with long.

(ii) They made head-rhymes like : Cark and caro ; w.al and wo. ; watch and wart.

(.i.) An oxagg.^ated instance of this is to be found in : Peter Piper picked a peck of
pt'PPer off u pewter plate. cu a pecK oi

ICG A SHORT (JRAMMAR OF THE KNfJLISII TONGUE

(Iv) Here aro two linen from nn oM juvm of tho 14th century :

In a itiin?ncr w.ison whon sort was the ■nn.

And as I lay and Icuiicd and looked in t)io waters.

(\) Thin liahit nf alltUrfttion, ax it in now called, conliniicd in the ixjctry of tlia
North and West uf Luglaud up to the end uf the 14th century,

3. Later poets employed the practice of alliteration
becjiiise tlio liinjfiiatre luul fulleii into tho habit of it.

(i) Bpeoaer, wlio wroti! in tho hUh century, uhch it freely :

Oay without good is goo<l heart's greatest loathing.
Add faitli milo your force, and lie not faint.

(ii) Shak?ip«are, who wrutc.- Imth in the l»'.th and ui tho 17th century, U.sos it,
though he often makes fun of it. IIu speaks uf Englishmen as

Peareil hy their breed, and famous for their birth.

(iii) Or»y (d. 1771) employs it in his " Elei,'y in a Coiuitry Churcliyard " :

The ploughman homeward plods liis weary way.

(iv) Tannyion, who has been writing jioetry from ISaO to 1890, has often used it.
Thus, in "The Day Dream," lie has : '

And ocr them many a sliding star

And many a merry wind was l)orne,
And, streamed thro' many a golden bar.

The twilight melted into morn.

(v) The usage of alliteration has also passed into eoiiimoii spcecli, which contains
many phrases like these: Sooth to aiy ; cark and care; rhynio and reason; watch
and ward ; weal and woe ; wit and wisdom.

Lesson 7.— End-rliyme.

1. The rhyme brought from France and Italy in the four-
teenth century lias been for five centuries established here.

(i) It was at first called end-rhyme, to distinguish it from the Old English and
native head-rhyme.

(ii) But end-rhyme is now called simply rhyme.

2. Ivhyme has four laws.

THE (iUAMMAU OF VKKSK, OU I'nosoDY 167

3. The first law is that the last consonant must bo tbo
same in the two rliyming words.

(i) Thus
are all good rliymcg.

down
town

fut

PMMd

flood
blood

ranki

pluikt

(ii) The It in r..t ami tl.n M«d In p«..«d nro the «an.o to the «r ; nn-l, as rliyme rxist«
for the ear, and not for the eye, fMt and puMd art- g..od rliynies.

4. Second law : The preceding consonant must l)e different.

<'> T»".« bow m T.ln rein

bough «yt ,^in ,^^

wouUl not, bo good rhymes, l^canse the consonant preceding .ach of then, is the 8ano.

(ii) But bow

cow
are perfectly good rhymes.

■ifh

vein

rein
p*ne

5. Third : The accent must fall on the rhymed syllable.

(i) Thus ling and ring are good rhymes, and so are dghlng and d^ing, U-cuu-se in caoJ.
ease tlie accent .strikes the rhynuug syllaldes.

(ii) Dnt sing wouUl not rhyn.e with Uftlng or with running. 1«cause the last syllable
Ing in each word is not accented at all.

6. The fourth law is tliat the sound must be tlic same.

(i) It does not matter at all U.ough the spoiling is different ; thus -■
on wide pny

gone sighed they are all good rhymes,

(ii) English poetry permits half- rhymes, such as

(town good love twte

own flood moTo put.

>*.;

I 1

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR

ANALYSIS.

Exercise 267. The iuipeachment, while it nmch affected Mr.
Toodle, junior, attached to his character so justly that he could
not say a 'word ia denial.

Exercise 268. Attend all ye who list to hear our noble Eng-
land's praise !

Exercise 269. Soon as the evening shades prevail, the moon
takes up the wondrous tale.

Make $oon-3i one wonl. It ii a coujuiictive adverli.

Exercise 260. A time there was, ere England's griefs began,
when every rood of ground maintained its num.

Take there-tctis as one wor<l<:existe<l.

Exercise 261. As far as they could judge lr> Ven, three
hours woidd bring to Teviot's strand three thousau- armed
Englishmen.

Exercise 262. Where a great regular army e.\if>ls, limited
monarchy, such as it was in the middle ages, can exist no longer.

Exercise 263. I knew a wise man who believed that, if a man
were permitted to make thci ballads, he need not care who made
the laws, of a nation.

Exercise 264. I am so deeply smitten through the hchn, that
without help I may not last till morn.

The subordinnte lentfnoe "That I may uot last" niodiflea the adverb "»<>,''

Exercise 266. The iron gate is bolted hard, at which I knock
in vain ; the owner's heart is closer barred, who hears me thus
complain.

1C3

MISCELr.AN'KOfS EXERCISES

169

Exercise 266. In Bnif,'i's town is jn;my a street whence busy
life has Hed ; wln-re, without huny, uoiselessi feet the grass-
grown pm-enjent tread.

Ii;,<; lice --= from which. ir*frc-^oii wlii.-h.

Exercise 267. As through the hm.l at evo we went, and
l)hicked the ripened ears, we fell out, my wife and I, and kis.sed
again with tears.

Exercise 268. They met a pnlieenian, who told them he liad
seen a .suspicious diaracler hirking in the lane.

irAo = aml he.

Exercise 269. It Mas a common saying i?i ]iis comixiny that,
when the cai)t.iin laughed, he was siu'e to piuiish.

Exercise 270. 'Tis his higliness's pleasure yon do prepare to
rule unto .St. Alban's, where tin? king and queen do mean to hawk.

•r( -11) U H ' ,...i.-.\nitor.v sul.jct, <.iiii.l..ye<l to irilrcHliue » noun »ciiteni«.

Exercise 271. His sword was in its sheath, his fingers held
tlu^ pen, when Kempenfeldt went down, with twice four huiu'red
men.

Exercise 272. That dwarf was scarce an earthly man, if t'le
tales were true of him that ran.

Exercise 273. 'Tis sweet to know tlu-re is an eye will mark
our coming, ami grow lirighter when we come.

/.'../•• IC(//. .yi- th;.t will.

Exercise ?,74, 8aint Augustine : wcil liiist tiion said, that of
oiu- vices we can frame a ladder, if wc will hut tread beneath
our feet ea^-h deed of shame.

Exercise 275. My w ir.d, cooling my l)roth, would Mow me to
an ague, when I thought what harm a wind too great at sea
mi<rht do.

Ey.erclhe 276. It is the land that freemen till, that soher-
suitrd freedom chose,— the laml where, girt with friends or foes,
a man may .-^peak the thing he will.

HA«r«>-iu »h;-h.

i^i

170 A SJnORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 277. Tliiit time of voar thou niav'st in me behold,
when yellow leiives, or none, or few, do liun^' u})oii those boughs
M'hiih shake against the cold, bare ruined choirs, Mhere late the
sweet birds sang.

Exercise 278. Courage, jioor lieart of stone ! I will not ask
thee why thou canst not understand that thou art left for ever
alone.

Exercise 27D. There is a land of pure delight where omelettes
grow on trees, and roasted pigs run crying out, "Come ! eat me,
if you please ! "

Exercise 280. After he had enlarged on that seller's theme —
the excellence of his property — he begged that we would taste
liis coffee, which he hoped we would find very good.

Exercise 281. The world of fools has such a storo <^ ' ' \ ho
would not see an ass must bide at home and bok . auor, and
break his looking-<dass.

The sulwrdiiiate sentence, " Th.it he must bide," etc., lumllfies the acUentlre iuch.

Exercise 282. ^^ hile thus I called, and strayed — I knew nut
whither, from where I first drew air and first beheld this happy
light, wlien answer none returned, on a green shady bank pro-
fuse of flowers, pensive I sat me down.

Exercise 283. When the warm sun, that Ijrings seed-time
and harvest, lias returned again, 'tis sweet to visit the still wood,
where springs the first flower of the plain.

Exercise 284. (And) moving toward a cedarn cabinet, she
took tlie robe, and dressed herself therein, remembering when
first he came un her drest in that dress, an«.I how he loved her
in it.

Exercise 286. He thought even yet, tlie truth to speak, that,
if she loved the harp to hear, he could ma'.e music to her ear.

Exercise 286. Wlu'U I told you, lady, my state was nothing,
then I should have toltl vou tliat it was worse than nothing.

Exercise 287. () nightingale, that on yon bloomy spray
warblest at eve, when all the woods are still, thou with fresh
hope tho lover's heart dost fill, while the jolly hours IttvX on
propitious May.

MISCELLANEOUS] EXERCISES

171

who

|t, slie
when
id her

kliin

spray

i'rt'sli

vX on

Exercise 288. There 's iint tlie smallest orb which thou be-
hold'st, but iu his motion like an angel sings.

Biif ^thiit

IIMt.

Exercise 289. When Letty had searco passed her tnnd glad
year, and her young artless words began t«^ flow, one day we
gav" the child a coloured sphere of the wide earth, that she
might mark and know, by tint and outline, all its sea and land.

Exercise 290. (And), parted thus, they rest, who played be-
neath the same green tree, whose voices mingled a.s they prayed
around one parent knee.

Exercise 291. Sleep, (rf.itlo .sleep, nature's .soft nurse I how
have I friglited thee, that thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids
down, and steep my .senses in forget fulness ?

Exercise 292. Tiiis is servitude — to serve the unwise, or him
who hath rebelh-d against his worthier.

Exercise 293. True is it that we liavo seen better davs, and
have with holy Im'II been toll'd to church, and sat at good men's
feasts, and wiped our eyes of drops that sacred pity hath
engendered.

Exercise 294. He who iiglits and ruiis away may live to fight
anotluT day ; but !'• who is in battle slain will never live to
fiifht again.

Exercise 295. lie ne'er could be true (she averred) who would
rol) a poor l)ird of its young ; and I loveil her the more when I
heard such tendermss fall from her tongue.

Exercise 296. If plants be cut, because their fruits are small,
think you to thrive, that bear no fruit at all?

Exercise 297. The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, protects
the lingering dew-drop from the sun.

Exercise 298. We thought, as we hollowed his narrow lied,
and smoothed down his lonely jtillow, that llu.' foe nnd the
stranger would tread o'er his head, and we far tvway on the billow !

Exercise 299. (liut\ when they turned their faces, and on tho
farther shore saw brave Iloratiu-t stand alone, they would have
crossed once more.

172 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUP!

Exercise 300. hove lives on, and hjith a power to bless, when
they who loved are hidden in the grave.

Exercise 301. We cannot kindle when we will the fire that in
the heart resides.

Exercise 302. Mysterious Night ! when our first parent knew
thee from report divine, and heard thy name, did he not tremble
for this lovely frauje, this glorious canopy of white and blue ?

Exercise 803. There 's not a joy the world can give, like that
it takes away.

Exercise 304. What here we call our life is such, so little to
be loved, and thou so much, that I should ill requite thee to con-
strain thy nnlxiund spirit into bonds again.

Exercise 306. ^-^he bade me, if I had a friend that loved her.
I should but teach him how to tell my story, and that would
woo her.

Exercise 306. The shades of night were falling fast, as through
an Alpine village passed a youth, who bore mid snow and ice a
banner with a strange device.

Exercise 307. Such wore the clans, whose fiory coursers feed
where waves on Kishon's bank the whispering reed.

Exercise 308. The woman, in such piteous sort that any heart
had ached to hear her, bogged that, wheresoe'er I went, I still
would ask for him whom she had lost.

Exercise 309. Good temper — 'tis the choicest gift that woman
homewanl brings, and can the poorest })easant lift to bliss un-
known to kings.

Exercise 310.

Perceiv'st thou not the process of the year.
How the four seasons in four forms appear,
Resembling human life in every shape thoy wear 1

Exercise 311. Strong climber of the mountain side, though
thou the vale disdain, yet walk with mo whore hawthorns hide
the wonders of the lane. — Ebknezkk Elliott.

MiSCELLANKOrs RXERCISES

173

Exercise 312.

When I am forgotten, as I sliall bo,
And sleep in ilull oold marl.le, whore no mention
Of nie must more be heard of, say I Uiught theo.

SHAKKSl-KAUK.

