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'•, t ' ' '"• '#•1 i A JC GtOLOC m iiii iW i m i DB iiii " rijiipcr (Ex^cliitioiu SCIExNTIFIO RESULTS > i ^' •' OF A JOURNEY IN BRAZIL By LOUIS AGASSIZ AND HIS THAVELLINQ COMPANIONS GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAniY OF BRAZIL. By CII. FRET). TIABTT. PROFESSOU 1)1' <iIi(>U)(;Y IN COItNKl.l- INIVKHSITY. WITH ILLU STRATI OSS AND MAPS. V> S T O N : FIELDS, OSGOOD, & CO. 1870. To rUOFKSS( DiKK KntiTi-'l acrir iliii'j t<i Aft ofCmiirrosii, in t\x<- year I'^T'i, by 1 1 1 : 1 . 1 ' s , I ) s I ; (I n 1 1 , vV CO., tUf UlUii' of tin- Libniriaii of Coiijrivss, at Wa.-hiugtuu Mv m: I have the (Jc'Ograjiliy an iTsnlts uf my t(\ut.'thor witli outgrowth of f liatl been ob I take tliis to you for tho your t'oiistarit nosses rocoivo With the 1 to bo, Umvi:rsitv Prkss : Wfixh, liicni.ow, i*i C To I'HOFKSSOll LOUIS ACiASSIZ, DlUKCTOU Oh- Tin: TllAVKU KXPEDITIUN. i<p^»*««»»>»< "Mm Mv DK.vit Siu : — I liavc tlic lumor to oflbr you this volume on the I'hy.sk'al (Jt'otrriuiliv aud (Jooloiry ut" Brazil as a sumniavy of tlio soioutiHc iTs\ilts uf my exi)lorations as au a((<tc/ir of tlic Thayer Ivxpetlitim;. together witli tiiose of a »eeou(l private cxpeditiou, — the natural outgrowth of the former. — made to ccutinue investigations wliicli 1 liad been obliged to leave unfinished. I take this opportunity vf aeknowledging my deej) indebtedness to you for the interest you have taken in my scientific studies, fur your constant wise coimsel and advice, and for a thousand kind- nesses received at your hands. With the highest consideration and respect, I have the honor to be, My dear Sir, Your former pupil, CII. FKED. IIAUTT. Cornell Umvfii';ty, Ttiiaca, N. Y., This voluir ill Hnizil. T Professor A<ji;i ill the yeiii's ] eurcfiilly the hetwccii I?i() I ground on ho iiey is to l)e ccssary to rcj Cojiehxnd, oi* dition, and I ness to him f( On this journ tions of marl] neglect to s(-( that these co water and ma made at freq neiro, tliat tl distril)ntion c and coral reel attractive to ]3razil, and sp PIIEFATORY NOTE. This volume is the result oCtwo joiu'neys mndo hy myself iu Drazil. The first was uudertakcu un.lcr tliu direction of Professor A<j:assi/, in connection with tlie Thnyer K.K|K'(litlon in the years 18(1.') and l(S(i(j. On this journey 1 studied very carefully the (Jeology and Physical (leog-raphy of the coast between Bio and Bahia, going over a very large ])art of the ground on horseback or in canoe. As a sketch of the jour- ney is to he found in the " Joui-ney in IJrazii," it is not ne- cessary to repeat it here. ^ly companion was Mr. Edward Copeland, of Boston, ont> of the volunteer aids of the Expe- dition, and 1 take pleasure in acknowledging my indebted- ness to him for the very valualjle assistance he rendered mc. On this journey Mr. Copeland and I made very large collec- tions of marine invertel)rates and fishes, though mt did not rieglect to secure other ol>jects of natural history. I hope that these collections will throw much light on the fresh- water and marine animals of the coast, and, as they were made at frequent intervals between IJahia and Rio de Ja- neiro, that they will i)rove valuable in the study of the distribution of the,-^e animals, ^ly studies of the stone find coral reefs and of the geology of Brazil ])rovod so very attractive to me that on the year following I returned to ]h-azil, and spent my vacation, several months, in examining VI rnr.iAToi.'v noti: tli(> ciinst lictwct'ii rci'iKiiiiliiii'o ;iml IJio, ('.\|il(>riii<r iiKirc jiiirliciihiilv tilt' \iciiiity of r.:ilii:i and tlic islands and cdi'al reefs of llie .Vhi't illios. 1 was aide(l peeuniai'd y nii this seemid e.Xjieditinii liy Vi'. .lolni Loekwood. ot' tlie Adelplii Aead e||i\-, I'l'diilv Ivii, the New ^'(>^k Assoeiatidii foi- the Ad- vaneeiiieiit nf Seieiiee ami Art, ami the ('(t(i|(ei' Institiile; liii! my thanks are esjieeially (hie tn Miss Chadeayne. the irmeiiia 1 .)!• an exeelleiit lauies S( hool .lersev Citv. io y\v. \'an X.isii'and, (>!' Newark, to mv friend .Nhiior O. C anies, nt leiucn. witliout wh^se ht I'Ol IS aid 1 shituhl nnt lia\e aeeonijth-he(l my e\|ie(hti(m and hrtinuht h(tmo my vnhiniimms enllcetion, and to Mr. .1. I']. Mili>. and Mr. U. L. I>u-dah', ( ''New- York. 1 wi>h that I eouhl adetpiately aeknewledp' llie innuiucr- ahle kimhiesses and attentions I liiive I'eeeixcd fi'nm Captaiiis Tinkh'pauLih and Sloeomh. and the oflieers on llie splemUd steamer nl the u'eiierous Messrs M( ( laiMison anti All en, an( 1 l'vn\n ii liimdre(| kind friends in Ih'azil. The hos|atality witli which I w s e\-erv\vliere I'eeeMcd m l.ra/.i am I tl le assist- nnce ol'fered m(> wherevei' I went in the proseention of my stndies of the enuntry, have m;ide me love the hind of tlio S'lhia. and it is my sineerest wish in aekn(»w le(|n-ment of so nmeh kim.iii'ss to lie to some hmnhle de'jree instiannenfiil in remo\in'_L' false impressions so enrrent ahoiit l>ra/il. anil to make the ri'sonrees of the Kmpire hettei' known in .\mer- iea. Til the eom'st^ of the followimi- paii'os 1 shall have fre(jiiently opportunity to aeknowliMlp' flic aiil not only of Jira/.ilians. hut of forein-nd-s resident in the eonntrv. Tl us Volume wu. itended ;it lii'st as a report to Professor Aii'assiz as the Director of the Thayer Kxpedilion, (luhra- einu' dimply tli»> resuhs of my explorations as n "-(^oiouMst of that expedition, tnuclher witli tho^e of luv s(>cond inde- ■ ■ m i R PMiipiy y^ ^Mi rilF.FAIOCY XOTi; VII {icndciit JDunicv, both reports to lie |»nlilislie<l niiKum' tlio ••oiitriliiitifins ol' the 'I'liiivci- Mxpcdilioii. |)'iriii'j' llic prcp- ;il'iitii)li (tf these reports, iilid ill CMiiseipii'ili e ol" tll<' <lel;iy ill ])iilili('!itinn, I lia\e Imil the (»|>p()rtiiiiily ol" e\;iiuiiiiiiu' iiinre or h'ss eriticallv llie works of the iii:iioril\- of the writers on r.i;i/il, Jind (lie \(thiine, iVoin n >iiiiph' report of my own in- vestigations, h;is _!irown to ;i general wori-;, in which I hasc orated tlie liest resnlts ot'othei's who ha\(' written on nicoriH 1 tlie (leolo^y and Physical (Jeography of Ura/.il. I liave to ackiiow h'dge v;diiiilih! eontrihiitioiis to this \ohiine (Voni ^Icssrs. .1. A. Allen, ( )restes II . St. .lolin, and Thonnis Ward, all of whom were employed on the Thayer lv\pe(lition. 1 am indehted to I'rol'essor .lelt'ries AVvman lor an interesting com- mnnication with reference to a !'>otociido skull, and to Pro- lessor iMjihens Hyult for liis vidiiiiMe paper on the' Creta- ccons Fossils of Maro'hn ; Trofessor < >. ('. Marsh has kindly examined !ind descrihed in tln^ .loiirnal of Scicnec^ a low reptilian remains I collected at Dahia, Professor Verrill de- scrilied the radiates of my second jonrney, and Mr. S. .1. Smith has jtiihlished a vahiahle paper on the ('nistaeea of the same lonrnev Prof essoi' M; irsii s naiie I I lave u'lveii a Imost en- tire. From Professor VerrilTs I have drawn lairely, and I have giv(Mi tlic general r(>snlls of that of Mr. Smith. A part of the eha]»ter on the Coral Heel's appeare(l in the American Naturalist, to'jether with sereral of th(> wood-cuts, wliicdi ave heen kindiv lent me for this volin ne I nnist e\- pi'css my thaid<s to Messrs. Putnam. Packar<l, Moi'se, and llvatt, of the Peahodv Academv. for vahiahle assistance ren- deivd. I'rofessor Agassi/, has generonsly allowed me the use of hooks, maps, and jihotographs, and lias assisted me in vari- ous ways. 1 regret exceedingly that his illness has i)re- VIU ITvEFATOnV X(">Ti:. vented liini ffoni prejmrint^ lor the work the j)nper on the lishes wh'uli he eontenijthited. In the loeent excellent \vi)ik'*()n the Ifiniilaiuls of the Brazil," hy Cnjttnin Ihirton, the ecU'lirateil AlVican travellei-, now Knu'lisli Consul at Santos in the ri'ovince of ao Paul o. the author uses throughout the delinite artieie |»reli\ed to the name of the Kni]»ire. Ihirton says, *' I do not eall the eountry ' ili'a/.il," which she does not ; nor dues any other nation Iml our own"* Caj>tain ihirton's reasoninyj d(jes iu)t seem to me ([uite conclusive. It is true that the Portu- u'uese say "o Ih'azil^ flir Brazi'.'' hut the article is not ]irellxed to liive any pai'tienlar dchnitciu'ss to the ]..une. They say also a Li^-Iatcrra, a Fnui^^n^ o l\irai]:;Ha)j^ A'c, the tleiinite article being a|)])lied to almost all names of jdaees. o we have in Freneh Ic Brc»ilJa France. V Atw-hit rrr In Italian the delinite artieie is used Iiel'ore the name of a country when the whole of it is meant, hut ordinarily it is nut cm)>loycd. In Spanisli it is nse(l nnicli as in Fi-eneh. Since the Brazilians use the artieie ])eforc tlie names of other countries as well as their own, m accordance witli a custom lollowe(l hy otlun* Romance languages, there would seem to he no better reason foi- sayii'ir Tlir Brazil, contrary to English usage, than '' T/ir Fraitcr,'' because the French do. It is tiMie that many English writers on Ih-azil have used the article, but tlu> mnjority have not, and no on(^ but Bur- ton uses it to-day. " TJir Brazils," as that author lias re- marked, is an anachronism occasionally seen, but only proper between the years l,')?:^ and l.")Td, when the country was divided into two novernmeuts. It is more hi<di-sonnd- ingtlian the ordinary form, and so ]»r(.)l)ably remains in use. In the North European languages, German, llollandish, * Vul. I. ]). ,3, note. IS very |iuzz sure to eon * Ilaklnyt ii^ old Kn-xii^li uri ri!i:FATORY NOTE. IX Danish, or Swedish, tlie iiiinio isdcrivcMl from tlic T^iitiu form nrcsilid;* in Piuiisli jiiul ( J(>rmjiii, A'/v/.v/Z/r//,. In like man- m-r we liave the Oermaii Itnlicn, Slri/i(H, A'C. In none of these Uin;4"nn,ues is the article nscd. J liave foHowed, in this work the eonnnon nsa^e, and have omitted the iu'tielc. 'JMie nse of tiie article before the names of places in Di-azil is vcrv nnz/linu', and foreiuiiers writinu' on the counti'v ai'c: sure to connnit l)lunders. The names of the provinces are especially diilicnlt. Several of them are derived from rivers, as Amazonas, Pani, Parahyba, cVe., and these take the article in rortntiMiese, as do Ceara, Ala,tieas (plural), Hahia, and l"]s[)irit(j Santo ; hnt those heai'inii' the nani(\s of saints, to- u(>ther with I'ernamhiico, Seriiipe, ^linas (Jeraes, ]\Iatto (1- .^u. . and (loyaz, do not. The same difticulty is met with : . .'' names of rivers, serras, A'c, and it is impossilile to o'ivr general rnle to guide one in writing them. .Ah)st wri s seem to he impressed with the idea that Portngnese is oidy had Spanish, and that it will do just as well to write Ih'azilian names in the Spanish form ; so we find some of our best authoi's on P)razil using San Francisco for Sao Francisco. The oidy safe way seems to be to give geogra- jihical names exactly as used by the ih-azilians themselves. Prazil. in its climate. ])eople, and productions of all kinds, was at tlu> time of its diseoveiy totally different from Furo])e. The Furopean colonists in JJrazil therefore had no names to give to the things they saw abont them. Such was not the case in North America, where the eai'ly explorers found animals ahd plants resemljling those of Enroj)e, and they recognized the bear, the wolf, the coellish, the herring, the oak, S:c., Are. Hut in IJrazil all was new, and the euphoni- 1 i w ...'!, * Ilakliiyt used the form Brosilia, iind it i> to ho found in the works of other old En''ii.><li wriors. ,1 ri:i:iAr(ii;v note oils indiiiviious names ^v(M•o adojiiod and incorporatiMl, and l(»-dav tlic 1 '()!•< uuucsc of Hi-a/il is I'lill of Uiciiu ami jilaccs, t()(t. licar to a vciy lariiv cxtcid their Indian nann's. Far and Avide, np and down Uie ecast, and tliroiiLrli llie eoiintry, was iointd distriliuted the .iii'cat nation ol" the Tnpfs, s])eakinL' evci'vuhiMv tlic sanu' iiciicral laniinau'o, and it is IVoin this hintinaLi'e, now spokrn ovci' a hiriie ])art of IJra/il, that th(\s(' nanu's wcim^ taken. Tlicse luiines have hccn written witli th(' I'oi'tiigiiese ])i'(»nniu'iati()ii, and have oi'U'n ln'cn nincli corniplcd, so tliat their ortliotz'i'aphy varies \v:y inneh. Foreigners iniir(K'r tlicni (eaii'nlly. Ainonu' the writers on Ih'a/.il !5afes and r>ni'ton ai'c |i('rha])s the most aecinate in their use ol" Foi'tiiLiiiese and 'I'lipf names. In this work 1 liave Inllnwed the hest anlhorit ies, and 1 hav(> taken partien- kii' p;iins to insnre eorreetness in the ti'eog'raphieal names ; hnf. sinee tliere is no siamhird of ortlioornphy I'oi- those names even in Ih'a/.il. and since one is iVeqnently ohliged to depend mi an iuMiorant li'iiide Inr the name of ii j)laee or an ohjeet, absohile nnilbrmity and accni'aey are out of the (piestion. In hiokimi: ii]> the derivation of Hrazilian a'eo<:'raphiea1 names. 1 was ]e(l into a stndy of th(^ word " r>r:;/.il,"' hnt 1 soon fonnd tli;it flumhohh h;id preeeihMl me. and I am ahh' to aihl litth' to wliid he has said on the snlijce are alloat so manv incoiTeet me( ther (le;is eoneernm'j,' the denva- tj)!! of tlie iiiime. it seems not iinadvisalde to siive here in 1,-' hrief the I'esidl of llnmhi»hlFs reseandies.* Aeeordinir to IlnmhohH the ninue, nmU'r the various forms of Bi-acie, Jyrazi', Ij( rzV,-\ iippears on Itahan maps from * C't'Df/mplnr iln wmrnvi Couiiuiul , 'Wnw. II. p. 21 4, to wliicli the rciulLT is referred l(ir the iletiiilsof tlie discussion. t Ainotifj: tin- iiKiiiy curiou- old fonii-; of the nunie T^v;\/.il iiinv Ke mentioned l!l;U of AvsvV/, f ('i('ii'tr<ijihii (I'l !i * See llnmh( I'l tlie iiivesiiL''!U lins historieil ev 1 Decade 1. I n-cve found lit 1 |n;etU(|UiUii eoec iihiin aiiiiellant.' PREFATORY NOTi:. £1 in.")l to 14')0, appliiMl \i) Olio or iiioro of the islands of the Aroi'.'s, and more jiarticiilai'ly 1o a point of the i.shind of 'IVireii-a, wliieh still l)ear.s the name. For three centuries before tlic discovery of the route to the Imlies aronnd the Cape of (!ood Hope there was known in Kni-ope ;i d_ve-woo(l called A/vx///, /./vrs'/////, hrcsi/Ji, bru.ri- //> or hrasilr, which ap))ears to have Iiccn dcriviMl tVom one or more J"]ast Indian speci-'s of Cfrsn'/n'iin and J'/frocdr/tns. As to how this dye-wood came to hear the name (tf l>razil 1 know not. and 1 fear that, any attempts to derive it fri'in Sanskrit oi' other roots will leail to nofhinu' satisfatdory.* Aiiii'liiera speaks of the occnrrence of Ih'a/.il wood in Haiti, whi(di was known lonu' licfore the discovei\\ of IJrazil. (Ii'inaMis sjieaks in 14'.>1» of the Ih'azil-wood seen at I'aria (Payi'a). Hnmholdt says : " Tn proportion as discoveries extended themselves to the sonlh of Cape Santa Anirnstinho, csjx'eially .after Pedro Alvarez Calu-al, in May. loOO, had taken jtosses- sion of the Terra do Santa Crnz. the commerce in the red- wood of Continental America became more active. On the fourth expedition of \'espncius. in which one of the ships was lost OP the shoals ai'onnd Fernando Noronha, a carii'o of Brazil-wood was taken in near the Hahia. All the world ':m that of Pnsil/, found in mi Miiricnt ]intilii':ition, ilix'rilioil liv TTinnI)olilt in )iU fi('"fp(iji/ii, (hi iioiirniH (''•Nli/ioit, Toinc \' ]). :.'•'!'.•, I'Utillril Cii/'i'i (fcr X' m n '/.I i/tini'/ nti^s PiT'iilli'i f.nmlt. * Si'c Ihinilioldt, i'i>. cit. Tome IT. ]>. 'J'i'J. Tf i-; nlwnys uiisMfc to iivocivil I'l tlir invosiiLTiition of tlic t'tyniolouicitl (icriviuion of iiropcr niinu's, \iiilc.-« one has liistoric'il cviiliMici' of sonic -^ort to ytiidc Iiiin. t Dcciidi' T. I.iv. 4. ]i, 11, quoted hy Ilundioldt. An<r]iit'ra says that tli-TO ncrc found at Haiti " sylvas iiniiu'ii^as, ([ua- arliorc< nullas nutvi'liaiit alias |nata(|uaui cocoiiioas (nuwuin iiiiiiuiu iniTcatorc* Ttaii irrzhniiu, Flispani A/</- iihiin aji]ii'llant." I rSSSBBSB^- Xll rREFATOKY NOTK. knows Unit littlo Ify little, in the first half of the sixteenth century, this same ahumhuu'e of dye-wood has caused the name of Terra de Santa Cruz, given by Cabral, to he t-hanged into the Terra de Brasit\ ' changenient ins])ir(3 jtar le demon, (lit rhistoriographe JJarros, car le vil hois (jui teint le drap en rouge ne vant }ias le sang vcrsc:^ pour not''e salut.' So from the Asiatic Archipelago the name Brasil has j)asscd to a ca})e of the island of Terccira, and then to the southern shores of the Xcw Continent." CONTENTS. CHArTER I. '';':) THE TROVINCE OF lUO DE JANEIRO. r.ujE Tlio Scrra do Miir. — Tlio Serra <la Miiiiti(ineira, and tlio Pico do Itatiaioe^su. — '\'\w, Kiu I'araliyba do Sul and its Triluitaries. — Description of tiie Bay ol' Kiel, its Islands, Tides, &c. — The Sugar-Loaf. — The Corcovado. — The (.UH'i^s (if Kio. — I'he Orf^aii Mountains. — (ieoio<^ical ObstTvatJons along till' Cantagallo Hailroad. — l)ril't I'lienoniena at llio, Tijuca, and on the Doni redro II. K'ailroad. -- DccomiJositioii of Gneiss in situ and its lltlect on the I'ornisot' the Hills.— Keeent IJise of the Coast. — Tiie Coast Ijetween liio and Cape Frio, its Lakes, .Salines, &c. — Cape Frio. — Os lUizios. — IslamU uf Santa Anna. — Frade de .Macahe. — Campos dos Gciitacazes, their Lagoons, Canal, vS:i'. — liio I'arahylia. — Sao .loao da Harra. — Sugar IMantations. — City of Canlp'^s. — The Kio .Murialic — Tertiary Iied>. — Sugar I'azemia.s. — Sfio Fiilelis. — Till' (lold- .Mines of Cantagallo. — Cieohigieal Notes on the Coiuitry l)etween Sao Fidelis and Honi .lesus. — Tiie IJio Itabajmana — The Serra d'ltabajiuana. — The Garrata IJarra do Itabapuaua CHAPTEU II. PROVINCE OP ESPIRITO S.VNTO. Darreiras do .Sirf. — Itap(''mprini. — Coast between Itapemerlin and Renevente. — !!( nevente. — (iuarapary ; Consoliijateil Beach, Corals, &c. — Kio.Iecfi. — r>ay i)f Kspirito Santo. — Nnssa Senlmra da I'enha. — Victoria. — Decompo- sition of Gneiss an<l Formatiiin of Mouhlers of Decomposition. — IJeeent l!ise lif the Coast. — Corals, l^ic. of the Hay of Victoria. — Ilio Santa Maria. — (icrman Colonies. — Fi-heries. — Sand I'huns. — Tertiary I'la'.i at Carnpina. — .Mestre Alvaro. — Serra. — Nova Almeida. — Rio Keis Magos. — Santa Cruz. — Basin of the Bio Doce. — Description of the River. — Ginindii ; its Ciilou}' and .\gricultnral Re^ourci's. — I'orto de Souza. — Geology of Vicin- ity. — Luxuriance of Vegetation w\ the Doce. — Woods. — Game. — I'ran- cylvania. — Climate of the Doce. — Linhares. — Lagoa Juparanaa. — The Future of tlie Doce. — American Colonists. — Salt Trade. — 15arra Secca. — Sea-Turtles. — Consolidated Beaches and the Mode of their Formation. — ClKiracter of Coast between tiie Rivers Doce and Sao Matlieos. — Rio Sao Matheos described. — Geological Features. — Fertility of its Lamls. — Cocoa- I'alrns and their Distribution. — City of Sao .Matlieos. — Rio Itahiinaii. — Clilfs of Os LeiKi'oes. — Coast between Itahunas and liio Mucury . .\J.V CONTKNIS. ciiAr'i'Ki: ill ri;in-ixci: df minas gkuaks. IlK MUCUllY AND JIXH'' riNlioNIIA BASINS. Till' na-iii I'l' thr Miicnry. — Torto Al.'^riv. — Description of tlic Rivor IioIdw if l'"iin'-t VcL'ctatidii. — Saiitii Clara. — Miiias -•riio I'inla.iclpliia IJoa.l rt)|)Oi;ra|iliy mid Si ill- botwoi'ii Santa Clara. — l.uxiiriaiu'o i (icraiN a l.aml- il Prnvitic'c. — Want ul' lloai md tlie MiK'in'v Ciili)iiio>. — DiilVa-cMne in till' fortiav (inin>- Laml- wc-t of Santa Clara. — I'rucu. iN Dutch '' )1- Sdil-. Cliniat.', \-c. — riiihulclpliia ami ii.- (icrnian (.'ulunics. — (Ji-cat Fcrtilitv .Mucurv l>a.-in — Character nf Country between I'hilailel- jiliia am! the lleail-wati ,■-. i — The Iiii) I'lUii Tiinlo ii if tiie Mneury. — I'Ik; iSa-in of the .Iciinitinhnnha. (Iriieral tieiilii::ieal Stnieture nl' the .letiuitinhiinha- ters ol' the Setulial, their Geulci^'ical I'eatitn's 11 ead-wa ('atin<'a l-'ure-ts. — Ceulnsical Kxcursinn I'mni the Fa/enila ile Santa i; tci Alto iios r, Ditlictiltv (if I'eiiloLrizini: in lirazil. — I'iic ilni- dlian Camp ,-.— 11 le Chapai las lii'tween Itiiiira and C:i ,ao. — Tl 10 {Tiv'at C iihaii-.Vra>-naliv Vallev. — Ma;inilieeiit View c)ver the Valley from tho CIki at A^'na da N^va. — (.'alhao and the (ieiilniiv o| it icinitv — Dc- -criiition of the Cmintrv hetwcen Calhan ami Sin-nrii'i. — The Chapadas. — Mi Xova>. its Gcoloiiv. (inld-Mine-, \-e. — Oci'iirreneo of (iuld in Drift. 1-Mi if the Arraial da Chajiada ; their f'.niier Hie wiirk"i The K 1 out. — D ecoiiip'i-itiiMi 111 Clay Slates ill the Minas Novas I iii.it yet U'L'ioil. — U'assuauv. riu; Uio .Iciiiiitinhonha from its Con(liien<e with tho Arassiiahy tu the Sea de.-cribed : its (ieoluiry, Vei;ct;itioii, Cuniuicrce. — The Salto Gramlo 125 ruoviNcr- The Tertiary I, air tion, >S;c. — Cull ll:e Canal joii I'lraidie- and lie .Montis l'a«ciial. Santa Criiz ami L'lia do ISrac'i, .Manui'ovc S\\ at — The Salt Tra the liio I'lirdo I'riiico Neiiw ie (pii-ta, I'o^snes, nil,-.,,,. — l.Moai Hay of Cainaini til tln! Uahia dc Itaparica. — li'ii of Kiver li(do\v eulturui In-titu ClIxVPTEll IV. THE ISLANDS AND (ORAL UKKFS OF TIIF, ABROMloS. Tlie Geology of the Alimlhos. — Trap-hed, I'os^jl IMitnts, iVc. — Laml Fauna and Flora: Spider-. I.i/ariU. and Sea-Uirds. — Ti ''iiiietery of the Frijiato- Birds. — The Whale and (iaroupa Fi-heries. — Importance ol" these Fisheries. — The mythical I'.razilian Kecf. — Tlie ( 'oi\il i'eef- and < 'onsiilidaled ISeaidies eont'oundeil liy Travellers and Writer-. — The Author's Discuvery of the i'lirto ScLHiraii Coral Keef. — Coi-al-huildinfj Corals fnuud almost wholly to tie' north of Cajie Frio. — Tin' Friiii:iii!i I'eef of Santa ilarhara ; its Struc- ture and Life. — Corals I'oumi on the l!iM'f. — Star-fisju's. ()|ihiiirans, iVc — Ite-einldance between the i'.chiiiodenus of tlu; .\lirolhos and West Indies. — The Chapeiroe«. — The Parcel dos Ahrolhos ; its .Xpiiearancc ; forms a seri- ou- Obstacle to N'iivijration. — Safe Canal we-t of the Klands. — The I'aretd do- I'aredes, — The I!ecif(! do Lixo. — It- ;:reat Fxteiit. — The Sulpmcrired Border and its Coral (irowth.— Ilie Coral Fauna of l>ra/.il. — The Milje- pores and their Stiiifiiis I'ropiTties. — The l!eef> nf Timbebas. Iiacolumi, I'orto Se^ruro, Siuita Cruz, Camaimi, Bahia, Maceio, and rorntimbnco. — The Uoccas ITl 1 CONTKNTS. XV (!1[A1'TK1! V rUOVlNiH OK n.MIIA. — COAST snl-TII OF 8AO .SAI.VAHOR. I he Tcrtiiiry LiimU hctween the Rivers Miicnrv uml I'cniliyiio ; tlirir N'cgot;!- IiDii, (S:c. — ('iiloiiiii LcoiioldiiKi iiinl :t> (Jullri' I'biitation-. — N'IIIm X'irn^ii. — l'l;t.! C;iii:il joining; tlii' llivi'fs rcniliy|/r ami < 'afawilas. — iMpriiiatinn i'*' llruclii'- and lii'Mi'li Hiiliius. — Cua>t lii'twi'cii Cariivcllas and I'drtn Seiruri'. — M(Uitt! l'a«('nal. — I'ortu Scijuro and it> h'tdjc, or Cunsdliilatcil licadi. — Santa Cni/. and it> Ilt'ct'. — Coa-t nurtliuard tu tlic .li'qnitinlmnlia ; the La- L't'ia do 15rav", Canipn-, &(•. — Tlu' Canal I'o-assi'i and tlii' llio da SaNa. — Mangrove Swamps hi't ween the .h'liuilinlinnlia and I'ardo. — Cainiaviciras — Till' Salt 'Iradf nl' tlii^ .li'([nitinliiinlia. — l)i'>cri])tiiin (if the iuwiir Part iif till' Hid I'anlo ; Cacau I'lantations, iVc. — Coast noi'thwaril to Illn'os. — rrinc<! Ni'MW ii'd's ItotTJiition of tlu' Coiinti'v Ijctwrcn lllicos and I'on- ipii-ta, I'o-soc-, and Caclmrira ; tlu' l-"oi'('>ts, (.'ani|io-. Social I'lanl,-. iVc. — nil,'.,,-.. — liioaiid La.^oa Italiypc — Dcail Coral Hank-. — l!io das Contas. — I'.av of Caniamu. — 'I'nrva l)i'|io-its. — N'illa dc Canianifi. — Coa>t northwai'd td the Haliia dc Todos or Santos. — The l>ay oi' All Saints de^cril'rd- — illia Ita|iarifa. — IJio .lauiniripe and Xa/.arfth. — l!io l'araj:nas-u. — l)cM'ii|iti"n df llivcr li(do\v Caclioeira. — The Train-i'oarl. — Sant' Ainaro and the A^ri- .■ultural In-tilute 21'j I •Ik . CHAPTER VT. THE SAO I'UAXcisco r.Asix. ho F.xi>ldration=! of Ilalfeld, Liais, St. .Idhn. Allen. Ward, Hnrton, iS:o. — C,en- eral Shape of the I>a^iii. — Its unifdrni Width. — The Nad I'ranei-rd \'alley hdlld'Acd ont of a Series of iiorizdntal lieds of Limestone and Sandsfme. — The Chapadas. — The so-ealled " Serra" sei)aratin,i,' the Sao l''i-aiu'i-ed tVuni the Tdcantins I'.a-in an irre.Lrular Strip or Tahle-land df Sandstone — The Serra- of Araripe and Dons Irmao-. — Talile-topped Hills in the \ alley of the Sao l'"i-anei-eo: Outlier- of the Chap;\das. — l)oulits ahout the .\>j.v of thi' Sand-tones and I.imc-tone-;. — Limestones <<{ the Kio das \'elhas. — h'emains iif I'.xtinct (^uadrupecis in Mrazil. spol<en <f hy C;i/al, Spix and Martin-. \e. — Clan-sen's |)i-eoveries in the <^aves at Cnrvelo. — Dr. Lund's exhan-tivc I!e-earelies at La^'oa Santa. — Caves de-erihed; their Xiunher, Lxtent. Sta- hutites and l)epo-it-of l'>ones in Saltpetn' Karth. — Imnien-e (Juantitie- of small Bones liroUi;ht in l>y Owl-, >S:e. — I.artre Xunil)erdf l"ds-il Aniniid- dis- coveied hy Lund. — Former l-'.xi-tenee df Meuathei-ia, .Mylodons, Ma-todons, inmiense ,\rniadillds ami Cats, Horse-, iS;e., in lira/.il. — IJeuiaiiis ol' a Race of Man of hiu'h .Vntiipiity. — lieinhardt's ( lenerali/.atioiis. — 'I'he I!io de Sao I'ranci-eo of the Sixteenth Cla-- aiUdUj; the llivers of the World, hut third in Itank in I'.razil. — (leneral heseription of the Stream. — Its Atllnents, the Ilids l'ar:i, Paradpelia, and Das \'elhas. — 'I'he Iiid das \'elhas ahme eapahle df hein.ij; uiade naviualde I'di' Sleauiei-s, — Tin' San I'raueised iiavi'ja- l)le with hut fi'w InterriiptidUs t'dr twd hundred and sixtv-four Leag\ies helnw XVI CUNTKNTS. tlir i;i.. .1:1^ Vi'Ur.i-. — ("M>t of •.•ciiKiviii^' (th-tnictiniis.— I'ropnsi'il Riiilway from .loii/cii-M tu l'ir,iiili:i>. — I'fi-tility of l.ow Luiul-Mtf SAt^ rraiicisou Vul- li.'V. — Liai?'.- I'ictuie of the Caiiiiio^ '-' * CH ATT Ell VII. Tin: rRoviNci; (U' ii.\m.\, — inteuior. Jouriicy-s (it Sjiix and MartiiiN Nii"-lay and Laccrda, AlK'ii, a id ottuT r,x|ilor- ov-, — (li'oliiLrical and iMiy>ioal Features of Country between Mr.ll.ada and Caehoeira. deMTilied by Von Martins. — Sand-tone.-. — Itcinain'^ <:\ Masto- don- founil near \illa "do l.'io de Conta^.— lunnense Copjier ll.iulder from Caelioeira. — Kev. Mr. Xieolay's Iteport ol' .Inuriiey from Cacdioeira to tlie Cliajiada l»ianiantina. — < >e<'mTeiiee of Diamond- in Sand-tone-. — l.inie- ,^t,,iie-. — Sterile Plains. — Dianiantiferons Sand- of the Chapada. — f he Diamond Mines of Sineora and !,eneoe>. — .\!nina! Vudduflhe I'rovinees ii ])j.,„i,„i,l.;._ Mr. Allen's lieport of a .lonrney tVom C'hiiiue-Chiiiue, vu' Jaeohina to Caehoeira.— Country hetween t:hii|ue Cliii|ue and .laeolmia an inunense Limestone {'lain. — 1 he ("liajiada at daenldna a detaeiied llat- toiipeil Ma-s of Sand-tone. — (inei-s Hills. — "Lake I'lain." east of .laeo- bina. — Knoh-. — I'othoh'-, prohaidy of ( iiaeial < )riLrin. — l-!astern Sand-ton(5 I'lain. — Climate, X'ei^elation. i.V;r. of h'oute. — DitVerenet^ in 'l"o|io;;r;i[]liy between (inei-> llefrinns of llahia and the Mnetu'v deseribi'd and aeeonnted for. — Former ixrrater F.xten-ion of Forests. — Von Martius's Deseri|ition of the Couiiti'v lietwcen (^aehoeira ami .Io,a/eiro. — Country near l'"eira da Coneei(;ao. — Serra do l!io I'eixe. — IJio Itaiii''uru. — Want of Kain at (j>U(dmado<. — Si'rra de 'linh;!. — Tamiue- and I'os-il Hone- near Coehe «i'.\:rua. l«arri;i;a Mollr, and Nei;j:hliorhood. — .Njonte Santo. — The (li'cat Meteoroliti' of liemdeiro. — l!oid\ Insi-i'i|itions. — Villa Nova da IJamh.a. — .lo.a/eiro to he the Ti'rniinns of Bahia and Sao l'"ranei-eo li'ailroad. — I!io de Salitre. — Salt I.iek-. — Mr. .Mien"- Note on the Salt of the Sao Franci-eo Valley. — Saltiietre. — (ieolo:.'y of Country hetween Carnnlianha and I'mh'!. — Change in (ju(jluy;ieal Structure, Climate, Vegetation, «^c., beluw Iriibu . 204 (lilos, &c. — De Bed.s of I'liitufi Itemiiius. — Fo> — ialioleiros a raj)hy of the boleiros of the ritanga. — Cret goinlias. — Tert THE PROVINC The Province of ! \l-\\\. — Kstanc Dunes. — 'I'he taeeous Ik'ds w stone with Ami Seln-amm and of the Pontal. - Nova and 'ts Ci — Its Conunerc — Morro do Ch ])Os, Vepetatioi I'iranlias. — Co Narrow (iorpe i Description. — and Niaptra. — Sao Francisco Coast of tlic 1' City of Maceio and Keefs . CHAl'TKU Vlir. I'liinixci: III- ijAin.\, (iF.or.otiv of tiik virixiTV of s.vo s.vlv.vdok AND Tin; liMlIA .\\|) SAO I'HA.M'ISCO IlAlLliOAD. Topn;rv!iji]iy of the Virinity of Sa' Salv.ador da liahia. — The T'ppcr and Lower Cities. — 'I'he Population, i*l'e. — The Ilarlior. — The Commerce of the City aiKl Province. — The Climate. \.-c, — '!' he liahia Steam Navijiatioii Company. — 'fhe ilahia ai 1 Sao Franci-co Pailroad. — The Parauma-^u Ste.am Tram-road. — The i<s of i'.ahia. — Decomposition. — Diit't De- [io<its. — Con-olidiition of Picaehi'-. — Si(,;;c L'.M'f ;it Hio N'erinelho. — RIown Sands eoveriiiLT the Drift of the Hill-.— Mr. ■Mlporf's De-cription of the Cretaceon- P>ed.- of Mun-erratc and Platalorma. — Fo— il Fi-he-, Croco- Tlio Limits, Aror Soils, &c. — Tl iiambuco or Re The Stone Reel part of the ('o:i Tne I'ernandni Line. — I-land 1-land, Cocoa-I scriptiun of tin CONTKNTS. XVll (lilcs, &c. — Doseriplion of sovenil Sj)0';ics of Fos-^il Mnlln-«ks. — Ci-etficooti-; lU-ih of I'liitiironiiii iiiiii Vicinity. — I'rof. Miirsli's Notice of tlio licptiiiiiii lU'iiuiiiis. — Fossil Fislius at Agiiii Coinpiidii. — Gneiss iit tlie l{io .loliiiniics. — Tabolciros and Sand I'lains of Camassari. — I'eciiiiaiitics of tiic Topog- raphy of the 'I'eftiary Hills. — Tubatingii Clay. — Sand I'lains ami Tu- bolciros of the Iinbiivaliy. — Teat-IJog. — Dril't. — Diauioiid-washiiigs at ritan^a. — Cictaceoiis Strata at I'njuca. — I'iassabas. — Cainiius of Ala- goiuhiis. — Tertiary Hills. — Character of Vegetation ayj C HATTER IX. THE rROVIXCES OF SKIUiU'i: AXU ALAGOAS, AND THE RIVER SAO FUANCT.SCO HELOW THE FALLS. The ProviiH'o, of Serf;ipf». — Its Division into Mittns and A(/restf.^. — The Rio Real. — Kstanna; New Red Sandstone, Sugar IMantations, &c. — Sand Dunes. —The Rio Vasabarris. — The Riy Cotinguiba. — Araeajii. — Cre- taceous Reds w-th Inoccranii at Sapucahy. — Maroini — Cretaceous Lime- stone with Aninionite.s. — " l-'ossil 'i'urtles." -- Sugar IMantations. — Me-srs. Schramm nml Company. — Tiie Rar of the Sao Franeisco. — Sand Dunes of the Pontal. — Character of tiie River iielow Peiu'do. — Aracare. — Villa Nova and 'ts Cretaceous Sandstones. — The (^ity of I'enedo and its Geology. — Its Commerce and Fair. — Notes on the I'irimlia and its Habits. — I'rojini. — Morro do Chaves and Cretaceous Fossils. — Traipu. — Iron Ore. — Cam- pos, Vegetation, Cactuses, &c. — Rao de Assncar. — Cattle Fazendas. — I'iranhiis. — County flat and covered l)y Roiilders. — The River Valley a Narrow Gorge in a Gneiss I'lain. — Tlie Falls of Paulo Aironso. — Halfeld's Descriptio'i. — Liais's Description. — Comparison between Paulo Allbn-o tmd Niagara. — Mastodon Remains from near the Falls. — Climate of the Sno Francisco beli>w the Falls. — Steam Navigation. — Character of the Coast of the Province of Alagoas, Smith of .Maceio. — 'fhe Lagnas. — The City of Maccio and the Geology of its Vicinity. — Tertiary Beds.— Harbor and Reefs 376 CHAPTER X. PROVINCE OF rEUN'.VMnUCO. The Limits, Area, Sec. of the Province. — Its Topography, Geology, Climate, Soils, \:c. —The Rivers. •- Productions of the Province. — The City of Per- nambiico or Recife — Derivation of these Name';. — Situation of the City.— The Stone Reef. — The I'ort formed by it. — Shallowness <i|' Water along this jiart of the ('oast. — Pernamliuco a Cidling Station for Foreign Slii|iping. — Tne i'ernanibuco and Sao Franeisco liailroad. — Table of Heights along the Line. — Island of Itamaraca. — Fossiliferons Limestones. — Fertility of the I-land, CocoM-I'alm (iroves, (.S:c. — Fernanilo de Noronha. — Darwin's De- scription of the Geology of the Island. — Its Dryness and Sterility XVUl CONIKNTS. CH.VrTKR XI. TiiK ruoviNci': ui'' i-auafiyilv do nortr. Limits of tliP rrnvincc — TliP Sen;! or I'l;itcu\i (if the ('!iirin'> Vdlinn, — Tho Climatf, I'l-iidui'lioii-, <S;c. of tiie I'luviiuf. — iMTtilc I.iiihI- fDiiml only iiloiip; the Cuiixt. — i'lio Kio rnniliybii do Norte, its Niivijinbiiity. — ilie City of riiraliylia. — 'IIk' I'oiisojitliitcil lifadi at tlit> Mouth of tlic Itivcr. — Tlio liivi'i- and Town of .Manian;4uaiM'. — lin' Hfoloi;y of liio Vii'inity of I'ara- livba. — Crctact'ou-t Liniu'tuiu' witii Ko^siU — OliM'rvatJons <]f I'rolV-xir A"a>>iz and Mr. Williams. — Mr. Williani'^'^ Oliscrvations on tlic (ii'oloi;y of tlie Countrv Ijctwrt-n I'araliyba and tlio (iold-.Mini's o|' I'ianco. — Mode of Oeciirreiico of tliii Gold. — '• Tlic Tasso 15ra/.iliaii liold-Mining Coin|)any (Limilcd)" 440 CHAPTER XH, TUB rnOVINCE Ol^' UIO (iU.VNDH DO NORTE. Limits of tlio Province, its Position, Monntain, and I'ivcr Systems, Sn'. — Tlio L'io Piranlias. _ Ve<:ctation. — Prodiietions. — I'lie Carnalinha I'alni and its Uses. — Cocliiiieal. — Ciittlo. — Climate — Natal. — tieolo^'v of the I'rovince 451 Tlio Serrii dos I Oi)servutioiis on referrinjij the gn iddy 'I'ertiiiry. - ("retaeeoiis Hed nnd till. Cuin|ios of tlie Province, THE PRO Snmlstonps of the jiliie Ho('l<s. — (i inee. — li'ains. — Mouth ot the 1{ of tlie Amazoni Amazonian lied Aniuzoniiiu V'all CHAPTER XIII. n THE rROVlNCR OF CEAR.V. Gpocrrnphioal Position n' " Limits of the Provineo. — Tho Serrn da Yhinpaha. — Its TopoL'raiihy aiiu (ie(ilo^dc;d Structure, — Serra de Araripe. — Kiver Basins. — (ieiicral Sketeli (jf the (;eoloi:y of the i'rovini'e. — Climate. — Character of the Soil. — Prodnetions. — l^ity of Fortule/.a — Population of tho Proviiiie. — liardner's Sketch of the (n'oloiry of Ceari'i. — Character of Country in the \'icinity of Aiacaty. — I)e-.crip;ion ot' Country between Araeatyand lei'i. — Serra de Pereira. — Villa do Ico and Vicinity. — Country between Tc6 and Crato. — Gold \Vashin<:s. — Crafo. — Serra de Araripe. — Villa da IJarra do.lardini. — Description of Possil Fish Locality. — I'lie Mslies noticed Ijv Spix and Martins ami Others, and described by Professor Afxassiz. — Glacial PlieiifinnMia of Vicinity of Fortale/.a spoken of liy Profej^.sor Agas.siz. — Mammalian KemaiiLs. — Minerals.— ^h•t.Nlrolites 456 The Gpoprnphicnl palieira. — Geoh Serra da N'ativi( — Strnctun! of Subterranean Si morphic Rocks, lirazil. — The > its Navigation. • Piranhas. — (lo' Po|iulation, &c. undisturbed Ho( a Plain witliout CHAPTER XIV. PUOVIXCE OF riAi:HY. PROVINCES 01 Geogrnphicnl Position. Limits, &c.. of the Province — The Rio Parmihyba and its Tributailes. — De-eription of its Basin. — (leneral (Jeolou'lcal Struc- ture and Topography of the i'rovince. — Table-topped Hills of Sand.stouo. — Tiie Serra do Mar Provinces of Sfi Streams of no 1 CONTKNTS. XIX Tlif> Scrni dos Poih Irnmnos ninl Us Stnictiiro. — Disrn««iori of Cinrdiicr'a DlKcivalidiis on tlio (ii'olngy of I'iiiuliy mul ("rani. — (ianliior mistaken in rcl'iTriM^c tlic groat Sandstone Slicct to tlio CrctaL-eoU!*. — Sandstones prol)- iiMy 'I't'i-tiafy. — Tlicir great Kxti'iision over lirazil. — DistrilmtiiMi ot' tlio ("i-etari'ons IJcds in Brazil. — Climates ol' I'ianliy. — Tlii! Cam|ios .Mimusos niid till Cam|ios Agrc^tcs. — I'ccnliarities of tiieir V'ogetation. — I'rodiictions of tlie Trovincc, I'opulation, t&c 473 % CHAPTER XV. TIIK PROVINCES OF MAHANII.VO, PAR.V, ANM) AMAZON'AS. Sandstones oC tlie C()a>-t of Maraidnlo. — Tlie Interior composed <>f Metnmor- ]iiiic |{oci<s. — CoM-Mine-i of 'I'uri and Maraca—nme. — Climate of tiie I'rov- iin.,.. — IJiiiim. — Citie-< of Maraiihiui. (^axias, iS:e. — I'ororuea or jinre at tlio Mmitli of tlie Kiver Mearini. — Professor Agassiz's Sketeli of the (leology of the Amazonian VaUey. — Hi-* Theory of the Moile of Depo-ition of the Amazonian Redi. — Discussion of this (Question. — Cretaceous Kocks in tiio Amazonian Valley 484 CHAPTER XVI. TROVIXCES OV (iOYAZ AM) MATTO GUOSSO. The Georrraphicnl Position of the Province of Goynz. — Tlio Cliapada ila Man- palieira. — (ieoloixy of tlie Vicinity of N'atividade. — (Jold-Washings of tlio Serra da N'atividade, the Arraial da (^liapaihi, and the Arraial tla Conceieao. — Strnetiire of the Serra at the Town of Arrayas. — The Serra (ieral. — Snhterrane:in Streams. — Western mid Southern Goyaz compo-^ed of Mcta- morphic Rocks. — Di^trilnition of Gnei^sosp and Granite Hock-; in Western llrazil. — 'I'lie Monies Pyrencos ami their Height. — The I!io Araguaya and its Navigation.— Dr. ('onto do Miigalhnos. — Ilha do Hananal. — Note on Piranhas. — Gold, Diamonds, Iron, and Chrome Ores. — Climate, Forests, Poi>ulatioii, &c. — The We-t(-rn Part of the Plateau of Brazil composed of midi^tnrhed Ho<N of Sandstone. Cic— The Amazonas-Paruguay Water-shed tt Plain without Serras 406 t CHAPTER XVII. rilOVINCES OF SAO PAULO, PAUAX.C, SANTA CATIIARIXA, AND RIO GKANHK DO SUL. The Serra do Mar of Sao Paulo a Plateau. — Its Character.— Drainage in the Provinces of SAo Paulo and Paransi to the Westward. — Kastward-flowing Streams of no Importance —The Sfio Paulo IJailroad.— De-cription of the XX CONTKNTS. rnnnrrv, nloiij; the nuilwny bptwcen Sinifiw mid Silo rimin liy Miijor 0. C. j.i,ii,.H."_ (icoio^ry uf Vicinity ol' Sfm TaiiUp. — Mnwo's l)i'»i'riptii>ii ..I" tlio (lolil-Miiioor .lani^'ua, aii.l till' M.'liio.i ..f fxtnictiiij; tlic (icl.l. — (.'uuiitry we.xtwiiril til ('ain|iiims. — Iniii-Miiii's iit YiPiiiifiiiii. — Scrrii Ani^M.iMva m- (iiiaiiivoiiiva. ~<'liiiiato, I'nuliicts, &o. ol' tiio I'roviiice ol' SAo I'aiiio. — (IcuiTal li.iMP^rai.Jiii'al i'oatuivs of the i'mvliicu of I'araiiiv, its enimuto, rniductloii!*, \-o. — .Matte or l'ani>;uiiyan I'fa. — riM-riaiitiu;; in I5ra/.il. — Ilivi.is. — Cnlmiifs. — I'arauagiia. — C'lai Ua>iM uu tlif Ki« Tiilicrilo in tlio I'luviin'c of Santa Catiiuriim. — (ii'iu'iai Di'^iTiptinii <if tin' l'iiy>ii'ai FfiituriM of tlie I'rovini'o and tiiat of l!i(> (inimli' do Siii. — lli>tory of tiic Coal-Minc.-i of IJnizil — Oli-orvatioiis of l'i'ri;;ot, llouk-ii'li. Avi'-Laili'iiiaiit, I'laiit, iVf.— Dt-criiitiou of til.' (.'oal-l''ii'lds of tiie ItiviT .lay;uiirAo. — Kujiineor Mctiiiity's lit-poi't oil the Ciiiuliota Coal. — Coal 15a>iu on liiu Sao St'pi'. — lla.-iii near Jjao Jeroiiviiiu fJOS CHAl'TEIi XVIII. THE GOLU-MINKy OF lillAZIL. Gfoloirical Di<ti'ilmtion of Gold in Brazil. — fiolij in (Jnci^s it JnrafrtiA, Caiita;;alln, I'iaiu'o, and cl^cwlaTi'. — flie rii'lio-t Di-po-its found in Vfiii;! travcivinj; Clay Slates. — Cliaraeter of Anriferoiis (Quartz. — Granular Quartz, or Cacu. — (iold when iis>ociat('d with Sulphides rarely viMJile. — The auriferous Iron Ore. .lacutinga.— (Jold-Mines of Sao .lofio d'Kl-l!ei.— The .Morro Vellio .Mine. Mode of Oeeurrcnee nf the (Jold, .MetlKxl of Kxtrac- tioii, Yield,&e. — The <loni;o .Suco Mine. — The IJossa (Jraiide (iolil-Miiiin;; Coni|iany. — Mines at Morro de Santa .\ima, Coii^;oiihas do Catnpo, Sao Vi- cente, Cata Branca. — The Gokl-.Mines of IJrazlI not yet f.iirly developed . 632 CIIAPTEH XIX. RESUMK OF THE OEOI.OfiY OF nil.VZIL. Ko7.()ic Ttoeks and tlieir Distrihution in I'razil. — Ah-^enco of I,iniP«tnno«, — The Silurian Ajro in Brazil. — The auriferous Clay-Slatps of Minus proliahly Lower Siluri.'in. — Note on the Silurian of the Andes. — 'i'he l)i^tril>ution of Marine .\nini:ds in the I'ahcozoie. — The Devnninn .\<n' in Brazil and South America. — The Carhouiferous of Brazil ami Bolivia. — The New lied Sand- stone. — 'l"lie ('ret:ieeoiis, it« Di-trihution in lirazil and South America. — Several di^tinet Periods repre-^ente<l. — Tertiary iloeks. — Drift. — The Ghi- clal Plionomena <if I'atafjonia. — Tapanhoncaiipa. — I'he Drit^ of IJio and of the Hefrioii of Decomposition. — The Drift of the Dry Iiei;ion of Bahia, Sei';:i))0, and Ala'.'oas, — Examination into the Merits of the various 'i'heriries proposed to aeeoniit for the rorinatioii (jf the I'.razilian Drift. — The Theory of Siihaerial Deefunposition. — Wave .Xction dnrinj; a Suh~ideiu'n. — Wave Aetioii dnriiifx Klevation. — All these Theories unsatisfactory. — The Glacial Hypothesis the most reasonable 147 CONTENTS. XXI ArrKXjjix. ON THE BOTOCUDOS. Ori;^in of tlio Nninn Rotncudo. — Stutiiro. — I'liysiciil I'onniuul Cliimictcrisfics. — Marnier of Wearing Hair.— Lip and Kar Oriiaiin'iits. — I'rofossor Wyinaii's Doscriptii'ii of Skull of I^ituciul ) fnuii SAi' Matlu-os. — Cumparisdii witli (itliiT (U'>orilH'il IJotociiili) Skulls. — (Joliir of IJutocudo. — Maimer of Painting tlio Hoily. — Dislikt) to iicing elotlioil. — Hows mid Arrows deseribod. — (lerber's Knuiiieraticiu uf mo 'I'rilies. — Vmi 'I'-cIiudi's |)eseription of tlio 'I'rilies. — llaiielios and Hui- — I'ood. — .Mddu of procuriiif; Fire. — Maim- faetures — Marriage OustoiiiH. — Tlio BotoeudoH cruel Husbands. — Facility witli wlii'li WouikIh Ileal. — Treatment of Children. — Iteligious Ideas. — Uelief in the Ha<l Spirii, .lanclion. — No Helief in a Siiprenie (iod. — IJurial Ciistonis.— War (Ju.Htoms. — Caniiibalisin. — Dance. — The Hotocudos fast (li>appearing. — Hotocudo Cliaracter. — (ieograpliical Distribution of tlio l.otocudos.— Peculiarities of tlieir Language, Pronunciation, Grannnatical Structure, &c. — Uotocudo Vocubularies 577 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. CoAL-RkpS on Rio CaNDIOTA, Pio GltANni: I>0 SlI. . . . Frontispiece. Mai- ok 1'ai;t o\' Pijdvinck ok I\ii) hi; .Iankiko ive o TiiK Sf(;Ai!-Lo\r", Co1!<-ovai>(>, am> (Jwia, kisom Sao Domin<io . SkcIION at I'liAIA GltAM>E THK OlH^ANS Skcfion ai,on(; riiK Lim: ok tiik CAxrA(iAi.i,o Hailkoad. TlIK CasCATI.NITA at TlJLCA SkCIION ok DlilKT AT UliNNKTT'S, TlU'CA BoiM.DKKS AT Tl.UTA Idkai. Section ok DHiKT-rovKiMD (Jnkiss Hill .... DlAOKAM TO SHOW CoNTKAST IN .MulLOlNli UKTWEEX Dl{lKT-((.)V AND Hai:k Skkkaoks Coast ,ilst East of liu) Cai'k Fitio • Onk ok the Islands ok Santa Anna FltAUE DK Ma( AIIl' EKED LooKINO 11' THE l;iO I'AIlAIIVIiA KK The 1'edi!A Lisa . . . . >M AUOVE CaMI'OS Si;i:i!A OK Itai'kmeki.m, sekn k Coast Soktii of tiLAKAi-Aitv uo.M Till-: Si;.v Bay ok P;si'i:ito Santo, li oiviN(i rv TO TIIK Pao dk Assltah, and • )F VicroiiiA M OI.TE .llTLiJI-AUA AND (JnKInS IIiI.L: NEAI! V UroKIA FoUTALK/.A DE PeKITININO A BOKLDEK OK I)E(().' i)SITION, VlCTolilA DeCOMI-OSINO SlUKACK, I|,}|0 do 15(11 NOSSA SeNIIOHA da PeNHA, Vi( TOI'.IA Ancient Ska-Level on Pao d'A,>. ^ccAi:, Vi (TOIilA Akkaxokment ok L ittokai, Fakna Ar \ii.la Veliia MoUHO DE MesTI!E AlVAKO Coast between Victokia and I!io Dock Rio Dock at Poistcj de Sokza View on Rio I)oce Look iNu LI' THE Dock eho.m neak Liniiahes City 10 IG 28 30 81 3t 37 39 43 49 54 58 CI 60 67 68 69 70 73 92 94 97 Laoua JuPAIIAN/' LAtiuA DO Aviso I'a/.enda ok Ca; Sama Pita I!iv ColtliOiATED (iV INLAND OK SaNT, liiE Islands ok Recife do Lixo Se(Tion achoss Pkoeile Sketch Monte Pascoal Section ackoss Bays ok Santa \ IKW OF THE Ci >L\r OF Camami ^LvI' OF pAiir ; (iUOU.NO \'IE\V O Section <)K Rio View ok N'alle Knoks neak Tin Sections of se Railkoad Teihiaky Hills The TAiioLKiitoi: Sani)-I)1!nes at Bar ok l.'io Cot JLvuoiM . Villa Nova ani TUAII'l? KKOM NI LoOKINCi DOWN ■ Cattle 1'a/.i;ni> \'iEw NEAK All View i kinci i Cacuoeika he 1 I'ehnamiuco . Island ok 1'ekn MocTii OK Rio 1 Sketch-Mat ok MocTii OF Rio ( CuTTINd ON Tl! Decomtosed I P.oTocLDo ^L\^' Skull of Boiot LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXUl I AdoA .lUPAIlANAA, IX)OKINO TOWAUDH TIIK Oi:TM:T LAiiiiA DO Aviso 1 A/.KNI>A OK CaMTO KkDONDO, Sao MaTIIKOH Sama IkiTA liivKu Valley ( iiiti{r<iATKi> (^UAHT/. \'i;l\s AT Mlnas Xovah INLAND OK Sama Bauuaua dos Ahholiios Till. Islands ok tiik Ahuolhos kkom the Soltii Iv'KciKK no Lixo SixTioN Acitoss HonoKU OK Lixo Ukek I'KOKILIC SkETLII ok IIIVEU \'ALLI:V NEAR PoHTO SeGIKO Monte I'asc.'oal kuom the Ska Se( TioN achoss Stone Keek at I'omo Sec;uuo Bays ok Santa Cia;/. and Cahkai \ uw OK THE Coast Soi;th ok the Kio de Contas Mai- ok ("amamO Bay Ma1> ok I>Alir AND Vh^inity (iuoiNi) View ok the Lapa Vermelha SE( TIO.N ()K liIO Sa() FllANCISro \^VLLEY .... View ok Valley Walls near Jacoiiina . . . . Knohs near the Serra da Terra Dira .... SirnoNs of several Clttings on the Bahia and Sao IiAILKOAD Teutiary Hills near Tojl'ca Ti'nnei The Tarolkiros near Alacioinhas Sand-I)1!nes at the Moi'th ok the IUo Heal Bar ok 1!io Cotinuuiha Maroi'm ViLi.A Nova and Pe-nedo TuAirl' KROM NEAR MaR('A<;AO LooKiNi; down the Kiver krom Tao d'Assucar Cattle Fa/enda and Garden near Fao d'Assucar . \'ii:w NEAR Alleoria View lookincj 1 1- towards Piranhas .... Cai lloEIRA DE I'AULO AkKOXSO 1'ernamiuco Island ok Fernando de Xoronha MoriH OK I!lO I'ARAHYllA DO NoRTE .... Sketch-Mai- ok the Kio I'AKAiivitA do Norte. MoiTH OK Kio (Jrande do Norte ClTTINd ON THE SaO 1'ALLO KaILWAY, SHOWING DrIKT Decomposed Hock .....••• BorociDo Man and Woman .....■• Skull ok Hotocldo Fii AN< ISCO . ;5u5 ■ LY NO ON 102 103 120 143 158 175 176 202 210 225 226 229 233 200 262 267 2S2 310 313 315 -367 371 3V6 380 382 38-1 3lt7 407 410 411 412 413 415 434 438 443 444 455 508 581 685 hIh 1 1 \ ■£. SitiBi& r .'{i»«jaK/>k ,»V.«fci;i.'**'crir'iSl^"' / { 1 \ I I rmr Am.fhoto-Lith. Co. H. Y.^Oibo-tnl Pro.) ^-^ •» t »'K; \ i:\ ^) ^/(-^^v aA^f-- -^t- 1 >, 1 z' '. v, J^.. '\ i« (HrKiOut- •>1 \ 'StjjZ ^<}> /*.^Uu. KX- .J'ketck Ma^ t (jTnJi^Uy e/ Yda ii . -eu^.^.*^: Tfc^ '^'■//^'^ u^^e^ lA ■^O as 30 \ 55 'f i I / ! » » •I .y la GEOL [' .iwh ^ y The Sorra ( Tlie Kio J f' IJio, its ] ■ Ci'iiuiss of 1.1 tlie Caiita •l Dom Vv,h . ' tln' I''(irriis ^, IJio aiiil ( ands of s,- •l. gooiis, Cai c — Cityoi — Sao Fji ■J Countrv }, ■■; Sen-a cl'It; ^ TflE p, ; ' posed of . ln>Ii. 'rji of Sao Pal J Kio, aiid,l •i * . offcn iniicB • These iikB ^ ]>lateaii, M 'Toad baiil ' iM^pi'oximjB ^'or,. I. P I uinaaiiiiaw i*' GEOLOGY A\D PnYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OP liRAZlL. CUArTER I. THE rnovixcE of rig de jaxeiro. The Scrra do Mar. — Tlio Sm\a da Mantiqucira, and tlio I'ico do Itatiaio-sii. — Tlie liio riirahyl)a do Sul and its Trilmtarics. — Di'scription of tlie IJay of l!io, its Islamls, Tiilos, iS-c. — Tlie Siip;ar-Eoaf. — 'I'lie Corcovado. — Tlic (I'iK'iss of Ikio. — Tlic Or;,Mu Mouiitaius. — (iuoloirical OI)servations aloiii;- llic Canta^^alio Kailroad. — Drift I'licnoineiia at Hio, Tijiu-a, and on tlu' Dom l\'dro II. Kailroad. — Ducoinposition of (iueiss //( ,s//// and its Ktl't'ct on tlie Forms (if tlie Hills. — Recent Rise of the ('(jast. — Tlic Coast Iietweeii Ikio and Cape Frio, its Laiscs, vSalines, &c. — Cape Frio. — ()s Huzios. — Isl- ands of Santa Anna. — Frade dc Maeahe. — CaiM])osdos Goitaca/os, tlieir La- goons, Canal, &e. — Riol'arahyha. — Sao Joaoda IJarra. — Siiuar Plantations. — C'ity of Campos. — The Rio Muriuiie. — Tertiary I5c(ls. — .SiiL:ar Fnz('n<las. — Sao Fidelis. — The Gold Mines of Cantatrallo. — Gcolouieal Notes on the ( 'onntry between Sao Fidelis and Bom Jesiis. — Tlie Kio Itahapuana. — The Serra dTtabapuana. — The Garrafao. — Barra do Itabapuana. The province of Rio dc Janeiro is almost entirely com- posed of gneiss, and this gneiss region is monntainons and liigli. The .^erra do ^far, skirting the coast of the province of Suo Paulo, enters the southwest corner of the province of Rio, and, composed of a great numher of parallel ridges, often much l)rokcn, traverses it from one end to tlio other. These mountains form the edge of the great Brazilian plateau, which consists along its eastern ])order of a hroad band of gneiss. The course of the Serra do ]\Iar is approximately east-northeast, so that, as the coast of the VOL. I. 1 A P 2 GEOLOGY AN'D IMIVSICAL GKOGRAIMIV. ])i'r)viiirn of Rio de Jnnoiivj runs oastward IVom Sao Paulo to Cape I'rio, llic Serra do Mai', on ciitci-iiiu' the in'ovinco of l{i(), trends uTadnally away IVoiu the coast, passiuii' l»y tlie lif'iid of tlu' l>av of l^io. T\\c u'liciss iilatcau is Itor- dcrcd in the eastern j)art of the ])rovince Ity low plains, tertiary and i-ecent. Tlie minor ridu'es of the grand Scrru do Mar hi'eak down al^rnptly on llic edue oi" these hjw grounds. In tlic wcstei-n part oC the ])rovinee, where the Serra skii'ts the coast, that coast is often hiuh, hold, veiT irregular in outline, and liorch'red hy numerous rocky islands. South of tlu; Sei'ra do !Mar, at Rio, lie several isolated mountains and ranges of hills, really Ixdouging to the same great mountain system, hut scjtarated from the }(lateau Ijy low plains similar to those north of Cape Frio. To the northwest of the Serra do Mar, and se})arated from it in jiart by the valley of the river Parahyba do Sul, is another great mountain range called the Seira da ]Man- tiqneii'a, which is also composed of gneiss, and lielongs to the same system of ui)hcaval as the Seri-a do ]\Iar. This ranffc sei)arates itself from the coast ranu'e near the citv of Sao Paulo, and, lying inside the Serra do ]\Iar, skirts the coast to a much greater distance to the north than the latter does. The ridge properly called the Serra da ^hm- tiqueira accompanies the northern part of the province of Rio for a few miles, when the province boundary line leaves it and runs off to the eastward. At a distance of four or five miles from the northwest corner of the province, in the Serra da Mantiqueira, is the Pico do Itatiaiossu, which appears to be the highest point in Brazil, and, according to the Ren'sta Triwvnsnl do Institulo liistorico c Gcographico Brasilciro, has an al- TIIF. I'lioVINCE OF RIO DK JAXKIHO. titndo of .'iltoiit 1i),:!<tO IW\* It is said to lif vnlrnnic in stni('tiii'(>, iind two ci-ntcM's aro rojioi-tcd to exist on it. to- ii-ctlicr with siilplmr sprinu's and snlplinr deposits.! I litnc ncvoi- scon the Itatiaiossu, Itnt I lia\e tlie stronucst doiil't as t(j its lioinir a volcano. Snow occasionally talis on lliis lin dm'inu tlic winter, and is said to remain sonie- nioim; tunes lor se\eral (lavs 1 di T] icro can lie no rcasonai»le < Inlllit aliout this licing' the hiuhest ])eak in IJrazil. Jtacolmnf, so lonir lamed, is, according- to IJnrton, only aliont (),10() leet in hcitiht. According to Eschwcgc, this last ])eak is '>.l-20 feet; (Jerher says 1,112 nietn^s (-'.OoO tect ) : wliih; the hiuhest iioint cited 1)V (Jcrlior is the Alto da Serra da Piedade. in the ;Munici])io dc Saliara, which Liais makes only l,7!^-5 metres {i'),^,')^^ feet). Clnrdiier estimates the licijiht oi' the Orcran Mountains at IVom 7S>W) to 7.^00 feet. It is interesting tt) ohserve, as l]urton has remarkrd, that the summit lino is not in tlic interior in Iha/.il, hut close to the coast. Almost precisely south of the Itati- aiossu, in the province of Sjio Paulo, is a liigh ])oint in the Serra do !^h^r, which gives rise to two I'ivers, — one, a small stream, the Rio Pirahy, flowing east and then north- east hctween two ridges of the Seri-a do ^lar ; the othei-, the Rio Parahyha do Sul, uiulei' the name of PirahytiuLia, which flows southwcstward and westward for ahout eighty miles, when it escapes northward around the end of the ridge which has so far formed its harrier on the north, and, douhling upon itself, flows thence, with a general cast-north- east direction, hehind the Serra do ]\Iar, traversing the whole * Dr. Candido Mcndcs de Almeida, in liis Atlas do Impcrio do Dra-d, ninkfs the lieiL^ht only 2,994 metres, or 9,829 feet. t Burton, Explorations, &c., \'ol. I. p. Gl. lie docs not here speak Irom personal observation. 4 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGI!AriIY. province of TJio do Janeiro, until, some forty-five miles from the sen, the mounttiins Itreak down on the odu(! of llic pla- teau, MJien it reaches the Camj)os dos (Joitaca/t's, and empties into the sea after a course of 102 Ih-a/.iliau Icauiies (Gerhcr), or 408 miles. Aecoi'diii*; to rjcrhcr, the altitude of the river ahove the sea, at the mouth of the i'i\er PaiahylMuia, is 272 metres. The stream is so much hrokcu uji hy I'apids ahove SiTo Fide- lis that steaui navigation cuds there, aud in the rest of its course it i;ives j)assage only to cau(M's aud larjiC moutarias ]»ropelled I)y the settiuji-pole or towiug-i'o})e. The j)rincipal affluents of the Parahyha are the TJio Pirahy, already mentioiu'd, which affords steam naviga- tion for a short distance aliove its mouth ; the Pio PiX'to, which rises in the Itatiaiossu, and is a nuich larger streaui, falliug iido the I'arahyha north of Rio ; the Pii-a|)itiuga, which rises in the Serra of the I'ardo ; the Pinl»auha, which descends from the Serra do ^lar from near Petrojtolis, aud enters the Rio Parahyha at Entre Rios, a little ahove the Parahyhuna ; (this latter descends from the ^lan- ti(iueira, on the op])Osite side of the hasin, iu the same meridian with the Piahanha) ; the Pomha, Avhich rises iu the Serra da Mautiipieira, a few miles east of Rarhaceua; and the Muriahd, which takes its source in the same range, a few leagues to the east. The gneiss region of Rio, where uncultivated, hears a most vigorous virgin forest growth, and its soils arc particularly favoral)le for the cultivation of coffee ; the great valley of the Parahyl)a, ahove Siio Fidelis, and the valleys of its affluents, are largely occui)ied hy coffee plantations. The same is true of the gneiss regions of the north, whose toi)ograj)hy and soils are, over large districts, favorable for coffee planting. O w- Tin: rnoviNTF of rio dk .iankiro. m 111 n-c lot' lis, Ifcc [\\c its, oKOI-OGY AND THYSICAL (iKOGRAl'IIV, Willi llicsc words of iiitroihictioii, let iis jiow look at <li<' gf'iiciiil [loiiits of interest io the jicolouist iiiid jdiysical geog- laiiliei' in tlic vicinity of Kio, and then examine the province to the I'ast. The DayofHio is a basin penetrating inland ahont twenty miles, it is only ahont a mile wide at the niouili, or nana, hnt widens inunediately. I'lie shoi'es on eai'h side inn in and ont witli deep, sweeping enrves, making heaulil'id liays; and, three miles inside, jtassing the city of Nietherohy on the east and Uio de Janeiro on the uest, the i)ay widens rapidly, and then, with the same iri'egidai- shore line, attains its greatest width abont six miles from the month, when it contracts and runs off inland toward the northeast. It con- tains sevei'al islands ; those near the city, as the llha das Cobras and lllui Enxada, are of gneiss, like that of the adja- cent hills. The llha do Govcrnador, a large island which I have ex- amined on the eastern side, is composed jiartially of gneiss ; bnt I stj'ongly snsj)ect that it is largely made up of the same tei-tiary clays which I have found on the Cantagallo Railroad, near Porto das Caixas. It seems too level to consist of gneiss alone. This island ]iosscsscs fertile soils, bnt the ants arc a terrible plauue. ]>nrton savs that there are kjo i^-kenmoeddings uj)on it. Ancient shell-heaps liavc been hI from Jhazil by Dr. Henry Naegeli of TJio, occur at various places along the coast. At Santos . are some very extensive ones, and St. Hilaire sneaks of numerous shell-hea])S on the coast of the })rovince of Esjtirito Santo near Santa Cruz. The smaller islands are gneiss, though, as in Paqueta, we find isolated gneiss masses united ])y stretches of sands con- taining recent shells. Spix and ^lartius have called attention I have s t On th. Miirtiiijiiri 1- l- 'V- to rc o, los KS i TiiK riiOViNci: oi' iMo i>r, .iani;i!!o. t(» the lii'cnt iiiiinlirr ol' |);ilnis nrnwiiiu' on ilu' i>liiinls in tlii> iJiiv iif K'in, owinu' tu the (liiiii|iin'ss iiiid liciit of the rlimjiit'. The li;i\' is iiowlicrc nci'v (lr('|i ; iiloiii:' llif .sIkh'cs it is ncit 1 >li;ill<>\v ; iiiid .Moiic1h'/,"s iii;i|i sliows llic >i»iiii(liiiL's jiio- jji L:i'i'>>iiiLi' "iiiitc iiiiilnDiily t'loiii :ill sides. IVoin (iiic \n luiir- tri'ii or ritrlltccii liK'lrcs. Xc;il' tin' middle 1)1' the li;i_v, olV jlio. we liiid llic LiTCiltcsl d('|itli. — tliil't_\-(ili(' liirlirs. N'ciir tlu' UK »iitli ()[' tilt' it;iy the shores are rocky imd s;iiid\' ; 111!' water is cleai", ami the linttoiu is coiiipoMMl ol" sand and shells: hut aroinid the whole head of the hay, where the slioics are low, and a host of little riNcrs hrinu' down lireat ([iiantitit's of silt, (lie hasiii is hordeicd hy cxtensiNc nian- 'jro\e swamps, and the liothmi is shallow and nnnldy. In the tnrhid and somewhat hraekish waters of the head of the hay oysters of an immense si/e llourish, often l!1ow- inii' attaelujf.l to the roots of the manu'rtAcs. l''ish are vrvy aiiundant, {ind the eirrrars, or weirs, for takinu' them are consiiieuons ohjeets In the shore seeiiei'V. The watei's of the interior of the hay are exceediimly clear and hrii^ht, ami off the islands of PaijUeta !ind ( !o\ci'mido'' a deposit of sliclls. with a cah'ai'cons nuid. is in process of acennndation. Almost all the shells ai'e small, and consist chiefly of spe- cies of J/'(v^, IV//;^s', Mio'c.r, Carilhnn, DnildJIinn, Ac. 1 lia\(' looked diligently for coi'ab. hut the oidy Madreporians 1 have seen in the V>i\y of Iiio consist of a couple of species (A' A)<tn()i</ia* found u'rowimi" on tiie sliells, and coidrihutin'^' really notliinu" to the deposits there aecumnlalinu'. 'I'lie li<le in the Hay of Kio, as near us I can learn, rises from three to llvi' fei't.f hut is very uncertain, as has heen I'einarked liy ku- k)U * Trot'i'.