CIHM Microfiche Series (Monographs) ICI\/IH Collection de microfiches (monographies) Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiqueii Technical and Bibliographic Notes / Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming are checked below. D D D D D Coloured covers i Couverture de couleur □ Covers damaged / Couverture endommag6e □ Covers restored and/or laminated / Couverture restaur^e et/ou pellicul^e Cover title missing / Le titre de couverture manque j I Coloured maps / Cartes g6ographiques en couleur D Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black) / Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) □ Coloured plates and/or illustrations / Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur □ Bound with other material / Reli6 avec d'autres documents Only edition available / Seule edition disponible Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin / La reliure serr6e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distorsion le long de la marge interieure. Blank leaves added during restorations may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming / Use peut que certaines pages blanches ajout6es lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela ^tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas ete filmees. Additional comments / Commentaires suppl6mentaires: L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a ^tS possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exem- plaire qui sont peut-Stre uniques du point de vue bibli- ographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la m^tho- de normale de filmage sont indiqu^s ci-dessous. Coloured pages / Pages de couleur I j Pages damaged / Pages endommag6es D D D D Pages restored and/or laminated / Pages restaur^es et/ou pellicul^es r— y Pages discoloured, stained or foxed / ! I Pages d^colordes, tachet^es ou piqu^es I I Pages detached / Pages d6tach6es I v/| Showthrough / Transparence I I Quality of print varies / Quality in^gale de I'impression Includes supplementary material / Comprend du materiel suppl6mentaire 'ips. Pages wholly or partially obscured by en.- i tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure I'l' b' t possible image / Les pages totaleme;v "tj partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 film6es k nouveau de fa^on k obtenir la meilleure image possible. Opposing pages with varying colouration or discolourations are filmed twice to ensure the best possible image / Les pages s'opposant ayant des colorations variables ou des decolorations sont film6es deux fois afin d'obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is (limed at the reduction ratio checked below / Ce document est (ilme au taux de reduction indiqui ci-dessoui. 1 lOx 14x 18x 22x 26x 30x ' y 12x 16x 20x 24x 28x 32x Th* copy film«d h«r« has b««n reproduced thanks to tha gortaroaity of: Natu.onal Library of Canada L'axamplaira film* fut roproduit grace A l» gAniroait* da: Bibllothequa natlonala du Canada Tha imagaa appearing hare are tha best quality possible considering the condition and fegibijity of the eriginel copy and in keeping with the filming contract apecif icetions. Les images suivantes ont *t* reproduites avec le plus grand soin. compta tenu de la condition at de la naneti de t'exemplaire film*, et en conformit* avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed peper covers ere filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the beck cover when appropriate. All other original copies »f filmed beginning on the first pege with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with e printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded fr^me on eech microfiche shall contain the symbol — -^ (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol ▼ (meaning "END"), whichever epplies. Les exemplaires origineux dont la couvenure en pepier est imprimAe sont filmSs en commencant par la premier plat et en terminant soit par la darni^re page qui compone une empteinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par la second plat, salon le eas. Tous les autres exemplaires origineux sont filmis en commenpant par la premiere pege qui comporte une emprsinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la derniAre page qui comporte une telle empreinto. Un dee symboles suivants spparaitra sur la derniire image do cheque microfiche, selon le cas: la symbols — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE '. le symbole V signifie "FIN". Meps, plates, charts, etc.. mey be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too lerge to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in tha upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as msny frames es required. The following diegrams illustrate the method: Les cartas, planches, tableaux, etc.. peuvent otra filmis A des taux de reduction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour atre reproduit en un seul clichi. il est filme A partir da Tangle supirieur gauche, de gauche A droits. et de haut en bas. en prenant le nombre d'imoges nAcessaire. Les diagrammas suivants illustrent le mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 L«' 'jpfflsagai'^," rTiSi^ cSUKSiit^ MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TKT CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHA'JT No. 2) J >I PPLIED IIVMGE K If'.? East Main Street '«S Rochester, New York 14609 USA SS (716) 482 - 0300 - Phonj = (716) 288- 5989 ^ Fo« n, MODERN CARPENTRY A PRACTirAL MANUAL SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED ILLUSTRATED i»l7Bi:,ISHB!RS Frederick J. Drake & Co. CopvmioHT 1902 BV Frederick J. Drake A eo. Chicago. Iix. V. 8. A. COPYRIOHT '909 BY Frederick J. Drake & Co. CUICAOO 09b02i62 PREFACE »hi!S^ '"*"*'•" »^y» Shakespeare, "need, no bush." which of course means that when a thing is good n Jtself pra.se makes it no better. So with a book? If it -s good, .t needs no preface to make it better. The author of th.s book flatters himself that the work he has done on .t, both as author and compiler, is good- therefore, from his standpoint a preface to i i, s^o^-* what a work of supererogation. His opinion regaTd- 2r fLr''^°' ''^'°°'^ "^^ "^^ questioned' but after forty years' experience as a writer of book for builders all of which have met with success and durmg that time over thirty years editor of one of the most popular building journals in America, he feeVs hi! opm.on^e.nforced as it is by thousands of bu ilde and woodworkers throughout the country, should be thil mtle hT ""^''' ^' ''''' '' '^ ""^y^ however, l'«'e book IS sent out with a certainty that the IMn'. h' '' "'""" °' "^" ^"^ ""^y^ who'larn hei I'vmg by working wood, and fashioning it fo seful or ornamental purposes, will appreciate it, be ause o Its mam object, which is to lessen their labors b! placmg before them the quickest and most approved methods of construction. ^ To say more in this preface is unnecessary and a waste of time for both reader and author. FRED T. HODGSON. COLLINGWOOD, ONTARIO, July, I902, PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. MODERN CAHPENTHV. VOL I. The necessity of proparinu « socon.l edition ot this work has become so urpent that its publication cannot ho longer delayed. The demand for it has almost out- grown our means of production, a.ul our supply is about exhausted, so we hasten to take advantage of this condition to ,>nlarge and improve the work and render It more acceptable and valuable than ever. The addi tions and unprovi-ments now made to the work, are of so very useful and practical a character, that we are sure thoy will prove of benefit to the workman, and to the general student of the carpenter and joiners' art It .s hardly n,.ces«ary for me to in.lulge in a long prea„.ble setting forth the good qualiti.>« contained ^„ the contents of this work, as all this ha.s been before the people now for several years: all recent developments u. the carpenter trade, however, have been added so that the present volun.e will h,. found to contain the very h.tcst practice of doing things. Th. additional matter •uul diagrams will. I am sure, commend themselves to the workman, and will. I hope, prove a help to him in his everyday labors. Cokngwood, Ont.. Jtdy. 1909. ^"^'^ ^^ "°^'^''- l' I '■ MODERN CARPENTRY PART I CARPENTER GEOMETRY CHAPTER I THE CIRCLE a good mechanic, a man must need be a good scholar Tf aml^'L^'^T' in mathemaMcs or geo„,etrv ^ t ereat helni' T ""*J" '^''' '^'^""» '^^y ^i" ^e a w h .reader s '"J" "T' ''" ^° ^'^'^"'"P''^'^ ^^^ --"^ win greater speed and more exactness than if he did not know anything about them. This, i think all will moment K r^- ^' '^^*-'^' ^°^^^-' ^hat a ^an. The tru" onartra'd'" "'"' °^"*'^"^ '" ^">' °^ ^^e con! lilr^ ?K " "• '" *"""*="' '' °"» knowing it to earn the sc.ence of geometry its rudimentary a sfeel or o.h' " '" 'f " "" ' '' ' ^°^^^ ^"^ employs scrl ches or 'r ''•"''^'" ''" ^"^P^^^- -^' ^^en he ^1. !k P ^ ^ '■"' '^^'^ »he board, using the cage Of the blade is against the edge cf the board or pro'b 1 Tt '• H ^ ''I' ^°'^^^ »"■' '^^^^ ^---^ ca diamVer^Heln?"''' ' "'"'^' '^^ ^^ ^'>''* '-^e, oiameter. He knows instmctively that if he opens his 9 10 MODERN CARPENTRY compasses until the points of the legs are four inches apart,— or makin^- the radius four inches-he can by keeping one point fixed, called a "center," describe a circle with the other leg, the diameter of which will be eight inches. By this process he has solved a second geometrical problem, or at least he has solved It so far that it suits his present purposes. These examples, of course, do not convey to the operator the more subtle qualities of the right angle or the circle, yet they serve, in a practical manner, as assistants in every-day work. When a man becomes a good workman, it goes with- out saying that he has also become possessor of a fair amount of practical geometrical knowledge, though he~ may not be aware of the fact. The workman who can construct a roof, hipped, gabled, or otherwise, cutting all his material on the ground, has attained an advanced practical knowledge of geometry, though he may never have heard of Euclid or opened a book relating to the science. Some of the best workmen I have met were men who knew nothing of geometry as taught in the books, yet It was no trouble for them to lay out a circular or elliptical stairway, or construct a rail over them a feat that requires a knowledge of geometry of a high order to properly accomplish. These few introductory remarks are made with the hope that the reader of this little volume will not be disheartened at the threshold of his trade, because of his lack of knowledge in any branch thereof. To become a good carpenter or a good joiner, a young man must begin at the bottom, and first learn his A, B, Cs, and the difficulties that beset him will disap- pear one aftc r another as his lessons are learned. It CARPENTER S GEOMETRY h must always be borne in mind, however, that the young fellow who enters a shop, fully equipped with a knowl- edge of general mathematics and geometry, is in a much better position to solve the work problems that crop up daily, than the one who starts work without such equipment. If, however, the latter fellow be a boy possessed of courage and perseverance, there is no eason why he should not "catch up"-even over- h.nT 7 Tl! '^' '"'''"' advantages, for what is then learned will be more apt to be better understood, and more readily applied to the requirements of his Tvn /u ^''"' ^"" '" "^^t^^hing up- with his more favored shopmate, I propose to submit for his benefit t™ H .^'"'P''°" ^"d explanation of what may be termed Carpenter's Geometry," which will be quite ".■ jiy iij- '-"i 19 MODERN CARPENTRY sufficient If he learn it well, to enable him to execute I wilTl s '' Y T '!.""^^ "P^" *° perform and 1 will do so as clearly and plainly as possible, and in as few words as the instructions can be framed so as o make them intelligible to the student 2 at'shT'" "^T '" ^•^- ' '^ ^•■"^" f^^*" the center 2. as shown, and may be said to be a plain figure w.th,n a continual curved line, every part of the hne being equally distant from the center 2. I Ys Ee s.mp est of all figures ro draw. The line AB. wh ch Hne *^^^!-7^— . ■- "lied the diameter. Zlt Z A u- ^^"°'"'"^t^d a chord, and the area en- closed wuhm the curved line and the chord is termed a segment. The radius of a circle is a line drawn f'orn ialf'^h .^ " V'l -'-"-f^-ce C. and is always one half the length of the diameter, no matter what that diameter may be. A tangent is a Hne which touche the c.rcumference at some point and is at right angle w.th a rad.al Ime drawn to that point as shown at C other fil f'-equently used when explanations of other figures are made; and it is essential that the learner should memorize both the terms and their sig! n.ficat.ons m order that he may the more readify understand the problems submitted for solution ^ n. ^.'"2r"u'y ^^PP^"^ that the center of a circle is not vjs.ble but must be found in order to compLe the arc e or form some part of the circumferencl The center of any circle may be found , follows: let mA a fh 'h ', ''^"^ "^ '^' ''S^'"' H; and BJA a chord enclosmg the segment. Bisect or down frori'h ^"■''' ''' ''°'^ ^^' ^^ "• -"d square Chord AIR P°'"' '" °- ^° '^' ^^"^^ ^''th the chord AJB, squaring over trom J to D, then thq M Mit^ -ay>»9a'MBB;w Ea H wt*rsiw RJ^.tfi^r^'a^^^ CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY ,3 This is one of the most important problems for the carpenter .n the whole range of geometry as it enables the workman to locate any center, and to draw ounces he could not other«-ise describe without this or other s.m.lar methods. It is by aid of this problem ha through any three points not in a straigh Une a arcle can be drawn that will pass through each of the three pomts. Its usefulness will be shown farther on tl'I^'!? '° '^r'"^ °"' segmental or curved top window door and other frames and sashes, and the earner should thoroughly master this problem before stepping further, as a full knowledge of it will assist h.m very materially in understanding other problems. The circumference of every circle is measured by being supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees; each degree containing 60 minutec, a :l| Wi^-ixf&amsLi^t' ML,t^ »4 MODERN CARPENTRY smaller division, and each minute into 60 secmds a still smaller division. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are written thus: 45° 15' 30", which is read, forty-five degrees, fifteen minutes, and thirty seconds. This I think will be quite clear to the reader. Arcs are meas- ured by the number of degrees which they contain: thus 'n Fig. 3, the arc AE, which contains 90°, is called i quadrant, or the quarter of a circumference, because 90 IS one quarter of 36o\ and the arc ABC whicK con- tains 180 IS a semi-circumference. Every angle -s also measured by degrees, the degrees being reckoned on an arc included between its sides; described from the ver- *u .i^l^ ^"^'^ as a center, as the point O, Fig v thus, AOE contains 90°; and the angle BOD. which is' half a right angle, is called an angle of 45°, which is -'^S^W^V^SiilSrj^^i-SL'r^^e^'a^Kaax: OMmUR CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY ,5 the number it contains, as will be seen by counting off the spaces as shown by the divisions on the curved hne BD. Thc.e rules hold good, no matter what may be the diameter of the circle If large, the divisions are large; if small, the divisions are small, but the manner of reckoning is always the same. One of the qualities of the circle is, that when divided in two by a diameter, making two semicircles, any Choi ' starting at the extremity of such a diameter, as at A or B, Fig. 4, ar ' cutting the circumference at any point, as at C, D r E. a line drawn from this point to the other extremity of the diameter, will torm a right angle-or be square with the first chord, as -.s shown by the dotted lines BCA, BDA, and BEA Ihis IS something to be remembered, as the problem win be found useful on many occasions. The diagram sho^vn at Fig. 5 represents a he::ar :i within a circle. This is obtained by stepping aro- the circumfer.'nce, with the radius of the circle on tn compasses, six times, which divides the circumference into SIX equal parts; then draw lines to each point which, when completed, will form a hexagon, a six- sided ngure. By drawing lines from the points obtained in the circumference to ihe center, we get a ! X6 MODERN CARPENTRV . I Inairif? •'^"'''' •^'"■'*' •■' ""^^ ^" equilateral trl- angle, that .s, a tnangle having all iis sid.s equal m ^V length; as AB. AC and BC. The dotted lines show how an equilateral tnangle may be produced on a straight line It necessary. The diagram shown - ^ Ic at Fig. 6 illustrates the method of trisecting a ri£ht angle or quadrant into three equal parts. Let A be a center, and with the same radius intersect at E, thus the quadrant or right angle is divided into three equal parts. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 17 If we wish to get the length of a straight line that shall equal the circumference of a circ' ; or part of circle or quadrant, we can do so by procceriing as fol- lows: Suppose Fig. 7 to represent half of the circle, as it ABC; then draw the chord BC divide it at p' join it at A; then four times PA is oqual to the cirl cumference of a circle whose diameter is AC, or equal to the curve CB. To divide the quadrant AB into any number of equal parts, say thirteen, we simply lay on a rule and make the distance from A to R measure three and one- fourth inches, which are thirteen quarters or parts on the rule; rnake R2 equal one-fourth of an inch; joiu fll p(r uV ?f ^"'' ^''"' ^P- '^""'"g ^t V; now take PV in the dividers and set off from A on the circle thirteen parts, which end at B, each part being equal to PV, and the problem is solved. The "stretchout" or length of any curved line in the circle can then be obtained by breaking it into segments by chords, as shown at BN. I have shown in Fig. 5, how to construct an equi- lateral triangle by the use of the compasses, i give at i8 MODERN CARPENTRY Fig 8 a practical example of how this figure ;,, <.„. nect,o„ w„h ccles, may be employed in deLibinTa figure known as the trefoil, a figure made much use o Ea'ch"c"orr oflera^Te Ts AK ir' T-^h''- ctf^^'Vnrir '^' '""'-""' ---"'= circles. Ihe latter curves are struck from the center O which is found by dividing the sides of the equi- O TKlnTr '"""'"« ''°"" -''I *e lines c^o s ^e .ad?:-rb';";;^t;"„-j;::.---^': Xsy^=r.u?-^^ handle a rule and compass should be able to consJuct »t after a few minutes' thouuhr. Thi= f^.JelZ ? to n^ost Gothic ornamentation, and is wtrmasterit;! ocTHt-A"' ''^--^-'^v-fsr^-^p*,- v" -W There CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY another rm «9 enff h the crcnmferencc ,,f the semicircle. The ows Through X draw RW. then WU will be the mX SX Th'^"'^' °' '''' P^^^'- <^^ ^^e cird ma.kcd SX There are several other ways of deter- m n,ng by h„es a near approach to the length of he c.rcumference or a portion thereof: but, theorcticallv he exact -'stretchout- of a circumference has no been found by any of the known methods, ei her ari'h- ■%.'?5sS\JSIllPA*«!i» ao MODERN CARPENTRY No .etH^ However. th!t ir.l^ir.eran";^,';; sample so convenient and so accurate as the arith! metical one. wh.ch I give herewith. If we mu't?Dlv the diameter of a circle hv , t^.a ♦», ^^ multiply trive the \ertafh J lu • ^ '*'^' ^^^ P''oduct will give tne length of the circumference, very nearlv These figures are based on the fact that a ctrde re'^ml^r ' ^'--^— oi nearly 3. ^le ti::: With the exception of the formation of mouldings, and orna- mentation where the circle and its parts take a prominent part, I have sub- mitted nearly all con- cerning the figure, the everyday carpen- ter will be called to use tt'lT? '"^ ''*" °"' ' "'" ''y ^"^ ^^°- how 10 use the knowleofe-e now given wefrtM'"'""? '^' '"^^'^^' ^°^^^^'-' '* "^«y be a, radius, may be obtained- -practically-if but three t'o'in the" , "■^^""^^^-"- -^ available; as referred to in the explanation given of Fig. 5. Let us suppose rdr:: ABC T'' ''"T '" *'^ circumference^: cTn be found k'^' '°' ' ''"'"■ '' ^"^'^ ^•'•^'^ bt strLht ! ^ *^°""^^^'"g the points AB and BC by straight lines as shown, and by dividii ng these lines ' ^ kL-SBfe rm&ffi^t^mXTi^'r^: - *' «'*«>»- , CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY •I and squaring down as shown until the lines intersect at O as shown This point O is the center of the circle. It frequently happens that it is not possible to find a place to locate a center, because of the diameter being so great, as in segm* ntal windox.s and doors of large- dimensions. To overcome this difficulty a method ^M has been devised by which the curve may be correctly drawn by nailing three wooden strips together so as to form a triangle, as shown in Fig. n. Suppose NO to be the chord or width of frame, and QP the height of segment, measuring from thr springing lines N and O- drive nails or pins at O and N, keep the triangle close against the nails, and place a pencil at P, then slide the triangle against the pins or nails while sliding, and the pencil will describe the necessary curve. The arms of the triangle should be several inches longer than the line NO, so that when the pencil P arrives at N or O, the arms will still rest against the pins, "^nff^ff^^^K!S?^?5!!S'vTT CHAPTER II POLVGONS " an equilateral rect- anpl'?. A polygon of five sides is a pentagon. A poly- gon of six sides is a hexagon, A poly- gon of seven sides is called a heptagon. _ A polygon of eight ocagon. A polygon of „,•„. side/;'" „:ial':' '" A polygon o, ,.n s,d« U called a deca,:^ ' A p. r'Tn of eleven s.des is called an undecagon. And^ LTv gon of twelve sides is called a dodecagon "^ ^' mere are regular and irregular polygons Those having equal s.des are regular; ehose having nnloual sides are known among cnrpeneers by bein.. denom na ed as a polygon having "so mauv sides." as ,' iwlygon with fourteen sides, " and so on, ' 22 fsii.: v^^if^sfM/SK'^^wmsr-iiiifTaBtsm'mr^atm'yiKtt -'Ji*rsti^^'^ jhc oth;. sides are found by taking HL as radius, and with LN for centers make the tntersection in P. draw LP and NP. which com! m. »4 MODERN CARPENTRY The deed ,i„e shot-st elin^e' or U," 7Zr'"- length of o?e s'ido of Zfi "'' ?P"'^'' °ff "> ""= "--.„oe,:r;:?r^j-:Ta--,- make BN equal to AB, strike an arc 3N as shown by the flotted lines, with 2 as a center and N as a radius, cutting the given line at 3. Take A3 for radius; '^^^"'be further on -able the reader t^^lT^,^'' ^" P«->'^-- to The polygons not described .r 'f'^^P^^'^ ^'^^n. of -carpentry, that no 'thor vT, T^ "^^^ "- descnbes the.n when wrft „. ^f^^ ^^^ ' ^"? ^-are of '"^"i though in nearly all works on ^K '"'"'''"' ^'''^^ y works on theoretical geom- CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 31 ?try the figures are given with all their qualities. If the solution of any of tht problems offered in this work requires a description and explanation of poly- gons with a greater number of sides than eight, such explanation will be given. CHAPTER III M SOME STRAIGHT LINE SOLUTIONS The greatest number of difficnlf nr^Ki Tyare susceptible of =ol,' o^bv ? f iro^T'''^"- ^ in this chapter I will emicavor to show the reader how some of the problems may be -. ^ I solved, though it is v^'^' I not intended to offer a treatise on the subject of the utility of the steel square, as that subject has been treated at works, and another anH « ^ '.*^ngth in other preparation- bu i^ i. ?. ^''^'^"^t.ve wo.k is now in can'becomplet Vi h :':;i Lrh""' "" ^^^^^"^^ solutions that mav h. . ' 1 ' showmg some of the of this wondLruMnst;''°7 "T' '^ '''' ^^^P^'' -*^ we proceed '"^^'^"■"^"t, and this will be done as 'ine without tLaTdo'"e"Tr?'T '''''''' follows: Let TK" p ? ^^" '^ obtained as and make F ani pofn'f in'th ^'^ ^"'^" ^^^^'^^* ''-' line required Fr^ ' V .. ''^""'^ °^ Perpendicular «i rea. ^^m F with any radius, strike the arc 32 CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 33 cutting in JK; with these points as centers, and any radius greater than half JK. make intersection as shown, and from this point draw a line to F, and this line is the perpendicular required. Foundations, and other works on a large scale are often "squared" or laid out by this method, or by another which I will submit later. In a previous illustration I showed how to bisect an angle by using the compasses and straight lines, so as to obtain the proper joints or miters for the angles. At Fig. 2, 1 show how this may be done by the aid of the steel square alone, as follows: The angle is ob- tuse, and may be that of an octagon or pentagon o r other polygon. Mwk any two points on the angle, as DN, equally distant from the point of angle L; apply the steel square as shown, keeping the distance EN and ED the same, then a line running through the angle L and the pomt of the square E will be the line sought To bisect an acute angle by the same method, pro- ceed as follows: Mark any two points AC Fig -, equally distant from B; apply the steel square a^ shown, keepmg its sides on AC; then the distance on each side of the square being equal from the corner gives It for a point, through which draw a line from B and the angle is divided. Both angles shown are divided by the same method, making the intersection 34 MODERN CARPENTRY •'n P the center of ihf triangle. The mam fK- *^ con..dered i„ this -lutionl to la^eT J^ir^, A f M and C equal from the point ^; also an t^ual distance from the point or toe of the square to the points of con- tact C and A on the boun- dary lines. '^ repetition method of bisectintr a„„i . of the same shown at Fig? Th^rf • ""'^^ '''^'' conditions, is *«g. 4. The process .s just the same, and the "pSoitTn^L:- -'--",,„... CARPENTERS GEOMETRY JS To get a correct miter cut, or. in other wortls. an angle of 45-. on a board, make either ot the points .; or C, Fig. 5, the starting point for the rri'er. on the edge of the board, then ap- ply the square as shown, keep- ing the figure 12" at A or C, as the case may be, with the fig- >j^ jt^g ure 12" on the other blade of the square on the edge of the board as shown; then the slopes .-n the edge ot the square from A to B and C to H. will form anj,'les of 45 with the base line AC. This problem is useful from many points of view, and will often suggest itself to the workman in his daily labor. To^construct a figure showing on one side an angle of 30° and on the other an angle of Oo", by the use of Fi^.d th. steel square, we go to work as follows: Mark on the edge of a board two equal spaces as AB, BC, Fig 6 apply the square, keeping its blade on AC and' making 36 MODERN CARPENTRY AD equal AB; then the angles 30° and 6o- are formed a, shown. If we make a tjplet cutTxactly this irr ^''- '; f " ' ^""»''^' -» - 'hown h this last figure, and these templets arc made of ,..me hard wood we get a pair of set square, for drawing! purposes, by which a lar,.- number of geomttn'cal problems and drawing kinks may be wrought Z The diameter of any circle within the range of the dlowTTr^''^' 'f r'"^' '>'^^^ instrumental follows. The corner of the square touching any part of the circumference A. Fig. 7. and the blade cutting •n pomt, C. B. gives the diameter of the circle a» shown. Another application of this principle is, that the diameter of a circle being known" the square may e employed to describe the circumference.' Suppo e CB to be the known diameter; then put in two nails as shown, one at B and the other at C. app^y the tinualy sliding it around, then the point of the square A will describe half the circumference. Apply the ^m f; I CARPENTERS GEOMETRY 31 ■'q'lare to the other side of the nails, iuicj repeat the l)ro«:ess. when the whole circle will be described. This problem may be applied to the solution of many others of a similar nature At Fig. 8, I show how an equilateral triangle may be obtained by the use of a square. Draw the line DC; take 12 on the blade and 7 on the tongue; mark on the tongue for one side of the figure. Make the dis- tance from D to A equal to the desired length of one side of the figun Re\erse the square, placing it as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch, brinj^ing 7 of the tongue against the point A. Scribe along the tongue, pro ducing the line until it intersects the first line drawn in the f>oint E, then AEH will be an ecjuilateral tri- angle. A method of describing a he.\agon by the square, is shown at Fig. g, which is quite simple. Draw the line GH; lay off the retpiired length of one side on this line, as DE. Place the square as before, with 12 of the blade and 7 of the tongue against the line GH; placing 7 of the t jng'ie against the point D, scribe along the tongue for the side DC. Place the square as shown by the dotted lines; bringing 7 of the tongue against the point E, scribe the side EF. Con- ;^fm^'.:A^^^^^^^rms^ ^L-.- 38 MODERN CARPENTRY tinue in this way until the other half of the figure is drawn. All is shown by FABC FiIs''2Ta"nT;'f'''r''"^"'^'"'^'" ^^- ^hownin tigs. 2, 3 and 4 of the present chapter, so that it is not necessary to repeat the process at this time The method of describing an octagon by usine the square, .s shown at Fig. 10. Lay off a squlrf section with any length of sides, as AB. Bisect this side and place the square as shown on the side AB, with the length bisected on the blade and tongue; then the tongue cuts the side at the point to gauge for the piece to be removed. To find the size of square required for an octagonal prism, when the side is given: Let CD equal the given side; place the square on the Wi^ m^^ M. ^MSiOP^aa --^^tB^. ^^*> Jir^ CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 39 line cf the side, with one-half of the side on the blade and tone- ?; then the tong^ue cuts the line at the point B, w' i:h ucterriiines the size oi the square, and the piec« to be reirov* .. A !*'£ ; approxJria- tion lo tli^, iLrr'n or stretch-out of a cir- cumference of a cir- cle may be obtained by the aid of the steel square and a straight line, as fol- lows: Take throe diameters of the circle and measure up the side of the blade of the square, as shown at Fig. n, and fifteen-sixteenths of one diameter on the tongue. From these two points J^.