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TI 
 
 
%■ 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i , ' ; 
 
 1 
 
 ! ' 
 
 
THE 
 
 CO 
 
 PROl 
 
THE ENGLISH r.ANGUAGE 
 
 ITS GUAMMAli, HISTORY. AND 
 LITEUATUIIE 
 
 WITH niAPTERS ON 
 
 COMPOSITION, VERSIFICATION, PARAPHRASING, 
 AND PUNCTUATION 
 
 I5Y 
 
 J. :m. d. meiklejottn, m.a. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE THEORY, Ill.^lOHY, AND PRAtTK F. OF EDUCATION 
 IN THE USIVERSITV (ii ST. ANKIIKWS 
 
 SIXTH EDITION 
 EXLAROED, WITH EXERCISES AND AUUITIONAL ANALYSIS 
 
 TORONTO 
 
 W. J. GAGE AND CO. 
 
 1891 
 
 ( i 
 
 I 'F 
 
PEIIJI 
 
 Entered aecordliijK to the Act of I'arliiuncnt uf Canada, in tlie year wn, in tlu; 
 Ofllee of tlie Minister of Airrieultnn', liy W. ,J. Hm.i: & C<>.. Tor<>nti». 
 
 This b( 
 study re' 
 at liis tri 
 able to 
 for each 
 ought to 
 It is 1 
 Colleges 
 Examina 
 Only! 
 describee 
 fill in. 
 aim of t 
 interesti 
 The i 
 more ai 
 scores o 
 not be 
 the pas 
 synthet 
 The 
 of RUL 
 who re 
 duty, 
 rules b 
 
PEEFACE 
 
 This book provides sufficient matter for the three years ot' 
 study required of a pupil-teacher, and also for the firsu year 
 at his training college. An experienced master "will easily bo 
 able to guide his pupils in the selection of the proper parts 
 for each year. The ten pages on the Grammar of Verse 
 ought to bo reserved for the fourth year of study. 
 
 It is hoped that the Book will also be useful in Ladies' 
 Colleges and Middle-Class Schools, to candidates for Local 
 Examinations, and to other classes of students. 
 
 Only the most salient features of the language have l)een 
 described, and minor details have been left for the teacher to 
 fill in. The utmost clearness and simplicity have biien the 
 aim of the writer, and he has been obliged to sacrifice many 
 interesting details to this aim. 
 
 The study of English Grammar is l^ecoming every day 
 more and more historical — and necessarily so. There arc 
 scores of inflections, usages, constructions, idioms, which can- 
 not be truly or adequately explained without a reference to 
 the past states of the language — to the time when it was a 
 synthetic or inflected Janguage, like German or Latin. 
 
 The Syntax of the language has been set forth in the form 
 of Rules. This was thought to be better for young learners, 
 who require firm and clear dogmatic statements of fact and 
 duty. But the skilful teacher will slowly work up to these 
 rules by the interesting process of induction, and will — when 
 
 :|il 
 
 |f 
 
 ■■ i t i 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 it is possible — induce his pupil to draw the general con- 
 clusions from the data given, and thus to make rules for 
 himself. Another convenience that will bo found by both 
 teacher and pupil in this form of rules will be that they can 
 be compared with the rules of, or general statements about, 
 a foreign language — such as Latin, French, or German. 
 
 It is earnestly hoped that the slight sketches of the History 
 of our Language and of our Literature may not only enable 
 the young student to pass his examinations with success, but 
 may induce him to study the original works for himself. 
 
 It is also intended that the book shall be useful to Acting 
 Teachers who are preparing for their Certificate Examination. 
 
 The sixty pages of exercises and recent examination papers 
 will be found useful by pupil-teachers, King's Scholarship 
 students, candidates for the London Matriculation Examina- 
 tion, and teachers preparing for their Certificato Examination. 
 
 The Index will be found useful in preparing the parts of 
 each subject, as all the separate paragraphs about the same 
 subject will be found there grouped together. 
 
 I beg to thank very warmly those able Teachers who have 
 been kind enough to give me hints and suggestions towards 
 the improvement of this book; and I am also glad to note 
 here the fact that Modern Teaching is every day tending 
 more and more towards clearness and simplicity. 
 
 J. M. D. M. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 
 PAQK 
 
 LAXOUAOE ....... 1 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 NOUNS 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 PRONOUNS . 
 
 
 
 . 23 
 
 ADJECTIVES . 
 
 
 
 . 28 
 
 VERBS 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 ADVERBS 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 WORDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS . 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 SYNTAX . 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 NOUN 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 POSSESSIVE CASE 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 OBJECTIVE CASE 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 DATIVE CASE . 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 ADJECTIVE . 
 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 PRONOUN 
 
 
 
 
 '74 
 
 VERB 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 ADVERB 
 
 
 
 
 . 83 
 
 PREPOSITION 
 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 CONJUNCTION 
 
 
 
 
 . 84 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 
 
 
 . 86 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCE 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 FORMS OP SENTENCES 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS 
 
 
 
 97 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCE 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 107 
 
 THE MAPPING OUT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 109 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCE .... 
 
 . HI 
 
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES 
 
 . 
 
 112 
 
 PARENTHETICAL SENTENCES 
 
 . 
 
 . 115 
 
 WORD-BUILDING AND DERIVATION 
 
 . 
 
 . 116 
 
 COMPOUND NOUNS 
 
 » 
 
 • • 
 
 
 116 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 woRD-DUiLDiNO AND DERIVATION — Continued. 
 
 COMI'OCND ADJECTIVES 
 
 COMPOUND VERBS . 
 
 COMPOUND AnVERRS 
 
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 
 
 ENGLISH PREFIXES . 
 
 LATIN PREFIXES 
 
 OREEK PREFIXES 
 
 ENGLISH SUFFIXES . 
 
 LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES 
 
 OREEK SUFFIXES 
 WORD-BRANCHING 
 
 ENGLISH ROOTS 
 
 LATIN ROOTS 
 
 GREEK ROOTS 
 WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS 
 WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES 
 WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM 
 WORDS THAT HAVE CHANGED IN MEANING 
 
 PART II. 
 
 COMPOSITION 
 
 PUNCTUATION 
 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 PARAPHRASING . 
 
 PROSODY . 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 
 
 PART III. 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, AND THE FAMILY TO WHICH IT 
 
 BELONGS ..... 
 THE PERIODS OF ENGLISH 
 HISTORY OP THE VOCABULARY , 
 HISTORY OF THE GRAMMAR 
 
 SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH OF DIFFERENT PEuTODS 
 MODERN ENGLISH .... 
 
 LANDMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE 
 TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE 
 
 117 
 418 
 118 
 119 
 
 120 
 123 
 126 
 128 
 134 
 141 
 143 
 144 
 147 
 152 
 154 
 158 
 161 
 168 
 
 175 
 
 187 
 189 
 192 
 194 
 207 
 243 
 
 271 
 276 
 280 
 317 
 328 
 336 
 344 
 
 349 
 445 
 
 INDEX 
 
 459 
 
PAET I. 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF THE Ex\GLISII LANGUAGE 
 
 
 ; I 
 
INTKODUCTIOK 
 
 1. What a Language is. — A Language is a number of con- 
 nected sounds which convey a meaning. These sounds, car- 
 ried to other persons, enable them to know how the speaker 
 is feeHng, and wliat lie is thinking. ^More than ninety per cent 
 of all language used is spoken language ; tliat which is written 
 forms an extremely small proportion. But, as people grow more 
 and more intelligent, the need of written langunge hecomes more 
 and more felt ; and hence all civilised nations have, in course 
 of time, slowly and with great difficulty made for themselves a 
 set of signs, hy the aid of which the sounds are, as it were, 
 indicated upon paper. But it is the sounds that are the 
 language, and not the signs. The signs are a more or less 
 artificial, and more or less accurate, mode of representing the 
 language to the eye. Hence the names language, tongue, 
 and speech are of themselves sufficient to show that it is the 
 spoken, and not the written, language that is the language, — 
 that is the more important of the two, and that indeed gives 
 life and vi''our to the other, 
 
 2. The Spoken and the Written Language.— Every civilised 
 language had existed for cenfuries liefore it was written or 
 printed. Before it was Avritteii, then, it existed merely as 
 a spoken language. Our own tongue existed as a spoken 
 language for many centuries hefore any of it was committed 
 to writing. Many languages — such as those in the south of 
 Africa — are born, live, and dit> out without having yver been 
 written down at all. The jiarts of a spoken language are 
 called sounds ; the smallest parts of a written language are 
 
 I' 
 
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 called letters. The science of spoken sounds is called Pho- 
 netics ; the science of written signs is called Alphabetics. 
 
 3. The English Language. — The English language is thb 
 language of the English people. The English are a Teutonic 
 people who came to this island from the north-west of Europe 
 in the fifth contury, and brought with them the English tongue 
 — but only in its spoken form. The English spoken in 
 the fifth century was a harsh guttural speech, consisting of a 
 few thousand words, and spoken by a few thousand settlers 
 in the east of England. It is now a speech spoken by more 
 than a hundred millions of people — spread all over the world ; 
 and it probably consists of a hundred thousand words. It 
 was once poor ; it is now one of the richest languages in the 
 world : it was once confined to a few corners of land in the 
 east of England; it has now spread over Great Britain and 
 Ireland, the whole of North America, the whole of AustraHa, 
 and parts of South America and Africa. 
 
 4. The Grammar of English. — Every language grows. It 
 changes as a tree changes. Its fibre becomes harder as it grows 
 older ; it loses old words and takes on new — as a tree loses old 
 leaves, and clothes itself in new leaves at the coming of every 
 new spring, liut we are not at present going to trace the 
 growth of the English Language; we are going, just now, to 
 look at it as it w. We shall, of course, be obliged to look back 
 now and again, and to compare the jiast state of the language 
 with its present state ; but this will be necessary only when we 
 cannot otherwise understand the present forms of our tongue. 
 A description or account of the nature, build, constitution, or 
 make of a language is called its Grammar. 
 
 5. The Parts of Grammar. — Grammar considers and exam- 
 ines language from its smallest parts up to its most complex 
 organisation. The smallest part of a written language is a let- 
 ter; the next smallest is a v/ord; and with words we make 
 sentences. There is, then, a Grammar of Letters ; a Grammar 
 of "Words ; and a Grammar of Sentences. The Grammar of Let- 
 ters is called Orthography ; the Granmiar of Words is called 
 Etymology ; and the Grammar of Sentences is called Syntax. 
 
THE GRAMMAR OF LETTERS. 5 
 
 There is also a Grammar of musically measured Sentences ; 
 and this grammar is called Prosody. 
 
 (i) Ortbography comes from two Greek words: orthos, right; and 
 f/raphe, a writing. The word therefore means correct writing. 
 
 (ii) Etymoloery comes from two Greek words : ctUmos, true ; and logos, 
 an account. It therefore means a true account of words. 
 
 (iii) Syntax comes from two Greek words : sun, together, with ; and 
 taxis, an order. When a Greek general drew up liis men in order of 
 battle, he was said to have them " in syntaxis." The word now means 
 an account of the build of sentences. 
 
 (iv) Prosody comes from two Greek words : pros, to ; and ode, a song. 
 It means the measurement of verse. 
 
 THE GRAMMAK OF SOUNDS AND LETTERS, 
 OR ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 6. The Grammar of Sounds. — Tliere are two kinds of sounds 
 in our language : (i) the open sounds ; and (ii) the stopped 
 sounds. The open sounds are called vowels ; the stopped 
 sounds consonants. Vowels can bo known by two tests — a 
 negative and a positive. The negative test is that they do not 
 need the aid of other letters to enable them to be sounded ; 
 the positive test is that they are formed l)y the continuous 
 passage of the breatli. 
 
 (i) Vowel comes from Fr. voyellc ; from Lat. vScdlis, sounding. 
 
 (ii) Consonant comes from Lat. con, with ; and sSno, I sound. 
 
 (iii) Two vowel-sounds uttered without a break between them are 
 called a diphthong. Thus oi in hail; ai in aisle nvc diphthongs. (The 
 word comes from Greek dis, twice ; and phthougS, a sound.) 
 
 7. The Grammar of Consonants: (1) Mutes. — There are 
 different ways of stopping, checking, or penning-in the con- 
 tinuous flow of sound. The sound may be stopped (i) by the 
 lips — as in lb, ip, and im. Such consonants are called Labials. 
 Or (ii) the sound may bo stopped by the teeth — as in id, it, 
 and iiL Such consonants are called Dentals. Or (iii) the 
 sound may be stopped in the throat — as in ig, ik, and ing. 
 
 i |:| 
 
 it 
 
6 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Those consonants are called Gutturals. The above set of sounds 
 arc called Mutes, because the sound comes to a full stop. 
 
 (i) Labial comes from Lat. labium, the lip. 
 
 (ii) Dental comes from Lat. dens (dents) a fcootli. Hence also dentist, 
 (iii) Guttural comes from Lat. guttur, the throat, 
 (iv) Palatal comes from Lat. palatum, the palate. 
 
 8. The Grammar of Consonants : (2) Spirants. Some con- 
 sonants have a little breath attached to them, do not stop the 
 sound abruptly, but may be prolonged. These are called 
 breathing letters or spirants. Thus, if we take an ib and 
 breathe through it, we make it an iv — the b becomes a v. If 
 we take an ip and breathe through it, it becomes an if — the p 
 becomes an f. Hence v and f are called spirant labials. The 
 following is a complete 
 
 TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS. 
 
 MUTES. 
 
 SPIRANTS. 
 
 
 Flat 
 (or Soft). 
 
 g 
 
 (i«Kig) 
 
 J 
 
 Sharp 
 (or Hard). 
 
 Nasal. 
 
 Flat 
 (or Soft). 
 
 Sharp 
 (or Hard). 
 
 h 
 
 Trilled. 
 
 Gutturals 
 
 k 
 
 ng 
 
 ... 
 
 Palatal.s . 
 
 en 
 
 (church) 
 
 ... 
 
 y 
 
 (yea) 
 
 zh 
 
 (azure) 
 
 Z 
 
 (prize) 
 
 th 
 
 (bathe) 
 
 V& W 
 
 ... 
 
 ' 
 
 Palatal \ 
 Sibilants/ 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 sh 
 
 (sure) 
 8 
 
 r 
 
 Dental "1 
 Sibilants / 
 
 Dentals . 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 t 
 
 n 
 
 th 
 
 (bath) 
 
 ... 
 
 Labials 
 
 b 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 f & wh 
 
 
 (i) The above table goes from t'^e throat to the lips — from the back to 
 the front of the mouth. 
 
 (ii) b and d are pronounced with less effort than p and t. Hence b and 
 d, etc., are called soft or fiat : and p and t, etc., are called hard or sliarp. 
 
THE GRAMMAR OF LETTERS. 
 
 9. The Orammar of Letters. — Letters are conventional 
 signs or symbols employed to represent sounds to the eye. 
 They have grown out of pictures, which, being gradually pared 
 down, became mere signs or letters. The steps were these ; 
 picture ; abridged picture ; diagram ; sign or symbol. The 
 sum of all the letters used to write or print a language is called 
 its Alphabet. Down to the fifteenth century, we employed a set 
 of Old English letters, such as a li C — I 2 }, which were the 
 Eoman letters ornamented ; but, from that or about that time, 
 we have used and still use only the plain Eoman letters, as 
 a b c — X y z. 
 
 The word alphabet comes from the name of the first two letters in 
 the Greek language : alpha, beta. 
 
 10. An Alphabet. — An alphabet is, as we have seen, a code 
 of signs or signals. Every code of signs has two laws, neither 
 of which can be broken without destroying the accuracy and 
 trustworthiness of the code. These two laws are : 
 
 (i) One and the same sound must be represented by one and 
 the same letter. 
 
 Hence : No sound should be represented by more than one letter. 
 
 (ii) One letter or set of letters must represent only one and 
 the same sound. <• 
 
 Hence : No letter should represent more than one sound. 
 
 Or, put in another way : 
 
 (i) One sound must be represented by one distinct symbol, 
 (ii) One symbol must be translated to the ear by no more 
 than one sound. 
 
 (i) The first law is broken when we represent the long sound of a in 
 eight different ways, as in — fate, braid, say, great, neigh, prey, gaol, 
 gauge. 
 
 (ii) The second law is broken when we give eight different sounds to 
 the one symbol ough, as in — bough, cough, dough, hiccough (=cup), 
 hough (=hock), tough, through, thorough. 
 
 11. Our Alphabet. — The spoken alphabet of English contains 
 forty-three sounds ; the written alphabet has only twenty-six 
 symbols or letters to represent them. Hence the English al- 
 
8 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 phabet is very deficient. But it is also redundant. For it 
 contains five superfluous letters, c, q^ x, lo, and y. The work 
 of the letter c might be done by either k or by s ; that of ^q 
 hy k ; X is equal to ks or gs ; w could bo represented by oo ; 
 and all that y docs could bo done by i. It is in the vowel- 
 sounds that the irregularities of our alphabet are most discern- 
 ible. Tliirteen vowel-sounds are represented to the eye in more 
 than one hundred different ways. 
 
 (i) Tlip^e are twelve ways of printing a short i, as in sit, Cyril, busy, 
 women, ecc. 
 
 (ii) There are twelve ways of printing a short e, as in set, any, bttry, 
 bread, etc. 
 
 (iii) There are ten ways of printing a long e, as in mete, marine, meet, 
 meat, ke//, etc. 
 
 (iv) There are thirteen ways of printing a sliort u, as in bud, love, 
 berth, rough, flood, etc. 
 
 (v) There are eleven ways of printing a long u, as in rude, move, blc i, 
 trwc, etc. 
 
 THE GEA1M1.IAR OF WOEDS, or ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 There are eight kinds of words in our language. These are 
 (i) Names or Nouns, (ii) The words that stand for Nouns are 
 called Pronouns, (iii) Next come the words-that-go-with- 
 Nouns or Adjectives, (iv) Fourthly, come the words-that- 
 are-said-of-Nouns or Verbs, (v) Fifthly, the words that go 
 with Verbs or Adjectives or Adverbs are called Adverbs, (vi) 
 The words that -join -Nouns are called Prepositions; (vii) 
 those that-join- Verbs are called Conjunctions. Lastly (viii) 
 come Interjections, which are indeed mere sounds without 
 any organic or vital connection with other words ; and they 
 are hence sometimes called extra -grammatical utterances. 
 Nouns and Adjectives, Verbs and Adverbs, have distinct, indi- 
 vidual, and substantive meanings. Pronouns have no mean- 
 ings in themselves, but merely refer to nouns, just like a j^^ 
 in a book. Prepositions and Conjunctions once had independent 
 
TTIE CLASRIFTrATION OF NOUNS. 
 
 9 
 
 iTipanings, ])ut have not much now : their chief vise is to join 
 words to each other. They act tlie part of nails or of <,fhie in 
 language. Interjections have a kind of meaning ; hut they 
 never represent a thought — only a feeling, a feeling of pain 
 or of pleasure, of sorrow or of surprise 
 
 'M 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 1. A Noun is a name, or any word or words used as a 
 name. 
 
 Ball, house, Jlsh, John, Mary, are all names, and are therefore nouns. 
 " To icalk in the o])en air is plea.sant in suninier evenings." Tlie twn 
 wurda to walk are used as the name of an action ; to imlk is tliorpfme 
 a noun. 
 
 The word noun comes from tlie Tatiii nnmcit, a name. From tliis word \\r li.ive 
 also nominal, denominate, denomination, etc. 
 
 THE CLASSIFJCATIOX OF NOUNS. 
 
 2. Nouns are of two classes — Proper and Common. 
 
 3. A proper noun is the name of an individual, as an in- 
 dividual, and not as one of a class. 
 
 Joh}}, Mary, London, Birininyhani, Shakrf^j^care, Milton, are all proiter 
 nouns. 
 
 Tlie word -projier conies from the Latin 2""op''"(s', one's own. Ilenre a 
 proper no)i>i is, in relation to one jiersoii, one's own name. From the saim- woid 
 we have appropriate, to make one's own ; erpropriate, etn. 
 
 (i) Proper n(mns are always written with a capital letter at the 
 beginning ; and so also are the words derived from them. Thus we 
 wTite France, French, Frenchified ; Milton, Miltonic ; Shakespeare, Shake- 
 spearian. 
 
 (ii) Proper nouns, as such, have no meaning. 'Ihey are merely marks 
 to indicate a special person or place. They had, however, originally a 
 meaning. The persons now called Armstromj, Smith, Orrathrad, no 
 doubt had ancestors who were strong in the arm, who did the work of 
 smiths, or who had large heads. 
 
 (iii) A i)roper noun may be used as a common noun, when it is em- 
 ployed not to mark an individual, but to indicate one of a class. Thus 
 we can ."^ay, "He is the Milton of his age," meaning by this tliat he 
 jiosspsses the qualities which all those poets have who are like Milton. 
 
 (iv) We can also speak of " the Howards," " tlie Smiths," meaning a 
 num]>er of persons who are called JJoward or who are called Smith. 
 
I I 
 I I 
 
 I! 
 
 10 
 
 riTlAMMATl OF TTTF EXr.LTRTT T.ANOUAnK. 
 
 4. A oomnion noun is I lie iiiiiiH^ of ii ixtsom, j)lri('(», c»r iliini,', 
 considtM'ctl not mcicly as an iiidividiiiil, 1»ut. a>? one of a ('laaB. 
 Jfo/'.-'n, fuiiuif holly fdhir, arc ooniiuon nounR. 
 
 Tlie woiil rijiinnon ro'-ii-s fri^iii tlir liUt, r..//n/nu/i.-;, " sli.-nnl l.y ,r-vcral ' 
 Uf lliid it. also ill rovunniiitii, i-nmiuunoUii, i't<'. 
 
 * 
 
 UK. I 
 
 (i) A coininon nuuii is !<o called bpcau.^e it belongs in common to nil 
 the ijersons, i)laceH, or tilings in the same class. 
 
 (ii) The name rabbit marks off, or distinguishes, that animal from 
 all other animals ; but it does not distinguish one rabbit from another- 
 it is common to all animals of the class. Hence we may say : a com- 
 mon noun distinguishes from without ; but it does not distinguish within 
 its own bounds. 
 
 (iii) Common nouns have a meiining; proper nouns have not. The 
 latter may have a meaning ; but the meaning is generally not appi-o- 
 priate. Thus persons called Whitehead and Longshanks may be dark 
 and short. Hence such names are merely signs, and not significant marks. 
 
 5. (Joninioii nouns are generally subdivided into — 
 
 (i) Class-naiue.s. 
 
 (ii) Collective nouns. 
 
 (iii) Alhstract nouns. 
 
 (i) Under cla.ss-names are included not only ordinary names, but 
 also the names of matei-ials— as tea, sui/ar, wheat, water. The names 
 of materials can be used in the i)lural when different kinds of the 
 material ai-e meant. Thus we say "fine teas," "coarse sugars," wlien 
 we mean fine kinds of tea, etc. 
 
 (ii) A collective noun is the name of a collection of persons or 
 things, looked upon by the mind as one. Thus we say committee, 
 'parliament, crowd ; and think of the.se collections of persons as each 
 one body. 
 
 (iii) An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or state, 
 considered in itself, and as abstracted fiom the thing or person in 
 which it really exists. Thus, we .«ee a immber of lazy j)ersons, and 
 think of ladness as a quality in itself, abstracted from the persons. 
 (From Lat. abs, from ; tractus, drawn.) 
 
 (a) The naiiies of arts ami sciences are abstract nouns, because tliey are the 
 names of processes of tliought, considered ajuirt and abstracted from 1/ie 
 persons who practise them. Thus, mnsic, jminting, yravimar, cliemistnj, 
 astronovnj, are abstract nouns, 
 
 (iv) Abstract nouns are (a) derived from adjectives, as hardness, 
 dulness, sloth, from hard, dull, and slow; or {h) fi'om verb.s, as growth, 
 thought, from grow an<I think. 
 
THE INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS. 
 
 n 
 
 (v) A1)st,ra('t nouiiH arp soinptiniert iisptl an cdUeotive nouns. Thus we 
 suv " (.lu> iioUilit.y aiitl gputry " f'T "the iinhh's juwl genilemon " ><{ Iho 
 land. 
 
 (vi) AVi.-itvait nouns are furuieil from othor Word.' Ity llif addili..ii ..f 
 fiufh pmling.s a.'* nesB, th, ery, hooi, head, otf. 
 
 6. Tln' fnlhiwiiiv,' h a siiniiniiry of tlic divisions of nouns : — 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 I 
 
 Proper, 
 
 Common. 
 
 Class-NaineH. Collective Nouns. 
 
 Abstract Notins. 
 
 THE INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS. 
 
 7. Nouns can bo inflected or changed. They are inflected to 
 indicate Gender, Number, and Case. 
 
 AVe must not, liowover, forget that diflVronccs of gench'r, 
 nuiidier, or case are not always indicated liy inflexion. 
 
 Inflerio is a Ijatin word which means bending. An inflexion, tlierefore, is a 
 hen(liiij^ away from the ordinary form of tlie word. 
 
 MIS. 
 
 Gender. 
 
 8. Gender is, in grammar, the mode of distinguishing sex hy 
 
 tlift aid of words, preflxes, or suflixes. 
 
 The word yemhr conie.s from the Lat. genus, f/eneris (Fr. genre), a 
 kind or sort. We have the .same word in generic, general, etc. (The 
 d in gender i?, no organic or true part of the word ; it lias ))een in- 
 serted a.s a kind of cushion between the n and the 7'.) 
 
 (i) Names of males ai-p said to be of the masculine gender, as master, 
 lord, Harry. Lat. mas, a male. 
 
 (ii) Names of females are of the feminine gender, a.s mistress, lady, 
 Harriet. Lat. feminu, a woman. (From the same word we have 
 fffeminate, etc.) 
 
 (iii) Names of things without sex are of the neuter gender, a.^ head, 
 tree, London. Lat. neuter, neither. (Fi-om the same word we have 
 n,'Utral, neutrality.) 
 
 (iv) Names of animals, the sex of which is not indicated, are said to 
 be of the common gender. Thus, sheep, hird, hawk, parent^ servant^ are 
 common, because they may be of either gender. 
 
13 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TIIR KNOUSH LANGUAfiE, 
 
 (v) We may huiu up thuH : — 
 
 Gk.ndkh. 
 
 Masoullne. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 {Neither) 
 
 Common. 
 
 {Either) 
 
 (vi) If we persnuift/ things, passions, jjowors, Dr natunvl forces, we may 
 make them »nthcr ma.sculiuo nr feminine. Thus tlie Sinj, Tirne, the 
 Ocean, An;/er, >J ar, a river, are generally made masculine. On the other 
 hand, the Moon, the Earth (" Mother Earth"), Virtue, a shiji, Hiligion, 
 Pitij, Peace, are generally .spoken of as feminine. 
 
 (vii) Sex is a distinction between animals ; gender a distinction be- 
 tween nouns. In Old iMiglish, nouns ending in dom, as freedom, were 
 masculine ; nouns in ness, as r/oodness, feminine ; and nouns in en, a.t 
 vuiidcn, chick-en, always neuter. P.ut we liave ln.-,t all these distinctions, 
 and, in modern English, gender always follows sex. 
 
 9. Theni nvo. tlirec; way.s of iiiiirkiiig goudcr : — 
 
 (i) Jiy the u.se of Sutli.xe.^. 
 (ii) By Prcfi.xes (or by Conipo.sition). 
 
 (ill) By nsiiif,' distinct words fur tlu^ names of the male ami 
 female. 
 
 [. (rENHKlt MAHKKD BY SuFFIXES. 
 
 A. Purely English or Teutonic Suffixes. 
 
 10. Tliore arc now in our languaj^'o only two pnvfly Enf^lisli 
 .snltixos nsed to mark tlu; feminine jfenilei", and these are used 
 in only two words. The two endings are en and ster, and tin' 
 two words are vixen and spinster. 
 
 (i) Vixen is the feminine oifox; and spinster of spinnn' {spindei' or 
 npinther, which, later on, became spider). King Alfred, in his wi-itings, 
 speaks of " the spear-side and the spindle-side of a house " — meaning the 
 men and the women. 
 
 (ii) Ster was used as a feminine suffix very largely in Old English. 
 Thus, Webster was a woman-weaver; haxter {or bagster), a, female baker ; 
 hoppester, a womnn-dancer : redester, a vovian-reader ; hnclster, a femah 
 hawker (travelling merchant) ; and so on. 
 
 (iii) In Ancient Engli.sli (Anglo-Saxon) the masculine ending was a, 
 and the feminine e, as in wiccn, wirc.e, witch. Hence we find the names 
 of many Saxon kings ending in a, as fsa, Offa, Penda, et<^ 
 
GENDEK INDICATED BY SUFFIXES AND rREFlXES. 
 
 13 
 
 P). Latin and French Suffixes. 
 
 11. Tilt' rhicf fciiiiniiio ending' which we havf vfocivrd from 
 llii' French is ess (Liitiii, /.-tfiu). 'J'liis is also the unly Fciiiiiiiiii; 
 Mijlix with ii living forco. at thn present <hiy- the duIv suthx wo 
 (•(iiild a<lii to any new word that miglit he adopted hy us frnm 
 a frii'eign soiirre. 
 
 12. The foHowinf: are imuns whose feminines eml in ess: — 
 
 Mascuuni;. 
 
 Kl-.MININF. 
 
 Actor 
 
 Actress. 
 
 liaroii 
 
 Maroness. 
 
 ( 'atcrcr 
 
 ( 'at,ere.ss. 
 
 ( 'omit 
 
 < 'ountess 
 
 I )uke 
 
 Duchess. 
 
 KiiiIKTor 
 
 Km press, 
 
 MAScfi.rNK. 
 
 FF..MINTNF. 
 
 Host 
 
 Hostess. 
 
 Lad 
 
 l.as.s (=:ladess). 
 
 Manjuis 
 
 Marcliioncs.s. 
 
 Ma.'^tor 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Mayor 
 
 May ores.". 
 
 Murderer 
 
 Murdere.ss. 
 
 ^^ It Aviil he noticed that, hesich'S adding r.<s, .some of tlic 
 letters undergo change^ or are thrown out aUogether. 
 
 Tliere are other feminine sutiixes of a foreign origin, .'^ucdi as 
 ine, a, and trix. 
 
 (i) ine is a tjlreek ending, and is found in heroine. A similar ending in 
 landgravine and margravine, the feminines of landgrave (a German 
 count) and margrave (a lord of the Mark or of vi(trchi)i), is (lerman. 
 
 i^iij a is an Italian or Spanish ending, and is found in donna (the 
 feminine of Don, a gentleman), infanta ( ^ the child, the heiress to the 
 crown of Spain), sultana, and slgnora (the feminine of f<ifjii(n', the 
 Italian for Soiior, elder, which \vc have compressed into Sir). 
 
 (iii) trix is a purely Latin ending, and is found "uly in those wnnls 
 that have come to us dirft/// frovi l.iithi ; a.'^ tt.statnr, t'statrix (a pt.'rsnn 
 who has made a will), executor, executrix (a pei'son who carries out the 
 directions of a will). 
 
 i ■ 
 
 ■I 
 
 II. (!kni)i:k ixnicAT[':i> r.v Phkfi.xks (ok in" ( 'omi'oisition). 
 
 13. The distinction lietween the uiasculiiir and the fmiiniiie 
 gender is indicated by using such words as man, maid bull, 
 cow — he, she — cock, hen, as prefixes to the nouns men- 
 tioned. In tlie oldest English, cai'l and cwen (=^^(iu(;en) were 
 employed to mark gender ; and carl-fugol is = cock-fowl, cwen- 
 fugol = hen-fowL 
 
14 
 
 QUAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 14. 'I'ln! following ur(i tlio iiiohI iiiniortiuit woi'iIh of iliiw 
 kind : - 
 
 Mahc'ui.ini^;. 
 Maii-HcrvHJil 
 Mhii 
 Hoguai 
 
 JloUhh 
 
 Jack-awrt 
 
 Jackdaw 
 
 Kkmimm;. 
 Maid-Horvaiit., 
 Wotnan ( wifc-uiaii), 
 She-goat. 
 She-asr*. 
 .I«mny-aH6. 
 
 Ma.s( iLiNi;. 
 
 Mull calf 
 
 (Jiiiik-Himnow 
 
 Wcthcrlaiiili 
 
 I'ea-coik 
 
 Turkey-cock 
 
 Kkmi.vink. 
 ( 'o\v-calf. 
 H(>n-«iian row. 
 liue-Iaiult. 
 IValion. 
 Turkcy-licii. 
 
 (i) 111 tlio Lime of Shakcsijearo, In: ami nhr were u«ed Hf* nouus. Wc 
 Kiid such I'lmiHert aH "'riio |irou«leHt he," "The fairoft she," "That not 
 iliiposnihle she." 
 
 J 11. (fKNDKU i.\i»icAri;i> Jiv J)iffivI<i:m' Wuuds. 
 
 15. Tlie use of (lillereiit words for the- uiasculiiK! and tiie feiii- 
 inin(! do".s not really l^elong to f^'runiniatical gender. It may Lo 
 well, however, to note .'^onn! of the ni(»st iiii]>ortant :— - 
 
 .MASCULrNK. 
 
 i bachelor 
 
 lioy 
 
 Mrother 
 
 Foal 
 
 Drake 
 
 1 trone 
 
 l-:arl 
 
 Father 
 
 Gander 
 
 ITart 
 
 Horwe 
 
 Fkminink. 
 
 Sjiinater. 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Filly. 
 
 Duck. 
 
 I?ee. 
 
 Countes.-^. 
 
 Mother. 
 
 Goose. 
 
 Rne. 
 
 Mare. 
 
 Masim'i.ink. 
 
 iiusband 
 
 King 
 
 Lord 
 
 Monk 
 
 Nephew 
 
 Fk.minine, 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Queen. 
 
 Jiady. 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Niece. 
 
 Kani (or Wether) Kwe. 
 Sir Madaoii. 
 
 Sloven Slut. 
 
 Son Daughter 
 
 I'liila Aunt. 
 
 Wizard Witch. 
 
 (i) Bachelor (lit., acowlioy), fi'om Low Lat. Imrriiliirius ; from Uicca, 
 Low Lat. for vacca, a cow. Hence also vaccindtiou. 
 
 (ii) Girl, from Low German 'jiJi-, a child, hy the addition of the 
 diminutive /. 
 
 (iii) Filly, the dim. of foal. (When a syllable is added, the previous 
 vowel is often modified : as in cat, kitlcii ; cork, chicken; rook, kitchen.) 
 
 (iv) Drako, formeily cndrakr ; cnd — dwk, and ?•«/(•<,' — king. The word 
 therefore means kimj of (he duckn. (The woid rake ajijiears in another 
 form in the ric of bishopric — the ric or kingdom or domain of a bishop.) 
 
 (\) Drone, from the rf/'o«ing sound it makes. 
 
 (vi) Earl, from A.S. eorl, a warrior. Countess comes from the French 
 word comtesse. 
 
GKNDKlt. 
 
 n 
 
 (v\\) T^thtr—frrdrv; romiHio nf fut, fn.it/, frn/, /txhtrr, fontfr, etc. 
 
 (viii) Ooose ; in tlm nlde.^t A.S. i/niin ; Oandr-a ^th«i n ln'iii^ tlio sifju 
 of (he iiiaM'.). Hoiicc gander, tlm d licin^,' iii-oitcd as a cuHliieii l.o. 
 Lwccn /( hikI r, ua in t/iumfrr, ijciaU'r^ etc. 
 
 (i.\) Hart — tlin liornoil nM».'. 
 
 (x) Mare, lli« iVm. nf A.S. mnirh, a lidivc. Heiu u al i' innr.^h'if, ulncli 
 at lirst iii»;anl liui'scHCivant. 
 
 (xij Husband, fi<iiii Icclamlic, /iushuu<ii, tlif nia-^tcr nt the Iioubc. A 
 fanner in Norway is called a hmnlrr. 
 
 (xii) King, a I'ontnirLioii nf A.S. cynlng, son of tliu kin or trilio. 
 
 I\\\\) Lord, a contraction of A.S. hlaford — from hlif, a loaf, and 
 weard, a ward or keeper. 
 
 (.\iv) Lady, a (jontraction of A.S. hla^fdige, a Imif-kucuder. 
 
 (.\v) Tlio old A.S. words were /*'/", ?lCCfl. 
 
 (.xvi) Woman = wife • man. 'I'iie jinuiKtirlnlluti of immDi iwii^i'ncn) 
 coniw nearer to the old form of tlie word. See note on (,iii.) 
 
 (xvii) Sir, fi'oni I, at. mniur, elder. 
 
 (xviii) Madam, from liat. Mea domina (througii tiic French Ma dame) 
 •iiuy lady. 
 
 (xix) Daughter — milker. Connected with f/ay. 
 
 (xx) Wizard, fvum old French ijuixairt, prudent. Witch has uo con- 
 nection with wi.:ar(/. 
 
 16. All fu'.iiiiiiiic iiufius arc foriiiod from the nuusculiiii', with 
 four exceptions : bridegroom, widower, gander, aiid drake, 
 which come respectively frmn 1»ri(le, widow, goose, and duck. 
 
 (i) Bridegroom was in A.S. I'l-f/r/i/utrin — Uw liride'.'i man. {O'lmia ic a 
 cognate of the Lat. hniii-i, a man whence kuvinnity.) 
 
 (ii) Widower. The old ma.-c was irUluim ; the fern, uudtcvc. ft war< 
 then forgotten that widuwa wa.s a masculine, and a new niasculiiie had 
 to be formed from ividuicc, ^ 
 
 NUMHKI!. 
 
 17. Number is, in nouns, the nmdt of indiculin,Lj whetJier wc 
 uic speaking' of one thinj^' or of more. 
 
 18. The Engli.sh language, like mo.st modern huigiiagey, liub 
 two numbers : the singular and the plural. 
 
16 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 I'l.t'KAl,. 
 
 .Singula II. 
 
 Pl.UUAL. 
 
 IJoxe.;. 
 
 Beef 
 
 ]>eeves. 
 
 Ga.ses. 
 
 TiOiif 
 
 LoaveL^. 
 
 Witclics. 
 
 Shelf 
 
 Shelves. 
 
 Heroes. 
 
 Stuff 
 
 Staves. 
 
 Ladies. 
 
 Thief 
 
 Thieve.-. 
 
 (i) Singular comes from the Lat. s'lvjuli, oue by one ; plural, from 
 the Lat. piurcs, more (than one). 
 
 (ii) Mr Ban; w, the eminent Dorsetshire poet, who has written an ' 
 excellent grammar, called * Speech -craft,' calls them o)icli/ an<l t<i»iicli/. 
 
 19. There arc three chief ways of forniing the phiial in 
 Kngli.sh : — 
 
 (i) By adding es or s to ilio singular, 
 (ii) By adding en. 
 (iii) 13y changing the vowel-sound. 
 
 20. First Mcde. — 'J'he plural iw formed hy adding es or s. 
 The ending es is .i modern form of the old A.S. plural in «x, as 
 ■ifcDuis, stones, 'i'he following are exnmples :— 
 
 SiNOULAIi. 
 ]?OX 
 
 ( Ja.s 
 Witch 
 Hero 
 Lady 
 
 (i) It will be seen tiiat cs in heroes does not add a .syllable to the sing. 
 
 (ii) Nouns ending in f change the ffharp f into a flat v, as in beeves, 
 etc. But we say roofs, cliffs, dwarfs, chiefs, etc. 
 
 (iii) An old singular of lady was ladle ; and this spelling is }jrescrved 
 in the plural. But there has arisen a rule on this point in modern 
 English, which may be thus stated : — 
 
 S^ (n) Y, with a vowel before it, is not changed in the jilural. 
 Thus we write keys, valleys, chimneys, days, etc. 
 
 {!)) Y, with a couRonant before it, is changed into ie when s is 
 
 added for Uie [ihual. Thus wo write ladies, rubies, and al.?o solilo- 
 quies. 
 
 (iv) Beef i.s Hot now used as the word for a .single o\. Shakespeare 
 lias the phra.se "beef-witted " — with no more sense tliau an ox. 
 
 21. Second Mode.- -The plural is formed liy adding en oi 
 ne. I'hus we have oxen, children, brethren^ and kine. 
 
 (i) Children is a double plural. The oldest j'lural was clld-r-u, whieli 
 became chllder. It was forgotten that this was a proper plural, and en 
 was added. Brethren is also a double plural. En was added to the old 
 Northern plural brether — tlu; oldest plui-al Ix'ing brothr-u. 
 
 (ii) Klne is also a double plural of cow. The oldest plural was c^, 
 and this still exists iu Scotland in the form of kye. Then ne was 
 added. 
 
 .1 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 22. T 
 
 vowel-s 
 
 .SlNUU 
 
 Man 
 
 Foot 
 Goos( 
 
 (i; T. 
 added t- 
 
 'I'llUS W{ 
 
 tlic abo\ 
 ciiango 
 
NUMBER. 
 
 ir 
 
 22. Third Mode. — The plural is formed by changing the 
 vowel-sound of the Avord. The following are examples : — 
 
 SlNCiULAK. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 bl.NOULAlt. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Man 
 
 Moil. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 \u>oi 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Moui-e 
 
 Mice. 
 
 (jou^e 
 
 Geese. 
 
 Louse 
 
 Lice. 
 
 (i) To uudeietaud tliis, we luust okserve that when a uew syllaMo i.s 
 added to a word, tlie vowel of the i>recediug syllable iti often weakened. 
 Tlm.s we find nation, national ; fox, vixen. Now the oldest plurals of 
 the above words had an additional .syllable; and it i.s t<) this that the 
 uhange in the vowel is duo. 
 
 ■23. There arc in English several nouns vjrith two plural 
 forms, with different meanings. Ihe following is a list : — 
 
 SiNGlI.AR. PlUUAL. 
 
 Brother ln-others (by bloud) 
 
 Cloth cloth.s (kinds of cloth) 
 
 Die died (stamps for coining) 
 
 Fish lishes (looked at sej)arately) 
 
 Genius geniuses (men of talent) 
 
 Index indexes (to books) 
 
 Pea pea.s (taken s'^^parately) 
 
 Penny pennies (taken sepaiately) 
 
 Shot shots (separate discharges) 
 
 Plural. 
 
 lirethren (of a conuuunity). 
 clothes (garments). 
 dice (cubes for gaming), 
 tish (taken collectively), 
 genii (powerful spirits). 
 indices (to quantities in algebri.), 
 pease (taken collectively), 
 pence (taken collectively), 
 shot (balls, collectively) 
 
 (i) Pea is a fal.se singular. The s belongs to the ruot ; and we ilnd in 
 Middle English " as Ijig as a pease," and the plurals pesen and peses. 
 
 24. iSome nouns have the same form in the plural as in the 
 singular. 8uch are deer, sheep, cod, trout, mackerel, and 
 others. 
 
 (i) Mostiif these nomis wero, in old Kngli.->li, neuter. 
 
 (ii; A sjjecial plural is found in sucli phra.ses as : .1 (map of Iiorsr ; 
 II riiviponij (if foot ; lot tfiti/ of (he line ; three Irnre of hinU : .s/.c 'jro.-<s of 
 steel /*f»,v; ten stone url</hf, etc. Jn fact, the names t.f initulicrs, 
 weights, measures, etc., arc not jmt into the plural form. Tliu.- wo say, 
 ten hundveilweiijht, five score, jive fathom, fiix brtiee. In Old Knglisli wo 
 also i^aid forty year, sixty vinter ; and we still say, a twelvemonth, a fort- 
 niyht ( — fourteen night.s). 
 
 25. There are in English several false plurals — that is, real 
 singulars which look like plurals. These are alms, riches, and 
 eaves. 
 
 
w 
 
 / 
 
 18 
 
 GRAMMAll OF THE ENGLISH LANdUAGE. 
 
 (i) Alms iH a coinpreHHod forui of tlie A.S, aelmesse (which ia from the 
 Greek dcemosune). We find in Acts iii. 3, "an ahns." Tlie adjective 
 connected witli it is cJccmosynarif. 
 
 (ii) Riches conies from the French richesse. 
 
 (iii) Eaves is the modern form of the A.S. efese, a margin or odg«. 
 
 26. Tlierc iirr in l'Ji;.;li.sli .several plural forms that ar<- ic 
 gardcd and treated as singulars. The follow in^f is a li«t : — 
 
 Smallpox. 
 
 Thanks. 
 
 Tidings. 
 
 (i) Smallpox = .small pocks. 
 
 27. There are many iioun.s that, from the nature of the case, 
 can be u.sed only in the plural. 1'heso are the names of 
 thin^^s {(t) That con.sist of two or more parts ; or {b) That are 
 taken m the mass. 
 
 ('/) The following is a list of the hr.st : — 
 
 Bellows. Pincers. Shears. Tweezer!?. 
 
 Drawers. Pliers. Snutfers. Tongs. 
 
 Lungs. Scissors. Spectacles. Trousers. 
 
 Amends. 
 
 Odds. 
 
 Gallows. 
 
 Pain.s. 
 
 News. 
 
 Shambles. 
 
 (/>) The following is a list of the seciond 
 
 Annals. 
 Archives. 
 
 Ashes. 
 Assets. 
 
 Dregs. 
 Embers. 
 Entrails. 
 Hustings. 
 
 Lees. 
 Measle.'. 
 Molasses. 
 Mumps, 
 
 Oats. 
 Staggers. 
 Stocks. 
 Victuals. 
 
 tfS" It must be notii.'ed tliat ;>evorr.1 nouns — some of tl em in the 
 above class — change tlicir meaning entirely when made jijuraj. Thu;^ — 
 
 SlNfill.AK. I'LIRAL. I Sl.NGt'LAU. Pl.UllAI.. 
 
 liccf Beeves. Injn Irons. 
 
 Copper Coppers. , Pain Pains. 
 
 Good Goods. I Spectacle Sijcctaclos. 
 
 k 
 28. The English language has ado])tcd many foreign plurals. 
 
 These, {a) when fully naturalised, make their plurals in the 
 
 usual Knglish way ; {!>) Avhen not naturalised, or imperfectly, 
 
 keep their own proper i)lural.^. 
 
 («) As examples of the first kind, we have — 
 
 Baiidits, cherubs, dogmas, indexes, memorandums, focuses, /ormtUui, 
 terminuses, etc. 
 
 I 
 
 (/.) A 
 ,1 Latin 
 
 (2) Greek 
 
 (3 French 
 ,4 Italian 
 
 (6, Hebrew 
 
 vi ^'1 
 
 were on 
 survives 
 
 29. Coi 
 word, esp 
 into three 
 
CASE, 
 
 19 
 
 (h) As examples of tlio second, wo find- 
 
 
 
 Wingui.au. 
 
 Plurai. 
 
 HlNOlLAR. 
 
 PlA-RAU 
 
 ^' 
 
 Latin 
 
 Animalculuiu 
 
 Auimdcula. 
 
 Radix 
 
 Radices. 
 
 
 
 Datum 
 
 Data. 
 
 Series 
 
 Series. 
 
 
 
 Formula 
 
 Formula:. 
 
 Species 
 
 Species. 
 
 
 
 GenuB 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Stratum 
 
 Strata. 
 
 (2 
 
 Greek 
 
 Analysi.s 
 
 Analyses. 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 KUipses. 
 
 
 
 Axis 
 
 Axes. 
 
 Parenthesis 
 
 I'aren theses 
 
 
 
 MiaHiua 
 
 Miasmata, 
 
 Plieuomenun 
 
 Phenomena. 
 
 (3 
 
 French 
 
 Monsieur 
 
 Messieurs. 
 
 Madam 
 
 Mesdames. 
 
 'A 
 
 Italian 
 
 Bandit 
 
 Banditti, 
 
 Libretto 
 
 Libretti. 
 
 
 
 Dilettante 
 
 Dilettanti. 
 
 Virtuoso 
 
 Virtuosi. 
 
 (5, 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 Cherub 
 
 Cherubim. 
 
 Seraph 
 
 Seraphim. 
 
 (i) The Greek plurals acoustics, ethics, mathematics, vptlcs, jtoUtics, etc., 
 were originally adjectives. "We now say Inrjlc — but loylcs, which still 
 survives in the Irish Universities— way the older word. 
 
 29. Compounds attucli the sign of the plural to the leading 
 word, especially if that Avord he a noun. These may he tlivided 
 into three classes : — 
 
 (a) When the plural sign is added h> the Noun, as : sons-in-lau\ 
 hangers-on, lookers-on, etc. 
 
 (6) When the compound word is treated as one word, as : attorney- 
 ijencrals, major-generals, court-martials, spoonfuls, handfuls, etc. 
 
 (c) When both pr.rts of the compound take the jjlural sign, as : men- 
 servants, knights-templars, lords-justices, etc, 
 
 k- 
 
 Cask. ^ 
 
 30. Case is the form given t > a iiuiui to show jLs relation to 
 oilier words in the sentence. Our language has lost most of 
 llicse forms; l)ut we still use the word case tu indicate the 
 function, even when the form has been lost. 
 
 (i) The word case is from the Latin 
 casus, and moans n falling. The old gram- 
 marians regarded the nominative as tlio 
 upright case, and all otiicrs as falUngs 
 fioni that. Hence the use of the words 
 ikclinc and declension. (Of course the 
 nominative cannot be a real case, because 
 it is upright and not & falling.) 
 
 il 
 
 il 
 
 • [• il 
 
 I 'I 
 
 I ilhu 
 
20 
 
 GKAMMAU OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 31. AVe )i(nr employ fiv(; cases ; Nominative, Possessive, ' 
 Dative, Objective, uiul Vocative. 
 
 (i) In Nouns, Diily one ul" these is inflected, or lias a caBe-ending— tin; 
 I'oHseHHivc. 
 
 (ii) In Pronouns, the roistrcsbive. Dative, and Objective arc intlci-ted. 
 JJut the inflexion for the Dative and tlie 01)jcctive i.s the t^anie. Him 
 and them are indeed true Datives : the old inflection for the Objective 
 was hine and hi. 
 
 32. The folloAviiig are tlie tlefuntiuiis of tliese cases : — 
 
 (1) riie Nominative Case is tlie case of the subject. 
 
 (2) The Possessive Case iu(licat(;s possession, or some sim- 
 ilar relation. 
 
 (3) The Dative Case is the case of the Indirect Object, 
 and also the case governed hy certain verbs. 
 
 (i) The Objective Case is the case of the Direct Object. 
 (5) The Vocative Case is the case of the person spoken 
 to. It is often called the Nominative of A.ddress. 
 
 (i) Nominative comes from tlie Lat. nomlnarc, to name. From the 
 same root we have nominee. 
 
 (ii) Dative comes from the Lat dativus, given to. 
 
 (iii) Vocative come.s from the Lat. vocatlvus, s])okeii to or addre.s.5cd. 
 
 33. The Nominative Case answers to the (jiiestion Who ? or 
 What? It has always a verb that goes with it, and asserts 
 something about it. 
 
 34. The Possessive Case has the ending 's in tlie singular; 
 'h in the plural, Avhen the plural of tue, noun ends in n ; ami ' 
 only when the plural ends in s. 
 
 ^^^ The posse^,<ive case is kept chielly for nouns thai art! 
 the names of living beings. A\'e cannot say "the book's 
 page" or "the box's lid," though in poetry avc can say "the 
 temple's roof," etc. There are many jioints that reiiuire to be 
 specially noted about the possessive : — 
 
 (i) The apostrophe (from Or. apo, away, and strophe, a turning) .stands 
 in the place of a lo.st e, the possessive in O.K. having been in many 
 cases es. In the last century the printers always put hop\l, walk'U, 
 etc., for hoped, walked, etc. The use of the apostrophe is quite modern. 
 
CASE. 
 
 21 
 
 lie 
 
 he 
 
 fii) If the Kingular noun finds in s, we nft^n, but not always, write 
 Mf/xcti' rod, for conscience' Kukr, J^hn'fiHH jirc ; uiid yet wo say, and ought 
 to say, Junta' li honks, Wilkins\ hat, St James's, Chatnhers's Journal, etc. 
 
 (iii) We find iu the Prayer-Book, " Vov Jesus Clii-ist his sake." Thi.s 
 arose from the fact that the old pcssessive in es was aonietiincs written 
 Is; and lience the corrujition into his. Then it came to be fancied that 
 •3 was a short form of his. ]i\it this is absurd, for two reasons : — 
 
 (rt) We cannot say that " the girl's book" is = ^Ac r/irl his hook: 
 (b) We cannot say tliat " the men's tools " is-— <Ae men his tools. 
 
 35. How shall we account for tlie cuiitradictcny forms Lord'a- 
 day and Lady-day, Thvirs-day and Fri-day, Wedn-es-day and 
 Mon-day, and foi' tliri curious possessivo "Witenagemot ? 
 
 Lady-day and Friday are fragments of the possessive of feminine 
 Nouns in O.K., which ended in an. Thus, an old possessive of lady 
 was ladyan, which was shortened into ladye, and then into lady. 
 So with Frija, the Saxou goddess of love. Thus we see that in Ladi/- 
 da>/ ami Friday we have old feminine possessives. The word witena- 
 g^emot means tlie meet or intefiiii/ of tlie wltan (^wise men), the 
 possessive of which was wit6na. 
 
 36. 'J'lio Dative Case answers to tin; (|uestion For whom ? 
 or To whom ? It has no separate form for Nouns ; and in 
 Pronouns, its form is tlie same as tliat of the Objective. lUit 
 it has a wvy clear and distinct function in modern English. 
 This function is seen in sucli sentences as — 
 
 (1) lie lianded the lady a chair. 
 
 (2) Mak(» me a l»oat ! 
 
 (3) Woo Avorth till! day! ( =^"\Voe come to the day I) 
 
 (4) Heaven send the Prince a 1 tetter comjtanion I 
 
 (5) Heaven send tlie v^ompanion a hetter Prince; ! 
 
 (G) " Sirvah, kno(d<: me at this gate, 
 
 \\a\) me here, knock me well, and knock me soundly." 
 (iHhakespeare, "Taming of tlie Shrew," 1. ii. 31.) 
 
 (7) Methought I heard a cry ! ( = Meseenis.) 
 
 (8) Hand me the salt, if you please. 
 
 Some grammarians prefer to call this th*^- Case of the Indirect 
 Object; but the term will hardly aj)ply to d(ti/ and ine in (3) 
 and (7). In all the other sentences, tlie dative may be clian^'ed 
 into an objective with the prep, to or for. 
 
 II 
 
 ! 'l|l^ 
 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 ii 
 
 i ! I 
 
 Hi! 
 
■HI 
 
 22 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 (i) Til tli« sixili spnipncfij tlie me's are soinptimeH called Etliiral 
 Datircn, ' 
 
 (ii) III Ml*' Heveul.h sent-eiu'e, methuiKiht \i^ — }iii'senns, or It urems to nti\ 
 TliPre vvprf in O.E. twvi verba— //(/Hfrt»?, to peem ; and thnican, to think, 
 
 (iii) In tlie eiglith sentence I he phrase if you please is // It jileasi 
 you, and the you is a dative. If the you were a nominative, the phras«* 
 would mean if you are a pleasing jx'-rsoh, or if you please me. 
 
 37. The Objective Case is always governed by an active- 
 transitive verb or a preposition. It answers to the question 
 Whom ? or "What ? It is generally placed after the verb. Its 
 form is different from that of tlie Xoniinative in pronouns ; 
 but is the same in nouns. 
 
 (i) The direct object is sometimes called the reflexive object when 
 the nominative and tlie objective refer to the same person — as, " / hurt 
 myself;" "Turn {thou) thee, Lord ! " etc. 
 
 (ii) "When the direct object is akin with the verb in meaning, it i.s 
 sometimes called the cognate object. The cognate (object is found in 
 such phrases as : To die the death ; to run a race ; to Jiyht a fiyht, etc. 
 
 (iii) A second direct object after such verbs as vialce, create, appmnt^ 
 think, suffer, etc., is often called the factitive object. For example: 
 The Queen made him it, general; the Board api)ointed him manager ; we 
 thought him a good man, etc. 
 
 Factitive comes from the Latin fac^rr, to make. 
 
 38. The difference between the Noininative and the Vocative 
 ca.ses is this ; The 2^ominative case must always have a verb 
 with it ; the Vocative cannot liave a verb. This is plain from 
 tlip sentences : — 
 
 (i) John did that, 
 (ii) Don't do that, John ! 
 
 r59 Two nouns that indicate the same person or thing are 
 .=•;.;. 1., ]'(- in apposition; and tw^) nouns in apposition may be 
 
 \l) j'u\,, though the two nouns are in the same case, only one of 
 them has the sign or inflection of the case. Thus we say, " John the 
 gardener's mother is dead," Now, both Johti and gardener are in the 
 possessive case; and yet it is only gardener that takes the sign of 
 the possessive. *. 
 
 4f 
 
PKONnUNR. 23 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. A Pronoun is a word ^hat is used instead of a noun. 
 
 We say, ".Itilin went uway ye.stftrdnv ; he looked quite liappy." 
 Ill this case tlie itroiiunn he stands in the place of John. 
 
 (i) The word pronoun comes from the Latin pro, for ; and notnen, 
 a name. 
 
 (ii) The above definition hardly appUes to the pronoun /. If we say 
 I urite, the I cannot h&\e John. Smith .substituted for it. We cannot 
 say John Smith urite. I, in fact, is the universal i)ronoun for the 
 person speaking ; and it cannot be said to stand in jilace of his mere 
 name. The same remark applies to some extent to thou and you. 
 
 2. Tlie pronouns are among the oldest parts of speech, and 
 liave, therefore, been subject to many changes. In spite of 
 these changes, they have kept many of their inflexions ; while 
 our English adjective has parted with all, and our noun with 
 most. 
 
 3. There are four kinds of pronouns : Personal ; Inter- 
 rogative ; Relative ; and Indefinite. The following is a 
 tahle, with examples of each : — 
 
 PR(^NOUNS. 
 
 I 
 
 
 Personal. 
 I 
 
 Interrogative. 
 
 Who ? 
 
 Relative. 
 
 WllQ. 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 One. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 4. There are three Personal Pronouns : The Personal Pro- 
 noun of the First Person ; of the Second Person ; and of the 
 Third Person. 
 
 5. The First Personal Pronoun indicates the person speak- 
 ing; the Second Personal Pronoun, the person spoken to; 
 ind the Third, the person spoken of. 
 
 6. The First Personal Pronoun has, of course, no distinc- 
 tion of gender. It is made up of the following forms, which 
 are fi'agments of different words : — 
 
 I 4! 
 
24 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TFTE ENflLTSH LANOUACIE. 
 
 
 Sis'rn'i.AK. 
 
 T'r.ruAi,. 
 
 Nominative 
 
 I 
 
 \\'g. 
 
 Possessive 
 
 Miue (or My) 
 
 Our {or Ours). 
 
 Dative 
 
 Me 
 
 Ub. 
 
 Objective 
 
 Me 
 
 Uh. 
 
 (i) We is not = I + I ; because there can bo only one / in all the wnrld 
 We is really - 1 I- he, I + you, or I + they. 
 
 (ii) / can have no vocative aa such. Tf you address yourself, ymi 
 must say Thou or You. 
 
 (iii) The dative is preserved in sucli words and phrases as " Me 
 thinks" ("it seems <o me,"— where the think comes from thincan, tn 
 seem, and not from thencan, to think); "Woe is me;" " Give me the 
 plate ; " " If you please," etc. 
 
 7. The Second Personal Pronoun lias no distinction of 
 
 gender. It litis the followinor forms : — 
 
 Nominative 
 
 Possessive 
 
 Dative 
 
 Objective 
 
 Vocative 
 
 SlXfll'LAU. 
 
 Thon 
 
 Thine [or Thy) 
 
 Thee 
 
 Thee 
 
 Thou 
 
 Pi.t'iiAr.. 
 You (or Ye). 
 Your {or Yours). 
 You. 
 You. 
 You (or Ye). 
 
 (i) Ye was the old nominative plural ; you was always dative ox 
 objective. " Ye have not chosen lue ; but I have chosen you." 
 
 (ii) Thou was, from the 14th to the 17th century, the pronoun of 
 affection, of familiarity, of superiority, and of contempt. Tliis iu still 
 the usage in France of tu and toi. Hence the verl) tntoi/er. 
 
 (iii) My, Thy, Our, Your are used along with nouns; Mine, Thine, 
 Ours, and Yours cannot go with nouns, and they .are always used aloiip. 
 Mine and Thine, however, are used in Poetry and in the }*]nglish Piilile 
 with nouis which begin with a vowel or silent h. 
 
 8. The Third Personal Pronoun requires distinetions of 
 gender, because it is necessary to indicate the .sex of the person 
 we are talking of ; and it has them. 
 
 SiNGUr.AK. 
 
 MAsnu.iNi:. Feminixk. 
 
 Nom. He She 
 
 Poss. His Her (or Hers) 
 
 Dat. Him Her 
 
 Obj. Him Her 
 
 N 
 XlOCTKH. 
 
 It 
 
 Its 
 
 It 
 It 
 
 Plural. 
 
 All Qknokks. 
 
 They. 
 
 Their {or Theirs). 
 
 Them. 
 
 Them. 
 
INTKRHOGATIVE T'ltONOUNS. 
 
 25 
 
 (i) She is rcall}' tlip fcniiniiu: f<( fclie olil ili'iiinii>liiilivo «r, sro, t/mii , 
 anil it lia.^ .^upplantcfl tlm (Ad A.S. i>iiinniin ho, which .-till exist- in 
 Lrtin.ii.-li ire ill the fnirn nf hnn. 
 
 (V\) The old ami pmpcr clativo of it is him. The uld neuter of he wha 
 hit, the t lieiiig tlic iiiHection fur tlio iieiitor. 
 
 liii) Him, the dative, came to be also u.-ed a.■^ (he nlijective. The 
 I'ldest ohjective was hlne. 
 
 9. rii»' I'crsoiuil ri'onoims arp often u.-;piI a;< Refloxivo 
 Pruiioiins. K'fHf'xivn I'ronrmns aro (i) datives ; nr (ij) objec- 
 tives; III' (iii) compounds oi" self uitli the personal pronoun. 
 
 I'ni' ('.\;iiii]tl<' : — 
 
 (i) Dative: "1 pre.ss me iioiie l)ut good householders," said l>y Fal- 
 t-tiiti; ill "Kuig Henry IV.," 1. iv. 2, 16. 
 
 " I made me no more ado," 1. ii. 4, 'J23. 
 
 "Let every soldier hew him down a bough." — Macbeth, V. iv. 6, 
 
 (ii) Objective: Shakesjieare ha.s such phrases as / ichijit vie : J di,v'ohtd 
 vif ; I have learned mc. In modern Hngiish, chietiy in poetry, we have : 
 He »at him down ; Get thcc hcuce / etc. 
 
 (iii) Compounds: I hethouyht myself ; lie wrowjcd himself ; etc. 
 
 dPp 
 
 INTERRO( ;ATJ VK PRONOUNS. 
 
 10. The Interrogative Pronouns iuo those pronouns which 
 Iwc use in asking questions. They an; who, which, what, and 
 I whether. 
 
 (i) The word interroyutlvc comes from the Latin intcrroydrc, to ask. 
 Hence also inter rogatmi, interrogatory^ etc. 
 
 U. Who is lioih masculine ami fwninine, and i.-^ ii.^('(l mdy of 
 hieiwnis. Us neuter is what. ('i'h(! t in what, as in that, is 
 Itlu' old suihx for the neuter jrcnder.) The possessive is whose; 
 [llie objective whom. The following are the forms : — 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 
 . ., ' 
 
 MA.SCULINK. 
 
 Fkminink. 
 
 Nkltkr. 
 
 Nominative 
 
 Who 
 
 Who 
 
 What. 
 
 Posnessive 
 
 Whose 
 
 Whose 
 
 [Whose.] 
 
 Objective 
 
 Whom 
 
 Whom 
 
 What 
 
 M 
 
9Q 
 
 OUAMMAU OF TIIK KNCMFll I.A.N'<;r ACK. 
 
 (ij Who-ir \.< icniUy ii iluLive, like hl-m. Hut wc now u.-*c it only n.^ tin 
 ciltjcutivf. 
 
 (ii) Whose ?/w// ho u.-cil nl' neuters; Init it is almost inviiriably cm- >| 
 ployed t't' |i«'isons (iiilv. 
 
 12. Which I'di'iiiorly lurilc- is a (•oiiiixniiiil word, iiiikIc U)i 
 of ili(3 wh ill who, III Ic, wliicli is a ((Hitractioii of the (>. I',. 
 lic = liko. It llicict ivally iiicaiis, Of irliat sort 'f It iinw 
 asks for one out of .1 number; as, " Here arc several kinds of ^ 
 fruitH : Avliieli Avill ymi liaNc?" 
 
 13. Whether is also a cnnnioniKl \\()\i\, made up of who -i- 1 
 thcr; and ii ini'aiis. Which of the two P 
 
 (i) Tlie thcr in wlut/ur is the Hiune as the thcr in neither, etc. \^ 
 
 I 
 
 KELATIVK Oil (H)NJITNCTIVK IMIONOUNS. 
 
 14. A Relative Pronoun is a |iroiioun -wliieli jinssesses two 
 riin<;tii(»ii.s : (i) ii stands t'<>r a noun ; and (ii) ii joins two sen- 
 lencf's to^'ctliei'. 'I'lial is to say, it is lidih a ])ronoun and a rdu 
 jmietion. l'"or e\ain|ile, \\f say, "This is llie man -whose a])))leH 
 wc lionjj^lit." Tliis siatenii'iii is made up of hvo sentene.es; (i) 
 "This is till' m;in;" and (ii) "We l)ou,i;lii lii.s apples." Tlir 
 rclaiive j)i'oiiouu whose joins tonfcthci' the two sentences. 
 
 (i) Relative I'l'onnuns mii,'lit also lie called conjunctive pronouns. 
 
 (ii) Whose, in the ahovi; sentence, is called relative, because it rcUtu- 
 to the word nuiii. Mmi. is called its antecedent, i>r f/iicr-lnfurc, 
 
 Tlic wonl (infcccdi'tit conn's IVoiatlio L'.'A. aiih-, licforc; uml ccdo, 1 ^,'0. 
 
 15. The iJidaiive rionouns are that; who, which; what, 
 As and but arc also eni[»loye(l as relatives. 
 
 (i) Who, which, and what are also combined with so and ever, aii'l 
 foi-ni Compound Relatives ; such as whoso, whosoever, whatsoever, 
 and whichsoever. 
 
 (ii) That is the ohk-st of our relative pronouns, it is really the neuter 
 of the old demonstrative adj., se, sco, thdct. It ditt'ers from who in two 
 respects : (a) It cannot l)e used after a preposition. We cannot feay, 
 "This is the man with that I went." {h) It is generally employed tu 
 limit, distimjuish, and define. Thus we say, " The house that I built is 
 for sale," Here the sentence that I built is an adjective, limiting or de- 
 fining the noun house. Hence it has been called the defining relative. 
 
INliEriNITK rilONOUNS. 
 
 27 
 
 Who fir which introduce.-, a in'\v facb about tin; iuiLeccdent ; that only 
 iriiirks it otl' from other nouns. 
 
 (iii; Who lifis whose anil whom in tlic poHseHHive iiml nlijcctivc — Itotli 
 ill the sinf^'ului' iiiid in tin? |iluriil. 
 
 (iv) Which is not to Ix* legiirdcd ii.s the neuter of who. It is the f('iiii 
 used when the JinUn'edeiit i.s the nunie of an animal m thing. After a 
 l're[iusition, it i.s Honietinies replaced Ky ir/irrr ; im ichcrcin =^ in which ; 
 nhcrclo - to which, 
 
 (v) What j)erfornirt the function of a coniitound relative — that 4- which. 
 If \vi! e.\aniin(! its function in <litrcrent HcntenceSj we .shall find that it 
 may ne e(|uivalent to - 
 
 ((/) Two Xoniinativcrt ; a.s in 'Thi.s i.s what he is"' ( — the )ieiM)n that). 
 
 ('/) 'J\vo ( )bjectives ; a.s in " He liaH wliat he asked fi ir " ( — the thing tliat). 
 
 [c) Nouj. and Ol>j.; as in " This is what he asked for "( — (he thing that). 
 
 ((/) Otij. and Noiii.; as in " 1 know what he is" ( — the ]»ei-son that;. 
 
 (vi) As is the pidiiei' relativi^ after the adjective.s SUCh and same. Aa 
 i^, however, properly an adverli. "Thi.'i i.s the .same h.s 1 had" id — "This 
 is the same as that which I had." 
 
 (vii) But is the pioper relative a,*^ter 'i negative; a?; " There was no 
 !ii,iu liut would have died foi' lier." Here but — who + not. (This in 
 like the Latin u.se of <{niii - qui + mm). 
 
 INDEKIXITK PRONOUNS. 
 
 16. All Indefinite Pronoun i- ;i ])n»iiMiiii that docs not .stand 
 111 the plact; of a inuiu wliioh is tlic iiauii' i'ni' a definite person 
 or thing, liut i.s iisctl vaguely, and without a distinct reference. 
 
 17. The chief Iiidetinitc Pronouns aic one, none; any; 
 other; and some. 
 
 (i) One is the best in.stancc of an indehnite pi'diioun. it is simjily the 
 (.irdinal one used as a pronoun. In O.K. we u.sed man; and we still find 
 "lie examj)le in the l>ible — Zech. xiii. .'» : " Man taught nic to keep i;attle 
 fmiii my yinith." One, as an indefinite pronoun, lias two pecuUarities. 
 It (a) can be put in the possessive case; and ('<) can take a plural 
 form. Thus we can say : (n) " One can do wliat one likes with one's own ;" 
 iiiid (h) " I. want .some Ing ones." 
 
 (ii) None i.s the negative of one. " None think the great uuhapjiy 
 hut the great." But none in mostly plural. No (the adjectivcj is a 
 sliurt form of none; as a is of an; and in)/ of viinc. 
 
 (iii) Any is derived from an, a form of one. It may be used a.s an 
 adjective also — either with a singular or a plural nouu. When used sm a 
 pronoun, it is generally plural. 
 
 1|| 
 
2f^ 
 
 GllAMMAll OK THE KNfiUSlI LAN<;UAr,K. 
 
 (iv) Other io an ther. The ther is tlic miuu; a.-* tliaL in cithrr, 
 irhcthrr ; and it alwajM indicatcri that i>nc of two is taken into thf5 
 mind. 
 
 (v) Some is eitlicr singular nr phiral. It im singular in thu phiu-t 
 Some one ; in all other iuHtances, it is a plural pronoun. 
 
 # 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. All Adjective is a word tliut goes with .i noun to dcscrilir 
 Ml point nut tli(' tliiiij; denoted by tlio rmun — and liciicc lu liiiiiL 
 tlio ji|)i»lioaii(Mi of tlui noun ; or, more simply, — 
 
 Adjectives arc noun-marking words. 
 
 (i) Adjectives do not assert explicitly, like verlis. Thoy a.s,sprt Im- 
 plicitly. Hc-,!je they arc implicit predicates. Thus, if 1 .say, " I met 
 three old men," I make three statements: (1) I iiH-t men ; (2) The men 
 were old ; (.'}) The men were three in number. Hut these statementH 
 are not explicitly made. 
 
 (ii) Adjectives enlarge the content, hut limit the extent of the id(!a 
 expressed by the noun. Thus when we say " w/i i7f horses," \vc put a 
 larger content into the idea of horse; hut, as there are fewer whilt 
 horses than homes, we limit tlie extent of the notiiwi. 
 
 2. All adjective cannot stand by itself. It nnust have with 
 it a noun eitlier expressed or understood. In the senteiiru 
 "The good are lia[)[iy,'' persons is understood after i/omf, 
 
 3. Adjective.s are of four kinds. Tliey are (i) Adjectives of 
 Quality; (ii) Adjectives of Quantity; (iii) Adjectives of 
 Number; (iv) Demonstrative Adjectives. Or we may .say, - 
 Adjectives are divided into 
 
 'f ADJECTIVES 
 
 Qualitative. Quantitative. Numbering. Demonstrative. 
 
 These four answer, respectively, to the ([uestioJis — 
 (i) Of what sort? (ii) How much? (iii) How many? (iv) Which? 
 
 4. Qualitative Adjectives denote a (quality of tlie suLjeut or 
 tiling named by the noun; such as blue, icliite ; happy, sad} 
 big, little. 
 
 (i) The word qualitative comes from the Lat. qualis^ot what sort. 
 (ii) Most of these Adjectives admit of degrees of compariaon. 
 
AD.IRCTIVKS. 
 
 on 
 
 f). Quantitative Adjectives ilcnott' titlwr quantity or in- 
 definite number; ninl tiny vn\\ j^o citlu'r (i) with llit* singular, 
 i.r (ii) with thf plural of iininis, cir (iiij with liuth. Tin- I'olinw- 
 iiii,' is :i list ; — 
 
 Any. CVrtaiu. Vow. Miuli. Sninc. 
 
 All! Divers. I.ittlf. N... \Vliul.>. 
 
 I'm. til. lOiiiiuxh. .Miiiiy. Spv«'ral. 
 
 (I) We tiinl t.lio pliriiscs : /.Itt/r unil ; litllr trim/ ; ntiirh /,liiisure ; iimre 
 ,<( Hdf ; .ionic ulerj), eti'. 
 
 (ii) We find tJn; iilirase.s : All men; mti/ persons; hoth lioi/a ; neirntl 
 jiiiutirln, (iU\ 
 
 (iii) We find the plinisos : Auif man and tinif mm; ni> man ami no 
 mm; inmit/h rum an<l xnldlrrx i>i<iii(/h : smiif f/oif and si>nii' lioi/i>, t'tc 
 
 6. Numbering <•!• Numeral Adjectives cxpn'ss tht^ number of 
 till' thiiij.,'s or pcr.son.s IndiciittHl by the ikhui. They arc- <,'('nerally 
 ilivi(k'(l into Cardinal Numerals ami Ordinal Numerals. 
 Hut Ordinal Nunioral.s art' in reality DcmonstrativH Adjectives, 
 
 (i) Numeral '-oineri fnmi the Lat. nunterus, a number. Hence alf^o 
 come nuiiicroufi, numerical, and nurnhi'r {the b serves a.s a cushion between 
 the 771 and the r). 
 
 (ii) Cardinal comes from the T<at. rardo, a hinge. 
 
 (iii) Ordinal comes from the Lat. oril'), order. 
 
 7. Demonstrative Adjectives arc thosi', wlach arc used to 
 point out the thing cxprcs.'^ed l)y the noun ; and, ])csi(h's indi- 
 I iiliiijf a pcr.son or thing, tlicy also iiidiciite a relation cither to 
 the speaker or to .something else. 
 
 (i) Demonstrative fumes from tin' bat (It'iiwiistm^l jiciiiit out. From the siune 
 iMot come monster, monMrous, fi(\ 
 
 8. Demonstrative Adjectives are of three kind-s : (i) Articles ; 
 (ii) Adjective Pronouns (often s(.) called) ; and (iii) tlie Ordinal 
 Numerals. 
 
 (i) There are two articles (better call them distinguishing adjectives) 
 in our language : a and the. a is a broken-down form of ane, the 
 northern form of one; and before a vo\,el or silent h it retains the n. 
 In some phrases a ha.s its old sense of one ; as in "two of a trade ; " "all 
 ijf a size," etc. 
 
 • " An two men ride on a horse, one must ride behind. '* 
 
 Shakespeare (Much Ado about Nothing, III. v. 40). 
 
 n\ 
 
 I* 
 
30 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENOLTSII TANOUAGE. 
 
 i 
 
 (ii) We must \>c careful to distinguish the article a from the broken- 
 down ])repusition a in the phrase " twice a week." Tliis latter r/ is a 
 fragment of o« ; and the phrase in O.K. was " tuwa on wucan. " Simi- 
 larly, the in '" the V)ook " is not the same as the in " the more the mei-rier." 
 The latter is the old ablative i)i ihaet ; and is — by tliat. 
 
 (iii) Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives aie so called lie- 
 cause they can be used either as adjectives with the n<juii, or as 
 pronouns for the noun. They are divided into the following four 
 classes : — 
 
 (a) Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns - This, these; that, tho-^p ; 
 yon, yonder. 
 
 (/>) Interrogative Adjective Pronouns— \'. hich ? what f whether (of 
 the two) ? 
 
 (c) Distributive Adjective Pronouns— b/ich, eveiy. cither, neithei-. 
 
 ((/) Possessive Adjective Pronouns -My, thy, his, her, ci.'. ('l'he<e 
 words perform a double fuiicliuii. Tliey are adje<'tives, because they 
 go witli a noun ; and jirononns, because tiu'y stand for the noun or 
 name of the pers(ni sjieaking oi' spoken of.) 
 
 (iv) Tlie Ordinal Numerals are : First, secoml, third, etc. 
 
 9. Some adjectives are used as nouns, and therefore take a 
 plural form. Tliius we liave Romans, Chi'i'sf/'a//-^, .<ii[i('rl<)i:<, 
 "Iders, oiics, otliars, nnhles, etc. .Some take tlie foini ef tlie 
 possessive case, as i'ither\<, iie!fhi'r.-\ 
 
 (i) The phiral of one as an adjective is two, three, etc. ; of oh? as a 
 noun, f*»''.s'. Tims we can say, "These are j)oor strawberries, bring me 
 better f>Hf\s'." Other numeral adjectives may V>e used as nouns. Tims 
 Wordsworth, in one of his shorter poems, has — 
 
 "Tlie sun lias^liiiij^ liet'ii set ; 
 
 The staj's are out by ficu.s- ;iiiil threi'^ ; 
 Tlie liltK' liinls are pilling yet 
 AlilOTi^ tlie Vmslies ainl trees," 
 
 (ii) Our language is very whimsical in this matter. We ran say 
 Romanx iind /tnli<in.f; Imt we cannot say F/v >(<•/( r.v and /iittrh/ y. Milton 
 has (Paradise Lost, iii. 4oS) ChineseK. 
 
 y 
 
 NUMEKALS. 
 
 10. Cardinal Numerals are tliose wlii<'li indicate uuml)(Ms 
 alone. Some of l!iem are originally nouns, ;is <f<>::r//, hun- 
 dred, thousand, and inllUoii ; but these may also Ite used as 
 adjectives. 
 
NUMERALS. 
 
 31 
 
 
 rl 
 
 (i) One was in A.S. an or anc. I'he pronunciation wiin is from a west- 
 f-rn dialect. It is still rightly sounded in its cdmiKiunds atnne, ahnte, 
 litnelij. None and no arc the negatives of uuc and o ( — (tn and a). 
 
 [u) Two, from A.S. twegen mas.; twa fem. The fnj-m /(rrr/r?; appears 
 
 in (mtin and ^i('/>(,the^ having been alis(irl)Cil. 
 
 (iii) Eleven = en tone' + lif (ten \ Twelve = twe (two) -i- lif (ten). 
 
 (iv) Thirteen = three + ten. The r ha.s shifted its place, as in third. 
 
 (v) Twenty = twen (two)+tig (ten\ Tig is a ,ioun, meaning "a set 
 often." 'i"he guttural was lost, and it hecanie ^/. 
 
 (vi) Score, from A.S. t^reran, to cut. Accounts of sheep, cattle, etc., 
 were kept hy n(it('hes dii a stick ; and the twentieth nntch was made 
 deeper, and was called t/w cut — t/w score. 
 
 11. Ordinal Numerals an- Adjectives of Relation funnt-.l 
 mostly from tln^ Cardinals, i li<'y arc : First, Second, Third, 
 Fointli, t"tc. 
 
 fi) Fl.dt is a contraction of the A.S. fi/rrrst (farthest). 
 
 (ii) Second is lujt Kng. 1>ut Latin. The O.K. for second was other. 
 Second comes (tlirough French) from rhe Latin, sectDulus, following - 
 that is, following the first. A following or favourable breeze (''a wind 
 that /o//ojrs fast") was called by the Romans a " secundus veutus." 
 Secundua comes from Lat. seiiuor, 1 follow. Other words fn)m the 
 same root are .ic'iuei, consei/uence, etc. 
 
 (iii) Third, by transposition, from A.S. thrldda, A third part was 
 called a /Ar(f//H7 (where the r keeps its right jilace) ; as a fourth part 
 was a,fo)ii't/i!ni/ ovfurthinif. Thridin;/ was gradually changed int o Jiidint/. 
 one of the three parts into which Yorkshire was divided. 
 
 (iv) in eigh-th, as in ei</h-tern, a t has vanished. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 \V^ 
 
 THK INFLKXION ()!• AD.IKl TTVES. 
 
 12. The luodorn English adjrctivf has lost all its ohl iidh^xions 
 for gender and case, and retains oidy two t^r number. 'Ihest' 
 two aro fhrsf (the jthiral of ////•>) and f/m.--,' (the phiral of t/iu/). 
 
 (i) The older i»lural was thise — pronounced these, and then so spelled. 
 Ill this instance, the spelling, as so seldom happens, has followed the 
 inonunciation. in general in the English language, the sjielliiig and the 
 ]irominciation keep <[uite apart, and have no intluence on each othei'. 
 
 (ii) Those was the oldest plural of thi,<, but in the 14th century it 
 came to be accepted as the plural of that. 
 
 ( ii 
 I 
 
IHIH 
 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TTTE EXrjJSH T.ANdUAr.K. 
 
 13. ^[ost ndjcftivcs are now iiillci-U-il for piii'po^^es of com- 
 parison only. 
 
 14. Thoi'fA arc, three Degrees of Comparison : ihc Posi- 
 tive; tlin Comparative; ami tlu' Superlative. 
 
 (i) The word dff/rre ooiiios fmiii ilif French def/n', wliidi it„splf ooiiiei* 
 fruin the Latin /y/7/(/»,s', a .st<'|). Kioiii the nuuw rout v<>\w yrailc, iinid- 
 nal, degrade, etc. 
 
 15. Tlie Positive Degree is tlie simple form of tlif adjfM^- 
 tive. 
 
 16. Tho Comparative Degree is that form of the adjiHitivc 
 which shows that tlic quality it oxjwsses lias been raised one 
 step or degree higher. Thus wo say t<h((rp, sharper; cold, 
 colder; brave, hrarcr. 'i'lie (MJinparative dogree l)rings together 
 only two ideas. I'hus avl' may sp(!ak of " the taller of the two," 
 but not "of the three." 
 
 Comparative conios from tlie Lat. compam, I briiiK to^'etlicr. 
 
 17. The Comparative degree is formed in two ways : either 
 (i) by adding er to the positive ; or (ii) if the adjt'ctivt^ has two 
 syllabh^s (the last ending in a consonant) or more, ))y placing 
 the adverb more before the adjective. 
 
 Ilni.ES : I. A silent e is dropi)ed ; as brave, braver, 
 
 II. A y alter a cuntjonaiit is changed into i before er, etc. ; as happii, 
 happie?: 
 
 III. A final consonant after a short vowel is doubled ; as red, 
 redder; crmi, crmlhr. 
 
 IV. In choosing between er and more, sound and custom seem (,o 
 be the safest guides. Thus we should not t^ny M'J refer, but viore select; 
 not infirmer, but more infirm. Carlyle lias beaiitifalhsi, etc.; but his is 
 not an example to l»e followed. 
 
 18. The Superlative Degree is that form of the adjective 
 which shows that the (piality it exi>resses has been raised to the 
 highest degree, 'i'lie sujierlative degree rerpiires that three 
 things, or more, 1ie compared. Thus "He is the tallest of the 
 two " would be incorrect. 
 
 Superlative comes from tiie Lat, sujjerlatu'iis, lifting up above. 
 
 19, The .^ 
 
 by adding ei 
 svilablcs (til 
 ihf adverh r 
 
 (i) Ifapp 
 
 20, Som<' 
 express, do i 
 Irff, r!'ihf ; , 
 jii-lind, etc. Jj 
 
 21, 'J'he I 
 comparisons 
 
 Pos- 
 
 IT1VL-. 
 
 lia.l 
 l-vil 
 
 111 
 
 i'ar 
 
 [Forth] 
 
 Fore 
 
 Good 
 
 Hind 
 
 ( 
 
 I'AH 
 \S( 
 W( 
 
 wc 
 fai 
 fui 
 for 
 bel 
 hii 
 
 fi) Worse a 
 
 (W(ir comes f 
 aiul the full ( 
 lentury (Shali 
 
 > (ii) The th 
 ogy with /«/•// 
 iher is used t)f 
 
 (iii) Formei 
 .1 loiuparative 
 
 'iv) Better 
 hdun, to make 
 
 (v) Later ai 
 
 space (ir in a .s( 
 letst. 
 
 (vi^ Less do( 
 \\pak. Least - 
 
 (vii) Nighesi 
 gln-8 = k + s = 
 
ADJECTIVES. 
 
 33 
 
 19. Tlio Siipoi'lative ilcf^'rcc is f»)niit'd in two ways: oiihor (i) 
 ]iy aiMin^f est to ilie positive ; or (ii) if the adjective lias twu 
 syllaldes (the last eii(Uii<f in a eonsoiiant) <>v movo, 1iy plaein^' 
 ihc ailverl) most l)efi.»re tin; adjective. 
 
 (i) Ifappiett. (ii) Moi^t rerput ; most hemitifttl. 
 
 20. Some adjectives, from the. v«n'y nature of llie ideas they 
 oxjiress, do not admit of comjiarison. Such are [lohieiiy icoodeii; 
 Irfl, )•/</// f ; •^(jHKre, trkuupilar ; ire.rl-Jt/, iiKtuthhj ; fffvnal, jter- 
 jii'liKil, etc. V" 
 
 21. The most frecjuently used adjectives liave irregular 
 comparisons. Tlie following is .a list : — 
 
 I'nS- 
 
 COM- 
 
 SUPKR- 
 
 I'ns- 
 
 COM- 
 
 SCPER- 
 
 iTivi:. 
 
 I'ARATIVK. 
 
 l.ATIVK. 
 
 nivi:. 
 
 I'ARATrvE, 
 
 I.ATIVK. 
 
 Had 
 
 wor.se 
 
 wor.st. 
 
 Late 
 
 later 
 
 latest. 
 
 Kvil 
 
 wor.se 
 
 wor.st. 
 
 Late 
 
 latter 
 
 last. 
 
 III 
 
 wor.se 
 
 worst. 
 
 Little 
 
 less 
 
 least. 
 
 Far 
 
 farther 
 
 farthest. 
 
 Many 
 
 more 
 
 most. 
 
 [Forth] 
 
 further 
 
 furthest. 
 
 Mucii 
 
 more 
 
 most. 
 
 Fore 
 
 formei' 
 
 foremost. 
 
 Nigli 
 
 nigher 
 
 Highest (next). 
 
 (iood 
 
 better 
 
 best. 
 
 Old 
 
 older 
 
 oldest. 
 
 Hind 
 
 hinder 
 
 hindmost. 
 
 Old 
 
 elder 
 
 eldest. 
 
 
 [Rathe] rat 
 
 her 
 
 [rathest.] 
 
 
 'i) Worse and worst come, not from ljfi(f, but from the rootwfo?-, evil 
 (War comes from the sanae root.) The s in irorse is a part of the root ; 
 and the full comparative is really wnrsrr, wliich was used in the 10th 
 lentury (Shakespeare, "Hamlet," III. iv. ]r>7). Worst — imrsest. 
 
 (ii) The th in farther is intrusive. Farther h formed on a false anal- 
 ogy with further ; as could (from <vni) is with would (from will). Far- 
 ihtr is used uf progre.s.sion in xjxire ; further, of progression in reasoning. 
 
 (iii) Former was in A.S. forma ( = first). It is a su})Prlative form with 
 a loiiiparative .sense. 
 
 'iv) Better comes from A.S. />r^ — good— a root which was found in 
 liUin, to make good, ami in the plira.se to boot --'^ to the good." 
 
 (v) Later and latest refer to time ; latter and last to position in 
 space or in a series. Last is as by a.ssimilation from latst ; an best is from 
 Uht. 
 
 (vi) Less does not come from the lit in little ; V»ut from the A.S. las, 
 \veak . Least - laesest. 
 
 t'vii) Highest is contracted into next ; aa highest wa.s into hext. Thus 
 gh i 8 = k + s = x. 
 
 m 
 
34 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 \ (viii) We say " the oldest man that ever lived, " and " the elde;<t of 
 j the family." Older and oldest refer to n)ere immher ; elder and eldest 
 
 to a family or corporate group. 
 
 (ix) Rathe is still found in poetry. Milton has "the rathe primrusp, 
 tliat forsaken dies ;" and Coleridge, "twin huds too rathe to hear the 
 winter's unkirid air." Tlie Irish pronunciation raifthrr is the old Eng- 
 lish pronunciation. 
 
 (x) Hind is used as an adjective in the phrase " the hind wheels." 
 
 22. The iolldwiiii,^ ai'o defective comparatives and superla- 
 tives : — 
 
 ('oMi'AiiA'i'ni:. 
 aftei' 
 inner 
 outei- (or utter) 
 
 SUPERLATIVK. 
 
 Innermost. 
 
 outermost (or uttermost), 
 
 nethermost. 
 
 uppermost. 
 
 PnSITIVi;. 
 
 [Aft] 
 
 [fnl 
 
 [Outl 
 
 — — - nethei- 
 
 < )ver 
 
 [Up] upper 
 
 (i) After, as an adjective, is found in ufternutth and afterthowjht. 
 
 (ii) In is used as an adjective in the word in-side; and as a noun in 
 the phrase "the ins and outs" nf a question. 
 
 (iii) In tlie inns of law, the utter-bar (outer-bar) is opjiosed to the 
 ■ iiner-bar. 
 
 (iv) The neth in nether is the same as the neath in beneath. 
 
 (v) The ov in over is tlie i>ve in alxrve, and is a dialectic foiMn of nv. 
 It is Btill found in sudi iiames as Over Leicfh in Cheshire, and Ovir 
 Darwen in Lan(\a.shire. 
 
 (vi) Hindmost, uttermost, are not compounds of most, hut aie 
 double superlatives. There was an uld sui)erlative ending ema, whicii 
 we see in Lat,. ejrti'Pmus, suprenum, etc. It was forgot<,en that Miis was 
 a superlative, and est or OSt was addeil. Thus we liad hiudeina, mid- 
 etna. These afterwards became hlndmont and inidmoxt. \^ 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 1. The Verb i>i tliat "part of speccli "' liy inoaiis of wliidi 
 wo make an assertion. » , 
 
 It is tlic keystone of the arch of speech. 
 
 (i) The word verb comes from the Lat. verhum, a word, it is sd 
 called V)ecause it is the word in a sentence. If we leave the verb out 
 of a sentence, all the other words become mere nonsense. Thus we can 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 36 
 
 ul 
 
 say, " I saw him cross the bridge." Leave out itaw, and the other words 
 liave ii<» meaning whatever. 
 
 ^ii; A veil- has sunietimes been callfNl a telling word, anil this is a 
 gndd and simple definition for yonni( learners. 
 
 TlIK CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 
 
 2. Verbs are divided into two (^lasses — Transitive and 
 Intransitive. 
 
 3. A Transitive Verb denotes an action or fetdinrj whieli, 
 ,is il were, passes over from tlio doer of tlie action to the 
 object of it. "Tlie boy broke the stick;" "lie felled tlie 
 tivf, ;" "lie hates walkiiio-." 
 
 In these .sentences we aie able to think of the action of breaking and 
 felling as passln;/ over to the stick and the ti'ee. 
 
 Triiimitlrc omnps IViiin llii' r,;il. \crli translre, to jiass ovor. 
 
 Tilt' more correct delnuticjn is this : — 
 
 A Transitive Verb is a verb that requires an object. 
 
 This definition covers the instances of luivr, oirn, ^/o.f.w.s'.s-, inherit, etc., 
 as well as break; strike, fell, etc. 
 
 4. An Intransitive Verb denotes a state, feeling, or action 
 which does not pass over, but which terminates in the doer or 
 
 iigeiit. " He sleeps ; " " she M'alks ; " "the grass grows." 
 
 5. There is, in general, nothing in the look or appearance 
 of the verb) which will enalile us to tell whether it is transitive 
 or intransitive. A transitive verl) may he used intransitively; 
 an intransitive verb, transitively. in a few vorlis we possess 
 a causative form. Thus wo have: — 
 
 TsTKANSiTn I'. Causative. 
 
 (Juoth bequeathe. 
 
 Itise Raise. 
 
 Sit Set. 
 
 Watch 1 Wake. 
 
 Wring ' ^^'ren(•h. 
 1 Tlii'se art' also um-i1 transitively. 
 
 The. following exceptional usages should be diligently 
 
 IKitf'd ; — 
 
 1. Intransitive vcrhs may Ix' used transitively. Thu.s — 
 
 (il (a) He walked to boudou. [Ij) He walked ins horse, 
 
 (a) The eagle flew. (6) The boy flew his kite. 
 
 IS H 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Intka.nsitivi:. 
 
 CaI SATIVH 
 
 P.ite • 
 
 Bait. 
 
 1 
 
 Deem ' 
 
 l)o(ini (verl)). 
 
 1 
 
 Drink' 
 
 Drench. 
 
 1 
 
 I'all 
 
 I'Vll. 
 
 ■ 
 
 bie 
 
 bay. 
 
3C 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TIIK ENOTjaTI LANOUAOE. 
 
 (ii) Wlion the intraTisilive vcrli is coitijkxukIciI with :i pro- 
 position eitlier (i) scpuralth', oi' (ii) insopariUih'. 
 
 (i) (a) He laughed, 
 (ii) («) He came, 
 (iii) (rt) He Hjjoke, 
 
 Siu'li vt'ihs aif sonietiuiPs calleil " Preposititnial Vt-il.s." 
 
 (h) He laughed-ai ine. 
 
 {h) He oventaine the enemy. 
 
 (h) He bespoke a pair of boul,a. 
 
 I r. Transitive vei'l)s may Ix*. iiswl intransitively — 
 (i) With tliH pronoun itself understood : — 
 
 (a) He broke the dish. 
 (a) She shut the door, 
 (a) They moved the UJ 
 
 (b) The sea breaks on the rocks. 
 {h) The door shut, suddenly. 
 (h) The table moved. 
 
 (ii) When the verb de.scnb./s a fact perceived hy the senses : — 
 
 (a) He cut the beef, 
 (a) He sold the books, 
 (a) She smells the rose. 
 
 (''^ '^he beef cuts tough. 
 ((>} 'i'h?. Vooks sell well. 
 (b) The rose smells sweet. 
 
 The following is a tahular view of the 
 
 KINDS OF VERBS. 
 
 INTRANSITIVE. 
 
 TRANSITIVE. 
 
 Of State. 
 
 (Sleep.) 
 
 Of action. 
 
 (Run.) 
 
 Active. 
 
 (Wound.) 
 
 I 
 Passive. 
 
 (Be woundeil.l 
 
 THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS. 
 
 6. Verbs are changed or modified for Voice, Mood, Tense, 
 Number, and Person. These changes are expressed, partly hy 
 inflexion, and partly by the use of auxiliary verbs. 
 
 (i) A verb is au auxiliary verb (from Lat. auxilium, aid) when its 
 own full and real meaning drops out of sight, and it aids or helps the 
 verb to which it is attached to express its meaning. Thus we say, " He 
 works hard that he may gain the prize ; " and here maij has not its old 
 meaning of potoer, or its present meaning of permission. Rut— 
 
 (ii) If we say " He may go," here maif is not used as an auxiliary, 
 but is a notional verb, with its full meaning ; and the sentence is = 
 " He has leave to go."~^ 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 Voice. 
 
 87 
 
 7. Voice is that form uf the Verh hy Avhirh 'Vfc show 
 wliotlicr the subject of the statement deiiutes the. doer of the 
 H(lioii, or tlie object of the iietioii, <'xpr(!sse(l by the verh. 
 
 8. TJiere arc two Vuiee.s : the Active Voice, and the Passive 
 Voice. 
 
 (i) When H vcrl) is used in tlio active voice, 
 
 the subject of tlie sentence staiuls fur 
 
 tlie doer of tlie action. " He killed the mouse." 
 
 (ii) When a verb is in the passive voice, 
 
 the subject of the sentence stands for 
 
 the Object of the action. "The niou.se was killed." 
 
 Or we may say that, in the passive voice 
 the grammatical subject denotes the real 
 object. 
 
 (iii) Thei'e is in English a kind of middle voice. Thus we can say, 
 "He opened the door" (active); "The door was opened'' (passive); 
 "Tiie door opened" (middle). In the same way we have, "This wood 
 cuts easily ; " " Honey tastes sweet ; " " The Ijook sold well," etc. 
 
 9. All Intransitive Verb, as it can liave no diri-et object, 
 cannot be used in tlic passive voice. Hut, as we liavc seen, 
 we can make an intransitive into a transitive verb by adding 
 a l)re[)Osition ; and hence we can say : — - 
 
 AcTivi;. 
 {(i) They laughed at him. 
 [a) The general spoke to him. 
 
 Pasoivk. 
 [Ii) He was laughed-at by them. 
 [h) He was spoken-to by the general. 
 
 10. In changing a verb in the active voice into the pa.ssive, 
 uc may make eitlicr (i) tlie direct ov (ii) the indirect object 
 into the subject of the passive verb. 
 
 Pass IV K. 
 
 (i) A chair was ottered her. 
 (ii) She was offered a chair. 
 
 (i) The house was shown hiui. 
 (ii) He was shown the house. 
 
 (i) A coat was promised the boy. 
 (ii) The boy was promised a coat. 
 
 ACTIVK. 
 
 1. They offered her a chair. 
 rl. They showed him the house. 
 J. I promised the boy a coat. 
 
 The object after the passive verb is not the real object of that verb, for 
 a i)as8ive verb cannot rightly take an object. It is 10 over, as it were, from the 
 active verb, and is hence sometimes called a Reaidnary Object. 
 
 / 
 
 !! 
 
 ii 
 
 M 
 
38 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANflUAOE. 
 
 11. Tlio passive voice nf a vcrli is fnnncd liy using a part 
 of tlio verb to bo and the past participle of tlic verli. Tims 
 we say — 
 
 A< TIVK. 
 
 I lieat. 
 
 1'a>sivi;. 
 I am beaten. 
 
 A( Ti\ i;. 
 I liave Vieateii. 
 
 Pahsivk. 
 I have l)cen licateii. 
 
 ■A-^" 
 
 (i) Sonie Intransitive verh.s fomi Lheii- iierfcct tenses \>y means (if tlic 
 verb to he and their ])a.st [(articiple, as "I am come ;" " ITe is gnno." 
 liut the uiaiiihiif liere is (luite ditt'erent. Tlierc is no mark of anything 
 done to the subject of the verl). 
 
 (ii) Shakenpeare has the plirases : is run; in arrival; arc inurc/uU 
 forth; is enteral into ; is stolen awai/. ^ 
 
 l\[0()l). 
 
 12. 'I'lie Mood of fi verb is tlie manner in -wliicli tbt> state- 
 iiieiit iiiado by tlie verl) is presented to tlu^ mind. Is a 
 .slatenieni Jiiade directly? Is a eonimaiid given? Is a stat(-- 
 nient subjoincHl to another? .Ml tliese are dillereni moods or 
 modi's. There are four moods : the Indicative ; the Impera- 
 tive ; the Subjunctive ; and the Infinitive. 
 
 (i) Indicative comes from tlie Lat, indiciirr, to ynwl out. 
 
 (ii) Imperative comes from the Lai. impcrdrc, to cummainl. Hence 
 •aXuo emperor, empress, etc. i,tln'ough Fi-euch). 
 
 (iii) Subjunctive comes from l^at. suhjunyPrr, to join on to. 
 
 (iv) Infinitive comes from Lat. iufinltus, unlimited ; becaui^e the verli 
 in this mood is not limited by jwrson, nuinher, etc. 
 
 13. The Indicative Mood makes a dii'ect assertion, oi' puts 
 a <piestion in a direct manner. Thus wo say : " John is ill ; " 
 "Is John ill?" 
 
 14. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command, 
 request, or entreaty. Thus we say : " do I " " Give me the 
 book, please ; " "Do eome baek ! " 
 
 (i) The Imperative Mt^od i.s the pure root of the verb witliout any 
 inflexion. 
 
 (ii) It has in reality only one person — the second. 
 
 15. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb which 
 is used in a sentence that is subjoined to a principal 
 
I i 
 
 - THK VEHB. 
 
 m 
 
 sentence, — aiitl ■\vliicli docs not cxjtross a fact directly, Init 
 only tins relation of a fact to the mind of tlic speaker. 
 Most often it expresses Loth doubt and futurity. 'I'lms avo 
 s;iy : (i) *'<.)that lie were liere l" (ii) "Love not sleep, lost 
 tliMii come to i)overty." (iii) "Whoever he he, he cannot ho 
 a j,'(.»od man." 
 
 (i) In the linst .scaieiice, the iter.suii i.s )i<>t here. 
 
 (ii) In the seoond, the person spiiken to has not come to jiovcity ; hut 
 he niiiy. 
 
 (iii) In the tliini, we do 7i(>t know who the jterson n.-ally is. 
 
 (iv) The Subjunctive Mouil is rapidly dying out of u.>e in modern 
 EngHsh. 
 
 16. The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verh M-hich 
 has no reference to any agent, and is therefore nnlimited hy 
 pLTSoii, hy nuniher, or l)y time. It is the ^■erh itself, pure and 
 
 !<i]ll|tlc. "' 
 
 (i) The preposition to is not an essential ]»art noi' a necessary sign of 
 llic infinitive. The oldest sign of it was the ending in an. After iiki//, 
 oni, skull, wiU, laust, bid, dure, dn, ht, make, hcnr, scr, fnJ, need, the 
 Miiiple infinitive, without to, is still used. 
 
 ui) The Infinitive is really a noun, and it may he [(i) either in the 
 nominative or (b) in the obj. case. Thus we have: {a) "To err i.i 
 liuman ; to forgive, divine ; " and (h) '• 1 wish to go." 
 
 (iii) In O.E. it was decUned like any other lujun ; and the dative case 
 ended in anne. Then to was placed l)efore this dative, to indicate 
 puri>ose. Thus we find, "The sower went out to sow," when, in O.K. 
 /" sow was to sawennc. This, which is now called the gci-undial inhnitive, 
 has become very ccjmmon in English. Thus we have, " I came to see 
 you;" "A liou.se to let." "To hear him (— ,on liearing him) talk, you 
 Would think he was worth millions." 
 
 (iv) We nmstbe careful to distinguish between {a) the pure Infinitive 
 and [b) the gerundial Infinitive. Thus we say — 
 
 ((t) 1 want to see him. {b) I went to see him. The latter is the 
 gerundial infinitive — that is, the old dative. 
 
 (c) The gerundial infinitive is attached (1) to a noun ; and (2) to an 
 
 adjective. Thus we have such phrases a^ — 
 (1) Bread to eat ; water to drink ; a house to sell. 
 r (2) Wonderful to relate ; quick to take offence ; eager to ijo. \^ 
 
 17. A Gerund is a noun formed from a verb by the addition 
 of ing. It may be either (i) a subject ; or (ii) an object ; or 
 
 ! 
 
 'I 
 
 ilMi;|i, 
 
 SS}\ 
 
40 
 
 GKAMMAIl OF THE ENnUSlI L.\^i;iUA(JE. 
 
 (iii) it maybe govcnicil l>y a \m\])i)Hi['u)u. It lia.s two fuiu'ticm.s ; 
 that of a noun, ami that of a vei'b- that is, it /s itself a nuiiii, 
 and it //'^•'• the governing power of a vcrh. 
 
 (i) Hertfliiig Ih i)leasHiit. (ii) 1 like icii<liiig. (iii) He gnfc uH' liy • rus,- 
 ing the river. In tliiH last Hentence, crosiiiuy is u noun in relation tu /-//, 
 and a verb in i-elation to river. 
 
 (fcritud I'omcs from the Lat. fjcrn, I carry on ; because it cnrricn on 
 the power or function of the verl>. 
 
 (ii) The Gerund must he caiefully flistiiiguished from three other 
 kimlrt of words : (a) from the verbal noun, which used to end in uii'j; 
 {h) from the present participle ; and (c) from the infinitive with to. 
 The following are examples : — 
 
 (a) "Forty ami six years was tliis ti'iii- 
 plo ill building." Here building is a 
 verbal noun. 
 
 (6) "Dreaming as lie went along, lie 
 fell into the brook." Here dredviing is 
 an adjective agreeing witli he, ami is there. 
 fore a participle. 
 
 (c) "To write is quite easy, when one 
 lias a good pen." Here ti) write is a pres- 
 ent infinitive, and is the nominative to is. 
 (It must not be forgotten that the oldest 
 intinitivc had no to, and that it still exists 
 in this pure form in such lines as " Better 
 dwell in the midst of alarms, than reign 
 in this horrible place." 
 
 00 "He was punished for robbing the 
 orchard." Here rahbing is a gerund, Im- 
 cause it in a noun ami alsw governs a noun. 
 
 (/)) " He was tired of dreaming sudi 
 dreams." Here dreaming is a geruml, 
 because it is a noun and governs a noun. 
 
 (c) " He conies liere to WTite his letters " 
 Here to write is the gerumlial intinitivt'; 
 it is ill the dative case ; and the O.K. 
 form was to writanne. Here the to lias 
 a distinct meaning. This is the sn- 
 culled "infinitive of purjiose;" but it is 
 a true gerund. In the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, when the sense of the to was weak- 
 ened, it took a for, — "What went ye out 
 for to see?" 
 
 (iii) The following three word.s in inij have each a special function :— 
 {a) He is i-eading about the passiny of Arthur (verbal noun). 
 {h) And Arthur, pu,ssin(/ thence (participle), rode to the wood. 
 fc) This is only good for 2^0 ss bit/ the time (gerund). 
 
 18. A Participle is a verbal adjective. 'J'here are two pin- 
 ticiples : tlie Present Active and the Perfect P^tssive. Tin; 
 former (i) lias two funetions : that of an adjective and tlial 
 of a verb. The latter (ii) has only the function of an adjective. 
 
 (i) " Hearing the noise, the porter ran to the gate." In this sentence, 
 hearing is an adjective qualifying porter, and a verb governing noise. 
 
 (ii) Defeated and discouraged, the enemy surrendered. 
 
 t^ 1 . We must be very careful to distinguish between (a) the gerund in 
 vig, and (6) the participle in ing. Thua running in a " running stieam " 
 
'I'lIK VKUH, 
 
 41 
 
 iH an iidjective, ami therefore a i)articii)le. In the phraKO, " in running 
 along," it irt a noun, and tliereforo a gerund. Milton says — 
 
 " Ami uvcr, u^'uinst e.itinK I'lirts, 
 Laii nil,' ill siift l.ydiiui iiiis I" 
 
 Hore ratinij id an adjective, and inmxwA fnttinij ; and it U tlierefore a 
 participle. But if it had meant cares about catiny, eutliKj would liave 
 been a noun, and therefore a gerund. So a jishimj-rod is not a rod 
 that Hifhci ; n fr>/lut/-j)an in not n pan that frits; a iral kin;/- at tc/c in \wt 
 a stick that W(dks. The rod in a rod for jhhiiKj ; the \>m\, i\ ikih f>r 
 frying; tiie stick, a stick for icalkiwj ; and therefore jishiivj, fri/itirj, 
 and xmlking arc all gerunds. 
 
 '2. The word participle conies from Lat. participdrc, to partake of. 
 The participle partakes of the nature of the verb. (Hence also j<«r- 
 licipate.) 
 
 Texse. 
 
 19. Tense is the form wliicli the vcrlt takes to iiulicato time. 
 
 There are, in liumau life, thre(! times : past, })resent, and 
 
 future, llenco there are iii a verb three chief tenses : Past, 
 
 I Present, anil Future. These may Le represented on a 
 
 '^tniiylit hue : — 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 Fast. 
 1 1 wrote. 
 
 Present. 
 I write. 
 
 Future. 
 I shall write. 
 
 (i) The word tense comes to us from the French tciiipix, which is from 
 the Lat. tcvipus, time. Hence also temporal, tcmporarii, etc. (The modern 
 French word is temps; the old French word was tens.) 
 
 20. The tenses of an English verb give not only the time of 
 Ian action or event, but also the state or condition of that 
 laction or event. This state may b(; complete or incomplete, 
 |or neither — that is, it is left indefinite. These states are 
 |oltener called perfect, imperfect, and indefinite. The con- 
 |dition, then, of an action as expressed by a verb, or the con- 
 lition of the tense of a verb, may be of three kinds. It may 
 De— 
 
 (i) Complete or Perfect, as Written, 
 
 (ii) Incomplete or Imperfect, as Writing, 
 (iii) Indefinite, as Write. 
 
 ! \ 
 
 i ' 
 
42 
 
 (lUAMMAIf OK TIIK KNCILISII LANliUAOE. 
 
 i^'^ 
 
 We now liavc llicrcfurc! — 
 
 TKNSHS. 
 
 Past. 
 
 ProBont. 
 
 Future. 
 
 I 
 
 Vcrftrt, Indef. Jmperf. I'rr/ed. Imirf. lm]ier/. Verfeit. Imli/. Iini^vrj. 
 
 Hji'l Wrote. Whs Have Write;. Am Sliall Nliall Sliall Lo 
 
 wriltuii. writing'. wrillcii. writing'. Imvi; write, wnliiio'. 
 
 written. 
 
 (i) 'I'h»; (inly tcn.se in mir liinguugc that in fnnnod by Inflexion is tlie 
 past indefinite. All tlic; othors are fornuMl l>y tlie aid of auxiliaries, 
 
 {n) Tlio imiicrfc'ct teiiscrt arc formed by be -f- the imperfect 
 
 participle. 
 (Jj) The pei-fcct tenses are formed by have + the perfect par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 (ii) Besides had written, have written, and will have written, we can say 
 had been wrlllnri, have hern writing, and will have been wrltlnij. These 
 are Hoinetimes called Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Continuous, Perfect 
 Continuous, and Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 (iii) "I do write," "I did write," arc called Emphatic forms. 
 
 Number. 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 21. Yorl)s art' mndilicMl for Number. Tlicrc arc in verl)s 
 two numbers : (i) the Singular and (ii) llio Plural. 
 
 (i) We say, " }Te writes " (with the ending s). 
 
 (ii) We say, " They write" (with no inflectional ending at all). 
 
 ' 1 
 
 \ 
 
 Person. 
 
 22. VcrLs ar(>, niodifieil for Person— lliat is, tlic form of tlio 
 V(m1) is changed to snit (i) tlic first person, (ii) the second 
 person, or (iii) the third person. 
 
 (i)" I write." (ii) " Thou writest." (iii) "He writes." 
 
 Conjugation. 
 
 23. Conjugation is the name given to the srini-totul of all the | 
 inllexions and conihinations of the parts of a verb. 
 
 The word conjugate cornea from the Lat. conjugarc, to bind together. 
 
tup: vki.t.. 
 
 r.3 
 
 24 Tlioro lun two conjn;^'!itiotis in Kii<^'lisli — the Strong iiiid 
 llic Weak, llciicc we li;i\c: (i) verbs of tin; Strong Con- 
 jugation, mul (ii) vtJi'bs of tlio Weak Conjugation, wliich 
 are iiuT'' usually callcMl Strong Verbs and Weak Verbs. 
 Those. \ an; distinj^uislKul from cat'h other l»y their way 
 
 if forming their past tenses. 
 
 25. Th<! luist tense of any veih detcfrniines to which of Iheso 
 tlasscs it helon^'s ; and tliat by a twofold test — ont; jiosiiivt^ and 
 
 diic n('j,'!itive. 
 
 26. (i) 'i"he. positivf^ test for Hk- pa.st of a Strong Verb 
 li,> lliiit it changes the vowel of the present, (ii) 'I'he ne^M- 
 Itive test is that it never adds anything to the i)resent to make 
 |its past tense. 
 
 (i) Tims we say write, wrote, mul t'liuuge the vowel. 
 (ii) But in wrote there is iiotliiiig added to write. 
 
 27. (i) positive t(!st for the past ttnisc of a Weak Verb 
 
 Is that d oi o is added to tlic ]»resent. (ii) 'I'Im; ne^Mtive test i.s 
 
 pit the root-vowel of the present is generally not changed. 
 
 (i) There are Hoiiie excciitioiis to this latter statement. Thus tell, 
 told; buy, bought ; sell, sold, are weak verlis. 'I'he change in the vowel 
 dues IK it .sfiring from the same cause as the cluinge in strong verbs. 
 He'\c'e — 
 
 (ii) It is as well to keep entirely to the positive test in the ca.se of 
 weaiv verlis. However "strong" or "irregular" may .'<eem to he tlio 
 verbs teach, taught ; seek, sought ; say, said, we kiww that they are 
 weak, because they add a d or a t for the ]ia.st tense. 
 
 (iii) In many weak verbs there seems to be lioth a change of vowel 
 and also an absence of any addition. Hence they look vcri/ like strong 
 verbs. Ill fact, the long vowel of the ]ireseut is made short in tlie pa.st. 
 
 [Tims we find meet, met; feed, fed. But these verlw are not strong. 
 The old pasb was mette and fedde ; and all that has h<a2)pened is that 
 they have lost the old inflexions te and de. It was owing to the addi- 
 
 jtiim of another syllable that the original long vowel of the verb was 
 i^hurteued. Compare nation, national ; vain, vanity. 
 
 (iv) The past or passive participle of strong vei'bs had the suffix en 
 jiiud the ])refix ge. The suffix has now disappeared from many strong 
 [verbs, and the prefix from all. But ge, which in Chaucer's time had 
 jbeeu refined into a y (as in yeomen, yronnen), is retained still in that 
 jfurm in the cue word yclept. Milton's use of it in star -y -pointing is a 
 liuistake. 
 
 >< 
 
 
 
 i:|Hi 
 
 Ii 
 
11 
 
 '•■AMMAIt OK 'IlIK ENfJLISH I.ANdUAGK. 
 
 i ; 
 
 28. Tl 
 
 H\ followiii 
 
 ^' is itii 
 
 
 
 
 I'nj^. J 'lis 
 • S'i'.il stole 
 
 
 AL1MIAI5I 
 
 rriCAL LIST 
 
 OF STIlOXfJ VKIil'.S. 
 
 Mi^'k stuc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mini,' stUll) 
 
 (All Htrong verbs except those which iiave a 
 
 Itrcjix. arc; n 
 
 lonosyllabic.) 
 
 Mink stanl 
 
 
 
 The forms in i 
 
 .alios are 
 
 ivvftk. 
 
 
 Miiiic str(jd 
 
 /•/v.v. 
 
 /'(liiL 
 
 l',txti. /'art. 
 
 Tnx. 
 
 Va»l. 
 
 Pdsa. I'lirt, 
 
 Sniki- st.i'uc 
 
 A hide 
 
 aliode 
 
 abode. 
 
 Fly 
 
 Hew 
 
 llown. 
 
 Stiiii^' >ti-ui 
 
 Aris«! 
 
 
 , 
 
 1 ^ 1 
 
 (• 1 
 
 ,• 1 
 
 .'^'livc strov 
 
 ari >s(! 
 
 arisen. 
 
 lM)rbear 
 
 toi'liiir(! 
 
 !iii-boinf. 
 
 
 Awake 
 
 awoke 
 
 awoke 
 
 Forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten. 
 
 ."^'.w'nr s\V'>n' 
 
 
 {(twiikid] 
 
 {(iini />(■(/ ). 
 
 l''orsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsak(,Mi. 
 
 .'"'Aim swam 
 
 liear 
 
 Ixire 
 
 born. 
 
 l"'reezc 
 
 fi-oze 
 
 fro/en. 
 
 .'^»inK swuii; 
 
 (hring f 
 
 .rth) 
 
 
 Cat 
 
 got 
 
 got, g.jttcii 
 
 T:ll^(' look 
 
 J{ear 
 
 liore 
 
 liorne. 
 
 (iive 
 
 gave 
 
 given. 
 
 (carry) 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 vvnl 
 
 gone. 
 
 It is well fo 
 
 l?eat 
 
 l)out 
 
 licaten. 
 
 (!rin(1 
 
 gi'oiniii 
 
 ground. 
 
 
 l?egin 
 
 l)egaii 
 
 begun. 
 
 (J row 
 
 grew 
 
 grown. 
 
 ( 1' -r|y, ;ill(l to 
 
 J^ehoia 
 
 beheld 
 
 beheld (bc- 
 
 Dang 
 
 Imng 
 
 hung, 
 
 '1 ii'' fnlliiwillLf i 
 
 
 
 liolden). 
 
 
 [lutiKjcil) hanyal. 
 
 
 I?i(l 
 
 "nade, l>id 
 
 bidden, bid. 
 
 Ib.ld 
 
 held 
 
 held. 
 
 (i) Collect 
 
 Hind 
 
 bound 
 
 liound. 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 known. 
 
 (ii) \'erbs w 
 
 IMte 
 
 i)it 
 
 bitten, bit. 
 
 Lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain. 
 
 AH (iii) Vcrl)s w 
 
 I'.low 
 
 blew 
 
 blown. 
 
 ]{idc 
 
 rode 
 
 I'iddcn. 
 
 ^B (iv) Verbs w 
 
 Break 
 
 lirokc! 
 
 Itroken. 
 
 King 
 
 rang 
 
 rung. 
 
 ^B (v) Verbs w 
 
 Hurst 
 
 l)urst 
 
 burst. 
 
 Rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen. 
 
 j^B (vi) Verbs w 
 
 Chide 
 
 chid 
 
 chidden, 
 
 Run 
 
 i-an 
 
 run. 
 
 ^B (vii) Verbs 
 
 
 
 chid. 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 seen. 
 
 tl^ (viii) Verbs w 
 
 Chouse 
 
 chose 
 
 cho.sen. 
 
 Seethe 
 
 ^inlisnthid) sodden. 
 
 ^H (ix) Verbs w 
 
 Cleave 
 
 dove 
 
 cloven. 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken. 
 
 ^B (x) Verbs vv 
 
 (split) 
 
 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone 
 
 shone. 
 
 ^H cliosc, chosen. 
 
 Climb 
 
 clouib 
 
 (clhiihal). 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot. 
 
 ^^^B 
 
 Clhig 
 
 flung 
 
 clung. 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk. 
 
 ■ 29. Weak Ve 
 
 Come 
 
 came 
 
 come. 
 
 Sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung. 
 
 Hflnil(ii) Regula 
 
 Crow 
 
 crew 
 
 crown 
 
 {cruiccd). 
 dug. 
 
 Sink 
 
 sank 
 
 sunk, 
 sunken. 
 
 Ka.^ tell, told ; b 
 
 Dig 
 
 dug 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat. 
 
 ■^•■rhs as attend. 
 
 Do 
 
 .lid 
 
 <lone. 
 
 Slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain. 
 
 ^B (i) Tiie Fri-egu 
 ^B syllables, a; id arc 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn. 
 
 Slide 
 
 slid 
 
 slid. 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk, 
 
 Sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung. 
 
 
 
 
 drunken. 
 
 SUnk 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk. 
 
 H (ii) The Regulf 
 H 'Sinee the langua^ 
 
 Diive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven. 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten. 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten. 
 
 Speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken. 
 
 H evoiy verb reo«jiv 
 
 Fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen. 
 
 Si)in 
 
 spun 
 
 spun. 
 
 ■ I'laceu in the Reg 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought. 
 
 Spring 
 
 sprung 
 
 sprung. 
 
 ^BB 1 nil 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 found. 
 
 Stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stood. 
 
 B 1 lie past tenses 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 liung. ^ 
 
 Stave 
 
 Btove 
 
 staved. 
 
 •ive participles of hi 
 

 
 
 THE 
 
 VERB. 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 PHK. 
 
 /'(i.st. 
 
 /V«.-i. / 
 
 •art. 
 
 I'ris. 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 Pans. Part. 
 
 Steal 
 
 Ktdlo 
 
 .Stdlfll. 
 
 
 Tlirivo 
 
 throve 
 
 
 tluiven 
 
 Sti.'k 
 
 stuck,' 
 
 st ui'k. 
 
 
 
 (thr'inil) 
 
 ithrirvil). 
 
 Stiiii; 
 
 st.uiiK 
 
 .■-tUIlf.'. 
 
 
 Tlirnw 
 
 threw 
 
 
 thi-owii. 
 
 Stink 
 
 ,st,iiiik 
 
 stunk. 
 
 
 Tn-a.l 
 
 trn.l 
 
 
 fioddeii, 
 
 Striili' 
 
 sirndo 
 
 sf.li<l(l(Ml 
 
 
 
 
 
 trod. 
 
 Strik'' 
 
 stl'Ui'k 
 
 struck. 
 
 
 1 Wuko 
 
 W(>k»! 
 
 
 {wiihi<l). 
 
 Striiit,' 
 
 .-t.i-uiij,' 
 
 struii^^. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 {wak 
 
 al) 
 
 
 Strive 
 
 strov*! 
 
 sli'ivcii. 
 
 
 AN'.ar 
 
 wore 
 
 
 WOIll. 
 
 Sweiii' 
 
 .SW"I'(^ 
 
 SWDI-Il. 
 
 
 W.>av(> 
 
 wove 
 
 
 woven. 
 
 Swim 
 
 Hwaiii 
 
 swum. 
 
 
 Win 
 
 Won 
 
 
 won. 
 
 Swint; 
 
 SWUIIK 
 
 swuu^. 
 
 
 Win.l 
 
 \S(-unil 
 
 
 wound. 
 
 T;ikc 
 
 t k 
 
 taken. 
 
 
 AViiuK 
 
 wrun^' 
 
 
 wrun^. 
 
 'Way 
 
 1-1 >vo 
 
 torn. 
 
 
 \\-rit(' 
 
 wrot.e 
 
 
 written. V 
 
 It is well for the. yoiMi;.,^ Iriinicl' tn cxaiiiilK; the iihovc vorha 
 Miuscly, iiiul t(» iii;ik<' ii classiliciitinii (if \\\v\\\ for lii.s own iiso, 
 ^Tlif ftjllowiiij.,^ arc a f«'w sii,L,'^'csiioii.s ti>\var(ls this task : — • 
 
 (i) Collect verhs with vowels a, e, a ; llkf fall, fell, fallen. 
 
 (ii) Verhs with 0, e, ; like throw, t.liiew, thrown, 
 (iii) Vcrl).s with 1, a, U ; like hegin, began, hegun. 
 (iv) Verbs with 1, u, u ; like liing, (lung, Hung. 
 
 (v) Verbs with i, ou, ou ; Hk( find, found, found. 
 (vi) Verbs with ea, 0, 0; like break, broke, liroken. 
 (vii) Verbs with i, a, i ; like give, gave, given, 
 (viii) Verbs with a, or 00, a; like shake, shook, shaken, 
 (ix) Verlis with i (long), o, 1 (short) ; like drive, drove, <h-iven. 
 
 (x) Verbs with ee or 00, 0, ; like freeze, froze, frizen ; nr elionsft, 
 chose, chosen. 
 
 29. Weak Verbs arc f»f two kinds; (i) Irregular Weak; 
 [ami (ii) Regular Weak. Tlic lrrc;.,'ular AVcuk arc kucIi vcr1)3 
 as tell, told ; buy, bought. The Kc^adar Weak are sucli 
 vil)s as attend, attended ; obey, obeyed. 
 
 (i) The Irregular \\'eak verbs are, with very few exceptions, mono 
 •syllables, and are almost all of purely English origin, 
 
 (ii) The Regular Weak verbs are entirely of Latin or of French origin. 
 Since tlie language lost the jtower of changing the root-vowel of a verl), 
 every verb received into our tongue from another language has V>een 
 placeu in the Regular Weak conjugation. 
 
 
 ill 
 
 ' The past tenses of lUy and stick were formerly iveah ; so were the pas. 
 bive participles of hide, rot, show, strew, saw. 
 
46 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 (iii) The ed or d is a Kliortened form of did. Thus, I loved is = I 
 love did. 
 
 30. Irregular Weak verbs are thcnisclvL's (iividi'd into tw^ 
 classes : (i) tliose which keep their ed, d, or t in the i)i\<' 
 tense ; (ii) those wliich liave lost the d or t. Thus we fin! 
 (i) sleep, slept ; teach, taught. Anion^' (ii) we find feed, fed, 
 which was once fed-de ; set, set, which was once set-te. 
 
 It is of the greatest importance to attend to the followin; 
 clianges : — 
 
 (i) A shai'p consonant follows a sharp, and a flat a flat. Thus p i:. 
 sleep is sharp, and therefore we cannot say slcipcd. We must take tii'' 
 sharp form of d, which is t, and say slept. So also felt, burnt, dreamt, 
 etc. 
 
 (ii) Some verbs shorten their vowel. Thus wo liave J^ear, heard ; flee, 
 fled ; sleep, slept, etc. 
 
 (iii) Some verbs iiave dilferent vowels in the ])resent and past: ii- 
 tell, told ; buy, bought ; teach, taught ; work, wrought. 15ut it is i^ • 
 the past tense, it is the present that has changed. Tlius the o in t>k 
 represents the a in talc, etc. 
 
 (iv) Some have dropped an internal letter. Thus male is = maked; 
 paid — payed ; had - haved. 
 
 (v) Some verbs cliange the d of the present into a t in the past. Thu; 
 we have build, built ; send, sent. 
 
 (vi) A large class have the three parts — present, pjist, and passive | 
 particijjle — exa(;tly alike. Such are rid, set, etc. 
 
 ,^a"he following is an 
 
 ALPKAr.i-lTK'AL LIST OF IKliKGULAR WEAK VERBS. 
 
 Class I. 
 
 Prea. 
 
 Bereave 
 
 Beseech 
 
 Bring 
 
 Burn 
 
 Buy 
 
 Catch 
 
 Cleave 
 
 (split) 
 Creep 
 Deal 
 Dream 
 
 Past. 
 bereft 
 besought 
 brought 
 burnt 
 bought 
 caught 
 cleft 
 
 crept 
 dealt 
 dreamt 
 
 Pass. Part. 
 
 bereft. 
 
 besought. 
 
 brought. 
 
 burnt. 
 
 )K)ught. 
 
 caught. 
 
 cleft. 
 
 crept, 
 dealt, 
 di-eamt. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Dwell 
 
 Feel 
 
 Flee 
 
 firave 
 
 Have 
 
 Kew 
 
 Hide 
 
 Kee]) 
 
 Kneel 
 
 Lay 
 
 Lean 
 
 Past. 
 dwelt 
 felt 
 fled 
 graved 
 had 
 hewed 
 hid 
 kejit 
 knelt 
 laid 
 leant 
 
 Pass. Part 
 
 dwelt. 
 
 felt. 
 
 fled. 
 
 graven. 
 
 had. 
 
 liewn. 
 
 hidden. 
 
 kept. 
 
 knelt. 
 
 laid. 
 
 leant. 
 
 Learn 
 
 Leap 
 
 Leave 
 
 I.ose 
 
 Make 
 
 Mean 
 
 Pay 
 
 Ten 
 
 k 
 
 in 
 ni 
 pa 
 pe 
 
 Rap (to ra 
 transport) 
 Hive 
 Hot 
 Say 
 Saw 
 Seek 
 Sell 
 Shave 
 
 rot 
 sai 
 sa\ 
 sou 
 sole 
 .slia 
 
 ' Rotten, t 
 [lassive par til 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Bend 
 
 Bleed 
 
 Blend 
 
 Breed 
 
 Build 
 
 Ca^t 
 
 Clothe 
 
 C'nst 
 
 Cut 
 
 Feed 
 
 i;il(l 
 
 Gird 
 
 Hear 
 
 Hit 
 
 Hurt 
 
 Knit 
 
 Lead 
 
 Lend 
 
 Let 
 
 Light 
 
 Pa 
 
 bent 
 bled 
 blen 
 Iji'ed 
 builj 
 cast 
 clad 
 (c] 
 cost 
 cut 
 fed 
 gilt 
 
 (gi 
 girt 
 
 hearc 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt 
 
 knit 
 
 led 
 
 lent 
 
 let 
 
 lit(lig 
 

 
 
 THE 
 
 "'SRB. 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pass P 
 
 irt. 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pass. Part. 
 
 
 Learn 
 
 learnt 
 
 learnt. 
 
 
 Shear 
 
 sheared 
 
 shorn. 
 
 
 Leaj> 
 
 leapt 
 
 leapt. 
 
 
 Shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod. 
 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left. 
 
 
 Show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown. 
 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost. 
 
 
 Sleep 
 
 sh'pt 
 
 slept. 
 
 
 >hike 
 
 made 
 
 made. 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown. 
 
 
 Mean 
 
 meant 
 
 meant. 
 
 
 Spell 
 
 spelt 
 
 speit. 
 
 
 ray 
 
 |)aid 
 
 paid. 
 
 
 Spill 
 
 spilt 
 
 spilt. 
 
 
 Pen 
 
 pent 
 
 pent. 
 
 
 Strew 
 
 sti'cwed 
 
 strewn. 
 
 
 
 (penned) 
 
 
 Swee[> 
 
 swejit 
 
 swept. 
 
 
 Raj. (to 
 
 rapt 
 
 rapt. 
 
 
 Swell 
 
 swelled 
 
 swollen. 
 
 
 lran.<iini 
 
 •t) 
 
 
 
 Teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught. 
 
 
 Hive 
 
 rived 
 
 riven. 
 
 
 Tell 
 
 told 
 
 t.dd. 
 
 
 Rot 
 
 rutted 
 
 rotten. 
 
 1 
 
 Think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought. 
 
 
 Say 
 
 said 
 
 said. 
 
 
 Tie 
 
 tied 
 
 tight. 1 
 
 
 Saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 sawn. 
 
 
 Weei. 
 
 wept 
 
 wept. 
 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought. 
 
 
 Work 
 
 wrought 
 
 wrought.^ 
 
 
 Sell 
 
 mdd 
 
 sold. 
 
 
 
 worked 
 
 Worked. 
 
 
 Sliave 
 
 shaved 
 
 shaven 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ' A'r 
 
 ttrn, t!;/ht, 
 
 and wr<iH 
 
 '//tt are 
 
 now used 
 
 as adjoctiv( 
 
 s, and not as 
 
 A 
 
 [la.-'i^ivt 
 
 parti(;ii)les 
 
 ; op. ivrm 
 
 i(jht iio 
 
 n, a li;//i( k 
 
 lot, ratten wood. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cr.As 
 
 s H. 
 
 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pass. P 
 
 art. 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pass. Part. 
 
 
 Bend 
 
 bent 
 
 bent. 
 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met. 
 
 
 Bleed 
 
 Ide.l 
 
 ble.L 
 
 
 Put 
 
 put 
 
 JiUt. 
 
 
 Blend 
 
 blent 
 
 Ident. 
 
 
 Ltoa.l 
 
 read 
 
 read. 
 
 
 Breed 
 
 l)red 
 
 bred. 
 
 
 Rend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent. 
 
 
 Build 
 
 built 
 
 built. 
 
 
 Hid 
 
 rid 
 
 ri.l. 
 
 
 Cast 
 
 east 
 
 cast. 
 
 
 Send 
 
 sent 
 
 sent. 
 
 
 Cluthe 
 
 (lad 
 
 clad 
 
 
 Set 
 
 set 
 
 set. 
 
 
 
 (clotlied) (v\ui 
 
 hed). 
 
 Shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed. 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost. 
 
 
 Shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shred. 
 
 
 Cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut. 
 
 
 Shut 
 
 shut 
 
 slmt. 
 
 
 Feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed. 
 
 
 Slit 
 
 .<lit 
 
 .^lit. 
 
 
 (Hid 
 
 gilt 
 
 gilt (gi 
 
 Ided). 
 
 Speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped. 
 
 
 
 (gilded) 
 
 
 Spend 
 
 spent 
 
 spent. 
 
 
 Uird 
 
 girt 
 
 gii't. 
 
 
 Spit 
 
 spit 
 
 s[tit. 
 
 
 Hear 
 
 heard 
 
 heard. 
 
 
 Split 
 
 s]ilit 
 
 split. 
 
 
 Hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hit. 
 
 
 Spread 
 
 s]iread 
 
 spread. 
 
 
 Hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt. 
 
 
 Sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweat. 
 
 
 Knit 
 
 knit 
 
 knit. 
 
 
 Thrust 
 
 thrust 
 
 thrust. 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 led 
 
 led. 
 
 
 Wen.l 
 
 wended 
 
 wentled. 
 
 
 Lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent. 
 
 
 
 or went 
 
 
 Let 
 
 let 
 
 let. 
 
 
 Wet 
 
 wet 
 
 wet. 
 
 
 Light 
 
 lit(light€ 
 
 d) lit (ligl 
 
 ted). 
 
 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 I- ! 
 
 ^1 
 
 Jr 
 
48 
 
 nUAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 31. I'cfoiv we can learn llic full conjugation of a vcrh, we 
 must a('i|iiaint ourscjlvt's with all the parts of tlie auxiliary 
 verbs -Shall and Will; Have and Be. 
 
 (i) If be moans oxist,(MU'0 tnoi(>ly (as in ilio sentence (Jon is), it is 
 called a notional verb; it' it is used in the formation of the jiassivp 
 voice, it is an auxiliary verb. In the same way, have is a notional 
 verb when it means to possess, as in tiie sentence, " I have a shilling." 
 
 32. The following arc the parts of the verh Shall : — 
 
 Indicative Moon. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. I shall. 
 
 ■J. Thou shal-t. 
 
 '.i. JIo shall. 
 
 Si))(/ula?'. 
 
 1. I shoul-f/. 
 
 2. Tlu)u shoul-rf-st 
 
 3. He slioul-(/. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Imp. Moon 
 
 Inf. Mood 
 
 J'/ural. 
 
 1. We shall. 
 
 2. You shall. 
 i). They shall. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. Weshoul-rf. 
 
 2. You shoulf/. 
 ;3. They .shoul-d 
 
 -. PARTimn-ES . 
 
 (Should comes from an old dialectic form ahol.) 
 33. The following are tlu^ parts of the verlj Will :- 
 
 Indicative Mood, 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1. 1 will. 
 
 2. Thou wilt. 
 
 3. He will. 
 
 Si III/ Ilia r. 
 
 1. I would-(/. 
 
 2. Thou would -(^st. 
 
 3. He woul-(/. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Imp Moon 
 
 Ink. Moon 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We will. 
 
 2. You will. 
 
 3. They will. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. AVe would -rf, 
 
 2. You woul-f/. 
 
 3. They woul-d 
 
 Pahticiples 
 
 (i) Shall and will are used as Tense-auxiliaries. As a tense-auxiliary, 
 shall is used only in the first person. Thus we say, I shall write ; 
 thou wilt write ; he will write — when we speak merely of future time. 
 
THK VEKR, 
 
 49 
 
 (ii) Shan't is — isli all not. Won't is--- wol ikiI, iroMx-iiiL,' an oldtT fnrru 
 (if all!. We tiiid wi>L also in wd/i/i - nn old tipoUiiig of iroii/d 
 
 (iii) Shall i;i tho 1st |n'rsoii oxpnjssos sitiiplf; futurity; in the 2d and 
 ,'?cl jicisons, authority. Will in tin; 1st jx^-son o.\i>rcssos determination ; 
 ill the lid and .'5d, only futurity. 
 
 34. 'I'lii' following arc tlu; piirts (»f tlic vcrl) Have :— 
 
 t^itujular. 
 
 1. I have. 
 
 2. Thou ha Bt 
 ;i }Ie iia-s. 
 
 Indicativk Mood. 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Plum!. 
 
 1. We have. 
 
 2. V'ou have. 
 .3. Thov have. 
 
 Sluyuhtr. 
 
 1. r have had. 
 
 2. Thou hast had. 
 '■]. He has had. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. Wo have had. 
 
 2. Vou have liad. 
 '.). 'I'hcy liave had. 
 
 (i) Hast = havest. Compare f'm and fw/t. (ii) Had-haved. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Shviulur. Pluntl. 
 
 1. T had. 1. We had. 
 
 2. Thou had-St. 2. You '"ad. 
 ?K He liad. 3 They had. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Tense. 
 Sinyular. Plurnl. 
 
 1. I liad had. 
 
 2. Thou hadst had. 
 ;i He had had. 
 
 1. We had had. 
 
 2. Vou had ha<l. 
 :i. Thev had ha<l. 
 
 Future Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have. 1. We shall have. 
 
 2. Thou wilt liave, 2. You will have. 
 
 3. He will have. 3. They will have. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I sliall have had. 1. We .sliall have had. 
 
 2. Thou wilt liave had. 2. You will have had. 
 
 IIH ill' 
 
 3. He will have had. 
 
 3. They will have had. 
 
50 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE FNaUSlI I.ANGUAGE. 
 
 Si'BJUNCTivK Mood. 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Sinfjular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have. 1. We have. 
 
 2. Thou have. 2. You have. 
 
 3. He have. 3. They have. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have liad. 1. We have had. 
 
 2. Thtm liave had. 2. You have liad. 
 
 3. He have had. 3. They have had. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Same in form as in tlie Indicative ; but witli no inflexion in 
 second person. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 Same in form as in tiie Indicative ; but with no inflexion in 
 second iier.son. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had. 1. We Iiad. 
 
 2. Thou luul. 2. You had. 
 
 the 
 
 tlio 
 
 3. He iuid. 
 
 3. TJK'v had. 
 
 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had had. 1. Weliadhad. 
 
 2. Thou had had. 2. You liad hud. 
 
 3. .[e had liad. 3. They had liad. 
 
 Imperative Mood. — Singular : Have ! Plural : Have ! 
 Infinitive Mood.— Present Indefinite : (To) have. Perfect : (To) have 
 PAUTicirr.Es. — Imperfect: Having. Past (or Passive) : Had. 
 Compound Perfect (Active) : Having had. 
 
 35. Tlio following arc tlio parts of llie verl) Be : — 
 
 Indicative Mood, 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am. 1. We are. 
 
 2. Thou ar t. 2, You are. 
 
 3. He is. 3. They are. 
 
 mil. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. I 
 
 2. 1 
 
 3. f 
 
 1. I 
 
 2. 'J'l 
 
 3. Hi 
 
 Future lu 
 
 I shal 
 
 
 Sin< 
 
 1 
 
 . lb 
 
 2 
 
 . Th< 
 
 3 
 
 . He 
 
 1. 
 
 Si 
 Ihr 
 
 2. 
 
 Tho 
 
 3. 
 
 He] 
 
 
 Si, 
 
 1. 
 
 I we 
 
 2. 
 
 Tlioi 
 
 3. 
 
 He^^ 
 
 
 Sin 
 
 1, 
 
 I haf 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou 
 
 3. 
 
 Heh 
 
TTTE VERB. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 51 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I have been. 
 
 2. Thou ha.st been, 
 
 3. He has been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been. 
 
 2. Yuu have been. 
 
 3. They have beeu. 
 
 Fast Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 1. I wa.s. 1. We were. 
 
 2. Thou wast or wert. 2. You were. 
 
 3. He was. 3. They were. 
 
 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I had been. 1. We had been. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been, 
 
 3. He had been. 3. They liiul been. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense, 
 I shall have been, etc. 
 
 1 
 
 Future Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I shall be, etc. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I 1)0. I. We bo. 
 
 2. Thou bo. 2. You be. 
 
 3. He be. 3. They be. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sltujalar. Plural, 
 
 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 
 
 2. Thou liave been. 2. You have been. 
 
 3. He have been. 3. Thoy liave been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I were. 
 
 2. Tliou wert. 
 
 3. He were. 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense, 
 
 Plural, 
 
 1. We were. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. 'J'hey were. 
 
 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 T had been. 
 Thou had been. 
 
 3. He had been. 
 
 1. We had been. 
 
 2. You had been. 
 
 3. They had beeu. 
 
 ill 
 
52 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENCLTSII LANGUAGE. 
 
 Fast Indefinite (Compound Form). 
 Sinyular. Vlural 
 
 1. I should Uo. 
 
 2. Thou shoulil bo. 
 
 3. He .should he. 
 
 1. We should he. 
 
 2. You should he. 
 
 3. They should be. 
 
 Future Perfect (Compound Form). 
 
 Sinfjular. Plural. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 I should have been. 
 Thou .should have beeu 
 He should have been. 
 
 1. We should have Ijeen. 
 
 2. You should have been. 
 
 3. They should have been. 
 
 Imi'KUAtivk Mood. — Simjuhir: Be! Plural: l'>e ! 
 
 Infinitive Mood.— Present Indefinite : (To) be. Present Perfect : 
 
 (To) have Ih'OU. 
 
 Pauticipf.e.s. — Present : Being. Past : I'oen. Compound : ITavhig been. 
 
 We lliid the sliort simiilo form Be ! in Coleridge's line— 
 
 '• Be, rather tliun be called, a cldlil of God ! " 
 
 (i) It is plain from the above that the vei'b Be i.s made up of fragments 
 of three different verbs. As when, in a battle, several companies of a 
 regiment have been severely cut ui>, and the fragments of those that 
 came out safely are afterwards formed into one company, so lias it been 
 with the verb be. Hence the verb ought to be printed thus : — 
 Am 
 
 was 
 
 been. 
 
 (ii) Am is a different verb from was and been. The m in am is tlu^ 
 same as the m in me, and marks the first person. The t in art is tlip 
 same as the th in thou, and marks the second person. Comjiare ici'/t 
 and shal-t. Is has lost the sufhx th. The Germans retain this, and say 
 ist. Are is not the O.E. plural, which was si7id or sindon. The word 
 are was introduced by the Danes. [The Danish word to this day is cr, 
 which we have learned to pronounce cr, as we do the cr in clerk and 
 Derby. ] 
 
 (iii) Was is the past tense of the old verb wesan, to be. In some oi" 
 the dialects of England it appears as vmr — the German form. 
 
 (iv) Be is a verb without present or past tense. 
 
 (v) {a) Be is a notional or principal verb when it means to exist, as 
 " God is." (b) It is also a princii)al verb when it is used as a joiner or 
 copula, as in the sentence, " John is a teacher," where the is enables us 
 to connect John and teacher in the mind. In such instances it is called 
 a Copulative Verb or Copula. 
 
TIIK VKIir.. 
 
 53 
 
 AUXILIARY VEKM5S. 
 
 36. Auxiliary Verbs are A'erbs which arc used to modify 
 the sense of other verKs or to assist them in expressing a 
 nitjaning, the verbs to which they are attached being termed 
 Principal Verbs. 
 
 i^ff" Every Auxiliary Verb is also (.apalilc of being us-jil as a 
 Triucipal Vcrl). 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs may be classitied as Auxiliaries of Voice, 
 of Tense, of Mood, and of Form. 
 
 (a) Auxiliary of Voice. Be is the only Voice; Auxiliary, 
 
 ;iii(l it is used to enable us to form the Passive A'oice. 
 
 Active Voice. Pas.sive Voice. 
 
 They build a ship. The ship in built. 
 
 He reared a nionuinent. A niomiinent was reared. 
 
 (h) Auxiliaries of Tense. The Tense Auxiliaries, in the 
 order of their importance, are Have, shall, will, and be. 
 
 (i) Have is used to form the Perfect Tenses — (a) Present 
 (hj Past, and (c) Future Perfect. 
 
 (a) He han been, (b) They had gone, (c) She will have returned. 
 
 (ii) Shall and will are used to form the Future Tense. 
 
 The boy will go. I shall return. 
 
 (^ In old English there was no separate form for the future tense ; 
 the present tense was made to do duty for the future, an Adverb 
 ioinetimes assisting the process. This usage still survives in such 
 sentences as: "We return to-morrow," where a future meaning is 
 imparted to the Verb by the Adverb. Shall and will, originally 
 principal verbs only, gradually crept into use as tense-auxiliaries. 
 
 Be is used o])tionally with Have, to form the Perfect 
 Tenses of Intransitive Verbs of motion, as go, come, rise, fall, 
 arrive, depart, ascend, descend, pass, escape, return, enter. 
 
 He is arrived (Present Perfect). He ivas gone (Past Perfect). 
 
 (c) Auxiliaries of Mood. The Auxiliaries of the Subjunc- 
 tive Mood are may (in its past tense might), would, and 
 should. 
 
 Examples of the uses of these are given on pages 53(c) and 
 53(d). 
 
 1^ Let, though sometimes regarded as an Auxiliary of the 
 Imperative Mood (third person), is better taken as a Principal Verb. 
 
 it 
 
 
53(a) 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TIIR KNOLTSH LANf'.UAGK. 
 
 (d) Auxiliaries of Form. Be, do. 
 
 (i) Be is Jill auxiliary of the Progressive Form of the im 
 
 sent, the past, and tlie future tenses. 
 
 I am going is tlie progressive form of I go. 
 
 lie was writing ,, ,, ,, lie wrote. 
 
 James will l)e starting ,, ,, ,, Jamts will start. 
 
 (ii) Do, as an auxiliary, may he employed to assist in 
 expressing ; 
 
 (n) ]']inpliasis. He dors know liis work. 
 
 (/() Interrogation. 7>o you see ? 
 ((') Negation. I do not see it. 
 
 ^rJT In the first of these three sentences "does" lends additioim! 
 force or cmpliasia to the word know ; in tiio second and tiiini 
 sentences it lends no emphasis, but is simply used to express the 
 more usual and idiomatic of two alternative forms. 
 In sense " Do you see ? " is tlie exact equivalent of " Sec you ? " 
 and " I do not see it " ,, ,, ,, "I see it not." 
 
 The alternative forms are quite coi'reet in grammar ; but they are 
 act usual or idiomatic. 
 
 DKKECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 37. Defective Verbs are such as an wanting in one or more 
 of their parts. Most, if not all, of tliem were at one period 
 complete, hut, through modification of their use or from some 
 other cause, part of the verb lias fallen into disuse, and thus 
 gradually disappeared. The principal Defective A'erbs are — 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 IJewaro 
 
 Can 
 
 Forego - 
 
 night=^ 
 
 May 
 
 Melists •• 
 
 Mcseems 
 
 Methinks 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Past J^arliciple. 
 
 Could 1 
 
 Might. 
 
 Might 
 
 IMelisted 
 
 Meseemed 
 
 Methought 
 
 Diglit 
 Foregone 
 
 '■ Could (in K. cu-ttu) is a weak form. The 1 is intrusive, and came in 
 from a false analogy ■\vilh tiJionld and would. 
 
 2 Tills ought to be spelled forgo. The /or in this word is a prefix of 
 negation, as in forr/ct, furgive, etc. 
 
 3 Hight(=is or was called) is the only instance in our language of a pure 
 passive verb. * Him liited is also found. 
 
 Pr<siHt 
 
 MlLst' 
 
 ()ii|,'ht 
 
 Shall 
 Will 
 
 Wot (//(/: 
 Worth =' 
 
 38. Anom 
 
 i|iiite (listiiic 
 
 (1) Be. T 
 
 -'■lit liidicati 
 
 Imiicralive, ] 
 
 ilie Past Ind 
 
 wesan (see ])i 
 
 (ii) Go. T 
 
 ii'iisc is fi'oiii 
 
 wend, which 
 
 ^S" 1'hese \ 
 the onliiiary 1 
 
 39. Can (or 
 iiivariahlv I'ri 
 
 4/ 
 
 in every insta 
 I'Oiidcnt mean: 
 tiit'in apart fr( 
 
 I can run = I } 
 I could see at 
 I could have g 
 Ho must depa 
 They differ, 
 that they can 
 they are nevei 
 
 ' Must was orig 
 or to be obliged). 
 oimmt in the Noi 
 
 - Thi.s verb has 
 aud unwitting. 
 

 
 TMK VKIM'. 
 
 Prcsrnt 'I 
 
 'tunc. 
 
 Past Tuisc. 
 
 Must* 
 
 
 
 
 Ought 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quoth 
 
 Shall 
 
 
 Should 
 
 Will 
 
 
 AVouM 
 
 Wui [Inf. 
 
 to wit)- 
 
 Wist 
 
 Wortir 
 
 
 
 53(1)) 
 
 Vast rurlicij'lc. 
 
 Yclopt 
 
 J^ 
 
 ANOMALOUS VKKRS. 
 
 38. Anomalous Verbs Jiro siidi asiuciiuulc upDt'two or more 
 (jiiile (liritiiu't ^\•l•l).s. 'i'iio Aiioiualous Vt'i'hs aiu Be and Go. 
 
 (i) Be. This verb contains three distinct roots. The I're- 
 si'iit Indicative is from the root as ; the Present Sul>junctive, 
 Imperative, Infinitive, ;ind I'articiples are from tlierootbe; 
 the Past Indicative and Past Subjunctive are from the root 
 wesan (see ])age 52). 
 
 (ii) Go. Tins verb contains two distinct roots. The Present 
 
 teller is fiom the I'oot go; the Past tense is from tlie root 
 
 wend, which is still occasionally used both in j)rosc and verse. 
 
 ^ir "J'hesc verbs caniiot he classed as cillicr ^^'e;lk or strong, siuce 
 the ordinary tests do not npply to tlieni. J^K 
 
 KEi\IAKKS OX P]-:CULIAR VEKBS. 
 
 CAN, MUST. 
 
 39. Can (or its past tense Could) and Must are always and 
 i invariably Principal verbs. They are Principal ^'cl■l.)s because 
 
 in every instance in "which they arc used, a distinct and inde- 
 pendent meaning of power, possibility, or ol)ligation attaches to 
 them apart from the Infinitive Verb which follows them. 
 
 I can run = I hara the 2'>ovc.r to run. 
 
 I could SCO at one time = I had (he jioircr to see, etc. 
 
 I could have gone, if I had })cen present = I had the ojiportiinitij, etc. 
 
 He must depart = He is ohl'ujtd or co7npellcd to depart. 
 
 They difTer, however, from ordinary Verbs in this I'cspect, viz. : 
 that they can take only an Intinitive Verb as object after them ; 
 they are never followed by a Noun or Tronoun as object. 
 
 ' Must was originally the past tense of tlie old verb motan ( = to be able 
 or to be obliged). Mot "\vas = may ; and must = might, etc. Mun takes the place 
 odnust in the North of England and in Scotland. 
 
 * This verb has also a present participle witting, wluch is found in wittingly 
 and unwitting. ^ lu such phrases as "Woe worth the day ! " 
 
 i!li 
 
 r 
 
 il 
 
 ! i 
 
""^ 
 
 63(c) 
 
 fJUAMMAU or TIIK KN'OMSH LANCUAGK. 
 
 MAV, SHALL, Wir.L. 
 
 40. (i) May (wiili its past tunso might), shall (with its past 
 teiiso should), und will (witli its past tcnso would) arc soiir'. 
 times Priiicipal and sometimes Auxiliary V(!il)s. 
 
 (a) May is a Principal Verb when it danoUia jjcrmission. 
 
 The boys may go out to play ( = arc allowed). 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood when it 
 denotes unortaintif. 
 
 He may Hucceed, if ho takes pains. 
 
 (ii) Might is (a) a Principal Verb when it denotes jy€?7/(i.- 
 
 sion or ahililij. 
 
 She viiiilit liiivo gone, lull jiioferred to remain ( — She had tli'. 
 power to go). 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood when i; 
 denotes tuiccrtainty. 
 
 I thouglit hu miijht call. 
 
 (iii) Shall is (a) a Principal Verb when it denotes compul- 
 sion (or, occasionally, leave), and when used with the Second 
 and Third Persons. 
 
 You shall depart. Rome shall perish. 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of Tense, and denotes simply /w^wnV^, 
 when used with the First Person. 
 
 I ahall soon go. We nhall x'eniaiu. 
 
 (iv) Should is (a) a Principal Verb when it implies obligation 
 Children nhonld obey their parents. 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of the Subjunctive Mood when it 
 denotes uncertainly. 
 
 If he should appear (or Should he appear), I will admit him. 
 
 (v) (a) Will is a Principal Verb, denoting volition or deter- 
 mination, when used with the First Person. 
 
 I iv'dl remove it. 
 
 ^" In some of these cases, however, it is to all intents and 
 purposes an auxiliary verb, the idea of volition being absent, and the 
 word indicating nothing beyond mere futurity. The context usually 
 indicates the amount of force attaching to " will." 
 
 ^ (I)) It il 
 when usedl 
 Vol 
 _(vi) (a) 
 ininatioit. 
 lie 
 
 (h) It isl 
 
 implies vnr\ 
 If ht 
 4'ir XotiJ 
 tliu Siil)jun| 
 as an AiixilJ 
 "Hisiislle.s 
 to i;trctch. 
 
 41. (vii) C 
 
 is now used ti 
 
 It.'f'e of beini 
 
 .past tense of 
 
 ilias to take tl 
 
 Ought, how 
 
 The reason 
 110 past, we 
 hifinite, inst< 
 universal rule 
 
 42. Impersc 
 
 ject. They m 
 
 'i) 01 /im 
 
 o the ^ 
 
 ted to th 
 
 ^ Mellsts 
 
 ohsolescent. 
 (b) Verbs fo 
 Indefinite and i 
 
 In the above 
 fnow, etc. * ' 1 
 
THE VEUn. 
 
 n^Oi) 
 
 ntij, 
 
 lion. 
 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of Tense, simt^ly donntiiiL,' futurity^ 
 \\\\G\\ used with the Second atxl Third Persons. 
 Voii trill k('t'[> this. 'I'licy ir!/[ noon rctuiii, 
 
 (vi) (a) Would is a I'riiicipal Verb when it e.\[ircs.se8 deter- 
 
 iiiinalion. 
 
 lie would go in spite of my eiitreaticH. 
 (b) It is an Auxiliary of th(^ Subjunctive Mood when it 
 implies iDiroidiiif;/. 
 
 If he applii'il himself more vigorously, ho icoiild sueceed. 
 i'jr Xotico hero that both verbs of this complex senteiico are in 
 tho Siihjunctive Mood. "Would" is occasionally used practically 
 as an Auxiliary of Tense indicating a habitual repetition of the action. 
 "His list less length at noontide »'o»/'/ he stretch," i e nut. •< accustomed 
 to rtrctch. 
 
 OUGHT. 
 
 41. (vii) Ought is an old preterite (or past tense) of owe. It 
 lis now used as a present, and it {josscsses the exceptional privi- 
 lege of beini; allowed to violate the sequence of tenses The 
 past tense of any other verb when followed by an Infinitive 
 
 {has to take the Infinitive in tho simple form, thus: 
 
 She wished to h arc. 
 Ought, however, takes the Perfect Infinitive : 
 "N'ou ought to h(ire. (/one. 
 The reason of thi.s is that, since ought is now a present form Mitli 
 no past, we signify the past idea through the medium of the 
 Infinite, instead of by the preceding verb, as is otherwise the 
 universal rule. 
 
 impp:rsonal verbs. 
 
 42. Impersonal Verbs are such as have a non-personal sub- 
 ject. They mnv "be divided into two classes. 
 
 i'\] 0^ , Impersonal Verbs, whose subject is a sentence 
 J, the verf and whose dative (or indirect) object is 
 aed to the \crb„ 
 
 Ilethhiks he doth protest too much. 
 M^seems they have gone 
 Melisteth they ill follow, 
 W Melists and meseems are practically obsolete, methlnks is 
 obsolescent. 
 
 (b) Verbs following a personal pronoun used in a jjurely 
 Indefinite and impersonal s use. 
 
 It rain^, it snows, etc. 
 In the above sentences, if it stands for anything, it stands for rokiny 
 mow, etc. " The rain rains." "The snow snows," etc. j^f 
 
 D 
 
 ill! 
 
 Ill 
 
 1 ! ! 1 
 
54 GRAMMAR OF THE ENCLTSII LANDUAOE. 
 
 43. The following is the. full conju.^'ation of a verb 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Indicative jNIood. 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 I strike. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 J liave struck. 
 
 II. Past Indefinite Tense. 
 I struck. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Tense. 
 
 I had struck. 
 
 III. Future Indefinite Tense. 
 
 I shall strike. 
 
 Future Perfect Terse. 
 
 I sliall have struck. 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. 
 
 T am .strikir.g. 
 
 Present Perfect Continuous. 
 
 I have been striking. 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 I was striking. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Continuous. 
 
 I had been .striking. 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense, 
 
 ^sliall be striking. 
 
 Future Perfect Continuous, 
 I shall have been .striking. 
 
 Subjunctive ^fooi). 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he strike. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he have struck. 
 
 II. Past Indefinite Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he struck. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, lie had struck. 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, lie be striking. 
 
 Present Perfect Continuous, 
 
 (If) I, thou, he have been stiikiug. 
 
 Past Imparfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he were striking. 
 
 Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) 
 Continuous. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he had been .striking. 
 
 III. Future Indefinite Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he should strike. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he should have struck 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he should be strikiiii-, 
 
 Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he should have b«;;j 
 striking. 
 
 (The Future Subjunctive, when not ])receded by a Conjunction, is some I 
 times called the Conditional Mood. " I should strike him if he were i 
 hurt the child.") 
 
 <mgular. 
 
 ■2. Tliou 
 
 1. Presei 
 
 2. Presei 
 
 3. Presei 
 
 4. Presei] 
 6. Futun 
 
 1. Indefin 
 
 2. Presen 
 
 3. Perfect 
 
 4. Future, 
 
 1. ^ 
 
 I. Present Ind 
 
 [ am struck. 
 
 Present Per 
 '■ iiave been strucl 
 
 II. Fast Inde; 
 
 ! was struck. 
 
 Past Perfe 
 ! rid been struck. 
 
 ni. Futux-e Ind 
 
 '■-'II be struck. 
 Future Perf( 
 'ill luive been at 
 
THE VEKR 
 
 Tmpeiiativr Moon, 
 
 I. Present Tense. 
 
 SlnquJar. '2. Sti-ike (thou) ! Pluml. 2. Strike (ye) ! 
 
 • II. Past Tense. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 III. Future Tense. 
 
 2. Thou sluvlt Htrike. 2. Vou sliall strike. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 1. Present Indefinite, (To) strike. 
 
 2. Present Imperfect, (To) be .sti-iking. 
 
 3. Present Perfect, . (To) have struck. 
 
 4. Present Perfect Continuous, (To) have been stj-ikiiig. 
 6. Future Indefinite, (Tt)) be about to strike. 
 
 55 
 
 Participles. 
 
 1. Indefinite and Imperfect, 
 
 2. Present Perfect, . 
 
 3. Perfect Continuous, 
 
 i. Future, .... 
 
 (■KKINDS. 
 
 1. Striking. 
 
 Striking. 
 Having struck. 
 rfaving been striking. 
 (Juing or about to strike. 
 
 2. To strik(>. 
 
 V A S S 1 \' 
 
 In Die AT 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 ■:| I lui siruok. 
 
 Present Perfect Tenr.e. 
 
 1 lave been struck. 
 
 II. Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 ; I v.as struck. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 ;l i.:>d been struck. 
 
 Ill, Future Indefinite Tense. 
 'Lall Im? struck. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 ' shall have been struck. 
 
 M \' () I C K. 
 
 i\i: .^^('()I). 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I am b(>ing struck. 
 
 Present Continuous. 
 
 T am being struck. 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 T was being struck. 
 
 Past Continuous. 
 I was being struck. 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 (None.) 
 
 Future Continuous. 
 
 (None. ) 
 
 I Min^ i 
 
56 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENrrLTSTI LANGUAOE. 
 
 E Mood. --sM 
 
 
 Present Imperfect Tense. y\ 
 
 
 (None.) '^ 
 
 
 Present Perfect Continuous. 
 
 1. .\ii Adv 
 
 (None. ) 
 
 adjective, oi' 
 
 Past Imperfect Tense. 
 
 j) He \v]'it( 
 
 (If) I, thou, he were being stru' k. 
 
 ii) 'J'ho ,\v; 
 
 Past Perfect Continuous. 
 
 not. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 liii) .She \vr 
 very, rapidly. 
 
 I. Present Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, he be struck. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 (If) T, thou, ho have Vjeen .struck. 
 
 II. Past Indefinite Tense. 
 (If) I, thou, he were struck. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I had been struck. 
 
 III. Future Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (If) I, tliou, he shoukl be struck. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 (If) I, thou, lie should have V)een (None.) 
 struck. 
 (This tense, when used without a i)receding conjunction, is .wnietii:.' 
 called the Conditional Mood. " I should be struck were I t(j go there.' 
 
 Imperative jNIood. 
 
 I. Present Tense. 
 
 Singula7: 2. Be struck ! Plural. 2. Be struck I 
 
 II. Past Tense. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 Future Imperfect Tense. 
 
 (None. ) 
 
 Future Perfect Continuous. 
 
 III. Future Tense 
 
 Singular. 
 
 2. Thou shalt be struck. 
 
 Plural. 
 2. You shall be struck. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 1. Indefinite, 
 
 2. Imperfect, 
 
 3. Present Perfect, 
 
 1. Indefinite, 
 
 2. Imperfect, 
 
 3. Present Perfect, 
 
 4. Future, . 
 
 (To) be struck. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 (To) have been struck. 
 
 l^MlTK:irLE«. 
 
 Struck, 
 lieing struck. 
 Having been struck, 
 (jioing or about to be struttl 
 
 Oerunds. 
 
 (None.) 
 
 4- 
 
 Tin: 
 
 2. A(lv("r1)s-- 
 ptwo kinds : (i) j 
 p(i) A Simple . 
 .\ Conjunctive 
 ii:.I I''') joins O] 
 • iiie wlieii lio V 
 t,.'- voi'lj came, 
 I -•■tlu'r tlie twc 
 
 3. A(lv(>r]js — , 
 .'■ ••■nil kinds. ' 
 (I of Numbe 
 Assertion, and i 
 
 i Of Time : 
 ii Of Place: 
 
 'ii>> OfNumbt 
 viv) OfManne 
 (v) Of DegT"ee 
 (vi) Of Assert: 
 (vii) Of Reason 
 
 thl; 
 
 4. Adverbs, lik 
 urn M'o can .say 
 ^nUiani works he 
 
ADVEKHS. 67 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 1. All Adverb is ;i wiu'd wliicli j^'oi-s wiili a verb, AviLli an 
 [adjective, or Aviili another ac """erb, to iiiodil'y its iiu^aniii^f : — 
 
 (i) He writes Iwdly. }f(;re badly iiKidifie.s the vei'I» writes. 
 
 lii) Tlie .voatlier is very ]i<it. Jlere very HKMlifle.s tlio udjui.tivo 
 hot. 
 
 liii) Slio writes very rapidly. Here rapidly iiu)dities writes, aud 
 very, rapidly, 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 2. Ailv('rl).s — .so far us their function is coiiceriKMl — aro of 
 ^t'A ikiiuls : (i) Simple Adverbs and (ii) Conjunctive Adverbs. 
 
 {]' A Simple Advex-b merely modifies tlu^ Avord it goes with. 
 ,\ Conjunctive Adverb lias t\s'o functions : ('/) it modifies, 
 ii:;l (/') joins one sentence Avith another. 'J'hns, if I .say "lf(! 
 ( ::;r when ho was ready," the adverb when not only modifies 
 t:. vcrl) came, and .sIkjws the time of liis coming, hut it joins 
 t .■tliiT the two sentences " He came" and " ho was ready." 
 
 3. Adverbs — so far as thei" meaning is concerned — arc- of 
 t^ ral kinds. There are Adverbs : (i) of Time, (ii) of Place, 
 I of Number, (iv) of Manner, (v) of Degree, (vi) of 
 Assertion, and (vii) of Reasoning :— 
 
 i Of Time : Now, then ; to-day, to-morrow ; by-and-by, etc. 
 
 ii Of Place : Here, thei-e ; hither, thither ; lience, thence, etc. 
 
 iiit Of Niunber : Once, twice, thrice ; shigly, two by tw(j, etc. 
 
 ^iv) Of Manner : "Well, ill ; slowly, quickly ; better, worse, etc. 
 
 \y) Of Degree : Very, little ; almost, quite ; all, half, etc. 
 
 (vi) Of Assertion : Xay, yea ; no, aye ; yes, etc. 
 
 (vii) Of Reasoning : Therefore, \\^ierefore ; thus : consecjuently. 
 
 I'm 
 
 v^ vtcv , r i cdxr r, . t-^^-f , • "r^-^- , tC^ ' ' *■ 'j « < ♦ 
 
 THE COMPARISON OF ADVERliS. 
 
 4. Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of degrees of comparison. 
 finis we can say, O^olin works hard ; Tom works harder ; but 
 IWillium works hardest of all. 
 
 it 
 
 jiil' i 
 
58 
 
 (ilJAMMAil ()!' IIIK };N(;L1SII J.AN(iL'AiiK. 
 
 5. Tlic fdlluwing ar(! cxidiijtlc.s of 
 
 lUUEGLLAK CoMPAItlSON IN AuVKUBS. 
 
 .4 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Ill {ur Biullyj 
 
 Well 
 
 Much 
 
 Little 
 
 Nigh (or Near) 
 
 Forth 
 
 Far 
 
 l^ate 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 worse 
 
 better 
 
 more 
 
 less 
 
 nearer 
 
 further 
 
 farther 
 
 later 
 
 latter 
 
 rather. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 worst. 
 
 host. 
 
 most. 
 
 least. 
 
 next. 
 
 furthest. 
 
 farthest. 
 
 last. 
 
 latest. 
 
 (Rathe) 
 
 (i) Worse comes from A.S weors, bad. Shakespeare has worscr. 
 
 (ii) Much is an adverb in the phrase inuch better. 
 
 (iii) Little is an adverb in the phrase little iuclhud. 
 
 (ivi Next = nighest ; and so we had also hext — highest. Near is | 
 really the com[)arative of nigh. 
 
 (v) Farrer would be the prcjper comparative. (,'haucer has farre, 
 and this is still found in Yorkshire. The th in farther comes from a | 
 false analogy with forth, furtter, furthest. 
 
 (vi) Late is an adverb in the phrase He arrived late. 
 
 (vii) "Till rathe .she rose, half-cheated in the thonght."— Temiy.vj;. I 
 (' Lancelot and Elaine '). ,, 
 
 CONNECTIVES. 
 
 1. There is, in grammai', a class of Avords wliicli may 1 
 calk'd joining words or connectives. Tln\y are of two cla.ssc: 
 (i) tliosG which join nouns or pronouns to souk; otliev wunl : I 
 and (ii) thost; Avliicli join sentences. Thi; first class arc callti 
 Prepositions ; the second Conjunctions. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 2. A Preposition is a word which connects a noun or pro 
 noun with a verb, an adjective, or another noun or pronoun, 
 (It thns shows the relation hetween things, or between a tliiii^' 
 and an action, etc.) 
 
 (i) He stood on the table. Here on joins a verb and a noun. 
 
 (ii) Mar} 
 dill 'J'he 
 Tlio ui 
 
 3. The IK 
 
 llic objectiv 
 
 Ii Hut til 
 we I'aii say, 
 rriis which 
 wfi'c you la 
 
 4. I'ri'posii 
 anil (ii) com 
 
 i\\ TIic fol 
 "Ui, to, wit/t, i 
 
 (ii) The col 
 
 OO Uyn<h\ 
 
 CO By iiiH 
 ncttth, hut (- 
 
 (0 Bypref 
 side, outside, 
 
 (d) By iircl 
 until, etc. 
 
 (iii) The pre 
 junction but. 
 "We waited ai 
 But, the prep(, 
 and then ivithc 
 verl), " Touch : 
 
 (iv) Down w 
 
 (v) Among 1 
 
 ivi) There a 
 "iirds : insteau 
 
 (vii) Some p 
 '•crninfj, respect 
 as imperatives. 
 
 5. The same 
 '-inics as prepi 
 function. Th 
 
(ii) Mary is fond of music. Here of join.s an adjective and a noun. 
 nii) Tlie man at the door i.s waiting. Here at joins two nouns. 
 
 Tlio wmil preposition comes from tlio Lat. pnr, lu'loii;, aiiil pi:<itiiK, i)liice<l. 
 \\> have .similar I'nmiiduiids in composition and deposition. 
 
 3. Tlu' iKHin or jiroiKiiin which follows the juvposition i.s in 
 
 tlic objective case, and is said t<» he governed hy tlie [)repo- 
 
 sitioii. 
 
 (i- I'.ut the jtrepositiiin may (.'onift at tlie end of the sentence. Thus 
 we oan say, "This is tlie house we were looking at." ]'>ut at still gov- 
 erns which (understood) in the objective. We can also say, " Whom 
 were you talking to ?" 
 
 4. Propositions arc divided into two clu.sse.s : (i) simple; 
 aiiil (ii) compound. 
 
 (i) The following are sinijile jirepusitions : at, by, fur, in, of, off, on, 
 i,u(, to, wit/t, njK 
 
 ([[} The compound prepositions are formed in several ways : — 
 
 ((() I5y adding a comparative suffix to an adverb : nfter, nvcr, under. 
 
 CO By ]iri'fixitiL; a preposition to an adverb: <ihi>ve. tihouf, he/ore, beltlnd, be- 
 neath, but( — \w.-(>nt), thrinnjlinut, vitliin, etc. 
 
 (f) By prefixing a preposition to a noun: nhnurd, urt-f'ss, tn-ound, among, be- 
 side, outside., eti;. 
 
 (d) By iirelixing an adverb or a<lvL'rliial parliclc to a preposition : into, upon, 
 until, etc. 
 