Exercise 313. We're up to tend the cattle, when the Lon-
doner's in bed; we hear the thunder rattle, whon there's mo-
thing overhead to shield us in the racket ; an<l when down doth
pour the rain, we only shake our jacket, and we go to work again.

H. CilAWLKV.

Exercise 314.

Had I but served my God witii half the zeal
I served my king. He would not in mine ago
Have left me naked to inine enemie.s.

SnAKKSrKAKK.

Exercise 315.

Merlin and Vivian stopped on the slope's brow
To gaze on the green sea of leaf and bough
Which glittering lay all roimd them, lone and mihl,
As if to itself the quiet forest smiled.

Matthkw Auxuli).
Exercise 316.

In the down-hill of life, when I find I 'm declining,
May my lot no loss fortunate be.

Than a snug elbow-chair can aHord for reclining,
And a cot that o'erlooks the wide sesw

Exercise 317.

Some nmrnuir Avhen their sky is clear,

And wholly bright to view.
If one small speck of dark appear

In their great heaven of blue.

Trrvcm.

Exercise 318.

Ho\- happy is he W)rn and taught,
That serveth not another's will ;

Whose armour is his honest thought,
And simple truth his utmost skill I

W''0TT0N.

h i

174 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE EXSLISH TONGUE

EzerolM 819. To })e resifrned when ills hetidc, patient when
favours are denied, and pleiised with favours j^ivon, dear Chloe,
this is wisdom's part, this is that wisdom of the heart who««
fragrance smells to heaven.

Exercise 320.

Woe doth the heavier sit
Where it perceives it is hut faintly borne.
For j^iiarling sorrow hath less power to bite
The man that mocks at it, and sets it lij^ht.

SllAKKSPRARE.

Exercise 321.

(Hasped in Ids arms, I little thou<,dit
That I should never more behold him !

J. LOQAN.

ExerdiJ 322.

(.'lose to the thorn on which Sir Walter leaned,
Stood his dund) partner in this glorious feat ;
Weak as a laud) the hour that it is yeaned,
And white with foam as if with cleaving sleet.

WOUDSWORTII.

Exercise 32^

Till the foundations of the mountains fail.
My mansion with its arbour shall endure —
The joy (»f them who till the fields of Swalo,
Of them who dwell among the woods of T'^re.

W'ouns WORTH.

Exercise 321.

Some siiy that here a murder has been done,
And blood cries out for blood ; hut, for my part,
I've guessed, when I 've been sitting in the sun,
That it was all for Uiat unhappy hart.

WuKDSWOHTIl.

Exercise 326.

Their shields
Dashed with a clang together, and a din
l{ose, such as that the sinewy wood-cutten
Make often in the fi)rest's heart at mom,
Of hewing axes, crashing trees ; such, blows
F'lstum and Sohrub on each other ludled.

liL Arnold.

,«,w-.)^'<ii«:i»

ifmr^^r^imitilfm

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

175

; when
Chloe,
who8«

\RB.

KTII.

IRTII.

)HTIL

Exercise 326.

Ilaroun, who felt that on a soul like this
The niij(hti«'st vengeance roultl hut fall amiss,
Now deigned to smile, as one great lord of fate
Might smile upon another half as great.

L. Hint.
Exercise 327.

There was a time, when, though my path was rough,
The joy within me dallied with distress ;
And all misfortunes wore hut as (he stuff
Whence fancy made me dreams of happiness.

Exercise 328.

There is a flower, the lesser celandine,
That shrinks like many more from cf>M imd rain ;
And the first moment that the sun may shine.
Bright as the sun himself, 'tis out ai:ain '

WoKUWORTM.

Exercise 329.

Through the Mack Tartar tents he pa.ssed, which stood
Clustering like hee-hives, on the low flat strand
Of Oxus, where the summer flt>ods o'erflow
When the sun melu the snow in high Pamere.

M. Akxold.
Exercise 330.

No action, whether foul or fair,

Is ever done, but it lejives somewhere

A record, written by fingers ghostly,

As a blessing or a i urse, and mostly

In the greater weakness or greater strength

Of the acts which follow it, till at length

The wrongs of ages are redressed,

And the justice of God made manifest.

HOLD.

M ■■

1 1

PLAN OF WRITTEN PARSINa.

Tell 1110 not, in mournful numbers
Life is but iin empty dream.

Tell

not
111

Verb, weak, trans., act. voice, imperat. mood, pre.s. tense,
j,'()v<'rnin;,' thf sul>. sent, "(that; life is," etc.), 2nd
pers. plural, aj,'reein<,' with yon understood.

I'ers. juon., 1st per. sing., com. gen., dative case (ind. obj^
to " tell ").

Adverb, mod. T^U.

Prep, connecting Till antl numbers, and governing numbers
in obj.

moumfur .\,lj, of qual., qualifying numbers, pos. degree.

(that; Lonjunction (understood), joining the two sentences

Tell me not and Life is, etc.

life Noun, com., 'ird per. sing., neut., nom. to verb is.

it ^'erb irreg. and defective, indie, mood, pres. tense,

3rd pers. sing, agreeing with Life.

^ut Adverb, modifying the phrase an empty dreiim.

•a Adj. of number, going with (/rm?«.

empty Adj. of (luality, positive deg., qualifying flream.

aream Noun, com., 3rd per. sing., neut., nom. after the verb is.

mmmmmmm

APPENDIX.

. tense,

,), 2nd

1(1. ol)j^

umbers

utences

tense,

rb is.

PART I.

CHAPTER I.— NARRATION.

To the Teachor.-Insist, from the beginning, on correct
form in composition. The foUowing points are the most
important.

1. Pupil's name in the upper right-hand corner.

2. Title in the middle of the page (from left to right).
The first word and each principal word in the title must
begin with a capital letter.

3. Margin, of about an inch and a half at the top of the
page ; of about three-quarters of an inch on the left of the
page ; paragraph margin, half an inch to the right of the
ordinary margin.

4. No margin at the right of the page, each line being
well filled out, except, of course, the last line of the para-
graph, which may end at any place.

5. A hj'phen at the right to show the division of a word,
when the line is not long enougli to contain the whole of
it it. A syllable must never be divided.

€• Correct terminal punctuation mark3.

H i

APPENDIX.

(1) Copy tho following romposition, observing carefully
the title, )H(n'(/hiN, rajtifafs and jnni(ttt(itf(/n.

Tin; Fox ANi> Tin: Ravkn.

Ono flay a raven lia»l a large piece f)f cheese. Dirl he sliaro
it uith tliose who hiul iioDf? No. llcsaiil: " Oli that I coiilil
fiinl a phic(( in whi(;h to eat it alone ! JIo fhiw to tho woods
and perched on tlio branch of a tree.

A Fox. imssing by, saw liim. and said : " I wish that T had
some of that cheeso ! The oM raven is sting}', andvoiildnot
give mo any if I shoidd ask him. 1 will I'lay him a trick."

At onco tlu* fox seat»vl himself at tho foot of tho tree, and
said: •'AVlmt a iH-aiitiful liiid yon are! How glossy your
]iluiriago is ! T>o you know that I never have heard j'ou sing?
Is your voice as fine as your looks? Pray singa little for ma
Do not 1h) bashful. Sing one of your favorite songs."'

Tlu! raven In-gan to think that the fox was a very ]ileasijig
fellow, l\(y thought: ''How cliarmed ho will bo to hear my
voice !" So he openiKl liis niouth to sing.

The instant he did so the cheese fell to the ground. The fox
seize<l it at once and ran olT, laughing at tlio foolish raven.

NoTK. — For a subsecpiont lesson, let tho teacher write
this on the blackboard in solid form, leaving out ([notation
nuirks and terminal i»unctuution marks, and roiniiro the
]»upils to replace them properly, and to break the composi-
tion into i)iiragraplis.

(2) "NVrito tho .story from the followinj^ outline : —

TiiK Bi:io AM) TiiK Pkhoox.

Who fell into the brook? (l)ee,) Who saw this? (|iigeon.)
Where did she sit? (on a lindi.) AVhat did tho ])igeon do?
(droppisl a leaf. ) What did tho l)oe do ? (Swam to it.) AVho
savinl herself in this way? (l)ee.)

AVho sat ui»on the limb at another time? fpigeon.) Who
trie<l to shoot hor? (hunter.) Who ilew to him? (hee.) Who
stung his hand? (bee.) What flesv to ono wiile? (tlu» shot.)
What iM'came of the jiigeou ? (Hew away.) Who ha<l saved
Jier life ? (bee. )

diw-sw***!.

APPENDIX.

ill

(3) The Monkev and the Boots. .

\Vho sat upon a troo? (monkey.) Who canio through tho
voo<ls? (man.) What did hii jiUkm? at tho foot of tho troo?
(hoots.) What (lid lio then doV (d<>]>art4'<l. ) Who saw tliis?
(nionkoy.) What did ho «loV (olinilHsl down and pulled on
the hoots.) AVhat was in the lM)otsy (ijlue, ) Who returne<l
suddenly? (tho man. ) What did the monkey try to do? (pull
olT tho hoots.) What was the result? (hoots stuck fust.)
Who caught tho monkey easily ? (the cunning man. )

(I) The Good Mowku.

Who wont into tho field one day? (mower.) In what con-
dition was the clover? (rijK-. ; What did ho wish to do with
tlie clover? (mow it.) Wliat was there ni the field? (hiiil's
nest.) What lay in tho nest? (seven little hirds. ) In what
condition were tho bi"ds ? (nake<l and heljtless. ) Who saw
them? (tho mower.) What did he leave? (clover ah<iut tho
nest.) Who now flew down to theyoiuig hiiils? (the jtarents. )
What did tho old hirds do? (Uhh\ the young ones.) What soon
grew? (tho -wings.) Who flew away? (the little birds. ) Wlio
felt happy ? (tho mower. )

To tho ToaohOr.— If tho children are not familiar with
iie story of Robinson Crusoe, read from tho ori^^inal .such
portions ns are necessary to make the followiniij lessons
understood.

First tell, and then write a couuectcd story from the
following outline :

.geon.)
on do?
Who

Who

.) Who

shot.)

I savinl

(o) The Shipwreck of Roihnson Cku.soe.

Fearful storm arises. Waves hn'ak over ship. Fear.
Mighty shock— rock. Sailors cry: ••Ship sprung leak!"
Launch boat. All lea]) in. Wave upsets lM)at. Men sink.
Robinson rises. iJashed against rock. Clings fast. Sees land.
Wave retreats. ClamlM'rs on shore. Faints. Comes ta
Calls. No reply. All drowned. Thanks (;o<l for rescue.

(0) The Island.

Robinson afraid wild l)e;ists. Xu weajions. Hat and shoos
lost, No Foo<.L Hungry and thirst^-. Searches, finds iiotUing.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

'^<

1.0 j^i^ 1^

I.I fr ■=

-^ mis

L25 ■ 1.4

Photographic

Sdences
Corporation

1.6

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

-f-.

<^V^ <> \x '^^^\

rv^

APPENDIX.

Night now. Where go ? No house, no cave. Thinks of birds.
Finds tree, sleeps. Morning, hungry, thirsty. Seeks, finds
spring. Climbs hilL Water all around. Island. Despair,
starve. Sees wreck of ship.

j) :;

I !

(7) Crusoe Vis rs the Ship.

"Water shallow, wades. Short distance, swim. Rope, climb
onboard. Barking of dog. Barry. Both glad. Seeks, food,
finds ship's biscuits, eats heartily. Builds raft. The load;
biscuits, flint and tinder, carpenter's tools, sabre, two guns,
powder, shot, clothing. Pushes off, splasL Alarmed. Only
Barry. Swims, climbs on raft One hour, lands. Sleeps in
tree. Barry at foot.

(8) Other Visits to the Ship.

Morning, unloads. Go again. Get everything. Second
load : two more guns, more powder, lead, kegs of nails, large
auger, grindstone, sails, bedding. Puts up tents. Sharpens
stakes. Drives them. Puts things in tent.

On third visit finds pair of shears, some knives, a bag of
money. Latter useless (why ?) Knives better. Starts, wind
rises, hard work. Waves cover wreck, wash it away. Cniroe
grieved.

(9) Crusoe Settles.

Among things brought : spy-glass, bible, pens, paper, ink.
Makes diary, also almanac. Sets up cross as monument where
first cast on shore. Must have better housa Finds cave in
rock, ! igher ground, large, dry. Carrie? things to cava
Makes fence, protection. Around mouth of cave, half-circle.
Twenty paces long, ten wide, no opening, ladder. Hard work.