// • OIAMETERI draw a diagonal, and the length of this diagonal will be the length or stretch-out of the circumference nearly. If it is desired to divide a board or other substance into any given number of equal parts, without going through the process of calculation, it may readily be done by the aid of the square or even a pocket rule. Let AC, BD, Fig. 12, be the width of the board or 40 MODERN CARPENTRY pther material, ami this width is seven and one-quarter inches, and we wish to divide it into eight equal parts. Lay on the board diagonally, with furthermost point of the square fair with one edge, and the mark 8 on the square on the other edge; then prick off the mches, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 as shown, and these points will be the gauge points from which to draw the parallel lines. These lines, of course, will be some- thing less than one inch apart. If the board should be more than eight inches wide, then a greater length of the square may be used, as for instance, if the board is ten inches wide, and we wish to divide it into eight equal parts, we simply make use of the figure 12 on the square. instead of 8. and prick off the spaces every one and a half inches on the square. If the board is more than 12 inches wide, and we require the same number of divisions, we make use of figure 16 on the square, and prick off at every two inch. s. Any other divisions of the board may be obtained in a like manner, varying only the use of the figures on the square to get the number of divisions required. As a number of problems in connection with actual work, will be wrought out on similar lines to the fore- going, further on in this book, I will close this chapter in order to give as much space as possible in describ- ing the ellipse and the higher curves. I CHAPTER IV ELLIPSES, SPIRALS, AND OTHER CURVES The ellipse, next to the circle, is the curve the car- penter will be confronted with more than any other, and while it is not intended to discuss all, or even a major part, of the properties and characteristics of this curve, I will endeavor to lay before the reader all in connection with it that he may be called upon to deal with. According to geometricians, an ellipse is a conic section formed by cutting a cone through the curved surface, neither parallel to the base nor making a subcontrary section, so that the ellipse like the circle is a curve that returns within itself, and completely encloses a space. One of the principal and useful properties of the ellipse is, that the rectangle under the rwo segments of a diameter is as the square of the < "e. In the circle, the same ratio obtains, but t. tangle under the two segments of the diameter becomes equal to the square of the ordinate. It is not necessary that we enter into a learned description of the relations of the ellipse to the cone and the cylinder, as the ordinary carpenter may never have any practical use of such knowledge, though, if he have time and inclination, such knowledge would avail him much and tend to broaden his ideas. Suffice for us to show the various methods by which this curve may be obtained, and a few of its applica- tions to actual work. One of the simplest and most correct methods of describing an ellipse, is by the aid of two pins, a string 41 T m i ■V 4t MODERN CARPENTRY and a lead-pencl. as shown at Fig. i. Let FB be 'he major or longest axis or diameter, and DC the minor or shorter ax.s or d.ameter, and E and K the two f^^ J .■ fi These two points are obtained by taking the half of he major ax.s AB or FA. on the compasses, and. standing one point at D. cut the points E and K on the as shovt T L ■" •^""'^ '"'''' '""^ P'"^ -' E and K and Z; I •' ''""^ "' '''"^^" ^y the dotted lines and t.e to the p.ns at K, then stand the pencil at C D^nrVn- '"■'•';'' -T"^ '' ""^ ""y the string to the p.n E holdmg ,t tight and winding it once or twice around the p.n and then holding the string with the finger. _ Run the pencil around, keeping the loop of he string on the pencil and it will guide the latter in the formation o the curve as shown. When one-half of the el ipse is formed, the string may be used for the other half. :ommeacing the curve at F or B. as the case may be. This is commonly called "a gardener's oval, because gardeners make use of it for forming ornamental beds for flowers, or in making curves fof CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 43 FCg.2. walks, etc.. etc. This method of forming the curve, is based on the well-known property of the ellipse that the sum of any two lines drawn from the foci to their circumference is the same. K^^ ^ ^ Another method of projectin}^ an ellipse is shown at Fig. 2, by using a trammel. This is an instrument consist- ing of two principal parts, th': fixed part in the form of a cross as CD, AB, and the movable tracer HG. The fixed piece is made of two triangular bars or pieces of wood of equal thickness, joined together so as to be in the same plane. On one side of the frame when made, is a groove forming a right- angled cross; the groove is shown in the section at E. In this groove, two studs are fitted to slide easily, the studs having a section same as shewn at F. These studs are to carry the tracer and guide it on proper lines. The tracer may have a sliding stud on the end to carry a lead-pencil, or it may have a number of small holes passed through it as shown in the cut, to carry the pencil. To draw an ellipse with this instrument, we measure off half the distance of the major axis from the pencil to the stud G, and half the minor axis from the pencil point to the stud II, then swing the tracer round, and the pencil will describe the ellipse required. The studs have little projections on their tops, that fit easily into the holes in the tracer, but this may be done away with, and two brad awls or pins may be thrust through the tracer and into the studs, and then 1 i 44 MODERN CARPENTRY proceed with the work With »k- • ellipse may easily be describ!^ " '"^""^"* ^ p tuted fur the instru- ment shown in Fig 2. Draw the line AB, bisecting it at right .8 angles, draw CD. i><-~t off these lines the required dimen- sions of the ellipse to be drawn. Place shown. Lay the stramhf«^ . ^"^^^'"^'"y square as as shown i ^Fig f .fd ! .f '^"^^hw.se of the figure, square, place the Pe" i 1 Tr"\ ' P'" '' ^ ''''"'' ''' with the one of t^e fi' ^ n;\^';"' T^^"^ edge, as shown in ^ ^'^' ""'''' '''' ^^^^'S*^*- I'lg- 4. crosswise of the figure, and bring the pencil F to a point cor- responding to one side of the figure, and set a pin at G. By keeping the two pins E and G against the square, frol"sId1"?o''L''"''''''^^ ^° '' ^° ^^^"^ '^^ P--> tru^k Bv n ' ^"t^"^'-^^'- °f the figure u^ll be struck. By placing the square in the same relative CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 45 A method, — and one that is very useful for many purposes, — of drawing an ellipse approximately, is shown in Fig 5. It is conveiicnt and maybe applied to hundreds of purposes, some of which will be illus- trated as V _- proceed. ■Jo apply this method, work as follows: First lay off the length of the required figure, as /^ shown by AIJ, Fig. 5, and the width as shown oy CD. Construct a parallelogram that shall have its sides tangent to the figure at the points of its length and width, all as shown by EFGII. Subdivide one-half of the end of the parallelogram into any convenient number of equal parts, as shown at AE, and one-half of its side in the same manner, as shown by IlD. Connect these two sets of points by intersecting lines in the manner shown in the engraving. Repeat the oper. 'on for each of the other corners of the parallelogiam. A line traced through the inner set of intersections will be a very close approximation to an ellipse. There are a number of ways of describing figures that approximate ellipses by using the compasses, some of them being a near approach to a true ellipse, anfi it is well that the workman should acquaint himself with the methods of their construction. It is only neces- sary that a few examples be given in this work, as a knowledge of these shown will lead the way to the construction of others when required. The method exhibited in Fig. 6 is, perhaps, the most useful of any employed by workmen than all other mc^thods cora- ^1 I 46 bined. To d MODERN CARPENTRY oined. To describe it, layoff the length rn ^ nght angles to it and bisectin. iAJlTl ^^:.:'»"^ at On .he larger c,ra„,;;jru;;ViT;l''="f" ^''• shorter diameter or wid.h.'l.ljJt; dF' DivLI remainder of the i-.e 'length or larger diameter EC into three equal parts; with two of these parts as a radius, and R as a center, strike the circle GSFT. Then, with F as «■*- ^^^^j^:-^- M ^ '^^"ter and FG as radiu?, J't^. 6. -^^ and G as center and GF -u . as radius, strike thf arn= ^. shown, mtersecting each other and cuttiL th^ r drawn through the shorter diameter it O ^nH P arc LU, and with P as center and with like radius, or PB which is the same, strike the arc KN. With F and G as centers, and with FD and CG which are ^ the same, for radii, "^^.Z strike the arcs NM and KL respectivelv fU m ^JL__ JHfc CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 47 right angles to BD draw the line CF indefinitely; then at the points of intersection of the dotted lines will be found the points to describ( the required ellipse. A method of describing an ellipse by the intersec- tion of lines is shown at Fi J. S, ::nd which may be applied to any kind of an ellipse with longer or shorter axis. Let \VX be the given major a.xis, and YA the minor axis drawn at right angles to and at the center of each other. Through Y parallel to WX draw ZT, parallel to AY, draw \VZ and XT; divide WZ and XT into any number of equal parts, say four, and draw lines from the points / ^>^^ \ ^i r r— ■^^' of division 000. etc., to Y. Divide \VS and XS each into the same numbc-r of equal parts as WZ and XT, and draw lines from A through these last points of division intersecting the lines drawn from OOO, etc., and at these intersections trace the semi-ellipse WYX. The other half of the ellipse may be described in the same manner. i ,:!«!.. ^» ^r?- V iu- 48 MODERN CARPENTRY JJV\ ?" '"'P^' ^"■"'^ ^'^'«" diameter,, by drawn thr.'".^ ^^' ^*'^'- ^' ^' ^'^^ ^'■^'^" diameters, drawn through the centers of each other at an^ equ.red .ngle Draw QV and PT parallel to SN through S draw TV parallel to QP. divide into any number of equal parts PT. QV, PO. and OQ; then proceed as m hig. 8. and the work is complete An ellipse may be described by the intersection of arcs as at iMg. ,0. Lay off IIG and JK as the given axes; then find the foci as described in Fig. ,. Between L and L and the center M mark any number of points at pleasure as ,. 2, 3. 4. Upon L and L with Hi for for radlr^i T '■' ""' ''' ^' ^' "l^^" ^ and with Cl for radius describe intersecting arcs at O, O. O. and C K r O; then these points of intersection will be in the cur-.e of the ellipse. The other points V S C 1 ^ound .n the same manner, as foUo'ws: fI; L'^poi; V take H2 for one radius, and G2 for the other S is found by taking H3 for one radius, and G3 for the other; C is found in like manner, with H4 for one radius, and G4 for the last radius, using the foci for To7sP% T-- a curve through th. p:i.i:s n, u. V, h, C, K, etc., to complete the ellipse It frequently happens that the carpenter has to make 'W*..-'i:f: -r^'.H; r CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY *9 the radial linos for the masons to get their arches in proper form, as well as making the centers for the same, and, as i..e obtaininf^ of such lines for elliptical work is very tedious, I illustrate a device that may be employed that will obviate a yreat deal of labor in producing such lines. The instrument and the method of using it is exhibited at Fig. 1 1 and marked Ee. The semi-ellipse HI, or xx, may be described with a string or strings, the outer line being described by use of a string f£> tened to the foci F and D, with the extreme point n E; and the inner line, with the string being fastened at A and li, with the pencil point in the tightened string at O. The sectional line LKJ shows the center of the arch, and the lines SSS are at -r 1 • 1 1 1,1 1 1 1 1 1 M r ■ ETi r' 1 1 1 1 lV-^ 1 1 ii_^^ -. -L*^^l\ .' 1 I'J '-vV"/^ I ! Il *\ • V^ / J^V^ \ .I_L -Ca\^ right angles with this vertical line. The usual method of finding the normal by geometry is shown at GABC, but the more practical method of finding it is by the use of the instrument, where Ee shows the normal. I believe the device is of French origin, and I give a translation of a description and use of the instrument: "It is made of four pieces of lath or metal put together so as t*" form a perfect rectangle and having its joints loose, uo shown in the diagram. Considering that the most perfect elliptical cur^'e is that described by a string from the foci (foyer) of the ellipse, draw the profiles of the extrados and intrados, as shown in Fig. II, where your joints are to be, then take your 50 MODERN CARPENTRY string, draw it to the point sides of your instrument to as at K, adjust two marked correspond with the 1 of the string, then, from the point marked, d ines raw a line passing through the two angles, E and e. and the line Ee will be the nor- ma! or the radial line sought." The oval is not an ellipse, nor are any of the figures ob- tained by using the compasses, as no part of an ellipse is a cir- cle, though it may approach closely to it. The oval may sometimes be useful to the carpenter, and it may be well to illus- trate one or two methods by which these figures may be described. Let us describe a diamon, and then trace a curve inside of It as shown, touching the four sides of the figure and a beautiful egg-shaped curve will be formed For effect we may elongate ihe lozenge or shorten it at will, placing the short diameter at anv point. This form of oval is much used by turners 'and lathe men generally, m th<- tormation of piUars. balusters, newel- posts and turned ornamental work generally. An egg-shaped oval may also be hiscribed in a figure having two unequal but parallel sides, both of which £ iMPgnw y^ CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 51 are bisected by the same I inf. perpendicular to both as shown in Fig. 13. Thtse few < A.itnplcs art; cjuite sufficitiit to satisfy the re all the ditaiis of the pr es of this very inte' ,ecti. , figure, as th(; vVci iiian can find many of these in any good work on mensuration, if he shoulil re- (}uire more. I may say here, however, that geometricians so far have failed to discover any scientific method of farming parallel ellipses, so that while the inside or outside lines of an elli[)se can be obtained by any of ilie methods 1 have given, the parallel line must be obtained either by gauging the width of the material or s[)ace required, or must be obtained by "pricking off" with compassis or otht;r aid. I thought it best to mention this as many a young man has spent hours in trying to solve the unsolvable problem when using the pins, pencil and string. There are a number of other curves the carpenter will sometimes meet in daily work, chief among these being the scroll or spiral, so it w'ill he well for him to have some little knowledge of its structure. A true spiral can be drawn by unwinding a piece of string that /J/7/J. 5» MODERN CARPENTRY has been wrapped around a cone, and this is probably the method adopted by the ancients in the formation of the beautiful Ionic spirals they produced. A spiral drawn by this method is shown at Fig. 14. This was formed by using two lead-pencils which had been sharpened by one of those patent sharpen- ers and which gave them the shape seen in ^ ^ Fig. 15. A ' ^'^'^^""■'^.^.^^^^^^^'y^ piece cf string ,• , „ . was then tied tightly around the pencil, and one end was wound round the conical end. so as to lie in notches made in one of the pencils; the point of a second pencil was pierced through the string at a convenient point near the first pencil, completing the arrange- ment shown in Fig. 15. To draw the spiral the pencils must be kept vertical the point of the first being held firmly in the hole of the spiral, and the second pencil must then be carried around the first, the distance between the^.two increasing regularly, of course, as the string This is a rough-and-ready apparatus, but a true 2^ Fi^. /5. m CARPENTERS GEOMETRY S3 I spiral can be described by it in a very few minutes. By means of a larger cone, spiral • of any size can, of course, be drawn, and that portion of the spiral can be used which conforms to the required height. Another similar method is shown in Fig. l6, only in this case the string unwinds from a sj)ool on a fi.xcd center A, D, B. Make loop E in the end of the thread, in which place a pencil as shown. Hold the spcol firmly and move the pencil around it, unwinding the thread. A curve will be described, as shown in the lines. It is evident that the proportions of the figure are determined by the size of the spool. Hence a larger or smaller spool is to be used, as circum- stances require. A simple method of forming a figure that corre- sponds to the spiral somewhat, is shown in Fig. 17. This is drawn from two centers only, a and e, and if the distance between these centers is not too yieat, a fairly smooth appearance will be given to the figure. The method 'r. if (A m i'A CI !| I 54 MODERN CARPENTRY of descriDing is simple. Take ai as radius and describe a semi-circle; then take ei and describe semi-circle 12 on the lower side of the line AB. Then with a2 as radius describe semi-circle above the line; again, with e3 as radius, describe semi-circle below the Ime AB; lastly with a3 as rad.^s describe semi- circle above the line. In the spiral shown at Fig. 18 we have one drawn in a scientific manner, and which can be formed to dimensions. T o draw it, proceed as follows: Let BA be the given breadth, and the number of revolu- tions, say one and three-fourths; now multiply one and three - fourths by four, which equals seven; to which add three, the number of times a side of a square is contained in the diameter of the „ XT J- . eye. making ten in all. Now divide AB into ten equal parts and set one from A to D, making eleven parts. Divide DB into two equal parts at O, then OB will be the radius of the first quarter OF, FE; make the side of the square, as shown at GF, equal to one of the eleven parts, and divide the number of parts obtained by multiplying the revolutions by four, which is seven; make the CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 55 diameter of the eye, 12, equal to three of the eleven parts. With F as a center and E as a radius make the quarter EO; then, with G as a center, and GO as a radius, mark the quar- ter OJ. Take the next center at H and HJL in the quarter; so keep on for centers, drop- ping one part each time as shown by the dotted angles. Let EK be any width de- sired, and carry it around on the same centers. Another method of obtaining a spiral by arcs of circles is shown at Fig. 19, which may be confined to giver, dimensions. Proceed as follows: Draw SM and LK at right angles; at the intersection of these lines bisect the angles by the lines NO and QP; and on NO a d QP from the intersection each way set off three equal parts as shown. On I as center and iH as radius, describe the arc HK, on 2 describe the arc KM, on 3 describe the arc ML, on 4 describe the arc LR. The fifth center to describe the arc RT is under i on the line QP; and so proceed to complete the curve. There are a few other curves that may occasionally prove useful to the workm.an, and I submit an example or two of each in order that, should occasion arise where such a curve or curves are req^ired^ they may be met with a certain amount of knowledge of the subject. Fig J 9. III 1 i s< MODERN CARPENTRY The first IS the parabola, a curve sometimes used in bridge work or similar construction. Two examples of the curve are shown at Fig. 20, and the methods of describing them. The ufjper one is drawn as follows: I. Draw C8 per- pendicular to AB, and make it equal to AD. Next, join A8 and B8, and divide - both lines into the same number of equal parts, say 8; number them as in the figure; draw i, 1-2, 2-3, 3, etc., then these lines will be tangents to the curve; trace the curve to touch the center of each of those lines between the points of mtersection. The lower example is described thus: i. Divide AD and BE, into any number of equal parts; CD and CE into a similar number. 2. Draw 1, 1-2, 2, etc., parallel to AD, and from the pomts of division in AD and BE. draw lines to C. The points of intersection of the respective lines are points in the curve. The curves found, as in these figures, are quicker at the crown than a tr-e circular segment; but, where the rise of the arch is not more than one-tenth of the span, the variation cannot be perceived. A raking example of this curve is shown in Fig 21 and the method of describing it: Let AC be the ordi- nate or vertical line, and DB the axis, and B its vertex- produce the axis to E, and make BE equal to DB; join EC, EA, and divide them each into the same number CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 57 of equal parts, and number the divisions as shown on the figures. Join the corresponding divisions by the lines II, 22, etc., and their intersections will produce the contour of the curve. The hyper- bola is some- what similar in appearance t o the parabola but it has properties peculiar to it- self. It is a figure not much used in carpen- try, but it may be well to refer to it briefly: Suppose there be two right equal cones, Fig. 22, hav- ing the same axis, and cut by a plane Mm, Nm, parallel to that axis, the sections MAN, mna, which result, are hyperbolas. In place of two cones opposite to each other, geometricians some- times suppose four cones, which join on the lines EH, GB, Fig. 23, and of which axis form two right lines, Ff, F'f, crossing the center C in the same plane. To describe a cycloid: The cycloid is the curve described by a point in the circumference of a circle rolling on a straight line, Fl0. 22. and is described as follows: ■I' 5!| 1 1 ■ tt;«.'i S8 MODERN CARPENTRY 1. Let GH. Fig. 24. be the edge of a straight ruler and C the center of the generating circle 2. Through C draw the diameter AB perpendicular to GH, and EF parallel to GH; then AB is the height of the curve, and EF is the place of the center of the generating circle at every point of its progress. 3- Divide the semi-cir- cumference from B to A into any number of equal parts, say 8, and from A draw chords to the points of division. ■ .. 4- from C, with a <»na/-*» .n he d,v,ders equal ,o one of .he dil-isio s of he c rcle, s.ep off „„ each skle >he sam. „„n,ber of .pace! as .he sem,.c,rcun,feronce is divide,! inl„, and .hroujh slnTe h'"" ^"'''"''"'""' '"""^ number. het ds in tne diagram. 5- From the points of division in EF with the iq»23' arcs Fiff.24. Ifshown L'^TT'''"^ '■'■'''• ^^^"'^^ '"definite as shown by the dotted linos fooi l^)" '^a" '^""u ^' '" '''' ^''^''d^^^' ^"d with the foot at , and i on the line GH. cut the indefinite arcs fltnraii— ii n rii. . CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 59 described from l and i respectively at D and D', then D and D' are points in the curve. 7, With the chord A2, from 2 and 2 in GH, cut the indefinite arcs in J and J', w^ith the chord A3, from 3 and 3, cut the arcs in K and K' and apply the other chords in the same manner, cutting the arcs in LM, etc. 8. Through the points so found trace the curve. •■•■i» I Fig.Bf} m Each of the indefinite arcs in the diagram represents the circle at that point of its revolution, and the points DJ,K, etc., tho position of the generating point B at each place. This curve is frequently used for the arches of bridges, its proportions are always constant, viz.: the span is equal to the circumference of the generating circle and the rise equal o the diameter, Cycloidai arches are freq lently constructed which are 6o MODERN CARPENTRV not true cycloids, but approach that curve in a greater or less degree. The epicycloidal curve is formed by the revolution of a circle round a circle, either within or without its circumference, and described by a point B, Fig 25 in the circumference of the revolving circle, and Q of the stationary circle. The method of finding the points in the curve is here given: 1. Drr w the diameter 8. 8 and from Q the center, draw QB at right angles to 8, 8. 2. With the distance QP from Q, describe an arc O O representing the position of the center P throughout Its entire progress. 3- Divide the semi-circle BD and the quadrants D8 into the same number of equal parts, draw chords irom D to I, 2. 3, etc., and from O draw lines through the divisions in D8 to intersect the curve OO in I 2. 3. etc. ' 4. VVith the radius c' " from i, 2, 3, etc., in 00, describe indefinite arcs; apply the chords Di, D' -tc from^ I, 2, 3, etc., in the circumference of Q, cutting the indefinite arcs in A.C.E.F, etc., which are points in the curve. We are now in a position to undertake actual work and in the next chapter, I will endeavor to apply a part of what has preceded to practical examples, such as are required for everyday use. Enough geometry has been given to enable the workman, when he has mas- tered it all, to lay out any geometrical figure he may be called upon to execute; and with, perhaps, the excep- tion of circular and elliptical stairs and hand-railings which require a separate study, by what has been for- mulated and what will follow, he should be able to exe- cute almost any work in a scientific manner, that may be placed under his control. ■ PART II PRACTICAL EXAMPLES CHAPTER I We are now in a position to undertake the solution of practical examples, and I will commence this department by offering a few practical solutions that will bring into use some of the work already known to the student, if he has followed closely what has been presented. It is a part of the carpenter's duty to lay out and construct all the wooden centers required by the brick- layer and mason for turning arches over openings of all kinds: therefore, it is essential he should know as much concerning arches as will enable him to attack the problems with intelligence. I have said some- thing of arches, in Part I, but not sufficient to satisfy all the needs of the carpenter, so I supplement with the following on the same subject: Arches used in building are named according to their curves, — cir- cular, elliptic, cycloid, parabolic, hyperbolic, etc. Arches are also known as three or four centered arches. Pointed arches are ca'led lancet, equilateral and depressed. V'oussoirs is the name given to the stones forming the arch; the central stone is called the key- stone. The highest point in an arch is called the crown, the lowest the springing line, and the spaces between the crown and springing line on either sidi?, the haunches or flanks. The under, or concave, sur- 6Z 6a MODERN CARPENTRY face of an arch is c£ .ed the intrados or soffit, the upper or convex surface is called the extrados. The span of an arch is the width of the opening. The supports of an arch are called abutments, piers, or ^>V>r:4. \ Fig. 2 /' \/ W springing walls. This applies to the centers of wood, as well as to brick, stone or cement. The following SIX illustrations show the manner of getting the curves as well as obtaining the radiating lines, which, as a rule, the carpenter will be asked to prepare for the mason. We take them in the fol. owing order: Pig. 1. A Semi-circular Arch.-RQ is the span, and the line RQ is the springing line; S is *Pr center from Fig. 3. whic the arch is described, and to which all joints of the voussoirs tend. T is the keystone of the arch Kg. 2. A Segment Arch.-U is the center from which the arch is described, and from U radiate all mSSSSHi PRACTICAL EXAMPLES «3 the joints of the arch stones. The bed line of the arch OP or MN is called by mason builders a skew- back. OM is the span, and VW is the height or versed sine of the segment arch. Figi. 3 and 4. Mooriih or Sanosnio Arches, one of which is pointed. Fig. 3 is sometimes called the horseshoe arch. The springing lines DC and ZX of both arches are below the centers BA and Y. ¥lK. 6. A Form uf Llutol Called a Platband, 1 uilt in this funn as a .substii^ite for 11 sfynu'iit arch over the opening of doors or windows, generally of brick, wedge-shaped. Fig. 6. The Elliptic Arch.— This arch is most per- fect when described with the trammel, and in that case r Fig. 5 I the joints of the arch stones are found as follows: Let ZZ be the foci, and B a point on the intrados where a joint is required; from ZZ draw lines to B, bisect the angle at B by a line drawn through the intersecting arcs D produced for the joint to F. Joints at I and 2 64 MODERN CARPENTRY are nmd !n the same manner. The joints for the opp<>. iu ide of the arch may be transferred as shown. The SM. I .xes of the ellipse, HG, GK, arc inthe same ratio a.s GiC to GA. The voussoirs near the springing line ..f ^the .ir-L are thus increased in size for greater strength. I gave a very good description of this latter arch in Part I, which see. Another series of arches, known as Gothic arches are shown as follows, with all the centers of the curve given, so that their formation is rendered quite simple. The arch shown at Fig. 7 is equilateral and its out- lin< s have been shown before. I repeat, h wever, let AB be the given span; on A and B as centers with Ali as radius, describe the arcs AC and BC. The lancet arch. Fig. 8. is drawn as follows: DF is the given span; bisect DE in J, make IJF and EG equal DJ; on F as center with FE as radius descr, je ^ |T "^ W ^ -gi Fig. 10 I the arc EH, and on G as center describe the n DH. A lancet arch, not bu acute as the previous vuc, is \mm rf^imTi PRACTICAL EXAMPLES jhown at Fig. g. Let KL be the given span; bisect KL in M, make MP at right angles to KL and of the required height; connect LP, bisect LP by a line through the arcs R, Q produced to N; make MO equal MN; with N and O as centers, with NL for radius describe the arcs KP and LP. Fig. lo shows a low or drop arch, and is obtained as follows: Let ST be the given span, bisect ST in \\ , let WX be the required height at right angles to TS; connf'ct TX, bisect TX by a line throigh the aiv VZ produce*^ a V, make TU equal SV; n V md L as centers with VT as radius describe the arcs TX and '. Another Gothic arch with a sti'.i less height is - vvn at Fig. 11. Suppose AB to be the givrMi spar then divide AB in J four equal parts; mal : AF a J BG equal AB, connect l^'E an J p )ducc c L; w :h C.