 (iii) The preposition hut is to be carefully distinguished from the con- 
 junction but, " All were there but him." Here but is a preposition. 
 ''We waited an hour ; but he did not come." Here t>ut is a conjuncti(ni. 
 But, tiie pre})osition, was in O.K. br- li tan, nnd meant on the outside of, 
 and then without : but, the conjunction, was iii O.K. bot. The old pro- 
 verh, "Touch not the cat but a glove," means '' without a glove." 
 
 liv) Down was adoivn = of down —off' the down or hill. 
 
 (v Among was — onyemontj, in the crowd. 
 
 ivi) There are .several compound prepositions made up of .separate 
 Words : instead of, on account of in spite if, etc. 
 
 (vii) Some participles are used as prei>ositions : notwithxtnndinij, con- 
 cerninrj, respecting. The prepositions except and save niay be regai-ded 
 a.< imperatives. 
 
 5. The .siuno words jiro nsod .sometimes as adverbs, and some- 
 tiiiitis as prepositions. We di.stingnish tliese words by their 
 function. They can also be used as nouns or as adjectives. 
 
 i \' 
 
 I ! 
 
w 
 
 60 
 
 (.JKAMMAK ok TIIK RNCLISII LANCiUAGE. 
 
 (i) Tliu.s we find the following words used either as 
 or as 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 (1) Stand up! 
 
 (2) Coino on I 
 
 (;5) ikotr: 
 
 (4) He walked ijuickly jiast. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 (1) The boy ran up the hill. 
 
 (2) The hook lies on the tahle. 
 
 (3) (!et ott'thc chair. 
 
 (4) He walked past the church. 
 
 (ii) Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns, as in the sentences, " 1 
 have mot him licl'oie now." " He is dead since then." 
 
 (iii) hi the following we find adverbs used as adjectives: "tliiin; 
 often infirmities ; ' " the then king," etc. 
 
 (iv) A ))hrase sometimes does duty as an adverb, as in "from beyond 
 the sea ; " " from over the mountains," etc 
 
 CONJUNX'TIONS. 
 
 0. A Conjunction is a -word that joins sentences together. 
 
 (i) The word and, besides joining sentences, posses.'ses the achlitimia, 
 power of joining nouns or other words. Tiius we .say, "John and Jitiie 
 are a liappy pair ; " " Two and tliree are five." 
 
 7. Conjunctions arc of two kinds : (i) Co-ordinative ; am! 
 
 (ii) Subordinative. 
 
 (i) Co-ordinative Conjunctions are those which connect co-ordinatf 
 sentences and clauses — that is, sentences neither of which is dej)endciit 
 on the other. The following is a list : And, both, but, cither — or, neither 
 — 7ior. 
 
 (ii) Subordinative Conjunctions are those which connect subordinate 
 sentences with the jirincipal sentence to wliich they are subordinate 
 The type of a subordinative conjunction is that, which is really the de- 
 monstrative pronoun. " I know that he has gone to London " is = " He 
 lias gone to London : I know that." 
 
 (iii) I'he following is a list of subordinative conjunctions : After, 
 before; ere, till; while, since; lest; because, as; for; if; unless; 
 though ; xohether — or ; than. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. Interjections are words which have no nieaning in tliem- 
 eelves, but wliicli give sudden expression to an emotion of 
 the mind. They are no real i)art of Lmguage ; they do not 
 enter into the build or organism of a sentence. They have no 
 grammatical relation to any word in a sentence, and are there- 
 
WORDS KNOWN liY Til EI II FUNCTIONS. 
 
 61 
 
 iV.rc not, strictly speaking, " parts of speocli." Tims \\v say. Oh ! 
 Ah! Alas! and so on; but tlio sentences Ave enii)l()y Avould he 
 just as complete — in sense — without them. 'I'hey arc extra- 
 crainniatical utterances. 
 
 o 
 
 (i) The word interjection comes from the L;it. inter, Itelween, ciiid 
 jndu!^, tlirown. 
 
 (ii) Si)iiietiiiiofi words with a meaning arc used as intei-jeciidiis. 'i'lius 
 we say, Welcome ! fur " You are well eoine. " Good-bye I for (nnl be with 
 tjdu ! The interjection "Now then!" consists of two words, each of 
 which has a meaning ; but when employed interjectionally, the compound 
 lueauing is very different from the meaning of either. 
 
 (iii) 111 written and printed language, interjections are followed hy the 
 • mark ( 1 ) of admiration or exclamation. u 
 
 WORDS KNOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIONS, 
 AND NOT BY THEIR INFLEXIONS. 
 
 1, The Oldest English. — AVlien our language first came ovei 
 1 1 tliis island, in tlie lifth century, our words jiossessed a large 
 iiiiubor of inflexions ; and a A'erb could be known from a noun, 
 ami an adjective from either, by the mere look of it. Verbs 
 
 ^' !i;iil one kind of inflexion, nouns another, adjectives a third ; 
 ;,i!il it was almost impossible to confuse them. Thus, in O.E. 
 I T Anglo-Saxon) thunder, the verb, was fhnnrian — with the 
 'Miling an; but the noun was tlnumr, without any ending at 
 all. Then, in course of tinu^, for many and various reasons, 
 \\k English language began to lose its inflexions ; and they 
 liiopped ofT very rapidly between the 11th and the 15th cen- 
 ;tiirios, till, noAvadays, we possess very few indeed. 
 
 2. Freedom given by absence of Inflexions.^ — In tin; IGth 
 ditiiry, when Shakespeare began to Avrite, there Avcre very 
 ■w iiiilcxions ; the languages began to fevl greater liberty, 
 
 k'featcr ease in its movements; and a writer Avould use the same 
 
 [word sometimes as one part of speech, and sometimes as another. 
 
 Thus Shakespeare himself uses the conjunction Jnit both as a 
 
 herl) and as a noun, and makes one of his characters say, "Ihit 
 
 W' 
 
 \\ 
 
 I 
 
\ I 
 
 62 
 
 (JKAMMAFl OF THE ENfJLlHII LANGUAGE. 
 
 nio no l)iits ! " He, (jniploys the udvMU'b aKlaoirc as a vorl), ami 
 says, " Fi'fjiii their own luisJceds tlicy askance tlieir oycs." ][c 
 lias the a(lv(U')) hufhicuril with tliu function of a noun, as in 
 tlie pliras(} " Thci l)ackwar(l and abyss of linie." Again, lie gives 
 lis an adv(!rl) doing the Avork of an adjective, as in tlu^ phrases 
 "my often rumination," "a scildom pleasure." In the same 
 way, Shakespeare has the verl)s "to glad" and "to nuid." Very 
 often he uses an adjective as a noun; and "a fair" is his phnisc 
 for "beauty," --" a })ale " for "a paleness." lie carries this 
 power of using one "part of s})eech" for another to the most 
 extraordinary lengths. lie uses happij for to iiuike hoppn ; 
 unfair for io deface ; to clhnate for to Iii'>; ; to bench for to sit; 
 to film for to filfiifi/ ; to path for to walk ; to verse for to xy/'v//; 
 if III verm; and many others. Perhaps the most remarkable i> 
 where he uses tontjiie for to talk of, and hrain for to think of. In 
 " Cymbelino " he says : — 
 
 " 'Tis still a dream ; or else such stuft" as madness 
 Will tongue, and brain not. . . ." 
 
 3. Absence of Inflexions. -At the present time, we have lost 
 almost all the inflexions we once had. AVe have only one foi 
 the cases of the noun ; none at all for ordinary adjectives (ex- 
 cept to mark degrees) ; a few in the pronoun ; and a few in the 
 verb. Hence we can use a word sometimes as one part of 
 speech, and sometimes as another. AVe can say, " The boys hail 
 u good run;" and "The boys run very well." We can say, 
 "The train travelled very fast," Avhere fad is an adverb, molli- 
 fying //v^rZ/fr/ / and Ave can speak of "a fast trahi." We can 
 use the phrase, "The very man," "where very is an adjectivr 
 marking man, ; and also the phrase " A very good man," where 
 ver>j is an adverb modifying the adjective (jood. 
 
 4. Function. — It folloAVs that, in the present state of our 
 language, Avhen we cannot know to Avhat class a word belong? 
 by its look, we nuist settle the matter by asking ourselves Avliat 
 is its function. AVe need not inquire what a word is ; but we 
 must ask Avhat it does. And just as a bar of iron may be used 
 as a lever, or as a crowbar, or as a poker, or as a hammer, or a» 
 
 ^tW 
 
 f 
 
 ,1 wcajiiiii, 
 just as i 
 5. Exan 
 
 liiKrk, Un 
 \ li'li ifiirf, 
 
 is tli.'ii-s," 1 
 a rdiij'niicti 
 )ii'(i\crli, "' 
 '■ 111' rose e 
 aihcil); in 
 is ail advorl 
 ill the scute 
 ill iJie S('iit( 
 sentence " I 
 an adverbial 
 
'^ 
 
 ''M: 
 
 WORDS KNCWX HY THKJl: FrNCTIONS. 
 
 63 
 
 a woapoii, so n AVcinl iii.iy lu' an adjective, or a iiniui, or a verl*, 
 just as it is used. 
 
 5. Examples. Wl in I we say, ''He ^Mve a shilliii;^' for tlit! 
 liiK.k," /or is a, preposition coiiin'ctini^j the, noun /xm/r uitli tlio 
 \ci'li '/'"■'■. I>nt wlien ■\ve say, " Tict us assist tlieni, for our eus(i 
 i- tlii'irs," the wordy"'//' joins two sciitenecs toj^'etlier, and is lionco 
 a ((iiijunetion. In tlu; same M'ay, ■\vc can contrast ifir/i/ in tlni 
 prii\crli, "The early l>ird catclies tlio worm," and in tlie sentence 
 " lie r(»s(> early." Ilanl in the .sentence "lie Avork.s hard" is an 
 iuherh; in the i)hraso "A liard stone" it is an adjective. Ithjhl 
 is an adverl) in the phrase " llight reverend;" hut an adjectiv(! 
 in the sentence "That is not the right road." B(«'k is an adverli 
 in the sentenci^ "IIi; canu^ l)ack yesterday; ' hut a noun in the 
 sentence "He fell on his ]>ack." If<>r<' is an adverb, and where 
 an adverbial conjunction ; but in the line— 
 
 "TIiuu luse.st here, a better where to liiul,' 
 
 Shakespeare employs the.s(! words as nouns. 7'///', in ninety-nine 
 cases out of a hinidred, is an adjective; but in such ])hrases as 
 '•The more, the merrier," it is an adverb, modifying i)icrrl>'r and 
 man'. Indeed, some Avords seem to exercise two functions at 
 the same time. Thus Tennyson has — 
 
 " Slow and sure conies \i\> the golden year," — 
 
 where sloir and xare may eitlier be adverlis modifying ronir,^; or 
 adjectives marking year ; or both. Tliis is also the case with 
 the participle, which is both an adjective and a verb; and with 
 the ,ucrund, whicli is l)oth a verb and a noun. 
 
 6. Function or Form ? — From all this it a})[)e;irs that we are 
 imtniei.ly to look at the form of the word, we are not merely 
 lu notice and ohserre ; but Ave must fhiiil- — we must ask our- 
 selves what the Avord does, Avhat is its function? In other 
 words, Ave must always — Avhen trying to settle the class to Avhich 
 a word belongs-a.sk onr.selves two (piestions — 
 
 (i) What other Avord does it go Avitli'? and 
 (ii) "Wluit does it do to that AVord ] 
 
 11 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 ir*.- 
 
-/■ 
 
 63(a) 
 
 WORDS 
 
 Any 
 
 WORDS IN COMMON USE, WITH DIFFERENT 
 FUNCTIONS (OR AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH). 
 
 About 
 
 After 
 
 All 
 
 Alone 
 
 1. Ad verb — 
 
 (a) (Manner) 
 
 (b) (De<,^rce) : 
 
 2. Pr«M.)()siti()ii 
 
 He st()})ped, then turned him aboitf. 
 The man was aliont forty years old. 
 Then swarmed they about him like 
 bees. 
 
 1. .Vdjoctivo 
 
 2. Adverb 
 
 8. l*rei)()sition 
 
 And in the after ages shall men sing 
 
 thy jmiise. 
 " Be thus when tliou art dead, and I 
 will kill thee 
 And love thee after." (.Slmkespeaip.) 
 The boy ran afttr his father. 
 4. Coil junction We resumed our walk after the pro- 
 cession had passed, 
 
 1. Noun " I dare do all that may become a 
 
 man." (Shake.speaic) 
 
 2. Adjective— 
 
 (a) Of Quantity, Definite : 
 
 "And all this throve, until I wedded 
 thee." (Tennyson.) 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 
 " Ah ! when shall all men's good 
 
 Be each man's rule ? " (Tennyson.) 
 
 "Life piled on life were all too 
 
 little." (Tennyson.) 
 
 And he alone remains to comfort inc. 
 
 " She never feared to enter the church 
 
 alone at night." (Dickens.) 
 
 Teach me another^s griefs to share. 
 " So she, like many another babbler, 
 hurt 
 
 Whom she would soothe." 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 8. Adverb 
 
 1. Adjective 
 
 2. Adverb 
 
 Another 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adjective 
 
 As 
 
 Besides 1, 
 
 Both 
 
 if:? 
 
 But 
 
 9 
 
 ;3. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 C. 
 
WORDS IV COMMON USE, WITH DIFFERENT FITNCT[ONS. G.3(l>) 
 
 Any 
 
 1. Adjoctivo— 
 
 (ii) Of Quantity : 
 
 Wo fail to see any truth in his iirgu- 
 ment. 
 
 (b) Of Number, Iiulefinite : 
 
 Have you tinn books for me ? 
 
 2. Prononii (Indefinite)- 
 
 Any who have finished may go now. 
 
 8. Adverb Can you not write any better ? 
 
 As 1. Pi'onoun (IJeLitive) — 
 
 "Such as sleep o' nights." 
 
 (Shakpspeare.) 
 
 2. Adverb She is as good as she is beautiful. 
 
 3. Conjunction (or Conjunctive Adverb)— 
 
 " I am not all so wrong 
 As a bitter jest is dear." (Tennyson.) 
 
 Besides 1. Adverb He taught, and studied h^sides. 
 
 2. Preposition I have other strings to my bow 
 
 besides this. 
 
 3. Conjunction The king will p irdon us ; besides, we 
 
 have your written promise. 
 
 Both 1. Adjective (Definite Numeral) — 
 
 " He gazed so long 
 That bo*h his eyes were dazzled." 
 
 (Tennyaou.) 
 
 2. Pronoun (Indefinite) — 
 
 He carried away both. 
 
 But 1. Noun You always meet me with a but. 
 
 2. Pronoun (Relative, Negative) — 
 
 " There breathes not clansman of thy 
 
 line 
 
 But would have given his life for 
 
 thine." (Scott) 
 
 " But me no buts." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 '"Tis but a little wav that I can bring 
 
 you." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 All b^it Kate had gone out. 
 
 6. Conjunction "Knowledge comes, but wisdom 
 
 lingers." (Tennyson.) 
 
 3. Verb 
 
 4. Adverb 
 
 5. Preposition 
 
 lltil 
 
 ! 
 
 ■ \ 
 
r)3(c) 
 
 Either 
 
 Else 
 
 Even 
 
 Except 
 
 Tor 
 
 fiHAMMATl OF TIIK KNfJMSH LANCTTAfiK. 
 
 I. v\<l,j<'c( i\'(' On eiihn- liaiifl ilic l.iwn.s and 
 
 iiR'iulow k'(l;;cs iiiiiiwiiy down 
 Hun,!,' riili in l)l(i()iii.'" (Tfiinysnn.) 
 "2. ConjmictioM Either ^'o at once or stay for <'vcr. 
 
 1. Adjective 
 
 WO II PS IN 
 
 
 Enough 1, 
 
 »> 
 
 8. 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 '* Ilitii (lestrnyod, all else will folldu.' 
 
 (Milton.) 
 Advcl'l) Ho would iJnc have paid tlio ^\^^\^\. 
 
 ConjuMctioii She lias had many visitors, r/.sc she 
 
 would luive writtc n. 
 
 Xouii ^' Enoiujh is as j^ood r,s a ffasl."' 
 
 Adjoctive — 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 Have you money euoiifjh for tlie 
 journey ? 
 (li) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 
 We have enough books already. 
 Adv(n'b He is strong enough for this woik. 
 
 Noun Do you know how to play odd and 
 
 even 1 
 Adjt etiv(^ The edj^es are now even. 
 
 Verb It is necessary first to even the sides. 
 
 Adverb "And even then he turned." 
 
 1. Verb 
 2 
 
 When making your list, exvqH those 
 
 named herein. 
 Preposition All were early exce2)t my brother and 
 
 me. 
 Conjunction " I will not let thee go, except thou 
 
 bless me." 
 
 3. 
 
 Half 1. 
 
 o 
 
 3. 
 
 Adverb 
 
 l*rei)o.sition 
 
 Conjunction 
 
 Noun 
 
 •Vdjcctivo 
 
 Adverb 
 
 This book has been sent foi' several 
 
 times. 
 "She gave me for my pains, a world 
 
 of sighs." (Sliakcspoare.'' 
 
 "Call me early, mother dear, 
 For I would see the sun rise." 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 "The half oi my goods I give to the 
 
 poor." 
 Half measures are worse than useless 
 
 in such cases. 
 "So saying, from the pavement lie 
 
 half rose." (Teiirysmi.) 
 
n<l 
 
 ■.n.j 
 
 
 WOIIDS IN f'OMMftN USK, Wni[ DIKI'r.ltKXT I'TNCTIONS. 63(«1) 
 
 Least 
 
 ■ 
 
 she ; 
 
 the 
 
 
 
 '. 
 
 
 i ■ 
 
 
 hm 
 
 iiid 
 
 r 
 
 
 Wh 
 
 ,. 
 
 mC 
 
 ose 
 lul 
 ou 
 
 More 
 
 Most 
 
 Much 
 
 1. Noun 
 
 2. Ad.jt'ct iv(! 
 
 M. Adverb 
 
 Less 1. Xoun 
 
 'J. A'l.jcctivo 
 .'{. Adverb 
 
 Like 1. Adjeetivti 
 
 2. Advei'b 
 
 Little 1. X(Miii 
 
 Tlie least of tliein Wduld Huffice. 
 
 'J'lie least child in the roum knows so 
 
 much. 
 This is the Icai^t pmisi'worthy. 
 
 Give mo Icsn. 
 
 Of two (l.in^fers chooso tho lean. 
 "I warrant you h)ve nic lens tlian I 
 lovt thee." (Sliakt'speare.) 
 
 "llisf"je is like tho tan." (i.ongfeiiow.) 
 And like an arrow from the bow, 
 lie darted then and tliore. 
 
 *' To whom little is forgiven, tlie same 
 loveth little." 
 2. Adjective— 
 
 (a) Of Quantity ; 
 
 lie takes but little heed of such idle 
 tales. 
 (1)) Of (Quality : 
 
 "A little thing may harm a wounded 
 
 man." (Tcniiyscn.) 
 
 8. Adverb "A /i7^/«; more than kin and less than 
 
 kind." (Sliaki'speare.) 
 
 1. Xouil I need luore than you. 
 
 2. Adjeetive — 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 Have you no more complaint to 
 make i 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 
 There were more ants than one could 
 count. 
 
 3. Adverb " Once more unto the breach, dear 
 
 friends." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 1. Noun The youngest boy knew most. 
 
 2. Adjeetive — 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 AFost wool is brought to London. 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 
 Most people would prefer this. 
 
 3. Adverb The Duke spoke most loudly. 
 
 1. Noun We saw much which was worthy of 
 
 praise. 
 
 Ml 
 
 'in 
 
 i1 
 
C3(e) 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENOTJSII LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. A<ljeetivo (of Quantity)— 
 
 Portia needed much comfort. 
 -i. Advcrl) The wise speak less, but think rantl] 
 
 more than the foolish. 
 
 Neither 1. Adjective Aeif/icr book is very expensive. 
 
 2, Coiijuiictioii ^^ Neither a borrower nor a lender W 
 
 Next 1. Adjectives The ?itjxi! moment we lost sight of her, | 
 
 2. Adverb Who comes Mcxrif 
 
 ']. Prei)o.sitioii Will you sit next nie 1 
 
 No 1. Adjective — 
 
 (a) Of Quantity : 
 
 Such people need no enconragenien: 
 {])) Of Number, Definite : 
 
 No books can teach like experience. 
 2. Adverb " We no Ioniser believe in ^; 
 
 Edmund." (Rusk 
 
 Notwith- 1. Preposition NotxvUhstanding the justice of v: 
 standing plea, T cannot consent. 
 
 2. Conjiuietioii Notivithatninlinf/ they liad arrived, w- 
 
 left without seeing them. 
 Off 1. Adjective A gentleman got down from the ' 
 
 side. 
 2. Adverb Othello has carried ojf my daugliti-r 
 
 8. Pi'epositioii Antonio's argosy was wrecked ; 
 
 Tripolis. 
 One 1. Adjective (Numeral, Definite)— 
 
 "All Avorldly joys go less, to the o^ 
 joyof doing kindnesses." (iierber 
 2. Pronoun (Indefinite)— 
 
 " I Hed into the castle like om 
 pursued." 
 Only' 1. ^Vdjective Thou art my only hope. 
 
 2. Adverb She is 07ily a child. 
 
 8. Conjunction You may go, only return quickly. 
 Other 1. Adjective "Among new men, strange face;, 
 
 other minds." (Tennyson.) 
 
 2. J^ronoun (Demonstrative) — 
 
 " Then that other, left alone. 
 Sighed, and began to gather houri 
 again.'"' (Tennysou.) 
 
 1 jV. /;. — Perhaps no word is so oftoii inispl.'K'iid in comiiosition ns the word only. Ti.'. 
 correct rule is to plme it as near a.s practicable (not necessarily to the verb, but) to the 
 word or phrase wliicli it niodifles. 
 
 WORP'< 
 
 Round 
 
 Save 
 
 Since 
 
 So 
 
 Some 
 
 Somewhat ]. 
 •J 
 
 That 
 
 1. 
 
 o 
 
 3. 
 
WORP*^ IN' rOMMOX USF-, WITH ItTFFP^UENT FUNCTIONS. G3(f) 
 
 jert.) 
 on-' 
 
 Round 1. Xoiiii " The trivial ro?/)}//, the comninn task, 
 
 Will furnish all we need to ask." 
 2. Adjoctive He owns a round table. 
 .'5. A'ci'l) He ro^/tf/s his phrases well. 
 
 •1. Adverb /lOfou/ goes the wheel. 
 
 .■). Pre}K)siti(>u A moat ran round the castle wall. 
 
 Save 1. Verb *Vafe the women and children first. 
 
 2. Preposition " And save his good broadsword, 
 
 He weapons had none." (Scott.) 
 
 8. Conjunction Who could do such deeds soj;e God 
 
 were with him 1 
 
 Since 1. Adverb They have not written since. 
 
 2. Prepositioii She has not been out alone since 
 
 Easter. 
 8. ^-'oiijiinction l''arther advice is useless since you 
 
 are alreadydetermiued what to do. 
 
 So 1. Advt'rb "*>'() work tlie honey-bees." 
 
 2. ( 'onjuni'tion My father is away ; so I nuist stay at 
 
 home with mother. 
 
 Some 1. AdjoctlA^e — 
 
 (a) Of (,)uantity : 
 
 " 'iVhose least distinguished day 
 tShines with some portion of 
 heavenly lustre." 
 
 (b) Of Number, Indefinite : 
 ^^Some men are born great." 
 
 2. Advei'b There Avas an earthquake there some 
 
 four years ago. 
 
 Somewhat 1. Noun 
 
 2. Adverb 
 
 I know somewhat of the matter. 
 You were someivhaf late to-dav. 
 
 I 11 
 
 !'■ 
 
 bin 
 
 That 1. Adjeetivo (I)emonstrative)— 
 
 '"My loyalty shall l^e growi.ig, 
 Till death, that w'.nter, kill it." 
 
 (Sliaki'>in'are,) 
 
 2. Pronoun — 
 
 (a) ifelative "He that has humanity will tread 
 
 aside," 
 
 (b) Compound " We speak that \''e do know," 
 (e) Demonstrative : 
 
 " That 's news indeed." 
 
 3. Conjuneti(jn "We eat that we may live." 
 
 K 
 
63(g) O-RAMMAR OF TTTF, ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Then 1. A^lvevli " T'/;»'h shall man's prido and dnlnp^jg 
 
 comprehend 
 His actions', passions', being's uso 
 and end." 
 
 2. Coiijiwf"tif>M Did he say so? then it must l)o true. 
 
 Therefore 1. Advcu'l) " God made him, and therefore let liim 
 
 pass for a man." (Shakesppan.) 
 
 2. Coiijuiu-ric^n (or Conjunctive Adverb) — 
 
 " Thou hast not left the value of a 
 cord, 
 Therefore thou must hang at tiie 
 State's charge." (Shakespeare.) 
 
 Well 1. Xonn Leave i'v7/ alone. 
 
 2. A<ljective " I am not (re//." 
 'A. Adverb "I know how ^cell I have deserved 
 
 the ring." (Shake.speaiu.) 
 
 4. Interjection Jl^ell, peace be with you I 
 
 What 1. Adjective (Demonstrative) — 
 
 " And both together heard 
 What time the grey-tly winds her 
 sultry horn." (Milton.) 
 
 2. Pronoun — 
 
 (a) Interrogative : 
 
 " What doest thou here, Elijah?" 
 
 (b) Compounded of Kelative and Demonstrative : 
 
 "Tell me what you want." 
 8. Adverb Whut with one thing, and tohat with 
 
 another, I am almost undone. 
 
 A. Interjection IH/a^ .' not gone yet ? 
 
 Wherefore J. Noun I wished to know th«- wherefore of liis 
 
 action. 
 2. Adverb Wherefore do ye rebel ? 
 
 Whether 1. Pronoun (Interrogative) — 
 
 Whether is easier : to say " Thy sin.s 
 be forgiven," or to say "Arise 
 and walk " ? 
 
 2, Conjunction "To be resolved whether Brutus so 
 
 unkindly knocked." 
 
 WORDS I 
 
 Which 
 
 Why 
 
 Wont 
 
 Yet 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
WOKPS TN COMMON USE, WITH DIFFFJIKNT FUNXTIONS G3(h) 
 
 Which 
 
 Why 
 
 Wont 
 
 Yet 
 
 1. Adjoptivo 
 '2. Pi'fMioiin — 
 
 (/() Relative : 
 
 Did you see lohirJi way the boy ran ? 
 
 "That which you liave touc-hed." 
 (I)) Tntorroffative : 
 
 1. Xouii 
 
 2. A(lverl) 
 
 " Which is yonrfiV 
 
 f don't consider the ivh>f and the 
 
 wherefore. 
 Why are the days longer in summer 
 than in winter ? 
 .'1 r'of,,|tiiH'tioii This is the reason v.-hji I spoke. 
 ' hitPi'jectioii " Flow doth the king ? IT/i?/, well '." 
 
 '' ft is not his u-ont to be the hind- 
 most man." (Shakespeare.) 
 "T'onie I l)ut keep thy wonted stiite." 
 
 (Milton. J 
 " Beneaih who.se shade 
 
 1. Xoun 
 
 2. Adject iv< 
 
 :5. A'oi'b 
 
 1. Pai'tli-i|.H* 
 
 1. Adverb 
 
 I wovt to sit and watch the setting 
 sun." (s.jutbv.) 
 
 "As when men, ivont to watch 
 On duty, sleeping found . . . rouse 
 and bestir themselves." (Milton). 
 
 " Old age hath yet 1 is honour and his 
 
 toil. 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 2. Coiijuuctloii " Yet I thy best will all perform at 
 
 full 
 
 (Tennyson.) 
 
 
 W 
 
 \\ 
 
 lis ,, 
 
G4 
 
 Tliu.s w 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Ili'ie be 
 bees, ami 
 
 in a]i))o.-.iti 
 Jiiliii the J 
 
 lij The 
 
 I X T R D IT C T R Y. 
 
 1. Tlio word Syntax is a (Jrock wnnl wliicli means arrange- 
 ment. S^'iitax, in grammar, is that jjart of it wliidi ticat-^ ii 
 tlio relations of words to each other in a srntcn<('. 
 I 2. Syntax is iisnall}' divided iido twn ])avls, -whii'li are calkd 
 Concord and Government. 
 
 (i) Concord iih>;ui8 agreement. Tlio diiof concoi'ds in j/ranmiar ;ire 
 tliuse of tlie Verb with its Subject; tlie Adjective with its Noun; one 
 Noun with another Noun; tlic Pronoun with the Noun it, -tan <l< for; 
 the Relative with its Antecedent. 
 
 (ii) Government means the influence tliat one Wdi-d has ujion anotlior, 
 The cliief kinds of Government ai-e tho:ie (;f a Transitive Verb and 
 a Noun ; a Preposition and a Noun. 
 
 I.— SYNTAX OF THE XOTTX. 
 l.—THK NOMINATIVE CA.SK. 
 
 ^ TiUT,K T. — Tlie Subject of a sentence is in tlie Nominative 
 Case. 
 
 Tims wo say, I write; John writes : and huth / and JJu) — t.lio sui- 
 joets in these two sentences — are in the nominative case. 
 
 liuLi']!!. — A\dii-n one noun is nsed to ex]il}iin or deseribi" 
 another, tlie two nouns are said to l)e in Apposition ; and tlifv 
 are always in the .same case. 
 
 j;ri.i-: Hi 
 t.ikf two n 
 
 Thu- we 
 
 l!i the fi: 
 beggar and 
 and was do 
 either word, 
 
 chilled ver 
 
 K'ti.i-; I\'. 
 turn-out, p 
 
 appositional 
 ;'S well as be 
 
 Thu.-s we f 
 
 I'l 
 
 (iii) 
 
 (iv) 
 
 "u exaniii 
 
 '!" not and c 
 
 i'n-t iuul the 
 
 Kii.E V. 
 
 tii-'iijle, or a 2 
 
hve 
 
 SYNTAX OF thp: nocx. 65 
 
 Tliuri we tiud iu yliake.speare'ri Henry V., i. 2. 188 : — ■ 
 
 " Sii work llin litnicy-bees, 
 Creatures that liy a rule in Nature teaeli 
 The ait oi oi-der to a penjiled kiiigdniu." 
 
 Here bees is the iMiniuative to work ; creatures i- iu ai)positi<ni with 
 bees, and heiice is also in the iKimiiiative ca.se. (^Of cnunse, two nouns 
 in alljlo^ition may l)0 iu tlie objective case, as in tlic sentence, "W'a met 
 J dim t!ie gardener.") 
 
 ([) The words in ai)ipn.sitiun ina}- be separated from each other, as in 
 Cuwper'o well-known line about the postman : — 
 
 " He comes, the herald of a noisy world." 
 
 KuLE II r. — Tlip vci'lj to be, ami other verhs of ;i liki; luitun.', 
 tiiko two nominatives — diic Iti'fiU'c and the dtli'T after. 
 
 Thu:- we find such sentences as — 
 
 (i) (leiieral Wolselcy is an alilo sol(h'ei'. 
 
 (ii) ^i'he long remembered lieggai- was his guest. 
 
 hi the lirst sentence Wolseley and soldier i-et'ei' to Llie >ame person ; 
 beggar and guest ret'er to the same person ; and all that the vcrl)s is 
 ;ii;il was do is to connect them. They have no influence wliatever uj'on 
 either word, ^\'hen is i^oi' are) is so used, it is called the copula. 
 
 Xd!' It' \\i: I'all the iiri\iiius kiml (.'f ainmsitum nouu-apposition, this luij^liL bo 
 cullal verb-apposition. 
 
 iJri.i; 1\'.— rh(> vei'hs heconie, he-ealled, he-named, live, 
 turn-out, prove, remain, seem, look, and ulliers, are of an 
 appusitional character, and take a nominative case after them 
 as well as before them. 
 
 Thus we find : — 
 
 (i) Tom became an architect. 
 
 (ii) The boy is called John. 
 
 (iii) He turned out a dull fellow. 
 
 (iv) She moves a goddess : and she looks a queen. 
 
 On examining the verbs in these .--entencus, it will be seen that they 
 ilti not and cannot govern the noun tiiat follow- them. The I'oun be- 
 t'lrt and the noun after designate the same persou. 
 
 llvA.E V. — A Xuun and an Adjecti\e, or a Xouii and a Par- 
 ticiple, ur a Xouii and an Adjective Phrase, — not syntactically 
 
 I !h 
 
.1 f 
 
 66 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 coiiuGctcd with ;my oilier -svoi'd in tlio .si-nii'iiec, — arc ])ui in tlif 
 
 Nominative Absolute. 
 
 Tlius wc have : — 
 
 (i) "She eani.s a scanty i)ittance, and at night 
 
 Lies (Inwn seiuic, licr heart and pocket light." — C'owi'ku, 
 
 (ii) Tlie wind shifting, we .sailed .^lowly. 
 
 (iii) " Next Anger ru.shed, his eyes on fire." — Collins. 
 
 (iv) Dinner over, wg went up-.stair.-<, 
 
 Tlif wdi'il (ihsoh'tus iia'ciiis J'rci'(J ; and tliu absohito case has been freed frdin, 
 anil'is indeiiendent of Uie construction of tlie .sentence. 
 
 IvEMAKKS.— 1. In llic oldest JMiglisli (or An^do-tSaxoii), (In 
 absolute ease Avas !)"• Dative; and this -we lind even a.s late as 
 Milton (1608-1G71), whu .says— 
 
 " Him destroyed, 
 
 All el..e will follow. " 
 
 2. Caution! In the sentence, "Tonipey, having' heen iV- 
 fcateil, Hed to Africa," tlie phra.se Ikivi'ikj lin ji ih'fcaivd is an 
 attributive clause to Potupcii, Avhieh is the noun io Jh'd. Miil, 
 in the sentence, "Ponipey having been defeated, his army broke 
 up," Pompi'n — not bein</ the noun to any verb — is in llie 
 nominative absolute. Hence, if a noun is the nominative 
 to a verb, it cannot be in the nominative absolute. 
 
 r 
 
 KeMAKKS UN EXCEPTIONH. 
 
 1. The pronoun It is often used as a Preparatory Nomina- 
 tive, or—as it may also be called — a Representative Subject, 
 Thus Ave say, " It is very hard to climb that hill," where it 
 stauds for the tiiie nominative, to climb that-hill. 
 
 2. In the same way, the demonstrativ(>, adjective that is oftni 
 used as a Representative Subject. "That (he lias gom; t<i 
 Paris) is certain." What is certain? That. AVhat is that? 
 The fact that In- h<i.< r/m/c to Par!.^. 
 
 3. Still more oddly, we iind buth it and that used in em 
 sentence as a kind of Joint-Representative Subject. Tliu- 
 we have : (i) " It now and then happened that (he lost his 
 temper) ; " and, in Shakespeare's " Othello " — 
 
 AV.Iiat i> 
 
 mr 
 
 That ( I 
 
 ha 
 
 three su 
 
 bje 
 
 i^ir It 
 
 
 folC 
 
 
 It 1 
 
 
 awa 
 
 1. Th< 
 
 no 
 
 luittcd. 
 
 Tl 
 
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 
 
 67 
 
 (ii) "That (I have ta'en away tliis^ uM man'ri daughter) 
 It is most true." 
 
 W'lial is iiK^si true ? It. Wli.it is it 1^ That. AVluii is that]' 
 That ( I liavr taken away, etc) Here the Vfili is lias ivally 
 three sulijccts, all iiicaniiiL,^ llic sann' tiling-. 
 
 1 ^rJT It must bo obscrvdl tliat tin; (Ifiiiiinstrativo tlml has liy uso piincil tlio 
 force, ami exercises tlie functinii, of a coiijuiictioii jninin^ two sentences. 
 It here joins the twu .sentences "It is most true," ami "I hiive taken 
 away," etc. 
 
 I. Thr imniiiialiM' to a vci'l) in the Imperative Mimd is often 
 uiiiillcd. Thus Come along ! ^ Come thou (or //'-) along ! 
 
 '^ 
 
 \m\ 
 
 ' i 
 
 I 
 
 2.— THE rOSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 KuLK VI. — AViien one Xoun stands in the relation of an 
 
 attribute to another Koun, the first of these nouns is put in 
 liii' Possessive Case. 
 
 i The Pos,se,s,sive Ca.^e originally denoted mere possession, as John's 
 book; John's gun. But it }ias gradually gained a wider reference ; and 
 we L'ciii say, " Tlie iJuke of Porthind'.s funeral," etc. 
 
 lii' Tlie objective case with of is — the posses-sive ; and we can say, 
 "The might of England," instead of " England'.s might." 
 
 Rule YII. — When (i) two or more Possessives arc in apposi- 
 tion, or (ii) when several nouns connected by and arc in the 
 possessive case, the sign of the possessive is affixed to the 
 last only. 
 
 (i; Thus we find : (i) For thy servant David a sake, (ii) Messrs Siui{)- 
 kiii & Marshall's house. 
 
 Xiy Till! fact is, that Mr^^'rs Simpkin-S-MnrshdU., anil other such jihrases, 
 are n^'ariieil ms one conipouiid plirase. 
 
 \ii) The sentence, "This is a iiictuir oi Turner's," i " Thi,- i.-. a 
 
 I'ieture (one) of Turner's ]picture>. " The o/ governs, not 'Jvi-tiir's, but 
 [•icturcs. Hence it is not a double {iosse»ive, though il l^ok- nkc it. 
 
 The phrase, ''africml of mine," contaiii> xhv same i<ii'iii; only luuic is used 
 lu place of my, l>ccaube the word fri€nd has been suppressed. 
 
 N 
 
:' I 
 
 08 
 
 v 
 
 (lllAMMAK OF THE KN(JL1S11 LANGUAGR. 
 
 3.— THK ()I{.JI':CTIVK CASK 
 
 1. Tlio Objective Case is lliat caKc of ji noun or pronnun 
 that is "• i^'ovcrni'd l»y " a transitisc vcrl) or hy a jircposition. 
 
 J|3" It ift ('Illy tlie pronoun tlmt ha.s a sjxH'ial form for tlii;, case, 
 The English noun formerly had it, but lost it between the years ]W, 
 and 1300. 
 
 2. The Objective Case is tlie easp. of tlio Direct Object; 
 the Dative Case is tlic case of the Indirect Object— and r 
 something nu)re. 
 
 (i) The Direct Object answers to the question Whom? or What? ; 
 
 (ii) The Indirect Object answers to the tjuestion To whom? To what" 
 or For whom ? For what ? 
 
 3. 'J'he ol)j(",'t of an active-transitive scrl) iinist ahvays Ix ,i 1 
 Noun or the Equivalent of a Noun. 
 
 KuLE VIII. — T\\v Direct Object of an Active-Transitive 
 Verb is put in ihv. Objective Case. 
 
 Thus we read : (i) We met the man (Noun), (ii) We met him 
 (Pronoun^, [in) We saw tlie fighting (Verbal Noun), (iv) 1 like to 
 work (Infinitive), (v) I heard that he had left (Noun sentence). 
 
 liuLE IX. — A'evlis of teaching, asking, making, appoint- 
 ing, ete., take two objects. 
 
 Thu.s we say : (i) He teaches me grammar, (ii) He asked me a 
 question, (iii) They made him manager, (iv) The Queen apiioinici 
 him Treasurer. 
 
 S^ In till' lii:.t two iiistaiKi'.'^ the ulijccts ;irc .soiiutiiiics called factitive objects. 
 
 Kui.E X. — S(»nK' Intransitive Verbs lake an olyeetive r:\>< 
 after them, if the ohjeetive has a similar or cognate nieaiiin,' 
 to that of tlie verb itself. 
 
 Thus we find : (i) To die the death, (ii) To sleep a sleep, (iii) T' 
 go one's way. To wend one's way. (iv) To run a race, (v) Drcamiiii.' 
 dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. 
 
 g^ Such objects are called cognate objects. 
 
 Rule XI. — The limitations of a Verb by words or phrases 
 expressing space, time, measure, etc., are said to be in the 
 
 [, objective c 
 all night; ( 
 
 *l- ]. n< 
 
 a If attachc( 
 L'. The f. 
 (i) They bui 
 nail, (iii) 
 jilirases are 
 ami turned ; 
 
 1. The .sar 
 ai'conlin^' to ; 
 
 Int 
 
 (i) The sold: 
 
 iii The man 
 liii) ^\'c walk( 
 
 -. An Intr 
 tive verb Avho 
 
 Intrans: 
 
 (i) The childr 
 ii The man s 
 
 ^. The ])iv] 
 '" that it ivina 
 
 Tlius we ciiii 
 (iii) l'rosecuti( 
 i" the use uf t 
 
 1. The Dati- 
 
 Thus wt 
 
 2. The Dati 
 
eft3. 
 lillr 
 
 SYNTAX 01" THK NOnX. 
 
 r.o 
 
 objective case; as (i) he -walkcil tliivo, miles; (ii) lie travuUed 
 all night; (iii) lln' stoiic wci^^lird tliriM' pounds. 
 
 »*" 1. MocauHO tliewe wonls limit m- modify tlx; vcihs tn wliiili tlicy 
 are iitt<icli«'(l, tli(>y arc .'^iiiiiotiiiics called Adverbial Objects. 
 
 •J. The fiillnwiii^' |>lirasi's an; adverbial objects i>t' the same kind: 
 (i) Tlipy liDuiitl him hand and foot, (ii) They fell u|p(iii liim tooth and 
 nail, (iii) ''''cy Uinicd nut llic Turks, bag and baggage. Suih 
 lihra.-^es are rightly called adv('i'))ial, Ixn.'au.so they modify huiiuf/, fill, 
 ami turned; and .show how ho wa.s bound, how thoy foil upon him, otc. • 
 
 KEMy\IU<S ON ExrEPTlON.S. 
 
 1. The same verl) may Ix' cither Intransitive nr Transitive, 
 
 a: Liti'di]);.; ti) its iLse. TIuls- 
 
 Intransitive. 
 
 (\) The .soldier ran away. 
 
 'ii) The man work.s very hard. 
 liii) Wc walked uj) the hill. 
 
 Transitive. 
 
 (i) 'I'he .soldier ran his .^jpear inUj 
 
 I he A rail, 
 (ii,' The master works his men too 
 hard. 
 
 (iii) The groom walked the hor.sc 
 up the hill. 
 
 i All Intransitive verl) |)L'i'fui'r.is the fiiiK'tioii of a Transi- 
 tive A'L'i'l) when a preposition i.s addiMl to it. 'I'lius — 
 
 Intransitive. 
 
 (i) The children laughed. 
 (ii^ The man spoke. 
 
 Transitive. 
 
 (i) The children laughed at the clown. 
 (ii) The man spoke of wild beasts. 
 
 3. Tlie iJi'cposition may contiimo to adhere to .sucli a vcrli, 
 .-M iliat it ivniains ev(>ii avIicu tlic vcr lia.s limi made passive. 
 
 Thus we can say : (i) He was laughedat. (ii) Whales wei-e spok<'n -of. 
 (iii) I'rosecution was hinted-at. And this is an enormous eonvenicnec 
 ill the use of the English language. . 
 
 y \ 
 4.— THE DATU'E CASE. 
 
 1. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object. 
 Thus we say : He handed her a chair. She gave it me. 
 
 2. The Dative is also the case of the Direct Object, with 
 
 .) 
 
70 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Midi vcrl)K as be, worth, seem, please, think ( =: .senii) ', aii'! 
 witli till! ii(lj('(;iiv<'s like ami near. 
 
 Thus wc liave ilio jilini.se,-<, me.sociiis ; if you please ( — if it pli v 
 y()u) ; metiiought (-it scoiiitMl to me); woe i.s me! aiul, slie i.^ lik. 
 him ; he was near us. 
 
 " Wtic WDith the chase ! woe worth Ihe day 
 That cost thy life, my gallant grey ! " 
 
 — "Lady of the Lake." 
 
 " When in Saiamanca's eave 
 Him li.-tjd his magic wand to wave, 
 
 The liells would ring in Notre-Dame." 
 
 — " Lay of the Last Minstrel." 
 
 3. 'I'lio Dative is sometimes llie case of possession or li 
 benefit. 
 
 As in, Woe is me ! Well is thee I 
 
 " Convey me Salisbury into Ids tent." 
 
 JIULK XJl. — A^'i'l)s of giving, promising, telling, showing 
 etc., lake two olgects ; and the indirect object is put in tli 
 dative ease. 
 
 Thus we say : He gave her a fan. tShe ]ironused me a book. Tell us 
 a story. Show me the j>ieture-book. 
 
 KuLE Xlll. — AVhen such verbs are turned into tliK passive 
 voice, either the Direct or the Indirect Object may be tuniei 
 into the Subject of the Passive Verb. Tlius we can say 
 eitlier — 
 
 Direct Object u.-^ed as Subject. 
 
 (i) A fan was given her. 
 (ii) A book was ))n)niised me. 
 (iii) A story was tnld us. 
 
 Indirect Object used as Subject, 
 
 (i) She wa.s given a fan.^ 
 (ii) I was proiiiised a book.' 
 (iii) We were told a storv.' 
 
 (iv) The iiicture-book was shown (iv) I was shown the i)icturc-buiA, 
 me, 
 
 ' This has sometimes been called the Retained Object. The wcri 
 fan, etc., are in the objective case, not because they are govei'ned \>\ tl-- 
 pa.ssive verbs icns fjivcn, etc., but because they still retain, in a lata: 
 form, the influence or goverumeut exercised upon them by the active 
 verbs, give, promise, etc. 
 
 1 
 
 Til 
 
 ■ D 
 
 III t 
 
 II' li 
 
 lie ' 
 
 tciv 
 
 <i to 
 
 thr 
 
 
 riius 
 
 (i) 
 
 we 1 
 "H. 
 
 
 (ii.) 
 
 '• Vi 
 
 
 (iii) 
 
 '•v.. 
 
 ( 
 
 Irunuiiari; 
 
 2. 
 
 TJi.' 
 
 Dal 
 
 l( rp 
 
 t 
 
 1. Ill (Mil' ( ) 
 
 ' I till' .Xoniia 
 
 1 'T ;ii,riv('i| Avi 
 
 ' ■ "11 .IS late a 
 ''•' J^lunil mill 
 'i ili'.s'ljc write 
 
 ^' i'<-rc e is tlie j 
 2. hi course 
 ! 1- and tlie 
 ' ■ iiii'l Ihcre^ 
 't ^'^' tJiat Jiavi 
 '' '- lli''>'' iullc: 
 " "fives tliat 
 t-'"s iiiid that, A\ 
 •''■ 1 those. 
 
 (i) The, whicj 
 
 (•'' When an ; 
 iwu ; as the Mac, 
 
 3. Kost adjeci 
 
'1r 
 
 SYNTAX OF T!IK ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1 
 
 
 3ive 
 
 Siv: 
 
 wi: 
 
 \vn\- 
 
 ll'.e 
 
 Iwa'. 
 
 Itive 
 
 •TiKMAUKS ON KXCKPTIONS. 
 
 1, Tlic hativc (if the Personal Pronoun ^\•ils in frcijiiriil us(( 
 ill ihr liiiic 111' SliiikcsjuMi'i', to add a rcilain li\ cliiirss and in- 
 W\v<i {<> tlic slatciiicnt. 
 
 Thus wv timl, ill scvoi'al nf liis jiliiys, such sentenoeH as — 
 
 (i) "He jilui'kod me njio liis doublet." 
 
 (iii "Villain, I say, knock me ut this gate, uml riqi me well." 
 
 (iii) " Viiiii' tiiimer will la.st you nine year." 
 
 (Iraiuuiiirians call this kind of dative the ethical dative. 
 
 2, Tilt' 1 Native was onct' the Absolute Case. 
 
 "This said, they hoth betuok them sevcnd ways." 
 
 — Miltun. 
 
 /I 
 
 ]!.— SYNTAX OF TllK ADJKCTIVK. 
 
 1. In our < lid I'li^disli -Ww Kn^'Hsli spoken Ix'fonr tlio coming' 
 |(if ilic Noi'iiians, and i^^' sduio j^'onuratinns after — every adjee- 
 itivc a^'iviMl Avitli its noun in gender, number, and case ; and 
 [tvfii as lati- as (Jliaiieer ( 1340-1 i 00) adjectives liad a form for 
 
 plural numljer. Thus in the Proluguc to the * Canterbury 
 T ilrs,' he writes — 
 
 "And sr/i«/(5' f owles maken melodic," 
 
 vliero e is the i)lural inllcxion. 
 
 2. hi course of tmic, partly under the inlluence of the Nor- 
 i;mu.s and the Kornian laii;^uiage, all ihese, inflexions dropjx-d 
 
 liiMinl there are now oidy twu ailjortives in the wlmlc Ian 
 Piii,i,'e that liave any inflexions at all (exct'pt for (Hjnqtari.son), 
 aii'l these inlh'xions are only for the plural nund)er. The twn 
 I'lji'etives that arc inflected mv the demonsti'ative adjectives 
 jthis andthat, which make their plurals in these (formerly ////.sv) 
 iiiiil those. 
 
 (i) The, wiiieh i.-. a hrokcn-down form of tluit, never changes at all, 
 
 (ill When an adjective is used as a noun, it may take a jilural intiec- 
 tiou ; as the blacls, goods, equals, edibles, arnnials, monthlies, weeklies, etc. 
 
 3. Most adjectives are inflected for compariBou. 
 
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 72 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 4. Every adjective is either an explicit or an implicit predi- 
 cate. The following are examples : — 
 
 Adjectives uHcd an Explicit Predicates. 
 
 1. The way was long ; the wind was cold. 
 
 2. Tlie niin/strel was infirm and old. 
 
 3. The duke is very rich. 
 
 Adjectives used as Implicit Predicates. 
 
 1. We liad before us a long way and a cold wind. 
 
 2. The infirm old minstrel went wearily on. 
 
 3. The rich duke is very niggardly. 
 
 5. When an adjective is used as an explicit predicate, it is 
 said to be used predicatively ; when it is used as an implicit 
 predicate, it is said to be used attributively. 
 
 Adjectives used predicatively. 
 
 1. The cherries are ripe. 
 
 2. The man we met was very old. 
 
 Adjectives used attributively. 
 
 1. Let us pluck only the ripe cherries. 
 
 2. We met an old naan. 
 
 KuLE XIV. — An adjective nuiy (qualify a noun or pronoun 
 predicatively, not only after the verb be, but after such iu,- 
 transitive verbs as look, seem, feel, taste, etc. 
 
 Thus we find : (i) She looked angry, (ii) He seemed weary, (iii) He 
 felt better, (iv) It tasted sour, (v) He fell ill. 
 
 Rule XV. — After verbs of making, thinking, considering, 
 etc., an adjective may be used factitively as well as predica- 
 tively. 
 
 Thus we can say, (i) AVe made all the young ones happy, (ii) All 
 liresent thought him odd. (iii) We considered him very clever. 
 Factitive coiir's fnnii tlic hnVm facio, I iiiiikc. 
 
 Rule XVI. — An adjective nuiy, especially in poetry, be uscil 
 as an abstract noun. 
 
 Thus we speak of " the True, the Qood, and the Beautiful ; " " the 
 sublime and the ridiculous ; " Mrs Browning has the phrase, " from the 
 depths of God's divine ;" and Longfellow speaks of 
 
 " A band 
 Of stem in licort and •trong in hand." 
 
 (i) Th( 
 
 ai-Ming 
 time tlie 
 liavi' the 
 fast!" '• 
 
 (ii) Slu 
 teiu'es as 
 
 RULK X^ 
 
 with its noi 
 Thus, in 
 
 where forgi 
 ];aasive part 
 lot of the ve 
 
 (i) But 
 verb— the 
 shall be i 
 we, and gc 
 
 PtULE XI 
 
 two things 
 tive Avhen t 
 
 Thus we i 
 Mirpo." 
 
 (i) Than 
 
 (ii) The 
 Thus Shak 
 lilirases a: 
 "superlat 
 
 (iii) Don 
 Shakespea 
 more large 
 "most unl 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 73 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 Rule XVIf. — An adjective nuiy he used as an adverb in 
 
 poetry. . ■ • 
 
 Thus we find in Dr Johnson the line— 
 
 " Slow rises wortli, by poverty depressed ; " 
 
 and in Sc(itt — 
 
 " Trip it deft and merrily ; " 
 
 and in Longfellow— 
 
 " The green trees whispered low and mild ; " 
 
 and in Tennyson — 
 
 " And slow and sure conies up the golden year." 
 
 (i) The reason for this is that in O. E. adverbs were formed from adjectives by 
 adiiiiig p. Thus brightB v,'!i>i = 'briijhthi, and dQej>e=deeply. But in course of 
 time tlie e ft'll otl', and an adverb wasjii.st like its own adjeetive. Henci we still 
 have till' phrases : "lie works hard; " Run quick!" " Speak louder I " "Run 
 fasti" "Right reverend," etc. 
 
 (ii) Shakesi)eare very frecjuently uses adjectives as adverbs, and has such sen- 
 tences as : " Tliou didst it excellent 1 ' '"Tis noble spoken !" and many more. 
 
 Rule XYI II. — A participle is a pure adjective, and agrees 
 with its noun. 
 
 Thus, ih Pope — 
 
 " IIow happy is the blameless vestal's lot, 
 The world forgetting, by tin; world forgot ! " 
 
 where forgetting, tlie present active partioi' .e, and forgot, the past 
 passive participle, both agi-ee with vestal (" the vestal's lot " being = <Ae 
 lot of the vestal). 
 
 (i) But while a participle is a pure adjective, it also retains one function of a 
 verb— the power to govern. Thus in the sentence, " Respecting ourselves, we 
 shall be respcted by the world," tlie present participle rcsi>ecting agrees with 
 we, and governs onrselves. 
 
 Rule XIX. — The comparative degree is employed when 
 two things or two sets of things are compared ; the superla- 
 tive Avlien three or more are compared. 
 
 Thus we say "James is taller than T ; but Tom is the tallest of the 
 
 tlireo." 
 
 (i) Than is a dialectic form of then. ".Tames is taller ; then I (come)." 
 
 (ii) The superlative is sometimes u.sed to indicate superiority to all others. 
 Thus Shakespeare says, " A little ere the mightiest Julius fell ;" and we usesueh 
 jihrases as, "Truest friend and noblest foe. This is sometimes called the 
 "superlative of pre-eminence." 
 
 (iii) Double comparatives ind superlatives were much used in O.E., and 
 Shakespeare was especially fond of tliem. He gives us such phrases as, "a 
 more larger list of sceptres," "more better," "more nearer," "most worst," 
 ' ' most unkindest cut of all," etc. Tliese cannot be employed now. 
 
 n 
 
 f- 
 
 1 '■ 
 
74 
 
 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 RuFiE XX. — Tho distributive adjoctivos cjwh, rrrr//, r/fhcr, 
 neithn', <ro witli singulai nouns only. 
 
 TliUH we say : (i) Each l)(»y got an apple, (ii) Every ikvjh is in iU 
 jilace. (iii) Kitlier book will do. (iv) Neither woman went. 
 
 Either and neither are dialectic forms of other and nother, which 
 were afterwards coinpre.-jsed into or and nor. 
 
 «l 
 
 Remarks on Exceptions. 
 
 1. There are some adjectives that cannot he used attribu- 
 tively, })ut only predicatively. .Such are -well, ill, ware, 
 aware, afraid, glad, sorry, etc. (Mut we say "a <^dad lieart," 
 and — in a ilillcnMit st-nsc — '^i soi-ry nag.'"') 
 
 (i) We say " He was glad ; " hut wo cannot say " A glad man." Yot 
 
 Wordsworth has — 
 
 " Glad sight whenever new and old 
 Are joined thro' some dear home-born tie." 
 
 We also speak of "glad tidings." 
 
 (ii) We say " He was sorry ; " Ijut if we say " He wa,s a sorry man," 
 we use the word in a quite ditterent .sense. The attributive meaning uf 
 the word is in this instance quite different from the predicative. 
 
 2. The phra.se " the fir.st two " means f/ie jirsf ((ml ttecoml 
 in one series ; *' the two first " means the first of each of two 
 series. 
 
 >^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 TIT.— SYNTAX OF THE PRONOT^X. 
 
 .v« 
 
 Rule XXT. — Pronouns, whether personal or relative, must 
 agree in gender, number, and person with the nonn.i for 
 ■\vhieh they stanil, hut not (necessarily) in case. , 
 
 Thus we say : " I have lost my umbrella : it wa.s standing in tlio 
 corner." 
 
 (i) Here it is neuter, singular, .ind third jierson, heeanse timbroll.a is neuter, 
 .singular, and tliird jierson. 
 
 (ii) Umbrella is in the objective case governed hy have lost; but it is in the 
 nominative, because it is the subject to its own verb wet* standing. 
 
 Rule XXI T. — Pronouns, Avhetlur personal or relative, take 
 their case from the sentence hi which they stand. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 '5 
 
 Thus we say : " The snilor irhom we met on the beach id ill." Here 
 sailor is in the nominative, and whom, itH jironoun, in the objective. 
 
 (i) Whom is in tlic olijeftivc, Itv ause it is yDveniftl liy tlm viTb met in its 
 (iwn si-ntenco. " Tlie. Hailcr is ill" is one si-ntunce. " Ilini (whom^anrl him) 
 we met " is a secuntl sentence. 
 
 (ii) Tlie ri'lative may l)e governed by a preposition, as " Tlio man on whom I 
 relied has nut disappointed me." 
 
 Rule XXIII. — Who, whom, and whose are used only of 
 rational hcings ; which of irrational ; that may stand for 
 nouns of iiny kind. 
 
 li) In poetry, whose may he used for of ivhirh. Thus Wordswortli, in 
 the ' I.aiidaniia,' has — 
 
 " Iv wurMs whose course is equable and pure." 
 
 liuLK XXIV. — Tilt! possessive pronouns mine, thine, ours, 
 yours, and theirs ran only be used predicatively ; or, if used 
 as ;i subject, cannot have a noun Avitli tlnnn. 
 
 Thus we scay : " This is mine." " Mine is larger than yours." But 
 mine and thine are used for my and thy before a noun in poetry and 
 inipa.ssioned prose : " Who knoweth the power of thine anger? " 
 
 IiULE XXV. — After such, same, so much, so great, etc.*, 
 the relative employed is not who, but as. 
 Thus Milton has — 
 
 " Tears such as angels weep." 
 
 (i) Shakespeare uses as even after that — 
 
 "Thftt kind of fruic u maids call medlars." 
 This usage cannot now 1 employed. 
 
 Remarks on Exceptions. 
 1. The antecedent to the relative may he omitted. 
 
 Thus we find, in Wordsworth's " Ode to Duty "— 
 
 " There are a who ask not if thine eye 
 Be on them." 
 
 And Shakespeare, in "Othello," iii. 3. l.*)", has— 
 
 " A Who steals my purse, steals trash." 
 
 And we have the well-known Greek proverb— 
 
 " A Whom the gods love, die ycjung." 
 
f IJi 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 Hi 
 
 I i-i 
 
 'r f 
 
 
 
 T6 GRAMMAR OF THE ENCLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. The relative itself may lie omUted. 
 
 (i) Tlius Shelley lias the line— 
 
 " Men must reap the things A they sow." 
 
 (ii) And such phrases as, " Is this the book A you wanted ? " are very 
 common. 
 
 3. The word but is often used for who + not. It may hence 
 be called the negative-relative. 
 
 Thus Scott has— 
 
 " There breathes not clansman of my line 
 But ( = who not) would have given his life for mine." 
 
 4. The personal pronouns, whon in the dative or objective 
 case, are generally without emphasis. 
 
 (i) If we say " Give me your hand," the me is unemphatic. If we say 
 "Give me your hand !" the me has a stronger emphasis than the ghr, 
 and means me, and not any other person. 
 
 (ii) Very ludicrous accidents sometimes occur from the misplacing df 
 the accent. Thus a careless reader once read : " And he said, ' Saddle 
 me the ass;' and they saddled him." Nelson's famous signal, "Ens?- 
 land expects every man to do his duty," was once altered in em- 
 phasis with excellent effect. A midshipman on l)oard one of H.M.'s 
 ships was very lazy, and inclined to allow others to do his work; and the 
 question went round tlie vessel : " Why is Mr So-and-so like England • ' 
 " Because lie expects every man to do his duty." 
 
 
 IY._SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 
 1.— CONCORD OF VERBS. 
 
 We cannot say I writes, or He or The man write. We always say I write, 
 He writes, and The man writes. In other words, certain pronouns and 
 nouns requii'e a certain form of a verb to go with them. If the pronoun 
 is of the first i)prsf)n, then the verb will have a certain form ; if it is of the 
 third person, it will have a different f(jrm. If the noun or pronoun is sing 
 ular, the verb will have one form ; ii it is plural, it may have another form. 
 In these circumstances, the verb is said to agree with its subject. 
 
 All these facts are usually embodied in a general statement, which may 
 also serve as a rule. 
 
 Rule XXVI. — A Finite Verb must agree with its subject 
 
SYNTAX OF THE VEKIi. 
 
 77 
 
 in Number ami Person. 'J'lius we say : " lie lalls," " They 
 walk." 
 
 (i) The .subject aii-swers to the ijuestinii Who? or What ? 
 
 (ii) The subject of a finite veib its always in the nominative case. 
 
 Or and nor are conjuncition.s which do not add the things mentioned 
 1-. each other, but allow the mind to take them separately — the one 
 excluding the other. We may therefore say : — 
 
 KuLE XXA'II. — Two or nior.' sin<,nilar nouns that are subjects, 
 (oiinectetl by or or nor, require tlieir verb to lie in the singular. 
 Thus w'P say : ** Ei'iier Tom or John is going." " It was either 
 a roe-deer or a largo goat ! " 
 
 Oji the other hand, when two or more singular nouns are connected 
 by and, they are added to each other ; and, just as one and one make 
 two, 80 two singular nouns are equal to one plural. We may therefore 
 lay down the following rule : — 
 
 KuLE XXVni. — Two or more singular nouns that are sub- 
 jects, connected by and, require their verb to be in the plural. 
 "We say: "Tom and John are going." "There -were u roe- 
 deer and a goat in the held." 
 
 Cautions. — (i) The compound conjunction as wrell as does not require 
 a i>lural verb, because it allows the mind to take each subject separately. 
 Tiius we say, "Justice, as well as mercy, allows it." We can .see the 
 truth of this remark by transposing the clauses of the sentence, and 
 saying, "Justice allows it, as well as mercy [allows it]." 
 
 (ii) The preposition with cannot make two singular subjects int<j one 
 jtlural. We must say, "The Mayor, with his attendants, was there." 
 Transposition will show the force of this remark also : "The Mayor was 
 there with his attendants." 
 
 KuLE XXIX. — Collective Nouns take a singular verb or 
 a plural verb, as the notion ( f unity or of plurality is upper- 
 most in the mind of the speaker, 'i'lius we .say : " Parliament 
 was dissolved." "The committee are divided in opinion." 
 
 (i) When two or more nouns represent one idea, the verb is singular. 
 Thus, in Milton's " Lycidas," we lind— 
 
 " Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear 
 
 Compels me to disturb your seasou due. 
 F 
 
f! ') 
 
 78 
 
 GRAMMAU OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 PI 
 
 Aud, in tSlmkertitoarctj " Tciiipent ' yw lOr, we read — 
 
 "All ionueiil, truuble, wumlcr, aud ama/eiueut 
 Inhabits here." 
 
 In this caho we may look ujton the statemeut a.-> — " A cuuditiuu which 
 embraces all turment," etc. 
 
 (ii) Wiien the verb precedes a number of diH'erent nuniiiiativcs, it i- 
 often singular. The speaker scema not to have yet made up hi.s mind 
 what nominatives he is g(Mng to use. Thus, in tiie well-knov.n passage 
 in Byron's " Childe Harold " we have — 
 
 "Ah I then and there was huii'yiiig to and fro, 
 And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress." 
 
 And so Siiakespeaic, in ".lulius Cicsar," makes Hrutus say, " There is 
 tears fur his love, joy for his fortune, honour for his valour, and dealli 
 for his and)ition." And, in the same way, people say, " Where is my 
 hat and stick ?" 
 
 Rule XXX. — 'J'lie verb to be is often attracted into the .sanit! 
 nunibei- Jis tlic nominative tliai follows it, instead of a<'reeiii'' 
 with the nominative that is its true suhje(;t. Tlius we lind : 
 "The wages of sin is cleatli." "To love and to admire has 
 been the joy of his existence." "A high look and a proud 
 heart is sin." ,^^ 
 >^ 
 
 2.— GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 KuLE XXXI. — A Transitive Vcib in the active voice 
 governs its direct object in the objective case. Thus we say : 
 " 1 like him ; " " tliey dislike her." 
 
 The following sub-rules are of some imi)ortanee : — 
 
 (i) The participle, wliich is an adjective, has the same govei-niug 
 power as the vcrli of wliich it is a part — as, " Seeing the rain, I remained 
 at home" — where seeing agrees with I as an adjective, and goverus 
 rain as a verb. 
 
 (ii) The gerund, which is a noun, has the same governing power as 
 the verb to which it belongs. Thus we say : " Hating one's neighbour is 
 forbidden by the Gospel," where hating is a noun, the nominative to 
 is forbidden, and a gerund governing neighbour in the objective. 
 
 Rule XXXII. — Active-transitive Verbs of giving, promis- 
 ing, offering, and suchlike, govern the Direct Object in the 
 
SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 
 
 79 
 
 objective (;im', ;iM(1 tli.' Indiroot Object in tlif dative. " I 
 ;'avi! him an apple." "lie j)rnniiscs me a book." 
 
 I . , . , . . . 
 
 'I (i) III turning iliese active vems jnt<j i>ii«8ive, it i.s the direct object 
 
 tliiit should he turned into the subject of the passive verl' ; ami we 
 
 I'Ught to siy, "An ii\>[>Ui was given nie." Jkit custom allows ..!' either 
 
 iiiode of change; and we also say, "I was given an apjile;" "I was 
 
 pniiiiised a hook." Dr Al)l)ott calls the ohjectives tij'plc ami linn/c 
 
 retained objects, hecauso they are rcUiincd in the sentence, even 
 
 although we know that no pa«»ive verb can govern an olijectivc case. 
 
 Kllk XXX ril. — Such vcrlis a.s make, create, appoint, 
 
 f think, believe, rlc., ^^ovciii two olijccls — the ono direct, the 
 
 • other factitive. Tliu.s \\v .siy : " 'J'hcy iiukU! him king;" 
 
 "the kiuLj iqijiuiuti'd him governor;" " wi- tlunioJit her a 
 
 ( lrv( r woman." 
 
 (i) The .second of these ohjectives remains with the passive verl', 
 when the form of the sentence has l»een chaugeil ; and we .>ay, " He 
 wa- made king ; " " he was aitpointed governor." 
 
 KuLE XXXIV. — (Ino VL'rl) governs another in tlit- Infinitive. 
 
 The Infinitive Mood of a V(!ilt, being a pnii' noun, may Ix; 
 the object of another verb, if that verb i,s active-transitive. 
 Thus \\c .say : " I saw hiiu go ; " " ^ve saw tlie ship sink ; " 
 " I ordered liini to write." 
 
 (i) In tiie }ir.>t two sentences, him and ship ai'c the subjects of go 
 and sink. Hut the subject of an infinitive is always in the objective 
 case. The infinitives go and sink have a douVile face. They are verbs 
 in relation to their subjects him and (jo ; they are nouns in relation to 
 the verbs that govern them, 
 
 lii) In the sentence, " I ordered him to write," him is in the ditive 
 i-u.^e ; and the .sentence is-:''! ordered writing to him." To write is 
 the direct object of ordered. 
 
 liii) Conclusion from th^ above ; An Infinitive is always a noun, 
 whether it be a subject oi' an object. It is (a) a bubject iu the 
 sentence, "To play football is pleasant." It is (6) au object in the 
 sentence, "I like to play football." 
 
 KuLE XXXV. — Some Intransitive Verbs govern the Dative 
 
n 
 
 r^T 
 
 ■i I 
 
 80 
 
 GKAMMAll OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK. 
 
 i I I 
 
 f 1: 
 
 Case. Tliiis w<' liiivo " MeM'y//;/A/'," " me.>(v.'/»<," " \\'oi5 /i'oWA 
 tho day ! " *' \V<>u As' me ! " " If you /vAvov / ' 
 
 (i) Worth iH tlie iiiiperiitivu of an nM Kngli.--li veil>, ucorUnn), Lo tic- 
 collie. ^The Geiiiuin t'orm of tliis veil) is wcrdcn.) 
 
 (ii) Sluik<!s|i('iiie ev«.Mi loiistrufs Llie verb looh wiLli ii diitive. lii 
 " C}uibeline," iii. 5, '62, he 1ih.s— 
 
 She looks us like 
 A thing more made of malice, than of duty. 
 
 -A 
 
 Ik 
 
 3.— MOODS OK VKllHS. 
 
 1. The Indicative Mood is the nio(jd of direct assertion or statcnient, 
 unil it .speaks of actual facts. Tlie Subjunctive Mood is the mood of a-- 
 hcrtion also, hut with a modification given to the assertion by the mind 
 tlirougli whi(!h it passes, if we use tlie term (i/>y'(r</rc as describing wliat 
 aciunUi/ cxintx in<Iependently of our minds, and sillijcctiic a.s dcscrii)iiig 
 that which cxints in the mind of the speaker, — whether it really exi^U 
 outside or not, — we can then say that — 
 
 {{) The Indicative Mood is the mood of 6bjective assertion. 
 
 (ii) The Subjunctive Mood is tlie mood of subjective assertion. 
 
 The Iiiilicafivi; Mood may be coiiiiiared to a ray of light eomiiig slraiglit 
 through tlie air; the Siilijiiiii^tive Mood to tlie i^lfect iirnduced l)y the water oii 
 the same ray— the water defh'cts it, makes it form a (luite ilifferent angle, and 
 hcnec a stick in the water looks hroken or crooked. 
 
 2. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command or of request. 
 
 3. The Infinitive Mood is the substantive mood or noun of tiic 
 verb. It is always equal to a noun ; it i.s always either a subject or an 
 object ; and hence it is incapable of making any assertion. 
 
 4. The Subjunctive Mood has for some years been gradually dying 
 out. Few writers, and still fewer speakers, use it. Good writeis are 
 even found to say, "If lie was here, I should tell him." But a know- 
 ledge of the uses of the subjunctive mood is necessary to enable us to 
 understand l''iiglisli prose and verse anterior to the present generation. 
 Even so late as the year 1817, Jane Austen, one of the best prose- writers 
 of this century, used the subjunctive mood in almost every depiendent 
 clause. Not only docs she use it after (/"and thou(/h, but after such con- 
 junctions as till, until, because, and others. 
 
 KuLE XXXVI. — The Subjunctive Mood was used — and 
 ought to be used — to express doubt, possibility, supposition, 
 consequence (whieli may or may not happen), or wish, all as 
 moods of the mind of the speaker. 
 
SYNTAX OF TTTK W.TIK 
 
 81 
 
 (i) " If thou read iliis, o Ciesar, thou mayst livp." (Do>»l.t.) 
 
 (ih " If he come, I will sppftk f,o hiiu." (I'ossiliilify.) 
 
 (iii) '• V»'t. if oiif hcurt throb iiiKJHM- at its sway. 
 
 TliP wi/!inl luiU' has imt hecn tourhod in vain." (Suppo.xition.) 
 
 (iv) " 'lOt oil your iti^ht-^uwn, loHt oocawion call u« 
 And show us to lio watchors." (('on.se(|U«^uce.) 
 
 (v) " I would my daught.*'!' were d«»ad at my foot, and the jowHs in hop 
 par!" (Wish.) 
 
 i^ III rtll oI'Micnlinvi! sciifi'iiccs, tlicrlaiisi's with siilijiiiii tivcs iln not state faf'ts, 
 but I'lcliii^^s or iiiitioiiH of wliat may or ini^ht In'. 
 
 Ill i.K XXW'II.- -Tim Subjunctive Mood, lu'in<,' a Kuhjulitcd 
 mood, is iihva.vs dependent <»ii sninc < it her cljiu.sd antecedent 
 in thought, ami ,^'t'iifially al.^o in t'xiJrcs.sion. Tlic autuccdt'nt 
 rlanst', which t'untains the condition, is called the conditional 
 clause; and the claiisc which contains tlai consequence of the 
 s'liiposition is called the consequent clause. 
 
 (i) If it were so , it was a grievous fault. 
 
 Condition. Cunsenuence. 
 
 ii) If it were dune when 'tis done, 
 
 I'OIHlitidH. 
 
 Then 'twere well it were done quickly. 
 
 ( 'tiii^eiiiieni't. 
 
 liKMARKS ()\ Fa'CKPTIoNS. 
 
 1. .Sometimes the rnnditifmal clanse is suppressed. Thus we 
 <rin say, "1 would not endure such lanj,'uau;e " [if it were at l- 
 drcsscd to me = conditional clause]. 
 
 2. The conjunction is often omitted. Thus, in Shakespeare's 
 jilay of ", Julius Ca'sar," we find — 
 
 " Were I r.rutus, 
 And Brutus Antony, there wimo um Antony 
 Would ruffle up your spirit.s. ' 
 
 Rule XXXVnr.— The Simple Infinitive— Avithout the sio-n 
 to — is used with auxiliary verhs, such as may, do, shall, will, 
 etc. ; and with such verljs as let, bid, can, must, see, hear, 
 make, feel, observe, have, know, etc. 
 
rr 
 
 82 
 
 OUAMMAK OF THE ENGLlSir LANT.UACJE. 
 
 Hill 
 
 r ! 
 
 (i) Let (larkiK'ss keep Iht riivoii ^^lus^. 
 
 (ii) Bid t.li)> |>nrt(>r come. 
 (iii) F saw him run iifter a pildod huttorfly. 
 (iv) Wf» heard liim cry. 
 
 (v) 'Vhcy made liim go, Pt<'., otc. 
 
 JJlLvvOHjliP Pftiios wlh) iiitiMiliiir'd a jiroiinsitinii lipforn the uiQlijJjvn, 
 ThcM'r si^'ii w.'is tit, wliiili was largely u-fd wil.li ilic intiiiitivc in ilic 
 
 Ndlt.lnMIl difllt'ct. 
 
 IJii.K XXXIX. — TIk' Gerund is ludli u noun ninl ii verb. 
 Ah 11 iiniiii, it, is governed liy .'i vcrli or ]irr|iusitiuii ; as a 
 vcrl), it governs dllirr iioinis nr jtrniKiinis. 
 
 TIhtc iiiv two ifiTMiiils -(!) (iiif willi to; a)nl (ii) one lliat 
 ends in ing. 
 
 (ii Tlio firsi is to lip cai-cfully disf iiiguisli<'<l from <1ip iM'ilinary in- 
 finitive. Now tlip ordinary inlinitive never expres.iPs a purpose; tlic 
 gerund witli to almost always doos. 'I'lius we fiiul— 
 
 " And fools who came to Dcoff remained to pray." 
 
 This gerund is often called the gerundial infinitive. 
 
 (ii) The .second is to be distinguished frum the present iiartieijilp iu 
 ing, and very carefully fi-om the abstract noun of the same form. The 
 jire.sent participle in ing, as lorlvr/, h<U!ti;/, vdlkinri, etc., is always an 
 adjective, agreeing with a n()un or pronoun. The gerund in ing is 
 always a noun, and governs an objeit. " He was very fond of playing 
 cricket." Here y(/(»//i//7 is a noun in lelation to »»/; and a verb govern- 
 ing criclcl in the oljjective. In the worth wuU-l)i(/-sti<'l,frif'niff pan, etc., 
 unlkinfi and fri/inrf are nouns, and therefc^-e gerunds. If they weie ad- 
 jectives and partici])les, the compounds would mean thr xtirk that va/kn, 
 the pan that fricK. 
 
 (iii) The gerujid in ing must also be distinguished from the verbal 
 noun in ing, whicli is a de.scendant of the verbal noun in ung. " He 
 went a hunting" (where a = the old an or on) ; "Forty and six years 
 was this temple in building ; " " He was very impatient duiing the 
 reading of the will." In these sentences hunting, building, and read- 
 ing are all verbal nouns, derived from the old verbal noun in ung, and 
 ai'e called abstract noims. But if we say, " He is fond of hunting deer; " 
 " He is engaged in building a hotel;" " He likes reading {»oetry," — then 
 the three words are gerunds, for they act aa verbs, and govern the three 
 objectives, deer, hotel, and poctrif. 
 
 • 
 
 Rule XL. — The Gerundial Infinitive is frequently con- 
 strued with nouns and adjectives. Thus we say : " A house 
 
SYNTAX OF TIIK ADVKRB — ANP PUKrOHlTION. 
 
 83 
 
 to sell nr let;" " Wood to burn;" "l>»:iiUy to hear, ajid 
 .i.H.IIv to tell ; " "(I.umI to eat." 
 
 v.— SYNTAX OV THE ADVET?n. 
 
 IiUF.K XLI. — Till' Atlvt'il) ouglit to Iff as near as possible to 
 the wnid it inodilies. Tluis wi- ou^'ht to say, " ll«i .Lfavc mo 
 only three shilling's," and not " \\>' only .ijavc jiic tliirc sliil- 
 liiii^'s," l»'''"ius(' otili/ iiiodilics three, and not gave. 
 
 This rulo api'liprt aUo to ('f)iniHiuinl ailvorlts, suih ns at least, in like 
 manner, at random, in part, etc. 
 
 Rule XLII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and othor 
 adverbs ; but tlicy can also nioilify prepositions. Tims \v»' 
 have the combinations out from, up to, down to, etc 
 
 h\ the sentence, " He wal':eil up to me," the adverb up does not 
 modify walked, but the prepositional phrnwe tu vie. 
 
 VI.— SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 Rule XLIII. — All prepositions in the English languago 
 govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case. 
 
 The prepositions save ami except are really verbs in the imperative 
 mood. 
 
 Rule XLIY. — Prepositions generally stand before the words 
 they govern ; but they may, with good effect, come after them. 
 Tims we find in Shakespeare — 
 
 " Ten thousand men that fishes gnawed upon." 
 " Why, then, thou knowest what colour jet is of." 
 
 Aiul, in Hooker, with very forcible effect — 
 
 " Shall there be a God to swear by, and none to pray to ? " 
 
 Rule XLY. — Certain verbs, nouns, and adjectives require 
 special prepositions. Thus we cannot say, " This is ditierent 
 to that," because it is bad English to say " This differs to that." 
 The proper preposition in both instances is flrom. 
 
T 
 
 14 
 
 GRAMMATl OF THE ENr,LISTI LANGUAGE. 
 
 The followin;,' is a list of some of these 
 Special 
 
 Absolve from. 
 Abhorrence for. 
 Accord with. 
 Acquit of. 
 Affinity between. 
 Adapted to (Lntentionally). 
 Adapted for (by nature). 
 Agree with (a person). 
 Agree to (a jfroposal). 
 Bestow upon. 
 Change for (a thing). 
 Change with (a person). 
 Confer on (=^ give t<>). 
 Confer with (italic witli). 
 Confide in ( = trust in). 
 Confide to ( = in trust to). 
 Conform to. 
 In conformity with. 
 Comply with. 
 Convenient to (a person). 
 Convenient for (a jjurpose). 
 Conversant with. 
 Corresjiond with (a person). 
 Correspond to (a thing). 
 Dependent on (but independent 
 
 prepoFitions : — 
 
 Derogatory to. 
 
 Differ from(a statement or opinion). 
 
 Differ with (a person). 
 
 Different from. 
 
 T)isappointed of (what we cannot 
 
 gpt,). 
 Disapi)ointed in (what we have 
 
 got). 
 Dissent from. 
 Kxcejjtion from (a rule), 
 Kxi'ejjtion to (a statement). 
 Glad of (a possession). 
 Glad at (a piece of news), 
 Invulve in. 
 Martyr for (a cause). 
 Martyr to (a disease). 
 Need of or for. 
 I'art from (a person). 
 I'art with (a thing). 
 Profit by, 
 
 Reconcile to (a person). 
 Reconcile with (a statement). 
 Taste of (food). 
 A taste for (art). 
 Thirst for or after (knowledge). \ 
 
 Of) 
 
 ^' 
 
 VII.— SYNTAX OF THK CONJUNCTIOX. 
 
 Rule XLYI, — Tlio Conjunction does not interfere with the 
 action of a transitive verh or prejjosition, nor witli the mood or 
 tense of a verb. 
 
 (i) Tliis rule is usually stated thus : " Conjunctions generally connect 
 the same oases of nijuns and pronouns, and the same moods and tenses 
 of verbs, as ' "We saw him and her,' ' Let eitlier him or me go ! ' " But 
 it is plain thai mw governs her as well as lum ; and that or cannct 
 interfere with the government of U.l. Such a rule is therefore totally 
 artificial. 
 
 (ii) ^t is plain that the conjunction and must make two singulars = 
 *ne plural, as " He and I are of the same age," 
 
 Rule XLVII. — Certain adjectives and conjunctions take 
 
i 
 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 85 
 
 afttr llii'iu coiiain special conjunctions. Tims, such (ailj.) 
 HMpiircR as, both (adj.), and; so and as require as; though, 
 yet; whether, or; either, or; neither, nor; nor, nor; or, 
 
 or. Tlie fi)llowing are a few examples : — 
 
 (i'l " Would I ilesf-ribe a preacher such as Paul ! " 
 
 (ii) " Though (leej), yet clear ; though gentle, yet not tlull." 
 
 liULR XLVIII. — The suboi'dinatiiiL,' coujuiK^tioii that may bo 
 omitted. Thus Ave ean say, "Ave you sure he is here?" 
 Shakespeare has, " Yet Brutus says he Avas auiljitinus ! " 
 
 4^ 
 
 il! 
 
 ^lii* 
 
 
i- 
 
 V: 
 
 
 i ri, 
 
 •■ 
 
 1 
 
 86 
 
 r- 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Wi)r(ls aro grogarimis, and go in groups. AVlion a group 
 of \vt)r(l.s niakcs complete sonso, it is calloil a sentence. A 
 sontonce is nut a cIuuk'. collcctiou of -words; it is a Iruo 
 organism, Avith a lieart and linil)s. AVlien wo take- tlio limbs 
 apart from tlu; central core or licart of the sentence, and try tu 
 show tlieir relation to that core, and t(j each other, wo are said 
 to analyse the sentence. Tlie process of thus taking a sen- 
 tence to pieces, and naming and accounting for each piece, is 
 called analysis. 
 
 (i) Analysis is a Greek word which means breaking np or takimj 
 apart : its opposite is Synthesis, which means making vp or puttiwj 
 together. 
 
 (ii) When we examine a sentence, and divide it into its component 
 parts, we are said to analyse the sentence, or to perform an act of 
 analysis. But wlien we put words or phrases together to make a 
 sentence, we perform an act of composition or of synthesis. 
 
 2. A sentence is a statement made about something, as, 
 Tlie horse gallops. 
 
 (i) The something (horse) is called the Subject. 
 (ii) The statement (gallops) is called the Predicate. 
 
 3. Every sentence consists, and nuist consist, of at least two 
 parts. These two parts are the thing we speak about and 
 what we say about that thing 
 
 (i) The Subject is what we speak about. 
 
 (ii) The Predicate is what we say about the subject. 
 
 (i) Thore is a indViTl) of Solomon wliich says: "All things are double one 
 against another." Ho tliere are the two necessarily complenientary ideas of even 
 and odd; of right and left ; of north and louth ; ami many more. In langiuge, the 
 two ideas of Sutject and Predicate are necessarily coexistent ; neither can exist 
 without the other; we cannot even think the one without the other. They are 
 the two polea of thought. 
 
 iimrf st-nl 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENrES. 
 
 87 
 
 (ii) Sometimps the SuVyPct is not ezpreued in iinjicrati vo si Titpnoca, as in " Oo ! " -^ 
 " (111 you I " 
 
 I(iii) TliP Prodicite can never bo supprcsscil ; it must always bo expressed ; 
 otherwise iiotliinjjat all wduM 1»j said. 
 
 4. T]u'r<' arc three kinds of sentoncos : Simple, Compound, 
 nnil Complex. 
 
 (i) A simple sentence contains only one ?mltjoct and one preilicate. 
 
 (ii) A complex sentence contains a chief sentence, and one or 
 " more sentences tliat are of subordinate rank to t lie chief sentence. 
 
 ' (iii) A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences 
 of equal rank. 
 
 I.— THE sLMrr.E sentence. 
 
 5. A Simple Sentence is a sentence Avliicli consists of one 
 subject and one predicate. 
 
 (i) A Simple Sentence contains, and can contain, only one finite 
 verb. If we say, "Baby likes to dance,'' there are two verbs in 
 this simple sentence. But to (fauce is not a finite verb ; it is an 
 infinitive ; it is practically a pure noun, and cannot therefore be a 
 
 predicate. 
 
 (ii) If we say, "John and James ran off," the sentence is = " John 
 ran oft'" + "James ran otf." it is therefore a compound sentence 
 ((insisting of two simple sentences, with the ])rcdicate of one of them 
 suppressed. Hence it is called a contracted compound sentence- 
 contracted in the predicate. 
 
 Ill this case the sentence may be treated as Simple, " James 
 and Jolm" forming a Compound Subject to tlie Preilicate 
 "raiioH"." 
 
 
 FORMS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 N^ 6. Sentences differ in the Form which they take. As re- 
 gards form they may l)o chissified as follows : — 
 
 (i) Assertive — ■ 
 
 (a) Positive : — The night grows cold. 
 
 (b) Negative : — I am not going. 
 Not a drum was heard. 
 They caught never a one. 
 
88 
 
 rjRAMMAR OF TTIK ENfUJSH TANCITAdE. 
 
 (ii) Interrogative : — AVlioin sock yol 
 (iii) Exclamatory : — Tlow swiftly tlju rivor flows ! 
 In tlie cases of Interrogative or Exclamatory sentences, in 
 wliich the usual order of the words is changed for tlie sake uf 
 emphasis or effect, tli(^ sentences should be put in assertive 
 straightforward order for the pur])ose of analysi-^, tlius :- — 
 
 Ye seek whom ? 
 
 The river flows how swiftly. 
 
 (iv) Imperative : — Sir, look to your manners. 
 In imperative sentences the subject is usually omitted. Tii 
 this sentence "Sir" is really a nominative of address, and the 
 real sulyect "thou" is not expressed. 
 
 (v) Optative, expressing a wish or invocation : — 
 
 "God bless us every one ! " 
 " Oh, could I flow like thee ! " 
 
 In Greek there is a special mood of the verb, called tlie 
 optative, for expressions of this kin<l, but in English tlie verb 
 is in the subjunctive;. 
 
 Note how the Optative (lifTers from the merely Assertive. Com- 
 pare :— 
 
 (lod bless us, i.e. May God bless na (Optative) ; and 
 God blesses us (Assertive) 
 
 y 
 
 PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 7. The Subject of a sentence is what we speak about. 
 What we speak about Ave must name. 
 
 If we name a thing, we must use a name or noun. 
 Therefore the subject nuist always l)e either — 
 (i) A noun ; or 
 (ii) Some word or words equivalent to a noun. 
 
 8. There are eight kinds of Subje^+s — 
 (i) A Noun, as, England is our home. 
 
 (ii) A Pronoun, as, It is our fatherland. 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF 8ENTKNCES. 
 
 89 
 
 (iii) A Verbal Noun, as, Walking is liealtliy. 
 (iv) A Gerund, as, Catching tisli is a pleasant pastime, 
 (v) An Infinitive, as, To swim is <[iiitc easy, 
 (vi) An Adjective, willi a noun understood, as, Tim 
 
 prosperous art; sometimes oold-lieartetl. 
 (vii) ^V Quotation, as, "Ay, ay, sir!" Luist fiom a 
 
 thousand throats, 
 (viii) .V Noun-clause or sentence, as, That he was a 
 
 tyrant is f,'cnerally admitted. 
 
 (a) The verbal noun, as we have seen, originally ended in ung. 
 See page 40. 
 
 (1)) Catching is a gerund, because it is ImjIIi a noun (nomin- 
 ative to is) and a verb, governing yi.s/i in the objeetive. 
 
 NOTE (i) 'I'lic Subject is sometimes composite — consisting of two or 
 more words. 
 
 The house, the homestead, the very fences, all Avri'o destroyed. 
 To seize my gun and (to) fire w.is tlie work of a inoiiieiit. 
 To them bis heart, his love, his griefs, were given. 
 
 (ii) Tiie Subject sometimes stands in apposition to "it'" or 
 "this." Thus in the sentence: — " It is my resolve to succeed," 
 the ett'ective subject is "to succeed." 
 
 Similarly in the sentcnci' : --"This riiiiipil liiiii, liis inonliniitc love of riches," the 
 t'fTectivc subji'ot is "His inordinate love of riches." Coiiijiare also : — " That was their 
 Sole reward, the approval of their king. " 
 
 111 these cases, " it," "this," and " that " arc siiiiiily temporary siib.jccts, the real 
 .siilijpct coining; afterwards out of its natural order. " It," or any word thus used, 
 i^ called the Provisional Subject. 
 
 (iii) vSometimes, especially in poetry, an unnecessary or redundant 
 pronoun is put in with the Subject, and may be regarded as forming 
 [lart of it. 
 
 My hanks, they arc furnislicd with bees. 
 
 Tired Nature's sweet restorer, lialniy sleei>, 
 He, like the world, his ready visit pays 
 Where fortune smiles. 
 
 9. Tile Predicate in a seiitcnec is what Me say ahoiit tiin 
 t'uliject. If we say aiiythinj.^, we must use a saying or telling 
 word. Now a telling W(jrd is a verb. 
 
 Therefore tlie Predicate must always lie a verb, or 
 some word or words equivalent to a verb. 
 
 t 
 
FT^ 
 
 90 
 
 (IRAMMAR OF THE KN(iLIRI[ LANGUAGE. 
 
 I' 
 
 la Tlu'ic iii'c six kinds of Picdicatt' — 
 
 (i) A Verb, as, God is. The slroam runs. 
 (ii) "To bo" I a noun, as, JIc is a carpenter. 
 "\ (ili) "To bo"-i-au adjective, as. They are idle. 
 ij (iv) "To be " + an adverb, as, The liodks are there. 
 1 (v) " To bo " I a phrase, as, Slic- is in good health. 
 (vij " To be " i a clause nr sentence, as, His cry ^vas, 
 I die for my country. 
 
 M)Th (i) Only Finite <>i Complete Vt!rl).s can form I'redicatus. When 
 the Verb is inoomplutc or inHnite, as in the case of — 
 
 (a) A railiciiili', 
 (li) Ail Iiitinitivo, 
 
 it cannot form the J'redicate of a sentence except by the ailditiuii 
 of otlier completing words. 'J'hus "loving" or "to love" couM 
 never form a predicate, althougli "loving," when converted into a 
 finite verb by prefixing " Mas," may form a predicate. 
 
 (ii) The Verb is sometimes modified l»y an Adverb or I'repositinn 
 which is closely attached to it, ami which for the purpose of analysis 
 may be regarded as part of the Predicate. 
 
 They agreed to (—accepted) my proposal. 
 The subject was well thrashed out; ( —debated). 
 The pirates stove in ( — broke) tlie cabin-door. 
 
 11. Cautions : — 
 
 (i) 'J'herc is a large class of vcrl)s known as Copulative 
 
 Verbs, wliicli lieing connective rather llian notional 
 
 in tlieir cliaracler, require another won I or })lu'a.s(; 
 
 to l)e associated with them to make the predicate 
 
 complete. Thus : — 
 
 He appears healthy. 
 
 The apprentice became a merchant. 
 
 'J'he girl grew tall. 
 
 The poor creature seems to be dying. 
 
 John stands six feet. 
 
 KOTK. — Some of these verbs are also used transitively, and then take 
 an object like other transitive verbs : — Stand it on the table. 
 
 (ii) The frequently occurring verb " to be " (except in 
 tiie few cases where it means " to exist "), and some 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCKS. 
 
 01 
 
 nihcv <'npulutiv(^ vril>s, na, to seem, to become, 
 etc., can never fniiu ])rL'(liciilt's by themselves. 
 
 (iii) J'.cwiiic of associating; iwn dissimilar vcrlis ;is predi- 
 cate. 1"lnis ill tlie sent(.'iicu : '' ]1(^ refused U> leave; 
 the sliip," the i»ri(licatc is not "refu.sed to leave," 
 l)iit simply "refused." 
 
 12. AVhen the predicate, consist.s nf an active -transitive 
 vei'b, it reipiires an object after it to make complete flense. 
 This ohjert is called either the object or the completion. As 
 we nnist name the ol)jeet, it is plain that il must ahvay.-, like 
 the suhject, In; a noun, or some Avord or wonls equivalent to a 
 noun. 
 
 13. As there are eight kinds of Subjects, so there arc eight 
 kinds of Objects or Completions. These are : — 
 
 (i) A Noun, as. All of ns love England. 
 
 (ii) A Pronoun, as, AVe saw him in the jjjarden. 
 
 (iii) A Verbal Noun, as, AVe lik(; walking. 
 
 (iv) A Gerund, as, 'J'lie angler j)rcfers taking large lioh. 
 
 (v) An Inlinitive, as, AVe hate to be idle. 
 
 (vi) Aw Adjective with a noun understood, as, (lood 
 
 men love the good. 
 
 (vii) A Quotation, as, AVe heard his last "Good-hyc, 
 
 Tom!" 
 
 (viii) A Noun-clause or sentence, as, 1 knew what 
 
 w^as the matter. 
 
 NOTK (i) 'i'hc words it, this, and that may form Provisional Objects, 
 just as they form Provisional Subjects : — 
 
 They consider it infamous to desert. 
 This I command, no parley with the foe. 
 Tliat he abhors, the sale of flesh and blood. 
 
 (ii) Tlie Object, like the Subject, may consist of an unlimited 
 number of these parts of speech. 
 
 At noon the outlaw reached his glen. 
 His gathered spoils, his merry men. 
 At twelve the poor lad began to learn a trade and (to) help his 
 parents. 
 
 / 
 
 > 
 
mr 
 
 t> 
 
 92 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TIIK ENflLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 14. Verbs oi giving, promising, offering, handing, ami 
 iiiaiiy sucli, take al.s«j an indirect object, which is sumutiim s 
 called the dative object. 
 
 There are several kinds (»f Indirect Objects: — 
 (i) A Noun, We j^ave the man a shilling, 
 (ii) A Pronoun, AVc dH'cnMl him sixpence, 
 (iii) A Pi-epositional Phrase : — I took him for a sailor. 
 And therefore think him as a serpent's egg. 
 
 (iv) An Infinitive : — 
 
 (a) after the iJircct Object : I saw him (to) mn. 
 
 (1)) after an Intransitive Verli : They ajtpeared to shine. 
 
 tW Some authorities prefer to regard such a ease as (a) "him 
 run " as a Compound Object, treating as a whole the two or nioio 
 words forming the object. 
 
 15. Tlie following may he regarded as s})ecial kinds of 
 Indii'ect Objects :— 
 
 (i) A Factitive Object : — 
 
 They nuule him President. 
 
 Milton did not hesitate to call Spenser a better teacher than 
 ISocratea or Aquinas. 
 
 It should he noted that the -words "made" and 
 " call " have a more restricted meaning than 
 when followed hy ordinary simple objects. 
 
 Compare: — "They made him "President" with "They made 
 a boat," " Milton . . . Aquinas," with "Call themcjuickly." 
 
 In the hitter cases "made" and "call" have a fuller meaning 
 than in the former. 
 
 NOTK. — Sometimes it may appear as an Adjective with a Noun 
 undei'stood. 
 
 Kxercise made him strong ( — a strong man). 
 They painted the house white ( = a white house). 
 
 (ii) A Cognate Object, in which the Predicate and 
 Object arc words from the same root : — 
 
 Let me die the death of the righteous. 
 Me ran his godly race. 
 
 10. Ci 
 
 (V 
 
TTTF. ANATTSrS OF SFN'TKNCKS. 
 
 03 
 
 (iii) AVlit'ii an a(;tivo vcrl) ^vitll two (il.j(>cts is cliaiii^t'd 
 into tli(5 ]»assivo f<»nii, tliat (>])j('ct wliidi is retained 
 wliilc tlin other Lcconics tlu! siiliject is t( rnird tho 
 Retained Object : — 
 
 A sliilliiig was givoii the man. 
 The (loitr was iloiiird him. 
 
 IG. Cautions : — 
 
 (!) Special cam is noeded in dealiiij; with tho Indirect 
 Oltject. Tlien^ is a tendency on tlie jiart of many 
 yonn^' .students to i>ut down any word or pliraso 
 wliicli tliey cannot easily classify as "Indiret't 
 Olijec.t." Thus words or jihrases whicli are I'l.vten- 
 sioiis of tlie Predicate or Mnlai'i^-einents of th(^ 
 Oliject are often wron;4ly classed as Indirect ( )l)jecl. 
 
 Coinparc : — I heard him read (liim read — roiiii)f)iind ()l)j(H:t). 
 
 I heard him reading (reaihiig - Knhirgeineiit of 
 Ohject). 
 
 I took lum for the master (for tlic master -Indirect 
 
 Ohject) 
 I sent him for the master (for the m.aster— ICxten.sion 
 
 of I'red.). 
 
 (ii) Ronio authorities propose to overcome tlie dilhculties 
 attendiuf^ tlu; Indirect ( )l)ject hy recognisin,^' a Com- 
 plement of the Predicate! as a secondary jiartof the 
 I'redicati! ; but on the whole it seems jireferahle to 
 widen somewhat the siifiiilication of the Indirect 
 Object, as the term is univer.sally accepted. 
 
 it3r In difficult cases the student, l)efore cla.s.sing any word or 
 phrase as Indirect Olijeet, slioidd satisfy himself that it does not 
 fall under one of the other heads. 
 
 17. The Subject or the Object must always bo eitlior — 
 (i) A Noun ; or 
 
 (ii) Some word or words equivalent to a noun. 
 A Noun may have attached to it any nuudjer of adjectives 
 or adjectival phrases. An adjective or adjectival phra.se that 
 
M 
 
 ORAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAOE. 
 
 i' 
 
 \ 
 
 goos "W'illi ii sul)j('ct or witli tin ol»juct is called, in Amilysis, aii 
 Enlargement. 
 
 It is 80 called because it enlarges our knowledge of the Bul)jcct. 
 Thus, if we say, "'J'lio niaii is tired," we have no knowledge of 
 what kind of man is spoken of ; hut if we say, " The poor old man 
 is tired," our notion of tlie man is enlarged by tiie addition of the 
 facts that he is both jwo) and old, 
 
 18. 'riici'i! are seven kiiuls of Enlargements : — 
 (i) Au Adjective — one, two, or luori' — Tliat big old 
 
 red l)Ook is sold. 
 
 (ii) A Noun (or nouns) in apposition, William tin' 
 Conqueror defeated Harold. 
 
 (iii) A Noun (or pronoun) in the Possessive Case, 
 1 His hat flew oil'. 
 
 (iv) A Prepositional Phrase, Tho walk in the fields 
 
 was j)U!asant. 
 
 (v) An Adjectival Phrase, Tlie hoy, ignorant of his 
 duty, was soon dismissed. 
 ^ (vi) A Participle (a), or Participial Phrase (h) — 
 Sobbing and -weeping, she Avas led from the 
 room (a). Tlie merchant, having made a fortune, 
 ,L,'ave up business (h). 
 
 (vii) A Gerundial Infinitive — Anxiety to succeed ( ^ of 
 
 succeedin<f) wore him out. Ih-ead to eat (-fur 
 \ <'atin<,') eouhl not he had anywhere. 
 
 19. It is i)laiu that all these .seven kinds of Kidargements 
 may go with the Object as well as with the Subject. 
 
 20. An Enlargement, being a wc^^d or phrase that goes 
 with a noun or its equivalent, must always be an adjective 
 or equivalent to an adjective. 
 
 NOTK (i) An Enlargement may itself be enlarged by the same parts 
 of speech as form the primary enlai-goments. 
 
 (a) The handle of this sword forged by Indiana is richly jewelled. 
 
 (1)) The Romans crossed a stream fed by a glacier of the Southern Alpi. 
 
 The phrases "forged by Indians," and "of the Southern Alps," 
 
 \ 
 
 arc en 
 arc th( 
 
 (ii) 
 fnlargi 
 
 'I'he ] 
 
 of hunt 
 
 Here 
 
 21. Tl 
 
 • ■iiliiiilctf, 
 <'iiiiij)lete 
 'i'iie j)i 
 simple a( 
 in its eh; 
 
 22. 'J'Ih 
 
 "lalc are ci 
 
 23. 'i'he 
 
 (ii) 
 (iii) 
 
 (iv) 
 (V) 
 
 (vi; 
 
 (vii) 
 
 V 
 
 ^ Undi 
 •IS, "Thee 
 
 24. Kxter 
 section from 
 fw'quently c. 
 thought. 
 
IHJC ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCES. 
 
 95 
 
 are cnlargeinenls of "sword" aiul "glacier" reBpectively, wliich 
 are tliernselvcs parts of (nialifying phrases. 
 
 (ii) A Subject or Object may liavu an unlimited number of 
 enlargements of various liinds : — 
 
 Tiic poor K ing, an outcast from his own domain, suffering the pangs 
 of hunger and stung by bitter reproaches, ciuled liia daya in miaery. 
 
 I hit' iviiig is enlarged by — 
 
 (a) An Ailjfctlve. 
 
 (h) A N'i)>iii ill Aiiposition. 
 
 ((■) Two P;irtici]Miil plirases. 
 
 21. Tlio Predicate is always a Verb, slaiidiii',' alono if 
 cf)iiii)k't(', or acconipaiiied by utlicr words if a vorb of in- 
 (•oiuj)Ict(! predication. 
 
 The part of llu; sontcnce tliat f^ocs -with tlio vcrl) is cither a 
 simple adverb, a compound adverb, or a phrase adverbial 
 ill its cliaractt'r. Vf 
 
 22. 'i'ho adverbs or adverbial jilirases that ^^o with tlie prodi- 
 d.ilc are called, in Analysis, the Extensions of the Predicate. 
 
 23. Then! arc seven kinds of Extensions : — 
 
 (i) An Adverb, as, The time went slowly. 
 (ii) An Adverbial Phrase, as, .Mr Smith writes now 
 
 and then. 
 (iii) A Prepositional Phrase, as. Mr Smith sjioke with 
 
 great effect. 
 (iv) A Noun Phrase, as, AVe -walkiMl side by side. 
 (v) A Participial Phrase, as, 'J'lie mighty rocks came 
 
 bounding down. 
 (vi) A Gerundial Phrase, as, lie diil it to insult ns 
 
 ( -- for insulting us), 
 (vii) An Absolute Infinitive Phrase, as. To tell you 
 V the truth, \ think liim veiy stupid. 
 
 i^ Under (v) may come also the Absolute Participial Phrase, such 
 as, "The clock having struck, we had to go." 
 
 24. Extensions of the predicate are classified in the above 
 section from the j)oint of view of grammar; but they are also 
 fn'(iu('iitly classilied from the point of view of distinction in 
 thought. 
 
 
00 
 
 CJUAMMATl OF TUV. KNOrjSir I.ANfiTTAfiK. 
 
 mm 
 
 III this latter way I'',xt('HMi<iiis arc cluHsilifd .is (vxtuiiHioiiM oi — 
 
 (i) Time, ;iH, Wo lived tin le three years, 
 (ii) Place, (a) Whence, as, \\»; came from York. 
 (1)) Where, as, He lives over the way, 
 (e) Whither, as, Co homo '. 
 (iii) Manner fa) Manner : He treads firmly. 
 (I») Degree: She writes hotter, 
 (e) Accompanying circumstances : Tliey went for 
 wai<l under a heavy fire, 
 (iv) Agent : .liuiies was rejireseiited by hl3 minister. 
 (v) Instrument: 'IMuty ravaged the land with fire and sword. 
 (vi) Magnitude (a) Order : IKs stoc.d first In his class. 
 
 (li) Number : The Held irieasured ten acres. 
 
 (vii) Mood (a) Affirmation : Hi; certainly retiiniod. 
 
 (Ii) Negation ; 'i'lie enteiitrise will never .sueeeed. 
 
 A::' Never is here a more cm])hatii: form of not, 
 an<l thercfoi'o comes under the head of Nega- 
 tion rather tiian of 'J'imc. 
 
 (c) Doubt : Perha)>s you will meet your friend. 
 
 (viii) Cause : 'Die clerk was dismissed for Idleness. 
 
 (ix) Purpose : 1'hey M'cnt abroad to better their condition. 
 
 (x) Condition : Without me ye eaii do notliing. 
 
 (xi) Concession : With all thy faults, I hne thee still. 
 Here the sense is obviously " Notwithstanding all thy faults," etc. 
 
 25. 
 
 NOTK (i) Just as a Subject or Object may have an unlimited number 
 of ICulargoments, so a Predicate may have any number of Exten- 
 sions. 
 
 For three yeara fho ^villfl\v dwelt quietly in the lonely cottage. Ilfiro vro luivo tliroe 
 exttiiisioiis (if time, inaiincr, and place respfctively. Care slionld lie tak>n to keep 
 the various exliiiisioiis (luiti; distinct in analj'sinj; ; the student slmnld Idter nr 
 number them (a), (b), (o), etc., or (1), (i), (;i), etc., and slat" after each its kind. 
 
 (ii) Where two or more extensions of the same class appear they 
 should be kept distinct. At nightfall, during a heavy snowstorm, 
 they wandered forth. 
 
 Here the two extensions of time should be taken separately. 
 
 26. Cautions : — 
 
 (i) Tlio, same word may l)o usoil as Object or as an 
 Extension of the Predicate. 
 
TM.K ANALYSIS OK SKNTKNCKS. 
 
 1>7 
 
 Coiiiparo : -I caro nothing for your tlu'cats. (Kxtciision of Dt-grt'C. ) 
 llo t'iivti iiic nothing. (OKjnt.) 
 
 " N'otliinj,' " in t!m first sonteni-n simply hIiows tn what extent 
 
 y.)H !i!»! iill't'i'tiMl Ity fliu tl.."t';it.s ; " nothiii;,' " in the .s.i 1 sontfiii i; 
 
 iH ()li\ iously tiic Direct Object of " gavo," expri'ssing what lio gave. 
 
 CoMiparc: -What iliil you Kcc? (()l)jcct.) 
 
 What ri'olis ho of lii.silaily duty? (ilxtiiision ncgrce.) 
 
 " Wluit" in tlu! first siMitfUfu is (ivitlcntly tlif Direct Object of the 
 
 iiitM'KiL'iitioM '' dill .s(M' " ; in the second scntfiKo " \\ h.it " oxpri'SHts 
 the extent to wliich lit- is allccti'd by considtrations of hia daily 
 •liity. 
 
 Compare villi tlu; latter the Hciitcnce :-- " What ^itli war and 
 what with famine, tlie nation was almost exterminated.'" W'liere 
 the two "wiiats" arc evidently adverbial in their nature, and the 
 phrases they introduce arc extensions of the predicate. 
 
 (ii) Tlic samo phraso may lie an Enlai-fifoniont (of tin; 
 Siilijoct ov Oltjcct) or an Extonsiorx of the Predi- 
 cate. 
 
 Compare :— Exercise In the open air is herdthy. (Knlargenicnt of 
 Suhject.) 
 
 He takes his exercise In the open air. (Kxtension— I'lace.) 
 
 In the fii.-it sentence the phrase "in the open air" qualifies or 
 limits the word " exercise," indicating a })artieiilar form of exercise ; 
 in the seco'.id sentence " in tiic open air "' indicates the place where 
 lie takes his exercise, and hence it is an Kxtension of the I'rcdicate. . 
 
 ^ 
 
 NOMINATIVE OK ADDRESS. 
 
 27. 'J'hc Nouiiiialivo of Address may ndalc to — 
 
 (a) The Subject: Milton! llioti .^liouldsi lie living at llii.s 
 lioiir. 
 
 (1)) The Object: I vvclcumt! yon, piod Masters. 
 
 (c) An Extension : AVc .slndl jiuil towards yoii, Sir 
 
 Knight. 
 
 Or it may Lo dctadied, The castle keep, my Lord, I Imld. 
 
 The Nominative of Address i.s interjectional in its nature, 
 
 and just as tlio Interji>ction is a part of speecli standing apart 
 
 from the family formed by the others, so a Nomiuative of 
 
98 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Address roally forms no part of tlu> lo^Mcal sont.o.ii'^'.f'. Ilogard'd 
 as somcwliat a|)[)()sitioiuil, it may he, ])laf!od witli that part (if 
 the sentence, to wliicli it specially belongs, or llie rule may Ix; 
 adopted of plaein^,' it in tin' same column as the Subject, cai'e 
 being taken to indicate that it forms no part of the h»gical 
 subject. 
 
 23. The followiii.n' cautions arc of importance :— 
 
 (i) The Noun in an absolute clause cannot l<c lih 
 Subject nf a simple smtciicc. AVc can say, " Tlir 
 train having slartc«l, avc rctui'iicd to the hitel.' 
 Here we is the suliject. 
 
 The plira^o " tlio train liavin;^ stai'tt-d " is aii advcibial plirasi' 
 modifying rdunm/, and giving tlie ruiKon for tlie returning. 
 
 (ii) A sul)j(!ct may lie compound, and may contain an 
 object, as. " 'I'o save money is always useful." lleie 
 the subject is to save money, aiul contains tlie 
 object money — tlie object of the verb "to save." 
 
 An ol)jcct may also contain another object, Avhiili is not the 
 object of tlie sentence. Thus we can sa}', " I like to save money,'' 
 when the direct object of like is to save, and money is a part only 
 of that direct object. 
 
 (iii) An Absolute Participial Phrase (<>r Nominative 
 Ahsolnti;) is always an Mxtension of the ]*redicate, 
 and may ex[)ress — 
 
 (a) Time : The clock having struck one, we proceeded. 
 
 (b) Cause : Darkness coming on, the wanderers (puck 
 
 ened their pace. 
 
 (c) Circumstances: 1 crossed the moor, the enow falling' 
 
 heavily. 
 
 (iv) Not usually forms an Extension of the Predicatf*, 
 but it may also form — 
 
 (a) Part of the Subject : Not a drum was heard. (Nega- 
 
 tive Enlargement.) 
 
 (b) Part of the Object : We carved not a line. (Negative 
 
 Elnlargement. ) 
 
 They heard never a sound. (Negative Enlargement. ) 
 
{hv. 
 ley,"' 
 only 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCES. 
 
 99 
 
 i^ As ail Extension of the rrcdicate, not i.s UHiially indrpftidt'itt of 
 otiier extensions, as, 
 
 \ not (Extension of Negative) 
 
 ( (luring the storm (Ivxteii.sion of Time) 
 but sometimes it simply ui'jn/ir'.s aimllier l-'xteiision, ami must not 
 be dissociated from it ; as, Not in vain lie wore his samlal shoon. 
 
 They moved 
 
 (v) There is goncrally — 
 
 (a) An Extension of Place : There they re.sted. 
 l»ut it i.s S(iiii(.'tiiii('s — 
 
 (b) An Indefinite Extension (a mere Expletive). 
 There were t\\cnty' present. 
 
 The shadowy and vague character of fhrrr is sliowii by the 
 paraphrase " 'I'wenty were present,"' and also by tlie fact that in 
 translating the sentence into many languages hd ecpiivaleiit would 
 be put for " there."' 
 
 (\i) Distiiii^niisli lictwrcii vaiioiis uses of tin' Infinitive. 
 
 (a)- Subject : To quarrel is not my wish. 
 
 (b) Part of the Predicate : lie might (to) win tlie shield. 
 
 i^ Those who regard mi(jhl as being always a 
 Principal A'erb would put iciii as part of the 
 Object. 
 
 (c) Object : They love to wander. 
 
 (d) Extension of the Predicate : She came to learn. 
 
 In this case " to learsi " is not vax ordinary intinitive, but a ger- 
 undial infinitive or infinitive of purpose, and is eijuivah ut to " for 
 learning. ' .Sec p. 40. 
 
 (vii) Care, imisi Ix' tiiken to (listiii,L,Miisli liriwooii Uui 
 
 sainc won.l wlicii Tiscd as- - 
 
 (a) An Adjective, forming ]iart of tlie Predicate with an 
 Intransitive Copulative Verb — 
 
 The king loukn well, 
 This ajiple tastes iweet, 
 
 or (b) An Adverb, forming an Extension of the Predicate after a 
 Verb — 
 
 The king oats well. 
 
 How sweet tlic moonlight slt'cps iipnii lliis liaiik. 
 
 Students must be very careful to discriminate between these 
 cases. Where the word indicates quality, it is adjectival in nature, 
 and will form part of the Predicate ; where it indicates manner, it is 
 adverbial in nature, and forms an Extension of the Predicate. 
 
II 
 
 100 
 
 (JRAMMAIl OF TIIH KN(;LISn I.ANfiUACR. 
 
 (viii) In ilio caso of quiilifyiii,^' or liniitin,:; jjlirascs 
 (csjx'ciaJly ])articii)ial ])liras(>s), it is soniotiuu'sdini- 
 cult lo (li'tcniiinc. wlictlicr tlicy i\iv. siiii])!!'. ]*ai]avL,f('- 
 iiicnis of (Ik; Sultjccl or Jv\t(:nsioii,s of tlio Predi- 
 cat(.'. 
 
 Returning tlii'ii llii' liiilt lH^ ilii'W. 
 
 A wiildW liinl s;it, mourning for hor love. 
 
 Ill tlu! flnst soiitenco " rodiniiiig " i.s an enlargement of "In-"' ; in 
 tin; second HL-ntcnco mourning (loi.s not i'?il;irgo " Ijinl," but sliow.s 
 how it s:vt mourning, i.(\ sadly, sorrowfully. 
 
 'J'lie safest plan in cases of tiiis kind is to dcterniinc wliat jjrincipal 
 part of the sentence the (|ualifying or limiting word or ])lu"aso is 
 most closely connected with. I f it is essentially qualifying in nature, 
 it is probably an Enlargement of the Subjert or Object ; if, on the 
 other hand, it expresses some modilication of, or condition in I'espcct 
 to, the Predicate, it is an Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 -V 
 
 THK MAlM'IN(;-OlJr OP SLMl'LK HKNTKNCKS. 
 
 29. It is of tlio j^M'catcsi iiii})oi't,aiiC(i to ^'ci flic, eye to he]]) tin; 
 mind, ami lo jircsciit to llic sight if i)()ssi1)l(> — citlicr on jiapcr 
 or on the black-lioard — the sentence avu liave to consider. 'J'his 
 is called niapping-out. 
 
 Let us take two simple sentences : — 
 
 (i) " PVoni the mountain-path came a joyous s(nind of sonic person 
 wliistling. " 
 
 (ii) " In the Acadian land, on the sliorcs of the liasin of Minas, 
 Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-lVi!! 
 Lay in the fruitful valley." 
 
 30. Tliese may 1>e niapped ont, hefoi'c analysing them, in tlie 
 following way : — 
 
 (i) A 
 
 joyous 
 SOUND 
 
 CAME 
 
 3 
 
 some person whlstlingr the mountain path. 
 
 distant, secluded, stilL 
 little 
 
THK ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNOKS. 
 
 101 
 
 (ii) The VILLAGE 
 
 LAY 
 
 &•••■ 
 
 •..1^ 
 
 the fruitful valley. 
 
 Grand-Pr6 the Acadian land the shores of the Basin, etc. 
 
 31. Such a iiiaii|iiii,L;-<)Ul ('iKililcs lis easily to sec, with tlu; 
 liddilv as -well as villi tlic iiiiiid's cyf, ^vllal. is llic main imrjtdsi! 
 (if all analysis — to liml out Avliidi wnnls <j^n uitli uliicli, and 
 wliat is Uic real Imild of the smlcni't'. llfiicc, unless W(! sec 
 at a ^Ljlance the liuilil of the senleiHM! Ave ai'e L(oin,^ to aiialy.sc 
 we ought, Ix'fore doing so, to .set to Avork and map it out. 
 
 FORMS 01'^ ANALYSIS. 
 
 32. The sentences Jmiy then he analysed, in either— 
 
 (a) tlic Detailed fonn. 
 or (})) tlie Tabular funii. 
 
 (a) 'I'lie Detailed form in iiiialogons to that ailopted for parsing, 
 and gives us scope for .subdividing the sentence to tin uidiniited 
 extent, and giving the maximum amount of detail. 
 
 {]>) Tlie Tabular form docs not provide for so mudi detail, but it 
 has the advantage of great cU;arne.ss, and, as it greatly facilitates 
 tlie examination of an exercise, it is tlie form usually preferred by 
 public examiners. 
 
 33. 
 
 Detailed Analysis. 
 
 (i) II. A sound Subject. 
 
 h. joyous Adjectival Enlargement of Subject. 
 
 c. of some person whi:5tling Prepositional I'in-ase, I'ailargement 
 
 of Subject. 
 Predicate. 
 Extension of Predicate. Tlaee 
 
 whence. 
 Adjectival Enlargement of e. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Adjectival Enlargement of Subject. 
 
 >i >i >» 
 
 II II II 
 
 *t »i >i 
 
 '/. came 
 
 e. from the path 
 
 /. mountain 
 
 (ii) (I. The village 
 h. little 
 c distant 
 <i, secluded 
 L. still 
 
p\ 
 
 II! 
 
 102 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 /. ofGrand-Pr6 
 
 
 lay 
 
 in the land 
 
 t. 
 
 Acadian 
 
 J- 
 
 on the shores 
 
 L 
 L 
 
 VI 
 
 of the basin 
 of Minas 
 , iu the valley 
 
 n. 
 
 fruitful 
 
 34. 
 
 
 Prepositional Phrase, Enlargement 
 
 of Subject. 
 Predicate. 
 Ivxtension of Predicate. Place 
 
 ^vhere. 
 Adjectival Knlargenient of h. 
 Extension of I'redicate. Place 
 
 ■where. 
 Prepositional phrase, enlarging y. 
 
 Extension of Predicate. Place 
 
 •where. 
 Atljectival Enlargement of m. 
 
 Tabular Analysis. 
 
 
 Kni.akc.e- 
 
 
 
 KNI.AKfiK- 
 
 J-lX TKN'SKiN 1 
 
 .SiB.)i:ir. 
 
 MKNT Ot- 
 
 runiiK ATi:. 
 
 < )H,IKcI. 
 
 MKNT OF- 
 
 OK 
 
 
 is r 11.1 KIT. 
 
 
 
 OliJIU T. 
 
 I'llEIilCATh:. 
 
 A sound 
 
 (a) joyous 
 (b) of some 
 
 came 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 from the 
 mounlain 
 
 
 person 
 whistling 
 
 
 
 
 path {ploct \ 
 whence) \ 
 
 The village 
 
 (a) little 
 
 (b) distant 
 (e) seclud- 
 ed 
 
 (d) still 
 
 (e) of 
 Graud-Prfj 
 
 lay 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 (a) in the 
 Acadian 
 land 
 {[ilacc 
 wlitre) 
 
 (b) on the 
 shores of 
 thelJasin 
 of Minas 
 {place 
 vhere) 
 
 (c) in the 
 fruitful 
 valley 
 {place 
 tvhere) 
 
 II.— THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 35. A Complex Sentence is a statement which contains one 
 Principal Sentence, and one or more sentences dependent upon 
 it, which are called Subordinate Sentences. There arc three 
 
 i 
 
 kimls — { 
 
 ."-ii'iitt'iicej 
 
 A sul. 
 
 36. A 
 
 Pronoun 
 
 AdjccI ivc 
 
 " I»arl 
 
 sul)-scnt( 
 beloiii^r.s ( 
 therefore 
 
 37. A .^ 
 
 till' flllicl. 
 
 tlicrt'l'iii'c . 
 
 "1 wil 
 
 " w heiiev( 
 it, and oa 
 adverbial 
 
 38. A S 
 
 I'lvdicalc, ( 
 
 fulfils Uw f 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 " Ife to 
 .sentence, 
 tive verb 
 noun sente 
 
 39. An J 
 
 (0 'i 
 
 ('■>■) 'I 
 
 iiii) vi 
 
 (i) The 1 
 
 (ii) I laid 
 
 (iii) The c 
 
 noun streai 
 
 40. XOTE.- 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 I nev 
 
 This i 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 103 
 
 kiiuls -iuid tlHT(! (,'aii only Ix; tlircc kinds -df tjuljordiiuito 
 seiitt'iK't'S — Adjectival, Noun, and Adverbial. 
 A subordinate sentence is sometimes called a clause. 
 
 36. A Siihordiniite .Sentence that goes with a Noun or 
 Pi'onoun fulfils i]\v funetion of an Adjective, i.s e(jual t(j an 
 Adjective, and is llierefore ealleil an Adjectival Sentence. 
 
 " I»;iikn(;s.s, Mliicli niiglit be felt, fell ui)on the city." Here the 
 .su])-sonteiu.M', " \vliich-might-l»c-folt," goes with the noun darkness, 
 l)clongs to it, and cannot bo separated from it; and this sentence is 
 tiierefore an adjectival sentence. 
 
 37. A Sulini'dinate Sentrnee that goes with a Verb fnlliks 
 tlir fiin(li"n nf an AdveiOt, is e(|ual to a.n Adverli, and i.s 
 tlinvfiiiv ailed an Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 " I Avill go whenever you are ready." Here the Hul»-sentencc, 
 "whenever you are ready," is attaclied to the verl) go, belongs to 
 it, and cannot be separated from it ; an.l ncnce this sentence is an 
 adverbial sentence. 
 
 38. A SuLordinato Sentence that furnis tlio Subject of a 
 
 Vrcdicate, or the Object, or lliat is in apposition witli a noun, 
 
 fullils the function of ii Noun, and is therefore called a Noun 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 "He told niG that his cousin had gone to sea." Here the sub- 
 sentence, " liis cousin had gone to sea," is the object of the tranoi- 
 tive verb told. It fullils the function of a noun, and is therefore a 
 noun sentence. 
 
 39. An Adjectival Sentence may he attached lo — 
 
 (i) 'I'lu! Subject of the I'rincipal Sentence ; or to 
 (ii) Tlie Object of the I'rincipal Sentence ; or to 
 (iii) Any Noun or Pronoun. 
 
 (i) The book th8,t-I-bought is )n the table : to the subject. 
 (ii) I laid the b ook-I-bought on the table : to the object. 
 (iii) The child fell into the stream that-runs-past the mill : to the 
 noun stream — a noun in an adverbial phrase. 
 
 40. NOTE. — (i) As may in certain cases be regarded as a relative 
 
 introducing an Adjectival Sentence. In such cases 
 
 it is usually a correlative of such or same. 
 
 I never saw such fish as he caught in the Avon. 
 This is the same bag as you gave me lust year. 
 
101 
 
 CIlAlSliMAIl OK TIIK KNGMSII I,AN<aiA(iK. 
 
 N 
 
 (ii) But ill (Tiiiiin cases may Ix', i,ak( n as a negative rcla 
 tivo iiiiriiiluciii;-; an Ailjcclival Sriitciicc. 
 
 (a) 'I'licrt! is no man licri' but Idvcs )«>u. 
 Tliia-- "'riicic is iKi man Ihti; who <lit<'S not love you 
 
 (li) " No laml but listens to tiio common call." 
 "But" is ecjuivaU'iit to " which does not." 
 
 41. All Advoi'bial Sonteuuo may lie altaeiicil lo — 
 
 (i) A Verb ; 
 
 (ii) An Acljeetivo ; nr to 
 
 (iii) An Adverb. 
 
 (i) 'I'o a Verb. It dot^s not matter in -what position the veil) is. 
 It may bo (a) tin; i'redieate, as in the sentence, " I Avalk when 1 
 can." ]t may lio {!») an Inliiiitivo formiin^ a subject, as, " To ^'et ii|i 
 when one is tired is not jjleasant. " It may l>e ('■) a ji.uliiiiile, as in 
 the sentence, " Having dined before he came, 1 started at onee." 
 
 (ii) To an Adjective. " His grief was sueli that all pitied him. ' 
 ]Icre the sui)-sentenco " that all i)itied him "' modifies the adjective 
 such. 
 
 (iii) To an Adverb. " Ho was so weak that he could not stand.' 
 Here tlie sub-sentenet! "that ho eoiild not stand" modilies the 
 adverb so, which itself modilies the adjective weak. 
 
 42. -lust as tlu']-c ai'(>. imiiiy classes of Advcrlis, so then; are 
 many diircvcnt kinds of Adverbial Sentences. 
 
 (i) Time. 1 will j;i), when you return. 
 
 (ii) Place. "Wliere the bee sucks, llicic stick I. 
 (iii) Manner. lIi; strode, as tliougli he were in pain, 
 (iv) Dcgi'ce. I s2)okc as lomlly as I could (sjicak). 
 
 (v) Proportion. Tlie sooner you complete your 
 task ilio sooner you can leave. 
 
 (vi) Condition. If you stand by me, 1 Mill oppose 
 
 liim. 
 ('/•'■ Concession — Provided this is done, 1 Avill consent. 
 (^ .\'i) Cr- : ".e. Avoid liiiii, because he is dishonest. 
 ■'ix) 1' ■- •• or Consequence. I {'arefully tended liiiu; 
 
 Consequently the Avound soon healed, 
 (x) Purpose, lie AvorkcJ very hard, for he wished 
 
 to do welL ^^ 
 
 Cauti 
 
 ( 
 
 III tlie 
 
 it is e\i( 
 niianiiiL^' 
 that line 
 
 (ii 
 
 11. re t 
 diiii.'uidn 
 
 (iii) 
 
 Tiie ,scc 
 first. 
 
 43. Adjc 
 from the f;i 
 .'-ehes a[iar 
 
 llttaclied. 
 
 uiu^j: with A 
 
 ill till' vast • 
 
 111 sense, am 
 
 Take tw(j 
 
 Jlii'ir incon 
 
 '" qualify, 
 
 "iiich they 
 
 The subo 
 
 '•■ived when 
 
 "that"; in 
 
 fi'ciii their n 
 
TlfK ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNCKS 
 
 lOf) 
 
 Cautions: - 
 
 (i) 111 nearly ('Very casd ilm word iiitr(i(liiciii._f Hk; ad- 
 vci'liial sciili'iici', as when, wlicrn, if, etc., licljts 
 11.-! to !•('(•( iL^Miisp it, Init- (icfa. I'diially llidv is no 
 iiihdiliictiiry \\nid, and wi- nm t Jiid 'r liv IIki 
 HGJiso alone. 
 
 [ll tlio sciitoiico 
 
 " Puss that line, and I (ire upon y'>"." 
 it is cvidtiit tliat tin; lir.st rlauso is Adverbial, riiid that tlir r»;al 
 iiK aiiiiiL,' woidil liu accairattdy expressed hy tiio ftjiiii "If you pass 
 that liiir," cti'. 
 
 " Yc iiir'ancr fowl, j,'i\ o placo, 
 I am all splendour, dijjnity, and grace.' 
 
 ilcic thi' .scroni' sc'iitfiic<? Ih Adverbial to the liist, and Honse 
 dfiiiainlM " for," " liocaii.st;," or "since," as a coiiiun'ting word. 
 
 (iii) A\M!(l llic niistakc -d calliii^f a scntfurc Ad\crl)ial 
 .sinijily liccausc il, lll■^•in.s witli an aiivcih. 
 
 " l''ir.st (lit;) lov<!.s to do, then loves the /^'ood lie does." 
 Tiio .second sentence is not adveriiial, but co-ordinate with the 
 
 first. 
 
 43. Adje(dival ami Advcihial Sentences arc easily rccot^Miiscd 
 fi'niii the fact that they liave no coniplcto mcaninp^ in them- 
 schi'S ajiaii frotn tlie l*rinci[)al Sentence tn ^v]lic]l tliey ai'e 
 attached. ( )f sunie I'rimdpal Sentences as, c.l,'., tlmsts l)e^dn- 
 iiiiiL; with Avlin, whi(di, etc.- — the same thiiiL,^ may lie saitl, l)ut 
 ill tiicvast niajiii'ity of cases a I'rincijial Sentence is iiKh'peiuh'nt; 
 ill sense, ami s(df-containe(l in meaning. 
 
 Take two (d tli(! sentences j,dven ahoxc. 
 
 " Which might be felt." (Adjectival.) 
 "When lean." (Adverbial.) 
 
 Tlicir incompleteness is at once porcoivt'il. 'I'heir function is 
 I'l qualify, extend, modify, or limit the master .sentence to 
 wliicli tliey arc attached ; they are distinctly subordinative. 
 
 The subordinate character of Xoun-scntences is Lest per- 
 ceived wdien tliey arc introduced by their ordinary comiectivci 
 "that"; in other eases tludr true nature may la; iccognised 
 fioia their rcdationship to tlu; jtrincipal sentcinco. 
 
 li 
 
lOG 
 
 GRAMMAR OF TTIE KNfJLTRTl T.ANGUAOE. 
 
 Uw I 
 
 44. A Noun Sentence niay bo — 
 
 (i) Tlic Subject of tlio Principal S(;utoiic(^ ; or 
 (ii) Tlie Object of the iiuiin veil) ; or 
 (iii) Tlic Nominative after is; or 
 (iv) In Apposition witli anoUier Xoim. 
 
 (i) " That-he-is-better cannot be denied": tlie subject. Here 
 the true nominative is that. " Tliat cannot ho denied." What? 
 " Tliat = lie is hotter." (From usage that in sucli sentences acquires 
 the function and force of a conjunction. ) 
 
 (ii) " I lieard that-he-was-better : " the object. 
 
 (iii) "My motive in going was that-I-might be-of-use " : nomina- 
 tive after was. 
 
 (iv) "The fact that-he-votedagalnst-hls-party is well known : 
 in apposition with fact. 
 
 Impersonal Construction— 
 
 And methought, while alie lihorty sang, 
 
 'Twas liberty only to hear. 
 " 'Twas-liherty-only-to-hear " is a Noun sentence, subject to tlie 
 impersonal verb " methought," and forming with it a princiiial 
 sentence. 
 
 45. Any nnniljer of Subordinate Sentences may be attaclinl 
 to tlio Principal S(intenco. 'i'ho f)n]y limit is that dictated liy 
 a regard to clearness, to the balance of clanses, or to good taste. 
 
 The host example of a very long sentence, which consists entirely 
 of one principal sentence and a very large number of adjective 
 sentences, is "Tlie House that Jack liuilt." "This is the house 
 that-Jack-built." " This is the malt that-lay-in-the-house-tliat-Jack- 
 built," antl so on. 
 
 Co-ordinate Subordinate Sentences. Two or more snl or- 
 dinate sentences of the same kind may be attached to the 
 same principal .sentence. 
 
 Type of th(! wise, wlio soar but ^wlio) never roam. 
 If the day be fine and (if) I am free, I will go over the common. 
 John knew that the farmer had cut his corn and (that he had) 
 stacked it. 
 
 In the first sentences we have two Adjectival sentences, subordin- 
 ate to the principal and co-ordinate with one another. In the other 
 sentence we have Adverlual and Noun-sentences of a corresponduig 
 character. The words witliin parentheses are understood and 
 should be shown in your analysis. 
 
 46. P 
 
 l)e suboi 
 
 principf 
 
 TJ 
 
 The 
 
 sentenc( 
 
 The Hi 
 charactc 
 
 47. Co: 
 
 (i 
 
 The Pi 
 
 "Thus' 
 . . . time 
 
 Note til 
 tliatinven 
 
 (-'AIJT 
 
 'is. (i) 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 107 
 
 46. Principal and Subordinate. Tha same sontcuco may 
 be subordinate to a jirincipal sentence, ami at the same time 
 principal t(» ;iiiuther sentenee. 
 
 The iiiHH who hesitates M-iien danger is at hand, is lost. 
 
 Tlie sentence "who hesitates" is adjectival to tlie principal 
 sentence, and principal to "w)ien danger is at liand." 
 
 The sentence would not be properly analysed unless its twofold 
 character and relationship weie fully shown. 
 
 Compare : — Tell her that wastes her time and nie, 
 That now she knows, 
 When I resemble her to thee. 
 How sweet and fair she seems to be. 
 
 47. Connectives : — 
 
 (i) Care must l)e taken to associate introductory and 
 connective words witli tlieir proper sentences; 
 otlierwise confusion will result and the nature 
 of tlie sentences may be misunderstood. 
 
 Vet he who reigns within himself, and rules 
 Passions, desires, and fears, is more a king. 
 
 The Principal sentence here is •' Yet he is more a king." 
 
 Tims, while I ape the measure wild 
 Of tales that charmed me as a child, 
 lUide though they be, still with the chimo 
 Return the thoughts of early time. 
 
 "Thus " in the first line introduces the jirincipal sentence " Still 
 . . . time." 
 
 Note the inversion in "Rude though they bo," and remember 
 tliat Inversions are very common in poetry. 
 
 :1 
 
 CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 43. (i) Find out, first of all, the Principal Sentence. 
 
 (ii) Secondly, if the sentence is complicated or of 
 more than average dilHculty, look out the finite 
 verbs ; these are the kei-nels of the various sen- 
 tences ; remember that each finite verb means 
 a sentence. Wlien you are .sure of your verbs 
 you will be able to connect with each its sub- 
 ject, object, and extensions. 
 
108 
 
 (JIIAMMAK OF' THK KNTIT.TSTT f.AXflTTACK. 
 
 (iii) Thirdly, look fni' the sentences, if any, tliat uttach 
 ilieiiisclves to tilt! Subject of tin- rriiicipal Sen- 
 tence. 
 
 (iv) Fourtlily, liml tlioS(> seiilenees, if any, tliat lieloirr 
 lo tlie Object tif \\\t'. rrinri|ial Seiitenei-, di' in 
 any otliei' Noun or Pronoun in it. 
 
 (\) Fifthly, look fni tlie suliordinate sentences j]i;it 
 are attached jo 'n* Predicate <if the rrinci|ial 
 ScntiMlce. 
 
 Wlion a sul)(inliiiate .scntonce is lonfj, quotn only tlio first and last 
 words, and jilacc! dots .... hetweeii tliciii. 
 
 49. '\'\\*' folliiwini^f Cautions are necessary : — 
 (I) A connective niay he omitted. 
 
 In Slialicsi>care's " Measure for jMeasure," Isabella .says — 
 
 " I have a l)rotlier is condeiiinod to die." 
 
 I fere who is omitted, and "who . . . die " is an adje(;tival sen- 
 tence (lualifying the objeet brother. 
 
 (ii) !)o not h(\ ,^iiided hy tln^ part of speech that in- 
 trodnees a snl)oi'dinat(! sent(!iu'.e. Tims: — - 
 
 (a) A relative pronoun may introduce a noun sentence, as, " I do 
 not kn«iw wliodie-is " ; or an adjectival sentence, as, ".lohn, who- 
 w.as-a-solihcr, is now a gardener." 
 
 (1)) An adverb may introduci! a noun sentence, as, " I don't 
 know v'hnr. it ha.'i <jo)ic to •/' or an adjectival sentence, as, "Tlie 
 spot ichcra he //rs is unknown." In tlie sentence, "Tlie reason why 
 so few marriages are happy is because young ladies spend their time 
 in making nets, not in making cages" — the subordinate sentence 
 "why . . . happy " is — thougli introduced by an adverb — in appo- 
 sition to the noun reason, and is therefore a noun sentence. 
 
 (iii) It is sonietinies difhcnlt to decide whether a given 
 
 .sentence is Adjectival or Noun. 
 
 Whoever flr.st reaches the fort gains the pri:jc. 
 1 will reward whoever first reaches the fort. 
 
 in these sentences some would prefer to regard the subordinate 
 sentence as qualifying "he" or "hi' i," and would class them as 
 adjectival, but, inasmuch as they stand in the one case for subject 
 and in the other for object, it is preferable to take them as noun 
 sentences. 
 
 We speak that we do know. 
 
 r: 
 
 Here 
 
 is bette 
 and tuk 
 
 Til 
 50. ( '. , 
 
 I'llllCljlJi.s 
 
 •Mr Morri 
 
 i liis .x'j 
 
 He 
 
 (Tin; sino 
 junction oi 
 
 51. Tlui ]; 
 
 and the fart 
 
 tlie larger \vi 
 
 I^t't us tuk 
 
 "Thou ai 
 
 leathern troi 
 
 feed not on \ 
 
 that is steril 
 
 M-.ltcr; wlio 
 
 Jill's Would 
 i'hou art 
 
I I. 
 
 rilK ANALYSIS (IF SKNTF,N("K,S. 
 
 lO'.l 
 
 Tfcro, insteail (if takiii,,' " tliat wc du hiiow " a.4 a nnini siiiti'iirr, i: 
 is Iti^tttT to split 11 [) "that " (a coiiiitoiiiHl relative) intn " lliat u liii li ' 
 ami taliti " which \ve drj know " as an Adjectival sentence. ^k. 
 
 THi; MAIM'INC Oil' OK COMIM-MX SKN TKNi 'ilS. 
 
 50. < "IllplrX Sclltclirrs >liiiiil(l lie lii;i|i]ir(l (Mil, oil llie sailld 
 
 jpiiii(.'i|ili's as Siiuplc Sciiti'iicfs. Ld iis l.ik" a .sciiteiice lH'iu 
 Mr Morris'-^ " -lasun "' : 
 
 " .\iiil ill lii.s hand hu liare a nii;^'hty Imiw , 
 No iiiaii could In-ud of tho.se that battle now." 
 
 This ^('iiliiicc may lie dniwii \\[> after lliu following' plan ; - 
 his iiand 
 
 a niiyhty 
 
 He bare bow 
 
 no man could hcnd 
 
 <4-l 
 O 
 
 those 
 
 o 
 
 if 
 
 battle now. 
 
 (The single line indicates a proposition ; the double line a con 
 juiK'tion or conjunctive pronoun.) 
 
 51. Tlic larger number of subordinate sentences tliere are, 
 
 ami the farther away they stand from the principal sentence, 
 
 tlu; larger will be the space tliat the mapping-out will cover. 
 
 Let us take this sentence from an old Greek writer :— 
 
 "Thou art about, king! to make war against men who wear 
 katliern trousers, and liave all tlieir other garments of leather; who 
 fued not on what they like, but on what they can get from a soil 
 that in sterile and unkindly ; who do not indulge in wine, but drink 
 water ; who possess no figs, nor anything else that is good to eat." 
 
 This Avoulcl b(! set out in the folloM'ing way : — 
 Tliou art about . . . against men 
 
 o 
 
 (i) wear . . . trousers 
 (ii) have . . . leather 
 (iii) feed not m\ that 
 
 xi 
 > 
 
 (a.) they like 
 
 II 
 
N 
 
 IK) 
 
 (lIl.XMMAll or IIIK KNdLISII I- ANliUAdK 
 
 (iv) fcnl on that 
 
 (1)) tli( V can ^'ct fioin a soil 
 
 53. Til 
 
 'ifli'ii III 
 
 fsiicriallv 
 
 (h') is sterilu and unkindly 
 (v) do nut . . . ^\ iiii: 
 (vi) diiidi water 
 (vii) )..i.s.sess no li;.'s 
 (viii) possess not anything else 
 
 (c) is good to eat. 
 
 52. Sciitc'iu'fS iiiiiy iilso 1)0 pi^fcon-lKilcil, "V jilacod in luarked- 
 oir spiiccs or cohimiis, like tin.' lulldwing : — 
 
 "Thro' the Mac'- Tartar tents he iiasscfd, which stood 
 Clustering like Irc hives on tlie low black strand 
 Of OxuH, where tlio summer floods o'erllow 
 Wiicn the sun melts the snow in high Tamir." 
 
 SSkntknck.s. 
 
 KlN'l> OF 
 
 (Sr.NllOSrK. 
 
 8lh.ii;i r. 
 
 J'.NI.AIUiK- 
 MK.NT. 
 
 I'KKni- 
 
 CATK. 
 
 KXTKN- 
 SKiN. 
 
 1 
 • UuKcr. ! 
 
 j 
 
 A. He passed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 through tlie 
 
 A. Prin. 
 
 He 
 
 
 passed 
 
 thro' the 
 
 
 black 'I'artar 
 
 sentence. 
 
 
 
 
 tents 
 
 
 tents 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (a) which clus- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tering like 
 beo - hives 
 stood on the 
 
 (a) Adj 
 sen- 
 tence 
 
 which 
 
 cluster- 
 ing 
 
 stood 
 
 on the 
 low 
 black 
 
 
 strand of 
 
 to A. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 strand 
 
 
 Oxus, 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 (b)[inthcplace] 
 
 (h) Adj. 
 sent. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 which the 
 lliiods o'er- 
 
 to 
 
 ji/arc 
 
 Hoods 
 
 the sum- 
 mer 
 
 o'erflow 
 
 
 (which) 
 
 llow 
 
 under- 
 stood 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (c) when . . . 
 melts 
 
 (c) Adv. 
 
 sent, 
 t )&'er- 
 Jlow 
 
 the sun 
 
 
 melts 
 
 when in 
 high 
 Pamir 
 
 snow j 
 
 I. Alai 
 
 ii 
 •J. the 
 j •'!. liort 
 I I. rcnc 
 ■^ ■"'. odou 
 I 11. at . 
 ' 7. to . 
 
 N. the 1 
 
 j !». flowe 
 
 I !<'. rene) 
 
 '■ II. odou] 
 
 ii'. at . 
 
 I I.", to . 
 
 jit. that, 
 ' j l"». scent! 
 ID. gale, 
 
 I 17. that, 
 ''l hN. blosso 
 'l!». in the 
 
 '-". even, 
 -I. where 
 |--. it, Sul 
 '■•-•'-■.'. dies, 1 
 
 II 
 
 54. A Coi 
 
 "I'liiMie Sim 
 •ille. 
 
 'i'liiLs, in the 
 
 ^ic might ha 
 
Tfrr. wALYsis OF si:nti:nci;s. 
 
 11 
 
 53. 
 
 iiftrll 
 ('!^|i('rl 
 
 A 
 
 I. 
 
 I'p. 
 
 s. 
 
 !l. 
 
 Id. 
 
 i:;. 
 
 c 
 
 1.'.. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 1) 
 
 ■ IN. 
 
 
 'l!.. 
 
 
 '•JO. 
 
 ]•: 
 
 
 Tli'Mv i> a kind of Continuous AujilyHi.s, \vliit'li iiuiy 
 U-.l witlmtit lii'lH'lit lie ;i|i|iliril \,i \'i\iiJ.t'V \Kiss;\'^i'>, iiud 
 ;ill\' ti> ]i.i>.-ii;^'fS t;ilv'll tViilii till' I'i'it . l'*i'l' I'Miiliplf : — 
 
 " Al;i.'< I tlio lur.iiir.xt liriW that .^ciiit.s llif liiiK-, 
 'I'lio lowliest lluwi'f that liliisHnni.s in tint v;i'i! 
 V.vvn A\hii'i! it ilit's, at ,s|)riiiL,''.s sweet • ,ill renews 
 'I'll MToii'l liiV its uii()Ui-.s and it.s liiii'.s." 
 
 Alas I all iiileiji'i I iuii, with iim j-yntaetiral nlaliuii to any word 
 
 ill th(( St'lltcllrc. 
 
 the meanest, attrihntivt^ or enlar^'eiin'iit to .'?. 
 
 lierb, Sulijcct lo 4. 
 
 renews, Tre<lieati) to ,S. 
 
 odours and hues, ( )lijti't to 4. 
 
 lit . . . call, Iv.teiisioii of nnru's, to I, 
 
 to . . . life, ]'].\ton.sion of r< iifus, to I. 
 
 the lowliest, attrilmtive or cnlarL'in'cut to 0. 
 
 flower, Sultji'ct t(j 10. 
 
 renews, I'lcilieato to 9. 
 
 odours and hues, Object to 10. 
 
 at . . . call, lv\ttii.«ioii to 10. 
 
 to . . . life, Ivxtension to 10. 
 
 that, Siil)jc('t to 1.1 and eoniiective to .'». 
 scents, I'redica'o to 14. 
 gale, Ohjoet to IT). 
 
 that, Sulijeet. to 1,S and eoniUMtivc to U. 
 blossoms, I'redicato to 17. 
 in the vale, Extension to ]S. 
 
 even, Advcih modifying 'Jl. 
 where it dies, Extension to IS. 
 it, Suhject of •_•;!. 
 dies, I'redicate of L'2, 
 
 III— TiiK co:\TPOi:xi) si:xti:x('i:. 
 
 54. A Conipovind Senteneo i.s oin' Avliirli (misist.s (if two 
 "riuoiL' Simple Sentonces packrd, for (•duvcniciicc' sukc, into 
 
 Thus, in tlio " Lay of tlie Last Minstrel,"' Sir ^Valler Scott -writes : — 
 
 " The \vay \va.s long, tlie Avind Ava.s cold, 
 The minstrel -was infirm ai I old." 
 
 M ^° miglit have jjut a full stop ut long aud at cold, fur ihu buuso ends 
 
112 
 
 fJUAMMAIl OF TUK KNCLISH LANGUAGK. 
 
 H 
 
 .IS; 
 if 
 
 III 
 
 i !|ii'i'! 
 
 <-i ll'l 
 
 
 in these ])laco8, and, grammatically, the two linos form throe 
 separate and distinct sentences. ]iut because in thought the throe 
 are connected, the poet made one compound sentence out of tiio tliroc 
 simple sentences. 
 
 55. A Coiiipouiiil Sditoiu'c may lir contracted. 
 
 (i) If ■\ve say, ".lohii juiiipod up and ran olF, the sentence ia- 
 "John jumped up'" + "John ran of!"." It is therefore a compound 
 sentence consisting of two simple sentences, but, for convenience 
 sake, contracted in the suhject. 
 
 It may be taken as a Compound Contracted Sentence, and slioula 
 be analysed as two connected sentences. 
 
 Compare : — And out agair^ I curve and How 
 To join the brimming river. 
 (ii) In the sentence, " Kitlic;* a knave Oi' a fool has done tliis," 
 the sentence is contracted in the predicate ..oc th" purjwse of avoid- 
 ing the re2)etitioii of the verb /u/.v (lo)ie. 
 
 (iii) In "The troops caught, and the Kijig executed the rebel?-," 
 the sentence is contracted In the object, "the rebels" being the 
 object of both sentences. 
 
 (iv) Sometimes both Subject and Predicate are omitted, as — 
 ' ' Who gre^\ est not alone in power 
 And knowledge; but from hour to hour 
 In reverence and in charity." 
 Here "who grewest " must be inserted after " but." 
 
 (v) Some sentences require modification or addition before thej 
 can be satisfactorily analysed. 
 
 ' ' No land but listens to the common call, 
 And in retui'n receives supply from all. " 
 This may be rendered 
 
 There is no land | which listens not to the conmion call, | 
 And which in return receives not supply from all." 
 
 Alterations, hov 3r, should never be made unless they arc un- 
 avoidable. 
 
 CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES. 
 
 56. Tho Principal Co-ordinate Sentences of a Compoiiiul 
 Sontonco are connectod in viirions ways l)y dillerent cliiss(\s of 
 Conjmictions. Tho relationship of a sentence to a co-ordinate 
 one preceding it is either — 
 
 (a) Copulative or eontinuative. 
 
 (b) Disjunctive. 
 
 (c) Adversatrve. 
 
 (d) Illative. 
 
i%- 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF SEXTEXCES. 
 
 113 
 
 57. A Copulative Sontonco is po connoetod with a procoding 
 oiw tliiit tlio idea expressed hy it agrees with or simply carries 
 further llic tlunight going before. 
 
 Each change of inaiiy-coloiired life he drew, 
 Exhausted M^orlds, and then imagined new. 
 The connectives of copulative sentences are : And, also, likewise, 
 moreover, f urtliei-, furthermore ; and correlatives such as : l)oth — 
 ;iii(l ; not merely — but, etc. 
 
 NOTK (i) The sense of the sentences and their relationship to one 
 another must he the chief guide in deciding the i.ature of the con- 
 nection. In many cases the connecting word in itself is mis- 
 leading. 
 
 \Ve met a man at the gate, 'Who told us the way. 
 
 Here the function of the sentence "who told," etc., is not to 
 (jualify the preceding sentence, but to express an additional fact, 
 which is co-ordinate with the preceding. Who = and he, and ia 
 rci-Uy copulative. 
 
 (ii) He was not at home, which was a great pity. 
 "Which" does not introduce a subordinate qualifying sentence, 
 but is really copulative, introducing a co-ordinate sentence. It is 
 equivalent to " and this. " 
 
 (iii) Nor and neither, when they are equivalent to " are not," are 
 
 copulative. 
 
 The enemy will not hght, nor will they even prepare for battle. 
 They refused to pay, neither did they otTer to explain. 
 
 (iv) While and whilst are sometimes only copulative — 
 
 " Tlie greater number laid their foreheads in the dust, whilst a 
 profound silence prevailed over all." 
 
 'J'he second sentence is noway subordinate to the first ; it is not 
 used to adverbially modify the first in regard to time, but to 
 introduce a sentence of equal rank, the tM'o sentences being 
 co-ordinate. 
 
 (v) Sometimes the connective is entirely omitted, but the logical 
 connection of the sentences shows tliat the second is co-ordinate with, 
 and stands in copulative connection Avith, the lirst. 
 \ Her court was pure ; her life serene ; 
 \ God gave her peace ; her land reposed. 
 
 tf 58. A Disjunctive tSenteiieo is a sentence wliicli implies 
 j exclusion, or presents an alternative to the one before it. 
 
 Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 
 
 The breath of heaven must swell the sail, 
 
 Or all the toil is lost. 
 
 <fi . 
 
**''''*^. 
 
 114 
 
 ORAMMAIl OF TTTK EXOUSir T,AXGUAOE. 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 ■\%4 ■ 
 
 
 
 II 'r: 
 
 1 1* )(i 
 
 The connectives of <lisjinictivc sfiitcnccs aro : ImIIht, or ; noitlier 
 nor; and sometimes "else" and " otherwise. "'^^^ 
 
 59. ^\n Adversative Sijiitt'iico is oik; Avliidi oxpvcssos an 
 idea in opi^osition to or in contrast with lliai of a ]>rc- 
 coding one. 
 
 'I'o them his heart, his love, his griefs "were given ; 
 lint all his serious thoughts had r(!st in heaven. 
 
 The connectives of adver.sative sentences are : I'ut, however, never- 
 theless, notwithstanding, (mly, still, yet ; and such correlatives as: 
 on the one hand — on tlie otiicr hand, now — then. 
 
 NOTK. — Sometimes the coimective is not expressed : 
 
 They resent your honesty for an instant ; they will thank you for 
 it always. 
 
 60. An Illative S(>ntonce expresses a reason or inference in 
 referen(M! to one luiforo it. Illative sentences may Le — 
 
 (a) Illative Proper : when the idea expressed is a natural ivfcrmro. 
 from or implied consequence o/wliat is previously expressed. 
 
 The leaves are falling ; therefore the swallows will soon he gone. 
 
 (It) Causative : when the idea expressed forms the (jroundt of a 
 certain inference expressed in ihe preceding sentence. 
 
 The swallows will soon be gone ; for the leaves are falling. 
 The connectives are (a) Illative Proper ; Therefore, hence, so, con- 
 sequently, etc. 
 (b) Causative : For, 
 
 Caution. — Crreat care is necessary in distingnisliin^^ l)o- 
 
 tween an Illative Sentence and an Adverbial Sentence of 
 
 Conscciuence. 
 
 Thus in the sentence, The leaves are falling ; therefore the swallows 
 will soon be gone, the second sentence is a fair inference from, but not 
 a necessary consequence of, the first, and is an Illative Sentence. 
 
 Whereas in the sentence. The leaves are falling ; tlierefore tlic trees 
 will soon be bare, tiie second sentence is a necessary consequcnre of 
 the first, and is an Adverbial Sentence of Effect or Consequence. 
 
 The student may draw for himself a corresponding distinction be- 
 tween 
 
 The swallows will soon be gone ; for the leaves are falling, 
 
 and 
 
 The trees will soon be bare : for the leaves aro falling. 
 
TIIK ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 115 
 
 61. Note. — (i) In sonio cases an ititrodiictnry " for " is 
 
 simply a preposition, and llic sentence, is iieitlier Illative 
 
 nor Adverbial. 
 
 For patliless nicarsh and mountain cell 
 Tlie peasant left his lonely she<l. 
 
 (ii) Tlin connection in the followiiiL,' is exceptional: — 
 
 And out again I curve and flow 
 
 '!'() join the l)rinuning river ; 
 For ineu may conio, and men may go, 
 
 I'.iit I go on for ever. 
 
 "For men may come" is neither an Illative nor an Adverbial 
 Sentence, but a co-ordinate sentence, copulative to the preceding 
 
 ones. 
 
 In Illative Sentences the connective is very rarely omitted, but 
 examples are not unknown. 
 
 Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour : 
 England hath need of thee ; she is a fen 
 Of stagnant waters. 
 
 The second and third sentences are in illative relationship to the 
 first ; they give the grounds of the first statement, and might fitly 
 begin witli for. 
 
 PARENTHETICAL SENTENCES. 
 
 62. Sometimes sentences arc interposal in a way tliat com- 
 plicates the analysis. 
 
 These arc the very people who you thought were lost. 
 
 Here *' who were lost " is really a noun sentence to its principal 
 "jou thought"; but it is an adjectival sentence to the real prin- 
 cipal " These are the very pciiple. " " You thought " is therefore best 
 taken as a parenthetical sentence, having a principal relationship to 
 " who were lost." 
 
 In other cases the relationship of the interposed sentence to the 
 rest of the sentence is less clear. 
 
 Then I stood up— and I was scarcely conscious of my surroundings 
 —and fired my gun. 
 
 The interposed sentence may be regarded as principal and co- 
 ordinate with the other two, but on account of its loose relationship 
 it ia better taken as simply " parenthetical." 
 
Itfc 
 
 f 
 
 116 
 
 WORD-BUILDING AND DERIVATION. 
 
 1. Tlio primary element — tluit wliicli is the shortest form — 
 of a word is cjilltjd its root. Thus tal (whicli means number) is 
 tli(; root of tlie words tale and tell and till (a 1)0X for money). 
 
 2. I'hc stem is tlie root + some niodilication. Thus love 
 ( = lov 4- e) is the stem of lov. 
 
 3. It is to the stem that all inflexions are added, and thus to 
 love w(>- add d for the past tense. 
 
 4. If to the root we add a suffix, then the word so formed is 
 calhnl a derivative. Thus by adding ling to dar ( = dear), 
 we make darling. 
 
 5. h\ general, we add English prefixes and English suffixes 
 to Engl'" \\ words; Imt this is not always the case. Thus we 
 have cottage, wliere the Latin ending age is added to the Eng- 
 lish wtivd cot; and covetousness, where the English ending 
 ness is added to the Latin word covetous. Such words are 
 called hybrids. 
 
 6. When two words are put together to make one, the one 
 Avord so made is called a compound. 
 
 7. 'J'he adding of prefixes or of suffixes to words, or the 
 making one word out of two, is called word-formation. 
 
 COT^tPOlTND NOUNS. 
 
 8. Compound Nouns are formed hy the ad<lition of : — 
 
 (i) Noun and Noun, as — 
 
 Bandog (—bond-dog). Brimstone (-burn-stone). 
 
 liridul ( = bride-ale). 
 
 Bylaw ( — law for a hy or town). 
 
 DaiHy ( = ( 
 Hvensong. 
 (Jarlic (=:j 
 O.K. yin 
 rjd.spel ( : 
 
 IfnUHetop. 
 
 Huzzy (--=1 
 Icicle ( = is 
 
 (ii) No 
 
 ]?la(.'kbir( 
 Froeiiian. 
 
 gW T.lack'l 
 black' bird'. 
 
 (iii) No 
 
 Ikke 
 
 Cut]. 
 Gods 
 
 (iv) Noi 
 
 (v) Nou 
 
 (vi) Vei 
 
 Casta' 
 Welfa 
 
 9. There 
 lives, such 
 in a large n 
 
 Coinpoui 
 
 (i) Noun 
 green, lily-' 
 
 (ii) NouE 
 rending, sp: 
 
 (iii) Nou] 
 tossed, Wciy 
 
 (iv) Adv« 
 
 •stepping, w 
 
 (v) Advei 
 thorough-bi 
 
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 11 
 
 Daisy ( = day's eye). 
 
 Evensong, 
 
 Garlic ( = gar-leek = spear-leek ; 
 
 O.K. y<ir, spear). 
 Go.si)el ( = God's .spell = story). 
 Hiiusetop. 
 
 }iuz/y (r= housewife). 
 Icicle ( = is-gicel = ice-jag). 
 
 (ii) Noun and Adjective, as — 
 
 Blackbird. Midnight. 
 
 Freeman. Midsummer, 
 
 Lapwing ( = leap-wing). 
 Nightingale ( = night-singer). 
 Orchard ( = ort-yard- wort-yard, i.e., 
 
 herb-garden). 
 Stirrup (=.stig-rA,p = rising rope). 
 Tadpole (=toad-head. role = poll, a 
 
 head, as in poll-tiix). 
 Wednesday ( = Woden's day). 
 
 Quicksilver. 
 
 Twilight ( = two lights). 
 
 t^ Black'bird has the accent on Hack, and is one word. A black'hird neM not Ix' a 
 black' Urd'. 
 
 (iii) Noun and Verb, a.s — 
 
 Bakehouse. Grind.stone. 
 
 Cutpurse. Pickpocket. 
 
 Godsend. Pinfold. 
 
 (iv) Noun and Adverb, as offshoot. 
 
 (v) Noun and Preposition, as afterthought. 
 
 (vi) Verb and Adverb, as — 
 
 Castaway. Drawback. 
 
 Welfare. Farewell. 
 
 Spendthrift. 
 
 Wagtail. 
 
 Washtub. 
 
 Income. 
 Welcome. 
 
 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 
 
 9. Tliere are in tlie language a great many compound adjec- 
 tives, such as Jtedrt-who/c, ts'f?a-.y/t7r, etc.; and llic'-ie aiH forux-'d 
 in ;i liU'ge number of different ways. 
 
 Compound adjectives may be formed in the following ways : — 
 
 (i) Noun + Adjective, as purse-proud, wind-swift, way-weary, sea- 
 green, lily-white. 
 
 (ii) Noun -h Present Participle, a.s ear-piercing, death-boding, heart- 
 rending, spirit-stirring, sea-faring, night- walking, home-keeping. 
 
 (iii) Noun -I- Passive Participle, as moth-eaten, worm-eaten, tempest- 
 tossed, waylaid, forest-b(irn, copper-fastened, mo.ss-clad, sea-girt. 
 
 (iv) Adverb -f Present Participle, as far-darting, everlasting, liigh- 
 stepping, well-meaning, long-suffering, far-reaching, hard-W(Ji'king. 
 
 (v) Adverb -f Passive Participle, as high-boru, "ill-weaved," well bred, 
 thorough -bred, high-strung, ill-])lea8ed. 
 
118 
 
 CRAMMAIl OF THE ENC.LISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 (vi) Noun l-Noun f-ed, u.s liarc-liraiiied, dog-hoartftd, beetle- headed, 
 periwig-pated, (tlub-footod, lily-livered, irunipet tongued, eagle-eyed. 
 
 (vii) Adjective (Noun + ed, as evil-eyed, grey-headed, thin-faeod, 
 erni>ty-headed, tender-hearted, thick-lipiied, two-legged, three-cornered, 
 four-Mided, high-minded, hald-pated. 
 
 (viii) Noun t- Noun, as Littrn font) lion-heart, iron-side. 
 
 (ix) Adverb 1- Noun i-ed, as dn wn -hearted, under-handed. , 
 
 (JOM POUND VERBS. 
 
 10. Tlioi'o ;ivo not many ('(inipound V(!i"l)s in tlu^ Kn^flish 
 language. TIk; few tliat theio an* arc ft)rni(>cl tlius : — 
 
 (i) Verb and Noun, as - 
 
 Backbite. Hf. nstring. 
 
 Browlieat. ' (.'-"k. 
 
 (ii) Verb and Adjective, as- 
 
 Dunifound. fulhl i=-tlll full), 
 
 (iii) Verb and Adverb, as- 
 
 D„(T(=dooff). Doilt(r ^M)U.; 
 
 r)on( = doon). Dup( = doup). 
 
 Hoodwink. 
 Kiln-dry. 
 
 Whitewash. 
 
 Cross-cjuestion. 
 Outdo. 
 
 \m-wx 
 
 hi 
 
 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 11. Advcrljs are derived from Wouns, from Adjectives, frniii 
 Pronouns, and from Prepositions. 
 
 ((. Adverbs derived from Nouns arc citlier : (i) Old Posses- 
 
 sives, or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of a Noun and 
 
 a l*rcpi)sition : — 
 
 (i) Old Possessives : Needs = of need, or of necessity. The Calendrer 
 says to John Gilpin about his hat and wig — - 
 
 " My head is twice as big as yours, 
 They tlierefure needs must tit." 
 
 Of the same class are : always, nowadays, betimes. 
 
 (ii) Old Datives. These are seldom and tlie old-fashioned whilom 
 (=tin old times). 
 
 (iii) Compounds: anon- (in one moment), abed ( — on bed) asleep, 
 aloft, abroad, indeed, of a truth, by turns, perchance, perhaps. 
 
 h. Adverbs derived from Adjectives are citlier : (i) Old 
 Possessives, or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of an 
 Adjective and a I'reposition : — 
 
 (i) Old Possessives: else (ell-es, possessive of a/ = other), unawares, 
 onc9 (=ones), twice, thrice^ etc. 
 
PREFIXES. 
 
 119 
 
 (ii) Old Datives. Tlio old I'lnKli-^li way of forming r.n adverb was 
 8imi>ly t'> use tlui dative (;a.s(! ot' tlio adjertivc-wliicli oiuUmI in e. 'J'lius 
 wo liad deep?, brighte, for ilujih/ and hrli/hil;/. 'I'Ikmi tiio e dro|ii»ed 
 away. iI<Mut; it i.s that there aro in Knglish .several adverbs exactly 
 like ailje<'tive.s. These are: ftisf, luinl, rl'/ht (in " liiglit Hevcicnd "), 
 /•d; ill, /((tr, (drill, land, hujli. 
 
 iii) Compounds of an Adjective ami a Preposition: on high, in 
 vain, in short, at large, of late, etc 
 
 t'. A(lv('rl)S derived from Pnmniiiis conit^ fi'om the |ir(iii(>nnnal 
 steins: who, the (or this), and he. 'I'lie fi)llo\vin,i,' is a talile, 
 and it IS important to note tlie hcautiful correspondences : — 
 
 rKilNd.MlVAI, I'r.ACK 
 
 Stk.mh. In. 
 
 Pi,a(;k 
 To. 
 
 I'l.Aci-; 
 From. 
 
 TiMK 
 
 In. 
 When 
 The-n 
 
 ; 
 Mannkk. Causk. 
 
 Who : Where 
 
 Whither 
 
 Thither 
 
 Hi-ther 
 
 Whence 
 
 Tlio-nce 
 
 Ife-nce 
 
 Ho-w 
 
 Wh-y 
 
 Tli-ei)r tii-i:-! The-re 
 1 le He-re 
 
 Th-us 
 
 The 
 
 
 
 (i) How and why are two forms of the same word — the in.strumental 
 case (^f who. How = in what way ] Why = with what i-cason ' 
 
 (ii) The, in the last column, is the adverbial the (A.S. thy) Itefore a 
 comparative. It is the instrumentid or ablative case of that or Ihnct. 
 "The more, the merrier"- by that more, ))y that merrier. That is, tlie 
 measure of the increase in the nundjer is the measure of the increase in 
 the merriment. 
 
 (iii) Thus is the instrumental case of this, and is = in this manner. 
 
 iJ. Compound Adverbs arc formed by aildin^f to^f.'tlicr — 
 
 (i) Noun and Noun, as lengthways, endways, 
 (ii) Noun and Adjective, as — 
 
 Always. Head-foremost. Otherwise. 
 
 Breast-high. Meanwhile. Sometimes. 
 
 (iii) Preposition and Noun, as Aboveboard, outside. 
 (iv) Adverb and Preposition, as — 
 
 Hereafter. Therein. Whereupon. 
 
 k 
 
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 
 
 12. Tlio Prefixes used in our language are of English, French, 
 Latin, and Greek origin. 
 
 (i) French is only a modified Latin. Hence Frencli prefixes fall 
 naturally under Latin prefixes, as tlie one is only a form of the other. 
 
II il 
 
 li^ 
 
 m- 
 
 luri' 
 
 :ffl iS: i 
 
 A 
 
 120 
 
 GRAMMAIl OF THE ENflLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 /"/"X 13. Englisli l'r(!iix('.s aro divided into Inseparable and 
 Separable. Iii.s((])araLlo I'nifixc^s aro tliose that have no mean- 
 ing hy th('ni.s(dv(!s and cannot he used apart from anotlier word. 
 Separahle Prefixes may ])v. used and are used as in(h;pendciit 
 "Words. 
 
 14. TJie following an; the most important 
 
 English Inseparable Prefixes : — 
 
 1. A (a brokcn-down form of O.K. an = on), a.s — 
 
 Abed. Aloft ( = in the lift or sky). A-huilding. 
 
 Aboard. Away. Athwart ( = on the cross). 
 
 2. Be (an O.E. form of hy), which has several functions : — 
 
 (i) To add an intensive force to transitive verbs, as — 
 
 Bedaub. Beseech Besmear. 
 
 Besprinkle. ( = beseek). Besmirch. 
 
 (ii) To turn intransitive verbs inuo transitive, as — 
 
 Bemoan. Bespeak. Bethink. 
 
 (iii) To make verbs out of nouns or adjectives, as — 
 
 Befriend. Beguile. Benumb. Betroth. 
 
 Besiege ( = to take a siege or seat beside a town till it surrenders), 
 
 (iv) To combine with nouns, as — 
 
 Behalf. Bequest. Bypath. 
 
 Behest, Byname. Byword. 
 
 (v) To form part of prepositions and .adverbs, as before, besides, etc. 
 
 3. For (O.E, /or = Lat. per) means thorouc/hli/, and has two func- 
 tions : — 
 
 (i) To add an intensive meaning, as in- 
 
 Forbid. Forget. 
 
 Fordone ( = ruined). Forgive. 
 
 Forswear. 
 
 Forlorn ( = utterly lost). 
 
 gW Forswear means to swear out and out, to swear to anything, hence falsely. 
 Compare the Latin perjurare ; lieiice onr perjure. 
 
 (ii) To give a negative meaning, as in forgo (wrongly spelled /orf(/o), 
 to go without. 
 
 4. Fore — before ; as forebode, forecast. 
 
 5. Gain (O.E. gaegn, back, again), found in gainsay (to speal: 
 against) ; gaiustand. 
 
 i). M 
 
 as ill — 
 
 y 
 
 Cautl 
 
 iif ininu 
 
 believer^ 
 
 r. Th, 
 
 imlieatin 
 
 T 
 
 Tl 
 
 8. XJn- 
 
 P. Wan 
 found in- 
 
 \ 
 
 Ii 
 
 10. wit 
 found in— 
 
 m- It 
 
 rvovi. 
 
 15. Th^ 
 
 1. After, 
 
 Afte 
 
 •I AH (0 
 
 Almi 
 
 ;}. Forth, 
 
 1. Fro (a 
 
 5. In ai>j)< 
 
 ^ (i) In, in- 
 
 Tnc 
 
 Inb 
 
 (ii) En or i 
 
 Enc 
 
 Enl: 
 
7^ 
 
 PHK FIXES. 
 
 121 
 
 »). Mia (O.K. ^itix, wrniij^' ; ami cnnnected witli tli« verh to tnixs), 
 
 fUS 111 • 
 
 Misdeed. Minlead. Mistrust. 
 
 Mistake. 
 
 Caution. —Wiieii ;/(i',s' ncrurs in Kreiicli wnrds, it is a shnrteiuMl funu 
 (if iiiinKX, less ; as in )ii!.-<c/u(/, iiiixr/nDirr, inlxmioit, luiscriiiiit ( — non- 
 believer). 
 
 7. Th, the jjreti.\ of the third jiersonal iiroiiuun and itd cognates, and 
 indicating something xjtokrn o/\ as in — 
 
 Those. That. Tiiither. Tliey. 
 
 This. There. Thence. The. 
 
 8. Un = iiot, as 
 
 Unholy, Undo. Unbind. 
 
 0. Wan (O.K. wan, wanting ; and connected with wauc), which is 
 found ill — 
 
 I Wanton ( — wantowen, Wanho|ie ( — despair), 
 
 lacking education). Wantrust. 
 
 10. With (a shortened form of U.K. wither - back or against) is 
 found in — 
 
 J Withstand. Withdraw. Withhold. 
 
 iS" It exists also in a latent form in the word drawing-room = wUhdrawiug- 
 room. 
 
 15. The ToUowing are the most important 
 
 English Separable Prefixes : — 
 
 1. After, which is found in — 
 
 Aftergrowth. Aftermath {from mow). After-dinner. 
 