-xir A.uassiz tills iiu- tliat a sjiitIl'S oC I'oritts has Incii culiritcMl hy D., Xa,-ili. t Oil tlic ma]) (if l\ii), hy M. I'arral, it is set down as tliree IW't. Spix ami Mart ins arc in error in inukiny; it tuurtL'(.'ii or tlt'tifii t'lot. 8 (IKOLOGV AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIV. [I Si)lx and Martins.* T liavc seen the tide stand at tlie same level for a wliole day at the docks in Rio. On one occasion I visited l'a(|U('t;i, and dnring a ihiy and a hall" (he tide was hiiih ; hnt, shortly after my retnrn to llio, it fell to an cxti'aordinarily low level, and remained so for many honrs. This appears to he owing- to the fact that the hay opens to the sonthward, while the mouth is very contracted, so that the waters may he piled up on the coast hy a southerly wind in snt-h a ">"ay as to prevent the tide IVom llowing out, while other \>nids may depress the level of the waters for as long- a period. The entrance to the harhor is vei-y hold on hoth sides, and is sentinelled hy steep gneiss hills, — rounded or coni- cal, wooded or l)arc, — presenting lichen-hlacked precipices, whoso faces arc smoothed and rounded in a most reniai-kal)lc manner. On the eastern side some of these hills are more than a thousand feet in height. They are clustertM closely together, and stretch off in a sea of hills along the hay for a few miles on the eastern side, while along the coast, eastward toward Cape Frio, they forn line of irregular mountains of nuich grandeur and heaui^. . On the west side of the entrance to the hay is the conical peak of the Pao de Assu- * S])ix iind Martins, Roisc, Vol. I. ]). 1)5. " Tlic interior l):>siii of Kio dc Jiim.'ir() iuis its tide as well as tlic ocean. At new and full moon, liiiili water, which rises fourteen or lifteen feet, sets in at tldrty niimites ]iast four ; tlie ehh sometimes continues a wiude (hiy w itliout intermission, at wliich time tlie current is tile stron;;cst on tlic west side of the \v.\y. On tiic otlier hand, wlicn the flood lic;:ins, a wliirlin;;' current is remarlicd on the east sick-. The Hood eoniinnes a shorter time tlian tlie ehh, and usually runs at the rate of three or four sen miles per hour. This strong flood has more than once led the ca]itains of the t-liips into error, and caused them to cast anchor too close to the shore." The same iiutliors reniaik that the saltness of the water of the hay is rather less than that of the ocean. This is to he cxiieetcd, from the larye drain of fresh water into it. (•!ir (P> smooth, a short : Ficitas, ' hills of \ fllgO. 'I heiglit.* wiih pr(«( of licavy grained, lai'ge ci'i licds liav hills (hoy I iis luiiy l)( I Botafogo 1 !i >Iiiii'p, a 2 Hi;iss of 1 J iiu'liiic on i ill area oi; I «hee'.- prct I I'i^^h. IJ, i ^viii'd the slope, not I ^i'h' of til I hills of ,1 jl rocks .^iniil i sitlci-alily i I hnninated, 1 ii"t infivipii :iii(l I liiul * Bnrmeiste: -| niakes it ;J73 m TIIK rnOVLNCK OF I;I0 1)E JAXKIRO. car (Pot dc Bcurrc of the early French colonists), with its siuuotli, precipitous sides. IMiis celebrated rock lielongs to a short ran.ue of hills that runs ■vestward to the Lagoa das Freitns, and Avhich is separated from the C'orcovado, and the hills of which the latter l(jrnis a part, by the valley of ]>ota- fn2o. The Suii'ar-loaf is said to he over a thousand feet in hclLiht.* Tiie other hills are nnich lower, and arc rounded, with ])i'ccij)itous sides facinu' the valley. They are composed of lica\y beds of g'neiss, which is very homogeneous, coarse- grained, and often very jjorphyritic in structure, with large crystals of liesh-colorcd orthoclase fehlsjiar. These beds have very nearly the same strike as the trend of the hills they comj)Ose, and dip southward at a moderate angle, as may l)e observed in the cliffs along the )»ass leading from Fxitafogo to the Praia dc Copocabana. The Corcovado is a >harp, aiigtdar peak, which sejiarates itself from the great mass of hills lying back of Rio, rising by a long, narrow incline on the northwestern side to a ])oint only a few roils in area on top. On three sides it drops ol'f in a splendid slice'- precijdce, which on the south is several hundred leet 4 high. Helow this i)recipice the mountain })resents to- ' ■ ward the south a very steep wooded slope. A similar )■ slope, not a taJiis, runs l)elow the clilTs on the opposite " sjile of the valley, and may 1)0 observed in very many ■ hills of the gneiss reu'ion. In the Corcovado we find ' I'ocks similar to those of the J^ugar-loaf, but varying con- i sidciably in character, being generally, near the top, well I laminated, sometimes with large crystals of feldspar, and not infre(piently full of garnets. The dij) varies somewhat, huid T find in my field-book two notes of a slight southerly ,i * RiirtncUtcr siiys 1,212 feet. (Riiae nach Urasilien, p. 57.) Dr. Almeida i iiiakos it .Ta metre:-, or about 1,426 feet. '* 1* i 10 GEOLOGY A2s'D PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. TIIK SrcAIi-LOAF, COltCOVADO AND GAVIA, FllOJI SAO nOMINGO. dip near llio top, Avliilc an oljscrvation taken some distance below <lie i-eservoir on the a(ine(liict uavc a marked nortli- ward dip, 'J'hc general dij) of the gneiss in the ])eak, as well as in the hills east, is certainly northward, and one sees the same dip in certain lcd<>es of rock in the harbor, ■which lie in the line of strike of the beds of the Corcovado. The val- ley which sej)arates the hills of the Corcovado from those of the Sngar-loaf is therefore an anfeclinal ^ illey. Professor Agassiz has independently made ilie same observations, and has come to the same conclusions.* Three miles southwest of the Corcovado are the Tres Irmaos, a grou]i of conical peaks veiy interesting to the student of topogi-aphy,and a couple of miles west of these is the Gavia, an isolated, tower-like, tiat-to]>ped mountain, said to be o,0<M) feet high. "Within the irregulai- ring formed by these moun- * Pissis hiis called uttention to the rcKeinhlanco hornc iKtworii the fiiu'- prained frnciss, witli pirnetN overlvinir the jioriihyritic variety f'oniiiiii:- tlic lia-e of the Corcovado, and that of tlio rucks at Copocahaiui. [Mi'm. de I'/nsli'. de Fnnicr, 'roni. X. pp. 3(')2, 3G3.) 'Itnins is 4111 a has stlie ]ag( f-liy tl |Tl';i\cll(' Jit is uor Ivoi-dure [of its SCI tlic beau J ys is of t( to iiii|)iv wliicli ha observer, Voiu the j'.'eis ror over one inipi'cssiv old catliei Olio of the tliat crow- feet t (.11 ( thesiloit .J dejiths s;ii eiicjivliiig criiig wit can luok surges ere tJKMi over iiig curves <>i'gaos he;) a ^^i' above THE PROVIXCK OF RIO DE .TAXKICO. 11 or lii, 01) in- iiu'- stil. I tains is the beautiful LauMii de Freitas, fi slioet of water held ill a luisiii among the hills, and slmt out from the sea — like the lagnas .so connnon along; the eoast east and west of Ivio -Iiv the throwing uj) of a sand-l)eaeh aeross its mouth. [Travellers all speak of the romantie heauty of this sjiot, and lit is worthy of their praise; for though elothed in the warm .vonliire of the trojiies, it is really .Swiss-like in the eharaeter of its seenerv. if the ueohjuist has any soul, aiiv lo\e for [the lieautiful, there is no seeiic whieh, with all his eold anal- ysis of topogra[iliical and geologieal elements, is more likely to impress him as an artists work. 1 know of no view wliieli has alfeeted me so mueh — not only as a seientiile oliserver, hut as a man — as that of the vieinity of Ixio fioiii the top of the Coreovado. There are a thou.sand siih- jrcts for observation and study; and, with all, there eomes over one a feeling akin to, but infinitely more deej) and impressive than, that whieh one experienees Avhen in some old eadiedral he sits down to study the sulilimc creation of oiH' of the old nuisters. lie who ean lean over the paiajiet that crowns the Coreovado, and look down more than 2,000 feit t on the temple of })alms of the Botanical Garden, and on the silent Lagoa de Freitas, — "another sky," in whose blue (hptlis sail soft fleecy clouds, — who ean gaze on the j)roud eiiciivling peaks, green with an everlasting spring, and .shiv- fiiiig with silvery reflections from the Cecropias, — who e;iii look out over tlic island and sail dotted sea, and the surges ereejiing up on the long, curving .sea-1 teaches, and then over the l»ay, with the city fringing Avidely its swccjh ing curves, the sea of hills beyond, the majestic Scrra dos < *rgaos heaving its great l)ack, in the ex(piisite blue distance, fur above the level line of the clonils, its great miiu'rets * 2,179 fcc't i^ tlic exact heif;ht. Burineister sajs 2,104. 12 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. sliarply defined against tlic purple ether, — and can intelli- gently take into consideration all the geological, climatic, and other natural laws Avliich have determined the elements of heauty and nserulness in the scene, and not have his whole soul moved within him in homage to the Artist whose hand has moulded continents, carved out their lineaments, spread over them their mantle of vegetation, and peopled them with living forms, has not gone beyond the alphabet and gram- mar of his science, and has no idea of the literature of Nature. The Corcovado is only one peak of a mass of hills which occupies a large area west of Ilio. It is united liy a jjuss 1,000 feet in height to another mass lying northward of the last, and which culminates in a sharp conical i)eak called Tijuca, the latter being about 3,447 feet in height. The Tijuca range is connected with a group of hills which ex- tends several leagues to the west. Westward of the Gavia is a stretch of ])lain only a few feet in elevation al)ove the sea, and broken uj) by very numerous lakes, some of which are of considerable size. ]jetween the hills which I have just described and the Serra do ^hir there is a wide extent of low country, in some j)arts jKM'fectly flat and very low, in others somewhat diversified with hills. I have seen this country only from the railway-train, but I would sug- gest the more than ])robability that a consideral>le i)art of it may be niad(! u}) of beds of stratified clays, like those of the Cantagallo Railroad, presently to be described. The ►'^erra do Mar, as well as the whole range, including the Organ ami Cantagallo Mountains, as has been already stated, is com- posed of gneiss. At Rio the gneiss varies very much in texture. As a gen- eral thing it occurs in very thick homogeneous beds, varying frrim nn ( crvstiils iiiclics 1( i varifiy i JlilLI'Ll'W <»1 I ■ l" I I IS liil'ijvlv ■i ;ilii| I lie ;■ OlllV 111 i{ {■nn>\. T I 1inll>. T ;. <il' I'uck, V. iii;irk;iM(\ iiml strike cliilly \('i' ; )llillCIMls c • Inncrsc ib (iccasioiial "lis. 1 CO] iViiin the hi of the harl. At tllO b; laiiiiiialioii. jlicrc tire ; ^n)ip :W S. About 80 ill alHMlof\ .Htratificatioi M THE PROVINCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. ir> fnmi an oxcccflingly coarse por)»liyi-itic kind containing largo crystals of black mica, and crystals of ])ink feldspar several 1 imlics long, to a lino, even-grained, compact, liglit-gi-ay variety. Sometimes it is very distinctly laminated, lissile, llaggy. or schistose, (larnets are very connnon in it. It is hugely (piarried for building j)uri)oses in all direclions, ;iuil ilii' liner-grained kinds are much us(mI for ]);ning, not only in Hit} streets of Rio, Imt in other towns on tli-) (•(i;i>l. The numerous ipiarries afford veiy excellent see- ji(Uis. The unbroken com])actness and the little Jointing (if rock, even on the surface, strik*; tlu; oliserver as iv- UKii'kable. Many of the hills are n;onolilhs. The dip and strike are, owing to the liomogenei' . if the rock, geu- eially \cry indistinct. Inmiense grainte ^eins, \vith the ] iiiiiieials coni})osing them often very c(jarsely crystallized, ; li;;\('ise llie rock, toti'ethcr Avith veins ()f milkv (luarfz and occasional ilykes of diorite or greenstone. Faults ai'c numer- ous. 1 cojiy from my note-book the following section made IVoni the barracks north of Praia Grande on the eastern side J of the harljor and extending southward to the city: — r^ :^^m ^1 SKCTIOX AT rilAIA GRANDE. It [he m ■''^^ ^1'*' barracks, the gneiss, a, is dark gray with a fme do alaniinalion. The crystals of feldsjiar arc very small, ami Ind Mtliere are a great many red garnets. Strike N. 40' E. About 800 feet southward of the barracks is a large quarry, hi- id^'^ '^ '"''^ of very compact gneiss, d, showing scarcely a trace of ,,H- _^stratilication. It is composed of feldspar in large crystals. u GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. luiea, fnicly crvstalli/.cil, and voiy little ([luirtz. Gai'iicls aro altuiidaiil, ami the rock is travci'scd by veins, a luimboi' ol" which 1 have noted as dipjiing- steej)ly southward. \\i one uF these veins, which was lour inches in width, the sides consisted almost wholly ol' laru'e, coiirse eiystals of a li^uht, flesh-colored rclds[)ar with a little green mica, Avhile the middle itortioii was made uj) of clear, lilassy (jnartz of a light reddish color, with an occasional largo crystal of hlack ■e mica. Above these beds arc others, in which I have noted that the crystals of feldspar lie with their longer sides parallel to the i»lanc of stratification. In a large vein here we find the same arrangement of the materials as in that aljove de- scrii»ed. /. Gneiss with very large crystals of feldspar. i;\ Thin lieds of compact miea-slatc, or extremely fine- grained and distinctly bedded gneiss, l^trikc N. oo^ E. Dip 8.y S. Here the section fails on reaching the city. In a hill im- mediately east of the church of Sao Joao the gneiss is principally composed of large felds])ar crystals. Strike X. 80^ E. Dip 35^ S. In the point between Praia Grande and Sao Domingo the rock is like that last seen, the striko being N. 80' E., and the dip southward. Just south of Foit Sao Domingo there are seen veins of iron ore in the gneiss; the dip is abont 45^ S., and the strike alxjut X, 80' E. I have carefully examined the cuttings on the Dom Pedro II. Railroad, from Belem, at the southern base of the Sei'ia do Mar, to Yi>iranga, in the valley of the Parahyba do Suk and I have studied them in detail, on foot, from the mouth of the great tunnel, which ])ierces the crest of the Sei'ia. to Ypiranga. The whole ridge is composed of gneiss, which ^af■|('S vci gia} in C( tM>r. 'I'l i x. b". ]■:. ii(»ns ol' st tra.ire of gi\L' \. (i iVmn JJck> iiiiiiiochna arc ivpcati J[ tlic ^-tratft, lire much 1 iliji is rem ; ^' IT munc Vjiiranga i , |"is'm1 near ?« biiriiiiig in I TIk' Srrr .1 <|Urlit|y (Ics :' l!:iy "!' IJio, |llill,'c||t liu .? .' M'l'ics of pi I llif Oi'gans, ■'; structure ol ^ 'lie ^Iiarj-) [() ill etjici- iiisi I'ltlicr suddi . ' licrcsopoli: f ilio axis, on ' Of ci^lu rcli i- X. 5:)0 3(1' E. * JoiuiH'v in THK I'lJOVIXCK OF ItIO 1)E JANF.IKO. 15 N. )rt Miiics vciy much in cliaractcr, as a fi'ciicral rn]o liciim- dark 'jvA\ ill color, well laiuiiiatod, often linc-j:'i'aiii('(l jind schis- fiiM'. 'I'lio sti'ikc varies, ac(M)r(lin!j.' to my ohscrvatioiis, IVom N. |.') I-], to X. SO E., and the mean ot" thirly-l'onr oiiscfva- lioiis of strike taken along the road IVom the southern eii- traare of the great tunnel to the r>arra do Tirahy, would ^i\e X. 'ill' E.* The dip is almost invarialily northward iVoin I'clem to the Parahylja, so that the Serra is here a iiiiijiDcliiial ridge, hut it is very pn^halilc that the same strata itic n'j)c;if('d. There seems to have heen nmeh dislocation ol' tlic ^■ll•ata, and faults are common. In some cj.ses the heds ;iic luuch jilicated, though, as uiiovc remarked, the general (lip is remarkalily uniform. Quartz and granite veins are very numerous, and trap dykes are not uncommon. At ^'j>ii;mga is a thin Itcd of crystalline limestone, which is cx- jiMsi'd near the railway, and is more or less quarried for liiiniiiig into lime. The Serra dos Orgaos and the 8erra da Estrclla, so fre- (|ueutly descrihed, is a lieavy ridge l\ing at the head of the l!;iy (if Kio, and liclonging to the Scrra do ^hir. It is a mag- nifieeiit mountain })ile, which, to the east, runs up into a series of picturcsfpie aig-ui/les. 1 have never myself visited the Organs, and 1 (|Uotc Professor Agassiz's remarks on the structure of this ridge. He says : f " The chain is forme(l hy the sharp folding up (.)f the sti'ata, sometimes (piite vertically, ill other instances with a slope more or less steej), hut always latlier sudden. To one standing on the liill to the east of Tlieresopolis, tlie whole range jirescnts itself in perfect jirolile ; the axis, on either side of which dip the almost vertical heds * Of c'i^'ht reliahlo observations of strike, taken in the vicinity of Rio, tiie mean [i> N. 5:)0 .3(1' E. ; l)nt those (observations vary from N. 10° E. to \. 8U° E. t Journey in Brazil, p. 491. IG GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAI'IIY. THE OKGANS. of motamorpliic rocks composing the chain, occupies al>uut the centre of the range. " To the north, though very steeply inclined, the heds are not so vertical as in the southern ])rolongation of the range. The consequence of this difference is the formation of more massive and less disconnected summits on the north side, while on the south side, where the strata are nearly or quite vertical, the harder set of beds alone have remained stand- ing, the softer intervening beds having liccn gradually disin- tegrated. By this process have been formed those strange })caks which appear from a distance like a row of organ- pij)es, am known, general ni nous str;i much the two j)oiiit( to (he sout selves in their sleiK side, tlie 1 exhibits a unnis. It j)eaks, so < siiouhl not cisc indicat who gives him." * " These a very synnnc account of 1 which al)oui character." -j rissis $ ht * Gardner nial t Similar ni;rii ]msvnt the .same Ihto, a.s examjjlcs Itahapuana, the • after. t " Le loptinite qui, vuus (Ic Rio ( ''•' l>aiite.s ct mir ''liint assez h. des r- 3C0. THE PROVINCE OF lUO DE JANEIRO. 17 )iij)Os, and have sngcrcstcd the name 1iy wliich the cliain i-* known. They consist of vertical beds, isolated from the L^oncral mass in conseijuence of the disai)i)earancc of contiu- uous .strata. The aspect of the.se monntains from Rio is much the same as from Theresojjolis, only that from the two points of view — one being to the northeast, the cither to tlie .southwest of the range — their .snnnnits present them- ^^ selves in reverse order. When seen in complete profile, tlicir slender api)earance is most striking. A'iewed from the side, the broad surface of the strata, though ccpially steej), exhibits a triangular form rather than that of vertical col- umns. It is strange that the height of the Organ Mountain . ])oal\S, so consi)icu(ms a feature in the landscai)e of Rio, should not have Ijcen accurately measured. The only pre- cise indication I have been able to find is recorded l)y Liais, who gives 7,000 feet as the maximum height observed l)y hiui." * "These abrupt peaks frequently surround closed basins, very .symmetrical in shape, but without any outlet. On account of this singular formation, the glacial phenomena wliich abound in the Organ Mountains arc of a peculiar character." f Pissis J has described the Organs in very much the same * Gardner makes them 7,500 to 7,800 feet. t Similar aiiriiilles are eommon elsewhere on the coast in the gneiss belt, iin<l present the same features as are deserihed by Professor Agassi/.. I may eite here, as examples, the Fradc de ^Macahc, the Pedra Lisa and the Garrafao, near Italiapuana, the peaks of Itape'merim, &c., all of which I shall describe here- after. t " Le leptinitc s'y trouve fortcment redress(^ et pre'sentc des lames colossales qui, vues de Rio de Janeiro dans le sens de leur e'paisseur, ai)paraissent comme lie luuites et minces aiguilles plaee'es les unes a cute' des nutres ct ressem- lilant assez a des tuyaux d'orgues." — Mifni, de I'Inst. de France, Tom. X. p. 3C0. 18 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Ii,> terms as Aj^^assiz. The same author calls attention to the great iiteejniess of the southern sloi)C of the Or^an ]\ruuii- tains, and speaks of the little s< reams Avhich, ])reeij»itat- in<? themselves over it, arc visible, as I can testify, fi'oni Rio, — a distance of more than thirty miles, — appearing- like silvery lines drawn down the l)luc flank of the Serra. The needles of the Oi'gans arc usually represented as seen from their thinnest side, which would give one the idea that they were tower or chimney-like masses. Professor Agassiz has figured one of the most noted of the jjcaks as seen in this way. Through his kindness I am cnal)led to present a side view of the same i)eak, from a photograj)h in liis posses- sion. The views of the Organs in Cardner's Travels, and in the majority of works on Brazil, are very i)oor. The gneiss of the vicinity of Rio and of the Serra do Mai- ls remarkably unproductive in useful minerals. Indeed, I do not know of any mineral deposits of economic value in the region, except gold, which occurs in these gneisses in Sao Paulo, at Cantagallo, and elsewhere, but not very al)un- dantly. The almost entire absence of hmestonc is remark- able. I have nowhere seen any trace of grajfliite. The Rio Macacu is one of the little streams entering the Bay of Rio near its northeastern extremity. The whole coun- try bordering the bay, as above stated, is one great man- grove swamp, and from the month of the river to the Poi-to da Yilla Nova this is the character of its banks. At this place the soil consists, like that of the rest of the swamp, of a soft, dark-blue mud, or clay, containing a little dccompo.sed mica in silvery flakes. This mud at Villa Nova is twenty- | four feet dee]». and is underlaid by sand and gravel contain- | ing recent shells ; but farther back from the river, as miulit p be expected, it is not so thick, being only about six ll'ct. | THE rnoviNTi; of iiio de .lANr.ino. 19 Tlio fi'(M»oral sinTaco of flic country lici-c is ixM-foctly fl;it, iiiul only ahout one loot aliove water li'vcl at sprinu-lidcs. Tlif ri\('r* is oiu' Innulred feet wide at tlie Porto, lint it is very dec)), and it.s ))anks are bordered with rush-like plaids, — the (/iii/Ki, a plant with a trianunlar stem, and \\\c jH'i'i/H'rt, oi- IJrazilian paj)yrns, so much used lor mats, wlnle the swamps ai'C covered by mangroves, /(i/fihiiid trees, an<l a dense lirowth of j)lants, such as love the salt marshes. Leaviuu' the river at I*orto da A'illa Nova, and follow- imi' alun"- the extension of the line of the Cantauallo Kail- way, one soon leaves the swamj)S, and, risinu:; a few feet, finds himself on a plain of coarse white sand, in which arc seen exposed in excavations an aluindance of recent shells, like those which lie on the beaches alonir tlie liny, Vctnis Jlcxnosa Ix'ing csjiecially common. These jilains are s))arsely wooded, and su])port a vejictatioii (|uite different from what we have ol)served in the swamjis.t Conspicuous amoiifi' the trees, or rather lai\ue shrubs, is tlie j^'lan^-Hcira {Eu<j!;-('nin^, noted for its refreshinuly acid, red fruit. Bromeliaceous plants arc connnon, together with cactuses, <tc. "Where, however, a soil has accnmu- * Burmcistcr remarks upon the coflFcT-browii color of tlu' water of tliis river. Tlie vicinity is very unhealthy, intermittent fevers of a tyiilioid eluniicter jjre- I VMiliiiir. ■! S|iix ami Martins describe a similar san(l-])lain on the road fnjm Rio to I the l!ii|K'rial Fazemla of Santa (Vu/ : "On the way hitlier we remarked a stretcli of jrround composed of coarse dry ^rranite sand. The low Imt I very ]ili'a.-in;^ wood covering,' it resemliled, in its shininj; ,ureen, stitt' folia;;e, lour laurel woods, Imt, as a token of the tro])ieal climate, it was charac- Iterized hy the multiplicity of the flower-forms." Tlie same authors men- jtion the followinjx ])lants as occurring: on this pround : " Srhinns Aroeim, ttiriliinthi/iiliii Kaddi ; Polilana { Lang sdor (fin Leandr.) instrumenturia Mart.; l^'/ii.r/a hetemnthern Leandr. ; ISyrsoin'ma niliflisslinn Iluinb. ; Sapiiiin ilirifjlium u . ; Alsixli'n Pliiisi'jihom Mart.; Petroea rnreinosn Nees ; Solemi riramlifoHa ; ISVno/KP, Paulinke, s/k, &c." (Spix and Martins, lielse, Vol. I. p. 181.) i 20 GEOLOGY AXn PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. latcd, the vcgotatioi) assumes the diLniity of a forest p'owfli. Presently we conic upon some low hillocks, very rounded in their outline, which stand like islands in the sand-pliiin. Sonic of these arc cut through hy the ruilwjiy, and we see that they arc isolated and denuded outliers of a Inr- mation underlying the sands. Rising above the general level of the sands, they are bathed by them round aliout, like islands. Some of these hillocks are composed of a hcil of white or reddish arenaceous clay, obscurely stratilii'il, like a kaolin mixed with sand, with an occasional quart/ pcl)ble, and irregularly tinged l>y yellow or red ferric oxide Over the evenly rounded surface of this clay is sjn-eiid a thin sheet of (juartz pebbles, generally well rounded, lol- lowing all the sinuosities of the surface on which it lies, though the bed varies much in thickness. Over this peblili sheet is a concentric coat several feet thick, of a perfectly % structureless, arenaceous clay, consisting of decomposed*!^ feldspar and fragments of quartz, deeply colored by ferric oxide, and resembling the unwashed and unassorted pro duct which would result from the mechanical trituration of decomposed gneiss, with a mixture of the clays just dc- scril)cd. All the hillocks were covered by the same ma- terial. At Porto das Caixas we rise by a steep incliii' ■ some thirty feet, more or less (I have no note of the exact height), to a level plain of large extent. Cuttings at «J| the railroad depot show that it is composed of a horizonta!* deposit of the same tinted sandy clays we found occupying the centre of the hillocks just described, and that it is over- laid by a thick bed of structureless red clay, separated fromi the underlying deposit by a layer of quartz pebbles. Takinri the train, we go westward over this plain some ten miles.* I * Being unfurnished with a reliable map, I can only give distances a:- proximately. Part of it i aivas oc(;n| ^ Ics.s lu.Miriui iug sii'kly-1 ;■ otiii-'r juira.s J liiiidsia. II I .^cri'a do M( ''i I lie liilis, gi ^rnci.s.s valk'; i minus of th iiari'DW valle I do Mori'o Qi dits Oi'gaos. ■ cliaractor a> side, nrar t t('ii(K,'iit of t di]» was vert On oxaniii the hills, or ( i^'c, the njck that we luiv( plain at Port tion of (he i the same ret railway exteii doscending e addition, it is lur sheet of pilar fragnie though these and. much as scribed, or sol THE PROVINCE OF RIO DE JANKIRO. 21 rart o[' it is dry and sj)arsi'ly woixled, Imt tlieru arc large aiv;i.s (X'ciipii'd ]>y swamps, in which ^n-ows a more or less hiMiriant swamp vejiotation, — a dismal scone, pivscnt- \\v^ .sickly-loukinj^ trees loaded with orchids, Terns, and other jKirasitos, and draj»ed heavily with i species of Til- huulsia. Hy and Ity wc reach the eml of a sjiur from the Scrra do Morro Queimado, and, skirling the western hase of tlie hills, gradually ascend, passing from the plain to the gneiss valley of the Ilio Macacu, and, at the pivsent ter- minus of the railroad at Cachoeiras, lind ourselves in a narrow valley, among gneiss hills, at the foot of the Sei'iii do .Morro Queimado, an eastward continuation of the Serra dos Orgaos. The gneiss here is of the same general ciiaracter as that at Rio. An ohservation Iiy the river- side, near the residence of Mr. Williams, the superin- tendent of the railroad, gave the strike X. 70' E. The di]* was vertical. Garnets Avere very abundant. On examining the soil, whether high up on the slopes, in the hills, or elsewhere in the numerous cuttings of the njads, Arc, the rock is seen to be covered liy the same red elay [that wc have observed forming the surface-coating of the I plain at Porto das Caixas ; and only a superficial examina- tion of the intervening country is necessary to show that [the same red clay covers, not only the clay hillocks of the railway extension and the jilains descril)ed, but the hills also, [descending everywhere to the level of the sand-plain. In addition, it is to lie seen frequently underlaid by an irregu- ilar sheet of (piartz pebbles, an<l it very often contains an- gular fragments of quartz and sometimes masses of gneiss, [though these last are rare. It is al)solutely structureless, [and, nnich as it may resemble the stratiiied clays above de- I s(.'ribed, or soft, dccomiioscd gneiss, it needs only a very short 0-) GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGKAI'IIY. expori(Micc to cnal)lc one to distinguish from a hand s[)Ccimoii wlic'thor it 1)0 one or the other, (ienerally tliis struc^tiuc- less eUiy is deep red ; Imt on the surface it is often nioic or less yeUowish. Tlie following ideal section illustrates the geology of the country lietween the l>ay of Rio and tlic Serra do Morro Queiniado, along the route over which \\v have travelled. w SKfTION ALOXO THK LINE OF TIIK CAMTAGALLO RAILUOAD. n. Gneiss, V.iiy.nic. 0. Striitilied clays, Tertiary. (Drift, Agas.-iz ) c. Drift. </. liaised bcaclius with recent slu'ils. t. Modern iiiuil deposit. ./". I!ay of I!io. This section tells a very clear story. Late in the tertiniv period, long after tJie hills of Uio were upheaved, and wlitii the country stood at a slightly lower level, the stratified clays which I have described were deposited ovei- tin "whole area of the basin of the Bay of Rio, and the adjoin- ing flat country. These were aftei-vvard upheaved, most j)rol)al>ly, as 1 shall attem])t to show hereafter, to a nuieli greater height than at present, and subjected to denudation by water and glacial action. Owing to the shaj)e of the basin and the great nund)er of streams flowing into it, as well a.- to the face that it must have been the focal ])oint towani which the glaciers of the encircling hills converged, it is imt to be wondei-ed at that, along this part of the coast, the chiys have been so completely denuded and swe[)t away, l('a\ 'iii; only small patches fringing the shores in certahi somewliat THE PROVINCE OF KIO DE JANEIRO. 2?> slicltcrc'd positions. It seems an aru'unuMit in favor of the prevalence of glacial actii)n in the region, that the denndation is so conijilete, else wo should have exjjectcd to find the sheet largely cut through by valleys, leaving more numerous outly- inir masses. As to the aue of these clavs, more hereafter. I have referred them to the Tertiary, though I'rofessor Agassiz is inclined to regard them as drift. The superficial reel chiy deposit I believe, with Professor Agassiz, to be drift. The stratified sands were deposited in shallow water when the sea stood only a few feet higher than at j)rcsent, and tliey have been elevated l)y a recent rise of the coast, — a rise which I Ijelievc to bo still going on. The recent muds, now accumulating from sediment brought down by the streams, form a marshy fringe outside the raised beaches, i laving introduced the reader to the general geological anil topographical features of the vicinity of Rio do Janeiro, let us now examine somewhat closely the drift phenomena nlist'rvnble there. In the following remarks I have pur- posely confined myself to the results of my own jjersonal observations made during e.\tended excursions over the country near Rio, and a detailed examination of eveiy cutting on the Dimi Pedro II. Railroad, fi'om the Great Tunnel to Ypiranga, on the results of whifh survey 1 have niadi' a long report to Professor Aga^siz. In connection with this subject wc will take into consideration some of the to[)ographical elements so remarkable in the hills of Rio and the Serra do Mar. V we examine the gneiss hills at Rio de Janeiro and the vicinitv, we find that they are invariably covered, where the slojies are not too stee]), l)y the same coat of red soil which Ave have observed on the Cantagallo Railroad. This may vary more or less in the . rscncss or Ihieness of I. I 24 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, its ingredients, bnt it invariably presents cvcrywliere the same general character of a sheet of strnctnreless, unar- ranged material, composed of ground-ni) gneiss, perfectly devoid of stratification, and always of a tleep red color pass- ing into yellow near the snrface, especially where the material is sandy and light. There is rarely any hnmus, because the decay of vegetable matter is too rapid to allow of its accumulating as a soil, as in northern countries. This clay sheet varies in thickness from a few feet t(j one hun- dred ; sometimes it is stiff and bakes very hard, in other eases it is more sandy and light. Usually it is quite free from admixture with l)oulders, Init sometimes angular frag- ments of quartz of considerable size occur in it, together with rounded or angular masses of gneiss or diorite. The latter rocks arc almost always in a decomposed state, and, except to the experienced eye, arc recognizaljle only in fresh cut- tings. Under this clay one sometimes finds, as in the cut- tings at Tijuca,a thin layer of quartz pebljles like that seen on the Cantagallo Railroad, but this is not always present. The surface of the gneiss on which the drift rests is always moulorinee and remarkalily evenly rounded down, and the sheet of quartz i)eljbles lies innnediatcly up(jn it, following all its curves ; but the pel)l)le sheet may be wanting over large areas, or vary very suddenly and irregula?'ly in thick- ness. The gneiss m s«7/< is almost invarialily decomposed beneath the drift to a deitth varying from a few inches to one lumdred feet. The. fel(ls}»ar has been converted into clay, the mica lias ])arted with its iron, Scc.^ but the altered crystals of the gneiss still occupy their relative ])osition with reference to one another. The jilanes of stratification arc Avell marked, and the veins of quartz, though cracked up, remain in place. THE PROVINCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 25 Tliis extraordinary decomposition of the Brazilian piciss and other rocks has long attracted attention, and Darwin lias described it very accurately in his Geological Observa- tions. He was of the opinion that it had taken place under the sea before the present valleys had been excavated.* Pis- sis also described it ; but it appears to mc that he has greatly over-estimated the depth to which the softening of the rocks has extended, when he says that, in the gneiss region lietween ►Slo Fidelis and the J^erra dos Orgaos, the gneiss has been deeom[)oscd to a depth, in some places, of 800 metres I I f 'J'his decomposition results, in my opinion, from the ac- tion .'f the warm rain-water soaking through the I'ock, and carrying with it carbonic acid, derived n(jt only from the air, but from the vegetation decaying uj)on the soil, together with organic acids, nitrate of ammonia, etc. I believe that the remarkable decomi)osition of the rocks in ]]razil has taken place only in regions anciently, or at present, covered liy forest. Heusser and Claraz have suggested that it is aided bv nitric acid. Thev sav : " It is, without doubt, de- termined by the violence and fre(piency of the tropical rains, and Itv the dissolvhio: action of water, which increases with tlie temperature. It is necessary to observe, moreover, that tliis water contains some nitric acid, on account of the thun- der-storms which follow each other with great regularity dnring nuiny months of the year." $ Professor Agassiz has discussed this suliject at some * D:\nvin, Gcoloprical Observations, p. 144. t ri»is, Miiii. lie I'hist. de I-'ninn , Tom. X. p. ti5B. It is well to rcmomlifr tliat, bt.'forc' tlic ghu/ial oriL'iu of tlie clays overlyiiifj tlic (U'coiiiposeil ruck was pointi'il out by Professor A<;assiz, the tliickness of these clays was iiichuleJ in the estimate of the ileptli to which the ilccomposition hail taken jjhicc. t MM. Ch. Heusser and G. Claraz, Ann. des Mines, 5'"« Serie, Mem., Tom. NVIT. p. 'J'U. M)l.. 1. 2 26 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. i Icnuth in the Jounioy in Brazil, his opinion l)cing that the softenin!^ of tlie nx k is dnc to the action of warm rain-water. It has been olijeeted to this theory that the stone em[)h)ye(l iji Brazil for hniklinm' ])urj>oscs endures reniarivahiy '\<'ll, showing, after llie lapse of centuries, very little chaniie. This arnnnnent, in my opinion, is of very little weight, for a smooth, naked surface from which the water runs off rapidly, and which is, the greater ])art of the time, dry, is placctl under conditions very different from those of the gneiss oversjjread by a thick coathig of wet drift paste, and constantly soaked with water. Brazil is not the oidy country in wliich the rocks have softened to a great depth. The same phenomenon has ))cen oltserved in the Southern States of the Union and in India.* I have seen gneiss decomposed to a dejith of several feet in the vicinity of New York. "When the gneiss is fine-grained, homogeneous, and not distinctly stratilied, it is often difiicult to distinguish the rock decomposed in situ from the drift ; but the line of demarcation between the two, even when not nuirked fy the peitl)le sheet, is usually easily distinguishalde even in old cuttings. The sIojjc of a railway cutting is apt to gully out along the line of junction of the drift and the underlv- ing decomposed rock. This line is invariably gently undu- lating, and one never sees Jagged edges of strata or angular masses projecting u|)ward into the drift. Professor Agassiz has spoken of the valley of Tijuca below Bemiett's as a locality where the drift is very beautifully exhibited. The mountain mass of Tijuca is separated from the mass of the Corcovado grouj) by the pass of Boa Vista, * Dr. IV'ii/a siiys that in tlic Ncel^rliorrics frraiiitc is somotinitN (U'coiiiposcil to a de])tli of forty feet. (Mailras .fournul of Literature, &.C., Oct. 1836, p. 246.) which is tilt, valley to llli' W( ;i great n aniniig tl ninuntain l.clow the Minor south de? clny is fi ll we asc THE ritOVLNCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 27 w'licli is alioiit 1,000 foot al)Ovc the sea. Eastward runs tilt, valley ol" Aiularaliy downward toward the eity, while to llu' westward one deseend.s a most romantic valley to a jjicat alluvial j)lain, in a sort oi' liay or amphitheatre nniciiLi' the hills. This valley, oceuj)ied by a tum!)linu' UKiiuitain stream, descends very rapidly, entling abruptly !;rl()w the Cascatc Grande at some height above the plain. THE CASCATISIIA AT TUfCA. Elinor valleys from Tijuea and tlio mmmtains to tlic soutli descend and join this valley. At Bennett's the drift • lay is full of boulders of (piartz, gneiss, and greenstone. It wc ascend the brook which flows through Mr. JJeniiett's U 28 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. fazcnda for a few rods, we shall find that it lias cut its hcd through the general clay sheet which everywhere covers the hills, and it is perfectly easy to see that this sheet is in no })lace a deposit thrown down l)y the hrook. This loose material consists of a brownish or reddish earth without the slightest signs of stratification, in which are l)uried boulders of gneiss, usually rounded and of many qualities, together Aviih rounded masses of (juartz. SECTION OK DKIFT AT ItKNNETT .S, TI.IICA. At c is a very large boulder of homogeneous, unlaminated, fine-graiiied gneiss, from around which the drift has been washed away, and this rests on a mass, in sitii, of gneiss coarsely crystallized (porphyritic) and well laminated. At e we see the gneiss iti sitii, much decom])osed, and laid bare in a cutting. The solid gneiss beds are well seen in the bed of the brook, and the rock is generally quite coarse and porphyritic in structure. I find a note of a strike N, " ')° W., which, from the generally uniform northeastward strike seen elsewhere, might be suspected to be an incorrect observation ; but at the bridge, a little farther down the brook, 1 found the strike to be N. 10^ W. If we follow down the valley we shall find the soil full of boulders, and some of these arc many feet in diameter. As we descend the valley still further these l)oulders arc seen lying bare, not only in the brook where the water has washed awav the loose material, but on the hillsides. 1 •I I & tup: province of rio de jaxeiro. 29 think tliat no geologist fiiniiliar with drift j»luMioinoim, Avlio ^lionld snddenl}' find liinisLdf in this valley, would have even tlie sliglitest suspicion of tlieir heing anything else than the most anii>lc testimony of the former prevalence of glacial fictitin over the region; yet, in the heginning of his drift studies in JJrazil, he is almost sure to connnit some oil -s hlunders, for ii; is not even a general rule that the loose lioulilers found on the surface arc erratics. On my fir-t visit to Tijuea, very soon after my arrival in Brazil, and lifter Professor Agassiz had amiounccd the discovery of ihift at Rio, I ^vas struck with the appearance of some tra]i masses on a hillside near Bennett's, which looked re- niarkalily like erratics ; hut a close study of them satisfied nie that they resulted from the surface decomposition of a great trap dyke. Not descending far enough into the valley, and satisfying myself that a great proi)ortion of the gneiss masses that I examined at the time were not erratics, I came most decidedly to the conclusion that the surface dcjiosits of Rio were not drift, hut were in some way due to the decomposition of the rock, as had l)een heretof<3re sup- posed. I desire to record here the fiict, that I hegan my studies of the Brazilian drift with a conv'ction that Pro- fessor Agassiz was wrong, and I feel mucii gratified that my indeiiendent ohservations have so fully confirmed the results of his own. If one descends the valley tcnvards tiie Cascate Grande, he will see that the valley is heaped with a confusion of immense Ijoulders tumhled one ui)on another; masses of greenstone, weighing hundreds of tons, piled up with those of gneiss of all qualities. "Where these are bare they are always rounded, as is seen in the engraving, but I believe that this is referable, to a very large extent, to a concentric and even decomposition of the surface ; but 30 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGKAl'IIY. noiI.DKliS AT TI.IIC.A. tlicro is no rosistinu; flie conclusion Hint \vc have lioro a niorainic deposit from a irlacicr whic.'li anciontly occupied Iho valley. The al)Ovc wo(Klcut is from a stercourapli published by Lcuzin.irer at Rio, and represents the l)OTdder masses above the Cascate Grande. Descendini^ to the ])lain below the Cascate, Avhicli is also seen in the woodcut, one traces the drift clays and l)oulders (piite down to the plain, when they end abruptly, and the flat lauds arc seen to be of alluvial ori<i-in resting on sea sands, of the same age as the sands of Pa([ueta and the Cantagallo Railroad extension. One can- not find in the ]»lain, nor did I ever see auywhere on the b'^ach sands, cither drift clays or boulders. Tin: PROVINCE OF RIO I)K JANKIRO. :U Koturniiiir to tlic Dom Pedro II, Railroad, wc may trace llio drift .shoot cvorywlioic from Uolom to the JIarra do I'iraliy, over the wliole Serra do Mar ; and one ma,\ here study its structure in the most dotaiU^d way. From Ikdcm til the Paraliyba River the same red chiy entirely covers the surlaee, lyinji; even on very high slo}ies. Nowhere is iIkmc the slightest sign of stratilication, and it is shari»ly (Icfnied from the alluvial dej)osits of the river. The same iiilililc sheet is seen almost cvcrvwliere, thout>li in cuttiim- alter cutting- it may sometimes lie wanting. JJoulders are laic, and arc almo.st invariably so decomposed as to Ik; seen only in fresh cuttings. The rock on which the di'ifl rests is always smoothly and evenly rounded down. Tlu.' lullowing diagram will illustrate the structure of one of the gneiss hillocks of the ►'^erra do Mar. .'f c g r IDF.AL SrrriON of nniFT-COVF.REI) CXEISS IIIT.L. (1 a. Drift diiy. //. Aiiguliir fragments of quartz. b h. i'olihlo sheet lying on rouiKlod surface of gneiss. dd. Gneiss in siti'i, Imt decomposed. ee. Gneiss nndecomposed. grj. (Jnartz and granite veins traversing Vjoth solid and decomposed gneiss. Among th{3 first elements in the Brazilian mountain sccncrv which attract the attention of the observer on ^i' •62 GEOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GEOGRAl'llY. ai)proachiiig the coast near Hio arc the bare rook Klopcs ^vhich, instead of lorniinL'" rati'god precijiices, as in northern hititndes, are most reniarkaldy smooth, and devoid of irregn- hu'ities; and tliese snrfaces, where the rock is homogeneous in texture, usually have a high sloj)e, and rre(|uently de- seend and dip beneath the sea level, the sea washing over their even laees.* Somi'timos the top of a hill is hare, cveidy moulded, and round, o> a rounded boss projeets from the side of a hill. These ^h clitTs and rock-shjpcs arc heavily striped above the se. k.j broad lines drawn down their faces, blackened by a sort of cryptogamic growth ; so that these slopes, of a rich, rather pnri»lish, black tint, show very strangely, csi)ecially when set into the mantle of verdure which covers the hills. Of this character arc the bare mass of the Sugar-loaf, the ])recipices of the Corcovado, and the steep slojjes of hundreds of hills in the vicinity. Ai)proaching nearer to one of these slopes, wc find that its surface is often scored l)y a system of little rain-courses, and is covered by cactuses and bromeliaceous plants. The Pedra Bonita is a bare mass of rock opposite the Gavia, but not so high. It is partly surrounded by almost vertical slopes, and on top, over a large area, is bare and rounded off. Here, though one may oljservc the same thing elsewhere, the way in which this rounding and smoothing down of the rock is produced may be studied, and one is soon forced to believe, that, whatever the gla- ciers may have contributed to the shaping of the topo- * These evenly rounded, wave-washed rock slopes are very interesting, and have already been called attention to by Darwin (Geolo^ncal Observations, p. 144). Such slopes may be seen not only on the shores of the quiet bays, but exposed to the full wash of the Atlantie waves, as at the mouth of the Pay of Rio and elsewhere. In describing', farther on, the Bay of Espirito Santo, I shall show how these wave-washed slopes originate. THE I'HoviNri: OF no de Janeiro. •jnijiliical features of the country, the freneral nionldniir of llic hills has hcou due primarily to suhaerial (Icuudiition. Tlir iiiu'iss of tlie Pcdra Bouita is decouiposiug. Where the rock is level the decomposed feldspar, ttc. has heeu washed iiwiiv li\" the riiin, and we have the nick covered by a thin cnatiim' of loose (piartz <rraius, which I hardly need say are iiiiLiiiliir. AN'here there is a decideil sloju', the loose sand is uii>lie(l or blown away. The rock itself is much softened (111 the surface, and, to a consideralile de|)th, the fehhpar has heen Uiorc or less altered. This semi-decomposed layer I'onns a concentric coat over the wIkjIc rock. Sometimes this is continuous and unbroken, but if the area exposed be larL'C, we usually fhid that there is a tendency for it t(j sep- arate itself from the undecom])osed rock below, and to crack up. Sometimes this layer is oidy a few inches in thickness, in others it mav be several feet. AVhen the surface is horizontal, or nearly so, the tendency is for it to break up Ihuilly into small an<>'ular })ieces, which, wasting away and rounding down by decomposition, cover the rock with loose, boulder-like masses, or are entirely removed, leaving a smooth, unencumbered surface. If the slo])0 be very steep or vertical, the decomposed mass may fall or slide olT. On very steep slopes, as those of the Sugar-loaf, Cor- cdvado, ^h)rro de Santa Theresa, and elsewhere, this sheet scales olf and falls, breaking up lielow. The Brazilian gneiss clilTs rarely have a talus of liroken fragments at their Itase. The (h'comjiosition going on eveidy all over their face gives only sand and clay, "washed doAvn by the rains and distril>- uti'd over the earthy slope ])elow, and the half-d'> nnposed fragments soften and finally decomi)ose entirely. One must lio verv careful in examining a cuttinti" that runs under a high clitV. for the earth resulting from the decomi)osition of the 2» C 34 GEOLOr.Y AND PHYSICAL (IKOGnAPIIY. liicc ofllic cliir rcsciiililt's more or less Hk; dri ft -en rlli sprcaii <)\('r llic surfiicc of the ^Tound. Ortciitimcs n mass of liiiir-dt'connioscd i-()c'k sciuiriitcs itself from llio lace of tlic cliff ill a trreat lenticular sheet. This mav crack across liori'/.oiitally, particularly if tlie plane t)f Hlraliricatioii cuts the surface of the clif]" in this way, and the lower half may droj) oil", leaviuu; au ovcrhanti'in^ })f)rtion attachcil to the cliir. One may observe hauling nuisses of this kind at- tached to the j)recij)icG of the Sugar-loaf and Corcova<l(». and in innumerable other gneiss localities. If wo exam- ine one of the rounded gneiss hills, — as, for instance, one of those just behind the Dom Pedro 11. IIosi»ital at llota- logo, when^ part of the hill is bare and steep, — lookiiiL' at the hill in a cross-section, we may observe that the gen- eral rounded curves of the drift-covered portion are ([uite out of harmony with those of the bare i)ortions, Avhich arc usually flatter, and we may further notice that the very stec'ii slojK'S or preei])ices are usually on the side of the hill awaj from which the strata diji. This is the case on both sides of the IJotafogo valley, hi the following diagram I have | tried to represent the difference in moulding ))etween ;i daciatc'd surface and that of one of these bare cliffs. niAGKAM TO SHOW COKTUAbT IN Mdll-DINc; Uf;TWi;KN DltlFT-COVEUED A.NP BAliE SUUFACKS. Tin: riioviNCK of imo di: .iant.iko. Tlic ontlinc of the (Iriff-covcnMl jiortion (»!' tin* liill. <( f>, liiis lircii iiiio1ijiii^(mI since the diil't ; loi' tliotiuli t!iu ruck lias 1,1 (11 |ii()tccl(Ml liy tlio (li'ifl, the jiiieiss has (lee()in|M>se(l, Imt hiis reiiiaiiieil /// situ. Over the face, A <', the (lecniM|invi- tinii has p)iie on also; lait i'mei! the slope has not iieeii jiiiitecteil, it has worn constantly hat'lvwurfls, ^'i-owinji' gruil- uiillv more re<^iilar in outline as each new (leeonipostMJ coat WHS thrown oil'. II' one will take the pains to examine tlic curves resultinu' from the decomposition of iiarc >ur- laccs, ami lhos(! which result I'l'om decomposition wlieic, iis under a drilt-sheet, the dee'oniposed rock remains /// ,s//^', lie will he convinced that the monldin^ii; of the surface of the L;ii(i>s on wliieli the drift rests is of ail altoji'etlu'r different character i'roni that resultinir from simjile snhaerial (k'uu- (hition. The sands containinir recent sliells alomj^ the Bay of Rio, and elsewliere, and whicli lise to the lieiuht of a few feet alidvc hiu'h-water mark, bespeak a recent (devation (d" the coast, as lias heen ohscrved independently l»y his Ma/p-sty the Eniperoi', Dr. Ca[»anenia,* and myself; hut there are othei- pnjofs of the same upheaval in the holes cxcavate(l liy x'n- urchins, which are found in the vicinity, in many places juaiiy feet ahovo hiuh-water nuirk. The islands of Maricas lie a few miles olT the coast * Dr. Ci. S. lie raii.aneiiia has written more or less on the freoloiry of I^nizil. One i)t' his iiapers iiu'iitioned tiy Hiirtou hears the title, " l)ec(iiii]io>ii.no dos IVih iliis no Bra<il," ami was jiiihli^hed at J{io in ISfifi. I am very sorry tliat I iiave iR'vir seen any of the jiapors of this gcolojrist, who has travelled very ex- ten-iveiy over the Eniiiire. I know of his work only throu;:h (|notations or references. From a MS of Major Contiidio, jilaced in my hand-; liy I'rofcvsor Airassiz, I should infer tlntt Dr. Cajianenia is a disbeliever in the ^.'laeiai ..rijrin of ilie surfaee deposits claimed hy Professor Apassiz and my.scif to lie drift, and that lie rather considers them to he the result of decomposition alone. r.G GKOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOflRAI'IIV. ))Chveoii Rio niul Ca])C Frio. They arc cnniposed of gneiss in licds of uue<iujil liardness, and a most oxeellent ojiportunity is afforded for llio comparison of glaeiateil rock sui'faees and surfaces denuded by sultaerial decom- position, or wave action. The genei'al surface of the isl- ands is rcjunded, and is covered by drift chiy. Some bare rocks are evenly rounded, I)ut along the shore, where the waves l)eat, the softer beds arc worn away more deeply than the hard ones, and the sui'facc is very irregular. On the rocks a species of Evitinonivtra (ii. MiclwHni Desor), a sea- nrchin with moderately long, dark-jturple spines, is very com- mon, living in a zone extending downwards from some dis- tance I lelow high-water nuirk. Here they arc found, each in a cu}>-shaped depression worn in the rock, and in some places the I'ock is fairly honeycoml)ed on the surface l)y their "nests." Al)ove the zone of living sea-urchins the nests arc found, but they arc emi)ty, and in i)rotected localities, as, for instance, in narrow oj)enings between rocks, they may Ito ol (served to extend to a height of several feet aljovc high-water level, showing that the elevation of the coast has been very recent. I have observed that the nests api)ear less and less well juTserved the higher we examine them, which has convinced me that the u])hcaval has been a gradual one, and 1 l)elieve that it is still in progress. "^I'lie coast between Rio and Cape Fi'io is, for a .irge part, high and exceedingly ])icturesque. Many of tli'' hills are bare and strangely shaoed. The following sketch represents the coast as seen from near the island of Marictis. To the left are the hills of Rio. Long sea-beaches stretching: across bays formed l)y tin' hills h.ive formed lagoons along this coast, and the low arounds between the mouth of Rio and Ponta XcLini THE I'lJOVINCK OF RlO DE JANEIRO. o< COAST JLST 1;AST r)K lilO. arc litim'ly occupied by swamps and liiuooiis. Of tlio latter llic must iiotaltle is the Laji'oa de Mariea, which i. soiuc six n.ilcs lon^', salt, and se]»ai'ated from the sea, like the LaiiAii dc Ficitas, hy a sand-beach, through which the iiib;iliitants are obli'ictl occasionally to cut, in order to uivc passiiuc to llic waicrsofthc lake durinir times of freshets. This lake, as well as the others along this coast, is extraordinarily rich in fish. A sandy shore extends from west to east from Ponta Ncui;! bi Ca|)eFrio. '' It may be eight or ten leagues wide fi iiin the sea to the eordilheira, beinu" I'ouuhcncd in this ii tcrval liy several serras, and occupic*! in jiarts by \arioiis la- lias. All the flat part of this plain is useless Ibr ag ri tnral piwjioses on account of the depth of the sand, and it,- lieiiig overllowed a j)art of the year This li )W country aj)- jtcars to extend alon,, the Rios Sjio Jvjao and I'na to the sea north of (!ape Frio. ha'ina Sa(iuarema is a large lake lying east of l^onla Xe- gia, and separated from the sea, like the Lagoa Mariea, by a sand strip. "■ It is three (Portuguese) miles h>ng, and three * hicidiinrio d'eoyrofiro, iirt. Maru'd. This work is a iiicrc coiiipihition, mill i^ full ot' inaci'unu'it's. In (jiintiiiu' tV mi it I liave iluuu so with imicli ciivi'. 38 GKOLOGV AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'HV, (|Mai'tor.s of a Icjijiuc hi its <ri"f'.atcst width. It is salt, full of lish, and .srj)ai'att'd from the sea hy a narrow tract of sandy .ground. When the atljoininu' jilains hcsrhi to \)v covcrcfl hy the Hoods of the streams which emi)ty into it, the iidiuli- itiints of the vicinity open an outlet to the ocean at the eastciii extremity, which remains an unfordahle ri\'cr during the winter, at the end of which the surf closes it up,"* Lagoa Araruama is a nari'ow sti'ip of ;;alt water ahout twenty miles long, and with a varying width, in some jilaces beveial miles, lying on the coast w<'st of Cape Frio, and seji;irate(l from the sea hy a, narrow ^trip (jf sand thrown up iiy the waves. Ca/al says f that "it empties its(df fnjm its eastern extremity hy a cmial twenty-six l»racas large at its mouth, which is situated at a distance of a league and a half north of Cape Frio. Xotwirhstaudinu' that a unmlier of streams empty into it, its waters are salted hy the rommunication which they have with the ocean. The tide makes itself felt as far as Ponta (Jrossa, which is situated at ahout its uiiddle. 'J'hence westwaid the watei's ;■() wi th tl le w nds. It ahouuds in (i^h of various k'nuh In some ]»arts it is many i)racas in depth. | in other: one mav wade from one shore to the other MiUiet savs y ma that •• hetween the sea, the city, and the Lake Arai'au are natui'al salines, which were ]»rohii)ited hy I'oyal letters on the 2(ith of Fehruary, lOlM), and' iSfh of January, 10;>1, the rortugnesc government intending therel)V to favor the * Cnriti/ratid Ih-azilirn, Tom. IT. p. .38. 