\ as radiui->, on C and E, describe th<; an AD and BK, on F and G as centers, descr'be t^ ar JK and DK. Aiiother fcur-centerec i h ot less height is shown at Fig. 12. Let SI ho the given span, divide into six equal parts; on R mi. Q a C' .iters with RQ as radius desrnbe the arcs UV u id AW, connect QV and RV and l^roduce toL and ? , i a R and Q as centers with QT as 66 MODERN CARPENTRY radius describe the arcs TP and SO; on L and M as centers describe the arcs PN and ON. To describe an equilateral Ogee arch, like Fig. 13, proceed as follows: Make YZ the given span; make Fig. 13 YX equal YZ, bisect YZ in A; on A as center with AY as radius describe the arcs YB and ZC; on B and X as centers describe the arcs BD and XD, and on C and X as centers describe the arcs CE and XE, on E and D as centers describe the arcs BX and CX. Fig. 14 shows the method of obtaining the lines for an Ogee arch, having -. height equal to half the span. Suppose FH to be the span, divide into four equal parts, and at each of the points of division draw lines LN, KG and JO at right angles to FH; with LF for radius on L and J describe the quarter circles FM and HP; and with the same radius on O and N describe the quarter circles PG and MG. These examples— all or any of them — can be made use of in a great number of instances. Half of the Ogee curve is often employed for veranda rafters, as for the roofs of bay-windows, for tower roofs and for bell bases, for oriel and bay-windows, and many oHier pieces of work the carpenter will be confronted with from time to time. They also have value as aids in forming mouldings and other ornamental work, as for H HW II U.J — ■WM itlilfc.i PRACTICAL EXAMPLES «7 example Fig. 15, which shows a moulding for a base or other like purpose. It is described as follows: Draw AB; divide it into five equal parts; make CD equal to four of these. Through D draw DF parallel with AB. From D, with DC as radius, draw the arc CE. Make EF equal to DE; di- vide EF into five parts; make the line above F equal to one of these; draw EG equal to si.x of these. From G, with radius DE, describe the arc; bisect GF, and lay the distance to H. It is the center of the curve, meeting the semi-circle -iescribed from M. Join NO, OS, and the moulding is complete. The two illustrations shown at Figs. 16 and 17 will give the stu- dent an idea of the manner in which he can apply the knowledge he has now obtained, and =t may not be out of place to say that with a little ingenuity he can form almost any sort of an ornament he wishes by using this knowledge. The two illustra- tions require no explanation as their formation is self- evident. Newel posts, balusters, pedestals and other turned or wrought ornaments, maybe designed easily if a little thought be brought to bear on the subject. The steel square is a great aid in working out prob- lems in carpentry, and I will endeavor to show, as briefly as possible, how the square can be applied to some difificult problems, and insure correct solutions. It is unnecessary to give a full and complete descrip- tion of the steel square. Every carpenter and joiner is M MODERN CARPENTRY supposed to be the possessor of one of these useful tools, and to have some knowledge of using it. It is not e«^eryone, however, who thoroughly understands its powers or knows how to employ it in solving all the difficulties of framing, or to take advantage of its capabilities in laying out work. While it is not my intention to go deepiy into this subject in this vol- ume, as that would lengthen it out to unreasonable limits, so it must be left for a separate work, yet there are some simple things connected with the steel square, that I think every carpenter and joiner should know, no matter whether he intends to go deeper into the study of the steel square or not. One of these things is the learning to read the tool. Strange as ii may PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 69 appear, not over one in fifty of those who use the square are able to read it, or in other words, able to explain the meaning and uses of the figures stamped on its two sides. The following will assist the young fellows who want to master the subject. The square consists of two arms, at right angles to each other, one of which is called the blade and which is two feet long, and generally two inches wide. The other arm is called the tongue, and may be any length from twelve to eighteen inches, and i^ to 2 inches in width. The best square has always a blade 2 inches wide. Squares made by firms of repute are generally perfect and require no adjusting or "squaring." The lines and figures formed on squares of different make sometimes vary, both as to their position on the square and their mode of application, but a thorough understanding of the application of the scales and lines shown on any first-class tool, will enable the stu- dent to comprehend the use of the lines and figures exhibited on any good square. It is supposed the reader understands the ordinary divisions and subdivisions of the foot and inch into twelfths, inches, halves, quarter^, eighths and six- teenths, and that he also understands how to use that part of the square that is subdivided into twelfths of an inch. This being conceded, we now proceed to describe the various rules as shown on all good squares. Sometimes the inch is subdivided into thirty-seconds, in which tha subdivision is very fine, but this scale will be found very convenient in the measure- ment of drawings which are made to a scale of half, quarter, one-eighth or one-sixteenth of an inch to a foot. HiaHiLi 70 MODERN CARPENTRY Pjll|ll|ll|l|ll||llj||j|l|||||||||ji! In the illustration Fig. l8, will be noticed a series of lines extending from the junction of the blade and tongue to the four- inch limit. From the figures 2 to 3 these lines are crossed by diagonal lines. This figure, reach- ing from 2 to 4, is called a diagonal scale, and is mtended for taking off hundredths of an inch The TTOTDTTTMnnTp lengths of the lines between the diagonal and the perpendicular are marked on the latter. Primary divisions are tenths, and the junc- tion of the diagonal lines with the longitudinal parallel lines enables the operator to obtain divisions of one-hundredth part of an inch; as for example, if we wish to obtain twenty-four hundredths we operate on the seventh line, taking five primaries and the fraction of the sixth where the diagonal inter- sects the parallel line, as shown PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 7» by the "dots" on the compasses, and this gives us the distance required. The use of the scale is obvious, and needs no furtner exf)lanation, as the dots or points are shown. The lines of figures running across the blade of the square, as shown in Fig. 19, forms what is a very con- venient rule for determining the amount of material in length or width of stuff. To use it proceed as fol- lows: If we examine we will find under the figure 12, on the outer edge of the blade, where the length of the boards, plank or scantling to be measured is given, and the answer in feet and inches is found under the inches in width that the board, etc., measures. For example, take a board nine feet long and five inches wide, then under the figure 12, on the second line, will be found the figure 9, which is the length of the board; then run along this line to the figure directly under the five inches (the width of the board) and we find three feet nine inches, which is the correct answer in ' board measure." If the stuff is three inches thick it is trebled, etc., etc. 'f the stuff is longer than any figures shown on the square it can be measured as above and doubling the result. This rule is calcu- lated, as its name indicates, for board meas ire, or for surfaces I inch in thickness. It may be advantage' ^isly used, however, upon timber by multiplying the suit tf the lace measure ot one side of a piece by its <., pth i.i inches. To illustrate, suppose it be required to measure a piece 25 feet long, 10x14 inches in size. For the length we will take 12 and 13 feet. For the width we will take 10 inches, and multiply the result by 14. By the rule a board 12 feet lung and 10 inches wide contains 10 feet, and one 13 feet long and lO inches wide, 10 feet 10 inches. Therefore, a board 25 ket long and 10 inches wide must contain 20 feet and II 7» MODERN CARPENTRY 10 inches. In the timber above described, however, we have what is equivalent to 14 such boards, and therefore we multiply this result by 14, which gives 291 feet and 8 inches the board measure. Along the tongue of the square following the diag- onal scale is the brace rule, which Is a very simple and very convenient method of determining the length of any brace of regular run. The length of any brace simply represents the hypothcnuse of a right-angled triangle. To find the hypothenuse extract the square root of the sum of the squares of the perpendicular and horizontal runs. For instance, if 6 feet is the horizontal run and 8 feet the perpendicular, 6 squared equals 36, 8 squared equals 64; 36 plus 64 equals 100, the square root of which is 10. These are the rules generally used for squaring the frame of a building. If the run is 42 inches, 42 squared is 1764, double that amount, both sides being equal, gives 3528, the square root of which is, in feet and inches, 4 feet 11.40 inches. In cutting braces always allow in length from a six- teenth to an eighth of an inch more than the exact measurement calls for. Directly under the half-inch marks on the outer edge of the back of the tongue. Fig. 19, will be noticed two figures, one above the other. These represent the run of the brace, or the length of two sides of a right- angled triangle; the figures immediately to the right represent the length of the brace or the hypothenuse. For instance, the figures I], and 80.61 show that the run on the post and beam is 57 inches, and the length of the brace is 80.61 inches. Upon some squares will be found brace measure- ments given, where the run is not equal, as }f.3o. It will be noticed that the last set of figures are each just . PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 79 , three times those mentioned in the set that are usually used in squaring a building. So if the student or mechanic will fix in his mind the measurements of a few runs, with the length of braces, he can readily work almost any length required. Take a run, for instance, of 9 inches on the beam and 12 inches on the post. The 1 e n gt h of brace is 15 inches. In a run, therefore, of 12, 16, 20, or any number of times above the figures, the length of the brace will bear the same proportion to the run as the multiple used. Thus if you multiply all the fig- ures by 3 you will have 36 and 48 inches for the run, and 60 inches for the brace, or to remember still more easily, 3, 4 and 5 feet. There is still another and an easier method of obtain- ing the lengths of braces by aid of the square, also the bevels as may be seen in Fig. 20, where the run is 3 feet, or 36 inches, as marked. The length and bevels of the brace are found by applying the square three times in the position as shown; placing 12 and 12 on the edge of the timber each time. By this method both length and bevel are obtained with the least amount of labor. Braces having irregular runs may be oberated in the same manner. For instance, sup- pose we wish to set in a brace where the run is 4 feet and 3 feet; we simply take 9 inches on the 74 MODERN CARPENTRY Fig.^l, tongue and 12 inches on the blade and apply the S(|uare four times, as shown In Fig. 21, where the brace is given in position. Here we get both the proper length and the exact bevels. It is evident from this that braces, regular or irregular, and of any length, may be obtained with bevels for same by this method, only care must be taken in adopting the figures for the purpose. If we want a brace with a two- toot run and a four-foot run, it must be evident that as two IS the half of four, so on the square take 12 inches on the tongue, and 6 inches on the blade, apply four times and we have the length and the bevels of a brace for this run. For a three-by-four foot run take 12 inches on the tongue and 9 inches „n the blade, and apply four times, because as 3 feet is % of four feet, so 9 inches IS % of 12 inches. While on the subject of braces I submit the follow- ing table for determining the length of braces for any run from six inches to fourteen feet. This table has been carefully prepared and may be depended upon as giving correct measurements. Where the runs are regular or equal the b vel will always be a miter or angle of 45 ^ providing always the angle which the brace is to occupy is a right angle— a "s- ^re " If the run is not equal, or the angle not a n nt angle, then the bevels or "cuts" will not be miters, and wilt have to be obtained either by taking figures on the square or by a scaled diagram. m:>-*aslf^Mik'ai •?*< •?'-*<■ ' PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 7S TABLE LCHUTR or Lknoth or LCNdTF I or 1 Lbngtr or itUN tJHAlB KUM Bbacb n. in. n. In. n. iQ. ft. 111. ft. Jn. ft. In. 6 X 6 = 8.48 4 3 X 4 3 = 6 0.12 6 X 9 = 10.81 4 3 X 46- 6 2.27 9 X 9 = I 0.72 4 3 X 4^- 6 4 49 I X I = I 497 4 3 X 5 - 6 6.74 I X I 3 = I 7.20 4 6 X 46 - 6 436 I 3 X I 3 = I 923 4 6 X 4 9 = 6 6.51 I 3 X I 6 = I n-43 4 6 X 5 - 6 8.72 I 6 X 1 6 = 2 1.45 4 9 X 4 9 = 6 8.61 I 6 X I 9 = 2 365 4 9 X 5 = 6 10.75 I 9 X I q = 2 5.69 5 X 5 = 7 085 I 9 X 2 = 2 789 5 3 X 5 3 = 7 509 2 X 2 = 2 9-94 5 6 X 56 = 7 9-33 2 X 23 = 3 0.12 5 9 X 5 9 = 8 1.58 2 X 26 = 3 2.41 6 X 60 = 8 5.82 2 3 X 26 = 3 4-36 6 3 X 63 = 8 10.06 2 6 X 26 = 3 6.42 6 6 X 6 6 = 9 2.30 2 6 X 29 = 3 8.59 6 9 X 69 = 9 6.55 2 9 X 29 = 3 10.66 7 X 70 = 9 10.79 2 9 X 30 = 4 0.83 7 3 X 7 3 = 10 303 3 X 30 = 4 2^1 7 6 X 76 = 10 7.28 3 X 3 3 = 4 5-02 7 9 X 7 9 = 10 11.52 3 X 36 = 4 7-31 8 X 80 = II 376 3 X 3 9 = 4 962 8 3 X 83 = II 8.00 3 3 X 3 3 = 4 7-15 8 6 X 8 6 = 12 0.24 3 3 X 36 = 4 931 8 9 X 89 = 12 4.49 3 3 X 3 9 = 4 n.54 9 X 90 = 12 8.73 3 3 X 40 = 5 1-84 9 6 X 96 = 13 5.22 3 6 X 36 = 4 11.39 10 X 10 = 14 1.70 3 6 X 3 9 = 5 1.55 10 6 X 10 6 = 14 10.19 3 6 X 40 = 5 3-78 II X II = 15 6.67 3 9 X 3 9 = 5 363 II 6 X 116 = 16 3.16 3 9 X 40 = 5 5-79 12 X 12 = 16 11.64 4 X 40 = 5 7.88 12 6 X 12 6 = 17 8.13 4 X 4 3 = 5 10.03 13 X 13 = 18 461 4 X 46 = 6 0.25 13 6 X 13 6 = 19 1. 10 40 X 4 9 = 6 2.51 C4 X 14 = 19 9.58 40 X 5 = 6 4-83 76 MODERN CARPENTRY EXE ^? ' * t. > . i'Wi«n . J . . , , ."T n 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 %, 22i S There is on the tongue of the square a scale called the "octagonal scale." This is generally on . the opposite side to the scales shown on Fig. 19. Fig. 22 exhibits a por- tion of the tongue on which this scale is shown. It is the central division on which the number 10 is seen along with a number of divisions. It is used in this way: If you have a stick 10 inches square which you wish to dress up octagonal, make a center mark on each face, then with the compasses, take 10 of the spaces marked by the short cross-lines in the middle of the scale, and lay off this distance each side of the center lines, do the same at the other end of the stick, and strike a chalk line through these marks. Dress off the cor- ners to the lines, and the stick will be octag- onal. If the stick is not straight it must be gauged, and not marked with the chalk line. Always take a number of spaces equal to the square width of the octagon in inches. This scale can be used for large octagons by doubling or trebling the measurements. On some squares, there are other scales, but I do not advise the use of squares that are surcharged with too many scales and fig- ures, as they lead to confusion and loss of time. It will now be in order to offer a few things that can be done with the steel square, in a shorter time than by applying any other methods. If we wish to get the Fig. 23. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES W length and bevels for any common rafter it can be done on short notice by using the square as shown in ^^S- 23. The pitch of the roof will, of course, gov- ern the figures to be employed on the blade and tongue. For a quarter pitch, the figures must be 6 and 12. For half pitch, 12 and 12 must be used. For a steeper pitch, 12 and a larger figure must be used according to the pitch required. For the lower pitches, 8 and 12 gives a one-third pitch and 9 and 12 a still steeper pitch; and from this the workman can obtain any pitch he requires. If the span is 24 feet, the square must be apniied 12 times, as 12 is half of 24. And so with ar other span: The square must be applied half as mmy times as there are feet in the width. This is self-evident. The bevels and lengths of hip and val- ley rafters may be obtained in a similar manner, by first taking the length of the diagonal line between 12 and 12, on the square, which is 17 inches in round numbers. Use this figure on the blade, and the "rise" whatever that may be, on the tongue. Suppose we have a roof of one -third pitch, which has a span of 24 feet; then 8, which is one-third of 24, will be the height oi the roof at the point or ridge, from the base of the roof on a line with the plates. For example, always use 8, which is one-third of 24, on tongue for altitude; 12, half the width of 24, on blade for base. This cuts common rafter. Next is the hip rafter. It must be understood that the diagonal of 12 and 12 is 17 in framing, as before stated, and the hip is the diagonal of a square added to the rise of roof; therefore we take 8 on tongue and 17 on blade; run the same number of times as common rafter. To cut jack rafters, divide the number of openings for com- mon rafter. Suppose we have 5 jacks, with six open- »» MODERN CARPENTRY Ings our common rafter 12 feet long, each jack would be 2 feet shorter, first 10 feet, second 8 feet third 6 feet, and «o on. The top down cut the same as cut of common rafter; foot also the same To . t miter to fit h.p: Takr half the width of building on tongue and length of common raftrr „n blade; Made gives cut ^.)w find the diagonal ol 8 and 12, which is 14A, take 12 on tongue, 14,^ on blade; blade gives cut The hip rafter must be beveled to suit; height of hip on tongue, length of hip on blade; tongue gives bevel. Tnen we take 8 on tongue. 8^ on blade; tongue gives the bevel. Those figures will span all cuts in putting on cornice or sheathing. To cut bed moulds for gable to fit under cornice, take half width of building on tongue, length of common rafter on blade; blade gives cut; machine mould- ings will not mem- ber, but this gives a solid joint; and to member properly it IS necessary to make moulding by hand, the diagonal plumb cut differences. To cut planceer to run up valley, take height of rafter on tongue, length of rafter on blade; tongue gives cut. The plumb cut takes the height of hip rafter on tongue. length of hip rafter on blade; tongue gives cut. These figures give the cuts tor one-third pitch only, regardless of width of build- ing. The construction of roofs generally will be taken up in another chapter. A ready way of finding the length and cuts for cross- bndging ,s shown at Fig. 24. If the joists are 8 inches wide and 16 inches centers, there will be 14 inches If m^m* WBfi'ii,4kf. PRAC'iiCAL I AMPLES n Fig. 25, b€twe<'n. Place the square on 8 and 14. and cut on R, and yt 1 have it. Theonl} '>oint to .1 n-rvc is that the 8 is on the low.r side of the piece of bi .iBinfj, while the 14 is on the upper, and not both on same side of tim- ber, as in marly a! work. Bridging for any depth o£ joists, :o any f' a sonable distance it joists apar» may be obtain ;il by th^ method. A (pi ie i- way of fin■ v. »rki(l from the square lo an octagon sec- tion is shown at 1\' 25. . .ay yo ir square diagonally across your timber -nd mark at 7 a^.d 17, which gives corner of octa-jon. I'he fi;,-ure*; 7 and 17, on either a square or two-foot \ )cket rule. wh< laid on a board or piece of timber as shown, always define the points where the octa{,'onal angle ui arri- should be. Fig. 26 shows a rapid method of dividing an>th. ' into sevt;ral e.'4u..i parts. If the board is lOj^ inches wide, lay the square from Fig.2«. heel to 12, and mark at 3, 6 ,.nd 9, and you have it divided into four . qual [.arts. Any width of board or any number of parts may be worked with accuracy under the same method. A method for obtaining the "cuts" for octagon and hexagon joints is shown at Fig. 2/. Lay off a qiiartcr circle XA, with C as a enter; then along the hori- zontal line AB the square is laid with u" on the blad.- «o MODERN CARPENTRY at the center C. from which the quadrant was struck. If we divide this quadrant into halves, we get the point 12., and a line drawn from 12" on the blade of the square and through the point E, we cut the tongue of the square at 12" and through to O. and the line thus drawn makes an angle of 45°, a true miter. If we divide the quadrant between E and X, and then draw a hne from C and 12" on the blade of the square, cut- ting the dividing point D. we get the octagon cut wh.ch IS the line DC. Again, if we divide the space between E and X into three equal parts, making GC one of these parts, and draw a line from C to G CMttine the tongue of the square at 7", we get a cut that will give us a miter for a hexagon; therefore, we see from this that If we set a steel square on any straight edge or straight line, 12" and 12" on blade and tongue on the line or edge, we get a true miter by marking along the edge of the blade. For an octagon miter, we set the blade on the line at 12", and the tongue at 5", and we get the angle on the line of the blade-nearly; and for a hexagon cut. we place the blade at 12" on the PRACTICAL EXAMPLES St line, and the tongue at 7", and the line o£ the blade gives the angle of cut — nearly. The actual figure for octagon is 4IJ, but 5" is close enough; and for a hexa- gon cut, the exact figures are 12" and 6\l, but 12" and 7" is as near as most workmen will require, unless the cut is a very long one. The diagram shown at Fig. 28 iUustrPtes a method o.' defining the pitches of roofs, and also gives the fig- ures on the square for laying out the rafters for such pitches. By a very common usage among carpenters and builders, the pitch of a roof is described by indicating what fraction the rise is of the span. If, for example, the span is 24 feet (and here it should be remarked that the dia- gram shows only one-half the span), then 6 feet rise would be called quarter pitch, because 6 is one-quarter of 24. The rul somewhat arbitrarily ex- pressed, that is applicaL! . X'ii'Ji ' Aa'A ' A'/V'A'A ' A ' A I u it ii in such cases in roof framing where the roof is one- quarter pitch, is as follows: Use 12 of the blade, and 6 of the tongue. For other pitches use the figures appropriate thereto in the same general manner. The diagram indicates the figures for sixth pitch, quarter oitch, third pitch and half pitch. The first three of these are in vt?ry common use, although the latter is somewhat exceptional. It will take but a moment's reflection upon the part 8* MODERN CARPENTRY of a practical man, with this diagram before him. to perceive that no changes are necessary in the rule where the span is more or less than 24 feet. The cuts are the same for quarter pitch irrespective of the actual dimensions of the building. The square in all such cases is used on the basis of similar triangles. The broad rule is simply this: To construct with t\e square such a triangle as will proportionately and cor- rectly represent the full size, the blade becomes the base, the tongue the altitude or rise, while the hypoth- enuse that results rep- resents the rafter. The necessary cuts are shown by the tongue and blade respectively. In order to give a gen- eral idea of the use of the square I herewith ap- pend a few illustrations of Its application in framing a roof of, say, one-third pitch, which will be supposed to consist of common rafters, hips, valleys, jack rafters and ridges. Let it be assumed that the building to be dealt with measures 30 feet from outside to outside of wall plates; the toe of the rafters to be fair with the outside of the wall plates, the pitch being one-third (that is th, roof rises from the top of the wall plate to the top of the ridge, <.ne-third of the width of the building, or 10 feet) the half width of the building bring 15 k-vt. Thus,' the figures for working on the square are obtained; if other figures are used, they must bear the same relative proportion to each other. To get the retpiirecl lengths of the stuff, measure across the corner of the s.juare, from the lo-inch mark 'aci.t =^''::^EXisss5?22at^rsE!SH£r'* PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 83 on the tongue to the 15-inch mark on the blade, Fig. 29. This gives 18 feet as the length of the common rafter. To get the bottoin bevel or cut to fit on the wall plate, lay the square flat on the side of the rafter. Start, say, at the right-hand end, with the blade of the square to the right, the point or angle of the square away from you, and the rafter, with its back (or what will be the top edge of it when it is fixed) towards you. Now place the 15-inch mark of the blade and the lo-inch mark of the tongue on the corner of the rafter — that is, towards you — still keeping the square laid fll a t , and mark along the side of the blade. This gives the bottom cut, and will fit the wall plate. Now move the square to the other end of the rafter, place it in the same position as before to the 18-foot mark on the rafter and to the lO-inch mark on the tongue, and the 15-inch mark on the blade; then mark alongside the tongue. This gives the top cut to fit against the ridge. To get the length of the hip rafter, take 15 inches on the blade and 15 inches on the tongue of the square, and measure across the corner. This gives Jt,'',, inches. Now take this figure on the blaile and 10 inches on the tongue, then measuring across the corner gives the length of the hip rafter. Another method is to take the 17-inch mark on the blade and the 8-inch mark on the tongue and begin as with the common rafter, as at Fig. 30. Mark along i 84 MODERN CARPENTRY the 8?He of the blade for the bottom cut. Move the square to the left as many times as there are feet in the half of the width of the building (in the present case as we have seen. 15 feet is half the width), keep- ing the above-mentioned figures 17 and 8 in line with the top edge of the hip rafter; step it along just the same as when applying a pitch board on a stair-string, and after moving it along 15 steps, mark along- side the tongue. This gives the top cut or bevel and the length. The reason 17 and 8 are taken on thesquare is that 1 2 and 8 rep- resent the rise and run of the ... . common rafter to i foot on plan, while 17 and 8 correspond with the plan of the hips To get the length of the jack rafters, proceed in the same manner as for common or hip rafters; or alter- nately space the jacks and divide the lenj^th of the com- mon rafter into the same number of spaces. This gives the length of each jack rafter. To get the bevel of the top edge of the jack rafter, Fig- 31. take the length, 14H of the common rafter on the blade and the run of the common rafter on the along the side of the blade; this gives the bevel or cut The down bevel and the bevel at the bottom end are the same as for the common rafter To get the bevel for the side of the purlin to fit mmssijmmisumsm^^m^mssii'hi^ mpim PRACTICAL EXAMPLES ^5 against the hip rafter, place the square flat against the side of the purlin, with 8 inches on the tongue and 'l4^i inches on the blade. Fig. 32. Mark alongside of the tongue. This gives the side cut or bevel. The 14^ inches is the length of the common rafter to the l-foot run, and the 8 inches represent the rise. For the edge bcve" of purlin, lay the square flat against the ^ 'f^c ot purHn with 12 inches on the tongue and 14'- '.nchis on the *^lade, as at Fig. 33, and mark along the side of the tongue. This gives the bevel or cut for the edge of the purlin. The rafter patterns must be cut half the thickness of ridge shorter; and half the thickness of the hip rafter allowed off the jack rafters. These examples of what may be achieved by the aid of the square are only a few of the hundreds that can be solved by an intelligent use of that wonderful instru- ment, but it is impossible in a work of this kind to illustrate more than are here presented. The subject will be dealt with at length in a separate volume. Fi^ inches, or larger dimensions if the work requires such; for ordinary jobs, however, the size given wil be ound plenty heavy for carrying the tail joists, and a little heavier may be employ.-d to carry the header. 