(10) The Fox and the Grapes.

A fox in search of prey came to a grape-vine on a trellis.
The vine hung full of sweet grapes. The fox leaped up many
times, for he wanted them badly. But they hung so high that
all his leaping was in vain.

Some birds sat in a neighboring tree and laughed at his
efforts. Finally he turned away with contempt, saying : " TbQ
^a|)€s are too sour for wo. * X QP apt want them,''

M1JI -"l-III'VqWRVI^

APPENDIX. ^

"Write this fable from memory.

lA ^T "^VT '"'"'' ^^^^^^«-F'^^^- (Imitation.)
In the place of the fox, imagine an ox ; instead of the
grape-vxne a clover-field which is surrounded by a hedge
mstead of the birds imagine cows. Now w.nte a fabt' n
mutation of The Fox and the Grapes.

(12) The Boy and the Nest.

In the place of the fox, the grape-vine, the grapes, and
he bjrds imagine the following persons and thfngT 'boy
tree, bn:d's nest, girls. Write the fable.

CHAPTER II.-LETTER-WRITING.

ini^part^s^r'*'''^ ^ ^''^'' '' "^^^^ *^ ^^^^^«* ^^ ^^^ ^ollow-

1. Heading 5 J^ace.

^ \ Date.

2. Introduction J ^1*^^6ss.

o T* J ( c^alutation.

3. Body.

4. Conclpsion J Complimentary Clausa

I Signature.

(2) Lepter of Friendship.

f^ Introduction. J
My dear Sister,—

- ^ Beading. )

WINNIPEG, July 16, 1891.

"Tb9

♦ ♦ «»

• ♦

(Body.)

Conclusion. J
your aflf^ictionate brother,

WiLi^^iAM Smith,

!i ,

■n

I $

1 1 i

Iff APPENDIX.

Copy this form carefully observing the position, capitals
and punctuation of parts, and then make it several times
from memory.

(3) Business Letter.

f Heading.

Toronto, Ont., July 3, 188a

f Introduction. J
W. T. Preston, Esq.,

Brandon, Man.

(Body. J
Dear Sir : I shall feel much obliged if you will kindly
favor me with some information respecting, etc.

(Conclusion.)
Yours respectfully,

A. J. Dark.

Copy this form, carefully observing the position, capitals
and punctuation of parts, and then make it several times
from memory.

LETTER EXERCISES.

(4) John to Jambs.

Yesterday John had a great pleasure. Two rabbits were
given him by a neighbor. One was white, the other gray.
James must look at them also. He will certainly be pleased.
John will build them a little house.

Put the above in the form of a letter from John to
James. Remember the parts of a letter and their position
and punctuation.

(6) Mary to Sarah.

Mary has left her arithmetic at school to-day. She is in
great trouble about it. To-morrow she must hand in the
solution of some problems. Sarah is asked to lend her book.
As soon as the work is done Sarah shall receive the book back
again unsoiled. Mary will be glad to return the favor.

|^lt the above in the form of a letter frpm Mary to Scarab,

APPENDIX.
(6) Henry to Frank.

fit

Wmwr!/'""! Kingston to^ay on a visit? (Henry's friend

thistery'Z^h?' (Wm ^ ^^Xt'^. ^^^'^ f^^ ^^^^^
Prank vdll come.) ^^^* ^°^' ^^"^ ^^P^? (that

Frlnk *^^ ^^''''^ '" *^^ ^"""^ °^ * ^^**®'" ^''°"' ^^"^y *°

(7) Write Frank's reply to Henry's letter.

(8) Write these letters from the foUowing outlines :—
(From a girl to the grocer, Mr. WilUam Amos, ordering goods )

(9) From the Same.

pr^to'^nf r^"^ ""^^ enclosed-mother wishes it as she
prefers to settle her accounts at once-please send it by maS!

enlloL^^7o&?i w^T ^^'^f °« i^Millbrook, Ontario,

Superscription.

STAMP.

Miss Frances Smith,

217 Brawn Street^

Weston^ Ont.

viii

APPENDIX.

I V^

i I

STAMP.

Messrs. Potter & Cox,

Portage la Prairie,

Box 317. Manitoba.

(11) Copy the above forms carefully observing the posi-
tion and punctuation of parts.

(12) Write superscriptions, or envelope addresses, to your
father, your sister, your teacher ; your grocer, your doctor ;
your friend who lives in Augusta, Georgia.

For additional forms and exercises see last pages.

ARRANGEMENT.

Arrange the following detached sentencesi properly, and
form connected fables : —

(1) The Fox and the Raven.

The favor of a song from you would doubtless show that
your voice is equal to your other accomplishments. A fox
observed a raven on the branch of a tree with a piece of cheese
in her mouth. The fox snatched up the cheese in triumph, and
left the raven to lament her vanity. The fox considered how
he might possess himself of this. The raven was deceived with
his speech, and opened her mouth to sing, and the cheese
dropped. " I am glad," said he, "to see you this morning, for
your beautiful shape and shining feathers are the delight of my
eyes." He decided to try flattery.

APPENDlt.

(2) The Wolf and the Lamb.

)ba.

t"he posi-

The lamb replied that she was not then bom. The wolf was
resolved to quarrel, and fiercely demanded why she durst dis-
turb the water which lie was drinking. The wolf was discon-
certed by the force of this truth, and changed the accusation,
and said, six months ago he had been slandered by the lamb.
A wolf and a lamb were accidentally quenching their thirst at
the same rivulet The wolf said, then it must have been the
lamVs father, or some other relation, and then seized her and
tore her to pieces. The lamb, trembling, replied that that could
not be, for the water came from him to her. The wolf stood
towards the head of the stream, and the lamb at some distance
below.

Determine the proper order of facts and topics in the
following. Events should follow of course, the order of
time. Remarks upon character and influence should come
last : —

}s, to your
XV doctor ;

>perly, an^

show that
nts. A fox
5ce of cheese
riutnpb, and
isidered how
eceived with
the cheese
aorning, for
slight oi my

(3) John Milton.

John Milton died November 8, 1674. In 1667 he published
his great poem, " Paradise Lost." In 1643 he married Mary
PowelL His father was a scrivener. At the age of twelve
Milton was sent to St. Paul's School, he was firm, decided,
and independent. He was bom Decem'^er 9, 1608. Mary
Powell was the daughter of an Oxfordshire royalist. In 1671
he published "Samson Agonistes." He was buried in the
chancel of St Giles. Incessant study injured his eyesight
He was the author of several other poems and many treatises
in prose. He was first placed under the care of a private tutor,
After the death of h^s mother in 1637 he went abroad. By his
first marriage he had three daughters. His prose writings
were chiefly political. He was simple and frugal 'in his habits.
About the year 1664 he became totally blind. He visited
France, Switzerland, and Italy. He was afterwards sent to
Christ's College, Cambridga Divorced from his first wife, he

was subsequently twice married. He had vast learning, a iof ty
imagination, and a musical ear. " por'aA^aa ir,af » ia *ha
greatest poem in the English languaga

(4) Oliver Goldsmith.

His chief poem,
nsher in a school

"The Deserted Villaga" Served as an
Published his poem "The Traveller," in

X APPENDIX.

1764 College life. Made a toiir of Europe on foot, and
returned to England in IToG. After serving as usher, he
settled in London and l)egan to write. School life. His novel
"Vicar of Wakefield," appeared in 1766. Born in Ireland,
1728. Studied medicine at Edinburgh. Died in 1774 Wrote
for various periodicals. Wrote a drama in 1773, "She Stoops
to Conquer," and gained great ai>])lauso. Got into debt at
Edinburgh, and was forced to flea Buried in the Temple
Church. Character. From Edinburgh he went to Leyden,
Holland, 1754

CHAPTER III.— DESCRIPTION.

iii

To tlie Teaclier.— The purpose of the following set of
lessons is to teach the pupils to observe carefully and to
express accurately the results of their observation. The
materials and hints furnished are to be considered simply
as suggestive of tj'pes of profitable work.

(1) Hints.

(1) Ask the pupils to observe the object carefully, then
to state the results of their observation. Record these on
the blackboard in whatever order given by the pupils.
The need of proper arrangement of material will probably
become evident at once. Let the pupils, under guidance if
necessary, arrange the material in proper order. Let this
arranged material be divided into topics suitable for para-
graphs. These topics will serve as hints when another
object of a similar kind has to be described. An oral
description following the order of topics should now be
given by one or more pupils. Next let a written descrip-
tion be given by all pupils, due attention being given to

rn^miw^'^

'mmmmmm

APPENDIX. xi

heading, margins, etc. Finally let che composition be
carefully corrected.

Each exercise may require two or more lessons to com-
plete It. The first may be given to the observation of the
object and the formation of the topical outline, the second
to the oral and written description from the topical
outlme, and the third to the correction of the writen
exercises.

(2) Oranges.

Matter jriven 1,7 pupUs.-Kind of fruit ; a little larger
than apples; outside called the peel ; used for food ; found
m West Indies, and in southern parts of Europe and
Uml^d States ; nearly round ; raised in warm climates :
inside or pulp is soft, juicy and sweet ; when ripe is of a
deep yellow color ; seeds are in tough cells in the centre.

3tfatter arranffel by PUpUs.-What they are, climate
where raised where obtained, size, shape, color, peel,
pulp, seeds, cells, use. ' 1 >

OBAIVGES-

Topical Outline.

^What they are.
Climate where raised.
Where obtained.

General appearance j S;;!!^;'^ J'"

( Color — deep yellow.

'Peel— rough, oily.

Parts

Use

Pulp— soft, juicy, sweet
Seeds -many in centre.
Cells— tough, contain
seeds.

Food, uncooked.

xii

APPENDIX.

V i

OllANOES.

Oranges are a kind of fruit raiserl in a warm climate in
different countries. They are obtained from the southern
parts of Europe and of the United States, and also from the
West Indies.

In size, oranges average a little larger than apples. They
are nearly round, and when ripe are of a deep, yellow color.

The outside of an orange is called the rind or i^eeL It is
rough and oily. The inside consists of the pulp, seeds and
cells. The pulp is soft, .iiiicy and usually sweet ; the seeds
are in the centre enclosed in a tough substance called cells.

Oranges are used for food and when fully ripe are very
pleasant to the taste.

CHERRIES

(3) Topical Outline.

What they are.

How they grow.

( Size — hazel- nut.
General appearance ] Shape— nearly round.

( Color — various.

Kinds. . . . "Wild, cultivated.

'Skin — thin, tendei.

Parts
Use

• <

Pulp — soft, .iuicy, sweet,

bitter.
Seed — single stones.

Food, when ripe, cooked
or uncooked.

(4) Apples.

Topical Outline. — What they are. How they grow.
When they ripen. Shape. Size. Color. Skin. Pulp.
Seeds. Use.

(5) Watermelons.

Outline. — Where produced. Shape. Rind. Pulp.
Seeds.

Limate in
southern
from the

s. They
color.

eL It is

seeds and
the seeds
cells.

are very

t.
round.

idei.

jy, sweet,

3nes.

e, cooked

APPENDIX.

xiii

Produced: Temperate cUmates, on vines.

Shape: Oval, short or long, round.

Rind: Dark green, light green, striped, thick or thin.

Pulp: Pale red, deep red, yeUow, soft, sweet, very juicy.

Seeds: Black, brown, white, tipi>ed with black, suiTound
the cora

Name. Na^e.

General appearance. Parts

(6) Topical OntUnes.

Root
Stem.

Parts.... -l Leaf.

Flower.
[Fruit.

Uses.

Where found.

s.
Growtli.
Uses.
Habits.
Locality.

Class.

Descrij)tion.

( UTiere.
Cultivation ■] How.

(When.
Uses.
Locality.
History.

(7) Describe according to any of the plans outlined :—

a pear.
a plum.
a berry,
a grape,
a cucumber.

a potato.

wheat

a beet.

barley

a turnip.

ry&

a.n onion.

oats.

a pea.

com.

a mapla
a poplar,
an oak.
a pine
a cedar.

Y grow.
Pulp.

Pulp.

(8) DESCRIPTIOX OF ANIMALS.

Observe a dog carefully, then ..Tite a description of i(
under one of these outlines :~

(«)
Form.
Size.