 2. All (O.E. al, quite), which is found in — 
 
 Almighty. Alone (quite by one's self). Almost. 
 
 3. Forth, found in forthcoming, forward, etc. 
 
 4. Fro (a shortened form oi from), in froward. 
 
 5. In appear.s in modern English in two forms, as : — 
 
 , (i) In, in— 
 
 f 
 
 Instep. 
 
 Income. 
 Inborn. 
 
 Insight. 
 Inbred. 
 
 Inlay. 
 
 (ii) En or em (which is a Frenchified form), in — 
 
 Endear. Entwine. Embolden. 
 
 Enlighten. Embitter. 
 
 : I 
 
 I 
 
122 
 
 GUAM MA u OK tup: f:n'(;m.sii i^axctace. 
 
 £li: 
 
 !.1 
 
 ! ;. 
 
 ■I' ' 
 
 '1 
 
 '4 
 
 
 ii 
 
 ti. Of (ir off (whieli aio two .-pi'lliiigrt nf tlie ^ilIlH' unid), as- 
 
 Ollkpring. Otlsft. 
 
 Ufrfslioot. OtViil (Mint \vlii(li/r(//,s ../). 
 
 7. On, fis ill (iii,-('t, oiisliiuglit, diiwanl. 
 
 8. Out, wliicli takes also the i'>y\n of ut, a.s in — 
 
 Outbreak. 
 Outcast. 
 
 Outsidf, 
 Outpost. 
 
 Utter. 
 
 riiiio,>t. 
 
 0. Over (tln' roiii|iaTaliv<; ot the <iii: iii nlmri), uiiiili foiiiMiics : — 
 (i) ^Vitli nouns, iis in— 
 
 Overcoat. Oveitluw. OverhuiKl. 
 
 (ii) With adjectives, as in — 
 
 Over-bold. Over-inoiry. Over-prouil. 
 
 (Sliiikcspcare is very I'oiid of such furiiis.) 
 
 (iii) AVith verbs, as in — 
 
 Ovcrtlirow. Oveispread. Ovcrlicar. 
 
 10. Thorough or through, two forms of the same word, as in— 
 Throughout. Through-train. Thorougli-lned. Thoi-ouglifare. 
 
 Sliivkpsiicarc has "thorough bu.sh, tlioioii^'h hrici', thorough Hood, thorough tirr. 
 
 n. Twi — two, in twiliglit, twin, twist, etc. 
 12. Under, which goes : — 
 (i) With verbs, lus in — 
 
 Underlie. Undersell. • Undei-go. 
 
 (ii) With nouns, as in — 
 
 Underhand. Underground. Undertone 
 
 (iii) With (jthcr words, as in — 
 
 Underneath. Underlying. 
 
 Vo. Up, which goes : — 
 
 
 
 (i) With vei'bs, as in — 
 
 
 
 Upbear. Ujjbraid. 
 
 Uphold. 
 
 
 (ii) With nouns, as in — 
 
 
 
 Upland. Ujistart. 
 
 Upshot. 
 
 
 (iii) With other words, as in — 
 
 
 
 Upright. 
 
 Ujjward. <^s^ 
 
 k 
 
ri!KII\'F,S. 
 
 i2;i 
 
 16. TIktc iirc ill use in mn' liin^^iiii^^c luaiiv Latin I'lvlixcs; 
 ami many nf tlu'iii aic cf •^{•{'■M, scrvirc. Sunic of tlicni, as 
 cix'c'Uin (aliniit), cnint' to us diiTct from Latin; otlicrs, likt; 
 counter (a.Lfainst), liavc conic to ns tlii-ou^'li tlic medium of 
 FiTiicli. The followin,;^' arc the most imjiortant 
 
 Latin Prefixes : — 
 
 1. A, ab, aba (Vr. a, av\ ainti/ from, as in — 
 
 Aveil. Alijui'c. Al),-(Mii. Alistaiii. 
 
 Avuuiit. Advaiitago (wliidi ouglit, lt> l»u avaiit,ii>,'t'). 
 
 2. Ad [Vi. a), to, wliich in c()iii|)n8it.ion Ijecniiit-.s ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, 
 ar, as, at, to assiinilaie with the tirat conisonunt of tiie root. Tlie fol- 
 lowing iiru cxain])les of each : — 
 
 A(liij)t. AfTect. Aoconl. Agi'ce. 
 
 Aggression. Allude. Annex. Appeal. 
 
 Arrive. Assimilate. Attain. Attend. 
 
 gW All tliusc words come stnii;,'lit to ns fiom Latin, cxcciit ivjirc, nrrirc, iiinl 
 nttain. Tlio following arc also Fruncli : Achiccc (to bring to a cltif i>y lioail). 
 amnnnt, ucifuiint. 
 
 Amputate. 
 
 Ancestor (= antei;es.sor). 
 
 3. Amb, am {amhi, about), as in — 
 
 Ambition. Ambiguous 
 
 •1. Ante (Fr. an), before, as in — 
 
 Antedate. Antechamber. 
 
 5. Bis, .^1, twice, a.s in — 
 
 liisect. Biscuit ( = biscoctus, twice baked). 
 
 G. Clrcum, circa, around, as in — 
 
 Circumference. Circulate. Circuit. 
 
 7. Cum, with, in French com, which becomes col, con, cor, coun, and 
 
 CO before a vowel, as in — 
 
 Compound. Collect. Content. Correct. 
 
 Counsel. Countenance. Coeval. Cooperate. 
 
 (i) In cost (from constare., to '" .stand"); com-h (from rnlloni, I jilaip); cull 
 {from collego, I collect); and cousin (from consobrlnu.-;, tlie eliild of a mother's 
 sister), the prefix has undergone great changes 
 
 (ii) Co, though of T,atin origin, can go with jmrdy Knglisli woids, a.s in co- 
 worker, co-undcmtanding. These are not dcsirahlu comjmunds. 
 
 >S. Contra (Fr. centre), against, which also becomes contro and 
 counter, a,s in — 
 
 Contradict. Controvert. Counterbalance, 
 
 (i) In counterweigh and counterwork we find it in union with Erglisli roots, 
 (li) In encounter we find it converted into a root. 
 
 I 1 
 
12 t 
 
 GHAMMAIl OK TlIK KNlJMSli LANM'AdK. 
 
 I)('piirt. 
 
 
 ! \ 
 
 hi 
 
 l![i 
 
 till 
 
 mfm 
 
 i 
 
 ■': 
 
 1 
 
 :j:':l 
 
 1 
 
 'i|i"5 
 
 
 jlii 
 
 U. De (Fr. dej, dnwii, fruui, iilioui, iw in — 
 
 Dedino. Deserihc. 
 
 It liiw hIm) twn (litVcroiit fuiicLiiiiiH. Ibirt— 
 
 (i) nogutivo in dcsliciy, clcfdim, ilcHiiftiiilf, etc. 
 (ii) intenaivti in tlcsdliitf, (Ir.siiriitf (to dry ii]!), etc. 
 
 10. Dls, dl (Kr. des, de), itsuiidur, in two, as in — 
 
 l)iHrtiiuiliir. hiriiiini. Dirimember. 
 
 iJifler (8 beconiCH f). DiHetwe, Divorce. 
 
 Defy. Defer. Deliiy. 
 
 (i) Difl IS iilso joined with English rootn to rnuke the lij loiils dUown, ilUlike, 
 ditttrvat, dLiluste. 
 
 11. Ex, e (Kr. es, e), out of, from, uis in — 
 Kxult. Exliiilf. Hxpiitriate {patr'm, one's country). 
 
 Kiect. 
 
 Kvuile, 
 
 Kduce. 
 
 (i) ox 1ms ji jirivfitivo sense in cxcmjx-rar, etc. 
 (ii) In ammil (cmntdo), asUmhh (ilimnvr), tin; e is disguiscil. 
 (iii) In sample (slioit for crample), scorch, (O. Fr. escuixcr), and special (Im 
 esj)ccial), the e liiis fallen away. 
 
 12. Extra, beytnui, as in — 
 
 Extraneous. Extraordinary. Extravagant, 
 
 (i) In stranger (O. Fr. estranger, from Lat. extraneus) the e has fallen away. 
 
 13. In (Fr. en, em), in, into, which changes into 11, Im, Ir, as in — 
 
 Invade. Invent (to come ujjon). Infer. 
 
 Illusion. Improve. Immigrate. 
 
 Irritate. Irrigate. Irradiate. 
 
 Enchant. Endure. Envoy. 
 
 (i) It unite.s with English roots to make the hybrids embody, embolden, endear 
 entmst, enlighten, etc. 
 (ii) In ambush (Ital. imboscarsi, to put one's self in a wood), the in is disguiseiL 
 
 14. In, not, which becomes il, im, ir, and ig, as in — 
 
 Inconvenient. Illiberal. Impious. Irrelevant. 
 
 Incautious. Illegal. Impolitic. Ignoble. 
 
 (i) The English prelix nn sometimes takes its place, and forms hybrids with 
 Latin roots in unable, inwpt, uncomfortable. 
 (ii) Shakespeare has unpossible, unproptr, and many others. 
 
 15. Inter, Intro (Fr. entre), between, among — as in 
 
 Intercede. Interpose. Interfere. 
 
 Introduce. Entertain. Enterpriae. 
 
 16. Male (Fr. man), ill, as in— 
 
 Malediction, (contracted through French into) 
 Malison (opposed to Benison). Maugre. 
 
 r 
 
 'Cl 
 
 U. K 
 M 
 
 Cautio 
 
 ^^lf, inlm 
 
 18. No 
 
 (I) 'In. 
 I,.it. nnnj 
 
 (ii) The 
 Icin, napci 
 
 It). Ob, 
 Ub 
 
 :iO. Pen 
 I'ui 
 
 :'l. Per 
 I 'ell 
 I'nr 
 
 (i) pn ■' 
 
 the ti(.-l 
 (ii) , 
 
 22. Post, 
 
 P( 
 
 (i) T)ie pt 
 - Lat. post 
 later creatio 
 
 2.'6. Pra, 
 Pred 
 
 (i) It is sli 
 kendo, I suiz 
 
 (ii) It is d 
 rfi'f", I sjicak 
 
 2J. Praete 
 Pre tern u, 
 
 25. Pro (I 
 
 Pron* 
 
 Pollul 
 
 26. Re (Fi 
 
 Rebel 
 Redee 
 
 (0 It is nuK 
 
 demption), an 
 
 (U) It comb 
 
rUKFIXES. 
 
 V2o 
 
 I 
 
 17. Klfl (Kr. mea, iimn Laiiii mlnua), le.-;., un in— 
 Mihiulveutuie. Mi.>cliiiin('. MiM-hicf. 
 
 Caution. — Not tu l»o cout'uuiulecl with tliu JCugli.^li |ii(.'lix mis in tnis- 
 ta/cc, iiilxtrui^t, etc. 
 
 18, Non, not, a.s in— 
 
 ,-ieuHe. Non-e.\iistent. Nourtuit. 
 
 (i) iiu: mitiiil n lias dioiipcd otl' in umpire, formavly numjiire-O, I'r. wmjier^ 
 l„th nnnpur, not t'(iiifil. 
 
 (ji) Tli(! n li:is I'liUeri awiiy likowiHt.' t'ldiii n'-nnujc, nuprini (conauctoil with /i«j>' 
 kin, Hiipcry), vU\, liy wmti^jly cicuvini; to the indefinite iirticle a. 
 
 10. Ob, ui|3'iiin.st, bcconie.s OC, of, op, etc., an in — 
 
 Obtain. Occur. OU'end. Oitiioso. 
 
 *J0. Pene, ulincwt, tw in — 
 
 l'enin.sula. Penultimate (tlic hust but one). 
 
 'Jl. Per (Fr. par), through, whidi becomes pel, a.s in — 
 
 I'ollucid. Perform. Perjure. 
 
 Perfect, Permit. Pilgrim. 
 
 (!) Pit ''ill coiMcs tVotii ijemjrinus, ii jn'i'son who wandeis per agros, through 
 till' tie' ly the medium of Ital. imlleijrinu, 
 
 (ii) , is a hybrid, 
 
 22. Post, after, a.s in — 
 
 Postpone. Postdate. Postscript, 
 
 (i) The post is iiiiich dis^^nised in jniny, whicli pornrs frniii the Fiencli ;)mis n»< 
 -Lat. p'ist mihis, born after, A "jiuny judge"' is a junior judge, or a judge of a 
 later creation, 
 
 23. PrsB, pre (Fr, pre), before, as in— 
 
 Predict, Presume, Pretend. Prevent, 
 
 (i) It is shortened into a pr in prize, prison, apprehend, comprise (all fronipre- 
 hendo, 1 seize). 
 
 (ii) It is disguised in provost (jtrepositus, one placed over), in preach (from prcv' 
 dit'o, I speak before), and jprovemfcr (from j;rcE&eo, I furnish). 
 
 24. Praeter, beyond, as in — 
 
 rreterna.tural. Preterite (beyond the i)resent). Pretermit. 
 -5. Pro (Fr, pour), which becomes pol, por, pur, ius in— 
 
 Pronoun. Proconsul, Procure. Protest. 
 
 Pollute, Portrait. Pursue. Purchase. 
 
 26. Re (Fr. re), back, again, which becomes red, as in — 
 
 Rebel. Reclaiin. Recover. Refer. 
 
 Redeem. Redound, Readmit, Recreant, 
 
 (i) It is much disguised in rally (-re-nlly), in raiisom(& shortened Fr. form of re- 
 demption), and in runagate {=renegade, one who has denied — negavit — his faith), 
 (ii) It combines with Englisfa roots to form the hybrids relay, reset, recall. 
 
 1 
 
jii i.| ,mmmm 
 
 m 
 
 iif 
 
 ■,»':» 
 
 I I 
 
 i:^ 
 
 tli ^ 
 
 ^I'W 
 
 liiiiili : 
 
 SHtpl 
 
 
 llpi 
 
 
 1'- 
 
 'EiV 
 
 |n':^! 
 
 I" 
 
 126 r;iiA:.>MAll OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 27. Retro, backwards — as in retrograde, retrospect. 
 
 (i) It is disguised in rear-guard (Ital. retro-gardia), rear, and arrears. 
 
 28. Se (Fr. ae), apart, which becomes Bed, as in — 
 
 Secede. Seclude. Seduce. Sedition. 
 
 29. Sub (Fr. sous or sou), under, which becomes sue, suf, sud, sum, 
 sup, Bur, and bus, as in — 
 
 Subti-act. Succour. Suffer. Suggest. 
 
 Summon. Supplant. Surrender. Suspend. 
 
 (i) Sub is di.sguised in sujourti (from O. Fr. sojorner, from Low Latin subdiurnarc), 
 and in sudden (from Latin suhitaneii^). 
 
 (ii) It combines witli Englisli roots to form tlie hybrids sublet, subworker, nub- 
 kingdom, etc. 
 
 30. Subter, beneath — as in subterfuge. 
 
 3L Super (Fr. Bur), above, as in- 
 Supernatural. Superpose. Superscription. 
 Surface (superficies). Surname. Surtout (over-all). 
 
 (i) It is disguised in iovzreign (wliich Milton more correctly si)ells sovran), from 
 Low Latin superanus. 
 
 32. Trans (Fr. tres), beyond, which becomes tra, as in — 
 
 Translate. Transport. Tiansform. Transitive. 
 
 Tradition. Tra^'erse. Travel. Tretfpa.s.s. 
 
 (i) It is disguised in treason (tlic Fr. form of tradilinn, from trado (=t}v.nidi)l 
 I give up), in betray and traitor (from tlie same Latin root), in trance and entniuc: 
 (T^tin transitus, a iiassing beyond), and in trestle (from Latin diminutive trunitU- 
 lum, a little cross-beam). 
 
 33. Ultra, beyond, as in — ' 
 Ultra-Liberal. Ultra-Tory. Ultramontane. 
 
 (i) In outrage (O. Fr. oultrage) tiie ultra is disguised. 
 
 34. Unus, one, which becomes un and uni, as in — 
 Unanimous. Uniform. Unicorn. 
 
 35. Vice (Fr. vice), in the place of, as in — 
 
 Viceroy. Vicar. Vice-chancellor. 
 
 Viscount. 
 
 ^^; 
 
 17. Our language possesses also a considerable nunibi'i' of 
 l)relixes transferred from the Greek language, many of wliich 
 are very useful. The following arc the most important 
 
 Greek Prefixes : — 
 
 * 1. An, a {iiv, d), not, as in — 
 
 Anarchy. Anonymous. Apteryx (the wingless). 
 
 2. Ampbl (&)u<^0> on both sides, as in- 
 Amphibious. Amphitheatre. 
 
 Atheist. 
 
PREFIXES. 
 
 127 
 
 3. Ana (ova), uj , again, back, as in — 
 
 Anatomy. Analysis. Auachrouibui. 
 
 4. Antl {avTi), against or opposite to, avS in — 
 
 Antidote. Antipathy. Antipodes. Antarctic. 
 
 5. Apo {iir6), away from, which also becomes ap, as in — 
 
 Apostate. Apostle. Apology. Aphelion. 
 
 C. Arch, archi, arche (dpxri), chief, as in — 
 
 Archbishop. Archangel. Architect. Archetype. 
 
 7. Auto (aiiTos), self, which becomes auth, as in — 
 
 Autocrat. Autograph. Autotype. Authentic. 
 
 8. Cata, cat {Kard), down, as in — 
 
 (Catalogue. Catapult. Catechism. Cathedral. 
 
 y. Dia (Sid), througii, across, as in — 
 
 Diameter. Diagram. Diagonal. 
 
 (i) This piL'tix is disguiseil in devil— fvom Gr. diubolvn, the accuser or slanderer, 
 lioiu (jr. diahallein, to throw across. 
 
 10. Dis, di (Si's), twice, as in — 
 
 Dissyllable. Diphthong. Dilemma. 
 
 11. Dys (Sin), ill, as iu — 
 
 Dysentery. Dysi»ei)tic (contrasts with Eupei)tic). 
 
 12. Ec, ex (««, e^), out of, as in — 
 
 Eccentric. Ecstasy. Exodus. Exotic. 
 
 lo. £u (eV), in, which becomes el and em, as in — 
 
 Encyclical. Encomium. Ellip.^e. Emphasis. 
 
 14. Epi, ep (eVt), upon, as in — 
 
 Epitaph. Epiphany. Epoch. Ephemeral. 
 
 15. Eu (fit), well, which also becomes ev, as in — 
 
 Eu[>heniism. Eulogy. Evangelist. 
 
 It). Hemi (rfA*0. lialfi ^« in — 
 
 Hemisphere. Hemistich (half a line in poetry). 
 
 17. Hyper (virip), over and above, as in — 
 
 Hyi)erboreaii. Hyperbole. Hjj.>ercritical. Hypermetrical. 
 
 18. Hypo, hyp {vir6), under, as in — 
 
 Hypocrite. Hypoteimse. Hyphen. 
 
 ID. Meta, met (latrd), after, changed for, as in — 
 
 Metaphor. Metamorphosis. Metonymy. Method. 
 
 20. Mono, mon (fi6vo<i), alone, as iu — 
 
 Monogram. Monody. Monad. Monk. 
 
II 
 
 12ti 
 
 ORAMMAJl OF THE ENGLISH LAJS'GUAUE. 
 
 21. Pan {irav), all, as in — 
 
 rautheist. Panacea. 
 
 22. Para {-rrapd), by the Hule uf, wliicli liecoine.s par, a.s in — 
 
 Paradox. Parallel. 
 
 23. Perl {ntpi), round, as is' — 
 Perimeter. Period. 
 
 Panorama. 
 
 1 lieCOMK 
 
 Parish, 
 Perigee. 
 
 Proboscirt. 
 Proselyte. 
 
 Pantomime. 
 
 i in — 
 I'arody. 
 
 Peiiiihery. 
 
 Problem. 
 
 24, Pro (irpt<), before, as in— 
 
 Prophet. Prologue. 
 
 25, Pros (irpos), towards, h» in — 
 
 Pro.sody. 
 
 26, Syn (o-vv), with, which becomes syl, sym, and sy, as in — 
 
 Syntax. Synagogue. Syllable. 
 
 Sympathy. Symbol, System. ^ 
 
 18. The Huffixes employed in the Eiiglisli huiguage are imirli 
 more numerous than the Prefixes, and much more useful. Liko 
 the Prefixes, they come to us from three sources — from (JLl 
 English (or Anglo-Saxon) ; from Latin (or French) ; aj'd from 
 Greek. 
 
 19. The following are the most important 
 
 English Suffixes to Nouns : — 
 
 1. Ard or art ( = habitual), as in — 
 
 Braggart, Coward. Drunkard. Dullard. 
 
 Laggard. Niggard. Sluggard. Wizard, 
 
 2. Craft (skill), a.s in— 
 
 Leechcraft ( = medicine). Priestciaft. ^^'itchcraft. 
 Woodcraft. lUmecraft (old name for Arithmetic). 
 
 3. D, t or th (all being dentals), as in — 
 
 (i) Blood (from bloiv, .said Blade (from the same). Deed (do). 
 
 i: i; 
 
 of Uowers). 
 Flood (flow), 
 
 (ii) Drift (drive). 
 Flight (fly). 
 
 Rift (rive). 
 
 (iii) Aftermath (mow), 
 Death (die). 
 Mirth (merry). 
 
 Seed (sow). 
 
 Drought (dry). 
 Height (high : Milton 
 uses highth). 
 Theft (thieve). 
 
 Berth (bear). 
 
 Earth (ear = plougli), 
 
 Sloth (slow). 
 
 Thread (throw). 
 
 Draught (draw). 
 Shrift (shrive). 
 
 Weft (weave). 
 
 Dearth (dear). 
 Health (heal). 
 Tilth (till). 
 
SUrT'TXES. 
 
 129 
 
 4. Dom (O.E. dom — (loom), power, ofTioe, from deman, to judge, as 
 
 in — 
 
 Dukedom. Kingdom. Ifalidom (—holiness). 
 
 Chri.stendom. Thraldom. Wisdmn. 
 
 (i) In O.E. we had ?)i5<;«o;)(?(i))i ( = liishop(loiii); iiiid Cailylc lias accustomed us 
 to rfiscahhmi and sconndreldom. 
 
 fi. En (a diminutive), as in — 
 
 Chicken (cock). Kitten (cat). Maiden. 
 
 (i) Tlio aildition (if a syllalilf lias a tendency to nimlify tlie ]irect'dii;o vowel— as 
 in kitchen (from o/oA), vi.wa (fi'oni /oj), and national (from ni'ition), 
 
 0. Er, which has three functions, to denote — 
 
 (i) An agent, as in — 
 
 Baker. Dealer. Leader. "Writer. 
 
 (ii) An instrument, as in — 
 
 l-'inger (from O.E. /««//«», to take). Stair (from stUjan, to mount), 
 
 (iii) A male agent, as in — 
 
 Fuller (from /«//(«», to cleanse). Player. Sower. 
 
 i^f The endin<i (".r has become disguised in heqgar and mUor {not sailer, 
 which is a shi])). Under the intlueiu'e of Norman-French, an i or y 
 cieeps in beforu the r, as in co/hVc (from cual), lawyer, yUuier (from 
 glass), etc. 
 
 7. Hood (O.E. had), .state, rank, person, as in — 
 
 Ri-otherhood. Cliildhood. Priesthood. Wifeliood. 
 
 (i) In Godhead, this suffix takes the form of head. 
 
 8. Ing (originally = son of) part, as in — 
 
 Farthing [fourth). Hiding {trithim/ — ihirdinf/). Tithing (tenth). 
 
 (i) This sufllx is found as a patronymic in many iirojier names, such as Brovni- 
 iiui, HanUtKj ; and in Kensington, Whittinyton, etc. 
 (ii) Lording ( = the son of a lord) and irhiting (from vhite) are also diminutives. 
 
 (iii) This ing \H to be carefully distinguished from the ing ( = nng) which was 
 the old suffix for verbal nouns, as clothing, learning, etc. 
 
 9. Kin (a diminutive), as in — 
 
 Bodkin. Firkin (iromfour). Lambkin. Mannikin. 
 
 (i) It is also found in i)roiior names, as in Davk ins { = little David), Jenkins 
 ( = son of little John), Hawkinn (-son of little Hal), Perkins ( = son of little Peter). 
 
 10. Ling — 1 + ing (both diminutives), as in — 
 
 Darling (from dear). Duckling. Gosling (goose). 
 
 Firstling. Hireling. Nestling. 
 
 (i) Every diminutive has a tendency to run into depreciation, as in ground- 
 ling, xmderling, worldling, etc. 
 
 (ii) In some words, ing has been weakened into y or ie, as in Johnnie, Billy, 
 Belly, etc. 
 

 m 
 
 ■ 'fS: !''^ 
 
 130 
 
 A 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 11. Le or 1, as in — 
 
 Beadle (from bcodan, to bid). 
 Settle (seat). 
 
 Bundle (bind). 
 Nail. 
 
 Saddle (seat). 
 Sail. 
 
 12. Lock (O.E. lac, gift, sport), which also becomes ledge, aa in — 
 
 Knowledge. Wedlock. Feohtldc (battle). 
 
 (i) This is not to be confused with tlie lock and lick in the names of plants, 
 which in O.E. was leac, and which we find in hetnlock, charlock; garlick ( = spear 
 plant) and barley (-berelic). 
 
 13. Ness forms abstract nouns from adjectives, as in — 
 
 Darkness. Holiness. Weakne.ss. Weariness. 
 
 (i) Witness differs from the above in two resi)ects : («) it comes from a verb— 
 witnn, to ]<now ; and (i») is not always an abstract noun. 
 
 (ii) Tliis English suffix combines very easily with foreign roots, as in acnte- 
 ness, comvioilioiuineHS, gracefulness, remoteness, and many others. 
 
 14. Nd (which is the ending of the present participle in O.E.), found 
 
 In- 
 
 Friend (=the loving one). 
 Errand. 
 
 Fiend (—the hating one). 
 Wind (from a root vd, to blow). 
 
 15. Ock (a diminutive), as in — 
 
 Bullock. Hillock. Ruddock (= redbreast), 
 
 (i) In luiwk (=:the seizer. from have) this suffix is disguised. 
 
 (ii) It is also found in proper names, as in — 
 
 Pollock (from Pavl). Maddox (from Mattliew). Wilcox (from Wlllla'm). 
 
 16. M or om, which forms nouns from verbs, as in — 
 
 Bloom (from blow). Qualm (from quell). 
 
 Gloom (from (jlow). Seam (from sew). 
 
 Gleam (from glow). Team (from to^c). 
 
 (i) This suffix unites with tlie Norman-French word real (royal) to form the 
 hybrid realm. 
 
 17. Red (mode, fash on — and al.so counsel), as in — 
 
 Hatred. Kindred. Sibrede (relationship). 
 
 (i) This ending is also found in jiroper nouns. Thus we have Mild red ■=viiltl 
 in counsel; Kthelred- unite in rouJise/, called also f7nre(i«, which does not mean 
 unready, hnt without cxjunsel. 
 
 18. Ric (O.E. rice, power, dominion) — as in bi.shopric. 
 (i) In O.E. we ha;l abbotrlc, Itevenricle, and kingrir. 
 
 19. Ship (O.E. scipe, shape or form), which is also spelled scape 
 and skip, makes abstract nouns, as in — 
 
 Fellowship. Friendship. Lordship 
 
 Landscape. Workmanaliip. Worship (=worthship). 
 
 (i) Milton writes landskip for laiidscape. 
 
 20. 
 
 St 
 
 Bed 
 
 21. 
 
 St 
 
 agent 
 
 : i 
 
 (i; 
 
 Ii 
 
 (ii) I 
 
 < 
 (iii) \s 
 
 ster,fith( 
 ringer). 
 
 (iv) Si 
 which til 
 
 22. The: 
 
 as in — 
 Father. 
 Bladder 
 
 23. Wrlg 
 
 Shif 
 
 24. War< 
 
 Hay 
 
 (i) Ward ha 
 (ii) In stetva 
 
 20. Tlie i 
 
 1. Ed or 
 
 Cold 
 
 2. En, de 
 
 Gold 
 Oake 
 
 3. En, tlH 
 
 Drun 
 
 4. Em, d( 
 
 Eastf 
 
 r.. Fast (C 
 Steac 
 
 6. Fold (( 
 (i) Simpl 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 131 
 
 20. Stead (U.E. stdde, place), as in — 
 
 Bedstead. Homestead. Hampstead. Berkhamstead. 
 
 21. Ster was originally the feminine of er, the suffix for a male 
 agent : it has now two functions : — 
 
 (i) It denotes an agent, as in — 
 
 Huckster (hawker). Maltster. Songster. Roadster. 
 
 (ii) It has an element of depreciation in — 
 
 Gamester. Punster. Oldster. Youngster. 
 
 (iii) We had, in Old English, baxter (fein. of buker), vehster (weaver), brew- 
 ster,fithehtre(J(Jdler), seamestre (sewer), and even bellerhigestre (for female bf/i- 
 ringer). Most of these are now used as proper na'nies. 
 
 (iv) Spinster is the feminine of spinner, one form of which was spinder, 
 which then became spider, 
 
 22. Tier, der, or ter denotes the agent — with the notion of duality— 
 as in — 
 
 Father. Mother. Sister. Brother. 
 
 Bladder (Wow). Rudder (rojv). Water {wet). Winter (wind). 
 
 23. Wright (from work, by metathesis of the r), as in— 
 Shipwright. Wainwright (= waggon wright). Wheelwright. 
 
 24. Ward, a keeper, as in — 
 
 Hay ward. Steward (= sty -ward). Woodward. 
 
 (i) Ward has also the Norman-French form ofgiiard. 
 
 (ii) In steward, the word stige or sty meant stall for horses, cows, etc, 
 
 20. Tlie following are the most important > V""'*^ 
 English Suffixes to Adjectives : — ' 
 
 1. Ed or d, the ending for the pa-ssive participle, as in — 
 
 Cold ( = chilled). Long-eared. Lauded. Talented. 
 
 2. En, denoting material, as in — 
 
 Golden. Silvern. Flaxen. Hempen. 
 
 Oaken. Wooden. Silken. Linen (from Im, flax) 
 
 3. En, the old ending fur the passive partici]ile, as in — «. 
 
 Drunken. Forlorn. ^Molten. Hewn, 
 
 4. Em, denoting quarter, as in — 
 Eastern. Western. 
 
 Northern. S<mthern. 
 
 5. Fast (O.E. faest, firm), as in- 
 
 Steadfast. Rootfaf.b. Shamefast (wrongly shamefaced), 
 
 6. Fold (O.E. feald), as in- 
 
 Twofold. Threefold. Manifold. 
 
 0) Simple, tram Lat. simplex, has usurped the place of anfeald - onefold. 
 
 Q 
 
132 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 7. Ful = full, as in — 
 
 Hateful. Needful. 
 
 Sinful. 
 
 Wilful. 
 
 PPii:; 
 
 
 8. Ish (O.E. iac) has three functions ; it denotes : — 
 (i) Partaking in the nature of, as in — 
 
 Boorish. Childish. Churlish. 
 
 (ii) A milder or sub-form of the quality, as in 
 Blackish, Greenisli. Whitisli. 
 
 (iii) A patrlal relation as in — 
 
 English. Irish. Scottish. 
 
 9. Le, with a diminutive tendency, as in — 
 Little {lyt). Brittle (from break). 
 
 10. Less (O.E. leas), loose from, as in — 
 
 Fearless. Helijless. Sinless, 
 
 11. Like (O.E. lie), softened in ly, as in — 
 
 Childlike. Dovelike. Wifelike. 
 Godly, Manly, Womanly. 
 
 12. Ow (O.E, u and wa), as in — 
 
 Narrow. Callow. Fallow. 
 
 Waspish, 
 
 Goodish. 
 
 Welsh (- Wylisc) 
 
 Fickle {nnnteady). 
 
 Toothless. 
 
 Warlike. 
 
 Ghastly (= ghostlike). 
 
 Yellow, 
 
 (i) Fallow is connected with the adjective imU, and yellnv with the yol it 
 yolk. 
 
 13. Bight, with the sense of direction, as in — 
 
 Forthi-ight. Downright. Upright. 
 
 14. Some (O.E. sum, a form of same, like), as in — 
 
 Buxom (from 6?<5fan, Gladsome. Lissom ( = lithesome). 
 
 to bend). 
 Irksome. « Gamesome. Winsome. 
 
 15. Teen (O.E. tsme) = ten by addition, as in — 
 
 Thirteen. Fourteen. Fifteen. Sixteen. 
 
 (i) In tliirteen = three + t<;n, the r has changed its place l>y metathesis, 
 (ii) In fifteen, the hard / has replaced the soft r. 
 
 16. Ty (O.E. tig) = tens by multiplication, as in — 
 
 Twenty ( = txoain-ty). Thirty ( = three-ty). Forty. 
 
 17. Ward (O.E. weard, from weorthan, to become), denoting direc- 
 tion, as in — 
 
 Fro ward (from). Toward, Untowaid. 
 
 Awkward (from awl; Homeward. Seaward, 
 
 contrary). 
 
 (I) This ending, ward, has no connection with ward, a keeper. It is connected 
 with the verb worth in the line, "Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day 1 " 
 
 ;i;»i 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 133 
 
 18. Wise (O.E. wis, nindfi, manner), as in — 
 
 Uif^hteouH (jirupei-ly rvjhtwltic). I'uisterous (O.E. loKtivifs). 
 
 (i) The English or Teutonic cndiiiL; c/.-t lias j,'ot confiispd witli tlie I^it. ciKliiig 
 01/5 (from vsus - I'lill of). 
 
 19. Y (O.K. ig, t,lie guttural (jf whicli ban vanished) forms adjectives 
 frnni nuuuH and verlt.s, as in — 
 
 VAoody. Crafty. Dusty. 
 
 Miyhty. Silly (soul). Stony. 
 
 Ifeavy (lieave). 
 Weary. 
 
 21. Tlie following are t]w most important 
 
 English Suffixes for Adverbs 
 
 # 
 
 1. Ere, denoting place in, as in 
 
 Here. Tliere. 
 
 Wliere. 
 
 2. Es or B (the old genitive or i)osse.ssive), wliich becuuie.s se and ce, 
 as ill — 
 
 Need.s. Besides. Sometimes. Unawares. 
 
 Else. Hence. Thence. Once. 
 
 (i) " I must needs go" = of need. 
 
 ?). Ly (O.E. lice, the dative of lie), as in — 
 
 Only {^onchj). Badly. Willingly. Utterly. 
 
 4. Ling, long, denotes direction, as in — 
 
 Darkling. Grovelling. Headlong. Sidelong. 
 
 (i) Grovelling is not really a present participU; ; it is an adverb, ami was iu 
 O.E. (jrufliinyes, 
 (ii) We once had also the adverhn flatUngs and noseUngs. 
 
 ^. Meal (O.E. maelum = at times), as in — 
 
 Piecemeal. Limbmeal. 
 
 (i) Shakespeare, in " Cyinbeline," has the line — 
 
 " O that I had her here, to tear her limhiiieal." 
 (ii) Chaucer has stound-meal = hour Viy hour ; King Alfred lins st jkl'emaelnm 
 = stiek-nieal, or here and there. 
 
 6, Om (an old dative jilural), as in — 
 
 Whilom (= in old times). Seldom (from scid, rare). 
 
 7. Ther, which denotes place to, as in- 
 Hither. Thither. 
 
 Whither. 
 
 8. Ward or wards, which denotes direction, as in — 
 
 Homeward. Homewards. Backwards. Downwards. 
 
 9. Wise (O.E. wis, manner, mode), as in — 
 
 Anywise. Nowise. Otherwise. Likewise. 
 
 "Some people are wise; and some are otherwise." 
 
i?r 
 
 
 !«' 
 
 t. , 
 
 ill 
 
 !!::!! , 
 
 
 1 
 
 i.: , 
 
 134 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 22. Tlie following are tlin most ini[)ortiint 
 
 English Suffixes for Verbs : — 
 
 1. Le or 1 liart two functiouH : — 
 
 (i) Frequentative, as in— 
 
 Dabble (<lah), Grapiile (grah). Waddlo (vade), 
 
 Dribblfi (drip). Dri/zlc {l'Vi)Ui dreounn, to full). Jostle. 
 
 (ii) Diminutive, as in— 
 
 Dazzle (i/r/rc). Dibble (diji). Dwindle, 
 
 n.'ibblc. Niggle. Sparkle. 
 
 2. Er or r adds a fretiueutative or intensive force to the original 
 verb, HH in — 
 
 Batter (heat). Chatter. Glitter d/hw). Flutter (Hit). 
 
 Gliuuiier (rjlcam). Clatter. Sputter (.sjnV). 
 
 Stagger. Stammer. Stutter. Welter. 
 
 Er lias also the function of making causative verbs nnt of adjrotivfs, as linger 
 (long), lower, lihiilcr, 
 
 3. En or n makes causative verbs out of nouns and adjectives, as in— 
 
 Brighten. P^atten. Lighten. Lengthen. 
 
 Broaden. Gladden. Soften. Sweeten. 
 
 4. K has a frequentative force, as in — 
 
 Hark (hear). Stalk (steal). 
 
 5. S or se has a causative force, as in— 
 
 Cleanse (clean). Curse. 
 
 Talk (tell). 
 
 Rinse (from hrclmi). 
 
 K 
 
 23. Tho Suffixes of Latin origin are of great importance ; ami 
 they have been of great use for several centuries. Many '>f 
 them — indeed, most of them — have been infhu^nced by passint,' 
 through French mouths, and hence have undergone consi<ler- 
 able change. The following aw. the chief 
 
 Latin and French Suffixes for Wouns : — 
 
 1, Age (Lat. atlcum), which forms eithei- abstract or collective 
 nouns, as in — 
 
 Beverage. Courage, Carnage. Homage. 
 
 Mari-iage. 
 
 Personage. Vassalage. 
 
 Vintage. 
 
 (i) It nnites easily with English roots to form hybrids, m in hnndage, viileage, 
 tonnage, poundage, tillage, shrinkage. 
 
 2. An, aln, or ane (Lat. anus), connected with, as in — 
 
 Artisan. Pagan. Publican. Roman. 
 
 Chajilain. Captain. Humane. Mundane. 
 
 (i) The snflixis disguised in sovereign(0. Fr. soi^erain), which lias been wrongly 
 supposed to have something to do with reign; in warden, citizen, surgeon, etc. 
 Milton always spells sovereigyi, sovran. 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 135 
 
 3. Al or el (Lat. ills), possessing tl\e quality f)f, as in — 
 
 Animal. Cardinal. Canal. Channel. 
 
 Jfospital. Hostol. llcitd. S[iit!il. 
 
 fi) Candl aiitl channel are two ilifrcrcnt forms — doublets— of the auiiie. So are 
 atttle ami clKatels (capitJilia). 
 
 (ii) Hospital, spltal, hostel, liotel, are four forms of the one Latin word hospit,' 
 nlium. (Ontler 's a shorter form of hostrller, with a dropjicd h.) 
 
 4. Ant or ent (Latin antem or entem), denotes an agent, as in — 
 
 AsHist^ant, Servant. Af^ent. Student. 
 
 f). Ance, ancy, or ence, ency (Lat. antla, entia), form abstract nouns, 
 as in — 
 
 Abundance. Chance. Distance. Brilliancy. 
 
 Diligence. Indulgence. Constancy, Consistency. 
 
 (!) Chnnre ronics from late f.at. crnhntin — un aecident. Cmleure is a (loiililet 
 
 G. Ary, ry, or er (Lat. arium), a place where a thing is kept, as in — 
 A])iary (cipls, a bee). Armoury. Granary. Sanctuary. 
 Treasury. Vestry. Larder. Saucer. 
 
 (!) The ending ry unites freely with English wonis to form hybrids, as in 
 C'lokmj, piggery, rohbeiij. 
 
 (ii) In Jewry, Jetoellery (or Jetvelry), povltry, peasantry, cavalry, the ry has a col 
 lective meaning. 
 
 7. Ary, ier, eer, or er (Lat. arlus), denotes a person engaged in some 
 trade or profession, as in — 
 
 Commissary. Notary. Secretary. Statuary. 
 
 Brigadier. Engineer. Mountaineer. Mariner, 
 
 (i) This ending is disguised in vlumcAhr (canceUaruts), ricar, hvtler { — hottler\ 
 vslier(oiiti(irhis, a doorkeeper), previier, etc. 
 
 8. Ate (Lat. atus, past ])articiple ending), becoming in French e or ee, 
 
 denotes — 
 
 (i) An agent, as in 
 Advocate. 
 
 Legate. 
 
 Curate, 
 (ii) The object of an action, as in — 
 
 Grantee. Legatee. Trustee. 
 
 SW In grandee tlie passive signiflcation is not retained. 
 
 Private. 
 Vendee. 
 
 9. Ce (Lat. cium, tium, or tia) forms abstract nouns, as — 
 
 Benefice. Edifice. Saci-ifice. 
 
 Hospice. Palace. Grace. 
 
 10. El, le or 1 (Lat. fllus, ellus, etc.), a diminutive, as in — 
 Angle (a little corner). Buckle (from hueni, the cheek). 
 Castle. Chapel. Libel. Pommel. Title. Seal 
 
 (i) A Imckle used to have a cast of the human face. 
 
 (ii) CaHlf, from Lat. castdlum, a little fort, from castnim, a fort. 
 
 (iii) Libel, from Lat. lihelhts, a little book (liber). 
 
 (iv) Pommel, from Lat. jwminn, an apple. 
 
 (v) Seal from Lat. sigillum. 
 
f^ 
 
 t-i 
 
 13G 
 
 (IRAMMAFv OF THE ENGLISH LANCUAHE. 
 
 ;, 
 
 w 
 
 i s 
 
 lilfi 
 
 11. Ern (TiUti. erna), (liMK.ting place, as in— 
 Cavoni. Cistern. fiantorn. 
 
 Tftvftrn. 
 
 12. Et, ette, and let (i-'r. et, ette) all diminutives, as in— 
 
 liassinotte. Iiullbf. ('lia|>lefc. Coronet. 
 
 Goblet. (lililiot. Lancet. Ticveret. 
 
 ruppot. Tninipot. Ticket. Turict. 
 
 (i) Tim let is-1 -|- et, ami is ruiiinl in hiii<rkt,Jilkt, nitlrt, etc. It also uiiiti") 
 with Kii),'lisli wcii'ils lo form liylirids— ;is in havdet, hnjlet, riinjlil, stn'mnht, itc, 
 
 (ii) Tills tMidin;,' is clis^^MiisiMl in lallut (a sui;ill ball), rJnniut {inr), i,<irrM 
 { — jwn<)<i\til), Ac. 
 
 V.\. Ess (late T.at. Isaa), a female agent, as in — 
 
 l"im})ress. (idvcrnrss. Marcliioneas. Soreeress. 
 
 (i) Tti unites with Enj^lish words to I'miii tlic liylirids niiirdnenii, Si'»(;«^r«s 
 (Tilt! l.isl, is ;i <loiililt' fcniiiiint!, as sainicstiy is tlic ulil word.) 
 
 14. Ice, ise, or ess (fjat. tla ; l-'r. esse), as in — 
 
 Avarice. Cowanlico. Justice. Merehandipe. 
 
 Distress. Laixess. Noblesse. Hi(;lies. 
 
 (i) T(. is a sii,'nificant, mark ot' (lif ('arclcssiu'ss witli wliicli tin- l'^i,i,'lish laii,L,'iiht'i' 
 lias always lii'cn writtiMi, tlint tlie very same cndin^^ should aiipear in tliin' 
 siH'lliiiK'^ in htnjess, uohtes!*, riches. 
 
 (ii) lliche.^ is a false idiiral : it is an tihstrart noun, llio French form liein^ nV/ii-s'c. 
 
 l.^». Ice (Ijat. icem ace. of nnuns in x), wliicih has also tlip fni'in-; of 
 ise, ace, as in — 
 
 Chalice. Pumice. Mortise. l"'urnace. 
 
 .1,. (i) The sutlix is niueli disguised in radish (-the roat, from nuUrevi). 
 
 i' 
 
 (ii) It is also disguised in partridge ami jvd(je (jtidlrem). 
 
 16. Icle (Lat. iculus, ellus, ulus), which ajipears also as eel and sel, 
 a diminutive, as in — 
 
 Article (a little ./oi??<). Particle. llccejjtacle. Ver.sicle. 
 Parcel ( varticella). JMorsel (from mordeo, I bite). 
 
 Damsel {dominicella, a little lady). 
 
 (i) The ending is disguised in rule. (ri'HuJu), atrhuncl'' (from carho, a coal), c/i'V 
 (arnnct(hts), and iY,«cZ (from ran). 
 (ii) Parcfl and particle are doublets. 
 
 17. Ine or in (Lat. inus) related to, as in- 
 Divine (noun). 
 
 Cousin. 
 
 (i) Cousin is a contvaction — through French— hf the Latin cnnsohrimis 
 tlie child of a mother's sister. 
 
 (ii) The ending is disguised in pihjrim, from jwrefifnnws =^ from jicr ugn> 
 through the lields. 
 
 s ulgi; 
 
 18. Ion (Lat. iOnem), which appears also as tlon, sion, and, from 
 French, as son, som, denotes an action, aa in — 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 137 
 
 Action. Opinion. ro.sitiun. Vacation. 
 
 I'otioM. I'iiIhoii. Rrnndirtii'M. I'lriiisini. 
 
 Kcdumiition. I{hii-i>iii. MakMliction. Mali-nn. 
 
 (i) I'otidH, }>oisou, iiml till! lliifo (il)irr imirs aw tlniililds flir \\ysl luivinR 
 cniiip tlii'oiii^h till' iliicir ((!" liipdk.s stiMi;4lit I'idiii the l-'iliii, tin; sicdihI tliroii^'h 
 tlie iiKnith mill I'lir, I'lnin I'Yfiicli. 
 
 (ii) I'niisnn {Jiimlnl tlisli, t'luiii vciuilioHcm), scasiin y-ntinnan, llic sniring 
 tiiiH"), I'l'lmi^' 1i> till' a I 111 VI! si't. 
 
 r.t. Ment (Lat. mentum) ilcimtcs an instrument kv ;iii act, a.s in — 
 Document. InHtiuniont. Monument. Ornament. 
 
 (i) It ciiinliiiii'S ciisily with Mii^;li.sli wunis tu iiiakc liylniils, us atonement, 
 
 tti:kno>rhilijmi:iit, bewitchment, fiiliiliiient. 
 
 20. Mony (Lat. raonlum) jnakos abstract nouns, as — 
 
 Acrimony. Mati'iniony. Sanctimony. Testimony. 
 
 '21. Oon or on (Kr. on; Ital. one), an augmentative, as in— - 
 
 llalliion. Cartoiin. Dragoon. Saloon. 
 
 Flagnii. Millimi. IViinnn. Oluttoii. 
 
 Clarion. Oaileon. Tmmbnne. Truncheon. 
 
 (i) Augiiicntative.s are the opiioHitt; of iliiiiiiiutives. Contrast balloon ami ballul ; 
 galleon and galliot (a small galley). 
 
 (ii) A biilUnin is a large ball ; a cartoon a big carte ; a (Ira^nnii a large dragon ; 
 a saUxiii a large hall (sulk); Jlaijnii (O. l'"r. Jlascon), a large, tlask ; million, a big 
 thousand (Hii'?/(!); jicnnon, a large jioi or feather; f/oi^eoH, a large galley; trom- 
 bone, a large Inimp-et; truncheon, a large staff (or trunk) of otiice. 
 
 22. Ory, (Lat. orium), which appears also as or, our, and er, and 
 denoteti place, as in — 
 
 Auditory. Dormitory. Refectory. Lavatory. 
 
 ]\lirror, 
 
 Parlour. 
 
 Dormer- 
 
 Manger. 
 
 (i) Mirror \ii eontracted by the Freneh from miraforimii ; inirlour from par- 
 latorivm; manger from inanducatorluin — ihc eating-place. Dormer is short 
 for dormitory, from dormitorium. 
 
 23. Our (Lat. or ; Fr. eur), forma abstract or collective nouns, as 
 
 in- 
 
 Ardour. Clamour. Honour. 
 
 (i) The ending resumes its French form in 'jrumleur. 
 (ii) It forms a hybrid in behaviour. 
 
 Savour. 
 
 24. Or or our (Lat. orem ; Fr. eur) denotes an agent, as in — 
 
 Actor. Governor. Emperor, Saviour. 
 
 (i) This ending is disguised in interpreter, labourer, preacher, etc. 
 (ii) A large number of nouns which used to end in our or or, took er through 
 the influence of the English suffix er. Tliey were " attracted " into that form. 
 
iijf 
 
 138 
 
 GUAMMAIi OF TMK ENCMSII LANCUAHE. 
 
 • J 
 
 h 
 
 ■1 ' 
 
 i» 
 
 '25. T (Lut.tUB— llio cncU.Mgof tho paHt participle) indicateH a completed 
 act, us ill — 
 
 Act. Fact. Joint. Suit. 
 
 (i) Tlie t ill Ijitin Imn the saiiio origin mid iKjil'iiriiis tlu; hiiiiu! I'linctioii us tiic d 
 in Kii^'iisli (lis ill ilr(iil,jiiii.<ihe(l, uml otlicr piist, imrticiplts, t'lc.) 
 
 (ii) Till! ciHliiij,' is (lisxiiiHfii in finl, wliidi is ii liinililct dI" /ad, in /rait (l.m. 
 frucl-m), comjit {-mii/ect), counter/eil { = cvnt ra/uct-um), 
 
 UU. Ter (Lat. ter) (leiiotcM a person, a,s in— 
 
 MaHlcr (contracted from mityistcr). Mininter. 
 
 (i) MaijistiT fniiH'H from magis, more, wliicli conUiiuH tho root uf magnus, great; 
 minister I'mni viinna, less. 
 
 27. Tery (Lat. terium) denotcw condition, as in - 
 
 Mawtcry. Miuistry. 
 
 28. Trlx (Lat, trlx) denotes a female agent, ais in — 
 
 Kxccutrix. Inipi'uvi.satrix. T(vtatiix. 
 
 (I) Tliis c'iKliny is disgiiisi'il in einprfss^Vv. iiiiperalrico lioia Lat. iinpcratrix); 
 and in nune (Fr. nourrice, Lat. nuthx). 
 
 29. Tude (Lat, tudlnem), denotes condition, a ; in— 
 
 Altitude. Beatitude. Fortitude. Multitude, 
 
 (i) In custom, from Lat. amauctudinem, the ending is (li.si;uised. 
 
 30. Ty (Lat. tatem ; Fr. t^) niake.s abstract ncmns, a.< in — 
 
 Hounty. Charity. Cruelty. Poverty. 
 
 Captivity. Frailty. Fealty- Vanity. 
 
 (i) Bountii (bonti), poverty (pauvreti), J'railty, and featty come, not directly 
 from Latin, but through French. 
 
 3L Ure (Lat. ura) denotes an action, or the result of an action, as 
 
 in — 
 
 Aperture. Cincture. Measure. Picture. 
 
 32. Y (Lat. la ; F'r. ie) denotes condition or faculty, as in — 
 
 Company. Family. Fury. Victory, 
 
 (i) This siillix unites easily witli Knylisli words in cr—a.^ bakery, j\6licr>j, rob- 
 ber ij, etc. 
 (ii) It stands lor Lat. ium in avyiirii, remedy, study, subnidy, etc. 
 (iii) It ri'iireseiits the Lat. ending atus in attorney, deputy, ally, quarry. 
 
 24. Tlio Lutiu (or Fruiicli) suiHxt's employed in our liingiiagf 
 t<:) iiiiiko Adjectives ure very useful. The following arc tliu 
 chief 
 
 Latin Suffixes for Adjectives. 
 
 1. AceouB (Lat. aceus) = made of, as in — 
 
 ArgillaceouB (clayey). Farinaceous (^ottry). 
 
SUFFIXES. 
 
 13D 
 
 2. Al (Lat. aii«) = belonging to, ins in— 
 
 lit'giil, llfgiil. Loyal. Iluyal. 
 
 (i) /.();/'(/ iiii'l loijnl me llir same Wolds us lefjtd ttii'l itjul; Imi, In ji.is.siiijj 
 tliri)ti){li Fri'iicli, the liiinl g Iiuh beuu rctliiud iiitou y. 
 
 \i. An, ane, or aln (liUt. anus uud aneus) - connected with, us in — 
 
 Ccrtiiin. Itunuvn {homo), Jluuianc. I'iigan {jukjuh, u 
 
 (liHtrict). 
 
 (i) Tliis rinlinj,' ilis^,'iiis('H Itsrlt'iii ini::i'n(medianus); in miryennichirurgianui)', 
 mill ill ^i.il'in (coiiti'uctt;!! from miniMan), 
 
 (ii) In chamixiign (level), iiml finrnjii (/'uvmo i/.s), tliis t'MlliIl^; ^i' '"'tly 'linK'*''*'''* 
 ilscir. In siraii'ic (irtniiuiia), still iiinrc. All li.ivu been stronj:ly inlliKJiiced in 
 tlii'ir i)as>a;,'(' through tht! Kri'iicli. 
 
 4. Ant, ent (Lnt. antem, entem, ace. of pics, pai-t.), a.s in — 
 
 Current (cii/To, 1 run), Di.sLant. I're.sident. I)i.scor(liint. 
 
 5. Ar (fjat. arts) whicli uiipeuns also an er - belonging to, a.s in — 
 
 Jlegular. Singular. Sei'ular. Premier. 
 
 (i) I'rciiiier (Lat. iirimarius), has reouivud its iHLvstiit siiulling by iMssinf; 
 tliiouj^h French. 
 
 t). Ary (Lat. 3,rlU8), whicli also takes the sccumlary t'ormatiuns of 
 arlouB aiitl arlan — belonging to, a.s in — 
 
 Contrary. Necessary. Gi'cgariouH. Agrarian. 
 
 7. Atic (Lat. atlcus) - belonging to, as in- 
 Aquatic Fanatic (fanuM), 
 
 Lunatic. 
 
 8. Able, Ible, ble (Lat. ablUs, dbUls, Ibllls) ^ capable of being, 
 
 0.6 n\- 
 
 Aniiable. Culjiable. Flexible. Mova])le. 
 
 (i) Fechk (Lat. Jkbilis, worthy of boins wpiit uvci), cijiiies to us through tlie 
 (). Fr. Jlnihle. 
 
 (ii) This sullix unites nasily w-ith Eiiglisli roots to I'oini liybriils, like eatahle, 
 drink'iblr, teorhahh . ijulUhlc. Carlyh; lias also doabk. 
 
 ' Pie, ble (Lat. plex, from plico, I fold) - the l-higlish sufiix— fold, 
 
 ill - 
 
 Simpli -onefold). Double. Ti'iple. Treble. 
 
 10 Eaque (Lat. Ibcub ; Fr. esque) = partaking of, a.^ in — 
 
 I )urle.s(^ue. (5rote.->que (ijrutto). I'icture.sque. 
 
 (!) This ending is disgu d in Danish, French, etc. ; and in nwrris (dance) 
 - Moresco (or Moorish). 
 
 11. Ic (Lat. Icus) = belonging to, a.s in — 
 
 Gigantic. Metallic. Public (populus). Rustic, 
 
 (i) This ending is diaj; -.ed in indigo (from Indicus [colour] = the Indian 
 eolov/r.) 
 
■N 
 
 \ u> 
 
 »;\; vw \i \\, *M I (IK !■ "M.i I Ml I \Nt;l' \u«i' 
 
 III. 
 
 1V>. \-< >1 n \i\U>\' >\:«\h»n Uix <\\tt»\M \ («) i it 
 
 \,«.; 
 
 1:i. n.v U 1 u \>\ 
 
 I '( \1 ><1 
 
 •< ' .-Mi'tl 
 
 M..(l. 
 
 \l r.l M ' H y.mtC. ■:\lll\^, ll.i ll> 
 
 JV>x.)l, 
 
 I'vmol'' 
 
 M..|.,l, 
 
 I n il 
 
 11 ,• \> iiiiii 11 I 1 
 
 ilii 1 1 •( !•• 
 
 \\\ } '>'iu~t ii\ \\\ y!\»^\\\ti (liii>ii|li Ti 1 Ml II, 11' ( 'I 
 
 \\S vho «nrt\\ «.i' \\ iii*^\(i'ii'ii \\\ I'l't^'. 'Uiii ^v^f^ 
 
 \' ^ .'. -ii ', .iii'^, n\\i\ i». trn', ini> ;0I lUlU-u-tii Umiiii i>t (liii'iHliii' Mit'l 
 
 ^ \ 
 
 .M^Wr^ i* 1 i.'<\i\ :(ll -l.tli ri 111' 1\ I'lll ■•.IiM>. 
 
 1 
 
 Ali> 
 
 
 «' 
 
 
 (II < 
 
 t 
 
 Ml'I'lM 
 
 H 
 
 Rtit>f 
 
 
 ('. 
 
 ) I. b\0 il U >»n\n^ b.'\iM»wh\u (O > '" 
 
 \ .ii\n\i» 
 
 \ I \ 1 1 . ll\U 
 
 Muliut' 
 
 ^.> ) 1> "1,1:1 Mr, 
 
 \M"<Mn\«i't,miiH, 
 
 Ulio I'liihtn:, 1\\ )>;«"'M\ii( (liiiMijali I'n-in'li, Im » iinntuil ■< I n n. Ii 
 
 1.^ \v»* il H \\\\«* lu^hwi'iHo I \i 
 
 VI' 
 
 n->v 1 
 
 V, 
 
 I'm i( 
 
 Ui \l 1\ I 
 
 rinnl n 1 
 
 ^•,^ T)\\!« 1''<>,<*A\>! «)>)>1>{»V>« .-^Isi' .IP if, h\ \VV<«il>!t IIUiMljIl I nnrll. t|i 111 ■ ■tlllf 
 
 { \^fK)^U\ \\\^ , 1\\\<\ \\\ Ili<- n.Miiw \^},it-ilif )\\\\[ Kiiiif 
 
 \in> M WtwU^^ Wil1\ tUi' Vi\v;'n 11 \»,mn| ,»;i (,\ t'oi m (lu- li\l>iii| /inH.tMtv, 
 
 I 111 ill 
 
 1i< \.<»nt ,1 <i \0\\t\\i^ i\\\\ i»<, ;l- 
 
 i\mvu"<"u\. <"•.,< 
 
 \iiUlnM\U > M'U 
 
 il.n\r 
 
 \ \.'li'n(; (f(vl. 
 
 
 
 1, (nil ( 
 
 
 
 All 
 
 
 
 1 i;i,o. 
 
 
 
 CiM 
 
 
 •!<i 
 
 Til.. 
 
 (ll 
 
 Ml 
 
 < i 1 i'(i|i 
 
 M. 
 
 . 1 
 
 m| IIm 
 
 Ill 
 
 1 1 
 
 llll'l 
 
 "ir. Ovv 1 1 ,u. »MtUi»^ n\Uot.,»-n\ 
 
 V.ir,.-<1' 
 
 M\ 
 
 \«bi',.'\',i!iii \ 
 
 i>. vVf. OUH ,1 ,»1 vViWs' 1>»H iM. 
 
 i» • u\ 
 
 IV 
 
 lN)UNVM\ 
 
 v»i,>nditv-« 
 
 \.m1> 
 
 lllll'lKl V, 
 
 » lU I. Ml : 
 
 ^\^ Ttu" fiv.w XM ,»<<i- lun-s Nv»\ inHv>i'iu-.-.l l>\ ili.' I'li m'l* iii.li;i}: ctn-. 
 
 hi Ows ,1 .». us Iv'UMVutnn to, .»- M\ 
 
 \i.\> 
 
 .V•s^^,u^.",ls. Ino'niiiMi'' 
 
 Oniiiix I'l.'U ' 
 
 ■N It v.:-,,).\i with Kn 
 
 !;,;«.;; «,>n!'< 
 
 U'< l'.>l!n iV.o livhliil'. «.-,"i.ir\'l.,'i. f>i 
 
 
 .V 
 
 V.nM, 
 
 Mi^r\l>>.;n<1. 
 
 >tuiul. 
 
 (;> }7.-it*4i)-i >iss Iwi^ s1^^^V^'nl^^ iut ^ ••.■>.»l.:. S<V.'>l.f is, (liliiiijaU I'n-iu'li, Initi 
 
 AVM-qyiv." -.S A f«\.^V.V«^.^^ X« " 
 
 .^ ••\\::\,\ that /;7(''».\< fast. 
 
 «•.,> Th.ss f. 
 
 siiditK 5u,vi.t";«\t ;•.', ;v».-rt<V'i.t' a»i,i .«^,\M;,f. 
 
 ncv.S ■, .n: \\1w* ' ftai of. A> il 
 
 Sod ul Oil!*. 
 
 1 V (.J, 
 
 aioii 
 
 (1) i''i)ii 
 
 (11) rii, 
 
 ?.. lo((), 
 
 Ai 
 
 Ai 
 
 0) \Vi(l, 
 
 f Im'mi Uii|. 
 
 (Il) rill' 
 
 I'f/, .•■('.•) ^>;, ,; 
 
 (ill) .()■./ 
 
 :i. Sin ((;. 
 
 Aiiiil\ 
 
 (1) In III 
 
 f'T l'Ulllh/;i 
 
 V'i) III Ih 
 
OttriMK«!« 
 
 Vn III'' ImI'iMVIII/' Mil' I lie I llii f 
 
 liril In lluHl « I'M (m) Vf'i km 
 
 I All! I I '■< •!) Mill. "M|illl>>l, 'III III 
 
 I 'iMIIIili' Ml.. hlllllo l)..|-ill. 
 
 f'.H|.|.|ii ■,(». 
 
 (M I ' •■l■lll(M■l^' ( li Mtii Him A I iiM" hii'hliili^n |ii i |.>u mI Inn 'i( IimIIimi Ii''(m|i /iti'in* 
 
 l.ll.i I" ')■» oImiIImI Im M I M|lll|IMI I" " li , l.| M 
 
 V Kni'K 1 1 III nnt'ti), ii rMM|itniil.i«l,| vn i.iiHi*, in' in 
 
 I 'mil I' !|ii(i|«Mr I iifixl l|l-l I I' !H(.| 'JMii It (III tinil l||i; 
 
 .1. I'V (I'll lll'll . I'l llo linlM I, III. /til iiij l,M MIHl4«>. II. ill 
 
 nioMilirv M'i|iiiilv MiiMiIfy 
 
 1. Inli i> xiiiii'i lixi wilji I, III. MMoiii III iiMikn, till ill 
 
 ViliiKiiiiiil! |i'imIiIiIi|)ii|i P'liilnli, M'lKrinli. 
 
 I> r.l.P, U.O, {. lliilli llilllli, ol.lilli, I.IIIMl. 'villi nil ni'MV" fnni li'iii, I. ill 
 
 ( 'll|ll|'|l'(:l> |ll>|l-|l> I i;|,ll||l|. ''.Illllll 
 
 ','(i TliK MiilllMHt wliii li III!' Kiii'li li liin;'i|ii('i ||,i;' fii|(i|.l''l 
 (iHiM < iii'i'K nil' III i|, iiiiini'lnilM , lull. M' III M ' •! I Im iii i r i vi i y ir ' ful 
 M" I III llit'lii iil(» i>lii ji|i>V'i'il ''- iiiiil;i ii"iiii';. 'lie l'il|((V'/iti;^ umi 
 till' ilili'l 
 
 (h'unh nuMliinri. 
 
 I. Y l<li. Ill), iniiltiMi lilinliiHnt. I iiiiiH', II : ill 
 
 iMi'lmii'llolv. MuMMlrliy fJi" iniiiniii y l'liil'i.".|.|iy. 
 
 (I) l''nili V I'l II i'iitii|i|iiiiiii'i| Imii, III liliiililliiiy I'/i/m n'o d' ■ illirtl/iliUli'id; 
 (10 'I'll!' Iliilil I'l 11'.' 'il'H / I'l' /".III iTmyi, Willi. II 1./ Ilnlii. I 
 
 ',]. lo(lli iiiiivl IioIoiikIhk t'O, nil m 
 
 Ari'iiiiilir I'.iii liiii i'\ r'liiiili' '<r!i|.lii', 
 
 Aril.liiiii>l.ii'. Ill 111 1.111111 ir. \ ■'!',>' ■ Mm-*!'!, 
 
 (i> Willi Mil' Mii'iiiiiiii III' iiii- i.iiMti i(//i, iiiiiii ii'/i I III'' r'liiiii'i til, III ■t'.ihi- 'it 
 
 111.'..' \Mi|i|ii, 111 /.i|//i'ii/, iiiiiniiiil, I'll' 
 
 (li) 'I'liK iihiritt ruiiii 111' it'imi' iiilji'ilt V I fil;iii iniilc -i n'luii.t '.f I Iimk, n^ in fi'iliil' », 
 cthii'.o iilnini'i'. Ill IhImimI wi' llinl iiImh /'if/-'r« 
 
 (ill) .{rill'iiiitlc, liiijir, .'iii'l wi/«/.! .Ill' I'liiiii 'iiiil; (iiii/vi;! "•fcliiiK in i/if, 
 
 'I 81b (dr. <iiv) action, n.i in - 
 
 AniilyniH. l'",iii|»lifiHiH. iU'Uf.Hit'.. Hyrif,li»;f!i«. 
 
 (I) 111 I 111' foUiiwIiif,^ Wiinlii i/« liim lii'iomo ny, hm liy/jfinriiiy, jff'iy, palry (»hf>Ti 
 for intiiih/niy). 
 (li) lu tlio following dm t.i liftM ilrojijifil uwtiy Mit^nWtf.r—fttiip't, jih/u*.. 
 
T 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 I ^- OKAMMAR OK 'JITO EXGLISII LANnUACE. 
 
 4. Ma or m ((Jr. fio), passive suflix, an in — 
 
 Dii'vaina. Ddgiiiu. \h-iunii{so}iirth'inf/ (hmc). Scliiwin. 
 
 ll!il>(,isiii, IJarharisiii. Dosjiotisiii. Kgotisin. 
 
 (i) III illaili'in niid sii^tmi the d Iims (1iii]i]i('(1 oil"; in srhnnr and tlinnr it, lia,. 
 lii'i'ii clmiigi'il into an i'. 
 (ii) Schism ciinn's I'l'mii schi:o, I put. 'I'lio cinlini; in ismos is rinst fiiMincnl. 
 
 (iii) This cinlin^ unites freely wlMi T,;itiii words to form liylniils, as in di {.-.jh, 
 v}t<nn('iisni, jiiirism, prnrinfi<iIL-im, viiliian'sm, etc. 
 
 f). St {(h-. (Ttt;j) -agent, as in — 
 
 T3a|itist. Botanist. Toonoclast (iinage-broakci-). 
 
 (i) Tills siilllx lias liiM'oine a very useful one, and is largely einjiloyed. It. I'ormf 
 uunierous liyluiils with words of liatin origin, as ahuUtionist, rjcursioniat, ciiiica- 
 tionist, Journalist, pruti rtii'iiint, jiu-i)il, fociiilist, sjiecialist, royalist. 
 
 G. T or te (dr. t?;?) ".agent, as in — 
 
 Comet. rianot. Poet. 
 
 Apostate. 
 
 (i) Cdiiiff means a hui'i-hnirrd star; plnnrl. a vantlrrcr; jioct, a malcr (ir 
 Northern lOngli.sh poels called tliiMiiselves " Alakkers "); an aposhite, a jtersun 
 who has fallen uinn/. 
 
 (ii) Tiiis eiuling is also fouiul iu tin; form of ot and it, as in iilint, jiafWof 
 hennil. 
 
 7. Ter ()!• tre (('r. rpov), denotes an instrument or place, as in— 
 
 Metro. Centre. Theatre. 
 
 8. Isk {C.r. laKos), a diminutive, a« in — 
 
 Asterisk (a little star). Obelisk (a small spit). 
 
 9. Ize or ise ((Jr. i^o.') makes factitive verbs, as in — 
 
 Ba})tise, Critioi.se. Jndaize. Anp;lici7,o 
 
 (1) This ending combines with Latin words to f<inii the liybrids wivimiic 
 realise, etc. 
 
 N 
 
143 
 
 /\' 
 
 WORD - BRANCHING. 
 
 ''''>><ih 
 
 In: 
 
 >'■(, 
 
 Hi, 
 
 '"'If: 
 
 ^,v^^r 
 
 X.--5- 
 
 \A' 
 
 ,^^^V 
 
 i\'€> 
 
 ■\ViiEX our l;in,t,nia,t,^(> was yonn^' and iiiiiiilluonced by nthor 
 
 ]iini,aiag('s, it luul tlic power of growing words, 'i'licsc, words, 
 
 like ])lants, ,L;;rt'W from a root; and 
 
 all ili<! words iliat, *f\vAV from Uhi sanx' 
 
 idoi had a family likeness. 'I'luis 
 
 byrn-an, llie old AVord for /o hum, 
 
 f^MVc, us brinislone, brown (which is 
 
 tli(! hiiriit colour), brunt, brand, 
 
 brandy, and brindle. 'J'hese we 
 
 iiii,u:lit rej)resent to ourscdves, on the 
 
 hlackhoiird, as j^n'owiiij^f in this way. 
 
 ]>ut, unfortunately, we si»oii lost tluH 
 lH)\ver. From the lime when Ihi^ \or- 
 
 iiiaus came into this counlry in ]()(](», th(^ lan^iia,L,'e liecame h^s.s 
 and less ca])al»le of growing- its own woi'ds. Instead of i)rodu(;- 
 in;4 a new word, we fell into the habit of siiii|)ly takin,i( an old 
 and I'eady-made word from French, or fi'om Latin, or from 
 (ireek, and i^'iving it a jilace in the lani^Mia^c instead of the 
 ' ijd l''nglish word fairhood, we im])orttMl the l<'rench word 
 beauty; instead of forewit, W(! adopted the Latin word cau- 
 tion: instead of lioherest, we took the (Irei'k word cemetery. 
 And so it came- al)out that in course of time we lost the powcn* 
 ef growini; our own new words. 'I'Im^ (Ireek woi'd asterisk 
 lias j)revenled iiur makinj,' the woi'd starkin ; the (Ireek lunue 
 astronomy has hept out star-craft; the Latin W(;i'd omnibus 
 lias stopjietl cair even thinking of folkwain ; and the name 
 vocabulary is much mure funnliar to our ears than word- 
 hoard. Indeed, so strange have some of our own native 
 
"^•^mmm 
 
 144 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ]"]n;,'li.s]i words become to us, that seiitonces composed entirely 
 of Kuj^disli words are liardly intelligible ; and, to make tln'iii 
 quickly intelligil)le, w(! have to translate sonic of the English 
 words into Oniek or into Latin. It is well, however, for us to 
 become acquainted, with those pure English words which gnnv 
 upon our own native roots, and Avhich owe nothing Avhatever 
 to other languages. For they are the purest, the simplest, tlic 
 most homely and the most genuine part of our language ; and 
 from them we can get a much better idea of what our language 
 once was than we can from its present very mixed condition. 
 The following are the most important 
 
 X 
 
 ENGLISH ROOTS AND BRANCHES (OR DERIVATIONS). 
 
 Ac, an oak — acorn, Acton, Uck field. 
 
 Buc-an, to bake— baker, ])axter i (a woman 
 1)aker), batcli. 
 
 Ban-a, a slayer— bane, baneful ; ratsbane, 
 henbane. 
 
 Bead-an, to jiray — bedesman ; beadle ; 
 bead (" to bid one's beads " was to say 
 one'.s prayers ; and tliese were marked 
 off by small round balls of wood or glass 
 —now called beads — strung ujion a 
 string) ; /orbid. 
 
 Beat-an, to strike — beat, bat (a shoi-t 
 ciidgei) • battle ; beetle (a wooden bat 
 for beating clothes with); batter (a kind 
 of iiudding). 
 
 Beorg-an, to shelter— burrow, bury (noun 
 in Canterbury — and verb); burgli, 
 burgher ; burglar (a liouse-robber) ; har- 
 bour, Cold Harbour ; - harbinger (a per- 
 son sent on in front to i)rocure lodg- 
 ing.?) ; borrow (to raise money on xeciir- 
 ity). 
 
 B6r-aii, to bear— bear, bier, bairn ; birth, 
 
 berth; brood, brother, breed, bird ;:' 
 
 burden ; barrow. 
 B6t-an, to make good— better, best; bout 
 
 (ill "to bo(jt"-"to the good"), budl- 
 
 less. 
 Bind-an, to bind— band, bond, bondage; 
 
 bundle; ii'oodbine ; liiiuliccfrf. 
 Bit-an, to bite — bit ; beetle ; bait ; bitter. 
 Bla'w-an, to puff— bladder, blaiu (cliil 
 
 blain), blast, blaze (to proclaim), blazon 
 
 (a iiroclamation), blare (of !i tiumpit); 
 
 blister ; blot, bloat. 
 Blow-an, to blossom— blow (said of Jluv- 
 
 ers); bloom, blossom; blood, blade; 
 
 blowsy. 
 Brec-an, to break — break, breakers; brake, 
 
 bracken ; breach, brick ; break -fast ; 
 
 brook ( = the water which breaks tin 
 
 through the ground); brittle (=-briekle 
 
 or breakable); bray (where the liai^l 
 
 guttural has been absorbed). 
 Breow-an, to brev— brew, brewer; brotli, 
 
 brose ; bread (perhaps). 
 
 ' Compare hrewster, a woman brewer, spinster, webster, and others. Brewster, Baxtn; 
 and iVebster are now only used as i)roper names. 
 
 2 Cold Harbour was the name given to an inn which jirovided meiely shelter withnut 
 provisions. There are fourteen places of this name in England. Many of them stand 
 on the great Roman roads ; and they were chiefly the ruins of Roman villas used by 
 travellers who carried their own bedding and provisions. See Isaac Taylor's ' Words 
 and Places,' p. 256. 
 
 » Brid or bird was originally the young of any animal 
 
WORD-BRANCHING. 
 
 145 
 
 Bug-an, to bend— liow, elbow ; l bougli ; 
 
 liiglit ; buxom (O.E. bocsuiii, flexible or 
 
 obedient). The liaid g in hi'jun aiipeais 
 
 as H w in boir, as a gh in Ipjiigh, as a y 
 
 in hay, as a k in huxoni = huk-so)ti. 
 Byrn-an, to burn— burn, brown ; brunt, 
 
 brinnYone ; brand, brandy ; brindled, 
 Catt, a cat— catkin; kitten, kitling; cater- 
 
 jiillar (tlie hairy cat, from Lat. pilosus, 
 
 hairy), caterwaul. 
 Ceapi-an, to buy— cheap, cheapen ; chop 
 
 (to exchange) ; a chojiping sea ; idiap, 
 
 I'hapnian ; cliaflcr ; East<'heap, Clieap- 
 
 side, Chejistow (-the market stou' or 
 
 place), Chiiipenham.- 
 Cenn-an, to jiroducc— kin, kind, kimlrcd ; 
 
 kindly ; kimllc. 
 Coow-an, to c1h!W— clicw; cheek; jaw 
 
 (-chaw); jowl; cha\v-^f(co?i; cud (—the 
 
 chewed). Comjiare seellie and suds. 
 Cleov-an, to split— cleave, (deaver; cleft; 
 
 clover (split grass). 
 Clifi-an, to stick to — cleave; clip (for 
 
 k('('iiing ])a]»er.s together) ; claw (bj- 
 
 which a bird ckavcs to a tree); club (a 
 
 set of men who clcuve together). 
 Cnaw-an, to know— ken, know( = ken-ow 
 
 — oil' being a dim.); knowledge. 
 Cnotta, a knot— knot, knit, net (the /,■ 
 
 having been drojiped for the eye, as well 
 
 as for the ear). 
 Cunnan, to know or to be able- can, con ; 
 
 cunning ; uncouth. 
 Cweth-an, to say— quoth ; bequeath. 
 Cwic, alive— quick, quicken ; quickset ; 
 
 i[mcklime ; quickiiZcer / to cut to the 
 
 i|uick. V 
 Diiel-au, tft (livide — deal (verb and noun), 
 
 dole, deal (sai't of vnod); dale, dell (the 
 
 original sense bi'ing flrff, or separated). 
 Dem -an, to jiiilge— deem, doom ; denip- 
 
 sti'r(thi.' name, for a Judijr in the Isle of 
 
 Man); doomsday; /■/iif/dom. 
 Door, deal— (hearth ; darling; cndiar. 
 Doiin, to act — do; (Ion, (loff, duii (-ilo 
 
 up iir ()]i-en) ; dout (-do out or put out); 
 
 deed. Coniiiarc mow, mead; sow, seed. 
 
 Drag-an, to draw — drag, draw, dray 
 (three forms of the same word) ; flraft 
 (draught) ; drain ; dredge ; draggle ; 
 tlrawl. 
 
 Drif-an, to push— drive ; drove ; drift, 
 adrift. 
 
 Drige, dry— dry {cerb and adj.); drought ; 
 drugs (oiiginally dried jilants). 
 
 Drinc-an, to soak— drink ; drench (to 
 make to drink). Compare sit, set ; fall, 
 frll, etc. 
 
 Drip-an, to diiii — drip, drop, droop; 
 dribble, ilribbt. 
 
 Dug-an, to be good for— do (in " How 
 <lo you do?" and "That will do"); 
 doughty. 
 
 Eilc, also— eke (verb and adv.); ekename 
 (whi(di becan:e a nickname ; the n hav- 
 ing dropjied from the arti(de and rluiig 
 to the noun). 
 
 Edge, eye— Eglicrt (~-hrighl-i'>ied) ; daisy 
 ( :-; lUn/'s eye) ; window ( - wiml-eye). 
 
 Eri-an, to i)lougli— car (the old word fo» 
 phiugh); earth (= the ploughed). 
 
 Far-an, to go or travel —far, fare ; welfare, 
 licldfare, thoroughfare ; ferry : ford. 
 
 Feng- an, to catch— fang, linger, new- 
 fangled (catching eagerly after new 
 things). 
 
 Fe6wer, four — farthing ; firkin ; fourteen ; 
 forty. 
 
 Fle6g-an, to llee— fly, flight ; flea ; fledged, 
 
 Fle6t-an, to float -fleet (noun, verb, and 
 ailj.) ; float; ice-floe; afloat; flotsam :< 
 {things found floating on the water after 
 a wreck). 
 
 F6d-a, food— feed ; food, fodder, foster ; 
 fath-er ; forage ( — fodderage), forager; 
 foray (an excursion to get food). 
 
 Frei5n, to love— freond- friend (the |tres. 
 part.)a lover ; Kii-day (the day of Friya, 
 the goddess (d'love); friendship, etc. 
 
 Gal-an, to sing— gale, ytdl ; nightingale.* 
 
 Gang-an, to go — gang, gangway; ago. 
 (The worils (/('/(' and ijnit do not, come 
 frou! this vfi'i, but from ;/('^) 
 
 Gnag an, to bile — gnaw (the g has be- 
 
 1 Elbow-ell-bow. The dl was the forepart of the arm. 
 
 - The same root is fouml in the tscotch Kipiivii and the Danish Copciihajcn-Mer- 
 chants' Haven. 
 
 ■' "Flotsam and jetsam" mean the floating tilings an<l the things thrown over- 
 beard from a ship. Jetsam comes from 01<1 Fr.jt^^er, to thiow. (Hence also "Je^ of 
 water" ; jetti/, etc. Jetsam is a hybrid— j>-am being a Scandinavian suflix. 
 
 * The u in nightingale is no part of the word. It is intrusive and nua-orgauic ; aa 
 it also is in passenger, messenger, porringer, etc. 
 
iin 
 
 niJAMMAi; OK TIIK KNCLTSIl LAXdUACE. 
 
 IIM 
 
 (•niiic ,'i v); p\nl; iia^' (In ti'asc), cnii- 
 nrcti'il with nail. 
 
 Oral'aii, to ili^: fi cut— ^Tavc, ^'ihhm', 
 f^rovc (tilt" (irij^iiial sciisi' was a laiir cut 
 tliViMi^'li ll'(M's); pial't, f'ii^;iMt't ; ('li;,'l'aM', 
 I'li^vavci'; <'ar\i' (wliicli is aiidtluT Inriii 
 (if (li(! veil) gravo). 
 
 Gripan, to scizi' — };rii', ^'rii"' ; ^'asp; 
 grab ; ^'min' 
 
 Gyid-an, to sundiiml Kii'l. i^nillc ; p.n- 
 di'li, yard, vineyard, linpyaKi. , 
 
 Had an, to heal -■ lialc ; holy, lialjnw. 
 All -hallows ; licallh ; hail ; wlioh'.i 
 whoh'soliii' ; wassail ( Wacs hal 1,— lie 
 whole !) 
 
 Hel)b-an, to r;iisr hea\e, hcino-ollcriiij; ; 
 heavy (-tlial i'e(Hiiies imicli heaving'); 
 heaven. 
 
 Hhif, hread lo.iF; lord (hlaford loaf- 
 ward); laily ( h!al'-di;^e, iVdiii (iiu'-aii, to 
 knead) ; Lammas (- l,oat-niass, An;^. I ; 
 a loaf w.is oll'ered on this day as (he 
 otferinj; of the lirst-fnii(s). 
 
 Leilc, a leek hous(>deek ; ^'.irlic ; hem- 
 lock. 
 
 Iiicj; an, to lie -lie ; lay, layer; l.air; 
 oull;iy. 
 
 Loda, a ^:uide— lead (ilie verb); lodc-st.ir, 
 lode-stone (also written hxnlslnm'). 
 
 Magan, to W able— may, main (in "mi^^hl. 
 and main"), nui,'ht, iniudity. 
 
 Mang, a mixture — among; nmngrel ; 
 mingl'.^ ; cheesemonger. 
 
 Maw-an, to I'ut— mow ; math, aftermath ; 
 mead, meadow (the places where grass is 
 mowed). 
 
 M6n-a, the noon — m(>ntli : moonshine. 
 (This word comes from a very old root, 
 ma, to measure. Our Saxon fori'fathers 
 nuMsureil by iiiiiviis and by niiiht.<, as 
 WC aee in the words /(o7 ;(/'.;?(/, .^c'liiiiijlit.) 
 
 Nacddre, a siiahe — adder. 'I'lie n has 
 dropped off from the word, and has ad- 
 hered to the article. Comp.are apron, 
 from iiaperon (compare with naiikin, 
 nappry) ; umpire, fr<Mn immpire. Tlu; 
 oi'jMisite example of the n leaving the 
 article and .idhering to the noun, is 
 found in nag, from au iig ; nickname 
 from au ckcname. 
 
 Nasu, a nose— nose, naze, ness (all three 
 ditfercnt forms of the same word, and 
 
 found in \\\i\ Naze, .Sheori!P«a, etc.); 
 
 Most lit nnse-thirl (fiom tliirlimi, tn 
 
 liore a hule), no/.zh' ; nosegiiy. 
 Penn-an. to sliut, up oi' enclose ]iin. pm 
 
 (two forms of the same word); poiin.l, 
 
 pond (I wo forms of the s;imc wonl); 
 
 inipoiiud. 
 Pic, .a I'oint— i>ike, iicak(two forms of Ihi' 
 
 same word) ; jvirkets (slakes driven Inln 
 
 the ground to tether horses to); jiikr, 
 
 |iiclu'rcl (the lish) ; peek, pecker. V' 
 KiU'd-;ui, lo read or guess rede (advici ) ; 
 
 riddle; Kthelre(l ( noble in counsel); 
 
 I'lU'cady (-linrede, without, coiiusi'l) ; 
 
 Mihlred ( — milil in counsel). 
 Hei\f, clothing, spoil ; rcilfi an, to rob roh, 
 
 roblier; i'c.a\e, bcicaxi'; i-ee\cr; robe. 
 Hipe, ripe reap (to g.ilher wh.it is lii"). 
 Sc;id-an, In di\iile - shed (lo part the 
 
 h.air) ; walerslied. 
 Scoaj)-an, lo |'(.rm or fishion shape ; ship 
 
 (the sullix in frii'Hilship, etc.); sc.ip'' 
 
 (llic sullix in liind.<cit]i(', etc.) 
 Sce(')t-au, (o llirow' - sh<io(, shot, shut 
 
 ( to shool llie boll (if t he cliHU) ; sliert 
 
 (th;it which \s tlirnim ii\crabed); sliiil- 
 
 ler, shult le ; SiMld. 
 Scer-au, to cut shear, sh.are, sheer, slnrc, 
 
 sIku'c (nil forms of the s.'ime word) ; scar, 
 
 scare; score (the twentieth notch in 
 
 the t.ally, and made larger than the 
 I others); scarify, sharp; sliorl, sliiit, 
 ' skirt (three forms of tin' same word); 
 ! shred, ^)r)/sheril (the same word, with 
 I the r transposed) : sheriir(.= scir-gerefa, 
 i reeve of the shire) ; scrip, seraji, scra]ie. 
 I The soft form sh belongs to the southern 
 j I'jUglish di.alects: the liard forms, 8C aid 
 i Hk, lo ihi' northrrn. 
 > Hcufan, to I'Ush -shove, .sliuvel, .siiutllc ; 
 
 scutlle ; sheaf; scoop. 
 Sctt-au, to .set, or make ,sit -.set, seal ; 
 I settle, .saddle, ; .s'nmivset, /'orsct. 
 .Slag-an, to strike— slay (the hard ;; has 
 
 been relined into a ?/), slaughter; slog, 
 I .sledge (in sledgediammer). 
 Slip-an, to .sli])— slop; sliiijier, sleeve (into 
 
 which the ,irm is xi: .icd). 
 I Snic-an, to cniwl .neak, snake, snail 
 ! (here the hard gutuiral has been reliucd 
 
 away). 
 Spell, a story or mcs.sagc— spell (- to give 
 
 1 The w in whole is intrusive and iion-organie, as in irhoop, and in wun ( = one, so 
 pronounced, but not so written). Before the year 1500 whole was always written hole; 
 and in this form it is seen to be a doublet of hale. Holy is f imply hole+y. 
 
WOWD-HlivWCHIXr;. 
 
 U7 
 
 an nccoiinf. of or tell (lif siiny nf IIh' 
 
 li'UcfS ill .1 U(p|v|); .S|irl|.lii)liliil ; ;,'(i,sjicl 
 
 ( (JixI's k|h1I). 
 
 StoiiiT, still" stark ; slroii^' (;i tiasalisnl 
 lipriii of -"liirl:); string (tli'it, wliicli is 
 .it mnijl !i i,wiHlv<]); slinij^tli ; Htninnlr. 
 
 Stcilo, a ]>\:tri' Nl,''aii, iiistc.ni, iiiiiiicstrail, 
 laiiii-sliaijiiii,'; stiiuly; sti'iullast, ; ln'- 
 slc'iii ; I laiii|islcail. 
 
 Stic'iaii, to sUrk sticl;, stitcli (two fniins 
 (if till! saiiii' vvDiil), stalii', stuck, stuck- 
 a'ji'; stcick-ildvn ; stock-tisli (llsli iliiril 
 III kcrp III KinrI:); stnckslill. 
 
 Stitjan, til cliiiili stair; stiff; stiiiii|i 
 ( sliiiri'tii, or i-m]ii' fur I'isiii^ into tin: 
 saaijli'); stj (in iii;^-sty). 
 
 Stow, a ]ila(;i' — licstow ; sto\va^,'(', stowa- 
 way: ''Ac/istow ( IIk" plai'i' wliin- .'l 
 ilirap oi- iiiarkft, is lirjii); /.'//stol (IIh: 
 ! ,iimI w lii'iiij,' iiifi'rclmiij^i'alilc). 
 
 Styr.'iii, to iliiict sti'rr, stem ; stcrra;;r'. 
 
 Huiiilri ail, to jiart- suiiili'r; sumlry ; 
 a--inii|cr, (Com jian- srrrr ami scnniJ.) 
 
 Hwi'ri an, to ilcdaii' swear, answer ( 
 aiiilswcriaii, to ijeclaie in o|i|iositioii or 
 ill ii'iily to), fo|-swi'ar. v 
 
 Tac;can, to sliow -tcacli, tcarlier; toliiii 
 (tliat wliidi is sliiiwii); tau^jlit, (wImii 
 till' lianl c ri'a)i|ii'Mrs as a gli). 
 
 Tcll-an, to count, or i-ccoiint,— tell ; tale,l 
 talk; toll ; teller. 
 
 Tcohiin (or toon), to draw -■ tow, tn_; 
 (two forms of tlie s.imi' wonl, tie' lianl 
 guttural liavinj; been iireserved in the 
 one); wanton (i- without ri;,'lit uiibrin;:- 
 in;;)- Coiniiare wanlioiie - desjiaii ; 
 wautrnst = niistru.st. 
 
 Thaec, a roof— thatcli ; deck. 
 
 'I'red an, to walk ticel, treadle; trade; 
 t ladesiuan, t r.ide win. 
 
 Truwfi, ^;oo(l faitli true, Iniili, troth, be- 
 troth. 
 
 Twj'i, two two, iwin, twain; twelve (- 
 two |. Inlaii, tell); twenty; between; 
 twi;,'; twiddle; t wine, twist, etc. 
 
 Wiici-iin, to be, oil one's ^^iiaid -W.ike, 
 wateh (two forms id' the sijiie word); 
 awaki', wakeful. 
 
 Wful-iin, to ^M) wade; waddle; Watliiii? 
 Street (the roacj of the, jpil;,'riins). 'Ihn 
 I'yii^'. word ir(i(l(; is of the same ori^'in as 
 thit l,at. rmlr in irmlc, i iirrtdf, etc. 
 
 \V;in;i, a detieiency- -wan, wane; want, 
 wanton ; waiihojie (the old word for (ks- 
 ! }"'ir). 
 
 IWnf-illl, to Weave - weave, WPaver ; web', 
 Webster (a woman-weaver); coliweb; 
 ^ woof, welt (v, h, and f, beiu;,' all labials). 
 I \V;ir, a stall' of ihdence war, wary, aw.iru 
 ( on one's ;^'nai'd); warfare ('ji'hig t'> 
 war); ward, Knaid (a .N'oi man ■ Freneli 
 doulilet of ward); warden, guardian 
 (the saiii'.). 
 Wit-an, to know wit, to wit ; wise, wis- 
 dom ; wistful; wilni'.-.s; \\'itena-;4eniote, 
 ( the Meeting,' of the Wise); y-wis (the 
 I'ast i'artiei|de, wron;,dy written I vis). 
 WiaoHt-iin, to wi'e-,t — wrest, wrestle; 
 
 wrist. 
 Wringan, to force wriiiK", wron^ (that 
 w hicli is vnni'i out of the right conr.sp). 
 Wyrc-an, to work— work, wriglit (tlie r 
 
 shifts its J'l'iee). 
 
 Wyrt, a le rb or plant— wort ; orchard (--= 
 wort-yard); wart (on the skin); St 
 John's wort, etc. 
 
 T.ATIN ROOTS. 
 
 \ 
 
 Thosi; words with (F.) .'iftei- them hav»! not coine to us dii'ectly from Latin ; 
 but, iudireet ly, throir^h i'reiich. 
 
 Acer (aoris), s/iar;),* acrid, acrimony, vine. Ayio (aclum), / <'■', nd; act, a;.'ent, agile, 
 
 :-.ir (sharp wine, V.), eager (!•'.) agitate, cogent. 
 
 .'Allies, a huUdiiiij ; edifice, cilify. Alo, / ntiitrtih; aliment, alimony. 
 
 •■Kiiuus, r:jUid ; eiiu.ility, equator, C'lui- Alter, tin: i,(hcr nf tuyi ; alternation, sub* 
 
 iiox, equity, adequate, iiiiciuity. altern, altiMcalioii. 
 
 Ager, a .^eJci; agriculture, agrarian, perc- Altus, hl'jh; altitude, exalt, alto (It.), 
 
 grinatc. aitar. 
 
 1 " And every shepherd tells his talc (— counts his shceiO 
 Under the hawthorn in the dale.' —Milton : // Peiisercso. 
 
U8 
 
 GHAMMAIl OV THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Ambulo, I walk ; aiiihlc, iwiamlxilat'ir. 
 
 Amo, / Invc; amity, amorous, amialile (F.), 
 inimical. 
 
 Angulus, a corner; anglo, triangli;, qiiail- 
 ranglc. 
 
 Anima, life; animal, animate, animation. 
 
 Animus, miwl; magnanimity, equan- 
 imity, luiaiiimous, animadvert. 
 
 Annus, a year; annual, perennial, bien- 
 nial, anniversary. j)V 
 
 Aperio (apertum), lopen; a)''ient, ajier- 
 turc, April (the opening nn'iitli). 
 
 Appello, / mil; apiieal, appellation, ap- 
 pellant, peal (of liells). 
 
 Aqua, v:ntrr ; aqueduct, aquatic, aijueous, 
 aquarium, 
 
 Arcus, a hnui ; arcli, arc, arcatle (I'r. It.) 
 
 Ardeo, / hum; ardent, ardour, arsnu 
 (F.) 
 
 Ars (artis), art; artist, arti.san (F.), arti- 
 fice, inert. 
 
 Audio, / hear; audience, audible, aiuli- 
 t ory. 
 
 Augeo (auctum), / increase; augment, 
 autlior, auctioneer. 
 
 Barba, a heard; barb, barljer, barbel (all 
 through F.) 
 
 Bellum, war; rebel, rebellious, bellig- 
 erent, bellicose. 
 
 Bis, twice; biscuit, bissextile, bisect, 
 bicycle. 
 
 Brevis, short; brevity, abbreviate, brief 
 (F.), breviary, abridge (F.) ^ 
 
 C'ado (casuin), I fall ; casual, acci<lent. 
 
 Csedo (ca;sum), / cut, kill; precise, exci- 
 sion, decide. 
 
 Candeo, 1 shine; candidus, white; can- 
 did, candidate, candle. 
 
 Cano (cantum), 1 sinij; cant, canticle, 
 chant (F.), incantation. 
 
 Capio (captum), / take; captive, accept, 
 rccejition (F.), cajiacity. 
 
 Caput, the head; capital, caiitain, cape, 
 chapter (F.) 
 
 Caro (carnis), Jhsh ; carnal, carnival, car- 
 nivorous, carnation. 
 
 Causa, a cause; causative, accuse (F.), 
 excuse (F.) 
 
 <Javus, holloiv ; cavity, cave, excavate, 
 concave. 
 
 Cedo (cessum), I go, jiicld ; proceed (F.), 
 ancestor (P.), secede. 
 
 Centrum (Gr. Kfvrpov -- a jioint), centre ; 
 centralise, centripetal, eccentric. 
 
 Centum, a hundred; century, centurion, 
 
 ceut. \ 
 
 -^ 
 \ 
 
 Cerno (cretum), tn distinguish; discern, 
 discretion, discreet. 
 
 Cingo (cinctum), / gird; cincture, aiir- 
 cinct, precinct. 
 
 Cito, I call or summon; citation, re( ite 
 (F.), excite (F.), incite (F.) 
 
 Civifj, a citi:en ; city (F.), civic, civil, civ- 
 ilise, civilian. 
 
 Clamo, 7 shovt; claim (F.), clamour, re- 
 claim (F,), proclamation. 
 
 Clarus, clear; clarify, declare, clarinn, 
 claret (F.) 
 
 C'liiudo iclausum), I shut ; clause, clnse 
 (F.), exclude, seclusion. 
 
 Clino, ] bend ; incline, decline, recline. 
 
 Colo (cultum), I till; cultivate, arbnrieul- 
 tiu'c, agriculture. 
 
 Cor (cordi.s), t/tc heart; courage (F,), cmi- 
 <iial (F.), discord, rec<nil. 
 
 Corona, a crown; coronet, coroner, coro- 
 nation, corolla. 
 
 Corpus, the hody; coiiis, corpse (F.), cor- 
 ]iulent, corporation. 
 
 Credo, 7 helieve; ciedibility, ciedencc (F.), 
 miscreant (F.), creed, creditor. Jj^ 
 
 Creo, 7 create; create, creation, recrea- 
 tion, creature. 
 
 Cresco, 7 grow; increase, decrease, incrc 
 ment. 
 
 Crux (crucis), a cross; crucial, crueil..v, 
 cruise (F.) 
 
 Cubo, 1 lie down; cubit, incubate, recum- 
 bent. 
 
 Culpa, a fault; culprit, culpable, excul- 
 pate, inculpate. 
 
 Cura, citrc ; curate, curator, accurate, 
 secure, incurable. 
 
 Curro (cursum), 7 run; current, recur, 
 excuision, cursory, course (F.), occur. 
 
 Decern, ten; decimal, December, deci- 
 mate. 
 
 Dens (deiitis), a tuolh ; dintist, dcnt.il, 
 indent, trident, 
 
 Deus, (Unl ; deity, deify, diviiu', 
 
 Dico (dictum), 7 sry; \-erdict, dictionary, 
 dictation, indictment, ditto. 
 
 Dies, o day; diary, diurnal, meridian, 
 
 Dignus, worth II ; dignity, dignify, in- 
 dignant, deign (F.) 
 
 Do (datum), 7 gice ; tlate, data, donor, 
 tradition. 
 
 Doceo (doctum), I teach; docile, doctor, 
 doctrine. 
 
 Dominus, a lord; domineer, dominion, 
 dominant, dame (F,), damsel (P.), 
 madame (F.) 
 
WOnn-BHANCHING. 
 
 119 
 
 contbnuit^JlJf-' 
 'ortis, strong ; fo 
 
 Fortis, strong'; rortily, foiiitudL', fortiL'ss, 
 
 foi'fe (F.) 
 Frango (fiactus), / hreiik ; fiagiU; (F.), 
 
 Irai^'iueiitiiry, iiitVactii)ii, iiitriii^c. 
 Fnitcr, a brother; I'latoiual, fratriciilc, 
 
 liiar (F.) 
 Fiona (til lilt is), Ihrfnrrlicud; I'ldiit, frontal, 
 
 IVoiitii'f, iVunlitspiicc. 
 Fitgio, I Ihr.; fugitive, r('fu;^iH', sulitrrriigi'. 
 I'liiido (I'usmii), / p'liir ; Iniiiit. (I''.), Iniiii- 
 
 'liy, I'liinirl, i'lisililc, ilillnsiim. 
 Fundus, (/)'' hdttoni; foiinilalinn, iinitdiunl 
 
 (V.), f(iunder.^_\ 
 Gens (;;'eiiUs), a-ntce, iitojilr ; ^'i iitili', 
 
 ;:ent<-u; (F.), gontle, tungi-nial 
 Gero (gestuin), / hear, carry ; gestiiiL, 
 
 suggestion, indigestion. 
 Gradus, a step ; gradior (grcisus), / ijo ; 
 
 fc'iade, degrade, graduate ; iirojjress (F,), 
 
 gradient. 
 Gratia, favour, \n. thanks; gi'atitude, in- 
 gratiate, gratis. 
 
 DomuB, n house ; no.nestic, doinicili'. 
 Dormio, / sleep ; dormitory, dnnnaiit, 
 
 lidriiioiisc. 
 Uuco ((inctuni), / Ik"I ; induct, cilui'a- | 
 
 tion, duke (F.), i.roducf. 
 Duo, tn-o ; dual, ilml, duiilcx, double (F.J|_J 
 Erao (einptuni), 1 buy; exemption, re-* 
 
 dfeiii. I 
 
 Eo (ituni), I go; exit, transit, oircuit (F.), 
 
 ambition, perish (l-".) 
 Erro, I rcunder ; err, error, aberration^i' 
 Facies, a face ; iacial, facet (F.), .super- 
 
 licial. 
 Facie (fiictuiii), / mil he ; maiiufactuir, 
 
 factor, faction, fasliion (F.), feature 
 
 (F), fact, frat(F.) 
 Fcro (latum), / rurrij; infer, .sull'er, nl'er- 
 
 cine, dilferenfe; rel.itive, (■(irrelative. 
 Fido, / trust; conlide, ditlident, inlldel. 
 Filuni, a thrcml; lile, dclile, prulilc, liiirl 
 
 (I".) 
 Finis, the end; llni.sli, linile, intlnite, iii- 
 
 liiiitive. 
 Firmus, 7i;7/i ; iiitinn, aflirni, coiillnn. 
 Flocto (llexuni), I hnni ; iiitleet, inlkrtion, 
 
 llexiblc. 
 Flos (floris), (( fl<:wir; lloial, flora, lloii- 
 
 culturc. 
 Fluo (tluxuni), I Jliiv ; (lui'iit, lluid, tlu\, 
 
 atlluent. 
 Folium, a leaf; foliage, foil (F.), portfolio, 
 
 tlvloil(F.) 
 
 Forma, a form; form, formal, rcforni, 
 
 Gravis. he<iry ; grave, gravity, griit (F.), 
 aggrieve (F.)x 
 
 Habeo (liabitum), / ha.re ; habit, able, 
 exiiibi',, prohibition. 
 
 Hitreo (liii'.sum), ; „(i./. ; adhere, adher- 
 ent, eohetiion. 
 
 Homo, a man; homicide, homage (F.), 
 human, humane."^ 
 
 Ignis, yi /(• ; ignite, igjieiius. 
 
 Impero, ; comtnand; imperative, imperial, 
 empire, emjieror (F.) 
 
 Iiiitium, « hfiiiiiniii'i; initiate, initial. 
 
 lu.sulii, <in islduil ; isle, insular, peninsula. 
 
 Jcicio (jectiim), / thrair; adjective, jiro- 
 .jeet, injection, object, subject. 
 
 Judex (jiidicis), a Judge; judgment (F.), 
 judicial. 
 
 Jungo (junctum), I join; junction, junc- 
 ture, eoiijoin (h\), adjunct. 
 
 Jus (juris), right ; justice (F.), jury, in- 
 Jury. ^^ 
 
 Liiboi-^Xlapsiis), / glide; lapse, rela|ise, 
 colla]pse. 
 
 La))is (la]'idis), a stone; lajiidary, dilapi- 
 dated. 
 
 Liius (laudi.s), praise; laud, laudable, laud- 
 ation, allow (I''.) 
 
 liCgo (leclum), / giithi e, read ; collect, 
 elector, select ; lecture (F.), legend, 
 legible. 
 
 Lego (legatum), / send; livcate, delegate, 
 legacy. 
 
 Levis, light ; li\ ity, alleviate, relief (1'.), 
 lever, lea\tii. 
 
 Lex (legis), u late; legal, legislate, legiti- 
 mate. 
 
 hiher, free ; liberal, liberty, libertine. 
 
 Liber, a bnvk; library, librarian. 
 
 Ligo, / hind; ligameiit, religion, oblige 
 (F.), liabh(F) 
 
 Liii(£Uo (li 'luiii), / havr; reliieiuisli, ii lict, 
 relics. 
 
 Litera, ". l<il<r; literal, liter.iry, lilora- 
 ttiii'. 
 
 Locus, (' pjlirr ; |oc;il, allnrati , dl.>loc,lti, 
 locolllot i\ i\ 
 
 Loquor (lociitu.-^), / speoh ; lotiuaciotis, 
 eloculioii, Colloiiuy. 
 
 Ludo (lu-.iiiii), I jiliiii ; itlude, illusion, in- 
 terlude, ludicKius. 
 
 Lumen, light; illuminate, luminous, lum- 
 inary. 
 
 Luna, the moon ; lunar, sublunary, lun- 
 acy. 
 
 Lug (lutum), I wash; ablution, dilute, 
 antediluvian. 
 
ir^ 
 
 I 
 
 I ' 
 
 150 GUAMMAU OK TIIK ENflLISII LANCiUACK. 
 
 ■\ 
 Lux (lucis), light; hwM, clticidat.', ]>f\- ] Noceo, I injurr; imxious, iniiocuinis, in- 
 
 lui'iil.^Ai^' ' 
 
 Magnus, ;;/■((// ; iii;i;^iiitiiili', imiKiiiry, niai;- 
 
 iiilicf'iit, iiia;^iiaiiiiii(ius. 
 Malus, h(fi{ ; iiKiliuly, iimlicc (F.), lual.iri;!, 
 
 iiialcvolint. 
 Manoo (maiismii), / ninnin; iiiaiisc, iiiaii- 
 
 sinii, iii'nnaiH'iit, 
 
 lldCCIll. 
 
 NcTiioii, " H'linf ; nniiiiiial, cuKtiniiiiii, nn. 
 
 iiiiiiation, 
 Novua, )(((('; novel, iciinvatc, iiovcltj', 
 
 itiiiiiviitii)ii. 
 Nox (imclis), night; ikh tiiiiial, ciiniiKJC- 
 lial, i(|niiinx. 
 
 Manua, th<: haml ; iiiaini>(:ri|i1, iiiainial, ! N'wdua, /M/n/ ; nudr, cIciukIi', <li'miil;iti(.ii. 
 iDaimlactiiiv, aniaiiUfiisis. | NuineruH, n nuiiili' r ; iiuiiuTation, in- 
 
 Mare, thr .srif; iiiaiiiie, inariiifi'. ii 
 
 Mater, a, wither; iiiatcnial, m 
 iiialioii, iiiairiculalc. 
 
 MaturuH, ri}ip; iiiiiUirc, iiiiiiiatuic, j'lr- 
 uiatiirc. 
 
 Medius, Ihc middle ; iiii'iUtiiii, iiii-'cliatr, 
 immediate, Mediterniiii'aii. 
 
 Memini, f rniirmhn- ; viomor, wind/n! ; 
 iiicmoiy, iiKMiKiir (I''.), commcinuratf, 
 imiiieiiiiirial. 
 
 Mens (mentis), the mind; menial, de- 
 mented. 
 
 Mcrgo (mersnm), / diji; emei'i^e, immir- 
 sifin, enier^'cney. 
 
 Merx (mercis), gmids; meidiandise (!•".), 
 eiimmeree (V.), merehimt (V.) 
 
 Miles (milite.s), a liotilicr; militai'v, mili- 
 tant, militia. 
 
 Miror, / admire; admiraMe, miiaclc, 
 niiraf,'e (F.) 
 
 Mitto (missnm), [ si-nd ; ciimmil, missile, 
 iinssion, remittance. 
 
 Modus, a measure ; mond, nunlify, a( cmn- 
 modate. 
 
 Moueo (monitum), / adrise; mimition, 
 monitor, monument, t -- 
 
 Mons (inonlis), a mnv iltfiin ; aniMuut. (F.), 
 dismount (F.), luomontory, ultramon- 
 tane. 
 
 Mors (mortis), death ; mortify, moital, 
 immortality. 
 
 Moveo (nu)tum), / mure; moliile' (F), 
 ])romote, motor, motive. 
 
 Multus, many; multitude, multiple, njul- 
 tiply. 
 
 Munus (niuneris), a gift; munilieent, le- 
 munerate, municipal. 
 
 Muto, I ehangc; mutal)le, ti-ansmnt(\ 
 
 Nascor (natus), to be honi; nascent, nal.d, 
 nativity, nature. 
 
 Navis, a shi2^ ; na\y, naval, navi;-;ate, 
 nave. 
 
 Necto (nexuni), / tic; connect, connec- 
 tion, annex. 
 
 Nego (negatum), / deny; negative, nega- 
 tion, renegade (Sp.) 
 
 » 
 
 ,1 " ' 
 
 laritime/ll iiumeralile, enumerate. 
 
 atrieide, I Octo, i-iglit ; octave, (ieta;.'on, October. 
 
 Omnis, all; omnibus, omnipotent, oni- 
 
 nisejent. 
 
 OpUH (oii(>ris), v'liric ; o|ieiation, co-oper- 
 ate, opera. 
 
 Ordo (ordinis), ardrr ; ordin.'l, ordinaiy. 
 ordinance. , 
 
 Oro, / /'(•",'/; oi'ation, orator, iiei-oiati<ii^j«' 
 
 I'ando (pansum or i>assnm), f !<prin(l; c:3 
 pand, ex]'anse, eoniiiass, pace. 
 
 Tareo, / Ojqu'ar; apiiearance, apparent, 
 apjiaritiou. 
 
 Paro (paratum), / iirei)arc. ; repair {¥.), 
 ajiparatuH, comparison (F.) 
 
 Pars (partis), n part; jMrticle, parlilion, 
 partner, jiareel (F.) 
 
 Pasco (iiaslum), / /('(/; jiastor, r(pa>t 
 I'aslui'i'. 
 
 Pator, " father; paternal, parricide (V.), 
 ]ial I'imony, 
 
 Patior (passns), T suffer ; impatient, pa.i- 
 sive, passion. 
 
 Pax (pads), prac: ; pacify, pacilic. 
 
 Pello (pulsMm', / drive; repel, expel, ex 
 I'ulsion, inipnlsive. 
 
 Pendeo (]icnsum), 7 hang; iiondant, de- 
 jieiid, suspend, suspense, appeinlix. 
 
 Pes (pedis), ^/lY' /')■''; pedal, impede, ped- 
 estrian, bipeil. 
 
 Peto (petilum), I ^-ccn ; petition, petulant, 
 compete, appetitej^ 
 
 Planus, level; plaii7F.), plane, plain, ex- 
 ]jlain. 
 
 Plando (i>lausuni), / clap the hands; ap- 
 plaud, plausible (F.), explode. 
 
 Pleo (plelnm), I Jill; complete, comi'le- 
 lioii, suiiplenienl. 
 
 Plico (I'licatum), i/oA/; complicated, jili- 
 able(F.), reply (F.), disjilay (F.), simple. 
 
 Poena, jmnishmcnt ; penal, repent, pen- 
 alty, ]ienitent, penance. 
 
 Pono ([)osiluni), I i^la.cc ; deponent, posi- 
 tion, imposition, post. 
 
 Pons (poiitis), a bridge ; pontiff, trauspou- 
 tiue. 
 
WORD-nHANCHING. 
 
 151 
 
 ;o 
 
 f'nrto, I mrry ; PTi'Oit, (lii"irtiiitnt, it- i fiprvio, / .ifrvr ; srrvid' (I'.), M'l^aiit, srr- 
 
 ]„,rt, iM.itiii.iiitcini (!■".) Ki'iiiit (F.) 
 
 I'liHfliuii, / inn ithlc ; poteiiH, ahl, ; ims- ' .Sigmuii, " m';//! ; siKtiify, signillcaiit, ilis- 
 
 ^]i.l. , |..i(ciicy (F.), iiiii"itfiit. iK'iiHtiiPii, I'Ti.siKii (1'.) 
 
 riehoinio (inclifiisiiiii), (Fr. )irriitlrr, Siniilia, like; .sjniilur, siiiiilituilc, icscnililc 
 
 iri''), I l"ki:; |iii'ln'ii.sili', ( oiiiiiriliiinl, (F.) 
 
 ,i)ipi'i.si', (;iiiii)irisi', aiiinrMitii'' (F.) I Sociua, " ri,m}ianii>n ; socifil, sneUty, as- 
 
 I'riiiiUH, .//■'■•-' ; jii'iiiKiry, ipiiiiiiii\f, inim- Hdciiitinii, 
 
 p.,~r, ' Solus, ('''.lie; solilmlp, solo, solo (It.) 
 
 I'rctbo, I ti'ii, prnvr ; jirdlic, indli.ilili', iin- Solvo (snlui imi), / /r,o.vc; ilissnlvc, resohr, 
 
 |iiiivc (F.), api'iDVc (F.) --ji?* Jilisiijiiti', rcsnliitiiiii, 
 
 I'roprius, 'i»i'''.v on-ii,; inoi^cr, pidinTty, Sl)ecio(siMrtuiii), /.hv; asiiect, sjicctator, 
 
 ,i])|.i(p|pii.itiiiii. I siiceiiiii'ii, sin'ctro. 
 
 i'tuigo (innctuiii), / j'l-irl:; ]niiipnt, ix- Spero, Ili'ii^- ; (Irsjiair (F.), il<'S]ir'r;itc. 
 
 I'Uii;,'*', I'liiictnal, iiiii^;iiaiifc (F.) ' Spiro, / bmtthc ; iiispiic, ii>iiii'(', cini- 
 
 I'lit" (imUituii]), / '■"/, thhik; (iPini'Utr, i spiracy. 
 
 (Miuit (F ), iiiiiinil.ili', rcimlaliiiii. ' Statiio, / Sft V]\ ; ato (staiiiiii), / .slowl ; 
 
 Quatuor, /""/■; (juailra, " ■V7"rt''c.- ciuait, ' statue, statute, statiir'', institnti'. 
 
 iliKutii'; (jiiany (1''.), ii'iinliaiit, Striiigo (stiictiiiii), / biml; sti iii;.;eiit, 
 
 Kadix, a n»it ; railical, erailicatc, lU'lisli ; (MHistraiu (F.), ijistrict. 
 
 (K.) i Struo (stniotiini), /?<»((■/'/ ; stiin ture, cmi- 
 
 Kapio (i-a|itniii), / sake ; rai'lurc, rapine, struct, (ibstiuet, coiistiuo. 
 
 Miri'i titiiius. Suiuo (suiiiiitmii), / take; assuiue, cim- 
 
 Kego (rectum), / (•»/<■; rex (rogis), a llmj; sumo, assuiiiptioii.^J^ 
 
 legal, regulate, lei^i'Mt, ie(!t(ir, iiitt-rre;,'- j Tango (tactuni), / fmu'h ; tanj-'il'le, Ian- 
 
 iiiuii, niyal (F.), realm (N.-Fi'. n'al). i Kout, contact, cdiitagious. 
 
 Kideo (visum), / hnnili ; ri'licule (F.), 'Ic- ; Tego (tectum), / vnvrr ; intrgunieul, ilc- 
 
 liile, I'idiculous (F.), ri-"iilil<'- teet, tile (F.) ; from Lat. /-■;/»/". 
 
 Rdgo (nigatum), / cdk ; rogation, interrn- Tempus (tcmjioris), tunc ; temjioral, con- 
 
 jatiirii, derogatoi'y. ' tenqxu'ary, ('xtem]iore. 
 
 llota, ir vhiil ; rotary, rotation, rntuu'l Tondo (tensum), [ strctrh ; contend, ox- 
 
 -contracted into round (F.) tend, attcn<l, tense (F.), tendon. 
 
 Rumpo {ruptum), / ^rca/i ; rupture, erup- Teneo (tentum), / hold; tenant, tenet, 
 
 tien, disruption._^^ tendril, detain (F.), retentive. 
 
 Sacer, sacred; sacrninient, sacrilege (F.), | Terminus, cm i ml, boundarij ; terminate, 
 s.icordotal, sexton (contracted frtim ; term, intei-minaMe. 
 
 !>iirristnn). I Terra, thecarth ; sublerranean, terrestrial, 
 
 Halio (-.altum), I Imp; .sally (F.), assail | Mediterranean. 
 
 (!•'.), salient, .salmon. 
 Saiictus, /('//)/; sanctuary, sanctify, saiid 
 (F.) 
 
 Terrco, I fri'jhltn ; terror, terrify, deter. 
 Texo (textmn), / n-aivf ; textile, text, 
 texture, context. 
 
 Sciuido (scansum), / rlimh; Bcala, it lud- i Tiinoo, I fair ; timid, timorous. 
 
 ('it; scan, scale, descent, ascension. I Torciueo (tortuni), / tirid; tortiiro, tor- 
 
 Hcio, / knmi' ; scienw, seieutilic, con- , ineiit, eonturtion, rt'lort. 
 
 science, onuiiscicnt. Traho (traetum), f dnur ; tracti<jn, sub- 
 
 scribe (scri-ptuui), jT vritr ; scribe, scrili- tract, contraction, traet. 
 
 Mr, si'ripture, inscripti(Ui, postscrijit. ! Tres (tria), tlnrr ; ti'ef'nil, tiident, trinity 
 iieco (sect um), / . ft; bisect, dissect, in- i Tribuo, / ;;av; tribute, triliutary, con- 
 
 ac't, section, ' tribution. 
 
 Sedeo (sessum), I set, bit; sediment, sub- | Tuineo, / ^wcll ; tumulus, n !^v:eUing or 
 
 >iili-', S( e (F.), rcsiilenc<! (F.), insidinus. hinitnd; tumult, tumour, tomb (F.) 
 
 Seiitio, //ft'?; sense, sentiment, sensual, i Uuus, mic ; union, unit, unite, uniform, 
 
 seL'iit(F.) I uniijue (F.) 
 
 i^cptem, tcroi,; septciuual, September. i Urbs, acit;/; suburb, urbanity, urbane, 
 toiuor (.secutus), I follow ; sequence (F.), j Valeo, / am strorig ; valour, valiaut (F.), 
 
 sequel, consequent, prosecute. | prevail (F.) 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
152 
 
 CUAMMAIl OK 'IIIR KNCTJSII LANCUAnR, 
 
 Vunus, cmptu; vniiity, viiiiisli, vuiii (F) Vitiuin, n/mill; vin: (F.), vitiato, vicinin 
 
 Veho (viictuin), / ti,iiviy ; vtliidi', idii- ^y^ 
 
 vci'iiiici! (F.), •■"iivc\. Vivo(vi(;tiiiii), I lirr; viviil, revive, vi;,iiils 
 
 Venio, / imiif ; vt.iitmu, inlvciit, coiivein:, (1.'.)^ .survive 
 
 coveiiQiit (F.)l Voco (vociitmii), I rail ; vncal, vowcl (F.), 
 
 Verbum, a inml ; vcrli, mlvcrli, verbose, vdcatiwii, revoiie, voiifenite. 
 
 verbal, iiroverlt. \ j Volo, / ic/,i/i ; volitiini, voluntary, lieiav. 
 
 Verto (versuiu), f^ini; cMJUvert, rcveit, ojeiice. 
 
 divert, versatile. ' Volvo (\(jlutuiii), I roll; rev(jlvi;, iuvolvi, 
 
 VeruB, truf, verity, verify, aver, verdict. evulutioii, voliiiiie. 
 
 Via, a mil/; deviate, iirevinus, trivial. Voveo (v(jtum), / voi" ; vote, ilev.iic, vow 
 
 Video (visum), / nee; vision, iiruvide, visit (F.) 
 
 (F.), revise (F.) I Vulgus, the, rnnuaon jKopk ; vulyar, ili. 
 
 Vinco (victuui), / id/c/Kcr; victor, coii- vulj^e, viilyatc. 
 
 viel, victory, convince. i AiF 
 
 ▼ 1 rrfln 
 
 (iJiKKK ROOTS. 
 
 ') 
 
 Afifln, It rniiir.il ; a^'ony, antauonist, 
 
 AlloB, nwithi'i-; allo|.alliy, alli^'ory. 
 
 Angelos, a minsciKjer ; aiij^el, evaii^elLst. 
 
 Anthrflpos, a i;(«)i; jnisantliroiie, iiliilan- 
 til ropy. 
 
 Archo, / hnjiii, rule; inonarcli, arcliaie, 
 arehliislioj), arcliileaeon. 
 
 Arithmos, viimhur; arithmetic. 
 
 Aster or astron, a nlur ; astronomy, astro- 
 logy, asteroid, disaster. 
 
 Atmos, vapour; atmosjjlier 
 
 Autos, sflf; autocrat, untogi'aid] 
 
 Ballo, / thraw; syml)ol, jiarable. 
 
 Biipto, / dip; Lajitise, baptist. 
 
 Baros, wcujlit; barometer, baritone, 
 
 Biblos, abook; Bible, biblidmania 
 
 Bios, life; bioj^rapliy, biolo-y, amiilii- 
 bious. 
 
 Choir, the haml ; .sur;;eoM [olibr form, 
 chirurgonn]. 
 
 Chole, hile : iiielaii(;lioly, ctioler. 
 
 Ohrio, / avniiit : Christ., rUrism. 
 
 Clironos, tim''; eliroiiology,elironie, cliron- 
 i(!lc, elironometcr. ^ 
 
 Daktulos, n fuigrr ;" (larAy], jiterodactyl, 
 date {the fruit). 
 
 Deka, ten; decagon, decalogne, decade. 
 
 Demos, the people; democrat, emleniic, 
 epidemic. 
 
 Dokeo, / think; doxa and dognia, ca 
 ojnnion ; doxology, orthodox, hetero- 
 dox, dogma, dogmatic. 
 
 Drao, / do ; drama, dramatic. 
 
 Dunftmis, power ; dynamics, dynamite. 
 
 EidoB, ybrm; kaleidoscope, sphenid. ^ 
 
 Eikoii, unimaijr; iconoclast. 
 Klcctron, amber ; electricity, e|ii'tnity|» 
 Ergon, II \rnrk ; snrger.n (-chinnpdii) 
 
 energy, metallingy. 
 Ell, well; euchai'ist, eu|iliony, evangelist 
 Ganios, marrimje ; bigamy, monoguniinf^ 
 
 misogamy. 
 Ge, the earth; geography, geonutry, gi" 
 
 logy. 
 Gennao, / pnulnre; genesis, genealc;,')-, 
 
 hydrogen, oxygen. 
 Grapho, I write; gramma, a letter; ^.tv 
 
 phic, grammar, teiegrajih, biograiiliv, 
 
 diagram. 
 Haiina, blood; hicmorrhage, luemorrlioid 
 Haireo, / tahe away ; lieresy, heretic. 
 Hecaton, a hundred; liecatomb, lieetn- 
 
 metre. 
 j Hftlios, the sun; lieliograi>h, hcliotyiif. 
 Ilemi, /('(//,• hemisphere. 
 Hioroa, sacred ; hierarchy, liieroglyplii''- 
 Hippos, a horse; liipjiopntamus, Inii)" 
 
 drome. 
 Hodos, (t icay : method, period, c.Midii.^. 
 H6nio.s, the same; homccopathy, liciiin- 
 
 geneous. 
 Hudor, water; hydraulic, hydrophobia, 
 
 liyilrogen.Jfcf 
 Ichthus, a fish; ichtliyology. 
 Idios, one's own ; idiom, idiot, idiosyn- 
 crasy. 
 Isos, equal ; isochronous, isobaric (of equal 
 
 weight), isosceles. 
 KaloB, beautiful; caligraphy, kaleidoscope, 
 Kephale, the liea/f -• hydrocephalus. 
 
WORD-nKANCIITNO. 
 
 ir,3 
 
 Luo, Hansen: dialysis, analysis, lunTtlysis.J 
 Meter, a mnthfr ; iiictrriiiolis, nicli-din)- i 
 
 Kllno, Ihtnd; clinical, climax, rliiimto. 
 KoHiiioB, nnUr: cosjiiogouy, (."jHiimj^iaiiliy. 
 
 Ci ■.IIII'IJC, 
 
 Kriiii), I judijf : critic, ciiti'iioii, h^\H^■ 
 
 CI itt'. 
 
 Kuklos, (( i-i,xle; cycle, cyclnid, cycldiic 
 Kimii (kun-os), « ilmj : cynic, cyniiisin. 
 Lct,'(), / ■•",'/, rlinnHi' ; eclectic, Icxii'iiii. 
 Lithos, (I ntnne . Wthn^ivtiyU, ncmlitc. 
 liflKO"' " "'"''''i Kl»'"'h : li'K'<". 'Ii,il(i^,'iic, 
 
 1 
 
 Met 
 
 litati. I 
 
 Metron, « i/icrj.<ior ; mctic, iiiitiniiiiine, ! 
 
 .liiiiiictir, tlicrimiiiictcr, luirdiiii'tcr. 
 }il6noB, (ihme ; monastery, iiioiiograiii, mi). | 
 
 iiiKyllaliJe, monopoly, nionarcli. \ 
 
 Morphv, ■•lilt jii' ; amorphous, dimoriihouH, ' 
 
 inetaiiiorpliic. I 
 
 NauH, " ship ; nautical, nausea. 
 Nekros, a ileiul hoihj ; necropolis, nccro- 
 
 iiKiiicy. 
 Nomos, a law , autonomous, astronomy, 
 
 Deuteronomy. 
 Oikoa, (( houre ; economy, economical. 
 Ononia, a mime; anonymous, synmiy- 
 
 iiinus, jiatronymic. 
 Optomai, / we .• optics, synoptical. 
 Ortlios, right: orthodoxy, ortho^^rajihy 
 Pais paid-os), « hay ; pedagof,'uo [lit^ 
 
 hdy-lmder]. 
 Pan, ull : jiantheist, panoply, iiantomimc. 
 ?nthos, filling : ]iatlictic, sym]>athy. 
 Pente, yiiv, iientaj,'on, pentatcuch, Pente- 
 cost. 
 Petra, n rm-Jc ,- petrify, petrel, Peter. 
 Pliaindmai, I apjmir : jjlienomenon, j'han- 
 
 t.isy, phantom, fantastic, fancy. 
 Phero, / hmr : periphery, pliosphorus 
 
 [ the liuht-hearcr]. ,,.,, • - 
 
 Philco, ; hve; jdnlosophy, riilln.lelphia, 
 
 philharmonic. 
 Phone, (( ^(iiiinl; Jiliimic, )ilionctic, eu- 
 
 I'lioMy, syiiipliony. 
 PhoH phflt-iis), //■;////,• iiholiimct>T, j.hofo. 
 
 K>''l'li-J^ 
 
 PhUHiH, iiiit\Lir; physics, physioloi;y, jdiy- 
 sjcjan. 
 
 Poioo, / iiiiilf : jioet, poetic, i>liainiainpa'io. 
 
 Polls, (( litii ; Constant inojije, iiicir,.p(ilis. 
 
 Poli'H, mail!/: polytheist, Polynesia, poly, 
 amhus, [loly^iamy. 
 
 Pot' , (p6d-os), II jhiif, antipodes, tripod. 
 
 Protoa, ./ic.sV ; ju'ototypc, pi'otoplasm. 
 
 Pur, //'/■<• ; )iyro1cchnic, pyre. 
 
 Rhco, / jUm : rhetoric, catarrh, rheu- 
 matic. 
 
 Skftpeo, / see; microscope, felescojie, 
 spectroscope, hishop Ifmni fpinlrii]iiis, 
 an overseer). 
 
 Sophia, visiliim ; sophist, iihilosojiliy. 
 
 Stellb, I scml . apostle, epistle. 
 
 Stratoa, an iirmi/ : stralcu'v, stratej^'ie. 
 
 Strfepho, I tniii : catastrophe, aiiostrophc. y / 
 
 Techne, mi ml ; technical. i* 
 
 T6I0, (/I'.f^/;// ; tidc;,'rapli, telescope, tele- 
 jilionc, tclcj,'ram. 
 
 Temno, I cut : anatomy, lithotomy. 
 
 Tetra, /'!('/• ; tctrachord, tetrarch. 
 
 Theaomai, I ^i'' : theatre, theory. 
 
 Theos, a ijdil : tlicist, enthusiast, theoloi^'y. 
 
 Thernie, hmt ; thermal, thermometer 
 isotherm. 
 
 Tithemi, f ;('«(•(• .• thesiH, " phirinn ,- syn- 
 thesis, hypothesis. 
 
 Treis, thrif : triaii|,'lc, tiigonometry, tri- 
 ])od, trinity, tiicliord. 
 
 Trepo, I tarn : tropliy, trojiic, heliotrope. 
 
 Tupos, thi' impri'-^A (if 11 fniil : tyjie, stereo- 
 tyiie. 
 
 Zoon, an nniinit} ,■ ^cooloj^'y, zodiac. 
 
 ■"V 
 
154 
 
 1 1 II 
 
 nrfii 
 
 III 
 
 WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF 
 X PERSONS, ETC. 
 
 Argosy, from the name of the .shii> Argo, in wliich Jason and ]n» oom- 
 
 panions saih'd to tlie I'jlack Sea to find the fuilden Fleece. Usod l,y 
 
 Shakespeare, in the " Meirliant of Venioe," i. 1. 9, in the sense of tr,i<l- 
 
 in<i rcsttcl. 
 Assassins, the name of a fanatical S^-rian i^wt of ilH> thirteenth century, 
 
 who, inider the uifluence of a drug prepared from lump, called /w/.s- 
 
 chisch, rushed into liattlo against the Crusader.^*, and >slaughtorcd 
 
 many of their foes. 
 Atlas, one of the Titans, or earlier god.s, who was so strong that he was Haiti 
 
 to carry the world on his slundders. 
 August, from Augustus CVesar, the second Emperor of Home. 
 Bacchanalian, from the festival called Bacchanalia; from Bacchus, flif 
 
 Roman god of wine. 
 Boycott (to), from Captain I'oycott, a land-agent in the west of Irelaml. 
 
 who was " sent to Coventry " by all his neiglibour.s ; they would neither 
 
 speak to him, Imy from him, or sell to him — by order of the " Irisli 
 
 Land League." 
 Chimera, a totally imaginary and grotesque image or conception ; from 
 
 Chimaera, a monster in the Greek mythology, half goat, half lion. 
 Cicerone, a guide ; fnim Cicero, the greatest Roman orator and writer of 
 
 speeches that ever li\ed. ((iuides who described anticjuities, etc., were 
 
 supposed to be as "fluent as Cicero.") 
 Cravat, from the Croats oi' Crabati of Croatia, who supplied an .-irmy 
 
 corps to Austria, in which long and large neck-ties were worn liy tlit> 
 
 soldiei's. 
 Dahlia, from Dahl, a Swedish botanist, who intioduced the flower into 
 
 Europe. 
 ■ Draconian (code), a very severe code ; from Draco, a severe Athenian legis- 
 lator, who decreed <leath for every crime, great or small. His laws 
 
 were said to have bi>on "written in blood." 
 Dunce, from Duns Scotus, a groat philosopher (or " schoolman ") of the 
 
 Middle Ages, who died 1808. The followers of Thomrus Aquinas 
 
 called " Thomists," looked down upon those of Duns, who were callfid 
 
 "Sootists," and in course of time "Dunces." 
 
 ^ 
 
■iiilllliii 
 
 WOKDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMB:S OF PERSONS 155 
 
 Epicure, a person fnml of good living ; from Epicurus, a great CJreck phil- 
 
 (.s<i])lK>r. HiH enemies misreiiroscnted him as teacliing thai pleasure 
 
 wa.s tlio highost or chiofost good. 
 EuphuiBtic (style), a stylo of high-llown refinement ; from Euphues (the 
 
 well-ljora man), the title of a h(jok written in the reigji of {•'Jizaheth, 
 
 hy John Lyly, whirh introduced a too ingenious and far-fetch'jd way 
 
 of speaking and writing in her Court. 
 Fauna, the collective name for all the animals of a region or conntry ; from 
 
 Faunus, a ih»man god of the woods and (.ountry. (TIm! Fauni were 
 
 liiinnr rural deities of Homo, who had the legs, feet, and ears of a goat, 
 
 and the other parts of the hody of a human shape.) 
 Flora, the collective name for all the plants and flowers of a region or 
 
 cc'untry ; from Flora, the Roman goddess of fiowei's. 
 Galvanism, fi-om Galvani, an Italian physicist, lecturer on anatomy at 
 
 Bologna, who discovered, by experiments on frogs, that animals are 
 
 endowed with a certain kind of electricity. 
 Gordian (knot\ L!>e knot tied hy (hirdius a king of Phrvgia, who had Ijeen 
 
 originally a peasant. The knot hy which he fi(Ml the draught-pole 
 
 of his chariot to the yoke was so intricate, that no one could untie it. 
 
 A rumour spread that the oracle had .stated that the emjjire of Asia 
 
 would belong to him who sliouhl untie the (Joi-di.aji knot. Akixander 
 
 till (Jreat, to encourage his st)ldiers, tried to untie it ; but, finding 
 
 thai lie could not, he cut it through with his sword, and declared that 
 
 he had ' ' is fulfille<l the oracle. 
 Guillotine, an instrument for beluiading at one stroke, used in France. 
 
 It was invented iluring the time of the Revolution by Dr Guillotiu. 
 Hansom (cab), from the name of its inventoi*. 
 Hector (to), to talk big; from Hector, the bravest of the Trojans, as 
 
 Achilles was the liravest of the Grecian chiefs. 
 Hermetically (sealed), so sealed as to etitirely exclude the outer air ; 
 
 from Hermes, the name of the Greek god wlio corresponds to the 
 
 Roman god Mercury. Hermes was fabled to be the in\entor of 
 
 chemistry. 
 Jacobin, a revolutionist of the extremest sort ; from the hall of the 
 
 Jacobin Friars in Paris, where the r-evolutionists used to meet. 
 
 Robespierre was for some time their chief. 
 Jacobite, a follower of the Stuart family ; from .'laines II. (in Latin 
 
 Jacobus), who was driven from the Knglish th'one in 1688JL, 
 January, from the Roman god Janus, a god -Aith two facc<. 'looking 
 
 liofore and after." 
 Jovial, with the hapi)y temperament of a person !K)rji under the influence 
 
 of the star Juiiiter or Jove ; a term taken fi'om tlie old astrology. 
 
 (Opposed to Katurnine, gloomy, because bom under the star Saturn.) 
 July, from Julius, in honour of Julius Ciesar, ti:e great Roman general, 
 
 wrii^r, and Btatesman — who was born in this nionth. 
 Lazaretto or Lazar-house, from Lazarus, the beggar at the gate of 
 
 
150 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 liliii 
 
 Divpp, in TiUke xvi. TliP wnrd is corruptetl into lizard in Lizard- 
 point, where a Ijiwar-house once stood, for the reception of sick iieoj.lp 
 
 from (in Ituard ship. 
 Lynch-law, IVomi a faniini.s Judge TiViich, of Tennessee, wlio made slidit 
 
 WMik I if liis trials, and then of his rriniinals. 
 Macadamise, to make roads of fragments of stones, which afterwards 
 
 coliere in one mass ; from John Loudon Macadam, the inventor, who, 
 
 in 1827, received from the Government a reward of £10,000 for his 
 
 plan. 
 Marcli, from Mars, the Roman god of war. 
 Martinet, a severe disciplinarian, with an eye for the smallest details ; 
 
 from General Martinet, a strict commander of the time of Louis XIV. 
 
 of France. 
 Mausoleum, a splendidly })uilt tomb ; from Maus51us, King of Caria in 
 
 Asia Minor, to whom his widow erected a gorgeous burial-chamber. 
 Mentor, an adviser ; from Mentor, the aged counsellor of TelemJlchus, the 
 
 son of riysscs. 
 ITercurial, of light, airy, and quick-spirited temperament, as having been 
 
 born under the planet Mercury (compare Jovial, Saturnine, etc.) ;it 
 Panic, a sudden and unaccountallo terror ; from Pan, the god of ffocks 
 
 and slio])herds. He wa« fabled to appear suddcidy to triivellers. 
 Parrot {^Little Peter, or Petcrkin), from the French Perrot — V-'/crro^ 
 
 from Pierre, Peter. Compare Magpie = Margaret Pie; Jackdaw; 
 
 Rohin-rcdhrcnst ; Cuddy (from Cuthbert), a donkey, etc. 
 Petrel, the name of a sea-bird that skims the tops of the waves in a storm, 
 
 the diminutive of Peter. It is an allusion to Matthew xiv. 29. These 
 
 birds are called by saih)rs "Mother Carey's chickens." 
 Phaeton, a kind of carriaj^e ; from T'hiiethon, a son of Apollo, who received 
 
 from his father permission to guide the chariot of the Sun for a single 
 
 day- 
 Philippic, a violent })olitical speech ^irected against a person ; from the 
 orations made by Demosthenes, the gi-eat Athenian orator, against 
 Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the (treat. 
 Plutonic frocks), igneous rocks (created by the action of fire) — in oppo- 
 sition to sedimentary rocks, which have been formed by the depositing 
 action of water : from Pluto, the Roman god of the infernal regions. 
 Protean, assuming many shapes ■ from Proteus, a sea-deity, who had 
 received the gift of prophecy from Ne})tune, but who was very 
 difficult to catch, as he could take whatever form he pleased. 
 Quixotic, fond of utterly impracticable designs ; from Don Quixote, the 
 hero of the national Spanish romance, by Cervantes. Don Quixote is 
 made to tilt at windmills, proclaim and make war against whole 
 nations by himself, and do many other chivalrous and absurd 
 things. 
 Simony, the fault of illegally buying and selling church livings ; from 
 Simon Magus. (See Acts viii. 18.) 
 
A'OUDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. l.')? 
 
 Stentorian, very l<nul and strong ; from Stentor, vhoni Homer derfcribes 
 iifi the loij''- .st-vuicied man in. the Grecian army that ^vas besieging 
 Troy. 
 
 Tantalise, to tca.se with impo.ssible liopes ; from Tantalus, a king of 
 Lydia in Asia Minor. He oH'onded tlie god.s, ami \va.s placed in 
 Hades up to his lii)s in a jiool of water, v hicli, when he attempted to 
 drink it, ran away ; and with bunches of grajjes over his head, whicli, 
 when he tried to grasp them, were blown from his reach by a blast of 
 winil. 
 
 Tawdry, sliabby — a term often applied to cheap finery; from St 
 Ethelreda. ■ hi"h became St Audrey: originally applied to clothes 
 sold y ^' Audrey's fair. (Compare Tuohij from St Ohtrc ; Ted from 
 at L'liunnd ; etc.) 
 
 Volcano and Vulcanite, fi'om the Rotnan god of fire and .smiths, Vulcanus. 
 A volcano was nr .■ !o as the chinm<\v of one of his workshop^. , 
 
 r 
 
158 
 
 ii 
 
 i 
 
 i!;i 
 
 / 
 
 WORDS DERIVED PROM THE NAMES OP 
 
 PLACES. 
 
 Academy, from Academia, the house of Academus, a friend of the groat 
 
 (Jreok i>hiIoso))lier Plato, wlio was all(i\v<'(l to teadi his follower- 
 
 theio. I'iato tauglit eitlifi' in Acadenuis's garden, or in his uwii 
 
 house. 
 Artesian (ucU), from Artois, tlie name of an old ]irovinre in the Udrtli 
 
 west of [''I'ance, the inhahitants of whieh were accustomed to ]iicrie 
 
 the (iartli for water. 
 Bayonet, fi'om Bayonne, in the soulh of I'lance, on the Ray of F.iscuy. 
 
 (Compare Pidul from I'idoht, a town in tlie nnitji of Italy.) 
 Bedlam, th(! name foi' a lunatii; asylum — a coi'iu|ititin of the word Bf'ili- 
 
 lehem (llosiiital). 
 Cambric, the name of the finest hind of linen ; from Cambray, a town in 
 
 French Flanders, in the noi't.h-west of France. 
 Canter, an easy and slow gallop ; from the pace assumed hy the Canter 
 
 bury I'ilgrims, when riding along the green lanes of l-higland to tlie 
 
 shrine of 'I'lmmas ii IJecket. 
 CaiTonade, a sliort eamion ; from Carron, in Stiidingsliire, Scotland, 
 
 where it was Ih'st made. 
 Cherry ; from Cerasus, a town in Fontus, Asia Minor, where it was niudi 
 
 grown. 
 Copper and Cypress ; from the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean. 
 Currants, small dried grapes from Corinth, in (li'eeee, wliere they are still 
 
 grown in large ([nantities. ^I'luw are shipjied at the port of Patras. 
 Damson, a contraction of damascene; from Damascus the DanuLscus 
 
 plum. (Hence also (I(tm<tsL\) 
 Dollar, a coin -tli(^ chief coin used in America ; from (lerman Thaler 
 
 {— Ditlcr, or .something made in a (fair oi- valley). The first eouis of 
 
 tills sort were made in St Joachimsthal in Bohemia, and wei-e called 
 
 ./ixtchiiii'a tinilcr. ^m 
 Elysian {ustil v!th fiefvis or blis.s), from Elysium, the place to which the 
 
 sotds nf brave (Ireeks went after death. 
 Ermine, the fur worn on juiiges' rolies ; from Armenia, because this fur 
 
 is "the spi'il nf the vVrmenian rat." 
 
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE XAMES OF PLACES. lOU 
 
 Florin, a two-sliilling piece ; from Florence. Professor Skeat says : 
 "Florins were coined ))y Edwiird III. in l:!.'!7, and naiue<l after tlie 
 coins of Florence." 
 
 Gasconading, boasting ; from Gascony, a southern province of France, the 
 inhabitants of which were much given to boasting. One (Jaacon, on 
 ))eing shown the Tuileries — the palace of tlie Kings of France — re- 
 marked that it reminded him t(j some extent of his father's stables, 
 whicli, however, were somewhat larger. 
 
 Gipsy, a corrupt form of the word Egyptian. The Gipsies were supposed 
 to come from Egypt. (The Froncii call thoiu JlohmiuniK.) 
 
 Guinea, a coin value "JIs, now (juite out of use, e.xcept as a name — made 
 of gold brought from the Guinea Coast, in the west of Africa. 
 
 Hock, the generic term for all kinds of Rhine-wine, Imt properly only the 
 name of that which comes from Hochheim, a cehibr.ited vineyard. 
 
 Indigo, a lilue dye, ol)tained fi-om the leaves of cei'tain plants ; from the 
 Latin adjective Indicus belonging to India. V*' 
 
 Laconic, sliort, [lithy, and full of sense ; from Laconia, a country in tlie 
 !-jouth of Greece, the capital of which was Sparta or Lacedivmon. 
 The Laconians, and es]jccially the Spartans, wei-e little given to talk- 
 ing, unlike their lively rivals, the Athenians. 
 
 Lilliputian, very small ; from Lilliput, the name of the imaginary country 
 of extremely small men and women, \isited liy Captain Lenmel 
 (Julliver, the hero of Swift's tale called '(Jullivcr's Travels.' 
 
 Lumber, useless things ; from Lombard, the Lombards Ijcing famous for 
 money-lending. The eai'liest kiml of banking was pawnbroking ; and 
 pawnbrokers placed their pledges in the" Lombai'd-room," which, as it 
 gradually came to contain all kinds of rubbish, came; also to mean and 
 to be called " lumber-ronm." In America, timber is called luviher. ^. 
 
 Meander (to), to "wind about and in and out ;" from the Mseandeffw 
 very winding river in the plain of I'roy, in Phrygia, iu the north-west 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 Magnesia and Magnet, from Magnesia, a town in Thessaly, in the north 
 iif Greece. 
 
 Milliner, originally a dealer in wares from Milan, a large city in the north 
 of Italy, in the plain of the Fo. 
 
 Muslin, from Mosul, a town in Asiatic Turkey, on the Tigris. 
 
 Palace, from the Latin palatium, a buiMing on Mons Palatlnus, one of 
 the seven hills of Rome. This building became the residence of 
 Nero and other lloman emperors ; and hi'uce palace came to be tin- 
 generic term for the house or" a king or ruling prince. J'alatiuii-^. 
 itwelf comes from Pales, a Roman goddess of floi'ks, aixl is connected 
 with the Lat. jxUcr, a father or feeder. 
 Peach, from Lat. Persicum {inaLum), the Persian apple, from Persia. 
 
 The r has been gradually absorbed. 
 Pheasant, from the Phasis, a river of Colchis in Asia Minor, at the eastern 
 end of the Black Sea, irom which these birds were Grat brought. 
 
160 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENOLISII LANGUAGE. 
 
 Port, a wine from Oporto, in Portugal. (roni])arG Sherry from Xcres, in 
 
 the soutli of Spain.) 
 Rhubarb, ivmn Rha barbarum, the wild Rha plant. Rha is an old name 
 
 for the Volga, from the ])anks of which this plant was imported. 
 Solecism, a Miuidor in tiie use of words; from Soli, a tcjwii in Cilicia, 
 
 in Asia Minor, the inhal)itant,s of which used a mixed dialect. 
 Spaniel, a Kjiorting-dog remHrka))le for its «en.se ; from Spain. The best 
 
 kinds are said to come from Hispaniola, an island in the West Indies, 
 
 now called Hayti. 
 Stoic, from Stoa I'Miklh', the Paintod Porrh, a jxirch in Athens, where 
 
 Zeno, the fouudcf of flie Stoic School, taught his disciples. 
 Utopian, impossilile to realise; from Utopia ( — Nowhere), the title of a 
 
 story written by Sir Thomas More, in which he described, under the 
 
 guise of an imaginary island, the jjrobable state of l<ingland, if her 
 
 laws and customs were reformed. \ y 
 
 llil 
 
mm 
 
 161 
 
 WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 
 
 When a word is imported from a foreign language into our 
 own, there is a natural tendency among the people who use the 
 word to give it a native and homely dress, and so to make it 
 look like English. This is espeeially the case with proper 
 names. Thus the walk through St James's Park from IJucking- 
 ham Palace to the House of Conmions was called Bociif/c IVal/c 
 (lliat is, shrubbery walk) ; but, as Borage was a strange word to 
 the Londoner, it became quickly corrupted into ]>irdcago Walk, 
 tliough there is not, and never Avas, any sign of birdcages in the 
 neighbourhood. Birdcage is a known word, Borat/c is not — 
 that is the whole matter. In the same Avay, our I'nglish sailors, 
 *vhen they captured the French ship BcJlerojiJidii, spoke of it as 
 the Billi/ RiifTuin ; and our English soldiers in India mentioned 
 Surajah Dowlah, the prince who put the English prisoners into 
 the Black Hole, as Sir Roger Doicler. The same phenomenon 
 is observed also in common names — and not infrequently. The 
 following are some of the most remarkable examples : — 
 
 Alligator, from SpaniHli el lagarto, the lizard. The article el (froin Latin 
 Uk) has clung to the word. Lat. hictrtd, a lizard. (Tlie Arabic 
 article al has clurig to the noun in alchemy, al<jehra, almanac, etc.) 
 
 Artichoke (no connection with c/ioA^'f), from Ital. articiocco ; fmni Arabic 
 al havshijf, an ai'tichokc. 
 
 Atonement, a hyltrid — atone being Kngli.-*li, ami mcnt a Latin endini;. 
 Atone ^ to bring or come into one. Sbakespeiu'e h*s " Karthl} thing.s, 
 made even, atone together." 
 
 Babble, from ba and the f reijuentative le ; itHNMlB **to keep on saying " ba. 
 
 Bank, a form of tiie word bench, a money -taWc. 
 
 Belfry (nothing to do with bell), iiwtu M. E. berfra;^ O, Fr. ber/roU, a 
 watch-tower. 
 
162 
 
 GUAMMAIi OF THE ENGLISH KANGUACK. 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
 11' m 
 
 your imrcnlH. UDiniecicd witii 0(no and uouya. jmoiu a. d. (/u<jnn, 
 
 to bend ; wliich gives al.'^o how, hiijht, h'xit, etc. JH^ 
 
 j,x, a place where four r(jad.s meet. O. Fr. carrcfoiirys ; Latin intaluor 
 
 Brimstone, from hum. Tin; r i.s an easily moved letter— as in three, third ; 
 
 turn, trundle, etc. 
 Bugle, jiroperly <i wild ox. Buylc, in the sense of a nnisical in.-truincnl 
 
 is really short for bwjlc-hurn. Lat. huculus, a Ijullock, a diiuinuLivu 
 
 of bos. 
 Bustaxd, from (). Fr. oustarde, from Lat. avis tarda, the tardy or Anw 
 
 bird. 
 Butcher, from 0. Fr, bocher, a man who shiughters he-goats; from boc, 
 
 the I'^'cnch foi-m of huck. 
 Butler, the servant in charge of tlie buttS oi- casks of wine. (Tiie whole 
 
 collection of butts was called the buttery; a litth; Itiitt is a bottle.)* 
 Buxom, Ktout, healthy; but in (). Iv oliedient. "Children, be buxnm \n 
 
 your imrents. " Coimected with hmo and houyh.^ J'Voiu A. S. hwjnn, 
 
 t( 
 Carfax, 
 
 f ureas, four foi-ks. 
 Carouse, fi'om German gar aus, quite out. Spoken of emptying a goblet. 
 Caterpillar — hairy-cat, from (). Fr. chatc, a .she-cat, and U. Vr. i>lIiius(, 
 
 hairy, 1 uit, pilosus. Compare woollij-hcar. 
 Causeway (no connection with wai/), from Fr. chausec ; Lat. adciata via, ii 
 
 way strewed with limestone; from Lat. cuLr, lime. 
 Clove, through Fr. clou, from Lat. clavus, a nail, from its resemlilauce to 
 
 a small nail. 
 Constable, fiom Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stalile ; hence Master of 
 
 the Horse; and, in the loth century, comnuiuder of tlie king's army. 
 Coop, a cognate of cup ; from Lat. cupa, a tul). 
 Cope, a later spelling of cape. C"7'j cape, and ro^jc are forms of the «inie 
 
 word. 
 Costermonger, properly coslard-num'jcr ; from costard, a l.irge apjilc. 
 Counterpane (not at all connected with counter or with 2"'>'Ci ''^^t with 
 
 (juilt and jioint), a coverlet for abed. 1'he ii)i>|)ei' form is contrc- 
 
 pointc, from Ijow Lat. culcita puncta, a jiuiictured (juilt. 
 Country-dance, (not connected with couuir^), acorru}ition of the French 
 
 contrc-dansc ; a dance in whicli each dancer stands cutdrc ov euntra nr 
 
 opposite his jiarlner. 
 Coward, an animal that drcjjis hi.s tail. U. Fr. cnl and ard ; from Lat. 
 
 Cauda, a tail. V 
 Crayfish, (nothing to do with Jish), from O. Fi-. cso'cvissc. This is really 
 
 a Frenchiticd foi'in of the tJerman word Krehs, which is the (icrnian 
 
 form of our iMiglish word crab. The true division of the woi-d iuti; 
 
 syllables is crai/f-ish; and thus the seeming connection with jlsh dis- 
 appears. 
 Custard, a misspelling of the M. I], word crustadc, a general luime for jiies 
 
 made with crust. 
 Daisy = day's eye. Chaucer says : " The dayes eye or else the eye of 
 
 day." 
 
 -\ 
 
wouns DisnuisKD in foum. 
 
 1G3 
 
 Dandelion - dent de lion, tlie lif)ir.s tooth ; ho naiucd from its jagged 
 leaves. 
 
 Dirge, ii fiuuT.il H<>n<^ of sorrow. In the Liit in serviet! for tlie dead, one part 
 began witli the word.s (I's. v. S) dirige, Doniiniis mens, in conspcctu 
 tiio vitani niearn, " I )ireet my lite, U l^ord, in tliy siglil ; " aiul dirige 
 wiiS contracted into dirge. 
 
 Drawing-room -withdrawing-room, a room to wliich guests retire after 
 dinner. 
 
 Dropsy (no eonnisetion with dro}>), from (). i'r. hydropisie, from (li,, 
 hudm-, water, (t'ompan; rhirunjcon, whieli has ])wn sliortened into 
 Hunjeon ; cxamplr, \nU) xtuu/di' ; cx/afe into sfafi.) 
 
 Easel, a iliminutive of the wunl ass, through the Dutch ezel; lilie the 
 l/itiu atitUm, 
 
 Farthing - fourthing. {Four apjiears utijir in firkin ; and as /or h\ Jnrli/. 
 
 Frontispiece (not connected with piece), that which id «een or jtlaced it; 
 front. Lat. spccio, I see. 
 
 Gadfly ^ goad-fly (sting-fly). 
 
 Gospel - God-spell, a naiiative about (ind. 
 
 Grove, originally a lane cut through trees. A doulik-t of jruove, aiui 
 i/nivc, from A. S. 'jniftni, to dig. 
 
 Haft, that by which we have or hold a thing. 
 
 Hamper, old form, hanaper; from Lnw Latin hanaperium, a large l>a,>liet 
 for keepii'g drinking-cups (/utnapi) in. 
 
 Handsel, money given into the hand ; from A. S. sdlnn, tn k'^o- 
 
 Hanker, to keep the nnnd hanging on a thing. Er is a frcipicntative .-uilix, 
 as in Jxitlcr, Hnr/cr, etc. 
 
 Harbinger, a man who goes ])efore to i)rovide a harbour oi- lodging|ilace 
 for an army. The n is intrusive, as in porr'nKjcr, jxts.sintjcr, and nus- 
 soiijcr. (The ruins of old Roman villas were often used l)y Knglish 
 li'avellers as inns, Such places were called '' Cold Harbours." There 
 are fourteen places of this name in I'.ngland- all on the gi'eat Roman 
 roads. ) 
 
 Hatchment, the escutcheon, shield, or coat-of-ai'ms of a decea.scd [lerson, 
 displayed in front of his house. A corru[>tion [^>y the intrusion of h) 
 of atch'meut, the short form of (Uchicvdit'iit, the old spelling of 
 (K'hicvcmcnt, which is still the hei'aldic wonl f"r lidtchiK nt. 
 
 Hawthorn ^^ hedge -thorn. Haw was in (». K. Imih' ; and the hard g 
 became a w; and also became softened, under I'Vench influence, int,o 
 dg.Haha, older form ILiwhaw, is a sunk fence. 
 
 Heaven, that which is heaved up ; heavy, that wliich requires much 
 heaving. 
 
 Horehound (not connected with Jiound), a plant with stems covered with 
 white woolly down. The M. E. form is hoar hune ; and the second 
 syllabic means scented. The .-^yllalile /(<iav means white, as in hour- 
 frost. The final d is excreoceut or inorganic — like th". d in suund, buutid 
 (— ready to go), etc. 
 
 ' 11 
 
f 
 
 y^ 
 
 ict 
 
 (illAMMAU OK TIIK KNOLTSII LAN(JUAf!P:. 
 
 Humble-bee (not connoctcd with the adjective huinhlc), from M. K. 
 
 hummelen, to keep liuiuining — a freciuentative ; the b being in- 
 
 organii!. 
 Humble-pie (not connected with the adjective humhic), pie made nf 
 
 umbles, the entrails of a deer. 
 Husband, (not connected witli lilnd), from Icelandic huabuandi, Luatidi, 
 
 being the pres. jiarticijile of hua, to dwell ; and bus, houKe. 
 Hussif (connected with /kiusc, butnot wither //"c), a cane containing needles, 
 
 thread, etc. Fi-om Icelandic, hdsi, a case, a cognate of house. The f 
 
 in intrusive, from a mistaken ojiinion that the word was a short foiui 
 
 of h<macwif(. 
 Hussy, a pert girl ; a corriMtion of housewife. 
 Icicle, (the ending dc is not the diminutive) a hanging point of ice. Tin' 
 
 A. S. form is isgicel, a compound of is, ice, and (jlcd, a small j>icce of 
 
 ice ; so that the word contains a redundant element. (The ic in icicle Is 
 
 entirely dillerent from the /'• in art-ic-U and m jxtrtic-lc.) 
 Intoxicate, 1o drug or jioison ; from Low Lat. toxicum, i)oison ; from (Jr. 
 
 tuxun, a liow, plural toxa, bow and arrows — arrows for war being fre- 
 
 ({ucntly dipped in poison. 
 Island (not connected with idc) — water-land, a misspelling for iland (tlie 
 
 82>elling that Milton always uses). The s has inti'udcd itself from a 
 
 confusion with the Lat. Intfuht, which gives ixlc. 
 Jaw, properly chaw, the noun for chao. Cognates iivc jowl and chips. 
 Jeopardy, hazard, danger. M. 1']. jupartie, from U. Vr. jeu parti, a game 
 
 in which the chances are even, from Low Y,i\.i. jucus partltus, a diviflcd 
 
 game. 
 Jerusalem artichoke (not at all connected with Jerusalem), a kind of sun- 
 flower. Italian girasole, from Lat. ff'/rus, a circle, and sol, the sun. 
 
 (In order to clench the blunder contained in the word Jerusnlaa, 
 
 cooks call a soup made of this kind of artichoke "I'alestine souj) ! ") 
 Kickshaws, from Fr. quelquechose, something. There was once a pluiul 
 
 — kickshawses. 
 Kind, the adjective from the noun kin. 
 Ledge, a jilace on which a thing lies. Hence als<j ledjcr. 
 Line (to line garments) = to jmt linen inside them. (Linen is really an 
 
 adjective from the M. E. lin, just like woollen, fjolden, etc.) 
 Liquorice (not connected with liquor), in M. E. licoris ; from Gr. 
 
 f/li/ki/7'rhi::a, a sweet root. (For the loss of the initial g, comi)arc 
 
 lj)swieh and (fi/]>2)ensioich ; enough and (jenoh ; and the loss of ge 
 
 from all the past participles of our verbs.) 
 Mead, meadow = a ])lace mowed. Hence also math, afterviath, and mxAh 
 
 ( = the biter or eater). 
 Nostrils = nose-thirles, nose-lioles. Thirl is a cognate of thrill, drill, 
 
 through, etc. (For change of position of r, compare turn, trundle; 
 
 work, wri'jht ; xoort, root ; bride, bird, etc.) 
 Nuncheon, a corruption of M. E. none-schencke, or noon-drink. Then 
 
 
 III 
 
 i. II: 
 
WOIIDS DISaUISEP IN FOUM. 
 
 105 
 
 tliis word f,'<)t mixed up with tlic lu-oviiiciiil lliigli.-ili word lunch, 
 
 wliicli ineaus a luiiii) of Itrwid ; and ,so wo liavc luncheon. 
 Nutmeg, a hybrid coiupouudcd of an English and a Kicncli word. Maj ia a 
 
 corruption of tho 0. Fr. miwjc, from Lat. museum, musk. V^ 
 Orchard -wort-yard, yard or garden f-ir roots or plants, vi^ort m a 
 
 cognate of v'ttrt and root. 
 Oatrich, fro*n Lat. avis Btruthio. ShakeHpearc Kpcll.s it cstrhbjr in " Antony 
 
 and Cleopatra," iii. 13. 197, "Tho dove will peck tho cstridge." {Avis 
 
 is found as a prefix in husturd also.) 
 Pastime — that which enables one to pass tho time. 
 Pea jacket (not coiuiected with ji<<i), a short thick jacket often worn by 
 
 seamen ; from the Dutch pije, a coar.se woollen coat. Thus tho 
 
 word jacket is sui)erfluous. In M. E. ]>;/ was a coat ; and we lind it 
 
 in Chaucer combining, with a French adjective, to make tho hybrid 
 
 courtepy, a short coat. 
 Peal (of bells), a short form of the word appeal ; a call or summons. 
 
 (Compare ]icnthousc and appciitis ; sample and example; scutehcon 
 
 and eseutchcon ; squire and esffu ire ; etc.) 
 Penthouse (not connected with house), in reality a doublet of appendage, 
 
 though not coming from it. 0. Fr. appentis, fi-om Lat. nppendicium, 
 
 from a])])cndix, something han(jiv(j on to. {Penderc, to hang.) 
 Periwinkle, a kind of evergreen plant ; formed, by the addition of the 
 
 diminutive le, from Tiat. pervinca, fi'om vinelre, to bind. 
 Periwinkle, a small ukjUusc with one valve. A corrujition of the A. S. 
 
 pinewincla, that is, a winkle eaten with a pin. 
 Pickaxe (not coiuiected with axe), a tool used in digging. A corruption 
 
 of M. E. piekcys, from 0. Fr. ^u'fois ; and connected with peak, jdke, 
 
 and pick. 
 Poach = to put in the poke, pocket, or pouch. So poached eggs are eggs 
 
 dressed so as to keep the yoke in a pouch. Cognates are pock, small- 
 
 pox ( =2^'^'^^'^)t "stc. 
 Porpoise (not connected with the verb 2^(^isc) ; from Lat. porcum, a pig, 
 
 and piscem, a fish. 
 Posthumous (work), a work that appears after the death of the author ; 
 
 from Lat. postumus, the last. Tiie h is an cri(jr ; and the word 
 
 has no connectitm with the Lat. humus, the ground. 
 Privet, a half -evergreen shrub. A form of primet, a plant carefully cut and 
 
 trimmed ; and hence prim. (For change of m into v (or p), compare 
 
 Molly and Polly ; Matty and Patty, etc. V and p are both laljials.) 
 Proxy, a contraction of procuracy, the taking care of a thing for another. 
 
 Lat. pro for, and cur a, care. 
 Quick, living. We have the word in quicklime, quicksand, quicksilver ; 
 
 and in the phra.se " the quick and the dead.' 
 Quinsy, a bad sore throat, a contraction of 0. Vr. squinancie, formed, l)y 
 
 the addition of a prefixed and strengtheuing s, from Gr. kynanchc, a 
 
 dog-throttling. 
 
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 166 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Ilt!i 
 
 III 
 
 Riding, one of the three divLsions of YorlcBhire. Tlic oldest form is Trith- 
 ing or Thrithing (from llircc and iny, part; as in farthimj ^U,\xr\\\ 
 part, etc.) Tlie t or th neems ttj liave drojjped from its similiiritv 
 and nearness to the th in north and the t in cast ; as in North-thritfthi'j, 
 East-trithinrj, etc. 
 
 Sexton, a corruption of sacristan, the keeper of the saci-ed vessels innl 
 vestments ; from Lat. i«ucr, sacred. But the sexton is now only tin; 
 grave-dif,'ger. (In the same way, sacristif wiis shortened into scxtrij:, 
 
 Sheaf a collection shoved ti»gethei-. *S7ioi-c gives also shuvcl ; and the 
 fre(iuentatives shujile and scuffle. 
 
 Soup, a cognate of sop and sup. 
 
 Splice (t<» join after splltthnj). a ci>gnate form of xjdit and splinter. 
 
 Squirrel, from O. Fr. escurel; from Low Lat. scuriolus; from dr. ,s/i.(, 
 a shadow and otint, a tail. Hence tlio word means "sliadow-titil." 
 
 Starboard, the steering side of a ship— the right, as one stiuuls looking to 
 the bow. 
 
 Stew, the verb corresponding to stove. 
 
 Steward, from A. S. stiward, from the full form sth/wcard; from sll<jf, ;i 
 sty, and wcard, a keeper. Originally a person who looked after tliu 
 doTuestic animals. 
 
 Stirrup, modern form f)f A. S. stigrap, fn)m sthjan, to climb, and rap, ;i 
 rope. Cognates are .■?<//, stile, stair. 
 
 Straight, an old jiast participle of stretch. {Strait is a French form of the 
 word strict, from Lat. st rictus, tied up.) 
 
 Strong, a nasalised form of stark. Derivatives are strcmjth, strcnijlhoi, 
 string, etc. 
 
 Summerset (not connected either with summer or with set), oj- somersault, i 
 corruption of Fr. soubresault, from Lat. supra, above, and sa/tum, ;i 
 leap. (Tlierc is a connection between the b and the m— the one 
 sliding into the other when the speaker has a cold.) 
 
 Surgeon (i»roperly a hand-tvorkcr), a contraction of chirurgeon; fiom 
 Gr. cheir, the hand, and enjein, to work. 
 
 Tackle, that whidi takes or gnusps, Imlding the masts of a ship in tlieir 
 j)laces. The le is the same as tliat in settle (a seat,), yirdle, etc. 
 
 Tale, from A. S. talu, number. Derivatives are tell and till (box Inr 
 money), but not t(dL; which i.*: a Scandinavian word. 
 
 Tansy, a tall i>lant, with small yellow flowers, used in medicine ; fniin 
 0. F. athanasic ; from (^r. athanasia, immortality. 
 
 Thorough, a doublet of through, and found in thoroughfare, thorough- 
 bred, etc. (The dr, thr, or tr is also found in door, thrill, trill, drill, 
 nostril, etc.) 
 
 Treacle, fnun M. E. triacle, a remedy; from Lat. thcriaca, an antidote 
 against the bite of serpents ; from Gr. thcrinn, a wild beast or 
 poisonous animal. Milton has the phrase " the sovran treacle nf 
 Bound doctrine." (For the position of the r, compare trundle and 
 turn; brid and iird; etc.) 
 
 Truffle, 
 
 bein^ 
 
 is a 
 
 Twig; a 1 
 
 founc 
 
 twist, 
 
 witan 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 Lat. \ 
 
 yet Ik 
 
 Walrus, a 
 
 The o] 
 
 let of 
 
 reseml 
 
 Wassail, a 
 
 iiii])erci 
 
 with h 
 
 Whole, a u 
 
 coiuiec 
 
 intrusii 
 
 wont fc 
 
 instead 
 
 'h ■ - t 
 
WORDS DISGUISED IN FOKM. 
 
 167 
 
 Truffle, an underground edible fungu« ; from Italian tartufola; tar 
 beiiig=Iiat. terrii;, of the ground, and iufula — luUr, a rout. Trijlc 
 is a doublet of truffle. 
 
 Twig; a thin branch of a tree. The tw here is the base of tiro, and is 
 found also in twin, tiviliijht, twice, twine ; and probably also in tweak, 
 ticist, twinkle, etc. {Twit is not in this class ; it comes from at- 
 witan, to throw blame on.) 
 
 Verdigris (not connected with yrease), the rust of brass or co[)iicr. From 
 Lat. viride aeris, the green of brass. (The g is intrusive, ai"^ has not 
 yet been accounted for.) 
 
 Walrus, a kind of lar^e seal ; from Swedish vallross — a whale-horse. 
 The older form of ross is found in Icelandic as hross, wliich is a doub- 
 let of the A. S. /tors. The noise made by the animal somewhat 
 resembles a neigh. 
 
 Wassail, a merry carouse ; from A. S. wes hael = V>c well ! Wes is the 
 imperative of iccsan to be (.still existing in rcati) ; and hael is connected 
 with hail/ hale (Scand. ), whole (Eng.), and health. 
 
 Whole, a misspelling, now never to be corrected, of hole, the adjective 
 coimectod with hale, heal, health, healthy, ci<:. The w is ])robably an 
 intrusion from the S.-W. of England, where they say whoam for home, 
 wont for oat, etc. If we write whole, we ought also to write ivholy 
 instead of holy, ^ ^- 
 \ 
 
 '■■| 
 
fi I 
 
 168 
 
 WORDS THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANGED 
 
 IN MEANING. 
 
 Abandon, to i>ro(laiin openly ; to <lc- 
 noHiice ; tlieii to »!ast out. (From Low 
 Lat. hannus, an edict.) The earlier 
 meaning still survivca in tlic phra.se, 
 " banns of marriage." 
 
 Admire, to wonder at. 
 
 Allow, to praise (connected with laud). 
 
 Amuse, to cause to muse, to o('CU]>y tlie 
 mitid of. " C;uuillus set upon the (iau'.s, 
 when they were anuised in icceivitij,' 
 their gold," says a writer of the sixteenth 
 centuiy. 
 
 Animosity, liif,'h sjiirits; from Lat. aiu- 
 ■DMSUS, brave. 
 
 Artillery (!,'reat weapons of war), was uscil 
 to inciudc bows, crnssbows, etc., down 
 to the time of Milton. See P. L. ii. 715 ; 
 and 1 Sam. xx. 10. 
 
 Awkward, fioin^ tlu- wron^; way. From 
 M. E. awk, contrary. "Tlic awk end" 
 \va.s the wrouK (Mid. " With awkward 
 wind "i^with contrary wind. 
 
 Babe, d(dl. Spenser says of a jiiMllar — 
 " He bore a truss of (rifles at his baek. 
 As iMdls, and babes, and glasses in his 
 pack." 
 
 Blackguard, the Itaml of lowest kitchen 
 servants, who had to look after the spits, 
 pots, and jtana, etc. 
 
 Bombast (an inflated and pompoiw style 
 of speakinj? or writing), cotton-wadding. 
 
 Boor (a rough unmannerly fcllov/), a tiller 
 of the soil; from the Dutch boawen, to 
 
 till. (Compound neighbour.) In Nuith 
 Africa, a farmer is still called a b.ier. 
 
 Brat (a contemijtuous name for a eliiM), 
 a Celtic word meaning rag. In Wales- 
 it now means a pina/ore. 
 
 Brave, showy, sjdendid. 
 
 By-and-by, at once. 
 
 Carpet, the covering of tallies as wi 11 us 
 of floors. 
 
 Carriage (tliat which airrii-n) iiic;int fm- 
 merly tluU iiihich mis carried, nr lia^-- 
 gage. See Acts xxi. 15. 
 
 Cattle, a doublet of chattels, iirop(Mt.v. 
 Lat. c(tpil(tlUi, lieads (<>( nxcn, itc.) 
 Chaucer .says, "The avaricious ni.'iii liath 
 more hope i" his ctitel than in Cliri.st.' 
 
 Censure (blame) meant merely opinion, 
 from the L; t. cctisco, I think. Sliakr- 
 sjieare, in llandet i. ;!. 6!>, makes I'nli ;; 
 ills say: "Take each man's censure, Imt 
 reserve thy judgment." 
 
 Charity (almsgiving) meant Jorr; fn.iii 
 Ijat. earns, dear, through the Frcndi. 
 
 Cheat (to deceive for the innpcise of ciin) 
 meant /') sri:c vpon a thing as escheated 
 or forfeited. 
 
 Cheer, face. " Re of good cheer " = " Put 
 a good face upon it." " His cheer fill" 
 = " His countenance fell." 
 
 Churl (an uncourteous or disobliging por 
 son) meant a countryman. Her. chur 
 lish. (Shakesiieare also uses the wurd 
 iu the sense of a miser.) 
 
 WORDS 
 
 Clumsy, stif 
 
 iliimsi'st wit 
 ciiitiiry) " 
 damp, rran 
 
 f'onipanion, 1 
 .such phra.se 
 
 Conceit (too 1 
 
 IMfMIlt siiiii 
 
 railed "a cc 
 IIMII full of 
 niitu.i, a ni 
 ),'ctlicr into 
 jilca. Shake: 
 iiig all eoncf 
 
 Count (to ni 
 with :i, ,^e.] 
 