1 his style of connecting the trimmings does not hold h frame-work together, and in places where there is uiy tendency to thrust the work apart, some provision must be made to prevent the work from spreading in trimming for a chimney in a roof, the "headers " stretchers or "trimmers," and "tail rafters," miy be simp y nai ed in Dlan- 3« fi . : . ^ I 3 aucu in piatc, as tl;, re is no great weight PRACTICAL EXAMPLES •« beyond snow and wind pressure to carry, therefore the same precautions for strength are not necessary. The sketch shown at Fig. 42 explains how the chimney openings in the roof may be trimmed, the parts being only spiked together. A shows a hip rafter against which the cripples on both sides are spiked. The chimney-stack is shown in the center of the roof — isolated— trimmed on the four sides. The sketch is r>g:«^ self-explanatory in a measure, and should be easily understood. An example or two showing how the rafters may be connected with the plates at the eaves and finished for cornice and gutters, may not be out of place. A sim- ple method is shown at Fig. 43. where the cornice is complete and consists of a few members only. The gutter is attached to the crown moulding, as shown. Another method is shown at Fifr. 44, this one being intended for a brick wall having .ailing courses over cornice. The gutter is built in of wood, and is MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2) 1.0 I.I 12.8 ■ 4.0 1.4 2.5 1 2.2 2.0 1.8 A ^PF^LIED IIVMGE Inc ^^ 1653 East Mam Street r.S Rochester. ;Me« lork 14609 USA ^= (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^= (716) 288 - 5989 -Fox 9» MODERN CARPENTRY H rii lined throughout with galvanized iron This makes a substantial job and may be used to good purpose on brick or stone warehouses, factories or similar build- ings. Another style of rafter finish is shown at Fig 45, which also shows scheme of cornice. A similar fin- ish is shown at Fig. 46, the cor- nice being a little differ- ent. In both these exam- ples, the gutters are of wood, which should be lined with sheet metal of some sort in order to pre- vent their too rapid de- cay. At Fig. 47 a rafter finish is shown which is intended for a veranda or porch. Here the construction is very simple. The rafters are dressed and cut on projecting end to represent brackets and form a finish From these examples the workman will get suflficient Ideas for working his rafters to suit almost any condi- tion. Though there are many hundreds of styles which might be presented, the foregoing are ample for our purpose. It will now be in order to take up the construc- tion of roofs, and describe the methods by which such construction is obtained. The method of obtaining the lengths and bevels of , PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 93 rafters for ordinary roofs, such as that shown in Fig 48, has already been given in the chapter on the steel square. Something has also been said regarding hip and valley roots; but not enough, I think, to satisfy the full requirements of the workman, so I will endeavor to give a clearer idea of the construction of these roofs by employing the graphic system, instead of depending altogether on the steel square, though I earnestly advise the workman to "stick to the square." It never makes a mistake, though the owner may in its application. A "hip roof," pure and oimple, has no gables, and is often called a "c ittage rocf," because of its being best adapted for cottages having only one, or one and a half, stories. The chief difficulty in its construction is getting the lengths and bevels of the hip or angle rafter and the jack or cripple rafter. To the expert workman, this is an easy matter, as he can readily obtain both lengths and bevels by aid of the square, or b;' lines such as I am about to produce. \W, 94 MODERN CARPENTRY The illustration shown at Fig. 49 shows the simplest form of a hip roof. Here the four hips or diagonal rafters meet in the center of the plan. Another style of hip roof, having a gable and a ridge in the center of the building, is shown at Fig. 50. This is quite a common style of roof, and under almost every condi- tion it looks well and has a good effect. The plan shows lines of hips, valleys and ridges. The siniplest form of roof is that known as the "iean-to" roof. This is formed by causing one side wall to be raised higher than the opposite side wall, so that when rafters or joists are laid from the high to the low wall a sloping roof is the re- sult. This style of a roof is sometimes called a "shed roof" or a "pent roof." The shape is shown at Fig. 51, the upper sketch showing an end view and the lower one a plan of the roof. The method of framing this roof, or adjusting the timbers for it, is quite obvious and needs no explanation. This style of roof is in general use where an annex or shed is built up against a superior building, hence its name of "lean-to," as it usually "leans" against the main buildint^ the wall of which is utilized for the ^» '^c%A.H^,t>&^^^b PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 95 high part of the shed or annex, thus saving the cost of the most important wall of the structure, Next to the "lean-to" or "shed roof" in simplicity comes the "saddle" or "double roof." This roof is shown at Fig. 52 by the end view on the top of the fig- ure, and the plan at the bottom. It will be seen that this roof has a double slope, the planes forming the slopes are equally inclined to the horizon; the meet- ing of their highest sides makes an arris which is called the ridge of the roof; and the triangular spaces at the end of the walls are called gables. It is but a few years ago when the mansard roof was very popular, and many of them can be found in the older parts of the country, having bec.i erected be- tween the early fifties and the eighties, but, for many reasons, they are now less used. Fig. 53 shows a roof of this kind. It is pene- trated generally by dormers, as shown in the sketch, and the top is covered either ly a "deck root" or a very flat hip roof, as shown. Sometimes the sloping sides of these roofs are curved, v.hich give them a graceful appearance, but adds materially to their cost. Another style of roof is shown at Fig. 54. This is a gambrel roof, and was very much in evidence in pre- revolutionary times, particularly among our Knicker- bocker ancestors. In conjunction with appropriate dormers, this style of roof figures prominently in what is known as early "colonial style," It has some Tig. 51. Ficr. 52, mia- •^M^wmm^^^MKmf 96 MODERN CARPENTRY V ■■M advantages over the mansard. Besides these there are many othe- kinds of roofs, but it is not my purpose to enter largely into the matter of styles of roofs, but sir-ply to arm the workman with such rules and prac- tical equipment that he will be able to tackle with success almost any kind of a roof that he may be called upon to construct. When dealing with the steel square I ex- plained how the lengths and bevels for common rafters could be obtained by the use of the steel square alone; also hips, purlins, valleys and jack rafters might be obtained by the use of the square, but, in order to fully equip the workman, I deem it necessary to present for his benefit a graphic method of obtaining the lengths, cuts and backing of rafters and purlins required for a hip roof. At Fig. 55, I show the plans of a simple hip roof having a ridge. The hips on the plan form an angle of 45^ or a miter, as it were The plan being rectangular leaves the ridge the length of thqrrt^rerce between the length and the width of the bpirdii^. Make cd on the ridge-lire as shown, half the width of ad, and the angle dJa will be a right angle Then if we extend M to e, making ae the rise of the roof, ae will be the length of the hip rafter, and the ■■*¥l ')j*9^^sms, 'n^Hnom-'^o'AP.Ln'rssatnr^- jismd^ ma?^ ■"filT/'AJti/r J, » .■ PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 99 angle at x will be the plumb cut at point of hip and the angle at a will be the cut at the foot of the rafter. The angle at i' shows the backing of the hip. This bevel is obtained as follows: Make o^t; and alt equ'. d.-tances — any distance wil' serve — then draw a line h-i across the angle of the building, then with a ce..ter on ad at p, touching the line ae at s, describe u circle as shown by the dotted line, then draw th.e lines kit and ^g", and that angle, as shown by the bevel v, will be the backing or bevel for the top of the hip, beveling :h way from a center line of the- hip. This rule for uacking a hip holds good in all kinds of hips, also for guttering a valley rafter, if the bevel is reversed. A hip roof wher^ all the hips abut each other in the cen- ter is shown in Fig. 56. T is style of roof is genpt^Uy called a "pyrimidal rooi ' because it has the appear^ ance of a low flattened pyramid. The same rules governing Fig. 55 apply to this examp .\ The bevels C and B show the backing of the hip, B showing the r^'ja^!rF''imsKitmKisa &mu^mamm s s' J i t njm ;pi igmm^ uiiuiyj^ i ■ ■Ji i Mng ?"jf:-»^ »'4iiJ ii 98 MODERN CARPENTRY top from the center line ae\ and C showing the bevel as placed against the side of the hip, which is always the better way to work the hip. A por- tio.i of the hip backed is shown at C. The rise of the roof is shown at O. At Fig. 57 a plan of a roof is shown where the seats of the hips are not on an angle of 45° and where the ends and sides of the roof are of different pitches. Take the base line of the hip, ^e or e^, and make ef perpendicular to at; from e, and equal to the rise at/; make /a or /jf for the length of the hip, by drawing the Ime /m at right angles to ae. This gives the length of the hip rafter. The backing of the hip is obtained in a like manner to former examples, only, in cases of this kind, there ^^^''^^ are two bevels for ^ . ! T*^. the backing, one side of the hip being more acute than the other, as shown at D and E. If the hips are to be mitered, as is sometimes the case in roofs of this kind, then '-% ^4^^mmmm^m:s^^m*M^^>M^:^fm^w M^^Kwm PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 99 the back of the hip will assume the shape as shown by the two bevels at F. A ! ip roof having an irregular plan is shjwn at Fig. 58. This requires no ex- planation, as the hips and bevels are obtained in the same manner as in previous examples. The backing of the hips is shown at FG. An octagon roof is shown at Fig. 59, with all the lines necessary for getting the 1 igths, bs-vcls, and back- ing for the hips. The line ax shows the seat of the hip, xe the rise of roof, and ae the length of I and plumb cut and the bevel at E shows the backing of the hips. These exam- ples will be quite sufficient to enable the workman to understand the general theory of laying out hip roofs. I vi-iii£i-^-j&b^.-ir; loo MODERN CARPENTRY may also state that to save a repetition o' drawing and explaining the rules that govern the construction of hip roofs, such as I have presented serve equally well for skylight-, or similar work. Indeed, the clever workman will find hundreds of instances in his w-.rk where the rules given will prove useful. There are a number of methods for getting the lengths and bevels for purlins, I give one here which I think is equal to any other, and perhaps as simple. Suppose Fig. 60 shows one end of a hip roof, also the rise and length of common rafters. Let the purlin be in any place on the rafter, as I, and in its most com- mon position, that is, standing square with the .alter; then with the point ^ as a center with any radius, describe a circle. Draw two lines, ql and pn, to touch if4^ m'rx'\-M^f!^^-''^'-j :4j' ::-333.«IKL'7'I«r*!lK'JiaE»i37;: PRACTICAL EXAMPLES lOl the circle/) and q parallel \o fb and at the points s and r, where the two sides of the purlin intersect, draw two parallel lines lo the former, to cut the diaj,'<>nal in m and k; then G is the down bevd and F the side bevel of the purlin; these two bevels, when applieii to the end of the purlin, and when cut by them, will t xactly fit the side of the hip rafters. To find the cuts of a pjrlin where two sides are parallel to horizon: The square at H and the bevel at C will show how to draw the end of the purlin in this easy case. The followin^r is universal in all posi- tions of the purlin: Let ///^ be the width of a square roof, make bfox ae one-half of the width, and make cd perpendicular in the middle of ef, the height of the roof or rise, which in this case is one-third; then draw de and df, which are each the length of the common rafter. To find the bevel of a jack rafter against the hip, proceed as follows: Turn the 5'ock of the side bevel at F from a around to the line />, which will give the side bevel of the jack rafter The bevel at A, which is the top of the common rafter, i> th<' do , n l)evel of the jack rafter. At D the method of getting he back .^ of rafter is shown the same as exj.ained in othei There are (uner methods of obtaining '"■\ pu.lins, but the one offered here will suiVie. practical purposes. I gave a method of finding the back cuts rafters by the steel square, in a previous cha| give another rule herewith for the steel square: the length of the common rafter on the !;lade ani nm of the same rafter on the tongue, and the Lia.; the square will give the bevel for the cut on the ba hip ares. ^ for all I ke e \^XLY-L^'tik^'K&^msm'"^'<.^^'^ I ICJ MODERN CARPENTRY i:t m o( »he jack ra.'nr For exampi.-. suppose the rise to b. 6 feet and th<,- run « ftct, the lenjjth r.f the commor, racter will be lo feet. Then take lo f. xt <.n the blade of the square, and 8 feel on the toni,'u.', and the blade will give the back bevel fur the cut of the jack rafters. To obtain the lenpth of' jack raft< rs is a very simple process, and may be obtained easily by a dia(,'ram as Bhown in Fig. 6l. which is a v«ry' common method: First lay off half the width of the fcuildiiij; to sc '••, as from A to n, the leny;.i of the common rafter H to C, and the length «)f the hip rafter from A to C. Space off the widths from jack rafter to jack rafter as shown by the lines i, 2, 3, and measure them accurately. Then the lines i, 2, and 3 will be the exact lengths of the jack rafters in those divisions Any number of jack rafters m v be laid off this way, and the result will be the Icn-th of each rafter, no matter what may be tne pitch of the roof or the distance the rafters-are apart. A table for determining the length of jack rafters is given beiow, whi.h shows the lengths required for different spacing in three pitches: One-quarter pitch roof: They cut 13 5 inches shorter each time when spaced 12 inches Thev cut 18 ifl'-.hes shorter each tiniL- when spaced )6 inches. fc?': ^-jjm^'i^: •fvam''^: •a^ .'sj^aitriw^"/*'" '*:•- vij. x ir'vr?"!r -sn^-i^ «snB PRACTICAL EXAMPl ES 103 ¥H Thi'y cut -'7 inches shorter each tin.o Ahax spaced 24 inches. One-third pitch roof: They cut 14.4 inches shorter each time wb.n spaced 12 inches. They cut 19.-' inches shorter each time when spaced 16 inches. They cut 28.8 in s shorter each time when spaced 24 inches. One-half pitch .: Th-y cut 17 inches shorter each time when spaced 12 inches. They cut 22.6 inches shorter each time when spaced in-hcs. hey cut 34 inches shorter each time when spaced ^4 inches. It is not my intention to enter deeply into a discus- sion of the proper methods of constructing roofs of all shapes, thoiijrh a few hints and diaf,'ranis of octagonal, domical and other roofs and spires will doubtless be of ser\ ice to the general workman. One of the most useful methods of trussing a roof is that known as a lattice "built-up" truss roof, similar tc that shown at Fig, 62. The rafters, tie beams and the two main braces A, A, must be of one thickness— say, 2 x 4 or 2x6 inches, accord!nf4" to the Icnf^th of the span — while the minor i>races are made ' ; i-inch stuff and li 'm tci^-^j^fjc "vo.fiiTS' ; 7 "aaK»Mi^^B!^!«s:^?^:^ssf:3^j3^C54.ii'i»^'i?i2iJija^p^ijr ^fz 104 MODERN CARPENTRY about 10 or 12 inches wide. These minor braces are well nailed to the tie beams, main braces and rafters. The main braces must be halved over each other at their juncture, and bolted. Sometimes the main braces are left only half the thickness of the rafters, then no halving will be necessary, but this method has the disadvantage of having the minor braces nailed to one side only. To obviate this, blocks may be nailed to the inside of the main braces to make up the thickness l\ required, as shown, and the minor braces can be nailed or bolted to the main brace. The rafters and tie beams are held together at the foot of the rafter by an iron bolt, the rafter having a crow-foot joint at the bottom, which is let into the tie beam. The main braces also are framed into the rafter with a square toe-joint and h Id in place with an iron bolt, and the foot of the brace is crow-footed into the tie beam over the wall. This truss is easily made, maybe put together on the ground, and, as it is light, maybe hoisted in place with blocks and tackle, with but little trouble. This truss can be made sufficiently strong to span a roof from 40 to 75 feet. Where the span inclines to the PRACTICAL EXAMPLES los greater length, the tie beams and raft- ers may be made of built-up timbers, but in such a case the tie beams should not be less than 6 X 10 inches, nor the rafters less than 6x6 inches. Another style of roof altogether is shown at Fig. 63. This is a self-sup- porting roof, but is somewhat expensive if intended for a building having a span of 30 feet or less. It is fairly well adapted for halls or for country churches, where a high ceiling is re- quired and the span anywhere from 30 to 50 feet over all. It would not be safe to risk a roof of this kind on a building having a span more than 50 feet. The main features of this roof are: (i) having i I \ I !»' io6 MODERN CARPENVRY )llar be (2) bolts truss ^ _ joints and triple bolts at the feet. I show a dome and the manner of its construction at Fig. 64. This is a fine example of French timber framing. The main carlins are shown at a, b, c, d and r, Nos. i and 2, and the horizontal ribs are also shown in the same numbers, with the curve of the outer edge described on them. These ribs are cut in between the carlins or rafters and beveled off to suit. This dome may be boarded over either horizontally or with boards made into "gores" and laid on in line with the rafters or carlins. The manner of framing is well illustrated in Nos. 3 and 4 in two ways, No. 3 being intended to form the two principal trusses which stretch over the whole diameter, while No. 4 may be built in between the main trusses. The illustrations are simple and clear, and quite sufficient without further explanation. Fig. 65 exhibits a portion of the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, which was designed by Sir Chris- topher Wren The system of the framing of the external dome of this roof is given. The internal cupola, AAl, is of brick-work, two bricks in thickness, with a ourse of bricks 18 inches in length at every five feet of -ise. These serve as a firm bond. This dome was turned upon a wooden center, whose only support was the projections at the springing of the dome, which is said to have been unique. Outside the brick cupola, which is only alluded to in order that the PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 107 description may be the more intelligible, rises a brick- work cone B. A portion of this can be seen, by a spectator on the floor of the cathedral, through the central opening at A. The timbers which carry the external dome rest upon this conical brickwork. The horizontal hammer beams, C, D, E, F, are curiously lied to the corbels, G, H, I, K, by iron cramps, well bedded with lead into the corbels and bolted to the ham- mer beams. The stairs, or lad- ders, by which the ascent to the Golden Gallery or the summit Fig.G6< of the dome is made, pass among the roof trusses. The dome has a planking from the base upwards, and hence the principals are secured horizontally at a little distance from each other. The contour of this roof is that of a pointed dome or arch, the principals being segments of circles; but the central opening for the lantern, of course, hinders these arches from meeting at a point. The scnntling of the curved principals is 10 j£ ii}i inches at the base, decreasing to 6x6 inches loS MODERN CARPENTRY at the top. A lantern of Portland stone crowns the summit of the dome. The method of framing will be clearly seen m the diagram. It is in every respect an excellent specimen of roof construction, and is worthy of the genius and mathematical skill of a great work- man. With the rules offered herewith for the construction of an octagonal spire, I close the subject o.. roofs: To obtain bevels and lengths of braces for an octagonal spire, or for a spire of any number of sides, let AB, Fig. 66, be one of the sides. Let AC and BC be the seat line of hip. Let AN be the seat of brace. Now, to find the posi- tion of the tie beam on the hips so as to be square with the boarding, draw a line through C, square with AB, indefiniiely. From C, and square with EC, dr?w CM, making it equal to the height. Join Em' Let OF be the height of the tie beam. At F draw square with EM a line, which produce until it cuts EC prolonged at G Draw CL square with BC. Make CL in ^ngth equal to EM. Join BL, and make NH equal to OF. From G draw the line GS parallel with AB cut- tmg BC prolonged, at the point S; then the angle at H is the bevel on the hip for the tie beam. For a bevel to miter the tie beam, make FV equal ON. Join VX- then the bevel at V is the bevel on the face. For the down bevel see V in Fig. 67. To find the length of brace, make AB, Fig. 67. equal to AB, Fig. 66. Make AL and BL equal to BL, Fig. 66. Make BP equal to BH. Join AP and BC, which will be the length of il,c I race. The bevels numbered i, 3, 5 and 7 are all to be I PRACTICAL EXAMPLES J "9 used, as shown on the edge of the brace. No. i i,5 to be used at the top above No. 5. For the bj job will fold to the curve, then fill them all with hot glue and proceed to fix. The plan shown here is a half semi, and may Le in excess cf what is wanted, but the principle holds good. Another method is shown at Fig. 3 for determining the number and distances apart of the saw kerfs required to bend a board round a corner. The board is first drawn in position and a half of it divided into any number of equal parts by radii, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. A straight piece is then marked off to cor-espond with the divi- sions on the circular one. By this it is seen that the part XX must be cut away by saw kerfs in order to let the board turn round. It therefore derends upon the thickness of the saw for the number of kerfs, and when that is known the distances apart can be determined as shown on the right in the figure. Here eight kerfs are assumed to be requisite. To make a kerf for bending round an ellipse, such as that shown at Fig. 4, proceed as shown, CC and GO being the distances for the kerfs; 2 to 2 and 2 to 3 are the lengths of the points EF, while BB is the length of the T30 MODERN CARPENTRY i i I points EE, making the whole head piece in one. In case it is necessary to joint D, leave the ends about 8 inches longer than is necessary, as shown by N in the sketch, so that should a breakage occur this extra length may be utilized. It is sometimes necessary to bend thick stuff around work that is on a rake, and when this is required, all that is necessary is to run in the kerfs the angle of the rake whatever that may be, as shown at Fig. 5. This rule holds good for all pitches or rakes. Fig. 6 shows a very common way of obtaining the distance to place the kerfs. The piece to be kerfed is shown at C; now make one at E; hold firm the lower part of C and bend Fias. 6. i i, JOINER'S WORK nx the upper end on the circle F until the kerf is closed. The line started at £ and cutting the circumference of the circle indicates at the circumference the distance the saw kerfs will be apart. Set the dividers to this space, and be- ginning at the center cut, space the piece to be kerfed both ways. Use the same saw in all cuts and let it be clean and keen, with all dust well cleaned out. To miter mouldings, where straight lines must merge into lines having a curvature as in Figs. 7 and 8: In all cases, where a straight moulding is intersected with a curved mould- ing of the same profile at whatever angle, the miter is necessarily other than a straight line. The miter line is found by the intersec- tion of lines from the several points of the pro- file as they occur respect- ively in the straight and the curved mouldings. In order to find the miter between two such mould- ings, first project lines from all of the points of 132 MODERN CARPENTRY t i the profile indefinitely to the right, as shown in the elevation of the sketch. Now, upon the center line of the curved portion, or upon any line radiating from the center around which the curved moulding is to be carried, set off the several points of the profile, spac- ing th.-m exactly the same as they are in the eleva- tion of the straight moulding. Place one leg of the dividers at the center of the cir- cle, bringing the other leg to each of the several points upon the curved moulding, and carry lines around the curve, intersecting each with a horizontal line from the corresponding point of the level moulding. The dotted line drawn through the intersections at the miter shows what must be the real miter line. Another odd miter- ing of this class is shown in Fig. g. In this it will be seen that the plain faces of the stiles and circular rail form junctions, the mould- ings all being mi- tercd. The miters are curved in order JOINER'S WORK I as Fi^.U, to have all the members of the mouldings merge in one another without overwood. Another example is shown at Fig. to, where the circle and mouldings make a series of panels. These examples are quite sufficient to enable the workman to deal effect- ively with every prob- lem of this kind. The workman some- times finds it a little difficult to lay out a hip rafter for a veranda that has a curved roof. A very easy method of finding the curve of the hip is shown at Fig. il. Let AB be the length of the angle or seat of hip, and CO the curve; raise perpendicular en AB, as shown, same as those on DO, and trace through the points obtained, and the thing is done. Another simple way of finding the hip for a single curve is shown at Fig. 12; A J represents the curve given the com- mon rafter. - HT^ 4 Run — Now lay off any number of lines parallel with the seat from the rise, to and beyond the curve AB, as shown, and for each inch in length of these lines (between rise and curve), add j% of an inch to the same line to the left of the curve, and check. After I tM MODERN CARPENTRY i; 1 1 u all hnes have thus been measured, run an off-hand curve through the checks, and the curve will represent the corresponding hip at the center of its back. To find the bevel or backing of the hip to coincide with the plane of the common rafter, measure back on the parallel lines to the right of the curve one-half the thickness of the hip and draw another curve, which will be the lines on the side to trim to from the center of the back. A like amount must be added to the plumb cut to fit the corner of deck. Pro- ceed in like manner for the octagon hip, but instead of adding Vs, add ^^j of an inch as before described. [While this is worked cut on a giv- en rise and run for the rafter, the rule is applicable to any rise or run, as the workman will readily understand.] A more elaborate system for obtaining the curve of a hip rafter, where the common rafters have an ogee or concave and convex shape, is shown at Fig. 12}4. This JOINER'S WORK 195 h a very old method, and is shown — with slight varia- tions — in nearly all the old works on carpentry and joinery. Draw the seat of the common rafter, AB, and rise, AC. Then draw the curve of the common rafter, CB. Now divide the base line, AB, into any number of equal spaces, as I, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc , and draw perpendicular lines to construct the curve CB, as 10, 20, 30, 40, etc. Now draw the seat of the valley, or hip rafter, as BD, and continue the perpendicular lines referred o until they meet BD, thus establishing the points 10, II, 12, 13, 14, etc. From these points draw lines at right angles to BD, making 10 x equal in length to I o, and 11 x equal to 2 o; H also 12 X equal to 3 o. and so on. When this has been done draw through the points indicated by x the curve, which is the profile of the vallev rafters. Another method, based on the same principles Fig. 12 J^, is shown at Fig. 13. Let ABCFEO represent the plan of the roof. FCG represents the profile of the wide side of common rafter. First divide this common rafter, GC, into any number of -i.-irts — in this case 6. 1 ia6 MODERN CARPENTRY Transfer these points to the miter line EB, or, what k the same, the line in the plan representing the hip rafter From the points thus established at E, erect perpendiculars indefinitely With the dividers take the distance from the points in the line FE, measur- ing to the points in the profile GC, and set the same off on corresponding lines, measuring from EB, thus establishing the points i. 2, etc.; then a line traced through these points will be the required hip rafter. For the com- mon rafter, on thi; narrow side, con- tinuethe lines from EB parallel with the lines of th.: plan DE and AB. Draw AD at right angle, to these lines. With the dividers, as before, measuring from FE to the points in GC, set off corresponding distances from AD, thus establishing the points shown between A and H. A line traced through the points thus obtained will be the line of the rafter on the narrow side. These examples are quite sufficient to enable the workman to draw the exact form of any rafter no mat- ter what the curve of its face may be, or whether it is £or a veranda hip, or an angle bracket, for a cornice or niche. Another class of angular curves the workman will meet with occasionally, is that when raking mould- ings are used to work in level mouldings, as for %. 14. JOINER'S WORK irj instance, a moulding down a gable that is to miter. The figures shaded in Fig. 14 represent the mould- ing in its various phases and angles. Draw the out- line of the common level moulding, as shown at F, in the same position as if in its place on the building. T raw lines through as many prominent points in the profile as may be convenient, parallel with the line of rake. From the same points in the moulding draw ver- * tical lines, as shown by iH, 2, 3, 4 and 5, etc. From the point I, square with the lines of the rake, draw iM, as shown, and from i as center, with the dividers transfer the divisions 2, 3, 4, etc., as shown, and from the points thus obtained, on the upper line of the rake draw lines parallel to iM. Where these lines intersect with the lines of the rake w-ill be points through ' 'ch the outline C may be traced. In case there is a moulded head to put upon a raking 138 MODERN CARPENTRY ■ gabli-. the moulding D shown at the ripht hand must be worked out for the uppe . .c. The manner in which this is done is self-evident upon examination of the drawint,'. and therefore needs no special description. A good example of a raking moulding and its appli- cations to actual work is shown in Fig. 15, on a differ- ent scale. The ogee moulding at the lower end is the regular moulding, while the middle line, a.t, shows the shape of the raking moulding, and the curve on the top end, cdo, shows the face of a moulding that would be required to return horizontally at that point. The manner of pricking off these curves is shown by the letters and figures. At Fig. 16 a finished piece of wo-rk is shown, where this manner of work will be required, on the returns. Fig. 17 shows the same mrulding ;)plied to a curved window or door head. The manner of pricking the curv" is given in Fig. 18. At No. 2 draw any line, AD, to the center of the JOINERS WORK nj pediment, meeting the upper edge of the up[»er fillet in D, and intersecting the lines AAA, aaa, bbb, ccc. Fig. ir BBB in A, a, b, c, B, E. From these points draw lines aa, bb, cc, BB, EE, tangents to their respective arcs; 130 MODERN CARPENTRY on the tangent line DE, froin D, make Dd, Dr. D/ PE, respectively equal to the distances D angles on the top of the box are the same as the down bevel at the top of the rafter, the sides being sawed down square. Put the moulding in the box, as shown in Fig. 22, keeping the bevel at c flat on the bottom of the box, and having the moulded side to the front, and the miter for the top is cut, which completes the moulding for one side of the gable. The miter for the top of the moulding for the other side of the gable may then be cut. When the rake moulding is made of the proper form these boxes are very con- venient; but a preat deal of the machine- made mouldings are H ija MODERN CARPENTRY not of the proper form to fit. In such cases the moulding should be made to suit, or they come bad; although many use the mouldings as they "ir.ie. f-om the factory, and trim the miters so as to xjake tluin do. The instructions given, however, in Fi^ -. !.^. li, 15 and 18 will enaolvi the workman to make patterns for what he requires. While the "angle bar" is not much in vogue at the present time, the methods by which ii is ob- tained, may be ap- plied to many pur- poses, so it is but proper the method should be em- bodied in this work. In Fig. 23, B is a common sash bar, and C is the angle bar of the same thick- ness. Take the raking projection, 1 1, in C, and set the foot of your compass in i at B, and cross the middle of the bar at the other i; then draw the points 2, 2, 3. 3, etc., parallel to 1 1, then prick your bar at C from the ordinates so drawn at B, which, when traced, will give the angle bar. This is a simple operation, and may be applied to Fig: 21 -Xh^my JOINER'S WORK 133 many other cases, and for enlarging or, diminishing mouldings or other work. The next figure, 24, gives the lines for a raking moulding, such as a cornice in a room with a sloping ceiling As may be seen from the 'iagram the three sections s' )wn are drawn equal in thickness to miter at the angles of the room. The construction should be easily under- stood When a straight moulding is mitered with a curved one the line of miter is some- times straight and sometimes curved, as seen at Fig. 18, and when the mouldings are all curved the miters are also straight and curved, as shown in previous examples. If it is desired to make a cluster column of wood, it is first necessary to make a standard or core, which must have as many sides as there are to be faces of columns. Fig. 25 shows how the work is done. This shows a cluster of four columns, which are nailed to a square standard or core. Fig. 26 shows the base of a clustered column. These are blocks iarned in the lathe, requiring four of them for each base, which are cut and mitered as shown in Fig. 25. The cap, or capital, is, of course, cut in the same maaaer. ^ig. 2ti. -'.