Color and Covering.
Parts. "

Uses.
Habits.

(6)
Class.

General Description.
Particular description.
Food.
Uses.
Habits.

Class.

Structure.

Habits.

Usea

Locality.

li \\

i !

xiv

APPENDIX.

(J>) Thk Whalk.

(Mi.tcdal obtninod by personal o))scrvation, by Htudy of good pictures
or by reading full descriptions.)

Class : Mammal, liow it differs from a fisL

Structure : Size, head, covering.

Habits : Breathing, food.

How caught : Harpooned.

How disposed of: Blubber, whalebone, flesh.

The whale is the largest of all animals, and has on that
account been called "the monarch of creation. " It is a mam-
mal, resembling a fish in appearance, but differing from one
in being warm-blooded, in requiring to breathe air, and in
suckling its young.

It is from sixty to ninety feet in length, and about thirty
feet round. Its mouth is very large, and in the head there are
blow-holes a foot long. In the upper jaw, the whalebone sup-
plies the place of teeth. All over the body there is a thick
covering of fat called "blubber," which 13 in some places
twenty inches thick.

It can remain beneath the water for an hour, but requires to
come to the surface to breathe. This it does through its blow-
holes, throwing up a fountain of water visible some miles off.
As it swims along, it keeps its huge jaws open, and thus
obtains its food in the shape of small fish, lobsters, etc. , which
become entangled in the whalebone.

The whale-fishery is carried on in this manner : A number
of small boats are sent out from the whaling vessel with a
harpooner in each. He stands in the bow, and as the boat
approaches the whale he plunges the harpoon into it. Attached
to the harpoon is about a mile of rope. When the whale i^
struck it dives, carrying the harpoon with it. Soon it comes
to the surface to breathe, and, receiving another harpoon, dives
again. This is continued till the whale is killed.

The blubber and whalebone alone are cut off. From the
blubber an oil is extracted ; The whalebone is manufactured
into many useful articles, and the flesh is frequently eaten by
the Esquimaux.

Note. — Before writing learn as much as possible by
observation, by reading, and toy inquiry about the object

"•"•"^^■WBiPP

APPENDIX.

itr

to be described. Arran^^e material according to one of tlie
plana or outlines given. Put separate topics in separate
paragraphs. Let every sentence be carefully thought out
before it is written.

In describing an animal, the order may be :—

Class to which it belongs. Cai-nivorous or herbivoroua
for example ; compare with other objects of the same class. '

Size, Shape, color. (Gem.'fal description.)
Where found,

tion.T*^' ^^^' "^^' *^^' ^^^^' ^^*' (^**'*^^*^^^*^ descrip-
Food.
Habits.

Character. Disposition, strength, agility, etc.
Uses. If any.

(10) Describe, according to any of the plans outlined
above : —

a«SL ^^^"' ^^y- a fish.

a sheep. a goosa a bee. a f ro^

JEZ. ^V^} ^'P^-^^^- a clam,

ahorse. a hawk. a butterfly an oyster.

(10) Comparisons.

Describe the difference between a dog and a horse : a
cat and a rat ; a cow and a fox ; a wolf and a pig ; a squirrel
and a hare ; an elephant and a deer ; observing these head-
ings: —

Food, habits, sounds, coat or skin, peculiarity of appear-
ance, size, color.

Material :--The dog eats flesh and meal; the hare lives
upon grass and herbs. '

,v,iTi^^-'^''^'^ domesticated, bold and intelligent; the hare is
mild, tumd and unintelligent.

The dog barks ; the hare is generally silent, but, when m
pain, squeals. ;

iiT-

xvi

APPENDIX.

1,
I ,

The dog has a coat of hair ; the hare has one of fur.

The dog has a long tail ; the hare has a small tuft.

The dog varies considerably in size ; the hare is generally of
one size and much smaller than the dog.

The dog differs in color ; the hare is invariably brown or
white.

(12) Plants and Animals. (Similarity.)

Life is common to both animals and plants ; and in the pos-
session of that attribute they are both distinguished from
things inanimate.

Plants, as well as animals, require food to maintain them in
existence, and, like them, are furnished with vessels to con-
vey nourishment to the different parts of their system ; the
circulation of the sap in the one, and that of the blood in the
other, presenting one of the most striking analogies between
them. They breathe by means of the leaves, which thus per-
form the functions of lungs, and they also absord and exhale
moisture abundantly.

In many other respects plants exhibit a close resemblance to
animals. They are benumbed by cold and revived by heat ;
frost or poison deprives them of life ; and in adapting them-
selves to the situation in which they are placed, in closing or
shifting their leaves on symptoms of danger, and in various
other ways, they display qualities that are very like what in
animals we call instinct

Finally, in its development, a plant passes through succes-
sive stages of existence, just as an animal goes through a
progress from birth to death. Both are at first comparatively
feeble. Both acquire, as they advance, greater power of action
or resistance. Both must, after a certain period of time, sink
under the same decay of their faculties, and go back to bo
"resolved into the elements."

(13) Compare an owl and a duck {a) as to parts and
description of parts, (6) as to uses of parts, (c) as to habits.

(14) Compare cork and sponge (a) as to appearance, (6)
as to qualities, (c) as to uses which depend on those qualities,
(d) as to mode of growth.

(15) Compare a blade of i^rass and an oak leaf.

APPENDIX. xvii

DESCRIPTION OF COMMON OBJECTS.

(16) Topical Outlines.

(a)

What it is.

What it is made of.

"\\'hat it is used for.

Siza
Color.
Parts.
Uses.

(0)

Appearance.

Qualities.

Materials.

Process of manufacture.
Uses.

(17) Describe according to any of the plans outlined :

a chair,
a rifle.
a buggy.

an umbrella,
a plough,
a spade.

paper.

pens.

ink.

PICTURE LESSONS.

To the Teacher.-For the first exercises, select pictures
large enough for all in the class to see. Let the pupils tell
wlmt the picture sliows, then what it suggests. After the
picture has been observed carefully, let them make out a
smtable plan or outline for the story, which may then be
developed by each pupil in his own way

Pictures selected from the school text-books, or cut from
old books and papers, will furnish ample material. Care
should be taken to select, as a rule, such as tell a story
At first there should not be many figures in the picture. "

(18) EXAMPLPi

What persons do you see in this picture? What is
each person doing? What animals do vou see^ What
IS each animal doing ? What title might^ be given to this
picture.^ Give a name to each person and animal. In

;

XVlll

APPENDIX.

order to tell the story in the picture, what shall we speak
of first? What next? What then? etc. Looking at
these heads, John may tell the story the picture suggests
to his mind. Mary may tell the story suggested to her.
Each pupil may now write the story in his own way.

WORD PICTURES.

(19) Read the following carefully. Close your eyes and
try to see the picture clearly in your mind. Write a des-
cription of your mental picture : —

Nelly.

Nelly sat imder the apple tree,
And watched the shadow of leaves at play,

And heard the hum of the honey bee,
Gathering sweets through the sunny day,

Nelly's brown hands in her lap were laid ;

Her head inclined with a gentle grace ;
A wandering squirrel was not afraid

To stop and peer in her quiet face.

Nelly forgot that her dress was old,
Her hands were rough and her feet were bare ;

For round her the sunlight poured its gold
And her cheeks were kissed by the summer air,

And the distant hills in their glory lay,
And soft to her ear came the robin's call ;

'Twas sweet to live on that summer day.
For the smile of God was over all

Musing under the spreading branches of an old apple tree
sits rosy-cheeked Nelly, forgetful of her old dress, bare feet,
and folded rough brown hands. Shadows of leaves play about
her. Call of robin and hum of bee float in the summer air.
Far off lie purple hills. Calm peace and golden sunshine are
everywhere.

we speak
oking at
suggests
d to her.
svay.

.(20)

APPENDIX.
IZ^i^T. ""i"^'^ ^""^'^'"^ ^^^« J«ft a chasm • '

xix

eyes and
ite a des-

ir.

(21) Under a spreading chestnut tree
Ihe yi lage smithy stands ;

wvT'?^' "" "^'S^^y ^«an is he,

And the muscles of his brawny arms
Are strong as iron bands.

His hair is crisp, and black and long.
His face is like the tan ; ^

His brow is wet with honest sweat :
He earns whatever he can,

And looks the whole world In the face,
For he owes not any me^n. -Longfellow.

(22) The breaking waves dashed high

On a stem and rock-bound coast,

mu- 'VO«ls against a stormy sky
Iheir giant branches tossed ;

'^^v.^^u •II®^''^ "^«h<^ ^^ng dark

lUe hills and waters o'er,
men a band of pilgrims moored their bark

On the wild New England shora-3/r,. Hemans.

pple tree
bare feet,
lay about
nmer air.
shine are

TOPICAL Ax\ALYSIS.

.1% t'^^ *T'^^ *"^^^'^' °^ ^ «^1««««« sets forth the
essential Idea in each paragraph or stanza. It discovers

t^^t r^'^"" - *^« -^hor's mind when he com!
posed the selection. These headings may be stated in pro-

9SBS

APPENDIX.

positional form, by a sentence ; or in a titular form, by a
phrase or word. Headings of equal rank in thought
should have the same form of expression.

(24) Gold.

(1) In appearance, gold is yellow, opaque, and brilliant,

(2) Gold is principally found in hot climates ; in Brazil,
Peru, and Mexico. Part of the Avestern coast of Africa is
called the Gold coast, from the quantity of gold dust which is
brought down by the natives to trade with. Gold is also found
among the sand of many African and American rivers. A
small quantity of gold is also found in Hungary and Saltzburg.

(3) By experiment we find that gold is malleable ; that is
can be extended by beating ; that it is ductile, tenacious and
heavy. When thrown into a fire it is fusible ; that is. it will
melt ; but is indestructible ; that is it cannot be consumed.

(4) Gold is used for many purposes. "Wlien mixed Avith
copper, it is used as coin and for ornamental ])urposes. For
the latter it is well adapted both by its brilliancy and l^eauty,
and from its not being kable to tarnish. Gold Avhen beaten in
thin leaves is employed for gilding.

Analysis <

1. — Appearance.

2. — Geographical situation.

3. — Properties.
4 — Uses.

(25) The House in the Meadow.

It stands in a sunny meadow.
The house, so mossy, and brown.

With its cumbrous old stone chimneys.
And the gray roof sloping down.

The tre3S fold their green arms around it —

The trees a century old —
And the winds go chanting through them,

And the sunbeams drop their gold.

The cowslips spring in the marshes,

The roses bloom on the hill.
And beside the brook in the pasture,

The herds go feeding at will.

•m, by a

thoiight

lliani

n Brazil,
Africa is
Avhieh is
Iso found
vers. A
altzhurg.

; that is
iious and
is, it will
umed.

iced
^es.

A\ith
For

1 l:)eauty,
beaten in

APPENDIX.

Where it stands . J Meadow.

How it looks . . { Mossy, brown,

I chimneys, root

xxi

ANALYSIS i

*- (.herds,

Prepare topical analysis of the following selections .-
(26) The Crow and the Pitches.

whtsra l°t 'zrttS' "^rV'y *" " p^^""

found water, indeed h,^tn I, ^ ^^^^ ^® came to it, he
stooping and Sinf Te cou^^^^^^^^ *^^*' ^i^h all'his

deavou^ to overtShe mWr P k ^^^^^ '^ ^^ ^^en en-
sufficient for thS At las? ^Wri- ''^ ^'^ '*^^"&*^ ^^^ «ot
place, he cast them one hyon^STl^^^ ^!r^^^'% ^^^^ '^^
degrees rais^ up the water^t^Tbe^^Sm^^Vd^at^h'^^^^^^^^^^^

«CSf a\'i?L^^^^^^ by strength .ay be ac-

(27) Excelsior.

The shades of night were faUing fast.

As through an Alpine village pIssS
. A youth, who bore, 'mid snfw and W

A banner with the strange device ^
Excelsior!

^lilteT-?''^^ f^ ' bis eye beneath
Plashed like a falchion f/om its sheath, '
And like a silver clarion runs '

The accents of that unknown tongue
Excelsior! ® '

In happy homes he saw the light
Of household fires gleam wanS and bright •
fbove, the spectra! glaciers shone, ^ '
And from his hps escaped a groan
Excelsior! ° >

'h^

XXU ' APPENDIX.