'I'liis old work liy Ci\m\, i)ublishcd 1818, is very imicli nioir irliiihlo tliaii the Diciioiiiuio Gco^iratico. f. 'oriynijid liinti'lnt, Tom. II. |i. .'iS. W i I'rin/. .Mux. /.ii Xi'ii-Wicd, AV/se wic/i /jrtisi"i<"i. 1" Rand, 8.')*« .Soito, faiidi'ii das Wa>si'r diT La^:na vciii p'rin!:(r Tictb mid so klar. das-; wir di'ii weisM'ii Saiidlioik'ii (ks (iriindcs niit siiiu'ii Korallciiuvwikdiseu diiitlii li wahnu'liiucu koniiti'ii : hci der "vriii'irn Tiit'o sa>si'u wir oft test." THE PROVINCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 39 oonnnorco of salt of its own European possessions. Not- uitlistiiiidiii^" the royal decrees, Domiii.u'os da Silva Kilteiro, jii(l,i!e-iu-(»i'dinary of tiu.s city, ordered, in 17ti>!, that the ciiuumiiiieatit^n hctween fjake Ai'arnania and the salines of Mii(;al'ainl)a he closed, and in tlic foiiowinii' year the al)ovo .salines I'ni-nished in six months r)0,()()0 ahjni'ires of salt." ('a|»e Frio is the name uiven to the sonthernmost point of a liiuh, i»recii)itous gneiss island, sitnated at the anu'le where the coast line, cominji; eastward from Kio, hends noi'thwar<l tewanl Cape Sao Thome. It is only ahout three miles lon,ii', very irre^nlar in ontline, and is almost divided into two jiarts. The northern is, accordinu' to Monchez, -'Jlif metres in altitude. A liglithousc was erected on this jioint, but it CAPE FRIO. proved to l)e at too orreat a height, l)ein,Q: nhovo tlio level of the clouds, so that it had to lie ahandoned. The jtresent liiihthouse is sitnated at a lower le\'el on the southern jioint. The island is separated from the main-land hy a narrow hut rather deep channel. The land ojtposite consists of a U'roup of tineiss hills, formerly islands, wliich have heeii luiited together l)y sand licaehes and sand ])lains, whiidi rxtend northwestward, joining' the heaeh of Mai.-amliam- ha. or ^lassandjamba, and running northward to the Ki*; Itaitu'u. 40 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGPvAPHY. Bctwooii tlic city of Cape Frio and Os ]>iizios the coast is very ii-rcuiilar in onflinc, rather \o\v, witli small gneiss hills aloni:; the shoi-o, (onninjL^ occasioiuil rocky ])roniontori('s which are nnited by curving- sea-l)eaclies. I (ind in my notes the (|uery whether the low flat lands seen from the sea may not he Tertiary. Towai'ds Armac^ao the coast is bor- dered by low gneiss hills, which, owing to the northwest (landward) dij) of the rocks, and the correspondence of their strike with the general trend of the coast, as well as from the way in which they have been worn l)y the waves, present to the sea perpendicular, rugged cliffs of no great altitude. Along this coast are (piite a number of little rocky islets of gneiss. At ()s Ihi/.ios* the coast line suddenly bends off to tlie northwestward, and nuis towards Sao Joao, when it curves round and sweeps otf with a northeast trend to Cape Sfn) Thome. The gneiss shows itself on the shore of the jioiiit just east of the town. It is well laminated, nmch plicated, and has a general low dip to the northwestward. Tin' gneiss of the point on the westein side of the town has very nmch the same character. The gneiss behind the town seems to be overlaid by tertiary clays, which show them- selves in the point west of the town ; but I had no opportu- nity of examining them with nmch care. They are so nmcli denuded that they are not easily recognizable by toiK)graph- * Os ftiizios takes its name from its ricIuK'ss in shells. Amon^^ the s]ieiies I colleeted tiierewere Cdsnis Miidiiijuscdiidisis and Cjijinia (xnntlicma. Wiiodwanl in Iiis Manual says that no ('_v]ineas oeenr on tlie Brazilian eoast. Cjijmvn exdiitliriiiii is not at all rare, ami oeein-s also at Bahia, \vln're I have f'ouiul an- other little speeies ill i^reat ahiindanee. Se\eral speeies of eorals oeeiir at Os Biizios ; Millijioiii itlciinniis is especially almiulant. ami the rocks are covereil with jiatehes of the common Paliithoii, tou-ether with a Zoanthm witli an enier- ukl disk, eonimoii oLsewhere on the coast. THI-: PROVINCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 41 iciil features alone. There is a small lull Just east of the village which hears a little church. It is cut away ou the slinie hy the waves, and f(U'nis a little hluff composed of ]'Ouii(lod (|uart/ jiehbles derived I'roui the rocks of the \i(iiiity, cemented togetlier hjosely hy a soft, greenish chiv. 1 have seen nothing like it elsewhere. Westward (if Os iJuzios is (juite a range of gneiss liills, lying between tlic lirad-waters of the Rios (Jarcia and 'I'ra])iche. The slioic Itcyoud the rocky i>oint west of Os Buzios ajipears, for siDiic distance, to he tertiary, but there are some jiatches (if icccnt sands. These dejjosits ajipear to terminate on the sliiuf with a bright red clifT", very consjjicuons fi'oni a distance, when the tertiary blnlls recede from the coast, and n sandy fiat, l)acked by low ]»lains, extends on to the gneiss hills of the Serra de Sao Jono. Thence to Macahc nnuli of the shore is low, with stretches of tertiary clays, innic or less denuded, and gneiss hills. North of Macalie the tertiary plains soon recede from (he coast running off to- ward ('aiui)()S on the Rio Parahyba do Sul, the land border- ing the coast being flat, more or less swampy, and di\ersiried by numberless shallow lagoons, some nf which are of large extent. Off Macahe, and distant a few miles from the shore, lie the little gneiss islands of Santa Anna, known t(i coasters as their only retreat, north of Os Ihi/.ios, when stuinis oi- northeast winds jii-event them from passing Cape Sill) Tlionid. There is usually a strong current uiX the Cape, ])ut it is very variable. During the ))revalenee of a Iniio- utn'theast blow it runs southward with such rajiidity tluit it is impossible for coasting vessels to taek against it. They may succeed in lieating \i\) from the islands ol Santa Anna, chyse to the shore, until they reach the Cajie, but they arc then swci)t back. I was once nearly 42 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRArilY. ii loi'liiijiht l»(;atiii,t: off" this coast duriiiir the pi-cvaloiu'C of a iiurthcast iti'cczc, ain! 1 xisitt-d the isUiuds many tunes. They are el' no wry esjteeial interest, hut oni' may ()l>serve heir the sea-ui'cliins' nests, raised aliuve hi^h-water mai'iv, and may study ^ome ol'the t(i|i(»;i'i'a|»hieal leatnri's (U'vcdojied li\- deeomjiusitiiiu. I add a litlU' skettdi (tf l\\v westoi'iunost ishiml, as seen IVom the noiMheast, to sh(j\v tlic siuuuthh' rounded character oi' its stcc]) sides. --•>-g -=it^T^^»-^f :»^.' ONi: OK TIIK ISLANDS OF SANTA ANNA. Tlie Seri'as, always ehithed with tlie Airuin foi-est, stretc]i ah)nii'. at varyinii' distances (Voni tlie coast, in a mav:niliceiir ran^U't' of hills, with steej) slo))(\s toward the sea, Inrnun,^' oin' of the ,urandest jianoramas ol" mountain scenery on tln' coast of IJrazil. Of the altitude of those hills I have no pre- cise infoi'mation, hut J should estimate some of them as ;i! least (i.oOO leet. There is oiu- very conspicuous, oh(disk-liki' ])eak, lyiiiLi' Itehind ^lacahe, hut stancHntr somewhat in advance of the <2,eneral ranue of the Serra, and called tlie Frade de ^hicahe. Lieutenant ^louchez* ;j:i\-es its altitmli on one of his charts as l,ToO metres (."),74o feet), -wliiili ?l * LifUlcnaiU Muiieluv, lias on his cliarts nivcii tlii' lu'iirhts of various ].'.' .lion;; tlic coast, Imt I tind no note a?; to whether tla-y arc the results of ai ' mcasureiiients, .fa K'S. rvc .(•(I ost hlv I'lit UK' 111.' ll'C- at w| 1 1 10 ;^ l:|r tia wiuilil ;iiiiki Minns. Th the I'lii'iiliyl |t:iclic(l Scrr; till' .Miii'i;ili(' (if ltiiliii|iii;i ]iirtiii('S(|iir All llic 11 |1;il;i Kills, \\Iii( lii I'ity sdiiic Isticti'lics sou :'rii( liiniiiitii nniiioiif (low- is well !is In slialldw, iind |iy ii 1 1 Mill-, ( In a ciiiisidoi I'll! tlit'ic arc ti'l'a/c. ])y 111 i«'il liy tlio >lacali(' lias iiii'icil on lict J' "'.((', Iiy inoa 'xi'<'llciif for 1)1' I'oiiiitry. Till' lakes o liiiUou-, but 1 * Owin;;' to the pivvMlnicc <,t' luirt 11 ti-ii(|ciicy Hir 1 1 t I havt' uiuli'rst( was only two tlii Tin: rnoviNci: of mo di: .iankiko. 4;; would make it almost as hiuli as the Soi'ra da Piodadc in Miiiits. The >en'as break down on icacliiiiu' the valley of ilic l':trahyi)a River, Just below Sao Fidelis, when, in de- iiirhid >('fi'as, they reeede somewhat from the coast, cross |tlii' Mui'iidic and ltaba|)uana rivers, tyint:' in with the Scrras ml' ItaliaiMiana and Jtapemerim, and forming:' some wvy |iic!incs(|iie momitain scenery. All the Hat, sandy, and swamjty land, int(!rs|t('rsed with llii'i'ions, which borders the liio I'arahyba almost to ("ami»os, la city >(»iiie miles alM)ve its month, as well as that which Istictclirs southward to Macahc, or thei'eabouts, is of ncit re- Icciit lnrmati()ii,and is eomj)osc(l iirincipally <>f samls and silt Ibri'iioiit down by the river. Oil" the coast of Sa(» Thome, Ijis well as for some distance nortlnvard, the water is Vi'iy shallow, and much discoloi'cd. These lands are boi'dere(l y ii liiii'^', dreary sand-i)each.* The country behind is, to a considerable extent, covered bv shrubbei'v and ti'ees, but there are extensive open ])lains whei'e hei'ds of cattle Iji'raze. My means of a ditch uniting; the lau'oons, and di,u'- liificd by the name of a canal, water communication ^vith ^laralic has been opened, f and a considerable trade is ?airi(Ml (»n between the two ]>laces, or the settlements on the I' ii'.ic, by means of canoes. Much of this swampy around is 'xcelleut for rice, — an important product of this part of ^lic cuuutry. The lid<es of this retrion are very numerous. They are all shallow, but some arc several leau'ues in diameter. The * OwitiL^ to rlic iKirilicnst trcml of tlio licacli Minili of Cnpe Frio, iind tlic pivvalciiri' of nonlioast winds, tiio \va\TS strii-;f tlic l^'acii oliliiiiii'iy, iiiid tiaTe |s 11 triiiliiicy for riu- saiuls to move soutlnvanl. Tliere an- no iliiiu's Irtc. * I luivc luulorstonil that this canal was tiuished, but rompL'o says that iu 1S64 was (jiily two thirds coniiilotod. 44 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPUY. lai'frost is Laifua Fcia, an irrcLMilar lake sonic twenty miles lonj^, lyinjj^ al»out ten miles soiitii of Campos. 0\vin<,^ to its great area and its very small deplli, its waters are kei)t con- stantly turbid tlirougli their agitation hy the winds. It re- ceives from the west (luitc a little stream, the Rio Maeal)ri, which rises near the Serra do Fradc. This river is navi- gable for canoes for some twenty miles above the lake. Another nKJuntain stream of eonsidera))le importance rise:; among the Serras just north of the Maeabu, and uniting in its com-se several large l'ik;^'s, also enters Lagoa Fcia. This lake is united on all sides with a multitude of lagoons of greater or less size by a perfect netwoik of little channels, so that its waters flow partly to the north into the Para- hyl)a, while in [)art they escape into a system of long narrow lagoons that stretch along Ju.st behind the beach ridges of the shore at Cape Sao Thome, and comnnmicate l)y channels across the beach with the sea. One of these lagoons, which passes by the name of the Rio Tguassu, is some fifteen miles long. It has evidently been formed by the throwing uj) in very recent times, probably during the prevalence of somo very heavy storm, of a line of .'^and-bcacli Just outside of the shore. Similar lagoons arc found elsewhere along tlii coast, as for instance just south of Belmonte, on the Je(iuitinhonha, and I belicA'C that the great line of saml- beaches stretching along the coast was thrown nj), to beniii with, by an extraordinarily heavy storm which prevaik'J along the whole coast, auvl which, in many instances, wlicre the Avater was verv shallow, disturbed the bottom at some i little di.stance outside of the shore line, throwing up a saiu! barrier which, through the drifting of sands by the winds,a5| well as by the action of the waves, has shicc reached its ])res- ent dimensions. During the overflow of the Parahyha its THE I'ROVINCK OF IIIO DE JAXEIHO. 4.J wat<M'S lifM'k up over much of the plnin on both sides of tlio river, ami the country liceoiucs largely sul)imM'^vcl. At the tJiiH' cf tli<' cnc'lieiite, or aiumal freshet, the inhahitaiits cut outlets across the sea-heaches for some of the hikes in the soiitlii'rn part of the canipos. North of the I'arahylia, and iiiiii- the city of Campos, there is another hir<re hd<e caUed hiiti'Vi do Cani])(dh», and the conntiy thence northward to the (JiiiixiiKUha is fidl of higoons and ent u\) hy little channels. Till! i*arahyhacm])ties into the sea hy two mouths, distant some two miles IVom one another, and between which is the lliia do Lima. 'I'he delta of the Parahyba projects two or tliive miles Ijeyond the general line of the coast. The mouths of the I'iver are obstructed by ])ars, over which the waves at times break fearfully, and an entrance can (U'dina- rily lie elTected only at high tide ; yet small coasting steamers Mild vessels do enter, and small river steamers, and somc- liiues even schooners, ascend as far as Campos. At the mouth on the south side is the miserable little town of Sao .lo;l(i da I>arra, built on a sand-l»ank Avhich admits of no cul- tivutiou whatever. It contains some two thousand inhabi- tiints, who subsist principally by fishery, shipbuilding, and conuuercc. It owes its importance to the sole fact that a'cs- sels arc often long delayed either ofTthe bar waiting to enter, or inside waiting to go out, and this keeps up a little trade. In its lower course the river is wide and shallow. Mangrove swamps and low grounds, sometimes covered with bushes and trees, often wavhig with the tasselly spikes of the Hid {(hinerium j/cwi'ifolium Nees), border it for a few miles, but by and 1)y the banks, which arc comi»osed of the richest alluvial clay, grow higher, and thence to Campos the beautiful river is bordered by immense sugar plantations, and the scenery is enlivened by freijuent IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .-J- i 1.0 I.I 1.25 >" m 1112.2 s i;s 1110 1.8 U 1111.6 Photographic Sdences Corporation m ^jy ^ #s \ "% .V - IT- ^ <^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ii ^ds ///// ^ 4i\ GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAniY. fazondas niul llio fiilii'icas with tlicir tall smoko-stacks. The plains ai'o cox (.'red with thick IkmIs of sill, dcjiositcq by the I'ivci* diii'inii' tlio annual ovcrllows. The waters el' the Pai'ahyha, as well as of all the nu)uii- tain streams of the i)roviuec flowing throuiih liiieiss iv- gions, are veiy tui'hid and usually of a milky Ijrown- ish tin.ue, throwing- down a copious scdiuient, e\'en in (hv times; hut when the river is swollen hy i-ains, the (puiii- tity of silt is very nuich increased. This material, Avhethcr derived from the gneiss rock itself or from the drift, consists chielly of decomposed feldsj)ar and mica, and the water of tlic rivei- is glistening with the minute silvery flakes of the latter minei'al. The soil dej)osited l»y the river is very })roductivc in sugar-cane, and the region round about Camjxjs manu- factures a very large amount of sugar and rum, the former of a very good (juality ; and this is the ])rincij»al jtroduct of the plains. At Campos the country, though Hat, is sonii- what higher, and one may see, from an inspection of the river-bank, that the alluvial deposits are underlaid liy tertiary clays which have been more or less denuded. Notwithstanding the turbidness of the water of the Para- liyba, it is, when the sediment has been deposited, very ])()t- able, and maybe preserved for a long time. The usual cus- tom is to keep the water in great earthen jars, somctiiues weeks or months betbre using it. The city of Campos is a respectable town of aliout twenty thousand * iidiabitants, built on the right bank of the riv(M', Its trade consists ]trincipaHy in sugar and coifee, and it is a l>lacc of extraordinary stir. The vicinity is flat and fertile, * At k'iist so says ronii)('o in liis Gcoj^rapliy. As tliorc lias Ik'cii no regular census, it is impossible to give with accuracy the number of inhabitants of Brazilian tov.ns. liiid largely ci ilic C^fL-yabeira Cmiiiira B.(i(l iiKinufactured (|iuintity fron wliich in the loiiu shallow wvll as in the I'lins Macahe-' aluuulancc of lound laying i oivd, and wei swamps are a The Rio M hylia from tlu iiig its rise in |i(M'haps 400 01 to the first fa during an icht ill the vicinity of the Parah see. Two m Daroness of ^1 •reneral level, hills, and cov( Ascending character are of tertiary cl hlulfnear Jui (if seventy fc (.'Diirsc dark- over which THE PHOVIXCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 47 mill lar.u'cly oultivntod lor sntrar. In tlie vicinity of Campos tlic Ci yalicii-a, or (Inava-trco of tlio West huVw'i { Psitfiiioi (liKiiiii'd, Rad(li). is vcm'v laruelv euUivatcd, and llic IVnit is iiKinufac'tured into a sweetmeat which is exported in g'reat (|nautity Irom Campos. There are extensive low tracts which in the wet season — in part for the whole year — Inini shallow lagoons and marshes. In these marshes, as well as in the ditch, diii'iiiUcd l»y the name of canal, which runs ^lacahe-ward, ^Ir. Coiiehmd and I collected a great aliiiiidancc of amimllarite, planorljes, ttc. The former I luiind laying in June. The eggs were large and salmon-col- (ir.'d, and were attached in hunches to the grass. These swamps are also rich in fish, Fiahas, Acaras, Trahiras, ttc. The Rio ^furiahe is a little stream cntcriiii!: the Para- liylia from the north a short distance ahovo Campos, tak- ing its rise in the province of Minas. At its mouth it is jicrliaps 400 or oOO feet wide. It is navigahlc for a few miles t<i llie first falls. The following observations were made dining an ichthyological excursion up the river : The lands ill the vicinity of the mouth of the river along the left hank (if the Parahylta arc alluvial and flat, so far as I could SIC. Two uiiles uj) the river, near the fazcnda of the iiaroness of Muriahe, the ground rises somewhat above its iiriu'ial level, is hummocky, diversified by immense ant- hills, and covered by a red drift soil. Ascending a little farther, higher grounds of the same character arc cut through, and they are seen to be composed of tertiary clays and saiulstones, as may be observed in a Miitf near Jundiu. At Pestrclla the land rises to a height of seventy feet, and is composed below of a thick bed of coarse dark-red sandstone, extending below water-level, over which are beds of whitish and red sandy clays. 48 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGRAniY, Tlicsc hills^ arc outliers of the tertiary lied.s of tlie coast. mueli (IciukUmI 1)v lilacial action. A laru'e part of the hinds bordering- the river are h)W, and ahove the fazcniUi of the ]>ai'ao d"]taha]»nana the\' consist of Ijeds of horizontally stratified sa.nds above, with irregularly stratified hrown clav(n' eartli l)elo^v. In this last were lavers of a dark nia- terial, wliich appeared to he made uj) of leaves. I may here state that it has heen reported that coal, or lignite, occurs in the vicinity of Campos. 1 have seen no signs of }»akeozoic or secondary rocks anywhere in the province of Rio do Janeiro, and at Campos I could not learn of the existence of any such deposits. The report may have originated from these recent vegetable deposits on the 3Iuriahe. Gneiss shows itself at the fazenda of l^iranga. Above the fazenda of Oiteiro the plains cease, and the river winds among gneiss hills, some of which are of considerable altitude ; the Morro do Sapateiro, distant a few miles noi'thwest of the S^anta Rita, being perhaps 2,000 feet in altitude, while the Serra da Onra, on the opposite side of the river, is set down by Mou- chez as 1,400 metres in height. The soils of the higher lands I examined on the Muriahc' were not good, l»ut thos of the lower were. The princi[)al product of the region is sugar, and there arc some immense fabricas on the river, as, for instance, those of Tae})ebas* and the one belonging to Senhor Joao Caldas Yianna, Jr., which were the only ones we visited. At the warehouse of Senhor Amaral, at the head of naviga- tion, the country consists of gneiss, with rather low rounded hills bordering the river, aiul higher ones on the southwest. At the warehouse I found the strike X. Go° E., dip 85^ W., * Tliis factory is worked by steam, and the molasses is separated from the sugar by centrifugal motion. and a short di Maria das Tac lliir-graiiu'd gi M'Micid. (Jan 111 nscendinu ilic liead of stt liiic^t jtieccs of LOOKING Foi' about or rniiiitiT l)or(lerii and more unev Wlnit appears & range is on the 'I a largo dome-sl t(.tns sides. Re lirnniiiiriit hills ;j which a hirge ])i 'i^ in {.'ampos is oh I o])jii)sito the Sa| I '^an Fidclis in a J 'if tlie ])oaks n Till' sides of th %, those of Rio. ] Vol.. 1. THE PROVIN'CE OF EIO DK JANKICO. 40 i [\w\ a sliort distance u\) llic river at tlic fazciida de Santa Maria das 'I'aepehas ] oljserved a well lanunaU'd ura\- and liiir-ii'raintMl <z'ii(.iss, with stril<c X. (JO -('»J E., dip neai'lj M'l'lical. (larnets arc abnndant in the rock here. J 11 ascendin<^' the Parahylia from Campus to Sao Fidclis, till' licad of steam navig-ation, we liave bel'ore ns (jne ol' tlic liiiost pieces of river and monntain scenery on tlie coast. ■/iF?*a= -i;j LOOKING rr THE RIO PAUAHYnA FROM ABOVE CAMPOS. Fill- ahont one third of tlic distance al)Ove Camj^os the iiiiiutiv l)ordcrino; the river is flat. It then l)ecomes liiulier mill more uneven, and o-nciss is seen in tlie ri\er-lianks. Wliat appears to lie the hiuhest ])oint of the Sapateiro I'lii'ic is on tlie Parahyha River, on the lel't hank. It is :i !ai\ue dome-shaped hill, with more or less hare, prccijii- ti'iis sides. Between it and the river are several other rpfite liriiiiiiii(.'nt hills, in the first of which are (juarries. from \vlii(li a laru'C ])art of the pieiss nscd for huildiiiLi' pnrjioscs in (';iin|ii)s is obtained. On the western side of the river itplMisite the Sa])ateiro ranu'C stretch westward the serras of ^^ilo Fidclis in «a series of sharp peaks. The heiulit of some of the peaks must be at least o.oOO feet, ])robably more. The sides of the mountains are all regularly rounded like those of Rio. Like the Organs, some of the hills are very vol.. I. a D 50 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. sliai'jt, lint tlicy nro not so prominont as to ••'ivo to lliis Inmi- scojio so sti'ikiiiu; a character as the Organs do to the sconciv of the sci'i'a of that name. The ,u'noiss of Sao Fidclis is similar to Hint of Rio, and contains a hu',u'0(inantity of oarn('ts,sonir fif llic crystals of which are an indi and a half in diamet(^i', At a rocky place by the i-ivcr-sidc 1 ohsei'ved a strike nt' X. (14° 1']., the dip lieinn- vertical. At SHo Fithdis navigation ends. Above that point the river is fnll of rapii's, oI)stnict- cd by rocks, and is navigable oidy for canoes and the likr. The lands of the immediate vichiity are not largely culii- vated. At Cantagallo, dnring the reign of the first A'ice-King o: Brazil, gold was discovered by certain seekers and snnii;- glcrs of gold, garimpeiros, Avho, (piietly taking possession of the ])lace for many years, extracted gold in secret, and i; was a long time before the Brazilian government discoveivi! the retrion whence so mnch uold fomid itswavtothe canital. ]\Iawe says that the rock of the locality is gi-anite com})os('u of feldspar, hornblende, (piartz, mica, sometimes holding g;,i- nets, — evidently gneiss, like tliat of the Serra do Mar to ili' westward. He states that the gold comes from the lowest bed of cascalho, or gravel, occurring always in roundeil grains, and that he never saw a crystallized specimen. CIol i and ferric oxide were the only metallic substances foiiin! here. At the time of Mawo's visit (1808) so little gold \v!b extracted, that the quinto, or royalty, paid to the govcni- ment would scarcely snflfice to pay the olTlicers and soldier-' api)ointed to collect it. Von Tschudi sa\'s * that the go'nl of Cantagallo came from the bed of a stream. Another locality where gold was formerly waslied is Saiu ' * Reisen diirrh Sml-Amrrirn, Drittcr Band, 176" Seite. This volume c tains a lengtliy ck'scription of Cuutiigallo and Nova Friburyo. l^ ■ <K IJitn. a placr la-all. ). M iif cascallu)." (•a>callio vai' IiicIk's, ami carlli. Tl.o Cant.' >aiit;L Rita a • if linicstone Fiitiii Silo \\i\]\ Mv. ('()| die \';dlrio ( li 'li\ ifiiiigliiie For the gr( til" road led Inivst. Littli Niil. but 1 "Ib'ii contain III' lai'ge size * "Tnivcls in Di-tricrxjt'tliat C .I"liii Miiwe." I<1 till' Ann'rican rop] I'liiii. It lias as a (.f nciivnp* at worii ^'nninL:- Avjiidi |ia; yciiui:: stuiU'nt of H'-isDi in ilds fun II';-. Ill nipntions r I'l'rsll iH 1S(I9 (•/ 1 ti':iii~l;itiiin ot' the I>iii/il ill Sc|itfiiili. ^■illlialilu ;;x'olnM.i,;,| ■'■ TIiL' W(inl raxi l'i':uil ilir aiirifcrd Tin: I'UOVIN'CE OF KIO DE JANKIEO. 51 i 3 V\\\a. a jtlnco nltout five Brazilian Icaji'ucs iiorthoast of Caii- t;iL:alln. Mawc* describes the jxold as oceurrinu" in a lird fif ciiscalho,! or u'ravel, overlaiil l»y earth. 'I'he hiyrr of (■;i>c;illi() vni'ics in thickness from two I'cei 1o seven or eiiiht iiiclics, and lies nnder a thickness of lour or li\e I'eet of (■;irth. The Cantai^allo rep'ion was never very I'ich in uold. At Siiiila Rita and in the vicinity ^hiwe found heavy dejiosits 111' limeston(\ From Sao Fidelis I made a horseback journey in company Midi Mr. Copeland across tin; counliy northward hy way of tlic \'allao CJrandc, to IJonitJesuson the Italjapnana Ri\cr. lh(3 ilivi(lin<2;line between the jirovinces of Rioand Esjiirito Santo. For the ti'realer ]»art of the distance to the Rio Muriahc til" road led throuu'h the most dense and Inxni'iant virgin Inivst. Ijittle Avas to be seen of the rock, or even of the soil, liut 1 observed that the drift clay, where e.\jio>ed, efteii contained boulders of g-nciss ; and masses of rock of lariic size Avere sometimes seen resting npon it. On ' " Travels in the Interior of Brazil, particularly in the Gold and Diaimiii'l Di-tri(r> nt' that Country. By Authority of the Prince Retrent of J'ortugal. By J"hii Mawo." I <lo not know tlic date of the Enyli-ii edition. 1 ha\e a enjiv of tlir Auieriran reprint, wliieh ajqieared in ISIO, and was jiiilili-hed in I'liiladd- ]'liia. It has as a frontisjiiece a hiriic steel en,t;ravinu% rciiresentiiiL: a nuin'icr *'( nenvoos at work nnder a Ions tliatelu'd s]ied wasliin.ij: for diamonds, — an en- grnvinL' which has hccn co])ied o:i'r and over ajrain, and is familiar to cviry yduiiL;- stiuh'tit of {xeoffrajihy. A German eiiition in my jiossession, entitled /c/-w) /)( r/<(s TniiPir von DnislJim, was pnlilishecl in ISIG at Lcijiziir, while Ihi"'iin mentions a French work hcarin^■ tlie title J'ni/niii's tlans P fnh'riiiir du Ivi'm'I ni lso;i (I I8n), puhlislicd in tiie same year, ami which I suppose to he a trnii-latiiin of the ahovc " Travels," thou^rh Mawe hefran his exploration- in Iha/il in Septemlicr, l.'^dT. This is a work of much intt'rcst, and contains many Viiliiahle ueolo^ieiil facts. ■'■ The Word fiisrallio, jironottneed ntsrnli/n, means jrravel in I'ortuancsc. In l>|-azil the aurit'erous ea-^calho is almost invariahly composed of cpiartz pehhles. <';p:ology and riiVisicAL gkograi'iiv. llie Vallilo r.randc, nl)()nt a leagno wvsf f>f tlic river ^NfurialK'. 1 saw \\(.'ll-lanuiialcMl o-neiss with a strike of X. C,\ K, and a norlliward dip. Tlie Aallcy of llie ]\fiiiiali(' I Coiiiid well eulti\at('(l wliere J crossed it, and fiinnsliinu laru'C erojis of snuar-eauc. Leaving:' the river, onr course hiv o\('i' a serra, wlTudi (jiir guide called ^hduca. Jt is coiu- j)Osed of gneiss, and nnist he over 2,000 fi-et Ingli. On o\w descent on the northern side, I obseived tliick liedsof a kiml of gneiss composed ahnost entirely of (juartz, and in tin' drift I saw Ixiulders of tliis rock mixed np with boulders of common gray gneiss.* From tins serra to Uom Jesus the country is all gneiss, with low rounded hills, the whole being covered with a most vigorous forest growth. The l?in Itabajniana is a little stream comi)araIile to the l^io Tii-ahy on the Dom Pedro II. Kailroad. JJetween Bom Jesus an«l the Ril)eirao do Jardini the land is rather low, and diversified by ronndcd gneiss hills of Inconsiderable ele\'ation. Tlie river is bordered by Hat, alluvial lands, often marshy, the resort of great nnmbers of water-l)ird?, jjiacocas (^Parra JdCdna'), cranes, c^'C. On the Espirito Santo side, between the Ribciriio do Jai- dim and the Rilieirrio Formoso, begins the Seri'a de .^ao Roniao e Santa Paz, or the Serra do Itabajjuana, Avhich rises abrnptly from the river and, more or less l)rokcn, runs oil in a northeast direction to the Rio Ita})emerim. The hilU on the Rio Itabajmana arc more than a thousand feet higli, and arc composed of gneiss which dips southward at a moderate angle and with its usual sti'ikc. They are very prcci})itous on the southern side, the rocks being covercil by an abundant growth of cactuses, ttc. On the same side of the river, in the angle between the Riljeiriio Formoso ami * I was told that there was limestone in tliij sena, but I i?aw none. fho Itahapu Pcilra Forn theatre lorn r;iz, forms a tu the fazei hills ai'C low lir;i\ ily Ibi'c^ hch-w tlie fa ''Xii'iul for n \\a!cr-po\ver e\i-clh'iif ca which I exa Mi'ilino was ■j:w\>s of this • '■'<\y hoi'izont .Martiidio it At Sao Pedn ii h,is a very -■'•iicrally nor veins. Alton i>"lateil peak I'ei'nis a \-ery ''''le distance ^i'les. and as '' plT'SOUts vc l''"ni U'hich it ■■iliiieai's domC' I'ilhii' I'ising ( ' ■^tiniates its ; ^'■tweru 2.501 It lias aluKist ' ''U'ratau uuionL;- tl i THE PROVINCE OF HIO DE JANEIRO. i-i.i 'j> flu' Ital)npuana, is a solitary in-egular conical jicak called the I'cdi'a Formosa, which, standiiiti' alone in IVoiit (jniie aiiiiihi- llicatre foriucd l»y the Serra of Sao Roinao, and that of Santa Paz, forms a line j)iece of monntain sceneiy. Thence onward to the fazcnda of Sao IVdro the conntrv is still li'neiss. the hills are low, covered hy a most fertile red drift soil, and arc jicin ilv forest-clothed. The river is rockv and swift, and inst l.clcw the fazenda thei-e arc some eonsiderahlc rai>ids which (xtond for nearly a mile, and wonhl fnrnish an almndaiit \\at(,'r-|iowei'. The soils of this vicinity are very uood, and exci'llcnt cane, coffee, and cotton are raised. The cotton whirli I examined on the fazenda of Senhor Martinho Fr. Miiliiio was the linest I ever saw on the coast. Tli(> uiu'iss of this vicinity, and of Porto da Limeira, lies remark- ;iMv horizontallv. At the ranids at the fazenda of Senhor )hu'iiuh() it has a northward dip of some ten degrees only. At Sao Pedro ami Porto da Limeira it is well laminated, l)nt ii has a very irregnlar dij) and strike, though the dij) is u'Micrally n(M'th\vard. The rock is full of granite and (jnaitz wins. About three miles south of Limeira is a remarkable isolated peak called the Garrafao,* or the '' drnnjohn,'" which fniins a very cons})icuous landmark, visible from a consider- a'lle distance off the coast at sea. It is })rccipitous on all sides, and as it is long from cast to west, and very narrow, it jircseiits very different aspects according to the position lidiii which it is seen. From some points of the compass it apjiears (hjnie-shaped, from othei's like an innuense tower or pillar rising out of the generally i»lain country. Mouchez estimates its height at OlO metr^-s ; 1 should set it down as k'twceu 2,500 and 3,000 feet. * Ir lias alni(i>t im'cisely tlu' same structure and noan_. die same furm as tlie Gurrat'Ao anioii;4 tli^ " Ortrans." .-4 GKOLOCV AN'I) I'lIVSlCAL GKOGIJ M'lIV. Brtwcc'ii the Ilio ltiil)aj»n{in!i juid the l'iinili\ lia, oiulit or ten miles south of the (iiirralao, and in a Hue with the Sernidu ()iit,a, is a reniaiivahle gruiip oC g'lieiss hills, which is visihlc IVoiu Cape Sao Thome, a distance ol' at least I'orty miles. One of thes(! is a very sluirj), eonieal needle, ealled Pedru Lisa.* This needle is seen in the fuUuwiny; sketch. l%^i^ ,^ ->^| ■iif 5?s "• THE I'EUUA LIsA. Descending the river from Porto da Limcira, one soon leaves the ji'nciss region, and comes upon a flat country, for tlie most ])art very heavily wooded, and more or less divev- sifietl hy shallow lagoons, one of which, Lagoa Feia, is quite extensive. The river is very narrow and tortuous, and only navigahle for very small steamers. Much of the land is very low, aiMJ nmst be frequently overHowed ; l)ut there are sonic considerable ])atches of tei-tiary, which are however much denuded. At the fazendas of Senhores Pedro Mendes and xVntonio ^liirtim these lands rise to a height of perhaps sixty feet, and on the river they are seen to be composed of tlio characteristic tertiary sandstones and clays. The littlu village of the Barra do Itabapuana, principally inhabited liy * I havf seen this rcm.irkable peak from all siik'S. It always appears as a nee'lle or sliarj) eone. Moiicliez makes it l.l'iC, metres in height, aiul I do iiui tliiuk he has over-estimated it. ri>]iormen, is the i'i\-cr, nc;i I'V ;i niii'row, Aiinl from lh ilic licacli I'id ii'iii't covcrcil siiiidstones a Imid rises ap| ward a larj^c a large sandy a lau'oon ^\\\ .suiiic disianc< A k'a,u'uc Ol arc t\V(y or lh ill- Inw red c uuiiilios. Is(. oi'ciir oif the 'iiiinhos. Tlie mouth structed by a water is shall outside the ba * Till' iiuul of liiiot kind of >iir. uf ^lu■lls, leaves, tl t //((, ill Tiipy, the lumii' It,il)a])ii tioiicd below, ('a; and sivs that the i THE rUOVIN'Ci: OF UIO 1>L JANLinO. 55 tislicrmoii, is lniilt on a strip of sand on tlio ri;j,lit liaiik of till' liver, near the mouth. It is st'jiaratcil I'nuii the shore liv a narrow, shallow channel, or lau'oon, which runs south- wiird I'roiii the river, parallel with the shore, and Just liehiiid tlic heach ridu'e. This higoon connnunicates with a marshy tract coNcreil hv nianu'roves,* south oi' whi(di I'ed tertiary sandstones are exposed on the edg" of the marsh, and the land rises ajiparontly sonic twenty feet, lorminj^ to the south ward a lari^e }iateh of tertiary. ()])posite the town tlieic is a lart:e sandv island, which is separated from the lieaeh Itv a laii'oon -whieh stretches northward along the shore for sonic disiance. A league or more to tlie south of the Darra do Ttahapuana f arc t\V(* or three rocky jioints of tertiary sandstone, prcsent- inu low red cliffs. The same rock is said to occur at Man- giiinhos. Isolated masses of this rock, covered at high tide, occur off the Barra of the ltalja})uana, and also at ^hui- i2iiinhos. The mouth of the Itahajniana is, like the Parahyha, ol)- stnicted I»v a sand-har, and is entered with dithcultv. The water is shallow off the coast, and vessels sometimes anchor uutsidc the bar and take in cargoes of wood, &c. * Tlic mud of tlic manfxrovc swanijis is very soft, licinir ronijioscil of the liiKvt kiiul of ^ilt, and it is iiiauk and stinkin;,^ with dcrayiny matter. It is ndl of ^iniis, leaves, tlie oxuviiu of oralis, &c. t 1/(1, in Tupy, means stone, and /"huh or j main an island ; and I snsjiect that tlie name ltaha])naiui may have heen ;jivcn from the little roeky islands men- ticiiied lieluw. C'azal f.dves the name of the river as CanKiiman or Cahapuanna, and says that the suva^'-es -ailed it Keritiyljii. {Cuwijrujki, Vol. I, j). 01.) 50 UEULOGY A.ND I'lIVSlCAL GEUGUAl'lIV. CHAI'TKR IT. PROVINCE OF KSl'IRITO SANTO. Biirrcirns do Sin. — Itiiiii'inerim. — Coast Ix'twccn Itapomerim iind Rcncvcntc, — I5i'iiL'\(iin.'. — Giiarajiary ; Coiisolidatiil IJoaili, Corals, i.^t'. — IJioJcni.— I5ay of K>|iint() Santo. — N a Scniiora da IViilia. — Victoria. — Dci'nin. ]iosition of Gneiss and Form. .ion of Houidirs of Deconi]iosition. — Hcccit IJisc of tlic Coast. — Corals, v<;c. of tlio Hay of Viitoria. — llio Santa Ma- ria. — (icrnian Colonics. — Fislici-ics. — Sand Plains. — Tertiary I'lain at Carapina. — Mestrc Alvaro. — Scrra. — Nova Almeida. — Kio Reis Mauo.-. — Santa Cruz. — IJasin of the l?io Docu. — Description of the ]{ivcr. — (iaaii- dr : its Colony and Aurieultural Kesonret'S. — I'orto de Son/a. — Ge()]iii.'y of Vicinity. — Luxnriancc of Vc;;etation on tlic Doee. — "Woods. — Gi'.iiic — Francyhania. — Climate of the Doce. — I.inhares. — Lap'ia .Fnpariiii;ui, — The Futiiri' of the Doce. — American Colonists. — Salt Trade. — Ij;irra Sccca. — Sca-Tnrtles. — Cons(didated Beaches and the Mode of their l-'oniiM- tion. — ( 'harai'terol' Coast hetwi'cn the KiversJ)occ ami Sao Matheos. — Rin Sfio Matheos Doerihcd. — (ieoloiiical Features. — Fertility of it> LaniN. — Cncoa-Palins and their Distrihntion. — City of Sao Matheos. — I!io Itiilui- nas. — ('litis of" ( >s Lcncncs. — Coast hctwcen Itahunas aiul Uio .Mucnry. A SHORT distance nortlnvnrd of the Kio Ita1»a))uana, and not Car I'roiii the sea-shore, is Lake Mai"ol)a,, (Voin wliieh thnY< the rivei' of the same name. JJetween the ltal)apuana and ti.is i'i\'(M- the coast kinds arc low and marshy. Just south of the Ibarra do ^hirol)a the Lands rise sonuMvhat ah)n<>' the slioio. and tertiary rc(l sand.stonc shows itself in the Iteach. Tlic tertiary hlulTs of the ltal)a|)uana swccj) round hack of tlic hike, and come (hnvn to the shore north of the jjari'a, and arc continue(l thence northward in a Ihie range of hliilTs called the Barreiras do Siri, which, from tlie hright ivd colors of tlic clays and sandstones comjmsinu' thcui, jircsciit a very picturesque ai)pcarancc from the sea. These clitfs are sovoiity tol (iftiirin isl The low It'll sandsJ hiisi'd on t iiii'i'e like el>o. Tin. iliciilar, ]ii|| witli one a twelve feell iiliniit iweii which jieiK sandstone ! iiiti' of the > nini show II viiries very in texture, color varies times the ( yelli)w, so a is ill! irreti'r well stratifi over this ii well e.xamii ally liu'ht 1) iiodnles. i * Prinz Max thcH' clitfs, and " Der Unter ,i:eli("irr dieses dii'M'r Kiisto V aiuh die .-aeli>i deni Steinniar PROVINCi: OF L.SI'IIUTO SANTO. 57 sovonty to ciulity feet In lieiulit, and the c<juntry lyin.ir hack (if tlirin is a wooded iilahi. 'i'lie lowest l>ed seen in jlie elilTs of Siif is a coarse, dark- il sandstone, with indistinct sti-atilieation, and, where ex- II |in>c(l on the lieach, I'nll of holes, presenting' an apjiearanee iiKMc iiki' that of th(,' snrfat'e of a hiva stream than anythin.u; else. This mass of sandstone is peneti^ated h\ (li'('|t, jici'iien- (Hciilur, ])ii»e-liko holes, whieh, in many cases, eoimnniucatc witli one another. This sandstone rises to a heiuht of ahout twelve feet above low-water nnirk, and is overlaid hy a lied, alMdit twenty feet thick, of a sandy clay, whitish and reddish,* wliicli penetrates into the cavities of tlu; sandstone. The sandstone seems to resnlt in ])art from the irreunlar eenicnt- tl le sandv clays hv oxide of ii'on. The clavs are soft iiii:' ol aiul show no distinct stratification. The proimrtion of sand varies very mneh, some of the clays being exceedingly line ill texture, like kaolin. They are not at all plastic. The color varies from a pnre white to a briuht red, and some- times the clay is variegated Avith cnrved lines of reel or yellow, so as to look like fancy Castil(> soap. Over tlic clay is an irregular de])0sit of very dark-red sandstone, which is well stratified, and sometimes forms lenticular masses ; and over this in turn lies a bed of red clay, wdiieh I conld not well examine. Ijetween the clay and the soil, which is usu- ally light; l)i'own, there is a layer of j)cbl)lcs and iron-stone nodules. A few ndles 1>elow Itai)enierim the tertiary lands * I'l-inz Max. zn Ncu Wiod, Rcisc mrrh Drasilien, Vol. I. ]>. H')9, sjicaks of tlu'H' cliU's, and ^.nves tliu foUowiiij; iioto, wliicli 1 leave in his own words : — " Dir X'ntcT>iu'liiinL;' iK's Ilurrn Professor IIau>ni;nin /ii (iiatinufn /idolize LTlidi't diest's Fossil, wclclu's ciiicn Ilaiijitliestandtlioil eincs f:rossi'ii Tlieils ilicsir Kiiste von I>ra>ilien ansniacht, znni vorliiirtctcn Sti'iiiiiiark, wohin man iinih die suh>iselie Wunder-Erde ziildt. Es stinmu in alien Kennzeiehen niit deui Steinniarkc iiberein." 3* 58 GKOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. recede from the beacli, and arc broadly dcmidcd on both sides of the river. The Itapenierini is a nnich kirger stream than the ltabaj)uana. It rises near the frontier of Minas Geraes, west of \'ietoria, behind tlie Serra do Ponil)al, and has a course (jf about eighty miles. It is shallow in its lower course, and of little imi)ortancG. There is an extensivi^ alluvial ])lain bordering the ri\er on the south side for a iew miles above the town, in part belonging to the fazenda of the Barao de Itaijemerini ; this tract of land is very fer- tile, and a considerable part is cultivated for sugar. There are a few fazendas farther up the river, "''hat of Mu(pu'. belonging to the Baron, is built on a gneiss hill. The serras approach neai'cr the coast in going northward, and in the n( Ighborlu^od of Itai)emerini are very high, ]tre- senting the same topographical jteculiarities as in the south. si:i:i:a oi' itai'Emkiii.m, si:i:n i'iiom 'iiik ska. Abont twenty miles Avest of the town of lta])emerim, and south of th(> river, is a very remarkaljle irregular j)eak called the Frade, while a few miles to the noi'theast is a group of needles, which presents an exceedingly strange appearance when seen from certain points of the compass, appeariiiu' sometimes like the fingers of a giant hand ludd \\\) against the sky. Some of these needles are at least 3,000 feet high. The whole country lying behind them, even beyond the lim- its of the province, is very mountainous, and is composed of gneiss. 1 was informed that specular iron occurs in the serras of Itaiiemcrim, but 1 had no wav of verilVinsi' tlie report. In 1723 tiold in one Castcllo.* year, 1724, lie divided i to enipli>y t dition that tlie srsiiiari washing tov tello with t proved decc the place w( North of ive plains ( Piuiueti'i am Thi-se plain; f^par.sely l)y Pitaugueira (jactuses (C WAV to the ' north of Ita Among thesi marks of th( iiiu' nvramidi occasionally islands off tl little or no i rROVINCE OF KSPIRITO SANTO. 59 ^ H In 17::23 the first settlers on the ltai)emerim discovered ^^old ill one of its alTlueiits on the north, called the Rio do Castclk).* " A decree of the 17th Hcitteniher of the foUowing vcar, 1724, detcrmhied that the auriferous lands should In' divided into small portions among all those who wished tu I'lnploy themselves in the labor of mining, with the con- dition that they should suhjcet themselves to the laws of the srsiiuirids and to the impost on tlie gold." f A gold- Nvasliiiig town was established at the coniluence of the Cas- tcllo with the Itapemerim, ])ut the hopes of a rich yield jii'Mvod deceptive, ij: and with the incursion of the Indians the place went down. Xoi'tli of the Itapemerim the coast is l)ordered by exten- i\c |ilains of coarse white sand, like those of the Island of ]'ai|iiet;i and of the extension of the Caiitogallo Ivailroad. Tiii'se jdains are quite destitute of grass, and arc covered sparsely by clunii)S of stunted trees, among wdiicli is the Pitangueira (^Eii^cnia pcdunculata}, with an al)undanco of cactuses (Cr reus), and broineliaceoiis jdants. About half wav to the little town of riuina, distant some eiulit miles north of Itapemerim, gneiss hills stretch along the coast. Among these is the Mo.to do Agah, one of the noted land- marks of the coast, — a sharp, saddle-shaped ridge, appear- ing pyramidal when seen from the north. Gneiss shows itself occasionally on the lieaches, and there are a few little gneiss islands off the coast. § The Piuma is a very small river of little or no importance. * Dice. Gcna-., Art. Castelh. t The Cororjriifm Brnsilicii, j)ul)li?lic(l in 1817, speaks of these mines as h;ivin,ir been uhandoned on aecuunt of tlio incnrsions of the Indians. I Vuii Tsehudi, Heiseii (lurch Slid Aimrica, Dritter Bund, 60"« Scite. ^ I observed on the shore, jnst south of the point of tiie Auaii, a rock txpo.-ed, wliicii appeared to be a sandstone. It was luueh deeoniposed, and I n;u-> unable to examine it verv carefullv. GO GEOLOGY AXD PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. From Piuma to Bcncveiitc, which is a ride of only ahout two lioiirs, and cannot he more than IVom four to six mile.s, the road leads (ncr low gneiss hills, l)ecause the shore is rocky and the heacli has to he al)andoned. The Kio Iri- ritiha, or I>enevente, is a small stream, navigable lor some eight leagues ahove its mouth, which is narrow, sit- uated between gneiss hills, and imobstructcd l)y a Itar, — a circumstance owing to the ja-otection of this jjart of the coast by a rocky point extending southward some two miles east of the mouth. The water at the entrance is deep, and vessels of considerable tonnage may enter at any time of the tide. Just inside, the river spreads out into a broad sheet of water, so that it forms one of the host and nuist iVeipieuted harbors on the coast of Ks- pirito Santo. Vessels frequently lind refuge in the littli' bay behind the point east of Beneventc, where they arc well sheltered from northeast storms. The town is a small one, and situated at the mouth of the river, on the northern side, at the base of a low gneiss hill.' Besides shi^hbuilding, its trade consists in wood and a lit- tle coffee. According to \'on Tschudi, the lands lying back of Beneventc are very fertile, and the ])lace i)osscsses natural advantages which might, if })roperly used, make it of much importance. Leaving Beneventc, and goiui: northward, the patii crosses obli(piely a ])roiccting ])oint, aiul passes over and among low hills of red sandstone and clays, the sandstone cropping out frequently at the base v)f the hills. The soil covering these hills is gray, and appears to lie very rich. In some parts it is of a deep pinlvish-red color. On leaving the hills a plain of white sand is reached, liko * Gneiss, pray, wi'll laiiiiiiatod. Strike N. 55° E. Y>\\t varving from wr- tical to 88° N. R(jt'k iiitcrscctud hv nuiiicruiis i;raiiite veins. rnOVINCE OF espirito santo. CI that i»f Ttapemcrim. This occupies a sort of l)ay in the tmiarv hinds, which soon reacli the coast a,irain and Ibrni a Imit: lino of red chtfs, extending for several miles along the >li(uv. almost to the little fishing village of ^livihype. This villaiif is situated on a narrow sand-hank uniting a small mass of gneiss to the shore, oi'f which a similar mass forms an island. Thence northward the tertiary lands extend aldiiu' the shore, with narrow }»atches of sands in front, and wi!li occasional interruptions, to the village of Guara- paiT,* when the shore liecomes very nmch indented, and tilt' (listrioution of the various formations are too comjili- (.•aicij for description here. ]\lany of the low hills of the vicinity have a l»asis of gneiss, lait are ca})pcd with tertiary clays. The gneiss shows itself in a nunilicr of I'ocky i»oints and ledges, and at the mouth of the I'ivcr there ai'C several islands. The gneiss is gray, lait it is very micaceous, the mica heing in moderately large Mack crystals. I find in my note-book an observation of strike X. SO' E., dip 80" S. "HM '■^^'^'^mH^nm. COAST SOUTH OF GUAliArAIIY. Ill a little cove just south of the town is a large detached mass of sandstone, lying just in front of the beach, and at * Tlie roiiiitrv lying between the coast ami tlie Scrra do Pero Cao, distant i=omf six miles from Giiarapary, is comjiosed of low hills, some of wliicli arc mifluiibtedly tertiary, interspersed with hi;^her ones, as the Orobo, which are friK'iss, G2 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. low ti<lc Avashcd Ity the "waves. It consists of quartz sand cemented by carlionate oC lime, and the rock is exceedinuly liarcL It is well stratified, and tlie layers are nearly hoij. zontal. The rock is cut up hy joints, wliich tlie sea lia- widened, so that it is much hrol<(Mi up, while the Avashinu out of the calcareous cement hy the sea has left the surface veiy rati<»(Ml. This mass is only jiart of a solidified lieach which has Iteen laid hare l)y an encroachment of the son. At low water it furnishes to the naturalist a very rich har- vest of marine animals, for in the holes near its edue grow masses of Sklcnisircca steUdta A'err., while AnuillKistrmtf of considerable size grow attached to its sides. Facuis mv\ Ag'nririas, A-c, occur in great abundance, and the rocks aiv covered witli great patches of the common l)rown Palijlhor of the coast, and of a spreading, green-disked Zotinl/nis, n>>\ determined. Several l)eautiful species of sea-anemonos, dee[»ly tinted, arc very common, Imt the species have not y( been made out. At low tide there may be ol)tained fi'oi.i the rocks beautiful specimens of II//))i<')i()icori>'ia qucrcifolw. Eunivid /lumi/is, and Plcxai( reiki diclioloma. k^ea-urcliiih {Ec/iiuometra Michclini) are exceedingly abundant here, aiii arc used for food l)y the natives. They live ]iacked securely away in deep holes, not only in the sandstone of tlie reef, Im: also in the gneiss of the adjacent points. Here also tli' beautiful little crimson star-fish, Er/iiiiastcr cmssispina. U very abundant, occurring among the sea-weeds and in little pools betwixt tide-marks ; and, in the tide-pools, Oj/hinri: ciitcrea, together with a number of other sjiecies of the same order, occurs. Ilolothurians, some of them a foot long, are very alnmdant, packed into crevices, in tide-pools, anil under rocks ; and a pretty comatula, Antcthm Di(l)f'iin BJilsche, or Brazilicnsis Liitk., may be seen through tin water cov( ers.-^ This loc ill luollusk nidlliiscan liookcd out will) use it u round for toria. ins i-li and in; iialcyonoid (biara])ary fui'iiished b the coast ; ]]a('c excee to the west balsams an licalliiiness Tlio river it and takes i offer naviu'a course a mi In iroing over a gne rivtM-, and t covered by reached, w; ciallv alonir Pn-o Cao, 1 * Of these R; <'iilielnml and Comparative Z^ PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SAXTO. 63 water covcrin;^ the rocks like rosettes of 1)rown featli- Tills locality is rich in crustaceans, but not osjiecially so ill niollusks ; indeed, the whole coast has a rallicr jxjor molluscan fauna. A large o('toi)od is common luM•(^ and is hooked out from the crevices in the rocks l)y the inhahitants, Avlio use it for food. (Juarapary is an excellent collectinjr ground for marine invertebrates, though not so good as A'ic- toria. Inside the mouth of the bay, in water whicli is brack- ish and impure, occurs a slender-l)i-anching, tender, nodose Ilalcyonoid, undetermined. The entrance to the harbor of (luin-apary is good and secure, and shelter for sliipping is furnished by the little islands, Escalvada and Raza, lying off tlic coast; but the marshy lands in the vicinity nudce the 1 laco exceediuiilv unhealthv, and notwithstandiuti' the lands til the west of tlie town are good, and woods and valuable balsams and fish ai'e in abundance in the vicluity, the un- liealthiness of the climate has i)laced a l)an \\\)(m its growth. The river is a little one, with a course of only a few leagues, and takes its rise in the Herra do Pero Cao. It is said to offer navigation as far as the coast serra, and to unite in its course a numlier of little lakes, 111 going northward from Guarapary the path leads, first, over a gneiss district bordering the northern siilo of the river, and then descends to a plain of white sand, sparsely covered l»v trees. Crossing this, low tertiarv hills arc reached, with more or less gneiss, 1)are in jdaces, csjje- cially along the shore, and you come uj)on the little brook Toro Cao, beyond Avhicli the shores arc sandy and flat as * Of tliosc Radiates, as well as the other marine invertebrates of the reef, Mr. rii|i(lan(l and I made a eonsiderahle colleetion, wliich is in tlie Museum of Cuniiiarative Zoiilojry, in Cambridge, but has nut yet been worked up. 04 C.F.OLOOY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. far as a small Yivi'V called l»yniy ji'iiidc Fiia, l»tit wliicli docs not scnii to lie re[»rcscntcd on llic cliai't of M(.)ucli('/,. This little stream escajies into the sea just south ol' a jtrojecliu:;' point (if Liueiss. Jk'tween this point and the seri-a the coun- try is low. The distance of the mountains from the sea is only aliout five miles. A ])oint or two })assod, and one reaches a long sand-heacli, Avhich extends s nic eight miles north to a low gneiss ]ioint called Ponta da Frneta. Aloiiii' this Iieaeh are, in some i)laces, sand-dunes twenty to twi'uty- five feet in height. From the Ponta da Friicta, nortlnvard, to the l\mta de Je^'ii | — a distaiu'c of seven ov eight miles — stretches an almost straight sand-heat-h, behind Avhich are })lains, sandy and marshy, — a jieifect l.»atrachian ])aradiso. The J'onta de Jecu is a gneiss hill, somewhat similar tn tliat of the Frneta, arid formerly an island, hut now joincil to the maiidand hy a sand-1»cach. There are other smaller hills in the vicinity. According to a sketch in my own note-hook, the river enters the sea to the south of the point. hut ]\ronclicz's chart shows it entering on the north side. which was ]»rol)al)ly the case at the time his chart was made, the month having been closed on the south by a storm. The river Jecu rises among the serras to the west, and is an iiisignificant stre; i, ajjparently smaller than the Muriahe. It is with difficulty navigable for canoes for only a short distance. Some five miles above its month a canal. cut long ago by the Jesuits, runs off northward and connuu- nicates with the port of Victoria, distant about five miles. This was done to facilitate the transjjort of the i)roducts of the country to A'ictoria, as Avell as to avoid the dangerous passage by sea from the mouth of the river around the reefs and rocky })oint on the south of the bay of Espirito Santo. PROVINCE OF ESI'IRITO SANTO. Go The cutting of this canal is said to have improved the health of the reg'ion of the Jccu. (Ill this river, some thirty miles from its mouth, and somewhat farther IVoin the city of Victoria, was estab- hshcil, ill the year 1847, a German colony, Santa Isabel, ainoiiL' tiie gneiss hills lying- east of the serra, in a region hcahliy and fertile, and proper for the culture of eoftee, cotlcii, Ac. ; but the colony has not lieen prosperous, owiiiL:' to bad management and the want of roads.* Fidiu tlie mouth of tlie Jecu to the l)ay of Ks[»irito Santo tlie sand-beaches continue, liacked by the sandy and marshy plains of the Campos de Piratinanga.f The Bay of Espirito Santo is aliout two and a half mih'S wiil(\ and irregular in shai)C. On the north is the Ponta do Tubarao, with a rocky sandstone shore, whence sweeps ai'niiiid westward and southward a long sand-beach, join- ing a rocky point, near which enters the channel of the Kin da Serra. Thence sontlnvard, for a mile or more, the land is high and irregular, and the shore consists of sca-bcaclies between projecting gneiss points. We tlien reach tlic entrance of a narrow, irregular channel, — the estuary or bay of the Rio Santa Maria, — that extends westward among gneiss hills. On the south side of the bay is an irregular conical gneiss hill, some 700 feet high, calL'd Monte Moreno, forming a rocky point. West of this, and separated only by a short sand-beach and a small stream coining from the swamps to the southward, is another coni- cal iiill, some four hundred feet high, crowned by the j)ietu- * Tstliudi {Rflsrn, etc., Drifter Band, 8'° Scite) pivcs as the mean annual temperature for the Ineality +18 Reaumur = 70. .'iO Fahr. t St. Ililiiire, in speaking of the sandy phiins between .lecii and Victoria, says tlint tlic ve^^etation covering tlicm reseinhles in many ])oints that of the elevated plateaux of Minas Novas. (Tome II. 2'" Partie, p. 229.) >l GG GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. rcsqiio pile of the convent of Nossa Senliora da Penlia. West of this, between tlic Morro (Ic Nossa Senhora da Penha ami high gneiss hills, is the deep cove of Villa Velha, with tlic ancient village of the same name built on the edge of ilio sand-])lain. Westward of this cove the shore stretches to the Piio do Assucar, along the southern side of the chaniiul of the Santa Maria. It consists of a number of high roeky points, united by mud-flats and sand-l)eache8. The o])j)u- site shore of the channel is of the same general character, North of Monte Moreno and of the mouth of the chaniK.l arc two more high gneiss islands, lying one north of the other. There arc, besides, many smaller ones, togethor with a number of rocks and skerries, and the channel is obstructed near the Pao de Assucar by islands and rocks, The Pao de Assucar is a precipitous, irregularly conical gneiss hill, 400 to 500 feet high, falling off to the north. presenting to the channel a smooth, almost vertical, face, Hei'C, by the projection of a point from the northern side, the chamiel is suddenly narrowed down to a width of only al)out GOO feet. Passing the Pao, the channel widens out into a most spacious harbor, and on the northern side, in a fine amphitheatre among the hills, is built the city of Vic- toria. This basin extends only about a couple of miles wc>f of the Pao. At its head it receives the waters of the canal from the Jecu, and of the Rios Crubixa and Santa ^laria. A channel extends northward, and, uniting the mouths of sev- eral rivers, passes round the hills of Victoria and enters the Bay of Espirito Santo, thus rendering tliera an island. This island is composed of gneiss, is very high, rugged, au'l clothed with forest. To the north and west the coun- try is a pi , while the shore alone, along the south si'le of the bay and channel, is hilly. The hills of the islaiiJ I r- , , Ml! lit i: if i i I Fill ' I'f' 'ill - ' I i 11;" ' 'i'vi'iii Iflil :!'i"ifl;l''*':V;'i\Lv! *'l M^<4 ,'ll:4'iilililii.)';ii.ilii I lilt iilH «S;^i^i';i '\M. 