••'■A t :..!«. vu »34 MODERN CARPEN-T^RY Laying out lines for hopper cuts is often puzzling, and on this account I will devote more space to this subject than to those requiring less explanations. Fig. 27 shows an isometric view of three sides of a hopper. The fourth side, or end, is purposely left out, in order to show the exact build of the hopper. It will be noticed that AC and EO show the end of the work as squared up from the bot- tom, and that BC shows the gain of the splay or flare. This gives the idea of what a hopper is, though the width of side and amount of flare may be any meas- urement that may be 'ed upon. Th culty in this n'ork is to get the proper lines for the miter and for a butt cut. Let us suppose the flare of the sides aud ends to be as shown at V\^. 28, though any flare or inclination will answer c(|ual]y well. This diagram and the plan exiiibit the method to be employed, where the sides and ends are to be mitcrcd together. To obtain the bevel t'l ap])!y for the side cut. use A' as center, W as radius, and CDF' parallel to P.F. Project from B to D parallel to XY. Join AD, which gives the bevel required, as shown. If the top ed'^e of the stuff is to be horizontal, as shown at \VG', the bevel to apply to the edge will be simply as shown in plan by IKj; but if isfvifvr^' Sr»._^».'.*''.^- ' m:4:^.rtu f "1^ JOINERS WORK m the edffe of the stuff is to be square to the side, as show n at B'C, Fig 29, the bevel must be obtained as follows: Produce t.W to D', as indicated, Fig. 29. With B as center, describe the arc from C, which gives the point D. Project down from D, making DF IJarallel to CC, as shown. Project from C parallel to XV This will give the point D. Jom BD, and this will give the bevel line required. At A, Fig. 31, is shown the application of the bevel to the side of the stuff, and at B the application of the bevel to the edge of the stuff. When the ends butt to the sides, as indi- cated at H, Fig. 30, the bevel, it will be noticed, is obtained in a similar manner to that shown at Fig. 28. It is not often that simply a butt joint is used between 'M':'MrAgyA*T ! ---iL- L H» MODERN CARPENTRY per the miter line beinff 2, W. The sides of this plan are to stand on the inclination AB. Draw hC square with the .ncl.nation. and from B. as center, strike an arc. touchmjj the base l,„e and cutting in CD. Draw from CD. cuttmg the miter line at K and F; from these points square down the lines, cuttinfr in 3 ..nd 4. From 2 draw thruuKh4. which will g,ve bevel W to miter X for r; " •'"• /''"" ^"■" -' '' ^^'"'^h gives bevel A for the direction of cut on the surface of sides F.g. 36 shows an obtuse-angled hopper, its miter line on the plan be.ng 2 W. and the inclination of sides B as cfnt r ^ l'"'""'' ^'^'^ '^' inclination, and from c ling CD. Draw from CD, cutting the miter in F tlfU K u"'" P"'"'' '^""'■'-^ ^«"" the lines, cut- no fnthe if "^ ^' ^^'^^'"^ f^^"^ ' "^'■-gh the po.nt below E. we get bevel W for the direction of ^i"tt e^ges.'^""^^^'""^^ ^^'-^^ ^ ^'- b- Xto Jt will be noticed that the cuts for the three differ- en angles are obtained on exactly the sam. ..rincipi.. without the slightest variation, and so perfectly simi pie as to be understood by a glance at the drawing The workman will notice that in each of the angles a liixit^m^i..^., JOINER'S WORK MS i :(! «44 MODERN CARPENTRY ■ line from C, cutting the miter, invariably gives a direc- tion for the surface of sides, and the line from D directs the miter on their edges. Unlike many other systems employed, this one meets all and every condition, and is the system that has been employed by high class workmen and millwrights for ages. One more example on hopper work and I am done with the subject: Suppose it is desired to build a hopper similar to the one shown at Fig. 37, several new cor • t i o n s will be with, as > ill L- „een by i.' xamination of the obtuse and acute angles, L and P. In order to work this out right make a d i a g r a m 1 i k e that shown at Fig. 38, where the line AD is the given base line on which the slanting side of hopper or box rises at any angle to the base !ii ., as CB, and the total height of the work is represented by the line B, E. By this diagram it will be seen thaf the hori- zontal lines or bevels of the slanting sides are indi- cated by the bevel Z. Having got this diagram, which of course is not drawn to scale, well in hand, the ground plan of the hopper may be laid down in such a shape as desired, with the sides, of course, having the slant xs Piven in Fig. 38. Take T2, 3S, Fig. 37, as a part of the plan, then set off the width of sides equal to C, B, as shown in Fig. 38. JOINER'S WORK »45 These are shown to intersect at P, L above; then draw lines from P, L llirough 2, 3, until thiy intersect at C, as the dotted lines show. Take C as a center, and with the radius A, describe the semi-circle A, A. and with the same radius transferred to C, Fig. 3;;, describe the arc A, B, as shown. Again, with the same radius, set off A, B, A, B on Fip. 37, cutting the semi-circle at B, as shown. Now draw through B, on the right, parallel with S, 3, cutting at J and F; square over F, H and J, K, and join H, C; this gives bevel X, as the cut for face of sides, which come together at the angle shown at 3. The mitirs on the edge of stuff are parallel with the dotted line, L, 3. This is the acute corner of the hopper, and as the edges are worked off to the bevel _, as shown in Fig. 38, the miter must be correct. Having mastered the details of the acute corner, the square corner at S will be next in order The first step is to join K, V, which gives the bevel Y, for the cut on the face of sides on the ends, which form the square corners. The method of obtaining these lines is the same as that explained for obtaining them for the acute-angled corner, as shown by the dotted lines, Fig. 35. As the angles, S, T, are both square, being right and left, the same operation answers both, that \s, the bevel Y does for both corners. Coming to the obtuse angle, P, 2, we draw a line B, E, on the left, parallel with A, 2, cutting at E, as shown by dotted line. Square over at E, cutting T, A, 2 at N; join N, C, which will give the bevel VV, which is the angle of cut for face of sides. The miters on edges are found by drawing a line parallel with r, 2. In this problem like Fig. 34, every line necessary to the cutting of a hopper after the plan as shown by X46 MODERN CARPENTRY the boundary lines 2, 3, T, S. is complete and exhaust- ive, but it must be understood that in actual work the spreading out of the sides, as here exhibited, will not be necessary, as the angles will find themselves when the work is put together. When the plan of the base — which is the small end of the hopper in this case — is given, and the slant or inclination of the sides knorvn, the rest may be easily obtained. In order to become thoroughly conversant with the problem, I would advise the workman to have the drawing made on cardboard, so as to cut out all the outer lines, in- cluding the open corners, which form the miters, leaving the whole piece loose. Then make slight cuts in the back of the cardboard, opposite the lines 2, 3. S, T, just deep enough to admit of the cardboard being bent upwards on tlie cut lines without breaking. Then run the knife along the lines, which indicates the edges of the hopper sides. This cut must be made on the face side of the drawing, so as to admit of the edges being turned downwards. After all cuts are made raise the sides until the corners come closely together, and let the edges fall level, or in such a position that the miters come closely together. If the lines have been drawn accurately and the cuts made on the lines in a proper manner, the work will adjust itself nicely, and the sides will have the exact inclina- tion shown at Fig. 38, and a perfect model of the work will be the result. This is a very interesting problem, and the working out of it, as suggested, cannot but afford both profit and pleasure to the young workman. From what has preceded, it must be evident to the workman that the lines giving proper angles and bevels for the corner post of a hopper must of neces- JOINER'S WORK 147 sity give the proper lines for the corner post for a pyr- amidal building, such as a railway tank frame, or any similar structure. True, the position of the post is inverted, as in the hopper, its top falls outward, while in the timber structure the top inclines inward; but this makes no difference in the theory, all the operator has to bear in mind is that the hopper in this case is reversed — inverted. Once the proper shape of the corner post has been obtained, all other bevels can readily be found, as the side cuts for joists and braces can be taken from them. A study of these two figures in this direction will ?ead the student up to a correct knowl- edge of tapered frarAio^. CHAPTER 11 COVERING SOLIDS, CIRCULAR WORK, DOVETAILING AND STAIRS There are several ways to cover a circular tower roof. Some are covered by bending the boarding around them, while others have the joints of the covering ver- tical, or inclined. In either case, the boarding has to be cut to shape. In the first instance, where the joints 14S JOINER'S WORK 149 are horizontal, the covering must be curved on both edges. At Fig. 39 I show a part plan, elevation, and develop- ment of a conical tower roof. ABC shows half the plan; DO and EO show the inclination and height of the tower, while EH and EI show the development of the lower course of covering. This is obtained by using O as a center, with OE as radius, and striking the curve EI, which is the lower edge of the board, and corre- sponds to DE in the elevation. From the same center O, with radius OF, describe the curve FH, which is the joint GF on the elevation. The board, EFHI, may be any convenient width, as may also the other boards used for covering, but whatever the width de- cided upon, that same width must be continued throughout that course. The remaining tiers of covering must be obtained iii the same way. The joints are radial lines from the center O. Any convenient length of stuff over the distance of three ribs, or raft- ers, will answer. This solution is ap- plicable to many kinds of work. The rafters in this case are simply straight scantlings; the bevels for feet and points may be obtained from the diagram. The shape of a "gore," when such is required, is =hown at Fig. 40, IJK showing the base, and L the top or apex. The method of getting it out will be easily understood by examining the diagram. When "gores" are used for covering it will be necessary Fig. 40.- ^y^^uoBB^^ufl »So MODERN CARPENTRY to have cross-ribs nailed in between the rafters, and these must be cut to the sweep of the circle, where they are nailed in, so that a rib placed in half way up will require only to be half the diameter of the base, and the other ribs must be cut accordingly. To cover a domical roof with horiz(Mital boardinfj we proceed in the manner shown in Fig. 41, where ABC is a vertical section through the axis of a circular dome, and it is required to cover this dome hori- zontally. Bisect the base in the point D, and draw DBE perpendicular to AC, cutting the circumference in B. Now divide the arc, BC, into equal parts, so that each part will be rather less than the width of a board, and join the points of division by straight lines, which will form an inscribed poiygon of so many sides; and through these points draw lines parallel to mii mi ipm mm JOINER'S WORK i5» the base AC, meeting the opposite sides of the circum- ference. The trapezoids formed by the sides of the polygon and the horizontal lines may then be regarded as the sections of so many frustrums of cones; whence results the following mode of procedure: Produce, until they meet the line DE, the lines FG, etc., form- ing the sides of the polygon. Then to describe a board which corresponds to the surface of one of the zones, as FG, of which the trapezoid is a section from the point E, where the line FG produced meets DE, with the radii EF, EG describe two arcs and cut off the end of the board K on the line of a radius EK. The other boards are described in the same manner. There are many other solids, some of which it is possible the workman may be called upon to cover, but as space will not admit of U5 discussing them all, we will illustrate one example, which includes within itself the principles by which almost any other solid ■ 15* MODERN CARPENTRY may be dealt with. Let us suppose a tower, having a domical roof, rising from another roof having an incll nation as shown at BC, Fig. 42, and we wish to board it with the joints of the boards on the same inclination as that of the roof through which the tower rises. To accomplish this, let A, B, C, D, Fig. 42, be the seat of the generating section; from A draw AG perpendicular to AB, and produce CD to n-.. it it in E; on A, E describe the semi -circle, and transfer its perim- eter t o E, G by dividing it into equal parts, and setting off corre- sponding divisions on E, G. Through the divisions of the semi -circle draw lines at right angles to AE, producing them to meet the lines A. D and B. C in i, k, /, w, etc. Through the divisions on E, G. draw lines perpendicular to them; then through the intersections of the ordinates of the . JOINERS WORK 153 / semi-circle, with the line AD draw the lines i, a, k, 2, /, _y, etc., parallel to AG, and where these intersect the perpendiculars from EG, in points a, z, j>, x, w, v, u, etc., trace a curved line, GD, and draw parallel to it the curved line HC; then will DC, HG be the development of the covering required. Almost any description of dome, cone, ogee or other solid may be developed, or so dealt with under the principle as shown in the foregoing, that the workman, it is hoped, will ex- perience but little difficulty in laying out lines for cutting mate- rial to cover any form of curved roof he may be confronted with. Another class of c o v e r i n g is that of making soffits for splayed doors or windows having circular or segmental heads, such as shown in Fig. 43, which exhib- its a door with a circular head and splayed jambs. The head or soffit is also l played and is paneled as shown. In order to obtain the curved soffit, to show the same splay or angle, from the vertical lines of the door, proceed as follows: Lay out the width of the doorway, showing the splay of the jambs, as at C, B and L, P; extend the angle lines, as shown by the dotted lines, to A, which gives A, B as the radius of the /7 •' ' y^ i\ '\ ^. l-v ; \ ^\ y X ^ . ;»• 1 \FigA^, / . S4 MODERN CARPENTRY inside curve, and A. C as radius of the outside curve. Ihese radii correspond to the radii A. li and A C in Fig. 43; the figure showing the flat plan of the pan- eled soffit complete. To find the development tig 43. get the stretchout of the quarter circle 2 and I' showa in the elevation at the top of tne doorway, and 1^^ z" r tnake 2 3 and 3B Fig. 43. equal to it. and the rest of the work is very simple. Fia t" ^^'J' '"^ **" '"'^ °^ '"*° P^"^'^' ^^ «hown at rig. 44. |t IS best to prepare a veneer, having its edges f some flexible wood such as basswood, elm or the like, that w,ll easily bend over a form, such as is shown at Fig. 44. The shape of this form is a portion of a cone, the circle L being less ip diameter than the JOINER'S WORK IS5 circle P. The whole is covered with staves, which, of course, will be tapered to meet the situation. The veneer, x, x, etc., Fig. 43, may then be bent over the form and finished to suit the conditions. If the mouldings used in the panel work are bolection mould- ings, they cannot be planted in place until after the veneer is taken off the form. This method of dealing with splayed work is appli- cable to windows as well as doors, to circular pews in churches and many other places where splayed work is required. A simple method of finding the veneer for a soffit of the form shown in Fig. 43 is shown at Fig. 45. The splay is seen at C, from which a line is drawn on the angle of the splay to B through which the vertical line A passes. B forms the center from which the veneer IS6 MODERN CARPENTRY 18 descnoec. A is the center of the circular head, for both inside and outside curves, as shown at D. The radial lines ccntcrinfj at B show how to kerf the stuff when necessary for bc-nding. The line E is at right angles with the line CB, and the veneer CE is the proper length to run half way around the soffit. The joints are radial lines just as shown. A method for ob- taining the correct shape of a veneer for a gothic splayed window or door- head, is shown at Fig. 46; E shows the sill, and line BA the angle of splay. BC shows the outside of the splay; erect the in- side line F to A, and this point will form the center from which to de- p. cribe the curve or ^^" *'• veneer G. This veneer will be the proper shape to bend in the soffit on either side of the window head. The art of dovetailing is almost obsolete among carpenters, as most of this kind of work is now done by cabinet-makers, or by a few special v/orkmen in the factories. It will be well, however, to preserve the art, and every young workman should not rest until he can do a good job of work in dovetailing; he will not find it a difficult operation. ^:i fe^i!*.. JOINER'S WORK 157 There are three kinds of dovetailing, i.e., the com- mon lovetail, Fig. 47; the lapped dovetail. Fig. 48, and the secret, or mitered dovetail, Fig. 49. These may be subdivided into other kinds of dovetailing, but there will be but little difference. The common dovetail is the strongest, but shows the ends of the dovetails on both faces of the angles. Kg. 48. and is, therefore, only used in such places as that of a drawer, where the external angle is not seen. The lapped dovetail, where the ends of the dovetails show on one side of the angle only, is used in such places as the front of a drawer, the side being only Fcen when opened. In the miter or secret dovetail, the dovetails are not seen at all. It is the weakest of the three kinds. »58 MODERN CARPENTRY At Figs. 50 and 51 I sh(.\v two methods of dovetail- ing hoppers, trays and other splayed work. The reference letters A and B show that when the work is together A will stand directly over B. Care must be taken when preparin^^ the ends ■. stuff for dovetaihng for hoppers, trays, etc., that the right bevels and angles are obtained, according to the rules explained "(M for finding the cuts and bevels l-n hoppers and work of a similar kind, in the examples gi\ n previously. All stuff for hopper work inteniling to be dovetailec JOINER'S WORK »59 must be prepared with butt joints before the dovetails arc laid out Joints of thin kind may b. mad.- com- mon, lapped or mitered. In making the latter much skill and labor will be rc-cimrod. „,;^„^^ Stair building and handrail.ng combined ts a science in itself, and ofte that taxes the best sk. I in the mar- ket and it will be impossible for mc to do more than touch the subject, and that in such ^ !"-"'>'^; f^'*; enable the workman to lay out an ordinary straight flieM of stairs. For further instructions in stair building 1 would refer my readers to some one or wo of the many works on the sublet that can be obtained from any dealer in mechanical or scientific ^"^Thcf^ St thing the stair build.r has lo ascertain is the dimens on of the spa. the stairs are to occ^Py.^ ^^^" h m. .t get the hei.h >r th- riser, and the width of the t uls. an.l, as architect^ generally draw the plan of the stairs, showing the pa^e th-y are to occupy and th number of treaci the stair builder has on y to measur^ ^he height from ^.or to t.. or and divide by thenu, nr of risers .d th. -hstance from first to la riser, and divid. by the : .mber of treads. (This refe s onlv to sf i,ht sta rs. , ^ et us t^ake an exam- ple- Say that ue have t.n feet of height and fitteen Lt ten inches of mn. and we hav. ninct. . treads; thus fifteen feet ten inches divided 'vn-.tcen gives us ten inches for the width of the tr.ad. and we h.ae ten feet rise div led by twenty (observe here that there is always one mon riser than tread). wh|ch e^ves „s six inches for tl height of the riser The .utch- board must now b. made, and as all thc^ work h..s to be set out from it, eaie must exactly right. Take a piece of t6o MODERN CARPENTRY in Fig. 52, about half an inch thick, dress it and square the side and end, A, B, C; set off the height of the rise from A to B, and the width of the tread from B toC; now cut the line AC, and the pitch-board is com- plete, as shown in Fig. 53. This may be done by the steel square as shown at Fig. 54. To get the width of string-boards draw the line AB, Fig. 53; add to the length of this line about half an inch more at A, the margin to be allowed, and the total will be the width of string-boards. Thus, say that we allow three inches for margin, one-half inch to be left on the under side of string-board, will make the width of string-boards in this case about nine inches. Now get a plank, say one and a half inches, of any thickness that may be agreed upon, the length may be obtained by multiply- ing the longest side of the pitch-boards, AC, Fig. 52, by the number of risers; but as this is the only class of stairs that the length of string-boards can be obtained in this way I would recommen 1 the beginner to prac- tice the sure plan of taking the pitch-board and apply- ing it as at I, 2, 3, 19, Fig. 55. Drawing all the steps JOINER' S WORK i6i this way will prevent a mistake that sometimes occurs, viz. the string-boards being cut too short. Cut the foot at the line AB, and the top, as at CD. This will give about one and a half inches more than the extreme length. Now cut out the treads and risers; the width of stair is, say, three feet, and we have one and a half inches on each side for string-boards. Allow three-eights of an inch for housing on each side. This will make the length of tread and risers two and one-fourth inches less than the full width of stairs; and as the treads must project their own thick- ness over rise, which is, s y, one and a half inches, the full size of tread will be two feet by eleven and one- half inches, and of the risers two feet nine and three- fourths inches by six inches; and observe that the first riser will be the thickness of the tread less than the others; it will be only four and one-half inches wide. The reason of this riser being less than the others is because it has a tread thickness extra. I will now leave the beginner to prepare all his work. Dress the risers on one face and one edge; dress the treads on one face and both edges, making them all of equal width; gauge the ends and the face edge to the required thickness, and round off the nosings; dress the string-boards to one face and edge to match each other. A plan of a stair having 13 risers and three winders below is shown at Fig. 56. . This shows how the whole stair may be laid out. It is inclosed between two walls. The beginner in stair-work had better resort to the old method of using a story-rod for getting the num- ber of risers. Take a rod and mark on it Ihi: exact height from top of lower floor to top of next floor, then ■(■■■■HIH i6a MODERN CARPENTRY divide up and mark off the number of risers required. There is always one more riser than tread in every flight of stairs. The first riser must be cut the thick- ness of the tread less than the others. When there are winders, special treatment will be rtoow PLAN required, as shown in Fig. 56, for the treads, but the riser must always be the same width for each separate flight. When the stair is straight and without winders, a rod may be used for laying off the steps. The width of the steps, or treads, will be governed somewhat by the space allotted for the run of the stairs. There is a certain proportion existing between the tread and riser of a stair, that should be kept to as close as possible when laying out the work Architects . JOINER'S WORK 163 say that the exact measurement for a tread and riser should be sixteen inches, or thereabouts. That is, if a riser is made six inches, the tread should be ten inches wide, and so on. I give a table herewith, showing the rule generally made use of by stair builders for deter- mining the widths of risers and treads: It TVrarfj Risers Tfeads Risers Inches Inches Inches Inches 1 9 12 S'A 8^ 13 5 7 8 14 4>^ 8 7% 15 4 9 7 16 3/2 10 6V2 17 3 II 6 18 2)4 is seldom, however that the proportion of the LANLMMO lA a ti ja u 3. 3. A. 1 riser and step is exactly a matter of clioice — the room ' i«4 MODERN CARPENTRY allotted to the stairs usually determines this propor- tion; but the above will be found a useful standard, to which it is desirable to approximate. In better class buildings the number of steps is con- sidered in the plan, which it is the business of the architect to arrange, and in such cases the height of the story-rod is simply divided to the number required. An elevation of a stair with winders is shown at Fig. 57, where the story-rod is in evidence with the number of risers figured oiL Fig. 58 shows a portion of an open string stair, with a part of the rail laic! on it at AB, CD, anu the newel cap with the projection at A. This shows how the cap should stand over the lower step. Fig. 59 shows the manner of constructing the step; S represents the string, R the risers, T the tread, U the nosing and cove mmilciing, and B is a block glued or otherwise fastened to both riser and tread to render JOINERS WORK i6s them strong and firm. It will be seen the riser is let into the tread, and has a shoulder on the inside. The bottom of the riser is nailed to the back of the next lower tread, which binds the whole lower part to- gether. The nosing of the stair is gen- e r a 1 ly r e - turned at the open end of the tread, and this cov- ers the end wood of the tread and the joints of the balusters, as shown at Fig 60. When a stair is bracketed, as shown at B, Fig. 60, the point of the riser on its string end should be left standing past the string the thickness of the bracket, and the end of the bracket miters against it, thus avoid- ing the necessity of showing end wood or joint The cove should finish inside the length of the bracket, and the nosing should fin- ish just outside the When brackets are employed length of the bracket. 1 66 MODERN CARPENTRY they should continue along the cylinder and all around the well -hole trimmers, though they may be varied to suit conditions when continuously run- ning oa a straight horizontal facia. CHAPTER III JOINER S WORK— USEFUL MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES I am well aware that workmen are always on the lookout for details of work, and welcome everything in this line that is new. While styles and shapes change from year to year, like fashion in women's dress, the principles of construction never change, and styles of finish in woodwork that may be in vogue to-day, may be old-fashioned and discarded next year, therefore it may not be wise to load these pages with many examples of finish as made use of to-day. A few examples, however, may not be out of place, so I close this section by offering a few pages of such details as I feel assured will be found useful for a long time to come. Fig. r is a full page il' istration of three exam- ples of stairs and newels in modern styles. The upper one is a colonial stairway with a square newel, as shown at A. A baluster is also shown, so that the whole may be copied if retjuired. The second exam- ple shows two newels and balusters, and paneled string and spandril AB, also section of pant led work on end of short flight. The third shows a i'lain open stair, with baluster and newel, the latter -starting from first step. At Fig. 2, which is ,i!sn ,t full page, seven of the latest designs for doors are shown. Those marked 167 i6S MODERN CARPENTRY ■■ JOINER'S WORK 169 I70 MODERN CARPENTRY ABCD are more particularly employed for inside work, while F and G may be used on outside work; the five-paneled door being the more popular. There are ten different illustrations, shown at Fig. 3, of various details. The five upper ones show the gen- eral method of constructing and finishing a window frame for weighted sash. The section A shows a part of a wall intendni for brick veneering, the upper story being shingled or ciapboarded. The position of windows and method of finishing bottom of frame, both inside and out, are shown in this section, also manner of cutting joists tor sill. The same method — on a larger seal —js shown at C, only the latter is intended for a bal )on frame, which is to be boarded and sided on the outside. At B another method for cutting joists for sill is shown, where the frame is a balloon one. This frame is supposed to be boarded inside and out, and grounds arc planted on for finish, as shown at the base. There is also shown a carpet strip, or quarter-round. The outside is finished with siding. The two smaller sections show foundation walls, heights of stories, position of windows, rnrnices and gutters, and methods of connecting sills to joists. A number of examples are shown in Fig. 4 that will prove useful. One is an oval window with keys. This is often employed to light vestibules, back stairs or narrow hallways. Another one, without keys, is shown on the lower part of the page. There are three examples of eyebrow dormers shown. These are different in style, and wiii, of course, require different construction. The dormer window, shown at the foot of the page, JOINER'S WORK i7« M^nl ] n* MODERN CARPENTRY ' jOfNER'S WORK 173 is designed for a house built in colonial stylo, bi t may he adapted to oth< r styles The four first t-Mmplfs in Ki^j. 5 show tht sections of vari >us parts of a bay window for a ba'loon frame. Th mann*"- of constnutinj,' the angle is sliown, als th. .ill and head '.f window, the various parts md manner of working them being given. A pa-^t 01 the se.tion of the top of thv ,v hIow is shown .u E, 'he inside finish being pi j. s-iy 1' it off. At I' is sh i an angle -f great<'r length, which is sometime- tiu.' case in b.iv windo. ^ Thi manner i construction s (juite simple. The l.,w!)l< s of turned and carved work, 'i -sc will often be i >und us!e, an ! if well done will insure a water-tight roof at liiat point. In laying out the shingles for this plan the courses are man.ige(' as fol- lows; No. I i< laid all the way out to thi line of the hip, . ji.; -of the shingle being plan. d off, so that coaist >Io. 2, on the adjacent side will line per- fectly tight down upon it. Next No. 3 is laitl and is dressed down in the same manner as the first, after which No. 4 is brought along the same as No. 2. The work proceeds in this manner, first right and then left. In the second sketch, B, the shingles are laid on the hip in away to bring the grain of the shingles more nearly parallel with the line of the hip. This method overcomes the projection of cross-grained points. Another method of shingling hips is shown at C and D. In putting on shingles by this method a line is snapped four inches from angle of hip on both sides «74 MODERN CARPENTRY JOINER'S WORK t»S of the ridge, as indicated by the dotted Imes in C, th^n bring the corner of the shin^^les of each course to the line as shown. When all through with the plain sh.n- gling. make a pattern to suit, and only cut the top to fhape. as the bottoms or butts will break joints every time, and the hip line will lay square with the hip nne, as shown at D; thus making a first-c';ss water- tight job, and one on which the shingles w.l not curl up, and it will have a good appearance as well. At E a method is shown for shingling a valley, where no tin or metal is employed. The manner o doing this work is as follows: First take a strip 4 inches wide and chamfer it on the edges on the out- side, so that it will lay down smooth to the sheeting, and nail it into the valley. Take a shingle about 4 inches wide to start with and lay lengthwise of the valley, fitting the shingle on each side. The first course, which is always double, would then start with the narrow shingle, marked B, and earned up the val- ley, as shown in the sketch. Half way between each course lay a shingle. A, a", out 4 or 5 '"ches w.de as the case requires, cha.ntering underneath on each side, so that the next cour.e will he smooth ""Ti tin or zinc can bo obtained, it is better it should be laid in the valley, whether this method be adopted "'The skelch sh.v.vn at F is intended to illustrate the manner in which a valley should be laid with tin. ..nc or galvanized iron. The dotted lines show the width of the metal, which should never be less than four- teen inches to insure a tight roof. The shingles should lap over as shown, and not less than four iaches of the valley. H, should be clear of shingles X76 MODERN CARPENTRY im JOINER'S WORK tjl in order to insure plenty of space for the water to flow during a heavy rain storm. A great deal of care should be taken in shingling and finishing a valley, as it is always a weak spot in the roof. _— PART IV USEFUL TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR BUILDERS Table showing quantity of material in every four lineal feet of exterior wail in a balloon frame build- ing, height of wall being given: i ii Site of stud*, Bracex, etc. II 42 u 30 Is 40 "5 8 ox (1 2x4 Studs. 