• ' Try not the pass, " the old man said ;
" Dark lowers the tempest overhead,
The roaring torrent is deep and wide ! "
And loud that clarion voice replied,
Excelsior !

' * O stay ! " the maiden said, ' ' and rest
Thy weary head upon this breast. "
A tear stood in his bright blue eye.
But still he answered with u sigh,
Excelsior !

"Beware the pine-tree's withered branch !
Beware the a-wf ul avalanche ! "
This was the peasant's last good night.
A voice replied, far up the height,
Excelsior !

— Lonrj/elloio.

Additional exercises may be selected from the lessons in
reading and history.

To the Teacher.— As seat exercises preparatory to the
regular class exercises in reading and historj^, these topical
analyses are most helpful. The substance of these lessons
may at a later period be reproduced from these out? nes.

CHAPTER IV.— REPRODUCTION.

(1) Reproduction of another's thoughts in our own
words may be given in three ways — by a condensed, an
equivalent, or an expanded statement of them.

ABSTRACT.

(2) An abstract is a condensed statement of another's
thought. The most important ideas are presented but the
details are omitted.

.,.immt^M>^

APPENDIX.

XXIU

\fffelloic.
lessons in

In making an abstract the following rules .sliouUl be
observed : —

1. Make a topical analysis of the composition to be

condensed.

2. Omitting illustrative, repetitionary and amplify-

ing details, select only the cardinal thoughts
and arrange these in the author's order.

3. Consider the relative importance of these thoughts,

and decide how much space can be given to
each.

4. Express these thoughts accurately, distinctly,

concisely, without repetition, and without
ornament.

ory to the
ese topical
ese lessons
)ut? nes.

our own
densed, an

another's
ted but the

(3) The Lion, the Wolf and the Fox.

Material. — A lion, having surfeited himself with feasting,
was seized with a dangerous disorder. The beasts of the forest
flocked in great numbers to express their concern on the occa-
sion ; and scarcely one was absent except the fox. The wolf,
an ill-natured and malicious animal, embrace<^l the opportunity
to accuse him of disrespect and disloyalty to his Majesty, so
that the lion's wrath was beginning to kindla

At this moment the fox happened to arrive, and discovered
what had been going on, from having overheard a part of the
wolf's discoui-se. He therefore very cunningly excused himself
in the following manner : " Some people," said he, " may pre-
tend great affection for your Majesty, and think they do you a
service by idle words. For my part, I have been unable to
present myself sooner, on account of my endeavors to find a
cure for your troubla I have consulted every i)hysician I
could find, and they all agree that the only remody is a plaster
made of part of a wolf's skin, taken warm from his back and
applied to your Majesty's stomach "

It was immediately agreed that the exjieriment should be
made, and the unfortunate wolf accordingly fell a victim to his
own malicious intention.

We may learn from this, that if we would be safe from harm
ourselves, we should never meditate mischief against others.

XXIV

APPENDIX.

Analysis. — The sick lion, the visitors, the wolfs scheme
against the absent fox, the absentee's foi'tunate arrival, his
artful excuse, the prescription, the experiment, the moral.

Abstract. — A sick lion was visited by all the beasts of the
forest except the fox, whom the \volf accordingly accused of
disloyalty. The absentee, chancing to anive, artfully pleaded
that he had been consulting the doctors, who were agreed that
the only remedy was fresh wolf skin applied to the stomach.
The wolf thus became the victim of his own wicked design.
Evil recoils upon the evil-doer.

(4) Material. — "In the old days (a custom laid aside
With breeches and cocked hats) the people sent
Their wisest men to make the public laws ;
And so, from a brown homestead, where the Sound
Drinks the small tribute of the Mianas,
Waved over by the woods of Rippowams,
And hallowed by pure lives and tranquil deaths,
Stamford sent up to the councils of the State
Wisdom and grace in Abraham Davenport. "

— Whittier.

Abstract. — More than a hundred years ago, it was the
custom to choose the wisest men to make the laws, so Stamford
sent Abraham Davenport to the Legislature

The lessons in ivjading, literature, history, and geography
furnish sufficient materials for the making of abstracts.

PARAPHBASE.

(5) Paraphrase is the reproduction of an author's com-
plete thought in other language. Its object is to bring
out the full significance of a passage. It requires close
attention to every word and phrase, meaning and shade
of meaning.

The following rules for paraphrasing should be observed :

1. Study the selection word by word, thought by
thought, to secure a full and accurate under-
standing of it.

BPW

M«HI

APPENDIX.

XXV

scheme
val, his
ral.

,3 of the
oused of

pleaded
eed that
tomach.

design.

iide
ent

Sound

iths,

hittier.

was the
Stamford

sography

ts.

ir's com-
o bring

res close
d shade

bserved :

ught by
B under-

2. By change of expression seek to reproduce what

is involved in the origiiuil, and no more.

3. Let every change be made for the sake of greater

clearness.

4. Reproduce as far as possible the tone and spirit

of the original.

(6) Material. — •' And last of all ho was soon of me also, as
of one born out of duo time. For I am the Iea"t of the Apostles,
that am not meet to be called an apostle, because I persecuted
the church of God. But by the grace of God I am what I am :
and His grace which was bestowed upon me was not in vain ;
but I labored more abundantly than they all : yet not I, but
the grace of God which was "with me. Therefore, whether it
were I or they, so we preach, and so ye believed."

— 7. Corinthians, xv. 8-11

Paraphrase.— " Last of all, when the roll of Apostles
seemed to be complete, was the sudden appearance to me ; a
just delay, a just humiliation for me whose ])ei'secution of the
congregation of God's people did indeed sink me below the
level of the Ajwstles, and rendered me unworthy even of the
name, and makes me feel that I owe all to the undeserved
favor of God. A favor, indeed, which was not bestowed in
vain, which has issued in a life of exertion, far exceeding that
of all the Apostles, from, whose number some would wish to
exclude me ; but yet, after all, an exertion not the result of
my own strength, but of this same Favor toiling with me as
my constant companion. It is not, however, on any distinc-
tion between myself and the other Apostles, that I would now
dwell. I confine myself to the one great fact of which we all
alike are the heralds, and which was alike to all of you the
foundation of your faith. " — Dean Stanley.

(7) MateriaL-

Thb Happy Life.

1. How happy is he bom and taught
That sei'veth not another's will^
Whose armour is his honest thought,
And simple truth his utmost s£ll !

^il

I ii

t jii

ii ■

XXVi APPENDIX.

2. Whose passions not his masters are,

Whose soul is still prepared for death —
Not tied unto the worldly care
Of public fame or private breath !

8. Who envies none that chance doth raise,
Or vice ; who never understood
How deepest wounds are given by praise ;
Nor rules of state, but rules of good ;

4. Who hath his life from humors freed.

Whose conscience is his strong retreat :
Whose state can neither flatterers feed,
Nor ruin make accusers great.

— Sir Henry Wotton.

Paraphrase.— 1. How happy, by birth as well as by educa-
tion, is the man who is not obliged to be a slave to the will of
another — whose only aiinour is his honesty and simple good-
ness, whose best and utmost skill lies in plain straightforward-
ness.

2. How happy is the man who is not the slave of his o^\ n
passions, whose soul is always prepared for death, who is not
tied to the world or the world's opinion by anxiety about his
public reputation or the tattle of individuals.

3. Happy, too, because he envies no man who has been
raised to rank by accident or by vicious means ; because he
never understood the sneer that stabs while it seems to praise ;
because he cares nothing for rules of expediency or of policy,
but thinks only of what is good and right.

4. Who has freed himself from obedience to humours and to
whims, whose conscience is his sure stronghold ; whose rank is
not exalted enough to draw flatterers, or to tempt accusers to
build their own greatness upon his fall. — Meiklejohn.

(8) Paraphrase the following :—

(a) ' ' Here rests his head upon the lap of earth,

A youth to fortune and to fame unknown. "

(b) " Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives sublime ;
And departing leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time."

i|iUJ«|iiJ 4'"l'"'Wp

APPEXDIX.

xxvii

Vottoiu

by educa-
he will of
iple good-
tforward-

: his own
'ho is not
about his

has been
ecause he
bo praise ;
of policy,

By what we have mastered of good, and gain
By the pride deposed, and the passion slain,
And the vanquish'd ills that we hourly meet,"

(d) «' For loyalty is still the same,

Whether it win or lose the game :
True as the dial to the sun,
Altho' it be not shin'd upon."

(e) " Rin^ out the old. ring in the new,

Ring, happy Vdls. across tlie snow :
The year is going, let him go :
Ring out the false, ring in the trua

Ring out false pride in plar.3 and blood,
The civic slander and t1,e spite :
Ring in the love of truth and right,

Ring in the common love of g.-od."'

fhiVJ-i^? ^^^^ ^^^'' "? ^"^"^ '''■^'' ^i-* «^^'n spirit is like a city
that is broken down, and without walls. ^'

hli^ hZ^'""^-^ "T^ ""^^ ^° '" """^^^ y"'' ^"'^ "^e as they have
ml'.^ft 7'-"^ to the number who liverl faithfully a hidden
life, and rest in unvisited tombs.*'

f5 )V ^ J^^Sgler is a wit in things ; and a wit, a juggler

words.

irs and to
se rank is
ccusers to

A'n-

AMPLIFICATIOX.

(9) Amplification is the opposite of the Abstract. It is
an expanded statement of anotlier's thought. Things left
unsaid or only hinted at in the original are fully and
positively expressed in the Amplification. Much of the
detail in narrative and descriptive writing is of the nature
of amplification and is invented or imagined for the pur-
pose of giving not only more body to the account, but
more life and reality.

xxvill

APPENDIX.

(10) Material* — Jollot and Maniuotto found themselves
about a mile and a-half from tho Wisconsin. They carried
their canoes across and at once began their long jouniey down
the unexplored river.

Ainpliflcation. — "After carrying their canoes a mile and
a-half over the prairie and thrcjugh the marsh, they launched
them on the Wisconsin, bade farewell to tho waters that
flowed to the St Lawrence, and committed themselves to the
current that was to bear them they knew not whither,— jier-
hap3 to the Gulf of Mexico, perhaps to the South Sea or the Gulf
of California. They glidecl calmly down the tranquil stream,
bv islands choked with trees and matted with entangling grape
vines ; by forests, groves and prairies, — the parks and j^leasure-
grounds of a prodigal nature ; by thickets and marshes and
broad, bare sand-bars ; under the shadowing trees, between
whose tops looked down from afar the bold brow of some woody
bluff. At ni^ht, the bivouac — the canoes inverted on the
bank, the flickering fire, the meal of bison-flesh or venison,
the evening pijjes and slumber beneath the stars ; and when in
the morning they embarked again, the mist hung on the river
like a bridal veil then melted before the sun, till the glassy
water and the languid woods basked breathless in the aultry
glare. " — Farkvian,

(11) Material. — Years ago a ship sailed from New York
to the East Indies. Among the passengers were two school
children going out to their mother whose health was failing
through grief at separation. Nothing was ever afterwards
heard of me vessel.

Ampliflcation. — Many years ago, on a beautiful September
morning, a ship sailed out of the harbor of New York, bound
for the East Indies. She was loaded with the products of
American industry, and was expected to bring back a cargo of
coffee and spicea The captain was a young man full of
energy and ambition. He was the only son of a widowed
mother. On board were two passengers, a boy and a girl, the
children of a missionary in India. They had been at school in
America, but had been summoned to their distant home by the
news that their mother grieved so sorely over the separation
from her children that her life was in danger.

The days sped on and lengthened into weeks, but the good
ship did not reach port. Months passed, but no tidings of the
missing vessel came to either shore. On one side, an aged

APPENDIX.

xxix

emselves
\f carried
ley down

mile and
launched
ters that
es to the
ler,— iier-
r the Gulf
il stream,
ing grape
jneasure-
rshes and

between
nme woody
d on the
• venison,
I when in

the river
he glassy
;he jultry

few York
wo school
as failing
iterwards

woman, watching for a sail that never came, cried to the sea,
•'Bring back my boy." On the other side, a dying mother
moaned, ' ' Give back my dear ones. " But the sea gave no sign.
Years have rolled away, and both mothers have gone whore
there is "no more sea"; but still the waves hide their cruel
secret.

(12) Amplify the following sentences : —

(a) A fox having, in vain, attempted to pluck some grapes
that hung just out of his reach, remarked that they were doubt-
less sour and not worth such effort.