'IM ii; ii,(,! Ill *.^^i|i;i);;i3»||ii 111 I vi^rtw*' ■"'■■"" ,^ #1 »'■''! '"'M\,;',i;|ii|f'ii;w' ■:'j|i|]li;';;ii II 'fi 'I'?' 'life ilJIII ''Mm ^^§i^^!:- %.mM-^mM ^Wmi M II^V ''■C'liii; li, " i; iiiii,. 'til '!|i|l.. 'ifj'" I !-"i »;"i!/ iliia iV 1! i| ! ,r-.fi|il ami adjoiniii which tlie nia feet ill lu'iu'lit ^\Iiicli, owin^' The •iiieii^.s ol and of the ! southward, and rogulai'l}! .si\()tch, but sc or nioro sides with the Puo MONTE ahva'-s round( jago'cd and a cHlTs on the Si Tliis is owing unbroken l)y j those mountai mass of gneis! h'cijuontly for: framework of rnOVLNCK OK KSriRITO SANTO. 1 ami tidjoiniiifj; nuiinland tlu'ii funn an isolated ^rouji, of wliiciithe main mass jnst behind the city mnst lie I'ldly 1,000 toot in lu'iglit. The channel of the harbor is a narrow valley, ^^lli(•ll, owinir to its rocky sides, has been easily kei)t oi)en. The {zneii^s of the locality is very homogeneons, jjorphyritic, ami of the same general character as that of the coast .suiitliward. As a general thing the hills are dome-sha])ed ami regnlarly ronnded, as is represented in the following sketch, bnt sometimes they arc conical. In some cases one or nioi'o sides, or the top, is bare and smooth, as is the case with Wm I'ao de Assncar. These bare surfaces are almost MONTE JtTTt'QrARA AND GNEISS HILLS NEAR VICTORIA. ahva's ronnded with remarkable regidarity, and are never jngiiod and angular, like our northern precipices, or the cliffs on the 8ao Francisco, below the falls of Paulo Affonso. This is owing to the uniform decomposition of a surface unbroken by joints or planes of stratification ; for many of these mountains arc actually formed of a single, unbroken mass of gneiss. The cliflfs are rarely vertical, and not un- Ircqucntly form bare places on a mountain-side, set in a irainework of verdure. Such a bare slope is represented in 68 r.nOLOC.Y AND I'lIVSICAL GEOflKAI'IIY. tli(! (ullowiiiir skctcli of (lu; Fortalc/.ii de I'critiiiiiij^a, below \'ill;i \'('lli;i, IJiiy of Esj)iritu Saiifo. Tlioy aiH! usually i{*?^.' roUTAI-KZA DE PERITININGA. staiuod liy ])ori)(Mi(licuIar liucs, or bauds, oi' a rich, dccji. inky, purplish-black color, being sonic minute liclioii growth, and covered with scattered tufts of beautiful l)r(i- nieliaccous plants, orchids, cactuses, A-c., which give tliciii a A'cry ])icturesque appearance. Just below the city of Victoria proper there * ' one of these bare hillsides, Avhicli forms an exceedingly attractive element in the romantic scenery of the island. Standing in an amphitheatre among the lieautiful hill-. and in full view from the sea, forming a most valual)le land- mark for the sailor, is a conical mountain, bearing on top a tower-like mass, the face of which is excavated on the east- ern side by a considerable cavern, in which, it is said, in old times fuiritivc slaves took refiurc. This mountain is called Jutuquara,* or Frade de Sao Leopardo, according to Mouclioz. Its height must be 700 feet at least, probably more. It is represented in the sketch on the procedijig page. The gneiss * Prince Ncu Wiuil ;;ivcs a wretched drawing of this mountain in his work. llill.s, down t ilril'l clay, in lUClllS C»f (|l and ai't'uaee Ki... 1)( rocky shores ^las^es of y. loosely abou Similar mass (|ueta and n tinie.s tliese i cni(dy on tlu (le Assuear. these boulde sides the sui of soften iug ]iosed I'ock b tlu' i'orniatio the water fu ])oses all ro washed awa; and more f PROVINCE OF KSriHlK) SANTO. {?.) IIDL'LDKK OK nKCOMl'OSITION, VICTOUIA. hills, down to a certain level, arc covered, us in the soutli, hy ilril't cday, in whicdj ai'c imbedded rounded and angular IVag- I incuts ol" (luartz and gneiss. This forms a rather coarse and jirenaceous .soil, which is not so I'ertile as the dritt soils (if l\i(). l)(,'comj)<jsition obtains here as elsewhere. Th(> rocky shores and islands of the bay ai'e lined with roundcMJ masses of gneiss, often of innnense size, and which, lying loosely about, have all the ai)i»earance of erratic bouldei-s. Similar masses we have ali'eady found on the shores of Pa- (juctii and many of the other islands in llio harbor. Some- times these hovJdcrs of (Iccuinposition arc seen })erched inse- curely on the toj)S of other I'ocks, as is the case near the Piio do Assucar. I have seen no locality where the foi'mati(M) of these boulders is Itctter excmjdified than here. On the hill- sides the surface of projecting rock-masses undergoes a sort of softening, which causes it to separate from the undccom- posod rock beneath, and break up into irregular Iragments by the formation of a system of cracks. Through these lissure.s the water finds access. Each one of t' ■:; fi-agments decom- poses all round, and the Lose decomposed material being washed away, these masses ueeomc rounded, sc])arate more and more from one another, and sometimes fall over, so 70 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'IIY. as to lie on the surface of tlic soil. One must tlieroforc be cxccMHlindy careful not to make blunders in examiniiii: them. The loos(> rocks Iviujj: on llie side of the Morro dc Nossa SenhcH'a da Pcnha, and carefully re})rcsented in tlio accompanying^ view, arc boulders of ih'.coinposUion. Where the rock undergoing decomposition is on the sea-shore, and the action of the waves assists in the removal of 111*.' decomposed material as soon as formed, the effects produced may l)e still more striking. The easternmost extremity of the Illia do Boi, just opposite the Penlia, is a projectiiiu', sloping mass of compact gneiss, as represented in the follow- mg rough sketch. The whole surface of the gneiss is soft- DECOMrOSINO SCKFACE, ILII.V DO nol cncd to a depth of several feet, and has shrunk entirely away f)'om the undecomjwsed rock. Tliis sheet has cracked through perj)endicularly to the surface, and covers the I'ock below like a pavement. The action of the waves has, as represented, removed these loose fragments from over a considerable area, wliich is left very regulai-ly rounded aiul uncracked. In other localities this decomposition and denu- dation have gone on until only a few of the heavier blocks aro 1' 11' I i 'm- m fill I I If im 1(1 ''mMim 'Alt t I, rJ W M '" '■mi k ][■' imm M Til iii' 'mm loft o]i tlie Oil the roe] southward ( of this kinc luiikliiigs. oriuin of tlu were formcH si lore of a si diice such a and there w stratified sai to be found. subject of Br Along the an irregular 1 low. This li ANCl sometimes coi within compai traccal)le aloi PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 71 left Oil the surface, presenting tlie appearance of erratics. On the rocks known as the Pacotcs, lying a little to the southward of the bay, off the coast, several large boulders of tlii.s kind are seen lying, presenting the appearance of buildings. It might be objected to our theory of the glacial origin of the Brazilian surface-clays and pebbles that they were funned by a decomposition of this kind along the shore of a slowly sinking continent. This would never pi'o- duce sucii a coating of clay as forms the drift of Brazil, and there would certainly be associated with the deposits stratiiied sands and gravels and silts, which are nowhere to be found. Farther on we shall discuss in detail the whole subject of Brazilian drift. Along the northwestern face of the Pao de Assucar runs an irregular horizontal line, as represented in the woodcut Ijc- low. This line consists of a series of very shallow hollows. ascie;s't sea-level on pao d'assucak, victoria. sometimes continuous, and evidently worn l)y wave-action within comparatively recent times. This old wave-line is not traecal)le along the whole extent of the cliff. I first ob- 72 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAl'HY. served it in the latter part of August, 1865. In Se|)tcnil)er, 1867, I revisited the loeality shortly ai'ter a tide of the full inuon, wliich had left a well-marked muddy line running around the hasc of the Pao de Assucar, and whieh the suc- ceeding tides had not reached. Measuring as nearlv as I CD CD V could from the middle of the wave-line, the mean of two measurements gave mc as the height of the old water- level above the high-tide level of the 13th September :].li] metres, or a little more than seven feet. From the old lino to the u))per edge of the zone of oysters is 3.56 metres. On the face of the cliff of the PiTo, in a little cove on the western side, 1 cut a groove with my chisel indicating the height reached by the tide of the 13th September, 18G7. This same old water-line may be seen in several places on the rocks on the opposite side of the channel below the Pao do Assucar, as well as on the face of a cliff at the western end of the lieacli at Villa Velha, whore, as nearly as I could judge, it had the same height above the sea. This wave- line marks a jieriod of rest when the continent, stand- ing for some time at the same level, gave an opportunity for the little waves of the sheltered ])ort to excavate the line. No such line marks the present sea-level, and I infer, from that and other facts, that the land is at present rismg. The water in the middle of the bay is very shallow, and tlie bottom apjfcars to be a bank that comes so near to the surAice that the sea sometimes breaks over it. Between the Moieno and Point Tubarao the average dc])th is about fifteen metres. The depth decreases on entering the channel hetwecn the Ilha do Boi and Monte Moreno, where it is from four to nine nietres. As the chaimel contracts the depth increases, and just below the Pao de Assucar it reaches twenty-four metres, while in the PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 73 narrowest point, at tlic Pao do Assucar, it is sixteen metres. Ill IVont of the town the depth varies from six to t(>ii metres, and an excellent and spacious anchoragc-gnnmd is oHered. Tiie water oj)posite the town is turbid, and the littoral fauna is characterized by an abundance of oystei-s, covering the rocks and piers and mangroves, to within a few inches of high-water mark. This is a very small species, with exceed- ingly sharp, wavy edges, and used for food in Victoi-ia. The coves between the rocky points along the channel above the hay of Villa Velha are muddy, and often lined Ijy niangi'ovcs. doing down the channel the oysters grow less numerous, and give way to Ijarnacles and mussels. On the north side (^rtiie cove at Villa Velha the arrangement of the princij)al elements of the littoral fauna is as is represented in the following diagram. a. Zoi'o nf small barniiclos, brciidth throe to four inches. b. Little lilaek mussels, all reaching the same iii)per level, but forming irregular patches, extending in some places as far as a metre below high-tide mark. c. Large scattered barnacles, and green sea-weeds { I7h-w). d. Coarse brown sea-weeds, corallines, &c., and oysters. Tlio sea-urchins begin above f/. and extend below low water mark, but their untenanted nests occur up to. and beyond high-water mark. On the l)cach at Villa Velha, particularly near the west- ern end, dead corals are thrown up in great immbers. In- deed, they are more abundant there than on any other South American beach I have seen. The commonest species is the Mussa HartUi Verrill, which is thrown up by the waves in VOL. I. 4 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. great quantities, and evidently grows ir the immediate vicinity; but owing to tlic muddiness of the waters of the cove I could not, in the absence of a dredge, find it alive. It is usually drifted ashore attached to sea-weeds. So alnni- dant is it in the muddy beach at low tide that it is collected by the inhabitants of the Villa for lime-making, and is called cachhnbo, or " pipe-stem.'" This species is almost invariably incrusted with beautiful Bryozoa. On the same beach occurs a sjiecies of Siderastrcca, and a Pccfinia, or S/jmp/ii/l/ia, none of which I have observed living in the bay. I have seen in the sands underlying the muddy shores farther up the bay shells and corals which cannot now live in the turl)id and brack- ish water. Before the rise of the land the bay extended farther on both sides. The river has since narrowed its channel, and the turbid waters have driven down the coral fiiuna nearer the mouth of the bay. I doul>t whether the Mksscc arc now to be found living at Villa Velha. I believe that the specimens on the shore have been long dead, and are thrown up by storms. Leaving Villa Velha, and going- down the bay, the oysters disap})car as the shore becomes more exjjosed. Outside the harl)or, and at the base of Monte Moreno, is a little island called Ilha Baleeiro. The tide- pools of this island and of the adjoining shore arc rieli in corals, and at low tide one may collect Ilijmcnog'org'ia^ Eioiicicv, ricxanrcUcc, and all the sjiecies common at Guara- ]>ary. I am not aware of the existence of any coral-banks in the bay and vicinity. The Bay of Victoria would be a rich ground for dredging, and so would be the banks lying off the harl)or. In fishing I have brought up on the hook masses of mdlipores, etc., loaded with life, and at the mouth of the bay I captured in this way a large many-rayed star- fish. Victoria appears to have a reputation as a locality for shells ; poor, and t worn.* The Rio the city, sccnds froi amongst w (lark color ai'C accusto: Iro-s." The Hio rises some 1 in the Scrra On the 11 Lcopoldina, comitry avIk * I find in on mcnt tliiU tlie n fccnis to nic of i •'])i; IJovK sci\nms. Pi-^cis iionnuiint 1yw\\ tntiiinihus, iil)i 1105 fVi,L'oiX'S ii i|ist' irraniina (liriint. Tjovci roldrcm rctlrci f|iiilius ot ubcn E>ui pst conpi piiiius jiiscis lo circa candam ii C't liauil scio a usus est : Ossil corpus est com] tKiroes ukramari PROVINCE OF ESPIKITO SAKTO. 75 for shells ; hut the littoral mollusk fauna of Brazil is very poor, and the shells of the hcachcs arc badly broken and worn.* The Rio Crubixa enters the harl)or of Victoria just al)0vc the city. According to the Diccionario Clco^rafico^ " it de- scends from the Cordilheira dos Aimores among rocks, amoniist which is found a certain species of coral of a dark color and fragile, with which the Botocudo women aie accustomed to decorate their heads, necks, arms, and The Rio Santa ^laria is a much larger stream, which rises some fifty miles, more or less, northwest of A'ictoria, in the Serra dos Aimords. On the Rio Santa Maria is located the colony of Santa Lctipoldina, and as the history of the colony and of the country where it is situated has an especial interest at this * I find in one of the letters of the celebrated Joseph do Anchieta a state- ment tliat the nianati occurred in tlie bay of Espirito Santo, and his description Htins to me of sufhcicnt interest to warrant my pivin^ it in his own words : — " ])k ]5ovk Marino, — Ilac (pioad rationcm tcmporis, jam ad alia tran- -innms. IMsois qnidam est ((iiem Bovem mariniim dicinnis, Tndi fipiarafjnd iiniiiniant fre([uens in opj)ido Spirito Sancto ct aliis versus Boream Iialti- tiitiimil)us, ul)i ant nulla est, ant exijrua adniodum, et minor fpiam apnd DOS tViirores injuria: hie iufrentis est nuipnitudiiiis herbis pascitur, (piod i|i>c' irraiuina depasta scopulis, quos a;stuaria ailuunt, inluerentia in- iliciint. Bovem moia corporo superat, cute obtejiitur dura, eloplumti coliircm referenti ; duo vellut bracliia (pul)us natat, habi't ad pectus sub (|uilins et ubcra, ad (piaj ]>roprios fd'tus nutrit, os bovi ])er omnia simiiis. E>ui est conpruenti^sinuis, ita ut dueernere nequeas, utrum(|uc carnis, an potiiis piscis loco haberi debeant ; ex cujus pin;:uedinc, qua; cuti ex maximo Dfiu caudani iniiajret, ad modo i;^ni fit liquamcn, qiujd jure butyro comparari 't hand scio an possit anteccllere ; cujus ad omnia cibariacondienda olei vice ti>us e>t : Ossibus solidis, et durissimis qua\ ))ossint cboris vices <rcrere, totum corpus est compactum." — CnUecrdo de noticias para a historia e yccHjraphia Jas uardes ultmmariiins. Lisboa, 1812. 76 GEOLOdY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. time, when elTorts arc Ijciii;^' made to colonize the Brazil- ian coast, 1 translate the ("ullowin^ from an acconnt of a visit to tlie colony Ity Von Tschudi.* He says: " AVc crossed swiftly the Lameirao of the bay and steered into the river Santa Maria. Its current is quite slow, and offers, C(jn- sequcntly,no})articular hindrance to the ascent. Not far froiu its mouth it receives from its left bank the little river Ctna- pina, iind somewhat fartlier Avest lies, on the right bank, tln' Porto da Pcdi'a, consisting of a couple of houses and a laiuo venda. Uj) to this point there is suflicient water, even I'm steamers of moderate draft Following the many windings of the river in ascending it to the north-noi'thwost. we reached, after an eight hours' journey, the junction of the river Mangarahyba with the Rio Santa ]\raria. The lo- cality becomes, tlie farther up the sti-eam one goes, more and more hilly. The banks of the river th.einselves, where the character of the lands allows, are in part inhabited hy Brazilians, Avho have here laid out little fazendas and occupy themselves ])rincipally Avith the raising of horses and cattle. The affluents of the Santa Maria are veiy unini})ortaiit. From the south there empty into it the Rio Curipd, the Rio Taului, the Rio Una, and several other brooks whose names I have forgotten ; on the north the Rio Jacuhy, Rio Tranie- I'im, (Jatamerim ?) and a couple of entirely unimportant little rivers near the settlements Murinho, Arualia, and Poii- diuca. A rather extensive })roperty is that of Senhor Jose de Queimado on the left l)ank, several miles up the stream from Porto da Pedra ; over against it several little islands stand out u])on the siu'face of the stream. Likewise on tiie northern bank lies the hamlet of Santa ]\Iaria, distant some seven to eight leagues aboA'C the mouth of the stream, from * Von Tschudi, Rtisen durch Drasilim, Dritter Band, Cap. I. which it ta oi- makes fa/ciida of liver the K' (li.^taiiee. iiliniit one 'lie ("aclioe III' till' rivei' -The Hi Sailla ben]! shipe are 11 iMce. It I Maiigaraliy ln'miks, of V (if the eohi soutii, one ( the south, i\ the Hrazo d( (•I'll trilmtar name (»f bni l^umaca, Co " The nia the Rio San itcd Iiy an a alily tliaii tl repays laboi head-waters fonnd ; at ] i'eh)ny), an liio (lo !Mci in is,")" hy itslirauch,t PROVIN'CE OF KSriBlTO SANTO. 77 wliicli it takes its nnmo. "Wlioro the l?i(» >rnnLnir!iliy unites, (,r makes bdrra with tlic Santa Maria, lies the extensive fazenda ot'Joso Olaiidio dc Freitas. From this estate up the river the Rio Man^i'araliy is innigalde for hoats only a siiort (listaiiee. 'i'he navitiahility ot the Rio Santa ^laria ends at ;iliniit one league fi'oni the mouth ol' the Rio ^langai'ahy at the Cachoeira de Jose, above wliieli rocks make the channel of till' river iinj)assal)le '• Tlie Rio Santa ^faria rises westward from the colonv of Saiila L('()i)oldina in a mountain range, on whose western slojic are the sources of several of the tributaries of the Rio iKirc. It (Irst l)ecomes important after receiving the I'iver Maiigarahy. This last is formed of a muuber of mountain l)i(i(.ks, of which the greater part rise in tlie southern j»art (if the colony. It receives two larger tributaries on the smith, one of which, the Rio do Medio, liounds the colony on the s(»uth, and the other, consi(lcral)ly smaller, on the east ; the i)ia/,o do Sul takes its rise Ijeyond the colony. Its north- (111 tiilmtaries are very numerous, but are only worthy of the name (»f brooks. The most consideraldc are the Ribcrao da Suniaca, Corrego Isabel," etc., <tc. " The margins of the Rio Mangarahy, from its union with the Rio Santa Maria to the colony, are quite thickly iidiab- ired Iiy an agricultural population, and much more consider- alily tlian those of the main river, l)ecause the locality here reiiays labor l)etter. It appears that on certain [daces on the head-waters of the Rio ^langarahy traces of wash-gold were I'ound ; at least the names California de Dentro (in the eelony), and California de Fora on the southern liank of the Iiiii di> ^leio, would indicate it. The colony was founded m lsr)T l)y Germans, who settled on the Santa ]\Iaria, and its branch, the Ribcrao das Farinhas. This choice of locality 78 GF.OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY. provinp; injudicious, another sjmt fnrth(M- south, near the Quar- tel i>ra<ranza,'\vas chosen, and settled also with Germans ; but, through the worst possible management on the part of gov- ernment em|)loyds, as well as the bad (luality of the lands, tlu; colony became demoralized, and has been a failure." " The territory of Santa Leopoldina is C(miposed of quite high, for the most part steep, mountains and narrow valleys, rarely broader than the channel of the river which flow.s through it. The soil consists princij)ally of quartz sand, the surface soil, usually two to three inches thick, is held to- gether by a network of fine roots with some humus. Only in certain i)laccs, where one of the valleys widens somewhat near a stream, layers of rich soil brought down from the mountains are found, and here, naturally, is also the great- est fertility. The national custom of prei)aring the soil fur the first cultivation, l)y axe and fire, is, for situations like those of Santa Leopoldina, the most destructive. The heavy fire from the burning of the felled forests destroys partially the layer of humus and organic substances, and althciijili ashes remain as nourishment for the future harvest, it is at the same time deprived of quite a deep layer of soil in which it can take root, and which, in addition, the moisture binds together. Through the cutting down of the trees the steep mountain slopes are exposed to the full influence of the tropical rains, and through these the best part of the culti- vated fields is washed away and carried to the Rio Santa Maria, which finally deposits it in the Lameirao of the Bay of Victoria. It is a well-established fact that in Santa Leo- poldina the soil, through culture, becomes more quickly un- fruitful than in any other colony. The forests with which the mom) tains of Santa Leopoldina are covered do not pre- sent the same majestic appearance as those of the north and A south of tl auci' (if ii .oi'cst. I'.ra/ilian IMod'Alh assi'i (I)iin resented corresj)()U( The C( ■ n Th(« stalks anee. Th year than t 01 line, ncco useless, wli aiU'ipuito til Eijually unl of the colTe< tie nourishr sickens, an( ruoviNCK OF EsriniTO saxto. 79 south of tlio province. Tlioy have much more the appcar- ancf (»('ii weak second f^rowth (Capoeiras) than of a virgin ToiTst. All those ))lants wliich, to the practiM d eye of the r.iazilian husbandman, hespeak a fruitful soil, — such as tho I'ao d'Alho ((larlic-tree), Jacaranda (Rosewood), Taiiuara' nssu ( l>anil)oo), A.C., — either do not apj)car, or arc rep- resented hy very feeble specimens. The cultivated j)hints corrcsjxmd in their develoinnent with the forest vegetation. The C( n remains low, and ordinarily i)roduces small ears. The stalks olten dry up before the cars make their aj)j)car- ance. The roots of the mandioca arc smaller in the second year than they are in the other colonies, and frequently bc- (•(.1110, nccording to the testimony of the colonists, black and useless, which fact is to be accounted for by the want of an adiMjiiate thickness of humus. The black beans fail entirely. E(iually unfavorable is the character of the s<oil for the j_rowtli of the colTee-trec ; in the first year, while it yet needs but lit- tle nourishment, it grows very favorably ; but in the second it sickens, and, as a rule, gives out. Colonists who had set out 1,000 to 1,200 coffee-trees, possessed at tho end of the second year only a couple of hundred, and so soon as these, on the following year, had bloomed, and the fruit had set, the leaves rolled up, fell, and the little trees, without ex- ception, gave out." While in Victoria I met numljers of colonists from Santa Lcopoldina, and all told the same story.* There can be no doulit that a lamentable mistake was committed in establish- ing the colony in so wretched a region. The lands of the * There is a stronj; prejudice a<;iiinst Germans in this part of the country. They are represented as idle and p;iven to drini^inj:, and I am very sorry to say that it is fidly confirmed by my acquaintance with those colonists I met iu Victoria. Elsewhere the Germans make good colonists. 80 OKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL (lEOGRArMlY. t'ontrnl part of the j)r()vimH.' of I<jS[)irito Santo ai'o vory [looi'. whereas tlioso of the north and south are very fertile • mihI Vietoria, thou^ih possessed of a most exeellent harhor, will never in itself, in all prohuhility, heconie a place of niiidi iuiportanec lieeanse of the want of lertility of the siir- ronndin^i' eoiiiitry, and the ini))ra('lieal»ility of niakiiiL-' it one of llu- ports of the pi'ovinee of Minas (Icracs. There arc; some <j;ood hinds, as J shall have occasion to show, lyinj;' to the nortlieast, and the as yet nndevcdopcil af^ricultnral reii'Ions of the Rio Doce are distant oidy some sixty miles. The cutting' of a canal to unite the Doce hy water with Victoria has been advocated, hut in my JudLiinciit it is not i)ractical)le. In the event of the successful coloniza- tion of the Doce, a railroad to some point on that river could easily he constructed, so far as the jiliysical dilliculties to lie encountered arc to he considered. The mouth of the Doce is so dangerous to enter that it will never answer as a jiort. and the Tlio Sao Matheos, lying to the north, though it may be entered hy small vessels and steamers, is, after all, ill suited to be the port of the Doce. Dy making Victoria tlic outlet of the connnercc of the Doce many advantages wilUe gained. Sao Matheos will never answer as a port for a foreign trade. The products of that region, as well as of the Doce, arc more likely to go to Rio than elsewhere lor final shipment to foreign ports, and this trade is now carried on in small vessels and coasting steamers. The voyage from Rio to Sao ^latheos, though often very short, is uncor- tain, owing to the prevalence of northeast winds, and the passage of the jiointof the Doce is often difficult. By mak- ing Victoria the port, tlivj voyage to Rio would be shortened one hundred miles at least, and made very much more easy, while Victoria, being a port admitting ships of large ton- or, 11(1 ■ill 111:' 'S, to cd lie liV lit 4 I IC .mm^i 'i-'i'i kMf0k I l',r,j i' ■If? ! irii mi^^'il ll>"l ll III Hiilir :/! II il > ' iiiiii:ii:fiii!i;ii ii,!i:ii:j:ii!,i,,;/ii!il'i;i;,i!! i i:t';i':':r'iP'!i II ' ' I'll'' ' I Mil! |i 1 'I' [ini'tS. At prose possessing the jjoorest watf'i' bonU ^'il•tul•ia an very rieh ii (species of the lisliernie sucli is the ilmie to (love cat cot/Jish a lish lo Euroj J liiid ail ( and can test o])p()i'tuiiity (| the books hn fioui a (Icpt species of Pf Oil the no ready remarl nmnicating \ in the nceoni vai'i). It rcc the water of is Iiut an esti 1i is veiT ti loiiji distance it is ever use this channel luuuntain ni; PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 81 :l iiano, iui.ulit 1)C made the centre of a direct trade with foreign [M»l'tS. At ])rcsent the j)rovincc of Kspii-ito Santo, tliough |(Ossessiiig abnndantly the soui'ces of wealth, is one of the poorest and most wretclied of tlie Empire. Tlie \\;itfi' l)ordering the coast is very sliallow, and jnst oif Victoria are the extensive l)anks of A^ictoria, whicli arc vciv lich in fish, especially g-aronims^ parg-os, vrrmdhus (sjiccics of Scrranns'), <tc., and tliey are nnich resorted to by the fishermen of the coast, especially IVom CJuarapary ; l)ut such is the sloth of the fishing iM)j)ulation that nothing is (liiiic to develo}) this mine of wealth, and the A'ictorienses (■at fod/ish and European sardines when they might export lisii to Europe ! I liad an opi)ortunity of fishing one day on these l)anks, and can testilV to the abundance of the fish, but I had no npportunity of dredging ; occasionally, as almve remarked, the hooks brought up masses of nullipore rich in life, and IVniii a depth of some fifty feet I collected in this way a species of Pfcro<j;'orij;-ia, apparently new. On the northern side of the island of Victoria is, as al- 'oady remarked, a tidal channel running westward and com- icunicating with the Rio Santa ^faria. This channel is seen in the accompanying engraving of the Morro de Mestre Al- va i(j. It receives and carrie? to the sea a ])art at least of tlu' v.at(M- of the Santa ^laria and of the river westward. It is l)ut an estuary, its waters ebbing and flowing with the tide. 11 is very turl)id, and oysters grow along its l)anks for a lonp: distance above the Passagem. I am not aware that it is ever used for the purposes of navigation. Northward of this channel are a few gneiss hills, and thence to the grand mountain mass of the Morro da Serra, or Mestre Alvaro, 4* F 82 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGHArilY. strctc'lics a siiiid-plaiu Avliieli ('xtcnds eastward to the Pont:! do 'ruharao and westward to the Rio Santa Maria, bonmlcii on Ihc norlli hy the serni and the steej) sh)])e of tlie cducs of the tei'tiaiy strata, which lie lietween the serra and the sea- coast, as seen in the engravini;'. This ])hun consists on tin snrl'ace of coarse wliite sand without shells. The ahscnce ol' sea-shells from these marine deposits ai)i)ears remarkable at first sight, ])nt it is no doubt largely owing to the fact lliar they have been dissolved out by rains. "Whei'e these jiiaiib have been cut through by rivers, shells are seen in the lo\\\'>t beds, as, for instance, on the left Ijank of the Itabapuaiia. a few miles ai)ovc the Barra. The jilaiu north of A'ictmi;! bears the same kind of vegetation as that which charactn- izes the jtlains farther south. Just jirevious to the last ri^' of the land these ])lains were under water, and the hill> of tlie \ icloria grouj) stood as islands in the mouth dl' a bay. Crossing the sand-]»lains, a steej) ascent of about fifty foot at Carapina l)rings one to the level of the tertiary jAaiiis. Avhere one leaves the sands. These plains arc covered by a clayey soil varying nnich in fertility. Near Carajjina tlh'iv arc some lands available for cultivation, and part of the iilain is covered by trees. At Carai)ina the soil is clayey, ^itli very little sand, and of a slate-blue color ; but going east- ward toAvard the sea the soil grows drier and more stcrili'. The trees are very scattered and coarse-barked, and when in clunij)s are free from undergrowth. The open plain is covcivl by a scanty growth of tall coarse grass, and is diversified liv great numbers of ant-hills, — irregularly dome-shaped struc- tures of clay, often quite round, as hard as stone, and resem- bling boulders scattered over the ])lain. 1 presume thai tli'' cliaracter of the vegetation over this region is, as elscwhore. V ill part (hie taiils, have jilaiits. Til aci'ni'diug tc l.iit ai'coi'diii ill tlic liills readies tlic \i is only a niili's.> it be tiaiy Iicds, iiai'fuw, wit! is aliiiiit one tiaiy clays, iliirkciiiiig 1 IVniu the hi iini'iss is e> hills ihe su ihilatiiig aiK lit' i:laeiers, siiils of the a< ill the \\v li'W miles fr( the ciilture aiv iiioi'c \ny byiiiL;' to the is the hii'gc 1 laiiis overdo V'hjch time Kar. The Mcstl invn'iilarjy | tile Li'iielss ] PROVINCE OF ESPiniTO SANTO. 83 in part due to lircs, which, periodically set by the iiihalii- tiiiits, liavc killed all except the most hardy trees and utlu'i- iilants. The liio Carahype is a little stream which rises, accnrding to C}ci'l)er's map, to the northwest of the scrra ; l,iit aci'oi'ding to my notes and observations it takes its origin in tlic liills north of the serra, and, traversing the plain, readies (he sea a few miles north of the l^onta do Tut)arao. li is oidy a rcsi)ectal)le brook, of no service for navigation, iniless it be for canoes, it has cut down through the ter- tiaiy lieds, and has a rather deej) channel. Its valley is iiai TOW, with steep sides. Near the town of ^^erra the valley is aliiiut one hundred feet in dei)th, showing that tlie ter- tiary clays, lying against a sloping bottom, jirolialjly also tliiekening towards the hills, form l)eds that slope gently I'loni the hills to the sea. In some localities near Serra uni'iss is exposed in the l)ottom of the river. Near the hills the surface is irregular, and the ))lain becomes un- dulating and broken, — the result, I believe, of the action (if glaciers, as well as of streams, from the hills. The snils (»r the tcrtiaiy laiuls bordering the high grounds, as in the vii-iuity of Serra and along the Rio Reis 3Iagos. a lew miles from its mouth, are rpiite good, and are use(l for the eultui'e of coffee, cotton. Arc. The forests of these regions ore inore luxuriant than is elsewhere the case on the jdains. hyinu' to the nortli of the river, and not far from the shore, is the lui'gc and shallow Lagoa Jacund, which during heavy I'ains overflows and sends its waters into the Carahype, at v.hich lime that river widens its channel and opens its har. 'file Mestre Alvaro, or the Morvn da Serra, is an isolated, inen-ulai'ly pyramidal mountain-mass of gneiss standing in tlic uueiss i>lain a few miles northwest of Victoria, and 84 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. prcsoiithifr on all sides very similar outlines. Its lieiulit I should estimate at altout 8,000 feet. It stands like a pyramid on the j)lain, majestic and alone, ^fore j)lc!is- ing and symmetrical in outline, and more isolated in it> p(jsiti(Hi, it is more l)eaiitirul than Ti^juca ; and, seen I'ldiu the sea, it looms uj) grand and Idue against the tropical ^ky and the far-oif line of serras, ■\vliich lie along the horizon liki- the front of an ai)proaching storm. It is densely covcinl with forest, but on its slopes arc extensive coffee-jjlantatioiis. which yield well. The Diccioncwio 6Vf;£,'7*<:{//r'o says that for- merly emeralds and magnetic iron were found there.* In mi v striking contrast with the quiet, sans souci air of Victoria, with its grass-grown streets, is the little village of i^erra, wliith, owing to its being situated in an agricultural region, is ovx of tlie most busines»-like towns in the province of Espirito Santo. This little town is built near the liasc of the lii!!>: on the northeast side of the ]Mestrc Alvaro. I was told that water comnuniication existed between it and the Iky of Vic- toria, but my visit to the locality was rather has^y, and tliis may not be correct. Northward of the Mcstre Alvaro are a few gneiss hills stretching in a line toward the Eio dos Reis Magos. "West of the Mestrc there is much hv land. The api)earance of the coast from Victoria to within a few miles of the Rio Poc'e, a distance of nearly fifty miles. as seen from a point at sea about ten miles east of Riaclio. is given in the accom})an}ing illustration. The main >^om dos Aimords is seen in the background, stretching along like * Saint Ililairc ascended the Mestrc Alvaro. He speaks of meeting wiili t';e l)aml)()o 7\i(jH(ir(i-assii in the forest, at a considcrahle elevation above the ph'w.. and remarks that these i)lants require humidity and considerable elevation. (Saint-IIilaiue, VnijaijvH sur h Vitloral du Bri'xil, 2"'' Partie, p. 275.) Von Miirtius says that the bamboos flourish principally at a height of 1.800 w 2,000 feet above the sett. a \v;ill at a III iVniif al'C Al\;;ro. Xov; Tlir Rio wliii'li rises iiiln llic sea ( 'allocs ascc) i'av. oil the s "!' the Icrtia aiicii'iit \'illa;. liiiiH' iiortlnvi imrili (»r wliic liiarslics and I'-'.. |!ehv(. iIh' liollll,tllO 'lit' wliii'li lie Tlic ri\c'r -Hi'aiii art(»i'(li • il'iliiciits arc t i'ito a little |)£ a liarlior for s •^aiita ("ruz ni ^'■;i. aiid, iinlil Mrncic(l l,y bn '" tli<' liiet th ''"' little sedii ' Here Wilt; cstii ' '1' furni>liin;: insti ^aint-lIiiiiiiT ( '' ■■■'I'li-ii^sii, iK'ai- ^'lliil.l" >lu'll.llc.i,I): "'■l^r of Sar, P;iulr *jf'tcn contain liuini PROVIXCE OF KSPIRITO SANTO. 85 a wall at a (listaiu'c of firtceu to tweiity-five miles, while 111 rimit are the isoUited gruiips of hills (jf Victdria, Mcstre Ah ant. Nova Almeida, Arc. Tlic Kie Keis Maji'os, or A[iia|)itaii,ua, is a little stream wiiidi I'iscs ill the .sei'ra northwest oi' the Mestre ami empties iiiM the sea iil'teeu miles north of the Uay of I^spirito Santo. ( aiKifs ascend it only twenty miles, it emptio into a little ha;.-. Ill) the south side oi' whieh, sitnatcd j»artly on the level (.1 ilie tertiary plain and partly ln'neath the slope, is the aiicit'iit villa<i'e of Nova Almeida.* The tertiary IxmIs eon- liiiiie iiortlnva.d to the port of Aldea \'elha, or Santa Ci'nz, imrili of which they disappear from the coast, and <>ive way to liKiislics and swamj)S that occupy the coast thence to the Hio [•lire. Detween Nova Almeida and Santa Cruz, as well as to the iinitii,the sandstone l)eds form in some parts rocky shores, utl'wliich lie isolated skerries, which ol)struet l)oth liays. Tlic river Santa Cruz is, like the lleis Chinos, a little stivaiii affordino- navigation for canoes only. Its })rineij)al ililiiciits are the Piriqui-assu f f^'^*^! l?iri(|ni-mii'im. It opens intu a little hay like that of Xova Almeida, and which aflbi'ds a iiailioi- for small vessels. The hays of Xova Almc^ida and >aii1a ('luz are noteworthy in that they ojten broadly to the Ma. and, nnlike the mouths of the other rivers, ai'e unoh- stiiictcd by 1»ars, — a circumstance which is, jierhaps, owing '" the fact that the rivers emptying into them bring down '"lit little sediment. " Itciv wiis cstablislied anciently a Jesuit missionary station, witli a school lur furni>hin;_' instruction in the Tupi l;(njj:uagc. ■ S;iint-llili\irc ilcscrihes liea])s of oyster and other shells honlcrinj.'- the river I'iriiiiii-iissii, near Aldea Vellia, which are without douI)t Kjalh'iimmklhujs. Suiiil:u' >lu'll-hoaps, or oMnimx. as they arc called in Brazil, are found on the ni;\>t ut' S:h, I'luilo. and on tlic Ilha dt) (iovernador, in the Bay of Uio. They oitou contain human remains, ]iottcry, &c. 8G Gi:OLO(iY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I liavc stiilcd smcral times close alonu" <lie slioi'e IVoiu Sunt;) Ci'iiz Id the Jiio J)()ce, l)ut 1 have never hiiule(l, and J nm unalih- tu desei'ihe it in detail, as well as tlu^ Hat lands lyiii'^ Itehind it, nor have i any ti'nstwoi'tliy infoiunation eonci in- inii' them. 'J'he sliuiv is l)()rdere(l l»y a sand-lieiieh like tliaf stretch inii; sunth of tlie I'ai'ahyha do Snl, and the lands in its rear are plains divei'silied I>y s\vain])S, shallow lai;'(»oii>, and clianncds which, liavin*;' never been explored, jire lui^l down incorrectly on all maps. Mnch of this low u'rouml i^ suitable Ibr pastnra<i'o, and, so i'ar as my observations go, ihr gi'caler part is very heavily wooded. The great Serra da Manti(|ueira, S(^j)arating itscdl'froin tln' ScM'ra do ^hir near Sfio Paulo, runs to the inntli of that seri'a, and almost j)arallel with it, on the noi'tliern con^Hlt^ (.)!' the provinces of Sao Paulo and Rio de .laneii'o, inru ^Minas, passing near I>arl)accna, whence it continues with the sauK," trend, under various mimes, lieyond the Rio Vtxx. To the southeast it gives rise to a host of httlo I'ivcis which flow into the Parahyba do Sul, while on the nunli- eastern side the Rio (Irande, one of the tril)utaries of tln' Parana system, and the Rio Docc take their rise. Fniin Barbacena a cordilheii'a runs northward, separating tln' waters of the Rio Doco from those of the Rio Grande aii'l the Sao Francisco, while aiKjthei' line of serras, with a ,u<ii- cral northeast course, leaving the Serra do Espinhaco mai' Diamaiitina, forms a water-shed between the rivers Don' and .b'(juitiidionha. The basin of the Docc forms an un- e(pial-sided (|uadrilateral figure, whose sides measure vdv nearly as Ibllows : the northeastern side 120, the soutlicast- ern I'oO, the western 100, and the northern 00 nules, wliicli would make the area drained by the river very much larii'!' than that of the Parahyba do Sul. Gerber estimates tlif ;iiva eiiibra Ic'ciucs. 'I its rise onl\ hv the uido l>]iiiiharo. die Kio dai wiii'd into t iiiiij iKirthw tiiii'lh-north ui'iiiiiiij the r;i>t (lil'CCti |ia>^iiig a s lower groui This I'ive linii of a de Alt. Docc. '• The ai ''amio as tl a-sci't that liai'ii, which li_v the soiii lii^laiice {'\'( Hncc at tw' fciia, in the runs about ing on its ' >l!'canis fro canoes, wlu do Dcserto niented Ijy * Aci'drdiiiji iil'Diit live Icuiii I'KOVINCE OF KSI'irniO SANTO. 87 aivii cinbracod witliiii tlic luisiii of tlio Doco at 2, ;'.<)<> si|iiaro Ici'^iics. 'riu,' Rio Doco, uikU'i- the iiaiuc of Chopotn. lakes i'srisc only a few miles from IJarltacciia, in \\\v auiilc foiMn<'(l liv the union oi" tlu' Sci'ra <la Manti(|U('ira and liu' Scrra do l>|iinii;i<;(). From tliis point the wafers How wcslwaid into till' iiio das Mortcs, a trilmtary of llie I'arana system, east- wind into the l'onil)a, one of the liranelu's of the I'arahyha, iiml nurthwai'd into the Docc. Itts eoui'se is at first ahout Kll' ih-noi'theast np to latitude 1'.>°, Avhen it bends ahrujdly ariiiiiid the Scri'a das Jbitin'unas, and then Hows in a sonth- -t dii'cc'tion to the eonfmes of the piovinee, Avhen. after I'll iKo^niu' a series of I'apids calle(l the l'>cadinlias, it read ics lower ui'oiinds, and is thei'eafter mivi^ahle to its month. This I'ivei' is of so nuieh impoi'tanee that J a(hl a transla- linu uf a desei'iptioii of it I'rom the DiccioiKirio LUoL^-niJico, Alt. Docv. '• Tlie anei(Mit gvogi'aphers eonsidereil the Kiheirao do <';iiin() as the principal oriii'in of the Rio l>oee, A\hile others -S( rt that it i-isos near Sahara, in the I viheii'o Santa i5ar- iii'ii, which em])tics into the J'iracicaha. J>nt if one means liv the soni'ce of a river that ])oint uhieh is at the greatest ilistance from its mouth, Ave ouj^'ht to ])lace that of the \\\o Hnce at twelve leau'ues* to the east of the A'illa of J]arha- iciii), in the spot Avhere the I?io Chopoto )»euins. I'his ri\er runs about twenty leag'ues in a northward direction, reeeiv- iiiu' on its left haidc the Ilio das l*ii'ang'as, besides various streams Irom both sides. It only offers easy navioatiun for canoes, when, having' "watered the settlement of Santa Anna do Desei-to, it inclines toward the noi'thwest, beinu' aug- uieuted l)v the stream Turvo on the rinht and the Kio \ci'(irilnu to Cicrlicr',-. iiii\|), till' source of the Kio Duce (Cliopotii) 1 U's at iUiimt tiv e Icuyucs east uf Barh.'.cena. 88 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. rJiialacho* on llie IcCt, The wiit(M\s of this rivor mako it chiiiiiic its coui'sc a litth' towai'ds the oast, uiul both uiutcd Itrccipitatu tliemsclvos over tlui fall callctl Iiii'ci'iio ; below this Call (he l?io Docc takes the iiaiiic it beais, and tlows ji'CMlly on, I'cccivinu' on th(! riiiht the little I\io da C'asca. and on lli(' left tin; Piraeieaba, and, six lea;j'ues iiirtlun' on, it ])asses over I'cefs l)laekene(l by time, — whence the name /'Jsciiro uiveii to this fall. 'J'hree lea^'nes lower down, on its left, are the n;onths of the rivers Santa Antonio and Corrcii- tes, at a distance of eiulit lea.ti'iies from one aju)ther.t JJelow the last of these river-months is tlu; Caehoeira I>a<i'auri/.. where a j)ointed rock divides the waters of the Docc, which snbdivide a^'ain and auain befoi-e nnitin<2; anew in a species of basin, formed, as it ajjpears, by several islets. This basin extends for a distance of two leagncs, and, becanse of the cnrrent, nmch dexterity in the uovcrnnient of a canoe is va- qnired to reach it. At the end of this series of islets the \l\o Docc takes a more (jniet course, and, the mouth of the Sa(;u- ln'pO(iueno i)assed, it becomes once more turbulent, and i> successively imjieded by the little Caehoeira d'llha-lJraba. with that of Pi(jueira, nuich more dan<i-erous, in the Serra Bcteruna, ^^here it is necessary to transport the canoes liv land a distance of fifteen hra^cis, and with that of the Ec- l)OJo-do-Capim ; five leagues farther down stream the \lh Sa(;nhi-grande comes to swell it on the left with its tribiito of waters, after having watered the comarca of Hcrro Frio. Passing this tributary, the Rio Doce receives from dilTereiit quarters an innumeralde number of limpid brooks, and * Aoconlinc: to Eschwojre, quotctl liy Gc'rl)i'r, tlio Barra do Giialacho is .'Ul mi'tri's aliovc the si'a-k'wl. t On GitIrt's iiKii) ilie iiioutli of the Corrcntcs is only two and a half leagues below that of the Santa Antonio. niakos mi li;itc(l Cdc iiuloiided ; i;;io baran wliirh onip \'uv tlie d \\itli some iKivJLiation Tlic>e dif llcliojo de Ini'iiH'S 1V( [la^^eil, the [n the left licil of the a eapital M one league inti'i'cept n hind the ca Caclioeirao not tjangen the K'io Do' canoes are cira called lonued of un their b{ waters aboi l''."iisto dc (•'■uaiidii), limit to the and ascend r>ctween tl cral rapids rnnvixci-: of r.spiniTo santo. 89 iiiakos ninny turns licfore arriving at tlii' ("all (lenonii- iiati'il C(U'/i()ririii/i<i, over which canoes pass witiioiit hcing uiiloinlcd ; still farther down it rot't'ivoson itsriuht the Uil)e- i;;Mi liiiranjcii'a, ami a little hcyontl, to the rij:ht,tlK! Cuiate, wliich empties into it, when the main I'iver becomes ma/iestie Ini' the distance! of two leagues, lielow which various reel's, with some Tails of little importance, and whirljiools make iiaviLiation very dillieult, 'without entirely destrdyin^- it. Thoe dilTei-ent ohstaides are known under tlu- names of llcliiijo de Joao ]'into and iiehojo da <)m;a, distant two liiiaues IVdUi one another. The second of these obstacles |l;l^^('(l, the curi'i'nt Hows to the riLiht in the snnnner, hut tn tiie left in the rainy season. Half a leaizue onward the lK'ili)fthe ri\-er describes some diagonal lines, which imitate a caiiital M, — the name which is conunonly ui\('n to it; antl Diie league lower down various reefs, called the Cachocirao, iiilercept lunigation, so that it is necessary to transport by land the canoes and goods. Two leagues l)elow the fall of ''ailioeirao arc encountered three other whirlpools, Avhieh are lit It dangerous, and the island of Natividadc, which divides the Rio Doce into two unequal arms. In the dry season the eaiiDcs are unloaded at this island to jtass the great Caeho- cira called the Escadinhas, because for one league it is Inniied of stej)S of stone. The canoc-nicn carry the goods uii tlu'ir backs as far as Porto de Souza ; but when the Maters abound the canoes descend without difiienlty to the l'"i:ist(> de Lorena, near the confluence of the river Mandii Chunidu), which comes from the south and serves as the liinit to the provinces of !Minas (Jeraes and Esjarito Santo, and ascend it also with cargo, albeit with some dilliculty. between the mouth of the Mandu and Porto dc Souza scv- eial r;ipids are encountered, which are descended with ease, ^ ito GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGIJArilY. hutwliicli ciiiiiHit lie {isc'onded except liy liiiid I'Dwinji', or \>\ towill^' tlir cillKtcS." 'I'lic IJio Miiiiliiiiissi'i is (jiiito ncoiisldenililt' little stniiiii. wliich ciitcis llic |)nc(' IVom the soiitii, opiiosilc? the ishiinl ol' Xiitividade. \'('iy little is known alioiit it, as it Hows tlironi!!! a forest reuion inhabited hy the l)(;tociidos. The (iiiandu is, as aliove deserilied, only u litth; stream, and nf veiT litth" inijiortanee. 'i'he country borch'rinu' the ri\cr near its junction with the Doee is very Hat, with (hep allu- vial, clayey soils. Jt is heavily timbered, and alVords most lertil(! lanils lor the aji'ricnlturist ; but the iJotoendus. who have been until late years hostile, have ]ii'e\('nted tlic .sueecssl'ul colonization of the country. A little colony of a lew iamilies has been established on the (Juandu, but it was not, at the time ol' my visit, flourishinir. The rocks exposed here in the river channel arc i^i-neiss. I observed some heavy veins of milky-white (piartz nciii' tliat place, hut 1 had not time to examine them. Opjiositc CJuandu, on the noi'th side of the river, there are 8e^•el■al (pnte hiu'h liiieiss hills, and opjjosite J'orto de Souza is a ba^e hill not I'ar from the I'iver. Gerber has laid down mi his map a little river enterintr the Docc opimsitcthc Guandu, which appears to be a mistake. At Porto do Soiiza tlic river va' ' very narrow, and the river was, at the tiair of iv^ I December, 1805, not more than 2o0 feet wiii'.' Of .ne ]K)rt. 'i ...' ]tort is situated at the foot of a series of rapids, at tiic liead of naviuation. Even in the dry season it would ln' j)0ssible at all times, I was assured, for a small steamer to reach it. (Jneiss is exi)osed in the Ix'd of the river and alonu' tlu! lianks. It is iiray, coarse, and homogeneous. Strike N. 00' E. Dip 4.y Northeastward. In the rivir- li;tiik> the in Liiaciat ly water Siiiids aiK die <^uari tweiily I'e layer of 1 (if sand, I a t^'iind, (I castni'-bea ijuite lux ,^anie.* pllfJioSCS, cultural p e\i'r it. At the sonic iunn wlicn the lc\cl. I), mntiniics till' a nule sccnds, 111! biitli si arc alluvia in licii^ht. A (|uarter widciis to * I (ilisorv iiiiiiiluT-; of I!, t Thr lii, my foiiqianiiii -\«"\k< of tlif rROVINCK OF KSriKlTO SANTO. Dl iiaiiks the suiTiicc of the ^noiss is nigged, mid not smooth us ill 'iliiciiitt'il suri'iia'S, showing that it luis liccu (U'ti'i'mim-il l,v walrr ;u-tioii. iVhove it an.' Itcds of coarse, ycllowisli sands ami (|Uai't/ gravel, tlie hitter often very eoarse. At ilic (^iiartel, or narrucks, these heds reach ii levi-l of ahont, twriilv feet aliove that of tlie river. Al)uve there is a lavei- of hrown, elavey eartli, Avitii seareely any a(hiii.\tnre (if >aiid, lint fill! of little silvery mica Hakes. This atVords a liiioil, deep, f(.'rtile soil, siiital)le for eofti'e, corn, heans, ra>tiir-l»eans, i^'C., S:c.. The forests of this region are ijnite hixnriant, and arc rich in valnahle woods and L;ani('.'^ All this region is liiudy adaptetl for agrienltural |.iii)i(ises, and some day nuist lieeonie tlu; home of an agri- caltinal |)o[)ulation ; but the Indians have so far held sway (i\i'i' it. At the ])ort the left-margin of the river is occupied hy xmic iunneiisc sand-hanks, covered during the rainy season, wlicii the river rises some twenty feet ahove its oi'dinary level. Hescending the river from Porto de Sonza, the river (iiiitinucs very narrow, deej), and rapid, with I'ocky hanks I'mi' a mile or more, the banks becoming lower as one de- Mcmls. The gneiss is cx})osed in the bottom of the banks on both sides of the river, and over this, as at the Porto, WW alluvial deposits, making the lianks eight to fifteen feet ill height. At a distance from the river are gneiss hills. A (|iiart(M- of a mile below the Illia da J-^speraiica the I'iver widens to at least GUO feet. The Pio ]\lutum,t laid down * I filisiTvixl in tlie forest between Porto de Soiiza ami GiiAntlii great iiiiiiiln'rs of 15iirriL;ii(l() trees (Boiiihiix), soiiieof (•oii>i(ier!ilile >ize. t '1 lie liio Doee is very rie!; iii tish, a larj^e eoliectiim of wliicli was niaile liy my ((iiiipiinion iiiid myself for Professor Apissiz. I'rinz Max. zii Xeii AVied -IiiuIn^ (if tlio iicciirreiice of a sjieeies of sa\vti>li (I'ri-tis Serra !) in the lower \v;iters ii<' the Doee, and says that it enters the Lagou Juparanua. Mr. Copeland 92 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. lllO DiiClC AT rnilTI) DK SOC'ZA. on Cicrbcr's nui]) as bcinu.' sonu' three or lour leaji'ucs below the Purto, is not more than tlirce miles. It is hut a brook; but it has a I'all near the mouth, and, being" in the midst of a very I'ei'tile eountry, may lie of imjK)rtanee by and by fdi' its ^vater-l»o\ver. On the Mutum the land is in some places flat, and tliii'ty to forty I'eet high, and may be in part ter- tiary : ))ut 1 doubt it. On tin th side of tlie river are many forest-clothed gneiss hills, the most of which raiiiio from ()00 to 700 feet in height. East of these, a few miles from the ^lutum, and standing liack from the Doce, is a prcnninent hill called the ^h)ri'o do Padre, the givater part f)f which is l)are, and which nmst be at least 2,000 feet in height. On the opposite side of the river is the Morro do and I took sjiociinens at or iienr tlic month of tlio Miitwm. Tlioy cprtainly ascind to Toitodi' Soiiza. TIicciinoc-iiK'U said that tlu'v asccinU'd to tlic (Jiiandii. 'IIk' tislnTiiifii all Slid tliat this lisli scciiri'd its jircv hy strikiiiir a latiTal blow with it'' Ion;; snout or ia^\■. On one of the saw-tt'i'lh of a lar;^o sjiecinu'ii wi' took tlniv was ini|iak'(l the lar-jrc, toiiuh scale of a etinuiiatri, which I'ould oidy have liccii ])ierccd hy a smart hlow, when attached to the side of the lish. The fisliernian said that n true shark, ctiissno <h' dnitis, was found in the Doee. LaL'c amoi the little 1 Iiilb (iat-t slo|ic tow; gll(MS>s ot ;'••<• alhivii tills whole gneiss roc never to 1h of the riv( logical Tea lines of tl ninch to wlieie in nriant fore lioniid tog' griiwtli of I iiluc, and i the liver, f dense wall |ienetrato i strong woe In these iniinn J],as bat, liaviuL niet with the stream has Ix'eii l line (jualit; ing a valui * Tti::ht ha N. 8U0 K. Ij PROVINCE OF KSrilUTO SANTO. 03 Livjo nmonii: unoiss liills.* Lcavinii: the ji'iiciss lulls hclow tin little river SHo -Joao, the laiul hceonies lower, and the liill.- flat-topped, or with flat outlines, and a rather gentle sl()|ie toward the river. Some of the hills ajijjear to he iiiiciss, others tertiary. The low lands bordering the river ;<r,' alluvial. So cxecedingly dense is the forest covering this whole v ountry, that, cxe(>i)t it be oeeasionally a bare ;iii('iss rock by the river-side, a bare gneiss hill which is iiivcr to bcmistaken,or the exposures of the alluvial deposits of the river, there is no guide for the working out of geo- logical features other than the general topographical out- iiiics of the country. The clothing of forest tends very much to exaggerate the height of the lower lands. No- where in J>razil,not even at I*arii, have I seen a more lux- uiiaut forest growth than that of the Doce. I'lic ti'ces, all lioinul toiiether l)v Uianas, and filled in with a dense under- iirowth of i)alms and shrubs, crowd down to the water's ciliiv, and sti-etch their great vine-drai)ed branches out over the liver, as if in want of light and air. The foi'est forms a druse wall alony: the river, — so dense that the eve does not |ii'Ui'tratc into its shade, — and one must be armed with a stioug wood-knife who woidd enter it. Ill these forests flourishes the Jacaranda, or rosewood (/)/!,'•- iiiiiiKi Jj,asilian(i Lam.), which once abounded along the river, Ijut, having been extensively cut for cxjiortation, is now to bo met with of suOieient size for cutting only at a distance from the stream. The princiiial article of export from the Doce has hern roscAvood, which has the re])utation of l)eing of a fine (jiiality. The Cuphiba (^Copaifcra ojficitialis'), furnish- ing a valuable wood and an abundant oil used in medicine * T{i::lit bank opposite Ilhti do Lng:e. Gneiss bands very siliceous. Strike N. 8U0 E. lUp iiortlnvanl jO°. 94 GKOLOGY AXI) I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAPIIY. niid i\\o arts, uboiiiuls lioro, tog-ctlier witli the Piio Brazil ( ('rr:s(i/pinia crhindld V\\ All.), noted for its once cosily lint : llic Sapucaia (Lcc////iis), fnrnisliing food to the Bolo- cn(h>s ; the ('(m1i-o (^Ccdrela)^ Ip(3 (^Tccom(i)^V(io d'Areo (^B'm:nonut)^ ]\'i-ol)a (^Jhpidospc nnum^ , Pntunniju (^Puln- Diiiju). \'inhati('o (^AcacuL), and species of Genipa^ Mdcha:- ruDi, Iiign, Boirdildiia, A'c., abound. The names of llie trees furnishing valiiahle woods for construction and cal)inet- Avork, many of great beauty and dm ability, are legion, ainl when the country becomes inhabited, these must become r sour(,'C of wealth. ► ■Several si)eeies of ])alms, among tlicm the Airi (J.v//-o- carj/um^ and Palmetto {Euterpe^, flourish in the forest, while the Embaiiba ( ''crojfla^, the food of the sloth, with the Ubiis and rTcJiconias, form one of the marked featuros of the vetretation of the river-banks.