 I eiil|l(illti' ( 
 
 iloiiblel, thri 
 
 Cunning, able 
 I raft, it has 1 
 
 Danger, jiirisi 
 Tlie Duke o 
 I liaiit, " Yoii 
 'I'p yciii not?' 
 
 Defy, to jiror 
 dissolved. I 
 
 Deliuoua, too 
 wiiter of till 
 that idlcnes- 
 I'st (iii'.)st mi 
 
 Depart, jart oi 
 m1' the I'raye 
 ilejimt " (now 
 
 disaster, an u 
 
 friiiii the old 
 
 Disease, iliscoii 
 lias, "She wi 
 and Tyndale' 
 "Thy (laii-h 
 tlimi the Ma.s 
 
 Duke, leader. 
 Erii,'lish write 
 
 El)b, shallow, 
 it is ebhest," 
 (The word is 
 
 , an attei 
 a hook was m 
 »t." From 1 
 
WORDS THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANGED IN MEANING. 1G9 
 
 Cluniay, stiff witli rolil. 'When then 
 iliiin.'irst Willi ciilil," riays LaiiK'liintl (MMi 
 ciiitury) - art liemuiiJK'd. (Co;,'iiatt'S, 
 clamp, rramji.) 
 
 Companion, low IVllow. Sliakc.siu'arc lias 
 such phraMfs as " ('oinpatiions, hence !" 
 
 Tonceit (lno hij,'li an ()i)inion of one's self) 
 iMc.iiit siini'ly thought. Cliaiicer was 
 riilli'il "a cMiiccitcMl (•liM-k"-:"a Irarneil 
 mail full of tlm;i>,'l is." Krimi Ijit. aiu- 
 cilitus, a niinilicr of facts hniUKht tn- 
 f.'ftlii'r intii dill' },'fiicral rtmcrptuni or 
 jilia. Sh:ik''si)t;!ire has Mie jilirase " i»,ihs- 
 iiik' ••ill conceit" -hcyond all thought. 
 
 Count (to iinnilicr) meant to think (■_' 
 with ;i, \e.)with; from I,at. vum]Jitii, 
 I roiiipiite or lliiiik with. Count is a 
 iloiililel, throiiKli French, of compute. 
 
 Cunning, aide or skilled. Like the word 
 I roft, it has lost its innocent sense. ^ 
 
 Danger, .jurisdiction, lej^al jiower over. 
 The Duke of Venice .say.s to the Mer- 
 cliaiit, " Yoii stand within liis danger, 
 .1., you not?" Ar. V. iv. 1. ISO. 
 
 Defy, to iironoiince all bonds of faith 
 ilissolv'^d. I/it. fidi's, faith. 
 
 Deli nous, too scrupulous or finical. A 
 wiiter ol' the seventeenth century says 
 tliat idleness makes even "the sober- 
 est (mist moderate) men delicious." 
 
 Depart, jiart or divide. The older version 
 mC till- I'rayer-Hook has "till death us 
 ili'parl " (now corrupted into do jturt). 
 
 Liiaaater, an unfavourable star. A term 
 friim the old astrology. 
 
 Disease, discomfort, trouble. Shakespeare 
 lias, " She will ilisense our bitter mirth ; " 
 mill Tyndalti's version of Mark v. .'{5, is, 
 "Thy daughter is dead: why dhcascst 
 thou the Master any further?" 
 
 Duke, leader. Hannibal was called in old 
 En^'lish writers, "Duke of Carthage." 
 
 Ehb, shallow. "Cross the .stream where 
 it is ebbest," is a Lancashire proverb. 
 (The word is a cognate of even.) 
 
 Essay, an attempt. The old title of sucli 
 a book was not " Essay on " bnt " Es.say 
 at," From Lat. exagium, a weighing. 
 
 An older form is Assay. Hhakespeare has 
 such phrases as " the assay of arms." 
 
 Explode, to drive out by elai.i.ing of the 
 liands. The opjiosite of applaud. Lat. 
 plaudo, I clap my hands. 
 
 Explosion, a hi.ssing a thing otl' the stage. 
 
 Firmament, that which makes jinn or 
 strong. .Jeremy T;iylor (seventeenth 
 (■eiitury) says, " Custom is the firma- 
 ment of the law." 
 
 B'ond, foolish. The jiast participle of 
 A. .S. fonnan, to act foolishly. 
 
 Frightful, full of fear. (Compare the old 
 meaning of ilmidftil.) 
 
 Garble, to sift or cleanse. Low Lat. 
 garbellare, to sift corn. 
 
 Garland, a king's crown ; now a wreath of 
 flowers. 
 
 Gazette (Italian), a maLrpie. Hence the 
 Ital. tja-rftmi\ to chatter like a inagjiie; 
 to write tittle-tattle. (It w;is also the 
 n.iiiie of a very small coin, current in 
 Venice, etc.) 
 
 Generous, liigh-born. L.at. (/ninx, race. 
 Compare the phrases " a man of family ; " 
 " a man of rank." Shakesiieaie h.as " the 
 generous citizens" for those of high 
 birth. 
 
 Gossip, sib or related in God ; a godfather 
 or godmother. It now means such pt-r- 
 sonal tidk as usually i^nes on among such 
 jtersons. (Compare the French eo7n7»i^re 
 and i:ommlr(t(je.) 
 
 Handsome, clever with the hands. 
 
 Harbinger, a person who i>repared a har- 
 Ijour or loilgiiig. 
 
 Heathen, a person who livi s on a heath. 
 (Cf. iHiijnn, iiersiiM who lives \\\ a. jHupts, 
 or country district.) 
 
 Hobby, an easy ambling nag. 
 
 Idiot (Or. idioks), a private person ; a 
 person who kept aloof from public busi- 
 ness. Cf. idiom; idiosyncrasy ; i'Xv,. 
 
 Imp, an engrafted shoot. Chaucer says: 
 "01 feeble trees there conien wretched 
 
 impes." 
 Spenser has " Well worthy impe." 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 

 i i l; 
 
 170 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 I ! ■ 
 
 11 ii 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 ili l*i« 
 
 ii 
 ii i 
 
 ! 
 
 Impertinent, not pertaining to tlie 
 matter in luind. 
 
 Indifferent, iiiiiiartinl. "God is iiidifrcr- 
 uiit to all." 
 
 Insolent, imusiml. An oM writfr jiraiscs 
 IlaleiKli's iioctry as "insolent and jias- 
 sionato.'w 
 
 Kind, born, inborn ; natural ; and tliiMi 
 loviny. 
 
 Knave, boy. " A knave rliild "-a male 
 <lii!d. Sir .Toliii Mandfvillii sjiraks of 
 Maloiui't as "a ipouns knave. " 
 
 Lace, a snan;. Lat. laquevs, a noose. 
 
 Livery, tliat wliicli is f,'iv('n or delivered, 
 
 Fr. livrer ; fii>]ii L;it. Uhrrnre, to free. 
 It was a]i))lii'd both to fooil and t<p 
 clothing. "Ahorse at livery " still means 
 a horse not merely kept, but also/17/. 
 
 Magnificent, doinj,' great things ; large- 
 minded. Bacon says, " Uonnty and 
 magnificence are virtues very reg.al." 
 
 Maker, a jioet. 
 
 Manure, to work with the haml ; a doublet 
 of manoBUvro. (Lat. viunn.;, the hand ) 
 
 Mere, utter. Lar. w(T«<,]inre. Klirikes])eare, 
 in " Othello,'" sjieaks of " tlie mere jier- 
 dition of the Turkish lleet." "Mere 
 wine " was unmixed wine. 
 
 Metal, a mine. 
 
 Minute, .something very small. Lat. min- 
 iilus, m.ade small ; from minus, less. 
 Cognates, minur; ininish ; (Uininish; etc. 
 
 Miscreant, an unbeliever. Lat. ?/ii'.s- (from 
 minus), and rridn, I believe; through 
 O. Fr. meacr^ant. 
 
 Miser, a wretched j.erson. L.it. luiniT, mis- 
 er.'iljle. 
 
 Nephew, a grandchihl. (Lat. iirpnx.) 
 
 Nice, too seru]iulous or fast idious. Shake- 
 speare, in " K. John," iii. 4. lliS, says — 
 "Tie that stands ui>on a slijipery ]ilace, 
 Makers nice of no vile hold to stay him 
 uj.." 
 
 Niece, a grandchild. Lat. veptis. 
 
 I 
 Novelist, an Innovator. ( 
 
 OflTal, that which i.s allowed to fall off. 
 
 Officious, obliging. In modern dijiloiiiai^, 
 an official communication is cme mailn 
 in the wiiy of busiiii'ss ; an njlicinus vmn- 
 munication is a friendly and irre;^iil,ii 
 one. Uurke, in the eighteenth eenttiry, 
 sjieaks of the French nobility as "vt-ry 
 otflcious and liosiiitable." 
 
 Ostler = hosteller. The keejier of a ho.^tcl 
 or hotel. (A comic derivation is that it 
 is a contraction of odtsteali r). 
 
 Painful, painstaking. Fidler, in tlie seven. 
 tet^nth century, sjietiks of ibiseiOi :is '1 
 jiainfid eariienter." 
 
 Palliate, to throw a (doak over. I.at. fni. 
 liiivi, a cloak. 
 
 Pencil, a small hair brnsli. Lat. j'l'inriliv'.. 
 a little till. 
 
 Peevish, obstinate. 
 
 Perspective, a glr.ris for seeiu'; eitlier wn 
 or distant things. 
 
 Pe.ster, to enenmber 01 clog. From I.m.'. 
 I.at. ]iast(iriiiui, a clog I'nr hiir--es In u 
 jiaiiturc. 
 
 Plantation, .^ cohmy of men planted. 
 
 Plausible, having obt.iineil api'laiisi' 
 " Kveiy one receiveil him iilausiMy, 
 say.s a seventeenth-century writer. 
 
 Polite, jiolishecl. A seventeenth-centur;- 
 writer has "jiolite bodies as lookiii;;- 
 glasses." 
 
 Pomp, a procession. 
 
 Preposterous, putting the last lirst. I«tf 
 1>rir, before ; and post, after. 
 
 Prevaricate, to re\erse, to slmtlle. Lat 
 jtra'varicarl, to sjiiead tlie le;_'s apait 
 in walking. 
 
 Prevent, to go liefore. Lat. jmi-, befnir, 
 and riiiio, I come. The Prayer-Uook lias 
 " Prevent us, O Lonl, in all our doings.' 
 
 Prodigious, ominous, "A prodigious 
 meteor," meant a mi^teor of bad omen. 
 
 Punctual, atti^nding to small points o( 
 detail. Lat. puyictwi ; Fr. ]'oint. 
 
 Reduce, to lej 
 
 Table, a pieturt 
 
WORDS THAT HAVE OltEATLY CHANGED IX MKANIXH. 171 
 
 Tarpaulin, a sailer ; fiuni tlif tarred 
 ciiiivas suit lie Wore. Now shurtt'iied 
 into lar. 
 
 Qnaint, skilful. I'mspwo, in tho "Tein- 
 j„.st," calls Ariel * My quaint Ariel ! " 
 
 Racy, liaviiif; the strong' ami native qual- 
 itifs iiftlie race. Ci>wley .><ay)i of a poet j Thews, hal>its, manners 
 that hois - 
 " FraiiK'lit with l^risk racy verses, in 
 
 which wf 
 The ."oil from whencetliey rome, taste, 
 .smell, and see." 
 
 Thought, deeji sorrow, anxiety. Matthew 
 vi. '.'5. In "Julius Cie.sar," ii. 1. 1ST, we 
 tind, "TakethouKht, and die for Ciesar." 
 
 Reduce, to lead hack. 
 
 Resent, to he fidly sensible, of. Resent- 
 ment, >;r;itelnl recoK'dti"" "f- 
 
 Restive, ol.stiiiate, inclined to rest or 
 ^taiid still. "To turn rusty •' (^^ rest y) 
 is to turn olistiiiate. 
 
 Retaliate, to ijive hack henefits as well as 
 
 ilijinieS. 
 
 Room, s|>ape, ji'.aee attahle. I.uke xiv. y. 
 
 Rummage, to make room. 
 
 Sad, earnest. 
 
 S;i8h, a tnrhan. 
 
 Secure, free from care. Ben .Tou.son says: 
 "Mill may securely <'\; hut safily, 
 ii.\ir." 
 
 Sheen, 1iri(.;hl, I'Ure. Connected with 
 
 Shrew, a wieked or hurtful person. 
 
 Silly, hlessed. 
 
 Sincerity, ahsence of foreign ailmixture. 
 
 Soft, sweetly reasonahle. 
 
 Spices, kinds -a doublet of species. (A 
 iTMifr in French is c:dli'd an //nV/cr.) 
 
 S'arve. t.. ilie. rhaiuer says, ".lesiis 
 starvnl upon the cross." 
 
 Trivial, very coinnion. I-at. trivia, a 
 placi' where three roiids meet. 
 
 Tuition, guardianship. I_a1. tuilio, look- 
 ing at. 
 
 Uncouth, unknown. 
 
 Union, oneness ; or a pearl in which .size, 
 loiindness, smoothness, purity, lustre, 
 were united. !See " Hamlet," v. 'J. •.!-:;. 
 A doiihlit is (iHi'i/n-sij called from its 
 shape. 
 
 Unkind, unnatural. 
 
 Urbane, living in a city. Jjit. urbs, a 
 eity. 
 
 Usury, money p;iid fur the use of a thing. 
 
 Varlet, a servim^iiKni. I.ow I^it. vasra- 
 Icttti.i, a minor vassal. I'in7t7 and t(i/c( 
 are diminutives of vnnsnl. 
 
 Vermin was api'lieil to iio\ioiis animals 
 of wh.atever si/e. " Tlii' cnHiMlilc is 
 a dangerous \iriiiiii." l,;if. vermii, a 
 worm. 
 
 Villain, a farm-seivant. I,;it. villa, a farm. 
 
 Vivacity, jiertinarity in liviiig; longevity. 
 Fuller spe.iks of a m.in as " most remark- 
 alili' for liis vivacity, for he lived 140 
 years." 
 
 Wit, knowledge, mental ability. 
 
 Worm, a serpent. 
 
 Sycophant, "a fig shower " or inf.uiner 
 :i-,iiivt a iierson who smugu'led tigs. (ir. Worship, to consider worth, to honour 
 
 'ii;,i.)i, a tig; and jihaino, I show. 
 Table, a pieture. 
 
 Wretched, wieked. A. S irrpcca, an out- ^ 
 cast A 
 
HI 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 
 
t 
 
 TAUT 11. 
 
 rOMPOSITIOX. PUXCTUATrOxX, rAKArilPvASlXC 
 
 AND PKOSODY 
 
 i 
 
 AI 
 
p^OT 
 
 
 ?ii 
 
 iMi 
 
 3 t' 
 
 li' 
 
 III 
 
 I 
 
 1. Co 
 
 (i) ^ 
 
 truce 1 
 
 they 111 
 
 (ii) S 
 suKstaii 
 verbs ; 
 iouH \v(i 
 in metl 
 
 2. Th. 
 called St; 
 clear or ( 
 style, is 1 
 toivible, 
 
 "Styl 
 thought 
 ci lilies fi 
 iicgligeii 
 
 3. ( 1 00 
 
 lliiiiking 
 iiii) fre(|i; 
 what we 
 
 (i) We 
 essayists, 
 or J lower 
 'I good ai 
 priate wc 
 the right 
 
HINTS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Composition iti tlm art «jf puttiuj,' .scntcncos togdlior. 
 
 (i) Any 1)110 fiin iiiake a t*eiiteiice ; liut every one caiinot tuakc a kcu- 
 ttiice that in Kotli clear aiul neat. We all 8|>cak and write Hentcnces 
 fvpry (lay ; but these Henteiacs may lie neat or tliey may be cluin>*y — 
 llicy niciy be pleajiant to read, or they may be dull and lii-avy. 
 
 (ii) Sir Arthur Hcli's says: "A sentence should be powerful in it.s 
 substantives, choice and discreet in its adjectives, nicely correct in its 
 verbs ; not a word that could be added, nor one which the most fa^tid- 
 ious woidd venture to sujipress ; in order, lucid ; in so(iuence, logical; 
 in method, perspicuous." 
 
 2. 'J'he iimnner in Avhicli we jmt oiir sentences together is 
 called style. 'J'hiit style may be t,'oo(l or l)a(l ; feelde or vigorons; 
 dear or obscure, 'J'he wliole purpose of style, and of stiulying 
 style, is to enable us to jjreseiit our thoughts to others in a clear, 
 forcible, and yet graceful way. 
 
 "Style is but the order and the movement that we put into our 
 thoughts. If we bind them together closely, compactly, the style be- 
 comes firm, nervous, concise. If they are left to follow each other 
 negligently, the style will be dill'use, slipshod, and insipid." — Bi'kfon. 
 
 3. (Jood composition is the result of three things: (i) clear 
 lliiiiking; (ii) reading the best and most vigorous writers ; and 
 (iii) fre(pu'nt practice in writing, along with careful ]>oli.shing of 
 what wc have written. 
 
 (i) We ought to read diligently in the be.-^ poets, historians, and 
 essayists, — to read over and over again what strikes us as finely or nobly 
 or jiDwerfully expressed,— to get by heart the most striking jiassages in 
 11 good author. This kin<l of study will give us a large stock of apjiro- 
 I'riate words and striking phrases ; and we shall never be at a loss for 
 the right words to express our own sense. 
 
'< i 
 
 mi 
 
 % 
 
 170 
 
 COMI'DSniON, IM'NC'll'ATKtN, KT(;. 
 
 Men .loii.-iiii sii}M : " \'i<v u imii: In uiil<' \\< II, tlicir iirc riv|uirci| 
 tlin'o iit'certMiiiics : h-t liiiii ii'inl iIk' lif.^t autli"!.-; iili.-t'i\( llic ln.^t* 
 H|ieiik«'i.-< ; iiiid luivc mm li rxini.-t' of Lis own f.t\I<'." 
 
 (ii) " My imillicr foncd im', l>y htr.uiy iliiily (nil, (n Iraiii Inii>,' cliaiilci^ 
 (if tlio Hildc liy heart ; ii> \v<'li n.■^. in iciul it, t>vny hvII.iI'N' tlimuKli, ulmiil, 
 liiinl niimcs innl nil, fmm (lciir,-.i> In tlic Ai'nraly|iHf, alioiit niicr a\';u: 
 ami til t.liat. liifiiiiliiii', |iaticiit. ai'curatr, ami it-.-nlutc, I nwf, nn), ..hly 
 a kiinwlfd^'i; nl' *li(! Ixink, liiit, iini'li i>f my f^'cm-ral pnucr nf takiii).' |iaiii.>, 
 r,U(l the l)i.'<t jHtrt nfvnf tustr in liti nitnn ." .InllN Ui'sKlN. 
 
 (ill) I'ut, iJinii^Ji mill li naciiiii^ nf llic Ix-hl, li ink.< ami a v'lfat, df.il if 
 |>rai't,iit! in cnmiinsitinii art- IIk- nnjy means tn att;..iii a i;nni| ami vi^ninu., 
 style, ilieie aie ccrtaiii direttiniis ImlJi j^'eiieral and speLiul - wliiiii may 
 be of use to the y<njiig student, when he i.i beginning. 
 
 CKNEIJAL l>Ii:i:(TI()XS. 
 
 4. "NVji must know tlic sulijcct fully almut wliidi we arc ,L,'niii^ 
 
 to ■write. 
 
 (i) If wo are f,'')ing to tell a .-^tory, we must know all the eircumstaiu'c- 
 the train of events that led up tn the result ; the relations of the iier,~"ii- 
 in the story to each other ; what they said ; and the outcome nf tin.' 
 whole at the dose. These considerations guide us to 
 
 Practical Rule I. Draw up on a iiiccc of paper a short 
 skeleton of -what ynu are going to write about. 
 
 (i) Arehbisho[) Whately says : "The more brictly this is done, so tli;it 
 it does but exhibit cleai-ly the heads of the composition, the better ; \<f- 
 cause it is important that the whole nf it l)e placed before the eye and 
 mind in a snuiU compass, and bo taken in, as it were, at a glance ; and it 
 should be written, thereff"e, not in Kcidctirrs, but like a table of content.-. 
 Such an outline should tint be allowed to fetter the writer, if. in tin; 
 counsc of the .actual composition, he find any reason for deviating fn>Mi 
 his original plan, — it should serve merely a.s a track to mark nut a jialli 
 for him, not as a groove U) confine him." 
 
 (ii) Cobbett says: "Sit down to write what you have i/iou;/ht, aw'] 
 not to think what you shall write." 
 
 5. Our sentonces must be written in good English. 
 
 Good English is simply the Knglish of the best writers ; anti we can 
 only learu what it is by reading the books of these writers. Good writers 
 
 till:! 
 
r.KNKI.'AF. DIKKCTION.S. 
 
 177 
 
 i.f tho |.ros(Mit ifiitiiry .'in' -^tiili uiitln»ri riH ('luirlc-i I.atnli, .Iiiiii' Austen, 
 Siult, ('nliTiilK'f, l.iiii.Iiir, '.Iii.aiilay, 'rii.irkiiuy, I ti( ki-im, Miif.tln'W 
 Arii'ilii, KimikIc, Kuskii', i.ml (Jcur^'p \'A'\i,i,. 
 
 C. <>iii' .st'iiti'iiri's iiiiist bf writtt'ii in pure Englinh. 
 
 (i) Tlii^ nil(! fiU'ltiils (lie wi" I'f cilisnlctc i>r (.Id f.i.-liidUfil wmkIs, ><\ic1i 
 !i.~i rfftf , fi( rmln ii()iri\ liii//il, In hultli ti, vintr/isdj'f, mitli'nih.i, clr. 
 
 (ii) It. I'l'i'liids al.-M till- u.si! o|" .-laiig cxiin^ssidiiw, hucIi us mrj'nllii^ j„lhi^ 
 rot, lioKh, HiiiiU II rut, xrr ii'ltli half nil ni<\ ••!/<•. 
 
 (iii) It fnrliiil.H t,hf t'liiiilnyniciit of tfu'lniical trniiK, uhIc-^m t.ln'Hc aro 
 iili'iiluti'Iy iH'C(.'ss!iiy tit «'X|irf's.s i>ur iii(;iiiiiii(.' ; jiihI t.liin is miic In In- tin' 
 cast' ill a |>ai»t'r tn'atiii^ on a scicntilit! Hulijrct. I'.ut U'rlmical Icinis in 
 Mil (inlinary |ii«'f(; of writing, surh a^ 'jnnutltittirr, coiiitnfiitiiiii, tiunit, 
 chri'iiiiitir, arc iiuitt* out of place. 
 
 (iv) In oliodicnt'c to tiiis lulc, wo ou^lit al.-^o caiffull} to avoiil the uso 
 >ti fi'T'oij^Mi wonlrt and pln-ascr*. AUt'ftal ion of all kind.s U dirtgu.-tin^ ; 
 and it Ifotii loc k.-t and is atl'frtrd to \is(« -udi wnids as nnifri rr, raiaim 
 d't'trr, (iiitiiur proprr, r(tii;fe, etc. 
 
 (v) This rocoiiinipnilation also includes the Practical Ru> : "Wlion 
 an Mn^'lish-Kn^disli (or ' Saxoii ' ) and a I.utin I'n^li.-li woid ull'cr lIhmh- 
 .'iohcs, wo had hotter choose tho Saxon. ' 
 
 (vi) Tho following is from an article hy Leigh Hunt : "In the I'ihlo 
 there aro no Lutinisins ; ami where is tho life of our l<ui(jun<jr to lio 
 fuund in such j'irjWtioii as in tho trtiiiKlntion of tho Bihlo i We will 
 vtnturr to njjiriii that no ont! is mnxfir of tho Knglish Idiii/umjr \v]\t> is not 
 well road in tho I'liltlo, un<l mhhH^U of its picidiar crcdlrncrs. It is tho 
 jnire well of Knglish. Tho taste which tho 15ihlo forms is not a taste 
 fur big words, but a taste for tho uli/tplrst cxprennlon or the clcanst 
 indUum of prcHintliiij Idcns. Rnanrl'iihic it is that most of the xuhlliultits 
 ill the Biblo aro convci/cd in inoiiuxi/l/dh/at. For cxmnpU, 'Let there bo 
 light: and there was light.' Do those words want any life that Latin 
 could lend them ? , . . Tho best stjil's aro the freest from Latiniam.s ; 
 and it may be almost laid down as a rule that a good writer will never 
 have recourse to aLatinism if a Saxon word will < 7 «</////.« /Tf. liis purjionf. 
 We cannot diKpinsc with words of Latin d(riv(itii>n; but there should 
 lie i\\G pilca of nccossity for resortinj to thorn, or we wrong our Knglish." 
 
 (vii) At tho same time, it must not bo forgotten that wo very often 
 are coiniielled by necessity to use Latin words. Even Leigh Hunt, in 
 the ab(}ve passage, has been obliged to do so while declaimiinr against it. 
 This is apparent from the number of words printed in italics, all ui 
 which are derived from Latin. This is most apparent in the jilirase 
 e'luully serve his purpose, which we could not now translate into " jiure " 
 Kuglisli. 
 
 I 
 
t 
 
 ; 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 178 
 
 COMrORTTTON, TUNfrrnATION, KTO. 
 
 7. Onr scniciK'cM imist lie wrilicii in accurate EnRliHli. 
 That ii', tli(s words iisnl iniisl, Itc appropriate to (he sense ue 
 wisl> t(t eonvi'v. AeeunK'y is the; virtue (if tisiiij^r "the ri^^hl, 
 word ill the iiL,'ht. jiliiee," 
 
 (i) "Tlie jilt('iiii>t was ftniiid iu he im|tract.i('al)le." "St^w, linprnrlli'iiUr 
 tiieaiiH im|Missilile ui' acioiniilisluiii'iil,. Any mie may "''''/)/>< any! liiii).^; 
 
 eairyiiij^ it «nit in a ililVercMit tiling. 'I'lio wonl used slniuM Iiave 1 n 
 
 (tcKtifn or pidu. 
 
 (ii) "Tlie vnai'ily of the .stat,eiueiit was called in (luestioii." Vtrnrltii 
 i.s the attriliute of a |>ers(in ; not of a statenieid.. 
 
 (iii) AftMirate l-'nglish can only l>e attained l>y the careful st.udy nf tlic 
 difVerent shades of meaninj^ in words ; hy the constant coni|iaris(in uf 
 HynonyiUH. Hence we may lay down t.lio 
 
 Practical Rule II. — Make a eolh'etion of synonymH, ami 
 
 eonipare the nieaiiiiii^s of eaeh eou|)l(^ (i) in a dictionary, and 
 (ii) in ii s(>nt( iu'(\ 
 
 'J'lu^ followin^i^ are a few, tlie. distinctions hetween wliicli an' 
 very ai>piirenc : — 
 
 Abstain 
 
 lA irbear. 
 
 Custom 
 
 Habit. 
 
 Active 
 
 Diligent. 
 
 Delay 
 
 Defer. 
 
 Aware 
 
 (\)iiscious. 
 
 Difficulty 
 
 Obstacle. 
 
 Character 
 
 lleitutation. 
 
 Strong 
 
 I'owerful. 
 
 Circuinst^mce 
 
 ICvent. 
 
 Think 
 
 Helieve. 
 
 8. (^ur sentences sliouhl hi' perfectly clear. That is, llic 
 reader, if ho is a person of ordinary coinnion-sense, .should not 
 he left for a moment in douht as to our meaninijf. 
 
 (i) A Roman writer on style says : "Care should be taken, not that 
 the I'eader may understand if he will, but that he ahali understaml 
 whether he will or not." 
 
 (ii) Our sentences should be as clear a*! " mountain water flowing over 
 a rock." They should "economise the reader's attention." 
 
 (iii) Clearness is gained by being simple, and by being brief. 
 
 (iv) Simplicity teaches us to avoid («) too learned words, and (//) 
 roundabout ways of mentioning persons and things. 
 
 (a) We ought, for example, to prefer — 
 Abuse to Vituperation. Neighbourhood to Vicinity. 
 
 Begin « Commence. Trustworthy n Reliable. 
 
 Commence n Initiate. Welcome n Reception. 
 
riKNEI.'AL I)FFIK( TH)NS. 
 
 17:) 
 
 {!,) \Vn (nielli' to avuid hui-Ii Rlal(» and Iiackiioyod pliraHCM an tln> 
 "Swan (if Avon" fur SliakcHiicarr ; Mif " Haiil <<( l^'loicncf; " fur 
 Dant.f! ; " llu' <<r<'at, I,«>xiri(gT'a|(licr " for |)r .InlniMm,. 
 
 (v) Brevity (>njniiiK ii|Miri im tJio ncfd df ('xiiroHKiiig our meaning in ris 
 fi'W wiird.H as |Missili|(>. 
 
 Oji|ii)Hf'd 1,(1 l)n'vii,y is verbosity, or Wdidinc-is. V<>]>i' says — 
 
 " Winds (i: I' 'iki' l(','iv(s; iilnl, wlirir liny iiiii>;t alinilli.l, 
 MiK'li li nil, nC si'nsc liciic.'illi is r;iiily rniiinl." 
 
 (vi) l)r .liilnisoii Hays : " 'rciljousncss is (,!io most, fatal uf all fault.s.'' 
 
 9. (>iir si'IiUmicch sliouM l)i' written in flowing English. 
 Tli.ii is, lilt' rliyiliiii of cncli sciilriicc on^^dil to he plfiisMiil, Ut 
 till' car, if ivad iilotid. 'I'IiIh iixioiii ;.^ivc.s rise to j.wo iiilcs : — 
 
 Practical Rule III - Wriln as yoii would speak ! 
 
 (i) 'I'liis, (if coni'so, |iniii(,s ),ii an anfcccdcnf, ciindit-idti l,lia|, you niu«t 
 lio a giHxl iTador. < lood rcadiii;^' aloud is on(! of ilic chief condiLionH of 
 good wi'il.in),;. " Ijiving H[iecch," say.s a iiliilosoiihic writer, "is tlic cor- 
 I't'cLivo of all stylo." 
 
 Practical Rule IV. — After wo liuvc, wriiifiu oiir picrn of com- 
 position, w<! should read it aloud citlicr to ourselves or to soino 
 one <'ls('. 
 
 Tlius, and thus only, sliall wo ho aide to know whether each Hontenio 
 lias an agroeahlo rhythm. 
 
 Practical' Rule V.- -" Xevcn* write almut any matter you do 
 not well uiid(!rstand. Jf y(»u (ilearly understand all iilxnit your 
 matter, you will never want tliou.Ljlils ; and tIiou,:^lits instantly 
 IxToine. Avords." — (Jcmmjett. 
 
 " Seek not for words ; Hcek only fact and thought. 
 And crowding in will (;oino the woids, nnsonght.'V— TTouace. 
 
 "Know well your wuhject ; and (ho words will go 
 To the pen's point, with steady, ceaseless How." — I'KNTr.AND. 
 
 10. Our sontences sliould l)e compact. 
 
 (i) That is, they ought not to be loose colloi^itions of word<, J)ut firtn, 
 well-knit, nervous organisni.s. 
 
 (ii) A sentence ii. ■vhicli the complete sense is susjiended till the close 
 is called a period. Contrasted with it is the Itjose sentence. 
 
Ill 
 
 »l I 
 
 Niir 
 
 I'llll 
 
 jjJLilllti 
 
 180 
 
 COMPOSITION, I'UXCTUATION ETC. 
 
 ((/) Loose Sentence. -Tlio rurit,aiis lookod down with r()iitoin]if, nn 
 the rii'Ii ;unl I ho cluiniciit,, on nol)k>,s and priests. 
 
 [h) Period. On llx; lirli ;unl th(! ohxjuont, on milik'.s iind priests, 
 tli(; I'nritiuis lookod down witli contempt. 
 
 (iii) Tho I'olldwin;^' is ii tine example of a loose sentonce : "Notwilh- 
 standinj^ his having' K""t*> i" winter, to Moscow, wliere he found the culil 
 excessive, and whiiji conlined him, without intt'rmission, six weeks to 
 his I'Ooin, we could not induce him io como home." 'i'his no nmn' 
 makes a sentence than a few cai't loads of ln'icks thrown loosely upon Ihc 
 g-ound constitute a hou.-o. y^ • 
 
 EMriTASTS. 
 
 (')no. ohjccl, ill stylo is to call tli(> .'iltcntioii of (lie roador in a 
 f()iN'i])l(> ami _Y»'l. ao'rtM'alili' way to the iiii»st iniporlaiit ])arts of 
 our subject in oilici' words, to oi\<' emphasis to Avliat is 
 cniplialic, and lo make ■what, is sirikiiiLj and iniportani slrikc the 
 eye and mind (d" (lie vcadci'. This purpose may Ix; uttaiiMMl in 
 many ditltu'tMit ways; hut llu'r(! art; .sovoral easy d('vi(!('s tliai 
 will bo found of use to lis in oui- cndoavoiir to give weight and 
 (■ini)liasis lo what we. Avrite. These are : — 
 
 1. 'I'hc ordinary oTamniatic^al order of tlu! words in <i sentence 
 'niay Ik; varied ; and einpliatie words may he thrown to lli" 
 beginning or to the end of the seiitcneo. This is the deN ice 
 of Inversion. 
 
 Thus we have, "Pdesscd i.s he that conioth in tho name of tlio 
 Ijord." "Jesus I know, and I'aul I know : but who are ye?" "S(jnie 
 he imjn-isoned ; others lie put to death." "Co he umst ! " " Do it ho 
 shall!" "They could take their rest, for they knew Lord Straflonl 
 watched. Him they feared, him they tru.stod, him they obeyed." "]lo 
 that tell.-, a lie is not sensible how great a task lie undertakes ; ft)r, to 
 maintain one, he must invent twenty more." In the last sentence, the 
 phrase to nKiiiuxln one gains emphasi.s by being thrown out of its 
 usual and natural position. lUit 
 
 Caution 1. — Do not go out of your way to invert. It lias a 
 look of alleclatiou. Do not say, for example, " Ti'uo it is," or 
 "Of i\IiHon it was always said," etc. And do not begin an 
 essay thus : " Of all the vices that disfigure and degrade," etc. 
 
 i: 
 
KMIMIASIS. 
 
 181 
 
 2. Tlio Omission of Conjunctions ^'ivos form and cuipliasis. 
 
 Thus Huiiu? writes: "III? rushcil amidst, tliem wit,li liis swurd 
 (Iniwii, threw tluMu into cniifusioii, jMislicil lii.s fidvaiitii^'f, und ^'uiiicd a 
 cuiiiiiluttj victory." We may write : " Vdu say this ; i di'uy it." 
 
 3. Tlic USD of tJKi Imperative Mood ".jivcs liNcliiicss and 
 i'iii])ha,si,s. 
 
 Thus wo find tJio sontenco : " Stri|) virtue of the awful autlioritj' 
 slio (ItM-ives fruiii tlie general reverence of mankind, and y<>ii inh her of 
 lialf lit!r majesty." Uorc utr'ip is ec)ual to If ijnH strip; hut is much 
 more forcilile. 
 
 - 4. Kiiiiiliasi.s i.s also ffaiiuid by ('in})loyiiiL,' tltc Interrogative 
 Form. 
 
 (i) Thus, to say "Who does not hope to live long ?" is much more 
 fiircilih' and livcily tiian "All of us lio|)(> U> iiv(» long." 
 
 l^ii) Tiiis is a well known form in all im|)a.ssion(«d s|ieoch. Thus, in 
 t.he r.il)le we find : " Vour fatiiei's, where are tli(;y ': And t,li«> iiro])hets, 
 (lu tliey liv(! for ever T' 
 
 5. Th(^ (l(!vico. of Exclamation may also Ix; oni])lf)y(Ml to <,dve 
 iiupliasi.s ; luit it cannot bo fi'e(|ii(!iiily used, uitlioiit danger of 
 falliiiL,' into afrcctation. 
 
 Thus Shakespeare, instead of making Handet f;ay, "Man is a wonder- 
 ful piece of work," etc.- -which would l)e dull and tiat — writes, "What 
 a piecte of work is man I " etc. 
 
 6. Emphasis may Ixi j^^ained by Iho use of ilic dpvioo of 
 Periphrasis. 
 
 (i) Thus, instead of saying "John huilt this house," or " This house 
 was huilt by John," we can say ; " It was John who luiilt this liouse ;" 
 " It was no other than John who," etc. 
 
 7. Repetition is .somotimos a })ow('rful dcvico fo'- producinfj 
 t'liipiKisis ; but, if too freipicntly t'liiploycd, it becomes a tire'- 
 i^oiiie iiianucri.sm. 
 
 (i) Macaulay is very fond of this device. He says: " TacituK tells a 
 fine story finely, but lie cannot tell a jilaiii .story plainly. He stimulates 
 till stimulants lose their power." Again: "He asiiirod to tlie highest 
 — altove the people, above the authorities, aliove the laws, above liis 
 
 L'ountry." 
 
lit 
 
 182 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 (ii) Its effect in poetry Is sotnetiincs very tine : — 
 
 " 15y foroipi liaiids tliy ilyin;,' cyps were closed : ♦ 
 
 By foreij,'!! liaiids tliy decent liiiihs ('(.iiiiioseil ; 
 By forei},'!! Ijainls tliy Imiiililo jjrave adorned ; 
 By strani,'ers lioiioiired, and liy stran^'ers numrned." 
 
 8. Tlio (levi(!o of Suspense iulds tu tlio -wcii^'lit nii<l cinipliasi.s 
 of a stiitcineiit ; it kcops tlio attention of tlio reader mi tlic 
 strtitcli, ])ocause lie. feels tlin sense to l)o incomplete. 
 
 (i) The suspense in the ftdh^wing sentence gives a heiglitenod i(lp;i (.f 
 the tlifflcuity of travelling: "At last, with no small (liflicuHy, and 
 after much fatigue, we came, through deep roatls, storms of wiml and 
 rain, and bad weather of all kinds, to our journey's end." 
 
 (ii) This device is frequent in poetry. Thus Keats oiiens his '' Hy- 
 perion " in this way : — 
 
 " Deep in the sliaily sadness of a vale, 
 Far sunken from the lii^ilthy hreath of morn, 
 P'ar from the (lery noon and eve's one star- 
 Sat grey-haired Saturn, riniel as a stone." 
 
 Here the verb is kept to the hist line. 
 
 9. Antithesis always commands attention, and is therefore a 
 powerfnl mode of emphasising a statement. ]>ut antithesis is 
 not always at one's command ; and it must not be strained after. 
 
 Macaulay employs this device with gi'eat effect. He has : " Tlie 
 Puritan,, hated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, Imt 
 because it gave i)lcasure to the spect<ators." Swift was very fond of it. 
 Thus he says : "The two maxims of a great man at court are, always to 
 keep Ilia countenance, and never to keep his word." Dr Johnsiui liiis 
 this sentence : " He was a learned man among lords, and a lord aiiioii^' 
 learned men." " He twice forsook his party ; his principles never." 
 
 10. A very sharp, sudden, and unexpected antithesis is called 
 an Epigram. 
 
 (1) Thus Lord Bacon, speaking of a certain iirocession in Rome, says that 
 " The statues of Brutus and Cassius were conspicuous by their absence. " 
 Macaulay says of the dirt and splendour of the Russian And)assatlors: 
 "They came to the English Court dropping pearls and vermin." 
 
 (ii) The following are additional instances of truths put in a very 
 striking and epigrauimatic way: "Verbosity is cured by a large vocab- 
 ulary " (because when you have a large stock of words, you will be 
 able to choose the fittest). " We ought to know something of every- 
 thing, and everything of something." " He was born of poor but dis- 
 honest parents." " When you have nothing to say, say it." "He 
 
DISTINCTNESS OF STYLE. 
 
 183 
 
 liu'l nothing t<> do, and he did it." "The better is the enemy of the 
 good." "One secret in education," says Herbert Siiencer, " i.s to know 
 how wisely to lose time." "Make haste slowly." "Tliey did nothing 
 in jiarticular ; and did it very well," 
 
 (iii) But no one should strain after sui'h a style of writing. Such an 
 attempt would only produce smartness, which is a futul vice. 
 
 DISTINCTNESS OF STYLE. 
 
 1. One great secret of a good aiul .striking stvlo is tlie art of 
 Specification. 
 
 Professor Bain give.«! us an excellent example of a vague and gen- 
 eral, fis opposed to a distinct and si)ecific style : — 
 
 (a) Vague. — "In proportion as the manners, customs, and amuse- 
 ments of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulation of their 
 penal codes will be severe." 
 
 (b) Specific. — "According as men delight in battles, bullfights, and 
 combats of gladiators, so will they punish by hanging, burning, 
 and crucifying." 
 
 2. 8])ecificatioii or distinctness of style may be attained in 
 two ways : (i) by the use of concrete terms ; and (ii) by the 
 use of detail. 
 
 3. A concrete or particular term strike 5 both tlio feelings 
 ami iiiuigination witii greater force than an ab.stract or general 
 icrni can do. 
 
 (i) Let us make a few contrasts : — 
 Abstract. 
 
 Quadruped. 
 
 Building materials. 
 
 Old age. 
 
 Warlike weapons. 
 
 Rich and poor. 
 
 A miserable state. 
 
 " I have neither the necessaries 
 of life, nor the means of pro- 
 curing them." 
 
 CONCRETR. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Bricks and mortar. 
 Grey hairs. 
 Sword and gun. 
 The palace and the cottage. 
 Age, aclie, and penury. 
 " I have not a crust of bread, 
 nor a penny to buy one." 
 
 (ii) Campbell says : " The more general the terms are, the picture is 
 tlie fainter ; the more special, the brighter." " They sank like lead in 
 tlie mighty waters " ia more forcible than " they sank like metal." 
 
184 
 
 COMPOSITION", PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 ! '> 
 
 4. Details fiiahlti tho ic.'kUt t<> form in his mind a vivid jiic- 
 turo of till! c.vcnit narrated or tlu; person dcscrilH'd ; and, lictniv 
 Loginning to write, m-c ought always to dra^"' np a list of smli 
 details as ar(! Ixjtli striking and appropriate, — such details 113 
 tend to tliK.'W int(,) stronger relief the, chief person or event. 
 
 Tlio fullowiii^' irt a good cxainplo fnun tlie oloquciit %\ liter ainl 
 j)r()foiiiiil thiiikor I'Mimiinl P.iii'ke. lie is siioakiiig of the filiilaiitlno- 
 jti.st Howard : — 
 
 "Hi- lius visited (ill F'liiiiiic to ilivf into tlu; dcjitlis of (luii^'i'oiis ; to ]il:iir;:i' 
 into till! 'inlVcti(Piis of Imsiiitals ; to survey the niiinsioiis of sorrow ;imi1 jain; 
 to take tlie K'"'K'' ami ilinieiisions of misery, iIei)ression, and <'ohtein]it' tii 
 rcnienilier the forgotten, to attend to the nej^'leeted, to visit the forsaken, riii'l 
 to cuiujiare and eollat,i; the distrussL's of all men in all countrifs." 
 
 OEXERAL CAUTIOXS. 
 
 1. Avoid tho USG of thread])aro and hacknoyod expression? 
 Loavo them to people Avho are in ti hurry, or to penny-a-liuers. 
 
 Instkad ok 
 At the expii'atioii of four years. 
 Paternal sentiments. 
 Exceedingl}' opulent. 
 Incur the danger. 
 Accepted signification. 
 Extreme felicity. 
 A sanguinary engagement. 
 In the afRrmative, 
 
 WlUTK 
 
 At tlie end, etc. 
 
 The feelings of a father. 
 
 Very rich. 
 
 Run the risk. 
 
 U.sual meaning. 
 
 Great happiness. 
 
 A bloody battle. 
 
 Yes. 
 
 2. Bo very careful in tlu; management of pronouns. 
 
 (i) Cobbett says : " Never put an it upon paper without thiiikiiii: 
 well what you are about, "When I see many it's in a page, I alv:i\- 
 tremble for tlie writer." See also 2 Kings, xix. 3.5: "And when Mi/; 
 arose early in tlie morning, beliold thri/ were all dead corpses." 
 
 (ii) Bolingl)j'oke ha.s the sentence: "They were jicrsons of very iiiotU'r 
 ate intellects, even l)efore they were impaired by their passions." Tl;'' 
 last thci/ ought to be these. 
 
 (iii) The sentence, " He said to liis patient that if he did not feel 
 better in half an hour, ho thought lie had better return," is a cluiiisy 
 sentence, liut clear enough ; because we can easily see that it is the 
 patient that is to take the advice. 
 
Sl'KCIAL CAUTIONS. 
 
 185 
 
 3. ]',*'. (.'aroful not to use mixed iin'tiii)liMis, 
 
 (i) Tlie fnllnwiiig irt a fearful exiiiniile : "Tliiti is tlic anow i>( cunvic- 
 tiiiii, wliioli, like a nail driven in a .sui'e place, .-trikes its nxits <li>\vii\var(la 
 iiilK the earth, ami bear.s fruit upwards." 
 
 ^ii) Sir I'xiyle Roclie, iui Iri.-^li lutiinlier, l»egaii a speech thus: "Mr 
 Speaker, I smell a rat, I see iiiiu tinatiiig in tlio air; hut, maik nie, 
 I >hall yet nip. him in llie hud." A similar statement is : " Lord Kim- 
 berley said that in taking; a very large liite i>f the Turki-li ciierry the 
 u.iv had lieen paved fnr its partition at im distant day." 
 
 4. I!'' simple, (luiet, man]}', frank, ami slrai,L,Oil forward in 
 yoiu" -stylo, a.s in your conduct. 'J'liat is : lie, yoiusclf 1 
 
 \ 
 
 SPECIAL rAUTIOXS. 
 
 1. A\()id tautology. 
 
 Ali.>i)n says: "It was founded mainly on the entire nionop'ly of 
 tlie i'7i'i/t' trade with the colonies." Here entire and v/m/e are tauto- 
 logical ; h)r iiionopohj mean.s entire 2"»i-"'et''<i'>n, m jios.-o.i.s'mn nf the icho/e. 
 " Jlc a))pears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men." Here univcranl 
 is superfluous, 
 
 2. Place the adverb as near the ^vord it miKliiies as you 
 
 can. 
 
 " He not only found her employed, but also pleased and tranquil." 
 The not only belongs to employed, and should therefore go with it. 
 
 3. Avoid circundocution 
 
 "Her Majesty, on reaching Perth, partook of lireakfast." This 
 should be simply breakfaxtecl. 15ut the whole sentence slKJuld be recast 
 into : " On reaching Perth, the Queen breakfasted in the station." 
 
 4. Take care that your participles are attached to nouns, and 
 that llicy do not run loose. 
 
 "Alai.aed at the news, the boat was launched at once." Here 
 (ilitnncd can, grammatically, agree witli hoat only. The sentence 
 slmuKl be: "The men, alarmed at tlie news, launched their boat at 
 once." 
 
 5. Use a present participle as seldom as possible. 
 
 (i) " I have documents i)roving this " is not so strong as " to prove 
 tliis." 
 
 m 
 
rr 
 
 'imiF--~''''^mmmm 
 
 180 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 Ili^ 
 
 
 (ii) " He dwelt a long time on the adviintages of Kwift stcainert*, tliu.s 
 accounting for the inorea.se," etc. The phraKC " thuis accounting " i.s vfry 
 loose. Every ^lentenc.-e r)ught to be neat, firm, and compact. 
 
 6. liciiKUiilHjr that who ^ and he or for he; whilf that 
 
 introduces a nu;roly adjectival clatisc, 
 
 "I heard it from the doctor, wIkj told the gardener that-work,- tnr- 
 thecollege." Here who — and he; and that introducetj the adjtsctival 
 Hentcnce. 
 
 7. Do not cliangc tlit.' Snhjcct of your Sentence. 
 
 (i) Anotlier way of ])utting this is : " Preserve the unity of the 
 sentence ! " 
 
 (ii) "Archbishop Tillotson died in this year. He was excecdiiitrly 
 beloved both by King William and Queen Mary, who nominated Jm 
 Tenison to succeed him." The last statement about nominatimj another 
 bishop has no natural connection with what goes before. 
 
 (iii) " After we came to anclior, they put me on shore, where I wa.< 
 welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kind 
 ness." This sentence ought to be broken into two. The first should 
 end with on shore ; and the second begin " Here I was met and, etc." 
 
 8. See that who or which refers to its proper antecedent. 
 
 " Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a yeoman, 
 to whom he left his second-best bed." Here the grammatical aiitece 
 dent is yeonian; but the historical and sense -antecedent is certainly 
 daughter. 
 
 9. Do not use and ^vhich for which. 
 
 (i) " I bought him a very nice book as a present, and which cost me 
 ten shillings." The and is here worse than useless, 
 
 (ii) If another which has preceded, of course and which is right. 
 
 10. Avoid exaggerated or too strong language. 
 
 Unprecedented, most extraordinary, incalculable, boundless, extrcmdij, 
 awfully, scandalous, stupendous, should not be used unless we know that 
 they are both true and appropriate. 
 
 11. 33e careful not to mix up dependent with principal 
 sentences. 
 
 " He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to give 
 orders to his servants." Here it is doubtful whether intended is co- 
 ordinate with replied or with wished. If the former is the case, theu 
 we ought to say he intended. 
 
I'UNCTUATION. 
 
 187 
 
 12. Be very caroful about tlii^ riglit position of cacJi phrase 
 ur clause in your sentence. 
 
 Tlic following arc curiouH examples of diHlociitiour* or niisiilat'c 
 ineiits : "A piano for sale by a lady aljout t<) t-ro.sH tlie Ciiannel in an 
 oak case with carved legs." "I believe tliat, when he die I, Cirdinal 
 Mezzofanti spoke at least fifty languages." " Me l)lew out 1.!., brains 
 after bidding his wife good-bye with a gun." " Krerted (o the memory 
 of John Phillips, accidentally shot, as a mark of aflection by hia 
 brother" "The Board has resolved to erect a building large enough 
 to acconuuodate .''lOO stuilents three storeys high." "Mr C'arlyle haa 
 taught us that silence is golden in thirty -seveu volumca. " 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 1. Certain signs, called points, are used in sentences to mark 
 nir llicir (lillerent parts, and to show the relation of each part to 
 the organic whole. 
 
 (i) Putting in the right points is called punctuation, from the Latin 
 jiundmn, a point. From the same word come punctual and punctuality. 
 
 2. These points are tlie full stop, the colon, the semicolon, 
 the dash, and the comma, 
 
 3. The full stop (.) or period marks the clo.se of a sentence. 
 
 4. The colon ( : ) introduces (i) a nevv' statement tliat may 
 lio regarded as an after-thought ; or (ii) it introduces a cata- 
 logue of things ; or (iii) it introduces a formal speech. 
 
 (The word colon is Greek, and means lirnh or member.) 
 (i) " Study to acquire a habit of accurate expression : no study is 
 more important." 
 
 (ii) " Then follow excellent parables about fame : as that she gathereth 
 strength in going ; that she goeth upon the ground, and yet liideth lier 
 liciid in the clouds ; that in the day-time she sitteth in a watch-tower, 
 mill ilieth most by night."— Bacon. 
 
 (iii) " Mr Wilson rose and said : 'Sir, I am .sorry,' etc." 
 
 5. The semicolon is employed "when, for reasons of sound or 
 of sense, two or more simple sentences are thrown into one. 
 
 {Semicolon is Greek, and means half a colon.) 
 
 (i) " In the youth of a state, arms do flourish ; in the middle age of 
 
Tl^W 
 
 188 
 
 COiMPOSlTlON, rrrNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 I ^ 
 
 is: :i 
 
 ll. :| 
 
 f! 1: 
 
 ii :i 
 
 'I 
 
 ii 
 
 III' 
 
 a Htate, learning ; and then both of tlieui iuKetlier foi' a Lime ; in the 
 declining ii^i'. »it' a state, inuehanioal arts and nitirliandi.>e." — Hakin.* 
 
 (ii) Learn from the hirds what foodw the thickets yield ; 
 Learn from the heaHts the pliynic of the field ; 
 Thy arts of liuilding from the l)ec receive ; 
 Learn of the mole to plough, the worm to weave."— I'oiK. 
 
 6. Tlio diiHh is used (i) tu introduce an ainplilicalinn m ( x- 
 plaiiiitiuii ; and (ii) two daslies aro often iinploycd in jilacf of 
 the old parentlicsis. 
 
 (i) " During the march a wtorm of rain, thunder, and lightning came 
 on — a storm .such a.s i.s only seen in tropical countiies. " 
 
 (ii) "llibbons, buckles, liuttons, pieces of golddace— any trifles he hail 
 worn — were stored as priceless treasures." 
 
 7. Tlio comma is used to indicate a strong pause, (Mllurol 
 sense or of sound. 
 
 (i) It is true that the comma is the weakest of all our stopn ; liui 
 there are many pauses which we ought to make in reading a sentcint 
 aloud that are not nearly strong enough to warrant a comma, 
 
 (ii) It is better to understop rather than to overstop. For cxaiiii'Ic 
 the last part of the last sentence in the paragraph above might Imvi.' 
 been printed thus : "there are many pauses, which we ought to iiiiike, 
 in reading a sentence aloud, that are not nearly strong enough to war- 
 rant a comma." This is the old-fashioned style ; but such sprinkling uf 
 commas is not at all necessary. 
 
 (iii) Two things are all that are required to teach us the u.se of n 
 comma : (a) observation of the custom of good writers ; and (6) careful 
 consideration of the sense and build of our own sentences. 
 
 (iv) The following are a few special uses of the comma : — 
 (a) It may be used in place of and : — 
 
 " We first endure, then pity, then embrace." 
 (6) After an address : " John, come here. " 
 
 (c) After certain introductory adverbs, as hmvcvcr, at Icinjlh, at 
 last, etc. " He came, however, in time to catch the train." 
 
 8. I'he point of interrogation (?) is placed at the end of a 
 question. 
 
 9. The point of admiration (!) is employed to mark a state- 
 ment which calls for surprise or wonder ; but it is now seldom 
 used. 
 
FIGUKKS OF SPEECH. 
 
 189 
 
 FIGURES OP SPEECH. 
 
 1. Tho mind naturally tends, especially when in a stato of 
 
 ('X(;itenient, to tho use of what is called figurative language. 
 
 It is as if we called upon all the things wo see or have seen to 
 
 (•onie forward and help us to tyoress our overniasterint,' emotions. 
 
 In fact, the external shows of nature an; retpiired to express th»; 
 
 internal movements of th;- mind ; the external world provides a 
 
 language for the internal or mental world. Hence we find all 
 
 hmguage full of figures of speech. Though we do not notice 
 
 tliem at the time, we can hardly open our mouths without using 
 
 them. As Butler says in his famous poem : — 
 
 "For Hudiliras, — lie could not ope 
 His mouth, Vmt out tluu-e Mew a troi)e." ^ 
 
 We speak of a town being donned; of a rhio' head; a hard 
 heart; ii'irujed wovds', (/lo/ciufj iAo([\ici\cii', riryiii hwow; h fonrnt 
 (if words; the thirntj/ ground; the (UKjry sea. AVe speak of 
 (lod's Word hinng a Ihjht to our fe(!t and a hnnp to our path. 
 
 2. This kind of language has been examined, classilied, and 
 arranged under heads ; and the chief figures of speech are called 
 Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synecdoche, 
 Metonymy, and Hyperbole. 
 
 3. A Simile is a comparison that is limited to one point. 
 "Jones fought like a lion." Here the single point of likeness 
 between Jones and the lion is the bravery of the fighting of 
 each. 
 
 {Simile comes from the Latin similis, like.) 
 
 (i) "His spear was like the mast of a sliip." " His saltd terds striken 
 down like rain," says Chaucer. "Apollo came like the night," says 
 Homer. " His words fell soft, like snow upon the ground," are the 
 words used by Homer in speaking of Ulysses. " It stirs the heart 
 like the sound of a trumpet " said Sir Philip Sidney in speaking of 
 the ballad of "Chevy Chase." Tennyson admirably compares a miller 
 covered with flour to "a working-bee in blossom-dust," 
 
 * A trope — from Greek trUpos, a turning. A word that has been turned 
 from its ordinary and primary use. From the same root come tropics 
 and tropical. ' 
 
'Hi 
 
 
 190 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 4. A Metaphor in a Himilo with tlic words //7r or an left out. 
 In.stoud of siyitig " Jloderick J)liii f(ju«,'lit lik(j a lion," wt- usc'ji 
 metaplior, and say " Hn ira.< a lion in tlif li>,dit." 
 
 {Mctiijihnr is a (Ircck won! nipaiiiiig transference.) 
 
 (i) All IfinguagG, hh we have Hcen, Ih full of iiietaiihor.s. Hence lan- 
 guage ha,s been called " foHHil ])oetry." Tliu.-", even in very onliniuy 
 prose, we may nay, "the wish \h father in the thought;" "the iww^ 
 was a daijfjer to hi» heart;" or we speak of the f re of passion; of a 
 ray of hope ; a fash of wit ; a thought ytrikinff us ; and so on. 
 
 (ii) By frequent use, and liy forgetfulness, many metaphors have lu^t 
 their figurative character. Thus we use the words provide {to nee 
 beforehand), edifi/ (to build up\ express (to Hi\uec7.c out), detect (tn 
 unroof), ruminate (to chew the cud), without the smallest feeling of 
 their metajjliorical character. 
 
 (iii) We must never 7nix our metaphors. It will not do to say ; " In 
 a moment the thunderbolt was on them, delurjiwj the country with 
 invaders." " I will now embark upon the feature on which this i/vtstlim 
 mainly hinges." 
 
 (iv) Metaphors and similes may be mixed. Thus Longfellow : — 
 
 ness 
 
 Metaphor,., i '^''.^ \\%^" ^"'f ' '^"'^ <^''^ 'I'^'i^" 
 ' ' ^ l*allrf irom the wings of night, 
 
 c:.>,;i« ^ ^^ ^ feathei- is wafted downward 
 
 I rrom an eagle m las iiiglit. 
 
 'v) A metaphor is a figure in which the objects compared are treated 
 by the mind as identical for the time being. A simile simjjly treat-* 
 them as resemUiiiy one another ; and the mind keeps the two carefully 
 apart. 
 
 5. Personification is that fignre by which, under the influence 
 of strong feeling, we attribute life and mind to impersonal and 
 inanimate tilings. 
 
 (i) Thus we speak, in poetic and impassioned language, of paJe Fear ; 
 r/awnt Famine ; r/jYfn-f//prf Jealousy ; and white-handed Hope. The morn- 
 ing is said to ZrtJ/grA; the winds to whisper; the oaks to siyh ; and the 
 brooks to prattle. 
 
 (ii) Milton, in the ' Paradise Lost,' ix, 780, thus describes the fall of 
 
 Eve:— 
 
 " So saying, liei' rash hand in evil hour 
 Forth reacliing to tlie fruit, she iihicked, she ate ! 
 Earth felt the wound ; and Nature, IVoni her seat, 
 SighUig tlirough all her works, gave signs of woe 
 That aU was lost." 
 
 8. 
 
 naiijiM 
 TIius 
 
 hii'i'r. 
 
 9. fll 
 
 •^Ult of 
 
Fir.URKS OF SPF.ECII. 
 
 191 
 
 Shellpy'H 'Cloud' U oiip lojij^ |>pr(«)iiirit'atii>ii, 
 
 (iii) Wlion tliR iKTHonitifvl uliject i.-t directly fiddrpssod, tlip fi^iro in 
 riill»*il Apostrophe. 'I'lm.s wo Imvc, "() Deiitli, wli»'r»' in iliy fling/ 
 (iravc, where in tl>y vict<jry f" 
 
 6. An Allegory is ;i i-ontiiiuitiis pcrsonitii'iitidii in tin- fuiin of 
 a story. 
 
 li Tlip genus in ipcrsfiiiificfitidii ; tho differentia, a ston- ; and tlio 
 species is nil iillo>,'c)iy. 
 
 (ii) Milton's '' Deatli and Sin," in tlio tentli l^ook of tlin ' Paradise 
 LoHt,' is a short allegory. Spenser's ' Faerie C^ucene ' and Bunyan's 
 ' I'il^,'riiirs I'rogi'ess ' are long allegorieH. 
 
 (iii) A slioi't allog(»ry is called a Fable. 
 
 7. Synecdoche i.s that ii^^'ur^ of sjjorcIi by wliidi a part i.s 
 j)Ut for the whole. 'I'lius we say, in a more .striking' fii.sliioii, 
 I, /•'■'III instead of /oof^/ acnf-fhritaf for a inui'dttrci' ; lifty khII for 
 lifty sliqiti; all haiuif at work. 
 
 (i) Lear, in the iieight of \m mad rage against his daughters, .shouts, 
 "[ abjure all roofn/" 
 
 fii) The name of the material — as a part of the whrile production — is 
 -iinietinies u.sed for the thing made; as roh/ xtitf fnv the xvutrd ; the 
 vuirhle speaks ; the ranvax glows. 
 
 8. Metonymy is that ti*,'ure of spooch Ly which a tliiiiLC is 
 named, not with its own name, hut l)y .some accompaniment. 
 
 Thus we say, the croirn for the k/ntf: tlie ■■<irnr<f for pliijxh.'al 
 
 Jin'i'i\ 
 
 (The word metonymy is a Greek word meaning cham/e of names.) 
 
 We write the ermine for the bench of Jiidijcs ; the mitre for the 
 hiihops ; red tape for official routine; a hnfj purse fur a (/reut deal of 
 money ; the bottle for habits of drunkenness. 
 
 9. Hyperhol^ or Exaggeration is a iigure ])y which ninch 
 more is said than is literally true. 1'liis is of course the re- 
 .'^tilt of very strong emotion. 
 
 (i) Milton say.s : — 
 
 " So frowned the mighty combatants, that hell 
 Grew darker at their frown." 
 
 (ii) Scott, hi ' Kenilworth,' has this passage : " The mind of England's 
 Elizabeth was like one of those ancient Druidical monuments called 
 
f . 
 
 1'.)! 
 
 lOISirOSlTION. rUNiTl'ATlON. F.TO. 
 
 ViM-Kinp; flonon. riw» rmprM of <'ll|>lil, Iniy ti i lie in |inillloil. mtilil |<i|l 
 luM" ^Vl<lin^t^' ii\ n\i>(ii>n ; l>\tl lln' f^ium- o{ /lin')ili^ i milil ii">t liiui' jli' 
 
 10. Tl\i' li'II<>\\mj; in :\ !umnn:nv of Mh' I'liirl' i>|' lln' nlmvi' 
 
 1, A l''\.Mnv of Spcrclt ('in|'l<'\ 1 11 \i\iil m- ;!lMKiit;[ iiimiM' 
 
 ol MMUcllmi", \vill\OUf I" i'\|Mr';) ;i Irillli;; or |i|ra 
 
 willnn. 
 'J. A Snnilc US(V; ;ni cxiiMiMl illi;i",i' Willi llii> word HUm. 
 .'V \ McLiphiM' usc'i 111.' '•;inir niiiij',i> without lln' w.tnl lilu>. 
 > 1. A TiM -(MiilicMl iiMi 15 :i mrl;i|>liin lnKni IVnin ■.\ porHon ni 
 
 in 111?; I'tMiij;. 
 r>. An ;»11('>;>M'V is ;i ('(lutinuoUR ncrnoiiitlcMt Ion. .» 
 
 rARAPITRABINa. 
 
 1. Pjivaphrasiiig is ;i kinil of cmm-msc llml Im iiol willmnt 
 its usi's. Tlii'se \i -("-^ ;mi' ( Iii(>tlv 1\V(>: (i) lo liiiiil llii' Ji'.inn'r'M 
 alltMilii^u cIosi'In 111 (Very \voi'«i .muI piinisc, iiii'iiniii"; ;iiiil :li;iili' 
 of ini>;inin;;' ; aihl i^w) to t'li.iMc llic Iciclicr In si';> wlnllur 
 iht' loaviU'V li,is ari'uiMlcIy awA fully imili'isloml lln> ]);iss;il;i'. 
 l>ul Ui^ oii(' ran lhi]i(' 1,1 iin]>ii>\i' on llic slylc of a |i(i('iii liy 
 Invninu" iho wiMiIs and jilivascs of llio |u)('l into oilier laiisniMi;!' ; 
 llit^ I'hanut' in;)ilo is al\\;:ys or almost always ;i cliaiii',!' for tin' 
 
 2. Passauws from «;otiil ]irt>s(' wvittM's arc somotiiucs! [^'ivcn out 
 tt> p;iraiilivas(\ Init most of|,>n jiassai;"t's from iio('(.i<'al writers. 
 Tlu' roas.m of iliis is tliat }>oi>try is mi i^'iMicral mucli moiv liii;lily 
 ( onipvossoil than ]n'ose, and htM\t't> tlic nuMiiint; is somefiiiit's 
 ohsouro. f(>r want oi a littK' mon* cxiiansioii. The fojlowiiii,' 
 linos l\v Sir Henry Wotton, llu- rrovost of b'toii ( 'olleec, iuv 
 a good oxaiupio of nnu-li tliouglii ooniprossi'd within a httle 
 space : — 
 
I'AKAI'IIKAKfNn. 
 
 11^3 
 
 itlinllt 
 
 inii'i'^ 
 
 :.\v^^v 
 
 \\r\\\rV 
 
 ^s^vl,^l'. 
 
 I'll! llV 
 
 <',nn;.;"' '> 
 
 f..r I hi' 
 
 en <'ll1 
 
 writers. 
 
 1 ,1-1.1 V 
 
 iirtiuit'^ 
 
 llowini; 
 
 l>o-(', iU'i' 
 
 a littli- 
 
 'I III, IIAI'I'V LI IK. 
 
 I. I|mw liii|i|>y it: III' liMiii Mill! Iiiiii/Jil, 
 'I'liiil, >-»'i vfl.li iinl, iiii'il.licr 'k will 
 Willi" iiiiiiiiin (■; III liMii< I I li"iii^lil., 
 Aii'l ' iiiipl'' I Milli In-; III III"-!, ■kill ! 
 
 ". WliHMc |iiiHnin||.i ri'il. Iii- iMiifif 'I •. IMC, 
 
 \V llM'lC i:'.l|l JM hIJII ).I i|iIII I(! f'Pl lll'lll.ll — 
 
 NmI, I ji'ij iitilii I. If W'lil'lly iiiif 
 <M' |iiili|ji' I'mii'' "I |iiis»il<« lirciilli ! 
 
 :i. W'l Mvif,'! iKiiif lliul. ' imri'" 'I'llli rai,-<«', 
 
 < >r vi'i' ; wiri Mi'vnr iiii'l<'r hI.'i'kI 
 
 lli.w i|i'i'|ic«|, w<iiiiii|.< nil' I'jviu hy (uiiiH*;; 
 
 N'nr r iili'H 111' kI.iiIi', ImiI, miI<'-. "I' j^'in'l ; 
 
 •I, W'liK liiiMi lii-i lit'i' fimii liiiiii'iin- lifi'l, 
 \VliM-i(> ((iiiMcicii' <> Im liJM Kfi'iiif^ I '•( t<'ii,(, ; 
 WliuHn kI,iiI.<' iiui (M-illi'T llnt.t.cn'r-; (••i<\, 
 Nnr ciiiii riiHl<i' afciHfrH i./Miil, , 
 
 r». W'llM (Inrl ilnl.li llll.f iili'l ciillv pNiy 
 
 Mnrf iif Ili)( ^'iwi- Miiui j'il'l.-i (.'1 |fii'l ■ 
 Ami fnl.M'l.iiiii,'; Un: liiiiriil'v--; 'lay 
 Willi !i, wf'il rliMr'cti li'i'>l< 111 Im<'Ii'I : - 
 
 ti. 'I'lii.f iiiiiii i.H I'lf'f'd lioni -'r vil<' liiui'l.-i 
 ' H' lin|i<> l,i> r inc, IPC fi'ur' lo fiill 
 I, mm! "I' liiiiif'.'lt, lli<iii('li (I'll, I'f hiii'ls ; 
 AikI, liaviii!'; ii'iMiinc, yl, liat.h .ill. 
 
 '.y Lrl, UK Iry iinw I'l |i.ir.i|ilii;i.-,<i tli''- lih' t,)i;it, i , t.o rj'-.- 
 
 Vdnp till' |,||(il|;^r||t, l,y |||(., ;i|i| of (ilOlf W'.ril.:. li'lt, tllOI|;.4l WC 
 
 lire iilili^^rd !,(» use iimri; word.-^, wr iiiii.sl, »1'» our uhii'i.-t, to firi'l aii'l 
 tn riii|i|(iy llic iiMi.sl, liliiii;^', W'c iiiir t, i,'it, iiicr«'ly throw down 
 ;i iiia.-i.s (if words ;iiid |ilir;iH»'S, ;iiid l(;iAc, tli'' if;;id»'r to riidk'! hi.s 
 own sclfct.ion mid t,o ;^'ro]»c ;iiiioii;i tlicm lor lli'; lll'•;lrlirl;.^ 
 
 1. ilnw iia|i|)y, liy hiiLii a,s woll a.s liy (Miticalioii, i.-i thfj man who \-. iio*. 
 iililitji'il to Ik; a hlavfj t,'» ilio will of niioUif;r -svho.if! only armour i.- lii-" 
 hniicsiy and .sinijih; goodno^.s, wli'>.-u ho-t and utnio.-.t r^kill lio.i in plain 
 i*triiightf()rwardiic,sri. 
 
 -. Huw liaiijjy i.s the man who in not the .■■lave of hirf ovm pa<4sion.», 
 whose aoul in always prepared for death, who i.s not tied to the world 
 or the world's opinion by an.xiety about hia public reputation or the 
 tattle oi individuals. 
 
'/ 
 
 194 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 Ill 
 
 3. Hai)i>y, too, hecau.se lie envies no man who has licen raised to rank 
 by accident or hy vicious means ; because lie never umlcrstood the snet-r 
 that stabs while it seems to i)raise ; Ijecausc he cares nothing for rules 
 of expediency or of policy, but thinks only of what is good and right. 
 
 '1. Who has freed himself fromol)edience to humours and to whim.-, 
 whose conscience is his suie stronghold ; who.se I'ank is not exalted 
 enough to draw flatterers, or to tempt accu.sers to build their own 
 greatness upon his fall. 
 
 r>. Who, night and morning, asks God for grace, and not for gift> ; 
 and fills his day with the study of a good book or conversation with 
 a thoughtful friend. 
 
 6. This man is freed fi'om the slavery of hope and fear — the hope nf 
 rising, the fear of falling — hn-d, not of lands, Imt of himself; and Ihnugh 
 without wealth or possessions, yet having all that the heart of man need 
 desire. 
 
 litt 
 
 i 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY. 
 
 1. Verse is the form nf poetry; ami Prosody is tlie i)arl of 
 Grannnar Avhich deal.s witli the hnv.s and nature of ver.se. 
 
 (i) Verse comes from the Latin versa, turned. Oratio vcrs't \va> 
 " turned speech " — that is, when the line came to an end, the reader nr 
 writer or printer had to begin a new line. It is opposed to oratio 
 prorsa, which means "straight-on speech" — whence our word prose. A 
 line 'n\ prose mai/ be of any length ; a ine in verse must be of the length 
 which the ])oet gives to it. 
 
 (ii) It is of imjiortancc for us to become ac<iuiiinted with the laws of 
 ver.se. First, because it enables us to enjoy jjoctry more. Secondly, it 
 enables us to lead poetry better — and to avoid putting an emi)hasis on 
 a syllable, merely becau.se it is accented. Thirdly, it shows us how to 
 write vense ; and the writing of vensc is very good ])ractice in composition 
 — as it compels us to choose the right phrase, and makes us draw upou 
 our store of words to substitute and to improve here or there. 
 
 2. A'erse dill'ci'.s from prose in t\\<i things : (i) in tlie regular 
 recurrence of accents; and {n) in the proportion of un- 
 accented to accented syUubles. 
 
 (i) Thus, in the line 
 
 ni answer nought' could Au'gus speak', 
 the accent occurs regiUarly in every secoud syllable. 
 
 tn-ct 
 
 '■^ ax, 
 
 out' ; 
 
length 
 
 ly, it 
 
 asi» on 
 
 U)\V li> 
 
 )Ooitiuu 
 
 W lll'OU 
 
 5gulai' 
 
 )i uii- 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY. 195 
 
 (ii) Hut, in the line 
 
 >fti'iily, iiH'i-'rily, sliall' we live now', 
 
 the accent not only cumew first, but thei-e are two unaccented syllables 
 fur every one tluit is accented (exce{)t in the last foot). 
 
 3. Mvery Kii^disli word of niori! than one .sylliil)l(' lia.s an 
 accent on one of its sylla))l('.s. 
 
 (i) Ikfjin', commend', attack' have the accent on the last syllable, 
 (ii) Happy, lady, wel'comc have the accent on the first syllable. 
 
 4. Eu^'lish verse is made iij) of lines; each lino of verso con- 
 tains a fixed number of accents ; each accent has ii fixed 
 number of unaccented syllables attaclied to it. 
 
 (i) Let us take these lines from ' Marniion ' (canto v.) : — 
 
 Will) loves' I not more' | the iiij^ht' | of Juiit;' 
 Than dull' | Decern' | ber's gloom' | of noon'? 
 
 Kach line here contains four accents ; the accented syllable comes last ; 
 each accented syllable has one unaccented attached to it. 
 
 (ii) Now let us compare these lines from T. Hood's " Bridge of Sighs " : 
 
 Touch' her not | scorn' fully, 
 Think' of her | mourn'fully. 
 
 Each line here contains two accents ; the accented syllable conies first ; 
 and eacli accented syllable has two unaccented syllables attached to it. 
 
 5. One accented syllable + one or two unaccented, taken 
 together, is called a foot. A foot is the unit of metre. 
 
 Li.'i X s^and for an unaccented, and. a, for an accented i^ijUahle. 
 
 6. Une accenttnl preceded by <'»no unacrontcd sylhildr is 
 f"illi'(l an Iambus. Its fonimhi is xa.- r)iir acirntcd syUalile 
 followed by one unaccented is called a Trochee. Its forniui.t 
 1.! ax. 
 
 (\) The folhnving are iambuses : /'tr/ta^w' ; condemn'; compel'; icith' 
 out' ; career'. 
 
 iii) The following are trochees : dcn'tlc ; rli'cr: In'dy ; ra'vcn ; tum'blc. 
 
 iiii) The following verse is uiaile up ol" four iambuses — that is, it is 
 iambic verse : — 
 
 'Twere long'. | and need' | less, here' | to tell' 
 How to my hand these papers fell. 
 
 # 
 
I'JG 
 
 COMI'OSITION, I'UNCTL'ATION, ETC. 
 
 I 
 
 1 I 
 
 M ! 
 
 (iv) Tli«; fi)U(!\siiig veix; io uiiule up nl' four troelicf.-> — that i.;, it is 
 
 trochaic : — * 
 
 111' liis I cliain'lii'r, I wrak' and | 'lyiiij^ 
 Whs tin: NiiriiKin liarmi lyiii^;. 
 
 (v) lam' I liic,-, march' ] I'mm sliort' [ l<) l"ng'. 
 
 (vi) Trochee | tripis' from | long' to | short' — | . 
 
 7. One iu'cenicd syllaUo preceded In' two iinacccntrd is 
 call(Ml an Anapaest. Its fonimhi is xxa. — One iU'ccnti-il m1 
 lii1)lo followed l)y two unaccented is called a Dactyl. It- 
 fornuila is axx. 
 
 (i) The following are anapiests : Scrauidc' ; disappear' ; CDinpn/und ; 
 intcrcrdi'. 
 
 (ii) The folinwing ai-e dactyls : //rfp';)i7//; vic/rily; siiitUar; hilhncii 
 
 (iii) Tlio following lines arc in anapn ^lic Ncrse : — 
 
 I .1111 iiiMii' I arcli (ilair | I siirM'v', 
 My riglit (lii'ir is imni' tn ilisimtc. 
 
 [\\) With a leap' | ami a hound' j the swift an' | apa\sts throng' | . 
 
 (v) The following a"" '"i dactylic verse : — 
 
 Caii'iKiii t'l I iij_'lit' (if tliPiii I 
 Caii'iinii t" I left' (if lliein |. 
 
 {(i) Tiic word di(c(i/l comes from the Greek daktulos, a finger, 
 For a tingor has one long and two .short joints. 
 
 {!)) TIio wdi'il (ni'>}iirtit comes fi'om two (ireek wdrds : paio, 
 htrike, and (iiki, hack ; because it is the rcirrs( of a dactyl. 
 
 8. Tlie .\na]ia'st. l)('l(>n;j,'s In lln- saini' l<iiid or system cf vri'i 
 as the Ianil)us ; liccausi' the accented .syllable in eaeli coiues last. 
 — The Dactyl hchtHL^fs tn the saino kind or system of m'vsc a- 
 the TkicIicc ; he. ause the accented .^yllahlc in each cuiues first. 
 
 (i) Hence anajucsts and iandiusos may he mixed (as in "My rigli' 
 tliere i.> none' \ to dispute' | "); and so may dactyls and trochee- (a.- ii. 
 " Hark' to tlic j suni'mons | "). 
 
 (ii) lUit we very seldom see a trochee introduced into an iumliic hm , 
 or an iand)us into a trocliaic 
 
 9. An accented .'sylJahle "witli one tuiaecenled .syllable on each 
 side of it is called an Amphibrach. Its fornnda is xax. 
 
 The word amphibrach comes from two Greek words : aviphi, on both 
 sides; and IracAus, short. (Compare am;)Ai6iows.) 
 
THE GKAMMAi; OF VEKSE, Oil l'l;O.SODY. 
 
 197 
 
 (i) Tlie following arc uuiiilubraciiB : Jkapaii-'iiif/; uhni'jht'y ; trcvund'- 
 fu.-i; dcccit'/ul. 
 
 ^ii) Tiie following i.-, an anijiliihrac'liic line : — 
 
 Tluic I'aiiie' to I tilt' lirauh' a | I'lmr ex lie | "I" IC riii |. 
 
 10. A verse inado up of iamljiu^es is callt^l Iambic Verse ; 
 of triiiliees, Trochaic; of anapafsls, Anapaestic; and of dart vis, 
 Dactylic. 
 
 11. A verse of tliree feet is eallod Trinietex' ; nf four fret, 
 Tetrameter; of live feet, Pentameter; and of six feet, Hex- 
 ameter. 
 
 (i) We find the i>rc{ixe,s of tlie.se \vor(l> in Triatijlc ; T(tv(tri-h (a ruler 
 in-cr a fourth part) ; Pentateuch (the jivc Look- of Mo.ses) ; ami Jlcxufjon 
 (a tiguru with six corners or anglrs). 
 
 12. l'>y 1'" h the most usual kind of veisc in Mnglit^h is 
 Iambic Verse. 
 
 (i) Iambic Tetrameter (4xa) i.-; the metie of most of Scott's jioems ; 
 ■ if Coventry I'atnioro'.-^ "Angel in the llou.-e"; of 'lay's FaMos^ and 
 many other poenLs of the eighteenth century. 
 
 (ii) Iambic Pentameter (5xa) i- tlic mo-t coninion line in Kngli.-h 
 verse. Tliere are jirobahly more than a thousand ianihic pentameter 
 lines for one that there exists of any other kind. Iambic I'entaeicter i.s 
 the ver.se of Chaucer, of Shakespeare, .-.i' ^Nliltoii, (jf Dryden, of Pope, and 
 of almost all our greater English ]ioets. 
 
 13. Kliyiiied Tainliic ronlanioier is ealK'il Heroic Verse ; uu- 
 rliynied, it is ('ailed Blank Verse. 
 
 (i) Any unrhymcd vei'se may be calhd blank .-uch a.-i the vcr.-e eni- 
 I'loycd liy Longfellow in his " lliawaiba "-— Imt, the term i.'> u.-ually 
 re.'irictcd to tlic unrhymcd iamliir |icnlamctir. 
 
 (ii) I'llank vcr.-e is the noblc.-t of all vci-.-c. It sutn.'i the c;i~ii',>t to 
 write ; it in the most ditlitult. It i.> the vcr.-e of Shakespeare and Milton, 
 and of most of our great diaiiiatists. 
 
 14. Iambic Trimeter eMUsi.-ts td" tluvo iand)iis('s ; and :\a 
 
 formula is ox a. 
 
 The king' | \va.s on' | liis throne'; | 
 His sa' I traps thronged' I the hall'; | 
 A thou' j .^and blight' [ lamji.-. .dione' | 
 On that' I high fes' i tival'. i 
 
 Tliere is very little of this kind of verse in English, 
 
^■^f •■■-—- — T[ 
 
 198 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 l!i I-! 
 
 fi 
 
 15. Iambic Tetrameter consists of four iamlnisos ; nvA its 
 
 formula is 4x!i. 
 
 The iirc,' | with well' | ilried lugs' | supplied,' | 
 Went roar' | iiig up' | the chiin' | ncy wide'; | 
 The huge' | hall-ta' | l)le's oak' | en face' | 
 Scrubbed till' | it shone,' | the day' | to grace.' | 
 
 I'lierc is a .ijotxl deal of tliis verse in English; and most nf il 
 is by Scott. 
 
 16. Iambic Tetrameter with iambic Trimeter in altrniuti' 
 lines — the second and fourth ibyming — is called Ballad Metro. 
 AVhen used, as it often is, in liymns, it is called Service Metre. 
 
 They set him higli upon a cart;— Ixa 
 
 The hangman rode below; — -'Jxa 
 They drew his hands Ijehind his Ijack, — 4xa 
 
 And bared his nolile brow. — 3xa 
 
 This is the metre of ^lacaulay's 'Lays of An(;ient Kome,' nf 
 Scott's 'Lay of the Last ]Minstrel,' and many other jhumii,-, 
 Scott mixes frequently, Init at quite irregular inter\'als, tlu' 
 iambic trimeter with the iambic tetrameter ; and this he called 
 the "light-horse gallop of verse." 
 
 Front, tlank, and rear, the squadrons sweep = 4xa 
 To break the Scottish circle deeii, = 4xa 
 
 That fought' | around' | their king.' = 3xa 
 
 17. Iambic Pentameter consists of five iambuses; and its 
 formula is 5xa. 
 
 (i; Tlie following is ihymcd iambic pentameter: — 
 
 True wit.' I is iia' | Itiio In' | .•(■Ivan' | ta^'c drosscrl,' |::.:r)Xii 
 
 Wli.at (iff I w.'is tlidu^'lit,' I but lu'i i' I so well' | cxprcssiHl.' |-5xa 
 
 (ii) The follnwing is unrhymed iandtii' iientameter : — 
 
 Yim iiir I do kiKiw' I this man' | tl<^ ; I' | nMiicm' | ln-r — 5xa 
 The liist' I time ov' | vv C;es' | ar put' | it. uu'.|-5xa. 
 
 The first extract is from Po}tc's " Kssay on Criticism"; the 
 second from Shakespeare's "Julius Ctesar." 
 
 18. Iambic Hexameter consists of six iambuses ; and its 
 formula is 6xa. 
 
THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY, 
 
 199 
 
 {{) The following is frf>ni Drayton's " Pdlynlhion " : — 
 
 Vpnn tin- Midlamls iiiiW II,;' iiKhistrioiis iniisi' ilntli f,'ill, |- Hxa 
 That sliiro wliicli wo tli'^ licart of England well may (Mll.|-t)xa 
 
 'I'll'' ()l.j(!cti(>n to tiiih kind of ^;'l's{' is it.-^ iiitolfiiihlc iiinnnloiiy. 
 U ]ir('ton(ls to be lic.'w'unclcr ; l)ut it is iiulcod simply two tri- 
 iiicti'i' V(>rse8 ])riut(Hl in one loii^' line. The iiioiiotnny cunics 
 fmiu the fact tluit tlio panso is always in the iiiiddh' of the line. 
 Then"' is vorv littlo of this kind of vitsc in Kn«,disli. The line 
 (if ()xa is also called an Alexandrine, and is used to close the 
 loii;,^ stanza employed by Sj)enser. 
 
 19. Trochaic Tetrameter consi.sts tif four trochees ; and its 
 fiU'inula is 4 ax. 
 
 (i) The following i.s rhynieil trochaic tetrameter : — 
 
 WluMi 11r' heatlinii tnmippt's clang -|:^ lax 
 Hound Ixdeaguered C'li(\stcr rang, - | - 4 ii x 
 Vi'ili'd nun and fVi;ir gniy- |~lax 
 Marched t'roui IJangnr'.s fair alihayc- |— lax 
 
 It will be noticed that each line has a .syllablt; -wanting' to 
 make up the four com]ilete feet. I Jut the missin^f syllaVtle is 
 only ;ui unaccented syllable; and the line contains four ac- 
 cents. (The al)ove extract is from "The Monks of Bangor's 
 March," by Scott.) 
 
 (ii) The following is unrhymod trochaic tetrameter : — 
 
 Then the | little | Ilia | watha | -^4ax 
 Learned of | ev'ry | bird the | language, |- lax 
 Learned tlieir | iianies and | all their | seen t^, |- lax 
 IIiiw they I liuilt their] nests in | sununer, |- lax 
 Where they | hid them | selves in | wint'-r, |- lax 
 Talked witli | tlieui when | e'er he | met tliem, |-4ax 
 Cilled them ! " Ilia | watlia'^ ! Chickens." |:-. lax 
 
 Tt will 1)1' (»bsi'rv('d that, in the above linos I'mm Longfellow's 
 "Hiawatha," each trochet^ is complete; and this is the case 
 throughout the whole of this poem. "'Hiawatha" is the only 
 long poem in the language that is written in unrhymed trochees. 
 
 20. Trochaic Octometer consists of eight trochees; and its 
 formula is Sax. 
 
 (i) The chief example of it that we have is Tennyson's poem of 
 "Locksley Hall":— 
 
If I 
 
 200 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 Com'rade.s, | leave' iiic | here' a | liftlv, | wliilf' n.■^ | yet' 'ti.s | cirly | iiiiirii'-|-Rax 
 Leave' me| here', and, | wIk'ii' ymi | want' uw, \ sdiniil' ui>|i'n' the | Iiu^Il' | liiiiu'-|'-8;ix 
 
 (ii) There U a sylliiV)le wanting in eacli line nf " L<>ck.-l('y Hall ' ; liut 
 it ih only an unaccented syll.-'.ble. Each lint; cunsititri of eiglit accent.-. 
 
 21. Anapaestic Tetrameter consists uf four auupwots ; and 
 its formula is 4xxa. 
 
 (i) There h very little anajuc^tic verse in Knglisli ; and what little 
 there existd is written in tetrameter. 
 
 (ii) The following lines, from " Macgregor>i' Gatheiing,'' liyScoLt, is 
 in anapicritic ver.se : — 
 
 Tlic iiiDon's' I (jii the lake', | and tlio mist's' | on the hvnv', \ - Ixxa 
 And tlie clan' | lias a name' | tbiit is nann' | Irss by day'. ] — I xxa 
 
 (iii) It will be observed that the fir.st line hegin.s with an iaiulm-. 
 This i.s admissible ; because an iambus and an anajncst, both having the 
 accented syllable last, belong to the same .system. 
 
 22. Dactylic Dimeter consists of twodiictyl.s ; and its formula 
 is 2axx. 
 
 (i) A well - known exani[)le is Tenny.son's " Charge of the Light 
 Brigade." 
 
 Can'non to | right' of them, | 2axx 
 Can'tion to 1 left' of them, | law 
 Cannon Le | hind' tlieni,- | 'Jaxx 
 
 Vol'leyed and | thun'dered. - | i!axx 
 
 (ii) It will be oli,--erved that the last two lines want a ."syllable to uiakB 
 up the two dactyls. Sucli a line is said to be — 2axx - (minus). 
 
 (iii) Or wc may say that the last fnot is a tmchee ; for a tntchee ami 
 a dactyl can go togethci' in (Hie line, linth bclunging to the ^ame .sy.-teni 
 — both having their accented syllable first. 
 
 23. Dactylic Tetrameter consists of four dactyls ; and its foi- 
 niula is 4a xx. 
 
 (i) Bishop Jleber's hymn is one of the best exami>lcs : — 
 Briglit'est and | best' ol' the | sons' ot the | niorn'ing. 
 
 (ii) The last foot here again is a trochee. 
 
 (iii) There is very little of this kind of verse in English poetry. 
 
 24. Amphibrachic Tetrameter consists of four amphibrachb ; 
 and its formula is 4:xax. 
 
THE GRAMMAR OF VKRSE, OR PROSODY. 
 
 201 
 
 (i) Cainj)l)pirs woll-known \tnom is a ^nnd example : — 
 TlitTf caiiii'' tu I till' licai'li' !i I iiiiiir t'\ili' | nf Hrin. 
 (ii) There are very few examples in English of this kind of verse. 
 
 25. Till' followiii.Lr liiit'S by Colcrid^'o </\\r liotli examples and 
 (leseriplioiis of tlir must important metres exjilained in the pre- 
 ceding pava.uTiiphfi- It mnst In- (iliserve<l that (Joleridge nscs the 
 term li>ti'/ f^r m-renfi'i/ : and s/tnrf for imaceeMted syllables: — 
 
 Tro'cliee [ trips' from ] long' to | short' — | 
 
 From long to long in solemi sort, 
 
 Slow spon I ilee ' stalks ;; strong' foot, yet | ill' able 
 
 E'ver to I (-■t)me' ui> with | dar'tyl tri | syl'lable | . 
 
 lani' I l)ics march' \ fi-om sho'it | to long' | ; 
 
 With a leap' | and a bound' | the swift an' j apirsts throng' | ; 
 
 One syl'la | bio long' with | one short' at ] each side — | 
 
 Amphi'L'rac'h | ys hastes' with | a state'ly | stride. 
 
 26. A verse witli a syllable over and above the nnml)er of 
 feet ef which it consists is called Hypermetrical. 
 
 (i) Tims, Coleridge has, in his "Ancient Mariner" — 
 
 IJ;ty ;if I Ut (l;iy, ! day af | tir liay, | 
 
 Wi! stiiclc : I ii'ir lirrath I liiir iiio I timi, (/o/po-) 
 
 As id ! lu as | a jiaiut I ed ship ] 
 
 U]i(>ii I a jiaiiit I I'll o | ciaii. (JnijH'r) 
 
 Here tlie syllables tlon and cam ai'e over from the iaml)ic trimeter 
 \ftY^(i, and the line is therefore .said to be hypermct.riral. 
 
 27. A verse with a syllable wanting ti» the number uf feet 
 of wliich it (lonsists is said to l)e defective. 
 
 (i) Thus, in Scott's "Monks of Bangor" — 
 
 Slaugh'tered | down' by | huatli't'ii | blade'- | 4ax- 
 Uan'i^or'.'; | poaee'ful | monks' are \ laid'. - 1 4ax- 
 
 we find a syllable wanting to each line. But that syllable i.s an un- 
 accented one ; and the verse consists of fou'' trochees minus one syllable, 
 or 4a.\ - . 
 
 (ii) Caution! — Some persons confu.se the defective with the hyper- 
 metrical line. Thus, in the ver.ses — 
 
 Shall' I I wast'ing j in' de | spaii', - | 
 Die' be | canse a | woni'an's | fair*?- I 
 
 the syllable spair is not hyi^ermetrical. An unaccented syllable is 
 wanting to it ; and the lines are 4 ax defective or minus. 
 
 * A spondee consists of two long or accented syllables. It is a foot not 
 employed in English ; but it exists in the two words amen and farewell. ^ 
 
202 
 
 %^ 
 
 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 
 
 RTTYMK. 
 
 28. Rhyme has Ih-ch dcliiicil l»y >filt()n as the " jiii.LjliiiL: 
 s< iitid of like (Mxlin^'s.'' It may alsd !)(> dcliiu'il as a corre- 
 spondence in sound al the ends oi' lines in iMictry. 
 
 (i) lihjiMic is proporly .spollotl rime. Tlic word orij^'inully nioaiit iwim- 
 her; and the Old Hii^dish word fm' nrlt/nnctic was rlme-craft. It 
 received itn prcrtt'iit set of letters from a I'oufiisioii wtlli the (ireek word 
 rhythm, which ineans n^tlowiiif/, 
 
 (ii) I'rofcHsor Skoat says "it is one of the woi'si-siielt woi'<ls in tln' 
 language." "It is," he ways, " iinpu.ssilile to liiid an instance of the 
 spelling rhyme before \f)^>0." Shakespeare generally wrote rime. 
 
 llf 
 
 'it 
 
 I 
 
 29. No rhynu^ van h(i oiiod uidcss it satislics four conditions, 
 These are ; — 
 
 1. Tlie rhyming .syllid)Ie must be accented. Tims /•///;/' 
 
 rhymes witli si/n/',- hut not witli lliiiilnmi. 
 
 2. The vowed sound mnst he tlie same — to the e;ii', Ih;i1 i- : 
 
 tliouo-ji not necessarily to the eye. Thus /o.sv und rVo-v 
 are not good ihymes. 
 
 3. The linal consonant must he the same. [Mir and tric];.< 
 
 are good rhymes ; heeause x = ks.) 
 
 4. The preceding consonant must he ditlerent. 
 
 Beat and feet ; jump and jnimp are good rliyrnes. 
 
 30. Tlie English language is very [)oor in rhymes, \\licii 
 compared with Italian or German. Accordingly, half-rhymes 
 are admissihle, and are frequently employed. 
 
 The following rhymes may be used :- 
 
 Sun. 
 Gone. 
 
 TiOve. 
 Move. 
 
 Allow. 
 Beatow. 
 
 Ever. 
 Kiver, 
 
 Taste. 
 Past. 
 
 ^^ 
 
THK GAISUKA. 
 
 203 
 
 i1 1-;; 
 
 wl It'll 
 fhymes 
 
 te. 
 
 THE C/lvSURA. 
 
 31. Tilt' rhythm or iiiu.sifal flow of vt-isc (If'jtcnds on tli;' 
 varind succession nf jdiriises of (liU'crciit Iciij^tlis. liiit, most of 
 ;ill. it is u|M)ii ilin CsDSVira, iiml tlic jtositioii ol tlic Cn'sura, 
 that musical How (lc]>cii(ls. 
 
 Tlii' Willi) r(rKitra is a L;i.tiii wdhI, ami iiiciiis a rntthig. 
 
 32. Tlif Ca'sura in a line is the rest nv lialt or Imnik or 
 iiaiisi' for tlif vuifc in rcadin^f aloud. it is founil in sji(»i't as 
 wrll as in ion^' lines. 
 
 (i) Tilt' fnlldwiiig irt an cxaiii|>lo from tlie short lines of ' Mariiuon ' 
 
 (vi. XV^) :— 
 
 IJ Mdh! i)l('US(!(l tlmt II ill a liarbaroiis a^'c 
 
 2J lit' K''iv(' rude Scotland i! Vir^'il's jiaj^'c, 
 
 1 Tliati tliat II bciirath liis rulf lit- lii'M 
 
 2 The. hishojiric! || of fair DiiiikfM. 
 
 It, will lie seen from this that Sir Waltei- Scott, lakes care to vary the 
 Ijositioii of the t'jcKura in each Hue— soinetiiiii's havini^ it. aftfi- 1 ,|. feet, 
 Koinetiines aftei- 2 ; and so on. 
 
 (ii) The following? is an example from the long lines of the " Lycidaa ' 
 
 (if Milton :— 
 
 2 N'liw, Lycidas, 1| Uw slii'idicnls wciji im morf ; 
 
 1 Henceforth || tlif)ii art the genius of the .shon^ 
 
 :i 111 thy lar(,'(' recDiiiiiniisc, || ami shalt he good 
 
 2i To all that wander ll in that jierilous Hood. 
 
 Milton, too, is careful to vary the position (jf his ca;sura ; and most of 
 the music and much of the beauty of liis blank verse depend upon the 
 fact that the caesura appears now at tlie beginning, n<j\v at tlie middle, 
 now at the end of his lines ; and never in the same place in t\v(j con- 
 secutive verses. 
 
 (iii) Of all the great writers of English verse, Pupe is the one who 
 
 places the ciesura worst — worst, because it, is almtjst always in the 
 
 same place. T.et us take an example from his "Rape of the Lock" 
 
 (canto i.) : — 
 
 2 The busy syljihs || surround their darling care, 
 2 The.se set the head, 1| and these divide the hair ; 
 2 Home fold the sleeve, || whilst others jdait the gown ; 
 2 And Betty's i)raised ll for labours not lier own. 
 
 And ,so he goes on for thousands upon thousands of verses. The symbol 
 of Pope's caesura is a straight line ; the symbol of Milton's is "the line 
 uf beauty " — a line of perpetually varying and harmonious curves. 
 
 ^^ 
 
iirii 
 
 T 
 
 204 
 
 COMPOSITION, I'DNCTUATION, K.TC. 
 
 THE STANZA. 
 
 Ill 
 
 f|i 
 
 \l 
 
 33. A Stanza is a group of rhymed lines. 
 
 The word noiiios fnmi an nM Kalian wind, sUintia, an abode, 
 
 34. Two ihyniod lines nw. calli'd a couplet; and this may lie 
 lookiul n[)on us thn slKtrtcst kind of stanza. 
 
 (i) Tlio iiKi.st u.suiil rouplct ill Kiiglisli consist.-' id" two rhytncd iaiiiliir 
 pentaniRter liue.s. Tliis is tailed the "heroic couplet." 
 
 35. A staii/a of three iliyiiicil lines is called a triplet. 
 
 (i) A vr'i'y ^'oo<l ('\;imiile Is to he; I'ouiid in 'I'mmyson's poem of " TIip 
 Two Voices," which consists entirely oi" tri|)letri : — 
 
 " Wlmtevcr crn/.y sorrow .siiitli, 
 No life lliafc brcatlifs with luniinii hreath 
 lias ever truly loiii,'cil lor diatli." 
 
 36. A stanza (»f four rhymed lines- ( if ^vhich tho fir.st (snmo 
 tinu's) rhymes with llie third, and thu second (always) willi 
 llie f(Mirth — is eidled a qviatrain. 
 
 (i) The ordiiuiry hullad metre consists of quatrains — that is, f'lur 
 lines, two of iamlii.r t.etrametei', and two of iamhic trimeter. 
 
 (ii) A (juat.raiii of iaml)i(^ jiiMi<,anieters is called Elegiac Verse. Tliu 
 best known example is Oray's " Klegy in a Country Cliurchyard." 
 
 37. A stanza of six lines is called a sextant. 
 
 (i) There are many kind.s. One is used in Hood's " Dream of Eugenp 
 Aram," which is written in 4xa and '5xa ; the second, fourth, and sixth 
 lines rhyming. 
 
 (ii) Another in Whittier's " Barclay of Ury," which has the first and 
 second lines, the third and sixth, the fourth and fifth, rhyming witli 
 each other. 
 
 (iii) Another in Tiowell's "Yussouf," which has the first and third 
 lines, the second and fourth, and the fifth and sixth rhyming. 
 
 38. A stanza of eight lines is called an octave, or ottava 
 
 rima. 
 
 (Pronounced ottahva reema.) 
 
 39. A stanza of nine lines is called the Spenserian stanza, 
 because Edmund Spenser employed it in his " Faerie Queene." 
 
u-., f"ur 
 
 Tht; 
 
 first awl 
 ling witli 
 
 land thir>l 
 ottava 
 
 THE STANZA. 
 
 2(»5 
 
 (i) The firrtt eight lines of this wUuzii ivre in 5xii ; the la«t lino, in 'Jxii. 
 (ii) The rliytne.s run thurf : ubab ; hcbcc. 
 
 40. A sh(jrt poem of fourteen iaiiioic pciitiunctir linfs — with 
 the iliyiiH'S arraii -" I in a iiocniliar way — is calli'd a aoiuiot. 
 
 (i) Thirt in a t'"iiii whicli has lioen imported into Kngland from Italy, 
 wliorc it wart cultivateil by many |ioctri — tiie greatest among tiiose being 
 |)aiite and I'ctranli, both of tiicni poots of tiic thirteentli century. 
 Tho l>e.st Kngli.sli rtunnc't- writers aru iMilLon, Wurd-twdrtii, and Mrn 
 Jhuwning. 
 
 (ii) The .Monnet oou.><i.st.s of two parts— an octave (of eight lino,>), and 
 ii aeatette (of .>,i.\). The riiymes in the octave arc often varied, l)eing 
 fcouiotinies abba, aeca: tlio.-ie in the .se.stettc are sometimes a be, abc', 
 yr a)>ttbcc. 
 
 (ii!) Shakespeare's "Sonnets" are not formed on the Italian model, 
 and can hardly l)e called sonnets at all. They ai'c really slun't poems of 
 three (luatrains, ending in each case with a rhymed cou[>let. 
 
 (iv) The followiiig is W irdsworth's sonnet on " TliK Sonnkt " :— 
 
 ^".Scurii Mot llic. Soiuit't ; critic, ynu luivc riowiicd a 
 
 Mindless uf its just lioiiours : witli tins key // 
 
 ' Shakspcare unlocked his heart; the nieludy b 
 
 < ' (Jf tills small lute t;ave ea.se to Petrarch's wound ; a 
 
 A Ihou.sand times this jiipe did Tasso sound ; a 
 
 With it Camoens soothed :in exile's giief; 
 
 The sonnet glittered a gay myrtle lesif a 
 
 Miiiid the cyjiress with which Dante crowned a 
 
 His visionary brow; a glow-worm lamp d 
 
 It chewed mild Spenser, called from fairyland c 
 
 To struggle tlirough dark ways; ami when a danqi '/ 
 
 Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand 6 
 
 The. thing hecanie ;i tiuinpet, whence he hlcw / 
 
 boul-animatnig strainii — alas, too few 1 " / 
 
 stanza, 
 )ueene." 
 
,. '"'• ^*--; ^-ff!S 5B(S 
 
 li 
 
 / 
 
 II 
 
 Is'ii. 1 is! 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE I. (The Alphabet, p. o). 
 
 1. Show the diflference between a vowel Jiiul a consonant; say 
 >vliich are the vowels in the folhiwiug words : i/oumj, iroudtr, n-orth, 
 liil/itrcriticdl, alisteuiiont, ydl, iota ; and name the diphthongs, if 
 ,uiy, in roiUinuoUfi, idui, ifhoeimj, join, ocitiid, rta-o)i, jjorous, rariejij, 
 fpvntaniity. 
 
 'J. Hnw are consonauts classilied ? Select the dentals and gutturals 
 from the following words : doij, ijafe, (jentlc, (riifli, (hniik\ ho;/, 
 li/iiinantic, pneumatic, drink, conquered; and select the palatals and 
 laliials from the following words : Jo^i, Benjamin, archiejjiscopate, 
 Inlfi'iinn, mc/liod, ji^ahn, yacht. 
 
 3. Distinguish between mutes and spirants; and show which are 
 tilt' dental and which the palatal spirants in acisnor.^, runh, tfhawl, 
 iL'douiih^, lar.ints/<, azimuth, zepliyr, /tura.v.s. 
 
 4. Change as many as you can of the following into corresponding 
 sharp .sounds : bad, dare, dig, bag, bathe, 'jad, br<i, Jud(, dwuJorr, 
 :l''^h j"'J ; and reduce the following sharp sounds to flat : pack, buck. 
 Oil, stt, trick, chirk, j^ft. 
 
 0. What are the characteristics of a true aljjhabet? Prove our 
 alphabet faulty ; and say which are the redundant lettera. 
 
 EXERCISE 11. (Nouns, p. !»). 
 
 1. How are nouns classified ? Define abstract nouns; and classify 
 the nouns in the following : — 
 
 («) "Come forth into the light of things, 
 
 Let nalure be your teacher." — Wordsworth. 
 
 (h) "Welcome, learn'd Cicero I whose blessed tongue and wit 
 Preserves Rome's greatness yet." — Covdty. 
 
 ((') '* All in the Downs the fieet lay moor'd." — Dibdin. 
 
 ('/) " Poictiers and Cressy tell, 
 
 When most their pride did swell." — Drayton. 
 
 (() Parliament was prorogued. The troop returned to barracks. 
 The jury disagreed. 
 
 2. Make abstract nouns of true, noble, young, king, jtatitnt, man, 
 lord, intrude, rogue, slave, poor, domain, catechi.se, exemplify. 
 
 207 
 
s&sas. 
 
 mtmrnmrnm 
 
 1 i 
 
 \U 
 
 I 
 
 208 EXKKCISES. 
 
 EXERCISK III. (Nouns, p. 9). 
 
 Classify the nouns in the following: — 
 
 (rt) " Yi)iing Heury met the foe with pridf ; 
 
 Jane foUowed, fouj^ht ! ah, hjii)less story ! 
 In man's attire, by Henry's side, 
 
 tShc died for love, and be for glory." — T. Di'hdbu 
 
 {})) " Though I fly to latamboul, 
 
 Atliens holds my lieart and soul." — Byroa. 
 
 ((') " The time I've lost in wooing, 
 In watching and pursuing 
 
 The light that lies 
 
 In woman's eyes, 
 Has been my heart's xindoing." --'/'. Moore, 
 
 {d) "Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
 
 Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray." — Gray, 
 
 ill 
 
 EXERCISK IV. {(lender, p. 11). 
 
 1. Define gender; and give the different ways in which gender is 
 marked. 
 
 2. liive the gender of Londoner, chief, ntuor, actor, dtbtor, .sailor, 
 kitten, sheep, chariti/, knare, moon, ant, spouse, bee, laundress. 
 
 '^. Ciive the masculine of spinster, doe, shit, eire, bride, baxtrr, /«>>, 
 c-arina, vi.ren ; and the feminine of vidovtr, ^nitron, drake, inanpdi, 
 yandt)', friar, sire, benefactor, executor, nephew, earl. 
 
 i!i 
 
 EXERCISE V. (Number, p. l.'i). 
 
 1. Define number ; and ,i;ive the chief ways of forming plurals. 
 
 2. Supply the plurals of child, chief cloth, calf horse, J)utchmnn, 
 German, trout, fly, solo, monkey, index, boot, foot, Hoiite of Pardumnii, 
 niousf, lily, turkey, ifas, box, genius, canto, jieiiny, crisis, Miss Footc, 
 lady-helfi, relief, dye, buoy, spoonful. 
 
 3. Write the singulars of kim, she(p, radii, series, data, dice, 
 analyses, cherubi/n ; and distinguish between pease and peas, brolhcn 
 and brethren, dies and dice, geniuses and 'jenit. 
 
 4. Justify the use of each of the following : m( moraiidunis, indlrif. 
 bandits, fun'j uses, seixijihs ; and state the number of each of the uuuiib 
 in the following : - 
 
 («) "The audience were too much interested." — Scott. 
 
 (b) " The gamson only bestow a few bolts on it." — Id. 
 
 (c) **The House of Lords were so much intiuenced." — Hume,, 
 
 (d) "All his tribe are blind." — Banyan. 
 
F.XF.RCISF.S. 
 
 209 
 
 EXKRCl.SK VI. (Xuinh.T, p. l.".). 
 
 State tho kind and iuiml)e)' of euch of the nouns in tlie 
 following: — 
 
 (fi) '• He sees tliat tliis great rouiul-ubout, 
 The world with all ita motley rout, — 
 Church, army, i)hysic, law, 
 Ita customs and its busineHses, 
 Is lU) concern at all of hia." — Cowper. 
 
 (i) "The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new, 
 
 And liojie ia brightest when it dawns from fears." — Scott. 
 
 ((■) " A look of kind Truth, a word of Goodwill, 
 Are the magical helps on Life's road ; 
 \Vith a mountain to travel tliey shorten the hill, 
 With a burden they lighten the load." 
 
 ~L7ir:a Cook. 
 
 KXKRCISE VII. ( 
 1. Oive the kind and i^eiider 
 
 Jevision). 
 of the 
 
 nouns in the 
 
 tol 
 
 I") 
 
 lowHig :- 
 
 'A baby was sleeping, its mother was weeping, 
 For her husband was far on th? wild raging sea." — .S'. Lover, 
 
 • Perhaps that very hand, now pinion'd flat, 
 
 Has hob-a-nobbM with Tharaoh, glass to glass ; 
 
 Or dropp'd a halfpenny in Homers hat, 
 
 Or dotPd thine own to let Queen Dido pass, 
 
 Or held, by Solomon's own invitation, 
 
 A torch at the great Temple's dedication."' — Horace Smith, 
 
 (live the kind and number of the 
 
 nouns 111 
 
 the 
 
 following 
 
 (1(1 
 
 <<>) 
 
 ' Rritannia needs no bulwark. 
 
 No towers along the steep." — Camphell. 
 
 ' He spoke of the grass, and flowers, and trees, 
 Of the singing birds, and the humming bees, 
 Tlu'n talked of the haying, and wonder'd whether 
 The cloud in the west would bring foul weather."—./. O, Whitlier. 
 
 EXERCISE Vrir. (Case, p. ID). 
 
 1. Define case ; say for which casea nouns are inllected, and what 
 ilcteriiiines the nominative ca.se. 
 
 2. Define nominative absolute, giving an example ; and show the 
 two ways of denoting the possessive case. 
 
 .'i. l)efine cognate object, and say why ilative objects are so called. 
 <iive examples to illustrate your answer. 
 
 4. Give the meaning oifactifive as ajtplied to the objective casej 
 and say what ia mtaut by an adverbial object. 
 
210 
 
 EXEnCTRER. 
 
 1. 
 >) 
 
 4. 
 
 0. 
 
 s. 
 
 !). 
 10. 
 U. 
 12. 
 
 1:5. 
 
 14. 
 
 FA'ERCISE IX. (Casp, p. 10). 
 
 ent the nouns in tin* iiominativr case in tlie follnwin;?:- 
 
 The bloom falls in May. 
 
 The ostriches' hcails were not to be seen. 
 
 "The kine," said he, " I'll (inickly feed." 
 
 The kine were fed. 
 
 The captain falling ill, the boatswain took charge. 
 
 A wandering minstrel am I. 
 
 Here lies the body of a noble man. 
 
 Richard, they say, was cruel. 
 
 The bell rini^ing, the children assembled. 
 
 Richard, William's son, was killed in the New Forest. 
 
 A number of sheep, bjsing their way, fell over tlie precipice 
 
 Rattle his bones over the stones. 
 
 The guide falling ill, the travellers had to rely on his do'/. 
 
 All ! Charlie, my son, you cheer your old mother ! 
 
 ill- 
 
 EXERCISE X. (Case, p. 10). 
 
 Write out tlie nouns in tin objeetivo case in each of the 
 followino; sentences : — 
 
 1. Britannia rules the waves. 
 
 2. I beg j'our pnrdon. 
 
 ."i. To-night no moon I see. 
 
 4. How many birds did they catch ? 
 
 ."). The king conferred with the general. 
 
 (). The children laughed at the sfjuirrel. 
 
 7. Let me die the death of the righteous. 
 
 8. The crooked oak I "11 fell to-day. 
 
 9. A liar who can trust ? 
 
 10. We know a tree by its fruit. 
 
 1 1. He told a good tale. 
 
 12. The boy sneered at the idea. 
 
 1.'}. Richard slew his fjodfather, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. 
 the kingmaker. 
 
 w 
 
 I 
 
 .-{ 
 4 
 
 r» 
 t; 
 
 8 
 
 1), 
 
 10 
 
 EXERCISE XI. (Case, p. 19). 
 
 rite the following in tlu; oi'dinaiy possessive form 
 
 The bark of a dog. 
 
 The twitter of the swallows. 
 
 The books of John. 
 , The spades of the workmen. 
 
 The studies of James. 
 
 'I'ho scissors of Miss Cissy Moses. 
 
 The lute of Orpheus. 
 
 The sword of Achilles. 
 
 The subscriptions of the ladies. , 
 
 The death of the Marquis of Londonderry. 
 
EXRRnSES. 
 
 211 
 
 11. The cries of the babies. 
 
 12. The marriage of Riclianl. Earl of Cambridge. 
 i;{. The inuoience of the lilies. 
 
 14. The head of a sheep. 
 
 1.'). Tlie tails of sheep. 
 
 liJ. Tlie jul)ilee of Victoria, Queen of England. 
 
 17. The sake of my conscience. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. (Ca«e, ].. H)). 
 
 riive particulars of tlio cases (if each uf the nouns in the 
 folluwinir : — 
 
 I. Toll for the brave. 
 •_'. Flaxen wa.-^ his hair. 
 
 0. Ho, gunners ! lire a loud salute. 
 
 4. Cive the man a draught from the spring, 
 
 ."). The parson told the sexton, and the sexton toU'd the bell. 
 
 G. Boys, you deserve to have a holiday given y(ni. 
 
 7. It is very like a whale. 
 
 8. In this place ran Cassins' dagger thronuh. 
 
 9. He paid him the debt for consfienee' sake. 
 I'l. Tile king's baker ditanied a dream. 
 
 1 1. The lady lent the boy " Robinson Crusoe." 
 
 12. Bid your wife be judge. 
 
 i;]. The Count of Anjou became leader. 
 
 14. Joan seemed a holy woman. 
 
 15. Charles appointed Ijuckingham commander. 
 IT). Let the actors play the play. 
 
 17. John walked two hours and travelled peven miles. 
 IS. How many hired servants of my fathers ha\e bread enough. 
 !!•. I have a sixpence, but no pennies. 
 
 'JO. Benjamin, Joseph's own brother, Jaf'ol)"s youngest son, was 
 kejit a jtrisoner. 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. (Case, p. 19). 
 
 State fullv the cases of the nouns in the foUowiiif': — 
 
 1. The sergeant choosing the tallest, the other recruits dispersed. 
 
 2. r)ld Kaspar's work was done. 
 .*>. William, sing a song. 
 
 4. She made the poor girl a dress, 
 /i. She knitted all day. 
 
 G. The tide floated the vessel. 
 7. The boy swam his little boat, 
 
 5. Let the king be your leader. 
 9. A small hole will sink a ship. 
 
 Ill, Let bygones be bygones, 
 1 1. It rains, it hails, it blows, it snows, 
 Methinks I "m wet thro' all mv clothes. 
 
masmm' 
 
 
 212 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 /^ F.XERCISE XIV. (Nouns). 
 
 Parse fully all the nouns occurring in the following : — 
 
 (a) " Underneath tliis sablo lieaise 
 Lies tlie Hubjict of all verse, 
 Sidney's sister, l'enil)roke's mother." — Ben Jonxon. 
 
 ((,) " liis house was known to all tlie vagrant train ; 
 
 He chid thiir wand'rings, l)ut relii'vcd their ]>ain." — Ooldsmith. 
 
 (r) " Yet shall ])oor Tom find pleasant weather, 
 When Tie, who all eommaiuls, 
 Shall give, to call lifi:\s crew together. 
 The word to pipe all hands." — C. D'tlidin, 
 
 III 
 
 EXERCISE XV. (Pronouns, p. 2.*^). 
 
 1. Define u j,ro.: am ; give its derivation; and say wliat you 
 understand by a personal pronoun. 
 
 2. What are the only i>ronouns that can be used in tlie vocative 
 case ; and which perscni alone takes distinction of gender? 
 
 3. Deline an interrogative pronoun ; and distinguish between vlu, 
 and what, ye and yon, thy and thine, and me and myse!/. 
 
 4. Explain the ch in irlilch, the m in vhoni, the thir in irhethir, ami 
 the / in it. 
 
 f>. Deline a distributive pronoun ; and say when reflexive jtronouns 
 are used. 
 
 II 
 
 n 
 
 It! 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. (Pronouns, j). 23). 
 
 Give the kind, gendci', lunuher, ])ersun, and case of each 
 of the proiu)uns below : — 
 
 (a) " I am monarch of all I survey, 
 
 My right there is none to dispute.'' — Cowper. 
 
 (/() " You yourself are much condemn'd." — Shakespeare. 
 
 (c) "Who would fill a coward's grave ?"—7i»?-«,s. 
 
 {(l) " You wrong'd yourself to write in such a csLSc.''—Shake'<)>eare. 
 
 (e) " Each had his place appointed, each his course." — Milton. 
 
 (/*) "Of them He chose twelve, whom also He named apostles." 
 
 —Bible. 
 
 ((/) "He is the fieeman whom the truth makes free, 
 And all are slaves besides." — Covptr. 
 
KXERCISKS. 
 
 213 
 
 EXEFlCrSK W'll. (I'roiH.iitis, J.. 23). 
 
 Write ill two columns tlio relatives and unteccdeiit.s in tlie 
 following : — 
 
 (a) " Tf) know 
 
 That wliicli bcforo \\h lies in daily life, 
 Is tlie iirinie wisdom." • Milton. 
 
 (h) " Who steals my purse steals trash.' — Slitth'^ppare. 
 
 (<) " He pi-ayeth best, who lovctli best 
 
 All things, both great and small." — Coh-r'abje. 
 
 (d) " Freedom has a thousand charms to show, 
 
 That slaves, howe'er contented, never know.*' — Cnivper. 
 
 [(') " Vain, very vain, my weary search to find 
 
 That bliss which only centres in the mind."— (luhhiulth, 
 
 { f) " Be strong, live happy, and love ; but first of all. 
 Him whom to love is to obey." — Milton. 
 
 EX?:HCr8K XVII r. (IVonouns ]). 2;!). 
 
 Parse full}' the relatives and their antecedents in the 
 following: — 
 
 ((t) " Whoever lov'd, that lo\ 'd not at first sight ? '" — ^iKihs/ieare. 
 
 {I}) "There were none of the (irograms but could sing a ?^ong, or 
 of the Marjorams l)ut could tell a story."- (lohLsniith. 
 
 [c] " Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper." — IHbh'. 
 
 [il) "Let such teach others, who tliemselves excel."' — I'ojie. 
 
 EXKIICISE XIX. (Revision). 
 
 Parse fully the nouns and pronouns in the following : — 
 
 {a) "The place that she hath chosen out, 
 Herself in to repose, 
 Had they cojne down, the gods no <loubt 
 The very same luad chose." — JJrai/toit. 
 
 (h) "So, Willy, let you and me be wipers 
 
 Of scores out with all men, esjiocially pipers: 
 
 And, whether they Jjipe us free from rats or from mice. 
 
 If we've promised them aught, kt us keep our piomise." 
 
 — Broiaiing. 
 
 EXERCISE XX. (Adjectives, j,. 'JS). 
 
 1. Define an adjective ; and show, with examples, the twofold 
 function of an adjective. 
 
 2. Name the kinds of adjectives ; and give the derivation of each 
 name. 
 
IP 
 
 214 
 
 EXERCISKS. 
 
 Jl 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 
 3. Say in what ways qiiantitativo adjortivfs may bp usfd ; and how 
 uiinutral adjectives may 1)'-' dassiliod. 
 
 4. \\'liat adjcctivi's arc iiitlcctcd for number ; and wliat for coin- 
 paris'in ? 
 
 ."». Stato how till- comparative is formed ; and distinL'uisli iMtuccti 
 fiirllifr ;\ud i'(ir//i( r. ohhr and (hh i\ lutir and lallir. 
 
 (1. Write tliP ordinals of onc^ tiro, (hrr.r-, four, fortji, > i',i/it, tn-pnty, 
 hun(ire<f, Jirr', firr/vp. 
 
 HXKKCISK XXI. (Adjeetives, p. 28). 
 
 Classify- the adjectives in the folh»wiiio-: — 
 
 1. " In the body ]tolitie, as in the natural body, morbid lanfrimr 
 succeeds morbid exeitement.'" — Miicinihnj, 
 
 2. "So thick a drop serene hath (|iien(;lied their orbs." — Miiion. 
 
 3. " His aiu coat on his back is.''-- O/J S.ni</. 
 
 4. "He was a ready orator, an elef.'nnt poet, a skilful gaidtiuT. 
 an excellent cook, and a most conteinptil»le sovereign."' — Gihlinn. 
 
 ') "Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep."' — Yuinni. 
 {'). " Vou gave good words the other day of a bay courser I rud.." 
 — '^hakfi-'pi'arc. 
 
 7. "The ))Oor maii that loveth ( 'hrist is licher than the richest 
 man.'" — Ihniijan. 
 
 8. "Sole pjve, associate sole, to mc; beyond compare above ail 
 living creatures dear.'' — Milton. 
 
 9. " Fox beat half the lawyers in the House at their own weapons. 
 — Maraulay. 
 
 EXERCISE XXII. (Adjectives, p. 28). 
 
 Parse fully all the adjectives in the following: — 
 
 1. "The better part of valour is discretion ; in the which better 
 part I have saved my life. " — XAa/.v.v/jf'rnr. 
 
 2. " Act well your jiart ; there all the honour lies.'' — Popr. 
 
 3. "The greater the new power they create, the greater seeni' 
 their revenge against the old." — Jhihor. 
 
 4. " It was a very low fire indeed for feuch a bitter night.''— />/i7.'' /;<'. 
 
 5. "Some three or four of you go, give him courteous conduct to 
 this place."' — Shukt^penre. 
 
 C. " Many a carol, old and saintly, sang the minstrels. " — Lonrjftllou\ 
 
 7. "The morning comes cold for a July one. " — Carlyle. 
 
 8. "I'll lill another pipe."— .S'^enfr. 
 
 KXERCISK XXI IF. (Adjectives, p. 2S). 
 
 1. Compare the following adjecliv/s wlnie tliey admit of it : "foul, 
 thin, murvi'l/ou^; calm, s/ti/, ladylike, (fLUtlemanly, vet, honoui-ablc, dead, 
 near, full, prim, lovrly, ('lui/cy, ho/i/'y, sad, solar. 
 
 2. Write the positive of ne.cf, more, inner, la-'t. ha-'ft, jirat, inmost, 
 hotter ; and the superlative of evil, late, much, ill, ijood. 
 
ROrai 
 
 BBPI 
 
 EXEllf'TRES. 
 
 ein 
 
 EXERC;iSE X.XIW (A.ljirtivf-, i>. JS). 
 
 Parse fnllv tlie adjectives in tlio following: — 
 
 1. "That sun tliat warms you htie sliall -liiuf <in u\i. '—.'</, alpMppnrf, 
 
 2. '•( 'an tlu' false-hearted hoy have clioKtn siicli a liud a- yonder 
 feUoW?" — ]>irlc(iis. 
 
 :>. '"Look here, upon this picture, and on this; the counterfeit 
 nreseutuient of two hrotheis." Sfnilcfup^n rt. 
 
 4. '• My father lived at Blenheim tlien, yon litth' stream liatd liy.'' 
 — <(ititlii'y. 
 
 '). '"The oracles are dumb ; 
 No voice or hideous hum 
 Runs thro' the archil rouf in words deceiviuL'." — Milfon. 
 
 KXKUCISK XXV. (IJevisioii 
 
 Parst' the nouns and adjeetives in tlie folh)\ving: — 
 
 {(i) " Lord ! Tliou dost love .Teiusalem, 
 (hi(;e she was all Thy own : 
 Her love 'i'hy fairest heritage, 
 
 iler power Thy glory's throne.'"— ^lAoor^. 
 
 ill) "As proper men as ever trod upon neat's leather have gone 
 ii|M)n my handiwork." — '<hakf<ii< m-p. 
 
 KXKIKTSK XX\'I. (Hevision). 
 
 Parse the pi"onoun>; and adjectives in the folhjwinu': — 
 
 \a) " 0, Sir, to wilful men, 
 
 The injuries that they themselves procure 
 Must he their schoolmasters. " —Sh(ikf.<j)< ar". 
 
 h) "True ease in writinf' comes froin art. not chance. 
 
 As those move easiest who have learned ti» daticp." — Pope. 
 
 \<) "Who said that I had given thee uji? 
 
 Who said that thf>u weit sold?'" — M r-i. Xmimi. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVII. (Tlie V.-rl.. p. ;;4j. 
 
 1. Detine a verb and a transitive verli ; and name tlie ways in 
 which an intransitive verb may become trausitive. 
 
 -. What is an auxiliary, and why are auxiliaries necessary? Illus- 
 trate your answer by examples. 
 
 3. Say Avliat you undfjrstand by voice: what are the only verb.s 
 tiiat can be in the passive vuee : and how the passive voice is 
 fi>rme(l. 
 
' n 
 
 ffln 
 
 21G 
 
 EXERCISKR. 
 
 I ' 
 
 EXERriSE XXVTIT. (("lassifioation of V.m1)3, ].. r.;-). 
 
 « 
 
 Classify the verl^s in the followiiiL:- into transitive and in- 
 transitive : — 
 
 (a) " I think, artiouLito, I lauch and wcop, 
 
 And exeiciso all the finictions of a man ; 
 How then sliould I and any man that lives 
 Be strangers to each other ?'" — Cowper. 
 
 (b) " A tiling of beauty in a joy for ever ; 
 
 Its loveliness increases ; it w ill never 
 Pass into nothingness." — Ktats. 
 
 (r) " Ife prayeth best, -who loveth best 
 
 All things, both great and small ; 
 For the dear <!od who loveth ns, 
 
 He made and loveth all." — i'olir'idiii'. 
 
 EXERCISK XXIX. (Classilieatiun of Verbs, p. 35). 
 
 Arrange the following verbs as prepositional or cansative :— 
 
 1. 1'he magistrate swore in the constables. 
 
 2. 'i'he goodness of the soil soon raised a crop. 
 
 3. I have spoken to a man who once baited a hook and drew ir; 
 a ])ike. 
 
 4. The gardener will fell the tree, and lay out the borders. 
 
 5. The pirates having jeered at the thri'ats, sank the ship. 
 
 6. Some of the children will tly kites, others swim boats. 
 
 7. Tom will run his pony up and down. 
 
 8. They glory in little faults, wink at great ones, and cou jh down 
 the remonstrances of the wise men. 
 
 Hill 
 ill 
 
 !il 
 
 m 
 
 lli 
 
 EXERCISE XXX. (Voices of Verbs, p. 3!t). 
 
 Kewrite the eight sentences in tlie foregoing exercise in 
 the passive voice. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXI. (Tenses of Verbs, p. 41). 
 
 Give particulars of the tense of each of the verbs in tiu' 
 following : — 
 
 (a) "The king is come to marshal us, all in his armour drest." 
 
 — Mdcaulai/. 
 
 (h) " I would not have believed it unless I had happened to have 
 been there."' — Dicki-ii.-<. 
 
 (r) "I am, I will, I shall be ha])]iy."" — Lytton. 
 
 (d) You are fighting a shadow. 
 
 (c) I shall have had enough of this. 
 
 Ill 
 til 
 
EXERCISKS. 
 
 217 
 
 (/") Why came yc hithor '.' 
 
 (;/) Knew ye not what they had lost? 
 
 (h) Wo know not, neither do Wf carf. 
 
 (/) A man who had lost hia way, stopped till a boy came saunter- 
 ing along. 
 
 (/.) "Am I in th(! right road fur London?"" said the man. 
 
 (/) "Yes,"' was th(! reply; "but you will not get tiierc till you 
 have walked twelve miles.' 
 
 (?») " I have been walking thr( c; hours already, and i shall have 
 been travelling a whole day ere 1 reai.li my journey "s end." 
 
 EXERCbSK XXX 11. (Moods of Verl)s, p. 38). 
 
 Stale tli(! mood of eiu^h of tlic verbs in the followiiiir, uiul 
 point out llic geniiHls jiiid j);irtit'iplos : — 
 
 (a) " I dare do all that may l)eeomo a man : 
 
 Wiu) dare3 do more ia none."' — S/takc^/ifdrc. 
 
 (/;) "Truth from his lips prevailed vith double sway, 
 
 And fouls who came to .scoll" remained to pray. ' — (lultUiiiith. 
 
 (c) "Well, sit we down, 
 
 And let us hear Bernardo speak of this.""^ — "^/inlceniicarc. 
 
 ('/) " I watched the little circles die."" — Tciuii/sav. 
 
 {r) *' I am ashamed to observe you hesitate." — Scott. 
 
 if) " Come unto these yellow sands, 
 And theu take hands ; 
 Curtsied when you have, and kissed, 
 (The wild waves hist) 
 Foot it featly here and there."" — ShaLtsptare. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIII. (Auxiliary Verbs, p. 4.S). 
 
 Select tlie auxiliaries from the followiiii:; sentences, and 
 show tlie force of each : — 
 («) " 1 did send to you for gold."' — Shake-<innrr. 
 
 ('') "The lark has sung his carol in the sky. 
 
 The bees have humm"d their noontide lullaby." — Rogers. 
 
 ('■) " lie was — whatever thou hast been, 
 
 He is— what thou shalt be." — Monl'jointri/. 
 
 {'I) I shall be drowned if none will save me I 
 
 (0 Will he not come again ? 
 
 (/) We have been thinking over the matter. 
 
 (g) He could have been there had he wished to have been seen by 
 his old friends. 
 
iiil|l 
 
 lilS 
 
 K.VKIKMKKS. 
 
 KXKKCl^K \\\l\. (Stmii-uud Wrak Vtr)>H. )i. VA). 
 
 « 
 
 Ariaii,m! till) vuil)s ill I'lxcjrt'i.scs XXXII. iiiid XXXIII. ;is 
 stronj; or weiik. 
 
 KXHIH'ISK WW. (Veil. "'I'(. I.e. 'p. .'lO). 
 
 1. Say of what verljs tlir \eil» fn ia made u\\, and yivt.' tlif four 
 ways ill which tliis viiib is usid. 
 
 2. Statu the use of hr in cadi <'f the foHowiii;^ instances : — 
 
 in) "Whatever is, is right."- /^v'^ 
 (h) Thou art tiie man. 
 (<•) I hliall ht' there. 
 ((/) Tlicy are to reaigii. 
 (o) David was a bohl man. 
 (/') 'J'lic men will lie (-hosen by lot, 
 ('l) He is g(tne to his grave. 
 
 (/() "lie otri" cried the old man to tin; lutys who wci'c teasing 
 him. 
 
 E.XKKCISK XXWl. (M(.od an.l Tense Auxiliaries, '-. .■).';). 
 
 1. Name t he mood auxiliaries and the tense auxilia' iid :^ive 
 the limitation of each. 
 
 2. Why are can and may called defective verbs? 
 
 .'{. In what tense is the verb must uever used ? What was tlu- 
 original meaning of the word, and what is its prc-^eiit idea? 
 
 EXEKCISK XXXVII. (Adverbs, p. 57). 
 
 1. Detine an adverb : and say in what two ways adverbs may In 
 classilicd, illustrating your answer 1»y examples. 
 
 2. Give the classification of adverbs according to their meauiii;:, 
 and show the twofold function of a conjunctive adverb. 
 
 If P ^ * 
 In 
 
 EXERCISE XXX VIII. (Adverbs, p. .-)7). 
 
 Arrange as simple or conjunctive the adverbs in the 
 following : — 
 
 1. Come where the moonbeams linger. 
 
 2. Where are you going? 
 
 o. Where the bee sucks, there lurk I. 
 
 4. Come in. 
 
 5. Look out ! Here conies the beadle, so let us run. 
 
 6. Who 's there ? 
 
 7. I know a l)aiik whereon the wild thyme grows.. 
 S. Then out spake bold Horatius. 
 
 9. I love my love because my love loves me. 
 10. Verily here are sweetly scented herbs, thereford will we set us 
 down awhile till our friends leisurely return. 
 
KXKKCI.SKS. 
 
 lil'J 
 
 K \ KRC I S K X X X 1 .\ . { A . 1 \ c 1 bo, 1 .. .-,7). 
 
 Classify ihi' adverbs in the t'ol lowing; : — 
 
 (a) ''Oiicc agiiiii wi;"ll hKi'|) ticciu'i'."- Sh'iliC^/f 
 
 {!,) "My falher li\ od at Ulriilaim linn, 
 
 ^'u^ litlli' btrtiiim hiird by." — SoUf/u i/. 
 
 ((•) "Tliii.s liav(' I yit'Med into yimr liaixl 
 
 The iiiclu ot my gli>i'y. ' — Shuktajnarr. 
 
 (il) " \t)\v the groat winds sliorcw aid blow. 
 
 are. 
 
 X'ow till' salt tiiK'ti .seaward flow, 
 
 M. 
 
 •nold. 
 
 (' 
 
 W 
 
 e in) ioniser 
 
 belie 
 
 \e in St. VAmnnd." -'('iniijle 
 
 (/■) ' What so moves tliee all at oure 
 ('/) " Vex nut thou the poet's niind."- 
 
 , It 
 
 -Ciller ill 
 
 'fC. 
 
 HXI«:U"ISK XL. (Adverb.s, p. oT). 
 
 I'urse the adverbs in the followinL,^ : — 
 
 ((/) ''The solemn pi-aUs but to the stars nie known, — 
 But to the stars, and the ecdd lunar heams. 
 
 [h) " My life is spannM already. "--67((//.r.xy/( uri'. 
 
 M. Arnold. 
 
 ') 
 
 ou a 
 
 Iw 
 
 lys pi 
 
 it th 
 
 mgs so pleasai 
 
 itly. 
 
 ■Lai 
 
 I'xr, 
 
 (il) " Not all the pearls Queen Mary wears, 
 
 Nor Mar aret's still more jiri'cious tears, 
 
 Shall buy his life a (lay, 
 
 Sro/f. 
 
 (O 
 
 Why holds thine eye that melancholy rlieun 
 
 ■^hakesjiutrf. 
 
 (/) A veiy inquisitive child once saucily anUed of an exeeedinjily 
 iiucdy-looking man, " Where do you most generally dine ? "' Immedi- 
 ately the all but actually starving man replied somewhat sadly, though 
 quite smartly withal, "Near anything I may get to eat."' 
 
 KXERdSK XIJ. (Ilevisum). 
 
 Parse fully the nouns, verb.-, and adverb.s in the follow- 
 ing :— 
 
 (a) "Go out, children, from the mine and from the city, 
 Slug out, chililren, as the little thrushes do : 
 Pluck your handfuls of the meadow cowslips pretty, 
 Laugh aloud, to feel your lingers let them through."' 
 
 — jUr.i, Broionimj. 
 
 (h) "None of us yet know, for none of us have yet been taught in 
 early jouth, what fairy })alace3 we may build of beautiful thought — 
 proof against all adversity." — Buskin. 
 
■SHHm 
 
 H t 
 
 I 
 
 220 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE XLII. (Prepositions, \\ 58). 
 
 Select the prci)ositions in the following, and say what they 
 connect and govern : — 
 
 1. In the (;orner of the hox near the bench behind the door, is tlie 
 picture of a man without a coat to his back. 
 
 2. Notwithstanding he had returned with wood, they sent for some 
 more. 
 
 3. The Lady in violet is in mourning. 
 
 4. Kespectiuf,' the scholars, all l)ut Charles read through the chapter 
 concerning Galileo. 
 
 5. Whom arc you writing to '.' 
 
 6. Come in, Puss, to your kitten^. 
 
 7. That is the book I spoke about. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIII. (Prepositions, p. 5S). 
 
 1. Define a prei»ositiou ; and say uiiat words are affected liy pre- 
 positions. 
 
 •J. (iive a list of simple prepositions ; and show the couipositidii of 
 the following prepositions : Imf, hesidc, after, until, aboard, boiealli, 
 amoiKj, beyond. 
 
 EXERCISE XLIV. (Conjunctions, p. 6i>). 
 
 1. Define a conjunction, and distinguish between co-ordinate ami 
 subordinate conjunctions. 
 
 2. Classify the conjunctions in the following : — 
 
 {it) " My hair is grey, but not with years. 
 Nor grew it white 
 In a single night."' — Byron. 
 
 {b) "Neither a borrower nor a lender be." — Shakt-<pcare. 
 
 (c) "Awake, arise, or be for ever fallen."' — Milton. 
 
 (fl) " Man never is, but always to be blest."' — Pujh . 
 
 (e) " Must 1 then leave you?" — Shakespeare. 
 
 (J) " ^Vealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought." — Yoiain. 
 
 (,'/) "I saw Mark Antony offer him a crown; yet i*^^ was nut a 
 crown neither." — Shake,'<ptare. 
 
 EXERCISE XLV. (Syntax, p. (H). 
 
 1. Define syntax ; and state into what two parts it may be 
 divided. 
 
 2. State the principal concords existing in the English language; 
 and name the chief instances of governDv nt. 
 
,t tlioy 
 
 r, is tlie 
 or some 
 
 , chapter 
 
 KXKKCISKS. 
 
 •)oi 
 
 EXKRCISK XIA'J. (Syntivx of Noun, p. IM). 
 
 Give full particulurs of all nomiiuitives in ihc iDllowing 
 (juotiitioiis : — 
 
 {,t) "So work the honey l)ri's, 
 
 Creatures that by a rule in nature teach 
 
 The art of order to a peci]ile(l kingdom."' — Sfuiko^jitarc. 
 
 (//) '* A whit'j wall is the paper of a fool/' — 6'. Ih'rlcrt. 
 
 ((•) " I that speak to thee am he." — J>U,li . 
 
 ((/) " Thus now alone he concjueror remains." — Spen-<er. 
 
 (' ) " I To I gallant nobles of the League, look that your arms be 
 bright." — Macaulay. 
 
 ) I: ii 
 
 ih 
 
 il by pre- 
 
 )03iti(iu nf 
 ', beneath, 
 
 liuate aud 
 
 ;— Yoitn'j. 
 kvas not a 
 
 may he 
 I language ; 
 
 EXERCISE XLVII. (Syntax of Noun, p. G7). 
 
 Explain the possessives in the followini;- : — 
 
 ((() " vShe sent the deathless passion in her eyes 
 
 Thro' him, and nuide him her.s, and laid her mind 
 On him, and he l)elieved in her belief." — 'J\iinyson. 
 
 (/)) " Then shall man's i)ride and dulness compreiund 
 
 His actions', passions', being".s use and end.'"- J'ojir. 
 
 (r) " Anything that money would buy had been his son's." - 
 
 7'hackn'"!/. 
 
 ('/) "Though dark be my way, since He is my guide, 
 
 'Tis mine to obey, 'tis His to provide." — ./. Nticton, 
 
 EXERCISE XLVIII. (Syntax of Noun, p. (iS). 
 (tJvo full particulars of all the ol)jective.s in the following :-- 
 
 (a) "There were some that ran, and some that Icipt 
 Like troutlets in a pool." — Hood. 
 
 CO " He has two essential parts of a courtier, piide and ignorance." 
 
 ■ — Ihin Joa^oii. 
 
 ((.') " Clearing the fence, he cried ' Halloo ! ' "' 
 
 ('/) "They made him captain, and he gave them orders to sail the 
 liuai six leagues south of the point." 
 
 EXERCISE XLIX. (Syntax of Adjective, p. 71). 
 
 Classify the adjectives in the following in accordance witii 
 llie two Avays in which they are u.sed :- 
 
 (■') " Whvn I was dry with rage and extreme toil, 
 I'u'eathless and faint, leaning upon my sword, 
 Came there a certain lord, ni.at, trimly dress'd." — ShakcK2>care, 
 
■) O 9 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 (//) "Still more inajcstir shalt thou rise, , 
 
 Mori! (li'eadt'ul from i-acii forei,Ljn stroke ; 
 As tin; loud blast that tears the skies 
 
 Serves but to root thy native oak."'— 77;o»i.s'OJ!. 
 
 (r) "They considered themselves fortunate in making the children 
 hap])y, and in rendering the despairing hopeful."' 
 
 ill 
 
 lOXKRClSK L. (Syntax of Adjective, ]). 71). 
 
 1. In what way is a ])aitieiple an adjective ; and \vliat function of 
 a verb does it retain ? 
 
 2. Say all that is necessary of the adjectives beloM' : — 
 
 {a) " l">aeh horseman drew liis battle blade, 
 
 xVud furious every charger neighed." — ('amithiU. 
 
 {h) " He made nie mad 
 
 To see him shine so biisk and smell so sweet. 
 
 And talk so like a waiting-gentle^\()man.'" — Shnk( ^}>r.arc. 
 
 {<) " Sweet Isle ! within thy rock-girt shore is seiMi 
 
 Nature in her sublimest dress arrayed."' — /:'. Fosketl. 
 
 {</) "Into the valley of death 
 
 Ivode the si.x hundred." —Tcnui/-<oti. 
 
 {>) " A form more fail', a face more sweet, 
 
 Ne'er hath it been my lot to meet.'" — ./. 0'. Wldllu,)'. 
 
 m^' 
 
 EXERCISE LI. (Syntax of Pronoun, p. T4). 
 
 Show the a_u;rceniGiit of the pronouns with the noun.s ihey 
 rei)resent in the following: — 
 
 (n) " On she came with a cloud of canvas, 
 
 llight against the ■wind that blew." — Cukrldijc. 
 
 (h) " Who said that T had given thee up? 
 
 Who said that tlnni wert sold?" — J/r-'. Xnr/oii. 
 
 ((•) " She lov'd me for the dangers I liad paas'd. 
 
 And I lov'd her that she ilid pity them." — Shdh^^jKare. 
 
 ('/) " The eye — it cannot choose but sec ; 
 We cannot bid the ear ])e still ; 
 Our bodies feel, where'er they be, 
 
 xVgaiust, or with our will.'" — WonUwortli. 
 
 EXERCISE LII. (Syntax of Pronoun, [i. 74). 
 
 Show the eoncords of the antecedcnt.s and relatives in the 
 following : — 
 
 (a) " Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories are." 
 
 — Maanday. 
 
KXKllCISKS. 
 
 223 
 
 (/() "This sword a (la;L'Kor liad. liis page, 
 
 'riiat was but little for Ins age.'' — litdhr. 
 
 (r) " My banks they are furiiislud with bcc'^, 
 
 Whose miiinnir invites one to sleep. ' - Shevstoiic. 
 
 (th " Thon palaces shall ris( ; the joyful son 
 
 Shall liuibh what his short-lived sire bei^un."' — Pojie. 
 
 KXERCISK LIII. (Syntax of Verb. ].. 70). 
 
 Show tlio foncord of cswh \orlt in tlio followiii<j; wifli it? 
 .subjtM't, and quote the ride in each case : — 
 
 (ii) '' I sing the birth was born to-night, 
 
 The author both of life and light." — /A// Jaiison. 
 
 {!•) '• lUow, blow, thou winter m ind. 
 Thou art not so unkind 
 
 As man's ingratitude." — Shah-jiecrr. 
 
 ('•) "(.'an storied urn or animated bust 
 
 Back to its mansion call the tieeting breath ?"' — Oruy. 
 
 {'It "Our companj' were now arrived within a unle of Jliuhgale."' 
 
 — Firblinij. 
 
 (') " Neither a borrower nor a lender lie." — Slmke^inart. 
 
 IS they 
 
 Iri in the 
 
 EXERCISE LIV. (Syntax of Veiii. p. 7s). 
 
 Arraiiiro in two column.s the ^ovcrninir ^•cl■1).s und tlicir 
 objects in the followiiio; : — 
 
 (a) " He gave to misery all he had, a tear." ''''"y. 
 
 ('') "They made me (jueen of the May. T' mi //an, 
 
 {<•] "Thou hast a tongue, come, let ns hear its tune." 
 
 — Iforni'f, Smith. 
 
 {'I) " Past all di.shonour. 
 Death has left on her 
 
 Only the beautiful, '- T. Ih;„l, 
 
 U) " Methinks we must have known some foiiuer state 
 
 — L. K. Luiulon. 
 
 ( '') "To scatter jdenty o'er a smiling laud, 
 
 And read their history in a nations eyes, 
 Their lot forbade." — Grai/. 
 
 I 
 
il 
 
 224 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE LV. (Syntax of Verb, p. 80). 
 
 riivc the luootl of eucli veio in the following, adding 
 explanatory reniaik y(ju think necessary : — 
 
 (a) " Had I a heart for falsehood fraiiK.'d, 
 I ne'er could injure you." — SIk ridan. 
 
 (6) "Tlie good of uucieut times let others state ; 
 
 I think it lucky I. was born so late." — Sydneij tiinith, 
 
 ((■) " Ob, then, while bums the earliest bee, 
 Where verdure tires the plain, 
 Walk thou with me, and stoop to see 
 The glories of the lane I " — /v7>. /'J/lioft. 
 
 (d) " They make obeisanee and retire in haste, 
 Too soon to seek again the watery waste : 
 Yet they repine not — so that ('oniad guides. 
 And who dare question aught when he decides ? ' — Bi/ron. 
 
 any 
 
 III: 
 
 EXERCISE LVr. (Syntax of Verb, p. 81 ). 
 Distinguish between gerunds and iniinitives in the folluw- 
 
 I'l 
 
 nig 
 
 (rr) "To gild refined gold, to jjain*; the lih', 
 To throw a ])erfunie on the violet, 
 To smooth the ice, or add another hue 
 Unto the rainbow, or with taper light 
 To seek the beauteous eye of heavcni to garnish, 
 Is wasteful and ridiculous excels." — S/uiki .y/cdre. 
 
 (Il) ''To make mankind, in conscious virtue bold. 
 
 Live o'er each scene, and be what they behold : 
 For this the tragic nius^e lirst trod the stage. 
 Commanding tears to stream through every age." — Pope. 
 
 (c) '' (Jood-night, good-night ! parting is such sweet sorrow. 
 
 That I shall say good-night till it be morrow."' — Shakenpeare. 
 
 {(/) Giving is better than receiving. 
 
 01 
 
 EXERCISE LVII. (Syntax of Adverb, Preposition, and 
 Conjunction, p S.S). 
 
 (Jive tlic rules of syntax relating to adverbs, ])repositi(»iis, 
 and conjunctions; and use the adverbs, i)repositions, and 
 conjunctions in the following to illustrate your answer : — 
 
 (a) " A second man I honour, and still more highly; him who is 
 seen toiling for the spiritually indispensable ; not daily bread, but 
 the bread of life." — Carlyle. 
 
 oae 
 
EXEKCISKS. 
 
 (/() "This only grajit me, that my moans may lie 
 
 Too h>\v for envy, tor I'ontompt too higli." — Covlty, 
 
 (c) " A man that looks on glass, 
 On it may stay his eye ; 
 Or, if h<> ])l('asc'th, throngh it pass, 
 
 And then the Leavens espy." — (i. Uirhcrt, 
 
 225 
 
 AX A LYSIS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. (Analysis— A Sentence, p. 80). 
 
 1. Define a sentence ; and say of what two ])arts it must consist, 
 '2. Of what may the subject of a sentence consist ? (live examples. 
 ,'). Define a predicate; and state what is necessary for the com- 
 pletion of some i)redicates. 
 
 EXEllCISE II. (Analysis— The Subject, p. S8). 
 
 Arrange in columns the suljjects in the foHowing, and say 
 of Avhut eacli consists : — 
 
 {a) The potato is wholesomt. 
 
 {h) Eat it. 
 
 (c) " Hush ! *' said the mother, 
 
 ((/) " Hurrah ! '' rang from the ranks. 
 
 (e) Tlie lazy take most pains. 
 
 (/) I'hinking leads to aetictn. 
 
 ('/) To leai'u meagrely means to beg eagerly. 
 
 (/<) Who loves not lil)erty ? 
 
 (/) Amassing wealth oft I'uins liealth. 
 
 (^•) " JJravo ! "' shouted the audience. 
 
 (/) Laughing is contagious. 
 
 EXERCISE III. (Analysis— The Predicate, p. 89). 
 
 Select the predicates in tlie following, and say of Avhat 
 each consists : — 
 
 {a) A cheery old soul lives here. 
 
 (/() It rains. 
 
 (c) A live dog is ])elter than a dead liou. 
 
 {d) I am not the king. 
 
I ' 
 
 MM 
 
 22G 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 (' ) The idle procrastinate. 
 
 (/} Tlie dead alone are happy. 
 
 (7) We are all hen,'. 
 
 (A) Charity beareth all things. 
 
 (/) Heroes die once. 
 
 (/•) No one loves a coward. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. (Analysis— The Object, p. 91). 
 
 Select tlic objects in tlic following, and say of what each 
 consists :— 
 
 (it) We loved him dearly. 
 
 ('-) The preacher cries " Prepare ! " 
 
 ((•) Kuskiu adored the beantiful. 
 
 (if) ('ats love to lie basking. 
 
 (f) Each man plucked a rose. 
 
 ( /') Who dues not love singing? 
 
 (;/) Friends dislike saying good-bye ! 
 
 (//) llini tiiey found in great distress. 
 
 («■) He destroyed all. 
 
 (/') She left none behind. 
 
 (/) One sailor saved the other. 
 
 (i)i) One good turn deserves another. 
 
 E.XERCISE V. (Analysis— The Object, p. 92). 
 
 i 
 
 Select the ol)jects in the following, distinguishing between 
 direet and indirect: — 
 
 {fi) Give the knave a groat. 
 
 (')) Thrice he offered luni the crown. 
 
 {r) He handed his daughter dowu-staira. 
 
 {(I) They handed the visitors programmes. 
 
 {(■) The weather promises the anglers line sport. 
 
 ( /■) The boatswain taught the midshipman swimming. 
 
 iij) Grant us a holiday. 
 
 (//) The fox paid the crow great attention. 
 
 (/) Thomas ]»osted his uncle a letter. 
 
 (/,) The sailor-boys often bring tlieir friends curiosities. 
 
 (/) Play the children a tune. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 ■J 2 7 
 
 FOmrS FOR THE ANALYSTS OF SENTENCES 
 
 SCIIIvME T. 
 
 Subjeut. 
 
 rrcvlicate. 
 
 
 'I'lic sini 
 
 sliiiies. 
 
 
 Tilt! Kuldiers 
 
 were luave. 
 
 
 A good soil 
 
 obeys 
 
 
 Mipc rorn-nel<ls 
 
 always rejoice 
 
 
 The cliiM 
 
 aiipears ill. 
 
 
 C)lMi>(>t. 
 
 Ills parents. 
 
 llie fanner's lieart. 
 
 SCHEME II. 
 
 1 
 
 •7. 
 
 Kiiliir^'riiii'iit. I'riili'-ati'. 
 
 1 
 
 K\ti'iisiiiii. 
 veiy soi.n 
 
 1 
 
 lll.jrrt. 
 
 l'.iil.irj,'inu!nt. 
 
 Tlioiii]is(iii 
 
 till! carpenter 
 
 nieinled 
 
 1 
 
 1 till! ;^'ate 
 
 liidki'ii. 
 
 Tlic company 
 
 of Inintsnifn 
 
 liail taki'U 
 
 I'ai 1 y next 
 nioiniii;^' 
 
 .Irpartnri- 
 
 tlii'ir. 
 
 The princes 
 
 of p;tirope 
 
 liavf fdund 
 
 I'lciiitly 
 
 a p!:in 
 
 lietter. 
 
 Pninifnii) 
 
 tlie Ciiecian 
 
 liU'l il'ino 
 
 oikm; 
 
 sonictliin'4 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 pleasing to 
 the niiilti- 
 
 hl.le. 
 
 SCHEME HI. 
 
 1. Maud Midler 
 
 '2. on ;i siiiiiiiiei'\s day, 
 
 ;{. leaked 
 
 4. tlie meadow 
 
 T), sweet witli hay. 
 
 1. But 
 
 2. kiioAvledgo 
 15. to their eyes 
 4. her uinplo 
 
 i'j. page, 
 
 6. Iiioh with the spoils of time 
 
 7. did uuroll 
 
 8. ne'er. 
 
 K.iti ii.<ion of prrdlcnip (,'?), 
 
 l'r(il'n:atf. 
 
 Ohjcct. 
 
 Knlariji incnt of ofijrcf (4). 
 
 {'•oiuii r/ini vonl). 
 
 Sllh/tCf, 
 
 Krttitskni of priil'tcatr (7). 
 
 L'lilanjnni lit of ohjiit (")). 
 
 Ohject. 
 
 KnJiir<j( mi lit ofohjict (a). 
 
 I'rtdicatf. 
 
 Extension of predicate (7). 
 
"if 
 
 
 KXKIiClSKs. 
 
 SCIIKMK IV 
 
 Anal 
 
 ysc 
 
 miM 
 
 ' 'riiiisc who !ut' coiivcis.iiil with IkioUh wrll know how often tlicy 
 h'.ul lis, w In'M we have imt. a lis inn monil.oi' iil. Imiitl to ii.sHiHt iih iu 
 
 roinpaiiii^ Iht'oiy with |>iii('tii'r. " •hiui 
 
 II. <. 
 
 .1. I. 'V\ 
 
 rise 
 
 w no 
 
 air ciiiu ri'saiit with 
 
 (^ 1. l.o, 
 S ."). w (' 
 
 I i;. K 
 
 llnw 
 
 ', , how often 
 
 S. they 
 
 !•. mislead 
 
 10. KS 
 
 /ll. when 
 
 1-J. w.- 
 
 l;!. havo 
 
 I I. IK.t 
 
 l>. I 
 
 >. a iiviiil; 
 III. iiioiiitoi- 
 17. at haiiil 
 
 IS. to assist us in coiiqiariiii 
 I theory with jiraetiee. 
 
 A. I'riiieipal sentenct'. 
 
 /;. A.ljeetive sentence to (.1) (1). 
 
 ( '. Noun sentence to (.1) ((i). 
 
 J). Adverbial sentence to {<') (!)). 
 
 Siihjn'/ ((■>). 
 
 Siihjrrf ('A). 
 
 J'rciliratc ( xiidrrslitml). 
 
 Ofijirf (.•{). 
 
 /•.'.ill II si on III' TIKI inn r ((!). 
 
 /'/•( i/iiiifi. 
 
 h'.iii iisimi o/t'nHf (!)). 
 
 Siihhrt ('.»)•" 
 /'/•( ll iriili . 
 ithjirf (!)). 
 (('oiijiniclioii). 
 Siihjirl ( I :!). 
 /'/•( i/li'iiti , 
 
 /■!.rf(iislini o/' iiii/((fin)i (\'A), 
 l-'jilanji nil III ( 1(1). 
 Ohjiit {\',\). 
 /•'.ill ii-'inii iij' /i/iiri' ( i.'l). 
 
 /'.iilnnji )iii III (l(i). 
 
w 
 
 
 K 
 
 ««-i ■♦•■> •-"• 
 
 O 4> ♦J 
 
 r ■•* 'I' 
 
 rC j3 r 
 
 ^A ^ ** 
 
 ^ M '/> 
 
 *^ Tj o 
 '/J V ^ 
 
 'wA r-^ r^ 
 
 £ ;/) C 
 
 rt JS O 
 
 ^ -^ 
 
 .B rt V 
 
 to '-' ^ 
 
 rt .- 
 
 C 2 
 
 o ^ 
 
 O 4» O 
 
 o -c 
 
 o 2 ^ 
 
 -C -t-> 
 
 3 y '" 
 
 O -3 "y 
 
 ^ ii 
 
 9 c a 
 
 - <U 0) 
 
 «^ ^- ^ 
 
 
 U 0) 
 
 S aj 
 
 ^ r^ 
 
 t(3 ra o 
 
 3 „ eS 
 
 .2 g C> 
 
 ^ > § 
 
 •• oj r; 
 
 (1) tn P 
 
 U 
 
 KXKIU;iHKH. 
 
 ^ 4W •' 
 
 
 i 
 H 
 
 .t, 
 
 <v 
 
 &u 
 
 "2 Z 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 o 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 "^ 1- 
 
 o 
 
 4-» 
 
 
 ^ ii 
 
 * '7, c 
 
 
 _*;*-. Uj 
 
 ^3 
 
 — -A ^ 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 ^ ,^ ,« 
 
 •£51 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 a< 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 ^-t 
 
 «-• 
 
 d 
 
 CS 
 
 rt 
 
 rt 
 
 
 ?i .^% 
 
 « ^•^ 
 
 
 ;s'^ 
 
 
 
 
 "3 ^^ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 c o 
 
 ^ c 
 
 M 
 
 ;=- ♦^ 
 
 ^ -' 
 
 r^ *"* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (K 
 
 !/i 
 
 CO 
 
 o ? 
 
 1 
 
 «} 
 
 c» 
 
 ■3 n 
 
 w 
 
 » 
 
 2. 
 
 in 
 
 ?i 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 V 
 
 X 
 
 
 1^ 
 >-> 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CJ 
 
 S 
 
 
 T" 
 
 ~ 
 
 C 
 
 =: 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t« 
 
 Ph 
 
 !« 
 
 <5 
 
 <5 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -11 
 
 
 « i" 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 « 
 
 ;3 
 
 
 
 (1. 
 
 
 -ri-2 
 
 
 Is- 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o ■- .. 
 
 
 « !« 
 
 5j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt ■*^ 
 
 
 3 — 
 
 2 - o 
 
 
 4-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 
 ' *" ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 were 
 of th 
 s occa 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 C4 
 
 
 > 7^ 
 
 4) 
 OS 
 
 rri 
 
 
 > 
 
 -4^ 
 
 
 li=i 
 
 M 
 
 rn "Z 
 
 s 
 
 H =; 
 
 T '■ ' 
 
 « 
 
 ,r7 
 
 F— ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 *-* 
 
 7- ^ f— ^ 
 
 
 §^- 
 
 
 rt C 
 
 s 
 
 r. 
 
 X 
 
 U 
 
 r: 
 
 f 
 
 c ^— =: 
 
 
 
 B 
 o 
 
 
 o " 
 
 c 
 
 ci 
 
 -4-> 
 
 <!> 
 
 o 
 
 •^.^.i ? 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 ,13 
 
 "*" 
 
 '— 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 •" 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 c4 
 
 cj 
 
 C. 
 
 ti 
 
 
 k," 
 
 Cr 
 
 
 It: 
 

 1 
 
 2.30 
 
 EXKRCISES. 
 
 EXERnsr: VI. (Annlysis— Revision). 
 
 Analyse the following iu'cokIIhl; to .Scheme I. :^ 
 
 (a) Cowards fear tlioniHolvos. 
 
 (//) SwiiniiiiiiL; ti'aclifs selfreliance, 
 
 ((■) To labour i.s to jiray. 
 
 {i/) " I'.cware," said the sentry. 
 
 (' ) The bolls are oliimin^. 
 
 (./') Stop. 
 
 (,'/) I'luinltors st()]i the leaks. 
 
 (//) Tlio Held yields the fainicr a fortune. 
 
 (/') Jfero ■\ve are, 
 
 (/.) The child brought the invalid a garland. 
 
 (/| Phielnis loves gildini: the corn-lields. 
 
 EXKRCISI": VI r. (Analysis- Enlargements, p. 94). 
 
 Of wliiit ]iiay onlargcineiits consi.st 'I ]N)iiit out the eiihiri.^'- 
 iiu'iits ill the followiiii,^, uml sriy of what kiii<l each is: — 
 
 ((/) A good little girl sat under a tree. 
 
 (//) A desire to excel actuates Smith, the foreman. 
 
 ((•) A ramble on a summer evening restores the drooping spiiit, 
 
 ('/) Keeling sorry, he gave the poor old fellow a hearty meal. 
 
 (r ) William, the ca]»tain of the school, knowing the game, taujlit 
 
 the new scholars the rules. 
 (_/') Uemeniberiijg your duty, visit the sick. 
 
 li 
 
 E.XERCTSE Yirr. (Analysis— Extensions, p. 05). 
 
 Select the extensions in the followintr, and sa^' of what each 
 consists : — 
 
 {(t) Sweetly sing soft songs to mo. 
 
 (f>) Til a whisper she gave them the order. 
 
 (c) inch by inch the spider travelled. 
 
 (d) I come to bury Cavsar. 
 
 {e) Listen patiently to hear the nightingale. 
 (,/') 'i'lio tide came creeping up the beach. 
 ((j) The old man walks with two sticks. 
 
KXKnciSKS. 
 
 231 
 
 EXI'ltClsi; I\. (Analysis- IJevision). 
 Analy^JC the fnUow iiig sontciices accoi-diiij,' to Sclicinc II. :- 
 
 {m •• r will mak(j tlieo licds <if I'oses."- ^'. Marliiirf. 
 
 (I)) ••'riicn raiiifj thu Autuiini all iti viUnw clad." — ^}>eiii» r. 
 
 (r) " fJive me my atMllop-MlK-ll of t|iiii't, 
 
 My statrtif faith to walk uiiun." — /'ii/'ii/h. 
 
 (,/) "Tlr.is cla.l an. I fortilicd, Sir Kniylit 
 
 From i)cauffiil home set forth to liglit."' — liatkr, 
 
 EXERCISK X. (Analysis— Revision). 
 Analyse the foHowiiig soiitenccs accord in^ii;' to Scheme II. :- 
 
 (<() " hear 'I'iioiiias, diilst thou ever jjop 
 
 'I'liy head into a tinman's slio[)'.'"— .1/. I'rior. 
 
 [},) '• One morning' a Tori at the (jato 
 
 Of l']den stood, disconsolate."' — '/'. J/wO/r. 
 
 ((■) ■• 'I'iie spirits of your fatliera 
 
 Shall start from every wave." — ('(Hiiji'xU. 
 
 [il] '"'i'lie castled crag of DrachcntVls 
 
 Frowns o'er the wide and winding iiliine. 
 
 FXFJK'ISK XI. (Analysis— Revision). 
 
 Byron, 
 
 Analvse the t\)lh)\vin<^ sentences aecordini^' to Seliemc 
 HI.:-' 
 
 (a") ''Sometime we'll angle in the brook, 
 
 'i'lu; freckleil trout to take " —.1/, />;ui/(oii. 
 
 (b) "Tlie shepherd swains shall dance and sing 
 
 For thy deliglit eaeli May morning. " — ' '. Marloire. 
 
 ((■) "'I'liy gentle flows of guiltless joys, 
 
 On fools and villains ne'er desi'eiid. " — John^m. 
 
 HI. 
 
 KXERCISE XI r. (Analysis— Revisi(m). 
 Analyse the following senteiiees according to Scheme 
 
 (rt) '• Through the trendding ayre 
 
 Sweet-breathing Zephyrus did softly play." — '<i>(n.^er. 
 
 (M •• Close liy the regal chair 
 
 Fell '{'hirst an<l b'amine scowl 
 A baleful smile upon their baflled guest." — Gray. 
 

 m 
 
 
 mmmmti 
 
 L'32 EXKUCISKS. 
 
 (r) «'Tho Sundays of man's life, 
 
 'I'hrcaik'd togetlier on time's string, ' 
 
 Make ])rac'clt't8 to adorn the wife 
 
 Of the fti'rnal ghjriotis kini,'." — Oeorrje. Jferhert. 
 
 (il) " With huuting heart to the task he wvnt.'' -Scut f. 
 
 EXEIICISE XIII. (Analysis— Revision). 
 
 Expand the adjectives in the following into phrases:— 
 
 {«) A merciful man considci's his beast. 
 {h\ The mistress scolded the lazy servant, 
 (r) A ragged man went down tlie lane. 
 ((/) The plague canied oil' the young ones. 
 (f ) Xumeroiis birds were found dead. 
 (/) .Sailors dislike r dead calm. 
 
 EXEIICISE XIV. (Analysis— Revision). 
 
 Expand the adverbs in the following into phrases: 
 
 (ti) (lireen seldom tries the eye. 
 (/() The soldiers rested there. 
 {(•) The man answered the charge easily. 
 {(/) 111 weeds grow aj)ace. 
 (e) Dead dogs never bark. 
 (/) Come quickly. 
 
 EXERCISE XV. (Analysis— Complex Sen once, 1 .i>2). 
 
 1. Define a complex sentence; and in wliat t ee ways 
 subordinate sentences can occur. 
 
 2. Say vl^at is meant by a subordinate '-nter e, and sliow Luiv 
 subordinate s mtences can be co-ordinate. 
 
 3. Make the following simple sentences complex by expanding tLe 
 adjective into an adjectival sentence : — 
 
 {ii) Empty vessels make the most noise. 
 (/>) The kitchen clock keeps time. 
 
 (c) Small strokes fell great oaks. 
 
 (d) A hard hand often owns a soft heart. 
 
 (e) The relentless reaper destroyed the lovely bloom. 
 (/) A modest violet grew in a shady bed. 
 
KXKRCISKS. 
 
 233 
 
 EXHRCISK XVr. (AnalysiH— Complex Sentence, 11. liij). 
 
 M;il<e siil)(»i'<iiii;itu sciitoiices hy the expaii.siuu of the adverbs 
 
 I the following: — 
 
 {a) Ho writes legibly. 
 
 (/.) 'I'liu kiiiL; Ijt'haveil .shamefully. 
 
 (.) The rieh <leri<le the pool- very seldom. 
 
 ((/) Men often think themselves immortal. 
 
 (»') l)enio8thcne3 gradually became free of Hpeecli. 
 
 ( /') Stephenson overcame difliculties bravely. 
 
 I i! 
 
 KXKIIUISK XVIl. (Analysis— Comi)lex Sentence, p. 106). 
 
 Cluiniic the subjeets or objeets in the followiiii,' into 
 
 sentences : — 
 
 ('/) To love one's child is natural. 
 
 (/») i'arelessnesa brings its punishment. 
 
 (<•) Heing deserving should j)recede success. 
 
 ('/) Keigiiing in jteaee is more glorious than dying in war, 
 
 (f) Borrowing means sorrowing. 
 
 (/) Lending is not always befriending. 
 
 EXFdlClSE XVIII. (Analysis— Compound Sentence, p. 111). 
 
 1. Deline a compound sentence; and say how co-ordinate sentences 
 art! sometimes contracted ? 
 
 2. Analyse the following compound sentences according to Scheme 
 
 II.:— 
 
 ('0 " Of conversation sing an ample theme, 
 
 And drink the tea of Heliconian stream.'" — L'hattcrlon. 
 
 [Ii) " Come forth into the light of things, 
 
 Let Nature be your teacher." — Wordsirorth. 
 
 m 
 
 iCXER.CI.SE XIX. (Analysis — Compound Sentence, p. 1 II). 
 
 Analyse the following compound sentences according to 
 Scheme II. : — 
 
 (a) "He gazed at the flowers with tearful eyes. 
 
 He kissed their drooping leaves." — LoiKjfdlow. 
 
 (Ii) " On piety, humanity is built; 
 
 And, on humanity, much happiness." — Youmj. 
 
 ('■) "On the green bank I sat and listened long." — Dryden. 
 
 {d) "0, young Lochinvar is come out of the west, 
 
 Through all the wide Border his steed was the best. 
 And, save his good broadsword, he weapons had none ; 
 He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone." — Scott. 
 
'( ( I 
 
 234 
 
 KXEUCI.SK.S. 
 
 EXEUCISK XX. (AnulyMis- Revision). 
 
 Analyse the following sentences uccording to Scheme IV. :— 
 
 (<i) "'I'lii! harp that onco t/irnngh Tara's halls 
 The soul of music shed, 
 Now hiitigH as luutu on Tara's walls 
 As if that soul were tied.'' — Moore. 
 
 (/.) "The a\ituinn winds rushing 
 
 ^\'aft th(! leaves that ai<! scarest, 
 But our th)\ver was in Hushing 
 
 When blighting was nearest."' — Scoll. 
 
 ((') '* Her beads wliile she nunihered, the ha]»y still sltiinhered, 
 And smiled in her face, while she bended her knee, 
 'Oh ! blessed be tliat warning, my child, tliy sleep adoniiii;:, 
 For I know that the angels are Mhispcring with thee." 
 
 — .s'. Lovir. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. (Analysis— Revision). 
 Anulysc the following .sentences according to Scheme V. :— 
 
 [a) " Ah ! yet, e'er I descend into the grave, 
 
 May I a small house anil large garden have ! 
 And a few friends, and many books, both true, 
 Both wise, and both delightful too!'" — Con-Icy. 
 
 {/)) " Ring ye the bells, ye young men of the town, 
 
 And leave your wonted labours for this da}' : 
 This daj' is holy : do you write it down, 
 
 That ye foi' ever it remember may." — hnnidm. 
 
 (r) " 'i'his above all - to thine omii self be true ; 
 And it must follow, as the night the daj', 
 Thou canst not then Ve false to any man." — Shakespeare, 
 
 EXKRCISK XX 11. (Analysis— Revision). 
 Analy.so, as in the preceding: — 
 
 ('0 " 'i'ake physic, pomp ; 
 
 Expose tiiyself to feel what wretches feel ; 
 That thou may'st sliake the supcrthix to tliem, 
 And show the heavens more just." — Sliake^-^piare. 
 
 {h) "That man is freed from servile liands, 
 Of hope to rise, or ft. ar to fall ; 
 Lord of himself, tliongli n.)!; of lands, 
 
 And having nothing, y.h hath all." — Wotlon. 
 
 (f) " The seas are quiet when Ihc winds give o'er ; 
 So calm are we when pasnons are no more ; 
 For then M'e know how vain it was to boast 
 
 Of feeling things too certain to be lost."' — Waller. 
 
EXKR(JISES. 
 
 2 00 
 
 lY. :- 
 
 EXERCISE XXI II. (Analysis— Revision). 
 
 Analyse, as before : — 
 
 (a) " Let me tell tho adventurous stranger, 
 In our calniness lies our danj^'or ; 
 Like a river'b silent ruiuiiiiL', 
 Stillness shows oui' depth iiiid eunning." — Jhnj'i i/. 
 
 i/.) " Presently my soul grew stronger ; hesitating then no longer, 
 ' Sir,' said I, ' or niadani, truly your fcu'givene.ss I ini])lore : 
 Jhit the fact is 1 was na])ping, and so gently you came rajiping, 
 Ami so faintly you came tap])ii;g, tapping at my chamber door, 
 That 1 scarce was sure 1 heard you." '" — 7't". 
 