(6) Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, having spent some
months in exploring the delightful regions dreamed of by many,
and now first thrown open to Euro^jean eyes.

(13) Amplify the following paragraph : —

Arabia may be conceived as a triangle of irregular dimensions.
Far the greater part of it is stony and sandy, scorched by the
intense rays of a tropical sun. Noxious winds blow over it.
The rainfall is scanty — the dew, in the main, nourishing the
rare and hardy plants that grow in the clefts of the rocks. The
wells and spnngs are the secret treasure of the desert.

(14) Amplify in prose the following poem : —

September
rk, bound
'oducts of
X cargo of
in full of

widowed
I girl, the

school in
ne by the
eparation

the good
igs of the
an aged

The Beggar Maid.

Her arms across her breast she laid ;

She was more fair than words can say :
Bare-footed came the beggar maid

Before the King Cophetua.
In robe and crown the King stepped down,

To meet and greet her on her way ;
" It is no wonder," said the lords,

' ' She is more beautiful than day. "

As shines the moon in clouded skies,
She in her poor attire was seen :

One praised, her ankles, one her eyes,
One her dark hair and lovesome mien.

Ms;
if

XXX

APPENDIX.

So sweet a face, such angel grace,

In all that land had never been :
Cophetua swore a royal oath :

" That beggar maid shall be my queen."

Descriptive and narrative passages from the lessons in
reading, literature, geography and history will furnish
sufficient materials for exercises in amplification.

PART II.

CHAPTER I.— WORDS.

• • T hate false words, and seek with care, difficulty, and
moroseness those that nt the thing. " — Landor.

" The importance of care, patience, scrupulous minuteness,
in the study and choice of words, cannot easily be overstated ;
it is by such a habit alone that eminent authors have written
what the world could accept as true and trustworthy.

— Genung.

(1) Accurate Use.

Choose words that say precisely what is meant — words
that are exactly commensurate with the thought. This
accurate use can only be attained by cai'eful observation
of the practice of good authors and constant comparison
of synonyms.

Examples. — "The attempt was found to be impracticable. "
Ivi practicable means impossible of accomplishment. Any one
may attempt anything ; carrying it out is a diflferent thing.
The word used should have been design or plan.

>.MmSb&&-ik»iH-':'.'-''

lessons in
U furnish

APPENDIX.

xxxi

"The veracity of the statement was called in question."
Veracity belongs to the person ; truth, to the statement. The
truth of the statement is admitted upon the veracity of the
person making it.

Character, Reputation. Character lies in a man : it is the
mark of what he is ; reputation dei)ends upon others ; it is
what they think of him. It is possible for a man to have a
fair reputation who has not in reality a good charactir;
although men of really good character are not likely to have a
bad reputation.

iculty, an^

ninuteness,
overstated ;
ave Avritten

-Genung.

,nt — words
ght. This
)bservation
jomparison

iracticable. "
^ Any one
jrent thing.

(2) Exercises.

Show clearly the distinctions in meaning of the follow-
ing synonyms, and write a sentence in which each is
properly used: —

Two, couple ; fault, defect ; safe, secure ; certain, sure ;
excuse, apology ; haste, hurry ; handsome, beautiful ; lie,
untruth ; find, discover ; want, need ; deny, refuse ; custom,
habit ; aware, conscious ; delaj', defer ; strong, powerful ;
enemy, foe ; adversary, antagonist ; bad, wicked, evil ; in.iury,
damage, hurt, harm, mischief.

(3) Superfluous Use.

Words which add nothing to the sense, or to the clear-
ness should be struck out.

(a) Do not use additional words which the sense does
not require. — (Redundancy.)

Examples.— " Every man on the face of the earth has duties
to i^erform. " The italicized phrase is superfluous. Where els«^
could the man be? "I go, but I retiu-n again."" Again is
redundant, as ' ' return " means come again.

(6) Do not repeat the same idea in different words —

Examples.— "The whole nation applauded his magnanimity
and greatncnn of vund." " Greatnass of mind" is simply a
translation of "magnanimity." and is unnecessary. "The
effects and consequewea of such corruption and degeneracy are
deplorable and lamentable," should be written thus: '"'The
effegts suqIx of corruption are deplorable, "

xxxii

APPENDIX.

(4) Exercises.

Rewrite these sentences omitting all superflous words ; —

Another old veteran has departed. Emma writes very well
for a new beginner. Thought and language act and react
mutually upon each other. I will give you my advice and
counsel gratis and charge you nothing. The world is fitly
compared to a stage, and its inhabitants to the actors who per-
form their parts. Hence, he must necessarily, therefore, be in
error. I never was so astonished before in the whole course of
my existence. He had the entire monopoly of the whole salt
trade.

m^,

(5) Present and Intelligible Use.
Choose pure English words in good, standard, present

use.

(a) Avoid the use of slang word:} or expressions. These
sometimes cover positive ignorance of the words of polite dic-
tion. Slang is sometimes intended to save the necessity of
thinking, and it answers the purpose. Examples — Stunning,
rot, bosh, awfully jolly, cut up, smell a rat, perfectly splendid,
etc

(6) Avoid the use of foreign words and phrases unless they
express ideas for which there are no fitting terms in English.
Examples. — It was comme ilfaut. Having acquired the savoir
faire, he is never afraid of making a faux pas, and in every
conversation plunges in medias res.

((£) Prefer simple words. Large words do not increase the
size of small thoughts. Compare "He proceeded to his resi-
dence and there perused the volume," with "He went home
and read the book"; "An individual was precipitated," with
" A man fell " ; " They called into requisition the services of a
physician," with " They sent for the doctor."

(e) Do not use poetic diction in prosa Do not call horses,
steeds or chargers ; waves, billows ; twilight, gloaming ; anger,
ire ; tired, aweary ; before, ere ; valley, vale j etQ,

-^^■^i»b,^l^i^I:ir,^^iig4bM^^^^I^

APPENDIX.

XXXlll

rords : —

very well
nd react
Ivice and
1 is fitly
who per-
ore, be in
course of
.'hole salt

present

5. These
x)lite dio-
jessity of
Jtunning.
splendid,

iless they
English.

;he savoir
in every

;, such as

jroase the
his resi-
ent home
^i," with
vices of a

kU horses,
g ; anger,

(6) Exercises.

Point out any violations of Present and Intelligible Use
in the following sentences. Rewrite the sentences in good
English : —

It is awfully warm. That duck of a bonnet is quite too
lovely for anything ; it's perfectly sweet He remarked en
passant that his friend had much esprit de corps. That is a sine
qua non. Uncle Rufus was upon his ear and the boys looked
down in the mouth. The house was burglarized The audi-
ence did'nt enthuse worth a cent. The conflagration extended
its devastating career. His spirit quitted its earthly habita-
tion. I regret that the multiplicity of my engagements pre-
cludes me from accepting your polite invitation. Parliament,
during this session, was mainly occupied with the Emerald
Isle. Woods into whose inmost recesses we should have quaked
alone to penetrate, in his company were glad as gardens,
through their most awful umbrage ; and there was beauty in
the shadows of the old oaks.

SENTENCES.

(1) A sentence is a combination of words expressing a
single complete thought.

(2) Grammatical Classification.

Grammatically, sentences are known as Simple, Com-
pound and Complex.

(a) A Simple sentence contains but one subject and one
predicate.

(6) A Compound sentence contains two or more inde-
pendent statements.

XXXIV

APPENDIX.

!,'

S! ■

''..^!

(3) Rhetorical CLASSincA'noN.
Rhetorically, sentences are known as Loose or Periodic.
These, according to tlie number of words in them, may be
Long or Short ; according to their structure they may, or
may not be Balanced.

(4) A Loose sentence is one that is so constructed that
it may be brought to a close at two or more places and
still be complete in sense.

(5) A Periodic sentence is one that is so constructed
that the comi)lete meaning is suspended till the close.

Example. — On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and
priests, the Puritans looked with contempt. On whatever side
we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is his won-
derful invention. , .

(()) When similar or related elements of thought have
similar forms of expression the structure is said to be
Balanced. Balance may occur between phrases, clauses,
and sentences.

Phrases. Ex. — For his sake the Almighty had proclaimed
his will by the i)en of the Evangelist and the harp of the
prophet.

Clauses. Ex. — They habitually ascribed every event to
the will of the Great Being, for whose power nothing teas too
vast, for tt'hose inspection nothing teas too minute.

Sentences. Ex. — If they were unacquainted with the works
of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the
oracles of God. If their names were not found in the registeiN
of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life. If their
steps were not accomi)an. d by a splendid train of menials,
legions of ministering angels had charge over them,

^^rji$a(«ft^«&»,.

APPEXDIX. XXXV

(7) Effects of Different Kinds of Sentences.

(a) The advantage of the Loose form lies in its being
like conversation, and hence easy and naturally hapi)ened
upon without effort. It is adapted to narrative, letter
writing, and popular addresses.

(b) The advantage of the Periodic form lies in the fact
that the idea is skilfully kept back till the close and thus
the reader's attention is concentrated and sustained. It is
used to impart stateliness and dignity to weighty subjects,
and to light subjects neatness and finish.

(c) The Balanced structure is easy to interpret and re-
member, inasmuch as the similarly constructed clauses lend
emphasis to each other, and make it easy to fix the points
that are of most importance. It is suited to satire or to
essays in which i:)ersons or tilings are contrasted. It is
not suitable for narration or description.

(d) Short sent»^x.oes contribute to liveliness ; long ones
to dignity. The former are more easily understood, and
so are likely to be mo^r quickly forgotten. Tlie latter re-
quire closer attention, and so are more favorable to im-
pression. The Short sentence is especially adapted to
summaries, to passages where important points have to te
made, passages of definition or discrimination, or on which
much of the thought liinges. The Long sentence is ser-
viceable for introducing details filling out a previously
suggested thought. It gives opportunity for climax.

(e) Too many Loose sentences give an impression of care-
lessness ; too many Periodic ones make the style stiff and
monotonous; too many Short ones make it abrupt and
disjointed. In excessive Balance there is danger that the
facts ma^ be distorted to secure the desired construction,

XXX vi

APPENDIX.

(/) Variety in sentence structure should be the aim, as
the mind soon tires of the continuous use of any one type.

(8) Exercises.

Change the following Periodic sentences into Loose
sentences : —

Unless the measure is cleariy constitutional, I shall not
vote for it Mythology has it, that in order to render Achilles
invulnerable, he was, when a child, dipped in the Styx. Either
every mvmnurer at government must be prevented from diffus-
ing discontent, or there can be no peaca The sad sincerity,
the fine insight, and the amazing vividness and picturesque
felicity of the style, make the " Eeminiscences " a remarkable
book.

(9) Change the following Loose sentences into Periodic
sentences : —

"We occupied two days in the passage, arriving at Owen Sound
at ten o'clock. He drew as was his wont, his rough mantle
over his head ; he wrapped his face in its ample folds ; he came
out from the sheltering rock, and stood beneafch the cave to
receive the Divine communication. He does not write from
hearsay, but from sight and experience ; it is the scenes that
he has lived and labored amidst that he describes. Language
is a dead letter till the spirit within the poet himself breathes
through it, gives it voice, and makes it audible to the very
mind

(10) Change the following into sentences with Balanced
structure : —

The mind is crippled and contracted by perpetual attention
to the same ideas ; just as any act or posture, long continued,
will disfigure the limbs. He defended him when alive though
enemies clamored against him, and when he died he praised
him amidst the silence of his frienda One may make himself
rich and yet have nothing, or he maybe poor in one sense and
yet be very rich.

(11) Construct a Loose and a Periodic sentence about ;—
Iron, Frenchmen, snow, happiness, apple,

Loose

^^lya^si^i^

APPEXDIX.

xxxvii

(12) Form sentences with Balanced structure about :—
Poetry and painting, fame and fortune, summer and winter
^^2 ^,"^, geography^ innocence and guilt, bravery and
courage, Irishmen and Frenchmen. J' «

QUALITIES OF A GOOD SENTENCE.

(13) Aj regards the arrangement of its parts there are
three quaUties which a sentence should possess : Unity,
Clearness, and Emphasis.

(14) Unity.

Unity is that property in a sentence which keeps all its
parts in connection with, and logicaUy subordinate to, the
principal assertion.