74 lO 6x 8 4x4 braces <;2 44 50 80 la 6x10 4x4 plates. 62 53 60 q6 14 6x10 1x6 ribbons. (HI 62 70 iia 16 8x10 S2 71 80 128 18 8x10 studs. 87 80 go "44 ao 8x12 16 inches from .,8 83 HXJ Ibo 22 qXI2 centers. 109 97 1 10 176 24 lux 12 IIQ 122 10(1 8u~ 120 <)0 iq2 IS loxto 2x6 studs. 144 20 tOXIJ (jx6 braces. 137 88 KJO 160 22 10x12 4x6 pla'es. 145 07 1 10 176 24 12X12 1x6 ribbons. 162 106 I20 U)3 26 10x14 ifK, i'4 130 208 28 10x14 studs lb inch centers. 176 123 140 224 y 12X14 1(^8 132 150 240 i7y i8o MODERN CARPENTRY Table showing amount of lumber in rafters, collar- piece and boarding, and number of shingles to four lineal feet of roof, measured from eave to eave over ridge. Rafters i6-inch centers: Quantity of Width site of Collar- l,nmb«T Quantity of Siie of ill Rii -r of No. of HouK, Rafters. an BoarUing, Shingle*. Feet. Collar- piece. Feet. 14 2x4 ^X4 39 61 560 16 3x4 2x4 45 70 640 18 2x4 2x4 50 79 720 30 2x4 2x4 56 88 800 32 2x4 2x4 62 97 880 *4 3X4 2x4 67 106 960 ao 2X6 2X6 84 88 800 33 3X6 2x6 92 97 38o 34 2X6 2x6 101 106 960 36 2x6 2x6 109 "5 1040 38 2X6 2x6 117 124 1120 30 2x6 2X6 126 133 1200 A proper allowance for waste is included in the above. Roof, one-fourth pitch. Table showing the requisite sizes of girders and joists for warehouses, the span and distances apart being given: 1> Span ok GlSDERS. 8 Feet 8 Feet. 10 Feet. "inches. I2XIb 12x18 14x18 12 Feet. Feet. 10 12 14 Inches. 8X12 9x12 10x12 Inches. 12x13 12x14 12x15 lucheit 14x18 16x18 Inches 2jxi(» 3 XIO 3 XI2 Girders to have a beurinvr at each end atid joists 6 in. USEFUL TABLES i8i Table as before, adapted for churches, public halls, etc. h. 8PAK OF QlRDEBI. it Joiots. Remarks. 6 Fret. 8 Feet. 10 Feel. I'J Fret. Feet Inches. Inches. Incheii. Inche!! IncheH 13 6x10 8x12 12x14 12x16 2 X b 13 9x11 9x12 11x15 12X17 2 X f) Boaringsof 14 (1x12 IOXI2 12x15 11x18 2 X y KirtU'is a nd 15 7x12 IIXt2 llXIt) I2X16 2 X lu joists as 16 Sxi2 12X12 12x16 13x18 2 XIO above. 17 8X12 (>.\I4 12x17 14x18 2 XI3 iS i)XI3 10x14 UXI8 2 XI2 20 ()XI2 I UX 1 2 11x14 12x14 12x18 13X1S 2ixt2 24x12 21X12 Both tables ..... ..... are calcu- 31 10x12 I IXI5 14x18 lateil for yel- 23 11X12 12x15 I IX Id 3 XI2 3x12 3 x«3 3 X13 3 XI4 low pine. 33 34 35 36 11X12 ."'■ r:: ' :. . 10x13 10x13 10x14 I2XI() 12x17 I 2X 1 S a? 10x14 I2XlS ?> X14 Table showing quantity of lumber in every four lineal feet of partition, studs being placed 16 centers, waste included: Height of Partition. y iiaut ty of Stud* ■.'x4 IVct Feet. 8 20 9 23 10 26 II 29 12 32 '3 35 >4 38 «5 4> 16 4J If Jxa Feet. 30 34 38 43 46 51 55 50 64 ita MODERN CARPENTRY Lumber Me«aurement Table 4 Ji ;s d Ji d 1 « {^ tt % ^ 1 s s s a ! 9X4 3X6 3X8 2XIU 3x6 3x8 12 8 12 12 13 I6 12 20 12 18 12 24 >4 9 lA «4 14 I'; 14 23 14 21 14 28 16 II 16 l6 16 21 1 6 27 16 24 16 32 l8 13 I8 I8 l8 24 I8 30 18 27 IS 36 30 13 30 20 2o 27 20 33 30 30 20 40 33 «5 32 22 23 20 22 j 37 32 33 22 44 24 16 24 24 24 32 24 4" 24 36 24 48 26 «7 26 26 26 35 '.(> 43 26 30 36 52 4XS 6X6 12 14 16 18 32 37 43 48 24 '2(>0 26 '217 20 53 22 I 59 24 'M 26 ; 6g IOXI3 12 14 16 IS ?<> I2<) 140 160 180 2 12 «4 16 18 20 23 24 26 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 13X13 12 14 16 IS 2U 24 26 •44 16a I<)3 216 240 164 288 313 Streng^th of Materials Kesistunce to cxtensioH and compression, in {lounds per square inch section of some materials. . Nanir of thr Matrnal. Krtislaacr I KritUtancc to Katc-UHiun, |toCom|jirMti>>n White pine... Wh'te oak.... R(x-k elm Wrought iron Cast iron 10,000 1 5, 000 16.000 6o,uix> 20,(KKJ 6,000 7.500 8.011 50,000 1 00, f mo Tensile Sire th Coiiip.Strengtb lu I'l actice I iu I'ractice. 2.000 3,ixx) 3,200 I2,IKX> 4,o' •>l foot. 3^ Ml loot. .nchtt ~6r ••1 foot. inchM Ml foot. ' .<'>i'i>^ ,a7o8 .S2(>8 9 9 7708 .0417 3i .2<)'6 fi 54 If' 7917 ooj <; n lias «>» .562$ 9 8ias I .OR.14 •4 J3>t 7 ■5R33 10 8334 1} . 104s *\ 3Mi 7: 7 .6042 in 854 a 4 ISf *\ ■3-5 .(.as 10 875 «j ■ »45') 41 39 S' vj .6458 10 8950 a .l6h7 5 •4">7 8 .6667 II 9167 «* .«875 '.I .4375 8 «)875 II 9375 5! .2084 4:83 .7084 II 9583 .ivyi M ..-.702 8 .7292 II 9792 3 ■ If, (> 5 9 7^ 13 1 0000 Round and Hqual-Sided Timber Measure Tab'e for asccrtainir;? the msmher of Cubical Feet, or solid con- tents, in a Stiik of Round or Equal-Sided Timber, Tree. etc. Kigi.i Af.lin Hgir - A'ta in Xftrt Ar«« in K g"t A'** m i^ •317 II .918 "'i ! i*33 21 3.(rfl2 255 4605 7 ■ 34 II' •959 ir.j 1.S9 21 31 3 •3f> 2fi 4.694 7 .3f»4 t2 I. if)j l.i>»8 3 2*^ 2<> 4^785 ^ •39 13} I 043 1 7 2.(X)() ai 32S5 26 4876 7 • 417 12i I o3e >■', 2../..I2', >7l 2. I2(> 32 3.438 27 5 062 8 •472 «3 1. 174 17? 2.187 32 32 3 5 '6 27i 27J 5.158 (< .501 '3i 13! 1 2lt 18 2.25 3^598 S-asa 8 • 511 \.2i-^ iS! 2.U3 23 3 t>73 27J 5.348 9 .5'jj ' 3'3 2 376 ■A 23} 3-754 28 5444 9j ■394 14 • -?6I laj -' 442 3-'^35 28 5 543 9i .626 141 I I >9 2. 5 6(X) 480 400 343 3™> Siding, Flooring, and Laths One-fifth more siding aiul llooring is needed than the' number of s.piarc- f.-.-t of surface to be covered because of the lap in the siding matching. 1,000 laths will cover 70 yards ..f surface, and 11 pounds of i.ith nails will nail them <.n. Kight bushtis of good lime. 16 bushels of sand, and i bushel of hair will make enough good mortar to plaster too square yards. ^ Excavations Excavations are measur.-d bvthe yard (j; cubic feet) and irr.gular depths or surfaces are generally averaged in practice. USEFUL TABLES 185 Nwnb«r of Nails Required in Carptatry Work To case and hang one door, I pound. To case and hang one window, H pound. Base, 100 lineal feet, I pound. To put c.n rafters, joists, etc., 3 pounds to i.oc» feet. To put up studding, same. Tolaya6.inch pine floor, 15 pounds to 1,000 feet. Siset of Boxes for Different Meaaures A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 28 inches deep will contain a barrel, or 3 bushels. A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 14 inches deep will contain half a barrel. A box 16 inches square and 8| inches deep, will contain l bushel. A box 16 inches by 8| inches wide and 8 inches deep, will contain half a bushel. A box 8 inches by 8S inches square and 8 inches deep, will contain I peck. A box 8 inches by 8 inches square and 4I inches deep, will contain 1 gallon. A box 8 inches by 4 inches square and 4t inches deep, will contain half a gallon. A box 4 inches by 4 inches square and 4^ inches deep, will contain i quart. A box 4 feet long, 3 feet 5 inches wide, and 2 feet 8 inches deep, will contain I ton of coal. Masonry Stone masonry is measured by two systems, quarry- man's and mason's measurements. 1 mA/-;i'. MICROCOPY HESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 'i' 140 12.5 1^ 2£ 1.8 A /IPPLIED INA/IGE Inc S7. 1653 East Mom Street =^ Rochester. Ne« York 14609 USA ,^B (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^S (716) 288 - 5989 - Tax b-*'Sf'?r**''«fe !HP^ 1 86 MODERN CARPENTRY larger than Vo-xs'o"'^ ™°"°' °' "'^"■'"K' courses by lineal feet All = ii ^^*^^' ^^•''^^ and base ,Bx^.pJc.,.ra„/:it!;,tJ;^if.r,-rr: (^"Xt*;," "'"^"'' "■'^--<' "- '"^ -bic yard USEFUL TABLES 187 A cord of stone, 3 bushels of lime and a cubic yard of sand, will lay 100 cubic feet of wall. Cement, l bushel, and sand, 2 bushels, will cover 3)4 square yards i inch thick, 4>^ square yards ^ inch thick, and 6^ square yards }4 inch thick; i bushel of cement and i of sand will cover 2% square yards I inch thick, 3 square yards ji inch thick and 4}4 square yards yi inch thick. Brick Work Brick work is generally measured by 1,000 bricks laid in the wall. In consequence of variations in size of bricks, no rule for volume of laid brick can be exact. The following scale is, however, a fair average: 7 com. bricks to a super, ft. 4 in. walL 14 '• •< .. •• .. g I. .< 21 *• " *• «• «* jn •« ii 3g *i l( II 41 II ,0 II ,1 35 " •' •• II i< 22 " " Corners are not measured twice, as in stone work. Openings over 2 feet square are deducted. Arches are counted from the spring. Fancy work counted lyi bricks for i. Pillars are measured on their face only. A cubic yard of mortar requires i cubic yard of sand and 9 bushels of lime, and will fill 30 hods. One thousand bricks closely stacked occupy about 56 cubic feet. One thousand old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked, occupy about 72 cubic feet. One superficial foot of gauged arches requires ID bricks. Pavements, according to size of bricks, take 38 brick on fiat and 60 brick on edge per square yard, on an average. ; 111 i88 MODERN CARPENTRY Five couiies of brick will lay i foot in height on a chimney, 6 bricks in a course will make a flue 4 inches wide and 12 inches long, and 8 bricks in a course will make a flue 8 inches wide and l6 inches long. Slating A square of slate or slating is 100 superficial feet. In measuring, the width of eaves is allowed at the widest part. Hips, valleys and cuttings are to be measured lineal, and 6 inches extra is allowed. The thickness of slates required is from ^\ to ,V of an inch, and their weight varies when lapped from ^ to 6^ pounds per square foot. The "laps" of slates vary from 2 to 4 inches, the standard assumed to be 3 inches. To Compute the Number of Slates of a GiTen Size Required per Square Subtract 3 inches from the length of the slate, mul- tiply the remainder by the width and divide by 2. Divide 14,400 by the number so found and the result will be the number of slates required. Table showing number of slates and pounds of nails required to cover 100 square feet of roof. Sues of Slate Length of Exposure. No. Required. Nails Required. 14 iu. X 28 in. I2| in. 83 .6 lbs. 12 X 24 loi 114 •833 I. II X 22 94 138 10 X 20 31 165 1.33 9 X 18 7i 214 1.5 8 X 16 6J 277 2. 7 X 14 Si 377 2.66 6 X 12 4i 533 3.8 USEFUL TABLES 189 Approximate Weight of Materials for Roofs Material. Corrugated galvanized iron, No. 20, unboarded Copper, 16 oz. standing seaii Felt and asphalt, without sheathing Glass, }i in. thick Hemlock sheathing, i in. thick .-. Lead, about H in- thick Latli-and-plasler ceiling (ordinary) Mackite, i in. thick, with plaster Neponset loofing felt. 2 layers Spruce sheathing, i in. thick Slate, ,3^ in. thick, 3 in. double lap Slate, Ys in. thick, 3 in. double lap Shingles. 6 in. x 18 in., Jjj to weather Skylight of glass. /\, to '/i in., including frame Shig roof, 4-plv Terne Plate, IC. without sheathing Terne Plate, IX. without sheathing Tiles rplain), loK in. xb]{ x % \n.—sii\n. to weather Tiles (Spanish) 14 >^ in. x io3^ in. — 7^ in. to weather. White-pine sheathing, i in. thick Yellow-pine sheathing, i in. thick Average Weight. Lb. per Sq. Ft. 2X IK 3 2 6 to 8 6 to 8 10 H (>% 4'A 2 4 to 10 4 'A % iS ^A 'A 4 Snow and Wind Loads Data in regard to snow and wind loads are necessary in connection with the design of roof trusses. Snow Load.— When the slope of a roof is over 12 inches rise per foot of horizontal run. a snow and accidental load of 8 pounds per square foot is ample. When the slope is under 12 inches rise per foot of run, a snow and accidental load of 12 pounds per square foot should be used. The snow load acts vertically, and therefore should be added to the dead load in designing roof trusses. The snow load may be neglected when a high wind pressure has been consid- ered, as a great wind storm wouid very likely remove all the snow from the roof. ■MM. rt?'^: »9o MODERN CARPENTRY Wind Load -The wind is considered as blowing in a honzontal direction, but the resulting pressure upon he Zt " tI''''" 'f'" ""^'"'' ^'' ••'■^'^^ ^"S'-) to the slope. The wind pressure against a vertical plane depends on the velocity of the wind, and, as ascer- wTh f '^^t'""^- ^''''' ^'■^"^' S^^^'^^ ^t Mount Washington. N. H., is as follows: yf^octfy. Pressure. (Mi. perHr.) (Lb. per Sq. Ft.) ^ °i Fresh breeze. 30 '-^ Stiff breeze. 40 f Strong wind. Jo ,^-^ High wind. 1^ '°o Storm. 80;;:;:;:::.""." 2^6 Violent storm. ,00 ' Hurricane. 40.0 Violent hurricane. The wind pressure upon a cylindrical surface is one- width '' "^°" ^ ^^^ ^""'^^^^ ""^ ^^"^ '""""^ ^^'^^- ^"^ Since the wind is considered as traveling in a hori- zontal direction, it is evident that the more nearlv vertical the slope of the roof, he greater will be the pressure, and the more nearly ho-izontal the slope the ess will be the pressure. The following table gives the pressure exerted upon roofs of different slopes bv a wmd pressure of 40 pounds per square foot on a vertical plane, which is equivalent in intensity to a violent hurricane. UNITED STATES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Land Meat'tre '-'5«5:.fv-:'^«^5io^ppv« USEFUL TABLES 191 C'ibic or Solid Measure I cubic yard = 27 cubic feet. I cubic foot = 1,728 cubic inches. I cubic foot = 2,200 cylindrical inchefc I cubic foot = 3,300 spherical inches. t cubic foot = 6,600 conical inches. Linear Measure rod. 12 Inches (in.) = i loot . 3 feet - 'yard 5.5 yards 40 rods -I 8 furlongs _ = i in. ft. yd. 36= 3 = I 198= 16.5= 5-5 7,920 = 660 = 220 (1,360 r- 5,280 = 1,7' .ft. .yd. .rd. furlong fur. mile »...mi. rd. fur. mL = 40 = 1 = 320 =: 8 144 30} 160 640 Sq. mi. Square Measure square inches (sq. in.) = i square foot ...„ sq. ft. square feet = i square yard sq. yd. square' = i square rod sq. rd. square 1. = i acre A. acres =■ i square mile„ sq. nu. A. Sq. rd. Sq. yd. Sq. ft. Sq. in. I z= 640 = 102,400 = 3,097,600 = 27,878,400 = 4,oi4,439,^. I cubic foot of earth, ^oose, weighs 935 lbs. I cubic ,'iKjt. of common soil weighs 124 lbs. I cubic foot of strong soil weighs 127 lbs. 1 cubic in>it of clay weighs 120 to 135 Ibs.^ I cubic foot of clay and stc^c weighs 160' lbs. I cubic toot of common stone weighs 1(0 lbs. 1 cubic foot of brick weighs 95 to 120 lbs. I cubic foot of granite weighs 169 to 180 lbs. 1 cubic foot of marble \,reighs 166 to 170 lbs. I cubic yard of sand weighs 3,037 lbs. I cubic yard of common soil weighs 3,429 lbs. 6 in. = 24. 75 ft. cubic. 8 ft. = 128 ft. cubic. •5>fv*^Fwr>!aE^^Rf*«?^K*: 1'^ «9t MODERN CARPENTRY ^Safe Bearing; Load* Brick and Stone Masonry. mortar., lirick Work. fe ^^-^'.'^^ ^" '■'"« •nortar.. Har^' ^-H ?° Portland cement mortaV Hard, laid in Rosendale cement Granite, capstone »^onry. Squared stonework. oandstone, capstone.... Squared stonework. Lb Sq. >er Squared stonework. J"^^J«- lajd ?n limemortar."::.';.' Kubble, laid in cement mortar £i^H££fte,i_P^aml^sa^ Foundation Soils. Rock, hardest in native bed fc ^ ^'* e*'^'^'" '"ason.^;;:: Hqual to best brick.. ^ Clay. dry. in thick beds! Moderately dry. in thick'beds:;:;:.:::;;;: Gravel and couV^'sandV well" tcmfin;;.'.'!" aean^!!.;-:"^ "^" ceiu'eS..-:.^.:!: Quj cksand. ajjuvia l" so'ii,"etc.'. loo 200 150 700 350 350 '75 80 150 500 aijo 80 150 150 T perr lOi »5-. 4 6 2 4 1- 2 8-10 4- 6 2- 4 5- I 10 Inches in P,Yf!.^% . .'° diameter holds 3O50 gallons pit^ r '°.d«amoter hokk "^58 gallons •rSon fH^ .in diameter hoUk ""' gallons Twelwi?- '"^.d'ameter holds...;:: ?59 gallons Pwln /^^'°^.'^'"«^ter holds.... 827 gallons Ten W f 'i'.'^'^'^eter holds : 7o5 gallons K?nw *? djameter holds.... 592 gallons Pi^hf * *\°^'?'"^*«^'" holds.... 489g.il!ons I'i?^^ rV? 'l'"'™^^-'" »Jo'ds... 396 gallons sfJ^^nH ®* in diameter holds.... 3i3 gallons S X fee^ fn^n/'^'^^^^'" diameterholds =39 gallons P fj/ .° diameter holds.... 206 gallons P™,r , '° *^'^'"^f^'' holds 176 gallons four «id one-haif feet in diani;.ter hoVus '" S^"«°s 99 gallons -^^^m^ USEFUL TABLES Poor feet in diameter holds 'Ihree feet in diameter holds Two ai.d one-half feet in diameter holds Two feet in diameter holds Number of Nails and Tacks per P lund TACKS. Length. H inch 3-iO Name. 3 penny 3 NAILS. Size, fine 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 i6 30 30 40 50 6 8 10 la s Hi ^'4 iH 2H 2'A 2'/2 2H 3 3H 3>4 4 4H 5 s'A fence 2 •* 2'A " 3 " 3« *.. No. per lb. Name, inch 760 nails i oz. •• 480 " I'A"- " 300 " 2 ". " 200 " aH'"- " 160 *• 3 " 128 " 4 " Q2 " 6 " 72 '• 8 60 " 10 44 " 12 .. 32 .. 14 24 " 16 " iS " 18 14 " 20 12 •• 22 " 80 " 24 .. 50 •• " 34 " " 29 " Wind Pressures on Roofs ( Pounds per Square Foot. ) H 5-16 H 7-16 0-16 H-16 ,i3-i6 ..15 .1 ..I I 16 16 193 78 gallons 44 gallons 30 gallons 19 gallons No. per lb. .16,000 .10,666 . 8,000 .. 6,400 . 5.333 ,. 4,000 .. 2,666 .. f.OOO .. 1.600 .. 1.333 .. 1.143 .. 1,000 .. 888 800 .. /27 666 Rise, h.che* per Foot of Run. 4 6 8 la 16 18 24 Angle w:th Horizontal. 18° 26° 33° 45' 53° 56° 63° 25' 33' 41' O' 7' 20' 27' Pitch. Proportion of Riie to Span. \A'ind Preiturc, Nornnal to Slop*. 16.8 23.7 29.1 36.1 38.7 39-3 40.0 In addition to wind and snow loads upon roofs, the weight of the principals or roof trusses, including the other features of the construction, should be figured in the estimate. For light roofs, having a span of not over 50 feet, and not required to support any ceiling, the weight of the steel construction may be taken at 5 pounds per square foot; for greater spans, I pound per square foot should be added for each 10 feet increase in the span. ^^f^^i^^r-^ fi "^i^^J^"^ SU<*f»LEM£Nt to MODERN CARPENTRY AND JOINERV. The aim in preparing this has been to supply neces-« sar)' information for enabling a practical joiner to be come a competent airtight-case maker, without th« tedium of waiting, perhaps for years, until chance brings him into contact with one who has made a specialty of this class of work. I have endeavored, by means of illustrations, to elucidate as clearly as possible the poii ts which are so frequently the cause of failure to those who, while having a good knowledge of wood-working, have not had the advantages of direct practical tuition in the intricacies of airtight-case making. Before proceeding with the explanations, I wou'J point out that the first and most important rule in jom- ery is to have the stuff platied up true, and gauged accurately to size. I. AIRTIGHT WALL CASE WITH GLASS OR WOOD ENDS. The general drawings of the airtight wall-case with glaz«;d ends are given in Figs, l to 5 and the details in Figs. 6 to 9. Framezi'ork. Figs. 6 and 7 give the width of the top and bottom rails for the front frame of the case, and, by adding the width of the top and bottom door-rails to each we determine the width of the rails required for the ends of the case, as shown in Fig. 5. The angle- stilc must be J.4 inch more in thickness than the thick- i9j "Sl^I^^ ^t:!^ ^.m-^^-^^i^i^^^^- 19^ MODERN CARPfiNTRV Fig. 1. ness of the doors, in order to allow of a rebate being formed to receive the glass at the ends of the case. (See M Fig. 8.) i}'^^W\»}. ."^^yi-Y CASE MAKING Fig. 2. Fig. 4. Fig, 5. In setting out the framewofK (which is mortised and tenoned together in the ordinary way) the face shoul- ders of the front rails should be H inch longer than the 'Ht#'i2k K4^r'- <-«!Swiir»..*a ^rar*'-^' i :j . 198 MODERN CARPENTRY back shoulders. An eighth inch bead— for which the allowance has been made — is worked on the angle-stiles and bottom rail only, the edge of the top rail being left square. The moulding which is planted round the case, as shown in Fig. 6, serves to break the joint of the doors. The shoulders on the end rails are square with each other, the rebate being the same depth as the moulding. Airtight joints. To make successfully the airtight joint between the angle-stile of the case and the hanging stile of the door (see Fig. 8) thrc^ planes are required. The first plane is used on the angle-stile for forming at the same time the two grooves, each 3/16 inch wide; Fig. 3. the second is used for working the two fillets together and the third for working the two hollows in the door stiles. The front part of the frame must now be fitted to- gether and the joints at the back of the frame cleared off, to allow the airtight planes to be worked from the back of the frame, that is, from the inside of the case, as the doors would not close accurately if they were worked from the face or outside. After the front frame has been fitted together as de- scribed, it must be taken apart, and the angle-stiles worked with plane No. i. When this has been done. ^^am CASE MAKING 199 Fig. 6. the fillets must be glued in the grooves, and, when set, rounded over with plane No. 2. The fillets will not require to be taken to the exact width before rounding over, as plane No. 2 works all surplus stuff away. i'-!-i 20O MODERN CARPENTRY i For the joint between the top and bottom rails of doors and the airtight fillets respectively, two planes are re- quired; the first for sticking the airtight fillet, and the second for working the small hollow on the door rails to match the fillet. CASE MAKING 201 Continuing with the framework. After rounding the fillets in the angle-stiles, groove the top and bottom rails to receive the tongue on the airtight fillets as shown in Figs. 6 and 7 and rebate the bottom rails to rest on the plinth, Fig. 7. The top and bottom rails at each end 203 MODERN CARPENTRY of the case are trenched to receive respectively the ends of the inside top and inside bottom, Fig. 5. Care must be taken to make these trenches in such a way as to keep the inside top and the inside bottom in the positions shown in the Figs. 6 and y. Rebate the back angle-stile Fig. 9. of each end frame to receive the back, as in Fig. 8, and run a small hollow in the angle of the rebate. Glue and pin the airtight fillet on the front edges of the inside top and bottom respectively ; also glue the fillet on the back of each in order to strengthen the airtight fillet, and CASE MAKING 203 make out the thickness to receive the glue-blocks as shown. An ovolo or other moulding is now worked on the external angles of the two front angle-stiles as shown in Fig. 8, the moulding being stopped in a line with t'je top and be im rails respectively of the doors, Fig. i. The body of the case must now be put together, care being taken to glue-block the front frame and ends se- curely to the bottom and top, as we'l as behind the plinth, which is screwed to the bottom raiiS from the back. Match-boards are used for th( back, the boards being run to the floor, as shown in Fig. 2. Mitre the cornice round the front and ends, screwir.or it frcm the back of the top rails; cut the dust-board to fit on the top edges of the rails and bevel against the cornice; having pre- viously rebated it to receive the back of the t se. Be- fore the back is fastened, the cloth. Fig. 8, should be plav;ed in the rebate o' the stile, the fillet placed on top of the cloth and pressed into the lioUow, and then fas- tened to the stile with screws, the cloth thus being se- curely held b«tween the fillet ard the stile. The cloth can now be streiclied taui and fixed at the other end in the same way, and the boards fasten -'n. Doors. In planing up the stuflF for . , doors, the same gauge must be used as that for the frame of the case. When setting out for the doors, take the width and height accurately, and allow 1/16 inch on the height for fitting in. The width is set out as for ordinary folding doors, viz. : allowing half the hook-joint on each door, and ]/& inch for jointmg and fitting in. The best vay to allow for fitting is to have each stile 1/16 inch greater in width '■ m the finished size required. The rails abutting against each angle-stlle are single- mortised and tenoned together as in ordinary work, I 1 ?, 2Q4 MODERN CARPENTRY but double mortisea and tenons must be used at the top and tottom of each meeting stile, as s.iown m Fig. 9. The reason for using the double tenon is, that if a sin- gle tenon were used, the ends of the tenon would slip off after the hook-joint had been made. Presuming : ie doors to be wedged up, level off the joints at the shoulders, when the doors will be ready for jomting together and fitting to the case. Hook-Joint. The following is the best method of making a well fitting joint. First rebate the stiles (the rebate bemg ^ inch less in width than the thickness of the doors, and 5/16 inch deep), and next bevel the edges of the doors, bringing the rebate to a depth of ^ inch, Fig. 8. The doors must now be worked with a hollow and round on the edge of the rebate to form the hook- joint. For this purpose a hook-joint plane is required. There is an adjustable depth-gauge on th- side of the plane, which can be easily set for working dift.rcnt thick- ness ;s of stuff. B-fore working the doors with the plane It IS advisable to work a piece of stuff of the same thick- ness as the doors. Cut the piece thus worked into two and put the joint together. This will test the accuracy of the setting of the plane. If the faces do not come flush with each other, the gauge on the plane must be raised or lowered accordingly. Having fitted the meeting stiles, place the doors to- gether across the bench, as they can thus be more easily taken to the exact width and height of the frame of the case. After the doors have been fitted in the opening work with the airtight planes as previously instructed' always remembering to hold the fence of plane No. 3 on the back side of the door while forming the hollows on the hanging stiles. With plane No. 2 the small hollow CASE MAKING 2C5 on the top and bottom rails to match the airtight fillet is worked. After working the doors as described, clean oflf the back side, place the doors in position, and clean off the face to the level of the frame. Take the door? out and Fig. 10. work the bead on the joint between the doors, Fig. 8. This bead is Hatter than usual and has a very small quirk. The doors are hung to the frame, each by thrte hinges. The top and bottom hinges are usually kept their own 206 i i i i MODERN CARPENTRY depth from the top and bottom edges of the doors re- he edt'' %h ' r^^,'"'' '"^^ "•" "^ ^y^ '"^hes from the edge. The handles on the meeting stiles are re specnvely about 9 inches from the upper and lower edge" small s1.v' Jf" '^^T """-'* ^' '^^'■^^""y P^^^^^d with small slip, of wood between the edges of the elass and H,e frame of the d«,, i„ order t. ifeep the framr igTd The woodwork being so slight, the doors would fag when hung .f the glass were not packed tightly as aU the weight of the glass would fall L the bottom rkif 000 R Hangup tUU, of framt ODOR Fig. 11. for fin''"" .J °"°^'"^ '' '^^ ^''' "method to adopt way thf shelve"" "'^' ''''''''' ''' ^^en fitted in th^ To the hn? 7!.''" ^ "'^^"^ *° ^""y ^^q"'^^d height. To the back of the case screw two pieces of iron one at cat 't* "''"''"^ '^"^ *^^ *«P '« ^he bottom of the case. These must previously have been drilled and feeing /, ,nch from centre to centre, and each hole beinir large enough to rec.ve a 3/16 inch . ew. A maUeabl"^ jron bracket about 3 inches long on the back "dg e-l'he' length of the top edge being the width of the shelflis now required, having a small piece projecting a^ve the op edge m which is drilled a plain hole, fnd havit a pm near the bottom edge. The pin at th botU>m edgf CASE MAKING ao7 is placed in one of the holes in the tapped bar, and a 3/16 inch screw is passed through the hole at the top edge and screwed into the bar, thus securing the bracket firmly. Care must be taken to have the same distance be- tween the centres of any two holes in the bar. Fig. 10 shows a horizontal section through a show- case having solid ends. Fig. II shows a horirontal section through the centre hanging; stile in the jnt frame of a wide showcase, when two pairs of doors are required. It is worked in the same manner as previously described for hanging stiles. * » » • Fig. 12. Fig. 12 shows a section of a cross bar in doors. This is only required where sheet glass is used. Each end of the bar is sunk into the moulding of the door-stiles. The saddle is cut between the rebates, and secured to the bar. Plinths separate from the case. If the showcase is over 6 feet 6 inches in height, or the plinth is of a greater depth than 12 inches, it is advisable to make the plinth separate from the case. Instead of the bottom rail being rebated behind the plinth, as shown in Fig. 7. a frame must be made out of V/, inch by 3 inch stuff dovetailed together at the angles; and two or three bearers should dod MODERN CARPENTRY 60 be mortised and tenoned between the front and back rails (as the length of the case may require). At each angle, and under each end of the bearers, a leg is stump- Vi- ■'■jLv. CAs£ Making 200 tenoned into the under side of the rails to support the case. When this is done, the plinth should be tnitrc.l round the frame. It should U screwed from the back, and glue-b'.ocks used in all the angles. Fig. 14. An isometrical projection of a counter-case is shown in Fig. 3. The top, sides, and front are of plate-glass. Mirrors are placed on the inside of the doors at the back of the case. The divisions on the bottom show the posi- tion of the trays. s == — JBj, yia - — t ) ^ t ? ?" SCALe Fig. 15. •' ^ commencing work, it is absolutely necessary to draw Figs. 14 and 15 full /e, to enable the taking off and working to an exact si. of the various carts required to be done. SJ^'l aid MODERN CARPENTRY Bottom of case. Commence with tlie frame, which should be made out of well-seasoned pine. The width of the bottom frame will Iw the extreme width of the case less the thickness of the mouldinfj on the front edge and jyi inch for a hardwood slip on the back edge of the frame, Fig. 17. The length will be the extreme length of the case minus