 W01M)-JU^TLlHXa 
 
 EXERCISE I. (Word-lmilding, p. ll(i). 
 
 I. State exactly what is meant hy a roof ; and dislinguihli between 
 yiol and stem. 
 
 -. ^Vhat are pnll.rc^i and siijli'.rrs'! Give a general rule for their use. 
 
 Ii. l)efi'.ie a liyhrid, and explain co/iuiiiintd as applied to wordss. 
 Illustrate your answer by exanipl a^. 
 
 4, Say of each of the syllables )f the following words whether it is 
 a prefix, a suflix, ca root, a derivative, or an intlexion : vn-hur-fiil, 
 )iiale-child-ren, dis-lik-iii;/, shorl-sijht-fd, iuk-'^tanil, man-serv-unt. 
 
 EXERCISE II. (\Vord-l)uilding— Compounds, p. 11(3). 
 
 S'.iow that the following words are eoni[)oun(Ls of two nouns: — 
 Ifonilaii, ir.hia{li<Jd, tainhoir, hoincstcdd, k'l/s/otie, Ladjday, 
 MicJiudmas, costcrmoii'jei; stcavisltip, i<lu'rijj', rictroi/, and drake 
 
 EXERCISE 111. (Word-building -(V)mi)ounds, ].. 117). 
 
 "[what Part vf Spct'rh is each of the words of the fidlowing com- 
 pounds? — 
 
 Wlivfsfon^', onibty, s/ir/ifienl, .sr;/?-.s'0(/;>, vi'jjihnarc, hitfUjoiie, snijiC- 
 Qi'acf, hid II, v-hi'atear,jieldj'are, upstart, a.in\. i<t<:iL'ard. 
 
 KXLRCISE IV. (\V(U'd-buiMing— Compounds, p. 11 ;). 
 
 In the f(dlowiiig compound adjectives say to what Cln'^s of Word 
 I' leh part belongs : — 
 
 tSI~yldue, stijl'nerked, Lurd-Mttyor-Ukr, ovprreacJiiiKj, slonccold, stark- 
 i""l. wratJier-heaten, threadbare, umrdroh^, hdirsji/itliiuj, ictbonnd, aire- 
 I -'yirh II, footsore. 
 
FT 
 
 ■HHHMI 
 
 236 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE V. (Word-buikiing— Compounds, p. 118). 
 
 What other Parts of Speech have been used to make m\> tlic 
 following compound verbs? — 
 
 Outface, liandcvff, deartilarch, outnumber, lohittioash, imjalhcr, 
 outbid. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. (Word-biiilding— Compounds, p. US). 
 
 Comment on each of the following adverbs : — 
 Needs, aboard, ajloat, well, thither, how, loithal, albeit, seldom, rather, 
 whilst, irhence. 
 
 EXERCISE YII. (Word-building— English Prefixes, p. 119). 
 
 Show the force of each of the prefixes in the following words : — 
 Unloose, vnthankf id, forehead, beiniil, irith</reiv, ininrepresent, bc(jrime, 
 rcanhope, (jainsay, behoof , forlorn, henvjhted, atone. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. (Word-building— English Prefixes, p. 120). 
 
 Justify the use of the prefixes in the following by the meaning of 
 each word : — 
 
 Engrave, offcast, overdone, inmost, overland, under2)ay, outcome, 
 thoroughfare, embalm, overste2), welfare. 
 
 lillli 
 f I ii 
 
 n 
 
 EXERCISE IX. (Word-building— Latin Prefixes, p. 120). 
 
 Name the prefixes in the following, showing, where necessary, the 
 assimilation : — 
 
 Allure, acclaim, abstract, absolve, assuyne, affront, aspire, attract, 
 arrest, aggravate, address, j/ardon. 
 
 EXERCISE X. (Word-building— Latin Prefixes, p. 12.'?). 
 
 Show the force of the prefixes in — biped, aw.bleiil, circuiunavigatc, 
 (tnticipate, coeval, desuetude, cis/iovtine, transit, countenance, countnj- 
 dance, corrode, desiccate, emigrate, extramural. 
 
 EXERCISE XI. (Word-building— Latin Prefixes, p. 12.'?). 
 
 Account for the Jations from the original prefix in oacli of the 
 folhiwing : — 
 
 Differ, irregular, impending, illiberal, ignoble, embrace, occur, sedition. 
 
FA'ERnSKS. 
 
 237 
 
 PLXERCISE XII. (Word-buiMing- Latin I'letixes,!.. ]'2^^) 
 
 Show the vahic of the jirelixea in the foUowing: — 
 
 Iii/< rlnde, uoiij/<a-ei/, 1 naif factor, 'nifirna/imiaf, in/raiintra/, pt nnmhra 
 
 nmit, orra.'<ion, po'meate, ob/iijc, j/ust-obit, jjralicate, 7-etrovirt, jintfrile 
 
 Acruri', prevnit. 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. (Word-building-Latin Prefixes, ].. I'Jli), 
 
 Explain the prefixes, noting the cases of asaimilation : — 
 I'irar, siijfcr, snrf<At, viscount, trailucc, trtspaxs, succad, uniliuf, K^lb• 
 irnhmd, sf'jrifjafc, succumb, ^dtrumarinc, -iiijjcrhumaii, snjj'u-, sur/acc 
 
 EXERCISE XIV. (Word-bnihling— Prefixes, p. 12n). 
 
 Give instances of in becoming //, ir, im, l;/ ; and of ob becoming or, 
 of, ", <>}). State a genei'al rnle for sncL changes. 
 
 EXERCISE XV. (Word-building— Greek Prefixes, p. li'G). 
 
 Select the prefixes, and juatify the use of each : — 
 
 Kpideniic, cnihinir, autonomi/, eclectic, di/s/irp.'ila, archi( ]>UcopaJ, 
 dlfifintic, catacli/sm, apo-^ta--<i/, antlpatlt//, anagram, catastroj/hc, (ccentric, 
 ]l^^rimetcr. 
 
 EXERCISE XVI. (Word-building— Greek Prefixes, p. 12fi). 
 
 Show the value of the prefixes in — monologue, Pantlirnn, si/l/abb', 
 v\elnthf<is, periosteum, lu/po^tilphite, programme, liyperbole, hi niipkgia, 
 nttihoiii/, Kijnt/iesis, Polynesia, monarchy. 
 
 EXERCISE XVIT. (Word-building—Engbsh Suffixes, p. I2S). 
 
 (iivc tl'.e root and the Huffu- in each of the following: — 
 Fii/dn; trickster, thrift, haxter, 7>f'»?«rt//s7t//), lianim(>cl\ loveliness, 
 <ira<blie, sapling, chippings, sisterhoO'/, carter, starling, collier, snn-yer. 
 
 EXERCISE XVIII. (Word-building— English Suffixes, p. P2S). 
 
 Explain fully the suffixes in the following : — 
 
 Mi'ten, earldom, sfialtJi, breaiHli, handicraft, rimecruft, drunkard, 
 laddie, hardship, haft, spindle, shuttle, lirauer, u-hlting, hilt, hantlle. 
 
 EXERCISE XIX. (Word-building— English Sufifixes, p. 128). 
 
 Show the effect of the suifix, by giving the meanings of the follow- 
 ing Words : — 
 
 Frrilirsome, knotty, drowned, c/a.yey, voollen, le<u-<ir<l, <itfku-ard, 
 '"'orvful, shamefaced, saintlike, knavish, friendly, Spanish, booties.:, 
 -w-er/s//, scuttled, glad, left. 
 
 Q 
 
238 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXERCISE XX. (Wonl-lmilding— English Suffixes, p. 128). 
 
 In the following adverbs show the force of the sufli\-es, notiiiL' 
 hyl)r'i((s in parsing : — 
 
 AUcaiji^, slr(il(/Iilinai/, candidly, duly, oner, viyxtcriouily, nom.sc, 
 ■sulkily, stvallhili!, ■sidtlomj, seldom, pfciilid/iy. 
 
 EXERCISE XXI. (Word-huiltling— English Suffixes, p. 12S). 
 
 Show the cfTL-ct of the suffix in each of the following verh.s : — 
 Stalk, xiiivil, fidter, strtmjthen, jlu-<li, twiih r, dribhlt, trundle, ijiish^ 
 ijl'isler, lilii^h, draijiilr. 
 
 EXERCISE XXil. (Word-building Latin and Eronch Suffixes, p. 134), 
 
 In the following nouns slunv the value of each sulHx ; — 
 Arlor, tidamcnt, hriiiandiKjc, lilirariaii, coiisonanf, ijnttural, rcMtlmt, 
 radiana , patrimony, tension, lajndary, ijraduate, omdnet, jireshyterij. 
 
 EXERCISE XXILI. (Word-buihling— Revision). 
 
 Explain each of the component parts of the following hybrid.^'. — 
 
 (Joloiir, frailly, biijaniy, atonenu ut, odilmeiit, hondaije, titarrattaii, 
 
 forei<incr, bilinijiudism, vnjustly, (iraudfatla r, niarlyrdoin, uiit/rafifu!, 
 
 haiidkcrch)(J\ nnroncifri/ly, falsehood, (l('iiii(/()d, iriltirisDi, unac/id, art- 
 
 Jul, Cockm yism, Hoicdlerise, hlack(juardisin, cerexloth, dn(g>/ist, suriiaitK:, 
 
 EXERCISE XXIV. (Word-building— Revision). 
 
 What are the following pair.s of words called? Potion and poison ; 
 cadence and chance, Clive the corresponding -word to eacli of tlie 
 following: henison, chattels, nialedictio)), channel, hotel, redemption; 
 and give tlie meanings of the suflixesv 
 
 II 
 
 EXEIICISE X.W. (Word-l)uilding Ilevision). 
 
 (live the meaning of each of the suliixes in the following ad- 
 jectives :- 
 
 Arahesque, ratable, torrid, mundane, -oinent, /Kiiinsnlar, ri/'arian. 
 aromatic, due'ili, ^;cr/ffn//c, submissire, feminine, virulent, jocose, rub- 
 ilictory, 'moribimil, iiinbrageouf^. 
 
 EXERCISE XXVI. (Word-buihling Revision). 
 
 Arrange the following words and their iloublcts in two column?, 
 distinguishing the Erench from the Latin; aiul oxphiin the suffixes 
 in the words and the donbhts you supply: — Loyal, reyal, j'ra<j\k, 
 caitilj', second, particle, sum pie, species. 
 
KXERf'TSES. 
 
 230 
 
 KXKIIC'ISK X.WIl. (Wonl-lmil.liiii,'— Kovision). 
 
 Til till' following vt'i-l)3 (explain tlit! suffixes : 
 
 Aiii/ili/'!;. i-rjii'lih. is/imdfi', ivnli/ii-', (0 i/'i/, jii(h/i,sli, /k(c;i'i/^ (iHi iia(i , 
 einbtUi-<h, 2i< I'lii'iil'', ixfiinjuhs/i. 
 
 KXHJICISK XXVITI. (Word-building- Revision). 
 
 Show tiie finre of tlio siillixes in tlie following, distinguishing 
 hetwcun tlu; (iruck and liyl)ii(l words :-- 
 
 A.iioiiiatic, t/i('i>rist, /ihifitii/Jird/iif, iri/licls)ii, tliior'ixt, iirpoliwi, paral- 
 y.-ii.<, (l< liin, 2^''^'''"i'-f> jiiiiiordtiKi, niiiiimisc. 
 
 KXKUCISK XXIX. (Word-building— English IlootH, p. 144). 
 
 Show the derivation of the following, carefully noting hi/lirn/s : — 
 llro/li, hoiKj/i, i/ti'tiv, Jaflicr, birr, brick, kiioii\ Ixi/rh, hn-th-^ kittvii, 
 
 iinirk-"', bi<ii//c, rhl/bli(iii, iirf, jcfxani, )iirk)iaiii( , horruir^ b/ii.sh, kitxl, 
 
 iiuail . hiik( ri/, club, buj/r, (IntiKj/tt, irjudoii'y t ycht. 
 
 KXKIlCrsE XXX. (Word-buiMing— English Roots, p. 144). 
 
 hfiivt! tlic following words : — • 
 
 X illfitiiKjiili, orrhdrd, irriii/if, n'roDij, grorr, tchah', tr(iil<\ stork, ((tii'/hf, 
 tiri(/, (ill, (/(irlir, /mil/, loilistar, u-akr, nii'/li/, lur.-Ji , utili, srni>ii, indbl/r, 
 ln'tr, jiirkei'cl, sriitde, doij, treft, iranton, reap, iicra})e, slurr. 
 
 MXKKCISE XXXI. (Woi'd-building— Latin Roots, ]). 117). 
 
 Scli'it fioni the folio wing Latin words those coining through the 
 Frciith, and give tlieir derivation : — 
 
 Jiwrt, rkirrt, dll/o, (irriu/r, pnrliicf, iiuliiit, I'l'iil, (ini'mtnr, />( rfnibcr, 
 roiirii'ir, ri/i/, mcriiliuii, corduil, t'laiisr^ id I'/ii, donor, April, exrii.sc^ 
 o'riir, riiiir^i', (laninil, doniincrr, rh(t]>ti r, alto. 
 
 I:\F.RCISE XXXII. (Word-building— Latin Roots, ].. 147). 
 
 I'l'iin the following select those words coming direi t from the 
 Latin, and give tiieir derivation : — 
 
 H.r<'ul/i(i'i', nlinioin/, rrrrptimi, idti rratinii, dic /itian, rlidiif, nijih, 
 iiii^''rriiiit , aip'arifdi , c.'yv'sr, (fjiiiiio.r, briij', criii<i\ bissc.rtilc, cnrp^r^ 
 ilamottr, e<(<jn-, (iitrfion. 
 
 I'XLIUMSE XXXllI. (Word-l.uihling- Latin Roots, p. 147). 
 
 I'liim the following list select the woids coming indim y from the 
 Lit in, and give their derivation :— 
 
 Fount, doiniriliitri/, co^loipn/, unrd'/r, friar, nlirt, iii/riiii/i', liidde, 
 /ori'c, rrl.i>/ion, (illlii'Ut, laaven, /h.rihlr, rennjndr, rolUtpsr, diwiount^ 
 /•'it, ]irnjile, coitjoiiit, annex, i rhibit, fun t, iiratrful, memoir. 
 
240 
 
 EXF.ncrsEs. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIV. (WonMnukling— Latin Roots, p. 147). 
 
 Select the words of direct Latin origin : — 
 
 I)()rmoug(',fHsilil(', dub', profound, /wlicrotis, f/m'epl, inans\ redeem, 
 gentnrc, abso/ntc, (ibcrrdtum, pr(ii/re!i!i, scent, jjrohili/, jio'ujnant, r( jmr, 
 qtiarri/, voir, tense, terr'ihh, urbane, inddioua, sexton, aacrileije, 
 jilausiUc. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXV. (Word-building— Cieek Roots, y. 152). 
 
 Give the derivation o*" each of the following words : — 
 J)at(., rosmetic, /niri/rnn, nausen, doijma, economy, dijnamite, ctdurrli. 
 hematite, idiat, inelanvholi/, Jii<ri>t/li/jihic. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVI. (Word-biiikling-Greek Roots, ]>. 15-2). 
 
 (live two roots for each of the following words: — 
 Jfypocrilc, fie.rolite, denia'joi/ne, onuviatopodir, lilliotomy, tetrarrh, 
 l(deidos('opc, liydrophobia, heliotrope, cataatrojdie, evangelist. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVII. (Word-building— Words derived from 
 X^aines of Persons, p. 154). 
 
 State the origin of the following words :• — 
 
 Lizard Point, jniiiic, tanl<disr, jn/rrf, c/iinxra, crarat, eireroiu , 
 ■martinet, dunce, ciiphuistic, saturnine, hermetically. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXVIII. (Word-building— Words derived from 
 Names of Places, p. 15S). 
 
 Trace the following words to their origin : — 
 
 Peach, clu rry, damson, r/iuharb, phxt-^atit. dollar, Jforiv, f/uinfn. 
 solecism, jii-'itol, laconic, ntopian, lumh r. 
 
 EXERCISE XXXIX. (Word-building— Disguised AVords, p. Kil). 
 
 Show the origin of the following words :— 
 
 Babble, info.iicate. t/adjiy, belfry, liifuorice, bnsfard, lunch' on, ea^d, 
 hidttrii, custard, sheaf, carouse, stirrup, causenuty, treacir, crayjidi. 
 verdigris. 
 
 M 
 
 EXERCISE XL. (Word-building— Words Changed in 
 Meaning, p. I OS). 
 
 Compare the original with the modern moaning of the following 
 words : — 
 
 Si/coj>hant, allou\ restire, gazette, amuse, handsome, awkward, knan, 
 blacbjuard, m>re, brat, painful, censure, cunning, jn-ejiosterous, siUy^ 
 vivacity. 
 
RXKRClSKd. 
 
 241 
 
 PLAN FOR PARSING. 
 
 Wlieu parsing a word observe the following rules : — 
 
 (i) Use no abbreviation that is vague ; avoid tlie pos.'!i//i/ili/ uf l)eing 
 misunderstood. 
 
 (ii) When any other wt)rd is quoted, underline it, or use nuirks of 
 ijuotation. 
 
 (iii) Use the following terms, when applicable, and in the order as 
 
 I'.rranged : 
 
 ni-erov , 
 
 NOUNS.— KIND. Proper ; Common ; Collectivk ; Abstract. 
 
 GENDER. Masculine ; Feminine ; Common : Neuter. 
 
 NUMBER. Singular; Plural. 
 
 PERSON. First; Second; Thiri.. 
 
 CASE. Nominative, subject of the verb ; in appo- 
 sition witli ; of address (Vocative) ; 
 
 absolute ; after copulative verb . 
 
 Possessive, limiting the noun . 
 
 Objective, governed directly by the transitive, 
 factitive, causative, prepositional, or cognate 
 
 verb, or the participl'^ ; or indirectly 
 
 by the verb or participle (Dative) ; or 
 
 adverbial object ; or governed by the pre- 
 position ; or by the governing Adjec- 
 tive ; or in apposition with . 
 
 PRONOUNS.— KIND. Personal; Relative, agreeing with its 
 
 antecedent in gender, person, and number ; 
 IlVterrogative ; Indefinite; Reciprocal; 
 Emphatic ; Reflexive ; 
 
 GENDER, 
 NUMBER. 
 
 5R, ^ 
 ER, ( 
 PERSON, [" 
 CASE. ; 
 
 As in nouns. 
 
•ttt^tS^^SSS^S 
 
 04 o 
 
 EXKi;(;i.sEs. 
 
 ADJECTIVES.— K INI). Quamtativk, positivo, comparative, or 
 
 Kiipcrlativc dcgicu, g(nii<,' with tlit; iioiiii -. 
 
 QliANTiTATivi;, iii<U'linite or (Icl'niiic, im. 
 iiicnil, cai'iliiial, or onliiial, or <li.striliuti\( , 
 limiting tlio noun ; I^KiMon.sthativk, 
 
 pointing out tliu noun 
 
 VERBS.— CLASS. 'I'ka\siti\ I. (iiitivi or passive Voice); 
 
 jNT);A.Nsrri\ !•; ; 
 
 AuMMAKV, of voice, HK^od, tciiHC, or emphasis. 
 
 C()N.in<;ATK)N. SriioNC or W'kak. 
 
 iMOUl>. Inoicativk, usscrtivc or inturiogativc ; 
 
 l.Mi'KKATi\ 1; ; S;i5.ii:NrTi\K ; Iminitivi; (iidiiiiii,! 
 tivc, olijcctivc, or gcrundial). 
 
 TENSi"]. I'hksknt ; I'ast; I'rTrRK, iVrfcct (coiiijilitc), 
 imperfect (incompktt'), indefinite, coiitimums 
 (progressive). 
 
 } AL'reenisjr with the subitct . 
 
 (I'ARTICll'LJ^v) (AcTiVK, <|u;ilifyiiiL'; tlie. noun 01 proiMnin 
 
 • , ami govcrnitig the noun or [iruiioiin 
 
 ; or rAssivi'.). 
 
 Ill 
 
 ADVERBS.— Of TlxMK, I'LACK, MANXKK, ASSKimON, or IIKA 
 
 SONIMd, modifying the verb ; of hKiiKKK 
 
 modifying the adverl) or adjecti\ e . 
 
 DEGREE of comparison (Pos. ; Jomp. ; Sua.) 
 
 PREPOSITIONS— Sl.MPLE (.r COiM POUND, governing the uoui. 
 
 or pronoun . 
 
 Ilili 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS.-CO-ORDINATE. 
 
 SUBORDINATE. 
 
i;xA.MiNAii(iN <.'ri;sri(>.\s. 
 
 ji;'. 
 
 (iri'.STloXS SKT AT TIM': AXXIAI. (loVKl.'X- 
 :\1KXT KXAMIXATIOX (^V ITl'I I.-TlCACll I-IIIS. 
 
 CAXDIDATKS. 
 
 SKT A -An; 1 1, lOnu. 
 
 {Yoii n fc ml I'l ^ol Hot fi> <i)i ii'l iii'ii'i //in II oiii lian r ninl n (/iiii rf< r nri r 
 
 th 
 
 ll.-t S7l 
 
 I, Jul.) 
 
 AiL^uir ////■" ciiily iif llir riillowiiii,' four i|U('sli 
 
 ImiII iii;iik.i ;iri' \w;.\\ 
 
 t r l(ir 
 
 CJilrslloiis I ,'iimI L' t liMli lor ali.\' iil lnr q lies (lull. 
 
 KNci.isrr DKAMMAit. 
 
 I. Analvso the folluwiii'' i);is.sa''o : 
 
 "'I'll*' cry they lioanl. it-< nu.'.iiiini^' hv ii\ 
 iJotihl, phiiii tluiir distant coiiirados rieii'.^^ 
 
 '2. I'ai'tie the words in italics in tin- aliovo ])a.sKag(!. 
 
 ,'}, Wiiat i)art of s|ieecli \h cadi (if tlic follnwinij; words, and wliat 
 is the fiiree of the snllix? — s/i'nts/' i\ (/<irk>«s<, fmii /;, iirt'in , ihtihji r- 
 ons, v\a<ivil'ij, 
 
 \. Explain the following passages :— 
 
 (a) " ()\\ for one hour of Wallace Avi;^dit 
 
 Or well-sUiird lirnce, to rnle tiie flLdit. " 
 
 {li) "And now I watch my arninnr heic, 
 
 Jjy law of arms, till midni.dit "s near." 
 
 (r) " Up drawbridge, grooms ! — what, Warder, ho ! 
 Let the portcnllis fall." 
 
 CoMi'OSTI'ION. 
 
 Describe the Battle of Flodden as told in the poeui. 
 
 SET B— OcTOi-.KU i!Hii». 
 ( Yon arc aih'iscd not lo ^prwl umn lluiii aii'' Imur ori r /hi.-: siihji rl.) 
 
 AiLswcr yiicsliou 1 ami two ntlicr fiin'stiiuis. I'lill inaiks arc lii:-;liLT for i^m.^tiijiLs 2 
 iuid o lliaii lur C^iR'Stidiis 1 and 5. 
 
 1. (!ive the substance of Wilton's story, o?', 
 
 Describe the scene when Marmion was leaving Tantallou 
 Castle. 
 
 2. Analj'se the following passage : — 
 
 "With that, straiiiht uj) the hill tin re rode 
 Two horsemen drenrlicd with gore. 
 And in their arms a helpless load, 
 A wounded knight they bore."' 
 
■^: 
 
 244 
 
 KXAMINATIdN (.»UKSTIONS. 
 
 .'?. Vmac llic woiiIm in italics in tin; a1)ovo ]t,aHsar;c. , 
 
 •i. (!ive tiu; iiioaniii^ ami usi' of tlie siillix in cacli of the followiii;. 
 AvonlH : — Vikiw'isi', rltiitor, viaiilru, lavihrajic, hrif/litrs/, iclsilam. 
 5. I'iXplaiii : — 
 
 Moi'c ])li'asi'il tliat in a l)arl)aroiis age 
 He <,'avf rude .Scotlaiid N'ir^'iT.s iia;^**."' 
 
 (") 
 (I') 
 
 Wun liy my ]>roofs. liis falchion hri^'ht 
 'riii.s I'Vc am-w .shall <luh me knij'ht." 
 
 i 
 
 FIi;s'r VI:AI{ rUl'TL-TKACllEKS. 
 
 Si;'l' A— An: 11, liXiu. 
 
 ( Yuu arc (ulri-":d iiol lo spcntl morr than on< hour ami a i/iiarl'-r orrr 
 
 (lu'f snhject.) 
 
 Answor tlirrr. only i if the fullowiii'^' Tiiir i|U«Hti(iii<. Full iii;iil<s iivc liit,'hor fur 
 tiucstioiiH 1 ami '2 lljiui fur any ciIIk.t ((Ucstinii. 
 
 En»;i.I3I£ Ohammar. 
 
 1. Write, ill your own words, the full subfltancc of tlic fullowin;^ 
 lines :— 
 
 "Thus every good liis native wilds impart 
 Ini])rints the patriot jiassioii on his lieart : 
 And ev"n those hills, that louml liis mansion rise, 
 i'iiihance the l)liss his scanty fund supplies. 
 Dear is that shed to wldeh his sold conforms, 
 And dear tliat hill that lifts him to the storms ; 
 And as a child, when searing sounds molest, 
 Clings close and closer to the mother's hrcast. 
 So the loud torrent and the whirlwind's roar 
 But bind him to his native mountains more." 
 
 2. Analyse the last four lines, and parse every word in the last lino. 
 
 3. JOxplain : — 
 
 "Those domes where Casars once bore sway."' 
 
 "The. canvas glowed, beyond e'en nature warm. 
 The pregnant quarry teemed with human form."' 
 
 " While the pent ocean, rising f)'er the ])ile, 
 Sees an amphibious world beneath him smile." 
 
 4. Take the followdng pairs of words of similar meaning and 
 say which ai'c of native origin and Avhich are derived from a 
 foreign language, giving the language where you can:— ht i/lii. 
 comnu ncc : benediction, hh -^xinij : forifaihtr, ancoitor : ftminiia, 
 xcomanJy : realm, kingdom: hortfevian, cavalier. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 (!ive a short account of Coldsmith'a life, character, friendships, 
 and works. 
 
•icndships, 
 
 KXAMIN.\lli»N fjlKsnoNS. 
 
 SKT I!— 0(T(iiM-ii l!t<i(). 
 
 24r> 
 
 (>' 
 
 i)V a 
 
 )'< (III ris( (I mil III sjii'ial 
 
 th 
 
 iii'iri i/ifin mil' hour m-i r 
 
 I In 
 
 ihj.rt.) 
 
 Aiinuir t^iiostiDii 1 111' (.^iirstidii ■_' (nut Ijotli) nticl Im Iliir i|M(".I inns. I 'nil iiiarK 
 
 ail' iii^'M 
 
 IT fill' (^uisi i(p|i ;; t hau t'lr (jucsi inns -I nwi 
 
 1, (!ivi', ill your own -vvonN, tin- I'liai'aittT of tlic l)ii1cli inoplf as 
 (h.sorilx'il l)y (Jol'lsinitli. 
 
 Write, in your r)\vu wonls, the full snbstaiu't' of the follow ii 
 
 IIIH'S 
 
 It) nit'n of other tiiindt 
 
 f, 
 
 ili 
 
 in italics. 
 4, Kxpl 
 
 s my lancy iiics, 
 KiiihvHomiil ill the deep where Holland lies. 
 MdlilukK Iter jiatifiit sons liefore me s/aiu/, 
 Wliei'e the broad (uM'an leans a^'iinst the land, 
 And, ti((lnloiin to stoj)the coming tide, 
 Lift the tall lainpire's artilieial jiride. 
 Onward, niethiidca, and diligently slow, 
 'l"he firm connected ])nlwark seems to {/roir ; 
 Spreads its long arms amidst the -watery roar. 
 Scoops out an emjiire, and nsuri s the shore."' 
 Analyse the lirst four lines of this passage, and parse the words 
 
 ain 
 
 ('/) " 'i'hose transitory flowers alike undone 
 
 B}' proud contempt or favonr.s fostering sun." 
 (Ii) "That like the circle lionnding earth and skies 
 
 All 
 
 ures Ironi 
 
 far, 
 
 ani 
 
 as we 
 
 foil 
 
 ow 
 
 II 
 
 les. 
 
 ('■) " Wliere lawns e.vtend that scoi'n Arcadian jiride. 
 
 And brighter streams than famed }lydas]ies glide."' 
 5. (live the etymoh^gy and meaning of vcrivi/, (jram/riir, t-i/iininthtlic, 
 '•population, fr/iciti/. 
 
 SECOND YEAR PUPIL-TEACIIEKS. 
 
 SET A— AruiL 1900. 
 
 (Yon arc ailri-'icd nut to sinnd mure than am Iioitr nii</. n qitdrlcr orcr 
 
 l/iis .^iihjri-t.) 
 
 Aii.swcr three only (if the following four (iin'stinns. I'lill marks arc lii^'licr fcr 
 (juoslioiis 1 iuid 2 than tor any <;tlMr iiuestinii. 
 
 Enomsu Guam mm;. 
 
 1. Write, in your own words, the full substance of the following 
 passage : — 
 
 "That you do love me, I am nothing jealous ; 
 What you would work me to, I have some aim ; 
 How I have thought of this, and of these times, 
 I shall recount hereafter : for this present, 
 I would not, so with love I might entreat you. 
 Be any farther mov'd. What you have baid, 
 
2 1 
 
 i:\,\MI\.\l InN (illvsTloNS. 
 
 I will fuMsiijir ; wliah y"'> li.'ivf In «.iy, 
 
 I will with iiut.iciM !• lirar, aiul lind a turn; 
 
 r.dili iiici't to Ijcar, and answer, .siicli lii;;h thingi-!, 
 
 'i'ill ilif'ii, my iidlilo frniiij, chew upon tliiH: 
 
 I'Miiiua liail rather l)ii n villager, 
 
 Than to riputo himself a son f»f IJonin 
 
 I'lnler thest* lianl eiiiiditionn, as tliia tiliiu 
 
 Is HUc to lay u|»()n us."' 
 
 2. .\iialysi' the linos in the above pas.sage, from the beginning down 
 to " liei'eaft<'r, " and jiar.'*;! all tin; word.s in the. lirst line, 
 
 3. <iivo tlio ctyinoloijy and meanin;:; of c/nr,ilri/, m/itiir, purllfli , 
 iihitvpiirtili , ( ii/'nnir/iist nil )tf, r.rti inmh (l.j'iitilasi/, nhntih rniis. 
 
 •t. l!e-writ»! in mor(! roireet form th(; following Kentuncca, givuig 
 reasonB for any ulterationa you make: — 
 
 (n) We will do like tlicy did. 
 
 {!>) Neither of the tlire«! were preHont,. 
 
 (<•) This is tlie best of the two. 
 
 (</) W'c wish to very cordially congratulate you. 
 
 ( 'uMPOSITIoN. 
 
 Compare the chanicters of Brutus and < assiuH. 
 
 SET IV -OcrocKR r.Miu. 
 
 ( Ydii, <in. ii</r'i'<( tf iiof. to >firii>l Diurr //itni uiii /mur nn r //n't -iiliji r/,) 
 
 Answer l^iii.'sl mil 1 nr (^incstiini 'JCii'it hoi h) miicI ^ci odirr nurst ions. Full laaik.. 
 ;irr lii;-;licr fur truest imi :; than fur (2ni'.>ti'iiis I .'inil .">. 
 
 1. (live a brief account of Antony's oration over („';eRar's IhmIv, 
 and acioiiiit for its eileet upon the peojile. 
 
 'J, Write, in your own words, tlie full substance of the following 
 passage : — 
 
 '* Ca-:siiis. Ye gods, it doth amaze me 
 
 A man (»f such a feeble temper should 
 So get the start of the majestic world, 
 And bear the palm alone. 
 JJriitiis. Another general shout ! 
 
 I do believe tliat these applauses are 
 J'^or some new honours that are htapttl on Oesar 
 Ca'<s\nii. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world 
 fjike a ('o/ossu,^, and we petty men 
 Walk under his huge legs and peep about 
 To find ourselves dishonourable graves. 
 Men at some time are masters of their fates : 
 The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 
 But in ourselves that we are underlings." 
 
KXAMINAIloN (jlKM 1« »N.S. 
 
 •J 17 
 
 ;!, Aii.'ilyHO tho last tlirt'c Inir,-, ami |iai,-i' llif woil . in itali(\'<, 
 
 ■I. (iiviitlit! rtyin'>l<';:y and im aninii; nf <(/</,, //»_»/, rlmli iii\ i>iii'i'rii>- 
 
 ,'», Correct tin; fnllnwiiig cxprt'sHiiMiH ami ,i,'ivf yniir nasuij,-,: — 
 (") i'l iciids am [ wil li ymi .ill. 
 
 (//) lie is Mt I'lPllU,'!'!" tll.lll IIH'. 
 
 ('■) Tlif ln'at was sim|i'v iilicimin' iial. 
 ('/) I (lillrr with yoii. 
 
 ('IKKNS ,s('II()L\l;sllIl' KXAMINATIoN, 
 
 SKT A l)i:ri;Mi;i i: 1 S'Mi. 
 
 (Tirii liiiHr< till'/, II, lull f nlliiii-i il fur thi ^ ji'iji' r.) 
 
 All ('.■linll'iiilr-; »/ui.v/ .■iM.-.Wir l^ur.-,! mn |, to whlili I Im ln;:lii .-.1. iii.nk.s .'III' a.-sj;,'!!!'!!, 
 iiii'l may si'lrct/ii'i', aiiil.;u'i unly, nl'llif n>l. 
 If \(iii Miiswi'l' Iimro lliaii . '.'■ i|iiisl iiiiis, iiiily I III' .-m an -vviis (•oiiiiti;^ lir .1, un ymir 
 
 aiirr 
 
 will III' nviscil. 
 
 Nil ahbrcvial iiiu (il li ss 1 liiii IIiht Irltri.s i.s In hi nsnl in I'ar.Tiii.; nr Analysis. 
 
 i;M;i.i>ii l,AN(irA<;K \m> l.rn;i;A tiki;. 
 
 ]. Analyse the fnllnuiiig iia.s.sagc, .'iikI parbu tiiu words in italirs : — 
 
 "'I'iiu fairi'st (irtioii of oiii' liiiiiKiii liti' 
 Is .<riirii'ni[i to ifVi'iigt! an injury ; 
 I'm- ii-lii) forgivus xsilhout aj)irih>r .strife.' 
 His advL'isarv's heart tu liiiu i/o'/i. tii; ; 
 
 And 'tis il firnuT rojitjiit-il trnly sui 
 
 To ir'ni tho liL'art llnu) orcrli. 
 
 irijir 
 
 ,1 
 
 till' liuad. 
 
 1. Show tho forco of tho Latin prolixus ih' 
 
 roll , /' 
 
 ,h. 
 
 JS '"-, /I 
 
 M' ' I, (ill- by rofiTonce to Mnglish words dorivcd fn uii the coiiipwuiids 
 utj'irii), Jii<iu/)b (I throw ; in coMijiosition, -Jifio, -Jichiiii). 
 
 .'!. Write tho following jiassago in blank verso :-- 
 
 "O rroserpina ! for tho flowers no\v, that, fiiirhtfil, tlmu let'st 
 f;dl from Dis's WJiu'goii ! daH'odils, that come hefnro the swallow dares, 
 ami take tho winds of Mareh with l)eauty ; violets dim, hut sweeter 
 than the lida of diiuo's eyes, or (.'ythoroa's hreath ; jiali! lu'imroses, 
 that till! unmarried ere they eau behold bright I'lnrbus in his strength, 
 a malady most incident to maiden.s ; bold oxlips, ami the crown- 
 iiiilHTJal ; lilie.s of all kinds, the flower do Imo lieing one." 
 
 4. How Avould you vary the (juestions in l]iiglish for Standard II. 
 vi as to avoid monotony '! 
 
 "i. Ex])lain, ])y reference to the etymology, the metaphor involved 
 i)i tho following words: — rcducihle, j)ri.ci<e, conviction ( = lirm belief), 
 I'lKnHrfiitn, conj'i rence. 
 
 (i. Sketch briefly the plot of any play of Shakespeare's not 
 directly connected with English history, or that (;f one of Scott's 
 novels. 
 
; -;r~"->.ii«ulluHII|»i|i«iMi 
 
 218 
 
 EXAMI\A'i'n>N ••rKSTloNS. 
 
 7. " .An adjoctivo is a word wliicli ilcscribr.-. (-r jKiintsi out a nnvn " 
 DiscusH this deljiiitidii, and, if yi'U think it bad, say Avliat you \Cnulii 
 8ul).stitute for it, and \\)\y. 
 
 S. What new words liavc lici-n added to the lan^na^o as a rosult 
 of (I) tlic coloni.-aliou of Xortli Auiei ica ; (".2) our iiiteroourxe wiili 
 India and thi; Ivist ? 
 
 9. i'arsH. /'('//// tlu; words in italic tyiitj below :-- 
 
 {(t) Her eye.s were red with irei')iiu<j. 
 (Ii) We was ruiiiiinj at full 8j)ecd. 
 ('•) Wlnie viii/iii',' for the train, I caught a eold. 
 {</) On hinthi;/ I'ound, I ran against iiini, 
 (e) Only by fielliii'j Lis lioise could lio get the money lie 
 wanted. 
 
 SET 15 — Dkckmber 1S97. 
 
 Ifll 
 
 ( 7'iro Iinnr.'i cnid <i half (illun; iJ fur f/iix pri/icr. ) 
 
 All (.'aii'liilntos iin(.<l imawvr (^ucslioiis 1 or 'J, ko/ halh, to whicli lln' lii;;licst ip.iii'k-; 
 ;irc iissi;^!i('il, and iiim.v Ki-lcct //(•<•, ,'iiiil //iv only, ol'tlK! rc>t 
 
 II' you answer in^ir.' tli;tn .■-■ii, ([nr'stions, unly tlio six .uiswers coniiiijj liist (in yi ,r 
 ji.il'i'i' will 1)1' rcviseil. 
 
 No iil)br( \i,'ition of less t liioi tlirre Ir! tcrs is to In' nfvH in I'ui'sin;,' r Analysis. 
 
 1. Analyse from tiie woi-ds " 'I'hei'e is a tide" to "miseries" ui 
 the passage below, and parse the words in itali(!s : — 
 
 " Our legions are biim-full ; our cause is ri[)e : 
 'I'he enemy nn'reaselh <!Very day. 
 We, at the heit^lit, are i eady to decline. 
 There is a lido in the allairs of men 
 Wlticli, taken at the ilood, Ic.ods on to fortune : 
 Omitted, all the voyage of their life 
 Is hoiiiid in shallows and in miaerios. 
 On such a full sea are we now afloat ; 
 And we must take the current when it serves, 
 ()r lose our ventures." 
 
 2. Analyse tlie last four lines of the following passage, and parsi 
 fully the words in italics :— 
 
 " Hejiven fiom all creatui'es hides the book of fate, 
 All Jii(f the ]iage })rttscribed their present state. 
 From brutcH what men, from men ii-hat angels know ; 
 Or wdu) could sutler hcin// here below '! 
 The Uiiiih thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
 J/iitl he thy reason would he skip and play ? 
 lUitisid. to the last he crojis the ilowery food, 
 And licks the hand just raised to shed his blooii," 
 
 .■{. Define (I ) au adjective; ("J) an adverb. 
 
 Kx])lain the use of the words "brim-full,"' "ripe," "afloat'' in tlie 
 passage contained in Question 1. 
 
KXAMIXATI 'X <,>rKSTIONS. 
 
 249 
 
 nurn 
 
 I result, 
 so wilh 
 
 111 
 
 iK'y lie 
 
 livst, (111 >•" .;■ 
 nalysis. 
 
 4, Makf" ;i list of all tin' I.iitin ami Miigiisii ])rp{ixo.s and ruITixph 
 ill the two passages yivi'ii in (^Uiestioiis 1 and -J, and exiiKiin their 
 effect. 
 
 5. What piirtH of the i)riiici[)al voth aro used together with an 
 auxiliary in foniiiiig the comjiound tenses? 
 
 Kxjilain the use of the infinitive mood for this iiurjioso. 
 
 G. In what two ways are sentences connected by conjunctioiis? 
 
 (rive some rule for the use of the conditional mood in subordinate 
 seiiteticea. Illustrate your answer by examples. 
 
 7. " lUit little do MfMi jx.'rciMve what Solitude is, and how far 
 it exteudeth : for a ( Vowd is nf>t Company, and Faces are but a 
 i^'allery of pictures, and Talk is Imf a thiklinij rijiiilnil where there is 
 no Lfive. ' — Jjfdo),. 
 
 Write brielly in your own words the meaning of this passage. 
 
 What dilFerence in ex{»ression from the current literature of the 
 liM-sent (lay do you notice? 
 
 What 1 1 notation does the passage contain, and whence was it 
 taken 1 
 
 a. 'i'he J'.nglish language contains many words <flin to fJerman 
 words, and a considerable number (hrirril from Latin words. 
 
 Explain this .statement (noting especially the words in italics), and 
 trive a few illustrations taken from the passages you have learned to 
 recite or the works you have l)een directed to read. 
 
 !l. Mention some of the works written by four of the following, 
 :iiid say in what century they lived: — Addison, liacoii, liunyan, 
 Cowper, Johnson, Milton, Pope, Scott. 
 
 and pars 
 
 10 w ; 
 
 SET C — Decembkr 1808. 
 
 {Tii-n and a half hour f< alloiccjl for ihi-i jxiper.) 
 
 A!H';uii!iildt( s vt^i^t aiiswiT Question 1 or 'J, u<<t l>'i'!i, tn whidi flir )ii;^licst marks 
 ai'- ;issi^,'iirii, ainl may nv]iv.tjiri-, :iii(l Jirf uiilv, nt' tlii' v* s\. 
 
 II' yiiu aiisuiT iiiorc than six <iiii'sti(ins, only tlii! >i.r aiiswris I'oiiiinv; lirst on y(jnr 
 Ii:i|i(T uiil be rcvisdi. 
 
 \n ablrt'viat ion ol'lc-ss tliaii tlirof? letters is to lie uscl in I'arsin;^ or Ar.alysis. 
 
 1. Analyse tlu^ passage from " Mortals "" to the end of the following 
 jasaage. Parse the words in italics: — 
 
 " ]>ut now iny !ask is smoothly done, 
 I oinjl;/, oi- [ can run 
 Swiftly t') the green earth's rnd, 
 Whf.":e the bowed .\elkin slow doth bend, 
 And from theuce can soar as soon 
 T( the corners of the moon. 
 jNIortals that nou/dfulloiv me, 
 //(/'•e Virtue ; she al(<ne is free. 
 She eau teach ;/< how to climb 
 }f iLjh 'V than the .spheiy ( himc ; 
 Or if virtue feeiv.e were, 
 Heaven itself would stoop to her," 
 
250 
 
 EXAMIXATTON (.lUKSTrONS. 
 
 2. ^vnalysc the first fuur lines of tbo following passacro, and parse 
 tin; words in italics : — » 
 
 " Thi^ M^as iho noblest Jloman of tlicin all : 
 All the (jons])irators, siire only //', 
 Did /h'lf. they (lid in envy of great C'ajsar ; 
 lie, oidy, in a general honest thought 
 And common good to all, made one of them. 
 His life was gentle ; and fhe cleiiK /^■■i 
 So mixed in him, tliat Nature vii</lif stand \\\\ 
 And say to all the \\^>rld, ' tliis was a man 1 " "" 
 
 '\. Define a rclalive pronoun. What is the rule for ('0 its nuinl'tr, 
 (li) itn cavt? Illustrate liy i^xamjiles from tlie precedin _,i--. 
 
 (,'au yon give any rule for the use of "that"' instead of wlio " or 
 "which"? 
 
 4. Write senteiiees showing tlie use of each of the following words 
 as (1) an adverb ; (2) a ])reposition ; (.">) a conjunction, viz.: — aj',r. 
 bi'forp., since. 
 
 5. Explain the force of tlie termination -iiuj in the following sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 He i.s building a new house. 
 The new house is a-building. 
 He is tired of building houses. 
 
 How do you parse the word hnildliKj in each case? 
 0. Ciive the meaning and the origin of the following prefixes ainl 
 suthxes : — 
 
 {(() i'relixes : 
 
 " a "' in away, aware, ago ; 
 
 "for" in forsake, fiirloni, forgive; 
 
 " un " in uncouth, unto, undo. 
 
 ''ment " in jiarchment, parliament; 
 "sonu'"" in handsome, ■wholesome ; 
 "stcr" ill s])inster, maltster. 
 
 7. Distinguish l)ftwet'n a componnd and a complex sentence. 
 Wliat are the appropriate connecting particles of the eomjHUHiil 
 members of eacii kind of sentence? 
 
 illustrate your aii-:wer b}' references to either of tlto passages in 
 QiK'stinn 1 oi' 2. 
 
 S. " Reven<'e is a kiiitl of wild justice ^\lu(,'h the more men's natiiio 
 runs to, the mon; ought law to weed it out. For as for the tii>t 
 wrong, it doth but oU'etiil the law, but the revenge of that Mroiii; 
 ])uttflh tlu! law tint of ollice. Ceitainly in taking revenge a man i~ 
 l)ut even with his enemy, but in passing it by he is superior, for it is 
 a jirince's part to jtanlon."' — Ihti-aii. 
 
 Write l)riefly in your own words the meaning of this i)assag<', aiiil 
 explain any expressions which ajtpear to you to be obsolete. What 
 ellipsis follows '* superior"? 
 
 (/>) SiitHxe 
 
I |iarsp 
 
 ! //jn/i''"", 
 wlvo" or 
 ing words 
 
 nving ;^eu- 
 
 retlxes am' 
 
 |x stMitence. 
 
 (■(nuvoiit'nl 
 
 J.aSMllit'S ill 
 
 .n.'ns nature 
 
 |i„i- the lir^t 
 
 that \vi-"";- 
 
 |rior, fv.'!' i*- '■ 
 
 h>assag<'i i^'"' 
 llete. What 
 
 EXAMINATION <.>UESTI0NS. 
 
 2r.i 
 
 0. ('/) Mention four of the most celebrated authorH of the eighteenth 
 cfiituiy, and give u account of any one among tlieir works ; 
 
 or 
 (h) Name the antliors of the passages contained in (Questions 1 :nul 
 
 'J, and give a short life of one of tliem. 
 
 SET D- Dkcembkii ',S[I9. 
 (Tn'O fdiil a /in// Jiours (dloved for t/iin jxipo-.) 
 
 All Candidates must answer Qtu'stiou 1, and may answer .<u- (iiicslidiis in all, but 
 ni't iiioic tlian tlnce may he taken from eitlier section. 
 
 It yuu answer more than .•■/x questions, only the .••/x answei's coming lirst on your 
 Iiajiir will lie ie\jsed. 
 
 No abbreviation otless than throe letters is to be used in Parsini,' or Analysis. 
 
 SEt'TioN I.- L.\n<;ua(;k. 
 
 1. Analyse OHc of the following i)assages, and parse the words in 
 italics in tlie passage analysed :- - 
 
 (/() "... All this tva.ct t/i(it /ron/s //ii/ii/liiii/ -^iin 
 A ]iol)lo I'eer of micklt ■"ust and power 
 Has in his charge, wifh .'ri)i/iir(/ niri- lo ijiii'/i' 
 An old. and hanghty nation, proud in arms." — Comus. 
 
 (h) " 117(0 noble eiu/s by noble means olttaina. 
 Or failinjx, smiles in exile oi' in chains, 
 Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
 JAkc Socraias, t/iaf man is great indeed."" 
 
 — E-^-<fn/ (1)1 .]/(tn, IV. 
 
 Ir) " Woufd I /ladj'ii/Cii U//UII l/m-ir Iki/iji'u i- i/(ti/s 
 That poets celel)rate : tliose golden times 
 Aiid those Arcadian scenes that Maro sings, 
 And Sidney, warbler of portic prose."' VAc 7'(^^/,•. 
 
 'J. Kxplain, as to a class, sentence by sentence, the meaning of 
 one of the al)ove passages, and comment on any words and allusions 
 lliat call for notice. 
 
 .'i. in what metre is each of the above jiassages written ? If they 
 are not alike, point out the diffeience. Illustrate your answer liy 
 writing a line from ;'ach, showint,' its division iiito feet. 
 
 4. l)i;5tinguish, giving examples, betwei'ii Indicative and Snljjunc- 
 tive mood, (icrund and rarticij)le, ( 'omjilex and (.'ompound sentence. 
 Simile and Metai)hor. 
 
 "). At what periods have Latin words been introduced into 
 Kn^'lish, either directly or imlirectly? <iive a few exaniples under 
 each head. 
 
 0. Certain nouns, adjectives, ami verbs rei|uii'e special preposi- 
 tions, which in some cases vary according to sense and context. 
 
252 
 
 EXAMINATION (,>UESTIONS. 
 
 What prepositions; are useil with the following? 
 tences to illustrate their use : 
 
 4||:, 
 
 Nouns. 
 Accord. 
 Aliinity. 
 Exception. 
 Taste. 
 
 A'ljeclivi's. 
 Adapted. 
 Convenient. 
 Diirerent. 
 Clad. 
 
 Clive short -ea- 
 
 « 
 Verb.s. 
 Agree. 
 Confer. 
 Conlidc. 
 Differ. 
 
 SfX'TION II. — LTTKK.VTri;K. 
 
 7. Under what circumstances, and when, was Comii^ written? 
 (rive a short suininary of the end of the ])oem from the invocation of 
 Sahrina onwards. 
 
 8. Write brief notes on the following passages : — 
 
 (a) " The gray-hooded I'lven, 
 Like a .sad votarist in palmer's weed."' 
 
 (&) " Scylla wept, 
 
 Anil chid her barking waves into attention, 
 And fell Charybdis murmnred soft a[iplause."' 
 
 {(■) •• Oh foolishness of men ! that lend their ears 
 To those budge doctors of the Stoic fur, 
 And fetch their preci'pts from the Cynic tub ! " 
 
 {(!) " Whei'e the bowed welkin slow doth bend." 
 
 9. Explain shortly the following iiiis^agea : — 
 
 ('/) " What can ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards? 
 Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." 
 
 (b) " Tliink how ]>acon shined. 
 The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." 
 
 (c) '• From dirt and seaweed as proud Venice rose." 
 
 10. (live in plain prose the meaning of the following passage: — 
 
 " 111 fares the travtdler now, and he that stalks 
 In ponderous boots l)eside his reeking team : 
 The wain goes heavily, impeded sore 
 By congregated loads adheiing close 
 To the clogged wheels, and in its sluggish pace 
 Noiseless appears a moving hill of snow. 
 'I'he toiling steeds expand tiie nostril wide, 
 While every breath, by res]»iration strong 
 Forced downward, is consolidated soou 
 Upon their jutting chests." 
 
 11. Give briefly the substance of Cowper's contrast between town 
 and counti'v life, or his account of the wititer evening occupations ;il 
 Oluey. 
 
 12. Name Pope"a chief works. When and with what object vas 
 the EsHiuj on Mail written? Explain the lines : — 
 
 " Come, then, my Friend ! my Genius ! come along ; 
 Oh master of the poet aiKi the song I " 
 
 fsxJm. 
 
EXAMINATION QFESTIONS. 
 
 QUEEN'S SCHOLARSHIP— COMPOSITION. 
 
 L'j;5 
 
 {Comjio^iition nom j'or)ii.< k separntr. sulijrff of rxnininai'ion, our hour 
 hi.iny alloiad j'ur iht txtrcm.) 
 
 SET A— 1884. 
 
 Write a letter, or an essay, on one of tho following subjccta : — 
 (o) Singing birds. 
 [h) Fairy tales. 
 
 (r) Pest ways of spending; liolidays. 
 ((/) Advantages of the study and knowledge of geography. 
 
 t 
 
 SET B— 1885. 
 
 Write a letter, or an essay, on on<: of the fdlowiug subjects : — 
 {(i) Your favourite (lowers, and the way to cultivate them. 
 \}i) The moral lessons of the microscope and tho telesco|)e. 
 ('-) The advantages and disadvantages of town life as compared 
 
 with life in tho country. 
 (_(/) Examinations. 
 
 object Nv^^s 
 
 
 .SET C— 188G. 
 
 ("j Write a letter descriptive of the tiA\ u or villa^c in which 
 you live, or of any famous buildnig in or near it ; ur, 
 
 (')) Write a short essay on one. of these topics ; — 
 
 (i) Truthfulness, in act and word, 
 (ii) Poetry. 
 (iii) The Queen rules over an Empire on wiiitli the sun never 
 
 sets. 
 
 SET D~18S7. 
 
 Write a short essay on onti of these topics : — 
 (i) A ship on tire. 
 (li) C'oser union with our colonies, 
 (iii) A walk round a ganlen. 
 
 SET E— 18SS. 
 
 ^\ rite ,t short essay (ju om: of these topics : — 
 
 ("I (jrood maniiera. 
 
 ('') The importance of the telegraph and telephone from a 
 
 commercial point of view, 
 (c) The advantages of a school library !or the (.hildreu. (Name 
 
 a <lozen good books which should be found in every 
 
 such library.) 
 
254 
 
 KX AM I NATION Q U ESTI ONS. 
 
 S\:T F— 188'J. 
 
 « 
 Write a short essay on onf of these siilijects : — 
 
 {'() Any iiit-iiioraMe ])lacL', city, castle, or Ijattlctiekl •w '.lii h yy 
 
 liave visited. 
 (';) The use of pictures in teaching. 
 {'■) (.'olonisation. 
 
 SET G — 1890. 
 
 "Write a short essay ()n one of these subjects : — 
 (a) Some uses of the electric telegraiili. 
 (h) A court of justice. 
 (c) Emigration. 
 
 SET H— IS'Jl. 
 
 Write a short essay on one of these subjects : — 
 
 (a) The snowstorm in March 1891 ; or, 
 
 (b) Fruit trees ; or, 
 
 (c) The census. 
 
 SET 1—1892. 
 
 Write a snort essay (ju : — 
 A general election ; or, 
 
 Give in substance the contents of any niterestiug book which 
 you have recently read. 
 
 SET J — 1893. 
 
 Write a shoi t essay on one of these subjects : — 
 (a) Holidays, and the way to use them. 
 (h) Parliament. 
 (c) Tragedy and comedy. 
 
 SET K-JuLV 1894. 
 
 Do one of the following, either 
 
 (a) Write a short essay on the value of the Study of History ; or, M 
 (h) Write a short essay on " I'lay " ; or, m 
 
 (c) AVrite out briefly the plot of one of Shakespeare's com^dm. 
 
 SET L-Decembeu 1891. 
 Write a short essay on 07ic of the following subjects :— 
 
 (a) "Words are like leaves ; and when they most abound 
 
 Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found." 
 (/') Your favourite pursuit, 
 
 (o) Christmas day on board an English ship in tbf 
 Regions. 
 
 I'<a- 
 
 ^Vi 
 
EXAMINATION < •UKSTIONS. 
 
 255 
 
 •hyn-, 
 
 SET M— 1895. 
 
 Write a short essay on out of the following subjects : — 
 
 ('<) " Hope springs eternal in the human breast ; 
 Man never is, but always to be blest." 
 
 (Ii) The Japanese. 
 
 (r) How may the spirit of patriotism be promote J in elementary 
 schools ? 
 
 .SET N— 1S9(J. 
 
 Write a short essay on out of the following subjects : — 
 
 \^a) How far is it Irue tliat history i^i the biography of great 
 men '/ 
 
 (//) .Strikes. 
 
 (' ) Dress as an evidence of character. 
 
 i 
 
 book which 
 
 .SET 0—1897. 
 
 Write a short composition on ant of the following : — 
 i'l) A short life of some great naval or military hero. 
 
 (//) '• The darkest day, 
 
 Wait till to-morrow, will have passed away." 
 
 ((•) Give an account of the life and works of the author of the 
 passage you have learned to recite. 
 
 History ; ^"^' 
 
 SET P— 1898. 
 
 ^Vritc a short composition on out of the following : — 
 
 (a) The pleasures of gardening. 
 
 (h) The life of the teacher : its difliculties and its ideals. 
 
 (c) The ground of justification for each of the contending parties 
 in the Spanish-American W.ir of 1898. 
 
 SET Q— 1S99. 
 
 Write a bliurt composition on o//« of the following subjects : — 
 
 (a) A coiuparison of town and country hte i^which you would 
 prefer, and why). 
 
 (6) A winter Lindscape. 
 
 ('•) "Great officcH will have {i.e. uee<i) great talents." — Cou^r, 
 
Il 
 
 250 
 
 KXAMINATION (QUESTIONS. 
 
 LONDON MATIUCULATION 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 SET A— Jum: 180G. 
 
 mi' 
 
 {Not more t/uia ten qiieslions art to be attemptcil.) 
 
 1. Draw a table showing the position of I'higlisb in the G'erDi'ini.c 
 family of languages. 
 
 2. What is meant by tlic distinction between " learned '' and 
 '' \)(>\m\iiv" hurriiiiyd iroriln'] I'nder what eircuin.staiiees have Latin 
 wonls ut various times bern borrowed in English"/ Kefer in your 
 answer to the above distinetion. 
 
 3. Show, if possible with a tabl", what vowel-sounds are u^-l'd in 
 ordinary spoken English. 
 
 4. Classify nouns according to their meaning, and illustrate tin 
 passage of nouns from one class to anotlier. 
 
 5. Write down (i) nix illustrations of Grimm's Law ; (ii) tu 
 apparent exceptions to it, connneiiting u|ion the latter. 
 
 G. Give the force of the sulHxes Avhich <iccui' i?i the followini; 
 woi'ds, commenting upon any anomaly in the form or meaning di 
 each : — viluuss^ v/nldhood, 'jinlh , lawyer, '/('■'ilinj, ruukt-ri/. 
 
 7. Give a short account of the comparison of adjectives in 
 English. 
 
 8. Show, accurately, how the following cognate wonls are dis- 
 tinguished, and also how they are connected, in meaning : — for/'S, 
 rorpue ; ;/age, icmje ; diaiiio)i<(, adaiiKinf ; ci"je, can. : di.ih, de^l:, di.<'\ 
 dais ; prie.^l, prtsbi/ter. 
 
 9. Enumerate the pronominal and adverbial forms derived iroui 
 the stem of here, and show, generally, how each comes to have its 
 ])resent meaning. 
 
 10. Point out any defects in the grammar or style of tbt 
 following : — 
 
 (a) Homer was not only the maker of a nation, but of a 
 
 language. 
 (/*) He is better versed in theology than any living man. 
 ((■) Shakespeare frequently has passages m a strain quite false, 
 
 and which are entirely unworthy of him. 
 
 (d) Nothing can hinder this treatise from being one of tin 
 
 most considerable books which has appeared for the last 
 half-century. 
 
 (e) A statute, inflicting the punishment of death, may be, ami 
 
 ought to be, re])ealed, if it be in any degree expedient. 
 
 11. Analyse the following: — "So eager was the queeu that her 
 story should be believed, that nothing so much pleased her as au 
 indication that credit was attached to it." 
 
 12. Give two examples each of (i) strong verKs which have beconu' 
 weak J (ii) weak verbs which have become strong ; ^iii) strong par- 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 257 
 
 ,eri)i'in>': 
 
 I'll ■■' .iii'l 
 
 ivo Lallii 
 
 ill your 
 
 •e iiM.'<l ill 
 
 itratc tin- 
 
 ; [il] ^'X 
 
 toUowiiiu 
 leaning fl 
 
 jectivca in 
 are lU^- 
 
 JM; '//-'. 
 
 ived tvoiii 
 to liavo ils 
 
 !\e of till 
 
 but of '^ 
 
 man. 
 quite false, 
 
 one of th' 
 for tbe last 
 
 nay bf, aiul 
 jxxjedifut. 
 
 ;a that her 
 i her as au 
 
 lavr becoTiu' 
 btroug piii'- 
 
 tii'iploi ■which have l)tH'n assimilated to tlic ])rctoritp ; (iv) stronir 
 [iieterites uliifh liave l)ecii assiniilateil to tin; J'articiplc, 
 
 l,"i. lOxplaiu ami illustrate the laws or jiriiKiplos involved in the 
 lormatiou of the foUowing words : — raii^eirdt/, hook-leametl, hlndniosf, 
 ih'irii P1U /li'Cowa/, ihtrLliiKj. 
 
 14. Show, summarily, in what various ways adrrrlx liave been 
 formed in Kurdish. 
 
 15. (live a summary view of the various ways iu which the 
 •orabuhary of a language may bo enlarged, with illustratiiuis from 
 l-jiglidh. 
 
 SET P.— .lANrAKY 1897. 
 
 (Xot iiinvp tJuDi ten q\ieKt'i()n>i (trr to hi fiff' mjiffif.) 
 
 1. Chassify the 'reutonie and IJomanee words in the fcdlowing 
 ]iassage ; comment on your classitication, and write biief notes on 
 the history of any //'r-' words : — 
 
 " The coAvardly wretches followed the Aveary travellers demanding 
 alms. Their menaces revealed their true charac^ter, and there was 
 sdon no alternative but to hand them the few remaining possessions ; 
 the foot-^<ore pilgrims were not allowed to keep (>veu their meagre 
 victuals for the daj'. At all events, starvation would end the 
 miseries of their toilsome life." 
 
 '2 Explain, carefully, what is meant by the followiuLj terms: — 
 [[) Anglo-Saxon ; (ii) Anglo-French ; (iii) Hybrids ; (iv) Alliteration ; 
 (v) Rhythm; (vi) Metaphor. 
 
 ?y. liive a ])i ief account of the process of intlexional levelling in 
 Knglish. 
 
 t. I'hiumerate, with instances, the various ways of indicating 
 •^'ender in English. Write a careful note on the word " .s'o»(/.s'/?v',sn."' 
 
 ."». Trace the history of the third personal pronoun, singular and 
 plural. 
 
 (!. Difl'erentiate the following, ])oth as regards usage and origin ; — 
 j'inihci', farther : Uitt r, Inlter : ohh r, ch/cr : onlir, utter ; fo?'emoit, 
 jir."/. 
 
 7. Define : — (i) luthtillre : (ii) dirninl : (iii) Parlldple ; (iv) 
 Vo'iil ; (v) ]'oici : (vi) Aitri/itirif V^rh-^ ; (xii) S/ro));f-irpak IV?'/*.'?. 
 
 8. Account clearly for the present ami past tense forms of the 
 chief auxiliarj' verbs. Ex))lain the modern use of '".sV/a//" and 
 '■ will.'' 
 
 [}, Classify the weak verbs, and explain the following forms: — 
 fitiililit, sold, ■-•.()H<iJit, fid, f<lt. 
 
 li'. Annotate the following statement: — '"Words originally other 
 parts of s])eech are sometimes used as conjunctions." 
 
 11. What are '^ Si/tionyms" ? Account for their origin. Oive 
 some exam]iles, and discriminate their use. 
 
 I '2. Explain the force and origin of the 'lollowing suffixes : — -ihip, 
 tn, II/, ne-^s, y. Give instances. 
 
I 
 
 258 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 1 .'{. Analyse : — 
 
 "So please yonr majesty, I would I could , 
 
 Quit all olfomt'S with as clear excuse 
 As well aH I atu doubtlosa I can pur^e 
 Myself of many I am charged withal."' 
 
 14. In what im])ortant respects does the diction of jioetry (lifT^r 
 from that of prose? Ad<l brief illustrative sentences. 
 
 IT), What is meant by Blank Verse? Write down and discuss any 
 ten lines. 
 
 SET C— June 1S97. 
 
 Ifl 
 
 {Not more than ten 7?<ph'/o?/.s' an' to he attpmpted.) 
 
 1. Enumerate the principal Indo-European languages, and indirato, 
 by description or diagram, how English is related to Italian, Sanskrit, 
 Dutch, Erse. 
 
 2. At what periods have Latin words been largely borrowed ? 
 (Jive six examples from living English of words so borrowed at each 
 period, and show what class of the vocabulary was at each period 
 chiefly affected by such borrowing. 
 
 3. Illustrate the borrowing of words pithrr from Celtic or frnin 
 Scandinavian sources into English. 
 
 4. Give a short account of existing case-forms in English, and also 
 of some which no longer survive as cases. 
 
 5. Explain the italicised letters in the following words: — a^/vaii- 
 tage, srent. deftt, frontispiece, cou^d, anrient. 
 
 6. What peculiarities, of form or meaning, in the expression of 
 relations of number, are illustrated by the following? — -^core, /rip!'. 
 hundred, frsf, second, million . 
 
 7. Distinguish, with illustrations, as many as you can of tlie 
 different senses of one. 
 
 8. Trace the origin of who, which, and that as relative pronouns, 
 and define their usage in modern E.iglish. 
 
 9. Distinguish the origin of the sufHx y in the following words ;— 
 jur>/, hody, jolly, army, wordy, jplly. 
 
 10. Explain carefully what is meant by the past-present or strong- 
 weak verbs, giving the reason for each name. 
 
 11. Analyse the -ing forms in the following sentences : — 
 
 The house is building. 
 
 He is making his mark. 
 
 He is tired of writing letters. 
 
 12. Explain the structure and meaning of the following : — mc/i, 
 every, any, ahout, cither, or. 
 
 13. In what different ways are adverbs formed in English? 
 
 14. Illustrate the different senses of with, by, at, of, for, Whicli 
 of them are also conjunctions? Vv'hich adverbs ? 
 
KXAMFXATION QUKSTIONS. 
 
 250 
 
 If). Illiiftratn the ways in which literary and educated F'nglish ha'^ 
 l).'t'n reuoiitly reinforced liy tho introduction uf words from ilialccf'*, 
 technical d rminologif, and ^niuj. 
 
 ;ry AifTor 
 icusa any 
 
 SET D— January 1898. 
 
 {Not more than ten 'luestlons are to he attempted.) 
 
 I indirato, 
 , Sanskrit. 
 
 l)orrowc(l '; 
 •od at each 
 ach period 
 
 -;\c or from 
 
 ,h, and also 
 
 — a'/vau- 
 
 iressinn of 
 rovp, lrli'f>-. 
 
 can of the 
 e pronouns, 
 2 words ;— 
 it or strong- 
 
 wing :— wc''. 
 alish? 
 
 for. 
 
 Which 
 
 I. Show briefly that the English language is of Teutonic origin, 
 lud also that during the last thousand years it has Iummi influeiicecl 
 liy certain other Teutonic languages. 
 
 •J. How has it happened tliat we have norrowed so largely from 
 foreign languages instead of building word.s for onrsulvcs ? What 
 home-spun terms might we have had for " astronomy," "arithmetic," 
 " autumn," " agriculture," " lil)rary " ? 
 
 II. Mention some of our earliest borrowings from tho T.atin, and 
 prove by a few examples that wo have gone on incessantly borrowing 
 from it. 
 
 4. Illustrate the intluence of Norman-French on our spelling and 
 our pronunciation. Write down some words that we owe to other 
 U')mance languages. 
 
 ."). Make a list of some twenty additions mside to our vocabulary in 
 <^)ueen Victoria's reign, and point out tlie movements, or fashions, or 
 tendencies that have made them necessary. 
 
 6. What traces are there in our present grammar of more than 
 one declension of nouns? Discuss the apostrophe in such forms aa 
 "stone's," "church's," "St. James","' 
 
 7. Indicate some distinction or distinctions between the uses of tho 
 relatives ivho and that. What other word has sometimes a relatival 
 force? (live examples of the omission of the relative. 
 
 8. Mention some verbs now of the weak conjugation that once 
 were of the strong, and vicfi vrrsd. Mention also some verbs of 
 mixed conjugation ; show that t>// is not so. About how many 
 strong verbs are there extant ? 
 
 9. Mention some verbs that have no change of form in the preterite 
 and in the ])ast participle ; also some that are defective ; also some 
 that arc irregular. 
 
 10. (live some account of the etymology of adverbs. Comment on 
 tlie forms rather, piecemeal, too, t'er;/, farther. 
 
 11. Explain the a in aboard, amend, ailo, ariie, adoum, aloiuj, ala-t, 
 apace, aware, avert. 
 
 \2. Derive these words : — lone, street, king, church, enyine, month. 
 University, degree, college, matriculation. 
 
 1.3. Distinguish, giving examples, the senses and usages of elder 
 and older, of continuous and continual, rustic and rurcd, sensibility and 
 '<env.tii>eness, temporal and temporary. Are there such things as 
 "synonyms"'? 
 
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2G0 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 14. Describe any English dialect wi.... which j'ou are acquaintod, 
 and state what you know of its origin. « 
 
 15. Criticise and revise the following sentences : — 
 
 (a) Few of his friends, except myself, know of his being in 
 
 the kingdom, 
 
 (b) The guinea places were better filled than the half- 
 
 guinea, and not a jot better. 
 
 (c) The captain took the good things which the gods 
 
 provided with thankful good humour, 
 {d) To aim at public and private good are so far from being 
 inconsistent that they mutually promote each other 
 (r) Your Englishman is just as serious in his sports as in 
 
 any act of his life. 
 (/) He regretted that the pupil-teacher did not prevent the 
 boys from writing so fast, as he noticed that \? done 
 in the absence of such immediate supervision as the 
 master, otherwise engaged, would have preverted. 
 
 SET E— June 1898. 
 {N'ot more than ten questions are to he attempted.) 
 
 1. Give a summary account of the various sources of English 
 speech, so far as vocabulary is concerned, and explain carefully wliy, 
 in spite of the various elements, the language is groujied with tlie 
 Teutonic branch of Indo-European. 
 
 2. Explain carefully the following terms : — (i) Anglo-Saxon ; (ii) 
 Anglo-French; (iii) synonym; (iv) homophone; (v) inflexion; (vi) 
 case; (vii) prosody; (viii) syntax ; (ix) metaphor ; (x) simile. 
 
 How do " synonyms " arise, and how may they be differentiated ? 
 (xive instances. 
 
 3. (i) Quote ten lines of blank verse ; (ii) underline all the words 
 borrowed, directly or indirectly, from Latin ; (iii) write brief etymo- 
 logical notes on each of the underlined words ; and (iv) on any six 
 other words in the passage quoted. 
 
 4. Tabulate the vowel-sounds now used in educated English (using 
 symbols if ])ossible), and add illustrative words. 
 
 5. Classify the chief of the various suffixes which appear in English. 
 Oivo illustrative instances. 
 
 6. Give an account of the various ways of forming number in 
 modern English ; comment on the obsolete processes, and account for 
 the use of .s as the ordinary plural inflexion. 
 
 7. Write down (i) two comparatives which have no corresponding 
 positive forms ; (ii) three positives which have no corresponding 
 comparatives ; (iii) one instance of a ccmjiarative used as a positive ; 
 and (iv) one instance of a double superlative. Explain carefully each 
 instance. 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 261 
 
 8. Sketch the history of the Relative Pronouns ; differentiate their 
 use in modern English, adding illustrative sentences. 
 
 9. Write historical notes on the following forms : — (i) she ; (ii) its : 
 (iii) their; (iv) hers; (v) him; (vi) why; (vii) you ; (viii') there; 
 (ix) not. 
 
 10. Group, according to any scheme you may jirefer, the strong 
 verb for.Tia existing in modern English, Annotate your instances, 
 where necessary. Discuss the following : — 
 
 " Sweetly we mufj, 
 and he sujhj too, 
 but our sweet song 
 we soon did rue." 
 
 11. Explain carefully the various ten.'^es which a verb should be 
 capable of expressing. In what respects is English deficient ? 
 
 12. Distinguish the uses of the ending -iiii/. Add lirief historical 
 notes. 
 
 1 3. In what ways may the different parts of speech be put together 
 liy romposihon ? Give one instance in each class. 
 
 14. Discuss eight words called into existence by recent discoveries 
 or inventions. 
 
 1,). Analyse the following : — 
 
 " I am alone the villain of the earth. 
 And feel I am so most. O Antony, 
 Thou mine of bounty, how wouldst thou have paid 
 My better service, when my turpitude 
 Thou dost so crown wi' .'. gold I " 
 
 SET F— January 1S99. 
 
 (Do not attempt to answer move than seven of the firnt ten 
 quenl'wmt, or more than three of the /axt five. Great int- 
 portance v'lll he attachtd to dearnesi^ and nccuracy of expres- 
 .von and style.) 
 
 1. Prove from the present state of its vocabulary and grammar 
 that the English language is of Teutonic origin. 
 
 -. Mention words we have borrowed from the Hebrew, the 
 CliiiK'se, the Modern German, the Arabic, the Portuguese, and the 
 Kussian languages ; and explain how we came to borrow them, 
 
 3. In what ways do we now supply ourselves with new wort's 
 when tliey are wanted? Give instcances. 
 
 4. Classify consonants according to the organ chiefly used in 
 sounding them. In what other ways may they be classified ? Explain 
 the pronunciation of the italicised letters in the words cupboard, 
 leg.?, ai^/journ, houses, stooperf. 
 
 5. Write down five noun forms that though originally plural are 
 now used as singulars, and five that were originally singulars but 
 are now used as plurals, and five that are double plurals. 
 
 
262 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 G. Mention ten adjectives that are usrd as nouns and evon havo 
 the plural flexion. , 
 
 7. Attempt some classification of strong verbs. What is noticeable 
 about the flexions of rot, vifit, Uail, hniuf, chthf, sotr^ 
 
 8. Give five instances of adverbs used predicatively, and five of 
 prepositions used verbally. 
 
 9. Discuss the words hut and so, and make examples of their 
 various uses. 
 
 10. Derive these words: — sheriff, rify, omnibus, /street, colony, 
 sovereign, Wales, bishop, kinrj, Enff/aiid. 
 
 11. What seem to you the characteristics of a well-written piece of 
 composition ? 
 
 12. Criticise the following sentences : — 
 
 (a) Neither he nor his brother were trained for the ministry. 
 (6) A convent, a lunatic asylum, a husband — either will do. 
 (c) He would neither apologise or withdraw. 
 ((/) Unfortunately, both he and she seemed to have lost their 
 
 senses. 
 (e) On attempting to extract the ball, the patient began 
 
 rapidly to sink. 
 (/) He won't do more than he can help. 
 
 1.3. Sketch clearly the plot or plots of any of Shakespeare's plays. 
 
 Or, 
 Give a brief abstract of any one of the Waverley Novels. 
 
 14. Quote any poem or part of a poem not less than twelve line-; 
 in length, and describe the metre in which it is written. 
 
 15, What do you know of the life and work of any th^'ee of the 
 following writers : — Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, Gray, Wordsworth. 
 
 Give the approximate dates of each. 
 
 Or, 
 Give an account of any one poet and any one prose writer of the 
 Victorian era. 
 
 SET G— June 1899. 
 
 N.B. — Candidates must not break up their answers into scattered 
 pieces. Great importance will be attached to clearness and accuraf^y 
 of expression and style. 
 
 I. — Language. 
 
 {Not vim'e than seven of them ten questions are to be attemptid.) 
 
 1. Expl un carefully what is meant by the term "grammar." 
 Give the chief divisions of " grammar," with definitions ami 
 examples. 
 
 2. Comment on the following statements : — 
 
 (o) •• To reform Modern English spelling would be to destroy the 
 life-history of many of our words." 
 
 (&) " The spelling of Modern English is little better than a chaos. 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 2G3 
 
 n. At what periods, and under what conditions, have Latin 
 wnrds been introduced into English directly or iiulirectly? Givu 
 exftoiples. 
 
 4. Derive and explain: — Mntriculnfe, pnrliamenf, isfr, ft/derman, 
 mayor, crirket : and mention some derivatives from and some cognates 
 with these words. 
 
 '). What is meant by "relative pronouns"? nifTerentiato th« 
 uses of the relative pronouns in Modern English, giving instances of 
 each. 
 
 G. Write notes on the following words : — vor^p, tiforrr, hvt, it, 
 iovg->frfi»'t, richp-^, alnin, ye, first, Wednesday. 
 
 7. Classify adverbs, according to their origin and formation, with 
 instances. 
 
 5. HoM' are (i) infinitives, and (ii) participles distinguished from 
 the other parts of verbs? Write down and discuss six sentences 
 illustrating various uses of (i) the Infinitive and (ii) the Present 
 Participle. 
 
 9. What is meant by "defective verbs '" ? Discuss the conjugation 
 of any three. 
 
 10. "To make a revolution every day is the nature of the sun, 
 l)ecauae of that necessary course which (iod hath ordained it, from 
 which it cannot swerve but by a faculty from that voice which first 
 (lid give it motion."' 
 
 (i) Analyse this sentence ; (ii) underline the words of Latin origin. 
 
 II. — Literature and Comi'osition. 
 
 (Not more than three of these queMiona are to he attempted.) 
 
 1. Explain carefully what you consider the chief differences between 
 Poetry and Prose. 
 
 2. What is meant by "blank verse," "sonnet," "lyric," "rhyme," 
 "alliteration"? Write down any ten lines of "blank verse," 
 explaining t^'e scansion ; or quote any sonnet, explaining the 
 structure, and telling what you know of its authorship. 
 
 3. What do you know of any two of the following writers : — 
 Chaucer, Spenser, Scott, Lamb, Tennyson. 
 
 4. Give a brief account of any t>ro of the following works : — 
 "Midsummer Night's Dream," " Paradise Lost," "Ivanhoe," "Idylls 
 of the King," " Treasure Island." 
 
 ">. Say in what works are to be found the following persons, and 
 hriefly describe their characters : — Mr. Burchell, Mercutio, Bailie 
 Nicol Jarvie, Mr. Greatheart, Mr. Micawber, Friday. 
 
 SET H— January 1900. 
 
 i\^.i?.— Candidates must not breaic up their answers into scattered 
 pieces. The answers to Group I, must be kept distinct from those to 
 Group II. Great importance will be attached to clearness and 
 accuracy of expression and style. 
 
 :fc:1 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 LANr.UAfJK. 
 
 (iVo/ more than seven nfthrsc tea qnc.il ious an' to he nttcmpfcfi) 
 
 1. Give some account of the coming <>f tliu English Langn.igo into 
 this country. In what respect was it difrcrcnt then from what it is 
 now ? 
 
 2. How has Latin come to influence our vo(!al)ulary so larcrely 
 Show that it has influenced it indirectly us well as directly. ('ouM 
 we have got on without it ? 
 
 3. Mention other languages from which we have borrowed wonlu. 
 giving instances, and saying whether you think such borrowings were 
 necessary. 
 
 4. How many sounds has the letter a in English? Quote px- 
 amples. Point out that in somo cases educated people differ as to lli. 
 ])ronunciation. 
 
 What are our commonest noun suflixes, and what force have 
 they? Distinguish those of Teutonic from those of Romanic oritjiii. 
 
 6. What is meant by the grammatical term " accidence " ? Exj)laiii 
 also the terms "case," "tense,"' "mood," "participle," "accent.' 
 
 7. Mention some of the verbs that are called " anomalous," aini 
 show why they are called so. To which conjugation belong n-orL 
 catch, hang, buy, do, strew? 
 
 8. Classify verbs according to their syntactical nse as distinfruislud 
 from their flexional form. What »lo you understand byaverl)"(.! 
 incomplete predication "? Mention some verbs that are used so, ami 
 also as "of comjdete predication." 
 
 9. Write short sentences to show the various meanings of tiu' 
 prepositions vith, to, hy. 
 
 10. How would you express the difference between conjunctions 
 and prepositions? Sliow that some conjunctions were originally 
 prepositions and that some still are so. 
 
 II. — Composition and Literature. 
 
 {Not more than three of thesa five <inestwn* are to he attempted.) 
 
 IL Define the term "metaphor." How does a metaphor differ 
 from a " simile " ? Why is it a fault in style to mix metaphors? 
 
 12. Write to A. Teacher, Esq., a short letter in the third jwrson 
 apologising, on the ground of ill-health, for your absence from lecture, 
 hoping to be quite regular in your attendance for the future, aii'l 
 asking for information as to the work done during your absence, and 
 the work to be aone next time. 
 
 13. State briefly the theme and name the author of each of tlie 
 following poems : — The Inchcape Rock, Lycidas, The Deserted 
 Village, Tithonus, Herve Riel, The Lady of the Lake. 
 
 14. Who are our chief living historians, and what have they 
 written or are they writing? Give some account of any one work by 
 any one of them. 
 
 15. Describe in ten octosyllabic couplets a sunrise or a sunset. 
 
 i 
 
KXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 265 
 
 SET I— June 1000. 
 
 y.B. — Candidates must not break up their answers into scattered 
 pitct's. Tlie answers t(» (Jroup I. must be kept distinct from those 
 to (iroup II. Great importance will be attached to clearness and 
 atcuracy of expression and style. 
 
 I. — Lanouagk. 
 
 [Xot morr t/ttni seven of these ten iiii(sti'on.s are 'o he attempted.) 
 
 I. Define exactly the position of English in the Germaniu family 
 of languages. 
 
 'J. State M'hat is meant by Grliinii's and Vo-no'^s Lair.'!, (iive 
 examples 
 
 .'{. Explain and illustrate what is meant by the terms nunlytir. and 
 ■iijudaiii- as applied to languages. 
 
 4. What is uu<lersto()d hy jihonttic sjielliiKjl Can modern English 
 spelling be considered phonet ie ? 
 
 "). Discuss the following forms : — .soni/strtas, hrtt/ireii, alive, elder, 
 Liiili/-ilc!y, e/iildreu, vi.i'ii, iiiinost, hearer, luethinks. 
 
 >i. Distinguish between the use of the yeruml, the jirenent partici2>le, 
 and the verbal noun in -t/t;/. 
 
 7. How does the relative that differ in use from whu, idiicht 
 When can the relative be omitted in modern English ? 
 
 M. Explain exactly the use of the various teiisis of the active voico 
 ill English (both the simple tense^i and those formed with th« auxiliaries 
 li'tre and he.). Is it correct to say, "Spain huti J'uunded a mighty 
 coli)Dial enii)iro"? 
 
 It. Detine an adverli, and state how adverbs may be classed. Give 
 the rules regulating the position of the adverb. 
 
 lU. Analyse : — 
 
 " But where the path we walked began 
 To slant the fifth autumnal slope, 
 As we descended following Hoj)e, 
 There sat the Shadow feared of man." 
 
 II.— Composition and Litkraturk. 
 (Xot more than three of the.se five quettionn are to be attempted.) 
 
 II. Define the terms nlleijori/, antithesis, (jitffram, euphemism, 
 inisnra, and ossoiiaure. 
 
 I'.'. Give a very brief account of the life and works of tiro of the 
 following authors : — Shakespeare, Dryden, Pope, Goldsmith, Shelley. 
 
 13. Say in what works six of the following ])erson8 are to be found, 
 and sketch briefly their characters : — Jacques, Sir Anthony Al)s«)lute, 
 Mark Tapley, Polonius, Mr. Greatheurt, Dandie Dinmont, Friday, 
 iJr. Primrose. 
 
 14. Give some account of any single poem by Wordsworth, Sir 
 Walter Scott, or Tennyson. 
 
 15. Write a short description of any place or building of historical 
 interest with which you are familiar. 
 
 ' I 
 
m£xurr.'riitm 
 
 2G6 
 
 EX.U1INATI0N QUESTIONS. 
 
 TEACHERS' CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION.— EIRST 
 YEAR PAPERS {Uhn and Women). 
 
 .SET A— July 1896. 
 ( Three hourn allowed for this 2/aper. ) 
 
 Answir t^ucstion 1, and Jive others, of wliich two at hast iiuiat be from those mi 
 Milton's "Tractate." 
 
 If inorc tlian .six qut;stious are attempted, only the nix answers euniing hrst uu Ihi 
 pajjer will be revised. 
 
 EnGLLSH L.\NOUAr,K AND LiTEUATURE. 
 
 1. Analyse the following jjiussage, and parse the words italicised:— 
 "Thus, Mr. Hartlib, yon have a general view in writing, as your 
 
 desire wag, of that which at several times 1 had discourst with vuu 
 conceruing the best aud noblest way of education ; not begiunituj as 
 some have done from the cradle, which yet might be worth many 
 considerations, if brevity had not been my scope, many other circum- 
 stances also I CO aid have mention'd, but this to Nuch as have the 
 worth in them to make trial, for light aud direction may be enough." 
 
 2. Write a short analysis of one of Gray's Odes, showing the 
 sequence and appropriateness of the thoughts exi)reBsed. 
 
 3. Write, in plain prose, the meaning of one of the foUowiug 
 extracts, adding a brief explanation of the allusions : — 
 
 (a) " Girt with mail}' a baron bold 
 Sublime their starry fronts they rear ; 
 
 And gorgeous dames, and statesmen old 
 In bearded majesty, appear. 
 In the midst a form divine ! 
 Her eye proclaims her of the Briton Line : 
 Her lion-port, her awe-commanding face 
 Attemper'd sweet to virgin-grace."' 
 
 (b) "Nor second He, that rode sublime 
 Upon the seraph-wings of Ecstasy 
 The secrets of the Abyss to s{>y : 
 
 He pass'd the llaraing bounds of Space and Time : 
 The living Throne, the sa2)phire-bluze 
 Where angels tremble while they gaze, 
 He saw ; but blasted with excess of light, 
 Closed his eyes in endless night." 
 
 4. What is the meaning of "Ode," "Pindaric Ode," and "Elegy'! 
 Show that these names are projjerly given to such of Gray's i)oeni8 
 as are so called. Mention, if you can, examples of each kind frum 
 other poets. 
 
 5. State why, in your opinion, Gray's " Elegy written in a 
 Country Churchyard " should (or ehould not) be considered cue of 
 the masterpieces of English lyrical poetry. 
 
EXAMINATION ^'UESTIONS. 
 
 267 
 
 f). Explain the allusious in the fuUowing paasageH : — 
 
 (a) "Their Bcaly armour's 'J'yriaii hue."' 
 
 (6) "Till the sad Niue in (Jreece'a evil hour 
 
 Left their Parnassus for the Latian plains.'^ 
 
 (r) "No dolphin came, no Nereid stirred." 
 
 (d) "And spare the meek usurper's holy head." 
 
 (c) "The Attic warbler pours her throat." 
 
 7. Explain the epithets iu the following passages «iuutetl from 
 the "Elegy" and discuss their suitability : — 
 
 No«v fades the glimmering landscape from tliu sight. 
 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. 
 
 The inevitable hour. 
 
 Where through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault. 
 
 This pleasing anxious being. 
 
 The pangs of conscious truth. 
 
 The genial current of the soul. 
 
 S. What, in Milton's view, is the "end of learning"? Compare 
 with views advanced by other writers on Education. 
 
 9. By what means did Milton propose to avoid the reproach of 
 "learning mere words,'' and to secure the "universal insight into 
 things " ? 
 
 10. What suggestions for the conduct of elementary schools cac 
 he drawn from Milton's "Tractate," and what actual practices are 
 8U|)ported by Milton's authority ? 
 
 11. Explain the following : — 
 
 ('() Many modern Janua's and Didactics. 
 
 {b) That act of reason which in Ethicks is called Truairesis. 
 
 (c) The Institution of Physick. 
 
 {d) All our time from Lilly to the commencing, as they term 
 
 it, Master of Art. 
 (e) Their Academics and Lycicum. 
 (/) Their empty and unrecrutible colonels. 
 {g) Pure trifling at Grammar and Sophistry. 
 
 I ' i 
 
 Composition. 
 
 (One hour allowed.) 
 
 No Caudidate nmy omit the Kxercise in Composition. 
 
 Write in ]>lain prose a short essay un one of the following 
 
 subjects : - 
 
 (a) " Knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much ; 
 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows no more." — Cowper. 
 
 (b) " Honest labour bears a lovely face." — Dekker. 
 
 (c) The pleasures of botanising. 
 
\ 
 
 268 
 
 EXAMINATION QUKSTIONS. 
 
 SKT B— July 18&7. 
 {Three houri allowed for tliii pn/irr.) 
 
 Answer Qncstimi 1, und jirr utlicrs, of whicli tua tiiust !"• Ironi IIia rciiiainlii^' 
 qiieHti<iiis ill ^ieelinii I. and tlnu' I'loiii Hection II. 
 
 Full iiiarkH are lii;;lu'r tor Qiustimi 1 tliiiii fur any otlitT. 
 
 If mure tliiiu gi.t. i|uestiou8 aru attciuiited, uuly tlie mj; answent coming fiiiit uu tliu 
 paper will be revised. 
 
 Section J. 
 
 1. Analyst' the following paHsage, and parse the words italicised: — 
 "The ideas of goblins and sprites have really no tnore fo do with 
 
 darkness than liijld ; yet Itl hut a foolish maid inciilcx/e IIhsc niten 
 on the mind of a child, and raise thciii there together, ])usai]ily lu; 
 shall never be able to separate them again so long an he lives ; but 
 darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful i(lea>, 
 and they shall be so joined that he can no more bear the one. thau 
 the other." 
 
 2. Illustrate the various uses of the iniinitive form of the verli 
 in English. 
 
 3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a tabular furm 
 for analysis of sentences. 
 
 4. Note some changes in idiom and the meaning of words useil 
 which have occurred since the Authorised Version of the Hible was 
 is&ued. 
 
 5. What has been the influence of false analogy in the formation 
 of words ? Illustrate from the history of the English language. 
 
 6. Give examples of "doublets" in English, i.e. words which 
 may be tracetl to the same original but have now different forms. 
 Explain how they came into existence. 
 
 Skction II. 
 
 7. Write brief explanatory notes on the following : — 
 
 (a) " Orestes, in his madness, looked as if he saw something." 
 
 {(>) "The good knight told me my good friend, his chaplain, 
 was very well . . . and that the Sunday before he had 
 made a most incomparable sermon out of Dr. Barrow.' 
 
 (r) "He looked upon Prince Eugenio (for so the knight always 
 called him) to be a greater man than Seanderbeg." 
 
 (d) " I could wish our Royal Society would compile ji body (if 
 natural history, the best that could be gathered together 
 from books and observations. " 
 
 (c) "I must not omit that Sir Roger is a justice of the quorum ; 
 that he tills the chair at a quarter session with great 
 abilities. " 
 
 8. Sketch the characters of Will Wimble and the chaplain ; or, 
 write a short summary of the " Scene iu a Stage Coach." 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 
 
 2G8(a) 
 
 of tlu! verli 
 
 tabular form 
 
 shaplain ; or, 
 
 9. "Addison shows in Sir Roger the solid and peculiar English 
 cliaracter. ... A hundred traits depict the times.' Expand and 
 illustrate this criticism. 
 
 10. Illustrate, from the " Selections," Tennyson's precise observa- 
 tion of nature. 
 
 1 1. Write notes upon the following passages ; — 
 
 (d) " Heaven heads the count of crimes 
 With that wild oath." 
 
 {!)) " Or mythic Uther's deeply-wounded son."' 
 
 {<•) *• The shrilly whinny ings of the team of Hell." 
 
 (f/) " Again their ravening eagle rose 
 
 In anger, wheoltid on Kurope-shadowing wings, 
 And barking for the thrones of kings." 
 
 {f) " Like Herod, when the shout was in his ears, 
 Struck thro' with pangs of Hell." 
 
 (/) "The Abominable, that uninvited came 
 Into the fair Peleiun baiuiuet-liall, 
 
 And cast the golden fruit upon the board." 
 
 12. How far are Tennyson's religioua ideas characteristic of his 
 a^e and country? 
 
 SET C— JtJLY 1898. 
 { Three hours alloined for this jxi/ier.) *■ 
 
 Answer Question 1 and flve others, of which two mu.st be taken from tlie remaining 
 lUU'stions in Section I. and three from Section II. Full marks are liiglitr for 
 cjuestion 1 tlian for any otlier. It' more tli.in six questions are attempted, only the 
 i.r answers coming first on yonr paper will bo revised. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 1. Analyse the following passage, and parse the words in italics : — 
 " He was proud, when I praised ; he was submissive, when I 
 
 reproved him ; but he did never lore me, and v^hat he now mistakes 
 for justice and kindness for me, is but the pleasant sensation which 
 all persons feel at reinsiting the scene.s of their boyish hopes and 
 fears ; and the seeing on equal terms the man they were accustomed to 
 look up to with reverence." 
 
 2. During what periods were French words introduced into our 
 language ? Give examples of the words introduced at the difi'erent 
 periods. 
 
 M. Write a short summary of Grimm's Law. 
 
 4. Give instances of words of Keltic and Scandinavian origin which 
 are still in use. 
 
 5. Illustrate the imperfections of the English alphabet. 
 
 Sbction II. 
 
 6. What conclusions about his political views would you draw from 
 Wordsworth's poems ? 
 
 S 
 
 
2r.8(b) 
 
 KXAMTNATION QUFSTTONR. 
 
 7. Account for and illuHtrati- tlie sinijjlicity of Wordsworth's 
 delineation of Nature ; oi' , 
 
 Deflcribe with illustrations from his poems, Wordsworth's views 
 of the relation 1)ctweon nmn and nature. 
 
 8. Give examphis of the liumour and pathos of the " KssayH of 
 Klia." 
 
 9. iState and discuss Lamb's views on "Modern Gallantry."' 
 
 10. Compare Lamb's "New Schoolmaster" with the teacher of 
 to-day. 
 
 1 1. Annotate these passages :- 
 
 (a) "Great is thy name in the rubric, thou venerable Archllaimti 
 of Hymen." 
 
 (/() " Lear, thrown from his palace, must divest him of \m 
 garments, till he answer • more nature.' " 
 
 (r) *• His Minerva is born in panoply." 
 
 {(I) " The Carthusian is bound to his brethren by this apiooing 
 spirit of incommunicativcness." 
 
 {e) "Thou liest in Abranam's bosom all the year." 
 
 (/) "Upon the side 
 
 Of Hellespont (such faith was entertained) 
 
 A knot of spiry trees for ages gi-ew 
 
 From out the tomb of him for whom she died." 
 
 (g) " What Horace gloried to behold, 
 
 What Maro loved, shall we unfold ? 
 Can naughty Time be just ? " 
 
 {h) "They dreamt of n perishable home 
 Who thus could build." 
 
 SET D— July 1899. 
 
 ( ThrM hours allowed for th ii* paper. ) 
 
 Answer Qnestion 1, and two other queations in Section I., and two queBtinns 
 from eacii of the other Sections. 
 
 Section I. — English Languaue. 
 
 1. Analyse one of the following passages, and parse the words in 
 italics in it : — 
 
 (a) " I do not, hrother. 
 
 Infer as if I thought my sister's state 
 Secure without all doubt or controversy ; 
 Yet, where an equal poise of hope and fear 
 Does arbitrate the event, my nature is 
 That I incline to hope rather than fear 
 And gladly banish squint suspicion." 
 
EXAMINATION OT^kstIONS. 
 
 268(c) 
 
 rtliH views 
 
 " Ksaays nf 
 
 itry." 
 teacher nf 
 
 1 Archnamtii 
 him of iii« 
 
 this agreeing 
 
 two qupstlniis 
 
 the words in 
 
 ■ear 
 
 {!>) " We ha<l not gone far, when Sir Roger, p^npihg mit hii head, 
 called the coaclnnan down frnii. the box, and v/>on hu 
 pn'MfjitlughunnvU at the window usked hini if he smoked ; 
 as I was con^iilo'iiiij wlutt tiiis 'vould end in, lie hid. hirn 
 stop by tho way at any good t jacconiat's, and take in a 
 roll of their best Virginia." 
 
 '2. Write brief notes, giving illustrations, on the different uses of 
 the worda both, onh/, like, what, 
 
 '.\. How are degieos of comparison formed? Oivo six instances of 
 irregular comparison and account for tho so-called irregularities, 
 
 4. To what group of languages dues English belong, and to what 
 other language is it most nearly related? 
 
 5. During what periods and by what influences were Latin words 
 introduced into English ? Givo examples. 
 
 Skction II. — Comus and l.ychhin. 
 
 0. What were the two objects with which Li/ridaM wa^ v,'ritten ? 
 What reference to current events does the poem contain ? Why 
 does Milton speak of hi'.iself in it as a shepherd? 
 
 7. What was the occasion of the writing of Comnsl Describe the 
 last scene. 
 
 8. State what you consider tho chief characteristics of Milton's 
 style, comparing it with that of any other English poet with whom you 
 .ire familiar. What is the metre chietly used in these two poems? 
 Illustrate your answer from tho lines in the next question. 
 
 9. Comment shortly on the following passages ; — 
 
 {a) " Sisters of the sacred well 
 
 That from beneath the seat of Jove doth spring." 
 
 (}>) " For neither were ye playing on the steep 
 
 Where your old bards, the famous Druids, lie, 
 Nor on the shaggy top of Mona high."' 
 
 ((•) " Yet some there lie that by duo stops aspire 
 To lay their just hands on the golden key 
 That opes the palace of eternity."' 
 
 {(I) " The grey hooded oven, 
 
 Like a sad votarist in j)almor's weed, 
 Rose from the hindmost wheels of Phcebus' wain." 
 
 Section III. — Selections from Addison. 
 
 10. When, and for how long, did the Spectator appear ? To what 
 other periodicals did Addison contribute, and who was his chief 
 associate ? 
 
 11. Describe either : — 
 
 (a) Sir Roger de Ccverley ; or 
 (6) Will Wimble ; or 
 (c) Tom Folio. 
 
268(d) 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 12. When we cease to study Addison as a statesman or a critic, 
 as a theologian or a moralist, what of him remains? ^ 
 
 13. Give a short analysis of the essay entitled "The Viaion of 
 Public Credit." Explain the political or other references in th(! two 
 '* Dances of Apparitions." 
 
 SET E— July 1900. 
 ( Three hours alhwedjor this paper. ) 
 
 Answer Question 1, and two other questions from Section I. , and two questions from 
 each of the other Sections. 
 
 If more than seven questions as prescribed are attempted, only the prescribed 
 number of answers in each Section coming Jlrst on your paper will be revised. 
 
 Section I.— English Language. 
 
 1. Analyse the words in brackets and parse the words in italics in 
 one of the following passages : — 
 
 (a) (" On superior powers 
 
 Were we to press, inferior might on oiirs ; 
 
 Or in the full creation leave a void 
 
 Where, one step broken, the great scale's destroyed.) 
 
 From nature's chain rvhatever link you strike, 
 
 Tenth, or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike." 
 
 (6) (" Many politicians of our own time are in the habit of 
 laying it down as a self-evident proposition, that do 
 people ought to be free till they are fit to use their free 
 dom.) The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story, 
 who resolved not to go into the water till he had learH 
 to swim." 
 
 Jk 
 
 2. As what parts of speech can these words be used : — bid, onh, 
 whafi Give examples. 
 
 3. Account for the following double forms : — regal, royal ; rjarur, 
 uranary ; fidelity, fealty ; pursue, persecute ; benediction, be'imon. 
 
 4. • ' The troops were far from exhausted. " 
 " The troops ^ere far from being exhausted." 
 
 What is the precise meaning of the above statements ? Parse the 
 words in italics in each case. 
 
 6. How far is it true to say that English is not an inflectJii 
 language ? What traces are there of its having formerly been more 
 inflected ? 
 
 Section II. — Pope, Ussay on Man, 1 and 2. 
 
 1. Thoroughly explain, with reference to the context in which tbej 
 occur, the following passages : — 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 268(e) 
 
 or a critic, 
 
 le Vision of 
 ;h in the iwo 
 
 I'O questions from 
 
 ly the prescribed 
 be revi!*ed. 
 
 ■da in italics in 
 
 estroyed.) 
 
 ke, 
 
 In alike." 
 
 n the habit oi 
 sition, that do 
 
 use their free- 
 [in the old story, 
 
 ,1.1 he lutd J^fl'""' 
 
 ^sed :—hnt, onlh 
 
 ;, royal ; fyariier, 
 |ion, beniiion. 
 
 ants ? Parse tbe 
 
 1 not an inflectjd 
 Imerly been more 
 
 id 2. 
 
 fxt in which they | 
 
 (a) " Ileason the bias turns to good from ill, 
 And Nero reigns a TituB, if he will." 
 
 (?*)•' Say what the use, were Huer optica given, 
 
 To inspect a raite, not comprehend the heaven? 
 Or touch, if tremblingly alive all o'er, 
 To smart and agonise at every pore ? " 
 
 (c) " With too much knowledge for the sceptic side, 
 
 With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride." 
 
 (d) '• If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design. 
 
 Why then a Borgia or a Catiline ? " 
 
 2. Give, in plain prose, the meaning of the following passage : — 
 
 " Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutor'd mind 
 Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; 
 His soul proud science never taught to stray 
 Far as the solar walk, or milky way ; 
 Yet simple nature to his hope has given, 
 Behind the cloud-topt hill, an humbler heav'a ; 
 Some safer world in depth of woods embrac'd, 
 Some happier island in the wat'ry waste, 
 Where slaves once more their native land behold, 
 No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold. 
 To be, contents his natural desire. 
 He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire ; 
 But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 
 His faithful dog shall bear him company." 
 
 3. Enunciate brieHy the main thesis of the Eiisay on Man. From 
 whom did Pope derive hia philosophy ? 
 
 4. What, according to Pope, are the two great principles in 
 human nature ? Which is the stronger, and why ? 
 
 Section III. — Macaulay's Esmy on Milton, and Johnson's 
 
 Life of Milton. 
 
 1. Give the chief points of Macaulay's comparison of Milton and 
 Daatc. 
 
 2. Give the substance of Johnson's criticism on Lycida-'. How 
 far do you think it just? 
 
 3. " We think that as civilisation advances, poetry almost neces- 
 sarily declines." How does Ma^jaulay argue in favour of this proposi- 
 tion? Why do you think Milton himself said "he had been born 
 an age too late " ? 
 
 4. Point out how Johnson's political and religious opinions in- 
 tluenced his estimate of Milton. 
 
268(f) 
 
 EXAMINATION (^UEbTlONS. 
 
 TEACHERS' CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION— SECONl) 
 YEAR PAPERS (Men and Women). 
 
 SET A— July 1896. 
 
 {Three hours allowed /or this Paper.) 
 
 Candidates jiiust not answer more than six questions. 
 
 If more tlian the ])rescrib('(l number "f questions are attempted, only that number 
 of answers coining first on the jiaper will be revised. 
 
 English Language and Litbrature. 
 
 1. Analyse the following lines, and parse fully the words itali- 
 cised : — 1' 
 
 " Aumerle, thou weepst, my tender-hearted cousin ! 
 We '11 make foul weather with despised tears ; 
 Our sighs and they shall lodge the sunwier corn, 
 And make a dearth in this revolting land. 
 Or shall we play the vmHtons with our woes, 
 And make some pretty match with shedding tears? 
 As thus, to drop them still upon one i)]ace, 
 Till they have fretted us a pair of graves 
 Within the earth ; ajd, therein laid — There lies 
 Two kinsmen digg'd their graves with weeping eyes ! " 
 
 2. Illustrate from the play of Richard II. the manner in whiLli 
 Shakespeare treated his authorities in composing his dramas. 
 
 3. Commenc upon the language of the following lines : — 
 (a) "Grace me no grace, nor uncle me no uncle." 
 
 (6) " Tell me ... if he appeal the Duke on ancient malice." 
 
 (c) *' Such neighbour nearness to our sacred blood 
 Should nothing ])rivilege him, nor partialise 
 The unstooping lirmness of my ujiright soul." 
 
 {d) *' I did confess it, and exactly begg'd 
 
 Your grace's pardon, and I hope I had it." 
 
 (e) '* Norfolk, throw down, we bid ; there is no boot." 
 
 (/) "We cannot atone you." 
 
 {g) " Reproach and dissolution hangeth over him." 
 
 (A) " And yet my letters-patents gave me leave." 
 
 4. Explain : — 
 
 (a) " If you do wrongfully seize Hereford's rights, 
 Call in the letters-patents that he hath 
 By 'lis attorneys-general to sue 
 His livery, and deny his offer'd homage, 
 You pluck a thousand dangers on your head. " 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 -'68(g) 
 
 (/*) " Whilst you have fed upon my signorios, 
 
 Dispark'd my parks and felled my forest-wooda, 
 From my own windows torn my househoKl coat, 
 Razed out my impress, leaving mo no sign, 
 Save men's opinions and my living blood, 
 To show the world I am a gentleman.'' 
 ((■) " O good ! convey ? conveyers are you all, 
 
 That rise thus nimbly by a true king's fall." 
 ('/) " Our scene id altered from a serious thing. 
 
 And now changed to ' The Beggar and the King.' " 
 (e) " These signs forerun the death or fall of kings." 
 (/) " The caterpillars of the commonwealth." 
 .'). Analyse the character of Bolingbroke, or of the Duke of York, 
 as depicted by Shakesi)eare. 
 
 G. Discuss Shakespeare's use of the supernatural in The Tempest 
 .and Marbetli. 
 
 7. Trace in outline the development of Macbeth'a character, or 
 (liacuss the date of the composition of The Tempest. 
 
 8. Write in plain prose the meaning of one of the following extracts 
 from Oray, adding a brief explanation of the allusions : — 
 
 {a) "Girt with many a baron bold 
 
 Sublime their starry fronts they rear ; 
 
 And gorgeous dames, and statesmen old 
 In bearded majesty, appear. 
 In the midst a form divine ! 
 Her eye proclaims her of the Briton line : 
 Her lion-port, her awe-commanding face 
 Attemper'd sweet to virgin-grace." 
 
 (6) " Now second He, that rode sublime ♦ 
 
 Upon the seraph- wings of Ecstasy 
 The secrets of the Abyss to spy : 
 
 He i)as3'd the flaming bounds of Space and Time : 
 Tl e living Throne, the sapphire blaze 
 Where angels tremble while they gaze, , ■ 
 
 He saw ; but blasted with excess of light. 
 Closed his eyes in endless night." 
 
 9. A critic of some renown says of Gray and the poets of his time : 
 "They were nearly all . . . lovers of abstraction and allegory, who, 
 to attain greatness, willingly mounted on stilts." How far, in your 
 opinion, is this criticism true of Gray ? 
 
 10. Explain the allusions in the following passages. Say whether 
 in your opinion Gray has passed the limits within which allusion ia 
 legitimately confined : — 
 
 (a) "Their i.jaly armour's Tyrian hue." 
 {}>) " Till the ;.^d Nine in (; recce's evil hour 
 
 Left their Parnassus for the Latian plains." 
 ((■) " No dolphin came, no Nereid stirred." 
 (r/) " And spare the meek usurper's holy head."' 
 (e) " The Attic warbler pours her throat." 
 
 i| 
 
268(h) 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 m 
 
 Composition. 
 (One hour allotted,) * 
 
 No Candidate may omit the exercise in Composition. 
 
 Write in plain prose a short essay on one of the following 
 subjects : — 
 
 (a) " "What should they know of England who only England 
 know ? " — Kipling. 
 
 (ft) The spread of the English language. 
 
 (c) " Take a straw and throw it up into the air ; you may see by 
 that which way the wind is." — Selden. 
 
 t SET B— July 1897. 
 
 ( Three hoxirx allowed for this paper.) 
 
 CaiididatCR must not answer more than six questions, which must include 
 Questions 1, ('>, and at h^astoic question fromtlie last four. 
 
 If more than the ijrcscribcd jiuiiihiir of questions are attempted, only that number 
 of answers coming first on your paper will be revised. 
 
 1. Analyse the following pp.ssage, and parse the words in italics :— 
 
 *' Macd. What 's the disease he means ? 
 Male. 'Tis called the evil : 
 
 A most miraculous inork in this good king ; 
 Which often, since my hcre-remaiv -n England, 
 I have seen him do. How he solicitij Heaven, 
 ' Hi m/ielf heat knows : but strangely-visited people. 
 
 All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye, 
 The mere despair of surgery, he cures, 
 Hanging a golden stamp about their necks, 
 Put on with holy prayers : and 'tis spoken, 
 To the succeeding royalty he leaves 
 The healing benediction." 
 
 2. What reasons are there for the theory that the play of Mncheih. 
 as "we have it, is not all of Shakespeare's composition ? 
 
 .'{. Analyse the character of Lady Macbeth, and bring out the con- 
 trast between it and the character of her husband. 
 
 4. Explain the following three passages in the light of the different 
 theories concerning the nature of the witches in Macbeth : — 
 
 (a) "First Witch. Where hast thou been, sister ? 
 Second Witch. Killing swine." 
 
 (6) " All hail, Macbeth I that shalt be king hereafter." 
 
 (c) '* Hecate. 0, \."ell done ! I commend your pains ; 
 And every one shall share i' the gains.'' 
 
 5. Give the full meaning of three of the following passages, brin;: 
 ing out the force of the metaphor. Say also by whom and when the 
 words were uttered : — 
 
EXAMINATION t.'UESTIONS. 
 
 268(i) 
 
 1 must include 
 
 nly that miml'ei 
 
 s in italica :— 
 
 le evil : 
 
 ^lanil, 
 
 avon, 
 
 ;d people, 
 
 (a) " Two truths are told. 
 
 As happy prologues to the swelling act 
 Of the imperial theme." 
 
 (b) "If it were done when 'tis done, then 'twere veil 
 
 It were done quickly ; if the assassination 
 Could trammel up the consequence, and catch, 
 With his surcease, success." 
 
 (c) " From this instant 
 There 's nothing serious in mortality : 
 
 All is but toys : renown and grace is dead ; 
 The wine of life is drawn, and the mere lees 
 Is left this vault to brag of." 
 
 ((/) "Then comes my fit again ; I had else been perfect. 
 Whole as the marble, founded as the rock. 
 As broad and general as the casing air ; 
 But now I am cabin'd, cribb'd, confined, bound in 
 To saucy doubts and fears." 
 
 0. Set out briefly the various threads in the plot of the Merchant 
 of Venire, and show how they are connected. 
 
 7. What is a simile ? Give exauiiiles of similes fi'om " The Coming 
 of Arthur" and "The Passing of Arthur," and carefully analyse one 
 of thi'm, criticising its appropriateness. 
 
 8. Explain the allusions in the following passages: — 
 
 (a) 
 
 " The sunset bound of Lyoniiesse — 
 A land of old upheaven from the abyss 
 
 By fire, to sink into the abyss again." 
 
 (h) "King Arthur's sword, Excalibur, 
 
 Wrought by the lonely maiden of the lake. 
 Nine years she wrought it, sitting; in the deep 
 Upon the hidden bases of the hills." 
 
 (c) "The island-valley of Avilion." 
 
 (d) " Whereat the two, 
 For each had warded either in the fight, 
 Swarc on the field of death a deathless love." 
 
 {*>) '* The swallow and the swift are near akin. 
 But thou art closer to this noble i)rince, 
 Being his own dear sister." 
 
 (/) "And there I saw Mage Merlin, whose vast wit 
 And hundred winters are but as the hands 
 Of loyal vassals toiling for their liege." 
 
 (^7) " He laugh'd as is his wont, and answer'd me 
 In riddling triplets of old time, and said." 
 
 (/t) " There at the banquet those great lords from Rome, 
 The slowly-fading mistress of the world, 
 Strode in, and claim'd their tribute as of yore." 
 
 I 
 
 ! 
 
268(j) 
 
 I 
 
 EXAMIN ATK >N (,>IJKSTI0NS. 
 
 9. '" O King ! ' she cried, ' and I will tell thee true : 
 
 He found nie lirst, ■when yet a little maid : 
 
 Beaten I had been for a little fault 
 
 Whereof I was not guilty ; and out I ran 
 
 And flung myself down on a bank of heath, 
 
 And hated this fair world and all therein. 
 
 And wept, and wish'd that I were dead ; and he — 
 
 I know not whether of himself he came, 
 
 Or brought by Meilin, who, they say, can walk 
 
 Unseen at ])lea8ure— he was at my side, 
 
 And. spake sweet words, and comforted my heart. 
 
 And dried my toars, being a child with me. 
 
 And many a time he came, and evermore 
 
 As I grew greater, grew with mc ; and sad 
 
 At times he seem'd, and sad with him was 1. ' " 
 
 Explain by reference to these lines the metre of Tennyson's ejiic 
 l»oems. Comment on any variety of rhythm which is introduced ; 
 compare with the blank verse of Alacheth. 
 
 10. How far is "sense at war with soul" the subject of the two 
 poems of Tennyson you have studied? 
 
 SET C— July 1898. 
 
 
 (^T/iree Aouj'.s allowed fur thi'< ]>a/>er.) 
 
 Candidates must not answer nmri- than i>i.r (luestions, whicli must include Iwo 
 questions from each Section. If nmro than tli(! jjri'SL'ribed number of (iwcstioiis 
 are attempted, only that number of answers coming lirst on your paper will be 
 revised. 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 'JiJ 
 
 -^. 
 
 Section 1. — Hamlel. 
 
 1. 
 
 in the following 
 
 I 
 
 p ^ > JL. Show the relation between the various clauses 
 ^.'^vpassage, and parse the italicised words : — 
 
 " Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, 
 But not cxpress'd in fancy ; rich, not gaudy ; 
 F<^r tho apjiarcl oft proclaims the man, 
 And they in France of the best rank and station 
 Are most select and generous, chiej' in that. 
 Neither a borrower nor a lender be ; 
 For loan oft loses both itself and friend, 
 And borrowing dulls ihe edge of husbandry. 
 This 5^YS.all : to thine own self be true, 
 And it must fo llow , as the night the day, 
 Thou canst not t^^ ^u He false to any man." 
 
 2. Discuss the question of Hamlet's sanity. 
 
 3. Sketch the character of Polonius. 
 
 4. Write full notes upon two of the following extracts : — 
 
 (a) " Her obsequies have been as far enlarged 
 
 As we have warranty ; her death was doubtful ; 
 
EXAMINATION (^UKSTIONS. 
 
 268(k) 
 
 the following 
 
 And, but that great command o'crsways the order, 
 She ahouM in ground unsanutitied liave h)dgcd 
 Till tlio last trumpet ; for charital>lc jiraytirs, 
 Shards, llints and itebl)le8 shouhl be tlirown on her ; 
 Yet here she in allowed her virgin crants, 
 Her maiden strewments and the bringing home 
 Of bell and burial." 
 
 (}i) "'i'hat monster, rustom, who all sense doth eat, 
 Of haliits devil, is angel yet in this, 
 Tliat to tlio use of actions fair and good 
 He likewise gives a frock or livery, 
 
 That aptly is put on. , 
 
 For use almost can change the stamp of nature, 
 And either master the devil or throw him out 
 With wondrous potency," 
 
 (c) *' In the corrupted currents of this world 
 
 Offence's gilde(l hand may shove by justice, 
 And oft 'tis seen the wicked prize itself 
 Buys out the law : but 'tis not so above ; 
 There is no shuflling, there the action lies 
 In his true nature ; and we ourselves compell'd. 
 Even to the teetli and forehead of our faults, 
 To give in evidence." 
 
 Section II. — Arnold's Wordsworth. 
 
 5. In what poetical qualities was Wordsworth specially eminent ? 
 Illustrate your answer by quotation, 
 
 (). What ideas does Wordsworth express regarding {a) childhood, 
 (//) freedom, (c) duty, and (tl) religion ? 
 
 7. Explain the allusions in the following jiassages : — 
 
 {a) "To the wide church door. 
 
 Charged with these otFerings which thy fathers bore 
 For decoration in the Papal time, 
 The innocent procession softly moves : — 
 • The spirit of Laud is pleased in heaven's pure clime, 
 And Hooker's voice the spectacle approves." 
 
 ('') " Left single, in bold j)arley, ye, of yore, 
 
 Did from the Norman win a gallant wreath ; 
 Confirmed the charters that were yours before ; — 
 No parleying now," 
 
 ('.) '• Thou knowest, the Delphic oracle foretold 
 
 That the first Greek who touched the Trojan strand 
 Should die." 
 
 (cZ) " Such was blind 
 
 Maeonides of ample mind ; 
 Such Milton, to the fountain head 
 Of glory, by Urania led ! " 
 
 \ i| 
 
 I I 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 (e) ** Toussaint, the most unhai)py man of men ! " 
 
 (/) "Be true « 
 
 Ye winds of ocean, and the midland sea, 
 Wafting your charge to soft Parthenope." 
 
 Section III. — Midsummer Niijht'n Dream. 
 
 8. Account for the title, A Michummer 2\i(jhCs Dream. 
 
 9. The fairy mythology of Shakespeare has been described as an 
 attempt to blend *• the Elves of the village with the Fayt* of 
 romance." Comment on this statement. 
 
 10. Give the cast of '• The most lamentable comedy of Pyramus and 
 Thisbe." How were the difficulties of scenery overcome ? 
 
 SET D— July 1899. 
 {Three hours allowet/ for t hi" paper.) 
 
 Candidates must not answer more tlum six questions, which must include one frdii; 
 each Section. 
 
 If more than six questions are attcmiitcd, only the six answers coming lirj^t <in your 
 paper will be revised. 
 
 Section I. — A'my Lear. 
 
 1. (a) Divid the following passages into clauses, and show their 
 relationship to each other. 
 
 (6) Give a detailed analysis of "Those happy smilets — diamouda 
 drojjped." 
 
 (c) Parse the words in italics. 
 
 " Patience and sorrow strove 
 Who nhoidd cjcjjreijs her (joodliest. You have seen 
 Sunshine and I'ain at once : her smiles and tears 
 Were like a better way. Those hapjiy smilets 
 That played on her ripe lip, seemed not to know 
 What quests were in her eyes ; which parted them 
 As pearls from diamonds dropped. In brief 
 Sorrow would be a rarity most beloved 
 If all could so become it." 
 
 2. Trace the development of Lear's madness, showing what stages 
 in it are indicated by the following utterances : — 
 
 •' Hysterica passio, down, thou climbing sorrow ! " 
 " Oh, that way madness lies ; let me shun that." 
 *' What, have his daughters brought him to this pass ? "' 
 " OflF, off you lendings ! Come, unbutton here." 
 
 " As I am a man, I think this lady 
 To be my child Cordelia." 
 
 3. Explain the following : — 
 
 (a) " Is it but this, a tardiness in nature, 
 
 Which often leaves the history unspoke 
 That it intends to do?" 
 
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 268(ra) 
 
 {b) " Let the great gods, 
 
 That keep this dreadful pother o'er our hoads, 
 
 Find out their enemies now." 
 (r) "Thou simular man of virtue." 
 {(l) "The fishermen that walk upon the beach 
 
 Appear like mice." 
 (fi) " The wheel is come full circle." 
 
 4. Paraphrase the following passage fully in simple prose : — 
 
 " There is division, 
 Although as yet the face of it be covered 
 With mutual cunninif, 'twixt Albany and Cornwall, 
 Wiio have — as who have not, that their great stars 
 Throned and set on high ? Servants, who seem no less, 
 Which are to France the spies and speculations 
 Intelligent of our state ; what hath been seen, 
 Either in snuffs and packings of the dukes. 
 Or the hard rein which both of them have borne 
 Against the old kind King ; or something deeper, 
 Whereof perchance these are but furnishings ; 
 But true it is, from France there comes a power 
 Into this scattered Kingdom ; who already. 
 Wise in our negligence have secret feet 
 In some of our best ports, and are at point 
 To show their open banner." 
 
 Section II. — Selections from Addtson. 
 
 5. Analyse the following passage, and parse the words in italics : — 
 "There are some opinions in which a man should fifand neuter, 
 
 withouf engaging his assent to one side or the other. Such a hovering 
 faith as this, which refuses to .settle upon any determination, is abso- 
 lutely necessary in a mind that is careful to avoiil errors and pre- 
 possession. When the arguments press equally on both sides in 
 matters that are indifferent to us, the safest method is to give up 
 ourselves to neither.'^ 
 
 6. What does Addison himself state to be "the great aim of these 
 my speculations" ? Consider this in relation to the tendencies of the 
 age in which he lived. 
 
 7. What persons, or class of persons, are depicted under the name 
 of Tom Folio, the Political Upholsterer, the Trunkmaker at the Play, 
 Will Honeycourt? Give a brief summary of Addison's description 
 of one of them. 
 
 8. Give a short sketch of any one of the Essays which you 
 remember. 
 
 Section III. — A.s Yoxi Like It. 
 
 9. To what period of Shakespeare's literary career does A>^ You 
 Like It belong ? Give reasons for your answer. From where did 
 iShakeapeare obtain the story ? 
 
 
k 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 I! 
 
 2G8(n) 
 
 fa'amtna:ton questions. 
 
 10. Deacribe eithrr tlio last scone of At You Like If, or the scciu' 
 in wliich Orlando appears before the Duke and his Lords Jn tlic 
 Forest. 
 
 11. Sketch the character of Jacques, referring:; to passages of tlh 
 ]»lay in support of your statements. 
 
 12. Conpare Rosalind with any other of Shakespeare's heroines. 
 
 SET E— Jnr,Y 1900. 
 (Three fiovm allowed for thin paper.) 
 
 Candidates must not answer more than six qupstions, wliioh innst includo one from 
 I'ach Section. 
 
 If more than six questions are attempted, only the six answers coming llrst in 
 your paper will be revised. 
 
 Skction I. — A'/n.7 Henry VIII. 
 
 1. Explain, as to a class, any diflBculties of expression in three <<iily 
 of the four following extracts, briefly noting the context in wliicli 
 they occur : — 
 
 {a) " I have been begging sixteen years in cotirt, 
 Am yet a courtier beggarly, nor could 
 Come pat betwixt too early and too late 
 For any suit of pounds. " 
 
 {h) "If he know 
 
 That I am free of your report, he knows 
 I am not of your wrong." 
 
 (f) "The question did at first so stagger me, 
 Bearing a state of mighty moment in 't 
 And consequence of dread, that I committed 
 The daring'st counsel which I had to doubt." 
 {(l) "■ You have scarce time 
 
 To steal from spiritual leisure a brief span 
 To keep your earthly audit ; sure, in that 
 ? I deem you an ill husband, and am glad 
 
 To have you therein my companion." 
 
 2. Explain the following passages : — 
 
 (a) " To-day the French 
 
 All clinquant, all in gold, like heathen gods 
 
 Shone down the English ; and, to-morrow, they 
 
 Made Britain India." 
 (6) *' Out of mere ambition you have caused 
 
 Your holy hat to be stamped on the king's coin." 
 (c) " But as when 
 
 The bird of wonder dies, the maiden Phoenix, 
 
 Her ashes new create another heir. 
 
 As great in admiration as herself ; 
 
 So shall she leave her blessedness to one." 
 
 3. Briefly describe, as presented in this play, the character of 
 Wolsey, or of King Henry viii. 
 
' tlie Hcciu' 
 'dH^in tlic 
 
 ges of tin 
 
 eroines. 
 
 ;ludo miR from 
 jtning first on 
 
 in three only 
 Bxt in wliicli 
 
 t, 
 
 Ibt." 
 
 n 
 
 r, they 
 
 t's coin." 
 ^'nix, 
 
 character of 
 
 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 268(o) 
 
 Secttok II. — /''irrif/isr Lost, P.onks i. ami it. 
 
 I. Kvpliiin, with rcferonce to the conti-.xt in which thoy occur, 
 with hiit'f notes on any point which fleenia to you to rcijuiie it, tho 
 foUowin.!.; passages : — 
 
 (a) "All is not lost — the uncon(iuerahIe will 
 
 And study of revengo, immortal hate 
 And courage never to siihniit or yield : 
 And what is else not to ho overcome," 
 
 (b) " Our torments also, may in length of time 
 
 Become our elements, these piercing fires 
 As soft as n()W severe, our temjiei changed 
 Into tlicir temper, whicli must needs removp 
 The sensible of pain." 
 
 (c) " Direct my course : 
 Directed, no mean recompense it brings 
 To your behoof, if [ that region lost. 
 All -.isurpation thence expelled, reduce 
 To her original darkness and your sway." 
 
 •2. Explain the following passages : — 
 
 (ii) " When with tierce winds Orion armed 
 
 Hath vexed the Red Sea Coast, whose waves o'erthrew 
 
 Husiris and his Memphian chivalry." 
 (l>) " A leper once he lost and gained a king." 
 ((•) " Or whom Biserta sent from Afric' shore 
 
 When Charkniain with all his peerage fell 
 
 By P'ontarabbia." 
 ('/) "Medusa, with Gorgonian terror guards 
 
 The ford, and of itself the water tlies 
 
 In taste of living weight, as once it fled 
 
 The lip of Tantalus." 
 
 .'!. Compare the character of any one of the Spirits, as described in 
 Book I., with his speech given in Book ii. 
 
 Section III. — The Tempe.9t, and Leigh Hunt's Exmyt. 
 
 1. To what period of Shakespeare's life is The Tempest assigned, 
 and on what grounds ? Mention any historical allusions in the play. 
 
 2. What other plays belong to the same period ? State the charac- 
 teristics of the tone and feeling of these plays, as shown in The 
 Ti-iii/n ■•<t. 
 
 3. Describe the character of Prospero or Calilian. 
 
 4. Give a short account of Leigh Hunts life. Who were his chief 
 literary friends and contemporaries ? 
 
 5. Give a sketch of the essay on '• The Realities of the Imagination," 
 or on " Dreams." 
 
 6. What characteristic features of Leigh Hunt's work can be illus- 
 trated from the paper on " Tea-Drinking," or " Breakfast in Summer," 
 or " Shakespeare's Birthday '' ? 
 
^ «\.ttLi«>i.iMai.*f«v.''a.fc*'. »-i m 
 
 '! hi 
 
PART in, 
 
 THE lllSTUUY OF THE ENCiiJSIl LANCL'ACiE 
 
 i ' 
 
I ' 
 
 III* ' 
 
 I I 
 
 It 
 
 1 ' p ■ 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 ■m\ 
 
■A 
 
 ¥ 
 
 .y 
 
 V 
 
 71 
 
 > 
 
 INTIiobUCTIDN. 
 
 1. Tongue, Speech, Language. Wr siicak of iIk- " Ki)i,'li,sli 
 tiiii;4U('" nr of tli(! " l''n'iicli l;iii<^Uii;;('. " ; ami wc, say of two 
 nations that tlicy "do not undci'stand each other's .sjiccch." 
 The cxistiMH'c of these three words speech, tongue, language 
 — proves to us tliat a lan^'ua^'c is sonietliin^' spoken, that it is 
 a nunilier of sounds; and that the wi'itiiiLi; oi- |)i'intin^f of it 
 uiiim jiajM'r is a (luite secondary inatti'r. l,aii,i4iia,L,'e, ri^ditly 
 cuiisideretl, then, is an organised set of sounds. These 
 sounds convey a meaning' from the iiiinil of the sjx'aker tn 
 till' mind of the hearer, and thus serve to c(jnne(;t man with 
 mail. 
 
 2. Written Language. — It took manv Innuhvds of year.s— 
 [MM'haps tliousands — 1)eforo linman liein^-s weiv ahle to invent a 
 iiiinlt; of writing u]ion jjajier-— that is, of icpresentin<,f sounds 
 I'V signs. 'I'lies(i signs are caHed letters; and tlie whole set of 
 tliciii goes hy tlie name of tlie Alphabet— from tlie two first 
 letters of tlie (Ireek alphalx't, which are called tif/t/i)t, heta. 
 riicvc are languages that havii ni;vt.'r been put "uiion ])a]ter at 
 iill, sui'li as many of the African languages, many in the South 
 ^la Islands, aiul other parts of the glohe. Hut in all cases, 
 'Very language that we know anything about — Knglish, Latin, 
 I'l'i'iii'li, rierman — existed for Inuidreds of years lieforc; any (Uie 
 tlitniLjlit of Avriting it down on ])aper. 
 
 3. A Language Grows. — A language is an organism or 
 organic existence. Now every organisin lives; and, if it 
 liv('.><, it grows ; and, if it grow.s, it also die.s. Our hinguag*; 
 gruw.s ; it is growing still ; and it luis been gi-owing for many 
 
 ! ! 
 
BSlBliaH 
 
 Plitli 
 
 m> 
 
 sj s 
 
 
 inSTOKY OV THE ENdLlSM LANdUACK. 
 
 liuiidniils of yoiirs. As it i^'rowsit, loses soiiKitliiii;;, and il^-iins 
 soinc-lhin^' (;ls(! ; it ultcrs its iippeMnuicc ; cliaii^^fcH take jilncr in 
 this part of it and in that j)art,- nntil at h-ngtli its ap|icar;iii(v 
 in age is somctliing almost cntindy diircrcnt from what it was 
 ill its carlv vouth. if wv. hail the pli(>tograi»li of a man <>\ 
 forty, and the ])hoiograpli <if llif same ju-rscm when lir was a 
 child of one, we should lind, on comiiaring them, that it was 
 almost imj)ossihle to point to the smallest trace of likcm -s in 
 the features of the two ]»liotograplis. And yet llie two jijctnns 
 represent the same j)erson. Ami so it is -with tlie hn-li.di 
 language. TIk^ oldest I'Jiglisli, Avhirh is usually eallc(l AnLiln- 
 Saxon, is as ditlerent fi'om our modern English as if tin y wciv 
 two distinct languages; and yet they are not two languages, luil 
 really and fundamentally one; and the same, ^jodern Mn^lidi 
 dill'ers fi'om the oldest ]''nglish as a giant oak docs from a .small 
 oak sapling, or a hroad stahvart man of forty does from a iVdili 
 infant (d' a few months old. 
 
 4. The English Language.- The English language is tlir 
 speech spoken hy the ^Vnglo-Saxon race in I'aigl.md, in nin>i 
 ])arts of Scotland, in the lai'gei' ]iart of Ireland, in the rnitnj 
 Stati's, in Canada, in Australia and New /ealaml, in South 
 Africa, and in many other ])arts of the woi'ld. In the miiMli 
 of the fifth century it was sjioken hy a lew thousand men wLh 
 had lately landed in l'".ngland fi'om the Contineid. : it is \\i'W 
 spoken hy UKU'e than one hundi'e<l millions of people. In t 
 courst; of tin' next sixty years, it will prol»ahly l)e the spe 
 of two hundred millions. 
 
 5. English on the Continent. In the nnddle of the liltli 
 century it was sj)oken in the noi'th-west corner of Muropc 
 hetween the^ mouths of the h'hine, the AN'eser, and the VM" : 
 and in Seldeswig there is a small district which is caljeil Angeln 
 to this day. Jhit it was not then called English; it Avas mm" 
 prol)ahly called Teiitisli, or Teutsch, or Deutsch — all wciil- 
 connected with a generic word Avhich covers many fandlies anil 
 languages — Teutonic. It was a rough guttural speech of mi' 
 or two thousand words; and it was hrought over to this couiiln 
 by the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons in the year 449. These 
 
 ii' 
 
 rrl. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 27.T 
 
 |il;iri' in 
 IHiriiriilli'i' 
 
 lint it was 
 a 111:111 lit 
 ]\r was a 
 hat it was 
 liknu-s ill 
 
 \V(i |iirt lUi'S 
 
 he r.n-li>li 
 llrd An;jl"- 
 f ihcy W'Vf 
 igua;4>'S, hul 
 
 from a ^niall 
 'vdiu a I'filil' 
 
 Lnia;j;o i-^ tin' 
 
 lul, in 11'""^ 
 
 11 tlif ruil"i 
 
 1,1, in Siiiilli 
 
 1 the nii'1'11' 
 
 nitl IIK'H NVI:" 
 
 1 : it i> ""\v 
 
 |.1.>. Ill ll"' 
 
 DC lilt- i^l"'*'^''' 
 
 , (if tli<' lil''^' 
 ,,t' Ijif'"!"' 
 im1 tlir Kll" . 
 •allft I Angela 
 
 it AVaS lliniv 
 
 jh— all AVdpl^ 
 faiuili*'^ iiiul 
 
 i,, this country 
 449. These 
 
 iiim left, llicir hoiiic on the ('oiijinciit In I'mil here fanus to till 
 aiiil JHHiscs to live ill ; am! they ili'o\c the inhaliiiaiits of tho 
 jslainl IIm' Britons ever t'ai'thci' and t'aitlicr west, imlil Ihcv 
 at Icii^tii Ifl't, till-Ill ill prarc ill tlic more luoiintaiiioiis jiarts of 
 the island in the soiitlii'rn ami wr.-tri'ii <'oiiicrs in ('(unwall 
 
 Wal. 
 
 aii'l ni 
 
 6. The British Language. — -"What lanj^niaLjc did tlic 'iVutoni(; 
 (■(iiii|iit'rors, who wivstr(l the lands from the poor jiritons, find 
 sjiukfii in this island wIh-ii llicy liist. set font on it] 2S'ot a 
 'IVutniiir sjiiTch iit all. 'I'lii'V found a lan^nia^c not one word of 
 wliirli they could umhii'stand. TIk' island itsidf was then callcfl 
 Britain; and the lon,L;-ii(! sjiokcii in it hi-lonui'd to tin- K(dtic 
 i;r(iii[t of lan,n'iia_L,'('-s. I.anL,nia;^M's hclon.L^iiiL;' to the Kidtir ;;roup 
 all' still spoki'ii in Wairs, in Ihittany (in I'laiMc), in the Ilij^di- 
 laiids of Scotland, in the west of Ireland, anil in the Isle of 
 Man. A few Words very few from the s|)eeeh of tlie I'.ritons, 
 iiave cniiie inio our own l'Ji,L;lisli laiiL;na,L;;e ; and what these are 
 we shall se(! hy-aiid hy. 
 
 7. The Family to which English belongs.- ( )ur KiiLjlish 
 tniii;iie h(don,ifs to tlu! Aryan or Indo-European Family of 
 
 larguaLjes. That is to say, tin; main jiart or wihstaiua! of it (,'aii 
 lie tra('e(l hack to tlic. race which inhahited the hi,i4h taltlcdaiid.s 
 that li(3 to the. hack of tht; western end of the ;i,reat raTi,f,'(' of tho 
 Himalaya, or "Abode of Snow." This Aryan race ojcw and 
 iiuivased, and sjiread t) the south and we,>t ; and fioiii it have 
 spiuiiL;- lan^uaLjes which ar(! now spoken in India, in I'ersia, in 
 • IiviMMt and Italy, in I'"ranc(! and (ierniany, in Scandina\da, and 
 ill hussia. From this Aryan family we, are. sprun;;' ; out of tin; 
 <ililcst Aryan sjioccli our own lani^nia^'c lias ^^rown. 
 
 8. The Group to which English belongs. — Tlio Indo- 
 Kurn]ieaii family of laiiLjuagc'S consists of several ,!.,n'oups, Ono 
 "f these is call(Ml the Teutonic Group, because it is spoken by 
 tlic Teuts (or the Teutonic race), who are found in (lermaiiy, 
 in Kiii,dan(l and Scotland, in Holland, in jiarts of iJcd.i^ium, in 
 DcuuKirk, in Norway and Sweden, in ]c(dand, and the Faroe 
 Islands. Tlie Teutonic group consists of three brandies — 
 High Gterman, Low German, and Scandinavian. Higli 
 
Bl 
 
 I i 
 
 lil^ 
 
 274 
 
 inSTOKY OF THE ENTILTSII LANGUAOi:. 
 
 fi'f fl'l 
 
 (ifrnian is the luuiio ffivcii to IIk; kind (tf (lermaii spoken in 
 Upper (icrni.any — tliat is, in lln; tiililc-lund Avhicli lies sontli of 
 the river ^lain, and wliidi rises .^radnally till it runs into ihc 
 Alps. New High German is the German of l)ooks — ili.. 
 literary language — the German that is taught and learncil in 
 schools. Low German is the name given to the (n-rinaii 
 dialects spoken in the lowlands — in the (Jerman part of {][>■ 
 Great Plain of Europe, and round tli(> moutlis of those (iei'inan 
 rivers that ilow into the iSaltie and the North Sea. Scan- 
 dinavian is the name given to the languages s|)oken in 
 Denmark and in the great .Scandinavian Peninsula. Of tins.' 
 three languages, I )anish and Norwegian are practically the saiiic 
 — their literary or hookdanguage is one ; while Swedisli is very 
 different. Icelandic is tlie oldest and purest form of Scandina- 
 vian. The following is a tahle of tho, 
 
 GROUP OF TEUTONIC LAN(;UAGES. 
 
 Tier-- ' 0. 
 
 Low Gkrman. 
 
 IIICll (JKliMAX. 
 
 I 
 
 SCANIMNAVIAN. 
 
 I I I I III III! 
 
 Oiifcli. Fli'iiiisli. Frisian. Kiifjlisli, eid. Middle. New. Iii'laixtio. Diiiisk Ferrdic. Sv.-iislc 
 
 (or Norsk). iSwvilislii. 
 
 It will be observed, on looking at the above table, tliat lli,L'li 
 German is sul)divided according to time, but that the utluT 
 groups are subdivided acconling to space. 
 
 9. English a Low-German Speech. — Our English tongue \< 
 the lowest of all Low-Ge:. .nan dialects. Low German is tin 
 German spoken in the lowlands of Germany. As we desi ciiu 
 the rivers, we come to the lowest level of all — the level of tin' 
 sea. Our English speech, once a mere dialect, came down t' 
 that, crossed the German Ocean, and settled in Britain, to wliiili 
 it gave in time the nanu^ of Angla-land or I'ngland. The hew 
 German spoken in the Netherlands is called Dutch ; the Lew 
 German spoken in Friesland — a prosperous province of Holliiinl 
 — is called Frisian; and the Low German s})oken in Giv.it 
 Britain is called English. These three languages are extrenu'ly 
 like one another; l:)ut the Continental language that is likesl 
 
IXTHODUCTIOX. 
 
 275 
 
 i! ! 
 
 pokt'U in 
 , south of 
 
 illln tin' 
 Kiks ill" 
 
 cann'il ill 
 i" ("M-nii;\n 
 
 iwt of til'' 
 ^t' (Icviuau 
 "U. Scan- 
 spokt'ii iu 
 Of tliese 
 ly the same 
 disU is vcrv 
 ,f Scau(lin;i- 
 
 MSAVIAN. 
 
 J 
 
 ,V K.Troio. Sv.Mislt 
 frsk). tS«-«-<li*"l- 
 
 e, that lli;-'l' 
 lat the "th''V 
 
 tlu^ English is th(> Dutch or ironanditsli diah'ct caHcd Fn'sidn. 
 We even possess a eouplet, every word of which is l)olh 1*'ii,l;- 
 Hsh and Frisian. It runs thus — 
 
 Good butter and good cliecse 
 
 Is good English and good Fries. 
 
 10. Dutch and Welsh — a Contrast. — AVhen the Teuton eon- 
 ([uerors came to this country, tliey calh'd the Ik'itons fori'ij^Miers, 
 just as the Greeks caHed all other })eoi)les besides tlieniselves 
 h'O-hariam: Ijv this they did not at first mean that tliey Avere 
 uncivilised, but only that they were not Greeks. Xow, the 
 Teutonic or Saxon or English name for foreigners was Wealhas, 
 a word afterwards contracted into Welsh. To this day the 
 luodern Tents or Teutons (or Germans^ as ice call them) call 
 all Frenchmen and Itali^.^s Wehhmon ; and, when a German 
 peasant crosses the border into France, ho says : " I am going 
 into AVelshland." 
 
 11. The Spread of English over Britain. — TIk^ Jutes, who 
 came from Juteland or Jyllaiid — now called Jutland — settled in 
 Kent and in the Islo of AVight. The Saxons settled in the 
 suiilh and western parts of England, and gave their names to 
 tliose kingdoms — now counties — wl;ose nanu's came to end in 
 sex. There was the kingdom of the East Saxons, or Essex ; 
 the kingdom of the West Saxons, or Wessex ; the kingdom of 
 the ]\lid(lle Saxons, or Middlesex; and the kingdom of the 
 South Saxons, or Sussex. I'lie Angles settled chietly on the 
 east coast. The kingdom of East Anglia was divided into the 
 ri'giuns of the North Folk and the South Folk, words which 
 are still perpetuated in the names iVor/ii/k and i^vfolh: 'I'hese 
 three sets of Teutons all spoke ditl'erent dialef;ts of the sanu) 
 Teutonic speech; and these dialects, with their dill'erences, 
 peculiarities, and odd habits, took root in English soil, and 
 lived an independent life, apart from each other, uniniluenced 
 hy each other, for several hundreds of years. Jhit, in the slow 
 course of time, tliey joined together to make U[) our l)eautiful 
 Knglish language — a language which, however, still l)ears in 
 itself the traces of dialectic forms, and is in no respect of one 
 
 khid or of one hbre all through. 
 
 > 
 
270 
 
 / 
 
 CHArTKlJ I, 
 
 TIIK ri:KH)l>S OF KNCLISH. 
 
 1. Dead and Living Languages. — A laiii^nia^^o >k said to bo 
 dead "wlicn it is no lun<f('i' s|)(tk('ii. Such a laiiguag(^ m'c know 
 only in books. Thus, Latin is a dead lan^'uagc, because no 
 nation anywliere now speaks it. .V dead ]an,L,nia.Lfe can nudei^^o 
 no cliangcj ; it veinains, and must I'einain, as we iind it Avritteii 
 in books. lUit a livini; hingua,!u,'e is always cliangin,if, just like 
 a tree or the human Ixxly. 'J'he human body has its periods or 
 stages. I'here is the period of infancy, the period of boyhood, 
 the period of manhood, and the period of old age. In the saint; 
 Avay, a langmige has its periods. 
 
 2. No Sudden Changes - a Caution. — AVe divide the Knu'- 
 lish language into jx'iiods, and then mark, with some appniadi 
 to accuracy, certain distinct changes in the habits of our lan- 
 guage, in the intlexions of its words, in the kind of words it 
 preferred, or in the way it liked to ])ut its words together, lint 
 v,'e nnist be can^fully on our guard against fancying that, at any 
 <'-'ven time or in any given year, the l-aiglish people threw aside 
 
 .lie s(;t of hal)its as regards language, and ado})ted another set. 
 '- is not so, nor can it be so. The changes in language arc as 
 gentle, gradual, and inijx'rceptible as the changes in the growth 
 of a tree or in the skin of the liunnin l)ody. Vs^v renew otir 
 skin slowly and gradually ; but we are never conscious of tin' 
 process, nor can we say at any givtui time that we have got a 
 completely new skin. 
 
THE PEUIODS 01' KN(;LISH. 
 
 rj ^ "» 
 
 3. The Periods of English. — lU-iivinj^ this cant ion in nniul, 
 II L(it Oil to look at tli(> cliicf iifi'io(|s in our l'!n,nlisli lan- 
 
 \vt' ca 
 
 i.'nau'' 
 
 'I'licsc arc li\(' in nnnilicr; and they arc as follows : — 
 
 I. Ancient iMiglisIi nr AiigloSiixDU 
 
 II. Kiuly Kiiglisli, . 
 
 ill. Middle Kiiglisli, . 
 
 IV. Tudoi- Kiiglisli, . 
 
 V. Mixloi'ii l''iigli.sh, 
 
 •It'.t-llOO 
 1100-l2r)0 
 1200-1485 
 14.sr)-l(iOM 
 100:M!»00 
 
 Tli('S(* periods nicr^f(^ very .slowly, (ir an^ sliadeil oil", so to speak, 
 into each other in the most gnidual Avay, If we take the l\ng- 
 lisli of 1250 aiul conij)ar(! it with that of 900, we shall lind a 
 ^rcat dill'erence ; Imt if we coni])ar(! it with the l""ii^iish of 1100 
 the ditrcrciice is not so inai'ked. '{'he diircrcncc hclwei-n the 
 IJiLrlish of the llineteeiith and tin; ]''n,L;lis]i of the fourteenth 
 ociitury is very j^rcat, hnt the dillerenco between the I''n_t,disli of 
 tlie fourtcH'.nth and that of the thirteenth century is very small. 
 
 4. Ancient English or Anglo-Saxon, 450-1100. This form of 
 Kii,Ljlish dill'ered from modc'rn Kn>,dish in haviiii^ a mncli larger 
 iiuiuhev of inflexions. The noun had live cases, and there Avere 
 several declensions, just as in Latin ; adjectives wen; declined, 
 anil had three g(Miders ; some jjionouns had a dual as well as a 
 plural luimher ; and the verh had a niu(di larger numher of inflex- 
 iniis than it has now. The voca1)ulary of tla^ lanmiaut; con- 
 laiiieil vc)-y few foreign elements. The jioctiy of the language 
 iiii|iliiycd head-rhymo or alliteration, and not end-rhyme, as av(! 
 iln now. The works (^f the poet Caedmon and the great ju'ose- 
 wiiler King Alfred helong to this Anglo-Saxon jteriod. 
 
 5. Early English, 1100-1250. — 1'he coming of the Normans in 
 10G6 made many changes in the laml, many changes in tlu^, 
 Cliuirh and in the State, and it also introduced many changes 
 into the language;. Tin; inilexions of (»nr s]>eech l)egan to dro]) 
 I'll', because they were used less and less ; ami though we lu'ver 
 adopted m;w liiflexluru'i from French or from any other languag(», 
 new French ii'ords began to creep in. In some parts of the 
 loiuitry Engli.sh had ceased to lus writtt-n in Ijooks ; the lan- 
 gnage existed as a spoken language only ; and hence accuracy 
 in the use of words and the inflexions of words could not be 
 
tftm 
 
 Hiffj 
 
 11 
 
 IIISTOItY OF THE ENCLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ensured. Two iiotiilile Ijooks — written, not printed, for tliero 
 was no printing' in this island till tlic yetir 1474 — belong' to thi,-: 
 p(U'iod. These are the Ormulum, 1)y Orin or Ormin, and llic 
 Brut, l)y a monk called Layamon or LaAveman. Tlu; latlir 
 tells the story of lirntns, wlio was believed to liave ])een the sdii 
 of yEncias of Troy ; to have escaped after the downfall of thai 
 city ; to have; sailed through the jNTtHJiterranean, ever farther 
 and farther to the west; to hav(i landed in 15ritain, srttliMl 
 hens and <dven tlie country its name. 
 
 6. Middle English, 1250-1485. — :Most of the inllexions ,,f 
 nouns and adjectives have in this period — between the middle 
 of the thirteenth and the end of tlie fifteenth century — ceiii- 
 pletely disappeared. The inllexions of verbs are also gi'oatly 
 rethiced in number. The strong ^ mode of inflexion has ceased 
 to be employed for verbs that are new-comers, and the weak 
 modo has been adopted in its place. During the earlier part of 
 this period, even country-people tried to speak French, and 
 in this and other modes many French Avords found theii 
 way into English. A writer of the thirteenth century, John 
 de Trevisa, says that country-people " fondeth [that is, try] 
 ^ith great bysynes for to speke Freynsch for to be more y-tuld 
 of." The country-people did not succeed very well, as the 
 ordinary proverb sliows : "Jack would be a gentleman if he 
 could speak French." IJoys at school were expected to turn 
 their Latin into French, and in the courts of law Freiuli 
 only was allowed to be spoken. But in 1362 Edward III. 
 gave his assent to an Act of Parliament allowing Englisli U' 
 be used instead of IS^orman-French. " The yer of cure Lord,' 
 says John de Trevisa, "a thousond tln-e liondred foure store 
 and fy ve of the secunde Kyng Eichard after the conquest, in al 
 the gramer scoles of Engelond children leveth Freynsch, and 
 construeth and turneth an Englysch." To the first half of this 
 period belong a Metrical Chronicle, attributed to Robert of 
 Gloucester; Langtoft's Metrical Chronicle, translated hy 
 Robert de Brunne ; tlie Agenbite of Inwit, by Dan iMiclu 1 
 of Xorthgate in Kent ; and a few others. But to the second 
 
 1 Seep. 43. 
 
THE rEHIODS OF ENGLISH. 
 
 270 
 
 for thtTi' 
 
 n, au»l lilt: 
 The. liittfv 
 K'U the son 
 fall of that 
 ver favllit'V 
 ain, srttliMl 
 
 nllexiou^ "? 
 I the lui'UUt' 
 iituvy— »'*^i'i- 
 also greatly 
 HI has ceastnl 
 d the weak 
 ;arlier part of 
 French, aiul 
 found tlu'ii 
 entury, .h'ln^ 
 [that i^, try] 
 )e more y-told 
 well, as tlu' 
 itlemau if li'' 
 ected to turn 
 law YreiK'li 
 Edward HI- 
 ig English t>' 
 f o\ire Lonl, 
 
 half belong the rich and varied productions of GeofFrey Chaucer. 
 our hrst great poet and always one of our greatest Avriters ; the 
 alliterative jioems of William Langley or Langlande ; the 
 more learned poems of John Gower; and the translation of 
 the Bible and theological works of the reformer John "Wyelif. 
 
 7. Tudor English, 1485-1603. — Hcfore the end of the sixteenth 
 iriitury almost all our infhixions had disappeared. The great 
 dramatist lien Jonson (1574-1037) laments the loss of the plural 
 fiuling en for V(!rhs, hecause voiteii and hopeu wcic nnich more 
 inusiral and more useful in verse than wcid or liojn' ; hut its 
 it'cnvcry was already past imiying for, 1'his jx-riod is remark- 
 al)lt' for the introduction of an enormous nuniher of Latin 
 words, and this was duo to tlu; n(!\v interest taken in the litera- 
 ture of the Jiomans — an interest produced hy what is called tin; 
 Revival of Letters. IJut the most striking, as it is also tlie 
 iiKist iiiii)ortant fact relating to this period, is the apjiearance of 
 a L;riiiip of dramatic writers, the greatest the worlil has ever 
 seen. Chief among these was William Shakespeare. Of 
 imrc poetry perhaps the greatest writer was Edmund Spenser. 
 The, greatest pro.sc-writer M'as Richard Hooker, and the pithiest 
 Francis Bacon. 
 
 8. Modern English, 1603-1900. — The grannnar of the language 
 was fixed hefore this pmiod, most of the accidence having en- 
 tirely vanished. The vocahulary of the langiuige, however, lias 
 gone on increasing, and is still increasing ; for the English 
 language, like the English people, is always ready to offer 
 hospitality to all peaceful foreigners — words or human beings — 
 tliat will land and settle M'ithin her coasts. And the tendency 
 at the present time is not only to give a hearty Avelcomo to new- 
 I'lHiers from other lands, hut to call back old words and old 
 I'lirases that had been alloAved to drop out of existence. Tenny- 
 ■^oii has been one of the chief agents in this happy restoration. 
 
 ^ 
 
 t ! 
 
i 
 
 280 
 
 CHAI'TKIJ, II, 
 
 ifii 
 
 III 
 
 TlfK HISTOItV OK THE VOOABt.'LAKY <)!■' TUH F,N(!|,ISII I.ANCIAi;!;. 
 
 1. The English Nation. — TIk^ ]"'ii,t,'lisli jicoph' Imvc for many 
 ooiitiii'ics l)(M'ii tli(! ^L^n'ciitcsi ti'jivcllcr.s in IIk; world. Il was an 
 hjiiflisluiian — FriUicis J)r!ik(^ — m'Iio first w**! it round the l(1ii1ic: 
 iind the- MnL^'lisli liuvci colonisdil more; forcij^n lands in cvcit pait 
 of tho world than any otlua' pcjoplo that (ivcr I'xisliMJ. Tin 
 En<.^lish in this way havo hci'n inihuinccd hy the, world Avitli- 
 out. iUit tliey liavo also hcon suhjoctcd to nianihjld inllucin'cs 
 from within- — they liavo heen ex})os('d to f^'rcatcr political 
 chan,i!;('s, and profounihsr thon,L,di cpiii^tor political nivoliitidiis, 
 than any othisr nation. In lOGG they were con([n(!ri'd hy IIk' 
 Norman - French ; and for several ccntnrics they had Frciidi 
 kings. Seeing and talking with many diU'erent })('o])lcs, tlitv 
 IcMirneil to ado})t foreign words witli ease, and to give tlieiii a 
 home among the nativ(;-horn words of the langnage. Trade is 
 always a kindly and iist;fnl influence;; and the trade (tf (Iiv;i; 
 Ih'itain has for many centuries heen larger than that of any 
 other nation. It lias spread into ev(;ry part of tho world; it 
 gives and receives from all trihes and nations, fr(Jiu <'V(r 
 speech and tongue. 
 
 2. The English Element in English. — Wlien the i:ii,i,'li>l! 
 came to this island in tho iiftli century, the number of Avordsin 
 tho language they spoke was prohahly not over two thousand. 
 Now, however, we possess a vocabulary of i)erhaps more than 
 one hundred thousand Avords. And so eager and williii- 
 
VOCAlU'LAItY n^ TIIK ENflUSlI r.ANCfACK. 
 
 2S1 
 
 have we Ix'cii lo wclcoiiic ini'ci^'ii wiirds, tliat it may ]n> said 
 with tnilli that: Tho majority of words in tho EnRliah 
 Tongue are not English. In fact, it' wc tak( the Latin 
 litii,L;ua,L;(' l>y itself, tlicrn ai'<! in luir hin^Miai^'c niDiT Latin Avnrds 
 tlian English. lUit the ^MMiiiniar is distinctly Knj^dish, and not 
 T.iilin ill all. 
 
 3. The Spoken Language and the Written Language - 
 a Caution. — Wa must not fur^'ct what lias liccn said almiit, a 
 
 laiiL'Ma;,^', that it is not a printed thin.i,' not. a set of lilaidv 
 
 marks nixtii paper, lait that it is in ti'uest ti'uth a tongue or a 
 speech. Hence wo must Ix; careful to distin^'uish Ix'lweon tlic 
 spoken l;in,t,nia^^3 and tlio written or printed lan;^Mia;4(! ; he- 
 twccn the ]angua^L,'(! of tho ear and the languaLje of the eye; 
 lictweeii the language! of the mouth and the language of tliu 
 dictionary; betwoen tho moving vocal)ulary of the market and 
 the street, uud tlio fixed. vocal)u]ary that has l)een catalogued 
 iiiid iinprisone<l in our dictionaries. If avo can only keep this in 
 view, we shall find that, thougli tlicro are moic Latin woids in 
 mu' Vdcahulary tlian English, tho Knglish woids we pos.s(!.s.s are 
 used in speaking a liundrod times, or even a thousand times, 
 ut'tcutr than tho Latin words. It is the genuine Knglish woi'd.s 
 that have lif(! and niovcmont ; it is they tliat ily ahout in houses, 
 ill streets, and in markets; it is they that o.\})ress with greatest 
 feiL'c our truest and most usual sentiments — (jur inmost thouglits 
 ami dur deepest feelings. Latin words are found often eiiougli 
 in linuks ; Init, wIkmi an English man or Moman is deeply moved, 
 111' spi'aks pure English and nothing else. "W'oi'ds are the 
 '"ill of human intercourse; and it is the native cnin of pun; 
 KiiLjlish with the native stani}) that is in daily ciivulatinn. 
 
 4. A Diagram of English. — If we were to try to lepiesent to 
 the eye the pi'oportions of the dilibrent elements in our vocali- 
 ulaiy, as it is found in the dictionary, the diagram M'ould take 
 soiiicthuig like the following form :— 
 
 I 
 
[fa 
 
 fe 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Cf 
 
 282 
 
 HISTOllY OF TIIK KNdUSII I.ANiil.'AOE. 
 
 I)IA(JUAM OF Tin; I-:N(JL1SII I-AN(}UA(]K. 
 
 Enhlisii Wouiw. 
 
 liAlIN WoltDS 
 
 (including Noriiiiui-FreiK'li, which are uIho Latin). 
 
 CiliKKK Wouim. 
 
 Italiiiii, S|iiiiil.sli, I'lii'tiiK'iirNi', Diiti'li. lirliri'U', Ariibk', llliidiistanl, 
 I'l'iHlan, Miiliiy, Aini'ilcim, t-ti:. etc. 
 
 5. The Foreign Elements in our English Vocabulary. 
 
 The, fliU'i'rL'nt podplcs and the (liircrciii circiiin.staiiccs with 
 wliich wo have conic in c.ontai't, liavc liad many rcsnlts ■ uw 
 among others, that of ju'esenting us witli contrihutions to diii 
 vocahuhiry. We found Kelts liere ; and lience we liavc a 
 uuniher of Kidtie, words in our voealiulary. 'J'he IJonians hiM 
 this ishmd for several hundred years ; and Avhen they liyd b' 
 go in tlio year 410, they left hehind them six Latin words, 
 which we have inherited. In the seventh century, ^Vugustinc 
 and his missionary monks from Home brought ovei- to us a 
 larger luuuher of Latin words ; and the Church whicli tluy 
 founded introduced ever more and more words from IJoinc 
 The Danes hegan to come over to this island in the eiglilli 
 century; M'c had for st)me time a Danish dynasty seated on the 
 throne of England : and hence we ]>os;,ess many Danish wiMd>. 
 The Nornum-French invasion in the eleventh century l)rou<,dit 
 us many hundreds of Latin words; for French is in rcalii} a 
 Vtranch of the Latin tongue. The Jievival of Learning in tin' 
 sixteenth century gave us several thousands of Latin wcnls. 
 And wherever our sailors and merchants have gone, they luivc 
 brought back with them foreign words as well as foreign tliiiij:> 
 — Arabic words from Aral)ia and Africa, Hindustani words from 
 India, Persian words from Persia, Chinese words from (^iiii;a. 
 and even Malay words from the peninsula of Malacca. Let u? 
 look a little more closely at these foreign elements. ^^- 
 
 6. The Keltic Element in English.— This element is of 
 
VOt'AHl'I.AIiY OF TIIK KNCLlSli l,AN(H' A( ;K. 
 
 2H3 
 
 '■ kiinls : (i) TlKtsc woi'ds wliidi wr ivccivi'd dircrt I'lom 
 the iiiiciciii i»ritoiis wliom we Iniiml in the islaml ; (ii) tlinsd 
 w'liich tlu' Xoniiun-Frcncli liri>ii;,f|il with llifiii t'lnm ( laiil ; (iii) 
 th()S(Mvlii('li have lalfly ('(Hiic iiit > ilic laD^Mia^'c IKuii the lli<,'li- 
 limd.s of S(!()tliiiiil, or t'n»iii Iitlainl, m- I'miii the writiiij^'s of Sir 
 iiltcr Scott. 
 
 7. The First Keltic Element. — This first contrihulioii idii- 
 
 lis the foHowill<f words ; lircrrjus, rlmif, rri>cL\ rr<i>//r^ ifuriiy 
 
 III///, iiio/), ))illi)ir ; /iiirroir (a t'liMcrai iiioiind), ij/r/i^ Imnn', 
 
 'ii, iii'iffor/r, pni)l. It is worthy of note tliat thi' liist ri^dit 
 
 the list arc tlic iianics of (h)nu'sti('. — .sonic cmii of kitrheii 
 
 thiIl;,^s and uti'U.sils. It may, jH'rliajis, he jinniittrd ns to 
 
 ijiftnn^ tliat in many ca.scs tho Saxon invader married 
 
 llritish wife, who spoko licr own hin^nia^'f, tau;,dit licr 
 
 Idrm to speak their motlier ton,L,Mie, iuid wliose wonks 
 
 ik tirni root in tho kitehen of {\\v. new Mii'd'sh lionse- 
 
 V\. 'Ihe names of most river.s, monntains, lakes, and hills 
 
 are, of course, K(dtic ; for the.sc names would not Ite likely to 
 
 lie clian;,'t d hy the Knglisli new-conier.s. There are two names for 
 
 rivers wliieli are found — in one form or another — in every ]»art 
 
 of (Ireat lU'itain. These are tlie names Avon and Ex. Tlie 
 
 word Avon means simply water. AVe can conceiv(! tlie children 
 
 oil a farm near a river speaking of it siiiii>ly as "the water"; 
 
 iiiiil lijuce we find fourteen Avons in this island. Ex also 
 
 means water; and tlier«} are perhaps more than twenty streams 
 
 in Great liritain with this name. The word ap})ears as Ex in 
 
 Exeter (the older and fuller form hein^Lj Kxaiiceaxter — tlie camp 
 
 on the Exe) ; as Ax in Axminster; as Ox in Oxford; as Ux 
 
 in Uxbridge ; and as Ouse in Yorkshire and other eastern 
 
 lounties. In AValcs and Scotland, the hidden k (dianges its 
 
 place and comes at the end. Thus in AVales we tind Usk ; and 
 
 in Scotland, Esk. There are at least eight Esks in the kingdom 
 
 of Scotland alone. The commonest Keltic name for a mountain 
 
 is Pen or Ben (in Wales it 's Pen ; in Scotland the ilatter 
 
 form Ben. is used). "We find this word in luigland also under 
 
 the form of Pennine ; and, in Italy, as Apennine. 
 
 8. The Second Keltic Element. — The Normans came from 
 
in ^ 
 
 vn 
 
 284 
 
 IILSTOUY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 4^. 
 
 Scaiidinaviii ciirly ill the tenth century, and Avrested tlic vialley 
 of tlie Seine out of the hands of Charles the Simple, the j^cai 
 king of the Frencli. The language spoken hy the poop* of 
 France was a broken-down form of spoken Latin, which is Mow 
 called French ; hut in this language they had retained ^my 
 Gaulish words out of the old Gaulish language. Such ar©|(pi(; 
 words: Bag, hfiir/din, barter; barrel, basin, baf^Jref, bucket: 
 bonnet, bnitoii, ribbon; car, cart; dagijer, (jmcn; mitten, motley ; 
 nx/ne ; varlet, vassal, wicket. The above words wore brought 
 over to IJritain by the Ncrmans ; and they gradually took an 
 acknowledged place aiuuiig the words of our own language, and 
 have held tliat place ever since. 
 
 9. The Third Keltic Element. — This consists of coinpaw- 
 tively few words — such as dan ; claymore (a sword) ; 'i>hiiakij 
 
 *(a kind of kilt), kilt itself, brogue (a kind of shoe), jdnid; 
 pibroch (bagpipe war-music), slogan (a war-cry) ; and irhid-ii. 
 Ireland lias given us shamrock, gag, log, clog, and brogue— m 
 the sense of a mode of speech. ^]|j|ff 
 
 10. The Scandinavian Element in English. — Towards tlie 
 end of the eighth century — in the year 787 — the Teutons d 
 the North, called Northmen, Normans, or Norsemen — but iwk 
 commonly known as Danes — made their appearance on tin' 
 eastern coast of Great Britain, and attacked the peaceful town; 
 and (piiet settlements of the English. These attacks became so 
 freiiuent, and their occurrence was so much dreaded, that a 
 p. yer was inserted against them in a Litany of the time— 
 "From the incursions of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us!" 
 Li spite of the resistance of the English, the Danes had, liofoiv 
 the end of the ninth century, succeeded in obtaining a ]><'riii;i- 
 nent footing in England ; and, in the eleventh century, a l>ai)i>li 
 dynasty sat upon the English throne from the year 1016 to lOl'i. 
 From the time of King Alfred, the Danes of the Duni>lai!li 
 were a settled part of the population of England ; and heinc 
 we find, especially on the east coast, a large number of Daiiisli 
 names still in use. 
 
 11. Character of the Scandinavian Element. — The Noitli 
 men, as we have said, were Teutons ; and they spoke a dialed 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE ENOUSII LANOUAOE. 
 
 285 
 
 Led tlic Vjdley 
 iiple, thettidi 
 the poopli of 
 which is now 
 [•etaine<l miany 
 Sucli aretlif 
 i((^7cc/, hucket : 
 mitten, wotkij; 
 i wore hrouglii 
 UwUy took an 
 11 language, luvl 
 
 its of coivii)ard- 
 word) ; phiiay.[} 
 i siioe), J^Im'U 
 y) ; and u'hl>thj, 
 and hrixjae-'m 
 
 -Towards ih 
 -the Teutons o{ 
 lemon— hilt lUdve 
 )carance on lli'' 
 [e peaceful towns 
 [ttacks hecaiue so 
 dreaded, that a 
 ly of the time- 
 lord, deliver us'." 
 
 banes had, hof-v 
 iaining a povina- 
 fentuvy, a Puui^li 
 ,arlOl6tolOli 
 ,f the Dauolivii 
 [and ; and heiw 
 luuher of Paiu>li 
 
 It.— The Novtli- 
 ly spoke a diak^i 
 
 of the great Teutniiic (or German) language. Tlie sounds of 
 the Danish dialect — or language, as it must now he called — are 
 harder than those of the German. We lind a k instead of a 
 ch ; a p preferred to an f. The same is the ease in Scotland, 
 ,..1 ,.o fi^Q hsivd form kirk is preferred to the softer church. 
 Where the Germans say Dorf — our English word Thorpe, a 
 village — the Danes say Drup. 
 
 12. Scandinavian Words (i). — 'ine words contributed to our 
 language by the Scandinavians are of two kinds : (i) Names of 
 places ; and (ii) ordinary words. -'-•) The most striking instance 
 of a Danish place-name is the noim by, a town. Mr Isaac 
 Taylor ^ tells us that there are in the east of England more 
 than six hundred names of towns ending in by. Almost all of 
 these are found in the Danelagh, within the limits of the great 
 highway made by the Eomans to the north-west, and well-known 
 as "Catling Street. We find, for example, Whitby, or the 
 town on the ivhite clifts ; Grimsby, or the town of Grim, a 
 great sea-rover, who obtained for his countrymen the right that 
 all ships from the Baltic should como into the port of Grimsby 
 free of duty; Tenby, that is Daneby; by-law, a law for a 
 special town ; and a vast number of others. The following 
 Danish words also exist in our times — either as separate and 
 individual words, or in composition — beck, a stream ; fell, a 
 hill or table-land ; firth or fiord, an arm of the sea — the same 
 as the Danish fiord ; force, a watarfall ; garth, a yard or en- 
 closure ; holm, an island in a river ; kirk, a church ; oe, an 
 island ; thorpe, a village ; thwaite, a forest clearing ; ami vik 
 or wick, a station for sliips, or a creek. 
 
 13. Scandinavian Words (ii). — The most useful and the 
 most frequently employed word that we have received from the 
 Danes is the word are. The pure English word for this is 
 beoth or sindon. The Danes gave us also the habit of using 
 lo before an infinitive. Their Avord for to was at ; and at still 
 survives and is in use in Lincolnshire. We find also the fol- 
 lowing Danish words in our language : blunt, bole (of a tree), 
 bound (on a journey — properly boun), busk (to dress), cake, 
 
 1 Words and Places, p. 158. 
 V 
 
 , 
 
lMt»aiMrii,..m«.«i.t..-*»^-i,.,^«^Bg 
 
 286 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 call, crop (to cut), curl, cut, dairy, daze, din, droop, fallow, 
 flit, for, froward, hustings, ill, irk, kid, kindle, loft, odd, 
 plough, root, scold, sky, tarn (a sniall mountain lake), weak, 
 and ugly. It is in Nortliuniberland, Durliani, Yorkshire, Lin- 
 coin, Norfolk, au<l even in the western counties of Cum- 
 berland and Lancashire, that we find the largest admixture of 
 Scandinavian words. 
 
 14. Influence of the Scandinavian Element. — The intro- 
 duction of the Danes and the Danish language into England 
 had the result, in the east, of unsettling the inflexions of our 
 language, and thus of preparing the way for their complete dis- 
 appearance, 'i'lie declensions of nouns became unsettled; 
 nouns that used to make their plural in a or in u took tho 
 more striking plural suffix as that belonged to a quite differ- 
 ent declension. The same things happened to adjectives, 
 verbs, and other parts of language. The causes of this are not 
 far to seek. Spoken language can never be so accurate as writ- 
 ten language ; the mass of the English and Danes never cared 
 or could care much for grammar ; and Ijoth parties to a conver- 
 sation would of course hold firmly to the root of the won], 
 which was intelligible to both of them, and let the inflexinus 
 slide, or take care of themselves. The more the English ami 
 Danes mixed with each other, the oftencr they met at churcli, 
 at games, and in the market-place, the more rapidly would this 
 process of stripping go on, — the smaller care would both peoples 
 take of the grammatical inflexions wdiicli they had brought with 
 them into this country, y^ 
 
 15. The Latin Element in English. — So far as the number of 
 words — the vocabulary — of tho language is concerned, the Latin 
 contribution is by far the most important element in our lan- 
 guage. Latin was the language of the Romans ; and the Romans 
 at one time wen^ masters of the Avhole known world. No won- 
 der, then, that they influenced so many peoples, and that their 
 language found its Avay — east and west, and south and nortli- 
 into almost all the countries of Europe. There are, as we liavi' 
 seen, more Latin than I'nglish words in our own language ; and 
 it is. ther<^fore necessary to make ourselves acquainted with tlw 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 287 
 
 p, fallow, 
 loft, odd, 
 ke), weak, 
 :sliire, Lin- 
 5 of Cum- 
 Imixture of 
 
 -Tlie intvo- 
 ito England 
 xions of our 
 somi'lete ilis- 
 e unsettled ; 
 ^ u took tho 
 , qviite aiffov- 
 to ailjeetivcp, 
 ,f this lire not 
 curate as writ- 
 es never caved 
 L^s to a conver- 
 t of the word, 
 the inflexions 
 Englisii aii'l 
 Inct at ciinrch, 
 lily ^vould this 
 (1 "hotii p«H)ltV'S 
 L\ l)V(mght Nviil> 
 
 character and the uses of the Latin element — an element so 
 important — in English.^ Not only have the Itomans made 
 contributions of large numbers of woitls to the English language, 
 but they have added to it a quite new quality, and given to its 
 genius new powers of expression. So true is this, that we may 
 say — without any sense of unfairness, or any feeling of exaggera- 
 tion — that, intil the Latin element was thoroughly mixed, united 
 ^vitli, and transfused into tlie original English, the writings of 
 Shakespeare were impossible, the poetry of the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries could not liave come into existence. This 
 is true of Shakespeare ; and it is still more true of Milton. His 
 iiKjst powerful poetical thoughts are written in lines, the most 
 telling words in which are almost always Latin. This may be 
 illustrated by the following lines from " Lycddas " : — 
 
 "It was that fatal and perjidimis bark, 
 Built in the eclipse, and rigged with '^urses dark, 
 That sunk so low that sacred head of tliine ! " 
 
 16. The Latin Contributions and their Dates.— The first 
 contribution of Latin words was made by the Komans — not, 
 however, to the English, but to the Ihitons. The Komans 
 Ik'M tliis island from a.d. 43 to a.d. 410. They left behind 
 them — when they were obliged to go — a small contribution of 
 six words — six only, but all of them important. The second 
 eoiitribution — to a large extent ecclesiastical — was made by 
 Augustine and liis juissionary monks from Komo, and their visit 
 took [)lac(> in tlie year 596. The third contriljution Avas made 
 through tho medium of tho Norman-FnMU'h, who seized and 
 sul»bi('<l this island in the year 1066 and following years. The 
 fourth contril)ution came to us by tlie aid of tlu! Itevival of 
 Learning — rather a process than an event, the dates of which 
 are vague, but which nuay be said to have taken place in the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Tho Latin left for us 
 hy the liomans is called Latin of the First Period; that 
 hrought over by the missionaries from Home, Iiatin of the 
 
 ' In the last half of this sentence, all the essential words — necessary, ac- 
 ftiinintcd, character, vscs, element, important, are Latin (except character^ 
 wliic'li is Greek). 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
288 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EXOURTI LAXOUAOE. 
 