To secure this the subject should be changed as little as
possible ; ideas that have but little connection should be
expressed in separate sentences and not crowded into one ;
and long parentheses should be avoided. The rule is, ' ' to
beware of distracting from the effect of the main statement
by particulars not immediately relevant."

Qwlt^^^7ftc«^^'^ great and good man died on the 17th of
September, 1683, leavmg behind him the memory of many
noble actions, and a numerous family, | of whom three were
sons ; I one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's
virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland,
where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly
afterwards elected member for the county, t which had for
several generations returned this family to serve in Parlia-
ment

There are at least four distinct and equal subjects in
this ; to say nothing of the heterogeneous structure of the
individual clauses.

Example.— Prisoner at the bar, nature has endowed you
with a ^ood education and respectable family connections,

^txxviU

APPENDIX.

instead of which you go around about the country stealing
ducks. Better : Prisoner at the bar, you possess a good edu-
cation and respectable family connections. This fact should
incite you to lead a decent if not exemplary life ; but, instead,
you go about the country stealing ducks.

!'■!■ '■

^1l

(15) Exercises.

Correct these sentences so as to maintain unity : —

Dr. Kane described the Arctic silence as sometimes almost
dreadful ; and one day at dinner, while Thackeray was quietly
smoking and Kane was fresh from his travels, he told them a
story of a sailor reading Pendennis. His companion was a
short, stout man, with a gray beard and bushy hair ; and as
they approached the top, Eip heard noises like peals of thunder.
The doctor was called, and the sick man rallied, but as night
came on, the storm increased, and no word came from the fort.
The place was approached through a pasture-field, — we had
found it by mere accident, — and where the peninsula joined
the field (we had to climb a fence just there), there was a
cluster of chestnut and hickory trees.

(16) Clearness.

Clearness requires that the parts of a sentence — words,
phrases, clauses — should be so arranged as to leave no
possibility of doubt as to the vvn:iter's meaning.

Words, phrases, and clauses that are closely related,
should be placed as near to each other as possible, that
their mutual relation may clearly appear.

(a) Adverbs. Ex. — "I only saw two birds." Does this
mean ' ' I saw them but did not hear them sing ; or "I saw
two birds and no more?" If the latter, write: "I saw on^y
two birds."

(J) Phrases. Ex.— "He went to town, driving a flock of
sheep on horseback. "

Corrected : —

"He went to town, on horseback, driving a flock of sheep."

jui «lSIWlMiy<^!> liy^Ki^'i^Mii

A-PPENDIX. StXXix

Corrected : —

" Thoy?5rs which we ate were in small wooden boxes."

id) Participles. Ex.— "I saw my old school-fellow by-
mere accident when I was in London at the exhibition, walk-
ing down Kegent Street." Who was walking?

Corrected : —

*' When I was in London at the Exhibition, I, by mere acci-
dent, saw my old school-fellow walking down Eegent Street."

(e) Clauses. Ex. — "Please tell my mother, if she ia at
home, I shall not hurry back." Does this mean : • If she is at
home, please tell her," or, "I shall not hurry back, if she is at
home"?

(/) Repetition of Words. Ex.— "I think he likes me
better than you"; i.e. either " than you like me" or " tha" b<i
likes you."

(17) Eocercises.

Correct the following sentences, pointing out the error :-s

Here is a fresh basket of eggs. Then the Moor, seizing a
bolster, filled with rage and jealousy, smothers her. Did you
take that book to the library which I loaned you ? The horses
became fatigued, and after holding a council they decided to go
no farther. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that
his cattle were in his fields. And thus the son the fervent sire
addressed. A piano for sale by a lady about to cross the Chan-
nel in an oak case with carved legs. If fresh milk does not
agree with the child, boil it. I cannot tell you, if you ask me,
why I did it

(18) It is a help to Clearness, when the first part of
the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the
middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is
called Climax.

Example. — "To gossip is a fault; to libel, a crime; to
slander, a sin." "It is an outrage to bind a Boman citizen ;
to scourge him is an atrocious crime ; to put him to death is
almost parricide ; but to crucify him — what shall I call it? "

APPENDIX.

(19) It is a help to Clearness to maintain tlie same con-
struction throughout the different parts of a sentence that
are joined together in the same connection.

Example. — The opponents of the Government are naturally,
and not without Justification (justifiably), elated at the failure
of the attempt. They accused him of being bribed (receiving
bribes from) by the king, and unwilling (neglecting) to take
the city.

** He has good reason to believe that the delay was not an
accident but premeditated, and for supposing that the fort,
though strong both by art and naturally would be forced by
the treaihery of the governor and the indolent general to cap-
itulate ithin a week." Corrected : "He has good reason to
believe tl A. the delay was not accidental but premeditated, and
to suppos, that the fort, though strong both by art and nature
would bo forced by the treachery of the governor and the indo-
lence of the general to capitulate within a week. " Or, ' ' He has
good reason /or believing that the delay was not accidental but
premeditated, and for supposing that the fort, though strong
both artificially and naturally would be forced by the treach-
erous governor and indolent general to capitulate within a
week."

(20) Exercises.

Correct the following sentences, pointing out the errors :

He then drew a picture of Christ's sufferings. His death, His
crucifixion. His trial before Pilate, and His ascent up Calvary.
I sink into the bosom of the grave, it opens to receive me, my
race is run, my lamp of life is nearly extinguished. What
pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the
animated remonstrances of the unfortunate prisoners ! Believ-
ing that his honor demanded this sacrifice, and in the hope of
satisfjdng his creditors, he determined on selling all his estates,
and, as soon as this was done, to quit the country. With the
intention of fulfilling his promise and intending also to clear
himself from suspicion, he determined to ascertain how far the
testimony was corroborated, and the motives of the prosecutor,

(21) Emphasis.

The problem of emphasis is how to place a word, or
phrase, or clause that it shall have its proper distinction

^^/^"W

« that

APPENT)IX.

xli

Or lack of distinction according to its significance. Any
word, or combination of words, placed in a position different
from that which it usualli' occupies arrests tlie reader's atten-
tion and is thereby rendered emphatic. Thus the principal
subject belongs naturally at the beginning of the sentence
and to be made emphatic must be put out of its usual
position and placed towards the end. The predicate verb,
adjective or object, which belongs naturally in the latter
part of the sentence, acquires especial distinction by being
placed at the beginning. An abverbial word or phrase,
whose unemphatic place is before its verb, is emphasized
by being placed at the end. and still more by being placed
at the beginning.

(a) Subject. Ex.— 'The

wages

of sin is death" Here

subject and predicate have changed their places. ' ' On what-
ever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is
his wonderful invention.'" Here the subject is placed last.

(6) Predicate. Ex.— '' Blessed are themercifuL"
are the uses of adversity."

^^ Sweet

(c) Subject and Verb. Ex.— "There is not, and there
never was, on this earth, a work of human policy so well
deserving of examination, as the Boman Catholic Church. "

(d) Adverb.

considerably. "

Ex. — "This procedure modifies the result
" Sloicly and sadly we laid him down. "

ord, or
;inction

(22) Exercises.

Change the following sentences so that the italicised
words may stand in emphatic positions : —

Thou fall'st a blessed martyr, then, if thou fall'st He was
silenced at last though he was insolent. Silently the lovely
stars blossomed, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven.
They brought home her dead warrior. To know some Latin,
even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, is useful. The
business will task your skill and idelity.

xlii

I'i

APPENDIX.

(23) THE PARAGRAPH.

A Paragraph is a connected series of sentences consti-
tuting the development of a single topic.

Three qualities are to be aimed at in its construction :
Unit/, Continuity, and Proportion.

(24) Unity.

As a paragraph is a distinct division of the discourse,
complete in itself and exhaustive of its topic, its primary
requisite must be Unity. This forbids the introduction of
any sentence or detail that has not a manifest connection
with the leading topic.

The subject of the paragraph is usually set forth in the
opening sentence, which is ordinarily a comparatively
short one. Sometimes it is delayed till the close, following
the analogy of the periodic sentence.

(25) Continuity.

Continuity requires that the sentences making up the
paragraph should be so arranged as to carry the line of
thought naturally and suggestively from one to the other.
The bearing of one thought on another should be clearly
indicated ; and the topic should be brought to a complete
and properly rounded conclusion.

To preserve Continuity in the paragraph, the exact rela-
tion of the constituent sentences to one another, as also
the relation between the paragraphs themselves, must be
distinctly indicated. The principal means by which ex-
plicit reference is made from sentence to sentence are con-
junctives and conjunctive phrases, demonstrative words
and phrases, and repetitions, e. ^. , "consequently," "how-
ever," "thus," "moreover," "on the contrary," "further,"
"under the circumstances," "in this manner," etc.

APPENDIX.

xliii

(26) Proportion.

As all statements should have bulk and prominence
according to their importance, a due proportion needs to
be maintained between principal and subordinate ideas in
the paragraph. Every part should be so treated as to
show for just what it naturally is, in rank, and in its
relation to the whole. Wlien a subordinate or illustrative
idea is expanded, either in volume or emphasis, beyond its
proportion, it becomes a digression, and detracts from the
effect of the main topic.

These three qualities are illustrated in the following
extract from one of Addison's essays : —

(27) ' ' There are many more shining qualities in the mind of
man, but there is none so useful, as discretion ; it is thin,
indeed, which g^ves a value to all the rest, which sets them at
work in their proi^er times and places, and turns them to the
advantage of the person who is possessed of them. Without it,
learning is pedantry, and wit impertinence ; virtue itself l(K)ks
like weakness ; the best parts only qualify a man to be more
sprightly in errors, and active to lus own prejudice.

"Nor does discretion only make a man the master of his
own parts, but of other men's. The discreet man finds out the
talents of those he converses with, and knows how to apply
them to proper uses. Accordingly, if we look into particular
communities and divisions of men, we observe that it is the
discreet man, not the witty, nor the learned, nor the brave,
who guides the conversation and gives measures to the society.
A man with great talents but void of discretion, is like Poly-
phemus in the fable, strong and blind, endued with an irresis-
tible force, which, for want of sight, is of no use to him."

{a) In the first of these paragraphs, discretion is viewed
subjectively, as affecting other qualities of the mind ; in
the second, objectively, as affecting its possessor's relation
to society. The subject of each paragraph is set forth in
the opening sentence.

xliv

APPENDIX.

111
'1 .4 •'

■vl
J J

(6) The Unity of each is complete — no new topic being
started throughout either.

(d) Proportion is shown by the bulk and prominence
accorded the ideas. In the first sentence of the first para-
graph, after the topic has been stated, the advantage of
having discretion is set forth ; and, in the second sentence,
the disadvantage of being without it is considered. There Ls
practically no difference between these sentences so far as
bulk is concerned. The usefulness of discretion being the
topic of the paragraph, the sentence stating this is deemed
more important than the other, and prominence is given
it by placing it first. The second paragraph may be
examined in the same manner.

CHAPTER II.— DESCRIPTION.

(1) Description is verbal portraiture of objects. It seeks
to accomplish by words what the artist does by drawings.
It endeavors to bring an object before the mind of the
reader with something of the vividness with which the
writer originally perceived it.

(2) Hints.

(a) Before attempting to describe an object, become per-
jtly familiarized with it, either by examining the original,

or by studying good pictures and reading full descriptions

of it.

■MMki

APPENDIX.

xlv

(6) Assume that the person who is to read the descrip-
tion has never seen the object described, and wishes to
know how it appears and what are its distinguishing parts
qualities, uses, etc.* '

(c) Select the point of view from which the object is to
be contemplated. The character, number, and minuteness
of details depend upon the nearness or remoteness of the
point of view. Everything must be examined from this
point if unity is to be preserved.

(d) Prepare an outline giving the smallest number of
characteristic details consistent with adequate presentation.
Arrange these with more or loss conformity to some of the
plans suggested in pages 10-i9. The order will be that
which the reader would employ could he examine the ob-
ject described.

(e) Expand this outline into the completed description,
with due regard to unity and proportion. Think out care-
fuUy every sentence before it is written.

(f) Be sure that every descriptive word is accurately
used, and that each adds something to the picture pro-
duced in the miad of the reader.

KABBATIOy.

(3) Narration is an orderly and connected acc//unt of
the particulars that make up a transaction. The order of
time is the general basis of every narrative. Sometimes
m a complex narrative this order must yield to that of
dependence— cause and effect determining the succession.