* Game is exceedingly abundant, among which may lie mentioned the Anta { Tap i ru,'^ Ameriaums), \y]iOi^c tracks, together with those of the Capabara {Hi/(/roch(cnis Cajxi- bar(i)^ are everywhere seen by the river margins. The Paea (^Ca'hi^cii//s Para) and Cutia {Ddsi/procta) are very com- mon, and are valued for food. There arc, at .oast, two s]»c- cies of sloth found here, — Brndi/pns truladijlus and B. inr- quatus, — together with s])ecies of opossum {Di(feJjdi//s) nml Cuati {Xasua). Armadillos (^Das//pus^ aliomul as else- where, and I have seen at least two sjjecies. Wild piiis Caititiis and Queixadas {Dicuti/lcs), arc found in herds in * Prince Max. zii Ni'U Wioil ;;ivc'.s a ])l.atc rpprosontinq: a view on tlie Ri'i Docc. It was oviilcntly not 'irawn from nature, hut it ^nves (|iiite a ;:oci(l iili';i of the shore ve;.'etati(in. An innnense ailiuator is represented in tlie f()re;:niuiul. One may spcnil a nxaitli on the Doce and not sec a single alligator, and tlio-o of the Doee are verv small. I i'-«p- 1 1, If 1 i '■ n : 1 i m uilliilij! JiiiiiilJiilliwIii.!^ lillt:'!!!!?' i:iiil.i'. iliijij,)!! J0 t]l(^ foi'ost, /w7/x (jc'Cii iitiifroiird, may lio oi ijot uncoi nioiikcys 1 n'/.'s ursii ( Ilnpidr) Liiili.), ^ ami other 'J'he riv iiiiii'li, aiK nc'casioual stii'telR'S < vaiiia is iiortlioni 1 tlio l•i^■or, .Maria, aii< Here, not colony, inu jToved a li ant second * The liisto ttoii or more ; I'lHc, iind at Milis for siiwi ul)!i.' aiiioiuit at the I'livoari I5m Dr. Lfitc' tlie colmiists, tnnililesoiiK! lu years tlie Boi Iiro:lii'r-in-la\v, iitteiiii.t to sett rnOVINCE OF espirito saxto. do tlic forest, and arc hunted for food. At least four species of /•V//.S' occur here, — Frit's Oiigd, F. concolor, F. /xirdalis, F. hiiifrourd, — together with the fierce l)hick jauuar, which iiiiiv he only a variety. One or two spei-ies of Ccrciis arc nut Huconnnon, toii'ctlier with liares and s(|uirrels. Of iiiDiikcys there are tlic following": Adlcs hi/poxdnllius^ Mi/- (■'■/. 's ursinus, species of Ccbiis and Cdllithri.r, and Jticc/nis (lldimir) Iciicoc('p/in/i(s. Jacujienihas { Fct/i'/o/ic nuirail r.iiiii.), Mutuns {Cr(t.r'), Araras {PsitlacKS macoa Linn.) and other parrots, arc very al)undant. 'J'iic river, after leaving- the gneiss lands, widens very iiiii<'h, and is in some places 800 to 1,0<H) Ibct wide, (icca^fionally diversified by wooded island-, and alTording sti'ctchcs of river scenery of very great hemily, Francyl- vania is the name of a settlci'ient escahlished on tlie iiurtliern haidc of the Docc, at a short distance l)aclv from the river, opposite the mouth of tlie little river Santa )hu'ia, and not far above the mouth of tlie liio Panca. Here, not many years ago, was estal)lished a Brazilian colony, under the direction of one Dr. Fran(;a Leitc,* which ]inived a failure ; its site being now marked oidy by a luxuri- ant second growth (^capocira'), which on the Brazilian coast * The liistory of this colony is hriofly as follows : Dr. Friiii'.'ii Leitc, sonic fif- tmi ornidiv ycar> nuo, coiK'civc(l tlic idea of cstalijisliiiiy' a colony uii the Hio I'liic, aail at Francylvania, aided hy government, he fcirnicd a settlement. Milis for sawinj; liimluT and frrindini: manilioca were erected, and a consider- able amount of urouiid was ]nit nnder cultivation. ]']sta!)ii>iinients were opened at till' I'nvoai.ao, at Monserras, and IpyrauL'a, where many cattle were raised. r>iu Dr. Leite's plan proved visionary. He failed to ^ret the aid he demanded ; the colonists, dissatisfied, iind harassed hy tho Hotocndos, who were very tnuililesDnie nciuhhors, hcfiaii to withdraw, and after nn existence of some three year<, the liotocudos )>ut an end to this colony by killini.'- ICrvalina, Leite's hroiliiT-in-law.and a slave, and burning the settlement ; and thus failed another attenii.t to settle the Docc. OG GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIV. ra])i(lly sjiriiiL^s u]) on ahandoiiod lands. Tlio soils in tlio vicinity of Frant-ylvania arc of thn most ])r(>(liu,'tiv(' kind, and tlic locality ^vas wisely chosen lor the establishment of a colony. Descending' from Francylvania to the hills of J-^anta An- tonio, the lands bordering the river arc still lower, and tlir hills have long, g(>ntlc slopes, lint no rocks arc seen, exccjit gneiss, on the l)orders of the river. 'J'hc islands all consist of sand, overlaid by a thick bed of broMii soil, Alhivi;il lands of the same character occur on l>oth sides of the river, forming irregular stri])s. These lands, whiidi are liable tn be overflowed during the cnr/wHlc, arc of the highest feitil- ity, and are es])ecially })ro])er for the culture of sugar-cane. A few leagues soutli of Francylvania the river passes through a region diversified l)y hills of gneiss several liiiii- dred i'eet high. On the south side of the river the western- most of these hills form a range which, under the luune of the Serra de Sant' Antonio, is seen stretching off south- ward, tying in with the coast mountains of Santa Cruz and Nova Almeida. In this licit of country are many lagnas. some of them of considerable size. Among these may lie mentioned the Lagoa Sant' Antonio do Noi'tc, on the noitli side, and the Lagoas Pao Oigantc and Limao, on the south. all of Avhich connnunicate Avitli the river by small, bhuk- water streams. These lakes and streams have been very incorrectly laid down on the maps, owing to the fact that no trustworthy survey of the river has ever been jiublishcd.* A ['vw miles farther east, and opjiosite the Barra do Rio Limiio, is a range of high hills, which stretches off as fains * I am iiifornicd tliat tlie river was surveyed ami inajiiieil for the EiiL'li-li Comjiany nf tlie Doee by Mr. Fred, Wilner, Ijut I am not aware tliat tlio nuip was ever jjiilili-hed. line can s iiilly coui luHs. in a (.•a>h'rn s! ' I'lHsing til ly islands, Thi' lands ■ iiii'ir riflin fiii'cst grow hy a tazent !: I'littcrs. ( ': least half 'A \v!iil(! it is rnrlim/r, a t'l Linhare ! ^ f-- '111 the soi - ,V ■ ■ '4s wjieiv in 1 vegetation. i>h. clayey riiOVINCE UF KSriKITO SANTO. 97 Diif I'iui sec fVoin the river towards tlie northeast. This liilly country ends on the river, Just to the east of these liills. in a sharp I'idgi- about a mile lon,ii', esear|ie(l on the i'a>icrn side, and known us the Morro da Terra Alta. LOOKIXf. VV THE POCE FROM NKAK UNIIAIIKS Passing: tlu-ouuh this country tlie river is niueli diversified ly islands, and is in sonic j)hiccs more than 1,000 leet wide. Till' lauds liere vary nuudi in cluiractcr, and are noted l\iv tlirii' ii( luiess. Over the whole cpnntry spreads the heaviest fiiivst ,u-rowtli, l)ut at the time of my visit it was unhrokcn lyu I'azenda, and in the hands of the Indians ami rosewood- (iittrrs. Dn leaving the hills the i-iver soon widens to at k'asl half a mile, ami is full of beautiful wooded islands, while it is bordered l»y alluvial lands Avhieh, during- the rmlini/r, are liable to be overflowed. These lands extend tn Linhares. About two leajrues al)ove this town there arc, "II the southern bank, a few clcarin<is. I tliink that no- wluTf in Brazil have I ever seen so rank and luxuriant a v(.'<rctation. These lands are covered with the same l)rown- i>h, clayey soil wc have observed farther up the river. 5 o Jf 08 GEOLOGY AND IMIYSICAL GKOGRArilY. Tliis soil, which in calh'il vnifnpc, or massnpr, is louiul du ill! the alhiviiil hinds hordcriiiu' the ri\('rs on the Ih'ii/.iliun const, iind is noted loi- its nrcat )»rotlncti\cn('ss. On the Hio Docc those niassiipe lands which nro of siidl- cicnt liciuht to cscajK; the clfocts of the ntcltiiilc may lir ns(Ml I'ni- the cultivati(tn of almost any oi" the |)i'o(hicts of the conntiy, — snch as sn^'ar-cane, tol)acco, cotli.'e, cotton, nuiii- dioca, A'c, — hnt a large i»art is likely to he snhmei'iivil c\(M'y yeai' Ashen the river is full. The annual omt- flow lieu'ins in l)eceml)er with tlie daily thnndei'-stonus. and lasts usually nntil March. During' its jircvaienci; the I'iver margins are overflowed for a greater or less length of time, the freshets of March often heing as high as those df Decemher. In the vear l8o-5 occurred an extraordinarih- heavy freshet, since when nothing like it has been known. The water of the river, even in the (hy season, is very tnrhid Avith sediment, and of a light ycllowish-hrown coldr. During the cuc/ioifr it l)ecomes very much more tni'l)id, ami a thin deposit of nuid is thrown down over the flat lands every yeai". On the suhsidencc of the waters, the vegetatiim left decaying over the wet country is apt to ])reed fevei's.aml the Rio Docc has had a very had reputation for lieing veiv unhealthy. It certainly is feverish, hut I could not Icmii that it was anv worse than Sao Matheos, or even so iiail. My companion and T suffered nothing from oiu" visit. Tli^' river Avatcrs arc had, hut if allowed to deposit their scili- ment, and stand some time, become very potable and sale. The climate of the Doce is warm and very damp, and it is uiton the distribution of rain throutihont the entire vear that 1 ( V the luxuriance of the vegetation seems to dejieud. The cli- mate is damjier than at ^'ictoria or .Sao Matheos. Cuni'- secca, or dried salted beef, which keeps well elsewhere, soon spoils here in certain seasons of the year. The mi ;il'(' used CdlllltlT, ( the main liii'c, is till''' is coi are espcci lli»t ipjui'i' rice. baii;i ill .Milieu Lands ol ivi:iuii is TIk'iv can and the ti healthy. Ijiiihare hliifi' fornu liivat terti; 1 I't'iiU'inlK el' white a llicsc clayf tlif iKii'the ward to Sj raiiaa,* wl this fiirnia miles to tl wiih the I hnt deep el the lew We "haiinel is * Tlu'wurd •' ^oa." iiMMriPW** rROVIN'CE OF KSriUITO SANTO. •)•) Tlio mnssap<! ji;rouii(l.s whicli iii-c lialilo to 1)0 ()verlli)\s(Ml ai'c \ist'il lor the culture of almost all the }tru(lu(.'ts of the ( I, iiiitiy, except inandioea, cottcju, and culTee. 'J'he root of tlic luamlioca requiring more than one reason to ina- liiiv, is likely to he injured ly a freshet, so that its cid- tui'' isconfnied to the hij^'her ^'rounds. ^J'hese niassape lands ;nv ('s|K'cially <i'ood for sugar-cane, ^vhi(•h, as at Campos, is III it ipjun.'d hy an overilow, and also for heans, Indian corn. liic. liananas, A-e. The corn and heans are jjlanted usually ill March or April, so as to heconie ripe hcfore the mchnitc. Lands of this character are very extensive, and the J)oce ivi:i(m is adajjted io sustain a very large poi»ulation. Tlii'ic can lie no douht that with th(? clearing of the foi'csts ami the tilling of the ground the region would liecome nioi'e healthy. Linharcs is laiilt on the left hank of the river, on the top of a Muff formed liy the jirojection sonthward of a jioint fi'om the ^!ivat tertiary ])lain lying north of the Doce. The liluff is. if 1 iciiuinlicr rightly, about eighty feet high, and exposes heds (if while and red clavs of the ordinarv tvpe. On tin.' Doce these clays occupy near Linharcs only a small extension on the northern bank. Theii- boundarv line trends ot"f north- ^\al■(l to Siio ^latheosand nortlnvcstward to the Lagoa Jiipa- raiiaa,* which is held in a basin scoojied out of the beds of this fiiiination. The lagoa lies at a distance of about two mih's to the north-northwest of Linharcs, and connnunicates with the Doce at Linharcs by a very narrow and tortuous, hut deep channel, called the Rio Juparaiula, which flows o\ cr the hiw wooded ground close to the edge of the bluffs. This "haiuicl is about fifty feet wide, and, according to Senhor Till' word " Juparanaa," according to Prinz Ncu Wicd, is Tiijii, and means ;fU. 100 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOORAniY. Raf!ht'l p. do Carvallu), furnislios at all times at least finii' to live I'eet of water, wliieli would be sulVicieiit for a litilr steamer. It is exceed iii<^ly tortuous, but it would l)e a vciy easy matter to cut olf some of the beuds, aud thus shorten very uuieh the distance between the Doce and the lake;. At the foot of the lake the river is bordered on the wcsi side by a luirrow strip of low jj^round, north of which ilir tertiary blulTs begin ; and, witli the exception (;f this little stretch of alluvial land, and of a similar stretch at the luail of the lake, the lake is bordered by the blulTs. Freireiss* gives the length of the lake as seven leagues, width half a leiigue, and circumference sixteen to eighteen leagues. Tlic Diccionario Gcos^rafico {vide Avt. Jttpara nan}, which is hcie manifestly iiuiccuratc, gives the circumference as only fiw leagues. According to my estinuitc, and the information of Senlior Raflael, it must Ije at least twenty miles long ami in some places four miles wide. It is very deep, and in some }>laces, according to F"eireiss, the depth is at Imst eight to twelve klafter (fathoms). The water of the lake and river is of a light milky color. The banks of the lake are eighty to one hundred and fifty feet high, as near as I coiiM judge, the height being greater at the head of the lake. Along the eastern side, between the foot and the Fazenda do Guaxe, white and pink clays arc exposed in the bhirt^>i. and in many places the coarse red sandstone of the tertiaiv crops out at water-level or thereabouts. About a mile niiilli of Guaxe, on the east shore of the lake, and oj)positc a very small island of gneiss, a point called the Ponta do Oiuo. ;i quarter of a mile long, juts out into the lake. This point is about fifty feet in height, and forms on the southern side a luie of i)icturesquc clififs. The strata composing this point * Quoted by Neu Wied, Reise nach Drasilien, Vol. I. p. 214. a IT jicrfec s|iailiic cl iillt i'oV tl angular, iiiatrrials Avitli no ( .xaiidy. '[ tiiliiit('(i t iiiciitiug 1 like uiass( Vidliiw. winch occi rasi- the Mulls are Small Ian little la/.en \ciT al'-.iu hap'ia .J 11] Ininnl her (hjirrssd a s|ic'(.'ies of used for Hk li;>lit'i'inan'; At tlie till- Sao [\\\ ii'itiu'udos, re|iresents n<> siudi ri) niaji. is too "nly a rock * Scniior i;.. '"'ill in ti-li, 1,11 PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 101 flit' perfectly horizontal, and consist of awliite or pink Irld- s|i;iihic clay, in some localities ^\ ith no admixtnre of sand, i,ul i'nv the most part with a large percentage of coarse, aiiiiiilar, or slightly I'onnded sand and gravel, tiieso iii;itiiials lieing scattered through the mass appai'enlly \\\\\\ no order whatever. '!I'he lo\v(!st heds are tlic most Miiiilv. The red color is due to ferric oxide, which is dis- tiiliiiU'tl through the mass very unefjually, sometimes ce- inriiting together portions of the heds into stalagmite- like masses jjcnetrating the clays. The tint is sometimes vcllnw. Under the clays is the coarse red sandstone wliiili occurs in very solid and compact masses, in whirh casr tlie rock is regularly and evenly ccmcnteil. The iiliitfs are steep and wooded, as also is the plain ahove. Small farms arc located along the lake, with an occasional little fiizenda. The slopes of the hluffs are found to yidil \eiT al /.mdantly, and to produce excellent coflee. The LaL!na .Ju})aram"ia is, like the Docc, very full of llsh. I fiiiiiKl here two sj)ccics of Cagados, prohahly the Emi/s il'pnssd and Emijs radiolatd of Max. zu Neu Wied. A >|ii'eies of Unio is ahundant in the lake, and is said to l>e iise'l for food. I saw heaps of the shells Ivintr in front of a ti-lieinian's hut, hut the animal may have heen nsc(l for l»ait. At the head of the lake there enters a little river lalled tlie Sao Raffael. It rises in the forest, in the country of the JJutoeudos, and has never licen explored.* Gerher's map represents a Rio Preto as llowing into the Jnparanaa, hut no such river exists. The lake also, as laid down on his aiap. is too small, and the island is too largo. It is i-eally "uly a rock. The head of the lake cannot he distant from * Sciilior Haffacl says that above it dividos into tliroc liranchcs, and that it is riili in ti^ii, but that it fontiiiiitj uo surubinis (Phti/stoma). 102 GKOLOCY AND I'lIYSICAL (iKOlillArilV. iiliiiilalioli I.AC.oA .IIPAHA.NAA, I.(I()KIN(. TOWAKDS TIIK OL'TMT. the <'ity (»t'S;T(» Miithcos, iu'cordiim' to the licst iiitnnimtinii I li;i\i' rcccixcd, more lliaii lln'fc lo roiii- Icaiiucs. 'J'lic li;ir (>r tlir Docc is so l)iiil as ])fiu'ti('iilly to I'oiliid tlic cnliy df vessels, iiltlioiii:li tliey sonietiiues ei'oss it; liiit the I'ivei' i> iiiivlLialtle for a little steamer, diiriiiu' tlie whole year, IVnm its mouth to Poi'to de Sou/a, a distance ol" ninety miles: m» also is Lalce dnparanaa. Cntil a raili'oad is huilt to \"u'- toiia it would seem host to construct a liood ■wauon-rninl thnmuii the forest, from the head of lake dujtaranaa, o\ci' the plain, to Sao ]\Iatheos, and make Sao ]\Iatheos tin' |M)rt of the Docc; hut Sa'o ]\Iatheos can never offer tin' same advanta.ii'cs as a poi't that A'ietoria does. The lands surronnding' the lake are jilains covered liy forest. l)ut owintr to the dryness and little fertility of tin' soil.it is not very luxuriant. The soils of those high lands, however. \ary very much in quality, in some localities htiiii; exc(dlent foi' cotton, mandioca, A'C, in others sandy ami harren. Kosewood ahounds in these forests, and is ([uifi' extensivelv cut. PROVINCK OV KSl'lIiliO SANTO. lo:} T!if liii:ln'r Imids near liiiiliiircs ;i|t|M'ar lo In' rri'tilc, mid 1 lia\(' iiiiwlirrc seen moi'c vigorous and liixiii'iaiit (•ro|)s III' sii;^ai'-caii"', Itaiiaiias, Ai;., than 1 saw ,L;ri>\\ iip^' on the; jilaiilalion of Scnlior Alfxaudi'e, l»y llic i'i\('r->ii|t', just IkImw the lowii, anil situatrd on alln\i..l ,:^roinids. 'I'lic ri\ri' lirrt' appuai's to he hordcird \)\ iliicc terraces, Iml 1 had nil time to exaniiin.' them closely. I.\iiii:' almost pai'allel with the I'ivei-, and to the noi'theast n{' Linliaies, is ii very heantil'nl, narrow hiLioon. which looks like an old I'iver valley, and is called the Lai^ria do A\ i>o. It is said to empty into the l)oc(,' to the east of Jiinhares. Thcic are other lakes in the vicinity. LAOoA DO AVISO. Finn' Linharos tlio river rnns oil' in a southeasterly direc- ti'Hi to llie sea. The stream is wide ami interspersed with iiKiny islands. The shores are low, loie>-l-clotli(M|. aud ovi'iflowed during- the annual lr(\sbet. At the moiiih the nvoi' widens very much and enters the sea oliliipiely. IVoni I" hind a long sand-spit which extends si^ithward from the li'lt hauk. The river just inside the mouth forms a line sheet 104 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of water, liut it is very sluxllow, tlic bottom boiiig sliirtiiiu'. so that the s(»iiii(liii,<:s vai'V with the ([Uiintity ot" waicr in the river. So great is (Ik; aiuoimt ol" water, and so si.il. low is the river, that the tide is not felt inside the mouth, and the water is always fresh. (Jreat numbers of (hilt trees are brought down during the freshets, aiul the sca- bcaehes of the vieiuity are stiewn with them. The mouth is wide, shallow, and obstructed by ;i bar, on whidi the waves break fearfully. Jt is always dilheult, and sometimes for weeks together impossible, to enter the Doec, and very numy vessids have been lost in the attemjit,* Just northeast of the bar are extensi\e liaiil KS. ^\ hiel I ex- tend two or three miles out to sea. There is a litllc luunlet on the right bank of the river, near its mouth, and a short distance above, on the left haul., is a small set- tlement called the Povoa(;ao. The lands hero are samly. l>ut they are, for such soils, (|uite fertile, j)rodueing niaii- dioca, cotton, niamoua. sugar-cane, etc. The coast at the mouth of the Doce projects consi<lerably to the eastward, and there is usually a strong current near the shore, de- pending for its dii-ection ujton the wind. ^lauy years ago an p]uglish company was formed to o]>oii the river Doce as a highway for navigation into ]\Iinas, but, fi'oin the above description oi'the ri\('r, any one can see Imw unfd it is for navigation above the falls. The enterprise of eoui'se jiroved a failure, and a cin-se luis undeservedly fallen on the I)oee. At ])resent a very small connuei'ce in salt is carried on between the coast and vai'ious points along tlir It Ii river, the salt lienuj,' trans ■;i)ort(Ml ni canoes. 'J'l i(! loiu'ncv from the sea to Correntes, a town situate(l on the river of the same name, an allhient of the Doce, a distaaci' Tlic totisiiiig stc'uuiors occasioiuilly I'lUcr the Doce. rROVIN'CE OF ESriRITO SANTO. lo.j •y .;:« ill ;ill of about two liundrcd inilos, consumes over forty (hivs. From the Barra to Porto do Souza the ioiirnev is easily performed ; but above that point the eanoes must lie towed and poled with the greatest dlHieulty, and iit veiy short intervals the load has to be removed, so as to allow the eni})ty eanoc to jiass a waterfall. (til the eoast a bag of salt of aVtout sixty jioiiuds ecjsts lisiiuu (two milreis, or about a dollar). In Minas it eosts (LLilil milreis or more. As nearly as I could learn, the whole entcri»nsc of the Knglisli eomj)any was conducted with great extravagance and want of good management, so that it is no ^vonder it failed. It is u^eless to think of iiiMking the Rio Doce tlie highway to Minas, and of usinu' the mouth of the river as a port. The countiy bor- (l<riiiir the Kio Doce and the Lake Juparanaa, and extend- ing:- westward for some distance beyond Porto de Souza, mnst lie treated as a gi'oat agricultui-al region by itself. Since my visit to the Doce quite a number of Amer- ican families have settled on the river, forming a little e'lldiiy. which, so far as I can ascertain, promises to be a siirccss. The colonists came from tlu^ Southern States, fidni a climate not so very different from that of Kspirito Santo, and those that I saw h)oked like nu'i; through whose liamls a bettei- fntnre nught be worked out for the Doce. We hope that their enterprise may Itc successful.* Northward to tlie mouth of the llio Sao ^latheos stretches a sand-beaeh, broken only by one or tWo river-mouths, anil back of which, between the shore and the tertiary bliitfs, is a wide area of swamps and lagoons, — a region al- * In till- sprinj; of 1868 there were on the Doco, acconliii!; to Burton, four liiiniir«'(l Atncricnns, wlio wore doiuj? well, imd were " stmlyiii;^ cotlee." (lligliluuds of lira/il, Vol. I. p. 5.) lor, Gr.OLOGY AXD PHYSICAL GEOGRArilV. most inipassaldc, and never yet nm))j)ed. Just iioi'tli of \\\o r)()ce and iicai- llic coast is a lai'gc lag'oou called Monsernis. Duriiiu' llii; drv season this is separatcil from the sea hv iln' Kand-heach. Iml when tlie rains come it o])ens lor itself a channel t(» ihe sea, winch cluuuud remains ojjen until iln' drv season returns.* A more waste and desert reti'ion t]i;iii the shore I'elween the Doce and Sao Matheos can scarcely iic ima,iiined ; luit it is the- hiji'h-road, and nuist he Ibllowcil in g'oinuto SiluMatheos. The weary sand-l)each sli'ctches aliru,! to the horizon, dancinu' in thi' hot air, and dinuned hy the drilt- inu' s|)ray from the ocean hreakers, that })(»ur their thuinlrr- inu', hlindinu' surucs on the desolate shore. A line of moudtn- nons sand-heaps, like a great tumhlintj; liillow ready to lnn>; on the low grounds hehind, runs paralhd with the hearh. hare, or scantily covered hy tul'ts of grass, dwarl' jjahns. A'c., — no shade, no water. The road is a strip out ot" Sahara, On one sidi' is the si'a, on the other ,i miasmatic, pathlr.-> swam[). Ordinarily the higoons lie at some litthMlistaiiit^ IVom the shoi'e, and ai'e sepai'ated from it liy a dense, inijitin- trahle thicket; iait at I'itanuuinha there is a little hn'"ooii Iv the shore where water may he ohtained. The samls on tin-'' hcaches are coarse, and do not pack so as to alTord a 'inui looting. Animals siidc at every step, and the journey fnini the Doce to the Sao Mathe(js i.s excessively fatiguing, tic traveller heing, in addition, lialile to sutler severely I'min thirst. About thirty miles north of the Doce is Harra Sccca. where a litth; river, di'aining the marshes of the interim'. emptit's into th(> sea. Just whei-e it takes its rise, and what is its course, no one, even of the inunediatc vicinity, kmw. It is usually set down as draining a lake ealle(l Tajiada : I'lU * Wlu'ii T went to till- Diicc tVi)ni Sao Muthoos tliis Imr was closed. Inn ":i my return, in liu' latter piirt ol' December, it wms open, aiitl dunj^orous tD ei""" tliiit is n-i vai'ils l'ro)i VV li'Vcl. I'Uiis ii|i a ■iihl. yi>\ 1 the liTfiild I liari'ii. iiiK sea. The samls. thro liana is as ]ihice. \\"\ Multicast V times eli,.>e iif tiHih'd I the time of eftlie strcill hare hy the steiie^ were ill'.:' ti'uvilic the lime (»| lie;M-|i striK >l|il|es I sll! The huK samly. imd. iHi I'eill v;ili ;i s'lil. and '-:re\\tli. h;K lai'i;'!'. irreg L;rii>s-ci)\-('r( liMilhunrd On the Miitheus till PROVLNCi: OF tSriRITO SAXTO. 107 : i .-. that is not ))()ssible, for the hike lies only a few hnndrod vards \'vnin the month of the river, and at a veiy nnieli hii^h- vy Irvcl. The tide el)l)s and iluws in the ^-eeea and evit]<Mitly niiis iij) a long distanee. The ri\er eonies from the sonth ■iipl. .iii>t l»efore reaching the sea, Hows along in the rear of tlir lirmid lieaeh ridge, fr(^m behind whieh it esea[)es at tiio liaiia. and. cutting a ehannt'l aei'oss the lieaeh, (lows into the Ma. The licach is constantly ehanging hy the drilting of the >aiHls. throngh the action of the wind and waves, so that the haiia is as constantly shifting, never I'cmaining long in one ]ilarc. With a northeast wind it shifts ((j the sonth, with a Miutl east wind to the north, while an easterly storm some- times ejioes it eidircly. The river is so shallow that it may lie Idided at low tid(}, whence the name iJarra Secca. At the lime of my visit, in l8t')"), there were exposed in the haidcs eftlie stream at the Ijarra strata of sandstone which were laid haie l,y the washing away of the hcach-sands. These sand- Mdiie^ were formed, helow high-water mark, liy the cement- in- tn^i'lher of the sands of the hjwer part of the heach hy the lime of shells, A'c. They jireserved the characteristic I'eaih >tiaietnre, and were full of shells; but of these sand- >!'mes 1 shall have more to say Ihrther on. The hinds Ix'hind the beach at IJarra .^ecca arc flat and ^aiidy. and. though ctdtivatcd to aveiy slight extent, are of II" leal \alue. The lower gronnds are damp, fnrnished with ;i >'m1. and are largely covered with a rather luxuriant forest- ■iiewih. ba(d'; of whieh is the pictnres(iue Lagua Tapada, a hiiiie. inciiular, shallow sheet of clear "water, margined by L;ia>s-c(ivei-e(l meadows and iorest. Its waters drain oil n'lithward into the ^hu'iricn. 'hi tiie beaches between the Wio Docc and the Sao Matheos the traveller sees, at frecjuent intervals, the sladls M 108 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAI'IIY. and skeletons of sea-turtles, and at certain times of IIk year there is no sight more common than that of a flock df Urubiis feeding upon the decaying carcass of a turtle, le- cently killed by some hunter for the sake of its flesh, fat. or ovarian eggs, ^lost abundant of the foui" s])ecies which occur on the coast is the Loggerhead Turtle, Tha/asso- c/ii'I/js cauana Fitz. This sjtecies is very common on the Brazilian const. One may frecpiently sec it floating lazily about on the sur- face of the sea, inside the Bay of Rio, as well as outside tin- bar, but there are regions where it is especially abuiidau!, and to certain beaches it resorts in great numlters, at par- ticular seasons of the year, to de]»osit its eggs. Perha})s one of the most noteworthy of these is the beach between tli'' Docc and Sao Mathcos. In the month of November, ]Mi."i, I found the turtles laying in the vicinity of Barra yecca,anil Mr. Copeland and I nuide a short stay at the }»lace to captuiv some sjiecimens for the Museum of Com]»arative Zoiildin'. In the daytime the tui'tles remain out at sea, but in the nijijit the females come on shore to lay their eggs. According t^ the statements of the fishermen, as well as to my own olisci- vat ions, they come in shore when the tide is low, and haviiiL' gained the beach, creep to the uj)per jiart beyond higli-tiilo level before they make their nests. I have repeatedly watched the movements of these animals. They walk by means of their great flipj)ers, assisted by their short hind legs, with a very slow, hitching motion, the hody dragging on the saiul. The flii)pers and feet make two irreg- ular grooves in the sand, three or four feet apart, which look as if a great wagon with cogged wheels had been driven over the beach. These tracks arc so prominent that one may seo them even on a dark night, and they serve to tell the hun- SSSSSSBSS^^^ PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 109 tci' wlietlicr the turtle has returned to the sea or not, and to LHiiiic him to her, or to her nest. While hihoriously \vorIdii<5 hci' way up the beach, the tuille keeps her head stretched (lilt, and from time to time snuffs and sighs as it' fatigued, iunl now and then she rests. So intent is tlie aninml uj)on lln' ac('<)in|ilis]iment of her mission to hind, that one may iiiniint on her hack without aLirming lier ; Imt if too much (lisiuili('d,she hastily turns about and makes her way as fast as piissil»lc to the sea. Arrived at tlie top of the beach, s()inriini(>s just above higli-water mark, sometimes a few feet iii-hcr np among the sand-hills, at others, even on the land- wanl side of the sand-ridge, she stops and pre])ares to make licr nest. This she accomplishes by means of her flat hind R'ct. and after this manner : She digs up the sand with one fiMtt. and throws it to one side. Then she uses the other fiiut ill the same manner, working with one foot after the other, altei-nately, like a machine, as Neu Wied has re- maikc(l.* The sand which would be likely to fall l)ack n-ain is moved out of the Avay by the foot, which moves t'niward before it is thrust down to deepen the hole, and siTiipes the sand to one side. The whole is a very slow 't'>i''i"ii, occupying several minutes. During this thne the iiiiiuial remains with her head stretched forward, with very little motion of the body, and occasionally giving a hiss or I'leathiug heavily. In this way I have seen a perpendicular l'"l*' 'Ing in the sand a foot and a half or two feet deep, and n foot in diameter. The animal then remains quiet, and the deposition of the eggs soon begins. While one nidivi(hial was laying, I caught the eggs in my hand, as they I'll. They were laid two by two, or one by one, at an inter- * Nou Wied has in his Journey a plate of a turtle laying. The figure of the turtle is very inaccurate, and the eggs are represented as of different sizes. i no OKOLOGV AND riTYSICAL GF.OGRAI'IIV, val of about linlfa iniinito, fallinu- in a lioap into tlio lioliM., tlio luunlici-, iC I rciiicinlter liulitly, of 14^). A iicsi alinns' alwavs contains over lOO cti'iis, and usuallv from \'20 to l.'n ^Vhcn the layin<>; "was fioing on, the iiniiual appearod [k r- fc'ctly unconscious of tiie ])i'osencc of jici'sons aliout liic. 8o soon as it was acconiplislied, she rested a nionieiil. im j then, with her hind feet, scraped the sand back into tiie lii.l. uidil it was i'ull. After tliis the l)o(ly was raised a little, ;iii(i sand was scraped nnderneath it. The ijody then (h'Sijcinkii, packing the sand ti,ii,htly, and this operation was repcuiii several times. It was an cxceedin<j,lv interestinu' siuln i , see this stupid reptile performing so strange an act, our i, Avhich she seemed to lie prompted l»y something more ili;ii: a blind instinct. The whole operation linished, she tiiriini round and started for the st'a, when we captuivd hep. \>\- taking hold of the shell behind, and upsetting hei- on lur back, in which ])osition it is impossible' for a sea-turlli' in turn over. In upsetting one of these animals two p('isiii> are usually rcMpured. As soon as the animal is ahiiim 1, she thrusts her fore ])addles into the sand and throws it behind her, so that, if one docs not take the precaution to close his eyes, he is likely to be 1)linded. The eggs arc i-ather larger than ^^' )sc of a lien, rouiiil. and covered with a tough, white, ])archmcnt-likc skin. Tlio albuminous jiortion is clear, and does not ))ecome hard in boiling. The yolk is very large, deej) yellow, and is tli' only part eaten. I found these egirs very ])ahitable, tlioii'ii they tasted somewhat fishy. The Brazilians are very foiul of them, and, while the turtles arc laying in Xovembcr. IV ccmbcr, January, resort to the shore to collect them, filling in a short time the great panniers of theii mules. TIm\' discover the nests by thrusting a long stick hito the saiul. !35a PROVINCE OF KSriRITO SANTO. Ill mill iIh'H (liir nut tlio oirgs with tlicir Imnds. Tlic nests nrc 1 :iiu tohl, somctiinos dos|»()il('(l hy jlic Tciu li/.ard { Ti ins inotiilor Mci'i'.). 'J'Ik^ Ura/.iliaiis cook the cL^'ii's in \;iri(iiis ways, lint u'cnrnilly by lioilinu'. The yolk is nsually iiii\i'il with suuai' and lariidui. They ai'o not so satisfyinn" as ill"' I'ti'i:' of the hen, and one may cat a dozen at a meal. Tln'v make vciy ,ii'ood omelets. The cu'ii's Avhich remain Hinii'tlesled ai'c hiitehed liy the heat ol" t'>e snn. in aliont twciilv days, it is said, wIkmi the yonnu' tnrtlcs din- their \\;i\ to the snrljKM^ and cscaj)e to the sea, where the most (if tiicm I'all a i)rcy to shai'ks and other fish. The cuu's are laid at snch a dejjth helow the snrfaec as to insmv a iiiiilorm temperature, for on the sui-faec the sands are e\|ii)>ed during the day to a fierce, bnrninu- heat, while in tin' iiiiiht they cool down very much, the dinrnal \ariatiou di' leniiierature amountini>' to thirtv deu'recs or moi'c. At I Oft Uu' (li|ith of a foot and a half, w .wo f( et, the temperature is (|iiite uniform, and would stand in Deeenihei- or .January at aliout eiu'hty deo-recs. I ol)served that the dogs at I'arra >i'Cfa. when it was cold at night, 8craj)ed away the u[>per layer (tf sand near my tent, and lay down in the warm sand helow, and I learned a useful lesson I'rom them, So (hat, when hcnighted and unsheltered, I could fmd a warm hed on the sca-sliore. The strength of the turtle is (iionnDus. A stout stick placed in its hill was crushed like a straw. The (lesh is dark red and coarse. We had it cooked in various ways, hut did not fuul it veiy goctd, tliiiiiLih we were ohlio-ed to use it for food. The animal is iisiially very fat, the f;^t being of a greenish-yellow color, iind oil is tried from it for various jmrposes l)y the people (»r the coast. The ovaries were alwavs full of cu'gs in all stages of development. These ovarian eggs are much es- 112 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. teemed by the inluiltitaiils, and llic fiirllcs arc killed in great mmil)er.s for their sake. All aK)ii«^' the lieiudies (nii. may see carcasses from which the plastron has hoeii rcMnovcil to allow the ovaries to lie got at. ^Ir. (.'ojudaiid and I prepared some six specimens of the sjx'cies of tni'llc aliovL' described in the shape of skeletons, shells, skins, and alco- holic preparations of head and flippers, for the Museum of Comj)arative ZoJilogy. The food of this turtle appears to consist of fish, sluH- fish, sea-urchins, itc. 1 have observed j^rowinti; on the cara- paces of these animals a larg-e barnacle, Coronii/d, like thai which u:rows on the l)ack lA' the whale on the same coast. Pi-ince Max zn Xcu Wied, on his Joni'uey northward IVoiu the I)oce, saw a living sea-turtle near i]arra Sccca, ami watched her lay her eggs. He has referred this specimen to the Green Turtle, ('/iclonia 7)i//das,})iit 1 do not think that his determination is satisfactory. The specimens wliicli Mr. Gopelaud and I collected liave been examined by Mr. J. A. Allen, of the Museum of Comparative Zoiilogy, ami have all proved to be Loggerheads. I do not think 1 saw a single mi/(his on the Brazilian coast; at all events, all tlio sea-turtles I examined were different from the green turtks brought into the New York market. Erctmochcli/s imhricata Fitz. (Tarforiii^a de Pcntc of lli<' Brazilians.) This species occurs quite abundantly on flie Brazilian coast. It is taken at the Abrolhos together with the Cauana, and its thick scales are used to some extent for the manufacture of ornaments. One may occasionally find it in the markets of Pernambuco and Bahia, and at the latter city my friend, Dr. Anto. de Lacerda, had one which he kej)t captive in the pool of a fountain in his garden. Sp/iarg-is con'arca Gray. (Leather-back Turtle.) Xo" PROVINCK OF KSPIRITO SAXTO. n;3 WumI inontions licariiiGj an innnoiisc soa-turtle witli a loatli- ri\ >kiii spoken (jf, and which he siijtposed nii^lit ho Tisfiido coriiici'd lihin. ; hut he did not see a six^cinien. The lisliei'- 111(11 descrihod to mc a siniihir tin-lle. and their descripti(jn wiiiild tend to conlirm Xeu Wiod's opinion. 1 did not sec a siM'ciineii. Cln/oiiid mi/(las Selni. (Green Turtle.) Aecordinn' to Neil Wied and others, tliis species occurs on the Brazilian L'uast, hut 1 have never seen it. Till- iiunilter of sea-turtles destroyed every year on tlio lii'Mihcs lietween the Docc and Siio Matheos is very largo, iuul ilii' ili'struction, if persisted in, must ultimately drive tluiii IVoiii the coast. (Ii)lici's maj) of that part of Esjiirito Santo l)et\vccn Santa ('ill/, ami the Slit) Matheos is very inaccurate, hecause the ma- terials from which his map was com})iled are inaccurate, and litili' trust is to he placed in the position assigned to the lakes and minor streams. For this region the chart of .MdihIii'/,, though giving in considerahlo detail the hydrog- ia|iliy and topogra])hy of the coast lands, is worse than iiutliiiig. lor he seems to have disregarded all the })rcviously imMishod maps of the province. Tliv Iicach, hacked hy a high ridge of sand, runs north- wanl. for jierliaps two miles, to a place called As Pedras, wliero the same calcareous sandstone, as seen at ]>arra Secca, oeiurs, exposed for some distance along the hoach over a considerable area. The beds dip seaward, and a])pear to lie very thick at low-water mark ; but they thin out before reaching high-water level. The arrangement of the mate- I'ials in this sandstone is precisely like that of the beach, and 'liis ibnnation is oidy the lower part of a beach ridge \vhich lia.s been cemented by the lime of shells, <fcc., and then laid u 114 GEOLOGY AND I'HYSICAL GKOGUArilY. biiro. Tlic sniidsfoiio is oxccodiiinly linrd. Two sots df joints — ono i»firiill('l witli the licncli line, the otlier tit iii:lii angles to it — divide it into fri'ont blocks, which, in those sjidN Avhere llicy hiive lieen nnderniined i)y the surf, lie njiset iiml in eonriision idonu' the (.h\>iv oI' the reef. Alonu' tiiese jlliIll^ the I'ock is ol'len harder than lietween thrm, so that wlicn the sui'lace of a Mock is exjn d to the action of (lu^ sea. tlh od^'cs wear less raj)idly t. .0 middle, and the ciaikv seen on a worn snrl'ace aiv> oftentimes hordei'ed by nn- row ridiics. These have evidently resnlted I'roni tin; pciir- tration into the mass ol" water carryinjj; lime in solutiuii, after the joints had been formed, and the farther soiidiH- cation of the rock on each side of the joint. 'J'he wavi^ beat terribly aji'ainst this reef, and it is badly l)roken up. Continning northward along the reef, which somclimr^ forms a smooth jjavemcnt to the beach, at others olistriid^ it by bi'oken nnisses of stone, we come to a rocky |i(iiiii where the shore bends in abrnj)tly, and makes a little Imy. The beach ridge ends as abrnptly, and the shores of tln' cove have no I'idge, bnt the reef rock eontinnes straight (Mi. and forms a line of rock, stretching ont some distant across the bay, while at low tide one may see that tin reef, onlv inst covered bv water, is continned across tli< bay to a ])oint where the beach, fnrnished with a sind- ridge, follows once more its normal northward ticiiil. This locality is very interesting, becanse it shows w- that the sandstone is confmed to the beach, and that, when the beach ridge and the sands behind have hww swcj)t away, by a storm or otherwise, the bared reef may stretch, like a wall or breakwater, across the coast iii<leii- tation tims formed. Still farther northward we find the beach bordered by a rROVINTK or KSriRlTO SANTO. Hi iViiiLniiLM-ccf of this sort. — a sort of in-(>^ular fliiiririiiu' lo it< ciIl;!'. Uidinir over tlicso one sees the oiMlinnry shells of till' const, with tlit'ir coloi-s still IVcsh. iiiiliiMlilcd in the rock. Tlicrc is II species of iiuiriiie worm wliicli coiisti'iicts on these Kicks, near low tide, ureat, roinuled, llatteiie(l aii'Liloiuera- tjoiis (if saiul-tuhc'S, which arc sometimes more than a loot ill licj'jhl, and I'esemhlo immense spon}i'(>s. Tlie sand is vcrv cuinpaetly comcnted together, as mi.Liht he inferred fi'oni tjicii- witlistanding the continnons pomidin,<:' of the Atlantie villi. ."Sometimes thc^se masses are hroken across, when ilic\- :i|ipear like fragments of some hirg(> Astriean. Ai one Idciilityoii the shore, opjiositc these rocks, thei-e is a shallow hc^uoii ol' consideralile extent, called ^faririen, which lies just liehind tlie heach, and is se[)arated from the sea only liv ilic heach ridge, which latter rises to a height of Mir ri\c feet ahove high-water mark. I fonnd the sni'face iif ilii> lake to he, on the IHth Xovemher, ISl].'), ahont five t'cct ;ind a half ahove the level of the sea at low watei-.* Since it is separated from the sea hy only a nai'row ri<lge uC siind, there is a constant soaking of its waters fhi-oiinh the licacli at low tide. It has seemed to me prohalde that tlic waters (»f the lagna ))ercolating throngli the heach might li;ivc something to do with tla^ solidineatioii of the sands. Til" luii'row heach which separates the lake from the sea i^ the only dry gronnd lietween the swamps ami the ocean, iiiid it is the road taken i)y the wild animals j)assing north iiiiij siiiitli along tlie shore. At As Azeitcs, a little settle- nieiit near the shore, and ahont three leagues south of ."^ao .M;iiliei»s, there arc several lieach ridges, one ..iside of the "dier. Inside of these, draining the lagoas and swamjjs of di<' south, flows a little Idack-water stream called the Rio * The tide here rises about six Ccct six inches. 110 GKOLOOY AND PHYSICAL GEOGIlArilV. il Miirlrlcu.* At As AzcitoH the swampy ro«i-ion is several miles wide, and a cuusidenihle jtart of it is overflowed ; Imi ih,. lairoons and sti-eams arc so masked l»v lloatinj; masses of water-jilants {hiiisas), and a dense swamp vi'«:'etatioii, ihat the eonntiy is impassalile, and conse(|iiently nnknouii to the iidiahitants of the district itself. At Azeites the Ahiriricii is only a narrow, navigahlc channel leading* throiii:li a wide, overflowed rcg'ion, and 1 (ordered l»y balsas of g-rass arltorescent arums, and trees. A narrow canal, scnci; hundred feet lon<jj, is here cut throngh the floatinji; vcLn'ta- tion to reach terra firma. On descendin«i-, the chaiiiid fi'('(|U(Mitly expands into lii'uad laj^oons, diversified hy lialsns. and islands with clumps of trees, hut the channel soon cnii tracts, thouiih the g-rowth of floating grasses f on each sidr makes it appear very nuich narrower than it is in reality. In some jilaces it is one hundred and fifty feet wide and tin to fifteen feet deep. The lands ) (ordering it are, for a liiiiir part, only just above water, and are licavily wooded. In tluM' forests one sees the (Janudleira ( Finish, ixud the Tucum palm ( Asfrocarf/um lucuma !Mart.), furnishing a valuable fibre, iiml the Ingit, Avhile on the o|(en grounds flourishes the Cnslicu'. or Cajueira (^Anacardium orridrn/fi/c), some immense i\vv< of which I saw growing at As Azeites. These lands nir very excellent for the cultivation of rice. There are shhk stretches of higher sandy grounds, which, though not feitiji', are more or less cultivated, ])ro(lucing mandioca, feijao, fdt- ton, rice, and corn. The Maririeu em|>ties into the Siio Ma- tlieos a few miles aliove its mouth. The tide, which 'i'"" * III all jirolialiility duriiifr heavy frcslu'ts some of the shore lai;i'ia- ni;iy make outlets for themselves ; hut the only harras I saw hetween the Dnic ai': Silo Matheos wore those of Monseri'as and Seceii. t This is the resort of }:rpai nunihers of allifj:ators, cnpaharas, and of in!iny:'pt- cies of water-1 tints, — dueks, jHirnis, cranes, &c., — many of which breed there. PROVINCE OF ESI'IRITO SANTO. 117 up tin' Siio Aliithcos Home thirty-five miles, makes its iiillii- (■iicf t'clt up the Mariricu for some disliince. Sonicliines, (liiriii.i; tiroiilhs, Ihe sail water Hows up th<' river ami kills ijic floaliuj^ u'rasses, nml many of the IVesh-waler fi>h die. TIk' \\\o ."^ao Matheos ' ^es in the proviui-c of Minas, in tjir foi'est, south of tlu^ (,'oloiiia (!(■ rrucu : luit I have im inroruiatiou as to the exaet point, lor (he ici^iou of it-, lir;i(l-\vaters is a forest iiihahileil hy savaues and (jiiiti' luiexplored. Jn a manuseri|)t map kindly furnished iiir ly my friend, Ilerr Rohert. Sehlohaeh, Imperial cuLd- iicrf III' ihe Mucury, the Hio Sao Matheos is I'cprcseutrd as tiikiiiLT its rise u few miles south of rhiladel|thia. Its aii- riciit name was Cricaiv, or (^nirieai'd. It is lormcil hy the iiiiiiin.at a distanei? of ahout sixty nnles alioNc its mouth, of tu.) liranches eallcMl, respectively, Jh'iieo do Noite and Iha^o iJ'iSul. I made a horsehaek journey to the Fazenda do Cajtitao (iiaiiilc, distant some fortv-livc miles IVom tlie eitv of Sao Matlicns, and situated on the Ih'aro do Norte, a frw nnles iiliuvr its iunidion with the Hraeo do Sul, and, descend- iii'i to the sea, mappe(l the river as far us Sao ;^hltheos, ImIiiw which I was pi-evented from continuinji' my work. At Capitao (Jrande the river, a stream some one hundred ifct wide, shallow and swift, flows in the Itottoni of a vnllcy.cut through the tertiary formation, which here lia> a iliirkiicss, id)ove river l<'\(d, of three hundred feet, more or ifs>. Oil l)()th sides of the valley the country is a plain, fur till' most part heavily timhered, especially on the slopes. At the I'a/.cnda, the soils on the slopes a|)pear to lie drift, and ;iiv cxcccdinoiy fertile. The eolVee on the slopes was viL:(»r- •■iis ami healthy, without lilight, and it was very heavily finitcd witli a herry of excellent aronui. 1 do not i-emendter luiviiin' seen anywhere hetter coHee-trces than those at Cupi- 118 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GnOGRAPIIY. tilo Oraiulo. The soil yicMs miuidioca and tlio otlior proilncfs proper to (he cliiiiatc in aliuiHlancc. In tlie narrow valliv the eliniate is ve it hot, trying', and I'cvei'ish, l)nt the clearin'j; away of the forests will change its eliai'acter. On the l>i;i(ii <lo Xorlc clays are oecasionally exj)osed in the l)lulVs, tof^vili- cr with a kind of coarse white sandstone snch as wonld iv. suit from the hai'dening of the sandy clays of the tertiary. There are hnt few inhabitants on this branch of the rivci', Of the Iha(M) ilo Sul I "know nothin^i'. The nuiin river is u resjieetable little stream, one hundred ami fifty to two Iniii- dred feet in width above Sfio Ahitheos, and boi'dcred \,\- alluvial lands, which lie in the bottom of a valley cut throuuh ihe tertiary l)eds, and vary nuich in wiitlh. Tin' valley is bordered by blnlTs, in which sandstones and ehi ^ of ordinary type are occasionally seen. The tertiary sli>|i(s are very fei'tile and lar.trely cultivated, as are, to a considn'- able extent, the lands on the npper plain,* so that tin' country, with its numerous fazendas ami cucoa-palni trees. wears a very pleasant aspect. The cocoa jtalni {Cocus nucifcra) is, aecordinj^ to Wal- * Tlu' sdil lit' till' iiiiiKT ])li(iii, wlicn nnclcarcd, ii.Miaily lioiirs si lioiivv for. -: ;;n)\vth. It i> iiioiv or k'ss Siindy 1111(1 clayey, and I slioiild siipj)osc wmild I dillicult til wink ; hut I am told tliat t^wh is not tlic case. It is frc(|iiiriil. (M^vcnd with a tliin layer of loose sand on the surface, owinir to tlie w:i>liiiij away of the clayey portion l>y the surface water. It is csjuci Ilv fitted for tl,- cilii\aiioM of luandioea, which flourishes well in a saiidv .-oil, as well :i- fi : cotton, wliic'i al>o does well in a soil of that kin. 1. Cane is planted to nmi; extent. A'l'lun cleared, tl.ose lands make excellent irra/iii!.'- jrronmls, hut irni- mu:-t he pIaiitc(L On the Sert.lo flourish the Xai/ti, Timhnrr, and .l/mv' palm- Northwest of Sao Matheos, on the north side of the river, are some extcibivo barren and swampy jilains covered hy a vcL;etation com|>osed of Airn\>\ anioii;:' which I oliserveil a sjiecie- of Vaceiniiim in fruit. The soil of the rivir- borders is Massajic', and very fertile ; lint these are i^cnerally vervlow ami li:'l'li to l)e Hooded. Near Sao Matheos are extensive swam])s, whicli sometimes brvl verv miiliiiiuiut fevers. OB PROVINCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 110 hiiT and otlior "rood aiithoritios, not a native of America, and ill;' t ;irly explorers of IJrazil do not speuk (jf it. Its lionic ;i|ilM'ai's ((J liiive lieeii in (Ik; Kust Indies, l)iit it has bei-n in- lioihired into America, j)roi)alily by natural means, the ini- ]i( i\ious shell and thick husk litting the IVuit to hear long- time /ortation hy ocean currents. It is now found every- wlicre on tropical ct)asts, Itut in the East Indies it is more lur^cly cultivated than elsewhere, sometimes even forming Idiots. It is a very valuable tree, furnishing food, oil, liln'e tnr (ordage, arrack, A:c., tVrc* \'(iii Tschudi says that \'illa A'i(;osa is the southern limit (it'ilii> palm in Iha/.il. This is not (piite correi *. South of •"ao Matheos these trees are but rarely seen, l)Ut they, hnw- t'vci'. grow at Rio de Janeiro, and great numl)ers nuiy be -(■en (»n the shores of Faiiueta, while there are a few speei- iiifus on the islands of C(jbras and Villeu'anhao. At the IJaiia do Sao Matheos they grow veiy well, and at the Fa/'iida do Campo Redondo, at a distance of several miles IVoiii the sea, there is a fine grove on the edge ol' a l)lull'. Tliis palm, as has been IViMpiently I'einarked. ai)p('ars to iluuii-h bi'st on the sands of tin,' st'a-shore, and it is \»'ry rarely seen at any great distance inland. A specimen was seen by I'urton on the Sao Francisco at Pircjo do Salgado, three hundrcMl nnd fifty miles from the sea : and. according to the same observer, the cocoa palm eeeurs in oci-asion i patches thence cowii the river. Hurton speaks of a large grove twenty-eight miles to the sou^llwe^t ef -loa/.eiro. and lu> suggests tluit the saline character of the M'il may niaki' up for the want of sea air. * Sec llMiniltim. Description of Hinilostiiii, Vol. II. p. 210. IMi-vrn, Bot,\ii- Wn\ Ciiii^niphy, j>. .'J.'U. Triuisactions of Royal Asiiitic Society of (ircat I{rit;iiii, Vnl. I. ],, ;-,4G. Bennett's Travels in New Soutli Wales, &e., Vol. XL, Aj.pen- liix, p. 295. 120 GKOLOGY AND I'lIYSIUAL (IHOGHAIMIV. ■-jj^j^ -''i --V-. '*. -=r r.\/.i:Nl)A 111'' CAIMIM) i;i:i)UM)(), sAO MATiricos. Ilumlioldt fuiu;;! lliis iialiu ^rowinu: in llu' interior of Veiu'zuola. and the Diiia' Paul von Wiirlcniliui'u- ivports it as flourisliinji-, at a distance i'roni the sea. in the island of Culia. It occurs, also, sometimes in the interior (if India. In Brazil I luivc seen the cocoa palm as far south as lati- tude '2-]^ at Rio. It is grown ahundanllyin the provinces of Dahia, S(>riii))e, Alagnas, Pernamhuco, and alony- the coast northward, l)ut near the eipiator it is rarely seen. Tin northern limit a|)pears to lie within latitude 2'S' north of tin' equator. ^layeri says, on the authority of Ifmnholdt, tiiat ill \'cne/.ucla it ascends to the heiu'ht of 7<>'> toises almve the i)lain, or in the vicinity of 4,r)00 feet ahovc the sea. The products of the Sao ^latheos region are principally mamlioca nu^al ( f(in'n/ni), together with some sugar, cacao. beans. Ac, A'c. The caeiio is principally planted on the lower grounils. where it yields well. The influence of the tide is fult at a distance of some twenty-five miles, or more, aho\(' tlic mouth of the river, and navigation f(jr small vessels ends a lew mill's alioi iii';iring t ci'jlity to ( and other iihifC. par till' hlidfs Ii lias al Xilli:' i.'ons ill'/ steam ]ially in ri\t'r llie tjviid olf 1 llit'v near t'l asci'jlx', wliirh the D.'low tl nlisti'ui'ted (ii'i'asimial ly a dense the sea on sai;'ly plaii Tlh' ii\-er-l iiilici' lii'aci dii'iii. Sal city of Silo niil'js in a ( l(ir;i(('i| (111 alniiit wrst- fioni die ci Maiiiicu ; aliiivc tlio iionhwcst. VUL. I. m I'ROVIXCL OF ESPIRITO SANTO. 121 mill's above the town. The hcijrht of the hhifTs decreases on iiraiiiiii' iIh' coa.st, and, at the city, tlicy are not more than rijhtv to one hnn(h"ed feet. Sao Matheos, like Nova Ahneida aihl iitlicr Unizilian towns, is l)uilt j)artly on the edji'e of the iiliiff. partly at it.s loot, l>y the river-side, at the ])oint where till' hliiffs leave the river and rnn S(jnth\vard to the Duee. li li;is aliont two thousand iidialiitanls, and is a place of r-iww' c(»iisideral»le importance, beinj^ rt.'ached by the eoast- iii'i stcaiiK'is anil little schooners. The trade is ])rinei- pallv in farinha, feijao, ite. On the ojiposite side of the river the l)hdrs I'un eastward ft>r a few miles, and then tniid nil" northward to Itahilnas, decreasing in heiju'lit as tlii'\ near the sea. 'i'his decrease in height, I am inclined Id asciilie, in ]»art, to the slope of the old sea-bottom, on \vl;i<'li the tertiary beds were deposited. Dclnw the town the river grows wider, shallower, and is olistincted by sam.l-banks. The Ijanks are low, with only (iceasional plantations, and are, for the most part, covered liy a dense forest ; but, lying between the tertiary lands and tlie ^ea on the northern side, at least, are ([uite extensive siih'ly plains with their accompanying sparse vegetation. Tiir river-banks are generally nniddy, and the aninga and nilier brackish-water swamp plants grow abnndantly on tlicin. Salt-water crabs and fish ascend to the town. The citv of Sao Matheos cannot be more than seven or eiuht iiiii'js in a direct line from the sea, and is very incorrectly lucatcij (111 the maps. According to my observation, it lies aliniil wi'st-southwest of the barra. The river, descending Irnm thr eity, makes a large bend southward, receiving the Maririru ; it then runs north a few degrees east, and, just aliovo the baiaa bends round and enters the sea from the iiuriluv(>st. The maps show a Kio i^ao Domingos entering VUL. I. 6 122 GEOLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. the Sao Mutlicos, just altovc the villa, but I liml no note of it in my JDiunal. The A'ilhi da Harra do Silo ^hithecjs i.s situated on a I'idti'C of sand, onlv a stone's throw IVoni the sea, hilt it is neai'iy two miles from the nioulli, beeause the river tlows soulliward, hrhind the heaeh rid^ze for tliat dis- tanec, l)elbro esenping into the sea. On Ijoth sides of the river, l)ut jtartieuhirly on the southern side, there are extiii- sivc manu'rove swamps, wliich furnish veiy interesting col- k'cting grounds for the naturalist, for they are cs])ecially rich in crustaceans. Among the mangroves two genera an rcj)resentod, — L(i^-iinnii(iri(i and Aricciinia. The conniiDU ivd mangi"o\e of the Brazilians is the Ltii^iincuhi/'ia racvuiDsa Gaert., of wiiich the wood is used for burning, and the leaf and liark Ibr taiming. The second species is the Avicennia tuiiicii(()S(i liinnc, used for the same {)urposes. One league, (^r therealiouts, north of the JJai'ra do Siiu Matheos, is the mouth of the Rio Itahunas, or (luaxindiba. This little stream, a black-water I'iver, as has already liccii noted by ^hix. zu Xeu~Wied,* rises in the Sertiio, and reac)u'> the coast at a point sonic three leagues north of the month: but a l)eaeh ridge, only a few hundred feet in width, prevents its reaching the sea, and causes it to bend i»bru[)tly to \\w southward, so that it flows along, through the low groumls. * Prinz Max. zu Ncii Wiod, Rrisf nach Drasilieii, Vol. I. ]). 