 Second Period; tliut givon us by tlio Norman-Froncli,^ Latin 
 of the Third Period ; and that wliicli camo to us from the 
 lievival of I.oaniing, Latin of the Fourth Period. I'lic first 
 consists of a few names handed down to us through the Jhitons; 
 tlie second, of a numher of words — mostly relating to ecclesias- 
 tical aifairs — brought into tho spoken language by the monks; 
 the third, of a large vocabulary, that (!ame to us by mouth and 
 ear; and the fourth, of a very large treasure of words, Avhich we 
 received by means of books and the eye. Let us now lodk 
 more closely and carefully at them, each in its turn. ^ 
 
 17. Latin of the First Period. — (i) The ]{onuin3 held llii- 
 tain for nearly four hundred years ; and they succeeded in 
 teaching the wealthier classes among the Southern Britons to 
 speak Latin. They also built towns in the island, made splen- 
 did roads, formed camps at important p( ints, framed good laws, 
 and administered the affairs of the island with considerable 
 justice and uprightness. ])Ut, never having come directly into 
 contact with the Angles or Saxons themselves, they could not 
 in any way influence their language by oral comnnmication— 
 by speaking to them. What they left behind them was only 
 six words, most of which became merely the preiixes or the 
 suffixes of the names of places. These six words were Castra, 
 a camp ; Strata (r/Vf), a paved roail ; Colonia, a settlement 
 (generally of soldiers); Fossa, a trench; Portus, a harlwur; 
 and Vallum, a rami)art. 
 
 18. Latin of the First Period (ii). — (a) The treatment of 
 the Latin word castra in this island has been both singular and 
 significant. It has existed in this country for nearly nineteen 
 hundred years ; and it has always taken the colouring of the 
 locality into whose soil it struck root. In the north ami 
 east of England it is sounded hard, and takes the form of 
 caster, as in Lancaster, Doncaster, Tadcaster, and others. 
 In the midland counties, it takes tho softer form of cester, 
 as in Leicester, Towcester ; and in the extreme west ami 
 south, it takes the still softer form of Chester, as in Chester, 
 Manchester, Winchester, and others. It is worthy of notice 
 that there are in Scotland no words ending in caster. Though 
 
VOGABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 289 
 
 the lioinaii.s had camps in Scotland, tlicy do nut seem to have 
 l)(?en HO im[)Oi'tant as tu l)ecume the centrtjs of towns, (//) The 
 word strata has also taken dillerent forms in ditlcrent parts of 
 England. AVhile castra lias always been a suflix, strata 
 shows itself constantly as a i)relix, AVlien the ]{omans came to 
 this island, the country was ijnpassable by man. There were 
 no roads worthy of the name,— Avhat paths there were being 
 merely foot-paths or bridle-tracks. One of the first things the 
 Koiiians did was to drive a strongly built military road from 
 Bichborough, near Dover, to the river Dee, on which they 
 formed a standing camp (Castra stativa) which to this day 
 bears the name of Chester. This great road became tlie high- 
 way of all travellers from north to south, — was known as 
 "The Street," and was called by the Saxons "Watling Street. 
 But this word street also became a much-used prefix, and took 
 the different forms of strat, strad, stret, and streat. All 
 towns with such names are to be found on this or some other 
 great Eoman road. Thus we have Stratford-on-Avon, Strat- 
 ton, Stradbroke, Stretton, Stretford (near ]\ranchester), and 
 Streatham (near London). — Over the other words we need not 
 dwell so long. Colonia we find in Colne, Lincoln, and others; 
 fossa in FossAvay, Posbrooke, and Fosbridge ; portus, in 
 Portsmouth and Bridport; and vallum in the words wall, 
 bailey, and bailiff. The Normans called the two courts in 
 front of their castles the inner and outer baileys ; and tlu; officer 
 ill charge of them was called the bailili'.^ 
 
 19. Latin Element of the Second Period (i). — The story of 
 Pope (iregory anil the Koman mission to England is widely 
 known. Gregory, when a young man, was crossing the ]ioman 
 forum one morning, and, when jiassing the side where the 
 slave-mart was held, ol)served, as he walked, some beautiful 
 boys, with fair hair, blue (!yes, and clear Ijright complexion. 
 He asked a bystand(;r of what nati<ui the b(^ys were. The 
 answer was, that they were Angles. "No, not Angles," he 
 replied; "they. are angels." On learning further that they 
 were heathens, he registered a silent vow that he would, if 
 I'ruvidence gave him an opportunity, deliver them from the 
 
 ! 
 
290 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 darkness of hcathondoiii, and brinj,' them and tlieir relativesj into 
 the light and liljcrty of the (iospel. Time passed by ; and in 
 the long course of time Gregory l)ecame Pope. In his unlooked- 
 for greatness, he did not forget his vow. In the year HOG In; 
 sent over to Kent a missionary, called Augustine, along with 
 forty monks. They were well received by the King of Kent, 
 allowed to settle in Canterbury, and to build a small cathednil 
 there. 
 
 20. Latin Element of the Second Period (ii). — This mission, 
 the churches tha' grew out of it, the Christian customs tliat in 
 time took '•oot. a< country, and the trade that followed in its 
 track, brouglit ■ ' ' i .••, language a immljcr of Latin words, most 
 of them the nnnies of church offices, services, and observances. 
 Thus we find in our '^1'^' st English, the words, postol from 
 apostolus, a person sent ; Lisrop, from episcopus, an overseer ; 
 calc, from calix, a cup ; clerc, from dericus, an ordaiiK'd 
 member of the church ; munec, from mondrlins, a solitary 
 person or monk ^ preost, from presbyter, an elder ; aelmesse, 
 from eleemosiine, alms ; predician, from ijrmlicare, to prcacli ; 
 regol, from rejjula, a rule. {^Apostle, bishop, clerk, inonk, priest, 
 and alms come to us really from Greek words — but throiigli 
 the Latin tongue.) 
 
 21. Latin Element of the Second Period (iii). — The intro- 
 duction of the lioman form of Cliristianity brought with it 
 increased communication with liome and with the Contin(Mit 
 generally ; Avidened tlio experience of Englishmen ; gave ii 
 stimulus to commerce ; and introduced into this island new 
 things and products, and along with the things and products 
 new names. To this i)eriod belongs the introduction of tlio 
 words : Butter, cheese ; cedar, fig, pear, peach ; lettuce, 
 lily ; pepper, pease ; camel, lion, elephant ; oyster, trout ; 
 pound, ounce ; candle, table ; marble ; mint, n^/ 
 
 22. Latin of the Third Period (i).— The Latin element of 
 the Third Period is in reality the French that was brouji;ht 
 over to this island by the J^ormans in 10G6, and is generally 
 called Norman-French. It differed from the French of Pari!^ 
 both in spelling and in pronunciation. For example, Nornian- 
 
VOOAIJULAIIY OF TIIK ENCLISH LANCJUAdK. 
 
 291 
 
 French wrote people for peuple ; leal for loyal ; real {oT 
 royal; r^alm for royaume; and so on. JUit ])()th of tliose 
 (liiilects (and every dialect of Freneli) arc; siinj)ly forms of Latin 
 — not of the Latin written and printed in books, 1»ut of the 
 Latin spoken in the camp, the iields, the streets, the; villa^'c, and 
 the cottage. I'lie Eomans compiered (laiil, wliere a Keltic 
 toni^nie was spoken; and the (lauls gradnally adopted Liitin as 
 their mother tongne, and — with the exception of the Lrctons 
 (if Drittany — left oil' their Keltic speech almost entin^ly. In 
 lulopting the Latin tongue, they had - as in similar cases — taken 
 linn hold of the root of the Avord, hnt changed the jaonnnciation 
 of it, and had, at the same time, compressed veiy much or entirely 
 dropped many of the Latin inflexions. The Fren(;ii people, an 
 intermixture of Gaids and other trihes (some of them, like the 
 Franks, G(!rman), ceased, in fact, to speak their own language, 
 and learned the Latin tongue. The Norsemen, led l)y Duke 
 Ivolf or KoUo or Kou, marched south in large numbers; and, 
 ill tlie year 912, wrested from King Charles the Simj)le the fair 
 valley of the Seine, settled in it, and gave to it the; name of 
 Xormandy. These Norsemen, now Normans, were Teutons, and 
 si)oke a Teutonic dialect ; but, when they settled in France, 
 they learned in course of time to speak F'rench. The kind of 
 French they spoke is called Norman-French, and it was this 
 kind of French that they brought over with them in 1066. 
 l>ut Norman -French had nuide its appearance in England before 
 llic famous year of 'GG ; for lulward the Confessor, who suc- 
 ceeded to the English throne in 1042, had l)een educated at the 
 Xorman Court ; and he not only spoke the language hims<;lf, but 
 insisted on its being spoken by the nobles who lived with him 
 in his Court. 
 
 23. Latin of the Third Period (ii). Chief Dates.—The Nor- 
 mans, having utterly beaten down the resistance of the English, 
 seized the land and all the political power of this country, and 
 filled all kinds of offices — both spiritual and temporal — with 
 their Norman brethren. Norman-French became the language of 
 the Court and the nobility, the language of Parliament and the 
 law courts, of the universities and the schools, il the Church 
 
 ; ■ I ; 
 i I 
 
 
202 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGft. 
 
 and of literature. 1'lie English people held fast to their own 
 tongue ; hut tliey picked up many French words in the markets 
 and other places "where men most do congregate." I'liit 
 French, being tlie language of tlio npper and ruling classes, Avas 
 hero and tliere learned hy the English or Saxon country-}»eoji](' 
 who had the ambition to be in the fashion, and were eager " to 
 speke Frensch, for to be more y-told of," — to be more liiglily 
 considered than their neighbours. It took about three hundreil 
 years for French words and phrases to soak thoroughly int(j 
 English ; and it was not until England was saturated with 
 French words and French rhythms that the great poet Chaucei 
 appeared to produce poetic narratives that were read witli 
 delight both by Xorman baron and by Saxon yeoman. In tlie 
 course of these tliree hundred years this intermixture of French 
 with English had been slowly and silently going on. Let us 
 look at a few of the chief land-marks in the long process. In 
 1042 Edward the Confessor introduces Xorman-French into liis 
 Court. In 1086 Duke AVilliam introduces Norman-Fiencli iiitu 
 the whole country, and even into parts of Scotland. The oldest 
 English, or Anglo-Saxon, ceases to be written, anywhere in the 
 island, in public documents, in the year 1154. In 1204 we 
 lost Normandy, a loss that had the effect of bringing the Eng- 
 lish and the l^ormans closer together. Kobert of Gloucester 
 writes his chronicle in 1272, and uses a large number of French 
 words. ])Ut, as early as the reign of Henry the Third, in tlie 
 year 1258, the reformed and reforming Government of the ilay 
 issued a proclamation in English, as well as in French and Latin. 
 In 1303, Eobert of Brunn introduces a large number of French 
 words. The French wars in Edward the Third's reign brought 
 about a still closer union of the Norman and the Saxon elements 
 of the nation. But, about the middle of the fourteenth century 
 a reaction set in, and it seemed as if the genius of the Englisli 
 language refused to take in any more French words. 1'he 
 English silent stubbornness seemed to have prevailed, and 
 Englishmen had made up their minds to be English in speech, 
 as they were English to the backbone in everything else. 
 Norman-French had, in fact, become provincial, an 1 was sijokeii 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGT'Ar.E. 
 
 293 
 
 It 
 
 lipir itwn 
 ; mark t 'Is 
 >." ]Uit 
 asses, wi\s 
 
 eager "to 
 
 ore hig^ily 
 ■e hun<lvc(l 
 uglily into 
 fated Avitli 
 ,et Cluiucei 
 read witli 
 m. In the 
 3 of I'rencli 
 )n. I^pt us 
 process. In 
 sncli into liis 
 ^.riencli into 
 Tlie oldest 
 where in the 
 |ln 1204 Ave 
 iiig the Eng- 
 If Gloucester 
 ler of Trench 
 third, in the 
 tt of the day 
 1 and Latin. 
 ler of Trench 
 ;ign brought 
 :on elements 
 snth century 
 the English 
 A'ords. The 
 ivailed, and 
 •Ai in speech, 
 •ything o^s^- 
 was spokeu 
 
 only hero and there, Before the great Plague — eonimonly 
 spoken of as "The Black Death" — of 1349, hotli high and 
 low seemed to be alike bent on learning French, but the reaction 
 may l)e said to date from this year. The cuhuiiuvting jxnnt of 
 this reaction may perhaps l)e seen in an Act of Parliament passed 
 in 1362 by Edward III., by Avhich both French and Latin 
 had to give place to English in our courts of law. The; ])oems 
 of Chaucer are the literary result — " the l)right consummate 
 llower" of the union of two great powers — the brilliance of the 
 French language on the one hand and the homely truth and 
 steadfastness of English on the other. Chaucer was born in 
 1340, and died in 1400; so that we may say that he and his 
 poems — though not the causes — are the signs and symbols of 
 tlie great influence that French obtained and held over our 
 mother tongue. But although we accepted so many vwds from 
 our Xorman-French visitors and immigrants, we accepted from 
 them no habit of speech whatever. We accepted from them no 
 phrase or idiom : the build and nature of the English language 
 remained the same — unaffected by foreign manners or l)y foreign 
 hahits. It is true that Chaucer has the ridiculous jdirase, " I 
 n'ani but dead " (for " I am quite dead '" ^) — which is a literal 
 translation of the well-known French idiom, " Je ne suis Cjue." 
 but, though our tongue has always been and is impervious to 
 foreign idiom, it is probably owing to the great influx of French 
 words which took place chiefly in the thirteenth century that many 
 people have acquired a habit of using a long French or Latin 
 word when an English word would do quite as well — or, in leed, 
 a great deal better. Thus some peo})le are found to call a fjood 
 house, a desirable mansion; and, instead of the quiet old ]'^nglish 
 proverb, " Buy once, buy twice," we have the roundabout Latin- 
 isms, "A single commission will ensure a repetition of orders." 
 An American writer, speaking of the foreign ambassadors who 
 had heen attacked by Japanese soldiers in Yeddo, says that 
 "they concluded to occupy a location more salubrious." This is 
 only a foreign language, instead of the simple and homely Eng- 
 lish : "They made up their minds to settle in a healthier spot." 
 
 ' Or, as au Irishman wuuld say, " I am kilt eutiiely." 
 
294 
 
 IIISTUUY UF TIIK KNOLlSIl LANGUAdK. 
 
 24. Latin of the Third Period (iii). Norman Words («).— 
 Tho Nonnjin-Frciich words wcro of .several dillViniiit kinds. 
 There were words connected witli war, witli feiidalisin, jiinl 
 with the diase. 'Ihere were new hiw terms, and words ((ni- 
 nected with tlie State, iind the new institutions intnxhiceil liy 
 tlie Normans. Th(;re were new words hrouj^dit in l\y tlu; Xoi- 
 man (;liur(;Iimeu. New titles unknown to the I^i^dish were 
 also introduced. A better kind of cookiii;^', a lii^du'r iiud less 
 homely style of liviu}.^, was hrou^dit into this country hy tin; 
 Normans ; and, alon^' with these, new and nnhear<l-of words. 
 
 25. Norman Words {/>). — The following' are some of tlif 
 Norman - French terms connected with war: Arms, armour; 
 assault, battle ; captain, chivalry ; joust, lance ; standard, 
 trumpet; mail, vizor. The Kn<,dish Avord for armour mms 
 harness; Imt tho Normans degraded that word into tlu; aniKnir 
 of a horse. Battle comes from the Fr. hol/n', to heat : the 
 corresponding English word is fight. Captain comes from 
 tho Latin caput, a head. Mail comes from tho Latin n/firiiln^ 
 tho mesh of a net ; and the first coats of mail were made of riiij,'s 
 or a kinil of metal network. Vizor comes from the Fr. vvVv/', 
 to look. It was tho harred part of the helmet whicli a man 
 could see through. ^^ 
 
 26. Norman Words (r). — Feudalism may ho descriluHl as llic 
 holding of land on cojidition of giving or pr(»viding sei'vicc in 
 war. Thus a knight held land of his haron, under jmnniso tn 
 servo him so many days ; a haron of his king, on coiidilimi 
 that ho brought so many men into tho field for such and smli 
 u time at tho call of his Overlord, William the; Concpicii'i 
 nuide the feudal S3^stcm universal in evcny ]iart of rhigiaiul. 
 and compelled every English baron to swear homage to him- 
 self personally. Words relating to feudalism are, aiiioiij; 
 others : Homage, fealty ; esquire, vassal ; herald, scutch 
 eon, and others. Homage is the declaration ol obedience for 
 life of one man to another — that the inferior is the ni'in (It 
 Jiomme ; L. homo) of the superior. Fealty is the Norman-Frciuli 
 form of tho word jidelity. An esquire is a scutiger (L.), <'r 
 shield-hmrer ; for lie carried the shield of the knight, when 
 
VOCAHULAUV OK THE ENGMSJF LANdUAClE. 
 
 2\)rt 
 
 ini kintk 
 ilisni, anil 
 
 ,'(mIii('»''1 ^',y 
 ^y i\w Ntii- 
 i<r\is\» Wfi'"' 
 
 itvy I'.y ^^"' 
 of words, 
 nini'. of th»' 
 18, armouv; 
 ,; standard, 
 armour was 
 ,0 tlio aviunuv 
 to In'ivt: ill'' 
 couu'S fvoiu 
 Latin v/""'"'". 
 i,uuW<'l' rin^s 
 the V'r. ''5'w;'') 
 whu'U a mn 
 
 thoy worn trav(01iii^' ami no li^'litin^' was i^'oitij,' on. A vassal 
 was a " littlo yonnj,' man,"- in J.owl.atiii vaasallus, a <liiiiinu- 
 tivc. of vasKii^, from tli(! Kdtii; word (jinis, a man. ('I'lic form 
 rt(s/<fifrfus is also found, which gives us our nirhi and nitct.) 
 Scutcheon comes from the. I, at. urufniii, a sliield. Tlicn scut- 
 cheon or escutclieon came to mean (•(xif-of-driiis— i,v the marks 
 and signs on liis slueld hy which the name and family of a man 
 were known, wlien lie himself was covered from head to foot in 
 iriiM mail. 
 
 27. Norman Woias {d). — The terms coinu^cied with the 
 ( liase are : Brace, couple ; chase, course ; covert, copse, 
 forest; leveret, mews; quarry, venison. A few remarks 
 ahniit .some of tlieso may he interesting. Brace comes fiom 
 the Old French hrdce, an arm (Mod. French hnis) ; from the 
 Latin hrachiuiti. The root-idea .s(>ems to he that which encloses 
 or holds up. Thus hrnrfiifj air is that which sfr/'tKjs uj) the 
 nerves and nniscles ; and a hrara of l)irds was two hirds tie(l 
 together with a string. — The word forest contains in it.sidf 
 11 good deal of unwritten Norman liistory. It comes from the 
 Latin wlwrh funLs, out of doors. Hence, in Italy, a stranger or 
 foreignc^r is still called aforcdiere. A forest in Norman Frencli 
 Mas not necessarily a ])readth of land coven^d with trees ; it 
 was sinii)ly land out of the jurisdidion of the common law. 
 Hence, when William the Coinpieror eicatcd the New Forest, 
 lu! merely took the land oid of the rule and charg*^ of tlie com- 
 mon law, and put it under his owji regal i)o\ver and ])ersonaI 
 • are. In land of this kind — nnicli of Avhich was ke[)t for hunt- 
 ing ill — trees were afterwards i)lanted, partly to shelter large 
 game, and partly to employ ground otherwise useless in growing 
 tim])er. — Mews is a very odd word. It (!omes from the Latin 
 verb imiiare, to change. "When tlie falcons employed in hunting 
 were changing their feathers, or moulthxj (the word moult is the 
 same as mews in a different dress), the French sliut them in 
 a cage, which they called mue — from Dmtare. TIkjii the stahlcs 
 fi>r horses were put in the same i)laco , and hence a row of 
 stables has come to be called a mews.— Quarry is quite as 
 stiuiige. The word quarry, which means a mine of stones, 
 
 ■ 
 
 i A 
 
I I 
 
 290 
 
 HISTOUY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 m 
 
 comes from tlio Liitiii (/iKtdnlrc, to miik(! S(|uaro. But the 
 liuntin^' torm qitdrri/ is of a (luitc (liU'eroiit ori;^'in. That cnnics 
 from tlio Liitiii cor (tlio licurt), which th(! OM French iihi t.mI 
 into quer. When a wild Least was run (h)\vn and killed, tlio 
 lioart and entrails were thrown to the dogs I's their share of the 
 liunt. ]Ien(;o Milton says of tho eagle, "lie scents his (juiirry 
 from afar." — The W(n'd venison comes to lis, through French, 
 from the Lat. voidri, to hunt; and lience it means hunted Jlmh, 
 The same word gives us vmcnj — the term that Avas used in tlio 
 fourteentli century, l)y Chnuc(!r among others, for limiting. 
 
 28. Norman Words {(•). — The Normans introduced into Eng- 
 land their own system of law, their own law ollicers ; and hence, 
 into the iMiglish language, came Norman-F'rench law teriiis. 
 The following are a few : Assize, attorney ; chancellor, court; 
 judge, justice ; plaintiflf, sue ; summons, trespass. A lew 
 remarks ahout some of tliese may he useful. The chancellor 
 (rancdlanufi) was the legal autliority who .sat l)eliind lattice 
 work, which was called in Latin canccUL This word nuuuis. 
 primarily, little cvahs ; and it is a diminutive from c(iiicei', a 
 crah. It was so called hcicause the lattice-work Iot)ked liko 
 crahs' claws crossed. Our word cancel comes from the saiut! 
 root : it means to make cross lines through anything we wish 
 deleted. — Court comes from tlie Latin curs or cohors, a shccj)- 
 pen. It afterwards came to nunm an enclosuri', and also a 
 body of Koman soldier.s, — The proper English Avord for njinhjc 
 is deemster or demster (which apj)ears as the proper name 
 Dempster); and this is still the name for a judge in the Isle 
 of Man. The F'rcnch word comes from two Latin wonls, f//V//, 
 I utter, and jiis, right. The Avord jus is seen in the (jIIu'I 
 French term Avhich Ave have received from the Normans- 
 justice. — Sue comes from the Old FY suir, Avhich a[)pears iii 
 Modern F'r. as s-uivre. It is derived from the Lat. Avord seqwn; 
 I folloAV (which gives our sequel); and Ave have compounds of it 
 in ensue, issue, andjnirsue. — The tres in trespass is a Freiidi 
 form of the Latin trails, beyond or across. Trespass, therefore, 
 means to cross the bounds of right. 
 
 29. Norman Words (/'). — Some of the church terms intic 
 
VOCABULATIY OF TlfK KNCMslf I,AXr;rAr,E. 
 
 20: 
 
 r,at iln' 
 
 iich iiUnvd 
 I kiU»''l, Uii- 
 
 8 his tpi:ivry 
 ni^h Frcnrli, 
 
 /i„/(/fv/ /'>^. 
 
 ^ used in Un' 
 
 Liiniin-;. 
 
 xA into Kiv^- 
 
 U law It'vuis. 
 cellor, court; 
 
 )a8S. A 1'^'^^' 
 he chancellor 
 johiiul lattici'- 
 4 \vi)V(l uuiaus, 
 iroin atJ/cc', a 
 •k loulanl likt' 
 ,111 tlie stum! 
 ■tliin-; Nvc wi>^i' 
 
 ^//o/*. 
 
 a s 
 
 0, anil also a 
 
 (,rdfora>'l/c 
 
 proper naino 
 
 .re in live Isk' 
 
 Itiu words, (i't"i 
 
 h in 
 
 the othei 
 Ihe NorniaiiS' 
 lich appears m 
 Avord seqiifi"^) 
 oiiiids of U 
 yrencli 
 therefore, 
 
 hemp 
 
 IBS 
 
 IS a 
 
 l«|^X<S6'j 
 
 Lih ternib 
 
 iulru 
 
 iluccd hy the Nuniiaii-Frcneh arc: Altar, Biblo ; baptism, 
 ceremony; friar; tonsure; ponance, relic. Tin- Normans 
 .r;iv('. US tlie wonls title and dignity Ihcinsclvcs, and also 
 {Uv. following,' titles: Duke, marquis; count, viscount; 
 peer; mayor, and otliors. A duke is a Irmliv ; from tlw 
 halin (lux (-tines). A marquis is a lord who has to ridti 
 the iiKtirltcx or hordcrs ix'twecii one eonniy, or hi'twecn ono 
 cotnitry, and anotlusr. A marquis was also called a Lord- 
 Marcher. The word count never took root in this island, 
 Ix'causo its }>laeo was already occupied hy tlie Danish name 
 iiirl : hut wo preserve it in the names countess and viscount 
 —the latter of which means a person in, tlic phicc, of (L. vice) 
 ii count. Peer comes from the Latin jj<yr, an (M|iial. Thn 
 House of I'eers is the liouso of Lords — that is, « 1 those Avho 
 arc, at least when in the House, equal in rank and equal in 
 power of voting. It is a fundamental doctrine in English 
 law that every man "is to ho tried hy his^>rrr,s\"- — It is worthy 
 of note that, in general, tlio French names for dillerent kinds 
 of food designated the cooked meats ; Avhilo the names for 
 the living animals that furnish them arc English. Thus 
 we have he.t]f .and ox; muff on and f<heep ; venl and exdf ; pork 
 and })l(j. There is a romarkahle passage? in Sir Walter Scott's 
 'Ivaidioe,' which illustrates this fact with great force and pic- 
 tures(pieness ; — 
 
 " ' Gurth, I advise theo to call off Fangs, and leavo tlie herd to 
 their destiny, which, whether they meet with hands of travelling 
 soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering ])ilgrims, can ho little 
 else than to be converted into Normans hefore morning, to thy 
 no small ease and comfort.' 
 
 " 'The swine turned Normans to my comfort ! ' quoth Gurth; 
 'expound that to me, Wamha, for my brain is too dull, and my 
 mind too vexed, to read riddles.' 
 
 " ' AVhy, how call you those grunting brutes running about on 
 their four legs 1 ' demanded Wamha, 
 
 " ' Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd ; ' every fool knows 
 that.' 
 
 " 'And SAvine is good Saxon,' said the jester; * but how call 
 
 
 ll 
 
 L- 
 
 
I I * 
 
 t^. 
 
 HISTOllY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 you the sow when she is flayed, and draAvn, and quartcrad, and 
 Jiung up hy the heels, like a traitor? * 
 
 " ' Pork,' answered the swine-herd. 
 
 "* I am very glad every fool knows that too,' saidWamha; 
 * and pork, I think, is good Xornian-Freneh : and so whon tlic 
 brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes Ly 
 her Saxon name; hut becomes a Xorman, and is called junk, 
 Avhen she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the Udljlts ; 
 what dost thou tliink of this, friend Gurtli, ha?' 
 
 " ' It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got 
 into thy fool's pate.' 
 
 " ' Xi),y, I can tell you more,' said Wamba, in the same tuiic ; 
 'there is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, 
 while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such as 
 thou, but becomes P)eef, a fiory French gallant, when he arrives 
 before the worshipftd jaws that are destincid to consume him. 
 Myhneer Calf, too, b(;comes iMonsieur do Veau in the like man- 
 ner ; h(i is Saxon Avhen he rerpiires tendance, and takes a ^'^or- 
 raan name when he becomes matter of enjoyment.' Vt>^ 
 
 30. General Character of the Norman-French Contributions. 
 — The Norman-French contril)uti()ns to our language gave us 
 a number of general names or class-names ; while the namu.s 
 for individvial things are, in genin-al, of ])urely English origin. 
 The words animal and beast, for example, are French (nr 
 Latin); but the M'ords fox, hound, "whale, snake, wasp, inul 
 fly iii'e ])ur<'ly Juigli.sh. — -Tlie Avords family, relation, parent, 
 ancestor, are French ; but the names father, mother, son. 
 daughter, gossip, arcs 3*'nglish.— The words title and dignity 
 are French ; but tlie words king and queen, lord and lady, 
 knight and sheriflF, are Engli.sh. — rerha])s the most remarkahit 
 instance of this is to be found in the abstract terms emphm'il 
 for the oihces and functions of State. Of these, the Englisli 
 liuiguage possesses only one — the word kingdom. Nornitm- 
 French, on the other hand, lias given us the words realm, court, 
 state, constitution, people, treaty, audience, navy, army, 
 and otluus — amounting in all to nearly forty. When, how- 
 ever, W(; coiuo to terms denoting labour and work — such as ugri- 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 299 
 
 'tcrQtl, anf\ 
 
 id AVaiulia; 
 io \vh(.'n the 
 she goes hy 
 caUiMl polk, 
 the nohl(>s ; 
 
 wevcr it got 
 
 B same tone ; 
 axon epithet, 
 men such as 
 en lie arrives 
 ionsumo hiiu. 
 the like man- 
 takes a Xor- 
 
 [uage gave us 
 
 ih^ the names 
 
 tnglish origin. 
 
 o French ('>'■ 
 
 culture and seafaring, we find the proportions entirely reversed. 
 The English language, in such cases, contributes abnost every- 
 thing ; the French nearly nothing. In agriculture, while plough, 
 rake, harrow, flail, and many others are English words, not a 
 single term for an agricultural process or implement has been 
 given us by the warlike Norman -French. — AVhile the words 
 ship and boat; hull and fleet; oar and sail, are all English, 
 the Normans have presented us Avith only the single word 
 prow. It is as if all the Norman conqueror had to do was to 
 take his stand at the prow, ga/ing upon the land he was going 
 to S(,'ize, while the Low-German sailors worked for him at oar and 
 sail— Again, while the names of the various parts of the body 
 — eye, nose, cheek, tongue, hand, foot, and more than eighty 
 otliers — are all English, we have received only about ten similar 
 words from the French — such as spirit and corpse ; perspira- 
 tion; face and stature. Sjicaking broadly, W(! may say that all 
 words that express general notions, or generalisations, are 
 Kivncli or Latin ; wdiile words that exjm^ss specific actions or 
 concrete existences are pure English. 1S\y Spalding ol)serves — 
 "We use a foreign term naturalised when we speak of 'colour' 
 iniiversally ; ])ut we fall back on our homo stores if W(; have to 
 lell what the colour is, calling it 'red' or 'yellow,' 'white' or 
 'Mack,' 'green' or 'brown.' Wo, are Jfomans when we sj)eak 
 in a (jiiu')'iil way of ' moving ' ; but we, ai-e Teutons if wo. ' leap ' 
 nr ' spring,' if we 'slip,' 'slide,' or 'fall,' if we 'walk,' 'run,' 
 'swim,' or 'ride,' if we 'creep' or 'crawl' or ' ily.' " 
 
 31. Gains to English from Norman-French.— The gains from 
 tlie Norman-French contribution are large, and are also of very 
 groat im[)ortance. IVIr LoavcU says, that th?, Norman element 
 • iune in as quickeni.ng leavcm to the rath^^r heavy and lumpy 
 Saxon dough. It stirred the whole. n::iss, gave new life to 
 tlie language, a much higher and wider scope to the thoughts, 
 luucli greatt'r power and copiousness to the exj)ression of our 
 tliouglils, and a finer and brighter rhythm to our English 
 sentences. " To Ciuiucer," he says, in ' ^My Study AVlndows,' 
 " French must havt^ been almost as truly a mother tongue as 
 Knglish. In him we see the first result of the Norman yeast 
 
-- -* y i wy iintii 
 
 300 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 upon tlie honiG-baked Saxon loaf. Tlie flour liad heen lipnost, 
 the paste well kneaded, but the inspiring leaven was wanting 
 till the Xorman brought it over. Chaucer works still in tlie 
 solid material of his race, but with wh'H airy lightness has li(3 
 not infused it? AVithout ceasing to bo English, he has escaped 
 from being insular." Let us look at some of these gains a little 
 more in detail. 
 
 32. Norman -French Synonyms. — Wo mnst not consider a 
 synonym as a word that means exactly the same thing as the 
 word of wdiich it is a synonym ; because then there would be 
 neither room nor use for such a word in the language. A 
 synonym is a word of tho same meaning as another, but with 
 a slightly dilferent shade of meaning, — or it is used uu(l(;r 
 diiFerent circumstances and in a dilTorcnt connection, or it puts 
 the same idea under a new angle. Begin and commence, will 
 and testament, are exact equivalents — are complete synonyms, 
 but there are very few more of this kind in our language. The 
 moment tho genius of a language gets hold of two words of the 
 same meaning, it sets them to do different kinds of work, — to 
 express diiferent parts or shades of that meaning. Thus limb 
 and member, luck and fortune, have the same meaning; 
 but we cannot speak of a Uinh of the Royal Society, or of 
 the luck of the liothschilds, who made their fortune by hard 
 work and steady attention to business. "We have, by the aid of 
 tlie Norman-French contributions, flower as well as bloom; 
 branch and bough ; purchase and buy ; amiable and 
 friendly ; cordial and hearty ; country and land ; gentle 
 and mild ; desire and wish ; labour and work ; miserable ami 
 wretched. These pairs of words enable poets and other writers 
 to use tho right Avord in the riglit place. And we, preferring 
 our Saxon or good old English words to any French or Latin 
 importations, prefer to speak of a hearty welcome instead 
 of a cordial reception ; of a loving w^ife instead of an ami- 
 able consort ; of a wretched man instead of a miserable 
 individual. 
 
 33. Bilingualism. — How did these Norman -French words 
 find their Avay into the language 1 What was the road by which 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE EXGLTRTI LANGUAGE. 
 
 301 
 
 ;n lipnest, 
 s wanting 
 till in the 
 ess has \w 
 las escaped 
 ains a little 
 
 consider a 
 ihimi as the 
 re would he 
 mguage. A 
 icr, hut with 
 used under 
 m, or it puts 
 imence, will 
 te synonyms, 
 nguage. The 
 words of the. 
 of worh, — to 
 Thus limb 
 |nic meaning; 
 Society, or of 
 ■tunG hy hard 
 by the aid of 
 dl as bloom; 
 lamiable and 
 |land; gentle 
 Liserable ami 
 fl other writers 
 we, preferring 
 -ench or Latin 
 Lcome instead 
 ^^{ of an ami- 
 a miserable 
 
 .French word? 
 road by whidi 
 
 they came? What wan tlio. process that enabled tliem to find a 
 place in and to stri'ko deep root into our English soil? Did the 
 learniMl men — the monks and the clergy — make; a seduction of 
 words, write theni in their books, and teach them to the. English 
 people? Nothing of the sort. The process was a nnich ruder 
 one — but at the same time one much more practical, more eil'ec- 
 tual, and more lasting in its results. I'he two peoples — the 
 Xormans and the English — found that they had to live togcthc'r. 
 They met at church, in the markiit-place, in the drilling iicdd, at 
 tlie archery butts, in the courtyards of castles ; and, on the 
 battle-fields of France, the Saxon bowman showcnl that he could 
 fight as well, as bravely, and oven to better puri)Ose than his lord 
 — the Norman baron. At all these places, under all these cir- 
 cuiiistances, the Norman and the Englishman Avere ol)lig(Hl to 
 speak with each other. Now arose a striking jthciumienon. 
 Every man, as Professor Earle puts it, turned himscdf as it were 
 into a walking phrase-book or dictionary. AVhen a Norman had 
 to use a French word, he tried to put the English word for it 
 alongside of the French word ; when an Englishman used an 
 English word, he joined with it the French e(]uivalent. Idien 
 tlie language soon began to swarm with " yokes of wcjrds " ; our 
 words went in couples ; and the hal)it then l)egun has continued 
 down even to the present day. And thus it is that we possess 
 such couples as will and testament ; act and deed ; use and 
 wont; aid and abet. Chaucer's poems an; full (»f these pairs. 
 He joins together hunting and venery (though both words 
 mean exactly the same thing); nature and kind; cheere and 
 face; pray and beseech ; mirth and jollity. Later on, the 
 Prayer-ljook, which was written in the years ir)40 to L'559, 
 keeps up the habit: and we find the ])airs acknowledge and 
 confess ; assemble and meet together ; dissemble and 
 cloak ; humble and lowly. To the nnu-e English part of the 
 congregation the simple Saxon words would come home with 
 kindly association ; to others, the words co/^/V .s.s-, ai^senihje, (?/.s- 
 ■it'inhk, and hnmhlc would si)eak with greater force and clearness. 
 —Sueh is the phenomenon called by I'rofessor Earle bilingual- 
 ism. "It is, in fact," he says, "a putting of colloquial for- 
 
'HWii Jmiiig falii.Tr«aiii.M 
 
 m. 
 
 Iiii 
 
 I' 
 
 rtft; 
 
 
 302 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 iniilse to do tlie duty of a French-English and Englisli-French 
 vocabulary." Even Hooker, who wrote at the end of the six- 
 teenth century, seems to have been obliged to use these pairs ; 
 and we find in his writings the couples " cecity and blindness," 
 "nocivo and hurtful," "sense and meaning. "^^^ 
 
 34. Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman-French. 
 — (i) Before the coming of the Normans, the ]<2nglish language 
 was in the habit of forming compounds with ease and elfect. 
 Eut, after the introduction of the Norman-French language, that 
 power seems gradually t© have disappeared ; and ready-made 
 French or liatin words usurped the place of the home-grown 
 English compound. Thus despair pushed out wanhope ; 
 suspicion dethroned wantrust ; bidding - sale was expelled 
 by auction ; learning-knight by disciple ; rime-craft by tlio 
 Greek word arithmetic ; gold-hoard by treasure ; book-hoard 
 by library; earth -tilth by agriculture; "wonstead liy 
 residence; and so with a large number of others. — ^Maiiy 
 English words, moreover, had their meanings depreciated and 
 almost degraded ; and the words themselves lost their ancient 
 rank and dignity. Thus the Xorman conquerors put tlioir 
 foot — literally and metaphorically — on the feaxon chair,^ wliicli 
 thus became a stool, or a footstool. Thatch, which is a 
 doublet of the word deck, was the name for any kind of roof; 
 but the coming of the Xorman- French lowered it to indicate a 
 roof of straw. Whine was used for the weeping or crying of 
 human beings ; but it is now restricted to the cry of a dot;, 
 Hide was the generic term for the skin of any animal ; it is 
 now limited in modern English to the skin of a beast. — The 
 most damaging result upon our language was that it entirely 
 stopped the grow^th of English words. We could, for 
 example, make out of the word burn — the derivatives brunt, 
 brand, brandy, brown, brimstone, and others; but this 
 [X)wer died out with the coming in of the Xorman- French 
 language. After that, instead of growing our own words, w 
 
 J Chair is the Norman-French form of the French chaise. The Germans 
 still call a chair a, atuhl; and among the English, stool was the universal uani( 
 till the t>««lfth century. 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 303 
 
 ){ the six- 
 licse pairs ; 
 blindness," 
 
 Lan-Irencli. 
 
 sh langiu\;^e 
 
 I and ellect. 
 
 uguage, tluit 
 ready-nuulft 
 
 liome-gvowu 
 wanhope ; 
 
 was expellfil 
 
 -craft by tlio 
 book-hoard 
 
 sronstead l>y 
 
 ithers.— ^lany 
 
 predated ami 
 their ancient 
 
 ■ors pnt their 
 chair,^ whieli 
 which is a 
 Idnd of roof; 
 t to indicate a 
 Ir or crying of 
 J cry of a doj:. 
 I' animal ; it is 
 la beast.— The 
 Ihat it entirely 
 Ive could, for 
 Ivatives brunt, 
 kers; but tW^ 
 lorman-Vreiicli 
 3wn words, ve 
 
 se. The Germans 
 the universal name 
 
 adopted thoni reudy-niado. — Professor Craik compares tlio 
 J'lnglisli and Latin languages to two banks ; and says lliat, 
 wlicn the Normans came owa; tlie a('cuunt at the Knglish bank 
 AN-as closed, and wo drew only upon tiie Latin bank. But tlie 
 case is \vors(! than this. English lost its jjower of growth and 
 cxjnmsion from the centre ; from this time, it could only add 
 to its l)ulk by borrowing and conveying from witliout — by the 
 oxt(!rnal accretion -of fon^ign words. ^^^"^ 
 
 35. Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman-French. 
 — (ii) The arrestmcsnt of growth in the })urely Knglish part of 
 (lur language, owing to tlui irruption of Xdrman-Frencli, and 
 also to the easci with which wo could tako a ready-made word 
 from Latin or from Cireek, killed off an old power which wo 
 nii(?e possessed, and which was not without its own use and 
 expressiveness. This Avas the power of uiaking compound 
 wdrds. The Greeks in ancient times had, and th<} Germans 
 in nindorn times have, this power in a high degree. Thus a 
 (ireck comic poet has a word of fourteen syllables, v,hich may 
 111' thus traiislated — 
 
 " Meauly-rising-early-and-hurrving-to-tlie-tribural-to-(leiiounco-aiiotlior- 
 for-an-infraction-of-the-law-concerning-tlie-exportation-of-figs."' 
 
 And the Germans have a compound like " the-all-to-nothing- 
 erushing philoso[)her.'' The Germans also say iron-ixifli for rail- 
 iraif, hanclihoe for f/lovc, and jingcr-ldit for fhhahle. V^\' also 
 liossessed this power at one time, ami employed it both in 
 proper and in common names. Thus we had and have the 
 niunes Bmlie.^pear, Shakedajf, Sh'tJcespear, 0(>l/(/h(h/, DoUtlJe, 
 Stdndfast ; and the common nouns iraui-irit, JiiKl-fanJf, mumhle- 
 npjL's (for tale-hearer), pinch-] ten hi/ (for riuxer), xliujahed. In 
 older times avo had three -foot -stool, three-man-heetht- ; stone- 
 cold, heaven-hrUiht, honey-sweet, snail-slon', nut-h'own, lily-livered 
 (for coivairUy) ; hrand-Jire-neir ; cartli-iranderintj, wind-dried, 
 fhnnder-hlastcd, death-doomed, and many others. But sucli 
 words as forbears or fore-elders have been pushed out by ances- 
 
 ' In two words, a. ft cf. shower or si/cop/iant. 
 
 - A club for beatiug clothes, that could be handled only by three nieu. ' 
 
OiHIMi** "' i «rir» iiii 
 
 l|, 
 
 w 
 
 riilM 
 
 m 
 
 304 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EXOLTSH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ior.s ; foreivit by and ion or jtri/deucc ; and //iVtvV by comeicnce, 
 Mr iJarnes, tlie J)()rs('tsliirc jxx-t, would like to see tlu'S(! aiul 
 similar coiupouiids restored, and tliinks tiiat we nii<flit well 
 return to tlie old elear weii-sprin^L^'s of " English undefiled," 
 and niak(^ our own coinpounds out of our own words. lie 
 even carries his desin s into tin; region of l''iiu;lish ,^ranniiar, 
 and, for der/rces of (■(nnitKrixon, pi'oposes the phrase, ji/'frhc^ of 
 ,s/ichiKtss. Thus, instead of the J.atin word oiiin!hii-<, \w, wuuM 
 have folk-iraiit; for the Greek Jnifdiij/, he would substitute 
 wort-lore; for cmct/oi>, ho would give us hade-sale; glohdlc he 
 would replace with Ixdlkiii ; the (Ireek word horizon niust givd 
 way to the pure English N/r/z-r^/f/^'y and, instead of (jiKtdnniijIc, 
 lie would have us all write and say /(iiir-in'idile. 
 
 36. Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman- 
 French. — (iii) AVhen once a way was made for the entran(!e ef 
 French words into our English language, the immigrations were 
 rapid and numerous, llenco there were many changes hoth 
 in tlie grammar and in the vocabulary of English from the 
 year 1100, the year in which we may supjiose those English- 
 men who were living at the date of the battle of Hastings had 
 died out. These changes were more or loss rapid, accordiiii; 
 to circumstances. Eut perhajis the most rapid and remarkaWc 
 change took place in the lifetime of AVilliam Caxton, the great 
 printer, wdio Avas born in 1410. In his preface to his translation 
 of the '/Eneid' of Virgil, whicdi he })ublishod in 1490, when lio 
 was eighty years of age, he says that he cannot understand old 
 books that Avero written when he was a boy — that " the oldc 
 Englyssheis morolyke to dutche than onglysshe," and that "oiir 
 langage now vsed varyeth forre from that whiclie was vsed ami 
 spoken when I was borne. For wo Englysshemen ben boriu' 
 ynder the domynacyon of the mono [moon], which is neiier 
 stedfaste, but oner Avauerynge, Avexynge one season, and Avaiietli 
 and dycreasoth another season." This as regards time. — but 
 he has the same complaint to make as regards place. " Comyn 
 englysshe that is spoken in one shyro varyeth from another.'' 
 And lie tells an odd story in illustration of this fact. He tell< 
 about certain merchants Avho Avere in a sliip " in Taniyse " (ou tlu' 
 
VOCABULARY OF TFTE EXOUSII LANOUACIK. 
 
 305 
 
 conseieitce. 
 those an<\ 
 ui^lit ^v(■ll 
 uinli'lUod," 
 
 ovds. 11»' 
 I <^v;nnuiav, 
 
 > jiili'lii''^ <'J 
 f.s-, \n\ would 
 1 s\ihsiitul(> 
 • (ilohule 111" 
 ,/i must ^iv>' 
 qnddi'ini'jl'', 
 
 of Norman- 
 
 e eiitviUiee of 
 igratious avovc 
 "chiuigos I'oth 
 lisU from the 
 hose Kugli^^i- 
 llastin;j;s had 
 pid, uccordin;4 
 il reniavhahlo 
 ton, the gv»Hit 
 his tTaBsh\tion 
 490, when lu^ 
 nulerstaiul oU 
 ^hat " the olde 
 and that "ouv 
 
 Nvas vsed uinl 
 lion hell hovne 
 ^^liich is n*^^"*"'' 
 ,n, and wanotli 
 Lis time.— 1'^^^ 
 ace. "Coiuyn 
 from another. 
 If act. lU'ti'll^ 
 Lmyse"(o^^^^" 
 
 Thames), who Avere hound for Zoahmd, hut wore wind-stayed at 
 the Forohind, and took it into tlieir lioads to go on sliore there. 
 One of the luercliants, wlioso nauie was SlicllVhh^ a uiorcor, 
 
 I axed 
 
 f' 
 
 entered a house; 
 
 an( 
 
 for mete, and s{)t'eyally lie axyd 
 
 after eggys." ] hit the " goode-wyf " replied that she; " comlo 
 spoke no fronshe." The merchant, Avho svas a steady l'",nglish- 
 inan, lost his tcMupor, " for ho also coude speke no fronshe, hut 
 wolde have hadde eggys ; and she understodc hym not." Fortu- 
 nately, a friend liai)])eno(l to join him in the house, and he acted 
 as interi)roter. The friend said that "he wolde have cvren; 
 then the goodo wyf saych; that she undorstod hym avoI." And 
 then the siinple-mindcul hut mmdi-perplexed Caxton goes on to 
 say: " Loo I what sholde a man in thyse dayes now AviTte, eggiis 
 oreyrenl" Suidi Avorc; the dillieulties that heset printers and 
 writers in the close of the iifteenth conlurv. V^ 
 
 37. Latin of the Fourth Period. — (i) 'J'his eoiitrilnition dilUnvs 
 very essentially in eharacter from the last. The Normand-'ronch 
 contrihiition Avas a gift from a people to a people — from living 
 heings to living hoings ; this ncAV coiitrihution Avas rather a con- 
 veyance of words from hooks to hooks, and it nt.'Ver inlluenced 
 — in any groat degree — the spoken "language of tlu; English 
 people. The ear and the month carried the Xorman-Frencli 
 Avords into our language; the eye, the ]ien, and the printing- 
 press Avere the instrunu'uts that hrought in the Latin Avords of 
 the Fourth Period. The Xorman-Fri'iich AVords that came in 
 took and kept tludr place in the si)oken language of the mass(_'s 
 of the people; the Latin AVords that avo received in the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries kept their place in the Avritton or 
 printed language of hooks, of scholars, and of literary men. 
 Tlicse noAV Latin Avords came in Avith the Revival of Learning, 
 wliioh is also called the Renascence. 
 
 The Turks attacked and to(dv Constantinojile in the year 
 1453; and the great Greek and Latin scholars Avho lived in 
 that city hurriedly packed up their priceless manuscripts and 
 hooks, and fled to all parts of Italy, ( lermany, Franco, and even 
 into England. The loss of the East hecame the gain of the 
 West. These scholars hecame teachers ; they taught the Greek 
 
•iMnrjmnnii n m 
 
 S i 
 
 I ; 
 
 k 
 
 W 
 
 30G 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EXfiLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 jind Uoniiin classics to cajfer and oanicst leanii'i's : and ilius n 
 new iinpulso Avas given to the study of the great masterpieces df 
 liunian tliouglit and literary style. And so it eanie to jmss in 
 course of time that every one who wished to heeome tin cdii- 
 cuted man studied the literature of (jreeee and Jionie. Vmw 
 women took to the study. Lady Jane Grey was a good (iivik 
 and Latin scholar; and so was Queen Elizaheth. From this 
 time began an enormous importation of Latin words into our 
 language. ])eing imported hy the eye and the pen, they suH'crcd 
 little or no change; the spirit of the ])eo])le did not inilucnce 
 them in the least — n(uther the organs of speech nor the car 
 affected eith(;r the pronunc;iation or tlie spelling of them. If we 
 look down the columns of any Kuglish dictionary, we rhall (iiid 
 these later Latin Avords in hundreds. Ojh'ii/oiii'iu l)ecaiiie 
 opinion; fadiuitaiii, faction; orafioi/eiii, oration; inuKjcnlciii 
 l)ass(.'d over in the form of pungent (though we had poiijiiitiii 
 already from the French) ; iKai.jK'n'iu came in as pauper ; and 
 sepai'dtam l>ecame separate. 
 
 38. Latin of the Fourth Period. — (ii) This went on tu 
 such an extent in the sixteenth and the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century, that one writer says of those who sixike 
 and wrote this liatinised Kuglish, "If some of their uiotlicrs 
 were alive, they were not able to tell what they say." And 
 8ir Thomas Browne (1005-1082) remarks: "If elegancy 
 (= the use of Latin words) still proceedetli, and Englisli 
 pens maintain that stream we have of late oT)served to llnw 
 from many, we shall, within a few years, be fain to learn Latin 
 to understand English, and a work will prove of e(|ual facility 
 in either." jNIr Alexander (Jill, an eminent .schoolmaster, ;uid 
 the then head-master of St Paul's 8(;liool, where, among lii> 
 other pupils, he taught John Milton, wrote a book in 1019 on 
 the Englisli language; and, among other remarks, he says: "<) 
 harsh lips ! I now hear all around me such words as comnioHf 
 vices, envy, malice ; even virtue, studi/, justice, intij, mercy, com- 
 passion, jirofit, commodity, colour, r/race, favour, acceptanct 
 ]]ut whither, I pray, in all the world, have you banished those 
 words which our forefathers used for these new-fangled ones! 
 
VOCABULARY OF TIIV: ENGLISH LANGUACiK. 
 
 307 
 
 Are our -words to be executed lik(! our (utizons]" And he calls 
 this ffisliiou of using Latin words " tlio new mange in our speak- 
 ing and writing." JUit the fashion went on growing ; and even 
 uneducated people thought it a clever thing to use a Latin 
 instead of a good English word. Samuel liowlands, a writer in 
 the seventeenth century, ridicules this aflectation in a frw lines 
 (if V(!rse. He pretend.'- that he was out walking on the highroad, 
 and met a countryman wlio wanted to know what o'clock it was, 
 and whether lie was on the light wav to the town ov villajfo h(5 
 was making for The writer saw at once th.at he was a simple 
 hnm})kiii ; and, when he heard that he had lost his way, he 
 turned up his nose at the poor fellow, and ordered him to ])e oil' 
 at once. Here are the lines : — 
 
 " As on the Wcay I itinerated, 
 A rural person I obviated, 
 Interrogating time's transitatinii, 
 And of the passage denionstratimi. 
 My apprehension did ingenious siun 
 That he was merely a simplician ; 
 So, when I saw he was extravagiint, 
 Unto the 6bscure vulgar consonant, 
 I bade hiui vanish most promiscuously. 
 And not contaminate my comjiany." 
 
 39. Latin of the Fourth Period. — (iii) What happened in the 
 case of the Xorman-French contri])ution, happened also in this. 
 The language became saturated with these new Latin words, 
 until it became satiated, then, as it were, disgusted, and would 
 take no more. Hundreds of 
 
 " Long-tailed words in ost^y and <f/i'o/i" 
 
 crowded into the English language ; but many of them were 
 doomed to speedy expulsion. Thus words like dit<cerptihl.lUi/, 
 supervncaneousnesa, scptentriomdity^ liidihundiief^s (love of sport), 
 came in in crowds. The verb uitoMcrate tried to turn out soften ; 
 and deturpate to take the place of defile. Rut good Avriters, like 
 Bacon and Raleigh, took care to avoid the use of such terms, 
 and to employ only those Latin words whicili gave them the 
 power to indicate a new idea — a new meaning or a new shade 
 
308 
 
 IILSTOUY OF tup: ENGLISH LANCiUAGK. 
 
 m 
 
 of iiioaiiinf;. And wlicii wo coiik! to the ('ightcenth century, wn 
 find that u Avriter like Addison would liave shu(Mered at tlui 
 very nnuition of sucli "iidvliorn terms. J^Jf^r' 
 
 40. Eye-Latin and Ear-Latin. — (i) One .slip,dit inlluonco pro- 
 duced hy this sjircad of (hivution to cLissical Latin — to tlie Latin 
 of Cicero and Livy, of Horace and Virgil — was to alter the 
 si)(;llin^' of French words, ^\'e li;id iihcady received — throu^'h 
 the ear — the Fi'ench wordsr^^•^v^/.A', aceiditre, drfmit, dctlc, t'itdil/c, 
 and others. lUit when our .scholars Lecanie accustomed to tlu; 
 l)ook-forMi of these words in Latin hooks, they gradually altered 
 them — foi" the eye and ear — into axKavlf, adveidnrc, dr/anlf, 
 dahf, and vuduaU. They went further. A large number (»f 
 Latin Avords that already existed in the language in their 
 A^orman-French form (for we must not forget that French is 
 Latin "Avith the ends bitten off" — changed by being spoken 
 peculiarly and heard imi)erfectly) Avere reintroduced in their 
 original Latin form. 'J'hus avc had caitiff from the Xormans; 
 but wo reintroduced it in the shape of captive, which conies 
 almost Tinaltcred from the Latin captivum. Peat Ave liad from 
 the Normans; but the Ijoiiw factum, Avhich provided the Avonl, 
 presented us Avith a second form of it in the Avord fact. Such 
 Avords might bo called Ear-Latin and Eye-Latin ; Mouth- 
 Latin and Book-Latin ; Spoken Latin and Written Latin ; 
 or Latin at second-hand and Latin at first-hand. 
 
 41. Eye-Latin and Ear-Latin. — (ii) Lhis coming in of the 
 same AVord by tAVO dillerent doors — T)y the I^'.ye and by the ]^ar— 
 has given rise to the phenomenon of Doublets. The folloAving 
 is a list of Latin Doublets ; and it Avill be noticed that Latin ^ 
 stands for Latin at first-hand — from books; and Latin" fur 
 Latin at second-hand — through the Nornian-Frencli. 
 
 Latin Doublets or Duplicates. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Latin \ 
 
 Latin ". 
 
 Antecessorem 
 
 Antecessor 
 
 Ancestor. 
 
 Benedictionem 
 
 Benediction 
 
 Benison. 
 
 Cadentia (Low Lat. noun) 
 
 Cadence 
 
 Chance. 
 
 Captivum 
 
 Captive 
 
 Caitiff. 
 
VOC'AHULAKY 01- THE KNCMSII I.ANcrACK. 
 
 301) 
 
 iitury, w(! 
 cd at Uio 
 
 iicnco pro- 
 1 i\w T.iitin 
 ) iiltcr llu' 
 I — tliroiii^li 
 t.te,vit(iill<', 
 iiiioil to thl! 
 liiUy alUiVcd 
 
 lunnln-r <>t' 
 re in their 
 ,t yreucli is 
 L'ing spoken 
 ced in their 
 lie Normans; 
 whieh coiui'rf 
 we liad from 
 3d the word, 
 fact. Such 
 n ; Mouth- 
 itten Latin ; 
 
 \\(f in of the 
 ■l)y the Ear- 
 hie foUowing 
 that Latin ^ 
 Latin- f^r 
 
 jATlN -. 
 
 Iiicestor. 
 lenison. 
 Ihance, 
 laitiff. 
 
 Conceptioneui 
 
 Conception 
 
 Conceit. 
 
 CoiLsuctudineui 
 
 Consuetude 
 
 1 Custom. 
 
 iCnstume. 
 
 ('()]iliinuiii 
 
 Coffin 
 
 CotVcr. 
 
 Corpus (a body) 
 
 Debituni (soiuctliing owed) 
 
 Corj)se 
 Debit 
 
 Corps. 
 Debt. 
 
 I)(?fectum (something wanting) 
 Diliitriro 
 
 I )efect 
 Dilate 
 
 1 )cffat. 
 D.-lay. 
 
 Ivxoniphnii 
 
 I'jxample 
 
 Saniiilf. 
 
 l"'abrlca (a workshop) 
 
 Fabric; 
 
 Forge. 
 
 Kactionein 
 
 Faction 
 
 Fashion. 
 
 Factum 
 
 Fact 
 
 Feat. 
 
 Fidclitatem 
 
 Fidelity 
 
 Fealty. 
 
 l''ragilcm 
 
 (Jeiitdis (belonging to a gens or 
 
 family) 
 Historia 
 
 Fragile 
 Gentile 
 
 History 
 
 Frail. 
 
 (J en tie. 
 
 Story. 
 
 Hospitale 
 Lectionem 
 
 Hospital 
 Lection 
 
 Hotel. 
 Lesson. 
 
 I,egalem 
 JIagi.ster 
 
 Legal 
 Master 
 
 Loyal. 
 Mr. 
 
 Majoi'em (greater) 
 Maledictionem 
 
 Major 
 Malediction 
 
 Mayor. 
 Malison, 
 
 Moiieta 
 
 Mint 
 
 Money. 
 
 Nutrimentum 
 
 Nutriment 
 
 Nourishment. 
 
 Orationem 
 
 Oration 
 
 Orison (a prayer). 
 
 Paganum (a dweller in a payxts 
 
 or country district) 
 Particulam (a little part) 
 Pauperem 
 Penitentiam 
 
 Pagan 
 
 Particle 
 
 Paujjor 
 
 Penitence 
 
 Payne (a proper 
 
 name). 
 Parcel. 
 Poor. 
 Penance. 
 
 Persecutum 
 
 Pci'secute 
 
 Pursue. 
 
 Potionem (a draught) 
 
 Pungentem 
 
 Quietum 
 
 Radius 
 
 Potion 
 Pungent 
 Quiet 
 Radius 
 
 Poison. 
 Poignant. 
 Coy. 
 Ray. 
 
 Regrdem 
 Respectum 
 Securum 
 Seniorem 
 
 Regal 
 Respect 
 Secure 
 Senior 
 
 Royal. 
 ReHi)ite. 
 Sure. 
 Sir. 
 
 Separatum 
 
 Separate 
 
 Sever. 
 
 Species 
 Statum 
 
 Species 
 State 
 
 Spice. 
 Estate. 
 
 Tractum 
 
 Tract 
 
 Trait. 
 
 Traditionem 
 Zelosum 
 
 Tradition 
 Zealous 
 
 Treason. 
 Jealous. ' 
 
Hii 
 
 310 
 
 IIl.STOUY OK TIIK KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 42. Remarks on the above Table. — 'I'lic word benison, ;i 
 Idiissiii^', limy Ix'- (•••ntrastcd witli its opposite*, malison, a curse. 
 — Cadence is tlic fniliiij; of sounds; chance the- LofiiUiiit; nf 
 (ivents. — A caitiff was at first a enptin' — then a pcistui wliu 
 made, no projuT defence, l)ut nJlou'cil liiniself tn \n\ taken captivf. 
 — A corps is a lnnhi of ti'()f)ps. — Tiie word sample is found, in 
 older Kn;^disli, in tin; form (>!' ensample. — A feat of arms is a 
 deed or fact of arms, par c.irrlhnuu'.. — To understand liow fragile 
 became frail, we nnist [)ronouncc tlio g liard, and notice liow 
 tlio liard j^iittural falls easily away — as in our own native words 
 Jlall and //'///, whicli formerly containcMl a hard g. — A major is 
 a t/reatcr cai)tain ; a mayor is a t/r<'(i/rr ma^Mstrate. — A magister 
 means a hn/i/cr hkiii — as opposed to a minister (from vi/'nud), a 
 smaller man. — Moneta was the nanui ;;iven to a stamped coin, 
 because these coins were first struck in the temple of Juiiu 
 Moneta, Juno the Adviser or the "Warner. (From th(i same 
 root — -mon — come mo'/tifion, aihuoindoii,' rnonlfor; a(lnu)iil!<h.) 
 —Shakespeare uses the word orison freely i()V /ii'<ii/t'r, as in the 
 address of llandet to Ophelia, wh(3re he says, "Xyniph, in lliy 
 orisons, be all my sins remembered!" — Poor comes to us fimii 
 an Old French word yyr;//r6'/ the newer French is jxinvrc. — Td 
 understand tin; vanishinj,^ of the g sound in jnn'gnant, we luusl 
 remember that tlie liomans sounded it always hard. — Sever wv 
 get through separate^ because p and v are both labials, and 
 therefore easily interchangeable. — Treason — with its s instead 
 of ti — may be compared with benison, malison, orison, poison, 
 and reason. 
 
 43. Conclusions from the above Table. — If we ex >' ^ 
 tabic on page 231 Avith care, we shall come to scVv 'al . iiiabk' 
 conclusions. (i) First, the Avords which come to ., diiv 
 from Latin are found more in books than in everyday spt-t'i 
 (ii) Secondly, they are longer. The reason is that the woi^l? 
 that have come through French have been worn down by tln' 
 careless pronunciation of many generations — by that desire for 
 ease in the pronouncing of words which characterises all 
 languages, and have at last been compelled to take that fonii 
 whicli was least difticult to pronounce, (iii) Thirdly, the two 
 
VOCAHULAUV OF TFrK KNcI.ISM r.ANCirA" ;K. 
 
 :ui 
 
 beniBon, ;i 1 
 
 sots ot w 
 
 jon, IV ••uv.i', 1 
 
 lll•■ilIlill|^^s, 
 
 hufulliii'^ nf 1 
 
 lirss of 111 
 
 person ^vll" 1 
 
 meaning' <> 
 
 vkfti cai'liv". 
 
 s|)^ill,l,^ A 
 
 3 is fountl, ill 
 
 and story 
 
 of arms is :i 
 
 pursue, ill 
 
 I liow fragile 
 
 list' in colli 
 
 \ notice 1»<'W 
 
 44. Lat] 
 
 luitivi^ words 
 
 Ihciv, arc i 
 
 A major is 
 
 —A magister 
 rom vi!iiiifi\ a 
 
 stiiinpcd cniu, 
 ■mplo of -luiiu 
 'rom tlu! saiiK- 
 nr; admoiiixh.) 
 
 ai/cr, us in llu- 
 S^-iiipli, in lliy 
 
 nu'S to us i'voiii 
 
 is 7K(«f/r.— To 
 
 ird.— Sever wf 
 th labials, ami 
 th its s iiisU'ii'i 
 orison, poison, 
 
 ords have, in each ciisc, cither ('/) very ilili'erent 
 or {/>) (litlereiit shach's of iiieanin;^'. Thiiv is no like- 
 leaning' in rm/f/H'r and cliKiin^ except the cumnion 
 i full wliich licloii^fs to the root from whicli tlicv hotli 
 lid the diUcrent shach's of meaning' })ct\vcen history 
 , Itetwcen regal and royal, Ix-tween persecute ami 
 also ([uito phiinly marked, and are of tht! greatest 
 {Hjsitioii. 
 Latin Triplets. — Still more remarkal>le is the fact that 
 n our langiia;^'(! words that have made three a[)|)ear- 
 aiicos — 011(3 througli Latin, (»ne throu.u'h Xornian-l'"rcncli, and 
 eiK- through ordinary French. Theses seem to live ([uietly sido 
 liy sido ill tliL' language ; and no om; asks liy what claim tlicy 
 arc here. They are useful : that is enough. These trii)lcts are — 
 regal, royal, and real; legal, loyal, and leal; fidelity, faith- 
 fulness,' and fealty. The adjective real we no longer possess 
 in the sense of roi/dl, but Chaucer uses it; and it still exists 
 ill the iKJUn real-m. Leal is most used in Sc(,tland, where it 
 has u settled abode in the well-known phraso " the land o' tho 
 
 i.ai;;^ 
 
 45. Greek Doublets. — The same douhle introduction, whicli 
 we noticed in the case of Latin words, takes j)Iace in regard to 
 (Ireek Avord.s. It seems to have been forgotten that our English 
 forms of them had been already given us by St Augustine and 
 the Church, and a newer form of each was reintroduced. Tho 
 following are a few exaini)les : — 
 
 Ive ex'^ "■ 
 
 lie to u. dirt" 
 veryday sptet 
 tbat the wovcU 
 l-n down by tli" 
 that desire for 
 
 ibaracteriscs 
 
 all 
 
 take that iom 
 :hirdly, the bvo 
 
 Greek. Oldeii Foum. L.vtku Foh.m. 
 
 Adainanta- (the untanieable) Diaiiioiid Ailiiinaiit. 
 
 Halsaiiion lialiii lialsain. 
 
 Bla.-^phC'inein (to sj)eak ill of) Blame Bhtsphenie. 
 
 Cheiroui-. n - (a worker with Chirurgeon Surgeon, 
 the hand) 
 
 ' Tlie woid faith is a true French word with an English ending— the end- 
 ing th. Heni f^ it is a hybrid. The old French word wa.s fei— from the Latin 
 ,'fdcm ; and tl ending th was added to make it look more like truth, wealth, 
 health, and other purely Eu^u:;h »vords. 
 
 ■ The accusative or objective ca.se is given iu all these words. 
 
312 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK. 
 
 Diicttlloii (a finger) 
 
 riiantasift 
 
 IMiantasina (an apixjarancc) 
 
 PrcHbuteron (an elder) 
 
 I'aralvf^is 
 
 Scandfllou 
 
 Dato (the fruit) 
 
 Fancy 
 
 Phantom 
 
 Priest 
 
 Palsy 
 
 Slander 
 
 1 )actyl 
 
 Piiantasy. 
 
 1'hantiisiii. 
 
 Prenhytor. 
 
 Paralysis. 
 
 Scan<lal. 
 
 It may l)o reinarkod of the W(3V(l /(incij, tliat, in tSluikt'spfarc's 
 time, it meant love or inv.ujlnation — • 
 
 " Tell inc, where is fane;/ bred, 
 Or in the heart, or in the head '( " 
 
 It is now rostriotod to mean a li«;litcr and less serious kind df 
 imagination. Thus avo say tliat ]\Iilton's * Paradise Lost' is 
 a work of imagination ; but that Moore's ' Lalla Jiookli ' i.s a 
 product of tlie poet's fancy. 
 
 46. Characteristics of the Two Elements of English, li 
 we keep our attenti(jn fixed on tlie two chief elements in our 
 language — the I'^nglish element and tlu^ T.ntin element — the 
 Teutonic and the liomance — we shall find some striking qualities 
 manifest themselves. AVe have already said that whole sentences 
 can be made containing only English words, while it is impossible 
 to do this Mdth Latin or other foreign words. Let lis take tw> 
 passages — one from a daily ncAvspapcr, and the other from 
 Shakespeare : — 
 
 (i) "We find the functions of such an official dcjincd in the Act. He 
 is to be a Icijnllij ijualijicd medical j)mctiti oner of skill and experience, [o 
 inspect and report periodicalli/ on the mnitari/ condition of town or dis 
 trict ; to (iscertain the existence of diseases, more cspecialhj epidfritv'< 
 increasing the rates of mortalitij, and to point out the existence of any 
 nuisances or other local catiscs, which are likely to ori[ji)tatc and maintniii 
 such diseases, and itijtiriousl;/ affect the health of the inhabitants of such 
 town or district; to take cognisance oi the exisiaiccoi any conto.'fmn 
 disease, and to point out the most efficacious means for the ventilation if 
 chapels, schools, registered lodging-houses, and other puhiic liuildings." 
 
 In this passage, all the words in italics are eitlier Latin or 
 Greek. But, if the purely English A\'ords were left out, tlio 
 sentence would fall into ruins — would become a mere rubbish- 
 heap of words. It is the small particles that give life and 
 
VOCABULAKY OF THE ENGURTI LANGUAHE. 
 
 .313 
 
 motion to wicli sontcnce. Thoy arc tlio joints and hinf,'fi8 on 
 which tlio wliok) scintonce niovos. — Let ns now h)ok at a i)as.sa<'o 
 from Shakeapean;. It is fiom tlio spiiccli of Maclx-th, after he 
 has made \\[) liis mind to murder Duncan : — 
 
 (ii) " (Jo l)i(l iiiy 7ii,rntriiis, when my drink in ready, 
 She strike upon the be!'., (iet thee to bed! — 
 liS this a duf^ger wliicii I Hee before me, 
 The handle toward my hand ? Come ! let me clutch thee ! 
 — I have thee not ; and vet I kcc tliee Htill." 
 
 Tn tliis passage there is only one Latin (or Freneh) word— the 
 word nu'.^fn's.s'. If Shakespeare had used the word lady, the 
 passage would have been entirely English. — The passage from 
 tlie newspaper deals with hirge generalisations ; that from 
 Shakespeare with individual acts and feelings — with things 
 that come home " to the Inisiness and hosom " of man as man. 
 Kvery master of the English language understands well tlu^ art 
 of mingling the two elements — so as to obtain a tine eiiiM-t; and 
 none better than writers like 8hakes{)eare, Milton, CJray, and 
 Tennyson, Shakespeare makes Antony say of Cleopatra : — 
 
 " Age cannot wither her ; nor custom stale 
 Her inlinite variety.'' 
 
 llcro the French (or Latin) words cudom and rarietii form a 
 
 vivid contrast to the English verl) slnlc, throw up its meaning 
 
 and colour, and give it greater prominence. — Milton nuikes Eve 
 
 say :— 
 
 " 1 thitlier went 
 With inexpcrienc'd taought, and laid me down 
 On the green bank, to look into the dear 
 Smooth kike, that to me seem'd another sky." 
 
 Ih;re the words iiipxperlenced and char give variety to the same- 
 iif'8s of the English words. — Gray, in the Elegy, has this verse :^ — 
 
 " The breezy call of inrensf-breathing morn, 
 
 The swallow twittering from the straw-lmilt shed, 
 Tlie cock's shrill clarion or the echohnj horn, 
 
 No more shall rouje them from their lowly bed." 
 
'I I 
 
 Si fi 
 
 314 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Here incense, clarion, and echoing give a vivid colouring to the 
 plainer hues of the homely English phrases. — Tennyson, in the 
 Lotos-Eaters, vi., writes : — 
 
 " Dear is the memory of our wedded lives, 
 And dear the last embrace.^ of our wives 
 And their warm tears : but all hath suffered change ; 
 For surely now our household hearths are cold : 
 Our sons inherit us : our looks are strange : 
 And we should come like ghosts to trouble joy." 
 
 Most powerful is the introduction of the French words miffrwl 
 change, inherit, strange, and trouble jog ; for they give with 
 painful force the contrast of the present state of desolation with 
 the homely rest and happiness of the old abode, the love of tho 
 loving wives, the faithfulness of the stalwart sons. 
 
 47. English and other Doublets. — We have already soon 
 how, l)y the presentation of the same word at two diircront 
 doors — the door of Latin and the door of French — we arc in 
 possession of a considerable number of doublets. But tliis 
 phenomenon is not limited to Latin and French — is not soh'ly 
 due to the contributions we receive from these languages. We 
 find it also within English itself; and causes of the most 
 dilferent description Ijring about the same results. For various 
 reasons, the English language is very rich in doublets. It 
 possesses nearly five hundred pairs of such words. The langua<;e 
 is all the richer for having them, as it is thereby enabled t<i 
 give fuller and clearer expression to the different shades and 
 delicate varieties of meaning in the mind. S^ 
 
 48. The sources of doublets are various. But five diffcroiit 
 causes seem chiefly to have operated in producing them. Tlitv 
 are due to differences of pronunciation ; to differences in spel 
 ling ; to contractions for convenience in daily speecli ; to 
 differences in dialects : and to the fact that many of them come 
 from diflferent Languages. Let us look at a few examples of 
 each. At bottom, however, pU these differences will be foiiml 
 to resolve themselves into diL ."ences of pronunciation. They 
 are either differences in the pronunciation of the same word h 
 
VOCABULARY OF THE ENOLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 315 
 
 iTing to tho, 
 rson, in tlic 
 
 ange ; 
 
 rords sitfcretl 
 ey five Avitli 
 isolation witli 
 he love of the 
 
 different tribes, or ]jy men in dillbrent coiuitics, who speak 
 (lifrerent dialects ; or by men of different nations. 
 
 49. Differences in Pronunciation. — From this source we 
 have parson and person (the parson being the person, or repre- 
 
 / seniative of tlie Church) ; sop and soup ; task and tax (the sk 
 lias here become ks) ; thread and thrid ; ticket and etiquette ; 
 sauce and souse (to steep in brine) ; squall and squeal. 
 
 50. Differences in Spelling. — To and too are tlie same word 
 —one behig used as a preposition, the other as an adverb ; of 
 and off, from and fro, are only different spellings, which repre- 
 sent different functions or uses of the same word ; onion and 
 union ire tlie same word. An union ^ comes from the Latin 
 unus, one, and it meant a large single pearl — a unique jewel ; 
 tlie word was then applied to the plant, tho head of which is of 
 a pearl-shape. 
 
 51. Contractions. — Contraction has been a pretty fruitful source 
 of doublets in English. A long word lias a syllable or two cut off ; 
 or two or three are compressed into one. Thus example has 
 become sample ; alone appears also as lone ; amend has been 
 shortened into mend ; defend has been cut down into fend (as 
 in fender); manoeuvre has been contracted into manure (botli 
 meaning originally to icorhiciih the hand) ; madam becomes 'm 
 in yes 'm ^ ; and presbyter has been squeezed down into priest.'* 
 Other examples of contraction are : capital and cattle ; chirur- 
 geon (a worker with the hand) and surgeon; cholera and 
 choler (from cholos, the Greek Avord for bile) ', disport and 
 sport ; estate and state ; esquire and squire ; Egyptian and 
 
 
 ' Tn Hamlet v. 2. 283, Shakespeare makes the King say— 
 
 " Tlie King shall drink to Hamlet's better breath ; 
 And in the cup an uniun shall he tlirow." 
 
 '- Professor Max Mailer gives tliis as the most reinarkahle instance of 
 letting down. The Latin 7nea domina became in French viudame ; in 
 Knglish ma'am; and, in the language of servants, 'm. 
 
 ^ Milton says, in one of his sonnets — 
 
 " New Presbyter is but old Priest writ large." 
 
 Kroin the etj'inologioal point of view, the truth is just tlie other way 
 abuut. Priest is old Presbyter writ small. 
 
316 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 gipsy; emmet and ant; gammon and game; grandfather 
 and gaffer; grandmother and gammer; iota (the Greek 
 letter i) and jot; maximum and maxim; mobile and mob; 
 mosquito and musket ; papa and pope; periwig and wig; 
 poesy and posy ; procurator and proctor ; shallop and 
 sloop; unity and unit. It is (jnite evident tliat tlic ultovc 
 pairs of words, although in reality one, have very dilferent 
 meanings and uses. 
 
 52. Difference of English Dialects. — Another source of 
 doublets is to be found in the dialects of the English language. 
 Almost every county in England has its own dialect ; but tlu-eo 
 main dialects stand out with great prominence in our older 
 literature, and iheae are the Northern, the Midland, and the 
 Southern. The grammar of these dialects^ was different; their 
 pronunciation of words was diflerent — and this lias given rise to 
 a splitting of one word into two. In the North, Ave find a hard 
 c, as in the caster of Lancaster ; in the ^Midlands, a soft e, as 
 in Leicester ; in the South, a ch, as in Winchester. We shall 
 find similar differences of hardness and softness in ordinary 
 words. Thus we find kirk and church; canker and cancer; 
 canal and channel ; deck and thatch ; drill and thrill ; fan 
 and van (in a winnowing-machine) ; fitch and vetch ; hale and 
 whole ; mash and mess ; naught, nought, and not ; pike, 
 peak, and beak ; poke and pouch ; quid (a piece of tobacco for 
 chewing) and cud (which means the thing chewed) ; reave 
 and rob ; ridge and rig ; scabby and shabby ; scar and 
 share ; screech and shriek ; shirt and skirt ; shuffle im\ 
 S3uffle ; spray and sprig ; wain and waggon — and other pairs. 
 All of these are but different modes of pronouncing the same 
 word in different jiarts of England ; but the genius of the 
 language has taken advantage of these different ways of pro- 
 nouncing to make different words out of them, and to give 
 them different functions, meanings, and uses. 
 
 1 See p. 242. -^ 
 
31' 
 
 fanelfather 
 
 (the Gr(!i>k 
 and mob-, 
 r ami wig; 
 hallop mul 
 t the a^ovc 
 ery ditVi'-nnvt 
 
 jr source of 
 ish langiuigo. 
 ;ct ; l>ut tlireo 
 in our older 
 land, ivud tho 
 .itiercnt ; tlieiv 
 IS given rise to 
 ^ve find a hard 
 ids, a soft c, as 
 ter. Wo shall 
 3SS in ordinary 
 Ir and cancer; 
 tnd thrill; fan 
 ^tch; hale and 
 nd not; pike, 
 [e of tobacco for 
 hewed); reave 
 »by; Bcar and 
 [t; shuffle and 
 and other pairs. 
 Incing the sanv 
 crenius of tlu' 
 |t ways of pro- 
 ini, and to giv 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH. 
 
 1. The Oldest English Synthetic. — The oldest English, or 
 Anglo-Saxon, that was brought over here in the fifth century, 
 Avas a language that showed the relations of words to each other 
 by adding difTerent endings to M'ords, or by synthesis, 'i'hese 
 endings are called inflexions. Latin and (Ireek are highly 
 inflected languages; French and German have many more 
 inflexions than modern English ; and ancient English (or 
 Anglo-Saxon) also possessed a large number of infl(\\ions. 
 
 2. Modern English Analytic. — When, instead of intlexions, 
 a language employs small particles — such as pre}>ositions, auxil- 
 iary verbs, and suchlike words — to express the relations of 
 words to each other, such a language is called analytic or non- 
 inflexional. When we say, as we usimI to say in the oldest 
 English, " God is ealra cyninga cyning," we speak a synthetic; 
 language. Eut when we say, **' God is king of all kings," then 
 we employ an analytic or uninflected language. 
 
 3. Short View of the History of English Grammar.— From 
 llic time Avhen the English language came over to this island, it 
 lias grown steadily in the number of its words. On tlie other 
 hand, it has lost just as steadily in the nmnber of its inllexions. 
 I'ut in a broad and somewhat rough fashion, it may be said 
 that— , , 
 
 (i) Up to the year 1100— one generation after the Battle of Senlao 
 —the English language was a Synthktic Language. 
 
 Y 
 
318 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (ii) From the year 1100 or thereabouts, English has been lo,Bing its 
 Inflexions, and gradually becoming more and more an Analytic 
 Language. 
 
 4. Causes of this Change. — Even Lofore the coming of the 
 Danes and the Normans, the English people liaJ slunvn a 
 tendency to get I'id of some of their inllexions. A similar 
 tendency can he ohserved at the jnt'sent time among the 
 Germans of the Khine Province, ulio often drop an n at tlie end 
 of a word, and show in otlier respects a carelessness ahoiit gram- 
 mar. Jhit, Avluni a foreign people comes among natives, such a 
 tendency is naturally encouraged, and often greatly increased. 
 The natives discover that these inflexions are not so very 
 important, if only tliey can get their meaning riglitly conveyed 
 to the foreigners. Both parties, accordingly, come to see that 
 the root of the woi'd is tlie most important element ; they stick 
 to tliat, and they come to neglect tlie mere inflexions. IMoro- 
 over, the accent in luiglisli words always struck tlie root ; and 
 hence this part of the word always fell on the ear Avith the 
 greater force, and carried the greater weight. When the Danes 
 — Avho spoke a cognate language— hegan to settle in England, 
 the tendency to drop inilexions increased ; but when the Nor- 
 mans — who spoke an entirely dili'erent language — came, the 
 tendency increased enormously, and the inflexions of Anglo- 
 Saxon hegan to "fall as the leaves fall" in the dry wind of a 
 frosty October. Let lis try to trace some of these changes and 
 losses. 
 
 5. Grammar of the First Period, 450-1100. — The English of 
 this period is called the Oldest English or Anglo-Saxon. The 
 gender of nouns was arbitrary, or — it may be — poetical ; it did 
 not, as in modern English it d^es, follow the sex. Thus nama, 
 a name, was masculine; tun. j, a tongue, feminine ; and eage, 
 an eye, Jieuter. Like nama, the jiroper names of men ended in 
 a ; and we find such names as Isa, Offa, Penda, as the names of 
 kings. N'ouns at this i)eriod had five cases, with inflexions for 
 each ; now we possess but one inflexion — that for the possessive, 
 — Even the definite article was inflected. — The infinitive of verbs 
 eaded in an; and the sign to — which we received from the 
 
inSTORY OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH. 
 
 319 
 
 sn lo,Blng Its 
 
 uing of thf 
 ^a_ shown a 
 
 awon'^ tlic 
 n at the (nul 
 i a\)0ut graiu- 
 atives, such a 
 tly increased. 
 
 not so very 
 rhUy conveyed 
 l^e to see that 
 mt ; they stick 
 exions. ^Moi'*^- 
 
 tho root ; and 
 e ear ^vith tbc 
 
 hell tiie Panes 
 :tle in l^^^g^'^^^*-^' 
 
 when the Kor- 
 |a(re— came, the 
 
 .ions of Ai^g^o- 
 tlry \vini-l of a 
 
 .se changes and 
 
 -TheEnghsho{ 
 ^lo-Saxon. 'Hu' 
 
 -poetical ; it ^^'^ 
 Ix. Thus nama, 
 Line ; and e^ge, 
 
 [of men ended lu 
 as the names of 
 
 lith inflexions for 
 
 lor the possessive. 
 
 Vfinitive of veA» 
 eceivcd from t^^ 
 
 Danes — was not in use, except for tlio dative of tlie infinitive. 
 This dative infinitive is still preserved in sucli jthrases as "a 
 liouse to let ; " " bread to eat ; " " Avat(!r to drink." — Tlie ])resent 
 participle ended in ende (in the North ande). Tliis jirt'sent par- 
 ticiple may be said still to exist — in spoken, but not in written 
 speech ; for some people regularly say wdklii, (join, for vdlkiiuj 
 and f/oitif/. — The plural of the present indicative I'uded in ath 
 for all three persons. In the perfect tense, the plural ending 
 was on. — There was no future tense ; the work of the future 
 was done by the present tense. Fragments of thi.s usage still 
 survive in the langiuige, as when we say, " He goes up to town 
 next week." — Prepositions governed various eases ; and not 
 always the objective (or accusative), as they do now. 
 
 6. Grammar of the Second Period, 1100-1250.— J'he English 
 of this period is called Early English. Even before the coming 
 of the Xormans, the inflexions of our language had — as we have 
 seen — begun to drop off, and it was slowly on the way to becom- 
 ing an analytic language. The same changes — the same simpli- 
 fication of grammar, has taken place in nearly every Low 
 German language. But tlie coming of the Xormans hastened 
 these changes, for it made the inflexional endings of words of 
 much less practical importance to the English themselves. — Great 
 changes took place in the pronunciation also. The hivd e or k 
 was softened into ch ; and the hard guttural g was refincul into 
 a y or even into a silent w. — A remarkable addition was made 
 to the language. The Oldest English or Anglo-Saxon liad no 
 indefinite article. They said ofer sfdn for on a rocJi. But, as 
 tiie French have made the article un out of the Latin unus, so 
 the English pared down the northern ane (= one) into the 
 article an or a. The Anglo-Saxon definite article was se, seo, 
 I'aet; and in the grammar of this Second Period it became ]'e, 
 ]'eo, ]7e. — The French plural in es took the place of the English 
 plural in en. But housen and slioon existed for many centuries 
 after the Xorman coming ; and Mr Barnes, the Dorsetshire 
 poet, still deplores the ugly sound of nests and fists, and would 
 like to be able to say and to write nesten and fisten. — The dative 
 plural, which ended in um, becomes an e or an en. The um, 
 
HISTORY Ol'* THE ENGLISH LAXr.UAGE. 
 
 liowcvor, still exists in tlio form of om in seldom (= lit few 
 times) iincl whilom (==in old time?*). — The gender of nouns falls 
 into confusion, and begins to show a tendency to follow tlie sex. 
 — Adjectives show a tenchmcy to drop several of their inflexions, 
 and to become as .serviceable and accommodating as they arc 
 now-— when they are the same with all number.s, genders, and 
 cases. — The an of the infinitive becomes en, and sometimes 
 (jven the n is droppc^d. — Shall and will begin to be used as 
 tense-auxiliaries for the future tense. V' 
 
 7. Grammar of the Third Period, 1250-1350.— The English of 
 this period is often called Middle English. — The definite article 
 still preserves a few inflexions. — Nouns that were once masculiiK! 
 or feminine Ijecomo neuter, for the sake of c(mvenience.— Tin; 
 possessive in es becomes general. — Adjectives make their plural 
 in e. — The infinitive now takes to before it — except after a few 
 verbs, like hid, nee, Jiejir, etc. — I'he present participle in inge 
 makes its appearance about the year 1300. 
 
 8. Grammar of the Fourth Period, 1350-1485.— This may l)o 
 called Later Middle English. An old writer of the fourteenth 
 century points out that, in his time — and before it — the Engli.sli 
 language was " a-deled a thre," divided into three ; that is, thai 
 there were three main dialects, the Northern, the Midland, 
 and the Southern. There were many difierences in the graminai' 
 of these dialects ; but the chief of these differences is found in 
 the plural of the present indicative of the verb. This part of 
 the verb formed its plurals in the following manner : — 
 
 NOUTHERN. 
 
 We liopiis 
 You liope.s 
 Tliey hopes 
 
 Midland. 
 We hopen 
 You hopen 
 They hopen 
 
 Southern. 
 We liopeth. 
 You hopeth. 
 They hopeth.' 
 
 In time the Midland dialect conquered ; and the East JMidlainl 
 form of it became predominant all over England. As early as 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century, this dialect had thrown 
 off most of the old inflexions, and had become almost as flexion- 
 
 1 This phu-al wo still find in the famous Winchester motto, "Maiiiierj 
 niaketh man." 
 
HISTORY OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENOUSTT. 
 
 321 
 
 I !l 
 
 iioiius falls 
 
 oW tliu «*'^- 
 r inflexions, 
 
 as tlioy arc 
 ffondcrs, ami 
 
 ) 1)0 iiwcd as 
 
 lio Kiigli^^' of 
 lefinitc article 
 nee niaseiiHuo 
 3nienco. — Tlio 
 ke their vUival 
 ^pt afti-r a few 
 Iciple ill inge 
 
 •This may l)e 
 the fourteenlli 
 it— the Engli^li 
 5 ; tliat is, th;it 
 the Midland, 
 in the gramuKU- 
 ices is found in 
 This part of 
 
 ler : — 
 
 loUTHEUN. 
 
 hopeth. 
 lu hopeth. 
 ley liopeth.^ 
 
 lie East Midland 
 u\. As early as 
 licet had thK^vu 
 llmost as tiexioii- 
 
 motto, "Mauuer. 
 
 loss as tlic Kn^lish of tlio present day. Let us note a few of 
 the. iiion; proniincnt c]iaiif,'cs. — 'J'iie lii'st ju-rsonal pronoun Ic or 
 Ich loses tlie j^nittural, and hcconies I. — The jironouns him, 
 them, and whom, which an; trui; datives, aie used eitjier as 
 datives or as olgcctives. — The iiiipei'ativ(f plural ends in eth. 
 " liis(!th up," Chaucer makes oin; of his characters say, "and 
 stondeth Ly me 1 " — The useful and almost ul'i([uitous letter e 
 conies in as a substitute; for a, u, and even an. 1'hus nama 
 hecomes name, sunu (son) hecomes sune, and withutan clian^'es 
 into withute. — The dative of adjectives is used as an adverb. 
 Thus we find softe, brighte employed like our softly, brightly. 
 — The n in the iniinitive has fallen away ; but the e is sounded 
 as a separate syllable. Thus we liiid breke, smite for hrchm 
 and Kiidten. 
 
 9. General View. — In the time of Kin^' Alfred, tlie AVest- 
 Saxon speech — the Wessex dialect — took precedence of tin; rest, 
 luid became the literary dialect of England. Ihit it had not, and 
 could not have, any iniluence on the s])oken language of other 
 parts of England, for the simple reason that very few persons 
 were able to travel, and it took days — and even weeks — for a 
 man to go from Devonsliire to Yorkshiic. Jn course of time 
 the Midland dialect — that spoken between the Ilundjcr and 
 the Thames — became the jtredominani diah^ct of ]"jigland ; 
 and the East Midland variety of this diah'ct became the 
 parent of modern standard Ihiglish. This predominance was 
 probably due to the fact that it, soonest of all, got rid of its 
 iiiHexions, and became most easy, pleasant, and convenient to 
 use. And this disuse of inflexions was itself probably due to 
 the early Danish settlements in the east, to the larger nundjcr 
 of Normans in that part of England, to the larger nund:)er of 
 thriving towns, and to the greater and more active communi- 
 cation between the eastern seaports and the Continent. The 
 inflexions \verc first confused, then weakened, then forgotten, 
 finally h)st. The result was an extreme sinn)lification, which 
 •still benefits all learners of the English language. Instead of 
 spending a great deal of time on the learning of a largo number 
 of inflexions, which are to them arbitrary and" meaningless, 
 
I:: [ 
 
 TOO 
 
 IIIHTOUY OF THE KNGUSII LANf;UA(;K. 
 
 foroigners huvo only to fix tlioir attention on the wonls and 
 plira.ses thonisclvcs, tliat is, on tlio vc^ry pith and nuirrow of tlio 
 language — indcMid, on the language itself. Hcmku! the great 
 German grammarian (Irinnn, and otlun's, ju'edict that Kuglisli 
 will spread its(df all over the worM, and become the univeisal 
 language of the futur*!. In addition to this almost conipictc 
 sw(!eping away of all inflexions, — which made Dr Johnson say, 
 "Sir, the English language has no grammar at all," — there wciv 
 other remarkable and useful results which accrued from tlie 
 coming in of the Norman- Frencih and other foreign elements, ir^ 
 10. Monosyllables. — The stripping ofl' of the, inHexions of 
 our language cut a large mimber of M'ords down to tlie root. 
 Hundreds, if not thousands, of our verbs were dissyllables, l)iit, 
 by the gradual loss of the ending en (which was in Anglo-Saxi ;i 
 an), they became monosyllables. I'hus bindan, drincan, find- 
 an, became bind, drink, find ; and this happened with hosts 
 of other verbs. Again, the expulsion of the guttural, Avhidi 
 the Normans never could or would take to, had the eirect of 
 compressing many words of two syllables into one. Thus 
 haegel, t-waegen, and faegen, became hail, twain, and fain. — 
 in these and other ways it has come to pass that the present 
 English is to a very largo extent of a monosyllabic character. So 
 much is this the case, that whole books have been written fur 
 children in monosyllables. It must be confessed that the nioiui- 
 syllabic style is often dull, but it is always serious and homely. 
 We can find in our translation of the lUblo whole verses that 
 are made up of Avords of only one syllable. Many of the most 
 powerful passages in Shakespeare, too, are written in monosylla- 
 bles. The same may be said of hundreds of our proverbs — sucli 
 as, " Cats hide their claws " ; " Fair words please fools " ; '' He 
 that has most time has none to lose." Great poets, like Tenny- 
 son and Matthew Arnold, understand well the fine effect to he 
 produced from the mingling of short and long words — of the 
 homely English with the more ornate Eomance language. In 
 the following verse from Matthew Arnold the words are all 
 monosyllables, with the exception of tired and contention (which 
 is Latin) : — 
 
IIISTnilY OF Till? r.RAMMAl: OF ENCLISII. 
 
 323 
 
 ^vor(l3 and 
 
 tovf of tli« 
 
 the 'j;ri'iit 
 
 ,(. univcvsal 
 
 it eoni\ilt't<' 
 
 oluiSDU SHY, 
 
 -tboi't' wcv 
 
 id from tlu; 
 
 deiuents.Jl^ 
 
 nrtoxioiis of 
 
 to tin' voot. 
 
 yllables, Imt, 
 
 Anglo-Saxcn 
 
 rincan, flnd- 
 
 Qd with hosts 
 
 ittuval, which 
 
 the elh'i't nt 
 
 one. Thus 
 
 ., and fain.— 
 
 it the present 
 
 [character. So 
 .11 written fot 
 •bat the mont»- 
 ,s and homely. 
 ;)le verses that 
 Ly of the most 
 in nionosylla- 
 |)roverbs— such 
 
 fools"; "He 
 Its, like Tenny- 
 jiie effect to l3C 
 words— of tho 
 [language. Ii^ 
 words are all 
 ntention (whicli 
 
 " Let the Idiig conti'iitioii cciifiu ; 
 (Jeeso are .swaiis, iiiid .swims are gocse ; 
 Let them have it how they will, 
 Thou art tired. lk>ht be still ! " 
 
 In Teiiny.son's " Lord (jf Hurlci^li," wlien tlic son'nwful luis- 
 hand coiiius to look iii)on liis dead wife, the verso runs almost 
 entirely in monosyllables ; — 
 
 " And he came to look ui)on her, 
 And he looked at her, and .said : 
 ' Bring the dresn, and put it on her, 
 That she wore when she was wed.' " 
 
 An American writer has well indicated tlie forc^e of the Eiij.?- 
 li.sli mono.syllahle in the foUcjwing sonnet: — 
 
 "Think not that strength lies in the big, rouml word. 
 
 Or that the />r/r/and plain nm.st needs be weak. 
 To whom can this be true who once has heard 
 
 The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak. 
 When want, or fear, or woe, is in the throat, 
 
 So that each word gasped out is like a shiiek 
 Pressed from the sore heart, or a stramjc, wild note 
 
 Sung by some fay or fiend ! There is a .strength. 
 Which dies if stretched too far, or spun too fine. 
 
 Which has more height than breadth, more depth tlian length : 
 Let but this force of thought and .speech be mine, 
 
 And he that will may take the sleek fat phrase, 
 Which glows but burns not, though it beam and shine ; 
 
 Light, but no heat, — a flash, but not a blaze." 
 
 It will he observed that this sonnet consi.sts entirely of mono- 
 syllables, and yet that the style of it shows considerable power 
 and vigour. The words print(!d in italics are all derived from 
 Latin, with the exception of the word j)hra,se, which is Greek. 
 
 IL Change in the Order of Words. — The syntax— or order 
 of words — of the oldest English was very di He rent from that of 
 Xorman-Freneh. The syntax of an Old L'nglish sentence was 
 ilinusy and involvetl ; it kept the attention long on the strain ; 
 it was rumbling, rambling, anti unpleasant to the ear. It kept 
 the attention on the strain, because the verb in a subor<Iinate 
 clause was held back, and not revealed till we had come to the 
 
 
324 
 
 mSTORV OK TMK KNCMHII LAN(JUA<1E. 
 
 oml of i\u\ cliinsc. TliiiM tlu) Aii^^'lo-Siixoii wrote* (thccii^li in 
 (liirci'ciit form and .siH'IIiii.L,') — 
 
 " Wln'ii DuriuH huw, thai, Ii(> (ivoi'coiiH' lie \vnul<l." 
 
 Tlio iicwor Kiij^disli, uii(l(!r Knsnch inlhionoo, wrotn — 
 
 "Wliou DariuH .saw that ho wan gfiiiK *•> ho overcome." 
 
 TliiH (!him;^'(i has jiiiulo an Kn^'lish soiiton(3o li;^'litor and moro 
 easy to iiiiilorstaiid, for tlio reader or luiarcr is not kopt waitiii;^' 
 foi' tho vorh; 1)iit cadi word coiiu's just wlicn it is (jxjxictcd, 
 and tlu'.rcfon! in its "natural" i)la(',o. Tlio Old I'ji^dish Hi^ntciicc 
 — whi<di is vi',ry like tlu; (Jcrnian sentence, of tlio present day — 
 has been (-onipared to a heavy cart without sjirin^'s, while; tlm 
 newer lMi<,dish sentence is like a niodesrn •Wijlldniiif^' J'Ji^^dish car- 
 ri.'ij,'e. Xornian-FnMudi, then, <,'av(; ns a hri^ditcn*, lighter, freer 
 rhythm, and therefore a scnteiico more easy to understand and 
 to em[)loy, more supple, and hetter adapted to everyday us(\ .^ 
 12. The Expulsion of Gutturals. — (i) Not only did tho Nor- 
 mans help us to an easier and pl(;asantor kind of sentence, thcv 
 aithitl us in getting rid of tho numerous throat-sounds that in- 
 fested oin* language. It is a remarkable fact that there is not 
 now in the French language a single guttural. 'J'hero is not an h 
 in the whole language. Tho French writa an h in sov(!ral of 
 their words, but they never sound it. Its use is merely to scrvn 
 as a fence between two vowels — to keep two vowels s(;parati', u.'^ 
 in Id hdhie, hatred. No doubt tho Normans could utter throat- 
 sounds well enough when they dwelt in Scandinavia ; but, after 
 they had lived in Franco for several generations, they accpiirod 
 a great disliko to all such sounds. No doubt, too, many, from 
 long disus(>, were unable to give utterance to a guttural. This 
 disliko th(>y communicated to tho English ; and hence, in the 
 present day, there are many people — especially in tho south of 
 England — who cannot sound a guttural at all. The muscles in tho 
 throat that help to produce these sounds have become atrophied 
 — have lost their power for want of practice. The purely Eng- 
 lish part of the population, for many centuries after the Norman 
 invasion, could sound gutturals quite easily — ijust as the Scotch 
 
 
IIISTOUV OK TMK CUAMMAIJ f)F F.XCMSM. 
 
 :\2ri 
 
 (tlu'tii^h in 
 
 )tnc. 
 
 t(!r and ni<^'ro 
 i kept Wiiitinj,' 
 t, ia oxixM'ti'il, 
 I'flish scntciu't^ 
 prcsc^nt (lay — 
 
 1^ Kn^lish cav- 
 ', li;^ht('V, fivfv 
 iiulcvstiuul and 
 I'l-ycliiy use. .y 
 ly (lid the Knv- 
 siiuUiiice, they 
 ouiuls that in- 
 ivt tluuHi is not 
 lu'vo is not an h 
 \x in several nf 
 lincrely tt.) scvvti 
 els Rc^iavati', a.'* 
 ,1(1 utter tliroat- 
 ,via ; but, after 
 ;, they aeiiuiriHl 
 [oo, many, from 
 ^mttural. This 
 hence, in tlu' 
 n the south of 
 le nuiscles in the 
 iconie atropine'^ 
 |lie purely Enj,'- 
 ,er the Norman 
 it as the Scotch 
 
 iuiil the (Jcnnan.s do now; hut it i^'iadually hociiiiif the fusliiuu 
 in I'ji^'land to l('av(! them (»iit. 
 
 13. The Expulsion of Gutturals, (ii) In some cases the 
 j,Mittural disivi)peared eiitiivly ; in others, it was elian,i;ei| iuld or 
 V(',[)r(!seiited hy otlier sounds. The, ge at the he^Mnniii;^' of the 
 passive (tir past) ]»! rtiiMjth'S of many verhs disapjieared entirely. 
 Thus gebroht, gehoht, goworht, heeanie brought, bought, and 
 wrought. Tile g at tlu! hej^'iiiniii;,' of many words also dntpjH'd 
 oil". Thus Gyppenswich hecanui Ipswicli ; gif hecanu^ if; 
 genohj enough. — 'I'he ^'uttiu'al at the einl of woi'ds — hard g 
 nr C-— also disappeared. Thus halig heeunui holy; oorclhlic, 
 earthly; gastlic, ghastly or ghostly. The sann^ is tin! case in 
 dough, throuf^h, plough, c^tc.— the ^'uttural ai)]iearin,L,f to the 
 eye hut not to the ear. — A^aiii, the; ;^Mittuial was c]ian,L;ed into 
 (|nite (liil'enMit sounds — into luhials, into sihilants, into other 
 soiuids also. The following' are a few exainpl(;s : — 
 
 (<i) The guttural has heen softened, throu.i^h Xornian-French 
 iiilhience, int(j a sibilant. 'i'hus rigg, egg, and brigg have 
 become ridge, edge, and bridge. 
 
 (h) The guttural has heconie a labial — f — as in cough, 
 enough, trough, laugh, draught, etc. 
 
 ('•) 'i'he guttural has heconio an additional syllahl(>, ami is 
 n^pi'osented hy a vowel-sound. Thus sorg and mearh havo 
 Ix'come sorrow and marrow. 
 
 (il) In some words it has disappeare(l ixith to eye and ear. 
 Thus maked has become made.Jjj^ 
 
 14. The Story of the QH. — How is it, then, that we liave in so 
 many words the two strongest gutturals in the language — g and 
 h — not only separately, in so many of our words, hut condjined? 
 The story is an odd one. Our C)ld J^higlisii or Saxon scribes 
 wrote — not light, might, and night, but liht, miht, and niht. 
 Wlien, however, they found that the Xorman-l'rench gtjnthunen 
 Would not sound the h, and say — as is still said in Scotland 
 — //ch/, (fee, they redoubled the guttural, strengthened the h 
 with a hard g, and again presented the dose to the Xorman. 
 hut, if the Norman could not sound the h alone, still less could 
 he sound the double guttural ; and he very coolly let both alone 
 
mSTORV OF THE ENrrURTT LANCUAGE. 
 
 — ignored hotli. 'ilui Saxon scribe doul)Ic(l the signs ior liis 
 guttural, just as a farmer might [)ut up a strong wooden fencM; in 
 front of a li<'(lg(' ; l)ut tlie Xorman cleared both with jx'rfect 
 ease and indiU'erenec. And so it came to pass tiiat we hnw. the 
 symbol gh in more than s(!venty of our words, and that in most (if 
 these we du not sound it at all. The gh remains in our language, 
 like a nioss-gi-own boulder, brought down into the fertile valley 
 in a glacial ])eriod, when gutturals were ])otli spoken and written, 
 and men Ijelicved in the truthfulness of letters — but tiow passed 
 by in silence, and jioticed l)y no one. 
 
 15. The Letters that represent Gutturals. — The English 
 guttural has beeu. (pdte Prt)tean in the written or ]irinted forms 
 it takes. It a})pears as an i, as a y, as a w, as a ch, as a dge, 
 as a j, and --in its more native forms — as a g, a k, <'r a 
 gh. The f(d low i ug Avords give all these, foruis ; hail, day, fowl. 
 teach, (!dge, ajar, drag, truck, and ti'ough. JN'ov.' Jtxil \va- 
 huf/ol, (la// was ilxeg, foid Avas fiujol^ ti'm-h was taecan, edge wa 
 i'<l<j, (ij'ar was achar. In seek, beseech, sought — which aie 
 all diiferent forms of the sauio word — we see the guttural api»i'av- 
 ing in thriM) dill'erent forms — -as a hard k, as a soft ch, as an un- 
 noticed gh. In think and thought, drink and draught, sly 
 and sleight, dry and drought, slay and slaughter, it takes 
 two dilterent forms. In dig, ditch, and dike — which are all 
 the same word in diHerent shapes — it again takes three forms. 
 in fly, flew, and flight, it appears as a y, a w, ami a gh. Dnt, 
 indeed, the manners of a guttural, its ways of appearing ami 
 disappearing, are almost lieyond counting. 
 
 16. Grammatical Result of the Loss of Inflexions. — AVheii 
 we look at a Latin or French or German word, we know whether 
 it is a verl) or a noun or a preposition by its mere appearance 
 — by its face or l)y its dress, so to speak. Ihit the loss of 
 inflexions which has taken [)lace in the English language liii>; 
 result(>d in depriving us of this advantage — if advantage it is. 
 Instead of looking at the face of a word in English, we aie 
 obliged to think of its function, — that is, of what it does. AVc 
 have, for exan.;-le, a large number of words that are both nouiis 
 ami verbs — we may use them as the one or as the other ; ami. 
 
crns %for liis 
 leu fcne" in 
 villi perf('(;l 
 wc liave tilt' 
 at in most (if 
 nir laiigua;^*', 
 t'crtilc valloy 
 and written, 
 .t wow passed 
 
 printed forms 
 eh, as a dge, 
 g, a k, or ;i 
 lil, day, fowl, 
 sow h'dl Nv;v 
 eca/i, cthja wii 
 ^t — -whiclr uvt! 
 uttural app<'iiv- 
 ch, as an uvi- 
 dr aught, sly 
 [iter, it takes 
 wliicli are all 
 . i\avii form-^. 
 I a gh. l''Ut, 
 appearinj4 iuiu 
 
 ixions.— ^Vi^•'" 
 know wholluT 
 ere apptniraiun' 
 ,ut the loss uf 
 L language lias 
 dvantage it i.^. 
 
 -ni 
 
 dish, we 
 
 at it d 
 
 oes. 
 
 V. 
 
 arc 
 
 both nnun- 
 Ithe other ; uiui. 
 
 TITSTOTIY OF TIIT^ CRAMMAK OF ENGLISH. 
 
 32: 
 
 till we have used them, we eannot tell whether they are the 
 ,mi> or the other. 'J'hus, when we sptiak of "a cut on th(! tin- 
 o-er," cut is a noun, because it is a name ; Init when wo say, 
 •' Harry cut ids linger," then cut is a verb, because it tells 
 sMiiM'thing about Harry. Words like bud, cane, cut, comb, 
 cap, dust, fall, fish, heap, mind, name, pen, plaster, punt, 
 run, rush, stone, and many others, can be used either as nouns 
 or as verbs. Again, fast, quick, and hard maybe used eitlier 
 as adverbs or as adjectives; and back may be employed as an 
 adverb, as a noun, and even r.s an adjective. Shakespeare is 
 very daring in the use of this licence, lie mak(\s one of his char- 
 acters say, ''Ihit me no buts ! " In this senteiuie, the iirst hiif is 
 a verb in the imperative nujod ; the second is a novm in the 
 ohjective case. Shakespeare uses also Hwh verbs as to (/lo'f, i<> 
 iiiad, ^ue.li phrases as a seldom pU<.if<iii<'^ and tlie fairest she. l)r 
 Abbott says, " In Elizal)ethan English, almost any part of specudi 
 ran be used as any other part of speech. An adverb can be used 
 as . I Verb, ' they cw/i*(«<ce their eyes ' ; as a noun, 'the hachvard 
 and abysm of time'; or as an adjective, 'a seldom pleasure.' 
 Any noun, adjective, or neuter vei'b can be used as an active, 
 v(rb. You can 'happy' your friend, 'ujalicc' or 'fool' your 
 enemy, or 'fall' an axe u])on his neck." i^ven in modern Eng- 
 lish, almost any noun can bii used as a verb. Thus we can say, 
 "to [Mipi'i- a room"; "to imter the horses"; "to hfael--h(d/ a 
 candidate " ; to " iron a shirt " ov " a prisoner " ; " to toe the line." 
 On the other hand, verbs may be used as nouns ; for Ave can 
 spoak of a work, of a beautiful prhd, of a long walk, and so on. 
 
^l 
 
 328 
 
 CHAPTEll IV. 
 
 SPl'XIMEXS OF EXGLISII OF DIFFERENT rEHIODS. 
 
 1. Vocabulary and Grammar. — Tho oldest Eiiglisli or Aiil,'1(>- 
 Saxon dillers from modern English botli in vocabulary and in 
 grammar — in tho words it nses and in the inflexions it employs. 
 The diilorenco is often startling. And yet, if wo look closely 
 at the words and their dress, we shall most often lind that llii' 
 words which look so strange are the very words with which we 
 are most familiar — words that we are in the habit of using every 
 day ; and that it is their dress alone that is strange and anti- 
 quated. The effect is the same as if we were to dress a modein 
 man in the clothes worn a thousand years ago : the chances are 
 that we should, not be able to recognise even our dearest friend. 
 
 2. A Specimen from Anglo-Saxon. — T>et us take as an 
 exam[)l(^ a verse from the Anglo-Saxon version of one of tli' 
 Gospels. The well-known verso, Luke ii. 40, runs thus in mir 
 oldest English version : — 
 
 Sojjlice daet cild weox, and waes gesti'angod, wisdomes full ; and du- 
 gyfu waes on him. 
 
 Now this looks like an extract from a foreiorn lanyua'^' ; but:; 
 is not : it is our own veritable mother-tongue. Every wonl i- 
 pure ordinary I'lnglish ; it is the dress — the spelling and ti. 
 inflexions — that is quaint and old-fashioned. This will ' 
 plain from a literal translation :— 
 
 Roothly that child waxed, and waa strengthened, wisdoms full ( = full ' 
 wisdom) ; and God's gift was on him. 
 
SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH OF DIFFEIIENT I'El'JODS. '20 
 
 3. A Comparison. — This will Tx-cnnu! plainer if wo riirnpare 
 thi' j'Jij,lish of the Gospels as it uas ivrittpu in (lillV'iviit periods 
 of our Lui^aiage. The alteration iu the meanings of words, the 
 clianges in the applicat'on of tlieni, the variation in the use of 
 plu'ases, the falling away of the inflexions — all these things 
 lu'come plain to the eye and to the mind as soon as Ave tlionght- 
 fully compare the different versions. The following are extracts 
 fiMin the Anglo-Saxon version (995), the version of AVydiffo 
 \^i.3iS9) and of Tyndale (1526), of the })assage in Luke ii. 
 •U, 45:— 
 
 ;uioDS. 
 
 cdisli or Angl'> 
 cabulary and m 
 ions it employs, 
 Ave look closely 
 ;n iind tluit llif 
 with which vt.' 
 [it of using every 
 .range and anti- 
 dress a modern 
 the chances aw 
 Ir dearest fnciul. 
 us take as an 
 u of one of tli'' 
 ■uns thus in otiv 
 
 lies 
 
 5 full ; ft»*^ f''"''^' 
 
 language ; I'vit it 
 
 Kvery wv'l '■ 
 
 sp(dling and tl" 
 
 This ^vdl '"' 
 
 Avui.O-SaXoN. I 
 
 ^\ I'lidon daet he on 
 heora ^aivre Wilei-o, d;i 
 (iimoii liig fines daeges 
 liiCTj .;nd hine sohton l>e- j 
 tv-f- •c hi:s magas and Iiis 
 cudan. 
 
 Da hig hyne no fundon, 
 liiggewcndon to Hierusa- 
 Ipin. hine sdcende. 
 
 WVCLIFFE. 
 
 Forsothe tliei ges- 
 singe him to be in the 
 felowschipe, camen 
 the wey of A day, and 
 8ou3teii him among 
 his codynsi and know- 
 en. 
 
 And thei not fynd- 
 inge, wenten aj?n to 
 Jerusalem, sekyn^'e 
 him. 
 
 Tyndalk. 
 
 For they suppofsed he 
 had bene in the coinpany, 
 they cam a days iorney, 
 "■.d sought hym amonge 
 iheir kynsfolke and ac- 
 i[uayntaunce. 
 
 And founde hym not. 
 the}- went backe agayne 
 fc()Hiorusaleiii,andsouglit 
 hym. 
 
 The literal translation of the Anglo-Saxon version is as 
 follows : — 
 
 (They) weened that he on their companionship were ( = wa.«), when came 
 they one day's faring, and him sought betwixt hid relations and his couth 
 (folk = acquaintances). 
 
 When they him not found, they turned to Jerusalem, him seeking. 
 
 4. The Lord's Prayer. — Tin? same plan of comparis.>n may 
 lie applied to the different versions of the Lord's l*rayor that 
 have come down to ns ; and it Mdll he seen from tins comjiari- 
 sou that the greatest changes liave takin ]>lace in the grammar, 
 and especially in that part of the grammnr Avhich contains the 
 ii) flexions. 
 
 i.-'i 
 
 LomsfulU-f"ll 
 
•4M 
 
 
 330 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE LORD'S PRAYER. 
 
 iIMP? 
 
 1130. 
 
 IlEioN OF Stephen. 
 
 Fader ure, ]>e 
 ai't on heofone. 
 
 Sy gebletsod 
 name )nn, 
 
 Cume l)in rike. 
 
 Si I'in wil swa 
 swa on heofone 
 and on eor])an. 
 
 Breod ure deg- 
 wamlich geof as 
 to daeg. 
 
 And forgeof us 
 ageltes ura swa 
 swa we forgeof en 
 agiltenduni ur- 
 um. 
 
 And ne led us 
 on. costunge. 
 
 Ac alys us fraui 
 yfele. Swa beo 
 hit. 
 
 1250. 
 
 Reion 
 OF Henry 111, 
 
 Fadir ur, that 
 es in hevene, 
 
 Halud thi nam 
 to nevene ; 
 
 Thou do as thi 
 rich rike ; 
 
 Thi will on erd 
 be wrought, eek 
 as it is wrought 
 in heven ay. 
 
 TJr ilk day 
 brede give us to 
 day. 
 
 Forgive thou 
 all us (lettes urs, 
 als we forgive till 
 ur detturs. 
 
 And ledde us 
 in na fandung. 
 
 But sculd us 
 fra ivel thing. 
 Amen. 
 
 1380. 
 
 Wycliffe's 
 Version. 
 
 Our Fadir, that 
 art in hevenys, 
 
 Halewid be thi 
 name ; 
 
 Thi kingdom 
 come to ; 
 
 Be thi wil done 
 in erthe, as in 
 lievene. 
 
 Give to us this 
 day oure breed 
 ovir otliir sub- 
 stauncc, 
 
 And forgive to 
 I us our dettlis, as 
 Ave forgiven to 
 oure dettouris. 
 
 1526. 
 
 Tyndai.k'p! 
 Vekskin. 
 
 Our Father 
 which ai-L in 
 heaven ; 
 
 Hal owed 1^;' 
 thy name ; 
 
 Let thy king- 
 dom come ; 
 
 Thy will be ful- 
 filled as well iu 
 earth as it is in 
 heven. 
 
 Geve us this 
 day ur dayly 
 bred, 
 
 And forgcve us 
 oure dettes as we 
 forgeve ur (let- 
 ters. 
 
 And lede us ■ And leaile u^ 
 not into tcmpta- \ not into tempta- 
 cioun ; j tion, 
 
 But delyvere i But delyver w 
 us from yvel. 1 from evyll. Fcn' 
 Amen. thyne is the kyng 
 
 dom, and the 
 power, and tk 
 glorye, for evu''. 
 Amen. 
 
 It will bo (A)served that Wyclitlb's version contaiim live U"- 
 iiianco terms — stibstaaiux, dettif<, detf<mn'f>', teni.ptadoiut, ajul 
 delyvere. 
 
 5. Oldes*/ English and Early English. — The following is i 
 short passage fr<.nii t]ie Anglo-Saxon Chroniele, under date 
 1137: first, in the Anglo-Saxon form; second, in Early Ein' 
 lish, or — as it has sometimes been called — Broken Saxon ,: 
 
SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH OF DIFFERENT PERIODS. 331 
 
 1526. 
 
 Tynpai.k's 
 Veksion. 
 
 Our Father 
 •hich arl in 
 eaven ; 
 
 Halowed le 
 hy name ; 
 
 Let thy king- 
 lorn come ; 
 
 Thy will he ful- 
 filled as well iu 
 earth as it is in 
 heven. 
 
 Geve us tliis 
 day ur duyly 
 bred, 
 
 And forgeve us 
 
 (jure dettes us we 
 
 I forgeve ur det- 
 
 Iters. 
 
 And leade u- 
 not into tempu- 
 
 j tion, 
 
 1 But delyver uf 
 
 Ifrom evyll. l'^-'' 
 
 thyneisthekyng 
 
 dom, and tV.c 
 
 'power, tuul i^'"- 
 
 [.glorye, for eve'-. 
 
 An'iei^- 
 
 |.)iuaius tivt" ll"- 
 Y.nqdacioun, n""^ 
 
 L following i'^ '^ 
 
 [I'Ac, tnulcr iliit'' 
 
 in Early B^- 
 
 -Broken Saxou: 
 
 third, iu luuck'rn English. 'J'hc^ breiiking-down of tlic grani- 
 iiiar becomes still more strikingly evident from this close 
 juxtaposition. 
 
 (i) Hi swencton i'a wreccan mean 
 
 (ii) Hi swencten the wreoce nien 
 
 dii) Tliey swinked (harassed) the wretched men 
 
 (i) faes landes mid caste! -weorcuni. 
 (ii) Of-the-land mid castel-weorces. 
 (iii) Of the land with castle-'^vorks. 
 
 (i) Da f>a castelas waeron gemacod, 
 (ii) Tha the castles waren maked, 
 (iii) When tlie castles were made, 
 
 (i) f>a fyldon hi hi mid yfclum mannuni. 
 (ii) thil fylden hi hi mid yvele men. 
 
 (iii) then tilled they them witii evil men. 
 
 6. Comparisons of Words and Inflexioiis. — Let ns tnke a 
 few of the most prominent words in onr language, and observe 
 the changes that have fallen upon them since they made their 
 appearance in our island in the fifth century. These changes 
 will he best seen by displaying them in columns : — 
 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Early English. 
 
 MiDDLK English. 
 
 Modern Engl 
 
 heoiji. 
 
 to heom. 
 
 to hem. 
 
 to them. 
 
 ■i^a 
 
 heo. 
 
 ho, scho. 
 
 she. 
 
 sweostrum.. 
 
 to the swe.stres. 
 
 to 'he .swiritren. 
 
 to tlie sisters 
 
 qeboren. 
 
 gebnre. 
 
 ibore. 
 
 lH)rn. 
 
 lufigende. 
 
 lutigend. 
 
 Jovand. 
 
 loving. 
 
 WCOXOU, 
 
 woien. 
 
 wexide. 
 
 waxed. 
 
 7. Conclusions from the above Comparisons. — M'e can now 
 ■ haw several conclusions from the {-ompari.sons Ave hav made 
 '•f the passages given from different periods of the language. 
 These conclusions relate cliieliy to verbs and nouns ; and they 
 
fitlif 
 
 332 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ENGLLSH LANGUAGE. 
 
 may hocomc iiscful iis a kev to cMialilc us io jml^^f to what 
 period ill tlic history of oiir laiij^'iiagc- a ))assa;4(' [)i'('S(Mitril \n us 
 must Lclong. If we Hud such aud sucli marks, the languagi- is 
 Anglo-Saxon ; if otluir marks, it is J-'arly English ; and so on. 
 
 I. -MARKS OF ANCiLO- 
 SAXOX. 
 
 Veiihs. 
 Infinitive in an. 
 I'res. f>iirt. in ende. 
 Past pait. witli ge. 
 3(1 )>lural pres. in ath. 
 'S(\ i)lural T)a.st in on. 
 rinral of imperatives 
 in ath. 
 
 Nouns. 
 Plurals in an, as, or a. 
 Dative i)lural in um. 
 
 11.- M.MIKS OF EAUIA' 
 ENCLISH (I100-12.-.0) 
 
 Veiuis. 
 Infill, ill en <>]• e. 
 Pre.s. part, in ind. 
 ge of past i)art. turned 
 
 into i or y. 
 oil plural in en. 
 
 Nouns. 
 Plural in es. 
 Dative j-'^ui-al in es. 
 
 in. -MARKS OK Mil). 
 DLE ENGLISH (12.00-llS.j). 
 
 Veubs. 
 Infin. with to (the en 
 wa.s dropped about. 
 1400). 
 Pres. part, in inge. 
 3d plural in en. 
 Tmj)erative in eth. 
 Plurals in es (.sciiarale 
 syllable). 
 
 Nouns. 
 Possessives \u es (.■sepa- 
 rate syllable). V- 
 
 8. The English of the Thirteenth Century. — In this centiuy 
 thoro was a great l)reaking-down and stripping-oll:" of inilexioiLS. 
 This is seen in the Ormulum of (Jrm, a canon of the Order of 
 St Augustine, whose English is nearly as flexionless as that of 
 Chaucer, altliough about a century and a half before him. Orni 
 has also the peculiarity of always doubling a consonant after a 
 short vowel. Thus, in his introduction, he says : — 
 
 " f>iss boc i.ss neminnedd Orrniulum 
 Forr l)i j^att Orrm itt wrohlite." 
 
 That i.s, "This book is named Ormulum, for the (reason) that 
 Orm Avrought it." The absence of inllexi(^ns is probably dm^ 
 to tli(>. fact that the book is Avritten in the East-j\Iidland dialei't. 
 ]jut, in a song called "The Story of Genesis and Exodus,"" 
 written about l'2~)0, we find a greater number of inflexions. 
 Thus we read : — 
 
 " Hunger wex in lond Chanaan ; 
 And hi.s X suiics Jacob for-'Sau 
 
SPECIMENS OF ENOLTSTI OF DIFFERENT TERIODS. 333 
 
 (ff. to what 
 
 aiul so on. 
 KS or "SWD- 
 
 LISU (1200-1185). 
 
 itU to (Uie en 
 dropped about 
 
 vrt. iu inge. 
 al in en. 
 bivo in eth. 
 
 in es (separate 
 le). 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 sives in es («cpa- 
 syllable). .1^ 
 
 In ibis cculiu'v 
 X of intloxions, 
 :)f the Order of 
 [vless as that of 
 
 lore him- ^"^' 
 Insonant after a 
 
 I!' (reason) tli'^t 
 Is prolnihly diu' 
 llidland dialect. 
 and Exodus, 
 of intlcxion^ 
 
 Sente in to Egypt to bringen roren ; 
 He liilefe at liom fie was gunge.st boren." 
 
 That i.s, "Hunger waxed (increased) in the land of Canaan*, 
 and Jacob for that (reason) sent his ten sons into Egypt to 
 bring corn: he remained at home that was yoiuiffost born." 
 
 9. The English of the Fourteenth Century. — The four 
 greatest writers of the fourteenth century are — in verse, 
 Chaucer and Langlande; and in prose, Mandeville and 
 WyclifFe. The inflexions continue to drop off; and, in 
 Chaucer at least, a larger number of French words appear. 
 Chaucer also writes in an elaborate verse -measure that forms 
 a striking contrast to the homely rhythms of Langlande. Thus, 
 ill the " Man of Lawes Tale," we have the verse : — 
 
 " O queenes, lyvynge in prosperitee, 
 Duchesses, and ladyiis everiohono, 
 Haveth som routhe on hir adversit(5e ; 
 An emperouros doughter .stant allone ; 
 She hath no wight to whom to make hir mone, 
 O blood roial ! that stonde.st in this dvedij 
 Fer ben thy fremles at thy grete nedti ! " 
 
 Here, with the exception of the imperative in Haveth som 
 routhe ( = have some pity), stant, and he)? ( = are), the grammar 
 of Chaucer is very near the grammar of to-day. How different 
 this is from the simple English of Langlande ! He is speaking 
 of the great storm of wind that blew on January 15, 1362 : — 
 
 " Piries and Plomtres weore passchet to \)e giounde, 
 In ensaumple to JMen })at we scholde do \>e bettre, 
 Beches and brode okes weore bio wen to {)e eort)e," 
 
 Here it is the spelling of Langlande's English that difiers most 
 from modern English, and not the grammar. — Much the same 
 maybe said of the .style of Wvclift'o (1324-1384) and of Mande- 
 ville ( 1 300-1372). In WycUfle's vorsion of the Gospel of Mark, 
 V. 26, he speaks of a woman " th:u hadde suffride manv thingis 
 "f ful many leohis (doctors), and .spendid alle hir thmgis ; and 
 no -thing profitide." Sir John Mandevdle's English keeps 
 many old inflexions and spt^Uings^ . but is, in other respects, 
 iii'iJern enough. Speaking of Mahomet, he <«ays : "And 5ee 
 
 ' i 
 
;53i 
 
 HTSTORY OF THE KNGUBTl LANriUAriK. 
 
 ■e- 
 fjl \ 
 
 i^f'liiillc nndoiNtonds Hint Matdinmoto was liorn in Arnl\v,o, iliai 
 was lii'st a jxirc Icnavo Hint, kept, canmlcs, UimI. wciiicn with 
 )iuu'(!]iaiit('..s i'or inai'oliaiidisi!." I\/i(in>. ftM' lioy, and /rn/frit tur 
 wniit are tlie two cliicf dilTcrenoes — tlio one in tlie use of words, 
 the otlicr in grammar — tliat distingnish this piece of ^Nfandc- 
 ville's Englisli from our modern speech. 
 
 10. The English of the Sixteenth Century. — This, which is 
 also called Tndor-l^nglish, diil'ers as regards grammar hardly at 
 all from the English of the nineteenth century. This heconies 
 ])lain from.a passage from one of Latimer's sermons (1 490-1.'').') 5), 
 *'a hook which gives a faithful picture of the manners, thoughts, 
 and events of the period." " ^Fy father," he writes, "w;is ;i 
 yeoman, and had no lands of his own, only i:e had a farm of 
 three or four pound a year at the uttermost, and hereupon lie 
 tilled so much as kept half a dozen men. He had walk for a 
 hundred sheep; and my mother milked thirty kine." In this 
 passage, it is only the old-fashionedness, homeliness, and quaint- 
 ness of the English — not its grammar — that makes us feel that 
 it was not written in our own times. AVhen l^idley, the fellow- 
 martyr of Latimer, stood at the stake, he said, " I commit our 
 cause to Almighty God, which shall indifferently judge all." 
 Here he used indiffercnthj in the sense of impartially — that is, 
 in the sense of rualdng no difference hdiceen parties ; and this 
 is one among a vei-y large number of instances of Latin words, 
 when they had not been long in our language, still retaining the 
 older Latin meaning. 
 
 11. The English of the Bible (i).— The version of the Bible 
 Avhich we at present use was made in 1611 ; and we might 
 therefore suppose that it is written in seventeenth-century En[(- 
 lish. l)Ut this is not the case. The translators were com- 
 manded by James I. to " follow the IJishops' Bible " ; and the 
 Bishops' Bible Avas itself founded on the "Great Bible," whidi 
 was published in 1 5.39. But the Great Bible is itself only a 
 revision of Tyndale's, part of which a[i})eared as early as 1520. 
 AVhen we are reading the Bible, therefore, we are reading Eng- 
 lish of the sixteenth century, and, to a large extent, of the early 
 part of that century. It is true that successive generations of 
 
SPECIMENS OF KXOLISFI OF UTITEIJKNT PERIODS. Xi'^ 
 
 rnliy,o, thai 
 (•ntcii with 
 ■/i;f lit I'll 1"V 
 ■ic of wt.>v*\^, 
 ; of Mande- 
 
 iiis, which is 
 lar hardly at 
 rhis heconics 
 (UOO-inf)-)), 
 GTS, thoiij^hts, 
 :itos, "was a 
 lad a fanu <»f 
 I hc'veiipou he 
 iiid walk iov a 
 ino." In this 
 ss, and quaint- 
 es us feel that 
 ey, the fellow- 
 I commit our 
 
 y ju'^g^ '^^^•" 
 /r<?Zi/— that is, 
 
 ties ; and this 
 
 Latin words, 
 
 1 retaining the 
 
 livinif'rs liavo, i^f their own anr-ovd, aUt'ivd tlic spelling,', :niil 
 ovoii, to a slight t'xtciit, modilicd llic ,L,n'aiiiiuav. 'I'lius Wf liav > 
 fi'/cJi t'f I fov th(^ ()ld('r_/V/, //lofd for mor, snir/l, for snirr/t, liillllc tnl' 
 
 lin'i'Jile (whicli givi's the coiincctinii with hnd/,-), jair.-i lor c/ni/rs, 
 t<lxth for sixt, and so on. P.ut ^\^' still find sucji ])arti('i[)l«'s as 
 shined and unclcrotandeil ; and such ]ihrast's as ''they can .skill 
 to hew timber " (1 Kings v. 6), "abjects" for ahjcrf iicrsons, 
 " three days agono " lor ago, the " captivated Hebrews " for 
 "the captive Hebrews," and others. 
 
 12. The English of the Bible (ii).— AVe liave, again, old 
 words retained, or used in the older meaning. Thus we find, 
 in Psalm v. 0, the phrase " them that speak leasing," which 
 reminds us of King Alfred's expression about "leasum spellum" 
 (lying stories). Train and vcen are often found; tlie "cham- 
 I»aign over against Gilgal" (Dent. \\. .30) means the pldin ; and a 
 I)ublicau in the ]!^e\v Testament is a tax-gatherer, who sent to 
 the Koman 'I'reasury or Publicum the taxes he had collected 
 from the .lews. An "ill-favoured person" is an ill-lo(d<ing })er- 
 sou; and "bravery" (Isa. iii. 18) is used in the sense of finery 
 in dross. — Some of the oldest grammar, too, remains, as in 
 Esther viii. 8, "AViite ye, as it liketh you," where the you is a 
 daiive. Again, in Ezek. xxx. 2, we find " Howl ye, Woe 
 worth the day ! " where the imperative innili governs daij in the 
 dative case. This idiom is still found in modern verse, as in 
 the well-known lines in the first canto of the " Lady of the 
 
 Lake " 
 
 \i 
 
 ih 
 
 " Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day 
 That cost thy life, my .gallant grey ! " 
 
 X 
 
 generi 
 
336 
 
 CHATTEli Y. 
 
 MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 tl^ 
 
 1. Grammar Fixed. — From tlic^ date of 1485 — that is, from 
 tha beginning of the reign of JTenry YIT. — the changes in tlu! 
 grammar or constitution of our language are so extremely small, 
 that they are hardly noticealile. Any J'Jiglishman of ordinary 
 education can read a hook helonging to the latter part of the 
 fifteenth or to the sixteenth century -without difficulty. Sinoe 
 that tune the grammar of our language has liardly changed at 
 all, though we have altered and enlarged our vocabulary, and 
 have adopted thousands of new words. The introduction of 
 Printing, the lievival of Learning, the Translation of the Bible, 
 the growth and spread of the power to read and write — these 
 and other influences tended to fix the language and to keep it 
 as it is to-day. It is true that we have dropped a few old- 
 fashioned endings, like the n or en in mlvern and fjohlpn: 
 but, so far as form or grammar is concerned, the English of the 
 sixteenth and the English of the nineteenth centuries are sulv 
 stantially the same. 
 
 2. New Words. — But, while the grammar of English has 
 remained the same, the vocabulary of English has been grow- 
 ing, and growing rapidly, not merely with each century, but 
 with each generation. The discovery of the Xew "World in 
 1492 gave an impetus to maritime enterprise in England, which 
 it never lost, brought us into connection with the Spaniards, 
 and hence contributed to our language several Spanish words, 
 In the siytoenth and seventeenth centuries, Italian literature 
 
MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 r?3: 
 
 hat is, fvciu 
 mges in the, 
 oiiiely mu\\\, 
 
 of ordinary 
 .• part of the 
 culty. Sinofi 
 [y chang(Hl at 
 
 ahulary, and 
 troiUictiou •'{ 
 
 t)f the lii^^l*', 
 write— these 
 
 md to keep it 
 .d a few ohl- 
 [ and f/o/f/^"; 
 ;nglish of the 
 [uries are sn^i 
 
 Englis^-L has 
 Las heen grow- 
 ceiitury, l^^^t 
 tew AVorhl in 
 England, which 
 |the Spaniards, 
 ,anish wc^vds, 
 ilian literature 
 
 was largely read ; AVyatt and SuiTcy sliovv its inlhunn'e in their 
 poems ; and Italian words began to conu' in in considcrahle 
 nuniherti. Conunerce, too, has dune much fur us in this way; 
 aud along with the article inii)orted, we have in general intro- 
 duced also the name it bore in its own native country. Jn later 
 limes, Science has l»een making rapid strides — has been bring- 
 ing to light new discoveries and new inventions almost every 
 week ; and along with these new discoveries, the language has 
 been enriched with new names and new terms. Let us look a 
 little more closely at the character of these foreign contributions 
 to the vocabulary of our tongue. 
 
 3. Spanish Words. — 'i'he words we have received from the 
 Spanish language are not numerous, but they are important. 
 Tn addition to the ill-fated word armada, we have the Span- 
 ish for Mr, which is Don (from Lat. (Ii)iiiiiiiix, a lord), with its 
 feminine Duenna. Th(>y gave us also alligator, which is out 
 English way of writing el /'K/arfo, the lizard. They also pre 
 i-ented us with a large number of words that end in o — such a>< 
 buffalo, cargo, desperado, guano, indigo, mosquito, mulatto, 
 negro, potato, tornado, and others. The following is a toler 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Octoroon. 
 
 Quadroon. 
 
 Renegade. 
 
 Savannal). 
 
 Sherry ( — Xere.s). 
 
 Tornado. 
 
 Vanilla. 
 
 4. Italian Words. — Italian literatuni has been I'ead and 
 cultivated in England sint'c the time of Chaucer — since the 
 fourteenth century; and the arts and artists of Italy have for 
 many centuries exerted a great deal of iuHueucc on tliose of 
 England. Hence it is that we owe to the Italian language a 
 large number of words. These relate to poetry, such as canto, 
 sonnet, stanza ; to music, as pianoforte, opera, oratorio, 
 soprano, alto, contralto ; to architecture and sculpture, as 
 
 J iUlA ±l'~fV . — 
 
 
 
 Alligator. 
 
 Cork. 
 
 Galleon (t 
 
 Armada. 
 
 Creole. 
 
 (Jrandee. 
 
 Barricade. 
 
 Desperado. 
 
 Grenade. 
 
 Battledore. 
 
 Don. 
 
 Guerilla. 
 
 Bravado. 
 
 Duenna. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Buffalo. 
 
 Eldorado, 
 
 Jennet. 
 
 Cargo. 
 
 Embargo. 
 
 Matador. 
 
 ("igar. 
 
 Filibuster. 
 
 Merino. 
 
 Cochineal. 
 
 Flotilla. 
 
 Mosquito 
 
 l*!*1 
 
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 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
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 ^> 
 
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 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) 87^4503 
 
 ,\ 
 
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338 
 
 IllSTOUY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 portico, piazza, cupola, torso; and to i)iiiiitiiig, as studio, 
 fresco (an ()[»cn-air i)aintiiig), and others. The following is a 
 'jompletc list : — 
 
 Alarm, 
 Alert. 
 Alto. 
 Arciule. 
 Halooux . 
 Balu-stradf. 
 Bandit, 
 liaiikrujil. 
 Bravo. 
 Brigade. 
 Brigand. 
 ^7 Broccoli. 
 Burle^5quL•. 
 Bust. 
 Cameo. 
 Canteen. 
 Canto. 
 Caprice. 
 Caricature. 
 Carnival. 
 Cartoon. 
 Cascade. 
 Cavalcade. 
 
 Charlatan. 
 
 Citadel. 
 
 Colonnade. 
 
 Concert. 
 
 Contralto. 
 
 Conveidazioiie. 
 
 Cornice. 
 
 Corridor. 
 
 Cupola. 
 
 Curvet. 
 
 Dilettante. 
 
 1 )itto. 
 
 I >oge. 
 
 Domino. 
 
 Kxtravagan/.a. 
 
 Fia-sco. 
 
 Folio, 
 
 Fresco. 
 
 Gazette. 
 
 Gondola. 
 
 Granite. 
 
 Grotto. 
 
 Guitar. 
 
 Incognito. 
 
 Influenza. 
 
 Lagoon. 
 
 1 .ava. 
 
 Lazaretto. 
 
 Macaroni. 
 
 Madonna. 
 
 Madrigal. 
 
 Malaria. 
 
 Manifesto. 
 
 Motto. 
 
 Mou.stacli(\ 
 
 Niche. 
 
 Opera. 
 
 Oratori< <. 
 
 Palette. 
 
 Pantaloon. 
 
 Parapet. 
 
 Pedant. 
 
 Pianoforte. 
 
 Piazza. 
 
 Pistol. 
 
 Portico. 
 
 Proviso. 
 
 (Quarto. 
 
 Regatta. 
 
 Ruflian. 
 
 Serenade. 
 
 Sonnet. 
 
 Soprano. 
 
 Stanza. 
 
 Stilett(j. 
 
 Stucco. 
 
 Studio. 
 
 Tenor. 
 
 Terra-cotta. 
 
 Tirade. 
 
 Torso. 
 
 'i'rombone. 
 
 L'mbrella. 
 
 Vermilion. 
 "^Vertu. 
 
 Virtuo.«o. 
 
 Vista. 
 
 Volcano. 
 A Zany. 
 
 5. Dutch Words. — We liave had for many centuries co a- 
 niercial dealings with the Dutch ; and as they, like ourselve.<, 
 arc a great sc^afaring people, they have given us a nunihcr 
 of words relating to the management ot ships. In the four- 
 teenth century, the southern part of the German Ocean was 
 the most fre([uent'Hl sea in the world ; and the chances of 
 plunder were so great that ships of war had to keep cruisin;^' 
 up and down to protect the trading vessels that sailed Ijctwecii 
 England and the Low Countries. The following arc the words 
 wliich we owe to the Netherlands : — 
 
 i 1 
 
 Ballast. 
 
 Luff, 
 
 Sloop. 
 
 Ti-igger. 
 
 Boom. 
 
 Reef. 
 
 Smack, 
 
 Wear (said of a 
 
 Boor. 
 
 Scliiedam (gin). 
 
 Smuggle, 
 
 ship). 
 
 Burgomaster. 
 
 Skates. 
 
 Stiver. 
 
 Yacht 
 
 Hoy. 
 
 Skipper. 
 
 Taffrail. 
 
 YawL 
 
 4 
 
MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 a:v.) 
 
 as studio, 
 lowing i-^ ii 
 
 'roviso. 
 
 Quarto. 
 
 {egattH. 
 
 luffiaii. 
 
 ■serenade. 
 
 "ionnei. 
 
 i^oprano. 
 
 Staiua. 
 
 StilctW. 
 
 Stucco. 
 
 Studio. 
 
 Tenor. 
 
 Terra-cotta. 
 
 Tirade. 
 
 Torso. 
 
 Trombone. 
 
 Umbrella. 
 
 Vermilion. 
 ^Vertu. 
 
 Virtuoso. 
 
 Vieta. 
 
 Volcano. 
 
 Zany. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■enturies co n- 
 ^ke ourselves, 
 us a munljcr 
 111 the i'our- 
 vii Ocean was 
 10 cluiuces of 
 keep cruising 
 lulled between 
 arc the \voi\h 
 
 [rigger. 
 Tear (said of a 
 1 ship). 
 lacht. 
 lawL . 
 
 6. French Words. — llo.sides the hw^v iuMiiinii.s l<» our 
 language made hy the Nomian-Frencli, we liave fiom time to 
 lime imjiortcd direct from France; a number of French words, 
 Avithout cliaiige in the spelling, and witli Httle clmiige in the 
 pronunciation. The Frencli have been for centuries the most 
 poHshed nation in Kuroi)e ; from Franco tlie changing fasliions 
 in dress spread over all the countries of the Continent ; French 
 Utcrature has been much read in England since the time of 
 Cliarles II. ; and for a long time all diplonudic correspondence 
 iK'tweeii foreign countries and England was carried on in Frendi. 
 AVord.s relating to manners and customs are common, such as 
 soiree, etiquette, seance, elite ; and we have also the names of 
 things which were invented in France, sucli as mitrailleuse, 
 earte-de-visite, coup d'etat, and others. Some of tliese words 
 are, in spelling, exactly like EngHsh ; and advantage of this has 
 been taken in a well-known ei)igram : — 
 
 The French have taste in all they do, 
 
 Which we are quite without ; 
 For Nature, which to them gave goiit,^ 
 
 To us gave only gout. 
 
 The following is a list of French words which have been 
 imported in comparatively recent times : — 
 
 .\ide-de-camp. 
 
 Carte-de-visite. 
 
 Etiquette. 
 
 Persoimel. 
 
 Belle. 
 
 Coup-d'dtat. 
 
 Fa(;ade. 
 
 Prdci.s. 
 
 Bivouac. 
 
 Debris. 
 
 Gout. 
 
 Progrannne. 
 
 Blonde. 
 
 Ddbut. 
 
 Naive. 
 
 Protege. 
 
 Boui[uet. 
 
 Ddjeuner. 
 
 Naivete. 
 
 Recherche. 
 
 Brochure. 
 
 Depot. 
 
 NonchalaiK'c. 
 
 Sdance. 
 
 Brunette. 
 
 ^.clat. 
 
 Outre. 
 
 Soiree. 
 
 Brusque. 
 
 Knnui. 
 
 Penchant. 
 
 Trou.-^seau. 
 
 The Scotch have always had a clxser connection with the French 
 nation than England ; and hence we tinil in the Scottish dialect 
 "f English a number of French words that are not used in South 
 bi'itain at all. A leg of mutt(»n is called in Scotland a gigot ; 
 tlie dish on which it is laid is an ashet (from a-'^fttp/fr) ; a cup 
 tor tea or for wine is a tassie (from tanse) ; the gate of a town is 
 
 1 OoAt (goo) from Latin gustus, taste. 
 
i 
 
 Stii 
 
 il 
 
 HISTOHY OF TIIK ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 called the port; and a stubborii ])er8()n is dour (Fr. r^wr, from 
 Lat. durm) ; while a gentle and amiable i)erson is douce (Fr. 
 Uoiice, Lat. dulcis). 
 
 7. Oerman Words. — It must nut he forgotten that Knglish is 
 a Low-Gennan dialect, while the (Jerman of hooks is New llJLjh- 
 Germau. "We have never borrowed directly from High-German, 
 because we have never needed to borrow. Those modern Ger- 
 man words that have come into our language in recent times iiir 
 chiefly the names of minerals, with a few striking exception, , 
 such as loafer, which came to us from the German inunigrant< 
 to the United States, and plunder, which seems to have Ikhh 
 brought from Germany by English soldiers who had served inidcr 
 Gustavus Adolphus. The following are the German words 
 which we have received in recent times : — 
 
 t'obttlt. 
 
 Landgrave. 
 
 Meerschaum. 
 
 Poodle. 
 
 Felspar. 
 
 Loafer. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Quartz. 
 
 Hornblende. 
 
 Mftrgravc. 
 
 Plunder. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 8. Hebrew Words. — These, with very few exceptions, have 
 come to us from the translation of the Bible, which is now in 
 use in our homes and churches. Abbot and abbey come from 
 the Hebrew word abba, father ; and such words as cabal aiul 
 Talmud, though not found in the Old Testament, have been 
 contributed by Jewish literature. The following is a tolerably 
 complete list : — 
 
 Abbey. 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 Leviathan. 
 
 Sabbath. 
 
 Abbot. 
 
 Hallelujah. 
 
 Manna. 
 
 Sadducees. 
 
 Amen. 
 
 Hosannali. 
 
 PaschaL 
 
 Satan. 
 
 Behemoth. 
 
 Jehovah. 
 
 Pharisee. 
 
 Seraph. 
 
 Cabal. 
 
 Jubilee. 
 
 Pharisaical. 
 
 Shibboleth. 
 
 Cherub. 
 
 Gehenna. 
 
 Rabbi. 
 
 Talmud. 
 
 9. Other Foreign Words.— The English have always bi'on 
 the greatest travellers in the world ; and our sailors alwiivs 
 the most daring, intelligent, and enterprising. There is hardly 
 a port or a country in the world into which an English ship ha^ 
 not penetrated ; and our commerce has now been maintained for 
 centuries with every people on the face of the globe. We 
 exchange goods with almost every nation and tribe under the 
 
MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 341 
 
 r. dur, from 
 douce (Fr. 
 
 it Kiiglisli is 
 3 Now lli;4l>- 
 [igh-GevniHU, 
 modern Gt'i- 
 ent tiiuos iw 
 it exception.-, 
 
 in immigi'^«»^^ 
 
 to have l>t'oii 
 
 I served imdcr 
 
 German words 
 
 Poodle. 
 Quartz. 
 Zinc. 
 
 :ceptiou^, Uavo 
 rhicli is now in 
 bey come from 
 as cabal an»l 
 icnt, have been 
 ^ is a toleral)ly 
 
 Sabbath. 
 Sadduceeri. 
 
 Satan. 
 
 Seraph. 
 
 Shibboletli. 
 
 Talmud. 
 
 |-o always heoii 
 
 sailors always 
 
 There is hardl} 
 
 |riiglish ship ha^^ 
 
 maintained foi 
 
 [he globe, ^^^e 
 
 tribe under tlw 
 
 sun. "When we import articles or produce from abroad, we in 
 general import the native name along with the thing. Hence 
 it is that we have guauo, maize, and tomato from the two 
 Americas ; coffee, cotton, and tamarind from Arabia ; tea, 
 congou, and nankeen from CJhina ; calico, chintz, and rupee 
 from Hindostan ; bamboo, gamboge, and sago from the Malay 
 Peninsula ; lemon, musk, and orange from Persia ; boomerang 
 and kangaroo from Australia ; chibouk, ottoman and tulip 
 from Turkey. The following are lists of these foreign words ; 
 and they arc worth examining with the greatest minuteness : — 
 
 
 Afuican 
 
 Dialects. 
 
 
 Ka<)br.b. 
 
 Gnu. 
 
 Karoo. 
 
 VQuagga. 
 
 Canary. 
 
 Gorilla. 
 
 Kraal. 
 
 Zebra. 
 
 Chimpanzee. 
 
 Guinea. 
 
 Oa«ia, 
 
 
 
 Ameuican 
 
 Tongues. 
 
 
 Alpaca. 
 
 Condor. 
 
 Miii/c. 
 
 Kacoon. 
 
 Buccaneer. 
 
 Guano. 
 
 Manioc. 
 
 Skunk. 
 
 Cacique. 
 
 Hammock. 
 
 Moccasin. 
 
 Squaw. 
 
 Cannibal. 
 
 Jaguai . 
 
 Mustang. 
 
 Tupioca. 
 
 Canoe. 
 
 Jalap. 
 
 Upossuni. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 Jerked (beef). 
 
 Pampas. 
 
 Tomahawk. 
 
 Cayman. 
 
 Llama. 
 
 Pommicau. 
 
 Tomato. 
 
 Chocolate. 
 
 Mahogany. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Wigwam. 
 
 
 AUABK. 
 
 n'he word al means the. 
 
 'nm^idcohol-tht 
 
 tipirit.) 
 
 Admiral (Milton Azure. 
 
 Harem. 
 
 Sitlaam. 
 
 writes 
 
 am- Caliph. 
 
 Hookah. 
 
 Senna. 
 
 miral. 
 
 Carat. 
 
 Koran (or Al- 
 
 Sherbet. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 coran). 
 
 W Shrub (the 
 
 Alcove. 
 
 Cipher 
 
 I.ute. 
 
 drink). 
 
 Alembic. 
 
 ^ Civet. 
 
 ]\liigazint'. 
 
 SiuioKiii. 
 
 Algebiii. 
 
 Cottee. 
 
 Mattress. 
 
 Sirocco. 
 
 Alkali. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 .Minaret. 
 
 Sofa. 
 
 Amber. 
 
 Crimson. 
 
 Mohair. 
 
 Sultan. 
 
 Arrack. 
 
 ^ Dragoman. 
 
 Monsoon. 
 
 Syrup. 
 
 Ar.-5eual. 
 
 Elixir. 
 
 Mosque. 
 
 Talisman. 
 
 Artichoke. 
 
 ^ Emir. 
 
 *■ Mufti. 
 
 Tamarind. 
 
 AssaAsin. 
 
 Fakir. 
 
 ^ Nabob. 
 
 Tariff. 
 
 Assegau 
 
 V Felucca. 
 
 ' Nadir. 
 
 Viziei-. 
 
 Attar. 
 
 Gazelle. 
 
 Naphtha. 
 
 Zenith. 
 
 Azimuth. 
 
 GirafiTe. 
 
 Saflfron, 
 
 Zero. 
 
 
 > 
 
y 
 
 3t2 
 
 Ny 
 
 Ill.STOUY UF THE ENliUSlI LANliUAllE. 
 
 CHINESK. 
 
 Mnlira. 
 
 ^^Hyson. 
 
 Nankeen, 
 
 Souchong. 
 
 (,'liiiiii. 
 
 Joss. 
 
 i'cko.;. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 •J Congou. 
 
 Junk. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Typhoon. 
 
 
 ( owne. 
 
 Hl.NDU. 
 
 ^Bynt. 
 
 >/Avatjir. 
 
 I'agoda. 
 
 I^aiiyan. 
 
 ''Dnrbiir. 
 
 Talan<iuin. 
 
 Sepoy. 
 
 Hralmiin. 
 
 Jungle. 
 
 I'ariali. 
 
 Shampoo. 
 
 liuiigiilow. 
 
 Lao (of ruj 
 
 )ees -. I'unch. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 ( 'alico. 
 
 1 i( )Ot. 
 
 i Pundit. 
 
 V Suttee. 
 
 Chintz. 
 
 vMulligatawny. Uajah. 
 
 VThug. 
 
 Coo lie. 
 
 .^u»k. 
 
 Hupeo. 
 
 Toddy. 
 
 
 HbN(;.\iUA\. 
 
 
 Hussar. 
 
 Sabre. 
 
 Shako. 
 
 Tokay. 
 
 
 
 Malay. 
 
 1 
 
 ^ Amuck 
 
 Cassowai'y. 
 
 ^•Cong. 
 
 Orang-outang. 
 
 Uamboo. 
 
 ( 'ockatoo. 
 
 < iutta-percha. 
 
 Rattan. 
 
 Haiituni. 
 
 */ Dugong. 
 
 Mandarin. 
 
 Sago. 
 
 Caddy. 
 
 Gamboge. 
 
 Mango. 
 Pkksian. 
 
 VUpa^ 
 
 Awning. 
 
 1 )ervish. 
 
 Jasmine. 
 
 Pasha. 
 
 Bazaar. 
 
 Divan. 
 
 Lac (a gum). 
 
 Rook. 
 
 \/ Bashaw. 
 
 'J Firman. 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 Saraband. 
 
 Caravan. 
 
 Hazard. 
 
 Lilac. 
 
 Sash. 
 
 Check. 
 
 Horde. 
 
 Lime (the fruit 
 
 ;. Scimitar. 
 
 yjlieckmate. 
 
 Houri. 
 
 Musk. 
 
 Shawl. 
 
 ■Chess. 
 
 Jar. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 TaffetJi. 
 
 Curry. 
 
 Jackal. 
 
 Paradise. 
 
 Turbau. 
 
 
 Poi.YN KsiAN Dialects. 
 
 
 Boomerang. 
 
 Kangaroo. 
 
 Taboo. 
 
 Tattoo. 
 
 
 1' 
 
 OHTUUUESE. 
 
 
 Albatross. 
 
 Cocoa-nut. 
 
 Lasso. 
 
 Molasse.-*. 
 
 Caste. 
 
 Commodore. Marmalade. 
 
 Palaver. 
 
 Cobra. 
 
 I-'etisk 
 
 ^ Moidoif. 
 
 IvOSI AN. 
 
 Port( = Oiiort('i 
 
 Czar. 
 
 KnouL. 
 
 Poulik-. 
 
 ^ Ukase. 
 
 y/ Drosky. 
 
 ^ Morse. 
 
 Stejipe. 
 
 '1'ahtaii, 
 Khan. 
 
 Tl'RKlSH. 
 
 s/Verst. 
 
 ■ Bey. 
 
 ■ Chouse. 
 
 Kiosk. 
 
 Tu^-'p. 
 
 Caftan. 
 
 '' l^ey. 
 
 Odalisque. 
 
 \J Yashmak. 
 
 CliibouL 
 
 Janissary. 
 
 Ottoman. 
 
 y Yataghan. 
 
MODEKN KNGLlsll. 
 
 'M:\ 
 
 Oil. 
 ypllOOU. 
 
 {yni. 
 
 ShiUiipo". 
 
 Suttee. 
 
 Toddy. 
 
 Tokay. 
 
 4 
 
 C)raiig-outHn^- 
 lliittaii. 
 Sago. 
 <l Upaa» 
 
 10. Scientific Terms. A very lai-r nuinltn' ol' diMovt rirs 
 111 scit'iicc liiivc luTii iiiiiilc ill this ccntiifv ; aiid a lai^r iiiiiiilicr 
 dl' iiivriili'tiis hiivf iiitidducfMl tlifst; iliscdVi ri(> to tliu |i('(i|»lc, 
 ;iu(l iiuulc tln'iii useful ill daily lif(\ Tims ^\■r liavc fi/iffrdi'/i 
 iiiid fi'lviji'iini ; ^ii1uti(uji'(ip}t ,• frlrphoin' and even /'/inf()p}ii>nr. 
 The word ihiinniiifi' is alsd modern ; and the unha]i]iy employ 
 iiH'iit of it has made it too widely kimwn. Then passing' 
 fashions have f,'iv(Mi ns such words as nfhli'fo and ustln'fi'. In 
 ..'I'neral, it may lie said that, when we wish to L,'ive a name to a 
 new tiling — ii new diseovery, invention. oi fashion -we liave 
 riMdiirsp not to onr own stores of l'"n,L,dish, hut to the vociibu- 
 l.iiit'b of the Latin and Greek luii'^uuKtiS. 
 
 '>^ 
 
 Vanha. 
 
 Rook. 
 
 Sarabaud. 
 
 Sash. 
 
 Scimitar. 
 
 Shawl. 
 
 TaffetJv. 
 
 Turbaii. 
 
 Tattoo. 
 
 Molastje;*. 
 Palaver. 
 
 - \ Tka.se. 
 V Vers I. 
 
 Yashmak. 
 ^Yataghan. 
 
liU 
 
 i , ' 
 
 11 
 
 ■ 3 
 
 LANDMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF THK 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. The Beowulf, an old Engli.-^h epic, " written dh the uiaiulauil " 450 
 
 2. Christianity introduced by St Augustine (and with it niany 
 
 Latin and a few Greek words) . . . .597 
 
 3. Caedmon — ' Paraphrase of the Scriiitures,'— tii'st English pueni 670 
 
 4. Baeda — " The Venerable Hede" — translated into English jtart 
 
 of St John's (Jospel ...... 735 
 
 6. King Alfred translated several Latin works into English, 
 among others, Bede's ' Ecclesiastical Histoiy of tiie Kug- 
 lish Nation' . . . . . . (861) 901 
 
 6. Aelfric, Archbishop of Ytirk, turned into English most of the 
 
 historical books of the Old Testament . . . lOOO 
 
 7. The Norman Conquest, which introduced Norman French 
 
 words 1066 
 
 8. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, said to have been begun by King 
 
 Alfred, and brought to a close in , . . . 1160. 
 
 9. Orm t)r Omnin's Ormulum, a poem written in the East Mid- 
 
 land dialect, about ...... 1200 
 
 10. Normandy lost under King John. Norman-Englinh now have 
 
 tlieir only home in England, and u.so our English speech 
 more and more ...... 1204 
 
 11. Layamon translates the 'Brut' from the Fi-eneh of Robert 
 
 Wace. This is the first English book (written in t%utfurn 
 Ewjlish) after the sto}>page of the Anglo-Saxon (,'hroniele . 1205 
 
 12. The Ancren Riwle ("Rules for Anchorites") written in the 
 
 Dorsetshire dialect. " It is the forerunner of a wondiou- 
 change in our speech," " It swarms with French words " 1220 , 
 
 13. First Royal Proclamation in English, issued by Henry III. . 1258 
 
 14. Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle (swarms with foreign terms) 13O0 1 
 
LANDMARKS IN HISTOKY OF KNCWJSII LANOrACF. 345 
 
 OF Tin: 
 
 3Uiainlau'l" 450 
 
 ,vith it >"'"'y 
 
 597 
 
 Kugli'^li \n<vm 670 
 
 , Engli'^li pint 
 
 . 735 
 
 into KngU^ii, 
 „f the H"g- 
 
 1861) 901 
 
 moat of the 
 
 . 1000 
 
 ormau French 
 
 3guu by King 
 
 the East ^Mit^- 
 
 1066 
 
 1160 J 
 
 1200 
 
 igli.Mi now h;ivo 
 English t^peuLli 
 
 1204 
 
 inch of Hubert 
 leu in South(VH 
 In Chronicle . 1205 
 
 Iwritten in the 
 
 Inch words" 1220, 
 Henry III.. 1258 
 foreign terma) 130°' 
 
 15. Robert Manning, " Robert of Bruun," compiles thf • Handlyng 
 
 Synne.' ''It contains a most, cnpious projjorlinn nf French 
 words" ..,.,.. 1303 
 
 16. Ayenbite of Inwit ( = " Remorse of Conscieme ") . 1340 
 
 17. The Great Plague. After this it ])ecome.s les.-i and h'ss f.lic 
 
 fiishion to speak French ..... 1349 
 
 18. Sir John Mandeville, first writei- of the newei- English ProHe— 
 
 in his * Travels,' wiiich contained a large admixture of French 
 words. " Ills English is the speech sjyoken at Court in the 
 latter days of King Edward III." .... 1356 
 
 19. English become!! the language of the Law Courts . . 1362 
 
 20. Wickliflfe'B Bible ...... 1380 
 
 21. Geoffrey Chaucer, the first gi-eat English poet, antlmr of tlip 
 
 Canterbury Tales'; born in 1340, died . . . 1400 
 
 22. William Caxton. the first English iirintor, brings out (in the 
 
 I.iiw Countries) the first English book ever printed, the 
 ' Hoeuyoll of the Hi.storyes of Troye,' — "not written with 
 pen and ink, as other books are, to the end that every man 
 may have them at once " ..... 1471 
 
 23. First English Book printf;d in England (by Caxt-on) the '(Jame 
 
 and Playe of the Che.sse ' . . ' . . . 1474 J^' 
 
 24. Lord Berners' tran.slation of Froissart's Chronicle . . 1623 
 
 25. William Tyndale, by his tran.slation of the l?ilile "fixed our 
 
 tongue once for all." " His New Testament has become the 
 .standard of our tongue : the finst ten verses of the Fourth 
 Gospel are a good sample of his manly Teutonic j.ith " 1526-30 
 
 26. Edmund Spenser publishes his ' Faerie Queene.' "Now began 
 
 the golden age of l-lngland's literature ; and this age was to 
 
 last for about fourscore years " .... 1590 
 
 27. Our English Bible, based chietly on Tyndale's translation. 
 
 "Those who revised the English Bible in IGU were bidden 
 to keep as near as they could to the old version.s, such as 
 Tyndale's" 1611 
 
 is. William Shakespeare carried the use of the English language 
 to the greatest height of which it was capable. He employed 
 l.'i, 000 words. " Thela.stact of 'Othello' is a rare specimen of 
 Shakespeare's diction : of every five nouns, verbs, and adverbs, 
 four are Teutonic "... (Bom 1664) 1616 
 
 29. John Milton, "the mo.st learned of English poets," publishes 
 lii^* ' Paradise Lost,' — " a poem in which Latin words are intro- 
 duced with great skill "..... 1667 
 
 
340 
 
 III.STOUV OF rilF. F,N(iMSll r,.\N(;UAfiF.. 
 
 rJO. The Prayer Book n'vi-<»'il ainl issuptl in itM fitml fi)nn. "Are 
 WiiM sultsi itult'd for lir ill f"rty Miroo |il!i<rs, Tliis wiis ;i 
 j^'if'Jit viitury f>t' tli<( Nnrtli uvt-r tlic Suntli " . 1661 
 
 31. John Bunyan wdtcs liis ' rilt,'riiii's l*n«;,'r«'SH '— ii Ixjok full nf 
 
 jiiiiiy Kii;^'lisii idiom. "The ('oimiioii folk liiul the wit at 
 V once to see the worth of Hiiiiyan'rt maHterpieco, and tlie 
 hiarned lonti; afterwards followed in the wake of the coinniou 
 folk" ..... (Born 1628) 1688 
 
 32. SirThomas Browne, the author of ' rrn-Burial' and other works 
 
 written in a highly Latini.-*ed diction, such as the ' Religio 
 .Medici," written ...... 1642 
 
 33. Dr Samuel Johnson was the ehief .^upjxjrter of the use of 
 
 1 '"long-tailed woi-ds in o«ity and arion," such as his novel 
 called ' Kasselas,' iMil.lished .... 1759 
 
 34. Tennyson, I'oet-i/iureate, a wiiter of ihe liest English — "a 
 
 cttuntrynian of Holiert .Mainiing's, and a careful student of 
 
 * old Malory, Ins done nmcii tor tlie revival of pure Knglish 
 
 among us " . . . . i Bom 1609) 
 
 III 
 
 i '■ 1^1 
 
^\C,F.. 
 
 nrni. " Arr 
 Tliis was a 
 
 1661 
 
 I book full I if 
 
 A the wit iit 
 
 eco, and tin- 
 tile coininnii 
 (Born 1628) 1688 
 
 d other works 
 the ' Rpligio 
 
 • • 
 
 )f tho use of 
 as his nnvel 
 
 ■ • 
 
 ?:nKlish— "a 
 
 "ul student of 
 
 |iure Ku^'lir'li 
 
 Born 1809) 
 
 1642 
 
 1759 
 
 PAT^T TV 
 
 0(^TLL\E OF TTIK JIISI^ 
 
 OHV OF EXOLfSH 
 
 ^ITKiiATfJIil- 
 
1 
 
 1 ; 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ill ^ Miii 
 
319 
 
 ^> 
 
 s^ Ok 
 
 M.l£ 
 
 ^ 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OL'lt OLUE«T ENGLI8U LITEHATCKK. 
 
 Ml 
 
 I. Literature. — Tlu; history of Kn^Ksli Lilcnituiv is, in its 
 • friial a.spocl, an aci.'ouiit of tlio I'ust hooks in pmse and in 
 vtTso that havo heeii written 1»y En^'lish mm and KngHsh 
 
 women; and this ai-connt ht'gins witli a { m Krouj^dit over 
 
 frnm the- (Jontinont hy onr t-onntrymen in thr fifth century, and 
 niiiics down to tile time in wliieh we Hve. It euvers, therefore, 
 I ii<'ri(jd of nearly fourteen liunthvd yeais. 
 
 ■J. The Distribution of Literature.- \W' nnist not .su[>i)ose 
 'liiit Uterature ha.s always existed in the form of printed Ixjoks. 
 hiliTuture is a living thing — a living outcome of the living 
 iiiiud ; and there are many ways in which it has hcen dis- 
 liihutud to other liunian heings. Thr oldest way is, of course, 
 liy one person repeating a poem or other literary eomitosition 
 111' lias made to another; and thus literature is stored away, 
 iiul upon l)o(.>k -shelves, hut in th<' iin'iuory of living men. 
 ll'iiini's poems are said to have liem preserved in this way 
 to the Greeks for five hundred years. Fath<'r chanted them 
 i" sou ; the sons to their sons; and so on from generation to 
 ,'*'iu'ration. The next way of distributing literature is hy the 
 'till of signs called letters nuide upon leaves, flattened reeds, 
 parehnient, or the inner ])ark of trees. The next is hy the 
 liolp of writing npon })aper. The last is Ijy the x.'^ of tyi)e 
 "pon jtaper. This has existed in England for more than four 
 hundred years — since the year 1474; and thus it is that our 
 libraries contain many hundreds of thousands of valuable books. 
 
350 
 
 HISTORY OF KNCILISII UTEUATUUE. 
 
 For tlu' sanu' rcasnii is it, most ]>robal)ly, tlial as our jxiwcr nf 
 iptaining tlie HubslaiK.-c and multiplying tlip (•o])ies of bookf; lia^ 
 grown stronger, our living mcmorius liavo grown wrakti'. Tlii. 
 defect can be remedied only by education — tbat is, by trainin- 
 tlie memories of the young. AVhile wv jiossess so numy ])iiiil(il 
 books, it must not be forgotten that many valuable Morks exit 
 still in manuscript — written cither uj)on paper or on ])ar(;hniriii. 
 3. Verne, the earliest form of Literature.— It is a renunkaMi 
 fact that the earliest kind of comiiosition in all languages i> in 
 the form of Verse. The oldest books, loo, are those Avhieh ;ii<' 
 written in verse, 'i'hus Homer's jtoems are the oldest liteiaiy 
 work of Greece ; the Sagas are the oldest productions of Scan- 
 dinavian literature; and the Jleowulf is the oldest ]tiee(; (;i 
 literature produced by the Anglo-Saxon race. It is also fidin 
 the strong creative i)ower and the li\-cly inventions of \w\- 
 that we are even now sup})lied Avith new thoughts and ii(\'. 
 language — that the most vivid words and jOirases (,'ome into lli' 
 language; just as it is the ranges of high mountains that scii'l 
 down to the ])lains the ever fresh soil that gives to them tin ir 
 unending fertility. And thus it ha]>pens that our ])resent I'.ii;,- 
 lish speech is full of words and phrases that have found tliuii 
 way into the most ordinary conversation from the writings of oui 
 great poets — and especially from the writings of our greatest 
 poet, Shakespeare. The fact that the life of prose depend- 
 for its suj)plies on the creative minds of poets has been wt4i 
 expressed by an American Avritcr : — 
 
 " I looked uitoii a {)lain of green, 
 
 Whicli some one called the Land of I'roise, 
 Where many living things were Keen 
 In movement or repo.se. 
 
 J looked upon a stately hill 
 
 That well waij named ihe Mount of ISoiig, 
 
 Where golden shadows dwelt at will, 
 The woods and streams anion ij. 
 
 But most this fact my wonder bred 
 (Though known by all the nobly wise), 
 
 It was the mountain stream that fed 
 That fail' green i^lain's amenities." 
 
OUIi OLDEST KNflTJRlI LITKIIATUKE. 
 
 ;5:)1 
 
 our poNvev «>{ 
 
 vciik.'V. 'Hn- 
 
 ij;^ l)y Ivainiii;- 
 
 luany pvinlt^'l 
 
 3le ^vol■Vs »'Xi ^ 
 
 on imirlnuciil. 
 
 is a n'iiuivl<a1'l' 
 
 Uuiguagi's is in 
 
 \i,,s(" Avbi«'li aw 
 
 , uldi-si Ul<'vaiy 
 
 iictiourt of Sraii- 
 
 ol.lest V^''''^" "^ 
 ■^^ is also i'vniu 
 
 entioiis of ihh^ 
 .ouglits aiul nrv, 
 ses i:oiii^ i»»^" ^^'' 
 vmtahis llial m'H '■ 
 ves to tlioiu llu'U 
 
 have founa lla-n 
 IIk; writings of oui 
 of our greate.^i 
 ,01 prose aepen.l- 
 
 ets lias been ^v^l' 
 
 Trooe, 
 
 bong, 
 
 Ue), 
 
 1. Our oldest English Poetry.~The vtisc Mritti'.i Ly our 
 nM I'iii^^lisli wiitci's was Very diirricnt in I'miiu finm tlir V('i'.>e 
 1 iial a[t[iija)'.- iinw fruiu the liaiitLs «>f 'rciiiiyxiii, or liiowniiiL:, •'!' 
 Malllicw AriioKl, 'I'lic old Kiii^di.sh m An-ln-Saxoii Asiiti i.-. 
 UMil a kind cf rli'ine calliMl head-rhyme or alliteration; 
 wliilf, from tlic finirti'cntli ceiitury downwanls, our poets haxc 
 always employed end-rhyme in their verses. 
 