(4) The particulars embraced in the account of a tiAns*
action will generally refer to the following heads: Hm

xlvl

APPENDIX.

time, the place, the persons or instruments concerned, the
event itself^ the manner and accompanying circum-
stances, rejections on the causes and consequences. Not
all of these particulars apply to every transaction, nor is
the order a fixed one.

(5) HDJT&

(a) Fix clearly in the mind what was done by each
actor, or group of actors, and in what order it was done.

(6) Find out whether what was done by one person, or
set of persons, led to what was done by the other, and
arrange such events in the order of cause and effect, unless
the order of time is of more importance.

{d) In expanding this outline^ keep in view the end
from the beginning so that every part be shaped and pro-
portioned with reference to these. Introduce no event
that does not spring from the first cause, and tend to the
great effect. Make each detail a link joined to the one
going before and the one coming after, in fact, make all
the details into one entire chain which the reader can take
up as a whole, carry about with him and retain as long
he pleases.

(e) Keep up all the threads of the narrative by bringing
up each in its turu to the leading epochs in the story.

(6) The following outlines suggest some of many plans
adopted in narration : —

Biography.

(a) 1. Description.— Brief general statement of position
and character.

APPENDIX.

xlvii

rnedf the

circum-

'ss. Not

in, nor is

by each
ras done.

erson, or
her, and
:t, unless

le details

the end
and pro-
no event
ad to the
1 the one
make all
can take
a. as long

bringing
lory.

iny plans

[position

2. Birth and early life.— Time and place of birth ;

parentage, the surroundings of childhood j
anecdotes.

3. Edacation.— School, university, or other place of

education ; companions ; influences bearing on
the mind; considerations leading to the choice
of vocation.

4. Career.— Different stages and appointments;

events in public life; characteristic labors;
events in private life; friendships; work, etc.

5. Death. — Its cause and accompan3ring circum-

stances; age; burial.

6. Character—Estunate of, in detail; the lessons

of the life.

(6) 1. Description.

2. Narrative, including—

(a) Parentage, (6) Birth, (c) Ed'r^at'on, (d)
Events of Life, (e) Death.

3. Character.

4. influence.

Scheme.
1. Time.— 1620.

Expanded Notes.

Describe the state of America
at this period. The appearance
of the country.

2. Persons,— The Pilgrim Who were they? Why were
Fathers they called Puritans? Why did

the^ leave England ? Describe
their characters and manners.

3. Place.

-Massachusetts. Describe the appearance of the
country. Its wudnesa Its in-
habitants. Its apparent unfit*
ness f or setUementb

xlviii

APPENDIX.

4. Event.— The landing of
the Pilgrim Fathers.

5. Manner. — How they
sailed across the Atlan-
tic in the Masrflower.
Drew up codes of laws.
Landed at Plymouth.
Winter. Indian chiefs
present. Governor Brad-
ford's present in return.
Frightened Indians.
Cleared the wood.
Eaised crops.

Full narrative from these expanded notes.

Describe the terrors of the voy-
age The anxiety of the adven-
turers to reach land. Their fear
of the Indians. The wildness of
the country. Their consterna-
tion when they received the
Indian's present Explain what
it aU meant Describe the differ-
ent aspect of the country after
the settlement had been made

CHAPTER III.— FIGURES OF SPEECH.

(1) A figure of speech is a deviation from the plain and
ordinary mode of speaking, for the sake of greater effect.

Figures are divided into two classes : those that pro-
mote cleajness and concreteness, and those that promote
emphasis.

The chief figures that promote clearness and concrete-
ness are, Simile, Metaphor, Synecdoche, Metonymy, Per-
somfication and Allegory. Those that promote emphasis
are, Interrogation, Hyperbole and Antithesis.

(2) Simile.

The readiest means of illustrating an object or action is
by representing it a» like something else. This expressed

APPENDIX.

xlix

Per-

resemblance in some one point between two objects of
different kinds or species is called Simile.

Examples. —His words fell soft, like mow ui>on the ground
It stirs the heart like the sound of a truvijjet. She told me her
story once ; it was as if a grain of corn that had been ground
and bolted had tried to individualize itself by a special narra-
tive.

(3) Metaphor.

A Metaphor is a figure in which the objects compared
are treated by the mind as identical for the time being.
A simile treats them as resembling one another ; and the
mind keeps the two carefully apart.

Example.— The wish h father to the thought Conscience
IS a thousand swords. The white light of truth.

Metaphor, i ^^ ?!^y ^^ ^^"^ 5 ^"^ ^^^ darkness

{ ± ails from the wings of night,
Simila ( As a feather is wafted downward
■ " ( From an eagle in his flight.

Be careful not to use mixed metaphors.

Example.— "This is the arrow of conviction, which like a
nail driven in a sure place, strikes its roots downwards into
the earth, and bears fruit upwai-ds. "

(4) Synecdoche.

Synecdoche is that figure of speech by which some strik-
ing part of an object is put for the whole or a whole for
the part.

Examples. —They put to sea with fifty sail (ships). He was
a cut-throat (murderer). Man (his body) returns to the dust
The canvas glows. All hands (men) to the pumps.

(5) Metonymy.

Metonymy names, not the object, but some accompani-
ment of it so closely related in idea as to be naturally
interchangeable with it.

Examples.— The croini for the king, the ermine for the bench
of Judges, red tajie for official routine. Beware of the bottle
(drinking. ) Lend me your ear (attention. )

APPENDIX.

(6) Personification.

Personification is that figure by which, under the influ-
ence of strong feeling, we attribute life and mind to irra-
tional animals and lifeless things as if they were persons.

Examples. — The sea saw it. The earth umiles. He stilled
the angry tempest. Pale Fear, green-eyed Jealousy, white-
handed Hope, whispering winds.

(7) Allegory.

An Allegory is a prolonged use of metaphor and per-
sonification in the form of a story. Bunyan's " Pilgrim's
Progress," founded on the metaphor that the Christian
life is a perilous journey, is an Allegory.

(8) Interrogation.

InterroQ;ation asks a question, not for the purpose of
obttvii-J' formation, nor even as an indication of doubt,
but iii • a- : affirm or deny more strongly. Its empha-
sis lies in iUi virtual challenge to the hearer or reader.

Ex:

>o«

uries — Is ^ifa so dear, or peace so sweet as to be pur-
chased at t.. ^ pri j' chains and slavery? What ! gentlemen,
was I not to foreseo, ^->r- foreseeing was I not to endeavor to
save you from all th-se multiplied mischiefs and disgraces ?

(9) Hyperbole.

Hyperbole exaggerates for the sake of emphasis. It
arises from strong emotion and should be used sparingly.

Examples. — Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain.
They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions.

(10) Antithesis.

Antithesis places things in opposition to heighten their
effect by contrast.

Examples. — If you would seek to make one rich, study not
to increase his stores but to diminish his desires. Though
poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain. Wit laughs at
things, humor laughs with them.

APPENDIX.

I ADDITIONAL LETTER-FORMS.

The following headings, introductions, etc., of letters,
ftre designed to show what is now regarded as the most
approved arrangement and style of these parts ; and they
may serve as models, according to circumstances.

Some of the most common forms of address are Sir,
Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Eespected Sir, Sirs, Dear Sirs,'
Gentlemen, Ladies, Madam, Dear Madam, etc. ; Dear
Susan, My Dear Friend, My dear Mr. Smith, My dear
Mrs. Smith, Mother, Brother, etc., according to the rela-
tions of respect, intimacy, or affection existing between
the parties. Note that the form of addrefes Madam, Dear
Madam, is as applicable to unmarried as to married
ladies.

The conclusion may be Yours, Yours truly, Most truly
yours, Very truly yours. Yours respectfully, Respectfully,
Sincerely yours. Your friend, Your obedient servant, etc. ;
Yours affectionately. Your affectionate friend. Your loving
brother, sister, etc., followed by the name of the writer.
The closing will vary with the varying relations of the
parties.

96 Pearl St., New York,
July 27, 1890.
Messrs. Nichols & Hall,

32 Bromfield St, Boston.
Dear Sirs, —

I a>»». Gentlemen,

Respectfully yours,

David R Smith, Jr.

My Dear Friend,—

Yours truly,

Isaac H. Hamlin.

S-il

APPENDIX.

To the Hon. the Minister op Education,
Toronto, Ont
Sir,—

Dear Madam, —

I have the honor to be. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Edward Evans.

• • •• •• ••

• • • ■

Miss Amelia D. Cook,

18 Rideau Street, Ottawa.

Sincerely yours,

Henry Varnum.

My Dear Sister,—

• r t •

Your affectionate brother,

William.
Exercises.

1. "Write a letter ^o your teacher narrating your experiences
during your last vacation.

2. Write and tell your duties at school — your amusements
or recreations — your walks, books, thoughts or observations.

3. Write and tell about a visit to a museum or public
garden — the objects of interest, etc.

4. Write about the days of your childhood — your earliest
recollections — your first days at school — your impressions—
your ideas about that period of your life.

5. Write and tell about an evening party — the number — the
amusements — the music — the pleasures of social intercourse.

Notes op Invitation and Reply.
Informal notes are written in the first person.

MORDEN, August 3, 1891.
My dear Mr. Williams :

Mr. Harry Hall and a few others of our old college friends
are to dine with me on Wednesday next at six o'clock.

May I ask j'ou to join us on that occasion ? I am sure that
all will be much pleased to meet you.

Sincerely yours,

Thomas Crossbn.

p!^'W^mmmmmmmm

I ■«

APPENDIX.

Hi!

„ , ,_ „ MORDEN, August 4, 1891.

My dear Mr. Crossen :

I beg to thank you for your kind invitation for Wednesday
next, which I gladly accept It always aflforfs me great
pleasure to meet old college friends.

Ever yours,

A. J. Williams,

Formal notes are written in the third person. The
place, or date, or both, are written at the bottom, left-hand
side. No signature is added.

Mr. Mulock, having business of particular importance to

commumoat^ wUl be glad if Mr. West can make it^nvenient

«*L^i ,^P®^ ^^^ *^3 afternoon at three o'clock.
257 Mam Street,

Tuesday, August 4

Mr. West respectfully acknowledges Mr. Mulock's note and
will wait upon him as proposed. ^^ »u

234 James Street,
August 4.

Dr. and Mrs. Allen present their compliments to Mr. and
Mrs. Henry, and request the pleasure of their company on
Monday evening, the 10th inst ^ ^

7 Ann Street,
July a

ir.^:,^"^^ ?ft* ^^",^7 ^*^® pleasure in accepting the kind
mvitation of Dr. and Mrs. Allen for the 10th inst
24 Spring Street,
July 4.

Mrs. Johnson presents her compliments to Mr. Black and

35 Banks Street,
July 7.

Mr. Black begs to thank Mrs. Johnson for her kind invita-

enTa^lT"-r ^^"^"^^^ "«^' ^^'^ ''^'^ that a pSL
engagement will prevent him from accepting it
18 Elm Street, °

July&

liv

APPENDIX.

JExercisea.

L Write a note to a relative or friend, returning thanks for
a present which he has just sent to you.

State clearly the

2. Write a note reqaesting an interview,
time and plac&

8. Write a note of apology to your teacher for some thought-
less act.

4. Write a note to a business man, introducing a friend who
is a stranger in the city.

5. Write to your father, supposing him to be away from
home. Tell him all the home news.

6. Write to the publisher of a daily newspaper, asking him
to discontinue sending the paper to you.

7. Write an informal note to a friend in a distant town
inviting him or her to make you a visit

8. Write a note to accompany a Christmas gift which you
send to a friend.

9. Write to a bookseller ordering some book. State what
money you inclose.

10. Write an informal note congratulating a friend on his
having won a prize at school

11. Write a letter renewing your subscription to a daily
newspaper. Tell how much you inclose and in what form.

12. Write a formal note in your mother's name, inviting
your teacher to dina Name the day and hour.

18. Write a formal note accepting an invitation to dinner.

14. Write a formal note declining an invitation to accom-
pany a person to a concert.

15. Apply for a situation as clerk. State briefly your quali-
fications.

16. Describe a real or imaginary voyage across the Atlantic.

17. Write a confidential letter from a child to Santa Claus.
la Write Santa Claus' reply to the child.

19. Write the various introductions and conclusions that
might be used in writing to : your sister, brother, cousin ; a
physician, clergyman, lawyer; a member of parliament, the
publishers of this book ; an intimate friend.

— " ■ m'-'" ••'iiii—,'