two thicknesses of moulding. Mortise and tenon the frame together, and rebate it to receive y» inch panels flush on the inside- . then glue up and take to size. The hardwoi, , slip can now be jointed and glued on. a tongucd and grooved joint being used for the purpose. After this has Wen done, the air- i Fig. Itt. tight rebate to receive the doors should be worked on the hardwood slip. In order to make a good job of the rebate, it will be necessary to have a special plane for working both the relxite and the small half-round tongue at one time. To complete the bottom, groove the front edge and both ends for the tongue, then mitre and fix the mould- ing to the frame. The moulding must be specially noted. It must project above the bottom 3/16 inch to form a rebate for the glass; and the first member, i. e. the part projecting, must be rounded to intersect with the upright angle-bars. Figs. 17 and 18, with mitre into the mould- ings. CASE MAKING 311 The pan'ls in the bottom are to be screwed to the frame. Before putting the whole case together, they •1 u must be taken out for enabling the small fillets which se- cure the glass to be easily screwed into their respective positif-ns. 212 il! MODERN CARPENTRY Framework for glass. Plane up the stuff for the round angle-bars, gauging it to 9/16 inch square, and rebate j4 inch deep and y» inch from the face edges. The angle bars will then appear as seen in Fig. 2. For the back part of the frame, square up the stuff to i>i inch by ^ inch and rebate y^ inch deep and >^ inch from the face for the glass. For the doors, take out Fig. 18. the rebate •:{ inch deep by ?Ji inch wide; bcvcl the re- bate to 5/16 inch deep on the outside edi:^e (as shown in Fig. 21). and work the hook-joint plane on the edge of the rebate. It is best to make the mitred joints f.rst, as they require careful fitting together, and the bottom' ends can be afterwards easily taken to the required length and cut. Fig. 23 contains isometrical projections showing the CASE MAKING 213 joints at the intersection of the front and the end angle- bars with the upright angle-bar. The position of the point is shown at A, Fig. 23. Three pieces of the required section. Fig. 20, should be got out, and the joint worked as follows: Commence with the front and end angle-bars, cutting i*e iflW: 214 MODERN CARPENTRY a square mitre, 45 degrees on each outside face of both bars bringing the external angle to a point, as shown in tae sketch. Cut the mitre down to the rebate line and cut the surplus away, leaving the core of the bar pro- jectmg, which will be the part C. The internal r rt of the mitre E is the sigiit line. Square down and across <*- OOOft -^ Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. the core; then, from the sight-line, measure distances of ys mch and 7/16 inch; the resulting lines will be the shoulder and end of the dovetail respectively. Cut the core off at the longest line and form the dovetail as shown m the sketch, when the two bars can be fitted together. Proceed with the upright angle-bar. Cut the square CASE MAKING 215 mitre a before, but instead of cutting to the depth of the rebate, it must be cut 1/32 inch less. From the sightline F measure the same distances as before, viz., % inch and 7/16 inch. Cut off at the longest line, tak- ing care not to cut through the projecting point of the ai6 m MODERN CARPENTRY 'A CASE MAKING 217 mitre, then take out the core C back to the shoulder line, thus leaving a thin tenon as seen in the sketch. Cut the tenon back 1/16 inch on each edge and continue the mitre through. It will now be necessary to mortise the front and end bars to receive the tenon on the upright angle-bar. For the mortises, square a line across the mitre 1/16 inch from the sight line E. Gauge a line down the mitre 3/32 inch from the face of the bar, leaving 1/32 inch (the width of the mortise) between the core of the bar and the gauge line. The deoth of the mortise will be to within ]/& inch from the other face. The work must be done ver> carefully, and great care taken to have the tenon on the upright angle-bar of the thickness stated, viz., 1/32 inch, as the result of having it of greater thickness would be that, when the bar^, were rounded, it would work through to the face. front angle-bar will have tVe same joint on both ei The joint at the back of the case on the end ang. -bar is cut as shown at Fig. 24. The joint at th bottom end of each upright angle-bar is simply a square shoulder cut to the depth of the rebate, leaving the core of the bar projecting to form a stump tenon. The bars are afterwards mitred with the moulding on both the front and the end, the projecting round of the moulding being cut away between the mitres in order to allow the shoulder to butt on the first square member, which will be flush with the bottom. Fig. 24 contains isometrical projections showing the joints used to unite the back rail with the bac)-- upright angle-bar for for.r.ing the door openinp ; and also the end angle-bar. The position of the joint will be dearly understood by referring to B, Fig. 13. 2l8 MODERN CARPENTRY It w.n be well to follow the same system as in the last group of jomts, i. e., to prepare a piece of the required section of back rail, Fig. .x. which, when cut into two parts can be used for both the back rail and back angle- tt; ^^ T^. ?''"" '" '^^ ^'^*'°" °f the two being that the back ra.l rs rebated 1/16 inch less than the thickness of the doors instead of /« inch less as in the back upright bar. Fig. ... The reason for this is to a low the End. ' <8 €tngU ^ ^ bar f S J Fig. 25. round of the hook-joint on the back upright bar to project t. It also allows a contmuous hollow on the edges of the doors, which would not be the case if the rebates were kept flush with each other. The end angle-bar is dovetailed into the back rail and ^ also mjtred both at the extreme end and at the reba"e F.g. 25 shows the plan of this joint. It will be observed CASE MAKING 219 that the joint has been left open to show the bevel from the shoulder line to the dovetail on the back rail, as at A, Fig. 31. The back rail is also dovetailed to receive the upright bar. If the reader will look at Fig. 24 and imagine the upright placed into position on the back rail, he will no- tice that D D meet and form the remaining part of the End a/igle. bar _ ..,^-A « I » f < • Fig. 26. mitre, leaving a shoulder and mitre to join the end angle- bar when in position. The exact position of the latter is seen in Fig. 26, the dotted lines showing the position of the dovetail on the back rail. We will now proceed to set out the work. Commencing with the end angle bar, square oflf a line for the extreme end of the mitre at B, Fig. 25, and measure back the width of the back rail (namely i>4 220 MODERN CARPENTRY inch) to C, which will be the sight line. From the sight hne set off 5/16 inch for the shoulder of the dovetail as at S, Figs. 24 and 25; then set off i^ inch from the sight-hne to the end of the dovetail. Set a gauge to the centre of the angle-bar for the shoulders, as at D F.gs. 25 and 26. The shoulder at D, Fig. 25, is cut under on the bevel as shown in the section through the jomt at A, and in the sketch of the end angle-bar Fig. 24, where the drawing is broken. It is necessary to bevel It m this way in order to obtain the requisite strength m the dovetail. The shoulder on the side. Fig. 26, IS cut square, as shown in the sketch. Mark the mitres, cutting from the sight-line to the shoulder line. The mitre on the extreme end is cut through as shown m Fig. 25. To set out the back rail as shown in Fig. 24. square a hne for the extreme end of the mitre, and from this hne measure back for the sight-line, namely, 9/16 inch the width of the angle-bar, as at E, Fig. 25. Square a line between the two lines obtained, at an equal distance from each for the shoulder D. From E measure 7/16 inch toward the end of the bar, and cut off square to within yi inch of the outside edge; this is clearly shown in Fig. 24. To mark the dovetail of the end angle-bar, make a thin hardwood or zinc pattern to fit the dovetail on the angle-bar and apply it to the rebate of the back rail cutting the dovetail out very carefully to within 14 inch of the outside edge. On the top side of the rail mark the external mitre from the extreme point to the shoul- der-line, and cut as shown in Figs. 24 and 25. Before the mitre can be completed, the bevel must be cut along the shoulder-line and edge of dovetail, and must work CASF MAKING 221 out against the mitre. The internal mitre is cut from the sight-Hne. There now only remains the cutting of the dovetail to receive the upright bar. Referring to Fig. 24, it will be seen that it is necessary to obtain the shoulder-line only, which is accomplished by measuring from the ex- treme point of the mitre, D, Fig. 24, }i inch, the thick- ness of the upright bar. The position of the dovetail- joint between the back rail and the back upright bar is shown by the dotted line in I'ig. 26. Exact lines for setting out the back upright bar, Fig, 26, are found as follows: .Square the shoulder-line D and set off for the back shoulder '4 inch as shown by the dotted line G. The back shoulder is then cut off to within /» inch of the face, as in the sketch, Fig. 24. Make a pattern to fit the dovetail on tlie back rail, and apply it to the back of the bar. Mitre the /t inch pro- jection on the outside edge, and also mitre the inside as shown. It is absolutely necessary that the whole of this work should be executed very carefully and very neatly. When the above mentioned joints have been fitted, make the bars to the required length. To set out the bottom end of the back upright bar, cut the face shoulder square and mitre with the moulding as previously described for the front angle-bar. Allow the back-shoulder to be ^4 inch longer, so as to fit the rebate for the doors, the tenon being in the po- sition shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 17. After all the joints have been made, round the angle- bars and the back rail. The external angles of all upriglit angle-bars must have the rounding turned out about 1/2 inch above the bottom shoulder, leaving the , *;. 222 MODKRN CARPENTRY bottom part of the bar square to follow the line of the ZeZff. ^"""^ "" "°" '^ «'"^^ ^"^''^■^her ^ The double-rebatcd upright bar between the doors, as at II Fig. 19, ,s cut to give Ixith the top and bottom rebate, a s.uall dovetail being cut at f.,th ends T t e positions shown by the d.-..| hues. Tlie front edge of he ar ,s s ightly rounded to break the joint betwe he doors Lrom the inside of the bar a ninner of the ame thickness as the bar is screwed to the bottom o^ the case to keep the trays in position. Doors There is nothing special to note in framine together. The panel is prepared flush on the inside Carefully fit the doors to the opening and work the hook-joint on the top edge and both ends. Tit remembered that the hook-joint must be worked through on each end; and also that it is deeper than the hook- it' o " .1 !7 ""• '" "°^^'"^' ^he small hollow to fit over the hllct on the bottom edge, work the plane from the back side of the door. Hinge the doors on the bottom edge, fixing the butts against the outside edge of the half-round filtt. V'hen fixed thus the airtight joint will remain intact. T»^e doors are fastened by a spring catcii or lock let into the top rail.. ' Ilet can be marked by lining down the back of the doors round the frame. The fillets should be fixed i/,2 of an inch inside the lines to allow for clearing. ./T' v"^ "''''' '''*'''^" °^ '^^ ^'^y '^ shown in Fig T». I ne bottom is prepared for three pieces of U-inch pine. The grain of the centre piece runs from back to CASE MAKING 2ii front of the case, the grain of the side pieces beinj; at right angles to it, ami the three pieces are tongueil and grooved together as shown. Glue the pieces together, and, when set, mitre the bead round the bottom. Another method of ensuring the l)<)tt()in against warp- ing is to have the bottom in three thicknesses, the grain of the centre lying across the two outside pieces, and the pieces being glued together. The inside of the tray and over the bead are covered with velvet or some other material, which must be glue< inch below the top edge. The clamp is prepared with a hook-joint as shown by the dotted lines. The width of the clamp is the width of the back rail less the rebate for the glass. CASE MAKING 2^7 Fig. 32 shows in isometrical projection the joint at the junction of the back rail with the soHd end. Imagine _ 7 Back Aa.vL i V z' Fig. 31. that A A are brought together. It will then be seen that they slide into position and present the appearance ^28 MODERN CARPfiNtRY shown in the plan in Fig 31, and give the extra lines for setting work. The solid ends are y^ inch thick, finished size. They must be left wide enough to screw to the bottom frame of the case. Fix the moulding round the bottom and mitre it at each inside round of the ends, as before described for upright angle-bars, turning the rpund on Fig. 33. the outside of each end out 3^ inch above the moulding. The moulding mitred round the ends of the case must be reduced by the thickness of the quarter-round mem- ber which forms the rebate for glass at the front of the case. These cases are often fitted with several trays, the bearers to carry them being screwed to the ends. . SOME FORMS OF PANELS. We conclude this Volume by giving some illustrations of panels. In Fig. i we give a "flush" panel for a front or entrance door, in which in front elevation a, b, are the two rails, d d, e e, the stiles, c c, g g, the panel with Fig. 1. stuck-on mouldings all round and mitring at corners; g h is a 'vertical section in line 3 4. In this the recess between the stile and panel is one side only. Where there are recesses on both sides of the panel b b, Fig. 2, and the stiles a a, the panel is known as a "square" panel. In this figure the lower diagram is front ele- vation ; that on the left is a section on line 3 4. In Fig. 3 we illustrate difterent forms of panels. In the upper diagram, a a, the stiles carry one "square panel," 229 . ■m AyV-.'k' 230 MODERN CARPENTRY .1 Fig. 2. WW:'' :,>^ Fig. 3. PANELS 231 whicli is not flat, as in Fig. 2, on the inner side, but tapers to the centre, which is thickest, to the sides, Fig. 4. w where it may be either square, as at the right hand, or finished with a moulding, as on the left. Resuming our description of the drawing named, the second diagram shows a "flush panel," with stiles d d, Fig. 5. tlie panel having a raised position in the centre, as shown at a b, with flat spaces as at c c, ail round. The ) I !•■ I . a33 MODERN CARPENTRY lower diagram to the riglit is an enlarged view in scc- t.on and elevation of the part of the panel of upper diagram to the right. Tiie lower diagram to the left IS an enlarged view of the left hand side of the panel wh.ch IS technically called a "raised panel." Figs 12 and 13 are other views of raised panels, and diagram Fig. & ill B in next figure shows a form of panel in the Gothic. Other forms are illustrated in Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11. m Fig. 3 the flat part of the panel surroundin- the raised central part is called the "margin." (^ce also •WnlH^'' ^-^ The panel, as in Fig. . 3, is ;alled a moulded raised panel" when there is a moulding at PANELS 233 the margin, as f e h. There are other distinctions in panel work, yet to be noticed. In "flush panels,'' as in Fig. I, the "moulding" or "bead" is worked only on the two sides (vertical) of the panel, as at d d, Fig. 5, and these terminate at the rails, as at f f, no moulding being at the ends of the panel. This is called "bead butt" panel. When the panel has mouldings all round, Fig. 7. that is at top and bottom as well as at the sides, the mouldings meet at the corners and are mitred, as shown in the lower part of the diagram in Fig. 6, this is known as a "bead flush panel." In panel work where a moulding is worked out of the solid, ?s at b in Fig. 4, or at a a in Fig. 5 of the style, as c c or b b, the term "stuck on" (a corruption of "struck on," which 234 MODERN CARrEXTRY IS the true term) is api.Iic T ' ' • : ' ' >ig '■ ' ' Fig. 18. braced and battened" door, in Fig. 18, here as in ele- vation in diagre n A, we have an outer frame vertical 244 MODERN CARPENTRY pieces held together and secured by the cross-bars b, c, d the ends of these being tenoned into the stiles a a. The central spaces are filled with braces e e, and the vert,cal boards f f. Diagram B is vertical section on hne 2 and C is side view showing ends of tenons of cross bars b. c, d; D is plan of top edge, looking down; ii is cross or horizontal section on line 3 4 in A. PA>^ELLED DOORS— NAMES AND OFFICES OF DIFFERENT PARTS— STILES— RAILS- MORTISES. The transition from this form of door to the highest class, the "panelled door," is easy. and natural. We have Fig. 19. seen in the simplest timbers, which is the element of the 'truss," and which gives the strongest form attainable. 245 :] t] 1 I J 246 MODERN CARPENTRY In this view the panelled door, as in elevation in A Fig. 19, IS not so strong as the form in Fig. 18 fiom the absence of the diagonal braces, as e e, but those if required in a door such as an external one, where strength is an object can be dispensed with in interior doors, which are always panelled in good houses. Elegance or neatness of arrangement, with such or- namentation as mouldings, etc., can give, are what are looked for. In Fig. 19, the external framework enclos- ing the panels is made up of two side vertical boards, a a, b b varying in thickness from ij^ to 21^ inches' and in very superior work even 3 inches. These boards are called "stiles"; that by which door is hung to the casing, secured by hinges is called the "hanging stile," as a a ; thai to which the lock is secured the "lock stile" ^'„^ u .7!'^'^ '^''^' ^'^ ^'^^^ together by cross-bars called rails of which c is the "bottom rail," d the "top rail" and e the "middle or lock rail." The central ver- tical bars, as f f are called "muntins" (a corruption of mouldings). The assemblage of boards thus arranged leaves spaces as g, h. i, j, these are filled with panels as a, b, c and d, in Fig. 20, which is the elevation of a /o«r-panelled door. There are also six-panelled doors Generally the panels are nearly equal in length but in some the lower panels are short, the upper being longer Figs. 2 and 4 illustrate outside doors in Continental style The panels are secured to the framing by grooves,' as shown in preceding figures and as further hereafter illustrated, and are ornamented with mouldings as ex- plained. In Fig. 19 diagram C is the vertical' section edge view of style b b. In Fig. 20 B is plan of top edge of door. The rails arc secured to the styles by ten- ons, sometimes single, but more frequently in'good work CONSTRUCTION OF DOORS 247 by double tenons, as in Fig. 21, in which is front elevation of rail, a a, b c two tenons. Diagram B is part of stile a cut vertically in two to show the seats of the mortises b and c, diagram C and view of rail. In left-hand dia- ' c , [_£j 3 Fig. 20. gram in Fig. 12 is elevation of part of "lock stile," a a and "lock rail," b of a bedroom door, with simple lock, c, known as a "rim lock." In diagram B, part of the "hanging stile," a a, of this door is given in elevation, b 248 MODERN CARPENTRY part of top rail," a portion of upper "hinge" is shown at c. Dmgram C is edge view. The inne- edges of stdes, rails and mortises are generally, in good work, stop chamfered ' as at d d. or beveled off from end to shown The "top chamfer," d d. is the neatest, stopping, as .t does, short of the end. A rim lock is screwed onto the outs.de of the lock stile; what is* called a mort.se lock .s employed in superior doors, where the lock IS concealed, nothing but the handle and keyhole be.ng v.s.ble, the lock being inserted in a mortise or vacant part cut out in the stile to receive it. Fig 20 contrasts the two locks, c d is the rim lock. In the mort. --1, nothing but the handle at g is seen, and the escutcheon h, i is the bolt of the lock, a a, b b. a' a'. D D , are the chamfered stiles and rails. DOOR CASINGS. Doors are secured to "casings." These are of tim ber, and built into the walls, and are secured to wood, bricks or grounds. Fig. 23 illustrates in part elevation an outer "door casing." The sides b b, c c, are called "jambs," £ £, the "head," into which the jambs are ten- oned, the feet being also tenoned, at d, into the -upper part of stone step a a. Fig. 22 is sectional plan show- ing arrangement and relative positions of various parts of a door and its casings. Th^ door, 1 1, is hinged to the "jamb" b, this being secured to the "ground" or "wood brick" a a, bulit into the wall b b, c and j are the "architraves." The opposite "jamb," f f, is rebated as at m to allow of a space into which the "door lock stile" falls, as shown by the dotted lines, which repre* sent the lines of the door. The outer edge of the jamb may be left plain, but is often finished off with a "quirked head," as at j ; k, k, the hinge. The inner and outer architraves are at c and j ; a a, the wood brick ; b b, the wall; e, i, are the elevations of the architraves, d and h. The elevations of these two parts of sectional plan of door fittings are given in the under part of the drawing in Fig. 23. The edge of the door a, as looking at it from the inner side, is shown at p p, q q, being the ends of tenons of top rail, r r, the hinge, n n, from a view of architrave, o o the wall in the void of which the door is hung. In the under drawing to the right, part of front surface of door is shown, s s, the architrave, t t the wall. 249 i ¥ m 250 MODERN CARPENTRY Fig. 22. I'ls. 23. JOINTS OF STILES AND RAILS IN PANELLED DOORS. Figs. 24 and 25 give illustrations of methods of join- ing rails and stiles, or rails and mortises. Let abed, Fig. 24, be the stile, with moulding stuck on edge ; f g h is part of the rail, with tenon f, shown by dotted lines II Fig. 24. in stile abed. Fr ".t view of tcnun arc face of mitre of chamfer at p, looking at a b c d in the direction of arrow 1, is shown in the lower diagram at k', p' and e". The section of part f g lookitig at its end, in direction of arrow 2, is shown at 1 m n; the section of a moulding 251 v.i 252 MODERN t ARPENTRY i* in this at e'. In I wer (huKram to the right is given a view of under sice of rail f g. I„ Fig. 25, a a. is Fig. 2r> hont vi:-.v of pan .,f stiie w h aiding worked on edge, at b b; part oi rail i. at c ' d. The angular STILES AND RAILS 353 face ot part cut out in stilc c f. fg corresponds with angular end h i j jf rail, but a tenon i 1 k is left on, or is inserted in end of piece c' c' d. The end view of the stile a a. looking at it in the Jirectioji opposite to that Fig. 2«. of the arrc V 3, is hown in tiic : !dle diagram to the right with cofrcs; '""R letters a' • nted, showing^ cor- rcsponc. ijT^ parts, 'l ,w line i" i" tirresponds to tae line at point in r; 1 c' c' d '' The plan of under side «>f rail c' c' d is sh(i n in dia an immediately bel k', ' be- ing edge view .f enoi 1. The finished joint i'i shown at o o, p 1 : t (liatjra a below to the left 1 <'ing cross Fig. 27 5ecf:^n *)ie line I 2. Eiilar-,t.il elevation q, and sec- tion '. kling b 1). or b", is given at the two i."i- gra the right at bottom of drawing. Another metho-! forming the junction is shown in the middle diagram a the not of Im-T. 25. the shaded part sli. wing form i'i tenon with the ends of uoulding united. I i i r I 1 1 A FOUR-PANELLED DOOR. In Fg. 28 I give a drawing— to a scale of >i, or i^ inch to the foot-of a four-panelled interior or room Fig. 28. door, showing all the leading parts of the framework, wit!, the exception of top rail, which is usually about half the breadth or depth of the middle of lock rail, marked b b in the drawing. The panels are not shown,' 254 STILES AND RAILS 255 but the dimensions of the spaces they occupy are given. The panels are plan "square," the only ornamentation in this example being a "stop chamfer" worked on the mar- gin of stiles, and rails, as shown at g g and h h. In the drawing a a is the "bottom rail," b b the middle, or usu- ally "lock rail," as it carries the "mortise lock,' the handle of which is shown at j. The "key hole" is covered by a movable part, hung or jointed at upper end, called the "escutcheon," or more frequently in tech- nical talk, the "scutcheon," or "skutcheon," shown at k. The stiles are at c c, e e— the stiles c c, termed the "lock stile," being that in which the lock is mortised. The stile e e is called the "hanging stile," being that on which the door is "hinged" or "hung" to the door casing. The vertical pieces, or "muntins," which divide the pan- els from each other, placing them in pairs on each side of the door, are shown at d d. The door framing thus constructed is surrounded on both sides and at top by the architraves f f f. ARCHITRAVES OF A FOUR-PANELLED DOOR. The section of architrave in relation to the door cas- ing or check IS in upper diagram to the left in Fig 29 a a being part of the door casing, b b the section of architrave, of which part elevation is shown at c c, i 2, 3. and 4 showing similar parts in section correspond- ingly lettered. The edge view of the "lock stile" as a a f in the figiire preceding, is shown at d d ; e e shows the brass plate let into the edge and secured by screw nails as shown. This is part of the lock furniture of the door f indicating position and section of the shooting or lock- ing bolt of the lock, which passes into tfie aperture of a brass plate secured to the inner side or edge of the door casing. The bolt, which secures the door, being closed -not locked-f being the locking bolt, is shown at g this being worked by the handle j of the lock. The part of the lock furniture attached to the door casing oppo- sue to the edge, as d d d. of the door stile, is shown in the lower diagram to the right. The part 3 3 in this corresponds to the face of the recessed or rebated part p in drawing above, cut in the face of the door casing n n n the door passing into and resting against the face of re- cess or rebate p. In the upper diagram to the right o o o IS the outer architrave secured to the door casing n n n, r part of the inner architrave. The part of the lock furniture secured to the door casing is shown at t t; It IS a brass plate let into the face g, or 3 3 of recess or rebate p. The aperture in this into which the bolt f of t.tc lock passes is shown at p; that into which the bolt 256 . ARCHITRAVE OF DOOR ^57 MMBtfHHi 258 MODERN CARrENTRY moved by the hand passes is at u, a spring w, cast onto the plate t t, being shown at w. A small projecting part \^^m \ 'Jifm. :-=^— Fig. 30. as w', to make the opening and closing of the door more easy. The two diagrams to the left at lower part of Fig. 31. drawing show the ekvaiioii k 1 m, the chamfered part of framing with section at k' k'. Some examples of ornamental woofi- WORK. The following examples are iptroduced in order to PLATE 1. give the workman an idea of the shape and construc- tion of low-cost ornamental wood-work. The figures 259 iuu^uBUfaii^SMBri ■HOHliHHHil 26o MODERN CARPENTRY "(?^^^^^^V:^ t^S^ "-■--:.•-.•- --TT;--! **^Ft'V«^^^ naiiiac MItU MKtt 9ijr »9T9Mt iriH/94) PLATE 2. shown from No. i to No. 12. inclusive, exhibit a num- ber of large boards, chiefly in Gothic style. Plate No. 2 is a style which was in vogue very much a few years ago ARCHITRAVE OF DOOR 261 and was generally known among carpenters as Ginger- Bread work. It is well adapted for sea-side, cottages or summer residences ; it consists mostly of cutwork. Nos. 2, 5, 8 and 9 are well adapted for ordinary cottage No, 14. work. Nos. 13, 16 and 21 are well suited for balus- trades, No. 16 being especially adapted for heavy balus- No. 15. trades on verandas or over bay windows. Nos. 14, 15 and 17 require no explanation, as they may be adapted a6ii MODERN CARPENTRY o ARCHITRAVE OF DOOR ;263 to a thousand different purposes. Nos. l8 and ly make very handsome drops for verandas and other similar No. 17. work. No. 29 shows a single drop with the grain of the wood running vertically. A number of these placed No. 18. together edge to edge make l very nice trimming for verandas. No. 22 shows a cut bracket which will often »i No. 19. I be found useful. No. 23 shows an elaborate railing suitable for a veranda or balcony. No. 24 exhibits a ■HHiaiii a64 MODERN carpentry; No, 31. No. 23. ARCHITRAVE OF DOOR 265 No. 28. No. 24. No.!:: KdMaaiMiaiB ^ MODERN CARPENTRY perforated panel st.itahle for many places. No 26 forated or the ornaments may Ik- planted on, accuX,, to exifrenoes. See Plates. The balance of tl/e exan t shown speak for themselves. They o/Ter a nnmbe l^ cellent sn.r^est,ons to the proj,re>sive workman, Tbese examples u.ll doubtless prove of great vah,c to the work- QUESTIONS ON MODERN CARPENTr.% VOL I. The indent ill ix- expected to reail carefully these papers before dcing any work. Hi-^ name and address w '! r>.< ' e to "dc >;iven on each page. 'It will be ex- p(, ted 10 vrite up the questions in a nt at and intelligent niai icr, using his owu language and style, representing the inswer*; in such a manner as will l>c intelligible. Make all drawings as clear as possible, and whenever it can bo doni render them in India ink. Let each answer be orij^inal, do not copy either from the instruction pa- per noi from any other source. The p^per u.sed may 1m« of any kind, provided that it is c' .r durable. Do not attempt an answer until you have .i oroughly grasped the subject. QUESTIONS. 1. Give definition of a "circle." 2. W hat term is given to a line that is drawn through center to circumf( rence of a circle? 3. What term is given to a line drawn from center to circumference of a circle? 4. What term is given to a line (less than the diam- eter) thiU cuts the circumference of a circle at two points ? 5. Give definition of a "tangent." 6. -Give definition of a ".segment of a circle." 7. Give sketch of a circle showing the "diameter," "radius," "chord," "segment" and "tangent." 267 268 MODERN CARPENTRY 8. Give sketch and describe how to find the center of a circle. 9. Into how many equal parts is the measurement of the circumference of a circle divided? 10. Give the three terms used in measurement of the circumference of a circle, and show how they are written. 11. What is a quadrant of a circle ? 12. How many degrees are in a quadrant of a circle? 13. How many degrees are in a semi-circle? 14. What term is given to the angle of a circle that is half of a right angle? 15. Give sketch and describe how three right angles may be formed within a semi-circle. 16. Give sketch and describe how a hexagon may be formed within a circle. 17. Give sketch of a hexagon showing how an equi- lateral triangle may be formed. 18. Give sketch and describe how a right angle or quadrant may be bisected. 19. Give sketch and describe how to get a straight line that shall equal the circumference of a circle or part of a circle or quadrant. 20. Give sketch and show how quadrant may be di- vided into any number of equal parts, say thirteen. 