 "Aiglitly (luwn /easing ho /o(jrfened his lielmct." 
 
 Such was llic r(iu,^ii (»ld Enj^lish hiriii. At least three word 
 111 eadi long line Aveic, alliterative — tw(t in the Hrsl half, and 
 iiur in the second. .Metaphorical phrases were eoniinon, sucji 
 ,i> irnf-U'lilvi' for arrow, (rnr-!<liiii--< for armour, ir]iii\i\-<-jiiii}i or 
 .^irmi-i'iiiiil for the sea, irin-e-lKn'se for a ship, Irrr-irriiihf for 
 raipcntcr. Pillerent statements of the same fad, ' ditl'erent 
 jiluases for the same thi!i;4 — what are called parallelisms in 
 Ihhri'w poetry — as in the line — 
 
 "Then saw they the sea heacldands — tlie windy \\all.>," 
 
 won also in common use among our oMest Mn.ulish {locts. 
 
 .\ Beowulf. — The Beowulf is the oldest j)oem in the 
 I'.iii^dish language. It is our "oM Kngli.-h epic''; and, like 
 iiiU( h of our ancient M-rse, it is a war jioem. The author of 
 il is unknown. It was probably composed in the fifth century 
 —Hot in l^ngland, but on the Continent — and l)rought over to 
 iliis island — not on paper or on parchment— but in the nnun- 
 "I'ii's of the okl dutish or Saxon \ikings or warricu's. It was 
 imt written down at all, even in England, till the end (d' the 
 iiiiuli century, and then, jjrobably, by a monk of Morthnm- 
 liria. It tells among other things the .story of how Ileowulf 
 siilod from Sweden to the help of llrothgar, a king in Jut- 
 liud, whose life was made nuserable by u niouister — half man, 
 lialf fiend — named (Irendel. Eor about twelve years this mon- 
 ■;ter had been in the habit of creeping up to the l)anqueting- 
 Iwll of King Hrothgar, ; aizing upon his thanes, carrying them 
 'jff, and devouring them. Beo'^vulf attacks and overcomea the 
 ^agon, which is mortally wounded, und Hee* away to die. Tho 
 
! 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 • 1 
 
 352 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 m 
 
 \)ov.m bolfm;,'s hotli to ilif (n'miiin and to the Kiij^lish literature; 
 for it is written in a Continental Knglisli, wliieli is sonieAvliiil 
 (litlVrent from tin- I'ln^lisli of our cnvn island, lint its litei'aiy 
 slnqte is, as lias liccn said, due to m ( 'hristian writei' of Xortli 
 undjria ; and therefore its written or jirinted form — as it exi.>N 
 at present — is not ( German, l)ut Kn;^dish. I*arts of this poem 
 were often cliante(l at the feasts of warriors, whore all san^f in 
 turn as they sat after dinner over their eu[»s of mead round llic 
 massive oaken tahle. The jmeni consists of 'M^i lines, tin 
 rhymes of which are solely alliterative. > 
 
 6. The First Native English Poem.— Tlu' Beowulf came te 
 us from the Continent ; the first native I'n^dish poem Avas jim- 
 dueed in Yorkshire. ()n the diirk wind-swept elitl" whieh ris(\- 
 ahove the little land locked harhour of Whitby, stand the ruiii> 
 of an ancient and once famous ahbey. The heatl of this n- 
 ligious house was the Abbess llild or Hilda: and there was a 
 secular j)riest in it, -a very shy retiriuLC man, who looked aflci 
 the cattle of the monks, and whose name was Caedmon. T'l 
 this man came the gift of song, but somewhat late in lifi'. 
 And it canu' in this wise. One night, after a feast, singin; 
 l)egan, and each of those seated at the table was to sing in lii-^ 
 turn. Caedmon was very nervous — felt he could not sin^' 
 Fear overcame his heart, and he stole ipiietly away from tin 
 table before the turn could come to him. He crept oil' t^ 
 the cowshed, lay down on the straw and fell asleep. H' 
 dreamed a dream ; and, in his dream, there came to him a 
 voice : •' Caedmon, sing me a song ! " But Caedmon answered : 
 " I cannot sing ; it was for this cause that I had to leavr 
 the feast." "But you must and shall sing!" "What must 1 
 sing, then 1 " he replied. *' Sing the beginning of creatdl 
 things!" saiil the vision; and forthwith Caedmon sang soiik' 
 lines in his sleep, about God and the creation of the world 
 When he awoke, he remembered some of the lines that lunl 
 come to him in sleep, and, being brought before Hilda, li' 
 reciLed them to her. The Abbess thought that this wonderful 
 gift, which had come to him so suddenly, must have come from 
 God, received him into the monastery, made him a monk, aini 
 
URE. 
 
 Kii;^'lisli litovatuic; 
 vliicli is soiiirwlial 
 lint its litci'aiv 
 11 writer of North 
 form- as it ('xi,>t- 
 'arts of tliis poem 
 Avhero all .saii<f in 
 tf mead round tin' 
 f 3184 lines, thr 
 
 LI Beowulf came In 
 ish poem was pm- 
 )L clili" which rises 
 ly, stand tlie ruins 
 head of this iv- 
 : and there was a 
 Avlio I(joked aflci 
 IS Caedmon. In 
 ,vhat late in life 
 'r a feast, singing 
 was to 8in<j; in lii.~ 
 ■ could not sin;;. 
 ly away from tin 
 He crept oil tn 
 fell asleep. II' 
 e came to him a 
 ledmon answered : 
 t I had to leavi' 
 ' " AVhat must I 
 nning of created 
 edmon sang snnn' 
 ion of the world, 
 lie lines that haJ 
 before Hilda, li' 
 lat this wonderful 
 3t have come from 
 him u monk, and 
 
 
 '-•^•J '""1 taught sncred history '< All n- 
 
 '""'"^^''•'".^'. ami, like . cj,..,nanim..l ' '''"^'"^"' ''-V '- 
 
 ^r"^"^^— •" Hispo,Hic \;r':'"r'''"^-^--'-''^ 
 
 '''"•"•^^' "^ ^^-^ Old and the Ve T "" " ""•^'-■•'' 1-- 
 
 '''"7' r'''"---P^ ^- -any n.nt .^^ -- r-1 ami 
 
 '" •■' '••->J< until the yva,. urr> , ' '' '^ '''■' "^'^ l"intn| 
 
 - The War-Poetry of England 'n 
 
 "-^ '-^t^-, -n-tf.nhothTw;r "•' "'"■" ""*">• '-'"^ 
 •'^ '•'''•^'-''^- ^Ht it was on ; / n "^^ '" ^'- -nth 
 
 ""^>' ^'-> that survive „; ;, ' '^"'■^" ^^•••'^^- -ngs there an- 
 
 Song of Brunanburg 1 h « "'""" '''■ '^"''-" ■''- the 
 ''•'""'•-t '>^'long,s to tr teo'r.r^'^^'^^'^^^^^^^- 
 ^'-.^'fiirunanhn^.asinscritl^i'^^^^^^^^ The- 
 " '"'•'•"nt i.arrative of .v.nts writ V , "'' ^'^'^^^sicl^-^ 
 
 '''■'''' -'t-y to the ..ndo/Tr^'l^ 
 
 ^"- f^ tells how ^'l^^r^^/^^^'^^^^^^^^^ 
 f '"''^'^ ^'-t f^,l on the UJl^'"' ;*T' ^--^ "-^^ ^'f 
 •^ •^^^•"'■''•V' while their f.JJo , V '""' ^^''•^' ^^'^'^" '''i-"-'-t-I 
 
 ^'"'"'^^ ami comrades to ^'tl s^ '"""" ^'•"'' •'•^"' ^"^t their 
 
 '''-;;^^^ the greedy 1 J. x:::f;r 
 
 '''7'-^-'^^ and death of Byrlul; ".' '""'^ "'^ "^ ^''^' 
 
 ;;; '^-' y^ ^>attle agalns^ri ^V'Vt'n''"^ ^^ ^^^^''- 
 Jl"- speoohes of the chiefs are civon 1 f'''^""' "^ ^ssex. 
 
 "^'•ops described ; and as in ff ' . """^' '"'^'''''''^ts betwe.n 
 
 •''■'''''^--stmeni;:^^^ 
 
 ^- The Pirst English P^^''-; "'Vr'- 
 I P'-«" ^vas Baeda. or, as heT n " ^^''•^^^'" "^ ^^^^Ji^'' 
 
 ^^^- He was bor , he^C T'^' '"'''' ^^•" ^^-^^^e 
 
 ;-;^townatthemout]":f^ri:;t'^^^^^^^^ 
 I '-^'•"''"•^n, a native of the k V ."'"'' '"'"'' ""'^^ ^^ke 
 I f nt most of his life ,t ,c '' ^^^orthumbria. If. 
 
 ^>-'- He spent his i, t ^::' 'T''''' '' '^^"•~ 
 
 I* 
 
354 
 
 HISTORY OF ENOLTSir UTERATURK. 
 
 M-oik hr-ing nn Ecclesiastical History. V>ni tliough Latin 
 \v;is tlio loiif^'Uc ill wliicli lie wrote liis books, lie wrotp oiio Imnk 
 in I'lnglisli ; ami lie may tlitTcfonf be fairly ••oiisidorod tlw fust 
 writer of Kii^Hsli prose, 'iliis book Avas a Translation of the 
 Gospel of St John — a work Mhich lie laboured at until llic 
 very nioniont of liis death. His disci] ile (Jiitlibert tells ihc 
 story of his last hours. "Write (piickly I " said l>aoda to iii^ 
 scribe, for he felt that his end nouKl not be far otl'. When tlif 
 last day e,a me, all his .scholars stood around his bed. ''Theit' 
 is still one eha})ter wanting, Master," said the sri'ibe; "it i-^ 
 hard for thee to think and to s])<'ak." " It must be done," saiil 
 ]iaeda; "tak(^ thy pen an(' write <piiekly." So through the Ion- 
 day they wrote — scrilie succeeding seril)e ; and when the shade- 
 of evening were coming on, the young writer looked uji fnuii 
 his task and said, " Tliere is yet one sentence to M'rite, dear 
 >raster." ""Write it (piickly ! " Presently the -writer, lookiiicr 
 up with joy, said, " It is finished ! '' " Thou saye.st truth." 
 replied the weary old man ; " it is finished : all is finished."' 
 (\)uietly he sank back upon his ])illow, and, with a psahi^ ef 
 praise upon his lip.s, gently yielded up to God his latest breath. 
 It is a great pity that this translation — the first piece ei 
 prose in our languagi' — is utterly lost. Xo ^fS. of it is w 
 jiresent known to be in existence. 
 
 9. The Father of English Prose. — For several centuries, ii]' 
 to the year 866, the valleys and shores of Northumbria weiv 
 the homes of learning and literature. ]5ut a change was iie; 
 long in coming. Horde after liorde of Danes swept tlown upiMi 
 the coasts, ravaged the monasteries, burnt the l)ooks — aftfi 
 .stripping tln^ ])eautiful bindings of the gold, silver, and proeiou 
 stones which decorated them — killed or drove away the monk^ 
 and nuide life, property, and thought insecure all along that oii' ■ 
 peaceful and industrious coast. Literature, then, was forci.i 
 to dcseri the monasteries of Northumbria, and to seek for ; 
 home in the south — in "Wcssex, the kingdom over which Alfrri 
 the Great reigned for more than thirty years. The capital o' 
 Wessex was Winchester ; and an able writer says : '' A- 
 
OUR OLDFST ENGLISH I-ITEKATUItK. 
 
 355 
 
 thon^l^ T.atin 
 
 jlation of the 
 
 •d at until 111" 
 hk'vt t»'ll^ 1^"' 
 ,1 r.aoda to lii-^ 
 olV. \Vh(^i^ tl"' 
 , l...a. "Tlu'tv 
 I. BcvilM- "it i^ 
 it be dene," sii'l 
 througlitho Ion- 
 ^vhtn tbe sha(l- 
 
 looked wv ^i'"'" 
 ice to ^vrite, ao;\v 
 10 writer, lookine 
 t,u sayest truth."' 
 
 all is linislied"' 
 with ci I'^ahu •'! 
 
 his latest breath. 
 Ihe lirst pi*''''' *'' 
 
 MS. of it i^^ ='^ 
 
 |-eral centuries, \1V 
 Kortluimbria wi'V' 
 la cl\au,i;e was iv^: 
 swept flown upon 
 the books -aftH 
 liver, and piveiou- 
 away the mitnh^ 
 lall along that onn' 
 tlien, was forco^l 
 Imd to seek for '. 
 over wliicb Alfr.' i 
 The capital ot 
 riter says'. "-^^ 
 
 "Wliitby is the cradle of Kiiglish poetry, so is "Winohestor of 
 I'.iiKlish prose." King Alfred founded coUeges, invited to 
 llii^land men of learning from abroad, and presided ovt>r a 
 Nchool for tlie sons of liis nohh^s in Ids own Conrt. He liimstdf 
 wrote many l)ooks, or rather, he translated tlie most famous 
 Latin hooks of his time into I^iglish. He tiaiislated into the 
 English of "NVessex, for example, the * Ecclesiastical llistory ' 
 nf Daeda; the 'History of Orosius,' into which he inserted 
 uengrapldcal chapters of In's own; and the 'Consolations of 
 I'hilosophy,' l)y the famous Roman writer, Boctliius. In these 
 hooks he gave to his peoph% in their own tongue, the best 
 txisting works on history, geography, and philosophy. .,/ 
 
 10. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. — The greatest prose-work 
 of the oldest English, oi' pnreiy Saxon, literature, is a work — 
 not hy one person, l)ut by several autliors. It is the historical 
 work which is known as The Saxon Chronicle. It seems to 
 have been begun about the middle of the ninth century ; and 
 it was continued, with breaks now and then, down to 1154 — 
 the year of the death of Stephen and tlie accession c»f Henry IL 
 It was written by a series of successive writers, ail of whom 
 were monks ; 1)nt Alfred liimself is said to have contributed to 
 it a narrati\ e of his own wars with the Danes. The Chronicle 
 is found in seven separate forms, each named after the monas- 
 U'vy in which it was written. It was the newspaper, the 
 annals, and the history of the nation. " It is the first history 
 ('i any T(Mitonic people in their own language ; it is the earliest 
 and most veneral)le monument of English prose." This Chron- 
 icle possesses for us a twofold value. It is a valuable store- 
 house of historical facts ; and it is also a storehouse of speci- 
 niens of the different states of the English language — as regards 
 both words and grammar — from the eighth down to the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 11, Layamon's Brut. — Layamon was a native of "Worcester- 
 shire, and a priest of Eridey on the Severn. He translated, 
 ahout the year 1205, a poem called Brut, from the French of 
 a monkish writer named Master Wace. Wace's work itself is 
 
 ■i 
 'Si 
 
 i 
 
3r)G 
 
 HISTORY OF KNOLISH TJTEHATURK. 
 
 
 ^: I 
 
 mmn 
 
 littlo moro than ;i translation of jKirts of a famous " Chvonicli. 
 or History of the. IJritons," Mritlcn in ]j:itin by OoofTrcy of 
 Monmouth, wlio -was Bishop of St Asaph in 1102. Hut 
 Geoffrey liimself jjrofesscd only to havo translated from a chroi'- 
 icle in the ]>ritish or (.'eltic tonj^nie, called the "(Jhronidf of tin- 
 Kings of Jiritain," ■which was foinid in Brittany — long the hoiuc 
 of most of the stories, traditinus, iiml fables about tlm old P»iit- 
 ish Kings and their great deeds. Layamon's ))oem called tlic 
 " Jirut " is a metrical chronicle of Hritain from the landing of 
 ]irutus to the death of King Cadwallader, about tlui end of the 
 seventh century. Hrutus was supjtoscd to he a great-grandson 
 of AineAiH, -who sailed west and west till he came to (ircat 
 ]>ritain, where he settled with his followers. — This metrical 
 chronicle is written in the diale(;t of the AV"st of iMigland ; and 
 It shows everywhere a brc^i-king down of t) .i grammatical forms 
 of the oldest English, as we find it in the Anglo-Saxon Chron- 
 icle. In fact, between the landing of the Normans and tin- 
 fourteenth century, two things may ho noted : first, that duriiii; 
 this time — that is, for three centuries — the inflections of tlic 
 oldest Juiglish are gradually and surely strii)i)ed ofl'; and, sec- 
 ondly, that there is little or no original English literature given 
 to the country, but that by far the greater part consists chielly 
 of translations from French or from Latin. 
 
 12. Orm's Ormulum. — Less than half a century after Lav- 
 anion's l^rut appeared a ])oem called the Ormulum, by a monk 
 of the name of Orm or Ormin. It was ju'obably written 
 about the year 12L5. Orm was a monk of the order of St 
 Augnstine, and his book consists of a series of religions poem';, 
 It is the oldest, purest, and most valuable specimen of thirteenth- 
 century English, and it is also remarkable for its peculiar 
 spelling. It is written in the purest English, and not llv'' 
 French words are to be found in the whole poem of twenty 
 thousand short lines. Orm, in his spelling, doubles every con- 
 sonant that has a short vowel before it; and he v^mtes panu for 
 2K(Vy but jMxn for ^^awe. The following is a specimen of lii- 
 poem : — 
 
null OLDEST KNCUSM LITKRATI'KE. 
 
 3; 
 
 ;> I 
 
 lis " CllVOllirlc 
 
 ' iir)2. I'-'ii 
 
 I from a chroi^- 
 hvonicl<' of til'- 
 
 -long t^»'' ^'^'""' 
 it the old P.iit- 
 ovm lallt't^ til'- 
 tho laiulin:^ "f 
 , ilu; «M»(1 of tli<' 
 
 caiiu^ to <iiv;it 
 
 This iii<'tn'"'il 
 
 Df KnglaiMl ; an.l 
 nunmatical fovius 
 glo-Saxon ('liv(.n- 
 S^ormaiis and tlio 
 
 I'lvst, that anrhi;^ 
 inllections of th'' 
 
 )('d ofV; aiul, scf- 
 Ih litevaturt' given 
 
 ivt consists fhit'tiy 
 
 I.o liafp wound inntill Miinxlifoli I linvo wniidcd iturned' info lMiL'li>Ii 
 
 (ictld.spcllps.s liullghc hire, ( mihiioI's li..ly lure, 
 
 Atl'tPtT tliAtt little witt tatt iiic After tiif little wit thiit. me 
 
 Mill hrihhtin hafethth lonodd. My Lord liatli lent. 
 
 Oilier famous writers of English liclwccn this time mikI tlie 
 ,i)i|»earance of ChftU(M'r weic Robert of Qlovicester mid Robert 
 ol" Brunne, l)olli of whom wrote Clironicles of J"jii,d;iii(l in 
 Verse. , , 
 
 < 
 
 lontnry after Luy- 
 
 lulum, hy a "'""^' 
 ]prolial>ly writtpu 
 the order of St 
 If religious poem<. 
 Jmen of thirteentli- 
 for its peculiar 
 [ish, and not fiv^ 
 I poem of twenty 
 (louHes every con- 
 Ve writes ^xn//(^^i' 
 specimen of ^>i' 
 
I 
 
 • li)0 
 
 ciiAPTKn n. 
 
 THE rorin'KKNTii ( KNirin'. 
 
 illlll 
 
 I! 
 
 fill 
 
 1. The openinf( of the fourtt'ciitli ct'iitnry saw tlio death (4 
 tlio great and able king, Kdwartl I., tho "Hamnior ol' llu' 
 Scots," the " Keo[)«^r of his word.'' I'lic <eiitiiry itself — a mov^ 
 eventful period — witnessed the feel)lt' and disastrous reign of 
 Edward 11. ; the long and prosperous rule — for lifty years — of 
 Kdward III. ; the troubled times of IJichard II., who exhibitoil 
 almost a repetition of the faults of Edward 11. ; and tlu' 
 appearance of a new and powerful dynasty — the Ifousc of 
 Lancaster — in the person of tli(> able and ambitious Henry l\. 
 This century saw also many striking events, and many still 
 more striking changes. It belu Id tlu; welding of the Saxon and 
 the Norman elements into une — chiellv thromrh the Ei-eiich 
 wars ; the final triumph of the English language over French 
 in 1362; the frequent coming of the Black Death; the vic- 
 tories of Crecy and Poitiers ; it learned the universal u.-i' 
 of the mariner's compass ; it witnessed two kings — of Franco 
 and of Scotland — prisoners ir.. London; great changes in the 
 condition of labourers; the invention of gunpowder in 1340; 
 the rise of English commerce under Edward 111. ; and every- 
 where in England the rising up of new powers and new ideas. 
 
 2. The first prose-writer in this century is Sir John Mande- 
 ville (who has been called the " Father of English Prose"). 
 King Alfred has also been called by this name ; but as the 
 English written by Alfred was very different from that written 
 
THK FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 'Ab[) 
 
 liy ^randf'villo, — the laltcr roiitaiiiiiiL; ;i lar^'c adniixturt' of 
 l-'rciK'li and of Latin woids, Ixjtli writers ;iir deserving of tlio 
 ipithet. The luost- intluential prose-writer was John Wyclif, 
 \v]\i) was. in faet, ilie lirst Kitelish Jlefornit-r of tlie Clinrch, 
 in ])oetry, two writers stand ojtposite each otii'! in striking,' 
 (•••ntrast — Geoffrey Chaucer and William Langlande, the first 
 \vritin,L( in courtly "KiiiL^^V Knylisli " in end-rliynie, and with 
 the fullest, ins])irations from the literatures of France and Italy, 
 the latter writiuf^^ in head-rhyine, and — though using more 
 j-'ivnch Words than Chaucer — with a style that was alwavs 
 )i'iiii(dy, plain, aiid jM'dostrian. John Qower, in Kent, and 
 John Barbour, in Scotland, are also noteworthy poets in this 
 .1 iitury. 'i'he English language reached a high state of jiulish, 
 power, and freedum in this perioil ; and the sweetness and 
 music of Chaucer's verse are still unsurpassed hy modern poets. 
 ]"lie sentences of the prose-writers of this century are long, 
 rlumsy, and somewhat helpless ; hut the sweet homely Knglish 
 rhythm exists in many of them, and was continued, through 
 Wyclif's version, down into our translation of the IJihle in 
 
 ir,ii. 
 
 3. Sir John Mandeville, (1300-1372), " the first prose-writer in 
 formed English," was hoiu at St Alhans, in Hertfordshire, in the year 
 1300. He was a physician; hut, in the year 1322, he set out on a 
 jiiin-ney to the East ; was away from hnnu' fur more than thirty years, 
 and (lied at Liege, in Belgium, in 1:572. He wrote his travels fii'st 
 ill Latin, next in French, and then turned lliem into English, "that 
 I'very man of my nation may understand it."' Tlie book is a kind of 
 [^uide-hook to the Holy Land ; liut tlni writer himself went much 
 t'urlher cast — reached Cathay or China, iu fact. He introduced a 
 larcre number of French words into our spee<di, such as caufiey con- 
 'mn/, discover, quantity, aiul many hundred otliers. His works were 
 much admired, read, and copied ; indeed, hundreds of manuscript 
 '•iipies of his book were made. There are nineteen still in the Brit- 
 idi Museum. The book was not printed till the year 141)!) — that is, 
 Iwcnty-five years after printing was inlruduced into this country. 
 •Many of the Old English inllexions still survive iu his style. Thus 
 he says : " Machamete was born in Arabye, that was a pore knave 
 (boy) that kepte cameles that wenten with marchantes for mur- 
 chandise." 
 
360 
 
 IIISTOI.'Y OK KXnLlSlI LITKKATUHF. 
 
 1. John Wycmf (liis ii.uuf is .^pillcil in ulxmt lorly (liflcTont 
 ^vays)— 1324-1384— was liuiii at llip-wi'll, m-ar Hicliiuoiitl, in ^'(lI■k• 
 shire, in tln' year i:Ji'l, ami <lit'il at tlit- vioaruj^e (jI" Luttt-rwoith, in 
 Leicestorsliire, in i;i84. Ili^ tame rests on two bases — his clVorts as 
 a reformer of the abuses of the Cliunh, ami liis ('om])k'te Iranshitioii 
 of the Bible. This work was fmislicd in 13s:i, just one year befcjh' 
 his fh'ath. f5ut llic translation was not done by hinix-lf alone; tin- 
 lari^er jtait of the OM 'rcstanunt, vt rsion st-cms to liave biM-n niailt^ 
 by Nirlii.las de Hcrt-ford. TlKue^h oltcn cojiied in manuscript, it 
 was nut piinted Ibr several eenturics. Wyclifs New Testament was 
 ]»rintfi| in 17.31, and the Old Testament not until the year ISnd 
 P>ut tlie W(ji'ds and the style of hi> translation, whiidi was read ami 
 re-read by humlreds of thou,L,ditful men, were of real and ])ormaneiit 
 service in tixin,!^' the lanu'Ua^e in tlie form in which we now lin<l it. 
 
 5. John Oower (1325-1408) was a country f,'entleman of Kent. 
 As Mandeville wi-ole liis travrds in tliree languaijes, so did (jlower lii> 
 ])oems. Almost all eihicated ])ersons in the fourteenth centiiry couM 
 read and write witli tdhu-ibh- and with almost equal ease, En,t,disli, 
 Freni'h, and Latin. His three poems are tin; Speculum Meditantis 
 ("The Mirror of tlie Thou<r]itful Man"), in French; the Vox 
 Clamantis ("Voice of One Crying ''), in Latin; and Confessio 
 Amantis (" The Lover's (^onf(!s.<ion "), in En^dish. No manuscriiJt 
 of the first work is known to e.\ist. IIc^ was buried in St Saviour's, 
 Soutlnvark, wliere his etli^'v is still to be seen — his head resting,' <mi 
 his three works. Chaucer called him "the moral Gower"; and lii> 
 books are very dull, heavy, and dillicult to read. 
 
 \ 
 
 (5. William Lanolaxde (1332-1400), a poet who used the oM 
 English head-rhyme, as Chaucer used the foreign end-rhyme, was 
 born at Cleobury-Mortimer in Shropshire, in the year 1332. The 
 date of his death is doul)tful. His poem is called the Vision of 
 Piers the Plowman ; and it is the last long poem in our literature 
 that was written in Old English alliterative rhyme. From tlii- 
 period, if rhyme is employed at all, it is the end-rhyme, which wi- 
 borrowed from the French and Italians. The poem has an appen- 
 dix called Do-well, Do-bet, Do-best — the three stages in the 
 growth of a Christian. Langlande's writings remained in manuscript 
 until the reign of Edward YL ; they were printed then, and went 
 through three editions in one year. The English used in the 
 Vision is the ^lidland dialect — much the same as that used bv 
 Chaucer ; only, oddly enough, Langlande admits into his English a 
 
TIIK KOrnTEENTl! (ENTLKY. 
 
 361 
 
 forty ilifl't'voui 
 iioiiil, ii» Vnrk- 
 .iittevwovlli, ill 
 —his ctVnrts ;i- 
 [etc tviuisliitit'ii 
 ,iic yciir l>ei"oi>' 
 M-ir iil«»in' ; 111'' 
 iiivf biM'U mail" 
 iiKUiuscvipt, il 
 Ti'stiinient wii^ 
 the yt'iir l^i"'" 
 li was rcail aiiA 
 and peniiainiil 
 ve now lin<l it. 
 
 itlt^nian of Kent, 
 so aid Gowor lii> 
 ith century rouM 
 ml t'iise, En;^li>li. 
 lum Meditantis 
 iicli; tilt' Vox 
 and Confessio 
 No manuscript 
 in St Saviour's, 
 head resting' on 
 GoNver"; and hi^ 
 
 v]\o used the old 
 end-rhyme, vas 
 year 1332. The 
 Jd the Vision of 
 in our literature 
 k-me. From tlii-^ 
 Irhyme, which ^V(• 
 In has an appeu- 
 Vee stages in the 
 led in manuscript 
 Id then, and went 
 |ish used in the 
 as that used hy 
 lito his English a 
 
 laru'L'r aniounL I'l' l"'i'i'nrh unrds than (!hiuucr. 'riir |«imiii i- a dift- 
 linct himhiiiirk in thi' lii-ttTy of our >iti'f( li. Tlir IdHuwin;^ in a 
 -|H('imen nl tlir lines. 'IMu-rf an- three allilerativu wurdt. in each 
 line, with a paii^e near the mitldle — 
 
 '' A vuicf /uiid ill tlial //glit ' to Aueit'er crieM, ' 
 
 - ' /'riiii't's of tlll^ _i<aliiri' • /dt'st ' undo tlie ;;atij>, 
 Kill' licru coiiietli \v.*)i crown • tho /in^ of all glory!'" 
 
 7. Ueoffrky Chaucich (1340-1400), the "lather of En^^lish 
 
 d the {^M'eutesL narrative poet (d' this (duntry, was hf>rn 
 about^ th 
 
 jHirtry, an 
 
 ill liOUflon in or about^ the year 1340. He lived in the rei;,Mis id" 
 Ivlward 111., l^ichard H., and one year in the rei^ni of Henry iV. 
 IIi> I'atlier was a vintner. The name. (Jhitnrer is a Norman name, 
 and is found on tln^ ndl id" Jiattle Abbey. He is said to liave 
 >tiulied both at Oxford ami Cambrid^'e ; served as pjii^'e in the 
 household of Prince Liomd, l)uke of Clarence, the third son of 
 Kdward III.; served also in the army, and was taken ))risoner 
 in one of the French campai^nis. Jn 13(37, lie was ajtpointed gen- 
 tlcinan- in -waiting' {mlettu.<) to Edward 111., who sent him on 
 M vcral embassies. in i;i74 he marrie(l a lady id' the Queen'.s 
 rhaniber; and l)y this marria<^e he became connecte<l with Jolm 
 of Gaunt, who afterwards married a sister of this lad}-. While 
 oil an emVjassy to Italy, he is reported to liaA'e met the i^reat poet 
 I'rtrarch, who told him the story of the Patient Griselda. In 1381, 
 111' was made Comptroller of Customs in the j^reat port of Lomlon- • 
 an olhce which he held till the year 1380. In that year he was 
 elected knioht of the shire — that is, member of Parliament for the 
 I'oinity of Kent. In 1385), he was ajtpointed Clerk of the Kin.L^j's 
 Works at Westminster and Windsor. From 1381 to 13H9 was ])r(j- 
 liably the best and most jn'oductive jieriod of his life ; for it was in 
 this period that he wrote the House of Fame, the Legend of 
 Good Women, and the best (d' the Canterbury Tales. From 
 i;W0 to 1400 was spent in writing tlie otlier Canterbury Tales, 
 hallails, and some moral poems. He dieil at Westminster in the 
 year 1400, and was the first writer who was buried in the Poets' 
 Corner of the Abbey. AVe see from his life — and it was fortunate 
 for his poetry — that Chaucer had the most varied experience as 
 dudent, courtier, soldier, amlnissador, oHicial, and member of Parlia- 
 nient ; arid was able to mix freely and on ecjual terms with all sorts 
 iiud conditions of men, from the king to the poorest hind in the 
 fields. He was a stout man, with a small bright face, soft eyes, 
 
 1 Quickly. 
 
I? 
 
 Il ' 
 
 Hi! 
 
 1 f 
 
 I 1 
 
 ;;i'.L' 
 
 lIlSTOIiV nv T'Nf.MslI MTKlIATrur. 
 
 .I.i/t-l \,\ lull- .iii'l li.ii'l ifiuliii-, mimI with tlif I'iii^li-li ]«ii,v-iMii |,,r 
 lldWcl-, xi'''fli lirl.i^, .111.1 ;ill thf ,-i;^lit> iili'l M»lin«l> of liatuiv. 
 
 s. Cluiucor'H Workw. ( 'li.iiimV ;.'ivatt'!4 work is tln' Cantor- 
 bury TaloH. It i^anillr.ti I fIdlii'S Writl'll ill llrluir Ilirth 
 
 that i-, ill thr ihyiiitil r(.ii|.hl nl' livtr iaiiihi( Iril. 'The liin>l jmM 
 iA' the ( 'aiitirhiuy Talr,- is Ihn ProloRUo ; the iinlilcst sti'iy i^ pi... 
 l.al'lv tlir KniffhtGH Talc. It i> w'ltliy i.f iidte that, in liJCd, 
 wlicii Chaiircr \va> a Vfiy yiuiii;^' man, the M'^sjoii nl" the Ihm r 
 of ('niiiiiiciis \va> lirst (tpi'iicil with a .-pr.rli ill l-aij^lish ; ami in tiir 
 smiir \far ;iii Art ol I'ai liaiiniil \\;i> |.a-M(l, Hil.>t itlllinj^ thf. U.-r d 
 I'ai^'lish Inr I'lvmh in tiimt.s nl' l.iu, in .-(lin.il>, ami in imhlir olliiH'-. 
 Mn-li.sli hatl thus triuniphcil over ImvucIi in all parts ol the <(uinti\. 
 while il lia<l at the .siiiif linic l.cciinic .situiati-.l with Frcmh WdiiN. 
 In till- year \:\^'.i thf iJiMf was Iraiislatf.! into I'lii-lish l.y U'yilil. 
 Thns Cliamcr, whnx- writitij^.s wcff callfil hy S].fii.-fr " Llif well <■{ 
 Kn;^Iisli nmlflilfil,'' wmtf at a liiih' wlnii oiii' j-lir^li-h was Irf.-la I 
 ami nfWf.-l. Thf -lanuiiar nt hi.- works slatw.- Enj,^lish with a lar-c 
 nmnhfr of inllfxions still rfinainin;.'. Thf ( 'antfi'lairy Talcs aiv a 
 hfiifs of storifs supposfil to hf t(iM hy a niimlu'r of pilj^a'ims who aic 
 on llifir way to thf hhiiiif of St Thomas (P.fcket) at Cantfrlaiiy. 
 The piljj;rims, thirty-lwo in nuinhfi', arc fully ilfscrihud—tlifir «Uf.v, 
 look, luanufrs, ami cliarueter in the. rrolo<,nie. It had been a^Tfid, 
 when they met at the Taljard Inn in Southwark, that each pil^'riiu 
 hhonhl tell four .slorie.-— two ^'oin;_' and two retiirninL;- as they hAk 
 alon^' the grassy lanes, tlu:n tlu' only roada, to the old cathedral eity. 
 But only four-and -twenty stories exist 
 
 9. Chaucer's Style. — Chaucer expresses, m the truest and livelit i 
 way, "the true and lively ol" everything wiiifh is set before; him :"' 
 and he lirst gave; lo iMi^lisli poftry that force, vij^Hjiir, life, aiiu 
 colour which raised it above tlm level of mere rhymed prose. ^\ll 
 the best poems and hisl(jries in Latin, French, and Italian were well 
 known to Chaucer; and he borrcjws from tlu-ni with the {^nvatc.-^i 
 freedom. Ke hamllfs, with masterly power, all the charaiiter.s ainl 
 events in his Tales; and he is hence, beyond doubt, the j^reatot 
 narrative poet that EnL,daml ever ])roduced. In the Prolo;,'iu', lii- 
 masterpiece, Dryden says, "we have our forefathers and great-grand- 
 dames all before us, as they were in Chaucer's days." His dramatic 
 power, too, is nearly as great as his narrative power ; and Mr Mar.-!i 
 afhrnis that he was "■ a dramatist before that 'which is technical!) 
 known as the existing drama had been invented." That is to say, 
 he could set men and women talking as they would and did talk in 
 real life, but with more point, spirit, verve, and picturesqueness, 
 As regards the matter of his poems, it may be sufficient to say that 
 
TiiK KorirrKKNTii ( f.NrriiY. 
 
 •MV.) 
 
 A\ I'li.-.-i'iii l"i 
 
 rt tbr Cuntuv- 
 |)(.vnif until 
 riic I'lin-t I'.n; 
 
 ,.^l ^-t<-l,V i^ I'l' 
 
 thilt, ill I :»''-• 
 
 lisli ; aixl in 111' 
 
 ill |>\il>li'' "1^" ' ■ 
 s oi tlif '«'UliH\. 
 1, I'lviiili Nvcnl . 
 iniish l.y W.N'lii. 
 
 M;|isU was liv.-li> t 
 |^li^.ll with a laiv 
 ri.iiry Tal'-rt aiv •' 
 • j)ilij;rhiis who ai-' 
 ,t) at Cauti'il'iH). 
 ribcil— Uu'iv .liv- , 
 
 liiul. hciMi a;4iv>'l, 
 that I'a.li vil^Jvii" 
 
 ,in.-- as thry voa. 
 
 uMcallifilral^ity. 
 
 IruestaiKnivclu'^l 
 >L't. befoiv him;' 
 vij^Hjvir, litt', "'"I 
 [viiuhI prose. All 
 Italian Wfiv, w.ll 
 ,\vith the ;^ivati'.<i 
 L; (•haracters aii'l 
 louht, th." '^roaU-^l 
 the Pl'oh.^ue, In- 
 I and ^reat--vHU<l- 
 |s." His drainati'' 
 ,i"; an(lMrMai>li 
 lich is technicallv 
 That is to f^ay, 
 lid and did talk in 
 picturesqueness. 
 
 fdcient to say tliat 
 
 l)ryil(n <alh liiiii "a i>t'i'iit'tiial rnimtiiin nf j^immI .soii.'e;" ni\<\ lli il 
 lla/litt iiiakf.s lhi> iviiiaik : " ('liiiii« ir was th. lui.t |ii;i<tiial i<t all 
 llif i^'if.it ,<•(•!>, -tilt' iii'i,-t a man <>t iinsiiie>.-i and nt' tin woiM. Hi- 
 ]i.i(iiy ivads like liL-tory." Teiiny.-Mn sj)t'iik> >'\' him ihu-, in hio 
 " Divani III' I'air N\ onitn ' : — 
 
 " l>,iM I liiiiiicr, the lii^l wai'lilt'?-, wlii»i' •.wccl luciilli 
 I'u'linlfil flio-ic iiu'liiiliiiiis Inir.st.i tliiit lill 
 'I'liD s]iiii'iiius lilacs nf ;.'rciit Kli/.jihutii, 
 Willi soiiiiih that echo stiU." 
 
 lit. John I'.AUMtiru (13ie-139«).- TIm- (ailir.^t Siutlr^li i.utt, nf 
 ;ui\ iiiipui'taiK'f in tin- riiurtt'fnth rcntury is .Injni liai'lmur, whu in-r 
 In 1^' Aii'lidcaroii of Alifi'dci'ii. i'arliniii' was nf Nniiiian lilniiij, anil 
 wiiitr Niii'tlit-rn Kn;,'lisli, 111', as il is suiiiftinu's ralh'il, Sii.t. h. Mr 
 ,-tililifil hdlli at Oxliirij ami at llii! rnisi'i'sity of Paris. His cliirl 
 work is a \«<v\n lalli-d The Bi'uce. The i-lii'^li.-li nl'thi.^ jmcni ilncs 
 lint (liU'cr vi'iy iii'cally I'roiii llii' iMinlisii nf ('}iaun-r. liarhoiir lias 
 (ihiand I'lir Jajhtimj; ])ressit i'ur jurx.^oil : (lifnlill lor tlnnhi: Imt 
 these ilitrcrt'iircs ilo nnt niakr tin- readiii;^' of liis |pi)cni vny ilitli- 
 iilt. As a Norman he was proud of tin- ilniiiL^s of I'olu'rt ilr i'rucc, 
 aii'itlii r Norman ; and Harhour niust ottiMi La\r lieard Stories ol 
 hiiii ill his Ijovliooil, as he waa unlv thirteen when Uniee died. 
 
 i 
 
;}6i 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH CENTUUY. 
 
 1. The tifteeuth centuiy, a leiiuirkable period in many ways, 
 .saw three royal dynasties established in Engkmd — the Houscb 
 of Lancaster, York, and Tudor. Five successful French cam- 
 paigns of Henry V., and the battle of Agincourt ; and, on tlid 
 t)ther side, the loss of all our large jjossessions in France, with 
 the exception of (Jalais, under the rule of the weak Henry VI., 
 Were among the chief events of the hfteenth century. Tiif 
 Wars of the Roses did not contri1)ute anything to the prosperity 
 L)f the century, nor could so unsettled and (piarrelsonie a time 
 encourage the cultivation of literature. For this among other 
 reasons, we find no great compositions in prose or verse ; but a 
 considerable activity in the making and distribution of balladt-. 
 The best of these are Sir Patrick Spens, Edom o' Gordon, 
 The Nut-Brown Mayde, and some of those written about 
 Robin Hood and his exi»loits. The ballad was everywhero 
 popular ; and minstrels sang them in every city and village 
 through the length and breadth of England. The famous bal- 
 lad of Chevy Chase is generally placed after the year 1460, 
 though it did not take its present form till the seventeentli 
 century. It tells the story of the Battle of Otterburn, which 
 was fought in 1388. This century Avas also witness to the 
 short struggle of Richard III., followed by the rise of the 
 House of Tudor. And, in 1 198, just at its close, the won- 
 derful apparition of a new world — of The New "World— 
 
THE FIFTEEXTFI CEXTUHY. 
 rose on the horizon of tho Fn v^ ^^'' 
 
 f '»"-• ft ia the ,n^t „ T„ '' '"^ "'-' "--" in our 
 '"-"«-; but, on the othe; Jny;' : ''-"'■"''"- "f onVinal 
 '•entunes that precede,! it, the ^lll"''''T'^ "■'"' "" the 
 
 -1 distribution of the' iitera" ^ f , j" ","' "i-™,i„atio„ 
 -« ™,, saw, iu „,., ,„„„„,,^,j^ - h.'t 'feuy e..i.,te,,. Kor 
 
 "i tl'o first pri„ti„j;.pre.s., in ttie , ^^' "'" "■''"'''''''''""■nt 
 WHiam Caxton. xL fir. ,' ! T7 •■" ^^''«'mi„ster, I,,- 
 «;- -»e<I < The Game ZiTu^ZTr '^ '"'"' ''" «"'^ -""'^ 
 "; -<I his friends visited ^a.^'",^''""-' ^^'-'" ^^dward 
 •'""'"'g-press, they spoke of it a " ur t'"'; ""' '""''^'^ "' '"' 
 foresee tl>at it was destined to I „ . ,! ' ^ '"-^ ' ""^^ «'"''! "ot 
 «ovorn,„ent and the spr ,d „, ° P? P°^"'*" "'K'"" of .-ood 
 C-vn, rar,ia„,e„ts, an eol oTtl"",;' ''"""""<"' "- "- 
 "™ greatest names in liter toe f, '"" *"«'^"'«'-- The 
 
 T>vo followers of Chaucer oJ , "" ^"^^'o" ''""■self 
 
 "»"y mentioned. I' s Ir^iv ""'' ^^'•^"'^ --^ "'- gon! 
 
 p«t.o„, p^auctions 1 stitr;/""'" "^ "'^' "- ^'■-■f 
 
 "'"Of l-rose productions, tra'ala o2 "'" r"' "'"'"'» = ""'' ">« 
 ""''^s- anslations from Latin or from foreign 
 
 '"-tr„ ti E^r ^r -"r^' "■»"«" » «-*-„ „„.o., 
 
 ««. ly the order of Henn V ' K T"- '^■''■'""■''. '" "'"« < 
 
 t e,«l„een .ve,u,. U was „;' "^ .^ m j'™""" '" En«)a„d f„ 
 '""' fr«iiy the best ed„c.„,-„„ .i"' i " '''f^r^nne, for J,e received 
 "S"»f , literature, n.u'i ! an ^, ''t' .^I'" '""' '"'"'I then , v 
 --:^ Lady Jane'Beauf , : ,: ,td' ''■■ rr"'"''"'*"'"""- I^ ' 
 ^- fr.en,l and patron of CI u cr ?",' " "^ •'°''" "^ «au„t 
 
 f » Kmgs Quair (that i, Zll\ ''™' '""' '"ng^t poem i, 
 
 « a atana. of seven lines (called R^lf T^ I'"™' '» "'itten 
 
 ;'"» copyof the style of Cha ,lr ^'r,f°^"'^ ■, ""d ""= »t.vle is 
 
 ■ ■Gotland, Ki„R James was m nW, ^^'''^'''"'"g "-'rteen years 
 
 2 B fiiteenth century. 
 
 '^ f^ 
 
366 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 3. William Caxton (1422-1492) is the name of greatest import- 
 ance and significance in the hi; tory of our literature in the tifteenth 
 century. He was born in Kent in tlie year 1422. He was not merely 
 a printer, he was also a literary man ; ami, when he devoted himself 
 to printing, he took to it as an art, and not as a mere mechanical 
 device. Caxton in early life was a mercer in the city of London ; 
 and in the course of his business, which was a thriving one, he had 
 to make frequent journeys to the Low Countries. Here he saw the 
 printing - prchs for the first time, with the new separate types, 
 was enchanted with it, and fired by the wonderful future it opened. 
 It had been introduced into Holland about the year 1450. Caxton's 
 press was set up in the Almonry at Westminster, at the sign of tlie 
 Eed Pole. It produced in all sixty-four books, nearly all of them in 
 English, some of them \vTitten by Caxton himself. One of the most 
 important of them was Sir Thomas IMalory's History of King 
 Arthur, the storehouse from which Tennyson drew the stories 
 which form the groundwork of his Idylls of the King. 
 
367 
 
 reatest import- 
 in the l\tteenl\i 
 was not merely 
 levoted liimself 
 lere mechanical 
 :ity of London ; 
 ring one, be had 
 lere he saw tiie 
 
 separate type*^, 
 iituTe it opened. 
 • 1450. Caxtons 
 b the sign of the 
 rly aU of them m 
 
 One of the most 
 
 [iBtory of King 
 
 arew the stones 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. The Wars of the Roses ended in 1485, with the victory of 
 Bosworth Field. A new dynasty — the House of Tudor — sat 
 ui)on the throne of England ; and with it a new reign of peace 
 and order existed in the country, for the power of the king was 
 paramount, and the power of the nobles had been gradually 
 destroyed in the numerous battles of the fift<^enth century. 
 Like the fifteenth, this century also is famous for its ballads, the 
 authors of which are not known, but which seem to have been 
 coinposed "by the people for the people." They were sung 
 everywhere, at fairs and feasts, in town and country, at going to 
 and coming liome from work ; and many of them were set to 
 popular dance-tunes. 
 
 " When Tom came home fi-om labour, 
 And Cis from milking rose, 
 Merrily went the tahor, 
 
 And merrily went their toes." 
 
 The ballads of King Lear and The Babes in the Wood are 
 porliaps to be referred to this period, 
 
 2. The first half of the sixteenth century saw the beginning 
 of a new era in poetry ; and the last half saw the full meridian 
 «l)lendour of this new era. The beginning of this era was 
 marked by the appearance of Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542), 
 and of the Earl of Surrey (1517-1547). Tliese two eminent 
 
nil 
 
 Hi 
 
 'iff 
 
 
 ¥. 
 
 368 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 ^VTite^s have been called the "twin-stars of the dawn," the 
 "founders of English lyrical poetry"; and it is worthy of 
 especial note, that it is to AVyatt that we owe the introduction 
 of the Sonnet into our literature, and to Surrey that is due tlie. 
 introduction of Blank Verse. The most important pros(>- 
 Avriters of the; first half of the century were Sir Thomas More, 
 the great lawyer and statesnum, and William Tyndale, who 
 translated the Xew Testament into English. In the latter half 
 of the century, the great poets are Spenser and Shakespeare ; 
 the great prose-writers, Richard Hooker and Francis Bacon. 
 
 3. Sir Thomas Mork's (1480-1535) chief work in English is the 
 Life and Reign of Edward V. It is written in a plain, stroiifj, 
 nervous English style. Hallani calls it " the first example of good 
 English — pure and perspicuous, well chosen, without vulgarisms, and 
 without pedantry." His Utopia (a description of the country vi 
 Nowhere) wiis written in Latin. 
 
 4. William Tyndale (1484-1536)— a man of the greatest signifi- 
 cance, both in the liistory of religion, and in the history of our lan- 
 guage and literature — was a native of Gloucestershire, and was 
 educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. His opinions on religion and 
 the rule of the Catholic Church, compelled him to leave England, 
 and drove him to the Continent in the year 1523. He lived in 
 Hamburg for some time. With the German and Swiss reformers 
 he held that the Bible should be in the hands of every grown-ii]) 
 person, and not in the exclusive keeping of the Church. He ac- 
 cordingly set lu work to translate the Scriptures into his native 
 tongue. Two editions of his version of the New Testament v ere 
 printed in 1525-34. He next translated the five books of Moses, and 
 the book of Jonah. In 1535 he was, after many escapes and ad- 
 ventures, finally tracked and hunted down by an emissary of the 
 Pope's faction, and thrown into prison at the castle of Vilvoorde, 
 near Brussels. In 1536 he was brought to Antwerp, tried, con- 
 denmed, led to the stake, strangled, and burned. 
 
 5. The Work of William Tsmdale. — Tyndale's translation 
 has, since the time of its appearance, formed the basis of all the 
 after versions of the Bible. It is written in the purest and simplest 
 English ; and very few of the words used in his translation liave 
 grown obsolete in our modern speech. Tyndale'a work ia indeed, 
 
 11 
 
THE .SIXTEENTH CENTUKV. 
 
 369 
 
 dawn," the 
 Ls wortliY of 
 i introduiitiou 
 
 lat is il^i« the. 
 )ortant prost>- 
 homas More, 
 ryndale, Avho 
 the latter half 
 Shakespeare ; 
 ancis Bacon. 
 
 one of the most strikiiit; liindinarks in the liistorv of our liin-^ua^e. 
 Mr Mar.sli says of it : " Tyiuhik-'.s traii.slatiuu of tlie New Tcstaiiu'iit 
 is the most important philolo^'ieal numunu-nl <A' tin- first luilf of the 
 sixteentli century, — perliaps I shouhl pay, of thr ulmle period be- 
 tween Chaucer ami Sliakespeare, . . , Tlie ln-st features of the 
 translation of KUl are derived from the version of TyndaU'.'' It may 
 be said without exagj;erati(m tliat, in tlie T'nitud Kin,L;d(pm, America, 
 and the colonies, al)out one liundred millions of pt'iipli', now speak 
 the Eu'dish of Tvndale's Bible; nor is there anv Ixiok that has 
 exerted so great an influence on English rhythm, English style, the 
 selection of words, and the build of sentences in our English 
 prose. 
 
 in English is the 
 
 1 a plain, strong, 
 
 example of goeA 
 
 Lt vulgarisms, 
 
 and 
 
 )i the country o 
 
 he greatest signift- 
 listory of our lan- 
 tershire, and was 
 IS on religion and 
 |to leave England, 
 =,23. He lived ni 
 [d Swiss reformers 
 
 ,f every grown-ui^ 
 [ Church. He ac- 
 
 .es into his native 
 Testament V ere 
 
 ,ooks of Moses, aiijl 
 ^y escapes and ad- 
 ax emissary of the 
 tstle of Vilvoorde, 
 ,twerp, tried, coii- 
 
 ndale's translation 
 L basis of all the 
 Inirest and simplest 
 Is translation have 
 e'a work is in'lee*'* 
 
 6. Edmund Spenser (1552-1599), "The Poet's Poet,'' and one of 
 the greates*- poetical writers of his own or of any age, was born at 
 East Smithlield, near the Tower of Ltmdon, in the year 1052, about 
 nine years before the Idrth of Bacon, and in the reign of Edward VI. 
 He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School in London, and at 
 Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. In 1579, we find him settled in his 
 native city, where his best friend was the gallant Sir Pliili}) Sidney, 
 who introduced him to his uncle, the Earl of Leicester, then at the 
 height of his power and influence with Queen Elizabeth. In the 
 same year was published his first pceiical work, The Shepheard's 
 Calendar — a set of twelve pastoral poems. In 1580, he went to 
 Ireland as Secretary to Lord Grey de "Wilton, the Viceroy of that 
 country. For some years he resided at Kilcolman Castle, in county 
 Cork, on an estate which had been granted liim out of the forfeited 
 lands of the Earl of Desmond. Sir Walter Raleigh had obtained a 
 similar but larger grant, and was Spenser's near neighbour. In 1590 
 Spenser brought out the first three books of The Faerie Queene. 
 The second three books of his great pjem appeared in 1596. To- 
 wards the end of 1598, a rebellion broke out in Ireland ; it spread 
 into Munster ; Spenser's house was attacked and set on fire ; in the 
 fi;j;hting and confusion his only son perished ; and Spenser escaped 
 with the greatest difficulty. In deep distress of body and miiul, he 
 made his way to London, where he died— at an inn in King Street, 
 Westminster, at the age of forty-six, in the beginning of the year 
 1599. He was buried in the Abbey, not far from the grave of 
 Chaucer. 
 
 7. Spenser's Style. — His greatest work is The Faerie Queene ; 
 but that in whicli he shows the most striking command of language 
 is his Hymn of Heavenly Love. The Faerie Queene is written 
 in a nine-lined stanza, which has since been called the Spenserian 
 
370 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGl.TSII LITERATURE. 
 
 mw 
 
 m 
 
 i» V, 
 
 4. 
 
 
 -'■1^! 
 
 Stanza. The first eight lines are of the usual length of five iainliic 
 feet; the last line contains six feet, and is therefore an Alexandrine. 
 Each stanza contains only three rhymes, which are disposed in tlii.s 
 order: abahhchc c. — The music of the stanza is long-drawn out, 
 beautiful, involved, and even luxuriant. — Tlie story of the poem is 
 an allegory, like tiie * Pilgrim's Progress' ; and in it Spenser under- 
 took, he says, "to represent all the moral virttujs, assigning to every 
 virtue a knight to he tin; patron and defender of the same." ^ Oidy 
 six books were completed ; and these relate the adventures of the 
 knights who stand for Holiness, Temperance, Chastity, Friendshij), 
 Justice, and Courtesy. The Faerie Queene herself is called 
 Gloriana, who represents Glory in his "general intention," and 
 Queen Elizabeth in his " particular intention." 
 
 8. Character of the Faerie Queene. — This poem is the greatest 
 of the sixteenth century. Spenser has not only been the (hdight of 
 nearly ten generations; he was the study of Shakespeare, the poet- 
 ical master of Cowley and of Milton, and, in some sense, of Dryileii 
 and Pope. Keats, when a boy, was never tired of leading him. 
 "There is something," says Pope, "in Spenser that ]»leases one hh 
 strongly in old age as it did in one's youth." Professor Craik .'-ays : 
 "Without calling Spenser the greatest of all poets, we may still say 
 that his poetry is the most poetical of all ])oetry." The outburst ot 
 national feeling after the defeat of the Armada in 1588; the new- 
 lands opened up by our adventurous Devonshire sailors ; the strong 
 and lively loyalty of the nation to the qtieen; the great statesmen 
 and writers of the period; the high daring shown by England 
 against Spain — all these animated and inspired the gloAving genius 
 of Spenser. His rhythm is shigularly sweet and beautiful. Ilazlitt 
 says : " His versification is at once the most smooth and the most 
 sounding in the language. It is a labyrinth of sweet sounds." 
 Nothing can exceed the wealth of Spenser's phrasing and expression ; 
 there seems to be no limit to its flow. He is very fond of the OLl- 
 English practice of alliteration or head-rhyme — " hunting the letter," 
 as it was called. Thus he has — 
 
 " In woods, in waves, in wars, she wont to dwell. 
 Gay without good is good heart's greatest loathing, "w-j- 
 
 9. William Shakespeare (1564-1616), the greatest dramatist 
 that England ever produced, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, in 
 Warwickshire, on the 23d of April — St George's Day — of the year 
 1664. His father, John Shakespeare, was a wool dealer and groAver. 
 
 1 This use of the phrase "the same " is antiquated English. 
 
THK SIXTEENTH CENTUKV. 
 
 371 
 
 of five iamltic 
 [\ AlexiintlriiH'. 
 isposc'd in Uii^ 
 ju<^-(lr.awii nut, 
 of tlie pociu i^ 
 Spi'iiser nTiilcr- 
 
 4giii"'n ^'^ '■'*'''''>' 
 siinie."' Only 
 ventures of tlu", 
 titu, Friewyiip, 
 erseU is tMlUnl 
 intention," and 
 
 em is tlu' -iivatfst 
 ■u the tU'lij^lit of 
 L-spcare, the poct- 
 ; sense, of Ury>leu 
 ,,f leading iiim- 
 Kit pl<-a>es one an 
 ,fcssor Craik siys : 
 ,?, we may still say 
 j' The outhurst of 
 in 15B8; the ni'W 
 pailors ; the stvoiif; 
 ,e great Ptatef^uum 
 uown by Englaiul 
 he glowing genuis 
 beautiful. Ha/.litt 
 joth and the nio>t 
 ,of sweet Poun<l>." 
 ng and expresr^ioii ; 
 •y fond of the Oia- 
 bunting the letter," 
 
 dwell 
 loathing. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 greatest dramatist 
 
 |atford-on-Avon, in 
 
 Pay— of thfe year 
 
 dealer and grower. 
 
 Lted Englisli' 
 
 William was educated at tlie grammar-school of the town, where ho 
 learned "small Latin and lesrs Greek" ; and this slender stock wa.s 
 his only scholastic outfit for life. At the early age of eighteen he 
 n...rried Anne Hathaway, a yeoman's daughtei-. In loSd, at the ago 
 uf twenty-two, he ([uitted his native town, and wiiit to Luiidon. 
 
 10. Shakespeare's Life and Character. — lie wus emjdoyeil in 
 some menial capacity at the lilackfriars Theatre, but gradual ly ro>e to 
 be actor and al.so adajjter of play.s. He was conneeted with the 
 theatre for about tive-and-twenty years; and so diligent and m) 
 successful was he, that he was able to purchase shares Ijoth in his 
 own theatre and in the Glolje. As an actor, he was oidy second- 
 rate : the two parts he is known to have played are those of tin? 
 Ghost in Hamlet, and Adam in As You Like It. In ir»',i7, at 
 the early age of thirty-three, he was able to pun base New I'lace, in 
 Stratford, and to rebuild the house. In KJli', at the age of foity- 
 eight, he left London altogether, and retirc'(l for the rest of his lifi! 
 to New Place, Avhere he died in the year KIKi. His old father ami 
 mother spent the last years of their lives with him, ami died under 
 hid roof. Shakespeare had three children — two gills and a boy. 
 The boy, Hamnet, died at the age of twelve. Shakespeare himself 
 \vas beloved by every one who knew him; and "genth; Shake- 
 speare " was the phrase most often upon tiie lips of his friends. A 
 placid face, with a sweet, mild expression; a high, broad, noble, 
 "two -storey" forehead; bright eyes; a most speaking mouth — 
 though it seldom opened; an open, frank manner, a kindly, hand- 
 some look, — such seems to have been the external character of the 
 man Shakespeare. 
 
 11. Shakespeare's Works. — He has written thirty-seven plays 
 and many poems. The best of his rhymed poems are his Sonnets, in 
 which he chronicles many of the various moods of his mind. The 
 plays consist of tragedies, historical plays, and comedies. The 
 [,'rcatest of his tragedies are probably Hamlet and King Lear; 
 the best of his historical plays, Richard IIL and Julius Caesar ; 
 and his finest comedies, Midsummer Night's Dream anil As 
 You Like It. He wrote in the reigm of Elizabeth as well as 
 in that of James ; but his greatest works belong to the latter 
 period. 
 
 12. Shakespeare's Style.— Every one knows that Shakespeare 
 is great ; but how is the young learner to discover the 1 est way 
 of forming an adequate idea of his greatness ? In the first place, 
 Shakespeare has very many sides ; and, in the second place, he is 
 great on every one of them. Coleridge says : " In all points, from 
 the most important to the most minute, the judgment of Shakespeare 
 
372 
 
 HISTOKY OF ENGLISH LITEKATUKE. 
 
 ia commensurate with hia genius — nay, his genius reveals itsi-If in 
 his judgment, as in its most exulted form." He has Iilcii ciUlmI 
 " mellitluous Shakespeare ; " " lioney-tongued Shakespeare ; " " >\\vrv- 
 tongued Shakespeare;" "the tliousand-souled Shakespeare;" "tin; 
 myriad-minded;" and by many other epithets. He seems to have 
 been master of all human experience ; to have known the human 
 heart in all its phases ; to have been a(.'«[uainted with all sorts and 
 conditions of men — high ami low, rich and jioor ; and to have studied 
 the history of past agi's, and of other countries. He also shows a 
 greater and more highly skilled mastery over language than any 
 other writer that ever lived. The vocalnilary employed l)y Shake- 
 speare amounts in number of words to twenty-one thousand. The 
 vocabulary of Milton numbers only s(!Ven thousand words. But it 
 is not sulficient to say that Shakespi-are's power of tlunight, of feel- 
 ing, and of expression re([uire(l three times the number of words 
 to express itself; we nnist also say that Shakespeare's power of ex- 
 pression shows infinitely greater skill, subth'ly, and cunning than 
 is to be found in the Avorks of !Milton. Shakespeare had also a mur- 
 velh)us power of making new phrases, most of which have become 
 part and parcel of our language. Such phrases as every inch a kimj ; 
 witch the loorld ; the time is out of joint, aiid hundreds more, shc)w 
 that modern Englishmen not only speak Shakespeare, but think 
 Shakespeare. His knowledge of human nature has enabled him to 
 throw into Er-dish literature a larger number of genuine "char- 
 acters" that will always live in the thoughts of men, than any other 
 author that ever wrote. And he has not drawn his characters from 
 England alone and from his own time — but fj'om Greece and Rome, 
 from other countries, too, and also from all ages. He has written in 
 a greater variety of styles than any other writer. "Shakespeare," 
 says Professor Craik, "has invented twenty styles." The know- 
 ledge, too, that he shows on every kind of human endeavour is as 
 accurate Jis it is varied. Lawyers say that he was a great lawyer; 
 theologians, that he was an able divine, and unequalled in his know- 
 ledge of the Bible ; })rinters, that he must have been a jmnter ; and 
 seamen, that he knew every branch of the sailor's craft. 
 
 13. Shakespeare's contemporaries. — But we are not to suppose 
 that Shakespeare stood alone in the end of the sixteenth and the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century as a great poet ; and that everything 
 else was flat and low around him. This never is and never can lie 
 the case. Great genius is the possession, not of one man, but of 
 several in a great age ; and we do not find a great writer standing 
 alone and unsupported, just as Ave do not find a high mountain rising 
 
T"K SIXTEKXT,, CKNTrUY. 
 
 Greece and Ronu 
 
 les." Tlie kiiow- 
 
 (nmi a low ,,l„i„. Tlie ]„.,„. ., '^ 
 
 "■-te for the stage. He s , " to / /VT ""'^-' "^' ' I-ndout 
 ''■'y '^« -^aid to have inv'T " ^''' ^'^^ o^" J""e 15;>3 'A 
 
 ^"7-te.i the Enjii^r :;;;V;:^'^^!'^''v^7 ^-^^^^ -^ ti.o^..;^^: 
 
 ,;;; ^^ward the Second "li. ^l f''^ ^'^] -- Br Paust'u 
 
 "' Po^r^r: it i, often coarse buU W^'" '^ '^'^ ^''^'^^^^ vigour 
 :f e of " Marlowe'H mighty ii "'- f f T'^'^ ''''''- ^^" J^nson 
 ./n/^icity of thought ^I^Z^ ^':^/^-'^^. J^«^-- says of hin. 
 "^ '^!'akespeare Lim.elf." ^ ' "^ ^'^Pre.ssion, he is secon.l only 
 
 !*« Shakespeare, wa/l!™ • 'V' " f '?''.'''™'"'''^' "*' England 
 i»« .rear, after Sl.akesneare's bi ■ f ,T" '" ""= -^■>'-»^ 13-J?i. t 
 
 ''S-1 to assist his stepfa Lr , ^ ■ 1 " '™"°8 ™''«'', l'-^ was 
 -----. on Ms return til:r^:---- 
 
374 
 
 IIISTOIIY OF ENGLISH LITEHATUUE. 
 
 the fitage. Jonson was a friend and companion of Shakespeare's ; 
 and at the Merniaiil, in Fleet Street, tliey liad, in ])re8ence ot' iinii 
 like Ralei<,di, Marlowe, (ireene, Peele, and other diHtinguislicd 
 EngliKlunen, many " wit-comliat.s" to<,'ether. Jonson's greatest 
 plays are Volpone or the P'ox, and the Alchemist — lioili 
 ccmiedies. In HUO he wuh created Po(!t- Laureate. For many 
 years he was in receipt of a ])ensi(jn from James I. and from Charles 
 I. ; hut 8o ciireless and jjroliise were his hahits, that he died in 
 poverty in the year 1(537. lie was buried in an upright j)ositi()n in 
 Westminster Abbey ; and the stone over his grave still bears the 
 inscription, "0 rare Ben Jonson !" lie has been called a "robust, 
 surly, and observing dramatist." 
 
 
 16. Richard Hookkh (1553-1600), one of the greatest of Eliza- 
 bethan prose-wiiters, was born at lleavitrcc, a village near the city 
 of Exeter, in the year 1053. I'y the kind aid of Jewel, ]>ishop of 
 Salisbury, lu; was sent to O.xfoid, where he distinguished liiinMlf 
 as a hard-working stu<lent, and especially for his knowledge nf 
 Hebrew. In 1581 he entered the Church. In the same year liu 
 made an imprudent marriage with an ignorant, coarse, vulgar, anij 
 domineering Avoman. He was appointed Master of the Temjilc in 
 1585; but, by his own rerpiest, he was removed from that otlict', 
 and chose the quieter living of Boscombe, near Salisbury. Htiv 
 he wrote the first four books of his famous work, The Laws 
 of Ecclesiastical Polity, which were published in the year 1594. 
 In 1595 he was translated to the living of Bishoi^sborne, near Can- 
 terbury. His death took place in the year 1600. The conipk'tu 
 work, which consisted of eight books, was not published till 1602. 
 
 17. Hooker's Style. — His waitings are said to "mark an era in 
 English prose." His sentences are generally very long, very elal)- 
 orate, but full of "an extraordinary musical richness of language.' 
 The order is often more like that of a Latin than of an English 
 sentence ; and he is fond of Latin inversions. Thus he writes : 
 " That which by wisdom he saw to be requisite for that people, wi^ 
 by as great wisdom compassed." The following sentences give us a 
 good example of his sweet and musical rhythm. " Of law there can 
 b'^ no less acknowledged, than that her seat is the bosom of God, her 
 voice the harmony of the w'orld. All things in heaven and earth do 
 her homage ; the very least as feeling her care, and tlie greatest as 
 not exempted f om her power: both angels and men, and creatures 
 of what condtiou soever, though each in different sort and manner, 
 yet all, wit!i uniform consent, admiring her as the mother of their 
 peace and joy." 
 
TlIK SIXTKKXTII CKNTUHY 
 
 375 
 
 Shakespeare's ; 
 ►reseuce of wn 
 T distiiii^ui^hi-'l 
 onsou's groatcsl 
 jhemist — ^'"^1> 
 ate. For many 
 m.l fn.iu Cliiulrs 
 
 Uiat he die.l in 
 ^.vi.^ht v<»^it>"i> in 
 ve still hears tlu; 
 called a " rohu^t, 
 
 . .greatest (.f Kh^ii- 
 lUv'r^e near the city 
 ,f Jewel, Bishop of 
 tin<;uishe.l him^-iU 
 his knoNvled'^e nf 
 the same ywiv Iw 
 coarse, vul-^ar, an«l 
 li- of the Tempi'' ui 
 .,1 from that otlia', 
 r Sali.hury. Hin; 
 ,vork, The Laws 
 a\ in the year lo91. 
 ,psborne, near Can- 
 100. The complete 
 Adished till 16G2. 
 ,0 *' mark an era m 
 ;ry long, very elal'- 
 fhness of langua'^e. 
 Ihan of an English 
 Thus he writes: 
 •or that people, wi^ 
 sentences give us a 
 « Of law there can 
 |e bosom of God, lier 
 lieaven and earth do 
 and the greatest as 
 men, and creatures 
 it sort and manner, 
 [the mother of tbeir 
 
 IH. Siu rniLii' SiDNKY (1554-1586), a nohlc kiii).;ht, a ntates- 
 iiiaii, aii'l oiii! of tin- In'St prose- writer.s of the Kli/alutlian a^'e, was 
 lidin at Penshurst, ill Kent, in the year ir)r)4. 11. • was educated at 
 Shrew.sbury School, and then at Christ C'hurcli, Oxford. At the 
 a^'e of .seveiiteeii he went abroad for three years' travcd on the Coii- 
 tiiiciit ; and, while in Paris, witnessed, from tlu; windows of the 
 Kiiudisli Embassy, the horrilile Massacre of St liartholoniew in the 
 year 1572. At the early age of twenty-two ne was sent as um- 
 liassador to the Emperor of Germany; and wliile o!i that endiassy, 
 lie met William of Orange — "William the Silent" — who i)rononnced 
 liiui oni! of the riju-st statesmen in Europe. This was said of a young 
 man '' who seems to have bei-n the typt; of what was noblest in the 
 youth of England during tinu^.s that could ]»roduce a statesman." 
 In ]r)80 he "ATote the Arcadia, a romance, and dedicated it to hi.s 
 ^ister, the Cuuntes.s of IVunbroke. The year alter, he produced hh 
 Apologie for Poetrie. His policy as a statesman was to side with 
 Protestant rulers, and to break the, ])ower (d' the strongest ('ath(dic 
 kingdom on the Coutintiiit— the ])ower of Spain. In \')H') the 
 Queen sent him to the Netherlands as govei'uor of the important 
 fortress of Flushing. lie was mortally woun.U'd in a skirmish at 
 Zutphen ; and as he was being carried oil' the Held, lianded to a 
 private the cup of cold water that had been brought to ijuencdi his 
 raging thirst. He died of his wounds on the 17th of October 1586. 
 One of his i'l lends wiote of him : — 
 
 "Death, courage, honour, make thy soul to live ! - 
 Thy soul in heaven, thy nanie in tongues of men ! " 
 
 1!). Sidney's Poetry. — In addition to the Arcadia and the 
 Apologie for Poetrie, Sidney wrote a number of beautiful poems. 
 The hest of these are a series of sonnets called Astrophel and 
 Stella, of wdiich his latest critic says : " As a series of .sonnets, the 
 Astrophel and Stella poems are second only to Shakespeare's ; as 
 a series of love -poems, they are })erhai.s unsurpassed." Spenser 
 wrote an elegy upon Sidney himself, under the title of Astrophel. 
 Sidney's prose is among the best of the sixteenth century. " He reads 
 more modern than any other author of that century." He does not 
 use "ink-horn terms," or cram his sentences with Latin or French or 
 Italian words ; but bothliis words and his idioms are of pure English. 
 He is fond of using personifications. Such phrases as, " About the 
 time that the candles began to inherit the sun's office ; " " Seeing the 
 day begin to disclose her comfortable beauties," are not uncommon. 
 The rhythm of his sentences is always melodious, and each of them 
 has a very pleasant close. 
 
 m 
 
 ■ i 
 
liii 
 
 \y 
 
 ■iiO 
 
 CIIArTKll V. 
 
 THE si:vi:NTj:i:Niii ikntliiv. 
 
 I. The First Half. — Under tlie wise aii<l iiblc rule (tf (^lucin 
 Klizalx^tli, this cuuiitry had i'nj(ty<'(l a Ini);^ term of iioacr. Thf 
 Spanisli Armada liad hccii dcfcatccl in laSS; tlic Spanish juiwir 
 liad graihially waniMl Itcfoit' the growin;^' might of Knghmd ; anil 
 it couhl l)u said witii perfect trnth, in the words of Shake- 
 speare : — 
 
 " In lior (l;iyH every iiiun cloth eat in safety 
 Under lii.s own vine what lie i>liintH, and sing 
 The iiici-ry Hong.s of peace to all his neighbours." 
 
 TliG country was at poae(> ; and .'vcry jx-aceful art and pursuit 
 pro.spered. As one sign of the great })rosperity and outstretcli- 
 ing enterprise of eomnierco, we shouM note the foundation nf 
 the East India Company on the hist day of tlie year 1600. Tlir 
 reign of James I. (1G03-1625) was also peaceful; and the 
 country nuide .steady progress in industries, in commerce, and i:i 
 the arts and sciences. The two greatest prose-writers of tlir 
 tirst half of tlie seventeentli century were Raleigh and Bacon; 
 the two greatest poets were Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. 
 
 2. Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618).— Walter Raleigh, soldier. 
 statesman, coloniser, historian, and poet, was horn in Devonshire, in 
 the year 1552. He was sent to Oriel College, Oxford ; but he left iit 
 the early age of seventeen to fight on the side of the Protestants in 
 France. From that time his life is one long series of schemes, plot», 
 
THE SKVEXTEPXTFr rEyTL'RV. 
 
 vlventuro.., „„,! ,uf.sfort„nos-n,In • '* 
 
 """xttT in th,. v,.,w liUH rr "'"»'""^"'« in his ...vonifinn „^ Tl- * 
 
 «'""« tune in Irelan-i tI,o„..l,t 1 . '' "' ""' "*^'^'''"""- '- "H^. 
 
 '•ftiiiiM), 
 
 ^^•'l^''Kh IS the anthnv of tli,. ,., 1 i . , 
 
 ^ ^ t , (,iv(, ,„^. jjj^. ,, ], J \<^i>t>, (.(.. soul, ( „. h„,i..., 
 
 •"^ » tin 
 
 " Even such is time thaf f„i • 
 Our youth nJ "^'''^ '" t'-'i'^t 
 
 - Vi^th . I:; 'T"''^''"•^^' 
 «;;uts up the sto^Jlr:'; L;;: ^^'^^^' - 
 
 l^iit from this sftrM. fi • ^ 
 ""Style ,., calm, nobk, „,„| „, , r ^''''^■^"'■•t. r. „f l,i,. ,:„ ' 
 
 " cti lork Jioiise, 
 ^ Emulating. 
 
 i-C'-y 
 
378 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 mil 
 
 \mw 
 
 m f 
 
 in the Strand, London, in the year 1561. He was a grave nnrl 
 precocious child; and Queen Elizabeth, who knew him and likt-d 
 him, used to pat him and call him her "youn^' L(jrd Keeper '—his 
 father being Lord Keeper of the Seals in her reign. At the early 
 age of twelve he was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, and re- 
 mained there for three years. In 1582 he was called to the bar; 
 in 1593 he was M.P. for Middlesex. But his greatest rise in fortune 
 did not take place till the reign of James L ; when, in the year KilK. 
 he had risen to be Lord High Chancellor of England. The title 
 which he took on this occasion — for the Lonl High Chancellor is 
 chairman of the House of Lords — was Baron Verulam; and a 
 few years after he was created Viscount St Albans. His elo- 
 quence was fari.ous in England ; and Ben Jonsor» siiid of him : " The 
 fear of every man that heard him was lest he should make an end." 
 In the year lirj^l he was accused of taking bribes, and of giving un- 
 just decisions as a judge. He had not really been unconscientious, 
 but he had been careless ; was obliged to plead guilty ; and he ^vas 
 sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, and to ])e imprisoned in the 
 Tower during the king's pleasure. The fine was remitted ; Bacnn 
 was set free in two days; a pension was allowed him; but he never 
 afterwards held office of any kind. He died on Easter-day of the 
 year 1626, of a chill which he caught while experimenting on tlir 
 preservative properties of snow. 
 
 4. His chief prose-works in English — for he wrote many in Latin- 
 are the Essays, and the Advancement of Learning. His Essays 
 make one of the Avisest books ever written; and a great numl)er(4 
 English thinkers owe to them the, best of what they have had t"* .«av 
 They are written in a clear, forcible, pithy, and picturestjue style, 
 with short ?entenees, and a good many illustrations, drawn from hiv 
 tory, politics, and science. It is true that the style is sometiiiu- 
 stiff, and even rigid ; but the stiffness is the stiffness of a liclilv 
 embroidered cloth, into which tiireads of gold and silver have bei'ii 
 worki.'d. Bacon kept what he called a Promus or Corimonplact- 
 Book; and in this he entered striking thoughts, sentences, aii'l 
 phrases that he met with in the course of his reading, or that or- 
 curred to him during the day. He calls these sentences "salt-pit.-, 
 that you may extract salt out of, and spiinkle as you will." The 
 following are a few examples: — 
 
 "That that is Forced is not Forcible." 
 " No Man loveth his Fetters thougli they be of Gold." 
 " Clear and Koinid Dealing is the Honour of Man's Nature." 
 " Tlie Arch-flatterer, with whom all the petty Flatterers have intelligence, ;• 
 a Man'.s Self." 
 
*-''*;^'SS^SSSi2£a2B* 
 
 IRE. 
 
 : was a grave and 
 law him and liked 
 Lord Keeper "' — his 
 ign. At the early 
 Jamhridge, and iv- 
 
 called to the bur; 
 itest rise in fortuiu' 
 in,in tlie year 161«. 
 :ngland. The tit!.- 
 High Chancellor is 
 
 Verulam; ami i\ 
 Albans. His elo- 
 
 siiid of him : " Tlu; 
 onld make an end." 
 3, and of giving un- 
 3en unconscientious, 
 
 guilty ; and he ^vas 
 ; imprisoned in the 
 as remitted; Bacdii 
 I him ; but he nciver 
 )n Easter-day of the 
 :perimenting on the 
 
 rote many in Latin— 
 rning. His Essays 
 id a great number of 
 hey have had t-^ say, 
 id pictures(}uc style, 
 ons, drawn from hiv 
 e style is sometime^ 
 stitfness of a liclilv 
 md silver have been 
 as or Corimonplace- 
 ights, sentences, aii'i 
 , reading, or that o 
 3 sentences " salt-pits 
 e as you will." The 
 
 "'" S'5^-E.VTEENT,r CEXTrnv. 
 
 Nature." 
 
 srers have intelligence, : 
 
 " If Things bo not tossed unnnt), a '" 
 
 The followin.r aiv -i r..u- .f -i • 
 " A man's nature r , f ' '""* J''«'» ■''^'t- " 
 
 ^o man could say irJ.nr .i • 
 well say of his tliou^its in tl . ^'' /'' ^''^^'''' ^^'^^'is ; and we m 
 
 ohts, .n the weds of Tennyson, thitt they are^'^' 
 
 ^at on the tTtclfrrr'^'^ '""^' 
 Sparkle for evrr!'' '^'''^''" «'■ «'^" time 
 
 i^''J^Xt:zT:zTzrT' -- "«- »— . '-ted 
 
 h"e that his fir,t H-o per „, 'J T ''^'- ^»* '' "'V i note,! 
 - e»th and his last t,^ ^ Xv t'- ,1 '"""'-f'"' «ithi:t 
 
 Windsor, and a f,,,, I,;,!"; ," , '^ ^''"'°«' "'" Merry -Wiv„ J I 
 J--* were richer i^ p ^L; t,'.;" ^"' "''^ "'■>'''^'^ fot- ,° 
 
 h.rd period, H-hid, hlngs to the ' ,??•'"• I'-l"<=«"n». Tl 
 P'»>- "f Julius CiBsar, the , "ea iV'"" '" ""»■ I«-"''»"I ■ 
 Lear, Macbeth, ,,„d ^Z°,nh,:^ T'',"' "'' »«»'««. Othello 
 '■« lietu-een 1008 an.l leiV ," "'" ''"""h per od ,vh o' 
 
 -Winter's Tale, The Temn""i' "'^' ""'"""• •■""' « is." dr 
 >-'™"fter-in mii^^Z;^^'''' '"■'' Henry VIIl. n^ 
 
 ^- The Second Half ti 
 ""i'i- .seventeenth ee„t„ry :,r,7'. ','"" "' *'- «--.t an,, 
 '"■« from that of the fi,4 I / ' ;, '■''l™*' "'■■y <!.ire,,,,t 
 ' '-"o faee a new world 11 '"■ ''f^'"^''" '-" -to 
 '"■■»« n.politie.,,„e,v power, in ;,,"'" '" "■"''«'■"". ""- 
 *-"l".v, and irreai«tihV . „ ',. r^" '"'""''' '''' ''-" ■''"-'y, 
 ;;■"«-'' Kin«,Tan,es can,, "ta! ' .r''^""-^ -or «inee the 
 
 '' ''' '"'''f'^ie so 
 

 380 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 \m 
 
 strong that they led a king to tlio scafTokl, and handed over tho 
 government of England ti) a section of Kepuhlicans. Cliarlos 
 I. Avas executed in IGiO; and, tliongli his son cainti bark 
 to the tlirone in IGGO, the face, tlie manners, the thoughts nf 
 ]"jigland and of Englislimen had undergcmo a comph^te internal 
 and external (diange. 'J'he Puritan party was everywhere the 
 ruling party ; and its views and convictions, in religion, in 
 politics, and in literature, held un([uestioned sway in almost 
 every part of luigland. In tho Puritan party, the strongest 
 section was formed by the Independents — the " root and branch 
 men " — as they were called ; and tho greatest man among the 
 Independents was (31iver Cromwell, in whose government John 
 Milton was Foreign Secretary. ]\Iilton was certainly by far 
 the greatest and most powerful writer, both in prose and in 
 verse, on tho side of the Puritan party. The ablest verse-writer 
 on the Royalist or Court side was Samuel Butler, the unrivalled 
 satirist — tho Hogarth of language, — the author of Hudibras. 
 The greatest prose-writer on the lioyalist and Church side was 
 Jeremy Taylor, Bishop of Down, in , Ireland, and the author 
 of Holy Living, Holy Dying, and many other works written 
 with a wonderful elocpience. The greatest philosophical writer 
 was Thomas Hobbes, the author of the Leviathan. The most 
 powerful writer for the people was John Bunyan, the immortal 
 author of The Pilgrim's Progress. AVhen, however, we como 
 to the reigns of Charles II. and James II., and the new ''ifluences 
 which tlunr rule and presence imparted, we find the greatest poet 
 to be John Dryden, and the most important prose-writer, John 
 Locke. 
 
 7. The Poetry of the Second Half, — The poetry of the second 
 half of tho seventeenth century was not an outgrowth or lineal 
 descendant of tlio poetry of the first half. Xo trace of tho 
 strong Elizabi'than poetical emotion remained ; no writer of tliis 
 half-century can claim kinship with the great authors of the 
 Elizabethan period. The three most remarkable poets in the 
 latter half of this century are John Milton, Samuel Butler, 
 and John Dryden. But ^lilton's culture was derived chietly 
 from tho great Greek and Latin writers ; and his poems show 
 
 .!■;! 
 

 3s I 
 if"w or no si.rns of lu.i . • 
 
 "•"tor.,, it is to France an.l „ t .i ^^ ,""';^ T'^'-o t" .^d-.r 
 for ,ts source. JJn,,,„ „3 ' ' ^'-''gl"."! .l.,t „■„ ,„„,, ,„„ 
 
 •■"'""'•y; 1.0 is ,sq„.rat.,l fro, t , "'" '■"'^y I""' "f th,. 
 
 i=, to t]iel.rc.,,cl,,s,),„oi of ,„,,„.,, 
 8. John Milton (Ie08.ie74-, ,i 
 
 ^ krg,.„,a„. Filled ,ri„, , ° e r^t :' '""" "'' "" ■■''™ "f I-™" 
 
 ■» B'><:Ic.ngban,sl,ire, where i,f,H 'I'''?"' '" ""''-l t" Horl, ," 
 
 ;«■ Between the ', ears Ig ';",'« ,'""^"" " '"■•"' - 
 
 :;^»d Latin author, mail ^^ ■' ,, '■;'!"'"^"' "" "'" '-»' 
 'Muie Jj Alleerro iirx] ri -o "ijl.s, aii(( science • niul 1,, i 
 
 *°«- poems." Thie "rflSr' ''°"""^' ^^-^'^i- 1 » : 
 P«lKal «-ork which it was I'. '■ ' "'■'■•■i*x, towards tlie .-re t 
 
 '«38-39 he took a jou™",- t' T'T "' '"» "'" '" P.-d ^ jl' 
 'W spent in Italv ,„ "V '". "f t'ontineut. Most of I I V 
 
 '■*'l- The ne.^t ten yeara of 1,; . i-r '*■''" '"ooner than lie 
 
 -'". ^i.. Tractate on Edneat^; ' r? "" '""■'""' ■"- '" '- 
 ^-work., i, ,„•,, Areopagltiea a «; t'."""' •''■■I'-'t ol' his 
 'Jnl.censed Printing (1 wl)-"^:, ^'^'"f '^°'- ">« Liberty of 
 ;■'■ «liovi„g all wriii,,,' ;„' "■ ''''•■■'. ,'.»!■ ">e freclou, of ,1„. ore" 
 Y«.r of the executi:; o c . r : T'^^! "' «">-'- '■■ H - 
 "..,,„ Secretar, to .he « „;-,"; ";;V"" """"'""■' '-•"■. 
 .*, "'l f'^-'" ten year., his ti„,e w " ,' . "' *^'""'' <>">"»,.|l , and 
 
 --'-ti„,prose.o,u„.esrdtt:e"!fr:rort 
 
/ 
 
 382 
 
 HISTOIIY OF KNGLTSH LITERATURE 
 
 Republic. Ill lOGO the Restoration took place; and Milton was at 
 length free, in his fifty-third year, to carry out his long-cherislii'tl 
 s(;henie of writing a great Epic poem. He chose the subject of the 
 fall and the restoration of man. Paradise Lost was completed in 
 1665; hut, owing to the Plague and tlie Fire of London, it was not 
 published till the year IGGT. Milton's young Quaker friend, Elhvood, 
 said to liim one day : " Tliou hast said much of Paradise Lost, what 
 hast thou to say of Paradise Found?" Paradise Regained whs 
 the i-esult — a work which was written in 1666, and appeared, along 
 with Samson Agonistes, in the year 1671 ^lilton died in tin; 
 year 1674 — about the middle of the reign of Charles II. He ha'l 
 been three times married. 
 
 9. L'AUegro (or "The Cheerful Man") is a companion poem to 
 II Penseroso (or " The Meditative Man " ). The poems present two 
 contrasted views of the life of the student. They are written in an 
 irregular kind of octosyllaljic verse. Tlie Comus — mostly in blank 
 verse — is a lyrical drama ; and Milton's work was accompanied l)y 
 a musical composition by the then famous musician Henry Lawes. 
 Lycidas — a poem in irregular rhymed verse — is a threnody on the 
 death of ^lilton's young friend, Edward King, who was drowni'd 
 in sailing from Chester to Duulin. This poem has been called " the 
 touchstone of taste;" the man who cannot admire it has no feeling 
 for true poetry. The Paradise Lost is the story of how Satan was 
 allowed to plot against the hajipiness of man ; and how Adam and 
 Eve fell through his designs. The style is the noblest in the English 
 language; the music of the rhythm is lofty, involved, sustained, and 
 sublime. " In reading ' Paradise Lost,' " says j\Ir Lowell, " one has a 
 feeling of spaciousness such as no other poet gives." Paradise 
 Regained is, in fact, the story of the Temptation, and of Christ's 
 triumph over the wiles of Satan. "Wordsworth says : " ' Paradise 
 Regained ' is most perfect in execution of any M'ritten by Milton ; " 
 and Coleridge remarks that " it is in its kind the most perfect 
 poem e.vtant, though its kind may be inferior in interest." Samson 
 Agonistes ("Samson in Struggle" ) is a drama, in highly irregular 
 iinrhymed verse, in which the poet sets forth his own unhappy fate— 
 
 "Eyeless, in Gaza, at the mill with slaves." 
 
 It is, indeed, an autobiographical poem — it is the story of the last 
 years of the poet's life, v ; 
 
 A 
 
 10. Samuel Butler (1612-1680), the wittiest of English poets, wa- 
 born at Strensham, in Worcestershire, in the year 1612, four years 
 
ives." Paradise 
 
 e storv of the l;i>t 
 
 "IE SEVKNTEKM,, ,,,.xn-«v. 
 
 "ft-r the birth of Jliito,, ,„ . , """'"' ^''•'' 
 
 See h,m, w],en .starved to ./ m"" ^'''^ ' 
 l'.'I>oured carifitiiU^^- ^^ "^ ^i"'Jesqne poem — ., i.. , 
 
 ■'•\>s Biitlor liimsdf 
 The followin, are .,o„.e„n.i. best k„„„,. ,,■„,.,,_ 
 
 " And, like a lobster boilM tl„. . 
 
 " ^'' J7«^t3' i« still tl.c. same 
 
 Altho' It be not slnnM up:,',-. 
 
 " He that complies against Ins will 
 f'' of his own opinion still,- ' 
 
 J!:/!"^ ^«^^!^^ (1631.1700), tbo 
 
 h in NortlKin.pt„n,shire, in tJze 
 
 ^--^^ -nlc, was b;n; at i^w' i^r^''""^!:? '^^ "^ P-^^ - ti.. 
 
 Il 
 
384 
 
 IIISTOKY OF KNGLTSII UTKllATURK. 
 
 ! ' 
 
 mn 
 
 iii 
 
 year 1(531. lie was clescended i'miu Puritan ancestors on Vidth 
 sides of liis house, lie was educated at Westminster Sdiool, ami 
 at Trinity College, Caiubridge. London Ijecanie his settled abode in 
 the year 1657. At the Restoralion, in 1060. he hecanu! an ardent 
 Royalist ; and, in tlie year 1063, he married the daughter of a Royali.--t 
 nobleman, the Earl of P.erkshire. It was not a happy marriage ; tht; 
 lady, on the one han<l, had a violent temper, and, on the other, did 
 not care a straw for the literary pursuits of her husband. In 16(!() he 
 wrote his first long ])oem, the Annus Mirabilis (" The AVonderfid 
 Year"), in whii'h he paints the war with Holland, aiid the Fiiv of 
 London; and from this date his life is "one long literary laboui'."' 
 In 1670, he received the double appointment of Historiograi)lu'r- 
 T< val and Poet-Laureate. Up to the year 1681, his work lay chiefly 
 /. \"i'iting plays for the theatre; and these plays were written in 
 • ' '!• .d verse, in imitation of the Frenoli jtlays ; for. from the date 
 of the Restoration, French influence was paramount both in literature 
 and. in lasbion. But in this year lie pul)lished the first jiart of 
 Abbuloiu and Aohitophel — one of the most powerful satires in the 
 language, fn the year 1683 he was appointed Collector of Customs 
 in the port of London — a post which Chaucer had ludd before him. 
 (It is worthy of note that Dryden " translated " the Tales of Chaucer 
 into modern English.) At the accession of James II., in 1685, Dryden 
 became a Roman Catholic ; most certainly neither for gain nor out 
 of gratitude, but from conviction. In 1687, appeared his poem of 
 The Hind and the Panther, in which he defends his new creed. 
 He had, a few years before, brought out another poem called Religio 
 Laid ("A Layman's Faith''), which was a defence of the Church of 
 England and of her position in religion. In The Hind and the 
 Panther, the Hind represents the Roman Catholic Church, "a milk- 
 white hind, luispotted and unchanged," the Panther the Church of 
 England; and the two beasts reply to each other in all the argu- 
 ments iised by controversialists on these two sides. When the 
 Revolution of 1688 took place, and James II. had to flee the king- 
 dom, Dryden lost both his offices and the pension he had from 
 the Crown. Nothing daunted, he set to work once more. Again 
 he wrote for the stage ; but the last years of his life were spent 
 chiefly in translation. He translated passages from Homer, Oviil. 
 and from some Italian writers; but his most important work was 
 the translation of the whole of Virgil's -SJneid. To the last lie 
 retained his fire and vigour, action and rush of verse ; and some of 
 his greatest lyric poems belong to his later years. His ode called 
 Alexander's Feast was written at the age of sixty-six ; and it wa? 
 written at one sitting. At the age of sixty-nine he was meditating a 
 
THK SEVENTKKNT.r CKNTn,,-. 
 
 translation nf fi. i , " ^^^ 
 
 • ^^'-V-^tvle ,,s chsting,u.slu.,l In- if/ , ^"^^ ^^"« Killigrew 
 
 ,Z ' '' ™"™ ...vo , ,„.,,. 
 
 ilie secret pleasure of tl,.> . 
 
 ^« *he g.,t n,in.I. ^LS' ^^^^^^ -^' 
 
 '^'le great American rWf.V. 7 
 
 ■'■'"" ''« I""Il„,u created 
 
386 
 
 IITSTOKY OF KNTrLISlI LITEUATUllE. 
 
 mm 
 
 a Fellow of All Souls' CoUc^^c, Oxfor.l. Wlioii the Civil War broke 
 out, he WHS taken ])risoiu'r by the Parliaiiieiitary forces ; and, in- 
 deed, suffered imprisonment nioic tlian once. After the Resturation, 
 he was presented with a bishopric in Ireland, where he died in 
 1()G7. 
 
 15. Perhaps his best woiks are his Holy Living and Holy Dying. 
 His style is rich, even to luxury, full of the most imaginative illus- 
 trations, and often overloaded with ornanu-nt. He has been callcMl 
 "the Shakespeare of English prdse," "the Spenser of divinity," 
 and by other appellations. The hitter title is a very haiiiiy descri])- 
 tion ; for he has the same wealth of style, ])hrase, ami description 
 that Spenser has, and the same boundless delight in setting forth his 
 thoughts in a thousand different ways. The following is a specimen 
 of his writing. He is speaking of a shipwreck : — 
 
 " These are the thoughts of luortfils, this is the end and sum of all their 
 ilesigns. A dark uight and an ill guide, a boisterous sea and a hiwken caMe, 
 a hard rock and a rough wind, dash in pieces the fortune of a wliole family ; 
 and they that shall weep loudest for tlio accident are not yet entered into the 
 storm, and yet have suffered shipwreck." 
 
 His writings contain many pithy statements. The following aie 
 a few of them : — 
 
 " No man is poor that does not think liimself so." 
 
 " He that spends his time in sj)ort and calls it recreation, is like him wIiom' 
 garment is all made of fringe, and his meat nothing Init sauce. 
 
 " A good man is as nmch in awe of liimself as of a whole assembly. " 
 
 16. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1879), a great philosopher, was born 
 at Malmesbury in the year 1588. He is hence called "the philo- 
 sopher of Malmesbury." Pie lived during the reigns of ibur Eng- 
 lish sovereigns — Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., and Charles II.; 
 and he was twenty -eight years of age when Shakespeai'e died. 
 He is in many respects the type of the hard-working, long-lived, 
 persistent Englishman. He was for many years tutor in the Devon- 
 shire family — to the first Earl of Devonshire, and to the third Earl of 
 Devonshire — and li\Td for several years at the family seat of Chats- 
 worth. In his youth he was acquainted with Bacon and Ben Jonson ; 
 in his middle age he knew Galileo in Italy ; and as he lived to the 
 age of ninety- two, he might have conversed with John Locke or 
 with Daniel Defoe. His greatest work is the Leviatlian ; or, The 
 Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth. His style 
 is clear, manly, and vigorous. He tried to write poetry too. At 
 
: r.'.-isasdaE3KM».at«,iJ 
 
 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 387 
 
 vil War broku 
 
 lu! Ui-st< "ration, 
 ^re lie t^i^''^ ^^' 
 
 (1 Holy Dying- 
 
 aagiuativi'. iUus- 
 has Ih'I'U ialU'«l 
 ,.v (if divinity," 
 y luivpy a»'s<'viv- 
 aud desrriptir.M 
 . Pi'ttin<^ fortli l'i> 
 iu^ is a specimen 
 
 nd sum of all tlu'ir 
 
 •111,1 ai'vwkou cal'U', 
 
 u'uf awliole faniily ; 
 
 , yet entered into the 
 
 The following aie 
 
 Ion, is like liini Nvlio.e 
 
 Luce. 
 
 lie assembly-" 
 
 L^^opher, was bcrn 
 1 called "the plnlo- 
 eigns of lour Eu-- 
 and Charles H.; 
 I Shakespeare dio.!. 
 lorkiug, h)ii;4-"live*l, 
 lutor in the l^evou- 
 Ito the third Earl ot 
 liilv wat of Chats- 
 luaudBen Jonson; 
 
 ll as he lived to tke 
 Ith John Locke ov 
 Iviathan; or, The 
 lealth. His stye 
 Ite poetry too. At 
 
 the advanced ai^'c of eighty-five, he MTote a translation of tlie whole 
 (if Ilonier's Iliail ami Odyssey into rhymed Kn;^dish verse, using 
 tlie same ([uatrain and the same measure that Dfvden emphivi-d 
 ill his 'Annus Mirahilis.' Two lines are still renuMubered of tliis 
 ti'anslation : speakin;^ of a cliild and his mother, lit; says— 
 
 " And like a star ui")ii lier bosom lay 
 His beautiful and sinning golden head." 
 
 17. John Bunyan (1628-1688), one of the most popular of our 
 prose -writers, wa.s born at Elstow, in liedfordshii'e, in the year 
 1028 — ^just three years before the birth (jf Dryden. He served, 
 when a young man, with the Parliamentary forces, and was present 
 at the siege of Leicester. At tlie Restoration, he was apprehended 
 for preacliing, in disob(!dience to the Conventicle Act, "was liad 
 home to prison, and there lay complete twelve years," Here he 
 
 [■ted hi 
 
 ■If and his famib 
 
 aki 
 
 I h 
 
 supported lumseii ana Jus lamiiy hy maknig tagged laces and other 
 small-wares; and here, too, he wrote the immortal Pilgrim's Pro- 
 gress. After his redease, he became pastor of the ]5ai)tist congre- 
 gation at Bedford. He had a great power of Ijiinging persons who 
 had quarrelled together again; and he was so })opular among those 
 who knew him, that he was generally spoken of as " Ijishoj) Bunyan." 
 On a journey, undertaken to reconcile an estranged father and a ndicl- 
 lious son, he caught a severe cold, and died id" fever in London, in the 
 year 1698. Every one has read, or will read, the Pilgrim's Progress ; 
 and it may be said, without exaggeration, that to him who has not 
 reail the book, a large part of English life and history is dumb an<l 
 unintelligible. Bunyan has been called the *' Spenser of the people," 
 and "the greatest master of allegory that ever lived." His power 
 (if iuKigination is something wonderful; and his simple, liomely, 
 and vigorous style makes everything so real, that we seem to be 
 reading a narrative of everyday events and conversations. His 
 vocabulary is not, as Macaulay said, "tlie > icabulary of the common 
 l»e(iple;" rather should we say that his English is the I^nglish of 
 the Bible and of the best religious writers. His style is, almost 
 everywhere, simple, homely, earnest, and vernacular — without being 
 vulgar. Bunyan's books have, along with Shakespeare and Tyndale's 
 works, been among the chief supports of an idiomatic, nervous, and 
 .simple English, 
 
 18. John Locke (1632-1704), a great English philosopher, yvaa 
 horn at Wrington, near Bristol, in the year 1G32. He ^vas educated 
 
 M 
 
388 
 
 HISTOIIY OV ENCMSll UTKIIATURE. 
 
 at Oxford ; ])iit lu' took little interest in tlu; (Jrcuk and Latin classirn, 
 Ilia chief siudies Ivin;^ in iiUMlicine and the ]»hysical sciences. He 
 became all!iche(l in the faiuous liord Sliaftesbiirv, nnder whom lie 
 lilU'd several imhlii- olliees - anion^' fithers, that of Comniis.sioner of 
 Trade. When Shafteshiiry was ohli^-d to llee to Holland, Ii(jrk(; 
 followed him, and spent several years in exile in that country. All 
 his, life a very delicate man, he yet, l»y dint of e;reat cai'e uiid thoni^ht- 
 fulness, conti'ive(l to li\'(! to the a;4e of seventy-two. His two most 
 famons works are Some Thoughts concerning Education, and 
 the celebrated Essay on the Human Understanding. The 
 latter, which is his ,i,'reat work, occujiitMl his time and thon^dits for 
 ei^diteen years. In l»)th these l.ddks, Tiocke exhibits the very genius 
 of common-sense. The ])urpose of education is, in his opinion, not 
 to make learned men, l)ut to nuiinlain "a .sound mind in a sound 
 body;" and he begins th(^ education of the future man even from 
 his cradle. Tn his ])hiloso)>hical writin,L,'s, he is always simple; but, 
 a.s he is loos(! and vacillating' in his use of terms, this simplicity is 
 often purchased at the e.xpense of exactness and self-consistency. 
 
 rM 
 
3SU 
 
 L Latin classic^ 
 [ sr.it'iKH'S. H'" 
 ludi-r whom In- 
 '()iiiinii-*«i'>"''i' fit 
 
 vt country. All 
 ire and thon-^lit- 
 ,. His two most 
 Education, antl 
 jtanding. '1'^'*' 
 ui(\ tAi<)Ut;lit8 lor 
 s {]w vi-ry t;i-nius 
 ^ liis opinion, not 
 mind in a sound 
 B man even from 
 
 ,vays simpl*^' ^^'|' 
 , tills simpli'^ity is 
 If-consistency. 
 
 / 5 • C r 
 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. The Age of Prose. — TIm! <'i;^'lit(.'oiitli contury wa.s an ago 
 of prose in two senses. In the first \)\\xw, it was a prosaic age ; 
 anil, in tlie second place, better prose tlian poetry was pro- 
 duced by its writers. One remarkable fact may also l)e noted 
 about the chief prose-writers of this (H'utury — and that is, that 
 they were, most of them, not merely able writers, not merely 
 distinguished literary men, but also men of affairs — men Avell 
 versed in the world and in matters of the highest practical 
 moment, while some were also statesmen holding high oflice. 
 Thus, in the first half of the century, we find Addison, Swift, 
 and Defoe either holding oflice or inllueufing and guiding 
 tliose who held office ; while, in thi; latter half, we have men 
 like Burke, Hume, and CJibbon, of whom the same, or nearly 
 the same, can bo said. The poets, on the contrary, of this 
 oigliteenth century, are all of them — with the very slightest 
 exceptions — men who devoted most of their lives to poetry, 
 and had little or nothing to do Avith practical matters. It 
 may also be noted here that the character of the eighteenth 
 century becomes more and more prosaic as it goes on — less and 
 less under the influence of the spirit of poetry, until, about the 
 close, a great reaction makes itself felt in the persons of Cowper, 
 Chatterton, and Burns, of Crabbe and Wordsworth. 
 
 2. The First Half. — The great prose-writers of the first half 
 of the eighteenth century are Addison and Steele, Swift and 
 
300 
 
 HISTORY OF KN(;I,ISII MTKIIATrUK. 
 
 Defoo. All <if tlicsc iiKii li;i(l sdiuc iiioic or less (iloso (■(in- 
 iitHitiou with the ri>i' nf juiiniulisiii in l'"ii;.jl;iiiil ; ami uiic i,( 
 thiMu, I)(!fo(', was imlcrd tin- luimdi'i' of the niodcni iicws|)a|ii r. 
 Ily far the most [lowtrful intcllc't of these foiii' was Swift. 
 
 TJKf ^TeateSt Jiocts of the first half of the ci^Olteellt ll Ct'IltlirV 
 
 wcro Popo, Tliomson, Collins, ami Gray. J lowers aliovc 
 
 all of tlieiii liy a head and shoulders, Ix'cmisu in' was liiii<h 
 iHon; fertile than any, and liccansf! lio wfirkcd so liard and so 
 untirin^dy at the lalMnir (tf tlie file -at IIh; task of ii()lislun;4 ami 
 improving' his verses. lint the vein of poetry in the three 
 otliers- and inoie cspocially in Collins — was inu(;h more \)\\u- 
 and ^'ennine than it was in I'ope at any time of his life at any 
 period of his writin;^^ Let us look at eaeh id' th(\so writers a 
 little more clusulv. 
 
 m' 
 
 3. Danikl Dki'ok (1661-1731), one of tlic most fertile writers 
 that En^daud ever saw. and one wlio has h tlie delij.;lit of 
 
 many ^-enerations of readers, -was h(jrn in tlie ci London in tin' 
 
 year 1061. He was cdueated to be a 1 )i.sseutin;^' minister; hut lir 
 turned from tluit professicjii to the ])ursuit of trade. Lie attemptdl 
 several trades, — was a liosier, a hatter, a printer ; and he is said also 
 to have been a brick and tile maker. In 1092 he failed in business; 
 but, in no long time after, lie i)aid every one of liis creditors to tin- 
 uttermost farthing. Tlirough all his laliour ' and misfortunes he was 
 always a hard and careful reader, — an omiuvorous reader, too, fur 
 he was in tlie liabit of reading almost every book that came in his 
 way. He made Ins first reputation by writing political paniplilits. 
 One of his pamphlets brought him into liigli favour with Kiiiu' 
 William ; another had tlie elfect of phuing liim in the jiillory aii'l 
 lodging him in prison. But wlnle in Newgate, he did not idle away 
 his time or " languish " ; he set to work, wrote hard, and started a 
 newspaper, The Review, — the earliest genuine newspaper Eng- 
 land had seen up to liis time. This paper he brought out two er 
 three times a-week ; and every word of it he wrote himself. IK' 
 continued to carry it on singledianded for eight years. In 170(J. 
 he was made a member of the Commission for bringin" about tln' 
 union between England and Scotland ; and his great knowledge 1 1 
 commerce and commercial affairs were of singular value to this Com- 
 mission. In 1715 lie had a dangerous illness, brought on by political 
 excitement ; and, on his recovery, he gave up most of his political 
 
FIRST HALF OF ETriHTKENTH CKNTrUY. 
 
 noi 
 
 [oss ('\^^^ ''''"^' 
 ,,.m llfWSpillM 1. 
 
 f)\\r WHS Switi. 
 lU'cntli •■''i>l»iiy 
 '.oNVi'VH all"'-'' 
 . h(. was iMU'li 
 so luird and so 
 of polisliiu;^ '""' 
 
 ,,.y m tilt' till''*' 
 
 iiiucU inovi! i.uiv 
 : his lif»'-- ii^ 'ii>y 
 ,f thc'su wiiti-rs ;i 
 
 lost fertile \yr\U-X' 
 the .U;li-l>t of 
 London in tin- 
 r minister ; l»ut h'' 
 ,]e. He atten>vt."l 
 ami he is said alni 
 , faiU'd in hu^in»'<s : 
 lis creditors to tiu- 
 misfortunes he was 
 )us reader, too, fnv 
 . that came in lii> 
 political pamp^dcts. 
 favour with Kiu- 
 in the pillory au'l 
 ,e did not idle away 
 hard, and started a 
 ne newspaper Eii;.'- 
 [hrou;^ht out two or 
 ATote himself. li|^' 
 |it years. In t'O'^' 
 hrin^in'^ about tlu' 
 (crreat knowled^'e "t 
 "value to this Com- 
 ,ught on by politit'al 
 ,ost of liis political 
 
 writing', and took to tin- composition u[' stories and romancon. 
 Altlinii;^'li now a man of Hfty-f(jiir, lie wrote with the \i;^'our atid 
 (MSI! of a viiun^,' man of tliiity. His i^rcatest iiiia;^inativf work 
 WIS written in 171!)- wlicn la; was nearly sixty- The Life and 
 Strange Svirpriaing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of 
 York, Mariner, . . . written by Himself. Witliin six years 
 In- had pro(hiced twelve works of u similar kind. He is suiil to have 
 written in all two hundred and tifty hooks in the course uf his 
 lifetime. He died in 1731. 
 
 ■\. Ills best known— and il is also Ids fjrentost-work is Robinson 
 Crusoe ; and tins jjonk, which every ont^ has read, mav he ■■ompaifd 
 with Miulliver's Travels,' for the pui'post! of oliscrvin;^' h«t\v iinai,'- 
 illative elfects are produced bv different means and in dilferent wavs. 
 Aimther vi<^orous work of imaj^dnafion by Defoe is the Journal of 
 the Plague, which ap[»eared in 1722. There arc; three chief thin<.,'s to 
 ill! noted re;^'ardin;,' l)efoe and his writiiij^'s. Th(»st; are : first, that Delbc 
 jiosscssed an unparalleled knowleilj^'c^ — a knowled^^e wider than even 
 Sliakespcare's— of the circumstanct and details of human life amon<,' 
 all sorts, ranks, and conditions of men ; secondly, that he ),'ains his 
 Wonderful realistic effects by the fnjt'st and most copious use of 
 this detailed knowdidj^fc in his works of inia^;inatioti ; and thirdly, 
 that he possessed a vocabulary of the nu)st wonderful wealth. His 
 >tyle is stron<^', homely, and vi^'orous, but the sentences are lon<^', 
 loose, clumsy, and .sometimes unorammatical. Like Sir Walter 
 Scott, he was too eager to produce lar;.;e and broad effects to take 
 time to balance his clauses or to polish his .sentences. Like Sir 
 Walter Scott, again, he possesses in the highest degree the art of 
 iKirticulu/n^ing. 
 
 5. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), the greatest pro.se-writer, in 
 \\k own kind, of the eighteenth century, and the op])osite in most 
 I'f'spccts — especially in style — of Adilison, was born in Dublin 
 ill the year lG(i7. Though born in Ireland, he was of i)urely 
 Eiii;lish descent — his father belonging to a York.shire fandly, and 
 his mother being a Leicestershire lady. His father died before he 
 was born ; and he was educated by the kindness of an uncle. 
 After being at a private school at Kilkenny, he was .sent to Trinity 
 (Vjllt'ge, Dublin, where he was plucked for his degree at his first 
 t'xaniiuation. and, on a secf)nd trial, oidy^ obtained his IJ.A. *"1)V 
 •special favour." He next came to England, and for ele\en years 
 ;icted as private secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired states- 
 man and ambassador, who lived at Jloor Park, near Richmond-on- 
 
392 
 
 HISTOUY OF EN(iLISII LITKRATUKK. 
 
 rll 
 
 Tlmnu's. Tii l(il)2 li<' paid a visit to Oxford, und tlicri^ ohtainiMl tli,' 
 (K'-'n't' of M.A. Ill 17(H) lie went lo Iri'liiiid with l^ord Jicikclcv as 
 Ills cliHitlaiii, and w liilc in tliaf cotiiitry was in't'scutccl with several 
 liviiii^'s. lie at first atta<died hiiuseU' to the Whi^' pai'ty, hut stuii;^ 
 by this party's iie;-,dect ol" his lahoiirs ami merits, he joined the 
 Tories, who raised him to the Deanery of St l*atri('k's ('atluMlral in 
 Diihliii. I'ut, thoui^h nominally ivsident in Diihlin, he spent a laiyc 
 ])art ol' his time in London. Here, he knew and met everyhndy 
 who was worth knowing', am! for some tinii^ iici was flie most im- 
 posin;^' tij^MU'e, and wielde(l tiie ;^'realest inlluenci^ in all llu; lic^t 
 social, ])olitical, and literary circles of tlie ca])ilal. In 1714, on tin' 
 dt'ath ol' (.^>iUH'n Anne, Swift's hopes (»f further advancement diiil 
 out; ami he returni'd to his Deanery, settled in Duhlin, and "(.mi- 
 nienci'd Irishman for life." A man of stron,Lf passions, he usiiall 
 spent his hirlhday in readiuj^ that diaptei' of the Jiook of ,Ioh wlii 
 contains the verse, " I^et the day ])erish in which I was born." lie 
 died insane in 174"), and left his fortune to found a lunatic asylum 
 in Dulilin. One day, when taking' a walk with a friend, he .saw ;i 
 blasted elm, and, ]»oinlin;^' to it, he said : " 1 shall be like that tivi', 
 and die lirst at the top," For the last three years of his life he nevtr 
 spt)ke one word. 
 
 G. Swift hiis written verse ; but it is his prose-works thai </\\v 
 him hi.s hij^di and nnrivalh'd place in En;^dish literature. Ilis nin,-! 
 powerful work, published in 1704, is the Tale of a Tub— a satire 
 on the disputes between the Roman Catholic, AnL,dican, and Piesliv- 
 ti'rian Churches. I lis best known prose- work is the Gulliver's 
 Travels, which appeared in 172(5. This work is also a satire; Im; 
 it is a satire on men and wttnien, — on humanity, "The jjower <■'. 
 Swift's prose," it has been said by an able critic, "was the teiTor ni 
 his own, and renuiins the wonder of after times." His style is stmii.'. 
 simple, straij,dit forward ; he uses the plainest words and the honieliiN 
 English, and every Itlow tells. SwiiVs style — as every {genuine styK' 
 Joes — rellects the author's chai'acter. He was an ardent lover and a 
 good hater. Sir "Walter Scott describes him as "tall, stroii<;, an': 
 well made, dark in complexion, but with bright blue eyes (Pope sai'i 
 they were "as azure as the heavens "), black and bushy eyehrovs, 
 aipiiline nose, and features which expressed the stern, jiaughty, aiii 
 dauntless tnrn of his niirid." He grew savage under the sligliti>* 
 contradiction ; and dukes and great lords were obliged to pay ceui: 
 to him. His prose was as trenchant and powerful as were his man- 
 ners : it has been compared to " cold steel," His own definition 
 of a good style is " proper words in proper places." 
 
rll 
 
 liore ol)tiuniMl tlio 
 1.1 )nl IVikrlcy as 
 utfd will» st'Viiiil 
 ; purty, Itutst mi- 
 ls, \w joinc'l llii' 
 ick'H CiiUu'dral in 
 n, lu! siu'iii u lar;:'' 
 1(1 nu't (•vcryl"»lv 
 was tlu' mtisl iiii- 
 ce in all tlu', 1>-.~1 
 1 In I71t, "1' l^"' 
 
 advaut-enu'iit dw^ 
 Dublin, iin<l ''<-'iii- 
 )assi()iis, lie ii^^'ial 
 liook «»r .1"!' ^^I'i 
 li I was l)<>ni." 11" 
 ,1 a lur.atic asylum 
 
 a iVioua, Ik'. .^aNV a 
 U 1)0. like that Uw, 
 s of his life lu^ ii'V^r 
 
 .,,se-\v()rks thai '^iw 
 teraturo. Hi^ i""^' 
 of a Tub— a ^atiiv 
 iitrlican, and ^n■^l>v■ 
 is tlie Gulliver's 
 is also a satire; I'u; 
 tv. "The ptiwev '■ 
 ,""wa9 the ternu' "t 
 His style isstvnii.', 
 .,lsaiulthclu'uu-li.-'. 
 [ every 'r^enuiue stylf 
 111 ardent lover aiul :i 
 lis " tall, strong, an '■ 
 Idue eyes (Pin^^' •=^'''' 
 nd husliy eyehrow-, 
 stern, haughty, aii'i 
 under the sliglitt>* 
 lohliged to pay cult 
 t'ul as were liis w^w- 
 His own definitioi- 
 
 FIH.'-^T UXLV OV KKiHTKENTH rKNTCnV. 
 
 303 
 
 7. .losKi'M Addison- (1672-1719), the iiio.-t iIclmhI pio-c-wrih-i' 
 ;is I'opc was lilt' iiKisc j)()lish»'d vi.-rsc-wriffi' ot' tln' ci'^lit'ciitli ifii- 
 tniy, was lioiii at Milstoii, in Wiltsliirf, in tlic ynw \r,~-2. Hi- wa- 
 (•liuijiti 1 at (Jhartcrlioiisc Scliool, in London, whcir din' of li 
 
 IriciHl 
 
 aii> 
 
 1 coinpaiiioiis was the, ('t'Ic])ratc(l l)ick Slcflc aft' 
 
 r\\a!i|s 
 
 Sir 
 
 IOC a nanif lor 
 
 IJi'liard Steele. He then went loOxI'oJ'il, where lie ni: 
 
 liiiiisi'lf hy his heaiitil'iil coniiositions in Latin verse In h;:).') lu 
 
 inl.h'essed a jioeni to King William ; ami this jtoeni hniii^lit liim iiit( 
 
 iiittice with the (}overnnient. of the day. Not, htiig al'tei', hr ivciiveil 
 a ]irnsi(in of £'M)() a-year, to enahle him to tiavel ; and he .-.pent M>nie 
 
 iiie in France ami Italv. The chiel' result, of this lour w; 
 
 ;s a 
 
 piii'iii 
 
 entitled A Letter from Italy to liord Halifax. In 170 1, wlun 
 Liini (>odolj)liin was in search of a poet who should celeinatc in an 
 iii|ci|uate style the. striking victory 'of lilenheim, Addison was intri)- 
 (luicil to him Ity Tiord Halifax His poem railed The Campaign 
 was the result ; and om.' simile in it took and held the attention 
 of all English readers, and of "the town." A violent stoi'in had 
 jiassed over Knglaiid ; and Addison compaivil the. calm genius of 
 Mailliorough, who was as cool and serene amid shot and shell ^is in 
 a drawing-room or at tlu- diiiner-tahle, to the Angel of the Storm. 
 The lines are these : — 
 
 "Ho \vlii'u an Aiitrel by iliviiu- ronniiaiiil 
 'Villi rising tciniii'sts .shakes a ;^'iiilty land, 
 Siicli as of late o'er pale l^)ritaiiiiia jiassuil, 
 Cahn and sereno lie drives tiie furious blast; 
 And, [ileased the AlniiKhty's orders to perform. 
 Hides in tlu! wliirlwind, and liirecls the strirm." 
 
 For this poem Addison .''-"s rewarded with the post of Commissioner 
 ef Appeals. He rose;, successivtdy, to he Lender Secretary of State ; 
 Sicretary for Ircdand ; and, finally. Secretary of State for Englainl — • 
 iiu oilice -wliicdi would correspond to that of our present H<inie 
 Secretary. He married the Count(;ss of Warwick, to wdiose son lie 
 had been tntor ; hut it was not a hajijty marriage. Pope says of him 
 ill regard to it, that— 
 
 " lb' married discord in a noVdc wife." 
 
 He (lied at Holland House, KensJTigton, London, in the year 171!), at 
 th(i age of forty-seven. 
 
 S. liut it is not at all as a poet, but as a prose-writer, that .Vddisou 
 i'^ famous in the ^'ptory of literature. Whih; he Avas in Indand, 
 Ids friend Steele started The Tatler, in 1709; and Addison sent 
 numerous contril)utions to this little papir. In 1711, Steele began 
 a still more famous paper, which he called The Spectator ; and 
 
394 
 
 HISTORY OF KN^MSIl IJTEH ATUUK. 
 
 Atldison's writings in lliis iiKPniiii;^^ iouniul iiiiulc its icpulfitioii, lli> 
 I'diiti'iltvitidiis arc disl inguisiialilc \<\ lifiiig sii^nM'<l with sdiiii'. nm; ol ihc 
 li'tlcrs (if till' iiiiiiK- Clio- Hit: Mum-, of History. A third pajtcr, Tho 
 Guardian, ai>pt'an'd a iVw yt'ars al'tcr ; and Addison's contrilniliiui.s 
 to it luv. (h'si_Lfnati'il by a hand (fH''") iit llic foot of cai'h. In addition 
 to hi.H nuuicroiis ])ros('-wvitiii;^s, Addison hrouj^ht out the. Iraj^^-ily nf 
 Cato in ITK?. It- was very sncccsst'ul ; hut it is now nt-ithrr rrad 
 nor acti'd. Sonic of liis liynms, however, ai'c heautil'nl, and arc wi 11 
 known. Such are. the hymn heginnin^^', "Tlie sj)acionH firnianicnt 
 on luj^h ;" and Ins version of llie SM I'sahn, "The Lord my i)a,-tuii; 
 shall prepare." 
 
 !). A(hlison's ])rosc slyh". is inimitahh', easy, <,M'acel"ul, lull of liunimir 
 — full of {.,'00(1 humour, delicati', with a sweet and kindly rhytlnii, 
 and always musical lo the ear. He is the, most gracefid of .'-iKJal 
 .satirists; and his j^cnial creation of the character of Sir Roger de 
 Covorloy will livi; for ever. While his woi'k in verse is never 
 more than secou l-rati-, his wiitings in jirosc are always tirst-rutc. 
 Dr Johnson saitl of his ])rose : " AVhoever wishes to attain an Kii;;Ii,'^li 
 stylo- familiar hut not coarse, and elegant hut not ostentatious, 
 — must give his days and nights to tho study of Addison." Jiord 
 Lytton also remarks: "His style has that nameless nrhanity in 
 which we recognise the pei'fectiou of m;iiiner ; courteous, luit iini 
 courtier-like; so dignilied, yet so kindly; so easy, yet liighdircl. 
 It is the most perfect form of English." His style, howevei', iiui.-! 
 he acknowledged to want force — to he easy rather than vigorous; 
 and it has not the splendid march of Jeremy Taylor, or the noble 
 power of Saviige Landor. 
 
 10. Richard Steelk (1671-1729), comnionly called " Dick Stetl..' 
 the friend and colleague of Addison, was horn in Dublin, hut ii 
 English pari'nts, in the year 1071. The two friends were educati'l 
 at Charterhouse and at Oxford together; and they remained friend-, 
 with some slight breaks and brei'zes, to the close of life. Stcil'' 
 was a writer of plays, essays, an<l pani])hlets — for one of which li- 
 was expelled from the Ht.use of Commons; but his chief fanicua- 
 earned in connection with the Society Journals, whi(di he fonii<lci!, 
 He started many— such as Town-Talk, The Tea-Table, Chit- 
 chat; but only the Tatler and the Spectator rose to success mil 
 to fame. The strongest quality in liis writing.: is liis pathos : tlif 
 source of tears is always at his command ; and, although hinist'f 
 of a guy and even rollicking temperament, he seems to have pre- 
 ferred this vein. The literary skill of Addison — his haj)])y ait i;; 
 
UK. 
 
 KlUS'I' IIAF.F OF KKiHTKFATrr CFNTrilV 
 
 305 
 
 rt rt'putiilioii- 'li^ 
 
 itll stiini' ollf. til the 
 \ tliinl \nv\n'\\ Tlio 
 |s(»i»'h coiitribHliiiii^ 
 
 ,,.irl>. Ill lulililinli 
 Lout till', tra^'-'ly (if 
 IS ii(»\v iifitlifi- iv;m1 
 mlirul, uii«l ill'- \^'ll 
 
 spiu'iourt tiniiiinHm 
 ln" Lord my \>ii>\\m: 
 
 (rl"ul, i'lillcniunioin 
 luul UiiKlly rhytliin, 
 ost, i^rarcrnl ol" siuial 
 ,,r (.? Sir Roger de 
 rk ill verse in Ufviv 
 aiv iilwayH first-rate. 
 s to iittiiiniiii iMi-li>li 
 but not ostfiitutioib. 
 ,. of Addison." l>""i 
 imnieless ui'l)iinity in 
 ; rourt.Mms, l.ut ii"t 
 i.asy, yi't lii^;Ud.n'a. 
 styii", "however, nm^l 
 •atiier tliiui vii^ovon^; 
 Tiivlor, or the noLk 
 
 called " Dick StfL-l.,' 
 Irn in Dublin, hul '! 
 It'riends were edniiitfi 
 Ihey remained frieiul-. 
 ] close of life. ^tccV 
 -for one of whidi W 
 lit his chief fame w.r 
 js, uhich he fonmb"!. 
 |e Tea-Table, Chit- 
 3r rose to success nni 
 '.-. is his pathos : tlie 
 fid, although hini?»'.f 
 seems to have I'ly 
 pu— his hai)i)y ait in 
 
 tint clioosiii^' (if words— did nut fiill to tlif ],,{. o|' Stcilc ; Imt, lie, 
 is imirc Iicarty and iiioif liiiinaii in liis dt^crijitiuii ol' cliaia'tci-. lie 
 <lic(l ill \7-J,U, tci) years after the de{)arture of hi.s fiiiinl Adili-oii. 
 
 11. Ai,i;.\ANi)i;i{, Poi'K (1688-1744), the <^'ieale,l .„„ t ,,f Hi,; 
 
 "'••inii i/1 ili(' 
 
 cil^'hteetifii eeiitiiiy, Was lioiu in LoiidHird Street, I 
 veai'oi' llie h'evoliltioli, lOHH. His I'atlier u as a uliole. a 
 
 liiieli(lia]pei-, 
 e Iioldeis of 
 
 wlio, liaviii)^' amassed a foil line, retiriMJ to liiidield, on tli 
 
 Windsor l''orest. In tin- lieail, of tliis lieaiitiful country voiin;^ i'ojie's 
 
 yoiitli was spent. On tlie di'alh of his fatlier, l'o]ie jefl, Wind.-or 
 
 and took ii|» his resiih-nce at 'rwiekeiihain, on the liank.^ oi' tin; 
 
 Tlianies, wliere lie, n^mained till his tjeatli in 1711. His jiaients 
 
 licin;^' ilomau (,'alliolii's, it was impossilile for y 
 
 t'l a i)ul)lic, scliool or t(» one (jf tlu; univeisit 
 
 onii'. 
 
 CillK 
 
 ] 
 
 atcd 
 
 o <^n eitlicr 
 ies ; and hence he was 
 
 te 1 
 
 ])ri' 
 
 atel' 
 
 At tlie earlv a-'t; of ei-rhf, he met witli a tr 
 
 uis- 
 
 iltiou o 
 
 f II 
 
 oiiKU' in verse 
 
 and this voliinu 
 
 lecaiiK' Ins comjianion 
 
 iii;^'lit ami day. At tlie a;.,'e of ten, Ik; tiirnei] souk; of tlie (events 
 liescrihed in Ifoiner into a play. The jioems of Spenser, the. poets' 
 
 ■t, 
 
 h 
 
 Lt li 
 
 it(! 
 
 hut th 
 
 it( 
 
 the <1( 
 
 iitlle 
 
 uvourii 
 lUid most lasting impressif)n iijioii his mind was J)ryden. 
 Piipe heiian to write verse verv t'arlv. Ih; savs of himself — 
 
 " As yet ;i clilM, nor yet a tool to laiiii;, 
 
 I lisped ill luiinher.s, f'oi the niiriiliers caiiie." 
 
 His Ode to Solitude was writt(!n at tlie ag(; of twelve ; his Pas- 
 torals when he was fifteen. His Essay on Criticism, whicji wa.i 
 composed in his twentieth year, thougli not ])ublished till ITU, 
 established his reputation as a writi;r of neat, clear, sparkling, and 
 t^legant verse. The Rape of the Lock raised his reputation still 
 higher. Macaulay proiuniueed it his best jjoeni. De Quincey 
 ilt'clared it to be "the most ex([uisite monument <>f playful fancy 
 tliat universal lileratui-e offers." Another critic has called it the 
 "perfection of the mock -heroic." Pope's most successful poem — if 
 \v(! measure it by the fanu; and the money it brought him — was his 
 traiislatif)!! of the Iliad cjf Hoim-r. A gi'i;at scholar sai<l of this 
 translation that it was "a very jiretty p(jem, but not Homer.'' The 
 fact is that Pope did not translate directly from the Greek, but fr(,>m 
 a French or a Latin version which he kejit ]i(.-side him. "Whatever 
 its faults, and however great its deficiency as a representation of the 
 powerful and deep simplicity of the original Tlreek, no one can deny 
 the charm and finish of its versification, or the rapidity, facility, ami 
 melody of the flow of the verse. These (qualities make this work 
 unique in p]nglish poetry. 
 
396 
 
 HISTOIIY OF ENGLISH LITERATUKE. 
 
 r^ 
 
 li 
 
 12. After fini.sliing the Iliad, Pope undertcjok ;i tiiui.slation ol' tlu- 
 Odyssey of Homer. This was not so successful ; nor was it so wdl 
 done. In fact, Pope transhited only half of it himself; the otlur 
 half was written Wy two scholars called Broome and Fenton. His 
 next great poem was the Dunciad,— a satire upon those ]>etty wiitcis, 
 carping critics, and hired defamers who had tried to write down the 
 reputation of Pope's Homeric work. "The composition of the 
 ' Dunciad' revealed to Pope where his true strength lay, in hlinding 
 personalities with moral reflections." 
 
 13. P()i)e's greatest works were written between 1730 and 1740; 
 and they consist of the Moral Essays, the Essay on Man, and the 
 Epistles and Satires. These poems are fr.U of the finest tlunights, 
 expressed in the most perfect form. Mv lluskin (quotes the 
 
 couplet — 
 
 " Never elated, while one mail's oppressed ; 
 Never dejected, wliilst anotlier's blessed," — 
 
 as "the most complete, concise, and lofty expression of moral temper 
 existing in English words." The poem of Pope which shows his hest 
 and most striking qualities in their most characteristic form, is 
 probably the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot or Prologue to the 
 Satires. In this poem occur the celebrated lines about Addison— 
 \vhich make a perfect portrait, although it is far from being a true 
 likeness. 
 
 His pithy lines and couplets have obtained a permanent place in 
 literature. Thus we have : — 
 
 " True wit is nature to advantage dressed, 
 What oft was thouglit, but ne'er so well exjtressed." 
 
 " Good-nature and good-sense must ever join. 
 To err is human, to forgive divine." 
 
 " All seems infected that the infected spy, 
 As all looks yellow to the jaundic'd eye." 
 
 " Fear not the anger of the wise to raise ; 
 Those best can bear reproof who merit i^raise." 
 
 The greatest conciseness is visible in his epigrams and in his com- 
 pliments : — 
 
 " A vile encomium douldy ridicules : 
 There's nothing blackens like the ink of fools." 
 
 " And not a vanity is given in vain." 
 
 " Would ye be blest ? despise low joys, low gains, 
 Disdain whatever Cornbury disdains, 
 Be virtuous, and be happy for your pains." 
 
FIRST HALF OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 397 
 
 ,U!^\utioU ul' tin- 
 r was it s^u will 
 sell' ; the oih.r 
 I Feutou. Hi^ 
 se ])etty Nwitcvs, 
 ■write down tlu' 
 iposition of tlu' 
 lay, in bleii'lii'^^ 
 
 17:iO and 174'>; 
 on Man, and lli<' 
 le finest tium-ihts, 
 
 iskiu <iUotes tiic 
 
 ssetl ; 
 sell," — 
 
 ,n of moral temva' 
 liciv shows his l.est 
 :-acteristic form, i^ 
 Prologue to the 
 .8 about Addison- 
 ■ from heing ii true 
 
 ormanent place in 
 
 j\ expressed. 
 
 nom. 
 
 ■<-'■ 
 
 praise. 
 
 ,us and in his coiu- 
 
 If foob." 
 
 low gains, 
 lins. 
 
 14. Pope is the foremost literary fi<,'nre of Ids a^'e and oentnry ; 
 and he is also the head of a school. He hroui^Oit to jicrfection a style 
 of writing verse Avhich was folh>wed by hundreds of clever writers. 
 Cowper says of liim : — 
 
 " But Pope— his musical finesse was such, 
 So nice his ear, so delicate his touch, 
 Made poetry a mere meclianic art, 
 And every warbler has iiis tune l)y heart." 
 
 Pope was not the poet of nature or of humanity; he was the poet of 
 "the town," and of the Court. He was greatly influenced by the 
 neatness and polish of French verse ; and, from his boyhood, his 
 <,'reat ambition was to be " a correct poet." He worked and worked, 
 polished and polished, i;ntil each idea had received at his hands 
 its very neatest and most epigrammatic expression. In the art of 
 conden.sed, compact, pointed, and yet harmonious and flowing verse. 
 Pope has no e(|^ual. But, as a vehicle for ])oetry — for the love and 
 sympathy with nature and man which every true poet must feel. 
 Pope's verse is artificial ; and its style of expression has now died 
 i)Ut. It was one of the chief missions of Wordsworth to drive the 
 Popian second-hand vocabulary out of existence. 
 
 15. Jame.s Thomson (1700-1748), the pet of The Seasons, was 
 
 Imrn at Ednam in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in the year 1700. Ht» 
 
 was educated at the grammar-school of Jedburgh, and tlien at the 
 
 University of Edinburgli. It wis intended that he .should enter the 
 
 ministry of the Church of Scotland ; l)Ut, before his college cour.se 
 
 was finished, he had given up this idea: poetry proved for him too 
 
 strong a magnet. AVhile yet a young man, he had written his poem 
 
 of Winter ; and, with that in his pocket, he resolved to try his 
 
 fortune in London. While walking about the .streets, looking at the 
 
 ^^liops, and gazing at the new wonders of the vast metropolis, his 
 
 pocket was picked of his pocket-handkerchief and his letters of 
 
 introduction; and he fouml himself alone in London — thrown 
 
 entirely on his own resources. A ]uil)lisher was, however, in time 
 
 found for Winter ; and the poem slowly rose into ajipreciation and 
 
 popularity. Tins was in 1726. Xext year. Summer ; two years 
 
 iftcr, Spring appeared ; while Autumn, in 1730, completed the 
 
 Seasons. The Castle of Indolence — a poem in the Spenserian 
 
 stanza — appeared in 1748. In the .same year he was appointed 
 
 •Surveyor-General of the Leeward Islands, though he never visited 
 
 the scene of his duty, but had his work done by deputy. He died 
 
 at Kew in the year 1 748. „ 
 
 2d 
 
398 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURK. 
 
 16. Thomson's place as a poot is high in tho, second rank. His 
 Seasons have always been popular ; ami, when Coleridge found u 
 well-thumbed and thickly dog's-eared copy lying on the window-sill 
 of a country inn, he exclaimed " Tliis is true fame ! " His Castle 
 of Indolence is, howevL-r, a liner piece of poetical work than any 
 of his other writings. The first canto is the best. But the Seasons 
 have been much more widely read ; and a modern critic says : " No 
 poet has given the special pleasure; which poetry is capable of giving 
 to so large a number of persons in so large a measure as Thomson." 
 Thomson is very unequal in his style. Sometimes he rises to a great 
 height of inspired expression ; at other times he sinks to a dull dead 
 level of pedestrian prose. His power of describing scenery is often 
 very remarkalde. Professor Craik says : " There is no other poet 
 who surrounds us with so much of the truth of nature ; " and lie 
 calls the Castle of Indolence " one of the gems of the language." 
 
 liilf' 
 
 Hi 
 
 nil 
 
 17. Thomas Gray (1716-1771), the greatest elegiac poet of the 
 century, was born in London in 1716. His father was a "money- 
 scrivener," as it was called ; in other words, he was a stock- 
 broker. His mother's brother was an assistant - master at Eton ; 
 and at Eton, under the care of this uncle, Gray was brought 
 up. One of his schoolfellows was the famous Horace Wal- 
 pole. After leaving school. Gray proceeded to Cambridge ; h\\{, 
 instead of reading mathematics, he studied classical literature, 
 history, and modern languages, and never took his degree. After 
 some years spent at Cambridge, he entered himself of the Inner 
 Temple ; but he never gave much time to the study of law. His 
 father died in 1741; and Gray, soon after, gave up the law and 
 went to live entirely at Cambridge. The first published of his 
 poems was the Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College. 
 The Elegy written in a Country Churchyard was handed about 
 in manuscript before its publication in 1750 ; and it made his 
 reputation at once. In 1755 the Progress of Poesy was published ; 
 and the ode entitled The Bard was begun. In 1768 he was ap- 
 pointed Professor of Modern History at Camljridge ; but, though he 
 studied hard, he never lectured. He died at Cambridge, at the a,L:e 
 of fifty-four, in the year 1771. Gray was never married. He was 
 said by those who knew him to be the most learned man of his time 
 in Europe. Literature, history, and several sciences — all were thor- 
 oughly known to him. lie had read everything in the world that 
 was best worth reading ; while his knowledge of botany, zoology, 
 and entomology was both wide and exact. 
 
FIRST HALF OF EIGHTEENTn CENTUTJY. 
 
 399 
 
 (1 rank. Hi^ 
 ■i(\ge fouu'l ii 
 le winclo-sv-HiU 
 His Castle 
 rovk than uuv 
 t the Seasons 
 [tic says: "Kc 
 pable of giviu'^ 
 , as Thomson." 
 ; rises to a great 
 9 to a duU (lead 
 scenery is often 
 3 no other po<-t 
 ature;" andk^ 
 the language." 
 
 .giac poet of tho 
 f^was a " money- 
 lie was a stock- 
 [ master at Eton; 
 rav was brought 
 ,us Horace Wiil- 
 Camhridge ; hut, 
 [assical literature, 
 [lis degree. After 
 [self of the Inner 
 ,udy of law. Hi^ 
 lip the law and 
 published of hi^ 
 >f Eton College, 
 was handed about 
 
 and it made hi^ 
 ley was published ; 
 1 1768 he was up- 
 le; but, though he 
 labridge, at the ii;ie 
 1 married. He was 
 Ld man of his tiuio 
 (es— all were thor- 
 in the world tliat 
 hi botany, zoology, 
 
 18. Gray's Elegy took him seven years to write ; it containr thirty- 
 two stanzas ; and Mr Palgrave says " tliuy are perliaps the noblest 
 stanzas in the language." General Wolfe, wli.'u sailing down to 
 attack Quebec, recited the Elegy to his oflicers, and (K-clared, " Now 
 gentlemen, I would rather be the author of that poem than take 
 Quebec." Lord Byron called the Elegy " the corner-stone of Gray's 
 poetry." Gray ranks with Milton as the most finished workman in 
 English verse ; and certainly he spared no pains. Gray said himself 
 that " the style he aimed at was extreme conciseness of expression, 
 yet pure, perspicuous, and musical ; " and this style, at which he 
 aimed, he succeeded fully in achieving. One of the finest stanzas 
 in the whole Elegy is the last, which the writer omitted in all the 
 later editions ; — 
 
 " There scattered oft, the earliest of the year, 
 
 By hands unseen, are showers of violets found ; 
 The red-breast loves to build and warble there, 
 And little footsteps lightly print the ground." 
 
 19. William Collins (1721-1759), one of the truest lyrical poets 
 of the century, was born at Chichester on Christmas-day, 1721. 
 He was educated at Winchester School ; afterwards at Queen's, 
 and also at Magdalen College, Oxford. Before he left school he 
 had written a set of poems called Persian Eclogues. He left 
 the university with a reputation for ability and for indolence ; 
 went to London " with many projects in his head and little money 
 in his pocket;" and there found a kind and fast friend in Dr 
 Johnson. His Odes appeared in 1747. The volume fell still- 
 born from the press : not a single copy was sold ; no one bought, 
 read, or noticed it. In a fit of furious despair, the unhappy author 
 lalled in the whole edition and burnt every copy with his own 
 hands. And yet it was, with the single excejition of the songs of 
 Burns, the truest poetry that had appeared in the whole of the 
 eighteenth century. A great critic says: "In the little book there 
 was hardly a single false note : there was, above all things, a purity 
 of music, a clarity of style, to which I know of no parallel in 
 English verse from the death of Andrew Marvell to the birth of 
 William Blake." Soon after this great disappointment he went to 
 live at Richmond, where he formed a friendship with Thomson 
 and other poets. In 1749 he wrote the Ode on the Death of 
 Thomson, beginning — 
 
 "In yonder grave a Druid lies"— 
 
 one of the finest of his poems. Not long after, he was attacked by a 
 
400 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLTSn LTTERATURK. 
 
 disease of the brain, from whicli he suffered, at intervals, dnriiifj tlie 
 remainder of his filiort life. He died at Cliicliester in 17r)9, at tlic 
 age of thirty-eight. 
 
 20. Collins's best poem is the Ode to Evening ; his most elab- 
 orate, the Ode on the Passions ; and his best known, the Ode 
 
 beginning — 
 
 " How sleep tlic brave, %vlio sink to rest 
 liy all their country's wislies blessed ! " 
 
 ifl! 
 
 His latest and best critic says of his poems : " His range of 
 flight was perhaps the narrowest, but assuredly the highest, of 
 his generation. He could not be taught singing like a finch, but 
 he struck straight upward for the sun like a lark. . . . The direct 
 sincerity and purity of their positive and straightforward inspiration 
 will always keep his poems fresh and sweet in the senses of all men. 
 He was a solitary song-bird among many more or less excellent 
 pipers and pianists. He could put more spirit of colour into a singb' 
 stroke, more breath of music into a single note, thaii could all the 
 rest of his ^eneraticm into all the labours of their lives." 
 
 i I- *i ' 
 
401 
 
 \\a, during tlie 
 in 1759, at the 
 
 \n» most elali- 
 lown, the Ode 
 
 "His range of 
 the highest, of 
 ,ike a iinch, but 
 . The direct 
 -ward inspiration 
 senses of all men, 
 or less CAoellent 
 )loiir into a sin^h' 
 :hau could all the 
 Lves.' 
 
 CHAPTEK VII. 
 
 THE SECOND HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUHY. 
 
 1. Prose - Writers. — The four greatest prose-writers of the 
 latter half of the eighteenth century are Johnson, Goldsmith, 
 Burke, and Gibbon. Dr Johnson was the most prominent 
 literary figure in London at tliis period ; and tilled in his own 
 time much the same position that Carlyle lately held in literary 
 circles. He wrote on many subjects — but chiotly on literature 
 and morals; and hence ho was called "The Great ^Moralist." 
 Goldsmith stands out clearly as the writer of the most pleasant 
 and easy prose ; his pen was ready for any subject ; and it has 
 been said of him with perfect truth, that he touched nothing 
 that he did not adorn. Burke was the most elociuent writer 
 of his time, and by far the greatest political thinker that 
 England has ever produced. He is known by an essay he 
 wrote when a very young man — on " The Sublime and 15eauti- 
 ful " ; but it is to his speeches and political writings that wo 
 must look for his noblest thoughts and most elo(iuent language. 
 Gibbon is one of the greatest historians and most powerful 
 writers the world has ever seen. 
 
 2. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), the great essayist and lexico- 
 grapher, was born at Lichfield in the year 1709. His father was a 
 bookseller ; and it was in his father's shop that Jolmson ac(j[uired 
 his habit of omnivorous reading, or rather devouring of books. The 
 mistress of the dame's school, to which he first went, declared him 
 
 iiil! 
 
402 
 
 HISTORY OK ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 to bo the best scholar wlie ever luul. After a few years at the free 
 grammar-school c»f LidifieM, luul one year at Stourbridge, he went 
 to Pembroke College, Oxford, at tlie age of nineteen. Here he diil 
 not confine himself to the .stmlies of the place, but indulged in a 
 wide range of nii.scellaneous reading. He was too poor to take a 
 degree, and accordingly left Oxford without graduating. After 
 acting for .some time as a book.seller'a hack, he married a Mn Porter 
 of Birmingham — a widow with £800. Witli this money he opened a 
 boarding-school, or " academy " as he called it ; but he had never more 
 than three scholars — the most famous of whom was the celebrated 
 player, David Garrick. In 1737 he went up to London, and for 
 the next (quarter of a century struggled for a living by the aid of 
 his pen. During the first ten years of his London life he wrote 
 chiefly for the 'Gentleman's Magazine.' In 1738 his Ijondon — 
 a poem in heroic metre — appeared. In 1747 he began his famous 
 Dictionary; it was completed in 1755; and the University nf 
 Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of M.A. In 1749 he 
 wrote another poem— also in heroic metre — the ' Vanity of Human 
 Wishes.' In 1750 he had begun the periodical that raised his fame 
 to its full height — a periodical to which he gave the name of The 
 Bambler. It appeared twice a-week ; and Dr Johnson wrote 
 every article in it for two years. In 1759 he published the short 
 novel called Rasselas : it was written to defray the expenses of his 
 mother's funeral; and he wrote it "in the evenings of a week." 
 The year 1762 saw him with a pension from the Government of 
 £300 a-year ; and henceforth he was free from heavy hack-work and 
 literary drudgery, and could give himself up to the largest enjoy- 
 ment of that for which he cared most — social conversation. He was 
 the best ttilker of his time ; and he knew everybody worth knowing 
 — Burke, Goldsmith, Gibbon, the great painter Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 and many other able men. In 1764 lie founded the " Literary Club," 
 which still exists and meets in London. Oddly enough, although a 
 prolific writer, it is to another person — to Mr James Boswell, who 
 first met him in 1763 — that he owes his greatest and most lasting 
 fame. A much larger number of persons read Boswell's Life of 
 Johnson — one of the most entertaining books in all literature - 
 than Johnson's own works. Between the years 1779 and 1781 
 appeared his last and ablest work, The Lives of the Poets, whicli 
 were written as prefaces to a collective edition of the English Poets, 
 published by several London booksellers. He died in 1784. 
 
 3. Johnson's earlier style Avas full of Latin words ; his later style 
 is more purely English than most of the journalistic writing of the 
 present day. His Rambler is full of '' long-tailed words in oaity and 
 
.SKCONl) HALF OF ElOHTEENTH CKNTUKY. 
 
 403 
 
 ,r8 at the free 
 riago, \\o went 
 Here he tU'l 
 inclulgwl in a 
 poor to take u 
 uating. Aft'^i' 
 ;d a Mr.T Portov 
 iiey he opened a 
 had never n\ovc 
 i the celebrated 
 ,ondon, and for 
 !<, by the aid ol 
 ,u life he wrote 
 his Iiondon— 
 ,egan hia famous 
 lie University of 
 ,l.A. In 1749 he 
 Canity of Human 
 at raised his fame 
 the name of The 
 r Johnson wrote 
 Lldished the short 
 ne expenses of his 
 luings of a week." 
 ^e Government of 
 ^vy hack-work and 
 |the largest enjoy- 
 ersation. He was 
 dy worth knowing 
 . Joshua Reynolds, 
 e " Literary Club," 
 iuough, although a 
 mies Boswell, who 
 and most lasting 
 joswell'B liife of 
 En all literature- 
 Irs 1779 and 1781 
 the Poets, which 
 the English Poets, 
 .d in 1784. 
 •ds ; his later style 
 Lstic writing of the 
 words in osity and 
 
 (Uion;" hut his ' Lives of tlio Poets ' is written in manly, vigorous, and 
 idiomatic English. In versi', he occupies a jjlacc hetween Pdjx' mid 
 (foldsmith, and is one of the masters in tlu' 'Midnctic hcIiooI" of 
 Knglish poetry. His rhythm and periods are swt'Uing iind sonorous ; 
 and here and there he e(puils Pope in the terseness and condensation 
 uf his language. The following is a fair specimen : — 
 
 " Of all the griefs tlmt harass the (listresse*!, 
 Sure the most bitter is a scornful jest ; 
 Fate never wouiuls more deep the gtMierous lio.irt, 
 Than when a blockhead's insult points the diirt." 
 
 4. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), poet, essayist, historian, and 
 dranmtist, was born at I'allas, in tin; county of Longford, Ireland, in 
 the year 172H. His father was an Irish clergyman, carelijss, good- 
 hearted, and the original of the famous I)r Primrose, in The Vicar 
 ofWakefield. He was also the original of the "village preacher'' 
 in The Deserted Village. 
 
 *' A man ho was to all the country dear, 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a-year." 
 
 Oliver wjis educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; Imt he left it 
 with no fixed aim. He thought of law, and set off for London, but 
 spent all his money in Dublin. He thought of medicine, and resided 
 two years in Edinburgh. He started for Leyden, in Holland, to 
 continue what he called his medical studies ; but he had a thirst to 
 see the world — and so, with a guinea in his pocket, one shirt, and a 
 llute, he set out on his travels through the continent of Europe. At 
 length, on the Ist of February 1756, he landed at Dover, after an 
 absence of two years, without a farthing in his pocket. London 
 reached, he tried many ways of making a living, as assistant to an 
 apothecary, physician, reader for the press, usher in a school, writer 
 in journals. His first work was *An Inc[uiry into the State of 
 Polite Learning in Europe,' in 1759 ; but it appeared without his 
 name. From that date he wrote books of all kinds, poems, and 
 plays. He died in his chambers in Brick Court, Temple, London, in 
 1774. 
 
 5. Goldsmith's best poems are The Traveller and The Deserted 
 Village, — both written in the Popian couplet. His best play is 
 She Stoops to Conquer. His best prose work is The Vicar of 
 "Wakefield, "the first genuine novel of domestic life." He also 
 wrote histories of England, of Rome, of Animated Nature. All 
 this was done as professional, nay, almost as hack work ; but 
 
1 ' 
 
 404 
 
 HISTORY OF ENOLIKll MTRKATURK. 
 
 filway« ill ft vory ])l('asaiit, lively, atnl rtuilalil** .Htyl<^. Eat^o, p^raro, 
 rhurm, naturalness, jjjeasant iliyllmi, purity of <li(;ti(tn — theses were 
 tlie chief (liaracterislics of liis writiuj^'s. " Almost to all tliiuj^s couM 
 he turn his hand" — itoeni, Cf^say, play, story, history, natural science. 
 Even wh(ui satirical, lie was goo(l-nalure<l ; and his Retaliation is 
 the friendliest and ])leasantest of satires. In his poetry, his word.s 
 sooni artless, hut are indeed delic.-ately cliosiMi with that consuinniatn 
 art which conceals and ctlfKes itself: where he seems most simple 
 and easy, there lie has taken most pains and given most labour. 
 
 6. Edmund Buiikk (1730-1797) was horn at Buhlin in the yejir 
 1730. He was educated at Trinity College, Dulilin ; and in 1747 
 was entered of the Middle Temple, with the pui-pose of reading 
 for the Bar. In 17G(i he was so fortunate as to enter Parliament 
 as member for Wendover, in Buckinghamshire ; and he sat in 
 the House of Commons for nearly thirty years. While in Par- 
 liament, he worked hard to obtain justice for the colonists of 
 North America, and to avert the separation of them from tlio 
 mother country; and also to secure good government for India. 
 At the close of his life, it was his intention to take his seat in tlio 
 House of Peers as Earl Beaconsfield — the title afterwards assumed by 
 Mr Disraeli; but the death of his son, and only child — for whom 
 the honour was really meant and wished — (piite broke his heart, 
 and he never carried out his purpose. He died at Bea(;onsfield in 
 the year 1797. The lines of Goldsmith oti Burke, in his poem oi 
 " Retaliation," are well known : — 
 
 " Here lies our good Ednumd, whose genius was such 
 We scarcely can i>raise it or hlanie it too much ; 
 Who, born for the uniNcioe, narrowed his mind, 
 And to party gave up what was meant for mankind ; 
 Who, too deep for his hearers, still went on refining, 
 
 And thought of convincing while tliey f nigh; 
 
 iinin. 
 
 7. Burke's most famous writings jughts on 'he Cause of 
 
 the present Discontents, pubdsh a 1773; Reflc. tions on the 
 French Revolution (1790); and i,, Lexers on a Regicide 
 Peace (1797). His " Thoughts " is perhap.- , ho best of his works in 
 point of style ; his "Reflections," are full of passages of the hig^-st 
 and most noble eloriuence. Burke has been described by a great critic 
 as "the supreme writer of the century;" and Macaulay says, that 
 " in richness of imagination, he is superior to every orator ancient 
 and modern." In the power of expressing thought in the stro^'e -t, 
 fullest, and most vivid manner, he must be classed with Shakes^ care 
 
RF;rf»Nl) HAT.K Op KiaitTKKNl'ir PENTITUY. 
 
 405 
 
 „n— thew wciv 
 
 uiitural sci<'U«i'. 
 Retaliation i^ 
 
 ,„.try, hi^ ^v"l•'^^ 
 liiit coiii^nuiuiiit*' 
 nirt most ^^iuipl*'. 
 lost luljour. 
 
 ,h\\n in the vi'iir 
 in; and in 171- 
 trpdse of readinj; 
 cntiT rarliauu'nl 
 . and lio. wit 111 
 Wldle in Par- 
 , the cohmista of 
 ,{ thenx i'ion\ the 
 rnment inv India. 
 ke his seat in the 
 rwards assnnied hy 
 . ohihl— i'*'i' ^vh.nu 
 , hioke his heart, 
 lit Beaconsfiehl in 
 e, in his poem ol 
 
 Is such 
 fli; 
 
 tuildnd ; 
 i-pfiniiiK, 
 
 liniug.'' 
 
 or 'he Cavise of 
 
 [eflc Lions on the 
 
 , on a Begicide 
 
 ,,estofhisW(.vhsiii 
 
 [■laes of tlie hi'/ •••^ 
 bedbyuKreatuau 
 
 Uacanhay says, tluit 
 [very orator ancient 
 It in the stro^v.'. >t, 
 
 I\ with Shaken. ^^^1*^ 
 
 and Hacon—and witli these \\rit('r.s whm at iluir lust. He indnlges 
 ill ivpctitions ; l»nt the repetif ions are pever iiionntdnniis ; tlu-y serve 
 to place tlie Htihject in every p^ssjlile pm'iit dl' view, ainl •'» eiial>le ns 
 to see all f<i(leH of it. lie possessed ail enoniinus vor"' -.jai v, and had 
 the fullest power <>ver it ; "never was a man u- r whose hands 
 l.iii^ua^'e was more ])laslic and ductile." lie is ,ery fond of met- 
 aphor, and is descrilxid by an able critic us '* the greatest master of 
 metaphor that the world has ever seen." 
 
 H. KinvAKD (^iinnoN (1737-1704), the .sicond great prose-writer 
 <>\' the second half (if the eij^hteeiitli century, was born at I'utney, 
 Lnndon, in IT.'iT. His father was a wealthy lamlnwner. \'oun)^ 
 (liMion was a very sickly child- the only survivor of a, delicaie 
 lamily of seven ; lie was left to jiass his time as he jileased, and 
 fnr the must part to educate himself. ]5ut he hail the run of 
 several good lihraries ; and he was an eager and never satiated reader. 
 He was sent to Oxford at the early age of lifteeii ; and so full was his 
 kuowdedge in some directions, and so defective in others, that he 
 went there, h»i tells us liimself, "with a stock of kiiowledgi! that 
 iiiiglit have jmz/li'd a tloi'tor, and a degree nf ignoraine of which a 
 .schoolboy Would have been ashamed.' He was very fond of dis- 
 putation while at Oxfonl; and the Dons of the University were 
 a>fnnislied to see the pathetic "thin little ligure, with a large head, 
 ilisputing and arguing with the greatest aliility." In the course 
 iif his reading, he lighted on some French and English books that 
 cenvinced him for the time «d" the truth of the lldiuan Catholic 
 faith; lie 0}>enly professed his change of Itelief; and this obliged 
 liim to leave the University, His father sent him to Ijansanne, 
 and placcMl him under the care of a Swiss clergyman there, whost; 
 arguments were at length successful in bringing him hack to a 
 I'clief in Protestantism. On his return to Englaml in IToS, he 
 liveil in hi.s father's house in Hampshire; read largely, as usual; 
 Imt also joined the Hain))shire militia as captain of a company, and 
 llic exercises and manoeuvres (jf his regiment gave him an insight 
 into military matters which Avas afterwards useful to him when 
 lie came to write history. He published his lirst work in 17(51. It 
 was an essay on the study of liteiature, and Avas written in French. 
 In 1770 his father died; he came int(j a fortune, entered Parliament, 
 whore he sat for eight years, but never spoke ; ami, in 1770, he 
 hegan his hist^)ry of the Decline and Pall of the Roman Em- 
 pire. This, by far the greatest of his works, was not completed till 
 1787, and was published in 1788, on his tifty-first birthday. Ilia 
 
406 
 
 HISTORY OF ENCiLlSH LITERATUUE. 
 
 uccouTit of the completion of the work —it was tiiiinhed at Lansaiuir, 
 wliere he had lived for six years — is full of licauty : "It v.'fe; on tl^: 
 day, or rather night, of June, 27, 1787, between the hours of eleven 
 and twelve, that J wrote the last lines of the last i)a[,'e in a suninier- 
 house in my garden. Alter laying down my pen, I took .several 
 turns in a covered walk of acacias, which commands a ])rospect of 
 the country, the lake, and the mountains. The air was temperatr, 
 the sky was serene. Tlu; silver orb of the luoon was relleeted from 
 the waters, and all nature was silent. T will not describe the Hr.-t 
 emotion of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and ])erhaps tin: 
 establishment of my fauie. I'ut my ]iride was soon humbled, ami 
 a sober melaneholy was spread over my miml by the idea that I hail 
 taken an everlasting leave of an ol«l and agreeable companion, and 
 that, whatever might be the liiture fate of my history, the life of 
 the historian must be sh(jrt ami jirecarious." (Jibbondied in 1704, 
 about one year before the biith of uuotliei' great historian, Grote, the 
 author of the ' Uistoi'y of (Jreece.' 
 
 9. Gil)bon's book is one of the great historical works of tlu; world. 
 It covers a space of about thirteen c(!nturif.-, from the reign ot 
 Trajan (08), to the fall of the Eastern Empire in Uo.'i ; and tliti 
 amount .i" reading and stutly re(|iiired to write it, nnist have been 
 almost l)ey(md the jiower of our conceiving. The skill in arrangiu;; 
 and disposing the enormous luass of matter in his history is alsD 
 unparalleled. Uis style is said by a eritie to lie " r'opious, splendiil, 
 elegantly rounded, <listinguislu;d by supreme artificial .skill." It is 
 remarkable for the proportion of Latin words employed. While 
 some parts of our translation ol the Bible contain as much as !)(> 
 per cent of pure English words, CJibbon has oidy 58 percent: tln' 
 rest, or 42 per cent, are words of Latin origin. In fact, of all our 
 great English writers, Clibbon stands lowest in his use of piire Engli.di 
 words ; and the two writers who come nearest him in this respect 
 are Johnson and Swift. The great Greek scholar, Professor Porsoii, 
 said of Gibbon's .style, that "there could not be a belter exerci.se f ir 
 a schoolboy than to turn a page of it iido English." 
 
 10. Poets. — The chief poets of the latter half <>[ the eightcon'.li 
 century belong to a new world, and slieiw very litth; trace in 
 their writings of eighteenth-century culture, idea.s, or prejudiios. 
 Most of the best poets who were born in this half of the eight- 
 eenth century and began to write in it — sucli a.s Crabbe aul 
 Wordsworth — are true denizens, in tlie character of their mind- 
 and feelings, of the nineteenth. The greatest poets of the 
 
SECOND HALF OF EIOHTEENTU CENTURY. 
 
 407 
 
 ,1 iit Lausiuuu', 
 
 " It V.'!'''' fJ" ^^''' 
 
 lours of eleven 
 re, in a HUinnu-r- 
 ' 1 t(M)k severiil 
 la a prospect of 
 • wan ieinperatr, 
 ,iri irtlected fi'oiu 
 Inscribe tlu; t'u>l 
 uul ]>erliapH iW 
 ,u humbled, aiM 
 ,e idea tliat I lia'l 
 
 e coiiipamon, aim 
 story, tlie life " 
 ,l,()u\lied in 1704 
 storiaii, Grote, tli 
 
 orks of the woiM. 
 
 fvom llic rei<^n "I 
 in 1453 ; and th.' 
 t, must have luru 
 
 , skill in arraii^iii;^ 
 his history is al>o 
 ' ..opious, splnidia, 
 
 n..ial skill." It i^ 
 Huployed. Wlulr 
 [n as much as Od 
 y r)8 per cent : tin: 
 ' In fact, of all ovu' 
 k;,e of pure En-li~li 
 ynn in this respfct 
 I, Prtjfessor Porson, 
 iljL'tter exercise f'T 
 
 ,f tht- eighteenth 
 
 Ivy little tva.'.o in 
 
 las, or projudiro^. 
 
 luiH of tlio eiglit 
 
 lu an Cral)l)e ai.'l 
 
 Iter of tlxeir niin^i- 
 
 lest poets of the 
 
 period arc Cowper, Crabbe, and Burns ; and alon;,' with these 
 may he mentioned as little inferior, Chattorton and Blake, 
 two of tlie most original poets that have appeared in any 
 literature. 
 
 11. William Cowpkr (1731-1800), one of the truest, purest, and 
 
 ^-weetest of English poets, w;is lj(jrn at Gre.'it Berk!i;iiiipstea<i, in 
 
 Ilt-rtforflshire, in 1731. His father, Dr Cowper, who was a nephew 
 
 of Lord (Jhiivicellor Cowpt;r, wa.; r^.ctur of the ])ari9h, and chaplain 
 
 to George II. Young Cowper was (!ducate<l at Westminster School ; 
 
 and "the great proconsul of India," Warren Hastings, was one 
 
 of Ids sdiool follows. After leaving Westminster, he was entered 
 
 (if the Middhf Tem))le, and was also articled to a solicitor. At tin- 
 
 a;^'e of tlnrty-oue lie was appointed one of the Clerks to the House of 
 
 Lords ; hut he was so terribly nervous and timid, that he. threw up the 
 
 ajtpoiutinent. He was next ajtpointed Clerk of the .Tc)urnals— a po>t 
 
 which even the sliyest man nn;:;ht hold ; but, whi-n h;; found that he 
 
 would have to appear at the l)i'.r of the. House of Lorils, he. weTit home 
 
 and attempted to comnnt suicifle. When at s(diool, he had been ter- 
 
 I'ibly and persistently bullied ; and, about this time, his nnnd had 
 
 been somewhat afl'ected by a disaf>poi Tit merit in love. The form of 
 
 his insanity was melan<diolia ; and h<! had several long and severe 
 
 Mtfacks of the same disease in the after-couise of his life. He had to 
 
 lie placed in the keeping of a jdiysician; and it was only after fifteen 
 
 months' seclusion that he was able to face the world. Tliving up all 
 
 i'lci. of professional or r)f public life, he wtmt to live at Huntingdon 
 
 wi;h the Unwins ; and, after the death of Mr Unwin, he removed 
 
 v,th Mrs Unwin to Olney, in Buckin^diamshire. Here, in 1773. 
 
 another attack of melancholia came upon him. In 1779, Cowper 
 
 joined with Mr Newton, the curate of the parish, in publishing the 
 
 Olney Hymns, of which he wrote sixty-eight. But it was not till 
 
 ht; was past fifty years of ag<! that he Ijctook himself serif^iusly to the 
 
 wilting of poetry. His first volume, which contained Table-Talk, 
 
 Converscition, Retirement, and other poems in h'-rnir metre, ap- 
 
 ["■.ireil in 1782. His stM.'ond voIuiik', whiidi includci The Task and 
 
 John Qilpin, was published in 1 7H."». His translation nf the Iliad 
 
 and Odyssey of Homer — a translation into blank ver.-e, wliich he 
 
 wi'iite at the regular rate of forty lines a-day — was ])ublished in 1791. 
 
 Mi> Unwin now had a shock of paralysis ; Cowper himsfdf was again 
 
 >ei/,ed witli mental illness ; and from 1791 ti!^ his death in ISCHJ, 
 
 liirt condition was one of extretue misery, depression, and despair. 
 
 He thought himself an outcast from the mercy of God. " I seem to 
 
408 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 myself," he wrote to a friend, " to be scrambling always in the dark, 
 among rocks and precipices, witliout a guide, Init with an enemy ever 
 at my heels, prepared to i)ush me heaiUung." The ch)ud never lifted; 
 gloom and dejection enshrouded all his later years ; a pension of 
 £300 a-year from George III. brought him no pleasure ; and he died 
 insane, at East Dereham, in Norfolk, in the year 1800. In the poem 
 of The Castaway he compares himself to a drowning sailor : — 
 
 " No voice diviue the stovni allayed, 
 
 No light propitious shone, 
 When, tar from all fclTeLtual aid, 
 
 We perished — each alone — 
 But I beneatli a rcniirher sea, 
 And wlielnied in Idacker eulfs than he." 
 
 12. His greatest work is The Task; au'l the best poem in it is 
 probably "The Winter Evening." His best-known poem is John 
 Gilpin, which, like " The Task," he wrote at the re([uest of hi.-; 
 friend, Lady Austen. His most powerful poem is The Castaway, 
 He always writes in clear, crisp, pleasant, and manly English. He 
 himself says, in a letter to a friend : *' Perspicuity is always more 
 than half the battle. . . A meaning that does not stare you in the 
 face is as bad as no meaning ; " and this direction he himself always 
 carried out. Cowper's poems mark a new era in poetry ; his style 
 is new, and his ideas are new. He is no follower of Pope ; Souti:ev 
 compared Pope and Cowper as " formal gardens in comparisoi. 
 with woodland scenery." H:\ is always original, always true- 
 true to his own feeling, and true to the ol)joct he is describiii;_', 
 " My descri])tions," he writes of " The Task," "are all from nature ; 
 not one of tliem second-handed. My delineations of the heart aiv 
 fi'om my own experienre." Everywhere in his poems Ave find ;i 
 gennine love of natuic ; humour and pathos in his description i>\ 
 persons ; and a jnirity and honesty of style that have never been 
 Burpasse(L !Many of his wtdl-put lines have passed into our connnou 
 stock of everyday ([notations. Such are — 
 
 " God made the country, and iiuui made the town." 
 
 " Variety's the very spice of life 
 That gives it all its llavour," 
 
 " The heart 
 .May give a useful lesson to the head, 
 Auvl Learning wiser grow without his books." 
 
 " B' iVe of desperate steps. The darkest day, 
 Li . till to-morrow, will have passed away." 
 
SECOND HALF OF EIGHTEENTH CENTUKY. 
 
 409 
 
 ayg in the dark, 
 1 an enemy ever 
 ,ud never UfU-a-, 
 ., ; a pension ot 
 we -, and he died 
 30. In the poem 
 in'' sailor •.— 
 
 ^,est poem in it i^ 
 ,vu poem is John 
 tiie re*ine>t ot hi. 
 is The Castaway. 
 ,;anlv En-lisiv. Ih 
 uitv is always nion 
 not stare you in the 
 L he himself always 
 in poetry ; his styU' 
 V of Pope ; ^^outiiey 
 Lus in comparison 
 iual, always true- 
 l,,t he is descnhnv;. 
 no all from nature; 
 i„ns uf the heart ai« 
 is pcHMus we find ,1 
 u his description "t 
 tat have never heen 
 ,,,1 into our coiuinon 
 
 the tuwr. 
 
 S 1 •■ 
 
 fts UOOKS. 
 
 Lest day, 
 [l away." 
 
 13. Okorge Crarmk (1754-1832), tho ynvt of the poor, wa« l>orn 
 at ALlhoi'uugli, in SutFolk, on Christinas Eve of the vt'ar 17r)4. He 
 stands thus midway between Gohl.smith ami Wonlswoilli- luitl- 
 way between tlie old and the new school of poetrv. His father 
 was salt-master — or collector of salt duties — at the little seaport. 
 After being taught a little at several scho(ds, it was agreed that 
 (ieorge shcnild be made a surgeon. Ho was accordingly apprenticed ; 
 l)Ut he was fonder of writing verses than of attending cases. His 
 memory for poetry was astonishing ; he had begun to write verses 
 at the age of fourteen ; and lie filled the drawci's of the surgery with 
 lus poetical attempts. After a time he set up for liimself in practice 
 at Aldborough ; but most of his jxitients wt-re poor people and pool 
 relations, who paid him neither for his pltysic nor his advice. In 
 1779 he resolved " to go to London and venture all." Accordingly, 
 he took a berth on board of a sailing-packet, carrying with him a 
 little money and a number of manuscript poems. But nothing suc- 
 ceeded with him; he was reduced to his last eight])ence. In this 
 strait, he wrote to the great statesman, Edmund Burke ; and, while 
 the answer was coming, he walked all night up and down West- 
 minster Bridge. Burke took him in to his own house and found 
 a publislier for his poems. 
 
 14. In 1781 The Library appeared ; and in the same year 
 f'rabbe entered the Church. In 1783 he published The Village— 
 a ])oem which Dr Johnson revised for him. This work won Ibr him 
 ail established reputation ; but, for twenty-four years after, Crulibe 
 gave himself up entirely to the care of his p;irish, and publisla-d 
 (tidy one poem — The Newspaper. In 1807 appeared The Parish 
 Register; in 1810, The Borough; in 1812, Tales in Verse; 
 and, in 1819, his last poetical work, Tales of the Hall. Erom this 
 time, till his death in 1832 — thiiteen years after — he produced no other 
 jiiii-m. Personally, he was one of the noblest and kindest of men ; 
 he was known as "the gentlcMiian with the sour name and the sweet 
 countenance ; " and he spent most of his income on the wants of others. 
 
 15. Crabbe's poetical work forms a prominent landmark in 
 I'n'dish literature. His stvle is the stvle of the eighteenth centurv 
 —with a strong admixture of his own ; his way of thinking, and tlic 
 i.hjects he selects for description, behmg to the nineteenth. Whih' 
 I'ojie depicted "the town," politics, and abstract nn^ralities, Crabbe 
 ilescribes the country and the country poor, social matters, real life — 
 the lowest and poorest life, and more especially, the intense misery 
 of the village population of his time in the eastern counties — 
 
 "the wild aniphihious race 
 With sullen woe displayed in every face." 
 
410 
 
 HISTOHY OF ENGLISH TJTKT^ATUKE. 
 
 He doRS not paint the lot of the poor with the rose-coloured tints 
 used by (loldainith ; he boldly denies the existence of such a villi\Hf 
 fus Auburn ; he groups such places witli YAan, and says — 
 
 "Auburn and Eden can be fouml no nion;;" 
 
 he shows the gloomy, hard, despairing side of English country lifi'. 
 He has been railed a " Pope in worsted stockings," and " the Hogarth 
 of song." Byron describes him as 
 
 "Nature's sternest painter, yet the best," 
 
 Now and then his style is flat, and even coarse ; but there is every- 
 where a genuine power of strong and bold painting. He is also 
 an excellent master of easy dialogue. 
 