226, says tiiat th- Peixcboi, or luiuiiiti, ^f(lnatus amcricanus, occurs in a lnr!::c }^rass-;;n)\vn hiki south of the Sao Matlicos and coniniunicatins witli tliat river, and tliat it uskI to he ea]>tureil li}- tlie inhaliitants fur tlie sake of its liluhher, flesh, and ear-boms: and in the seeond volume of his livitrnrjp mr Xcilnniisrhiclile von Bnisilim, ]ki;"' 602, he states that it occurred |)lentifidly in tlic rncr and lake aloiesaid. it i:i the vicinity of the (Juartel Jiiparanaa, and was formerly fre{|nently taken liy the inhahitants. IIo adds, however, that he had never seen a s])eciiiun. While at Sao Matheos, and durin:^ a stay of three months in that ]iart it' the coast, I lU'ver heard the aninnil spoken of, and I do not believe that it :- now to be lonnd there. (Sec note on page 75.) rROVLNCE OF ESPIRITO SANTO. IL':] iii>t luliiiul the beach ridge, I'ur two or iliree Ica^Tics. It is rather narrow, hut very (U-ep, and vessels of eoiisi(h>r- iiliji' size enter it. It is navigahh' (or some distance into ilic iutei-ior, and rurnishcs an excellent water hidiway. \r;ir its mouth a riaclio * enters it iVom the southward, and this affords navigation nearly to the liana do Sao Mii- tlicos. A caiud is being opened to Join this riaeho with the Silo Matheos. The low lands between the bluffs and the coast are for the most part timljcred ; l)ut they furnish some excellent i)astnragc. On the ltahunas,a strip of sand niar- tiins tin; blufis and ajjpcars to be the continuation of the sand plain ou the Sao Matheos. The blufis boi'dering the plain aic only thirty or forty feet in height, but thev grow higher as we go westward, and, at a distance of two leagues IVom llahuiias, they arc at least one lumdred feet high. 'I'hey have, as elsewhere, steep sIoi)es, and, in part at least, are covei-ed by a very fertile soil. On the Fa/enda of Seidior Olimlo riomes dos Santos I saw most excellent croj)s, espe- cially of niandioca and cotTee, which were almost, if not M'liti'. e(|ual to anything on the Sao Matheos. nil' ili(> shore, in front of the ' un of Itahunas, are some I'mIocs of rock washed by the waves. 1 could not examine i!i''iu, but I thought them to Ije sandstones. The Idutfs sweep round to the sliore, just to the north of a little riaeho, called Doce, if I mistake not. and a short distance to the S"uth of the first jtoint north of Itahunas ; they form along th" shore, for a distance of several miles, a line of hiw 'litis, which, from their whiteness, havi^ received the name ofOs Len(;oes, These elitfs are nowhere more than thirty t" forty feet in lieight, this l)eing the thickness of the forma- tion exposed above the sea. The most prominent featm-e * 'llus term is applied to small estuaries. It means literally a small river. 124 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. in this lino oCclirr.:, is a hard •rray grit with an argillaeoous conicnt, and in some i-'laccs twenty feet in thickness. This rock is composed of materials j)recisely like those of tlie sandy clays of Lagoa .Iii|iaranaa, and elsewhere ; l»nt llio rock is so compact an<] hard as to he used as a hnildiiii:- st<»ne at I tahunas, although I lielieve that the stone uctnally used is dei'ived from (jnai-ries near the village. Associated with this rock are white and red clays, and lieds of the common, coai'se, red, lavadikc sandstone.* The cliffs cinl at. or in the innnediate vicinity of, the lliacho das Ostrus. a lit'ie, hlack-water stream, of whose course J know nothiiiu-. hut the hlulfs continue along the shore nuich further. Hiaclid Novo is another l)lack-water stream, which, hefore emptyiiiu into the sea, runs forsevei-al miles in a deep channel just hc- hind the heach ridge. The tide enters this channel, and it i- navigahli! for canoes for a considerable distance. The whulc country between Itahunas and the Mucury is wooded, the lowei" and wet grounds very luxnriantlv, the hiuher and ilrici less HO, the latter often suji[)orting only a thick gi'owth dI" small trees and bushes. Dunes of sand occur on the sIkhv near the Mucury, and in one locality there are exposal mi the sand-beach the stum|)s of trees, rooteil in their soil ami upright, something which points to an encroachment on the shore by the sea. 1 have observed dead trees, a[)parently mangroves, standing in the water olf the shore l)elow Cain- vellas. Has there been a recent dejtression of this part df the coast ? * I was delavcd one mornin-r .at u little settlement just south of tl'.e RiiU'limlas Ostnis, ant! I undertook iv ciireful exiuninatinu of the heds for fossils, hut I >:iw not the sli;;l)test traee of orj;anie remains in them. I lun sorrv that I was uii- ahle to make notes on the arranuement of the materials in tlie cliff; hut tli' place was like a furnace, and I was driven away hy the sun, blinded and ex- hausted. PROVINCE OF MIN'AS GERAES. 12; CHAPTER III. 4 I'UOVINCE OF MINAS GERAF.S. — THE MUCURY AND JEQI'I- TINHONIIA r.ASINS. The 15i\>in of tlic Mucury. — Turto Alcf^re. — Description of tlic TJivcr lulow Siiiiia Clara. — Liixiiriiince ol' Fofu.st W'^^ftatitin. — Santa (JIara. — Minas ("icrMcs a I,an<l-locki'il rrovinco. — Want of Hoaiis. — Tlie I'liiladelpliia Koail iiml till' Miicnry (."oloniuM. — DirtbreiicL' in 'I'o|)oj,'ra|iliy and Soils ln'twi'e'n tlio T(i;iary antl Gneiss Lands west of Siinta Clam — Unicii, its Duteli Colony, Soils Climate, liic. — Piiiladeljiliia and its German Colonies. — Cireat Fer- lilii\ of the Miienry I$a>in. — Characti r of Country between riiilaililiihia ami the Ileadwatrrs of the Mnenry. — The Basin of the .Je(|nitiiihnnlui. — Till' liiii I'ardo. — General Geolojrical Structure of tiie Jeiiiiitinlionha-rardo Ba.>in. — The Head-waters of the Sftnbal, their Geological Features and Cii- tiii'.'a Forests. — Gcolojrii'al Fs 'on from the Fazen(hi de Santa Barbara to .\ltiM!ii> Hois. — Didicidty 01 ;■ , in Brazil. — The Brazilian Cani- [Kis — The Cliajiadas between itinira and Calhiio. — The preat Callia'o- Ani-»iialiy Valley. — INraenificent View over the Valley from the Chapada at .\;.'iia da Nova. — Calhiio and the Geoloi,'y f)f its Vicinity. — De<cri|ifioii of the Ciiinitry between Calha'oand Sncnriii. — The Chapadas. — Minas Novas, it- (ieoloL'v, CiolilMines. Cve. — r)c, urrenee of Gold in Drift. — Gold-Mines 'if llie Arraial da Chapada ; their former Uiehness ; not yet worked out. — Drionipositionof Clay Slates in the Minas Novas Region .— The Rio Aras- >iiahy. — The Rio Jei|Mitinhonlia from its Conflnenre with th? Arassuahy to the Sra ile.'^eribed ; its Geology, Vegetation, Commerce. — The Salto Gratido. Till-: Rio Mucury takes its rise in the province of ^finas, alioiit V)0 miles west of Villa Vicosa, amouir the liinh lauds which form the water-shed houndinu- the basin of the J(>([ui- tiuhonha on the cast. Its course for the first seventy-five miles, curves excepted, is approximately east-northeast, when it meets the Rio Preto, a stream rising in tltc same water-shed 126 GFOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GF-OGRArilY. somo foi'fy luilcs fo llic iiorth-iioi'thotist. This last river flows with a (•oiii'sc aliuost pariiUrJ to the Miiciuy up to alioiit the siimc incfidiaii, when it rrccivcs the little Ixio das Aiiiericiiiins eoniinfi' IVoin the north. It then liends iiliriijith- to the south, to join tho Mucury, the conihin(>d waters of thr two stiranis fiowini^ still southwai'd until they reach the Uio Todos OS Santos, a stream risiuLi; at a point south of flic JMueury, and i'oviy miles south of the source of th<' Rio I'ro- to, and ilowinj^ also parallel with the Mucury. The Muciirv soon Iiends graduiilh' i »uud to the cast, and, jnakinu' sev- eral broad curves, runs with a pMieral southeast direct jdn to Santa Clarr, on the boundary between the provinces of ^linas, I>ahia,and Espirito Santo, a distance of thirty milos, in a strai<:^"ht line, but, much more, followinu' the (M)ursc (if the I'iver. The Rio Urucu is another river llowini^ in a val- ley paralhd with the Todcjs os Santos and U[)per ^[ucury, liiit emptying into the ^lucuiy proper on the right bank, sniur fifteen miles in a sti'aight line l)el(jw the mouth of iIh Todos OS Santos. On the opjiosito or northern side llir Mncnry receives, al)ont eight or ten miles farther down, tlic Rio Pampao, which comes from the north, and has apj)!!!'- ently a course of about sixty miles; I)nt its upper watcr.s have never been explored.* Above Santa Clara the Macun and its tributaries are swift and obstructed by rajiids, Imt from Santa Clara the main river runs with a very tortuous conrse, as a rh (Varcia, to the sea, into which it empties in latitude 18^ G' S., and ten and a half miles sonth of the yAX- allel of Santa Clara. Its waters come principally from tiie province of Minas, where it drains an irregular triangular * Pome of the lands of tlie ^riicnry company were situated on the Pauipiiii. The only one who has visited them is my friend Mr. George Sehieher, one of the surveying corps of tlie Mucury. PROVINCE OF MINAS GF.RAKS. 1: atv;i. liiMuidtMl ;is I'dHows : Uya lino rumiiiif:; due luirlh aloiii;' ilh Scit;i (Ids AynuM't's, ci<>-lity miles, aiiollHT line. \'-\') miles Idii::'. i'iiiiiiiii<i" a little east of iioi'tlieiist, and iiiiotlicr on the siiiitli alioiit lid miles l(Mig. and i-unnini;' east-west aloiiii' the watcr-slieil di\idinu- the hasin of (he Miienry iVom tlii»se of llii' I luce and Sao Matheos, This ti'ianizle is a riuht-anii'led (i!ii', I'^roni its sontheast nntile the area drained Inrnis an jiivniilai' sti'ip some six or more miles wide, alonu" the mid- ijlc 111' which (lows th(.' river. In tlu^ study of this I'iver sys- tem, sevei'al points strike one as interest inu:. The |)arall(d- ism (iftlie Rios I'reto, Miieui'v, Todos os Santos, aiul I'l^nei'i >liii\\>; lliat they flow in jtarallel \ alleys, which are evidently (|ctcniiini'(l hy the trend oCthe foldings into which the gneiss is thrown. The coineitlence in direetiou hetweeii theeonrses (if die l\io das Amorieanas and that of the Rio Treio ahove the Miicury, and the latter toils eonflnence with the Tijdos os Saiiti.s. points to a valley iMinning north-sonth, into which till' rivers Preto, Todos os Santos, and ^Ineurv emiitv as side Iriliutaries. The Pampao flows in a similar valley. It is iiitcivsting to eomi)aro the l»asin of the Mneniy with that of file \hn'v. In eaeh, the greater part of the region drained lie; west of the coast eordilheira, while east of the cordilheira till' ai'ca dwindles down to a narrow strip hordering the river on eaeh side. Betwt'en these two river.; are intereal- uted tli(> Sao Mathoos, Itahunas, S:c. \\ ilh tliese introdnctorv remarks on the livdi'o<>-rnphv of the .Mucury liasin I propose to give a somewhat detailed •I'si'iiptioii of the river hasin in ascending the river to Santa * lai'a, and then traversing the basin thence westward to the iK'ad of the ^[ncnry Peqneno, along the line of the Santa <'lara. Philadelphia, and Afinas road. The Rio Mncnry, con- trary to the general rule, enters the sea obliquely from the 128 GEOLOGY AND THYSICAL GKOGRArilY. south. Its inoutli is luirrow iiiul diniciiU to enter, l»('iii_r mueli less |iiiietiealile tluiii the Sfio Matlieos. On the left hnnk ut the mouth, liuilt on a snnd-hiiuk, and surnjuiidi i| 1)}' niangi'ove swanqts, is the niiseralilc little villa<^e to wliicli the riilieulous misnomer of Porto Al(\ui-e has heen a]t|iliril, 'J'lie place is of iniportanLC only as the j)ort oi' the Muiiiiv distiict, which e.\|)orts eolfec, cotton, rosewood, ttc. Fioiii Porto Ale.ure larii(5 (juantities of salt are sent into the inte- rior, where it finds its way into the very heart of the jnnv- ince of Minas CJeraes. Dry ^oods arc also imported throimh the same chainiel. The town is one of tlu* most wi'etclicil I saw in Iha/.il. Its inhabitants arc jirint'ipally of Tnpi oiii^in. From Porto Aleirre to Santa Clara, a distance of foi-ty-IJM miles in a straight line, hut at least lifly-live hy the ri\('r. the stream is i-ather shallow, very tortuous, narrow, ami affordinj!; naviuation for pranc/ias, canoes, and a very sinall steamer; hut the water is, for a eonsiderahlc part of the year, so shallow, and the river is so ohstructed hy saml- hanks, that it is naviu-ahlc constantly only for canoes.* .hist ahove Poi'to Aleu're the tertiary hhiffs ajtpear, and siiinl- stones and clays arc exposed in them. At fn-st these \\\n\J> are not very hiuh, in some places measurint^ only IVdin eiuhty to one hundred I'ovt ; hut, ascendiuo,' the river, tluir elevation increases, and at Santa Claraf they are some '1''" feet ahove sea U-vel. At Santa Clara the whole thickness of the formation is not displayed in these hluffs ; for, hack fnuii them tlic tertiary hinds reach, in some ])laccs, an altitude of * In tlic latter ])!in of .Tanuary, ISGO, ^fr. Cdpoland and I ascended tlio river in tlie little steamer. The water was so shallow that we were coiistanily runninp: npronnd. A fvw k'a^iies helow Santa Clara we stnek fast, aiul th' rest of the distance we had to make in the praneha we had l)een towin'_'. t Santa Clara itself is 3'27 palmos above sea level which would mako the level 9f the river helow the rapids only a few palmos lowr. PROVINCE OF MINAS (JKRAF.S. 129 ?,Ct() (('('t altovo sea lovol, ac'C()r(liii<; to actual iiicasunMuont. The liver valley is vciy narrow, ami the sides lia\e a steep >|(ijic. 'Die alluvial lauds ai'e suiall in exteul. IJotli they :iiii| till- tertiaiT lauds arc covered liy a very heavy aud lux- uriiiiit lorest, aud tho sccueiy ou the river is ol" siu"|tassiu<.'; lininty : \\>y heie, as on the Doco, the trees crowd dowu to till' water's cdtio, Ibriniug a deuse wall ol' verdure. A host (it' speeies of l)cautil"id-lcavcd and liriuiit-llowinu' cliniliiu!^ ji'niiits hanti" a dense curtain iVoui tree t«» tree, and soniotiines (lc|M'iid in fc^lds from the outstretched liraiiches. like the dra- jicry from the arm ol" an auti(|ue. The tiueiss first makes its ;i|i|)earauce helow the tertiaiy rocks at a place called [Kills Iriuaos, some eitiht lea<rucs, more or less, helow Santa Cliii'a. It has a northward dij). At Santa Clara naviti'atiou is made impossible hy a series of rapids, aud thence iido till' province of Mimis tlie Mucury is i-ajiid, aud has many I'liils. At Santa Clara, which is only a collet^tiou (d" a lew ilwcllinirs and warehouses, huilt ou naia-ow alhnial Hats ell the rinht l)auk of tho river, the valley is vi-ry mirrow, iiiiil has steep hanks. The rocks in the ri\-er are e'ueiss,* wliirh is much veined with li-rauite. 'J'his locality is wvy uiiliealthy, owing to the narrowness of the valley, and the i!iv;it heat of the day, — which often u'ives way to damp t'oLis ly iiiuht, — to the had character of the river water. and tu swanijis in the vicinity on the top of the cluipada.f * The r>irriii>ian'n (leixjrnfiro saj'S that iron ore exists witliiii tlic district of Pnrto AicL're, In ; does not indicate the locality. Von Tscluuii, licisen dinrli Siiij-Aimr., Vol. II. p. 3^S, says tliat he has found chrysolites in the river-sand at llif IJivrra. ■f 1 was attacked hy fever here, and only escaped hy removing to the hii;h frroumls of Minas. I o'vc a deep debt of gratitude to Signora Gazzinelli, who ti'ok a mother's earo of me, and also to my faitiiful and generous companion. Mr. Scliicher, whose kindness I never can forget. 6* I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V /. y. V.x 1.0 I.I 1.25 JlfiM IIM lu 1^ - lifi IIIIIM 6" 1= U III 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 •\ 'i\ V % .> ^<fe V 6^ %^ %^ 130 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Any one gliincing at a map of Brazil will sec that the ricli and populous pnninc'e ot" !Minas Oeraes is land-locked, ai^l separated IVom the sea by serras and forests. The Sena du Manti([ueii'a and the Scrra do Mar skirt it on the south, aii'l on the cast the coast mountains, colleetivcly known under tin name of the Scrra dos Ayniores, clothed with forest, form its eastern boundary line. None of its rivers are naviuahle to the sea, though some of them are, lor scores of miles. navigable in tlieir upper courses ; but all of them are ob- structed l)y heavy falls or rapids in their descent from tlif plateau to the coast plains. Many of them, as is the case with the Docc, Mucnry, Jequitinhonha, and Sao Francisco. are navigal)le in their lower courses, in some cases, even u]i to the confmcs of the province. Prom Rio a railroad to tlic foot of the Serra da Estrella, with a magnificent Avagon-i'oad, which, crossing this Serra and the Serra da Mantiqueira, con- nects with the Barbaccna district, about 152 miles in a direct line from Rio. An excellent railroad crosses the Serra do Mar to the northwest of Rio, and enters the valley of tlio Parahyba, down which it extends many miles. It is to ]iv extended northward into the province of Minas. But tlic greater part of ^linas is destitute of wagon-roads, and tlu' traffic is almost wholly carried on on the backs of mules. The coast forest- and mountain-belt Ijounding the province is al- most entirely uninhal)ited and impassable. A very small quantity of salt and other articles of commerce finds its way in canoes up the river Docc, as already stated, and a larwr quantity by the sam.; means enters the province by the .le- (juitinhonha ; but commerce with the sea-coast is carried on with great difficulty and at much expense. Thus, a l)ag of salt that costs two milrcis at the sea-coast is worth ciglit or even eleven milreis by the time it has reached the interior of Minas. twciity-five midd wagon- the broad lb re<ji()u. A c jilishing tliit alili' iiunibei si'i'iu'cd, an( (Ml. tilt' otlu Mucury cob (■(■llfiit wag(j Santa Clara Minas Novas very large e: repicsentatic colonists wei rival, put int It was a bitt vii'iriii forest. and the villa; political 0])pt the dilficultic pfiny failed ; serted by wlr a miserable e is out of repa * To the Sen tioM, wliidi secur journey. ' I should sta Tho-ip that I liad 111' of a 5:ood, ini cora|iany. PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 131 of ^rinas. The Senator Tlieopliilo Bcncdicto Ottoni,* some t\\riitv-(ivc years ago, conceived the project of opening a oodil wiigon-road from Santa Clara to Minas No\as, through till' liroad forest region of the Mucnuy, and of colonizing that ivuion. A company was organized for the purpose of accom- plishing this object. Through agents in Europe, a consider- aliL' iiunilter of German, French, and Swiss colonists were ficrun'd, and two colonics were founded, one on the Rio Uru- (U.thc other at Philadelphia, on the Todos os Santos, the Mucury colonies l)eing founded in the year iSoH. An ex- I't'llcnt wagon-road, now out of repair, was constructed from Santa Clara to Philadelphia, and a mule-i)ath was laid out to Minus Novas ; but the colonists appear to have been, to a very large extent, of very poor quality. Through the mis- ropresentation of the agents of the company in P]urope, the colonists were led to expect to find themselves, on their ar- rival, put into the possession of a house and cultivated farm. It was a hitter disappointment to them to be sent into the vii'irin forest. Nevertheless, extensive clearings were made, and the villages of Urucu and Philadelphia were l)uilt ; but [iDlitical ojjposition from the enemies of Ottoni was added to ilie (lilhculties the colonists had to contend with. The com- pany failed ; the colonists, disappointed in their hopes, de- serted by wholesale,! and to-day the Mucury is dragging out a niiseral)lc existence, Philadelphia is in decay, and the road is out of repair. It Avas not because the lands of the Mucury * To the Senator my companion and I are indebted for letters of introdnc- tli)n, wliii'h secured for us friends and assistance everywhere along our whole jmirnry. ^ I should state here that the worthless colonists were the first to leave. Tlio<o that I liad tlie opportunity of meetirifx in the Mucury seemed to me to K' of a trood, industrious class, but they were crippled by the failure of the company. 132 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. were not fertile. Tlicy are exceedingly rich, while the cl- matc is healthy and agreeal)le. It is not that the project of opening a road through the Mucury to Minas was nnwisdv planned, Imt it is owing to bad management on the jiart (.f the company, to the slanders of enemies, and to the Inn: cliaracler of a large part of the colonists themselves, that th^ enterprise has i)roved a failure.* The Minas road, on leaving Santa Clara, runs for a iW miles through a hilly region bordering the Mucury. This region is covered l^y the ordinary red drift soil, and is v(?iv fertile. Quite a number of German families still rcniuin hero. Beyond Barriado, where arc a few settlers, one somi leaves the river valley and rises to the toj) of the tertiaiv chapada,! which, at a distance of eleven and throe (piartt r leagues from Santa Clara, and near the Riacho das ]^■li^a^ is 1,226 feet aV)ovc the level of the sea. It forms a |ilaih like that of the Sertao $ below Santa Clara, and is well but not densely wooded. The chapada is covered liy a layer of drift of a yellowish color, in which I saw, iiidi" criminately mingled wilh the clayey sand of which it i< composed, rounded and angular fragments of quartz, saml- * The story of the Mucury is a long and sad one, and I do not wisli td cmor into it lierc. Those who desire to read the history of tlie colony will tiiu; a very fliir statement of the fiicts in Von Tsclnuli's lieisen durch Siid-Aimrtka, Vol. IL That of Dr. Ave Lallcmant is prejudiced, unfair, and unrcli;ible. t Chapada means primarily a plain, but in Brazil the term is ajiplicd to t!o- vated plains or small plateaus, usually consistinj,' of horizontal (U'])(isirs, niiil separated by deep valleys of erosion. The term chapadiio is applied to diapa- das of great extent, as the chapadao dc Santa Maria in Minas. t The term Sertao, plural Sertoes, so often used in works on Brazil, sin.; ■}' means the interior of a country as opposed to the coast. It is ajiplicd, U instance, to the lands in the vicinity of the city of Silo Matheos. The wori appears to have a somewhat indefinite signification in Brazil. The iiili;>lii- tants of the Sertao are called Sertanejos. PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 133 stone, and gneiss. This soil, like that of the plains below Santa Clara, is weak, and much inferior to the gneiss S(jils, At Riaclio das Pcdras, a little stream flowing into the Mu- ciiiy, tlie tertiary lands are left, and the road reaches a nilling gneiss country. The roc'k, wherever 1 saw it, was very coarse-grained and homogeneous, decomposed on the surface, and covered with drift clay, which is usually vciy- fiiic in texture, and i^erij red from the large percentage of ferric oxide. The hills were low and rounded, with a to|Migrai)hy like that of the coffee region of the Paraiiyba do Sill at the Barra do Pirahy. Indeetl, the two regions are jirccisely identical in soil, general t()[)ography, and climate. The country is covered l)y a dense virgin forest, far more luxuriant than that which clothes the tertiary lilain.^. The country continues with the same general character to Urucu, where it becomes diversified by ab- nijit gneiss hills, many of which are bare and precii)itous, ami give to the scenery a very romantic and pleasing air. The soils of the Urucu arc extremely fertile, and yield abun- dantly coffee, cotton, sugar-cane, mandioca, rice, etc. The climate is warm, but not so hot as on the coast, and a sea-l)i'eeze cools the air in the latter part of the day and evening. The climate appears to be healthy ; and that is ilie universal testimony of even the discontented settlers. The hills of Urucu arc all isolated masses, and form no well-defmed mountain range, though they ajipear to be the remains of a range running altout east-northeast, crossing the Prucu. Westward of the colony the country rises steadily iu altitude. At a distance of eight leagues from l*hiladelphia the road crosses a pass in the ^[orro do K'lipan at an elevation of 1,S00 i)almos. The Morro it- >»lf nmst l)e at least 3,000 feet in elevation above the level of the sea. 134 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'IIY. Pliiladcljtliia is a small villa«^c situated on the left bank of the Tudos os Santos, about forty miles aljove its conllu- cncc with tlic Mucury, and twenty-eight and a half leagues west of Santa Clara. The Todos os Santos is, like the rest of the rivers of the Mueury basin, only a respectable brook, aiiil of no especial imiwrtance in itself. Within a lew miles of Philadelphia there empty into the Todos os Saiitos sevcial little streams, among which are the Rios S. Jacintho, S. An- tonio, and S. Benedieto, which flow through fertile, cultivated valleys, and arc settled l)y German and Brazilian colonists. The ground on which the village stands is, according ti) the measurement of Ilerr Schlobach, engineer of the Mucury, 1,01<S feet aljove the sea. Many of the neighlMir- ing hills arc JjUO to 400 feet high, so that the general eleva- tion of the country would be consideral)ly above 2,000 feet. So far as the quality of the soils in the vicinity is concerned. I can only reiterate what I have said in speaking of Urueu, and repeat my eom))arison between them and the soils of the coffee regions of tlie Rio Parahylia do Sul. In one word. 1 may say that the whole country, from the Riacho das Pedras to the head-waters of the ^Mucury, forms one of the most extensive and uniformly fertile agricultural regions in Brazil south of the Amazonas, and I cannot help expressing my firm belief that nature having so abundantly blessed the Mucury, a not far distant day will see it teeming with iiihali- itants, and the highway of a commerce with the interior of Minas.* The road from Sta. Clara to Philadelphia is well * For an interesting and detailed description of Pliiladeipliia and vicinity, vide T.sehudi's Reisen durch Siid-Amerika, Vol. II. Ilis sketeli of the \i\hvz' is wretched, the hills to the south appearin;^ like an Alpine mountain range. I cannot s]ieak too stron,<,^ly of the Mueury as an aj^ricultural rej,non, and I w-niiM call the attention of enii.i;rants to it as one of the most fertile and healthy tract;' I have seen anywhere in Brazil. PROVINCE OF MTNAS GF.RAES. 135 laid out with a very good grade, and with proper rei)air, niiiilit 1)C nuide an excellent carriage-road. 'J'he soil is, liowever, very clayey, and the j)assage of the heavy ox-carts ill wet weather, not to speak of tlie gullying l»y the rains, liavc! cut it up fearfully. The Itridgcs were in had r('j)air in isiiO. The road from Philadelphia to Alahu is nothing hut a luiseralde nude-path, badly laid out, and obstructed by hushes and fallen trees, and in wet weather most abominably iiiiiddy. Just before reaching A(;ude it passes directly over tlie b»p of the highest ])oint, a])j)arently for the purpcjse of giving the traveller a view of the surrounding country. \\\st\\ard of Philadelphia the country is more hilly. Aliout one league from Philadelphia the j)ath crosses a high liill. from which one has a magnificent view over the low swelling hills of the vicinity of Philadeljdiia, with the rugged niuuutains of Urucii in the background. A short distance west of the mill of k^enhor Jose Maria, the gneiss becomes voiy micaceous, passing into mica slate, and is veiy lull of ([uartz veins. In the latter occur large crystals of l)lack touriualine. Crossing the head-waters of the Mucury, near Pete, the country in the vicinity of A(,aide is much more hilly than usual, and many of the hills are of considerable height. The whole country is still most luxuriantly forest- clothed, and the soils are extraordinarily fertile, and in some |)la('es almost Idack. About twenty-seven to twenty-eight miles west, a few degrees north from Philadelphia, the water-shed dividing the basins of the ^Mucury and Jecjui- tiuhonha is passed, and one descends into the valley of the Rio Hetulial. For the last league or so bordering the valley of the Setulial, the rock is chiefly mica slate, with much • (uartz in veins and layers. The soil is redder than usual, full of little flakes of mica, and boulders and fraunients "'-% 13G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of (luartz, aii.uulur aiul i-ouiidcd, arc found abundantly in it. Near the jiost, marking' thirteen leagues from Pliiladel|)liiu, the niiea slate appeared to have a strike cast-west. I>i[i vertical. Tlic Jequitinlioidui, one of the most important rivers of Minas (!eraes, t;dvcs its rise in the knot of the Cordil- heira do lvs[)inha(;o, in the Serra Frio, three leagues wc>t of the town of Serro, and about the same distaiiee south- southwest of the Peak of Itambe, whence come the waters of two or more of its little tributaries. The area drained by it forms an irregular triangle, of which one side, from its head-waters to Belnioute, is aboiir 820 miles. An almost continuous range of ►Serras runs with a zigzag course along this line to the conlines of the ])roviuce. On the west it is bounded by the Serra do Es[)iidia(;o, the water-shed lying west of the Serra do (liao Mogor. This side of the triangle, which runs approxi- mately north-northeast, is It!.") miles in length. The remain- ing side, which marks a water-shed determined by a series of elevated plains or chapadas, and which runs almcjst cast- west, is 210 miles long. The Jcquitinhonha at first flows with a general northeast course for al)Out 130 miles, when it receives from the nijrthwest a small river called Itacam- birussu, which rises in the Serra d'ltacambira, in the suutli- crn |)art of an oblong region west of the Serra do Grao ^logor. formed by a range of serras or highlands which leavi- the Serra do OriTo ^fogor, and bowing out westward join the 'bao Mogor range again eighty miles to the north. The centre of this region appears to be flat, and is diversiliod with a larL'C number of little lakes, which discharge their waters into the Itacambirussii. This river crosses the Grao Mogor ranui' between the Serra do Grao Mogor proper and the Serra PROVINCE OF MIXAS GERAES. i;;7 Soltrado, and reaches the valley of the Jc(initiiihonha. It then iiiiis with a southeast course for a few leagues, an<l emittics into the river of that name. The Jeijuitinhonha then changes its (•(iiirsc towards the east, and, some eight leagues farther (|((uii, receives the Rio A'acaria, a small stivani which has its source in a numl)er of lakes in the nurthern tliird (jf the scrra-enclosed region west of (tviu) Mogor. After this it rJKiiiges its course to the southeast, and in lat. 17^ S., loiin-. 1° ;;0' E. of Rio unites with the Rio Arassuahy. The Aiassiuihy is a large stream which rises in the serias a lew miles northeast of the Peak of ltaml)e, and Hows parallel with, and on an average of fifteen to twenty miles, south- cast of the Je(|uitinhonha. Its j)rincii)al afllucnts are the Rio Soledade on the left, and the Itamarandiha, Fanado, Caiiiviiiy, Agua Buja, Setubal, Gravata and Calhao, which How into it [Vom the south, or right, in the above desccud- Iim' ordcf, all, with the excejjtion of the Capivary and Agua Siija, having their sources in the high lands se|)ai'ating the .Ici|iiitiidi()nha basin from that of the Doce and Aluciuy. The Jequitiidionha, after having l)een increased l)y the waters of the Arassuahy, continues its course a few degrees cast of northeast to the sea. It is obstructed by many dan- gerous rapids and cascades, and on the boundary line, in the very extreme northeast corner of Minas, there is a magnifi- cent scries of falls, which, in the aggregate, must have an altitude of oOO feet. Eight leagues farther down, at Caxoei- riulia, it leaves the hills, and, reaching the coast tertiary ]ilaiiis, flows, a broad, beautiful stream, to the sea. Above Caxocirinha, it is navigable of course only for canoes. The Rid Pardo is so closely connected with the Je(iuitinhonlia ill the general topographical features of the country thr- 1* which it flows, that, before describing the topography and 138 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGUAFIIY. gcolojry of tlic Joriuitinhonlia basin in detail, I will first frivo a sketfli of its liydro^'rapliy. This rivei-, a much siualKr stream than the Je(iuitinh()nha, takes its rise in the Scrra das Almas, to the north of the head-waters of the \'u(;iria, and flows with a course almost west-east, enij)tyin<^ into iln' sea a lew miles north of the mouth of the Je(iuitinli()iilia. and receiving' by a side canal, as will be hereafter desciilinl. some of the waters of that stream just before it reaches the sea. Its basin is triangular in shape, long from west to cast, Imt narrow from northwest-south. It is bounded on the south by the water-shed of the Jeiiuitinhonha, which runs west- cast. The south side of the triangle coincides with this, and is 210 miles long. The west side, running along the Scrra das Almas, is about sixty miles long, while the remain- ing side is about 195 miles in length. Gerber gives the area of the basin of the Pardo as 420 s(iuare leagues, and tliat nf the Jequitinhonha as 2,200.* lIydrograj)hically, al)Ove their lower courses the two rivers form separate systems, Imt to- pographically and geologically they are very closely uiiitcii, The united basins are essentially eozoic and ])alcUi)z<)ic. Gneiss, mica slate, sienite, clay slate, quartzite, and lime- stones form the boimding, mountain ranges, and the liottnm rock of the region. Through the kindness of my friend. Dr. Anto. de Lacerda, of Bahia, I have in my possession a litli')- grai)hed section across the country, from the Scrra Congoiilia across the Grao Mogor, extending into the valley of tlie Jequitinhonha, a section constructed by the late Dr. A'irgilin Ilelmroichen. According to this section, the scrras olCiin- gonha and Grao Mogor are composed of metamorj)hic slates, while the intervening country and the valley of the Jc(iiiitin- * Nocdes GfographimZ: <jc., da Prov, de Minus Gerats, por Ilenrii^ue Ger- ber, p. 9, 1863. PROVINCn OF MINAS GERAES. 139 lioiilia is composed of priinitivc rock. 1 have never visited the SciTii do Gruo Mogor, and can therefore say nothing of it IVdin personal observation.* At Calliuo intelligent persons iiifornK'il nie that it is composed of slates. The scrra is dis- tiiirtly visible from near Minas Novas, thongh distant some thirty miles, so that its height may be inferred. The onllines ofthe hills arc entirely different from those of the gneiss serras of the coast. Gold oecnrs in this serra, together with the ores of otlier metals, such as iron, which last is mined and smelted at a locality called Troj)inha, two leagnes to the soutli of the town of OrJio ^fogor. The region embraced between Minas Novas and Callnio is, according to my own observations, composed of clay slates, and this gronp of rocks nndonbtedly extends considcralily to the west and sonthwest of Minas Novas. From near the mouth of the Arassnahy to a little liclow Caxoeirinha the rocks arc gneiss, mica slates, and the like. All these rocks have been folded, nietamorj)hosed, and (lonnded. Daring the tertiary, as I shall further on attempt to show, tlie ]ilateau of Brazil was sunk so that the waters rose to 11 lieiii,ht of more than 8,000 feet above their present level, and Hooded the groat river basins of the whole country, this submergence being of almost continental extent. In tho basins of the Jequitinhonha and Pardo. a gi'eat thick- ness of more or less arenaceous clays, sandstones, c^c. was deposited, fdling up the valley to a height in some jdaces of fully 1.000 feet, converting it into an innnense plain, whose level above the sea must be on an average quite 3,000 feet. * SjiLk and Martins visited the Scrr.a da GiTio Mo.^or, which they dcscriljc as lieiii- only about 4,300 feet hij,Mi. Tlie prcviiilin^^ formation of this ref,'ion is qiiartzosc slate (qiiarz-schiefer). Boulders of wliite quartz (sometimes fiI)rous(?) ) arc iihundantly scattered over the surface, and contain asbestus. Gold and iliiinioiub occur here. 140 GEOLOGY AND rilYSICAL GEOGRArilY. These (loj)osi(s I liavo called tertiary, because aloiifr llio whole coast they are undistiirlied, nowhere j)artici|)atiii^' in the disturhaiiceof the cretacf'ous, and because the drift sheet extends over them. 1 believe them not to be drift, lieci.use they were denuded by I'iver action anterior to the foi'iniitioii of the drill sheet, which descends their slopes, and cxtciul.s over the slate and gneiss hills left bare. Similar deposits were at the same time laid down in the valleys of the Sii:i Francisco, Parana, Parahyba do Sul. And indeed over the Avhole j)lateau to the westward, as we si U sec further on. All these are older than the coast tertiaries. In April, 18G0, 1 entered the Jo(piitinhonha valley, on llie Setubal, and aftei making a dctuiir to Alto dos J]ois, crosnd the country to Calluio, from which place I found it piac- ticablo to visit ]\Iinas Novas, after vvliieh I returned to Callido, and descended the Jecpiitinhonha to the sea. i propose now to give the results of my explorations of this I'cgion, following very nearly my line of travel.* The tertiary clays arc denuded away from the region of the head-waters of the ►'^etubal, and the wider valley of tliis river is scooped out of these rocks, the river-bed being flic soiid gneiss or slate, or excavated in alluvial deposits hiiil down by the rivc". The Setul)iuho is a liitle river whii'i flows from the southwest in a valley l)ounded, on the one side, by the hills of the Avater-shed between the Mucuryain: Jequitinhoidia basins, and on the other by the tcrtiniy plains, though the slopes on both sides are of the old nicta- mori)hic rocks, the tertiary beds merely capping the hills on * The months of Fchruary and INIarch, 18GG, were cxecedingly rainy e'lr the Miicury region, and so was the month of Ai)ril, wliich I spent in tlir Imsin of the Je(iuitinhonha. During this time I was oI)ligcd to travel over tiic wdi'-t ])Ossible roads in almost eonstant rains, so that my geological studies were iiimli.' under a >rrcat disadvantage. PROVIXCE OF MINAS GIIRAKS. 141 tli(> iiortlnvost side. The slopes towaiMJ tlie i^etuliiil, Heiunia, and Sctiibinlio iiro all vciy steej), and lor a lar;:e part liai'O and cxcessivcdy stony, the soil heinj,' full of rounded and aiij.nilar fragments of (piartz often of lar^e size. Over hii'^o areas it is very harren, the oidy veg'ctation eonsistin^ of li.)\v, <inarly l)ranehed, sparsely scattered shi-nhs and trci's. One ()hserves immediately on entering the vallt-y of the Setiilial from the Mnenry that the forest thins otit and dis- aiijx'ars from the hillsides, thongh it extends down the wet valleys and over sneh areas as may have rich soils, hnt even Uierc the O^rest has not the same Inxnrianec it had in the valleys of the Mucnry, and there arc many trees conlined to eaeli sepai'atc region. It is, however, on the open grounds that the change in the vegetation is most marked. On leaving the forest (^sahitulu do nuitto* as the Brazilians say) one of the first plants to attract one's attention is an arlionieeous species of the order of SolanaceiC, called the Bolciro. Tliis tree attains to a height of fifteen to twenty foct, and forms a conspienons element in the landsca])e. Its l(\^vos are light-green and cnrly, its flowers bluish-})nrple, and its fruit, which is of the size of a Ualdwin a})j)le, is edible ; Init of the flora of the cami)os more anon. Tlio high and steep hill north of the Hetnhal is almost hnvi' on the south and west ; but the northern side is covered l>y a stiff drift clay, and is clothed with a thick wood, densely filled with a luxuriant growth of a species of bam- boo, the slender-stemmed Tiiquara lisa of the Brazilians. Thence to Corrego Grande the country is composed of highly mioaeeous and schistose gneiss, and is covered by a thick sheet of drift clay, in which are boulders and pe))ldes of * The Brazilians speak of the plains as fora, outside, and of the forest as dentro, or inside. 142 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArHY. quartz, and the country is wooded. At the Fazendas of Hanta Barbara and Santo Antonio, and in the neighborhood, tliis forms a rich soil, wliich is very productive. Maize is largely cultivated -in this region, and takes the place of mandioca for the making of farinha. Wheat grows well here, and I saw some most excellent sheaves at a farm- house near the Setubal, but the farmers complain that it has to be planted in clumps like rice, and weeded, which is very trouldcsomc. At the Fazenda of Santa Barbara the country bordering the Rio Setubal is very hilly. The prcvailiiiu: rock is mica slate or schistose gneiss, with a general strike of N. 80' E., and northward dip. I have recorded no south- ward dips. Wishing to ascertain the character of the chapada west of the Setubal, Mr. Copcland and I made an excursion thither from Santa Barbara. The account of the journoy I transcribe with few changes from my note-book, in order not only to give an idea of the country, but of the disadvantage under which the geologist labors in exploriiii' in the rainy season. For the last two months the rain had been constant. and it was still raining when we reached Santa Barl)ara. Our time was very limited, but to leave the Setubal with- out seeing the topography of the plains was not to lie thought of, so, on the last day of March, Ave set out on nuilo- back, and unencumbered by baggage, for Alto dos Bois, a point described as being so elevated as to overlook the plains, and enable one, if the weather were clear, to see across the valley of the Jequitinhonha, and discern the mountains of Grao Mogor. It was raining heavily. We crossed the Setubal by a bridge below Santa Barbara, finding the stream very much swollen and turbid, and the meadows PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 143 bordering it inundated. We followed up tlic valley a short distance, passing through cornfields on the hillside, and crcssiiig a high hill by a miserable path leading through a woi)d which was so tangled with bushes, unlia de g-alo, batii- hoos, etc., that it was with difficulty that we could burst our way through it by main strength. We reached at last the valley of the little river Santa l?ita. Thus far the country was of the same character as at Santa Barbara, and the surface was covered by the same drift j)aste and boulder (K'posit. For a distance of some two miles or more farther oil, after a long and steep ascent, we reached the foot of the ciiaiiada, which presented a long, steep, even slope, as in the iuUowing id- " section. It was impossible to estimate satisfactorily the height of the chapada top from the Santa Rita valley, Ijecause of the wooded state of the country and the ol)scurity of the weather, but after having ascended and descended the same slope, I should judge that it is fully 800 feet, if not very much more. The lower part of the slope is covered with the ordinary drift paste, fdled with boulders of quartz, gneiss, and mica slate. The quartz of this region is so crystallized as to break up into a coarse angular gravel. About half-way up I saw mica slate in situ traversed by a thick quartz vein. Farther up 144 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the soil changed in character, and, wlicn wet, was of an umber Ijrown color, and quite free from stones. The r(jail went straight up this slope, and being cut u}) into ])ildi's* by the feet of the mules, formed a sort of staircase uf stiff, adhesive, and slij)pery clay, which made the ascent exceedingly wearisome. Arrived at the top of the chapaila. we found ourselves on a wooded plain. The soil scenicil very rich, and was of a dark l)rown color on the surface; but I observed that the material lu'ought up from beluw by the Saiiba ants was clayey and brick-red, like the onli- nary drift paste of the gneiss regions. I saw a few qiiaif/: boulders lying on the surface. 1 looked carefully in ilio ascent for any cuttings which might enable me to ascertain the material of which the chapada was composed, Init I saw- none. Tlie woods consist of large trees, but they are i-atlior sparsely sown, and they belonged to the catinga class, losing their leaves in the dry season. There is an ahuii- dant undergrowth of bushes and Samambaia ferns (Ptcrh caudata {?). The beautiful Indaia palm (^AttalccC) is veiv abundant here, and its plumy coronals add very much te the picturesqueness of the scenery. It was long afier nightfall when we reached the open campos at As Trovoadas and crossed a very deep valley to the i)lace called iJatatal. where, jaded and wet, we spent the night. The next morn- ing we visited the Alto, or the highest point of land in the vicinity. It had been raining ; but, providentially, for a half-hour it cleared up, and we had an almost uninterrnpte<l and most magnificent view of the country on every side. The Alto is the name given to the highest point of the * It is well known that mules travelling over a bad road follow in one an- other's footsteps, cutting up the road into a series of transverse muddy tioiigh?, separatod often by high ridges, over which the animal carefully steps. PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 145 sv\-olling rUlgc between the valleys of the Faiifido and Capivaiv. From this point the eonntrv deseonds with viM'v long sweeping curves to the river vall(\vs on l)oth sides, the ridge itself growing gradually lower toward Mi- nus Novas. The valley of the Capivary is very broad, and in profile rounded, not angular. The long and gentle curves of this landscape are very noteworthy, and arc very different from those which result solely fi'oni water denudation or erosion. The Fanado valley is of the same cliaracter. East of the Capivary the land rises in a high ridge called the Caixao, which runs northward, present- ing the same topographical features. This whole coui'My is covered on the surface with red drift clay and ])el)bles, and this layer is twenty or more feet in depth. No solid mck is to be seen, but on the sharp descent into the valleys, ami in certain gullies, especially at the foot of an isolated, diinic-sliaped mass which rises above the general level of the country at As Trovoadas, the rock, in a very decomposed state, is seen to be crystalline and metamorphic, and in beds highly inclined. At As Trovoadas, as nearly as I could make out, the strike was N. 00° W., and the dip 40^ north- ward, hut the observation was taken from decomposed rock, and may not be very reliable. The rock appears to l)e com- posed of feldspar and mica, with quartz in rounded grains, hat Avhcii decomposed it is red, very soft, and crumbling. The soil in the gully, where the above ol)servation was taken, is full of fragments of very limpid quartz and crystals of kyanitc and black tourmaline.* This rock must be very deeply * The Diccionario Georjrajico says (Vol. II. p. 08), tlmt antimony occurs at Alto (los Bois, and I heard many persons on the Setubal say tliat gold had I)ccn fiiund in the ridf,'c separating the Setubal from the Cai)ivary. SaiiU Hilaire also says that antimony is found at the Aito. But tluj antimonio of the Bra- zilians is only a pyrites. VOL. I. 7 J 146 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. decomposed, for the freshly cut gullies arc excavated to a great depth, and the river valleys arc evidently cut through soft material. Their shape is not such as usually result- from river erosion, for in soft materials river valleys liave sides either bluff or with angular slopes of about thirty de- grees or more, and bluffs of that kind are to be found along the edge of the A'alley recently washed out by torrents. The tertiary clays and decomposed metamorphic roek being of so nearly the same consistency, it is not at all won- derful that in their denudation they should both wear down together, and that the metamori/ldc hills should pass almost insensibly into the plains. I believe that the wide upper valley of the Capivary is one of erosion anterior to the diU't, and that the present swelling outlines and long curved slopes of its bounding ridges are due to glacial action over a surface deeply decomposed. The hillsides and slopes of this region are sparsely covered with coarse grass and small flowering plants. It was like a garden. Trees are few and scattered, and arc noted for their gnarly branches and rough bark. A little palm ( Coras Jlcxuosa^ is not uncommon on the camjios. Anothci' con- spicuous little tree of these campos is the Pilo de Paina, wliieli has a small stem covered by a thick growth of a woolly suli- stance, used to fdl pillows, «fcc. It is very abundant in the neighborhood of As Trovoadas. Sometimes the trees form clusters {capOcs^ in low and wet places, and along the river- side, in the valley of the Capivary. In the dry season these campos are dried up, and vegetation is withered and appears dead. The lands, though rich, are worthless, except as fur- nishing pasturage for herds of cattle which abound on these campos.* The Eraa, or American ostrich {Rhea Americana), * According to Spix and Martius, from the Arraial do Rio Manso there PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 147 is foimcl on the campos, but appears now to nc rare in tliis vicinity. It occurs more abundantly farther north on tlic campos of the Rio Pardo, and on the canijws of the Sao Fran- cisco basin. It ranges from Ceara to l>uenos Ay res. In Patagonia another species, Rhea Danrini, is found. There is also a species of deer (^Ccrvus campcstris^, called by the Miiieiros Vcado canipciro, which is not uncomuKjn on the plains. Put after a half-hour's enjoyment of the niaiiiiilicent virw, down came the heavy rain with a strong chilling wind, and we left the Alto to return. The steej) slope from the cliiipada to Santa Rita was so slippery and untrustworthy, tiiat we were obliged to make the descent on foot in the deep nuid, leading our mules. From Santa Rita we crossed a steep, high ridge by a road terrilily cut up, and so full of loose quartz stones as to atl'ord a very insecure foothold for the mules, and at night reached the river Setubinho wet and sore, and there we spent the stretches northward a low plateau, in a north-south direction, for several l(';ij:iu's, apparently tying in with the groat chapada forming the dividing liiii' between the Jequitinhonha and Arassuahy, opposite Minas Novas. " The vvtrctiUion of these uniform, elevated plains, whieh extends from Tcjuco to Miiia> Novas, and gently decreases in height, shows a form wliich we had not ln'fiiiv observed to a similar extent." Low crooked-branched aiul broad-ieavcil tri'cs lift tlieinsclves here and there amongst a dense thicket of many kinds of biblus, whieh alternate now with hare rock-sheets, now with thirsty open fiflds, or, ill thv low places and beds of streams, with a somewhat liigher and sappy \v(1(m1 (Ciiimo). The hush they call here Sirrach, or, wlien it is lower and witlKiiit trees, Carrasco. The plants belonging to it do not all lose their leaves ilurin',' the <lry season, and in a note our authors add : " Particularly those of the ;:oiipra Sidn, Ochna, ^fimnsa, Acacia, Qitalcn, Coccoh>liri, Kii'lmci/cra, Laurus, yi/drrositlon, Arrazoa, Barnadesia, Alherlinin, Amna, Banintmu, ihilpvihia, Aspidospcrma. The stemless palms, Astrocuri/um rampcsfre and /)iji/nthnniim canijKstrc, and the low Cocos flrxHosn, one sees here." (Vol. II. i)p. 47.T, 474.) A vt iy interesting article in Danish, on the campos region of Brazil, from the Jion of Eugon. Warming, is to be found in the Tidsskrijl for pop. Frccni. af Natumdiiuslcaben, 3"' Ra;kke, S" Bind, I'" Ileftc, 186a 148 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGRAPHY. night. The morning fcjund the little river swollen to its ut- most capacity, and running like a niill-raoc, turbid and yel- low, and it was with much dilliculty that we forded it. Tlic Rio Hctul)al we found also in as swollen a state ; mules ami liorses gave out, and the weary travellers waded througli tin' mud many a long mile, and arrived drenched at the Fazcmhi de Santa Barbara. Leaving Santa Barbara for Calhilo, I o])served near a litilr' brook at the Fazeiida da Lagua rounded (juartz bouldcr.s, overspread by drift clay. Beyoiid this the road, after passing a low flat, ascends a gentle slope, on which the same arc seen at a height of one hundred feet above the brook; and a short distance farther on and higher up the road U full of coarse gravel, intermixed with angular 1)ou1(1(M's, Mica slate is seen occasionally cro{)ping out on the hillsides, and on the top of a chapada, before reaching the Fazonda of the Tencnte Ilonorio Ottoni, I saw in the drift paste rounded pebbles. From the chai)ada one descends into tlio valley of one of the tril)utaries of the river Grravata. The hills of the valley are mica slate and compact dark tiray gneiss, with a strike of N. 40' W. and a dip apparently to the northeast, or vertical. Near the fazenda are numerous road cuttings through the hillside, showing the red drift clays to be many feet in depth, and contaiu'ig an abundance of large fragments of gneiss, quartz, and mica slate. The river Gravata, where the path to Calhao crosses it, runs in a deep, narrow valley bordered by gneiss slopes, rising to chai)ada plains above. I observed, in ascending the slope to leave the valley, that, for some five hundred feet, tlif slope was strewn with quartz boulders, which arc very numerous and large. About half-way up the slope there is an exposure of a white or brownish schistose rock, much de- ■^-CV^']-: PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 149 rnycd, which seems to he wholly made uj^ of very minute and rounded grains of limpid quartz, without visible cement ill the specimens I examined. This rock had aj)[)arently a (lip of 20° to the southward. The relation of this rock to the gneiss, or to the materials of the chapada, I did not make out ; hut I much suspect that the dip was only local. This chapada extends from the Gravata to a little valley called Estrella, north of which is a plain of very wide extent, and perfectly level. I (ind in my diary a note that on the top of Uiis plain I saw quartz boulders lying-. Two little st I'oums, tilt' Aiiua da Nova and Diamantino, take their rise on the plain, in quite extensive, shallow, marshy lagoons, but they i^oon cut for themselves valleys down to the older rocks be- neath. These plains are more or less thickly covered with hushes, gnarly-branched trees, and occasional thickets. 1 saw no Indaias here, but a little crooked-stemmed ])alni, called Liciu'i, the bases of whose leaf-stalks were })ersistent for some distance down the stem, was quite common. Ferns arc rare. Among the trees arc several species which produce edible fruit, esj)ccially the Mangabeira, Bacupari, Pitjui, (fee. Great numbers of cattle are pastured on these plains, and grazing is one of the i)rincipal occupations of this ]iart of the country. The cattle are allowed to roam over the plains, and are taken care of by mounted vat[ueiros, who dress from head to foot in leather, that they may be able to lu-eak through the thickets in their chase after the oottle. Tlie valley of the Agua da Nova not only deepens, but grows wider in descending, and opens out broadly, on leav- ing' the chapada, into the great valley of the Calhiio and Arassuahy. Running along the edge of the chapada, at the top of the slope, arc occasional perpendicular bluffs, in which •^ 150 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAniY. is exposed a thick horizontal bed of sandstone, which is seen forming siniihir bluffs on the opposite side of the valley. This bed forms the iip[)cr stratum of the chapada formation. and may be seen forming bluffs of the same sort along the valley of the Calhao. The sandstone is white, very com- pact, and rather fine-grained, bnt there are some beds wliidi are coarse, containing ])el>l)les, and with a bar J, oi)n<|iic. white cement, resembling that of the tertiary sandstone (jf Itahunas. Veins of milky quartz traverse these I'ocks. They certainly bear an altered and old look, bnt they aru here surface-layers, and have nev(U' l)cen distnrbed. The valleys of the Calhao, and of some of the little rivei's west. coalesce several miles before reaching the Arassuahy, leav- ing the metamorphic rocks, over a very large area, denudtil of the formation of the chapadas. This forms a great di- pression like a lake valley, some 800 or 1,000 feet below the plain, and which is surronnded on all sides by high, Icvcl- to])j)ed chapadas, which project in capes and promontories between the river valleys. The bottom of the de])ressioii i> diversified by hnv, ronnded, wooded hills. From the toji of the sharp spur of the chapada, on the western side of the valley of the Agua da Nova, one has a magnificent view over this great valley. It was near the close of a clear afternoon that we rode out on the edge of this spur to descend, ami suddenly, leaving the bushes of the plain, saw before iis the beautiful valley. The level-topped chai)adas beyond the Aras- suahy extended like a wall to the north of the depression. blue in the far distance, while below us lay the billowy sea of foliage which clothed the bottom of the valley. Weeks of sore, weary forest wanderings, beneath a rainy sky. ^vel'0 forgotten, and the heart, b niesick, tired, and often disap- pointed, gladdened as the eye revelled iu the beauties of tlio ""■"vmnf&i:. PROVIN't.'E OF MIXVS GICRAHS. 