21. Give sketch and show how equilateral triangle may be employed in forming the trefoil. 22. Give sketch and describe method of finding the "stretch out" or length of circumference of a circle. 23. Give rule by arithmetic of how to finu the cir- cumference of a circle. 24. Give sketch and describe how a curve having QUESTIONS 269 any reasonable radius, n :ay be obtained, if but three points in the circumference are available. 25. Give a practical illustration of how to find a place to locate a center, where the diameter is great. 26. What is a "polygon?" 27 Give the names applied to polygons havmg three sides, four sides, five sides, six sides, seven sides, eight sides, nine sides, ten si.le, eleven sides, and twelve sides respectively. 28. Give the two names under which polygons are classified. 29. Give sketch showing how a trigon may be con- structed and how the miter joint may be obtained. 30. Give sketch and describe how a square may be formed. 31. Give sketch and describe how to construct a pentagon. 32. Give skach and describe how a hexagon may be fonned. 33. Give sketch and describe how a heptagon may be formed. 34. Give sketch and describe how an octagon may be formed. 35. Show practically how all regular octagons may be constructed. 36. Give a practical illustration of how a perpendicu- lar line may be made on any given straight line. 37. Give a practical illustration of how to bisect an angle bv the aid of the steel square alone. 38. Give a practical illustration of how to bisect an acute angle by same method— steel square. 39. Show practically how to get a correct miter cut, or angle of 45° on a board. 270 MODERN CARPENTRY 40. Show how to construct a ^i^ure showing an angje^of 30" on one side, and on the other an angle Show how the diameter of a circle may be ob- 41. tained through the aid of the steel square. 42. Show how an equilateral triangle may be ob- tamed through use of the steel square. 43- Show how to describe an octagon I; using the steel square. & ^ 44. Show how a near approximation of the circum- ference of a circle may be obtained bv use of the ^teel square and a straight line. 45- Give illustration how a board mav be divided into any g,ven number of equal parts by aid of steel square or pocket rule. 4 « ^ 46. Give the definition of an "ellipse." 47- Give an illustration of one of the simplest meth- ods of describing an ellipse. 48. Give an illustration of projecting an ellipse by usmg a trammel. f "> 49- Give illustration of describing an ellipse by the mterscction of lines. ^ 50. Give illustration of describing an ellipse by the mtersection of arcs. ^ 51. Show how radial lines may be obtained for arches and elliptical work. 52. Give an illustration how to describe a diamond or lozenge-shaped figure. 53- Give illustration how to describe a spiral or scroll by a simple method. 54- Give illustration of how a spiral may be described in a scientific manner, and which can be formed to di- mension. QUESTIONS 271 55. Give illustration of the method of obtaining a spiral by arcs of circles. , , , , . , ..^^^ 56. Give illustration and method of formmg a par- *^57^' Give illustration and method of forming an "hy- ^^58?^^Give the names of the diflferent kinds of arches in buildings. . CO Mention the names given to pomted arches. 6o' What is the name given to the stones formmg an arch? 61. What is the name given to the centre stone m Jin 3.rc ri • 62 Give the names applied to the various divisions of an arch, namely, the highest point, the lowest point, and the spaces between respectively. 63. What is the name given to the under or concave surface of an arch ? 64. What is the name given to the upper or convex surface of an arch? 65. What are the names given to the supports of an arch' (/y Show by illustration and describe how to obtain the curves and radiating lines of a semi-circular arch. 67 Show by illustration and describe how to obtain the curves and radiating lines of a segment arch. 68 Show by illustration and describe two examples of Moorish or Saracenic arches, one of which is pomted. 60 What is a "flatband" ? . 70 Give illustration and describe how to obtain the curves and radiating lines of the elliptic arch. 71 Give illustration and describe how the centers and curves of an equilateral arch may be obtained. 272 MODERN CARPENTRY 72. Give illustration and describe how the centers and curves of a lancet arch may be obtained. 7Z. Give illustration at.! describe how the center and curves of a low or drop arch may be obtained. 74- Give illustration and describe how the centers and curves of a Gothic arch with a still less height, may be obtamed. 75- Give illustration and describe another four-cen- tered arch of less height. 76. Give illustration and describe how to obtain an equilateral Ogee arch. ^ 77- Give illustration and describe method of obtain- ing the Imes for an Ogee arch, having a height equal to naif the span. 78. Give some instances in carpenter work where half of the Ogee curve is employed. 79- Give a description of the steel square and its several divisions. 80 Give a practical illustration of how a board or scantlmg may be measured by use of steel square 81. Give rule how to find hyjjothenuse of a rieht- angled triangle. ^ 82 Give an illustration of how length of braces may be obtamed by use of the square. 83. Describe the use of the "octagonal scale" on the tongue of the square. 84. Show method how the pitch of a roof may be ob- tamed by use of the square. 85. Show method to obtain bevels and lengths of hip rafters by use of the square. 86. Show method for finding the length and cuts for cross-bndgmg. QUESTIONS 273 90. 91. 92. 93- 94. 87. Show method for obtaining the "cuts" for octa- gon and hexagon joints. 88. Show by illustration the method of defining the pitches of roofs, and giving the figures on the square for laying ou* I'le rafters for such pitches. 89. Give a short description of what is known as bal- loon framing, and how the different parts are con- structed. Give illustration and describe a "hip-roof." Give illustration and describe a "lean-to-roof.'' Give illustration and describe a "saddle-roof." ^ Give illustration and describe a "mansard roof." Give illustration and describe a simple hip-roof having a ridge. 95. Give illustration and describe an "octagon roof." 96. Give illustration and describe manner of con- struction of a "dome roof." 97. Give illustration and rules for construction of an octagonal spire. 98. Give a few illustrations of scarfing timbers. 99. Show a few examples of strengthening and trus- sing joints, girders and timbers. 100. Explain what is meant by the term "kerfing." 101. Give illustration showing how to determine the number and distances apart of saw kerfs re(iuired to bend a board round a corner. 102. Give illustration of how to make a "kerf" for bending round an ellipse. 103. Describe how to bend thick stuff around work that is on a rake. 104. Give illustration and describe how to lay out a hip rafter for a veranda having a curved roof. 105. Give illustration and describe how to obtain 274 MODERN CARPENTRY the curve of a hip rafter, when the common rafters hav an ogee or concave and convex shape. io6. Give illustration and describe how raking mould- ings are used to work in level mouldings 107. Describe- the kind of mouldings called "spring mouldmgs. *- t. 108. Give illustrati<.ns showing plan and elevation of cluster column of wood for 4 colu.nns and describe how constructed. 109. Give illustration of a hopper and describe how to be constructed. no. Give illustration and describe how a conical tower roof may Ik- curved. in. Give illustration and describe how to cover a dome roof. 112. Give illustration and describe how the semi- circular soffit of a doorway may be made. 1 13. Describe, how a circle soffit may be laid off into panels. 114. Give illustration and describe method for ob- tammg correct shape of a veneer for a gothic-splayed wmdow or door head. spiajed "5- Give illustrations and describe two methods of dovetaihng hoppers, trays and other splaved work 116. Giv^ description of how an ordinarj- straight flight of stairs may be constructed. ^ U7 Give sketch showing part of a straight stair landing. ' '^"'"^ '''°'''"^ '''" ^'^^ ^''''^'''' *"d 1 19- Give sketch and describe a stair with brackets 120. Give sketch showing stair with two newels aiid balusters, also paneled string and spandrel QUESTIONS 275 121. Give sketches of seven of the latest designs for doors. ^ , , r 122. Give five sketches showing methods of con- structing and finishing a window frame for weighted S3sll> 123. Give sketches showing the various parts of a bay window for a balloon frame. 124. Give illustration and describe six examples of shingling roofs. 125. Show by sketch how panels are formed. 126. Describe the various kinds of panels named. 127. Make sketch of a four-panel door. 128. How are air-tight cases made? Describe the method of making. 129. What is meant by the word "stile"? 130. What is a rail in a door? What is a muntin? 131 What is a chamfer? Describe one. 132*. Examine examples of sketches of ornamental wood-work, draw and describe a "baye-board." 133. Make a design of perforated insular panel. INDEX A Airtight wall ca.s«! 1^5 Anr Yg Cutting rakinsr mouldings in miter box 130 Cycloidal curves 57 Degrees j^ r)ividing lines yg Door, arehitr.ivo of 263 Architrave of a four pan<'led 256 Casings 249 Doors, batten and braced 242 C()nstru(!tion of 040 Description of j^g Four paneled 254 Joints of stiles and rails 251 Names of different parts 245 Paneled 045 Styles of Igg Dovetailing jr^g si'»j y^y/.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.m Common jgy I^apped .".".'.'.158 Splayed I59 INDEX 819 E Ellipses, spirals and other curves 41 £niptiual curves, description of 46 Excavations 184 F Flashings for valleys 177 Flexible radial <;iiide 49 Fraininj; eoi-ners, etc 91 Sills, etc 87 Trianfndar 109 a H Hopper cuts, liouxed 137 Hopper lilies, compound 143 Hoppers, butt cuts for 136 Corner blocks for 139 Corner blocks for obtuse 140 Miter cuts for 135 M iters for obtiuse 142 Miti'rs for square 141 Regular 134 J .lack rafters, lengths of 102 Joiner's work generally 167 E Kerfed stuff, bending 119 Kerfing for an ellipse 120 Kerfing on a rake 121 Kerfs, laying out 118 MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 2.8 3.2 Ui 116 140 2.5 1.8 1.6 u ^ yIPPLIED IM/1GE Inc ^^ 1653 East Mom Slreel rjS Rochester. Ne« York 14639 USA iga (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^= (716) 288 - 5989 - Fox 280 INDEX L I Laying out curved hips 123 Curved hips and jack rafters 125 Ogee hips and rafters 124 Raking mouldings for circular pediments 129 Loads, safe-bearing 192 Lumber, measurement table 182 Rule 71 M Masonry 185 Materials for roofs, weight of 189 Strength of 182 Miscellaneous illustrations 172 Mitering circular and straight mouldings 122 Circular mouldings 121 Curved mouldings in panels 122 Mortise and tennon in timber m Mouldings 67 N Nails and tacks, number per pound 193 Number of required in carpentry work 185 Octagon rule on steel square 76 Octagons 3q Ornamental woodwork 259 Ornamentation 18 Ovals 50 ,'^SI■2^^»>i'HP?■--. ".;.'J*»V.i3!! INDEX 281 P Panels, forms of 229 Parabola and its uses ^° Pitch-board and strings 160 Pitches, laying off 81 Polygons 22 Q Questions for students 267 B Rafter rule by steel square 76 Raking mouldings 126 Raking mouldings for pediments • -128 Reinforcing timber H^ Roof, core for conical 1^" Covering of a conical 149 Inclined domical 1^1 Roofs and roofing generally 96 Covering domical 150 Domical 1^^ Lines for hip 98 Octagon hip 99 Sisser 104 Trussed 1^3 S Setting rail and newel post 164 Shingles, table for estimating 184 Shingling 184 Different methods 1 ' ^ Hip rafters 1^5 t ill ri; ::'! : I, ''»n_'jaK^«-a»*^ •r'-^'^^^M^wmf^^'n ^2 INDEX Shingling— Continued . Illustrations of jyg Valleys 275 Siding, flooring and laths 134 Slates, number of, required per square yard 188 Slating 188 Snow and wind loads jgg Soffits, Gothic J55 Splayed I54 Solutions of problems with steel square 34 Spirals 52 Spires and spire frpiuingr 108 Steps bracketec' jg5 Method of forming 255 Stair building 15g Stairs, dog-legged 162 Open string 164 Various styles of iqq Winding I63 Steel square, description of 70 Straight line solutions 32 Strapping timber 112 Superficial or flat measure, table of 183 T Tangents H Timber scarfing HO Timber measure, round and equal-sided 183 Treads and risers, table of 163 Treads, risers and strings I6I Trimming stairs, chimneys, etc 89 Trussing and strengthening timber 114 Turned mouldings and carved newels 174 :m^^ m^: ma INDEX 283 w Weights and measure?, cubic or solid 191 Land measure 1"" Linear measure 1^1 Miscellaneous measures 191 Square measure 191 fjnited States measure 190 Window frames and sections 171 Wind pressure on roofs 193 F'5^ , td's^^i^an. ^im^'^^TS'S^TW^V^ ''l^^.'ji- Tv»^n-K^w^^&B^' • '::i^:^^Sss^!^\t'^<:'''^ii^je^Mi^ws^^s 6 c o o ■-t ^ o ■5 o O V l> Q. o w rt ■a c 8 t^ 10 «^ % ■H m-i 3 1 I^ j2 hm % o V ^ bO Ou E -^ o j2 o ^ T3 S o •4-* ^^ l/l ,3 o u. O r^? .k ■y ■••T4^4«lKB«-i.. ■.■it^!iFJ''"S!!-'^tfr2l lii 1 8l lO M *«» ♦rf b o J= **« O T> 2 c E 2 JJ 8 Js i 4> S3 O "* a f^ ^ u V T5 o « o o. o 1/1 n •T3 9 <« i/> vO a w n -^rf o. bo 1 e « S .S2 k. i V 15 « Cue c "5. 3 E Xi o o IE T3 -•— § "o 53 i/i ,3 o b. O c _ -^^^ n \.\ 1 ■ I' 5' ■^ e. iiLl . 4 ■ fQj^J 1 1 ^ C o s a ^a o o s n o. c h. f« o n •M o w 'vt in nl u. t) c o j: BI » 3 n O c o T) c c> (« c u '*- rt tj u 4) a O M «M r o «) ^^ > o a >, r v b a o. V 3 E S(S ."•-■.* f"." ■•;»^A'0; 'I^ j:."^A,- =:»',»' T s I 6 0) c O o ■S ■iJ o rt £ 5 •- o s — vi: st 3 - § ° 5^ CQ 'to «2 ^ cl'v} c u rt tj *" O e.r c ° U ? — w m <^ 1 i c C9 o 0- G ««^ a> o u 4> O (/) o o c bfi c s i s -a 1 B P Z r i ■ -. r S a «*■ o o ki « c m »t u. c b rt o o O. o o. j: r (d o 4> r! •a c > 3 VI O n «*■ o T) c c« nl <> _rt ?. 0) a o w *»-• pi u ^ c 1 8 ^ n ■!•* c • \ t % CO (3 1 o in -o 10 § § c CD O 0- **- o »f T aj o CL. 4) if) U a 0. c 'S u Q *« &o c s n 8 ^ in .i2 te- ■*-• k-i o JS *^" y T3 2 0) .c > n c "5 k. ^ >. «} rt ^ o o > 1/5 1 o i «*^ TJ w o O (D o Q. u Ul rt -a . c o rt o t/i rt •*-• Q. 3 c bo ja c « S w K^ i 0) 00 c "q. D e XI o M u 15 ■n •*-• c «^M CD o — c/l 3 o b. O [TPiilT n c o > o Ti o ■a a a B O c (4 D. o o u M c •I. " >- "S I ii CQ U s O 6 f. i c '-> bf o tA « © -) a >^ iiS 5 o -t CI vi w. bti 2 C 'y. •Q jf « u a .a u vmxi « ( o ■Ji -*' C( tt X -J — o s o 4 "S. (N o c 93 ST* c i o s ^ "-2 «** ^ (/I s c &I s biC 1 C J3 n i; tc -«-> ^ u ? a. i. s ^ ca a B 8 ■X ii a S » 1 o I M 1^ 9 ••• "1 « 1> <4>4 ♦; so u L "-3 6. s c „ ^ s i e S t g ft. !» Ill s-'g - 5 I /Tn i .s • 5 a .=f 3 o =1 "^ i = i D 2 •3 » n s s ^^•iWv ri O e ■A n § a s * « ■— « « s .- 8 a. is fe.-r »- " 8 (»«-.i i - i ^ l| 1 23 3 CO ^ z I be « Q a o -M o d I ui in •3 H I" 53 O O 1) s a « a a M - (4-1 Si d 2 oj ©* c s be U o S 5 t; _* 5 5 S *1 I u 4-1 CI u ■* 1) S i4 o u u Si ^ y. o 9J O O ' II .'V ti 1^ I > o CO ^ cd o a c pa •A o M Q S II o V5 O § o eo d D u u u X- M US ^ s5 ja s: - y ^ 5 3 ■3 i-t "•1 Tt ^ ^ fV IL 1 O ■ Biii 1 rii l^ 5 1*' o o ft: < < 1 »^^;i^^?f**^ ^W:^^ ?^. a- 5 o Ou c/) c o c c V ce M a o 4-* u c e C O o 1" ' jl m Ml 4) ^ C y 'L u 6 < V c O O UJ N <^l O (N C3 J- £ T) 04 > 1^ Q M ot *^ «> V •S ■B •o s e o c rf a (« o o o h rt M O. c B o •^ m •n *^ c () -» a; o Q. «^ r «) *^ r ? o s. >, Q. ■5. -I e QQ u ii I* -i L "••i^?- u Rfs N (0 Jf £ 2 S" >J3 >» o E o Qh 1 O o V » •o -ss •o s .f_> B O n rt c o. f^ o a o k *i tfl n o. 1) tit o a> o c j: n » OJ M a. C r* o .2 n o 3 8- «M n O o V\ c ? o a Ss c o L. t) o. o. u 1 B s i3 m m 8 I/: *i •^ 3 %m ^ a .i2 ■a ^ ^ v •*4 -s e 5 3 «4^ » V c U3 *•* > ■? ■^ o U _o i 5 to o 5 M Is c o -3 CO b a o o o «»• o ca rt u Mm 8 CN CO ^ •H o cd CO 8 a. ^^ bo w a G S o »* k. o ««^ tt w «> 4> _« 3 Q. o E x: 8 *> s •s <«rf 1 s V s in 1 lans a ons »^ W- CL 5 ~ f1 rice peci - w e C e c4 u O O I i 1 i I 1 S <^ '5. ri 2 "S S " 1! £ 3 is o II O. ex « E S (3 I I I ' Ml c n I § || LO C o e u H o e o o s o T3 C <4 C o I "S. is JS o •si 8 4^ ^^'' "•**?•- ♦ > « ~ ,\\t>:V',. ^^«w' Ji''^''*«K\ liwumff yili o " M = Ji c M ? j: CD c V X •^ » o 2 V) o Ol a 4) fl. c: VI «M r o o ■^ ? 8 to r, u 1- p. a -1 E o 'If r ffi u I m t i o ja o CM a O CA c O o 1 V a u - « <] s «> >£ «•■ It] N J^S 'f\ J= -c ^ 80 ^« f •a c ft c o c o o C t-i o o •5 ° "^ c m o « C s* 3 0 c S 1 2 M-* ^ i2 V V ♦^ _« 9 Q. g E OJ 8 •a i "o P3 tf/ C/3 JJ U c o > c c o CO U H (0 c O o N CO O O c art rt " c > — O C Bl rt o = o u a. O M c ? " >; C « T u S B -' o CQU t-ii o TTS ^«- 3 •T3 jO 1) V) j: — « lO •*-^ 1^ JS 3 o ««-i ^ 3 ^ 53 a ■^ ^ 4> 1/1 3 St O X JS •H M V Jc •S ■ ^ o o ♦^ g f o •T3 rt O o o *^- H u c/} r^ T3 C *<» (t o (0 B p _<5 o a. CkO c e ^ 2 o s^ ^ U} « ss V3 £ 6 mi^m c V c O o ll R '^'' CM Hj ^H. ^^B ' f ,. I^^^E n''' ^H, V ^B '^p .'; i*- o o as o c Z u g ^ .■§2 <— y I' i ^ •= K ■s-s S so o .S - 13 3 S :€ S J' " c «o "■ o (A o^ Is c ^ >- ? c •- 1/ ♦- 1) ~ re O tn CTTilK M 6 Z 2 O HM (/) U] Q U< O en < (^ o o (I. i V .■* a j: a . tf Wa c 4^ 5 7 c <: « a -1 U.' 0. N ka a! ^m S » -5 •T. *■» •o •o "C ^ > B h- ? •s C u &• o o ffl U) ^ en (A V u a s s o B Bl w o ^ e n «l k« •O (1 a B e - ft •|.S i 8 o .5 5 S X c-i c * I? If ^ £- 3 c -a c •-- c re b« u iT^ Id 1^ § e I M 6 2 O H4 en (I) Q O < .J 0. 8 1 ■ • I It » » «M « « ^ i *^ 1^ , « tn a; u u ^ u «-• k; C o & «M m V C > JS • 1 "H. 51 ** X 1 S z *^ 13 e < 11 C V •-) W Ji S 0. N N u a OS o § o >-, H^ bo • • 4-t b. B a Wrf V JS hJ c ^ «•' (A a u « 0) V TT 'i? c V 5 s o 5 ^ u 4-I La u 3 O M^ >, "o 4-1 cn «-• tf] u> (/} 'ifl 'tn u c c u q o u u w e s 01 M« o 9 s « ai u 3 on « _ C Q, 4-* u 8 I 1 a> o o P An *s 0< w 'C i I o (A g^ 72 ^ to o. c bo O c t: q ° — .2 C "O u* ^ re ^ 3 " •- S • W «- "c c/: «J S " m II II r^} T^ eg , , ™ .2 O I * eo 14 I w 1 I •a ^=" C J3 = .2 ■a j3 — u s 3 >. "^ •c .ti d a> "ifl 2: IE J ?: o u o uS .a *rf V5 VI e o o i-H '^ bo rt a U H^M 1 :i:S r" ^■■N^^a^ 1 1 \ o - Z* ' s «i2.2 , * y I...I ^ 1? •2 ■« 2 in -w n QUO ^™ 1 ■ U u en ,» o c \ p o. 1 OT ■— C I > \ r r o ■ ■s •- •= Lii \ b 1 tt." 1 L 1 £3 4> -^ ^ C U 1) ^'u 3 rt « n~ S gCfl i 1 i! W o SB g £ .2 ^ .y = a >; .2 u S5 «- o 2 ° w in fc£ u c c 0-2:5 D S <-> c <» re 3 c - E -^ T) - SO ^»^^-«vl IPI ^ « Im «2 ii "O 3 u ja «-a c «< u •" 3 ^ >-" U f-i ~ a > - r >> 1) z/ (D ■-• »-« 6 W) "^ y, ^5 z •32 o 7. o.S u Q <« 4) "" w V V 01 -r 3 2" S-a O 0) J:!^ •a — e — fl = •— i «-• -^ en a o (hU i»i :,*C*r:i,^™s« FLOOR PLAN ^ > • • S •• • J ^ 1 1 u «rf k. H. -,, « V a > 5 »: 3 ^ 4> *4 c k 4^ 1 Q. d 1 «< u I U t *« 1 w S 8 4^ w^ *ha Noo « » ^ •* .. V 1 '^■^' c a JJ >. ■ 4^ *^ 1 be a. f g a «*4 o '^ -4 m 1) fli >]£ w T3 (« u f! a 11 3 a u Of S"* ••• ») •a j: c 'S «-» n *rf _2 3 V «rf u u »*« ■o o **4 u «i* o (A .2 o tn «<« O c Ci u o u t s tn m o ^j !£ •-^ a (A «i* (A <« •c 4> u a. k^ « V B '0 _3 . m ■ M CO Ill v;i If'; w c V •9 r _0 u 8 It .. ja o ■" O tiO o ^ S o o o •I s ^ « V ■■" <-• V l-o B ^ ^ -s n o 3 O 38 en < o o o o u o u C u *«-l 5! % O > Si V3 'Ji hfi 3 •a C ^ X (A -in O VC u « n U 3 O .. > •a « e . O u i £ K 3 at ^J z i; 3 § o ►- Ifl c 41 . 00 o £ ©9 o d z o cin U Q u D O K I 3 .t 3 C c u u: be c •5 o u u 3 B m c a- be* .E a IS 5 c 3 O .13 _«; "E. i u •a *- c **- CO O 4? iixiit*!: 8 o (0 CO s (fl en ^ S ii " ■^ I. sc ?s ^ rt O c c m i« ;; '5 rt c o u a a o e o u — « D.— « 1) ^ "" B ^!i o o o W i u '3 u 8 a 1) « 3 > 8 I .. « s 11 l« a c >. e w^ w W (« w H. •a — Ui c ™ 5 s £ 1 U 1^ n 1* ««* *^ c 2 ij ■^1 u u re 0; 4-1 4J V) O (A (A c e c — z 8 ™ *J < TJ C .^ C *-t a « -s at 8 a si _3 U V 1> Q, PQ (fl r i<:^ MICIiOCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I |<5 |50 |2.8 1^ Li. Hi Hi 1^ ■ 3.2 1^ llll-M III 1-8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ APPLIED IIVMGE Inc ^; 1 65 J East Mam SI'mI r-SS Rochester. New York U609 USA ^= (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone SS (716) 288 - 5989 - Fa« w^ ^ g «s "O u u ,c >M .2 3 *s .a u .2 3 «-i v "* J3 •s ™ IS i » 8 tfl 3 r^ *i* JC d n "m SS Ic 8 z tM u u o A H^ *4 ui w m Q ♦J o be « s u u OT tc '•B D u O 8 S p. u « (« ■tJ o c o K lA 0) B 2 M "5. i tXfl» 1 IS 1 o «M ^ on «» ♦* V JJJ § "E, O I .9 •o «^ e H-t « o «4 8 «!« W 4^• g : I d en Q U. O O O h4 s; M to e u N S E «j . bi ») C a rt r S o C a S P- « "C iT .£ o • - ffi ? c S '^ 'S — — Q. 5 " w u w o Z z o in u a u s o X u at o V a "1 (J J3 O *-■ ^ Ml U o ja « a V u Q. U « n •O o 1 w I e ^ P ^ •I -w hi C en _ « cs 5 " .-. °" rt « i e so'*' *• "^ »** .220 C ,. (0 S|1 s-2 8 « oj <« in 'u o u 5 trt P3 49 SB HI to s o o W o _. •o 'I- tj r. en i C > k •- _ it ~ c I'l en — 9 » N O tkr U I 6 o CO tu o u. o z < i O O U. 8. 3 1- w M "■ *^ u c re E u re B *rf c V 8 M to CO • > c "^■' j= B «i4 re bo e o. *C B £ bfl re re u B c ,o eo «rf » •a ts A c •o re f^ > re is p^ " *-« re u u u ^ o FLOOK FCAN O ^ .2 «it *C *tf) 2 « 6 S.s8 S :». <" w C a « re o •c 5 S a c IB t) c u ^=: S •I 1 ^ Tfwm^^fw^'^^^'^^'^m^^r??^.^ &8 -•B^r-'ri^ y'jif ^ (4 U IT) O '4. T. "S .2 o 1 .2 Is CO — " O O "> f o e o G 'u u 1; (« a in 8 c c ffl JO tf) ^_, c V V o. E o u 73 C n n Z ■ I t * 2 T^"/^ ^ S X 9 ^ ' 1/ I s -. 71 1 / i '. ? e X 0. i 1 z 1 - i ^ S H s 51"! •a "• c ^ 2 s u. **" ^ to o N! S ^ « o [ir xT ■£ "iS •-•2 & w z JJ 4> "a 3 "o e « < c w Q! I^g O - - * o ^ . J ♦- tLi Arf u< u > u -= Ji K. ■'.IE ■B:- ^*^^i»rss?; ^'^^'Tiii . ■*''\ )il N y .2 — •s « 2 .2 a ;« « o 88 u t *• 2 .2 •> « .y = » — 2 ^ o _ o Z .2 — Z *' ^ ^ O * ^1 o tf) tfl ** Q .2 a «.rf •«« O e o Remember We can mail out the same day we receive the order any complete set of working plans and specifications we illustrate in this book. Remember also That, if you are going to build, complete workmg plans and specifications always Save Money tor both the owner and contractor. They prevent mistakes and disputes. They save time and money. They tell you what you will get aid what you arc to do. Estimated Cost It is impossible for any one to estimate the cost of a building and have the figures hold good in all sections of the country. We do not claim to be "ble to do it. The estimated cost of the houses we illustrate is based on the most favorable conditions in all respects and does not include Plumbing and Heating. Possibl}' these houses cannot be buHt by you at the prices we name because we have used minimum material and labor prices as our basis. The home builder should consult the Lumber Dealer, the Hardware Dealer, and the Reliable Con- tractors of his town. Their knowledge of conditions in your particular locality makes them, and them only, capable of making you a correct estimate of the cost. iDodcrn Carpentry Vol. 2 *kDVA.NCBD SBRIES =2 IBy f red C. fBOA^m This U a continustion ol Mr. Hodgson's first volume on Modera Carpentry and is intended to carry the student to a higher plane than is reached by the first volume. The first volume of this series may be considered as the al- phabet of the science of car- pentry and jomery, while the present volume leads the stu- dent into the intricacies uf the art and shows how certain difiicuk problems may be solved wit)- a minimum of labor. Every progressive workman — and especially those • -ho have purchased ihe first volume of this series — cannot afford to be without this volume, as it con- tains so many things -«:essary the advanced workman sSould know, and that is likely to crop up at any time during his daily labors. The work is wdl illustrated with over 100 diagrams, sketches and scale drawings which are fully described »nd explained in the text. Many puzzling working problems are shown, desc.-ibed and solved. This is truly a valuable aid and assutant for the progressive workman. ^^_^^^_^_^_^___^^__i^— — 300 pagea , fully illuitrated. 12mo, cloth, price, $1.00 Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers I FREDERICK]. DRA.KE& CO. I PUBUSHERS CHICAGO. U. S. A. [ ^ater l^atindt Steam and (Bas By WM. DOMJtLDSOM A MODERN treatise on Hot \ ater, Steam and Furnace Heating, and Steair and ( is Fitting, which is in- tended for the use and informatioa of the owners of build- ings and the mechan.cs who install the heating plants in thf I. It gives full and concise information with regard to Steam Boilers and Water Heaters and Furnaces, Pipe Systems for Steam and Hot Water Plants, Radiation, Radi- ator Valves and connections, Systems of Radiation, Heating Surfaces, Pipe r.nd Pipe Fittings, Damper Regulators, Fit- ters' Tools, Hciting Surface of Pipes, Installing a Heating Plant and Specifications. Plans and Elevations of Steim and Hot Water Heat' - Plants are shown and all other sub- jects in the bcik are 'llustrated. 256 pages, 12t lllusi. . ions, l2mo, ctoth, price, $t.50 Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of price by the PubUshers FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. CHICAGO. U.S.A. L A PRACTICAL up-to-date work on Sanitary Plumbing, com- prising useful information on the winifhR and soldering of lead pipe joints and the installation of hot and cold water and drainage systems into modern residences. Including the gravity tank supply and cylindpr and iank system of water heating and the pressure cyli er system of water heating. Connections for baili tub. Co. nections for water closet. Connections for lauiidi y tiibs. Connections for wash-bowl or lavatory A modern bath room. Bath tubs. Lavatories. Closets. Urinals. Laundry tubs. Show- r baths Toilet room in office buildings. Sinks. Faucets, hibb-cocks. hoil- pipe fittings. Drainage fittings. Plumber's tool kit, etc., etc. 256 page'', Ico illustrations. 12 Mo. Cloth »1.50 Sold by Booksellers er and tin work. Geometrical construction of plane figures. Examples of practical pattern drawing. Tools and appliances used in sheet metal work. Examples of practical sheet metal work. Geometrical construction and development of solid figures. Soldering and brazing. Tinning. Ret-'uning and galvanizing. Materials used in sheet metal work. Useful i. 'irmation. Tables, etc. 320 Pagtt, 240 Illustrations 12 Mo. Cloth, • ' * Prlct, $2.00 Sold by BookMllsrt gtnsrally, or tent pottpalii *o any addross upon rscolpt of pries by the Publlthora Frederick J. Drake ^ Co. PUBUSHERS CHICAGO. V. S. A. PRACTICAL BUNGALOWS AND COTTAGES FOR TOWN AND COUNTRY THIS BOOK CONTAINS PERSPECTl DRAWINGS AND FLOOR PL A' E Of one hiiiiilrcd anil fifty low ami meillum priffl houccH ranirliiK from t»ur huiirlrcd to four tliou »ancl dollars uacti. Aleo thirty si-Ii-itcd dcslRii of hiiiiu'ulowg for (iummer ami country hornet. fiirni«liitik'th<'prosiipctivelmil'lir wlthmaiiy new and up to (late ideax and miKKCstionB in modorii arrhiteoturiv •.•.,• .'. ,.' Till- hor PS advertised In this boolc are entirely diflerent m style from those showu in Hodgson s Low t'obt Homes 12 MO. CLOTH, 200 PAGES, WO ILLUSTRATIONS I'RICE, POSTPAID $1.00 FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. CHICAGO. mftmi^^imm^i^ ■':•> /f ^ Complete Examination Questions and Answers FOR Marine and Stationary Engineers J By Calvin F. Swingle, M. E. Author of Swing la's Tw«nti«tk Cantury Hand Book for Stoam Enginocra and Electricians. Modem Locomotiva Enginearing Handy Book, and Stoam Boilars— Tbair construction, cara and managamant A- ^' 'HIS book U ■ compendium of uteful knowledye, a!id prac- tical pointers, for all ennineeri. whellier in the marinv, or itation- ary service. For busy men and for those who are not inclined to snend any more lime at itudy than ii ab- solutely necessary, the book wil. prove a rioh mine from which they may draw nuKgeis of just the kind of information that they are look- ing for. The meihod pursued by the au- thor in the compilation of the work and in the arranKeineiit of the sub- ject matter, ia siuc-h that a man in search uf any particular item of in- formation relative to the opeiation uf his stt^am Ji electric plant, will eiperience no trouble in hndini; that particular item, and he will not be under the necessity of t;ninK over a couple of hnmlrvd panes, either, before he liiiils it because the matter i s systeiiialically ar- ranged and classitied. Tlid book will be a valuable addition to any envineer's library, not alone as nconvenient reference book, but also as a book for study. It also contains a complete chapter on refrigeration for enginters. 300 pag'.!S fully illustrated, durably bound in full Peman Mo'occo limp round coiners, red edges. PRICE $1.50 N. U.— This is the very latest and bust book on the subject in prim. Sold by Bookfcllcra generally or icnt poatpaid to any addrcaa upon receipt of price by the Publiahcn FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. CHICAGO. U.S.A. The AMATEUR ARTIST Or Oil and Watw Color Painting without tho Aid of a Toochor n » a n By F. DELANOTTC q Hm aim o( tkk book i* to inilnict the itudent in the hwd- amental principla underlying thoM branches ol art oJ which it treaU and to teach the application of thoM principle! in a clear and concue manner. The knowledge it contains it available, alike to the amatetir whose only desire it u to beautify the home and to pan pleasant hours at agreeable work and also to those talented ones who lack the opportunities £ Jorded by art schools and teachers who are oul of reach. To the Utter, this work contains elemenU that will quicken the germ of lalent or genius into life and send it well on iu road I. . success, q This very late and most complete work on ama^ejr art gives thorough instructions in nme branches of decorative art. Each part is the product of the pen of a famous teacher and lecturer who has made that branch his especial life study, q Unlike other works on the market, it is brought up-to- date -no obsolete branches being dragged in. to fill out space, fl Each chapter contains a complete list of materials and equipment, and instruction enough to develop natural ability to a point where the student may continue, independent of further aid. and trusting to his own individuality of style. 200 pages, fully illustrated, price $I.OO Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to iny idd.css upon receipt of price by the Publishers FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. PUBUSHERS CHICAOO, U.tt.A. UP=TO=DATE HARDWOOD FINISHER IN TWO PARTS By FRED T. HODGSON, Architect Member of Ontario Association of Architects, Editor of "National Builder:' and author of the Modern Estimator and Contractors' Guide," /Jodern Carientry." "Architectural Drawing Self Taught," ''Fracttcal Uses of the Steel Square, etc. [^)F^ .'*M"^' K'|''"« r"*** ■9'' methods for workins hardwoods, with description of tools required, the methods of using, and how to sharpen and care for them, Inohidlng saws, planes. Hies, scrapers, ™^'*V'''""^*'? "'"' ""'*•■ "™«'-""'"'''"B *""•»•""»» to ch^e hard- woods for various purposes, and how to work an*n«™«:"nK w.K>dw<.rk of all kinds of woodS/ It alsl i.r^,S fl^Pf.r'"'''"*'"'^.,*''!."'*""'*' '•'PoUfhlnB, revarnishlng and wood-flnlshlng generally. There isashort treatise en dyeing woods Id various colors for Inlaying and marquetry work, with rules for 3l'^I,"l?^*t»V"."^"n T,^".' «»«■•?.»■»« PollHhes of varloui kinds' Frinch polishing, hard-oil Hnish, rubl>ed and Hat flnish, treatment of hard- LARGE I2M0 CLOTH. 320 PAGES, 117 ILLUSTRATIONS. PRICE, $L0O HALF LEATHER BINDING, GILT TOPS . . PRICE, $1.50 FR.EDER.ICK J. DR.AKE ®. CO. PUBLISHERS OF SELF-EDUCATIONAL BOOKS CHICAGO. ILL. ^i-.