 All of his poems are written in the Popian couplet of two ten- 
 syllabled lines. 
 
 :i7 f B 
 
 mi 
 
 Ill 
 
 16. Robert Burns (1759-1796), the greatest jioet of Scotland, was 
 born in Ayrshire, two miles from the town of Ayr, in 1759. The 
 only education he received from his father was the schooling of ;i 
 few months ; but the family were fond of reading, and Robert Avas 
 the most enthusiastic reader of them all. Every spare moment hi; 
 could find — and they were not many — he gave to reading ; he sat at 
 meals "with a book in one hand and a spoon in the other;" and in 
 this way he read most of the great English poets and prose-writei-s. 
 This was an excellent education — one a great deal better than most 
 people receive ; and some of our greatest men liave had no better. 
 But, up to the age of sixteen, he had to toil on his father's farm from 
 early morning till late at night. In ';he intervals of his work he con- 
 trived, by dint of thrift and industry, to learn French, mathematics, 
 and a little Latin. On the death of his father, he took a small farm, 
 but did not succeed. He was on the point of embarking for Jamaica, 
 where a post had been found for him, when the news of the success- 
 ful sale of a small volume of his poems reached him ; and he at once 
 changed his mind, and gave u-) all idea of emi.Ljrating. His friend-^ 
 obtained for hini a post as exciseman, in which his duty was to 
 gauge the quantity and quality of ardent spirits — a post full of 
 dangers to a man of his excitable and emotional temperament. He 
 went a great deal into what was called society, formed the acquaint- 
 ance of many boon companions, acquired haldts of intemperance that 
 he could not shake off, and died at Dumfries in 1796, in his thirty- 
 seventh year. 
 
 17. His best poems are lyrical, and he is himself one of the fore- 
 
SECOND ITALF OF FIGIITEFNTIT CEXTURV, 
 
 411 
 
 -coloured tints 
 f such a villat;*- 
 
 ish country lif^'- 
 k1" the Hogarth 
 
 at there is every- 
 ing. He is also 
 
 aplet of tAVo ton- 
 
 et of Scotland, ^vas 
 ^rr, in 1759. The 
 tiie schooling of a 
 ig, and Eohert was 
 '•"spare nroment h*'. 
 reading ; he sat at 
 the other;" and m 
 and prose-writers, 
 vl better than most 
 ave had no better, 
 father's farm from 
 of his work he con- 
 ench, mathematics, 
 took a small farm, 
 arking for Jamaica, 
 ^lews of the succes:?- 
 in ; and he at once 
 Idling. His frieuA< 
 ,1 his duty was to 
 Its — a post full ('t 
 temperament, n*' 
 •me<l the acquaint- 
 [ intemperance that 
 1796, in his thirty- 
 
 helf one of the fore- 
 
 most lyrical poets in the world. His songs have probably been more 
 sung, and in more parts of the globe, than tlio songs of any otlicr 
 writer that ever lived. They are of every kind — sonj^r^ of love war 
 mirth, sorrow, laboui', and social gatherings. Piotcssor ' 'raik says: 
 ''One characteristic tliat l)e](>ngs to whatever Piurns iias written is 
 lliat, of its kind and in its own way, it is a perfect production. His 
 poetry is, throughout, real emotion melodiou>iy uttered, instinct with 
 pa.s.sion, but not less so with power of thonght, — full of li|^'ht as well 
 as of fire." Most of his poems are written in the North-English, or 
 Lowland -Scottish, dialect. Tlie most elevated of his poems is 
 The Vision, in which he relates how tlie Scottisli IMu^e found him 
 at the plough, and crowned him with a wi-eath of holly. One of 
 his longest, as well as finest poems, is The Cottar's Saturday- 
 Night, which is written in the Spenserian stanza. Perhaps his 
 must pathetic poem is that entitled To Mary in Heaven. It is 
 (if a singular elofpience, elevation, and sweetness. Tlie first ver.se 
 runs thu.s — 
 
 " Thou lingering star, with lessening ray, 
 
 That lov'st to greet the early morn, 
 Again thou usher'st in the day 
 
 My Mary from my soul wus torn. 
 O Mary ! dear dejjarted shade ! 
 
 Where is thy place of blissful rest ? 
 Hee'st thou thy lover lowly laid? 
 
 Hear'st thou the groans that rend his breast?" 
 
 He is, as his latest critic says, " the poet of liomely human nature ; " 
 and his geni\is shows the beautiful elements in this homeliness; and 
 that what is homely need not therefore be dull and pro.saic. 
 
 18. Thomas Chatterton and William Blake are two minor 
 poets, of whom little is known and less said, but whose work is of 
 the most poetical and genuine kind. — Chatterto. . was born at Bristol 
 in the year 1752. He was the son of a schoolmaster, who died ])efore 
 he was born. He was educated at Colston's Blue-Coat School in 
 Bristol ; and, wlii'e at scho(d, read his way steadily tlu'ough every 
 Itnok in three circulating libraries. He began to write verses at the 
 age of fifteen, and in two years had pntduced a large ninnber of poems 
 —some of them of the highest value. In 1770, he cai • up to Lon- 
 don, with something under five pounds in his pocket, and his mind 
 made up to try his fortune as a literary man, resolved, though he 
 was only a boy of seventeen, to live by literature or to die. Accord- 
 ingly, he set to work and wrote every kind of production — poems, 
 
 \ 
 
\ 
 
 412 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 essays, stories, jjolitical articles, songs ior public sin^'ers; and all tlio 
 time he was luilf starving. A loaf of bread lasted liini a week ; and it 
 was " bought stale to make it last longer." He had made a friend of 
 the Lord Mayor, Beckford ; but before he had time to liuM out a hiind 
 to the struggling boy, llcckford ditd. The struggle ])ecanie harder 
 and harder — more and more liopcle.-s ; his neighbours oU'ered a little 
 help— a small coin ur a meal— he rejected all ; and at length, on th^ 
 evening of the :i4th August 1770, he wi-nt up to his garret, locked 
 himself in, tore up all his manuscripts, took poison, and died. He 
 was only seventeen. 
 
 19. Wordsworth and Coleridge sj)oke with awe of his genius ; 
 Keats dedicated one of liis poems to his memory ; and Coleridge 
 copied some of his rhythms. One of his best poems is the Min- 
 strel's Roundelay — 
 
 " sing unto my roumU'lay, 
 
 drop tlie hriiiy tear witli ine, 
 Dauee ao niorf on lioly(la\, 
 Like a riiiiuing river be. 
 ]\Iy Inve is dead, 
 (loiK! to Ids deatli-bed 
 All luider the willow-tree. 
 
 " P.lack Ids hair as the winter night, 
 White his skin as the summer snow, 
 Reil his face as the morning light, 
 Cold he lies in the grave below. 
 Nfy love is <lead, 
 (lone to his death-bed 
 
 All under the willow-tree." 
 
 I! 
 
 20. William Blake (1757-1827), one of the most original poet> 
 that ever lived, was born in London in the year 1757. He wa- 
 brought up as an engraver ; work(>d steadily at his business, ami 
 did a great deal of beautiful work in that capacity. He in fact 
 illustrated his own poems — each page being set in a fantastic design 
 of liis own invention, which he himself engraved. He was al-n 
 his own printer and publisher. The first volume of his poems wa> 
 published in 1 " . 'S ; the Songs of Innocence, ])robably his best, 
 appeared in 1. 7. He died in Fountain C(Uirt, Strand, Londnn, 
 in the year 1827, 
 
 21. His latest critic says of Blake : " His detachment from tln' 
 ordinary currents of practical thought left to his mind an unspoileii 
 and delightful simplicity which has perhaps never been matched iu 
 English poetry." Simplicity — the perfect simplicity of a child— 
 
•'""■" ""■■• - '='«-HK.„, cK^nuv. 
 
 413 
 
 of Pone—, ,1 , "^ " "''". » liilc livin- i„ " "'°" '^-wlc- 
 
 ie eyemng star does shine .' 
 
 |he birds are silent in their'm. * 
 .^-' ^ -„st .seek for n.it '''''' 
 J^J'e moon, Jikc a flower 
 In heaven's Mgh bou-er, 
 With silent delight 
 ^'^' and smiles on the night. 
 
 Unseen they pou, ,,,,^j„; 
 
 O "'' ^T ;^^"'""t -asing;' 
 On each bnd and blossom 
 
 On each sleeping bosom"' 
 
 'JE 
 
19 
 
 ch 
 
 414 
 
 I ~ <s>f.. ■oo-'-i.y-r 
 
 i^.. 
 
 C^PJU 
 
 x- 
 
 "t 
 
 CHArTEK viir. 
 
 THE FIRST UALF OF THE NINETEENTH UENTUUY. 
 
 1. New Ideas. — The end of the eighteentli und the hcginnin^' 
 of tlie nineteenth century are aHke rcniarkaljle for the new 
 powers, new ideas, and new life thrown into society. The 
 coming np of a high llood-tide of new forces seems to coincide 
 with the beginning of the French Eevohition in 1789, when 
 the overthrow of the Bastille; marked the downfidl of the old 
 ways of thinking and acting, and announced to the world ul 
 Europe and America that the old rf(juito — the ancient mode 
 of governing — was over. "Wordsworth, then a lad of nineteen, 
 was excited by the event almost beyond the bounds of self- 
 control. He says in his " Excursion " — 
 
 " Bliss was it in that dawn Id l»e alive. 
 But to be young wa-s very Heaven ! " 
 
 It was, indeed, th(^ dawn of a new dwy for the peoples of 
 Europe. The idea.s <if freedom and e([uality — of respect fur 
 man as num — -were thrown into populai- form by France ', tlnv 
 became living jjowers in Europe; and in J^ngland they am 
 mated and inspired the best minds of the time — Burns, Coir 
 ridge, Wordsworth, Shelley, and Byron. Along with this ]ii,:,ii 
 tide of hope and emotion, there was such an outburst of talent 
 and genius in every kind of human endeavour in England, a> 
 was never seen before except in the Elizabethan period. Grctii 
 events produced great powers ; and great powers in their turn 
 
FIRST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 415 
 
 liNTUKY. 
 
 id ilie he-^iniuiv-; 
 ^Ic for the ii>w 
 ,0 society. '^^''■ 
 seems to coinciao 
 1 in 17 6\), wlu'u 
 ^vnfall of the oia 
 to the ^vovld *)i 
 lu! iuicient modi' 
 la lad of niiieteeii, 
 . hounds of >scli- 
 
 [v the peoples of 
 
 ^ of respect f"i' 
 
 hy In-aiice ; tli'-y 
 higland they uin- 
 line— Ihims, ('"!' 
 Ing with this Ui,^" 
 loutburst of talent 
 lur in England, a^ 
 Ian period. Great 
 [wers in their turn 
 
 brought about great events. Tlie war with Auievica, the long 
 struggle with Napoleon, tlie new political ideas, great victories 
 liy sea and land, — all these were to be found in tin; beginning 
 (if tlie nineteentli (-entury. The English race ])n)duced great 
 men in numbers — almost, it might be said, in gnmps. Wg had 
 great leaders, like Nelson and "Wellington ; lirilliant gimerals, 
 like Sir Charles Najiier and Sir John ]\[oore ; great statesmen, 
 like Fox and Pitt, like Washington and Franklin ; great en- 
 gineers, like Stephenson and Brunei ; and great poets, like 
 Wordsworth and Byron. And as regards literature, an able 
 iritic remarks: "We luive recovered in this century the Eliza- 
 betlian magic and passion, a more than Elizabethan sense of 
 the beauty and complexity of nature, the Elizabethan music of 
 
 angiiage. 
 
 2. Great Poets. — The greatest poets of the tirst half of tlie 
 nineteenth century nuiy be best arranged in groups. There 
 Avere Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey — comuKjnly, Ijut 
 unnecessarily, described as the Lake Poets. In their poetic 
 thought and expression they had little in common ; and the 
 fact that two of them lived most of their lives in the Lake 
 country, is not a sufficient justification for the use of the term. 
 There were Seott and Campbell- -both of them Scotchmen. 
 There were Byron and Shelley — both Englishmen, both brought 
 up at the great public schools and the universities, Init both car- 
 ried away by the influence of the new revolutionary ideas. 
 Lastly, there wt're Moore, an Irishman, and young Keats, tin; 
 s))lcndid ]»romise of whose youth went out in an early death. 
 Let us learn a little more about each, and hi the order of the 
 tlates of their birth. 
 
 3. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) was born at Cocker- 
 inouth, a town in Cumberland, which stands at the confluence of 
 the Cocker and the Derwent, His father, John "Wordsworth, was 
 law agent to Sir James Lowther, who afterwards became Earl of 
 Lonsdale. William was a boy of a stiff, niootly, and violent temper ; 
 and as hia mother died when he was a very little boy, and his father 
 when he waa fourteen, he grew up with very little care from hia 
 
•116 
 
 IIISTOIIY OF KNGLISII LITEUATUIIE. 
 
 parents and guardians. He was sent to school at Hawkshead, in the 
 Vale i)i Esthwaite, in Lancashire ; and, at the a;,'e of seventeen, pro- 
 ceeded to 8t John's CoHe;^'*', ('anil)nd;^i'. After taking his degree nl' 
 B.A. in 1791, he lesided for a rear in France. He tcjok sides witli 
 one of tlie parties in the Reign of Terror, and left the country only 
 in time to save his head. He was designed hy his uncles for the 
 Church ; but a friend, Raisley Calvert, dying, left him £900; an<l lie 
 now resolved to live a plain and frugal life, to, join no profession, Imt 
 to give himself wholly up to the writing of ])oetry. In 1798, he 
 published, along with his friend, S. T. Coleridge, the Lyrical 
 Ballads. The only work of Coleridge's in this volume was the 
 "Ancient Mariner." In 1802 he married Mary Hutchinson, of 
 whom he speaks in the well-known lines — 
 
 Her eyes as stars of Twiliglit fair. 
 Like Twilight's, loo, her dusky liaii' ; 
 But all things else about her drawn 
 From May-time and the cheerful dawn." 
 
 He obtained the post of Distributor of Stamps for the county of 
 Westmoreland; and, after the death of Southey, he was created 
 Poet-Laureate l»y the Queen. — He settled with his wife in the 
 Lake country ; and, in 1813, took up his abode at Rydal Mount, 
 where he lived till his death in 1850. He die<l on the 23d of April 
 — the death-day of Shakespeare. 
 
 4. His longest works are the Excursion and the Prelude — both 
 being parts of a longer and greater Avork Avhich he intended to write 
 on the growth of his own mind. His best poems are his shorter 
 pieces, such Jis the poems on Lucy, The Cuckoo, the Ode to Duty, 
 the Intimations of Immortality, and several of his Sonnets. He 
 says of his own poetry that his jiurpose in writing it was " to console 
 the afflicted ; to add sunshine to daylight by making the hapi)y 
 happier; to teach the young and the gracious of every age to 
 see, to think, and feel, and therefore to become more actively and 
 securely virtuous." His poetical work is the noble landmark of a 
 great transition — both in thought and in style. He drew aside 
 poetry from questions and interests of mere society and the town 
 to the scenes of Nature and the deepest feelings of man as man. 
 In style, he refused to employ the old artificial vocabulary which 
 Pope and his followers revelled in ; he used the simplest words he 
 could find ; and, when he hits the mark in his simplest form of ex- 
 presuiou, hia style is as forcible as it is true. He says of his own 
 verse — 
 
FIRST HALF OF NINFTEF.NTH CENTUrV. 
 
 417 
 
 .vksbeatl, in the 
 seve.nU'eii, \)i^>- 
 
 t.x.k siaesAviUi 
 he country only 
 4 uncles for tlu; 
 minOO; antlh.- 
 o ^.rot'ct^j^ion, Iml 
 -v. In 1798, lu-, 
 re, the Lyrical 
 volume was tlic 
 HutchinBon, of 
 
 " The moving nwident is not my trailo, 
 To livt'zi! tlm lilood 1 iiiivc Ho iPiidy arts ; 
 'Tis my dfligiit, ilotu', in summtT slwult', 
 To jiipi' ;i simple soiit,' for thinkintj h'urts." 
 
 Tf one woro nsked \vli;it lour lines of his ])()(■!'"• host couvty the feel- 
 ing' of the wliole, the reply must be that these are to he foiiinl in his 
 " Soni,' at the Feast of Bniu^'luun < 'astle,"~lines writttn uhoiit " the 
 ,^'00(1 Lord Clilinrd." 
 
 •' Fiovc liad lit^ t'ouml in Inits wliciv jinnr nu'ii lit'. 
 His daily tcarhcrs liad ln'fii wnnds and rills. 
 'Vhtf silfuci' tliat is in tlie starry sky, 
 'I'lio sl('t']» that is among tlie lonely hills." 
 
 Wll. 
 
 for the county of 
 y, he Nvas created 
 h' his wife in the 
 
 at Rydal Mount, 
 |i the 23d of April 
 
 [he Prelude— hoth 
 intended to write 
 [nis are his shorter 
 the Ode to Duty, 
 his Sonnets. Ih' 
 it was " to console 
 making the happy 
 \ of every age to 
 .more actively and 
 lohle landmark of ^ 
 He drew aside 
 I'iety and the toAvu 
 fs of man as man. 
 ^ vocabulary which 
 simplest words he 
 iplest form of ex- 
 [e says of his own 
 
 Ci. Walter Scott (1771-1832), poet and novelist, the son o{ 
 a Scotch attorney (called in Edinburgh a W.S. or Writer to ll.M.'s 
 Signet), was l)orn there in the year 1771. He was educated at the 
 High School, and then at the College — now called the University 
 — of Ediidjurgh. In 1792 he was called to the Scottish Bar, or 
 became an "advocate." During his boyhood, he had had several 
 illnesses, one of which left hiiu lame for life. Through those hjug 
 })eriods of sickness and of convalescence, he read Percy's ' Reli(|Ues 
 of Ancient Poetry,' and almost all the ronumces, old plays, and epic 
 poems that have been published in the English language. This 
 gave his mind and imagination a set which they never lost all 
 through life. 
 
 G. His first publications were translations of German poems. In 
 the year 1805, liowever, an original poem, the Lay of the Last 
 Minstrel, appeared ; and Scott became at one bound the foremost 
 poet of the day. Marmion, the Lady of the Lake, and other 
 pnems, followed with great rapidity. But, in 1814, Scott took it 
 into his head that his poetical vein was worked out ; the star of 
 Byron was rising upon the literary hori/.on ; and he now gave him- 
 self up to novel-writing. His first novel, Waverley, appeared 
 anonymously in 1814. Guy Mannering, Old Mortality, Rob 
 Roy, and others, quickly followed ; and, though the secret of the 
 authorship was well kept both by printer aiid publi.sher, Walter 
 Scott was generally l)elieved to be the writer of these works, and lie 
 was frequently spoken of as " the Great Unknown." He was made 
 a baronet by George IV. in 1820. 
 
 7. His expenses in building Abbotsford, and his desire to acquire 
 land, induced him to go into partnership with Ballantyne, his printer, 
 and with Constable, his publisher. Both firms failed in the dark 
 
418 
 
 HISTORY OF RNrtUSlI LITKRATUKK. 
 
 till 
 
 ■|: ifiifij 
 
 year of 182G ; and Scott found hiniaolf unexpectedly liable for tlip 
 large huui (jf i;i47,00(). Such a loud of dt-bt would have utterly 
 crushed UKJst men ; but Scott Htood clear and undaunted in frcjnt of 
 it. "Gentlemen," he naid to his creditors, "time and I a^'ainst any 
 two. Let me take this good ally into n>y company, and I Ijelievt- 
 I shall be able to pay you every farthing." He left his beautiful 
 country house at Abbotsford ; he gave up all his country pleasures; 
 he surrendered all his property to his creditors ; he took a small hou.se 
 in Edinburgh ; and, in the short space of five years, he had paid oil 
 i,'I30,()00. Jiiit the task was too terrible ; the pace had been tcjo hard ; 
 and he was struck down by paralysis. But even this disaster did not 
 <launt him. Again he went to work, and again he had a luiralytic 
 stroke. At last, however, he was obliged to give up ; the (Joveiii- 
 ment of the day placed a royal frigate at his disposal ; he went to 
 Italy ; but his health had utterly broken down, he felt he could get 
 no good from the air of the south, and he turned his face towards 
 home to die. He breathed his last breath at Abl)otsford, in sight ot 
 his beloved Tweed, with his family around him, on the 21st of Sep 
 tember 1832. 
 
 8. His poetry is the poetry of action. In imaginative power lie 
 ranks below no other poet, except Homer and Shakespeare. He 
 delighted in war, in its movement, its pageantry, and its events; 
 and, though lame, he was quartermaster of a volunteer corps ot 
 cavalry. On one occasion he rode to muster one hundred miles in 
 twenty-four hours, composing verses by the way. !Much of " Marmion '' 
 was composed on horseback. " I had many a grand gallop," he says, 
 " when I was thinking of * Marmion.' " His two chief powers in versf 
 are his narrative and his pictorial power. His boyhood was passed 
 in the Borderland of Scotland — " a district in wliich every field 'nas 
 its battle and every rivulet its song ; " and he was at home in every 
 part of the Highlands and the Lowlands, the Islands and the Borders, 
 of his native country. But, both in his novels and his poems, he was 
 a painter of action rather than of character. 
 
 9. His prose works are now much more read than his poems ; but 
 both are full of life, power, literary skill, knowledge of men and 
 women, and stron<]; sympathy with all past ages. He wrote so fast 
 that his sentences are often loose and ungrammatical ; but they art' 
 never unidiomatic or stiff. The rush of a strong and large life goes 
 through them, and carries the reader along, forgetful of all minor 
 blemishes. His best novels are Old Mortality and Kenilworth ; 
 his greatest romance is Ivanhoe. 
 
 ^ i 
 
 10. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), a true poet, and 
 
FIRST HALF 01' NlNF.rKKNTlI CKNTUHY. 
 
 419 
 
 r liable for the 
 d Imvc uttf'ily 
 ited in front of 
 (I I iv^iiiust any 
 r, anil 1 bi^li^vv 
 ;tt his heautiful 
 
 untry lA^'-^s^^^*'^ • 
 ,ok u small huuse 
 ,, he had puid oil 
 id been tou hard ; 
 rt disaster did not 
 ! had a paralytic 
 up ; the Govern- 
 ,„,al-, he went to 
 . fidt he could get 
 1 his face towards 
 3tsford, in sight of 
 n the 21st of Sei' 
 
 .ginative power lu' 
 "shakespeare. Ih' 
 y, and its events •. 
 volunteer corps ol 
 
 hundred miles m 
 Aichof'Marmion" 
 id gallop," he say.s 
 lief powers in vers*' 
 hoyhood was passed 
 |ic*h every field uas 
 at home in every 
 
 ds and the Borders 
 \\ his poems, he was 
 
 uin his poems ; Imi 
 Ivledge of men an*! 
 He wrote so fast 
 itical; hut they ar. 
 and large life goi'^ 
 netful of all minor 
 fand Kenilworth ; 
 
 ), a true poet, 
 
 a writer of noble prose, was born at Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire, 
 in 1772. His father, who was vicar of tlu- parish, and niastt-i' 
 of the gramnnir - scIkjoI, died when the boy was only nine years 
 of age. He was cducatfil at Clirist's II(»)iital. in London, where 
 his most famous school trllow was ('hurli-s I. ami. ; and from tht-re 
 he went to Jesus College, (.,'and>ridgt'. In 17!K{ he liad fallen into 
 debt at ColU'gt^ ; and, in dt'spaii', left (Jambridgt-, and cidisted 
 in tlui 15tli Li'dit Dra 
 
 •'oons, undt'r 
 
 tl 
 
 k; name 
 
 4 S 
 
 \\:\< 
 
 onikuiR 
 
 ('omberl)atch. He was rpiickly discoveicd, and his discharge soon 
 obtained. "Wliile on a visit to liis iVicnd l^lb('l■t Southey, at 
 liristol, the plan of enngrating to tin' banks (d' the Susquehanna, in 
 Pennsylvania, was entered on ; but, when all the tVii-nds and i'ellow- 
 I'lnigrants were ready to start, it was discovered that no one of them 
 iiad any iaoney. — Coleridge finally became a literary man and jour- 
 nalist. His real power, however, lay in poetiy ; but by poetry he 
 could not make a living. His first volume of poems was published 
 at Bristol, in the year 1796 ; but it was not till i798 that the Rime 
 of the Ancient Mariner appeared in the ' Lyrical Ballads.' His 
 next greatest poem, Christabel, though written in 1797, was not 
 published till the year 181(5. His other best jtoems are Love; 
 Dejection — an Ode ; and sonu; of his shorter ])ieces. His best 
 poetry was written about the close of the ct;ntury : "Coleridge," 
 said AVordsworth, "was in blossom from 1790 to 1800." — As a critic 
 and prose-writer, he is one of the greatest men of his time. His best 
 works in prose are The Friend and the Aids to Reflection. He 
 died at Highgate, near London, in the year 1834. 
 
 11. His style, both in prose and in verse, marks the beginning of 
 the modern era. His prose style is noble, elaborate, eloquent, and 
 full of subtle and involved thought ; his style in verse is always 
 musical, and abounds in rhythms of the most startling and novel — 
 yet always genuine — kind. Christabel is the poem that is most 
 full of these fine musical rhvtlims. 
 
 12. Robert Southey (1774-1843), poet, reviewer, historian, 
 but, above all, man of letters, — the friend of Coleriilgu and 
 Wordsworth, — was born at Bristol in 1774. He was educated at 
 Westminster School and at Balliol College, Oxford. After his mar- 
 riage with Miss Edith Fricker— a sister of Sara, tlie wife of Cole- 
 ridge — he settled at Greta Hall, near Keswick, in 1803 ; antl resided 
 there until his death in 1843, In 1813 he was created Poet- 
 Laureate by George III. — He was the most indefatigable of writers. 
 He wrote poetry before breakfast; history between breakfast and 
 
'<! ■' , iT'nwWiBH 
 
 U 
 
 
 II 
 
 r\ 
 
 420 
 
 HISTORY CF ENGLTSU LITERATURE. 
 
 dinner; reviews between dinner and supper ; and, even when talking 
 a constitntional, he had always a liook in his hand, and walked ahni;^ 
 the road readin<.,'. He began to write and to i>u}dish at the age ol 
 nineteen ; lie never ceased writing till the year 1837, when his brain 
 softened from the eflects of j/erputual labour. 
 
 13. Southey wrote a great deal of verse, but much more prose. 
 His prose works amount to more than one hundred volumes ; but his 
 poetry, such as it is, will probably live longer tlian his prose. His 
 best-known poems are Joan of Arc, written when he was nineteen; 
 Thalaba the Destroyer, a poem in irregular and unrhymcd verse; 
 The Curae of Kehama, in verse rhymed, but irregular ; and 
 Hoderick, the last of the Goths, written in blank verse. He 
 will, however, always be best remembered by his shorter pieces, 
 such as The Holly Tree, Stanzas written in My Library, and 
 others. — His most famous prose work is the Life of Nelson. His 
 prose style is always firm, clear, compact, and sensible. 
 
 14, Tpiomas Campbell (1777-1844), a noble poet and brilliant 
 reviewer, was born in Glasgow in the year 1777. He was educated 
 at the High School and the University of Gl '/ow. At the 
 age of twenty-two, he published his Pleasures of Hojio, whicli at 
 once gave him a place high among the poets of llu; da^ Tn 1803 
 he removed to London, and followed literature as his pro'"ession; 
 and, in 1806, he received a pension of ,£-200 a -year from the 
 Government, which enabled him to devote the whole of his time to 
 his favourite study of poetry. His best long poem is the Gertrude 
 of Wyoming, a tale written in the Spensi'rian stanza, which 
 he handles with great ease and power. But he is best known, 
 and will be longest remembered, for his .short lyrics — wliich 
 glow with passionate and fiery eloquence — such as The Battle of 
 the Baltic, Ye Mariners of England, Hohenlinden, and 
 others. He was twice Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow. 
 He died at Boulogne in 1844, ond was buried in Poets' Corner, 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 m 
 
 >, ;■ -^ 
 
 ill 
 
 15. Thomas ^Moore (1779-1852), poet, biographer, and historian 
 — hut most of all poet — was born in Dublin in the year 1779. 
 He began to print verses at the age of thirteen, and may be raid, 
 like Pope, to have "lisped in numbers, for the numbers came," 
 He came to London in 1799, and was quickly received into 
 fjudiionable society. In 1803 he was made Admiralty Registrar 
 
FIRST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 421 
 
 walkf'l al(ui<^ 
 
 at tht' aiic t»t 
 
 hen his bruin 
 
 1 more prof^e. 
 Limes; Vmtliis 
 
 is prose. 
 
 His 
 
 was nineteen ; 
 rhymtd ver.<e; 
 rrej^ular ; and 
 uk ver.se. He 
 >^h«.>rter pieces, 
 Library, and 
 Nelson. His 
 
 jt and urilliant 
 [e wa» ediTcated 
 ^rrow. At the 
 tl^ ^f", whicVi at 
 'da;. Tal803 
 his pro''essi()n ; 
 year from tVu- 
 of his time to 
 the Gertrude 
 stanza, \vhich 
 lis hest known, 
 lyrics — which 
 The Battle of 
 anlinden, and 
 ^ty of Gla^'go^Y. 
 Poets' Corner, 
 
 ,, and historian 
 Ithe year 177^. 
 lid may he raitl, 
 iunibers came." 
 received into 
 Iralty Registrar 
 
 at Bermuda ; but hts soon gave up the post, leaving a deputy 
 iu his place, who, some years after, enilx-zzled the Government 
 funds, and brought rmancial ruin upon Moor(>. The poet's friends 
 offered to help hiui out of his money dilliculties ; but he most 
 lionourably declined all such help, and, like Sir W. Scott, re- 
 solved to clear otf all claims against him by the aid of his pen alone. 
 For the next twenty years of his life he laboured incessantly; and 
 volumes of poetry, history, and biography came steadily from his 
 pen. His Ixist poems are his Irish Melodies, some lifteen or six- 
 teen of which ai'e perfect and imperishable ; and it is as a writer 
 of songs that Moore will live in the literature of this country. 
 He hoasted, and with truth, that it was he who awakened for thi;i 
 rentury the long-silent harp of his nati\e land — 
 
 " Dimr Harp of my Country ! iu Jarkness I found thee, 
 The cold chain of sihjnce liad liuiig o'er thee long, 
 When proudly, my own Island llaqi, I unbound thee, 
 And gave all thy chords to light, freedom, and song." 
 
 His best long poem is Ijalla Rookh. — His prose works are little 
 read nowadays. Thf chief among them are his Life of Sheridan, 
 and his Life of Lord Byron. — He died at Sloperton, in Wiltshire, 
 iu 1852, two vears after the death of Wordsworth. 
 
 1(5. George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824), a great English 
 poet, was born in London in the year 17H8. He was the only cliild 
 of a reckless and unprincipled father and a passionate mother. He; 
 was educated at Harrow Schuol, and afterwards at Trinity College, 
 Camliridge. His lirst volume — Hours of Idleness — was published 
 in 18(»7, before he was nineteen. A criti{[ue of this juvenile work 
 which appeared iu the 'Edinburgh Review' stung him to passion ; 
 and he produced a Vv^ry vigorous jtoetical reply in English Bards 
 and Scotch Keviewers. After the jjublication of this ho(d\, liyron 
 travelled in Germany, !'>pain, Greece, and Turkey for two years ; 
 and the first two cantos of the poem entitled Childe Harold's 
 Pilgrimage weve the outcMic- of these travels. This poem at once 
 }jlacijd him at the heail of Ejiglisli poets ; "he woke one morning," 
 he sai-1, "and found himself famous." He was married in tlie year 
 1815, but L'ft his wife in the following year;,, left his native 
 country also, never to return. First of all he settied at Geneva, 
 where he made the acquaintance of the poet Shelley, and Avhere he 
 wrot'', among other poem-, tlie third canto of Childe Harold and 
 tlie Prisoner of Chillor.. In 1817 h» removed to Venice, where he 
 
 
422 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITEKATrRE. 
 
 composed the ionrth canto of Childe Harold and the Lament of 
 Tasso ; his next rusting-place was Ravenna, where he wrote several 
 plays. Piaa saw him next ; and at this place he spent a great derl 
 of his time in close intimacy with Shelley. In 1821 the Greek 
 nation rose in revolt against the cruelties and oppression of iho 
 Turkish rule ; and Byron's sympathies were strongly enlisted on the 
 side of the Greeks. He helped the struggling little country with 
 contributions of money; and, in 1823, sailed from Genoa to take a 
 personal share in the war of liberation. He died, however, of fever, 
 at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April 1824, at the age of thirty-six. 
 
 17. His best-known work is Childe Harold, wh^ i litten in 
 
 the Spenserian stanza. His ]ilays, the best of \n .. are Manfred 
 and Sardanapalus, are writter- in blank verse. — His style is re- 
 markable fur its strength and elasticity, for its immensely powerfid 
 sweep, tireless energy, and brilliant illustrations. 
 
 18. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), — who has, ^ik*^ Spen- 
 ser, been called "the poet's poet," — was born at Fieh V^:v':, near 
 Horsham, in Sussex, in the year 1702. He was educated ui Eton, 
 and then at University College, Oxford. A shy, diffident, retiring 
 boy, wdth sweet, gentle looks and manners — like those of a girl- 
 but with a spirit of the greatest fearlessness and the noblest in- 
 dependence, he took little share in the sports and pursuits of his 
 schoolfellows. Obliged to leave Oxford, in consequence of havuiu' 
 written a tract of which the authorities did not approve, he married 
 at the very early age of nineteen. The young lady whom he 
 married died in 1816 ; and he soon after married Mary, daughter 
 of William Godwin, the eminent author of ' Political Justice.' In 
 1818 he left Englard for Italy, — like his fnend, Lord Byron, for 
 ever. It was at Naples, Leghorn, and Pisa that he chiefly resided. 
 In 1822 he bought a little boat — "a perfect plaything for the siun- 
 mer," he calU it; and he used often to make short voyages in it, ami 
 wrote' many of his poems on these occasions. When Ij'^igh Hunt 
 was lying ill at Leghorn, Shelley and his friend Williams resolved 
 on a coasting trip to that city. They reached Leghorn in safety; 
 l)ut, on the return jcjurney, the boat sank in a sudden squall. 
 Captain Roberts was watching the vessel with his glass from the 
 top of the Leghorn lighthouse, as it crossed the Bay of Spezzia : n 
 black cloud arose ; a storm came down ; the vessels sailing witli 
 Shelley's boat were wrapped in darkness ; the cloud passed ; tli< 
 sun shone out, and all was dear again ; the larger vessels rode on ; 
 but Shelley's boat had disappeared. The poet's body was cast on 
 
G. 
 
 FIRST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 423 
 
 the Lament of 
 he wrote several 
 pent a ^reat 'le-l 
 
 1821 the Greek 
 ppression of the 
 ly enlisted on the 
 ttle country with 
 
 Genoa to tahe ;i 
 iiov/ever, of fi'ViT, 
 ^e of thirty -six. 
 Ipri. written in 
 .ac Manfred 
 —His style is re- 
 (iniensely powerful 
 
 shore, but the quarantine laws of Italy roipiired that everything 
 thrown up on the coast should be burned : uo representations could 
 alter the law ; and Shelley's ashes were plucml in a box and buried 
 in the Protestant cemetery at Rome. 
 
 19. Slielley's best long poem is the Adonais, an eU'^'v on the death 
 of JoliU Keats. It is written in the Spenserian stanza. But this 
 true poet will be best remembered by liis sliort lyrical poems, such 
 as The Cloud, Ode to a Skylark, Ode to the West Wind, 
 Stanzas written in Dejection, and others. — Sliellcy has been 
 called " the poet's poet," because his style is so thorougldy transfused 
 by pure imagination. He has also been called " the master-singer 
 of our modern race and age ; for his thoughts, his words, and his 
 deeds all sang together." He is probably the greatest lyric poet of 
 this century. 
 
 
 •ho ha? ■'^It'^ Speu- 
 t Field Piacc, near 
 I educated al Eton, 
 y, dittiJent, retiring 
 e those of a girl- 
 .nd the noblest in- 
 and pursuits of hi> 
 sequence of havhi;^ 
 ipprove, he married 
 Ing lady whom h.^ 
 jied Mary, daughter 
 )litical Justice.' In 
 ,d, Lord Byron, for 
 he chiefly resided, 
 vthing for the sum- 
 |rt voyages m it, auu 
 When uoigh Hunt 
 Id Williams resolvctl 
 Leghorn in safety: 
 |n a sudden s(l"all. 
 his glass from tlu' 
 le Bay of Spezzia : a 
 Ivessels sailing witli 
 cloud passed ; tlu' 
 •get vessels rode on ; 
 '^ body was cast on 
 
 20. John Keats (1795-1821), one of our truest poets, was 
 born in Moorfields, London, in the year 1795. He was educated 
 at a private school at Epield. His desire for the pleasures of 
 tlie intellect and the imagination showed itself very early L school ; 
 and he spent many a half-holiday in writing translations from 
 the Roman and the French poets. On leaving school, he was 
 apprenticed to a surgeon at Edmonton — the scene of one of John 
 Gilpin's adventurer ; but, in 1817, he gave up the jmictice of surgery, 
 devoted himself entirely to poetry, and brought out his firf-t volume. 
 ]n 1818 appeared his Endymion. The * Quarterly Review ' handled 
 it without mercy. Keats's health gave way ; the seeds of consump- 
 tion were in his frame ; and he was ordered to Italy in 1820, as the 
 last chance of saving his life. But it was too late. The air of Italy 
 could not restore him. H . settled at Rome with his friend Severn ; 
 but, in spite of all the care, thought, devotion, and watching of his 
 friend, he died in 1821, at the age of twenty-five. He was buried 
 in the Protestant cemetery at Rome ; and the inscription on his 
 tomb, composed by himself, is, "Here Ue.i one whose name was writ 
 in water." 
 
 21. His greatest poem is Hyperion^ written, in blank verse, on 
 tlie overthrow of the "early gi»il.s" of Greece. But he will most 
 probably be best remembered by his marvellous odes, such as the 
 Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn, To Autumn, 
 and others. His style is clear, sensuous, and beautiful ; and lie has 
 added to our literature lines that will always live. Such are the 
 
 fiillowing 
 
 '* A tiling of beauty is a joy for ever." 
 
I: ■■ ■•*!;■ 
 
 424 HTSTOTIY OF ENOLTSTI LITKRATURE. 
 
 " Silent, ii])oii a peak in Darien." 
 
 " Tlien felt [ Hive some watelier of the skies 
 Wlieii a new jilanet swims into liis ken." 
 
 " Perhaps the self-same song that found a path 
 T]irou<,'h tlie sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, 
 She stood in tears amid the alien corn." 
 
 'M^ 
 
 22. Prose-Writers. — We havo now to consider the greatest 
 prose-Avritcr.^ of tlie lir.st half of the ninetoentli century. First 
 conies Walter Scott, one of tlie greatest novelists that ever 
 lived, and wlio won the name of " The Wizard of the North " 
 from the marvellous power he possessed of enchaining the 
 attention and fascinating the minds of his readers. Two other 
 great writers of prose were Charles Lamb and Walter Savage 
 Landor, each in styles essentially ditleront. Jane Austen, 
 a young English lady, has become a classic in prose, because her 
 work is true and perfect within its own sphere. De Quincey 
 is perhaps the writer of the most ornate and elaborate English 
 prose of this period. Thomas Carlyle, a great Scotsman, with 
 a style of overwhelming power, but of occasional grotesqueness, 
 like a great prophet and teacher of the nation, compelled states- 
 men and philanthropists to think, wliile he also gained for him- 
 self a high place in the rank of historians. Macaulay, also of 
 Scottish descent, was one of the greatest essayists and ablest 
 writers on history that Great Britain has [)roduced. A short 
 survey of each of these great men may be useful. Scott has 
 been alreadv treated of. 
 
 23. Charles Lamb (1775-1834), a perfect English essayist, 
 was born in the Inner Temple, in London, in the year 177'). 
 His father was clerk to a barrister of that Inn of Court. Charles 
 was educated at Christ's Hospital, where his most famous seluml- 
 fellow was S. T. Coleridge, Brought up in the very heart of 
 Loixdon, he had always a strong feeling for the greatness of the 
 metropolis of the world. " I often shed tears," he said, " in the 
 motley Strand, for fulness of joy at so much life." He was, indeed, 
 a thorough Cockney and lover of London, as were aleo Chaucer, 
 
FIKST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTUKV. 
 
 425 
 
 les 
 
 for home, 
 
 ler the greatest 
 century. First 
 ■elists that ever 
 of the North" 
 isnchaining th(» 
 lers. Two other 
 Walter Savage 
 Jane Austen, 
 )rose, because her 
 re. De Quincey 
 elaborate English 
 i Scotsman, with 
 iial grotesqiieness, 
 compelled states- 
 io gained for him- 
 acaulay, also of 
 ;ayists and ablest 
 •oduced. A short 
 seful. Scott has 
 
 English essayist, 
 [in the year iTTo. 
 lof Court. Charles 
 lost fanious school- 
 [the very heart of 
 le greatness of the 
 I' he said, "in the 
 
 ' He was, indeea. 
 
 vera also Chaucer, 
 
 Spenser, Milton, and Lamb's friend Lei<,'li Hunt. Entering the India 
 House as a clerk in the year 1792, he remained there thirty-three 
 years ; and it was one of liis odd sayings that, if any one wanted to 
 see his " works," he would find tlieni on tlu' sliclves cf the India 
 House. — He is greatest as a writer of prose; and liis prose is, in 
 its way, unecpndled for sweetness, grace, humoui, ami ([uaint terms, 
 among the writings of tiiis century. His best prose work is the 
 Essays of Ella, whicli sliow on every page the most whimsical and 
 humorous subtleties, a (piick play of intellect, and a deep sympatliy 
 with the sorrows and the joys of men. Very little, verse came from 
 his pen. " Charles Lamb's nosegay of verse," says l^rofessor Dowden, 
 "may be held by the small hand of a maiden, and there is not in it 
 one flaunting flower." Perhaps the best of his poems are the short 
 pieces entitled Hester and The Old Familiar Faces. — Ife retired 
 from the India House, on a pension, in 1825, and died at Edmonton, 
 near Londtm, in 1834. His character was as sweet and refined as his 
 style ; Wordsworth spoke of him as " Lamb the frolic and the 
 gentle ; " and these and other fine qualities endeared him to a large 
 circle of friends. 
 
 24. Walter vSavaoe Landor (1775-1804), the greatest prose- 
 writer in his own style of the nineteenth century, was born at 
 Ipsley Court, in Warwickshire, on the 30th of January 1775 — the 
 anniversary of the execution of Charles I. He was educated at 
 Rugby School and at Oxford ; but his fierce and insubordinate 
 temper — which remained with him, and injured him all his life — 
 procured his expulsion from both of these places. As heir to a 
 large estate, he resolved to give himself up entirely to literature ; 
 and he accordingly declined to adopt any profession. Living an 
 almost purely intellectual life, be wrote a great deal of ])rose 
 and some poetry ; and his first volume of poems appeared hefore the 
 dose of the eighteenth century. His life, wliich began in the reign 
 of George III., stretched thront^di the reigns of George I\ . and 
 William IV., into the twenty-seventh year of Queen Victoria ; and, 
 in the course of this long life, he had manifold exjieiiences, many 
 loves and hates, friendships and ac([uaintanreships, with ])ersons of 
 very sort and rank. He joine<l the Spanish army to fight Napo- 
 leon, and presented the Spanish Government with large sums of 
 money. He spent about thirty years of his life in Florence, where 
 he wrote many of his works. He died at Florence in the year 1864. 
 His greatest prose work is the Imaginary Conversations ; his best 
 poem is Count Julian; and the character of Count Julian has been 
 
V: 
 
 W 
 
 426 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITEHATUKE. 
 
 ranked by De Quincey with the Satan of Milton. Some of hi? 
 smaller poetic pieces are perfect ; and there is one, Rose Aylmer, 
 written about a dear young friend, tliat Lamb was never tired of 
 repeating : — 
 
 " Ah ! wlijit avails the sceptred race ! 
 Ah ! what tlie form divine ! 
 What every virtue, every grace ! 
 Rose Ayhner, all were thine ! 
 
 " Rose Aylmer, whom these wakeful eyes 
 Shall weep, hut never see I 
 A night of memories and sighs 
 I consecrate to thee." 
 
 liit 
 
 i^V 25. Jane Austen (1775-1817), the most delicate and faithful 
 painter of English social life, was born at Steventon, in Ham]i- 
 shire, in 1775 — in the same year as Lander and Lamb. She wrote 
 a small number of novels, most of Avhich are almost perfect in 
 tlieir minute and true painting of character. Sir Walter Scott, 
 Macaulay, and other great writers, are among her fervent admirers. 
 Scott says of her writing : " The big bow-wow strain I can do myself, 
 like any now going ; but the exc^uisite touch whicli renders ordinary 
 conmionplace things and characters interesting, from, the truth of the 
 description and the sentiment, is denied to me." She works out her 
 characters by making them reveal themselves in their talk, and by 
 an infinite series of minute touches. Her two best novels are Emma 
 and Pride and Prejudice. The interest of them depends on the 
 truth of the painting ; and many thoughtful persons read through 
 the whole of her novels every year. 
 
 26. Thomas De Quincey (1785-1859), one of our most brilliant 
 essayists, was born at Greenhays, Manchester, in the year 17sr), 
 He was educated at tlie Manchester grauinuir - school and at 
 Worcester College, Oxford. While at Oxford he took little share 
 in the regular studies of his college, but read eiK^rmous numbers 
 of Greek, Latin, and English books, as his taste or whim sug- 
 gested. He knew no one ; he hardly knew his own tutor. " For 
 the first two years of my residence in Oxford," he says, " I com- 
 pute that I did not utter one hundred words.'' After leaving 
 Oxford, he lived for about twenty years in the Lake country ; and 
 there he became acquainted with Wordsworth, Hartley Coleridge 
 (the son of S. T. Coleridge), and John Wilson (afterwards known as 
 
FIRST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 427 
 
 . Some of hi? 
 Rose Aylmer, 
 
 1 never tired of 
 
 es 
 
 ;atc and faithful 
 enton, in Ham])- 
 iumb. She wrote 
 ilniost perfect in 
 5ir Walter Scott, 
 fervent admirer.s. 
 n I can do myself, 
 11 renders ordinary 
 n the truth of the 
 5he works out her 
 their talk, and hy 
 novels are Emma 
 n depends on the 
 sons read through 
 
 Dur most brilliant 
 
 u the year 1785. 
 
 - school and al 
 
 took little sharo 
 
 lormous nunil)ers 
 
 te or whim sug- 
 
 .\vn tutor. "For 
 
 le says, 
 
 " I coin- 
 
 After leavini: 
 
 lake country; and 
 
 [artlcy Colendi^e 
 
 jrvvards known as 
 
 Professor AVilsoii, and also as the "Christopher North "of 'Black- 
 wood's Magazine'). Sull'ering from rejieated attacks of neuralgia, he 
 gradually fornii'd the hahit of taking laudanum ; and hy the time he 
 iiad reached the age of thirty, he drank about 80(H) drops a-day. 
 This unfortunate habit injured his powers of work and weakened his 
 will. In spite of it, however, he wrote many hundreds of essays and 
 articles in reviews and magazines. In the latter part of his life, he 
 lived either near or in Edinl)uigh, and was always employed in dream- 
 ing (the opium increased his ])ower both of dreaming and of mus- 
 ing), or in studying or writing. He died in Edinburgh in the year 
 1859. — Many of his essays were written under the signature of "The 
 English Opium-Eater." Probably his best works are The Confes- 
 sions of an Opium-Eater and The Vision of Sudden Death. 
 Tin; chief characteristics of his style are niiijestic rhythm and elabo- 
 rate eloquence. Some of his sentences are almost as long and as sus- 
 tained as those of Jeremy Taylor ; while, in many passages of 
 reasoning that glows and brightens with strong passion and emotion, 
 he is not inferior to Burke. He possessed an enormous vocabulary 
 —in wealth of words and phrases he surpasses both Macaulay and 
 Carlyle ; and he makes a very large — perhaps even an excessive— use 
 of Latin words. He is also very fond of using metaphors, personifi- 
 cations, and other figures of speech. It may be said without exaggera- 
 tion that, next to Carlyle's, De Quincey's style is the most stimulating 
 and inspiriting that a young reader can find among modern writers. 
 
 27. Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), a great thinker, essayist, 
 and historian, was born at Ecclefechan, in Dumfriesshire, in the 
 year 1795. He was educated at the burgh school of Annan, 
 and afterwards at the Universitv of Edinburgh. Classics and the 
 higher mathematics were his favourite studies ; and he was more 
 especially fond of astronomy. He was a teacher for some years after 
 leaving the University. For a few years after this he was engaged 
 ill minor literary work ; and translating from the German occupied a 
 ;4nod deal of his time. In 182(! he married Jane Welsh, a woman 
 '" abilities nnlv inferior (o his own. His first original work was 
 Sartor Resartus ("The Tailor Repaf bed"), which appeared in 
 lH:y, and excited a great deal of attention — a book which has proved 
 t" many the electru hpark which first woke into life their powers of 
 Uioudit ;md reflection. From l'^.'^7 t. '' li^i he gave courses of lee- 
 tures in London ; and these bctures ,vere listened to by the best and 
 i: 'st thoughtful of the London people. The most striking series 
 aiierwards appcdicvi m the form of a book, under tht title of Heroes 
 
428 
 
 IIISTOIIY OF ENGLISH LITEIIATUIIE. 
 
 and Hero-Worship. Ptrliaps his most reiiiiirkaMc honk — a honk 
 that is unique in all Enj^lish literature— i-* The French Revolu- 
 tion, which appeared in 1837. In the y*'ar 184.'), his Cromwell's 
 Letters and Speeches were pu1)lishecl, and clrew alter them a lar^'c 
 nuniher of eager reader.-. In 18(1.') he coinidctcd the hardest \nvvv of 
 work he had ever undertaken, his History of Frederick II., com 
 monly called the Great. Tliis work is so highly regarded in 
 Germany as a trutliful an<l painstaking history that ofHcers in tin; 
 Prussian army are obliged to study it, as containing the hest account 
 of the great battles of the Continent, the fields on which they Avcre 
 fought, and the strat(!gy that went to win them. One of the crown- 
 ing external honours of Cailyle's life was his ajipointment as Lord 
 Rector of the University of Edinburgh in ISHf! ; but at the very time 
 that he wfis delivering his famous and remarkable Installation Ad- 
 dress, his wife lay dying .'n JiOndon. This stroke brought terrible 
 sorrow on the old man ; he never ceased to mourn for his loss, and to 
 recall the virtues and the beauties of chamcter in his dead wife ; 
 " the light of his life," he said, " was (juite gone out ; " and he wrote 
 very little after her death. He himself di(Ml in London on the 5tli 
 of February 1881. 
 
 28. Carlyle's Style. — Carlyle was an author by profession, a 
 teacher of and prophet to his countrymen by his mission, and a 
 student of history by the deep interest he took in the life of man. 
 He was always more or less severe in his judgments — he has been 
 called " The Censor of the Age," — because of the high ideal which 
 he set up for his own conduct and the conduct of others. — He shows 
 in liis historic writings a splendour of imagery and a power of dra- 
 matic grouping second only to Shakes])eare's. In connnand of word- 
 he is second to no modern English wi'iter. His stvle has been hiddv 
 praised and also energetically blamed. It is rugged, gnarled, dis- 
 jointed, full of irregular force— shot across by sudden lurid lights of 
 imagination — full of the most striking and indeed astonishing 
 epithets, and inspired by a certain grim Titanic force. His sen- 
 tences are often clumsily built. He himself said of them : " Perha])s 
 not more than nine-tenths stand straight on their legs ; the remainder 
 are in (piite angular attitudes ; a few even sprawl out helplessly on 
 all sides, quite broken-backed and dismembered." There is no 
 modern writer who possesses so large a profusion of figurative lan- 
 guage. His works are also full of the pithiest and most memorable 
 sayings, such as the following : — 
 
 " Genius is an immense capacity for taking pains." 
 
 " Do the duty which lies nearest thee I Thy second duty will already have 
 become clearer." 
 
HRST HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 420 
 
 c. lionk — .1 1"'"1< 
 rench Bevolu- 
 lis Cromwell's 
 I'tcr tlieiii a large 
 ; Imnk'st \)'u'xv of 
 lerick IL, com 
 rhly r(;;-;imle(l in 
 at off.cers in tli<; 
 the liest accomil 
 ^vlli(;h tlicy were; 
 ^no of tin- crown- 
 i.intinent as TiOnl 
 it at tlic very time 
 e liistallatimi A<1- 
 ^ Lrou^ht tfrriblt^ 
 f(jr Ills loss, aiitlt" 
 ill his (lead wife ; 
 lit ; " and he wrote 
 ^ondon on the 5lh 
 
 r hv profession, a 
 li-; mission, and ii 
 11 the life of num. 
 ^>j^ts— he has been 
 high ideal which 
 others.— He show.- 
 nd a power of dra- 
 lommand of word- 
 ■le has been highly 
 ,ged, gnarled, dis- 
 den Inrid lights of 
 tideed astonishing 
 force. His si'U- 
 |f them : " Perha])s 
 rs ; the remainiier 
 ont helplessly on 
 |1." There is no 
 of iigurative laii- 
 d most memorable 
 
 iity will already have 
 
 " History is ji mifrhty (h-aiu.i, enacted iijum tlu" theatre of time, with suns 
 for lamps, ami eternity for a background." 
 
 " All true work is sacred. In all true work, were it but true hand-labour, 
 there is something of divineness. Laljour, wide as the iiavtli, has its summit in 
 lieaven." 
 
 'Ilemember now and always that Life is no idle drcixni, but a solemn 
 ivality bused upon Eternity, and encompassed by Eternity. Find out your 
 task: stand to it: the night conieth when no man can work." 
 
 29. Thomas Babinqton Macaulay (1800-1859), the most popn- 
 lar of modern historians,— an e.ssayist, poet, s^tatesman, and orator, 
 — was born at Rothk^y Temple, in Leicestershire, in the year 1800. 
 His father was one of the greatest advocates for the abolition of 
 slavery; and received, after his death, the honour of a monument in 
 Westminster Abbey. Young Macaulay was educated i)rivately, and 
 then at Trinity College, Cambridge, lie studied clas.'^ics with great 
 diligence and success, but detested mathematics — a dislike the con.se- 
 ([uences of Avliich he afterwards deeply regretted. In 1824 lie was 
 elected Fellow of his college. His first literary work was done for 
 Knight's '(Quarterly Magazine'; Init the earliest piece of writing 
 that l)rought him into notice was liis famous es.say on Milton, 
 written for the 'Edinburgh Review' in 1825. Several years of his 
 life were spent in India, as Member of the Supreme Council ; and, on 
 iii^; return, he entered Parliament, where he sat as M.P. for Edin- 
 hurgh. Several offices were filled by him, among others that of 
 P;iyma.ster-General of the Forces, with a seat in the Cabinet of Lord 
 John Rus.sell. In 1842 appeared his Lays of Ancient Rome, 
 poems which have found a very large number of readers. His 
 1,'reatest work is his History of England from the Accession 
 of James II. To enable liimself to write this history he read 
 hundreds of books, Acts of Parliament, thousands of paniphlets, 
 tracts, broadsheets, ballads, and other Hying fragments of literature; 
 iuid he never .seems to have forgotten anything he ever read. In 
 1849 he was elected Lord Rector of the University of Glasg(jw; and 
 iu 1857 was rai.sed to the peerage with the title of Baron Macaulay 
 of Rothley — the first literary man who was ever called to tlie House; 
 of Lords. He died at Holly Lodge, Kensington, in the year 1859. 
 
 30. Macaulay's Style. — One of the most remarkable ([ualities in 
 his style is the copiousness of expression, and the remarkable power 
 of putting the same statement in a large number of different way.s. 
 This enormous command of expression corresponded with the extra- 
 "rdinary power of his memorv. At the age of eight he could repeat 
 
 2 F 
 
430 
 
 HISTORY OF ENOLISII T.TTKUATUUE. 
 
 the whole of Scott's ])()('iii of " Marinioii." lie wiia fond, at tliis early 
 age, of l)ig words and IcariKMl Enj^dish ; and once, when he was asked 
 by a hidy if his toothache was bi'ttcr, he replied, " Madam, the agony 
 is abated ! " He knew the whole of Homer an<l of Milton by heart ; 
 and it was said with perfect truth that, if Milton's poetical works 
 could have been lost, Macaulay would have restored every line with 
 complete exactness. Sydney Smith said of him : " There are no 
 limits to his knowledge, on small subjects as on great ; he is like a 
 book in breeches." His style has been called " abrupt, pointed, ami 
 oratorical." Ht; is fond of the arts of surprise — of antithesis — and of 
 epigram. Sentences like these are of frecpient occurrence : — 
 
 "Cranmer could vindicate himself from the charge of being a heretic only 
 by arguments which made him out to be a murderer," 
 
 " The Puritan liatcd bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, but 
 because it gave pleasure to the si)ectators." 
 
 Besides these elements of epigram and antithesis, there is a vast 
 wealth of illustration, brought from the stores of a memory which 
 never seemed to forget anything. He studied every sentence with 
 the greatest care and minuteness, and would often rewrite para- 
 graphs and even whole chapters, until he was satisfied with the 
 variety and clearness of the expression. " He could not rest," it 
 was said, "until the punctuation was correct to a comma, until 
 every paragrai)h concluded with a telling sentence, and every sen- 
 tence flowed like clear running w^xter." But, above all things, lie 
 strove to make his style perfectly lucid and immediately intelligihk', 
 He is fond of countless details ; but he so masters and marshals these 
 detiiils that each only serves to throw more light upon the main 
 statement. His prose may be described as pictorial prose. Tin 
 character of his mind was, like Burke's, combative and oratorical 
 and he writes with the greatest vigour and animation when he l- 
 attacking a j)olicy or an opinion. 
 
 It 
 
K. 
 
 431 
 
 ,ma, at this early 
 
 lu'U lie ^Vll« ^^•^^*''^ 
 huUun, the agony 
 Milton l»y heart ; 
 I'a poetical works 
 id every line with 
 . " There are im 
 rcat ; he is li^« '\ 
 ,nipt, voiutea, an. 
 antithesis-and ul 
 ;urrence •.— 
 f being a heretii; only 
 
 e pain to the bear, l>ul 
 
 BBis, there is a vast 
 of a memory wliuli 
 every sentence witli 
 often rewrite pava- 
 ^ satisfied with tlu. 
 could not rest, it 
 r to a comma, until 
 ence, and every sen- 
 ' ahove all things, k 
 Lediately intelligihle. 
 rs and marshals these 
 light npon the nuuu 
 pi^ctorial prose. Tb.' 
 'native and oratorical; 
 animation when he. i' 
 
 CHAPTER TX. 
 
 THE SECOND HALF OF THE XINETEEN'TH CENTURY. 
 
 1. Science. — Tho second lialf of the nineteenth eontury is 
 distinguislied by tlie enormous advance made in science, and in 
 the application of science to the industries and uccupati<jns of 
 the people. Chemistry and electricity have more especially 
 made enormous strides. Within the last twenty years, chem- 
 istry lias remade itself into a new science ; and electricity has 
 taken a very large part of tho labour of mankind upon itself. 
 It carries our messages round the world — under the deepest seas, 
 over the highest mountains, to every continent, and to every 
 great city; it lights up our streets and public halls; it drives 
 our engines and ])ropels our trains. But the powers of imagina- 
 tion, the great literary powers of poetry, and of eloquent prose, 
 — especially in the domain of fiction, — have not decreased because 
 science has grown. They have ratlier shown stronger develoj)- 
 ments. We must, at the same time, remember that a great deal 
 of the literary work published by tho writers who lived, or are 
 still living, in the latter half of this century, was written in the 
 former half. Thus, Longft^llow was a man of forty-three, and 
 Tennyson was forty-one, in the year 1850 ; and both had by 
 that time done a great deal of their best work. The same is 
 true of the prose-writers, Thackeray, Dickens, and Ivuskin. 
 
 2. Poets and Prose-Writers. — The six greatest poets of the 
 latter half of this century are Longfellow, a distinguished 
 American poet, Tennyson, Mrs Browning, Robert Brown- 
 
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 HISTORY OP ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 ing, William Morris, and Matthew Arnold. Of these, Mrs 
 Browning and Longfellow are dead — Mrs Browning having died 
 in 1861, and Longfellow in 1882. — The four greatest writers of 
 prose are Thackeray, Dickens, George Eliot, and Ruskin. 
 Of these, only liuskin is alive. 
 
 3. Henky Wadsworth Longpellow (1807-1882), the most 
 popular of American poets, and as popular in Great Britain as he 
 is in the United States, was bom at Portland, Maine, in the year 
 1807. He was educated at Bowdoin College, and took his degree 
 there in the year 1825. His profession was to have been the law; 
 but, froni the first, the whole bent of his talents and character was 
 literary. At the extraordinary age of eigl'^een the professorship of 
 modern languages in his own college was offered to him ; it was 
 eagerly accepted, and in order to quaLfy himself for his duties, he 
 spent the next four years in Germany, France, Spain, and Italy 
 His first important prose work was Outre-Mer, or a Pilgrimage 
 beyond the Sea. In 1837 he was offered the Chair of Modem 
 Languages and Literature in Harvard University, and he again paid 
 a visit to Europe — this time giving his thoughts and study chiefly to 
 Germany, Denmark, and Scandinavia. In 1839 he published the 
 prose romance called Hyperion. But it was not as a prose-writer 
 that Longfellow gained the secure place he has in the hearts of the 
 English-speaking peoples ; it was as a poet. His first volume of 
 poems was called Voices of the Night, and appeared in 1841 ; 
 Evangeline was published in 1848; and Hiawatha, on whic'i his 
 poetical reputation is perhaps most firmly based, in 1855. Many 
 other volumes of poetry — both original and translations — have ai^n 
 come from his pen ; but these are the best. The University of Ox- 
 ford created him Doctor of Civil Law in 1869. He died at Harvard 
 in the year 1882. A man of singularly mild and gentle character, of 
 sweet and charmirg manners, his own lines may be applied to him 
 with perfect appropriateness — 
 
 " His gracioufi presence upon earth 
 Was as a fire upon a hearth ; 
 As pleasant songs, at moniing snng, 
 Tlie words that dropped from his sweet tongno 
 Strengthened our hearts, or — heard at night- 
 Made all our slumbers soft and light." 
 
 4. Iiongfellow's Style. — In one of his prose works, Longfellow 
 himself says, " In character, in manners, in style, in all things, the 
 
E. 
 
 SECOND HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTUKY. 
 
 433 
 
 Of these, Mrs 
 ing having died 
 Batest writers of 
 t, and Ruskin. 
 
 1882), the most 
 •eat Britain as he 
 iaine, in the year 
 u\ took his degree 
 ave been the law ■, 
 and character was 
 he professorship of 
 ed to him ; it was 
 if for his duties, he 
 , Spain, and Ttaly. 
 p, or a Pilgrimage 
 le Cliair of Modem 
 r, and he again paid 
 land study chiefly to 
 9 he published the 
 lot as a prose-writer 
 in the hearts of the 
 lis first volume of 
 appeared in 1841 ; 
 atha, on whic\ hi? 
 id, in 1855. Many 
 .slations— have abo 
 .e University of Ox- 
 [He died at Harvard 
 gentle character, of 
 be applied to him 
 
 k tongtip 
 I night- 
 works, Longfellow 
 le. in all things, the 
 
 supreme excellence is simplicity." This simplicity he steadily aimed 
 at, and in almost all his writings reached ; and the result is the 
 sweet lucidity which is manifest in his best poems. His verse has 
 been characterised as "simple, musical, sincere, sympathetic, clear 
 as crystal, and pure as snow." He has written in a great variety 
 of measures — in more, perhaps, than hnve been employed by 
 Tennyson himself. His "Evangeline" is written in a kind ol 
 dactylic hexameter, which does not always scan, but wliic'u is almost 
 always musical and impressive — 
 
 " Fair was she aud young, when in hope begun the long jonrnt-y ; 
 Faded was she and old, when in disappointment it ended." 
 
 The " Hiawatha," again, is written in a trochaic measure — eacli verse 
 containing four trochees — 
 
 " * Farewell ! ' said he, " Minnehaha, 
 Farewell, O my laughing water ! 
 All my heart is buried with you, 
 Air my I thou'ghts go | on'ward | wi'th you ! ' " 
 
 He is always careful and painstaking with his rhythm and with the 
 cadence of his verse. It may be said with truth tluit Longfellow- 
 has taught more people to love poetry than any other English writer, 
 however great. 
 
 5. Alfred Tennyson, a great English poet, wlio lias written 
 beautiful poetry for more than fifty yeai-s, was born at Somersby, 
 in Lincolnshire, in the year 1809. He is tlie youngest of tlueo 
 brothers, all of whom are poets. He was educated at Cambridge, 
 and some of his poems have shown, in a striking light, the forgotten 
 beauty of the fens and fiats of Cambridge and Lincolnshire. In 1829 
 he obtained the Chancellor's medal for a i)oeni on " Timbuctoo," In 
 1830 he published his first volume, with the title of Poems chiefly 
 Lyrical — a volume which contained, among otlier beautiful verses, 
 the " Recollections of the Arabian Nights" and "The Dying Swan." 
 In 1833 he issued another volume, called simply Poems; and this 
 contained the exquisite poems entitled " The Miller's Patigliter" and 
 " The Lotos-Eaters." The Princess, a poem as remarkal>lc for its 
 striking thoughts as for its perfection of language, appeared in 1847. 
 The In Memoriaxn, a long series of short poems in memory of his 
 dear friend, Arthur Henry Hallam, the son of Hallani tlie historian, 
 was published in the year 1850. When Wordsworth died in 1850, 
 Tennyson was appointed to the office of Poet-Laureate, '^his office, 
 from the time when Dryden was forced to resign it in 1689, to the 
 
4i,U| ..^m.« 
 
 lUi 
 
 434 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 ^t 'i<i|* 
 
 time when Southey acceptt'd it in 1H13, had ulwavs been liekl by 
 third or fourth rate writers ; in the i)resentday it ia hehl by the man 
 who haa dune the large.st amount of the best poetical work. The 
 Idylls of the King appean-d in IHoi). This series of pmins — per- 
 haps his {greatest— contains the stories of "Artliur antl the Knights 
 of the Round Table." ^lany otht-r vohinies of pcicnis liavc bt-t-n given 
 by him to the world. In his (dd age he has taken to tlie writing of 
 ballads and dramas. His balhvl of The Revenge is one of tiie 
 noblest and most vigorous poems thtit England has ever seen. The 
 dramas of Harold, Queen Mary, an<l Becket, are jierhajis his 
 best ; and the last was written when the poet had reached the age 
 of seventy-four. In the year 1882 he was created Baron Tennyson, 
 and called to the House of Peers. 
 
 6. Tennyson's Style. — Tennyson has been to the last two gener- 
 ations of Englishmen the national teacher of ])oetry. He has tried 
 many new measures ; he has ventured on many new rhythms ; and 
 he has succeeded in them all. He is at home ecjually in the slowest, 
 most tranquil, and most meditative of rhytlnns, and in the rapide.**! 
 and most impulsive. Let us look at tlie following lines as an 
 example of the first. The poem is written on a woman who is 
 dying of a lingering disease — 
 
 " Fair is her cottage in its place, 
 
 Where yon broad water sweetly slowly glides : 
 It sees itself from tliatch to base 
 Dream in the sliding tides. 
 
 " And fairer she : but, ah I how soon to die ! 
 Her quiet dream of life this liour may cease : 
 Her peaceful being slowly passes by 
 To some more perfect peace." 
 
 The very next poem, " The Sailor Boy," in the same volume, is— 
 though written in exactly the same measure— driven on with the 
 most rapid march and vigorous rhythm — 
 
 " He rose at dawn and, lired with liope, 
 Shot o'er the seething harbour-bar. 
 And reached the ship and caught the rojie 
 And whistled to the morning-star." 
 
 And this is a striking and prominent characteristic of all Tennyson's 
 poetry. Everj-where the sound is made to be " an echo to the sense " ; 
 the style is in perfect keeping with the matter. In the "Lotos- 
 Eaters," we have the sense of complete indolence and deep repose 
 in — 
 
SECOND HALF OF NINETKKNTH CENTUKY. 
 
 435 
 
 lys been heUl by 
 i'hebl by the man 
 tical w<irk. The 
 L-s of p.Kius— per- 
 aiul Ib^ Knigbts 
 IS bave \)L'tMi <^'iven 
 11 to tbe writing "f 
 nge is one of tbe 
 as ever seen. Tbe 
 
 t, are v^'*"^"^!'** ^'^"^ 
 ,(l reacbed tbe age 
 d Baron Tennyson, 
 
 tbe bist two gener- 
 ■try. He bas tried 
 new rbytbnis ; and 
 iially in tbe slowest, 
 and in tbe rapidest 
 lowing lilies as an 
 m a woman who is 
 
 y glides ; 
 
 .lif ! 
 .V cease ; 
 
 same volume, is— 
 il riven on wilb tbo 
 
 |roi»e 
 
 tic of all Tennyson's 
 echo to the sense " ; 
 ir. In tbe "Lotos- 
 Ice and deep repose 
 
 " A land of streaiiis ! Some, liki- u tlownwnrd smoke, 
 Slow-dropping veils of thinnest lawn, did go." 
 
 In the " Boadicea," we have tbe rush and the shock of battle, tbe 
 closing of legions, tbe hurtle of arms au<i ihc clasli of armed men — 
 
 " Phantom sound of blows descending, moan of an enemy massacred, 
 Phantom wail of women and children, multitudinous agonies." 
 
 Many of Tennyson's sweetest and most pathetic lines have gone right 
 into the he.irt of the nation, such as — 
 
 " But oh for the touch of a vanisiied hand, 
 And the souml of a voice that is still !" 
 
 All his language is highly polished, ornate, rich — sometimes Si)en- 
 serian in luxuriant imagery and sweet music, sometiniL-s even Homeric 
 in massiveness and severe .simplicity. Thus, in the " Morte d' Arthur," 
 he speaks oi the knight walking to tbe lake as — 
 
 " Clothed with his breath, and looking as he walked. 
 Larger than human on the frozen hills.' 
 
 Many of his pithy lines have taken root in the memory of the Eng- 
 lish people, such as these — 
 
 " 'Tis better to have loved and lost, 
 Than never lo have loved at all." 
 
 " For words, like Nature, half revwal, 
 And half conceal, the soul within." 
 
 " Kind hearts are more than coronets, 
 And simple faith than Norman blood." 
 
 7. Elizabeth Barrett Barrett, afterwards Mrs Browxinu, the 
 greatest poetess of this century, was born in London in the yeur 
 1809. She wrote verses *' at the age of eight — and earlier," she 
 says ; and her first volume of poems was published wlien she was 
 seventeen. AVhen still a girl, .she broke a blood-ves.sel uj)on the 
 lungs, was ordered to a warmer climate than that of Loiubn ; and 
 her brother, whom she loved very dearly, took her down to Tor- 
 quay. There a terrible tragedy was enacted before her eyes. One 
 day the weather and the water looked very tempting ; her brother 
 took a sailing-boat for a short cruise in Torbay ; the Ijoat went down 
 in front of the house, and in view of his sister ; the bctdy Mas never 
 recovered. This sad event completely destroyed her already weak 
 health ; she returned to London, and spent several years in a dark- 
 ened room. Here she "read almost every book worth reading in 
 
436 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 i .1 
 
 r\ 
 
 almost every language, and gave herself heart and soul to that 
 poetry of which she seemed born to be the priestess." Tliis way of 
 life lasted for many years ; and, in tlie course of it, she published sev- 
 eral volumes of noble verse. In 184G she married Robert Browning, 
 also a great poet. In 1856 she })rought out Aurora Lieigh, her 
 longest, and probably also her greatest, ])oem. Mr Ruskin calledj 
 it "the greatest poem which the century lias produced in any Ian- 1 
 gu£^e;" but this is going too far. — Mrs Browning will probably be 
 longest remembered by her incomparable sonnets and by her lyrics, 
 which are full of pathos and passion. Perhaps her two finest poems 
 in this kind are the Cry of the Children and Cowper's Grave. 
 All her poems show an enormous power of elocjuent, penetrating, and 
 picturesque language ; and many of them are melodious with a rich 
 and wonderful music. She died in 1861. 
 
 8. Robert Browning, the most daring and original poet of the 
 century, was born in Camberwell, a southern sul)urb of London, in 
 the year 1812. He was privately educated. In 1836 he published 
 his first poem Paracelsus, which many Avondered at, but few read. 
 It was the story of a man who had lost his way in the mazes of 
 thought about life, — about its why and wherefore, — about this world 
 and the next, — about himself and his relations to God and his fellow- 
 men. Mr Browning has written many plays, but they are more fit 
 for reading in the study than for acting on the stage. His greatest 
 work is The Ring and the Book; and it is most probably by this 
 that his name will live in future ages. Of his minor poems, the best 
 known and most popular is The Pied Piper of Hamelin — a poem 
 which is a great favourite with all young people, from the pictur- 
 esqueness and vigour of the verse. The most deeply pathetic of his 
 minor poems is Evelyn Hope : — 
 
 " So, hush, — I will give you this leaf to keep — 
 See, I shut it inside the sweet cold hand, 
 There ! that is our secret ! go to sleep ; 
 You will wake, and remember, and understand." 
 
 9. Browning's Style. — Browning's language is almost always 
 very hurd to understand ; but the meaning, when we have got at 
 it, is woU worth all the trouble that ma}' have been taken to reach 
 it. His poems are more full of thought and more rich in experience 
 than those of any other English writer except Shakspeare. The 
 thoughts and emotions which throng his mind at the same moment 
 so crowd upon and jostle each other, become so inextricably inter- 
 mingled, that it is very often extremely difficult for us to make out 
 
SECOND HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 437 
 
 1(1 soul to that 
 J." This way ot 
 e published sev- 
 :ol)ert Browninfj, 
 ora Leigh, her 
 r Ruskin calledj 
 iced in any Ian- 1 
 will prohahly be 
 ,nd by her lyricB, 
 two finest poems 
 owper'8 Grave. 
 :, penetrating, and 
 (lious with a rich 
 
 jfrinal poet of the 
 ,urb of London, in 
 1836 he published 
 d at, but few read, 
 y in the mazes of 
 -about this world 
 od and his fellow- 
 , they are more tit 
 age. His greatest 
 It probably by this 
 Lor poems, the best 
 Hamelin— a poem 
 [, from the pictur- 
 [ply pathetic of his 
 
 ind, 
 pderstand." 
 
 is almost always 
 In we have got at 
 en taken to reach 
 rich in experience 
 Bhakspeare. The 
 [the same moment 
 linextricaVy inter- 
 ior us to make out 
 
 any meaning at all. Then many of his thoughts are so subtle and so 
 profound that they cannot easily be drawn up from the d('j)th3 in 
 which they lie. No man can write with greater directness, greater 
 lyric vigour, fire, and impulse, than Browning when he chooses — 
 write mo'-e clearly and forcildy about such subji-cts as love and Mar ; 
 but it is very seldom that he does choose. The infinite complexity 
 of human life and its manifold experiences have seized and im- 
 prisoned his imagination ; and it is not often that he speaks in a 
 clear, free voice. 
 
 10. Matthew Arnold, one of the finest poets and noblest stylists 
 of the age, was born at Laleham, near Staines, on the Thames, in the 
 year 1822. He is the eldest son of the great Dr Arnold, the i'anious 
 Head-master of Rugby. He was educated at Winchester and Rugby, 
 from which latter school he ]>roceeded to Balliol College, Oxford. 
 The Newdigate prize for Engliidi verse was won by him in 1843— 
 the subject of his poem being Cromwell. His iirst volume of 
 poen)s was published in 1848. In the year 1851 he was appointed 
 one of H.M. Inspectors of Schools; and he held that ottice up to the 
 year 1885. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry in the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford. In 1868 appeared a new volume with the simple 
 title of New Poems; and, since then, he has produced a large 
 number of books, mostly in prose. He is no less famous as a 
 critic than as a poet ; and his prose is singularly beautiful and 
 musical. 
 
 11. Arnold's Style. — The chief qualities of his verse are clear- 
 ness, simplicity, strong directness, noble and musical rhythm, and a 
 certain intense calm. His lines on Morality give a good idea of his 
 style : — 
 
 •' We cannot kindle when we will 
 The fire that in the heart resides : 
 The spirit bloweth and is still 
 In mystery our soul abides : 
 
 But tasks m hours of insight willed 
 Can be through hours of gloom fulfilled. 
 
 •' With aching hands and bleeding feet 
 We dig and heap, lay stone on stone ; 
 We bear the burden and the heat 
 Of the long «lay, and wish 'twere done. 
 
 Not till t'le hours of light return, 
 
 All we have built do we discern." 
 
 H<s finest poem in blank verse is his Sohrab and Rustum— a tale 
 
wh 
 
 4i ; i 
 
 ;i 
 
 II 
 
 ;1 
 
 !. 
 ■i 
 ■J 
 
 I 
 
 1^ 
 
 n ; . » 
 
 438 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 of the Tartar waHto,«. One of his noblest poem?, called Rugby 
 Chapel, describes the strcnj,' and elevated character ot his father, 
 the Head-master of Ruj^by. — His prose is remarkable for its lucidity, 
 its pleasant and almost conversational rhythm, and its perfection of 
 
 languaye. 
 
 12. William Morris, a great narrative ]ioet, was born near London 
 in the year 1834. He was educated at Marlb»jrougli and at Exeter 
 College, Oxford. In 1858 appeared his first volume of poems. In 
 1863 he be<;an a business for the production of artistic wall-paper, 
 stained glass, and furniture ; he has a shop for the sale of these 
 works of art in Oxford Street, London ; and he devotes most of his 
 time to drawing and designing for artistic manufacturers. His first 
 poem. The Life and Death of Jason, appeared in 1867; and his 
 magnificent series of narrative poems — The Earthly Paradise — 
 was published in the years from 1868 and 1870. 'The Earthly 
 Paradise ' consists of twenty-four tales in verse, set in a framework 
 much like that of Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales.' The poetic power 
 in these tales is second only to that of Chaucer ; and Morris has al 
 ways acknowledged himself to be a pupil of Chaucer's — 
 
 "Thou, my Master still, 
 Whatever feet have climbed Paniassus' hill." 
 
 Mr Morris has also translated the iEneid of Virgil, and several 
 works from the Icelandic. 
 
 13. Morris's Style.— Clearness, strength, music, picturesqueness, 
 and easy flow, are the chief characteristics of Morris's styie. Of the 
 month of April he says : — 
 
 " O fair midspriiig, besung so oft and oft, 
 How caa I praise tby loveliness enow? 
 Thy sun that burns not, and thy breezes soft 
 That o'er the blossoms of the orchard blow, 
 The thousand things that neath the young leaves grow 
 The hopes and chances of the growing year, 
 Winter forgotten long, and summer near." 
 
 His pictorial power — the power of bringing a person or a scene fully 
 and adequately before one's eyes by the aid of words alone — is as 
 great as that of Chaucer. The following is his picture of Edward 
 III. in middle age : — 
 
 '• Broad-browed he was, hook-nosed, with wide grey eyes 
 No longer eager for the coming prize, 
 
SECOND HALF OF NINETEENTH (ENTUKY. 
 
 439 
 
 called Bugby 
 iV ot his father, 
 J for its lucidity, 
 its perfection of 
 
 )orn near London 
 irh and at Exeter 
 le of poems. In 
 rtistic wall-paper, 
 the sale of these 
 >vote3 nio?t of his 
 3turers. His first 
 1 in 1867; and his 
 thly Paradise— 
 ). 'The Earthly 
 2t in a framework 
 The poetic power 
 and Morris has al 
 ?er's — 
 
 hill." 
 irgil, and peveral 
 
 ic, picturesqueness, 
 'is's styie. Of the 
 
 leaves grow 
 
 )n or a scene fully 
 
 rords alone — is as 
 
 [picture of Edward 
 
 But keen ami steadfast : many nn aj;ein^ \\\w, 
 
 Hall'-hidileii by his sweeping,' Iteanl ami line, 
 
 rioujjtluil his thill eheeks ; his h.iii \\a> mure than grey, 
 
 Ami like to one he seemed whose hettt-i' d:iy 
 
 Is over to himself, tliouch foolish taim- 
 
 Siiouts louiler year by year liis empty name. 
 
 Unarmed he was, nor olnd ui>on that morn 
 
 MiK'h like a kin;.': an ivory huntin;,'horn 
 
 Was slung alionl him, rieh with gems ami gold, 
 
 And a great white ger-faloon tlid he hold 
 
 Fpon his list; hefore his feet there sat 
 
 A scrivener making notes of this and that 
 
 As the King hade him, ami behind his ehair 
 
 His raptitins stood in armour rieh and fair." 
 
 Morris's stores of laii<,'ua<,'e are us rich as .Si)eiist'r's ; and lie has much 
 the same copious and musical flo'v of poetic words antl jdi rases. 
 
 14. William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863), (uu- of the 
 most ori^'inal of English novelists, was born at Calcutta in the year 
 1811. The son of a <^entleman lijoh in the civil service of the East 
 India Company, he was sent to Eii,L,'land to be educated, and was 
 some years cit Charterhouse Schoul, where one of his schoolfellows 
 was Alfred Tennyson. lie then went on to the University of Cam- 
 bridge, which he left without taking a degree. Painting was the 
 profession that he at first chose ; and he studied art both in France 
 and Germany. At the age of twenty-nine, however, he discovered 
 that he was on a false tack, gave up painting, and took to literary 
 work as his true field. He contributed many (deasant articles to 
 ' Eraser's Magazine,' under the name of Michael Angelo Titmarsh ; 
 and one of his most beautiful and most pathetic stories. The Great 
 Hoggarty Diamond, was also written under this name. He did 
 not, however, tako his true }>lace as an English novelist of the first 
 rank until the year 1847, when he published his first serial novel, 
 Vanity Fair. Readers now began everywhere to class him with 
 Charles Dickens, and even above him. His most beautiful work is 
 perhaps The Newcomes; but the work which exhibits most fully 
 the wonderful power of his art and his intimate kuowleilgc of the 
 spirit and the details of our older English life is The History of 
 Henry Esmond — a work written in the style and language of the 
 days of Queen Anne, and as beautiful as anything ever done by 
 Addison himself. He died in the year 1863. 
 
 grey eyes 
 
 15. Charles Dickens (1812-1870), the most popular writer of 
 
■j 
 
 11; 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 *» 
 
 1(1 
 
 -:!-■ 
 
 440 
 
 HISTOUY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 this century, was Ixtni at liiiiulport, PortHinouth, in the year 1812. 
 Hia delicate constitution <U'l)arnMl hini from niixin^' in boyinli sports 
 und very early ma<le liini a ^'reat reader. There was a little i^arret 
 in his lather's hoiise wliere a small collection of books was kept ; 
 and, hidden away in this room, young Charles devouicd such Imoks 
 08 the ' V'icar oi" Wakefield,' ' R()l)inson Crusoe,' and many other 
 famous English hooks. This was in Chatham. The lamily next 
 removed to Londcm, where the father was thrown into i)ri8on for 
 debt. The little boy, weakly and sensitive, was now sent to work 
 in a blacking manufactory at six shillings a-week, his duty being to 
 cover the blacking-pots with paper. " No words can express," he 
 says, " the secret agony of my soul, as i compared these my everyday 
 associates with those of my happier childhootl, and felt my early hopciH 
 of growing up to be a learned and distinguished man crushed in my 
 breast. . . . The misery it was to my young heart to believe that, 
 day by day, what I had learned, and thought, and delighted in, and 
 raised my I'ancy and my emulation up by, was passing away from 
 me, never to be brought buck any more, cannot be written." When 
 his father's affairs took a turn for the better, lie was sent to school ; 
 but it was to a schocd where "the boys trained white mice much 
 better than the master trained the boys." In fact, his true educa- 
 tion consisted in his eager perusal of a large nund)er of miscellaneous 
 books. When he came to think of what he shoidd do in the world, 
 the profession of reporter took his fancy ; and, by the time he was 
 nineteen, he had made himself the ({uickest and most accurate — that 
 is, the best reporter in the Gallery of the House of Commons. His 
 first work, Sketches by Boz, was puldished in 1836. In 1837 aj) 
 peared the Pickwick Papers ; and this work at once lifted Dicken? 
 into the foremost rank as a popular writer of fiction. From this time 
 he was almost constantly engaged in writing novels. His Oliver 
 Twist and David Copperfield contain reminiscences of his own 
 life ; and perhaps the latter is his most powerful work. " JA\n 
 many fond parents," he wrote, " I have in my heart of hearts a 
 favourite child ; and his name is David Cojiperjield" He lived with 
 all the strength of his heart and soul in the creations of his imagina- 
 tion and fancy while he was writing about them; he says himself, 
 " No one can ever believe this narrative, in the reading, more than I 
 believed it in the writing;" and each novel, as he wrote it, made 
 him older and leaner. Great knowledge of the lives of the poor, and 
 great sympathy with them, were among his most striking gifts ; and 
 Sir Arthur Helps goes so far as to say, " I doubt much whether there 
 has ever been a writer of fiction who took such a real and living 
 
IE. 
 
 SECOND HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 441 
 
 in the year 1812. 
 i in boyiwh Hports, 
 was II little <^arn-t 
 books was kept ; 
 vouied HUcli bookf^ 
 and many other 
 The tamily next 
 vn into j)ri8on ior 
 now sent to work 
 , his duty hein*; to 
 8 can express," he 
 these my everyday 
 felt my early hopes 
 lan crushed in my 
 art to believe that, 
 i\ deliyhteil in, and 
 passinj^ away Ironi 
 )e written." When 
 vas sent to school ; 
 [ white mice much 
 fact, his true educa- 
 Dcr of miscellaneous 
 lid do in the world, 
 by the time he was 
 most accurate — that 
 of Commons. Hi^ 
 1836. In 1837 ap 
 once lifted Dicken? 
 ,n. From this time 
 vels. His Oliver 
 scences of his own 
 Irful work. "Liki 
 heart of hearts a 
 |W." He lived with 
 ions of his imagina- 
 ; he says himself, 
 adiug, more than 1 
 I he wrote it, made 
 les of the poor, aiul 
 ]striking gifts ; and 
 luch whether there 
 a real and living 
 
 interest in the world about him." He died in the year 1870, an<l 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 16. Dickens's Style. — His style in easy, flowing, vigorous, pictur- 
 esque, and humorous ; his power of langua^'e is very great ; and, 
 when lie is writing under the influence of stmng passion, it rises 
 into a pure and noble eloquence. The scenery — the external cir- 
 cumstances of his characters, are steeped in the same colours as the 
 characters themselves ; everything he t(juche8 seems to be tilled with 
 life and to speak — to look happy or sorrowful, — to retlec t the feelings 
 of the persons. His comic and humorous ])ower8 are veiy great ; 
 but his tragic power is also enormous — his power of depicting the 
 fiercest passions that tear the human breast, — avarice, hate, fear, 
 revenge, remorse. The great American statesman, Daniel Webster, 
 said that Dickens liad done more to better the condition of the 
 English poor than all the statesmen Great Britain had ever sent into 
 the English Parliament. 
 
 17. John Ruskin, the greatest living master of English prose, an 
 art-critic and thinker, was born in London in the year 1819. In his 
 father's house he was accustomed " to no other prospect than that 
 of the brick walls over the way ; he had no brother, nor sisters, nor 
 companions." To his London birth he ascribes the great charm that 
 the beauties of nature had f<»r him from his boyhood : he felt the 
 contrast between town and countrv, and saw what no countrv-bred 
 child could have seen in sights that were usual to him from his 
 infancy. He was educated at Christ Cliurch, Oxford, and gained the 
 Newdigate prize for poetry in 1839. He at first devoted himself to 
 painting ; but his true and strongest genius lay in the direction of 
 literature. In 1843 appeared the first volume of his Modern 
 Painters, which is perhaps his greatest work ; and the four other 
 volumes were published between that date and the year I860. In 
 this work he discusses the (jualities and the merits of the greatest 
 ])ainters of the English, the Italian, and other schools. In 18') I he 
 produced a charming fiiiry tale, ' The King of the Golden River, or 
 the Black Brothers.' He has written on architecture also, on politi- 
 cal economy, and on many other social subjects. He is the founder 
 of a society called " The St George's Guild," the puqiose of which is 
 to spread abroad sound notions of what true life and true art are, and 
 especially to make the life of the poor more endurable and better 
 worth living. 
 
 18. Buskin's Style. — A glowing eloquence, a splendid and full- 
 
442 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 m 
 
 , ; 
 
 flowing music, wealth of idinisc, uptiu'Hs of epillicl, opulence of 
 IdeaH — ttll these (lUaliticH (•Imracterico the prose Htyle of Mr Kuwkin. 
 His fiiuiiles are darinj,', but ahvay.s true. Speaking' i»f ihe countless 
 statues that fill the innunieralih* ii'ches of the cathedral of Milan, he 
 says tliat ** it is as though a flight of angels had alighted there and 
 been struck to marble." His writings are full of the wisest sayings 
 put into the most nuisical and beautiful language. Hare ore a 
 few : — 
 
 " Every net, every iniptdse, of virtue and vice, affects in any creature, face, 
 voice, nervous power, ami vij<our and liarinoiiy of invention, nt once. Perse- 
 verance in rightness of human conduct renderH, after a certain nundwr of gen- 
 erations, human art possible ; every sin clouds it, be it ever so little a one ; and 
 persistent vicious living and following of pleasure render, after a certain number 
 of generations, all art impossible." 
 
 " In mortals, there is a care for trifles, whicli jiroceeds from love and con- 
 science, and is most holy ; and a care for tritles, which comes of idleness and 
 frivolity, and is njost base. And so, also, tliere is a gravity proceeding from 
 dulness and mere incapability of enjoyment, wliich is most base." 
 
 His power of painting in words is incomparably greater than that of 
 any other English author : he almost infuses colour into his words 
 and phrases, so full are they of pictorial power. It would be impos- 
 sible to give any adequate idea of this power here ; but a few lines 
 may suffice for the present : — 
 
 " The noonday sun came slanting down the rocky slopes of La Riccia, and 
 its masses of enlarged and tall foliage, whose autumnal tints were mixed with 
 the wet verdure of a thousand evergreens, were penetrated with it as with rain. 
 I cannot cr'.ll it colour ; it was conflagration. Purple, and crimson, and scarlet, 
 like the curtains of God's tabernacle, the rejoicing trees sank into the valley in 
 showers of light, every separate leaf (juivered with buoyant and burning life ; 
 each, as it turned to reflect or to transmit the sunbeam, first a torch and then 
 an emerald." 
 
 w 
 
 19. George Eltot (the literary name for Marian Evans, 1819- 
 1880), one of our greatest writers, was born in Warwickshire in the 
 year 1819. She was well and carefully educated ; and her own 
 serious and studious character made her a careful thinker and a 
 most diligent reader. For some time the famous Herbert Spencer 
 was her tutor ; and under his care her mind developed with surpris- 
 ing rapidity. She taught herself German, French, Italian — studied 
 the best works in the literature of these languages ; and she was also 
 fairly mistress of Greek and Latin. Besides all these, she was an 
 accomplished musician. — She was for some time assistant-editor of 
 the • Westminster Review.' The first of her works which called the 
 
SECOND HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTUHY. 
 
 443 
 
 lu'V, opulence of 
 le of Mr lluHkin. 
 ;f of the countU'^s 
 nlral of Milan, lu' 
 ,li^hte(l there in\"l 
 the wisi'st sayings 
 ge. Hare are a 
 
 u any creature, fnoi', 
 ion, at once. IVrs.- 
 •rtain niunlHjr of gen 
 !r so little a one ; and 
 ifter a certain number 
 
 Is from love and con- 
 •omes of idleness and 
 ftvity proceeding from 
 ist base." 
 
 rreater than that of 
 
 lour into his words 
 
 It would be itnpos- 
 
 ire ; but a few lines 
 
 opes of La Riccia, and 
 'tints were mixed with 
 h\ with it as with rain, 
 [l crimson, and scarlet, 
 iank into the valley in 
 fant and burning life ; 
 first a torch and then 
 
 w 
 
 ian Evans, 1819- 
 
 ^arwickshire in the 
 led ; and her owii 
 Iful thinker and a 
 Is Herbert Spencer 
 loped with surpris- 
 1, Italian— studied 
 and she was also 
 [these, she was an 
 1 assistant-editor of 
 Is which called the 
 
 attention of the public to her aHtonisliin^' skill ami power as a 
 novelist was her Scene^i of Clerical Life. Ibi- must popular 
 novel, Adam Bedu, u] pciired in lHr)9 ; Romola in 1M<)3 ; and 
 Middlemaroh in 1872. She luw also written a j^ood deal of poetry, 
 among other volumes ihut entitled The Legend of Jubal, and 
 other Poems. One of her be.st poems is The Spanish Oypsy. 
 She died in the year 1880. 
 
 20. Qeorge Eliot's Style.— Her style is everywhere ])ure and 
 strong, of the best and most vigorous English, not only broad in its 
 power, but often intense in its description of character and situation, 
 and always singularly ade([uate to the thought. Proliably no novelist 
 knew the English character — especially in the Midlands — so well 
 as she, or could analyse it with so much subtlt-ty and truth. She 
 is entirely mistress of the country dialects. In humour, pathos, 
 knowledge of character, power of puttin;- n portrait firmly upon the 
 canvas, no writer surpasses her, and few come near her. Her power 
 is sometimes almost Shakespearian. Like Shakespeare, she gives us 
 a large number of wise sayings, expressed in the pithiest language. 
 The following are a few : — 
 
 " It is never too late to he what you might have been." 
 
 " It is easy finding reasons why other people should be patient." 
 
 " Genius, at first, is little more than a great capacity for receiving discipline." 
 
 •'Things are not so ill with you and me as tliey iriight liave V)ecn, half owing 
 to the number who lived faitiifully a hidden life, and rest in unvisited tombs." 
 
 " Nature never makes men who are at once energetically sympathetic and 
 minutely calculating." 
 
 •' To the far woods he wandered, listening, 
 And heard the birds their little stories sing 
 In notes whose rise and fall seem melted speech — , 
 Melted with tears, smiles, glances— that can reach 
 More quickly through our frame's deei)-\vinding night, 
 And without thought raise thought's best fniit, delight." 
 
11^ • 
 
 
TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATUEE. 
 
 Writers. 
 
 WoilKS. 
 
 CoNTKMJ'ORARY 
 
 Events. 
 
 (Aut/ior unknown.) 
 
 CAEDMON. 
 A secular monk 
 Wliitby. 
 Died about 680. 
 
 of 
 
 BAEDA. 
 
 672-735. 
 
 "The Venerable 
 Bede,' a monk of Jar- 
 row-on-Tyne. 
 
 ALFRED THE 
 GREAT. 
 
 849-9OZ. 
 
 King ; translator ; 
 prose-writer. 
 
 Compiled by monks 
 in various nion.aster- 
 
 ies. 
 
 ASSER. 
 Uishop of Slier- 
 IjDine. Died 910. 
 
 (Author unknoion.) 
 
 Beowulf (brought over by 
 Saxons and Angles from the 
 Continent). 
 
 Poems on tlie Creation and 
 other subjects taken from 
 the Old arid the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 An Ecclesiastical History in 
 Latin. A translation of St 
 John's Gospel into English 
 (lost). 
 
 Translated into the English 
 of Wessex, Bede's Ecclesi- 
 astical History an<l other 
 Latin works. Is said to 
 have begun the Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 875- 
 1164. 
 
 Edwin (of Deira), I 
 King of the 
 Angles, baptis- 
 ed 027. 
 
 First landing of 
 the Danes, 787. 
 
 The University 
 of Oxford is 
 said to liave 
 1»een founded 
 in this reign. 
 
 Ces. 
 
 TUKlia. 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 LAYAMON. 
 I150-121O. 
 
 A priest of Ernley- 
 on-Sevem. 
 
 Life of King Alfred. 
 
 A poem entitle<l The Grave. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 The Bmt (1205), a poem on Jnhn 
 Brr*us, the supjiosed first ^'''^ 
 settitr in Britain. 
 
 ascended 
 throne in 
 
 1199 
 
 1100 
 
u 
 
 hi 
 
 U6 
 
 TAULES OF ENGLISH LITKKATUKR 
 
 Writers. 
 
 Works. 
 
 CoNTlCMPORARY 
 EVKNTS. 
 
 Cen- 
 turies. 
 
 ORM OK ORMIN. TheOrmulura(12ir.), asetof 
 1187-1237. religiou.s .survice.s in metre, 
 
 A candii nftlie Order ; 
 of dt Augustine. 1 
 
 ROBERT OK 
 GLOUCESTER. 
 
 1255- 1307. 
 
 ROBERT OF 
 BRUNNE. 
 
 1272-1340. 
 
 (Robert Manning of 
 Brun.) 
 
 Chronicle of Englaud 
 rhyme (1297). 
 
 in MaKUH Cliarta, 
 l-.»ly. 
 
 Henry III. as- 
 cends t li e 
 throne, 121c 
 
 University of 
 C a in b ridge 
 
 SIR JOHN 
 MANDEVILLE. 
 
 1300-1372. 
 
 Physician ; travel- 
 ler; prose-writer. 
 
 JOHN BARBOUR. 
 
 Chronicle of England in _ ^ 
 
 rhyme ; Handlyng Sinne founded, 1231° 
 (1303) 
 
 Edward I. as- 
 cends tlie 
 throne, 1272. 
 
 The Voyaige and Travaile. 
 
 Travels to Jenisaleni, India, 
 and otlier countries, written 
 in Latin, French, and ICng- 
 lish(1356). The fir.st writer 
 " iu formed English." 
 
 The Bmcc (1377), a poeni 
 TOT^S Ton/i written in the Northern Eng- 
 1310-1390. jjgj^ ^j. .. Scottish '• dialect. 
 Archdeacon of 
 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 JOHN WYCLIF. 
 
 Z324-1384. 
 
 Vicar of Lntter- 
 worth, in Leice.ster- 
 shire. 
 
 JOHN GOWER. 
 
 1325-1408. 
 
 A country gentle- 
 man of Kent ; prob- 
 ably also a lawyer. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 LANGLANDE. 
 
 1332-I4OO. 
 
 Bon In 8hrop.shire. 
 
 Translation of the Bible from 
 tlie Latin version ; and many 
 tracts and pamphlets on 
 Church reform. 
 
 Conquest of 
 Wales, 1284. 
 
 Edward II as- 
 c e n d s the 
 throne, 1307. 
 
 Battle of Ban- 
 nockburn, 1314. 
 
 F; d w a r d II I. 
 ascends the 
 throne, 1327. 
 
 Hundred Years' 
 War begins, 
 1338. 
 
 Battle of Crecy, 
 1346. 
 
 1200 
 
 1300 
 
 1350 
 
 Vox Clamantis, Confessio 
 Amantis, Speculum Medi- 
 tantis (1393); and poems Death 
 in French and Latin. 
 
 The Black j]^^?- 
 
 Vision concerning Piers the 
 Plowman — three editions 
 (1362-78). 
 
 ( 1369. 
 
 Battle of Poitiers, 
 1356. 
 
 First law-plead- 
 ings in English, 
 1362. I 
 
?. 
 
 TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATUKE. 
 
 447 
 
 EMPORARY 
 IVKNTS. 
 
 Cen- 
 turies. 
 
 uHdiarta.j 1200 
 
 uv III. iiJ*- 
 11 il s the 
 roiif, 1216 
 
 iversity of 
 a 111 V) r i tl g e 
 uiiUud, 1231 
 
 w.ird I. as- 
 einls the 
 uoue, 1272. 
 
 inquest of 
 ^'ales, 1281. 
 
 Iwaid II as- 
 c u il s the 
 hrone, 1307. 
 
 title of Ban- 
 lockbuvn, 1314. 
 
 Ilward III- 
 .si^eiula _the 
 Ihi'diie, 1327. 
 
 1300 
 
 lndve<l Years iokq 
 liXT begins, 
 1338. 
 
 Lttle of Crecy, 
 l346. 
 
 Je Black K,3g^ 
 "Death ^ ^^qq^ 
 
 lttle of Poitiers, 
 356. 
 
 Hi law-plead- \ 
 ]\g8 in Knglish, ' 
 
 Writers. 
 
 GEOFFREY 
 C H A U C E 11. 
 
 1340- 1400. 
 
 Poet; C'lurticr; 
 soldier; dii)lo!!mti.-.t ; 
 romptroUcr of thu 
 Cnstonis: Clerk of the 
 King's Works; M.P. 
 
 JAMES L OF 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 1394-1437- 
 
 Prisoner in Eng- 
 land, an<l iMlucated 
 there, in 1405-24. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 CAXTON. 
 1422-1492. 
 
 Mercer ; printer ; 
 translator; prose- 
 writer. 
 
 Works. 
 
 1/ 
 
 The Canterbury Tales (1384- 
 
 5>S), of which the best is the 
 Knightea Tale. Dry 1 ten 
 calh'il liini "a i)eri)ftual 
 fountain of good sen.se." 
 
 The King's Quair (^/iiii>k), 
 a poem in the style of Chau- 
 cer. 
 
 CoNTEMroRARV 
 
 Events. 
 
 The Oame and Playe of the 
 Chesse (1474) — the first 
 book printed in Enshinil ; 
 Lives of the Fathers, " (in- 
 ished on the last day of 
 his life ; " and many otlier 
 works. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 DUNBAR. 
 
 1450-1530- 
 
 Franciscan or Grey 
 Friar ; Secretary to 
 a Scotch embassy to 
 France. 
 
 GAWAIN 
 DOUGLAS. 
 
 1474-1522. 
 
 Bishop of Diinkcld, 
 in Perthshire. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 T Y N D A L E. 
 
 1477-1536- 
 
 Studentofthenlngj-; 
 translator. Burnt at 
 Antwerp for heresy. 
 
 The Golden Terge (1501) ; the 
 Dance of the Seven Deadly 
 Sins (1507) ; and other 
 poems. He has been called 
 " the Chaucer of Scotland." 
 
 Palace of Honour (1501); 
 translation of Virgil's JEneid 
 (1513)— the first tran.slatinu 
 of any Latin author into 
 verse. Dou<:tlas wrote in 
 Northern English. 
 
 New Testament tran.slated 
 (1525-34); the Five Books 
 of Moses translated (1530). 
 This tran.slation is the basis 
 of the Authorised Version. 
 
 Cen- 
 
 TIIRIKS. 
 
 Uiiliiird II. us- 
 ee 11 (1 s the 
 tliiuiie, 1377. 
 
 Wat Tyler's nisur 
 rectioii, 1381. i 
 
 H<Miry IV. Hs- 
 c e II d s t h e 
 throne, 13',"',i 
 
 Henry V. as- 
 
 e. ends t h e 
 throne, 1415. 
 
 Battle of 
 court, 141 
 
 Agin- 
 
 1400 
 
 Ilonry VI. as-' 
 c e n d s the' 
 throne, 1422. 
 
 Invention or 
 Printing, 1438-1 
 
 .lack Cades in- 
 Hurrectioii, 14.50 
 
 End of the Hun- 
 dred Years' War, 
 14.'., 
 
 Wars of the 
 Roses, 1455-86. 
 
 Edward IV. as- 
 cends the 
 throne, 1401. 
 
 1450 
 
 Edward 
 1483. 
 
 V. king, 
 
^ti u 
 
 Vi 
 
 448 
 
 TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 Writers. 
 
 SIR THOMAS 
 MORE. 
 
 1480-1535. 
 
 Jjord High Cliaiipt!]- 
 lor ; writer on social 
 topics ; liistorian. 
 
 SIR DAVID 
 LYNDESAY. 
 
 1490-1556- 
 
 Tutor of Prince 
 James of Scotland 
 (James V.) ; " Lord 
 Lyon Klng-at-ArniH ;" 
 poet. 
 
 ROGER ASCHAM. 
 1515-1568. 
 
 Lecturer on Greek 
 at Cambridge ; tutf>r 
 to Edward VI., Queen 
 Elizabeth, and Ladj 
 Jane Grey. 
 
 JOHN FOXE. 
 1517-1587. 
 
 An En^'lish clei-gy- 
 man. Corrector for 
 the ]iress at Basle ; 
 Prebendary of Salis- 
 bury Cathedral; 
 prose-writer. 
 
 EDMUND 
 . SPENSER 
 
 1552-1599. 
 
 Secretary to Viceroy 
 of Ireland: political 
 writer; poet. 
 
 SIR WALTER 
 RALEIGH. 
 
 1552-1618. 
 
 Courtier ; stAtes- 
 man ; sailor ; colon- 
 iser; historian. 
 
 RICH^kRD 
 HOOKiZR. 
 
 1553-1600. 
 
 English clergyman ; 
 Master of the Tem pie ; 
 Rector of Boscombe, 
 in the diocese of Salis- 
 bury. 
 
 Works. 
 
 History of King Edward V., 
 and of his brother, ami of 
 Richard III. (1.513) ; Utopia 
 ( = "Tlie Land of No- 
 where "), written in Latin ; 
 and other prose works. 
 
 Lynde8ay'sDreain(1528); The 
 Complaint (1529; ; A Satire 
 of the Three Estates (1535) 
 — a "morality-play." 
 
 Toxophilus (1544), a treatise 
 on shooting with the bow ; 
 The Scholemastre (157<M. 
 " Ascham is plain and strong 
 in his style, but without 
 grace or warmth." 
 
 The Book of Martyrs (1563), 
 an account of the '•liief Pro- 
 testant martyrs. 
 
 Shepheard's Calendar (1579) ; 
 Faerie Queene, iu six books 
 (1590.96). 
 
 History of the World (1614), 
 written during the author's 
 imprisoniuent in the Tower 
 of London. 
 
 Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity 
 
 (1594). This book is an elo. 
 quent defence of the Church 
 of England. The writer, 
 from his excellent judgment, 
 is generally called "the 
 judicious Hooker. " 
 
 Contemporary 
 Events. 
 
 Richard III. is- 
 c e n d s the 
 throne, 1483. 
 
 Battle of Bos- 
 worth, 1485. 
 
 Henry VII. a.s- 
 cends the 
 throne, 1485. 
 
 Greek began to 
 be taught in 
 England about 
 1497, 
 
 Henry VIII. as- 
 (• e n d s the 
 throne, 1509. 
 
 Battle of Flod- 
 den, 1513. 
 
 Wolsey Cardinal 
 and Lord High 
 Chancellor, 
 1515 
 
 Sir Thomas More 
 tirst layman 
 wlio was Lord 
 High Chancel- 
 lor, 1529. 
 
 Reformation in 
 England beginy 
 about 1534. 
 
 Edward VI. as- 
 (• e n d s t li e 
 throne, 1547. 
 
 Mary Tudor 
 ascends the 
 throne, 1553. 
 
 CramiKT 
 looti 
 
 burnt, 
 
 Elizabeth as- 
 cends the 
 throne, 1558. 
 
 Cen- 
 
 TURIES. 
 
 1500 
 
 1550 
 
TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 449 
 
 rEMPORARV CEK- 
 
 EVESTS. TUBIE8. 
 
 ar.l in. ns- 
 n d s t li e 
 one, 1483. 
 
 ;le of Bos- 1 
 irth, 1485. 
 
 iry VII. 89- 
 ■ ncls the 
 rone, 1485. 
 
 !ek began to 
 3 taugnt in 
 nglanil about 
 497. 
 
 WuiTEHij. 
 
 .„ry VIII. as- 1 1500 
 
 en. Is the 
 hrone, 1509. 
 
 ittle of Flod- 
 len, 1513. 
 
 oisev Cardinal 
 md Lord High 
 Chancellor, 
 
 "515 
 
 r Tlionias More 1 
 :irst layman 
 rtho was Lord 
 
 ligli Chancel- 1 
 
 or, 1529. 
 
 ^formation in | 
 England beginti 
 jbout 1534. 
 
 Iward VI. as- 
 cend s the 
 throne, 1547. 
 
 |ary Tudor 
 liscends the 
 Throne, 1553. 
 
 l\iiULier 
 1551) 
 
 biirnt, 
 
 1550 
 
 lizabcth as- 
 ■ends the 
 Ihroue, 1558. 
 
 SIR PHILIP 
 SIDNEY. 
 
 1554-1586. 
 
 Courtier ; general ; 
 romance-writer. 
 
 FRANCIS BACON. 
 1561-1626. 
 
 Viscount 8t .M- 
 lians ; Lord High 
 Chancellor of Eng- 
 land; lawyer; philo- 
 sojiher ; essayist. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 1564- 1616. 
 
 Actor ; owner of 
 theatre ; play- writer ; 
 poet. Born and died 
 at Stratford-on-Avon. 
 
 BEN JONSON. 
 
 1574-1637. 
 
 Dramatist ; poet ; 
 prose-writer. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 
 DRUMMOND ("of 
 
 Hawthornden"). 
 
 1585-1649. 
 
 Scottish poet; 
 friend of Ben Jonson. 
 
 THOMAS HOBBES. 
 1588-1679. 
 
 Philosopher; prose- 
 
 WoKKS. 
 
 writer 
 Homer. 
 
 translator of 
 
 Arcadia, a romance (1530). 
 Defence of Poesie, pub- 
 lished after his death (in 
 1595). Sonnets. 
 
 Essays (1597); Advancement 
 of Learning (1605); Novum 
 Organum (1620) ; and other 
 works on methods of inquiry 
 into nature. 
 
 Thirty • seven j>lays. His 
 (greatest tragedies are Ham- 
 let, Lear, and Othello. His 
 best comedies are Mklsum- 
 mer yitjht's Dream, The 
 Merchant of Venice, and As 
 You Like It. His best his- 
 torical plays are Julius 
 Ciesar and Richard III. 
 Many minor poeins—chietty 
 sonnets. He wrote no prose. 
 
 Tragedies and comedies. Best 
 
 plays : Volpone or the Fox; 
 Every Man in his Humour. 
 
 Sonnets and poems. 
 
 The Leviathan (1651), a 
 work on politics and moral 
 philosophy. 
 
 CoNTEMPnnART 
 
 Events 
 
 Hawkins Iwgins 
 slave trade in 
 1562. 
 
 Bizzio murdered, 
 1566. 
 
 Marlowe, Dek- 
 ker. Chapman, 
 Beaumont and 
 Fletcher, Ford, 
 Webster, Ben 
 .lonson, and 
 other drama- 
 tists, were con- 
 temporaries of 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Drake sails round 
 the world, 1577 
 
 Execution of 
 Mary Queen of 
 Scots, 1578. 
 
 Raleigh in Vir- 
 ginia, 1584. 
 
 Babington's Plot, 
 1586. 
 
 Span!.sh Armada, 
 
 1588. 
 
 Battle 
 1590. 
 
 of Ivrj', 
 
 De- 
 
 ('ADi'». 
 
 1560 
 
 1570 
 
 1580 
 
 1680 
 
■'tl 
 
 450 
 
 TABLES OF EN(1LISH LITEltATURE. 
 
 H! 
 
 ii 
 
 yi 
 
 ■ ; •? 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 t 
 
 i J 
 
 : 
 
 1 1 
 
 '^ 
 
 '1' 
 
 
 If 
 
 i i 
 
 
 Writers. 
 
 SIR THOMAS 
 BROWNE. 
 
 1605-1682. 
 
 Physician at Nor- 
 wich. 
 
 JOHN MILTON, 
 1608-1674. 
 
 Student ; iKtlitical 
 writer ; iRiet ; For- 
 ei)^n (or " Latin ") 
 Secretary to Crom- 
 well. Became l)lin<i 
 from over-work in 
 1654. 
 
 SAMUEL BUTLER. 
 z6z2-i68o. 
 
 Literary man ; 
 seeretaiy to the Earl 
 of Carbery. 
 
 JEREMY TAYLOR. 
 1613-1667. 
 
 English clergyman : 
 Bishop of Down and 
 Connor in Ireland. 
 
 JOHN BUNYAX. 
 1628-1688. 
 
 Tinker and travel- 
 ling preacher. 
 
 JOHN DRYDEN. 
 
 X631-1700. 
 
 Poet • Laureate 
 and Historiographer- 
 Royal ; playwriglit ; 
 poet ; prose- writer. 
 
 WtiKKS. 
 
 Religio Medici (--'"riie H.'- 
 ligion (if a I'liysician ") ; 
 Urn - Burial ; iiml ntlicr 
 prose works. 
 
 Minor Puems ; Paradise 
 Lost; Paradise Regained; 
 Samson Agonistes. Many 
 jirose works, llie liest liein;,' 
 Areopagitica, ;i speedi for 
 the Lilierty of nnljceiised 
 Printing. 
 
 Hndibras, a mock - heroic 
 ])oeni, written to ridiriilc 
 the Puritan ami Parliament- 
 arian party. 
 
 Holy Living and Holy Dy- 
 ing (1649) ; and a niimlier 
 of other religious books. 
 
 The Pilgrim's Progress 
 (1678); the Holy War; and 
 otlier religious works. 
 
 Annus Mirabilis (-"The 
 Wonderful Year," 1665-66, 
 on the Plague and the Fire 
 of London) ; Absalom and 
 Achitophel (1681), a poem 
 on i)olitic.il parties ; Hind 
 and Panther (1687), a re- 
 ligious poem. He also 
 wrote many plays, some 
 odes, and a translation of 
 Virgil's iEneid. His prose 
 consists chiefly of prefaces 
 and introductions to liis 
 poe'us. 
 
 CoNTK.Ml'OUARV 
 
 Events. 
 
 .■\us1ralia ilis- 1600 
 iDVured, ICOl. 
 
 James \. as- 
 V. e 11 (I s t h e 
 tlirone in l(i03. 
 
 Haiiipton Court 
 Cont'crciict' lur 
 translation of 
 Bilile, 11)04-11. 
 
 Onnjwwder Plot, 
 1005. 
 
 E ccution of 
 ilei^h, liilS. 
 
 Charles f. as- 
 cend s t h e 
 throne in 1C25. 
 
 Petition of Right, 
 1C28. 
 
 No Parliament 
 from l()'29-40. 
 
 Scottish National 
 Covenant, 1038. 
 
 Long Parliament, 
 1040-53. 
 
 Marston Moor, 
 1044. 
 
 Execution of 
 Charles L, 1649. 
 
TABLES OF ENGLISH MTKIJATrRE. 
 
 451 
 
 ■K.MI'MUAKY 
 iVKSTS. 
 
 cifd, 1001. 
 
 ea !• a»-i 
 uds tl>«l 
 one in l'W3. 
 
 miton Cimrt 
 .iitVifiict' lor 
 misUitioii I'll 
 Mv, l(',04-ll. 
 
 npowiler Pl"^ | 
 i50&. 
 
 «AI)KS. 
 
 1600 
 
 cut ion 
 aleigh, 1''1S 
 
 of 
 
 1610 
 
 hiarles I. ns'l 1620 
 (cends the 
 Itlirone in IC'25. 
 
 ktitionofRigWi 
 
 llG'iS. 
 
 Ko Parliament 
 Ifioni IC.'29-IO. 
 
 Icottish Nfttional j 
 Icovenant, 1038. 
 
 Lont; Parliament, iQ^O 
 11640-53. 
 
 llarstonMoor, 
 ll044. 
 
 Execution of 
 fcharles I., 1649. 
 
 Writkrs. 
 
 JOHN LOCKE. 
 
 1632-1704. 
 
 Diplomatist; Secre- 
 tary to the Hoard of 
 Trade ; jiliilosoplier ; 
 prose-writor. 
 
 DANIEL DEFOE. 
 1661-1731. 
 
 Literary man : 
 pamplileteiM'i journal- 
 ist ; memlicr of Com- 
 mission on Union 
 with Scotland. 
 
 JONATHAN 
 SWIFT. 
 
 1667-1745. 
 
 English clergyman ; 
 literary man ; satir- 
 ist; p r o s e - w r i t e r ; 
 poet; Dean of St Pat- 
 rick's, in Dublin. 
 
 SIR RICPIARD 
 STEELE. 
 
 1671-1729. 
 
 Soldier; literary 
 man ; courtier ; jour- 
 nalist ; M.P. 
 
 JOSEPH ADDISON. 
 1672-1719. 
 
 Essayist ; poet ; Sec- 
 retary of State for the 
 Home Department. 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 POPE. 
 
 1088-1744. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 Works. 
 
 CoNTKMPOllARV 
 KVENTS. 
 
 De- 
 
 CADKH. 
 
 Essay concerning the Hu- 
 man Understanding ( 1 6W ) ) ; 
 Thoughts on Education ; 
 
 and otlier jjfose works. 
 
 The True-born Englishman 
 (1701) ; Robinson Crusoe 
 (I71lt) ; Journal of the 
 Plague (17"22) ; and more 
 tliaii a lumdred books in 
 all. 
 
 Battle of the Books ; Tale of 
 
 a Tub (1704), an allegory on 
 the (.'hurche.s of Ronic, Knir- 
 land, and Scotland ; Gulli- 
 ver's Travels (172tj) ; a 
 few i)oenis , ami a number 
 of very vigorous political 
 pamphlets. 
 
 Steele founded the 'Taller,* 
 'Si)ectator,' 'Guardian,' and 
 other small journals. He 
 also wrote some plays. 
 
 Essays in the 'Tatler,' 
 'S])ectator,' and 'Guardian.' 
 Cato, a Tragedy (1713). 
 Several Poems and Hymns. 
 
 Essay en Criticism (1711) ; 
 Rape of the Lock (1714) ; 
 Translation of Homer's 
 Iliad and Odyssey, tinished 
 in 1726 ; Dunciad (1729) ; 
 Essay on Man (1739). A 
 few jirose Essays, and a 
 volume of Letters. 
 
 The CoiiniHPii- 1650 
 wealth. ltU'J-00. 
 
 ("ri.iiiWcU 
 
 I'riltl rtol', 
 
 58 
 
 r.oid 
 ItJ.Oii- 
 
 Uestoration, li'.iKi. 1660 
 
 First standiTi),' 
 army, 1001. 
 
 First iiew.spaper 
 ill F.ngland, 
 ltii;:i. 
 
 Pla^jne of lion- 
 lion, ll')()5. 
 
 Fire of London, 
 It'iilt). 
 
 Charles II. pen- 
 sioned 1)V r<ouis 
 XIV. (if France, 
 li)T4. 
 
 The Habeas Cor- 
 pus Act, 1079. 
 
 James II. as- 
 cends t li e 
 throne in 1(585. 
 
 Revolution 
 
 loss. 
 
 William TIL and 
 Marv II. ascend 
 the throne, 1089. 
 
 Battle of the 1690 
 Boyne, 1090. 
 
 1670 
 
 1680 
 
^ 
 
 II'; 
 
 n 
 
 
 ;ii 
 
 (^ 
 
 ■■ s 
 
 * 
 
 452 
 
 TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 WlUTKHS. 
 
 WoRKH. 
 
 CflNTRMHOllAHY 
 EVENTH. 
 
 JAMES 
 
 Poet. 
 
 THOMSON. 
 1700- 1748. 
 
 HENRY FIELDING. 
 
 1707-1754- 
 
 Police • iiiiinis1inf(! ; 
 jounmlist; novelist. 
 
 DR SAMUEL 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 1709-1784. 
 
 Sclioolinaster ; lit- 
 erary man; e.ssayist ; 
 poet; (lictioiiary- 
 iiiaker. 
 
 DAVID HUME. 
 1711-1776. 
 
 Librarian; Secut- 
 ary to tlie French Eni- 
 bas.sy ; jiliilosoiiher; 
 literary man. 
 
 THOMAS GRAY. 
 1716-1771. 
 
 Stndent ; poet; let- 
 ter-writer : Professor 
 of Modern History in 
 tlie University of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 TOBIAS GEORGE 
 SMOLLETT. 
 
 1721-1771. 
 
 Doctor ; pamiililet- 
 eer ; literary liaek ; 
 novelist. 
 
 OLIVER 
 GOLDSMITH. 
 
 1728-1774. 
 
 Literary man ; play- 
 writer ; poet. 
 
 The Seasons ; apuem in hhtnk 
 vers« ( 1 7;50) : The Castle of 
 Indolence; a mock • lieroic 
 l)oein in the Spenserian stan- 
 za (1 748). 
 
 ri'iisorslii)) of tlic 
 Press abolislied, 
 10<<:.. 
 
 Queen Anne 1700 
 ascends the 
 throne in 1702. ' 
 
 B.ittle of Blen- 
 heini, 1704. 
 
 Joseph Andrews (174*2); 
 Amelia (1751). He was 
 "the first great English Qi,,,aita,. takni 
 novelist. 1704. 
 
 London (1738) ; The Vanity 
 of Human Wishes (174lt) ; 
 Dictionary of the English 
 Language (1755) ; Rasse- 
 las (1759) ; Lives of the 
 Poets (1781). He also 
 wrote The Idler, The Ram 
 bier, and a j)lay called Irene. 
 
 History of England (1754- 
 17t)'2) ; and a number of 
 j)hilosoi)hical Kssai/s. His 
 prose is singularly tlear, 
 easy, and pleasant. 
 
 Odes; Elegy Written in a 
 Country Churchyard (1750) 
 — one of the most perfect 
 poems in our language. He 
 was a great stylist, and an 
 e-xtremely careful workman. 
 
 Roderick Random (1748) ; 
 Humphrey Clinker (1771). 
 He also continued Hume's 
 History of England. He 
 
 published also some Plays 
 and Poeim. 
 
 The Traveller (1764); The 
 Vicar of Wakefield (1766) ; 
 The Deserted Village ( 1 770) ; 
 She Stoops to Conquer— a 
 Play (1773); and a large 
 number of books, pam- 
 phlets, and compilations. 
 
 Union of Ehr- 
 lainl and Scot- 
 land, 1707. 
 
 Picorge F. ascends 
 the throne in 
 1714. 
 
 Rebellion in Scot- 
 land in \~\U. I 
 
 South-Sea Bubble 
 bursts, 1720 
 
 George H. as- 
 cends t ll 6 
 throne, 1727. 
 
 1710 
 
 1720 
 
TABLES OF ENPfUSIl T.ITEHATURE. 
 
 4.03 
 
 ;MHf>IlAKV 
 /ENTS. 
 
 rsliipof tbe 
 
 n Ainio 
 Mills the 
 lie ill 1T0"2. 
 
 I. of Blfii- 
 I, 1T04. 
 
 Itar taken, 
 
 II of Enp- 
 il uTiil Scot- 
 il. ITOT. 
 
 1700 
 
 rgo I. nsceiids 
 p throne in 
 14. 
 
 1710 
 
 L'Uion ill Scot- 
 Ill in ITiri. I 
 
 Wkitebs. 
 
 ADAM SMITH. 
 1723- 1 790. 
 
 Professor in tlie 
 University of Glasgow, 
 
 h-Sea Bubble 1720 
 
 rsts, 1V20 
 
 Irge II. as- 
 In d s the 
 lone, 1727. 
 
 EDMUND BURKE. 
 1730-1797. 
 
 M.P. ; statesman; 
 " tlie tirst man in tlie 
 House of (,'oniiiions ;" 
 orator ; writer on jio- 
 lltical philosojihy. 
 
 WILLIAM 
 C W P E II. 
 
 1731-1800. 
 
 Commissioner in 
 Bankruptcy ; Clerk of 
 the Jonrnals of the 
 House of Lordd ; jtoet. 
 
 EDWARD GIBBON. 
 
 1737-1794. 
 
 Historian ; M.P. 
 
 ROBERT BURNS. 
 
 1759-1796. 
 
 Farm - labourer; 
 ploughman ; fanner ; 
 exeise-officer ; lyrical 
 poet. 
 
 Works. 
 
 CoNTKMPOUARV DE- 
 EvKNTS. ( APES. 
 
 Theory of Moral Sentiments 
 ( 1 7r>9) ; Inquiry into the 
 Nature and Causes of the 
 Wealth of Nations (1776). 
 He wa3 the t'ouii(ier of the 
 science of political economy. 
 
 Essay on the Sublime and 
 Beautiful (1757) ; Reflec- 
 tions on the Revolution of 
 France (1790); Letters on 
 a Regicide Peace (1797); 
 and iiiaiiy other work.s. 
 "The greatest j)hilosoi>her 
 in practice the world ever 
 saw." 
 
 Table Talk (1782) ; John Gil- 
 pin (1785) ; A Translation 
 of Homer (1791) ; and many 
 other Poems, His Letter 
 like Gray's, are among the 
 best iu the language. 
 
 Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire (1776-87). 
 "Heavily laden style and 
 monotonous balance of 
 every sentence." 
 
 Poems and Songs (1786-96). 
 His prose consists chiefly of 
 Letters. " His pictures of 
 social life, of quaint humour, 
 come up to nature ; and 
 they cannot go beyond it." 
 
 i 1730 
 
 > I 
 
 Rebellion in Scot- 
 land, 1745, com- 
 monly called 
 "The 'Forty- 
 flve." 
 
 1740 
 
 Clive in India, 1750 
 1750-60. 
 
 I 
 
 Earthquake at , 
 
 Lisbon, 1755. i 
 
 Black Tlole of , 
 Calcutta, 1756. * 
 
1 -J 
 
 ! i 
 
 4.54 
 
 TAHLKS OF ENrjLlSH LITEIiATUKK. 
 
 Wkitkiw. 
 
 WFLMAM 
 WOKUSVVOIiTH. 
 
 1770-1850. 
 
 Distributor cf 
 Ktuiii|is Ciir tins coun- 
 ty of Westiuort'liinil ; 
 lioL't ; iioet-luuruutc. 
 
 SIR WALTEIl 
 SCOTT. 
 
 1771-1832. 
 
 Clerlv to tlio Court 
 of fScsHioii in Kdiu- 
 bur^li ; Scotti.sli bur- 
 ristur; poet; novelist. 
 
 SAMUEL TAYLOR 
 COLERirxiE. 
 
 1772-1834. 
 
 Private soldier ; 
 Journalist ; litcniry 
 man ; philosoitlier ; 
 poet. 
 
 ROBERT 
 SOUTHEY. 
 
 1774-1843. 
 
 Literary man; 
 Quarterly Reviewer ; 
 Jiistorian ; poet -lau- 
 reate. 
 
 CHARLES LAMB. 
 
 1775-1834. 
 
 Clerk in the East 
 India House ; poet ; 
 prose-writer. 
 
 WALTER SAVAGE 
 LANDOR. 
 
 1775-1864. 
 
 Poet; prose-writer. 
 
 WOKKS. 
 
 CoNTKMpOKAKY 
 
 KVKNTS. 
 
 Lyrical Ballads (with Cole- i (}<'<uve iir. as 
 ridge, 171t>5); The Excursion 
 (1S14) ; Yarrow Revisited 
 (18:55), and luany other 
 poems. The Prelude was 
 published at'ter Ills death. 
 His prose, wliirli is very 
 good, consists ch'jlly of 
 i'rolaces and Introduetioiis. 
 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel 
 (ISO.'.); Marmion (IKOS) ; 
 Lady of the Lake (181(i); 
 Waverley-the lirst of the 
 " Wiiverloy Novels " — was 
 published in 1814. The 
 •'Homer of Scotland." Hi- 
 prose is bright and fluent, 
 but very inaccurate. 
 
 The Ancient Mariner (1 7?8 ) ; 
 Christabel (IMti); The 
 Friend —a Collection of Es- 
 savs (1812) ; Aids to Reflec- 
 tion (1825). His ].rose is 
 \ery full botli of thought 
 and emotion. 
 
 Joan of Arc (1796) ; Thalaba 
 the Destroyer (1801) ; The 
 Curse of Kehama (1810) ; A 
 History of Brazil; The 
 Doctor— a Collection of Es- 
 says ; Life of Nelson. He 
 wrote more than a liuiulred 
 volumes. He was "the most 
 ambitious and the mo.^t vol- 
 uminous author of hi.s age." 
 
 Poems (1797); Tales from 
 Shakespeare (1806); The 
 Essays of Elia (1823-1833). 
 One of the finest writers of 
 prose iu the English lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Gebir (1798); Count Julian 
 (1812) ; Imaginary Conver- 
 sations (1821-1846) ; Dry 
 Sticks Faggoted (1858). He 
 ^vrote books for more than 
 sixty years. His style is 
 full of vigour and sustained 
 eloquence. 
 
 e <? n d s t h t! 
 tlirono in 17('>0. 
 
 Najioleon and 
 W (• 1 1 i n K to n 
 born, 17Cy. 
 
 I)E- 
 
 CAIiKS. 
 
 1760 
 
 Wnrr.'U HastiiiK's 1 1770 
 in India, 1772- 
 85. 
 
 American De- 
 claration of 
 Independence, 
 177tJ. 
 
 Alliance of 
 France and 
 America, 1778. 
 
UK. 
 
 iNIKMI'dUAIlV 
 I'JVKNIS. 
 
 live 1 1 1, an- 
 (! II il s t li e 
 irutio ill 1700. 
 
 pnlfion anfl 
 
 ' !• 1 1 i II gtO II 
 
 nil, 1701). 
 
 TAm.K.S OK ENYlLI.Sir UTKU.vrvUK. 
 
 •inri 
 
 I)E. 
 {■AUKH. 
 
 1760 
 
 WniTKKa. 
 
 TIIOMAH 
 
 CoNTHMInltAltV 
 
 CAORH. 
 
 1777-1844. yyoming; Battle of the' ''"M'i.,ii„ i77h 
 
 '•■"tor. (180U). U« ftl.so wrote soniu 
 
 Jhtitoncal U'i/rks, 
 
 TTcn IlastiiiK'M | 1770 
 Iiulia, 1772- 
 
 lerlean De- 
 ft rati on of 
 (leiieiiilence, 
 76. 
 
 ian ce of 
 ' a n c e and 
 leriea, 1778. 
 
 ffKNUY IIALLAM. View of Europe during the 
 
 1778-1859. 
 
 Historian. 
 
 THOMAS MOORK. 
 
 1779-1852. 
 
 Poet; Jirose-writcr. 
 
 Middle Ages (18l,s); Con- 
 stitiitional History of Eng- 
 land (1827) ; Introduction 
 (1839? ^^*®^**"^« 0^ Europe 
 
 Odes and Epistles (1806) : 
 lalla Rookh (1817) His- 
 tory of Ireland (1 827) ; Life 
 °J„,By"n,< 1*^30); Irish 
 Melodies (1834); and ruaiiv 
 prose works. 
 
 THOMAS 
 l^E C^UINf^EY. 
 
 1785-1859. 
 
 Kssayist. 
 
 Confessions of an English 
 Opium-Eater (1821). He 
 wrote also on many subjects 
 -l)liilasoi)}iy, ],oetry, clas- 
 sics, history, politics. His 
 writings till twenty volumes 
 lie was one of tlie Hnest 
 prose-writers of this century 
 
 Frencli Re vol u- ' 1780 
 
 tion bcjfiiTi in 
 17fei(. 
 
 LORD BYRON 
 ((teouge Gordon). 
 1788-1824. 
 
 Peer; jioet , volun- 
 teer to Greece. 
 
 Hours of Idleness (1807) • 
 English Bards and Scotch 
 Reviewers (18(J9) ; Childe 
 iiarold s Pilgrimage H S 1 2- n . • , , 
 1^18): Hebfew Melodies ^«'^t'"'- — 
 (IMo): and nianv /'/a,/s 
 liis prose, wliich is full'ol 
 vigour and animal sjiirits, is 
 to he found chiefly in his 
 Letters. i 
 
 thrown, 178i». 
 
u 
 
 I i 
 
 i (■ 
 
 III 
 
 
 456 
 
 TABLES OF ENGLISH LITKUATUHE. 
 
 Wkitkkh. 
 
 I'EriCY HYSSHK 
 SIIELLKY. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 1792-1822. 
 
 .1011 N KKATS. 
 1795-1821. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 THOMAS 
 CAliLYLE. 
 
 179S-1881. 
 
 Literary man; 
 poet; translator; 
 essayist ; reviewer ; 
 political writer ; his- 
 torian. 
 
 LORD 
 
 MACAULAY 
 
 (Thomas Babington). 
 
 1800-1859. 
 
 Barrister; Edin- 
 burgh Reviewer; 
 M.P. ; Member of the 
 Supreme Council of 
 India; Cabinet Minis- 
 ter; poet; essayist; 
 histonan; peer. 
 
 WlUlKS. 
 
 Queen Mab (IHIO): Prome- 
 theus Unbound 11 Tnipilv 
 (1H19) ; Ode to the Skylark, 
 The Cloud (I.SJO) ; Adona'is 
 (ISil), ami iii.'uiy otlicr 
 lioeins ; and several prose 
 works. 
 
 Qerman Romances— a set of 
 
 Translatioi!'! (1827) ; Sartor 
 Resartus — " The Tailor 
 Hepatclied" (18:54); The 
 French Revolution (1837); 
 Heroes and Hero- Worship 
 (1840) ; Past and Present 
 (1843) ; Cromwell's Letters 
 and Speeches (184.'>) ; Life 
 of Frederick the Great 
 (18r)8-65i. "With the gilt 
 of song, Carlyle would have 
 been tlie greatest of epic 
 poet.s since Homer." 
 
 Milton (in the 'Edinburgh 
 Ileview,' 1825) ; Lays of 
 Ancient Rome (1842) ; His- 
 toryof England -untinished 
 (1849-59). " His pictorial 
 faculty is amazing. " 
 
 CoMTr.MI'ollAHV 
 KVCNTH. 
 
 ilitpf tal<iui, 
 
 I7M. 
 
 liiinnparte 
 
 Italy, 17yti. 
 
 Poems (1817); Endymion 
 (1818); Hyperion (IWo). 
 " Had KkUs lived to tlit- 
 ordinary nsH' of inun, he 
 would have been one of the 
 greatest of all poets." 
 
 in 
 
 Hattle of the 
 .Vile, IV'.iS. 
 
 Union of flreiit 
 Ki'it^iiii and Ire- 
 land, 18(Jl. 
 
 Trafalgar ami 
 
 .Nelson, 1S05. 
 
 Peninsular War, 
 IbOH-H. 
 
 NaiKiicon's Inva- 
 sion of Hussia ; 
 .Mo>cow burnt, 
 1S12. 
 
 WarMdth Unit.d 
 btates, 1812-14. 
 
 ! Battle of Water- 
 I loo, 1815. 
 
 I 
 
 j George IV. as- 
 ! c e n d s the 
 i throne, 1820. 
 
 1 
 
 Greek War of 
 I Freedom, 1822- 
 I 29. 
 
 Byron in Greece, 
 1823-24. 
 
 Catholic Enianci- 
 
 putiun, lSi!». 
 
 William IV. as- 
 cends the 
 throne, 1830. 
 
 The Reform Bill, 
 1832. 
 
 Total Abolition 
 of Slavery, 
 1834. 
 
 r»E- 
 
 ( ADF.H. 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 
 
 1810 
 
 1820 
 
 1880 
 
TALES OF EN'OMSII MTKItATI'UE. 
 
 457 
 
 F.MI'nIUUY 
 
 iVENW. 
 
 of (]i>0(l 
 
 ,(. t.aknn, 
 
 »l>iirtt! Ill 
 y, 1790. 
 
 tie of the 
 
 f., lVi»8. 
 
 ,„ of flrciit 
 Ui'iu iiii'l Irt'- 
 il, 1801. 
 
 lalgnr ami 
 
 Isoii, 1S06. 
 
 De- 
 
 CADEH. 
 
 Writkkm. 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 
 
 insular War, \ 1810 
 )«-14. 
 
 Hileon'H Inva- 
 m of Uussia ; 
 o!-cow burnt, 
 12. 
 
 with Unlt'il 
 latus, 1812-14. 
 
 Itle of Water- 
 1, 1815. 
 
 irj;c IV. as- 
 l n tl 8 t h c. 
 
 Irone, 1820. 
 
 ik War ftf 
 leedoin, 1822- 
 
 :in in Greece, 
 123-24. 
 
 tolicEmancl- 
 
 tiuii, ISiU. 
 
 1820 
 
 liam IV. as- j 1880 
 
 1 n d 8 the 
 •one. 1830. 
 
 I Reform Bill, 
 11'' 
 
 i\ Abolition 
 Slavery, 
 M. 
 
 LORD LYTTON 
 
 (El)WAIlD BULWKU). 
 I80S-I873. 
 
 NovollHt; iHiet; 
 (IrainatJHt; M. P. ; 
 Cabinet Minister; 
 lieer. 
 
 JOHN HTUAKT 
 MUL. 
 
 1806-1873. 
 
 Clerk in tlie East 
 India Howho ; idiilon- 
 oplier; political 
 writer; M.P. ; Ijonl 
 Rector of tlie Univer- 
 sity of 8t AndrowH. 
 
 HENRY W. 
 LONGFELLOW. 
 
 1807-1882. 
 
 FrofcHSor of Mod- 
 ern Lan^nagcH and 
 Literature in Harvard 
 University, U.S. ; 
 poet; prose-writer. 
 
 LORD 
 TENNYSON 
 (Alfred Tennyson). 
 1809-1892. 
 
 Poet ; poet - laure- 
 ate; peer. 
 
 ELIZABETH B. 
 BARRETT 
 
 (afterwards 
 Mrs Brownino), 
 
 1809-1861. 
 
 Poet ; prose- writer ; 
 translator. 
 
 WoHKS 
 
 Ismael and Other Poems 
 (1N2.'>); Eusrone Aram 
 (18;n) ; Laat Days of Pom- 
 peii (18:i4); The Caitons 
 (184»); My Novel (Ls.W); 
 Poems (lUti5). 
 
 System of Logic (1848); Prin- 
 ciples of Political Economy 
 (1848) ; Essay on Liberty 
 (1858) ; Antobiogrraphy 
 (1873). " For ju.licial calm- 
 ness, elevation of tone, iiml 
 freeiloin from iiersoniility, 
 Mill i.s niirivnlleil iimong the 
 writers of his time." 
 
 Outre -Met— a Story (1835) ; 
 Hyperion -a Story (1839); 
 Voices of the Night (1841) ; 
 Evangeline (1848) ; Hia- 
 watha (1855) ; Aftermath 
 (1873). "His ku-t in the 
 use of language is j)rol)ably 
 the chief cause of his suc- 
 
 cess. 
 
 Poems (1830) ; In Memoriam 
 (1850); Maud(l8.55); Idylls 
 of the King (1859-73/, Queen 
 Mary -a Drama (1875); 
 Becket — a Drama (1884J, 
 
 Prometheus Bound — trans- 
 lated from the Greek of 
 ^schylus (1833); Poems 
 (1844); Aurora Leigh 
 (1856); and Essays con- 
 tributed to various maga- 
 zines. 
 
 IJoSTKMPoriAllV 
 KVKNTS. 
 
 tineen Victoria 
 
 ilHcrlidN tlie 
 thiniH- i,s;t7. 
 
 Irisli 
 1H4;>. 
 
 Famine, 
 
 Heiieal nf the 
 Corn Law.s, 
 1846. 
 
 lie volution in 
 ParJH, 1851. 
 
 Death of Welling- 
 ton, 1852. 
 
 Napoleon III. 
 EinjHjror of the 
 Fren.'h, 1852. 
 
 Russian 
 1854-60. 
 
 War. 
 
 Franco. Austrian 
 War, 1859. 
 
 Eniaiicipatioii of 
 Russian serfs, 
 1861. 
 
 Austn>- Prussian 
 "Seven Weeks' 
 Wiir," 1866. 
 
 Dr- 
 
 I'AhKH. 
 
 Suez Canal 
 ished, 1869. 
 
 fin- 
 
 1840 
 
 1860 
 
 1860 
 
458 
 
 TABLES OF F.XOTJSn T.TTFRATnT^T!. 
 
 WlUTKllH. 
 
 tJH' ! 'f 
 
 wrrjJAM 
 
 MAKKl'EACE 
 T n AUK i: 11 A Y. 
 
 1811-1863. 
 
 Novelist; writer in 
 ' Punch ' ; artist. 
 
 WoKKS. 
 
 CIIAKLES 
 DICKENS. 
 
 1812-1870. 
 
 Novelist. 
 
 ItOBKR'r 
 15R0WN1NG. 
 
 1812-1889. 
 
 Poet. 
 
 JOHN RUSKIN. 
 1819 . 
 
 Art-critii^; essay- 
 ist; teaelicr; litenuy 
 man. 
 
 (JEOIir.E EIJOT. 
 1819-1880. 
 
 NovelLst; poet; 
 essayist. 
 
 The Paris Sketch-Book 
 (1«1(>); Vanity Fair (1847); 
 Esmond (18;V2); The New- 
 comes (l«rj5) ; The Vir- 
 ginians (18r»7). Tlie ^rreiit- 
 est novelist iind one of the 
 most ]ierl'LH",t stylists of tiiis 
 ceiituiy. "The classical 
 Englisii humorist iiml sat- 
 irist of th(! reign of Queen 
 Victoria." 
 
 Sketches by Boz (1836) ; The 
 Pickwick Papers (l837); 
 Oliver Twist (1838); Nicho- 
 las Nickleby (1838); and 
 many other novels and 
 works ; Great Expectations 
 (1868). The most popular 
 writer that ever lived. 
 
 Pauline (1833) ; Paracelsus 
 
 (1836); Ponns (186.5); The 
 Ring and the Book (1869) ; 
 and many otlier volumes of 
 poetry. 
 
 Modern Painters (1843-60) ; 
 The Stones of Venice (18.51- 
 .53) ; The Queen of the Air 
 (1869) ; An Autobiography 
 
 (188.5); and very many other 
 Avorks. "He has a dee)>. 
 serious, and almost fanatical 
 reverence for art. " 
 
 Scenes of Jlerical Life (18.58); 
 Adam Bede (lS5r^; and 
 many other novels down to 
 Daniel Deronda (1876) ; 
 Spanish Gypsy (1868) ; Le- 
 gend of Jubal (1874). 
 
 Co.NTKMI'oKAKV 
 EVK.NTS. 
 
 Fiimeo- Prussian 
 War 1870-71. 
 
 Thinl Freiicli Ilc- 
 
 William I. of 
 Prussia iiunle 
 Enii>en>r of tlie 
 Germans at Ver- 
 sailles, 1871. 
 
 Rnnio the new 
 caiiital of Italy, 
 1871. 
 
 Rnsso • Turkish 
 War 1877-78. 
 
 Berlin Congress 
 and Treaty, 
 
 US78. 
 
 Leo XIII. made 
 Pope in 1878. 
 
 Assas'iination of 
 Alexander II., 
 1881. 
 
 Aralii Pasha's Re- 
 hellion. 1SS2-8;}. 
 
 War ill the Sou- 
 dan, 1884. 
 
 Mui'der of 
 don, 1884. 
 
 (ior- 
 
 NewIlcforniBill, 
 1885. 
 
 Dk- 
 
 CAIJE.S. 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
T\K 
 
 INTKMIMIRAKV ! Dk- 
 EVKNTS. CADE.S. 
 
 inco-Pi'UHsiiin 
 far 1870-71. 
 
 iiil Ficiu'li Ilc- 
 iililic. l!570. 
 
 illiiiiii I. of 
 'riissi.'i inailt' 
 !iiili('i(ir of tlic 
 k'liimiisat. Vcr- 
 lillfs, 1871. 
 
 1110 the new 
 ijiital of Italy, 
 371. 
 
 sso - Turkish 
 'ar 1877-78. 
 
 rliii Congress 
 11(1 Treaty, 
 
 S78. 
 
 . XIII. iiia.lo 
 ()[)e in 1878. 
 
 sas'iination of 
 Icxanile.r II., 
 
 ibi Paslia'.s Ro- 
 
 ("lli()ii,lSS2-S;{. 
 
 ir in tlic Sou- 
 an, 1884. 
 
 irdcr of (ior- 
 1)11, 1884. 
 
 w Reform Bill, 
 J85. 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 I N D ]•] X 
 
 i: 
 
m 
 
 m 
 
 iiir 
 
 mm 
 
 m^ i i 
 
 11 
 
 I 
 
459 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Absolute, nominative, CO, 
 Adjectives, 28. 
 
 comparison of, 32. 
 defective, 34. 
 irregular, 33. 
 compound, formation of, 117. 
 demonstrative, 29. 
 inflection of, 31. 
 numeral, 29. 
 qualitative, 28. 
 quantitative, 29. 
 suffixes to, English, 131. 
 
 Latin and French, 138. 
 syntax of, 71. 
 Adjective pronouns (so-called), "9 
 Adverbs, 57. " ' 
 
 classification of, 57. 
 comparison of, 67. 
 
 irregular, 58. 
 formation of, lis. 
 syntax of, 83. 
 Alphabet, whaf it is, 7. 
 
 conditions of a perfect, 7. 
 the English, very defective, 7 fe 
 Analysis of sentences, so-lio. ' 
 complex sentence, 102. 
 (cautions), 107. 
 mapping-out of, 109. 
 compound sentence, 111. 
 ^'1 continuous" method of, ui. 
 " pigeon-hole" method of, no. 
 simple sentence, 87. 
 (cautions), 93. 
 mapping-out of, 100. 
 Anomalous verbs, 53. 
 Antecedent, 26. 
 Apposition, 22. 
 Articles (so-called), 29. 
 Auxiliary verbs, 48, 53. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 30. 
 
 2 H 
 
 J!'', conjugation of, 50. 
 Branching of wor.l.s, 143-153. 
 
 Cardinal nuiaoral.s, 30. 
 Case, 19. 
 
 dative, 21. 
 
 different cases, with their u.ses 20 
 nominative, 20. ' 
 
 objective, 22. 
 possessive, 20. 
 vocative, 20, 22. 
 Cognate object, 22. 
 Comparison of adjictives, 32. 
 defective, 34. 
 irregular, 33. 
 of adverbs, 57. 
 irregular, 58. 
 Compound adjectives, formation of. 117 
 adverbs, formation of, I19. 
 nouns, formation of, no. 
 verl)s, formation of, 118. 
 Concord, rule.s of, 76. 
 Conjugation ot vti l,.s, 42. 
 
 specimen of full, 54. 
 Conjunctions, CO. 
 syntax of, S4. 
 
 Conjunctive (or relative) pronouns, 20. 
 Connectives, 58. 
 Consonant, 5. 
 
 sounds, table of, c. 
 
 Dative case, 21, 
 •syntax of, 69. 
 Demonstrative adjectives, 29. 
 Dentals, 5, 0. 
 
 Derivation, word-huilding and, 116-171 
 Derivations from English roots, 144. 
 
 from Greek roots, 152. 
 
 fronj Latin roots, 1 J7. 
 
J- 
 
 460 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 i t 
 
 Ijli 
 
 ll^l 
 
 Derivations from namps of persons, rto., 
 15t. 
 from names of jjlaccs, ITiS, 
 of wonls (lis;,'iii,st>il in finii, ICl. 
 of words greatly changed in meaning, 
 108. 
 Diphthongs, 5. 
 
 English inseparable prefixes, 120. 
 roots and branches, 144. 
 separable i)relixes, 121. 
 sullixes to adjectives, 131. 
 to adverbs, i;J3. 
 to nouns, 128. 
 to verbs, 134. 
 English language, grammar of, 4. 
 origin and development of, 4. 
 Etymology, 5, 8-C3. 
 Extension of predicate, 95. 
 
 Factitive object, 22. 
 
 French derivations, etc., included under 
 
 Latin. 
 Functions, words known by their, 61. 
 
 Gender, 11, 
 
 indicated by different words, 14. 
 
 indieatcd by i)relixes, 13. 
 
 indicated by sudixes, 12. 
 
 Latin and French suffixes , 13. 
 Gerund, 39. 
 
 Gerundial infinitive, 82. 
 Government of verbs, 78. 
 Grammar, 4. 
 
 of letters, 7. 
 
 of sounds, 5. 
 
 of words, 8-63. 
 
 parts of, 4. 
 Greek prefixes, 126. 
 
 roots, 152. 
 
 suffixes, 141. 
 Gutturals, 5, C. 
 
 Have, conjugation of, 49. 
 
 Inflexion of adjectivtjs, 31. 
 
 of nouns, 11, 
 
 of pronouns, 24, 25. 
 
 of verbs, 36. 
 Inseparable prefixes, English, 120, 
 Interjections, 60, 
 Interrogative pronouns, 25. 
 Intransitive verbs, 35. 
 Irregular weak verbs, 46. 
 
 Kinds of words, 8. 
 
 known by functions, 61. 
 
 Labials, r., C. 
 Language, what it U, 3. 
 
 spiikiMi and written, 3. 
 Latin prulixis, 123. 
 
 routs, U7. 
 
 suffixes to ailjectives, 138. 
 to nouns, 131. 
 to verlis, 141. 
 Letters, graniniar nl", 7. 
 
 redundant, 8. 
 
 Moods, 3S. 
 
 syntax of, 80. 
 Mutes, 5, 0. 
 
 Nominative case, 20. 
 
 absolute, 6t) 
 
 of address, '.'7. 
 
 syntax of, 64. 
 Nouns, 9. 
 
 abstract, 10. 
 
 classilication of, 9. 
 
 class-names, 10. 
 
 collective, 10. 
 
 common, 10. 
 
 compound, fnrm.'ition of, IIG. 
 
 English sullixes to, 128. 
 
 infiexiuns <if, 11. 
 
 Latin and Frencli suflixes to, 134 
 
 proper, 9. 
 
 .syntax of, 64-71. 
 Number of nouns, 15. 
 
 of verbs, 42. 
 Numeral adjectives, 29. 
 Numerals, CO. 
 
 Object, cognate, 22. 
 
 factitive, 22. 
 
 n.'llt'xive, 22. 
 Objective case, 22. 
 
 syntax of, CS. 
 Ordinal numerals, 31. 
 Orthography, 5. 
 
 Palatals, 6. 
 
 Participle, 40. 
 
 Passive voice, 37. 
 
 Person of verbs, 42. 
 
 Persons, words derive<l from names of, 
 
 154. 
 Places, words derived from names of, 
 
 158. 
 Plurals, false, 17. 
 
 foreign, IS. 
 
 modes of forming, 19. 
 
 of compound words, 19. 
 
 treated as singulars, 18. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 s, 3. 
 ten, 3. 
 
 tivcs, 138. 
 I. 
 
 ation of, IIC. 
 to, 128. 
 
 Ii Huflixes to, 134 
 
 20. 
 
 voil from names of, 
 etl from names of. 
 
 ;, 19. 
 rds, 19. 
 ars, 18. 
 
 Plurals, wonl.s «so,l „„iy i„ ti.cir, IS. 
 words witli two, 17. 
 
 Possessive case, 20. 
 
 syntax of, or. 
 Predicate of sentence, 89. 
 Prefixes, 103. 
 
 J^nglish in.sei)aral)Ie, 120. 
 English .separable, 121. 
 Oreek, 120. 
 Latin, 12.'). 
 
 to indicate gender, 13. 
 Prepositions, 68. 
 list of sjiecial, 8-1. 
 syntax of, 83. 
 Pronouns, 23, 
 indefinite, 2';. 
 inflexion.s of, 24 2,'). 
 interrogative, 26. 
 personal, 23. 
 reflexive, 26. 
 
 relative (or conjunctive), 26 
 syntax of, 74. 
 
 Qualitative adjectives, 28. 
 Quantitative adjective's, 2*9. 
 
 Reflexive pronouns, 26 
 
 Relative (or conjunctive) ].ronouns, 2(>. 
 
 Roots and branches, 143-163. 
 
 English, 144, 
 
 Greek, 152. 
 
 Latin, 147. 
 
 Sentences, analysis of, 8C-116, 
 contracted, 87, 
 complex, 102. 
 compound, 111. 
 simple, 87. 
 Separable prefixes, English, 121. 
 Shall, conjugation of, 48. 
 Sounds, grammar of, 6. 
 Spirants, 0. 
 
 Strike, conjugation of, 54. 
 Strong and weak verbs, 43. 
 Strong verbs, list of, 44. 
 Subject, what it may consi.st of, 8S 
 Suiflxes, 128. 
 
 English, to adjectives, 131. 
 to adverbs, 133. 
 to nouns, 128, 
 to verbs, 134, 
 Greek, 141. I 
 
 Latin, to adjectives, 138, I 
 
 to indicate gender, 13. 
 to nouns, 134. 
 to verbs, 141. 
 to indicate gender, 12. 
 ■uparlative degree, 32, 
 
 461 
 
 Syntax, 5, 6485. 
 
 «'f the adjective, 71. 
 "f till) adverb, 83. 
 •'fthec-.iijunetion, 84, 
 of the dative, C9. 
 "f the nominative, C4. 
 cf the noun, 04. 
 of the objective, C8. 
 of the posses.sive, 07. 
 of the prejiosition, 83. 
 of the pronoun, 74. 
 of the verb, 76. 
 
 Tense, 41. 
 
 Transitive and ^transitive verba 
 
 Verbs, 34. 
 
 auxiliary, Sti, 48. 
 
 classification of, 35. 
 
 compound, formation of, lis. 
 concord of, "o. 
 
 ^■onjugation of, 42. 
 
 •srecimen of full, 64. 
 defective, 63. 
 Kove.-nment of, 78. 
 inflexions of, ;j«. 
 moods of, 38, 80, 
 notional, 48, 
 number of, 42. 
 person of, 42. 
 ■strong and weak, 43. 
 strong, list of, 44. 
 suffi.xes to, English, 134. 
 
 Latin, 141, 
 syntax of, 76. 
 tense of, 41. 
 voice of, 37. 
 weak anil strong, 43. 
 weak, list of irregular, 46. 
 two kinds of, 46. 
 Vocative case, 20, 22. 
 Voice, active, 37. 
 
 passive, 37. 
 Vowel, 6. 
 
 Weak and strong verbs, 4.3. 
 Weak verbs, irregular, Atj. ' 
 
 two kinds of, 45. 
 Will, conjugation of, 48. 
 Word-branching, 143-163. 
 
 from English roots, 144. 
 
 from Greek roots, 162, 
 
 from Latin roots, 147, 
 Word-building and derivation, 116-171 
 Words, grammar of (Ktymology), 8-63 
 
 kinds of, 8. 
 
 known by their functions, 61, 
 
i i 
 
 ]j 
 
 iflf' 1-i 
 
 
 462 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Abstract versus concrete, 183. 
 
 Accents in verse, 194, 105. 
 
 Accurate f;n<,'li.sli, 178. 
 
 Admiration, i)oint of, 188. 
 
 Adverb, position of the, 185. 
 
 Alexandrine, 199. 
 
 Allegory, 191. 
 
 Amphibrach, 190. 
 
 Amphibrachic tetrameter, '200. 
 
 Anapaest, 196. 
 
 Anupsestic tetrameter, 200. 
 
 And which, 186. 
 
 Antecedent and Relative, to be clearly 
 
 connected, 186. 
 Antithesis, 182. 
 
 Ballad metre, 106. 
 Blank verse, 197. 
 Brevity, 179. 
 
 Caesura, 203. 
 
 Circumlocution, 185. 
 
 Clearness, 178. 
 
 Coleridge's examiilcs and descriptions of 
 
 different metres, 201. 
 Colon, 187. 
 Comma, 188. 
 Compactness, 179. 
 Composition, hints on, 175. 
 
 cautions, general, 184. 
 special, 185. 
 
 directions, general, 170. 
 Concrete versus abstract, 183. 
 Conjunctions, omission of, 181. 
 Couplet, 204. 
 
 Dactyl, 196. 
 Dactylic dimeter, 200. 
 
 tetrameter, 200. 
 Dash, 188. 
 Defective lines, 201. 
 Dependent, and principal sentencei, not 
 
 to be mixed up, ISO. 
 Detail, 184. 
 Dimeter, dactylic, 200. 
 Distinctness of style, 183. 
 
 Elegiac verse, 204. 
 Emphasis, 180. 
 English, accurate, 178. 
 
 flowing, 179. 
 
 good, 176. 
 
 pure, 177. 
 
 Epigram, 182. 
 Exaggerated languaK'', 186. 
 Exaggeration (hypcrliolc), 191. 
 Exclamation, mark of, 181. 
 
 Figures of spiM'ch, 189. 
 Flowing En^'lish, 179. 
 Foot (in verse), 195. 
 Full stop, 187. 
 
 Good English, 176. 
 
 Hackneyed phrases, 184. 
 Half-rhymes, 202. 
 
 " Happy Life, The,"— paraphrased, 193. 
 Heroic coujilet, 204. 
 
 verse, 197. 
 Hexameter, 127. 
 
 iambic, 198. 
 Hyperbole (exaggeration), 191. 
 Hypermetrical lines, 201. 
 
 Iambic liexameter, 108. 
 
 pentameter, 197, 198. 
 
 tetrameter, 197, 198. 
 
 trimeter, 197. 
 Iambus, 195. 
 Imperative mood, the use of, in composi- 
 
 ti(jn, ISl. 
 Interrogation, point of, 188. 
 Interrogative form (fur emphasis), 181. 
 Inversion, 180. 
 
 Loose sentence, 164, 180. 
 
 Metaphor, 190. 
 
 Metonymy, 101. 
 
 Metres, examples and descriptions of the 
 
 different, by Coleridge, 201. 
 Misplaced plirases, 187. 
 Mixed metaphors, 185. 
 
 Octave (ottava rima), 204. 
 
 (in the sonnet), 205. 
 Octometer, trochaic, 199. 
 
 Paraphrase of " The Happy Life," 193. 
 
 Paraphrasing, 192. 
 
 Parenthesis, 188. 
 
 Participles, management of, 185. 
 
 present, 185. 
 Pentameter, 197, 198. 
 Period (full stop), 187. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 he use of, in composi- 
 
 Period (sentence), 179, 180. 
 
 Periphraais, 181. 
 
 Personification, loo. 
 
 Principal ai.a <leiM.ndeut sentences, not 
 
 to be mixed uji, 186. 
 Pronouns, management of, 184. 
 Proaod (grammar of verse), 194-201. 
 Punctuation, 187. 
 Pure Englisli, 177. 
 
 Quatrain, 204. 
 
 Relative and antecedent, to be clearly 
 
 connected, ISO. 
 Repetition, 181, 182. 
 Rhyme, 200. 
 
 Rhythm, to be cultivated by readin" 
 aloud, 179. ' o 
 
 Semicolon, 187. 
 
 Service metre, 19S. 
 
 Sestette, 205. 
 
 Sextant, 204. 
 
 Simile, 189. 
 
 Simplicity, 178. 
 
 Skeleton of theme to be witten, 170 
 
 Sonnet, 205. 
 
 Specification, 183. 
 
 Spenserian stanza, 204. 
 
 Spondee, 201. 
 
 Stanza, 204. 
 
 463 
 
 Subject of sentence, not to bo changed, 
 
 Suspense, 182. 
 Synecdoche, lui. 
 Synonyms, 178. 
 
 Tautology, 185. 
 Tetrameter, ly7. 
 
 amphibracliie, 200. 
 
 anapipstic, 200. 
 
 dactylic, 200. 
 
 iambic, 197, 198. 
 
 trochaic, 199. 
 That and vho distinguished, 186 
 Trimeter, 197. 
 Triplet, 204. 
 
 tetrameter, 204. 
 Trochaic octometer, 199. 
 Trochee, 195. 
 
 Unrhymed (blank) verse, 197. 
 
 Vague sentence, contrasted with .specific, 
 
 Verbosity, 179. 
 
 Verse, <lifrerent from Prose in two things, 
 
 grammar of (Prosody), 194-201. 
 
 fVhich and and which, 186. 
 yVho and that distinguished, 180. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 3 Happy Life," 193. 
 
 African words in English, 341. 
 American words in English, 341. 
 Analytic English (= modern), 317 
 Ancient English, 277. 
 
 synthetic, 317. 
 Anglo-Saxon, specimen from, 328. 
 
 contrasted with English of Wyclif 
 and Tyndale, 329. 
 Arabic words in English, 341. 
 Aryan family of languages, 273. 
 
 Bible, English of the, 334. 
 Bilingualism, 300. 
 
 Changes of language, never sudden, 276 
 Chinese words in English, 342. 
 
 Dead and living languages, 270. 
 
 Dialects of English, 310. 
 
 Doublets, English and other, 314-316 
 
 Greek, 311. 
 
 Latin, 308-311. 
 Dutch and Welsh contrasted, 275. 
 
 words in English, 338. 
 
 English, 272. 
 
 a liOW-Gernian tongue, 274. 
 
 diagram of, 281. 
 
 dialects of, 310. 
 
 early and oldest, compared, 330. 
 
 elements of, characteristics of the 
 
 two, 312-314. 
 English element in, 280. 
 
 
4G4 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 \l 
 
 111 
 
 i i 
 
 English, foroign clemonti? in, 2S2. 
 graiiiiiiar of, its liistory, 317-327. 
 its sjireail over Britain, 275. 
 modern, 336-343. 
 nation, 2S0. 
 of tlie Bible, 334. 
 of the tliirteeiitli oentury, 332. 
 of the f(jurte(inth century, 333. 
 of the sixteentli century, 334. 
 on the Continent, 272. 
 periods of, 270-279. 
 
 marks which distinguish, 332. 
 syntax of, changed, 323. 
 the family to wliich it belongs, 27:i. 
 the group to which it belongs, 273, 
 
 274. 
 vocabulary of, 280-316. 
 
 Foreign elements in English, 2S2. 
 French (new) words in Englisli, 339. 
 (Norman), see Norman-French. 
 
 German words in English, 310. 
 Grammar of English, 317-327. 
 
 comparatively lixed (since 14SJ), 336. 
 
 First Period, 318. 
 
 general view of its history, 321. 
 
 Second Feriod, 319. 
 
 short view of its history, 317-321. 
 
 Third Period, 320. 
 
 Fourth Period, 320. 
 Greek d<niblets, 311. 
 Gutturals, expulsion of, 324-326. 
 
 Hebrew words in English, 340. 
 Hindu words in English, 342. 
 History of English, landniarks in, 344. 
 Hungarian words in English, 342. 
 
 Indo-European family, 273. 
 Inflexions in different periods, compared, 
 331. 
 
 loss of, 317, 31S. 
 
 grammatical result of loss, 326. 
 Italian words in English, 337. 
 
 Keltic element in English, 282-284. 
 
 Landmarks in tho history of English- 
 
 344. 
 Language, 271. 
 
 changes of 276. 
 
 growth of, 271. 
 
 living and dead, 276. 
 
 spoken and written, 281. 
 
 written, 271. 
 Latin contributions and their dates, 287. 
 
 Latin ilonblets, 308-311. 
 
 element in English, 280-311. 
 of the eye and ear, 308. 
 of the First Period, 2S8. 
 Second Period, 289, 290. 
 Third Period, 299-30,1. 
 Fourth Period, 306-308. 
 triplets, 311. 
 Lord's Prayer, in fotir versions, 329, 
 330. 
 
 Malay words in English, 342. 
 Middle English, 27S. 
 Modem English, 279, 336-343. 
 
 analytic, 317. 
 Monosyllables, 322. 
 
 New words in English, 330-343. 
 Norman-French, 290. 
 
 bilingualism caused by, 300. 
 
 contributions, general character of, 
 298. 
 
 dates of, 291-293. 
 
 element in English, 290-305. 
 
 gains to English from, 2l'9-302. 
 
 losses to English from, 303-305. 
 
 synonyms, 300. 
 
 words, 294-298. 
 
 Oldest and early English compared, 330. 
 Order of words in English, changed, 323. 
 
 Periods of English, 276-279. 
 Ancient, 277. 
 Early, 277. 
 Middle, 278. 
 Tudor, 279. 
 Modern, 279. 
 grammar of the different, 317-327. 
 marks indicating different, 332. 
 specimens of different, 32S-335. 
 Persian words in English, 342. 
 Polynesian words in English, 342. 
 Portuguese words in English, 342. 
 
 Renascence (Revival of Learning), 305 
 Russian words in English, 342. 
 
 Scandinavian element in English, 284- 
 
 280. 
 Scientific terms in English, 343. 
 Spanish words in English, 337. 
 Specimens of English of different periods, 
 
 328-335. 
 Spoken and written language, 281. 
 Syntax of English, change in, 323. 
 Synthetic English (= ancient), 317. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 II four versions, 329, 
 
 Tartar wonl.s in En^'lisli, 342. 
 Teutonic group, 27;i. 
 Tudor English, 279. 
 Turkish wonls in English, 342. 
 Tyndale's English, pompanj.l with Anglo- 
 Saxon and Wyclif, 32'A 
 
 Vocabulary of the English language, 2S0- 
 316. 
 
 465 
 
 Welsh and Dutch contrastod, 275 
 Words and inHoxio„s in dim.r'.nt uorhnU 
 coniimred, 3;;i. ' ' 
 
 new, in EiiKlish, 33G-343. 
 written l;uiu'ua^',<, 271. 
 
 and sjioki'ii, 2S1 
 Wyclifa English, ;on,imrod with Tyn- 
 dale s and Anglo-.'iaxon, 329. 
 
 ;lish, 33G-343. 
 200. 
 
 lused by, 300. 
 general rharacter of, 
 
 English compared, 330. 
 English, changed, 323. 
 
 79. 
 
 e different, 317-327. 
 
 ng dillerent, 332. 
 
 itt'erent, 32S-33.3. 
 
 English, 342. 
 
 in English, 342. 
 
 in Engli.sh, 342. 
 
 .•al of Learning), 305 
 English, 342. 
 
 nent in English, 284- 
 
 English, 343. 
 English, 337. 
 ish of different periods, 
 
 Addison, Jcsoph, 393. 
 Alfred, 354. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 354 
 Arnold, Matthew, 437. 
 Austen, Jane, 42G. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 377. 
 
 Baeda (Venerable Bede), 353. 
 
 Barbour, Jolin, 363. 
 
 lie.oxculf, S.jl. 
 
 Blake, William, 412. 
 
 Browning, Robert, 430. 
 
 Browning, Mrs., 435. 
 
 Brunanhurrj, Song of, 3o:j. 
 
 Brunne, Robert of, 3J7. 
 
 Unit, 355. 
 
 Bunyan, John, 3S7. 
 
 Burke, Edmund, 404 
 
 Burns, Robert, 410. 
 
 Butler, Samuel, 3S2. 
 
 Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 42:. 
 
 Cfedmon, 352. 
 Campbell, Thomas, 420. 
 Carlyle, Thomas, 427. 
 Caxton, William, 36C,. 
 Chatterton, Thomas, 411. 
 Chaucer, GeofFrey, 361. 
 
 followers of, 365. 
 Coleridge, Sanuud Taylor, 41S. 
 Collins, William, 399. 
 Cowper, William, 407. 
 Crabbe, George, 409. 
 
 Defoe, Daniel, 390. 
 De Quincey, Thomas, 426. 
 Dickens, Charles, 439. 
 Dryden, John, 3S3. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 Eliot, Georgf>, 440. 
 
 Gibbon, Edward, 405. 
 Gloucester, J{.,hert i>{, 357. 
 Goldsmith, Oliver, 403. 
 Gower, John, 200. 
 Gray, Thomas, £9^. 
 
 Hobbes, Th.^mas, 3S6. 
 Hooker, Richard, 374. 
 
 James I. (of Scotland), 365. 
 Johnson, Samm-I, 401. 
 Jonson, Ben, 373. 
 
 Keats, John, 423. 
 
 Lamb, Charles, 424. 
 Landor, Walter Sa\-agp, 425. 
 
 Langlande, Willian/, 360. 
 
 Layamon, 355. 
 
 Locke, Joh'i, 3S7. 
 
 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 432. 
 
 j Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 429. 
 
 M'd'lon, .Song of the Fight at, 353. 
 I MandeviUe, Sir John, 359. 
 
 Marlowe, Christopher, 373. 
 
 Milton, John, 381. 
 I Moore, Thomas, 420. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 363. 
 
 Morris, William, 43S. 
 
 Orm'a Onnulum, 356. 
 
 Pope, Alexandr-r, 395, 397. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 376. 
 Ruskin, John, 441. 
 
 
466 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 i 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, 417. 
 Shakespeare, William, S70, 379. 
 
 coiiteiiiiMtrarifis of, 372. 
 Shelley, Ptsrcy liyssho, 422. 
 Sidney, Sir Philip, 375. 
 Southey, Rnbnrt, 419. 
 Hpenser, Edmund, 369. 
 Steele, Richard, 394. 
 Surrey, Earl of, 367. 
 Svriti, Jouatlian, 391. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, 385. 
 Tennyson, Alfred, 433. 
 Thackeray, William Makepeace, 439. 
 ThoniBon, Jamns, 397, 398. 
 Tyndale, William, 3C8. 
 
 Wordaworth, William, 415. 
 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 367. 
 Wyclif, John, 360. 
 
 : 
 
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 at the Edinburgh University Press. 
 
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