151 landscape ; l)ut the sun was rapidly nearinj^ the Knol horizon, !ui(l iiur caniarada warned us that we must tlescciul. So, tiirniiiir our mules into the steep jmth, we S(jon pus.-cd into the tliiekct, and the landscape was lost to view. It was as wlien, after the curtain has dropi)ed at the close of the last act of an o])era, and the memory of the brilliant scenery ami the rich music still lingers in the heart, one wakes to JLcl (he sorrows and the realities of life again. The country bordering the Calhao Rivei", for several miles above its mouth, is composed of slates, which are seen exposed in the banks of some of the little Iji-ooks flowing into the Calhao.* These slates, on the right bank of the Arassuahy River at Calhao, are fine-grained and sili- ceuiis, and have the slaty structure well develoj)ed. 'I'hey dip to the N. 70^ W., at angles varying from oO'^ to SO'. The j)lan(is of cleavage dip to the south '20° W., but 1 have omitted t(.) note the angle. The countiy forming the bottom of the valley is much more uneven than one wouhl su])i)osc when looking at it from the chapada, and some of the hills are several hundred feet high. They are everywhere cov- ered by the characteristic red drift-clay on the surface, under which occurs usually a sheet of pebbles, as at Rio. This pebble-sheet is sometimes very thick, and being exposed on hillsides by the washing away of the clays, leaves them vciy barren. As a general thing the country is sparsely wood- ed, but ordinarily the forest (catinga) docs not bear the * At the liertl-watcrs of the Calhsio Rpix niid Murtiiis found the rofk to be coarse-gniined, whitish, unstratificd, with little white miea, hut with much Itlack schorl, often in lonpj prismatic crystals. They state that it is covered hy a layer of ^ray or white pebbles of (juartz containinj,' (/risollt/is (crysohcryl) of a t:reeuish-white, pale ochre, or citron-yellow color, and others of an oiive, grass, or blue-irrcen color {Ai/chis mnrinhas), precious garnets and, white and bright blue topazes, (Vol. II. p. 502.) 152 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGHAl'HY sauic liixiiriiiiit look ius lluit of llio Mticiiry, and resem- bles a sccoiitl urowdi. 1 have obs(\''V(Ml iinineiisc ail)(»- resceiit caetuscs ( Crreua) growing in \\\v. woods near (.'alliao.* Tlu' higher lands are apt to be diy, though the Hoil would otherwise be I'ertile, and during the dry season tlu.' trees lose their leaves. The river-l)orders, or furznis, are very ]irodue(ive. Cotton seems to be the j)rineij)al [nd- duet, and it is of ex(!ellent (luality. One thousand eaiKtc- loads were sent down the .Je(iuitinhonha to the sea in mic year, but a very eonsiderable (juantity of the eotton is niauu- faetnred at home into eoarsc cloths, <fcc. Largo (inaulitios of corn, beans, ite. are raised here. Calluio is a village of rcs])cetal»le size, situated on the i-ight bank of the Arax- suahy, at its Junetion with the Calhau, which is so sniall. and ordinarily so shallow, that the negrowomen wad(! across it to fdl their water-jars in the Arassuahy. At Calhao tlif latter river is al)ont the si/.e oi" the Mucury below Saiiia Clara. Calhao derives its importance from being a sort of centre of the salt-trade with the coast via the Jciiui- tinhonha. At the point where tl: path from Calhao to jMinas Novas crosses the Rio Setnbal gray quartzites are exposed, willi a strike of N. 0;")° E., dip 8iV southeastward. At the jwssaQc of the Corrcgo de f^ao Joiio nne-grained siliceous uray schists are seen, strike N. GO-" E., dip 88^ to 00^ southeast- ward ; and at the i)assage of the Sucuriu the same rock is seen, and an oliservation gave strike N. 60"^ E., dip 8(P N. * Saint Ililairc says : " In {roncral the caotTisos in tlio ])rovincc of Mina? apjicar to bcloni; to the catin<j;as in the neif^hborhooil of the Arassiialiy and Je(iuitinIionha, for I liavc not mot with a sinuio species cither in tiic Geracs, properly so called, or in the carrasrofi. (Vol. II. Parti, p. 103.) The same author calls attention to the number of Harriirudo trees (Dombax), and the absence of Jlelanostomaccous plants in the catin<ras. PROVLNCK Ol' MINAS UKHAES. 153 At the villa of Sucuriu the same rock is seen, strike N. :',(J H., (li|) .")0° S. Oil the west side of the Corrego di' Suo .Idfio there is an outlying ehapada, the southern side of which jUTsents a red and white cliff, in which arc exposed horizon- liil white lieds, wdiich, 1 was infoi-nicd, ai'e composed of ta- hiitinga, or clay over which is a thick bed of red (h'ift-carth, siirh !is is seen everywhere covering tl\e conntry. 'Die (h'ift, !is well as the sand and gravel of the streams in the vi- cinity of Sncnrii'i, contains gold, but in small (piantities, 1 saw a few old abandoned workings. West of Sucuriu the road |tasses over a ehapada, and descends into the valhy of die S.iciu'ii'i, which is l)ordercd by high slate hills, and then ascends to a cdiapada which, ])eilectly level and covered by carrasco, extends for a league to the Tvio d'Agna Snja.* This chai)a(la is ])recij>itous along the edges, and is covered liy a thick bed of red drift-clay, under which a|)peais to lie a sheet of gravel, wduch in some places is cemented by oxide of iron, and forms a conglomerate. From the borders ufdiis chajjada one has the most extended views of the sur- rounding countiy, and in clear weather the higher points of (ho Scrra do Grao Mogor arc distinctly visible. Th(> vall(\y or canon of the Agua Snja in some jdaces cuts through (he whole ehapada formation to the metamorphic rocks below, and is very deep and narrow. This rivei- flows northward into the Arassuahy. After crossing a narrow * The grass and bushes of the campos arc infested by the carapato {Ixoilea rkinns), a wood-tick whicli, swept off by contact witli tiie garments, attaches it?clf liy hundreds to tlie skin, and can only be detaciicd by tlic application of toliacco or something of the kind. Strangers are apt to suffer severely from the irritation caused by these disgusting creatures. Even the Jaboti tortoise is at- tacked by them. When allowed to remain, the animal feeds on the juices of its prfy until its body becomes as large as a castor-bean, to which in shape and color it bears a dose resemblance. 7* 154 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL r.F.OGRAPHY. chtipada anotlM-r canon is roachcd, llial of the Rio d'Aiiiia Liinpa or Miiu d'Aj;iia, a little; rivor llovviii;:; into the Aixiia Suja.* The banks of these valleys are wooded, and jjds.sc.ss a I'ei'lile soil. At the ibi'd slates of ordinary (|nality ui" seen. Strike N. otr E., clip 7U' sontheastward. JJetwirn the Capivary and Minas N(jvaH the eoinitry is very liillv and barren, the vegetation bcint;- of the charaeter of ihr cani{)0s. In the nnnierons rain-gnllies in the niiilc-patlis the drift is cnt thron^h, and decomposed shitcs are ex- posed. They arc as soft as the drift-elay, and were it not for the dillerent tints of the laminie and the (piartz veins which traverse them, it wonld l)e dilTicnlt to rccogni/,(! tlicin as a metaniorphic rock decomposed in situ. The RiheinKi do Meio is a brook cmjjtying into the Capivary, from the sands of which gold has been obtained. Spix and Mar- tius have left us the followin}^ gra[)hic [jicturo of this part of the country : — " The thick wood appeared to us a wide grave, for the dry season had strii)ped off all ornament of leaves and flowers; oidy once in awhile thoi"" species of s;«//(/.?'. or cord-like twists of 6'w«i<.s", set with si.igle leaves, climbed up, or the stately flower-panicles of Bromclias stretched them- selves out from among the branches Thorny acacias. many-branched Anilirfc and Copaiferw, and fig-trees rich in milk, appeared here in exceeding plenty ; but what most pleased us were the giant stems of CItorisicc (^Chorisin veth tricosa), which, contracted above and l)elow% were swollen in the middle like huge casks, their cork-like bark being beset with stout shining brown spines. Here huge bundles of parasitic plants depended from the branches. Here myriads * I give the names on the authority of my guide. According to Gcrbeij map, tlie eastern stream is the Agua Limpa, the other Agua Suja. ' "'"JtWiSis.iu !5CTi PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAKS. 155 of ants liavo hung from tlio hnmclcs their ncats full of Dii'ilaliuii wiiulin^'s, uiid which, with a circuniforoiico of sov- ciiil I'ci'f, contrasted straiij^oly in their hlack color with the liii::lil ^M'ay of the Icalless hram-hes. The autumnal torpid wood echoed with the cry of many kinds of birds; esjjocially croakiuii: araras and pirujitUos. Shy arnuidillos and anteat- crs ( Ddsijpiis scptvmi'inctus and Mt/rniirop/id^'d k'traddctffhi) mot us, .... and slu<j,'gis)" sloths {Bi'(i(///piis tridact//liis) liiiiig stupidly from the white branches of the emhanlta { Or ropia pcltata}, whidihcvQ and there rose amoni; the rest of the trees, liords of ]i(nvlin<>: nionkevs were heard ill tlic distance. The high dry grass was covered with crowded halls of little earapatos, wliich, when we accident- ally disturbed them, scattered themselves with lightning-like rai)iility over us, and excited a painful itching. Not infre- quently a snake was heard in the thicket by the traveller riding hastily by." * 1 ))assed through this same region in the wet season, when the trees were all in leaf, and the Avoods looking gay and jtleasant. I saw scarcely any animals. I heard smne guaribas howling; but neither armadillos, sloths, nor snakes of any kind were seen. It is a very mistaken idea, oaivfnliy spread abroad by our geographies and ])opular works and pictnrcs, that one may everywhere ex])cct to see ill the Hrazilian forests great boas wreathed about the trees, and all manner of birds and beasts in profusion. I have ridden day after day through the virgin forest without seeing or hearing anything worth shooting, and nothing more dan- gerous than a wasj) ! In the year 1727 Sebastiao Lcme d. Prado, with a band •if Paulistas, travelling northward thr \igh the province of * Spix and Martius, Reise, Vol. II. i)p. 499, 500. 156 GEOLOGV AND PHYSICAl GEOGRArilY. Minas, discovered gold in the river Bom Successo, and gavo it the name which it bears He established here regular mining operations, and founded the city now known as Minas Novas, which grew to be a flourishing town. The })rcci()u.s metal was also discovered elsewhere in the vicinity, and in especial abundance on the hills bordering the Rio Capivary near the Arraial da Chapada, where it was very exten- sively mined. The gold was princi])ally obtained from the sands and gravel of the river, and from the gravel sheet underlying the drift-clays on the slopes and t(jj)S of die hills. Very little gold was extracted from the veins of the quartz, some of which were known to be richly auriferous. The hills arc dry, and water is to be found only in tlic rivers, which during the greater part of the year affoi-d a good supply, so that the washing of the gravels on tln' high grounds was attended with much difficulty. Ditches. or rcgas, were dug round the hills to collect rain-water, which was brought into tanks, and in some of the washings all the water used was derived from this source ; and at Minas Novas and Chapada, washings said to be ricli were pointed out to me as abandoned because of the scarcity of water, when just below, a hundred feet or more, tumbled a dashing stream. Notwithstanding the disadvantages under which these old miners labored, a large extent of ground was, as we shall sec, worked over, and an immense (puuitity of gold was extracted according to one authority iSOO arrobas (=9,G00 lbs. avoirdupois) being sent to Bahia alone. ]\huiy large nuggets were discovered in these mines. In the Lavia do Batatal a lump weighing '28 lbs. was found. In 1740 dia- monds were discovered in the vicinity of Diamantina, and government prohibited the extraction of gold in order to encourage the search for diamonds. This prohibition i)ut a of Xova Scotii PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 1.17 pfop to the gold-milling of Minas Novas,* and, though the ]in)liil)itioii has l)ecn removed, the l)lo\v has been fatal, for litllc uold-niining has since been carried on, ami the present inhaliitauts content themselves with agricultural pursuits, or help to swell the number of miners who wash for dia- niDiids on the Rio Je(iuitinlioiilia. The gold-mines are to-day j)racti<;ally abandoned, but the idea that they were worked out is very erroneous. At ^liiias Novas and Cha- j);iilii tlie roclis are slates and quartzites, and resemble very oloscly those of the gohi region of Nova Hcotia. Indeed, it was the strong resemblance borne by the slates of Caihao and the vicinity '^o tlic Nova Scotiaii gold-liearing roclcs that aroused my interest, and led me to turn out of my way to visit Miiias Novas. These rocks evidently overlie tlic mica slates which flank the gneiss of the coast belt, and I believe they will prove to be Lower Hilurian in age.f At Minas Novas their strike is N. 42^ to 50^ E., and their (lip is vertical. They are traversed by great numbers of milky-quartz veins, some of which arc well known to be auriferous. Some of these veins are of coiisideral)lc dimen- sioiis. In an enormous gully cut out by the surface waters in tlie hillside above the cemetery on the Bom Successo at Minas Novas are several fine veins of corrugated cpiartz.J These veins run nearly vertically through the rock, and may l)e beds instead of veins. As they arc exposed in the clitT tliiw i)rcsent the appearance of vertical fissures, in which cylindrical masses of quartz are piled in a single row, their The city is in decay, and is to-day of very little importance. The cotton raisi-d in its vicinity lias a very excellent reputation in Brazil ; similar lands in P.;i]ii;i and Pernamt)uco produce a good quality of cotton. + Perhaps Quebec group. t Tlip<e appear to have precisely the same structure as the " Barrel quartz " ol' Nova Scotia. 158 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ends projecting like logs. Some of these cylinders of qiiaitz are two feet in diameter. In section they appear as rcpro sented by the accompanying woodcnt. I spent some tiino in an examination of this vein for gold, but could detect none. The large size of the quartz veins of the vicinity may be in- ferred from the dimensions of the quartz boulders scattered over the surface, some of which weigh many tons. I am not aware that any auriferous vein has been worked at or near Minas Novas, but at the Arraial da Chapada several were anciently more or less worked. A rich vein, according to universal testimony, crosses the pram, and it is well known that one miner fol- lowed it in secret until he undermined his neighbor's lious^e, when his secret was let out. There one hears the terms " vein " and " gravel " gold, and I saw many beautiful spe- cimens of crystallized gold in the hands of the inhabitants, some of which were taken directly from quartz veins, tliougii it is true others were obtained from quartz boulders. There can be no doubt that rich auriferous lodes exist in the neijjli- borhood, which have never been explored, and which one day must be developed, for all the gold which so richly aljouuds in the drift nmst have come from the underlying rocks.* In tlie Minas Novas region I have seen no signs of gneissoso rocks, itacolumite, or ita!)arite associated with the auriferous slates. The slates, etc., of the valley of the Jequitinhonlia arc decomposed to a great depth, and are as soft as eartli. nnd can be easily worked with a spade. This decom))OS(Ml rock, which is of a bright red color, preserves its lamination, and the quartz veins traverse it as in tlic solid rock. Exoellent * For an account of the gold-mines of other parts of Brazil, sec further on. P-SS9K PROVINCE OF MIXAS GERAKS. 150 opporhinitics for the cxaininatiou of it arc afforded at ^liiias Novas and elsewhere liy the enormous <rullies swept out in it 1)11 tlie hillsides by the uiountaiii torrents. Some of these gullies are more than 100 feet deep, and show at the same time lliL- very finest seetions of the drift. Near the Arraial (la (,'hapaila the bright red cliffs of these ravines are very roiisiiicuous elements in the landseajic, and scmie parts of the I'ouiitry appear as if scored by a giant plough. Burton iltsciihes similar gullies in other parts of ]\linas and in !^ao I'aiilo. Ill the latter country they have received the name of rossororas. Burton suj)poses they were formed l)y the giving way of a hillside imder the hydrostatic pressure caused by the soaking of the mass by water ; and he says that the ground breaks away suddcnlj; with the force of an eruption, Ihe hollow in the hillside thus formed being after- ward excavated to a greater size and dejith liy rains and streams, which sometimes gush out of the liead of these (rullies. The gullies which I saw did not strike me as having been formed in this way. I supposed that they had licou hollowed out with more or less rapidity liy the ac- tion of surface water, perhaps aided by si)rings, and with- out a regular land-slide. The surface of the undisturbed decomposed rock is always well marked, and has a regu- larly rounded contour like that of the gneiss, and is never iriOLHilar and jagged like a water-woni surface. The de- composed rock is immediately overlaid by a sheet of cas- callio, or quartz pebbles, whose thickness varies from a few indios to eight or more feet. The pebbles arc of all sizes, iui'l arc more or less rounded. I observed in several localities that there were large boulders lying in this gravel just above the rock. The cascalho is often so cemented hy ferric oxide as to form a conglomerate, which requires 160 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. to be broken up before it is washed for gold. Like the drift pebble sheet of the coast, it forms a concentric layer wrapped over the whole rock surface of the hills, and it is found lying on very high slopes and piled up i.i masses such as water never deposits. It is in the cascalho that the greater part of the gold of Minas Novas and vicinity occurs. Over this gravel lies a mass of red drift-clay, varying very much in thickness. from a fcAV inches to fifty feet or more. This is, like ijio drift-clays of the coast, a homogeneous mass, through wliiih are scattered from time to time angular and rounded quartz boulders of large size. Over large tracts between Miiuis Novas and the Arraial da Chapada this sheet of clay is s^ thin that the cascalho bed lies on the surface, and the country is consequently stony and barren. The clay con- tains sometimes more or less gold. It is, however, to the cascalho sheets that the search for the precious metal has been principally confined. The gold occurs disseminateil through the gravel in flattened grains, and occasional luin- gets of considerable size, which are always in a crushed and battered state. The process of extraction was similar tn that described by Mawe as employed at the mines of -lara- gud in Sao Paulo, and which I shall further unfold in the description of that province. It consisted in stripjjing off the clay sheet down to the gravel, which was broken up and washed on the spot in rude trenches to separate tli(^ peb- bles, when the auriferous mud and sand were washed in the baicia, or wooden washing-pan. A great number of the washings were situated on the tops of hills, or slopes at some height above the watei" of the stream, and in these cases the washing was performed through the aid of rain- water. In several localities water was conducted to the wash- PROVINCE OF MIXAS GERAES. IGl inirs from streams. Some of the old reg-ns, or ditclios, arc still visiiilc runniug for miles around the hills. The suj)|)ly of laiu-water was of course sullicicnt only during the rainy season, so that washing operations had to be suspended for till' rest of the year. In the old washings, as hi that above tlu? cemetery at Minas Novas, or the Lavra da Santa Cruz, at the junction of the Rios Fanado and JJom Suecesso, the uravcl lies in great piles. At the Arraial da Chapada the same thing is seen, but there the whole tops of hills have Ikmmi deprived of their clay coating and washed over, so that to-day tliey are hoary with the ([uartz boulders that remain, the testimony of a departed industry. 1 was intbrmed that the cust(jm was with the miners, as a general thing, to wash the gravel on the si)ot. It seems wonderful that when the washing was near a river or stream the irravcl was not sent down to this stream to be washed. To-day the washings, tlidimh owned by private individuals, who to some extent know flu'ii- value, are unworked, the owners finding it more profitable to pursue agriculture or wash for diamonds in the Tequitinhonha. Tho ainmdance of gold over this region may be seen from the nuggets in the possession of the peo- l)le, and which have been picked up on the hillsides or in rain-gnllies. After rains one sees in the ravines the prints of the feet of those who regularly go in search of gold washed out by the surface waters, and in the streets of Miuas Novas and Chapada little dams are built across the ^mall rain-gullies l)y the children, to collect water to wash the soil for gold, which they collect in quills, and larger daius arc built by the elder members of the population for the same purpose. No one who has been over the ground as I have, and has seen the irregular way in wliich the mining has been performed, and the immense K 1G2 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'IIY, area of drift wliich has yet been untouched, — drift " ich in gold, as the occasional recent washings testify, — can douhr that the region is far from exhausted. It has only been forgotten. My friend Mr. J. S. Mills, of New York, an excellent geologist, who lias discussed these ol)servatioiis with me, has suggested that the gold j)roljably occurs in bands in the drift, the direction of which might 1)C workoil out liy a careful toi)<)grai)hical survey. Senator Thcojtliilo Benedicto Ottoni, of Rio, about two years ago ol)tained from the Emperor a concession of the area of the Comarca of the Je([uitinh()nha, to ex])lore it for gold and other minerals; and an attempt, which we hope may yet be successful, lias been made to organize an American company for tlie jmr- pose of thoroughly exploring and dcveloi)ing the gold-fields of Minas Novas and vicinity. With modern mining meth- ods and ai)pliances I have the fullest confidence that they would prove very remunerative. The system of washing hy hose-pipes could be employed successfully in many local- ities. Gold also occurs in the gravel and sands of the streams, these loose materials being derived in part from the drift. in part from the decomposed rock. Near the Ari-aial da Chapada is an outlier of the tertiary called the Scrra uo Macaco, which forms a very picturesque fiat-toi)ped moiiii- tain, with escarped sides, in which the horizontal layers of red and white clays are beautifully exhibited. Now that we know that gold may occur in any formation, why may not the lower beds of this series be found to 1)C auriferous in some places ? I have had no opportunity of making an examination of the gold of the Minas Novas region, and I know of no analyses ever having been made of it. n^ PROVINCE OF MINAS GF.RAES. 1G3 Tlic sands of the Arassuahy al)Ove the Rio Sctulial, or tliercabouts, are rich in gold. I liavc never heard of their aHbrdiiig diamonds. From Calhao I took passage in a canoe, and descended to the sea. On that voyage the following observations were made on the rivers Arassuahy and Jequitinhotiha. At Calhao the Arassuahy is about as large as the Silo ^hitlieos. Its current is strong, and even during the dry season it contains much water. The country on Itoth sides of tlio river below Calluio is, generally speaking, low and unc\cn u}) to the foot of the chaj)adas, while var^^cns, more or less wide, border the stream. These consist of alluvial deposits, and afford a rich soil. Their height above the av- erage level of the river is about twenty feet. From Calhao to the mouth of the river the country is sparsely settled. The river-bed is much obstructed by ledges of slate, Ijut there aio no rapids, and canoe navigation is not very difficult. At the Pontai, at the mouth of the river, these slates a])pear, from tlie canoe, to lie very flat, and to be traversed by heavy veins of a crystalline rock, like granite, the outcrop of one of which crosses just above the Pontai. At this place, in the anulc l)otween the two rivers, is a little settlement, which the iidiabitants hope may one day rival Calhao in its com- merce in salt. Tlic traveller who has heard the Jequitinhonha constantly spoken of by the Mineiros as a " majcstoso no,'' feels much disappointed when he reaches it at its junction with the Arassuahy, for it is liut little larger than the latter river. It is, however, much deeper. Above the Arassuahy the Jequitinhonha flows in a wide canon, eparated from the valley of the Arassuahy by a long, narrow chapada, which extends from the western 1G4 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. limits of the clmpmla formation well down into llio nnuL^ formed hy the union of tiie two rivers. 'IMie ehiipaila forming the eastern boundary of the valley of the Cidlu'io comes down into the eorresi)onding" angle on the oiIki' side of the Avassuahy, so that that river really cseapcs into the eauon of the Jeijuitinhonha through a eut across the chapndas. Below the mouth of the Calluio the river vallcv. comprised between the ehapadas, is ({uite wide, uneven, and composed of mica slate, guciss, &c. Some six or v\'A\t miles down the river there is a high hill, the Morro do Ariao, which ])resents the smooth, })lack-stained, even rock suriacc so characteristic of the gneiss hills of the coast. Fifteen or twenty miles below the Calhao the little river Piauhy enters the main river from the south. This stream takes its rise in the Serra do Chifrc, a short distance to the north of the source of tlic Calhao, from which river i' is separated l)y a strip of chai)ada called the Chapada do Piauhy, on the plains of which herds of cattle arc pas^tured. The Piauliy is iioted for its affording grisolitas (peridote <n' chrysoheryl), pin<j^oas craiU'ua (white topaz or limpid quartz pebbles), and other valuable stones, like those found in tlie Rio das Americanas in the IMucury. The chrysoberyls arc used in jewelry and by watchmakers, and at the time of my visit to Minas were selling for 11 $ 000 per pound, or nlioiit $ 5.50 American currency. The demand of late years for them has been very small. A few years ago, accordinu' to Senator Ottoni, several hundred-weight were extracted and exported, which drugged the market, and made it for a long time unprofitable to wash for them. Two miles below the Barra do Piauhy, the mica slates clip to the N. 45° W., and at the Ilha do Cubango there are heavy vertical veins of granite, which extend in walls almost PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 1G5 across the river, Avhilc, a couple of miles fartlior down, there aiv some high gneiss or micu-slate hills. The river is full of nx'ks, and the l)anlcs are rocky, though the l)anks of the river arc generally low. At the Arraial d'llinga the mica slates still show themselves, with a strike of X. 45' E., and vertical dip, and are traversed by granite veins. Tlic Arraial is a consideralilc little town, huilt on a ridge of (|iiartz gravel bordering the river on the northern side, ami which, being considerably higher than the river border, JtM'ir about twenty feet high, is not covered during the cnchrnte. It derives its imj)ortance from its trade in salt, which is l)rought up the river from the sea, and is sent into the interior to the Sertao do Rio Pardo, together with mer- chandise, etc. On botli sides, but at a considerable dis- tance, the chapadas skirt the river, but they are rarely seen liy tlic voyager by canoe, because of the intervening gneiss liills, wliich are sometimes 500 to 800 feet in height above the level of the river. Just below Itinga one has a distinct view of a chaj)ada on the south side of the river, and in the cliffs at its top the characteristic white rock is seen. The hciulit of the chai)ada top above the level of the river nmst lie f.ver 1,000 feet. Tlie rocks exposed in the river-banks between Itinga and tlie '• Estreito " are gneiss, a compact variety. The hills have the ordinary topography of the gneiss regions of the coast, aiul often present bare, blackened clitfs and slopes. JJack of tlif hills the flat tops of the chapadas are seen, and occasion- ally they accompany the river. The slopes of the chapadas ie.variahly show gneiss almost to the top, where there arc usually lines of white clitTs. The thick red l)ed at the top of the chaj)adas of Minas Novas I have not observed here, nor is it to be seen in the cliffs of the chapadas at the junc- IGG GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tioii between tlic Arassuahy and Jequitiuhonha. The lulls and cluipada sl()j)es are thickly wooded, hut the trees an- ull small. A .small species of l>arrig;udo ( lmhar(j, BuDibux, or Churisia), with an enormously swollen trunk, is very abun- dant on the margin of the river. The course of the river is ra)>id, and its breadth is about equal to that of the Parahylni do rful at Sao Fidelis. At the " Estreito " the river i)assos through a narrow gorge across a gneiss ridge. This chasm is in some ])laees not more than 1">0 feet wide, and is a must romantic spot. The sides are bold, rounded masses of ruek piled up one upon the other in picturescpie confusion. When the river is swollen, the "Estreito" is a feailul })lace to pass ; the waters rush through with great fury, anil below it arc dangerous whirlpools, where canoes arc fre(|ueiit- ly lost. Between the " Estreito " and the Pedra do IJodc the river-banks arc low and flat, and the country behind is often marshy and intereperscd with shallow lagoons. In one of these I found an abundance of Anipullarias, but 1 could find no other shells. The Pedra d(j IJode, one of the noted landmarks on the river, is a gneiss hill on the north bank, presenting a smooth precipitous face to the river. It is of some considerable altitude, but is not so high as the chapada behind it. Thence to Siio Miguel the river is bordered by gneiss hills and chapada sj^urs, and back of these, on both sides of the river^ are seen the level tops of the cha))adas which accompany the river. The hills are often very abruj)t, and present many l)arc suiTaccs. Some, which may not be wholly composed of gneiss, arc very regular in their curves, and have steep slopes covered with a low vegetation. The Indaid palm is very common on some of the hills, going to make uj) the greater part of some of the woods. A short distance above nvLT th 11^ PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 1G7 .•^iio .Miiruol is the Caxocira do Lahyiinllio, a series of rapids cxttiuling I'or more than a mile. In some states of the rivL-r these rapids are very daii<:eroiis, owiiiji; to the iiudi- natioii of the river-bed and the numerous rocks which uhstruct the river, and canoes are wrecio-d and lives lost here almost every year, in descending, the pruciros, or oarsmen of the })ro\v, row vigorously to give the canoe a uood headway, so that it may ol»ey the steei'ing-oar, wliicli must he handled very dexterously. Hao Miguel is a iuiseral)le hamlet on the right hank of the river at the mouth of the river ^^ao Miguel, which takes its rise in (he same serra with the Rio das Americanas. It is impor- tant principally because of its commerce in salt. There arc some large fazendas in the vicinity on both sides of tlio river, on which very large herds of cattle arc raised. There are said to be some fertile lands here. Below Sao Miauel is the Caxoeira do Dorma, a series of rapids usually easily passed. On the right bank of the river, and some two 01' three miles below Sao Miguel, is a range of irregular gneiss hills, which have apparently a general north-south trend, and jiresent a {)recipitous front to the west. A small streani springs from the top of one of these precipices, and hangs a white thread of water against the black w;dl of rock. Irregular gneiss hills occupy the right bank of the river for some four and a half leagues. On the left bank the great chapada stretches along, its sides descending with rounded, smooth slopes, often destitute of forest and green with low herbage. The stream here is full of rapids with a strong current, and is about 500 feet wide. The scenery on this portion of the river is exceedingly grand. Just above the valley of Sao Simao is a little village called Farrancho, in- habited by civilized Machacalis. Below this the chajjada 1G8 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GHOGRArHY. slopes advance to the river-side and l)order it lor a leiiL'ni' or more, lorniinj^ the narrow valley of Sao Siniiio. 'I'liu chapadas are of f^reat elevation, — 1,-U(J feet or nioi-e aljuve the river; their sides descend with ste(>p, smooth slopes to the river. The lower part of the sloi)Cs is tliickly wooded. but ')ward the top the vegetation generally becomes low and scrultby; in some parts, however, they arc wooded to the toj). The regularity of the slo))es would Justify one in assign- ing to the chapada fornuitiou here a great thickness. At the entrance of the valley a very siliceous gneiss is seen underlying the chapada. Leaving 8{To Simao the chapadas recede from the river, and the country thence to the Salto Grande is gneiss. Immediately below Silo Simfio arc pic- turesque groups of hills, — the Serra da A'igia on the right, and the Scrra das Panellas on the left, — and below those are the rapids of the Panellas. In descending wc pass the Serra do Feijoal on the left, and other hills on l)oth sides of the river, shoot the Caxoeira do Angclim, the Caxocira da Farinha, and other rapids, and reach the eastern extrem- ity of the fine Scrra da Lua Cheia, which, coming from the southwest, breaks down near the river. Between the hills of the Feijoal and the Sorra da Lua Cheia, the lauds border- ing the river arc generally flat and low, so low that they arc easily flooded by the cnchente. The soils of these low lands, or vargens, arc in general composed of a fine sand with but little admixture of clay. They appear to be very fertile, as the vegetation they support is very luxuriant. These flat lands are full of swamps and shallow lagoons, which are flooded during the cnchente, and are left full of Avater when the freshet subsides. This water sometimes l)ecomcs putrid, from the decay of the vegetables abounding in the I'ROVINCE OF MINAS GKRAES. IG'J swamps, and fills the air with miasma, while the water en- tering the river poisons it. It was in the lieginnin«r of May that I descended the river, between Sao Mignel, se/oes, or lever iiiid a<iiie, were exeeedinuly j)revahMit, and 1 left all inv canoe-men sick at Sulto (irande. 'i'licic was scarcely ti JKiuse on the river where there were n(jt cases of lever, and ciiiiocs on the np voyage were delayed at (he Salto and elsewhere along the rontc heeanse of the sickness of the crews. This general prevalence (jf fever among the canoc- 111(11 is prineijially attribntahle to their exceeding imj)rn- (leiice. They drink freely of the warm muddy river-water when overheated. They bathe in it nmh'r (lie hot sun, and jTo with dri])ping garments a great part of (lie time, spend- ing IVe(|iieiitly night after night nnder drenching rains with iiu other shelter than a woollen blanket. I had risen from a sick-hed to make the voyage, and was constantly exposed to the rain and cold ; Ijut I avoided the river-water, and cs- ca|ie(|, as did my fellow-traveller, a merchant from Calhiio.* The hills comjirising the Serra da Lna Cheia an^ of con- sidcraljle altitnde, much broken np and very irregnlar in oiilline. In this serra arc several conspicnous needles visible fnun a long distance, two of which are named respectively tlio Enchadao and Enchadinho. From this serra (o the dangerous Caxoeira de Santa Anna, formerly called Ihc Caxoeira do Inferno, the river is very rapid, full of islands, and there arc some places diflicult to pass. The Caxoeira dc Santa Anna is at all times so dangerous that (lie cargo is always carried round the rapids, and re- emhiuked below, the canoe descending empty. At the hcac * I cannot let pass tliis op|)ortiinity of acknowled^ring the kiiulness of tliis gcntlcinun, 8enlior Baretto, a mulatto, who gave ine my passage to the Salto from Calhiio, and was of the greatest service to me. VOL. I. ■ 8 170 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of the rapids, wliich extend for nearly a mile, is a largo isl- and. Both channels arc practical tie in some states of tin river, but with low water the northern is the only sale mio. The Caxoeira consists not only of a series of rapids, biii also of several buncos, or low cascades. Canoes constantly (!(■- scend, — a most exciting feat. The ascent is accomi)lisluM only with the emjity canoe and with great difficulty. JictwcLU this Caxoeira and the Salto Grande the river is very swift. full of rapids, and ol)structed by rocks, while in some ])laLe,> it is very narrow, and Ijordered by a wide margin of rocks covered by the annual floods. Islands arc numerous. At the town of Salto Grande, a wretched little place, on (ho right bank, a quartc" of a mile above the Salto, or lails. and celebrated for its trade in salt, <fcc., the rivei- is only eighty to one Imndred feet in width, but on each side are low margins of bare gneiss * rock and sand-banks. At the Halto the river reaches a point whence, within (be distance of a mile or thereabouts, it descends some tluce hundred i'cct, more or less,! "^ ^ splendid series of cascades and rapids. At the head of th< Caxoeira, when the river is not swollen, it is suddenly narrowed to fony or fifty feet. and plunges down a very steep incline into a gorge with perpendicular banks, making a wild and most romantic fall of about fifty feet. Below this are other falls, which, owing to the state of the weather, I was unalile to visit. On each side of the rapids is a wide strip of rocky ledges, swept bare. When the enchente jn-evails, the stream swells too biu' I'm' its channel, and pours in a terrible flood over the rocks * This f^noiss is coniposccl of feldspar, quartz, and liornblcndo, aiul is \m;1 bedded. Strike, N. 30^ W., dip vertical at the upper Porto do Salto. t I am entirely unable, from the character of tln^ country, to form a very re- liable estimate of the total height of these fulls, but I believe that 300 fuot I* much within the truth. PROVINCE OF MINAS GERAES. 171 on cacli side, making a series of rapids to wliicli those of Niagara arc as uolhing. The Salto Grande, during the lldiiils, nnist he a sight worth a pilgriniagc to sec. The DircioiKirio Gcog-rajico says that the fall is twenty liraras in height, and that the noise of the waters may he heard at a distance of four leagues, whicli is not very correct. The Salto consists of several falls and rapids, as ahove descril)ed. Tlic Caxoeira is of course an effectual harrier to navigation, commerce re(piiring a transport of goods l»y iuul(\s anjund it, which have to he rc-eml)arkcd ahove or helow the falls. On tlu' road from the village to the port I)elow the coun- try is seen to he covered as usual with drift-clay, in which aio laige Ijouldcrs of the hornhlendic gneiss, together with rounded and angular fragments of (piartz. Ikdow the Salto the liver leaves the province of Minas Geraes, and enters that of Bahia ; but to make my description of the river com- plete, I continue it here to the sea. Between the Salto and the Caxocirinha the river is nar- row, with high gneiss hanks. It is nuich obstructed by iDclvs an.d rapids; but this part of the river I am unable to doseribe in detail, because 1 was obliged to run the greater jiai't of it, rapids and all, in the night. At the Caxocirinha tlic liver leaves the rocks, and becomes a rio trarvia. Up to this point the canoes bring from the sea very heavy loads of salt, etc., Init here their cargves have to l)e divided and rearranged. Here has sprung uj) a little settlement, wliieli licars the same name as the rapids, but it is of no imi)ortance. The river, on leaving the rocks, becomes immediately shal- lower, less rapid, and widens into a fine broad stream, com- parable to the Poce, and from 800 to 1,000 feet in width or iiiuro. The lands also grow lower, and the river valley is 172 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPUY. cut through the coast tertiary band. The whole country is heavily wooded, but the vegetation did not bear to mo the luxuriant air of that of the Duce. There arc a few .settlers along tlie river, and one or two large fazendas. At a place called Zinebra, a Ajw leagues above the mouth of the river there is an old fazenda, with wliieli is connected a good .saw- mill, liclow this a short distance, on the same or j-ii:ht bank of the river, an American colony has been estabUslitd. and on tlie occasion of my visit I found two Southern- ers, ^lessrs. Ogden and Thom[)son, engaged in cutting i\ clearing in the forest. The locality they have chosen is a fertile one, but it seems to mo doubtful whether, single- handed, they can ever succeed. Below Zinebra the tertiary lands leave the river, an isolated patch being found on the Po-assu, a channel on the north whence some of the waters of the Je([uitinhonha escape into the Pardo. Thence to the sea, low alluvial lands, with a heavy forest growtli ami swam})s, border the lu'oad, beautiful river. It is, however. very shallow, and full of sand-bars,. The river would he navigable for a little flat-bottomed river steamer, Imt it Avould have to be of very light draught. At the mouth \h; river becomes exceedingly broad and shallow, and is to sinli an extent obstructed by sand-bars, that the level of I'ln' river is always higher than that of the sea, and the salt water never enters, as is the case with most other livcrs. So heavily does the surf beat on the bar, that vessels enter with great difficulty, and when once they have eutereil it often hai)pens that weeks or even nuuiths may elapse before it maybe safe to pass the bar again. Cargoes of corn ladeK at IJelmonte have often to be rclanded after lying in the hold of a vessel for weeks. Xor is this all. The sand-banks are constantly shifthig, and a vessel at anchor may lie heajH^il PROVINCE OF MIXAS GEUAKS. 173 rouiul liy sand and <letaiiicd for a long wliilc. The result is, tliat the port is rarely ever resorted to by coasters. Iji'luKiute is a little town situated on tlie alluvial border i)f the river, in a grove of eoeoanut-trees, on the right hank, a short distance aI)ove the mouth. During the fresh- ets it is liable to sutfer from the eating away l)y the river (if tlic hank on which the town stands. It is of scarcely any importance, doing very little trade, its inhabitants being principally lishermen. Cattle are raised on the i)lains of the vicinity, but there is small opportunity for agriculture. Kiom Caxoeirinha to the fazenda of Zinebra I saw next to nothing of the geology, owing to a part of the journey having hccn made in the night, and because of the prevalence of very lieavy rains ; but near Zinebra I saw a small exposure (if shales, which appeared to l^c of the same character as those hereafter to be described in speaking of the Rio Pardo, liiit owing to the height of liie river I could make nothing "if them. The Diccionario Geogrnjlco says, in speaking of tlie river, that in 1840 beds of rose-colored marl)le were dis- covered. Through the kindness of Senhor Piraja I have in my jiossession a specimen of this marl)le. It is exceedingly Hne in texture, and of a delicate pink tint, compact and liard, and would take a fine polish. If it occurs in sufficient quantities, it would make a beautiful building-stone. For the present let us leave the Jequitinhonha. When treating of the geology of the Province of Bahia we shall have to return to it again. 174 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER IV. THE ISLANDS AND COKAL REEFS OF THE ABROLHOS. The Gcolopy of the Abrolhos. — Trap-bed, Fossil Plants, &c. — Land Fauna ami Flora ; Spidi-rs, Lizards, and Sea-Iiirds. — The Cemetery of the Frijrati'-liinls. — The Whale and Garoupa Fisheries. — Importance of these Fisheries. — The mythieal Brazilian Reef. — The Coral Reefs and Consolidated Bcucln- confonnd oy Travellers and Writers. — The Author's Discovery of tlic Porto Sef,'uran Coral Reef. — Coral-building Corals found almost wholly to the north of Cape Frio. — The Fringing Reef of Santa Barbara ; its Stnicturo and Life. — Corals found on the R'ef. — Star-fishes, Ojdiiurans, &r- Reseniblance between the Eehinoderm.: of the Abrolhos and West Indies. — The Chapeiroes. — The Parcel dos Abrolhos; its Appearance; forms a serious Obstacle to Navigation. — Safe Canal west of the Islands. — Tiie Parcel dos Paredes. — The Recife do Lixo. — Its great Extent. — Tlie Siili- merged Border and its Coral-Growth. — The Coral Fauna of Bra'.ll. — "^hc Millcpores and their Stinging Properties. — The Reefs of Timbebas, It.i- columi, Porto Seguro, Santa Cruz, Caraamu, Bahia, Maceid, and I'ernani- buco. — The Roccas. The islands of the Al^rollios * lie al)Out midway between the cities of Rio and Bahia, a little south of the parallel of * The general impression seems to be that the name is derived from the Por- tuguese words meaning, " Open your eyes," a name which would be exrecd- ingly appropriate, for the islands, wliitened by the dung of sea-birds, have a spectral look, and, in addition, the reefs with which they are surrounded are so dangerous, that, before the lighthouse was erected, it required much vigilance to enable vessels to pass them in safety, and they have been always jiMly dreaded. The author of the odd old Dutch Rcj/s-fmeck ran het rijcke Brasiheii. published in 1624, says that they tire vory pericuIcHS, and adds: " Daorom als hy dese passagicn passeren wilien so nemen sy eerst met al haer vole liet Sac- rument ende wanneer sy die ghepasseert hebben bedrijven sygroote blijdrsrhap- ghelijck al by alle Jurnalen soo wel vande spaensehe als van de onso te sion is ! " THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE AliROLHOS. 175 ISLAND OF SANTA BARBARA DOS ABROLHOS. riimvcllas, and at a distance of ai)out forty miles from the niaiiiluiid. The position of the lighthouse on the island of Santa TJarliara is, according to Mouchez, lat. 17^ 57' 31" .^., long. 40" 58' 58" west from Paris. These islands are situated apparently near the middle of the submerged bor- der of the continent, which here, over a very large area, lies at a depth of less than one hundred feet. They are four in ninnlior. with two little islets, and they are arranged in an ineui'.lar circle, three of them close together. All arc rocky and rather high, Santa Barbara, the principal one, being 'So. 22 metres in height. The length of this island is about three quarters of a mile. Its outline is irregular, and it is very narrow. It is composed of beds of sandstone, sluilcs, and trap, which dip approximately north-northwest, at an angle of from ten to fifteen degrees. Owing to this Cnptain and crow took the Sacrament before passing them ! The name, how- cvor, means rocks, and is so defined in Fonscca's Dictionary. Tlierc is a little ^'roup of reefs and islands lying on the western coast of Australia, in lat. 28° S., and known as Iloutman's Abrolhos. These are, in great part at least, composed of coral 176 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGKAI'HY. northward dip of the strata, the northern side of this island presents a steep slope to the sea, while on all other sides it, is preeipitous. The island is almost divided m two hi the middle by a cove indenting it on the southern side. THE ISLANDS OF THE ABHOLHOS FKOM TUK SOUTH. In the cliff below the liglithousc, the lowest beds soon are an arenaceous limestone (?), a, of the following diagram,— 7n^^®^ a rock so hard as to form a ]ilntform l)clow the cliff. Over this is a hard, blue shale, /;, witli undeterminable ortianic markings, some of which appear to be the scales of Telcos- tian fishes. This is again overlaid by a thick bed of a yellow- ish sandstone, c, rather fine in texture, and sometimes more or less shaly, on the surfaces of some of the layers of wliieli there are obscure impressions of plants. This sandstone i.* harder than the underlying shales, and so forms an over- hanging cliff. The sandstones arc overlaid by a bed of basaltic trap that occupies the greater part of the surface of THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE ADROLIIOS. 177 the island, as is seen in tlic following little map, in which the darkly shaded portion represents the trap-bed. f^ %(l!^^^^»4ssl^' This trap-bed is divided by numerous joints into polyhedral masses of all sizes. On the upper surface of the ))cd these masses have lost, l)y decomposition, one concentric coat after another, until, in some cases, they have been rounded >h\xn to irregular spheres, like cannon-balls, and the greater l)ai't of the island is strewn with these boulders of decomposition. I have al- roiKly called attention to similar boul- r. dcrs at Tijuca. The trap of 8anta ^ Barl)ara is traversed by but few veins, b?-- so far as I could see, the only mineral that T could find be- iiijr chalcedony, incrusting cavities, and having the color and general appearance of Prenhite. . Cracks and crevices are sometimes filled up with guano and phosphates from the (lung of the sea-birds that frequent the islands ; but I saw no regular deposit of guano. The surface of the rocks is sometimes covered in patches l>y an incrustation of a hard, brownish substance, which I have supposed to have been deposited by the surface waters, and to have been derived 8* L 178 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSlCAL GKOGPwMMIY. from tho birds' dung, Darwin, who visited the islands on Ids CL'lebriiicd voyage round tiio Avorld,also s{)eaks of it, and describes a similar substance as found on the island (if Ascension, and on St. Paul's rocks.* The same geido^iist mentions having observed a columnar structui'C in the tni]) of Santa Barbara, but I lliul no note of it in my journal, The underlying stratified beds arc somewhat altered, and indurated from their ])roximity to the trap. In lidiological characters the AI)rolhos beds resemble Ihe sandstones, Arc, of the Rio Sao Francisco at PenCMJo, to lie dcscril)ed farther on, and wdiich contain similar plant re- mains. They have lieen distnrljcd by the same upheaval. and I have little hesitation hi referring both to the creta- ceous. If my identification l)e correct, it is interesting to observe the cretaceous rocks on the eastern ])order region of South America disturbed and associated with volcanic deposits, lijr along the eastern border region of North America the oic- taceous and tertiary rocks have suffered no disturbance. 1 have seen no trace of secondary rocks on the coast o]ipo- sitc the Abrolhos and to the southward. On the Mucury and elsewhere the tertiary clays are everywhere seen to rest immediately on the gneiss ; but the submerged border of the continent seems to be more or less overlaid bv cretaceous strata, as in the eastern border region of North America. The Ilha Redonda, lying just w^est of Santa Barbaia, is composed of rocks of the same character as those of Santa Bai'bara, but I observed no basalt. Near the top of the clitf, on the eastern side of Redonda, there is seen a thick bed of a white or yellowish material which looks like chalk, and is easily cut with a knife when wet, but on drying it grows * Darwin, Geological Observations, Part II. p. 33. THE ISLANDS AND COP.AL RKEFS OF TlIK ABROLIIOS. 170 harder. It does not, however, cfTorvesce witli acids, and it ii]i|it'iir.s to 1)0 an aluminous j)roduct of the decomposition of sdiiic rock. Mr. Henry Hughes, of Cornell University, e\- aniined a S])ecinien of the I'ock, and reports it as containiuir quite a percentage of phosphoric acid, wliich lias donl)tless lii'cu brought into the rock by the percolation through it of laiii-water from the dung-strewn surface of the ground above. The other two islands are composed of stratilied rocks which ;i|i|iear to undei'lie conformably those of Santa Barbara and lleilonda ; but 1 was unable to visit them. On the sliores of Saiiii) i>ar1)ara I found fragments of j)umicc scattered altout ami mucli rolled by the waves. These have b(M'n obsei'ved (.Iscwiirrc on the Brazilian coast, and it is somewhat puz- ■/.Ww'j: to account for their origin. Darwin found pumice ]K'lihl('s on the coast at Bahia Blanca,in the southern j.ai'tof the Argentine Rejiublic ; ijut these, he says, had Ijcen brought (Idwu by the rivers flowing from the eordillera.* The beaches of the Al)i'olhos Islands are foi-med in part of the debris of the rocks comprising the islands, l)ut they consist largely, and in some ])laces entirely, of coral and shell sand. It is very interesting to see how these materi- als arc cemented together through the action of the sea ^vater, and even the shingle is soldered into an exceedingly finn mass.f * Dimvin, Geological Observations, Part Til. p. 4. t I liiivo seen the same in the island of St. Thomas, W. I. Darwin says : "On tlic shores of Quail Island in the Cajie Verdes I found fra>,rments of linck, holts of iron, pebbles, and larj^o fraf^mcnts of basalt united by a scanty base of impure caloareoiis matter into a firm conglomerate. To show how cxeeedini;ly (inn this recent eonglonierate is, I may mention that I endeavored with a lieavy tri'olii-icul hammer to knock out a thick bolt of iron which was embedded a little above low-water mark, but was (juite unable to succeed." — Geological Oijscrvations, Part II. p. 21. 180 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. On the island of Santa T>ar))ara was croctccl a fow yoars ago an cxccllont liglithoiisc with a flash li.ulit, ami the uiilv human iulial>itants of Ihe island arc tlie lij^lithouse-kcppor and his assistants. A ihw goats wore introduced on Santn Barbara some time since, which have inultiplicd until ilici. is now a flock of several hundreds. These animnls Imw almost dej)rived the island of vegetation, and can now unK harely sul»sist. Redonda is covered with coarse grasses, w iili dwarf mimosas and a few ferns, (tc, — a very meagre ildia. The island Siriba boasts in addition a single ti-ce of tlic same name, together with two dwarf cocoa-palms planti^l hv the whalers from Caravellas. The land animals consist of little lizards of several species, Avhicli arc extraordinarily al)undant, more so than in any other locality I ever visitifl. An imironsc M/jg-afc, the Aran/ia caranguejeira of the I5r;i- zilians, abounds in like manner, living under stones, Imt I did not observe that it made any nest. This huge spider preys on the lizards. It has been known to attack and kill young chickens on the island and suck their blood, and it is not improbable that it may destroy the young of tin' sea-birds, so common on the island. Breeding-places for sea-birds are few along the Brazilian coast north of Cape Frio, and during certain seasons of the year several species resort to the Abrolhos in great iiiini- bers. Among these are the frigate-bird ( Tarhijpcles (ujni- lina), the Pihto, the Grazina {Phaefon), Bcncditos, gulls. &c. Since the occupation of the island by men and goats. and the establishment of the lighthouse, these birds liavc resorted to the island of Santa Barl)ara less abundantly than formerly. One fact with reference to the frigate-bird is worth mentioning. At the southwest extremity of Santa Bar- bara is a little islet composed of a heap of large trap boulders THE ISLANDS AXl) CORAL RKEFS OF THE AIJUOLHOS. 18 L of decomposition, and joined to the main island, as I shall liuvc occasion liereal'ter to rcmai'k, hy a IVinninii' coral reef. This islet, Avhitcned hy the hird-dung, is called - () Cvrrte- Icrio,'' or the cemetery. I was assured that to this sepul- clu'ul-looking spot the lVigate-l)irds of the vicinity resorted on the approach of death, and that the jthu'c was strewn widi Iheir hones. At low water one day 1 visited the "cemetery," and I I'oiuid such to lie actually tin; case. Tlicrc were remains of hundreds of tliese hirds, some freshly dead, hut the most of the slceletons were disarticulated and bleached. Xowhere else did I see a dead frigate, and it would seem that for generation after generation they had li-one there to die. I do not kn(jw of a hetter station for lui ornithologist desirous of studying the haltits and eiuhryology of the sea-ldrds of Urazil than the island of Santa IJarltara. He can lind as comfortaide lodgings at the liuhthouse as he could possihly desire, and he nuiy at the right season of the ycai- collect as many sjiccimens. young and adult, of the birds frc(|uenting the island as he may wish. Heforc I go on to speak of the coral reefs of the Al)i-(dhos and vicinity, a few remarks on the fisheries may not here Ije out of place. On the coast of Brazil are found several species of whales and smaller cetaceans, hut these animals have not been carefully examined hy competent naturalists, and 1 am unable to give as accurate an account of them as 1 could desire. These animals are captured at various sta- tions, frc m Santa Catherina northward to Bahia. At pres- ent the two most important stations arc Caravellas in the Alirolhos region and Bahia. I visited the Abndhos during the whaling season, and during my cruise I saw several humi»- baeks i3Icg-aptera),ix[\ apparently of the same species ; but ISL' GEOLOGY AND rilYSICAL GEOGRArilV. I was not so lortuiuito as to sec; a IVcsli s|t('ciinoii Itioii'^hr, ill. 1 made tlu' most diligent imiiiirius (jf tlio lishcrincn in rulatifjii lo lli(! (lirtereiit kinds tlit'y wimv accustonu'd to t;ikc, but tlioy sccni to confound the species, and 1 could ulitiiin nothinii' vciv salist'actoi'v iVoni tlicni. From all that I could learn, three S})ecies arc taken in the vicinity of the Alirolhos. The nonic<ra is a humpimck, wliich luis the hdly white and smooth, hack veiy daik bluish, length lil'ty to lil'ty-live feet. This whale uives inoiv oil than the viijsligd, which the whalers said dillered tiom the ahove in having the back black, and the l)elly and thinat furrowed. Sonuitimes they have white spots on the sides. The ctifc/o (^cachelot) is distinguished l»y I'eing whi>llv dark colored or black, ami without sj)ots or furrows. Tli" fishery l)egins at Bahia, according to Castelnau,* about ilic loth of June, and lasts until the lilst of Sei)teniber. At Caravellas 1 was assured that the whales always appeai^a later than at Hahia, and the fisheiy chjes not hegin until the last week in June,f continuing through the nujutli oi Septeml)er. ^fhis seems strange, since the whales, ac- cording to the iishcnncn, come from the south in June. and return in .*^C]»teml)Cr, and one would naturally expect thi'.t they would arrive at the Abrolhos before they anivo at ]>ahia. The first whales ajipear in the Al)rollios waters at al)out the end of and they linger until Octolicr. The females ofte young calves with them, and ap- pear to seek tin cr of the reefs. The head-quarters of tlic Abrolhos lisliery is at Caravellas, or rather at tlio mouth of the river Caravellas, Avherc arc situated the ar- ma^ocs, or trying-houses. In the year 18G7 there were * K.r}mUti<m (hiiis I'Amtriquc du Sud, Tome I. p. 1 50. t So also Von Tschudi. Tin: ISI.ANDS AND CORAL UrF.FS OF THE AIIROLIIOS. 183 t>nii>li»yi'tl ill (his lisluMy sovciitccn hiiiiii-In's. These ves- sels MIX' liir^'e, well-mjule, jt'mk-stei'iied, (i|ieii IkhiIs, eiirry- iiiniiiic hiru'c s(iiiiiio sail. Tlit' saiue Idiild orhiimeli is iis(m1 at r>aliia, and (liov are vei'V uood sailers. One oi' these launehes ousts, the hnll alone, aliont .■')()0>< 000 (A^')'), nioi'O or less).* The crew eonsists of iVnni Iniirteeii to sixteen [leiseiis. I'laeli laniieli takes in tow a whale-ltoat. 'J'heso aic of the or<liiiaiy linild, and cost al)ont 2-''0><000, The Clew of the l)oat eonsists of seven men, — a harpooner and a steersman, the rest bein«>: rowei's. Th(> lanneli and lioat usually lielone' to one person, who hires the ei-ew lor the season, or sdj'ra, rurnishinu' them rations e\('ry ten days. When a laru'e whah; is eaptui'tMl the hai-pooner receives 121) ■'I' 000, hnt if small only half that sum. The steersman receives half the prize money of the harpooner, the rowers each 24 8000 if the whale be larue, and 12 8 000 if small. The master of the launeli receives 40 8000 if laree, 20 8 000 if small, and the crew 10 8 000 if larue, 8 8 000 if small. The (lead whale is towed in to land by the launch, aided by the boat if necessary. The distance is often great, and when the wind is adverse the whale often comes to land in a wretched condition, and IVeMpicntly jiadly mangled l)y sharks, which abound in these waters. A small tug would he of nuich service in this fishery, not only to bring the Mliales prnm])tly to the shore, but occasiomdly to tow the launches in case of a head wind. The whales are brought to the shore, l)cached in front of the trying-houses, and cut uj). There are several of these ti-ying-houses. The one that 1 visited was well constructed, and was fur- * Tlic render will please bear in mind that the 1 SOdO or niil-nis (not 7)iil- rci, as forei^aiers will call it), has an a])iiroxinuUe value of about fifty cents American currency. 184 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. iiislicd witli five c'ulling-liuiks, which woiihl accominoduti' tlic bhil)i)cr ol' two hi,rg'C whales, together with ten tanks for oil having a capacity of about 15,000 gallons. There were twenty-six trying-pots. The arnuu^dcs are hired by the owner of the launch taj)- turing the whale, who furnishes the men necessaiy for the cutting up tmd trying out. The large females accompanied by young, madrijos* arc very fat, and are the most valualilc prizes. There are killed ever\' -ear and cut up at the Poiita da Balea fr(jm thirty to ninety whales ; Init were the fishery jmrsued more vigorously, with proper economy of time ami the use ot a small steam-tug or two, the yield might lie more than doubled. I Icani through M. Bornand, of Villa Yi^'osa, that a company has been formed at that town for the prosecution of the fishery. A good-sized whale ought to afford 1,000 to 1,000 catiadas of oil, the Canada containing' about ten bottles, or one and eight ninths gallons, the large whales givintr much more. The oil, Avho • quality miulit, it seems to me, be improved by more care ii. .le trying out, sells on the si)ot at from 1 $ GOO to 8 8 000 per caiiada. The whalebone is short, but sells well, but I have omitted to note the price it brings. The beach on which the whales arc cut up is covered during the season by huge masses o*' rotting flesh, and is strewn with bones. There must be on the spot the bones of over 500 whales. These, with the flesh and the refuse from the trying-pots, would, prop- erly and scientifically ])repared, make an excellent manure, which, if judiciously applied, would go far towards re- juvenating the soils of the ])lantations of the vicinity, which are rajjidly becoming exhausted. At present it seeniM ridiculous to hear the com})laints of the planters, while * Madrijas ? I do not liud the word in Foiiscca. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE ABROLIIOS. 185 hundreds of tons of the most valuable kind of manure arc left to rot on the sands or are poured into the sea ! The Al>rolhos region is rarely visited by whalers, ihough 1 was intbrnied tha\; an American vessel some nine years ago s[>('nt a seasoii on the ground, taking twenty wliales. Tlie fishery at Bahia is carried on on a nuich larger scale than at Caravellas. Castelnau* cstinuited in iH'jO that it uavc occupation to 2,000 persons, and from 100 to 120 boats, giving a revenue of 200,000 francs. The same author estimated that on the whole coast of Brazil from 10,000 to 12,000 persons were engaged in this fishery, and that it jiroduced a cai)ital of 1,000,000 francs, l)ut it seems to me tliat that estimate would be far too high for the present time. Castelnau speaks of the fact that whale-flesh is us(.'d as food l)y the lower classes in l)ahia, and 1 saw it exposed for sale ; but Dr. Antonio de Lacerda assured me thtit it was not healthy, and tended to produce ele- phantiasis. Castelnau states that, according to the fisher- men, the whales enter the l)ay every morning, but always return to the o})en sea to s^jend the night, and I heard the same report. Wliales are frecjuently taken very near the city, and one may sometimes enjoy the rare sight of sitting at a restaurant in the nppcr city and watching the chase and cai)tare of a whale in the bay lielow I The other fishery carried on in the waters of the Abrolhos is that of tiie <^ai'oupa, an excellent fish exceedingly abun- dant, and taken with the hook and line. The liead-([uarters of this fishery is at Porto Heguro, a town some seventy mik-s to the northward of the Abrolhos. At this town is owned a fleet of thirty-five or forty small vessels, each car- rying from seven to ten men. The fishery really extends ♦ Expedition dans I' Ame'rique du Sud. IJistoiredu Voyage. Tome I. p. 152. 180 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. from Barra Sccca northward to the Commaiidatuba, but the best ji-rouiids lie between lat. 17° and 18° S. The cruise is usually for twenty-five or thirty days. The fish tiikcii ;\]v jjrincipally g-aroupas, but there ai-e also several other kinds, such as the mciro, vermelho, etc. The fish arc salted ddwu m the hold, but, owing to the heat, they arrive almost iii- varial)ly with a very strong and disagreeable odor. Tluv are dried on shore and sent to TJahia. The yearly prodiid of this fishery is from 160,000 to 200,000 arrol)as (2,r)(!0 h, 3,200 tons). The garoupa is a delicious fish, and witli proper care might be ])re])arcd so as to be quite ('(jiial to the cod. The names of the fish taken in the virjnjiy of the Abrolhos, and which arc used for food, are Ictiioii. and among them arc some oi 'he most delicious of ma- rine fish. The Abrolhos Islands offer an excellent slatimi for drying and curing fish, and there has been sonic talk of establishing there the head-quarters of a comjiany tn carry on this fishery. Immense quantities of codfisli arc now sent to Brazil, together with European sardines and canned fish from Portugal, and every veiida is hill of tlnin. k^omc enterprising American should form a comi)any Ini' tin' dcvclo])nient of tliis fishery. The Brazilian fish a^v' as cheaply i.btained as the Portuguese, they are nowlioro ii; be excelled, and Brazil ought to be exporting her deliijens fishes, canned, or otherwise j)repared, to Euro])e, bci^idos supplying her own market. The government would favnr any undei'takingof the kind proposed, and there arc wealthy Brazilians who would aid in carrying it out. In works on Brazil, fi'om those of the old explorers to tlio present time, we find the uniform statement that a roof or consolidated beach, like that of Pernambuco or Barra Seria. extends around the greater part of the Brazilian coast. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE ABROLHOS. 187 There lias been much confusion riS to what this reef really was, sonic describing it as of coral, others as composed of siiiidstono, Ijut in scientific works it is generally stated that no coral reefs exist on the coast of ]>razil. 1 am not sure who first expressed the opinion ^^hat the stone reef surrounded a large part of the coast, Ijut 1 find it in Piso, whose first volume l)ears date lO-bS.* Since Ills lime this general reef has been descril)ed over and over at:;! in almost in the same words, and it is even occasionally to 1(0 fouml laid (Kdwii on maj)S. Prince Max. zu Ncu Wicd has nothing to sav concerning the trne coral reefs, and, strangely enough, he does not doscrihc the Porto Seguran or Santa Cruz consolidated lifachcs, notwithstanding he gives drawings of l)oth. Von Martius,f however, observed coral banks at Caniamu and WAV llhcos, and referred some of the corals to Lainarckian sjicoics. Dai'wiii, who just touched at the Albrohos, observed corals trrowing on the shore, but he did not see the reef. In his (leological Ob.servations | he says: '' Round many inter- tiMoical islands, — for instance the Al)rolhos on the coast of Brazil, surveyed by Captain Fitz Roy, and, as 1 am informed liy Dr. Gumming, round the Philip])incs, — the bottom of the sea is entirely coatc<l by in-egular masses of coral, which, al- though often of large size, do not reach the surface and form lini[M.'r reefs." Darwin speaks also of having received iiifor- * I'iso siiys : " Maxirnam Brasilia; partem, nuno interrupts nunc continuato iliK'to tiu'tus. Ejus latitudo ])lani;isima est et quasi arte in suiicrlicii lL'vif,'ata ad vi;^inti, siiliindti tri;:intn passits et ultra sc extcndit. Tantiv voro nltitiulinis ut vix siiinmo ;vstu inunditur." — Ilist. Xat. Brasiliw. Guiliclmi Tisonis, M. D. Je Med. Hrasil. Liher primus. 1648. + III Is,' iHich fhasilien, Band IL Seite G84, 685. ! l';v,tl p 58. 188 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. mation of the coral reef at Maccio, which further on I shall describe ; and in another pkice in the same work, referriiio- to the PUote dii Bresil, by Baron Ruussin, a work 1 lia\u never seen, he says : " A few miles south of the latter citv [Pcrnanibuco] tlie reef follows so closely every turn of the shore that I can hardly doubt that it is of coral." Dana also says : * " About Pernambuco, as I am informed by Mr. Titian K. Peal, there arc some patches of growing corals, and they arc said to extend along to 20° or 21' south lati- tude," which is not quite correct, as we shall sec further uu Staff-Comnuinder Pcun,t in treating of Cape Sao Ruquc, says that " the coast of Pilitinga and the Cape is skirted by a reef which, between two and two and a lialf miles southward of the former, in front of two small villag(.'s, forms a curve with its outer edge and runs thence a mile fnjni the shore, having two and three (piartcrs fathoms of water inside of it." These reefs arc represented on the maj) of Iviii Grande do Norte by Almeida, and they appear to be coial reefs. Penn speaks of other reefs between the Punahii and the Touro which are of the same character. A little farther on J he says : " The rcrifc, a singular ridge of coral roelc. borders the coast, generally at a distance of about a half td three miles, but in some places much farther off, and ex- tends more or less from the northeast part of Brazil as tar as Bahia. Traces of it may be found fr.rther southward and along the north coast to Maranhao. The reef, which is about sixteen feet in breadth at the top, slopes to the sea- ward, is per})endicular on the shore, and said to be generally covered, but sometimes rises from distance to distance * Coral Reefs and Islands, p. 108. t South American Coast Pilot, Vol. L p. 22. I Op. cit. p. 23. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE ABROLIIOS. 180 nearly three feet out of water. It is nearly always l)ordorcd liv rocky banks, and forms a natural breakwater, having smoiith water and shallow inside of it, with navigable chan- nels tor coasters, <tc. It is broken occasionally, and forms liy the oiK'uings entrances to the greater part of the ports, rivers, and creeks on the coast." Now such a description cdiild never have been written by any intelligent seaman who had examined the coast. It is Piso's account of the ircife told over again, and it is the more erroneous since it gives more detail. Gardner not only mistook the structure of the Pernam- l)iieaii stone reef or consolidated beach, but he describes the mythical coast reef in the same general terms. .So no wondor that the whole structure and character of the coast reefs of Brazil have remained a puzzle to the geologist and the googra])hor, and that it has been a serious (juestion as to what the Abrolhos reefs really were, one author declaring that they were formed of decomposed gneiss ! The fact is, that the reefs of Brazil are of two kinds, the coral reefs and the consolidated beaches, which last are occasionally separated from the coast line, and sometimes run across the mouths of rivers, as at Porto Scguro, Pernambuco, &c., like i\arrow rock walls resemlding artificial breakwaters. These, so far as I have observed or can loai-n, are never tbuiid at any great distance from the shore, neither are they continuous over any great distances. The Brazilian calls them rrcifcs. That at Pernambuco, owing to the great trade with that port, has l)ecome famed, and many travel- lers have seen it and been puzzled over it. From the Abrolhos northward to the shore of j\Iaranhao, at very irregular and often very long intervals, are scat- tered true coral reefs, which lie in i)atches at a short dis- 190 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY. tancc from the slioro, there l)eiiig usually iiavigahlc channels between them and the mainland. It is very rare that one of these reefs is dry other than at very low tide, and the sea constantly l)reaks on its outer edge. These reefs are known by the Brazilians as rccifcs.* Cora] and coral-rock arc called pedra de cal, or limestone. The whole confusion lias evidently arisen in this way : A traveller has visited Pcrnani- buco, and has seen the reef. lie hears it called the rccij);^ and is told that the coast of Brazil is bordered by rccifcs. On his way u}) or down the coast he sees from time to time the sea breaking against the coral reefs in a long line of surf. His pilot tells him that is the rccifc. He perhaps asks if it is made of coral ; but this word in Brazil is almost exclusively applied to the precious red covr\ {Coralliiini riibrum), and the pilot says, " No, it is made of pedra, or pcdra de cal.'' Some of the coral reefs arc laid bare at low water, but their great width is not visible from the deck of a ship sailing at a distance, and they look like walls. So the coral-reefs of Brazil have come to be confounded with the consolidated beaches ; indeed, I should never have suspected the real character of the coral reef of Santa Cruz, close to wliieli I passed in a steamer, had it not 1)een that I had previously examined the coral reef at Porto Seguro. It seemed a low, narrow wall, and there was nothing that I could elicit from the pilot or captain that would have led me to snpposo that it differed from the inner consolidated beaches at Portu Seguro or Santa Cruz. I made my first acquaintance with the coral-reefs of Brazil while at Porto Seguro, in 18(3(3. I had been for * This word, as I shall sliow further on, is deriverl from the Arabic ".vord razlf, which means literally a pavement. Sometimes the form arrccifi is used. Compare reef, Eng., riff, Germ., and r^cif, Frenv.h. See Recife in Index. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE AliROLIIOS. VM several days collecting on the stonc-rccf or consolidated licacli, Ijelbrc 1 heard of the outer reef. There was nothing that I could learn from the fishermen that could warrant nil' iu considering it as anything else than a consolidated Ik'iuIi; but my studies of the latter classj of reel's had satis- fuil uic that the outer reef could not p(jssil)ly he of that character, and when, on a si)ring tide, 1 visited it, in com- [laiiy with Mr. Copeland, 1 was not astonished to fmd it cuiii})osed of coral. On that short visit 1 collected all the jii'iiicipal corals found on the coast, and made out ([uitc sitisi'actorily the general structure of the reef, and of the (.•lia[H'iiu('s which surround it. 1 soon felt satisfied, from all that 1 could learn from the garoupa fishermen, that the Ah- rulhus rccifcs were true coral reefs, and my companion and 1 were on the point of visiting them when we received let- ters from Professor Agassiz, desiring us to come immedi- ately to Rio, to return home with the expedition. At Rio I found Mouchcz's chart of the Abrollios, on which is a note describing the reefs of the Abrollios so clearly as to leave no doubt as to their being immense coral reers. In order to settle the question I returned to lirazil tlie next summer, and went over the reef grounds of the Ahiullios as thoroughly as my time and the slim means I could eoiumand would allow^* The coast of Brazil, north of Cape Frio, has quite a rich p'tlyp-fauiia, but very few of the madre])orian jiolyps cross the suullicrn tropic. The Bay of Rio offers only insignifi- cant representatives of that order. All the specimens I could obtain were Astrangiu), growing in small scattered * I iTjrrct exceedingly that I have not yet been «l)le to use tlic dredge on the "raziliim const ; hut I hope that my studies of Nature in the tropics are only the preface to more thorough and detailed explorations in the future. 192 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. cells, on stones and dead shells in the shallow water ofl" the Ilha do Coveniador. Professor Agassiz tells me that a fme s})ecies ol' J'oritcs had been collected at Rio, and he iilsd informs me that corals have l)een Ibund at Desterro, in tlic bay of Santa Catharina,* a locality which, thongh extra- tropical, so far as latitude is concerned, is not really so in the character of its climate. Many species of Actinias are found in the harbor of Rio, together Avith one species of Ihaf curious locomotive halcyonoid, Rcnilla {R. Dana VeriiH), On the masonry of the new Custom-IIouse docks at liio 1 collected in abundance a slender, branching, tender, nodose halcyonoid undetermined. As we go northward from Cape Frio the madreporiaiis become quite common on the rocky shores, though the spe- cies are not numerous, and they are associated Avith species of Millcporo, ZoaiUhus, and PaI//(/ioa, and various gorjio- nians. I have already called altention to the coral faiiim of Guarapary and Victoria, and I have stated that 1 have no evidence of the existence of any banks of living corals or reefs south of the region of the Abrolhos. Here the condi- tions for the growth of coral reefs on a large scale arc re- markably favorable. Over large areas the water coverinir the great submarine shelf, on Avhich the islands arc based is much uiuler one hundred feet in depth, and it is warm and pure. ^So it is not to be Avondered at that very laruc coral reefs, both fringing and barrier, are found here. When the tide goes out there is seen extending ronnd about one half the circumference of the island of Santa Barbara a fringing reef, shoAvn in the little map on page 177. t One may then Avalk out on its IcA-el surface as on a * Collected by Mr. F. Mullcr. t This reef is also ripresentcd in the cut on p. 175. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE ADROLHOS. 103 wluu'f, and from its rag.ircd edge look straight down through ll. ' limpid grcou water and see the sides of the I'eef and the Mil liottom eovered with luige wliitish coral-heads, together with u weaUh of curious things not to be obtained witliout a dredge. Tlie surface of tlic reef, though flat, is somewhat irregu- lar. It rises but a short distance al)ove h>\v-\vater mark, and it is overgrown with l)arnacles, shells, nmssels, and sLMiiida-tulies, together Avith large slimy patches of the coninion leather-colored PaJytlioa. The reef a])Ounds in small jtools, some shallow and sandy, others deep, rocky, and irregular. The former often contain scattered masses cf I'orals, particularly Sidrrasfrfca and Fcivia, and they aliound in small shells, crabs, Ojihiurcc, &c. ; l)ut the deep podls arc the richest in life. These arc usually heavily chapod on the sides with brilliantly tinted sea-weeds and corallines, the l)arc rock being gay with l)ryozoa and hy- ihoids. The most common coral of these })ools is Si/frr- (!str(ca sfi'l/dfn Verrill.* This is a coral growing in round- ed or hemis{)herical masses with small cells. Professor Vi'irill states that it " dilfcrs from S. raduins in having laruor cells, which appear more open ; thinner septa, and euiiscquently wider intervening spaces ; and four complete evcles of septa." This coral rarely ever forms masses more than six inches in diameter, though I have collected speci- mens <S-12 inches in length. Its color when alive varies much. Tsually it is of a very pale pinkish tint, almost white, and it is not unfrcquently blotched with deepened spots of the same color. It is often seen growing in tide-pools in the reefs and rocks, with only just Avater enough to cover it. On the stone- VOL. I, * Trnns. Conn. Acad., 18G8, p. 353. 9 H 104 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRAI'HY. reefs, as at fiuarapary ami Porto Sc;j:uro, it is ofton soon in tlic jxjols cx])osod for several hours to the full ljlaz(! of tin sun, and of course liahlc to jrreat and sudden changes df teinj)craturc. These pools are also likely to he very nuicli freshened hy heavy showers while the tide is down. Near TJahia 1 have seen it growinji; in tide-jjools al)ove sea li\(l. and (o which the waves had access only at hiiili tide. It seems to stand exposure to the air with impimily ; foi- (in the reef at Porto Se.uuro I have observed it exposed to a hot sun for an hour or more tluring a spring tide, li is not confined to the tide-pools, hut occurs also on the submerged border of the reef, Avhere 1 have collected il in a depth of o-4 feet at low tide. This species appears td range from Ca})C Frio northward beyond Pernanibuco, Professor Vcrrill has separated under the name var. con- ferta what aj)i)ears to be a variety, and which is distin- guished by having in the centi-al portion cells defornicil throuiih crowding:. These cells are irresxular, and (Icoiicr than the normal ones near the basal margin. Their soiitii and dividing walls are more elevated and convex, am! sometimes adjacent cells arc united by the breaking down of these walls. Usually with Sidcrastrcca occur two s]ic- cies of Fan'a, — F. o^rarida Verr. and F. confrrta Vcrr, The former — a solid, heavy coral sometimes flattened, and incrusting stones or dead coral, sometimes in round uiasses rarely iiiorc than three or four inches in width — is allied to F. A/Kinas and F. Frag-nm of the AVest Indies; but Profes- sor A'errill siiows that it has more spiny costa) than either of those species, while the septa; are narrower and sharper. The other species, F. confrrta, forms small liemisiilieri- cal masses of about the same size as in the fornu'r species. It is interesting because of its atlinity to Goiiidsfircd, while THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE AHRoLHOS. V.Kt it stands, nccordiiifr to Professor Vcrrill, in sonic rosjtocts ininiucdiate between the genera luivia and Mfrdiif/riini. A li(iuisi»licrical or almost p'loliular coral with hirue cidls, Anitilluisfraa Brazil icns in Veriill, which is connnoii on llic liordcr of the reefs lielow low-watermark, is rarely ever funnd in the tide-])Ools, though 1 have occasionally rollcctcd it from the deeper ones. On the edge of the reef it giNiws to a very large size. The color is a pale gray, when seen in the water. This is one of the corals most iiistitnnental in laiilding up the reefs. Occasionally an Aii-a- nV/r/, closely allied to, if not identical with, the West Indian .4. Ag'driritrs Kdw. and Ilaime, is found in one of the little |iiH»ls. It is a thin, sjjreading coral, attached liy one side, and resembles the flat woody fimgi growing on dead tinilier or llie stumps of trees. This s))ecies often occurs almost nt Hie water level. At Villa A'elha, and elsewhere, it is found attached to Miiascc. It apj)eai\s to extend along the whole coast between A'ictoria and Cape Sao Ro(|ue. Tlio above arc the principal madreporian corals found in llic tide-pools. I have only rarely ol)served millej)ores growing in the pools, and these either in the deeper or the linnid, sandy-bottomed ones on the reef. Tlie oidy s]»ecies was M, Brazi/icnsis Verrill, a species easily recognized among the Brazilian millepora) by the peculiar form of its branches, which Pi'ofessor Veri'ill has desci'ibed a^ "• erect, angular, or flattened, or forming broad, convoluted, and folded rough jdates, with acute edges and sunnnits ; the sides covered with sharp, irregular, angular, crest-shaped, and conical prominences varying much in size and elevation, often beeoniing continuous ridges, usually standing at right angles to the sides of the branches." Professor A'errill suggests that this may, after all, be only a variety of his J/. i!in GKOLOCY AND PHYSICAL C.KOr.nAIMIY. )ii/i'f/(i, Imt I liavo never seen any intcrmcdiato foriiH. This 31. Ih'dziUcnsis sometimes f^rows to (|iiite a lariic >\/y, and it ranges aloiij; the whole coast fi'om the Ahrolhus to I'('rnaml)iu'(). On the suhmerjijed hordcr of this reef o'ciii' the heatitiful si)ecies of Massa and Siji)i/i/i/j//i(i, with uhiili I*r()fessor \'eri'iii has associated my name.* While at Santa Barbara the weather was nnfuvoralilr for an examination of the reef li(dow low-water mark, and my collections wcro principally made froni the surface of tlu' reef and from the tide-i)Ools. Of troi'goiiians I collected the same species as I fMiiinl at A'ictoria, namely, ILjmenogorg'ia qucrcifoUa,^ TJ/iiii<'rii * Mnssa Ilartlii Vcrrill is distiiift IVoin nil otlicrs in its iT;,'ular cclN mil its costiu, wliicli are l'iirni>lK'(l with stion;,', sliai|>, and recurved spiius, It {jrows in },nH'at abundance on the sid)in('rj:('d hordcr of the recf» in .'t - ti tVut water nt low tide, fbrniinj; hcautif'ul lienii.-|)hcrieal lioufiuets a foot or lun in diameter. The color of the coral when alive is pale whitish. It i.s very tVa- gile, and seems to prefer sheltered localities, and I do not believe that it grows on the out.-ide border of the reefs, wdiich is expo-ed to tlie heavy surf. It <M(iir«, also, at I'ernambnco, Porto Seizure, and elsewhere. With it is found aiiotlir form, which, thou;;h closely reseinl)linj^ it. Professor Verrill considers to be gencrically distinct, and has called Si/nipliyllid Iltirttii, jriving the same siMcitic name in case it should, after all, prove to be ideniieal with the above. t This IIi/iii(iiii(/iiri/i<i is exceedinji'ly abundant on the Rra/.ilian coast, rcjin'- scntin<.f in the Brazilian polyp-fauna the R/iipiddijnrqid' of the West Iiidiiui faumi. Professor Verrill describes it as follows : " It forms broad, fan-sh:iiKil fronds, often two feet liigh and a foot broad, consisting of broad, IbliiKuoiK branches, often resend)ling oakdcaves in form ; but at other times lari;c, ov;'.l, and irregularly incised or palmate. The branches of the axis are sleuiler mil rounded, and pass through the fronds like the midribs of leaves. The rather consjiicnous, flat cells arc scattered over the sides of the fronds." The cnler when alive varies from an ashen-gray to a light yellow or ])ink. The hiitcr color often deepens in spots. It grows on the rocks and stone-reefs in iK :»r water, and on the submerged border of the coral-reefs. It ranges downwapl to A depth of 5 - 6 feet or more. It is ajit to fade in drying. On the tVond^ a small parasitic Oruhim [0.<jiU)osum) is often found. Professor VerriLl has mm'-^ recently restored both this and the West Indian Rlilindogorgia Jiubcllnm to the genus (rorrjonia. "'•'WJBiuiiii-,, - TIIK ISLANDS AND CORAL RHEFS OF TIIF, AIUtOLIIOS. IM? hnni/is,* and IVcvanrrlhi (lii-liolonm. f Tlic sliiilldw, sniiily-liottoiiu'd pools over the red' nrc more or loss iii- c'lusti'il Avilli inviriiliir niassos of a ealcarcous (l('|)osit, con- sisting' of an aj^ilutination of sci'iMila-tnltcs, nnliipoiTs, hiyo/.oa, (^'C, which nsnally lie in i-athcr loose (lakes on the surface, anil are easily tnrneil o\-cr liy the liiind ; niiiili of the reef itself is covered in the same way. 'I'lie under sides of these masses, whl(;h are generally concave, iin iucrnstcd with heantifnl lirvo/oa, and Inrm hidiim-- jilai'cs for great nnmltei's of sj)ceies of marine worms, cliitiiiis, little crustaceans, ojdiiurans, itc. Henealh this cr.ist nestle in jri'cat abundance several int(>restini:- species (if •' lirittlo stars." The most common of these is the laruc Op/iiiim cincrca Lynum ; almost (piitc as alam- (!ant arc the pretty Ophiothrix violacni Miiller and Trtisihel, and Ophioncrcis reticulata Liitken. The othci- sjiccics collected on the re .Ts were Ophioiii/i.rii Jhtcnda liiitkcn, 0/)/iiactis Krchsii Liitken, and Ojf/iio/rjtis jxi/iri- spiiiii Midler and Troschcl.J All of the aliove species are, !icroi-(ling to Professor Verrill, memliers also of the AVest Indian fauna, and it is interesting to ohservc the occnri-eiu-c litic of the huge West Indian starfish, Orcaslrr <i-i<'-i(s Mitkcu, of which I collected two fine specimens at Santa llailiara, together with another West Indian s])(>cies. Lhirkia uniil/iojiiis Liitken. The sea-urchin, common at Santa * Ennicrn /iitwl.is E(l\v. and Ilaiine is n ^^orfionian easily rc'coL'tiizcil \)\ its prowiii;: ill low, densely branched eluinps, with sliort thick hraneliis, the eolor liciii;: ii>ually lemon-yellow. It is a very common species iilon;;- the coast. t I'I'riinnlla (lirlidfitina Ki'illiker is another f,^or;:otiiiin, with few, lar^i'e, round, iilunt-tip|icd and thick-harked branches of a dark brown color when dry. It i> a> ciMniMon as the preceding,'. } In the collection of radiates made by Mr. Copel.ind ami myself, on the Uunxr Exjiedition, there are several additional species of Ojihiurans. 11)8 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAl'in'. Barliara aiul along the Brazilian coast, Professor VcnJH considers lo Ijc tlie same as the AVcst Indian sj)ecics Ec/iino ))ir/ra Michi'lini Desor, and I am unable to detect nny dirferenec Ijetween the Ahn^lhos specimens and tli^so whicli I have collected at St. Thomas. Many of the sjiciii's of shells connnon on the JJrazilian coast, south of Iwiliia. ajipear to 1)0 identical with West Indian forms, and one is astonished to And at Periuimhuco, IJahia, tlie Ahrolhus, and Victoria the large Cassis Cameo * a shell so conuuMi iri the AVest Indian waters. Professor Verrill has cjillcil attention to tlie numl)er of sjiecies of Kehinodt.'rms in tlie Bi-azilian fauna that arc identical with West Indian fonns, in contrast with the almost complete distinctness of \h^ polyp-fauntc of the two regions ; and he lias suggested iliat an ex[ilanation might he found in the fact that the JvliiinH dei'ms renuun longer in the swimming larval form tnan tlii' polyps, and may he carried to greater distances hy curii'iits. There is no cluincc by which West Indian species couM lie cari'ied south of Capo Sao Ro(pie, owing to the ei[iiatnri;il curi'cnt which sets along shore from Ihat cape nortliwcst- wai'd across the mouth of the Anui/.onas, whose fresh walcrs must have long presented a harrier to the migration sniitli- ward of shallow water species. f It is interesting to ohscnt? that on the Hrazilian coast, south of I'ernamhuco at least. \ve rmu no Diddri/ias or Tri/tiiiiis/is, forms s(j exceeiliiiuly characteristic of the AVest Indian Echino(leriu fauna. The material composing the reef is :ui exceedingly lianl, wliitish linu'stone, ringing under the luunmiu-, and, so fa!' as 1 had an opportunity to examine it, — for the Brazilian reels * FoniHi'l\' calli-'d C'dssis MiKlni/asniriiniils. t I'nili --cir N'crrill s\i}r'j;c'sts, liowcvor, tliat t\w i^pccies foiiml i\\ l"itli liUiiKi.' iiiav lia\i' III uia'uil iiDiiliintnl U'ltiu Iira/.il. THF. ISLANDS AND CORAL KLKFS OF TlIK AllIiOLHOS. ][K} are never Urokcu up by tlic surf, — sliowing no distinct trace oforLiauic structure. The Santa J>arl)ara reef ext(Mi(ls around aliout one third of the ishind, and on the northwestern sid(} it reaches across to the " Cemetery," so that when the tide is ;ln\vn that islet is joined to the main isUuid hy a hroad, level jilatt'u'in of rock,* diversified hy tide-pools, and forming' an exi'clleiit collecting-irround for the naturalist. Tin; reef, Imilr lip principally of AcaiU/i((str(fja, Sidcras/rfca, t^'c, has completed its growth on arriving at low-tide level, the up- per surliice being still farther added to by s(M'puhe, bryo- /oa, corallines, barnacles, etc., together with the coral-sand and (/rhris of shells accumulating on the reef. So far 1 have spoken only of fringing reefs, l)ut therc^ are (itlicr coral structures of greater interest in these waters. Corals grow over the bottom in small patches in the open sen, and, without spreading nuich, often rise to a height of forty to fifty or more feet, like towers, and sometimes attain the level of low water, forming what are called on the iha/.ilian coast c/iapcirocs.'f At the top these are usually very irregidar, and sometimes spread out like mushrooms, or, as the lishermen say, like umbrellas. J Some of these (■li;i|)eiro('s ai'e only a few feet in diameter. A i'vw miles to thi' eastward of the AI)rolhos is an area with a length of nine to ten, and in some places a breadth of four miles, ovt.T whirl) these structures grow very abundantly, forming the wfll-known Parcel § dos Abrolhos, on which so many vessels luive' been wrecked. * The rci't' is re]>rcscntt'(l in the woodcut on pa^c 175, l)iit the ceniotery has uufdrtiiiKitily l)iHMi oiiiitted. See also iii:i|) on pui^e 177. t SiiiLrul;ir <li(iiwiri\i), jtroiioiuiced sliiiji-n-rdint^, tlie »i' iT|iresi'iitiiit: ii >triiiiL,' iiiis:il. 'I'lic wonl means literally <i bi;/ Intl. In the jjlural it is clmiitiiCus, pro- nouiieeil nhiiji-d-tiV-i n'x. \ Thf Duteh nsed to call them "Jesuits," § Tlie word i>iinil means sIkmI or linhlin ruck, phir. /Kirrcis. 200 GEOLOdV AND PHYSICAL GKOGHArilV. I visited ill my launch tlie nortliwcstorn part of tliis nvf. wlioro the cliajiciroes were sunieieiitly Kcattcrcd to allow hk' to sail alioiit ainon^" them. Amoii<^ these chapeirues I measured a depth of sixtci'ii tn tweiiiy metres, and once, Avhilc becalmed, 1 found twrntv metres alongside one ehapeirao and three metres on tnj,, The ehapeirocs, as a general thing, are rarely ever laid liaiv hy the tide. They are here, as elsewhere, of all heights and dimensions ; hut in no Ciis(! do they reach low-w iitcr lev(d, nor, according to the testimony of the lishei'incu ami whalers, are they ever in any part uncovered. They do uoi coalesce here to form larue reefs as tliev do to the wot (if the islands. AVlien the weather is clear and cloudless aiiil the water calm, these chapeiroes can he readily distingiii>liiil at a considerable distance. The surface of the sea apjieais to Ite flecked Ity shadows from a sky full of scuttcivil cloudlets, jiroducing a striking effect. The watei-, bciiii: shallow and clear, and with a sandy l)ottom, is of a vory light greenish tinge, like that of the Niagara River at Du/- falo. T\\o general color of the chapeiroes is lirowii. \hnu tliei'- bciiio- incrusted with ])atclies of Ptif/jf/ioii, ami llu'ir ])Osition is marked by brownish spots on the surface of the sea. 1'. the daytime a launch nuiy sail in safety anidim them in calm weather, and a small vessel may traverse some of the chapeirito grounds without danger, but larL^c ships are likely to find themselves in a labyrinth iVoiii which esca])e is not easy.* In windy weather the waves lireak over the chajteiroes, but if there are white caps lie- side, and a cloudy sky, their ])osition cannot 1)0 made out, and it is safest to keep well away from them. In stormy weather there is nothing to mark their position, and tlitv * See ("hart of Alu'ullios bv Mouclio/,, note. Tlin ISLANDS AND CORAL RKEFS OF THF-: ARKOLHOS. 201 are very dangerous. Sometimes vessels striking heavily on small chapeirocs l)reak them off, and cseapc willmuL rccciv- iiiL'' any serious injury, as has been remarked liy Mouclic/. At other times a vessel may run upon one of these struc- U\v^'< and stiek fast hy the middle of the keel, to tlie amaze- niciit of the eai)tain, who finds deep water all around, the vessel heing perched on the chapeirao like a weather-eock on the tt)p of a tower. Ordinarily in passing the Aliiolhos vessels and steamships go outside of these reels to the east- wiird in sight of the islands. It is not easy, however, to ciili'ulate one's distance from a jjoint at .sea, and especially fn ni a liglit by night, and many vessels, notwithstanding the lighthouse, have been wrecked \\\um them. West of the islands there is deep water, and no cliapeiroes, and lietween the islands and the Paredes there is a channel aliout eight miles in width, with plenty of \vat(,'r and no ob- structions. The best way in [lassing close to the Abrolhos is til go to the westward of the islands, where one may run (h)se to them with safety even in the night-time, 'inhere is then no danger whatever, ami the sea is smoother. On the return voyage from Rio, September, 18G7, the American steamship "South America" was, at the suggestion of the writer, taken through this channel. In case of n eeess itv O'lKK 1 anchorage nuiy 1)C found close in ])y the island of Sfa. Dailiaia on the northern or southern side, as the direction of the wind may determine. Kiuht miles iu)rthwest of the islands, liet ween tiiem nut 1 the mainland, is the Parcel das Paredes, literally, The Shoal "1 tilt' Walls, an irregular area aliout seventeen miles long li'im north to south, ami some nine miles in wi<lth, occupied y extensive reefs and chapeirocs. ^louche/, has only 11 that I IV vc iven the general outline of the Pai-cel, whicl 1 was a 202 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY. was really necessary for his chart. '^^I'hc reefs within tin.. Parcel ai-e not drawn from an actual survey, and have nu approach towards accuracy. In the northern [)art of the Parcel the chapeirocs so closely unite as to form an immense reef, which has giowii upward to a little above the level of low water, and is ipiiic uncovered at low tide. This reef, as arc all the others, is exceedingly ragged in outline, full of indentations, iuil ahoimds in shallow pools. The fishermen descrilic two channels that enter the reef from the north, and ahiiost separate it into three parts. !My captain, Jacol) Torgjiiscii. an intelligent Dane, says that the water in these <jliaii- nels is quite deep. The northeastern ])art of this net' is called the Pecife do Lixo, Lecauso of the abundance of a shark-like ray called the lixo, which is furnished with lai^o crushing teeth, and freipicnts the reef in search of shcll- lish, on which it feeds. ItKtll K DO I.IXO. I s](cut one tide on the Recife do Lixo, during the fui' moon of the loth of August, ll^GT, when the reef was un- covered, and (.'xamined it quito carefully. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL HKLFS OF TIIK AlillOLIIOS. l^U.") Tilt' surface of the rocf was i'('inarkal)ly even in liciulit, and (•(ivcictl laruelv l>v calcareous sand, on which were patches 111' (lead coral inci'usted with niille]Mjres, harnaclcs, .serpuhe, ^^'.. with occasional living coi'als, such as Siilrrastiurti sfc/fa/a mid l^iirid, and perhaps a Porifcs solida. 'I'he dead coials, iuiHipi»res, A'C, usually forinin,u; incrustini:' masses ovvv the siml. so lo(jso as to he easily tunu'd over, atfording a rich harvest of Ophiurans, uniontr which Ojihinra ciucrfd, Ophi- vHcrris rr/inddfd, and Oji/iiot/irix tnohimi were especially aliiiiiilant. In some situations sea-ui'chins, Kclnuoiiictra Jlir/n /iiii, wvw very jilentilul. Voluta: aiul Cassis Cdiiico may IVei[uently he picked up. 'J'he reel' is not very ritdi in .Nliell-lish, ijut uhounds in crustaceans.* A largo naked * Oil till' Tliiiycr cxjieilitioii Mr. Copcliiml ami I collected larLie niiiiiliersof (lu-taccaiis at all tlie i)riiieiiial localities on the coast between Hio and Bahia. On my second visit to Brazil I was too nuich enj,'aued in }:eolo;;ical studies, ;;iiil in my exaniination of the reefs, to make exti'iisivc collections. The few ri'iistaicans liroii^lit home from the second Jouriioy, my tViciid, Mr. S. I. Smith, (if tlir Shcllicld Scientitic School of Xe\v Ihncn, has hcen kind cnon;:h to (\:iiiiiiu' ami descrilie ; and since writin;.' the aiiove he has ])nhli>heil t\ pajicr in l.x M'liiiid volnnie of the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Si iciut>, cntitlcil " Notice of the Crustacea collected liv I'rofcssoi- C. V. Ilartt on tlk'CnaM of Hra/il in 18()7, to-cther with a Li-t of the rilie(l Si of lira- Ill 1 oddiihtlialnu a." ^Ir. Smith enumerates the following: sjiccies as occur- riii" 111 tiic re )f tl ic Alirolho .1////- iiiii hicornula Stimii., M itlirarulnx mroiKitiL^ imp., Mi/hni.r hlsjiiihis Edwanls, Xaiillio (liiilinihild White, C/i!<iiii(llus i'luri- d' I II Hi (iiiilii fl'iiiiiiint F.dw Piimipcus piilltii^ Smith, PiiiiojKii.t Iluittii Smith, Kiijili ards (iDiiiiiiisis mil iitiitiis Dcllaan, I irniiiiilin Anhlli Still 'iia V V'll-inh, ami iirniiiiUilus Stimp Ciil,- 'llriilh Stim ( Til, illllllllllH ^ lilt ill, I tISIS AljiliiH)! Iiiltroiliilis Sav, ( iiiiiiiiliirli/hi^ r/iinn/ru Latnillc | Fi'diii other localities were descrihed the follow iiiL;: Cidiiiurlin hiinn Smith riiaiii'iiu'd C. Kilns Ordwav, Caravelh ('. Iiirnitiis Ordwav, Baliia. .Ih, '■-' siiniiiiii '■'. lialiia. Ciril, HH/s l)e Ilaan, Bahia. .1. Onlirin/i Stiiii])., Bahia. I'lii miihi- 'iiiiiitriii.'i ril/iiliin ,li\ KirtOllia l/llill Irnin Saussun 1 cniamhiico. Stiiuj).. Caravellas, ('. siln/iitiiriiis Stiiii])., Caravi I'.iiir., Hahia. Puniilii ( ■/III 'ri///iiril.< iii/Ulliii.iKillH c/iiniiliii Smith, I'ernamliuco. Pnhemon Jaiiiniccinii 204 GKOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. mollusk (^A/i///si(i')* four io five iiielies lonji', grayisli, aii.l oniainciili'd witli durk I'in^s aiul spots, may sonid lines be round voiy ahundantly on Ihcso reels. Jl ^'ivcs (uit u very copious dcej) purjde lluid wlien handled. Ochipi mv very eoinnion in the ei'aeks and ei'cvices ol' the leid". Thr shallow pools are often very I'ieli in life. The uniform hnel of the surface of the reef hiid drv is very remarkable. So very even and uncncuml.ercil is it that a loose coral a foot in diameter turned over, or a cussis lying- on the suiiace, attracts attention at a long distance. The reef is so protccletl that the waves have no power tu break off its edges and encumber its surface, as is the case with the coral reefs oi' the Pacific. Sand, resulting fidin Olivier, Pcnedu. /'./i^vr/is, Edwards, I'ani. /'. cnairuJns Smith, runi. Pnum Brasilieiisla LatroiilL', IJaiiia. Xiplmiwneus Jfarttii Sniitli, Caravclliis. The list ol' the Brazilian l'()di)]ilitlialiuia is too lonjj; to he inserted in tiiis Yolnnie. A very lar;:i' niiniher of the sjieeies exaniine<l liy Mr. Sniitli liavo heen identified with West Indian or I'loridan forms. Mr. Smith sni:;ic~i> tliat one reason whv my collection is so nuich rielier in jiroportion in thi s> i'.ir'ii'; than the Hra/.ilian collections heretofore made, may he heeaiise my ((jIKctlDii- were nnide on the reefs and rocky jiarts, wliile the otlu'rs were nuule iit hio, where there are no coral-reefs. 'J'he c(dlectin>:-;:ronnds at Kio are rocky a< will as sandy. I siisjiect that the true reason is to he fonnd in the fact that tlu- cms- taccan faimu changes its character sonfh of Cape Frio. I called Mr. Smith's attention to the name Cardiosoma Gutinliiiin!, in whxl. the s])ecitic name ai)i)earetl to have heen derived from the \ .d (lwiii<uuii ur (iitdiintmii, the Tn]a' name for the S|)ecies. The former is the way it was w vitton for me hy a Brazilian, hnt Fonseca jrives the latter form. I feel (|iiiie sure iluit the name (I'liiii/iiiiiii was applied to several distinct species. In reference tu I "i 11)1(1, Mr. Smith has sli^^htly misunderstood me. I do not rememhcr liu' ]]r(>(iit vtilt:ar nan\e. A''ca-niia I fonnd in I'iso, It is Tnpi', and means simply Vc"!' crali, riyi, or more properly Ui;a, meanin;; rrah and una, lilark. * Mr. J. (i. Anthony kindly informs mc that the species, of whicli I fiiniidioa nnmorous specimens to the Musenm of Comparative Zo(iloiry, is jjnilialily .1. Arr/n (/'(h-li. Sander l{an;j: deserihes a larye sjiecies, .1. Urazilimsis, fi'oiu th'; Bay of Hio. Hist. Nat. des Aplysies, p. .■;.-), PI. VIII. TIIK ISLANDS AND CORAL m:i:FS OF TIIF. ARROLIIOS. 20.J tlie (Icciiy of coral, tlic Ijrcakin^ iij) of shells, Ac, acoiiinu- latcs vciy slowly. The reef has tirowu as hiiih as is possi- hlc, iiiul is now (lead, and at the lowest tide it is not more iIkiii two feet out of water. An ordinary tide wonld not uncMvcr it completely.* An irrejiidar raised border, consisting principally of a Liniwth of niilleporcs, serpuhe, Ijarnacles, A:e., sometimes a foot, more or less, in height, separates this part of the reef, wiiicli is uncovered at low water, from that Avhieh 's always submerged. It is here that the waves break at low water, ami this I'avors the growth of these animals more than (dse- wiicie. From the l)or(ler this reef generally sh)pes olT iicntly towards the edge under water, where it drops down perpendicularly into deep water, as at the islands. This suliiiuTged border at the Lixo has only a few feet of water on it at low tide, and one may usually wado out to its edge and collect. It is a perfect garden covered with gi'owing curals of large size. Hero grows Acanthastrcca in large heads, more abundant on the edge of the reef. MUlrpora )iilii/(L W'rrill forms pretty rosettes. This interesting i-peeies is thus described by Professor Yerrill : f — '• Corallum forming low rounded cliunps, four to six ini'lies high, consisting of short, rapidly forking, rounded 01' slightly compressed branches, about .4 to .8 of an inch in diameter, which have remarkaldy smooth surfaces, and are olitiise, rounded, or even clavate at the ends. The larger pores are small, very distinct, round, evenly scattered over the sm-face, at the distance of .00 to .1 of an inch apart. The small })orcs arc very minute, numerous, scat- * The height of the reef is probably in part due to the recent uprise of the land. t Trans. Conn. Acad., 1868, p. 362. 200 GEOLOGY AXD THYSICAL GEOGHAPIIV. tcrod Itotwccn the l{ir<ror onos, and often show a ioiidoiicr to aiTaii}j.(' tlicniselves in circles of six or eight. The lissiio is, for the genus, very firm and comjiact." Tlie color, wliin alive, is light pinkish. This species is ahundant on the snli- niei'ged horder of the RrciJ'r do Lixo, growing in fi-iiiu three to four feet of water at low tide. Some of (lie ro- settes 1 collected lay (juite loose and without any attach- ment to the reef. Among the millej)orcs I obtained on the Brazilian coast Professor A'errill has distinguished three forms which so closely agree with MillcjMra alckornis Liimajus, that ln" has separated them as varieties of that si)ecies. One of these, car. cclhdosa Verrill, I found at Pernamljuco, luit 1 did not see it alive. Professor Verrill descrihcs it as ful- lows : " Coralluni consisting of numerous, irregular, rath- er short branches, arising from a thick base, branches j;ro- liferous or digitate at the ends, the last division short, mostly comjjresscd and acute at the tijis. Some of the branches occasionally coalesce, so as to leave small open- ings. Cells numerous, crowded, rather largo for the gciiiis, each sunken in a distinct dej)ression, the wall rising u]i into an acute ridge between them, texture rather o])Cii ami coarsely porous." Another form, which differs from the other in its '' some- what more ])orous texture, and the greater regularity ami more scattered ai'rangemcnts of the cells," together with its round and digitate branches and l)ranchlets, having tluvc to five short compressed divisions at the end. Professor Ver- rill has referred with doubt to the variety di^-itdta of Esjicr. The third variety distinguished by having the biancl;es in the same plane, and coalescing in such a way as to lonvc fre(iuent openings, Professor A'errill has referred to the M.foh -trata Duch. and Mich. Tin: ISLANDS AND CORAL IJF.EFS OF TIIF AIinOLIIOS. 207 l^oth of tlicsc last occur ahuiulantly aloiift- <lic coast from Ciii><' Frio norllnvard, as far as I have oxaiuiiicd. Tliey sccMii to prolbr the edge of the reef, wliere tlioy form beauti- ful liroad frills of a light yellowish-brown oi- i)iukish color. Ill collecting these millc])ores, I was struck with their j)ow. crfiil stinging properties, and they burned me sometimes like hot iron, producing a sensation j.recisely like that caused by the P/i/jsalia, ov our Northern jelly-fish, Cijnnca. 1 was stung in the same way by the millepores of Ht. Thomas. The fishermen who Averc with me on the Bra- zilian reefs handled these corals with impunity, but they called them " sea-ginger," and told me that they were accustomed to play practical jokes on land-lubbers by jier- suading them to taste them. 1 jiresumc that a thin and delicate skin makes me more sensitive than most persons 'o the stinging proi)erties of these animals.* The Sidcrastrrca and Favkc, already described in speak- ing of the Santa Jiarbara reef, arc found on the Recife do Lixo, bftth in the pools and on the submerged border, and associated with them arc a few forms which api(ear to be somewhat rare, as I could find but few si)ecimens of them. Among these is the species of Favia, described by Professor Venill under the name F. IcptopliyUa, an interesting spe- cies which forms large hemispherical corals, easily recog- nized by " the very open, deep, roumled cells ; few, thin, liii'jcding septa; and thin distinct walls." Another and Ijcaulifiil coral is Hcliastrcca aprrta Yerrill, which the fitUowiiig description, almost in Professor VcM-rill's own words, will serve to distinguish : The corallum is large, more or less regularly hemisjtherical, sometimes subsi)her- * Til is stinging propcrtj- of tlic milK'pores is in accordatice with their acele- phian jtriicture, first announced by Professor Agassiz. 208 GKOr.OGV AND PHYSICAL GKOGHArilV. ical, mid oftfii a foot and a half in diainotcr. The toxt- uro is ojicM and li.u'lit, which (.-hararlcr, to.Li'cther with tlio thinner and nioic; acntc soplii}, serves to se))arate it IVdiu //. (uirmiosd Mdw. and llainie, which it resenibh's ii; tin' largo si/.(> and i»roniineiiec of its ci'lls. Tliesc in //. a/ifiia arc cirenhir, hirgc, moderately dee[), with a broad central area, the juargin projecting about .OS inch above the gen- eral surface. Septa in three coniple' <'vcles, narrow, tliiu, subeipial, the stnnniits C(jnsidei'a' ejecting, angular. acute, the inner edges nearly perpendicular, finely toothed, often with a ilistinct paliforni tooth at the base. Cohiinclla well (h-vidojied, of loose, open tissue. Costic elevated ami thin, rising obli([uely ujiward to the summits of the septa, finely serrate. Walls very thin, incons})icuous. This sjio cies seems to be more abundant in the iJay of Jjaliia than in the Alirolhos region, and 1 have frc(piently scon it there in the heaps of corals brought from the Island of Ita]»arica to the city for burning into lime. A very pretty Prclinid {P. Brnzilicnsis Edw. airl IFaime) is another of these api)arently rare forms, of whidi I have found only a single specimen, which was growing (Hi the reef borders at the Lixo, in about two feet of water at low tide. On the Recife do Lixo I collected a few specimens of a massive Porifcs, resembling P. dudfLilon/tcusis I)iuli., which is very aliundant on the Porto Seguro coral-ieol. It is sometimes of a bright sulphur-c(dor, though it varies very much in tint. Professor A'errill has described it as a new species under the name P. soUda, and states that it dilTers from the West Indian forms in its larger and decjier cells, thicker Avails, wider and more crispate septa, and more solid structure. Tin-: ISLANDS AND CORAL UWJS OF THE ABROLIIOS. 209 Tlio licaiity of llic ix'lyp growth on llio sulnncrtriMl root' lidiilcr is iiuich I'liliant'cd liy the "zi'ciit liixiiriaiicc of llic irorcroiiians, wliicli arc; llu' same as those ali'cady ob- served elsewhere, hut on the Lixo ihm'I' 1 (Uscoveicd a lifaiitilul new species, described liy rrul'essor VerriU iin- dci' the lumie of Gonjonia i>r(ici/ts. It ^rows in litth^ tut'ts, al»out six to ei^ht inches hiuh, with few skMuh't' and vciy delicate branches. The color is yellow oi- iinrjde, and in iDimh water the species is apt to be oNci-looivcd by the ciillector, from its rosenililanee to a sea-weed. Towards the ciiii'-, as the water deepens, the reef grows more and more inc^ular. It is full of h(»les, and almost wholly composed of live ami li-rowing corals, which furnish a very insecure lo(jtiiiir. On the edge and sides grijw iuimense coral-heads, mill the Mitsscc are especially al)undant. The outline of the border is excccding'ly ragged. Tlio height of the ])crpcndicidar edge on the western sjilc (jf the Porto Seu-uro and Lixo reefs varies vcrv nuich, licing in some places three or four feet, in others ten feet or mnit'. 1 could iu)t examine it on the eastei'u side, owing to the surf. 1 have introduced a diagram, showing the reef us seen in section, with the distril)Ution of the diffei-ent species of corals indicated. Just alongside the reef, at least oil the western side, wherever I have examined it, — and tlie same holds good of the Porto Seguro reef, — the bottom shtpes rapidly away from the reef-edge, and is composed of a soft, bluish, calcareous nuul, washed from the top of the reef, which makes the reef ajtpear nmcli lower than it really is. A short distance away, in S(mie places, a depth of sev- enty to eighty feet may be found. The diagram on page -11 represents a sketch of the edge of the reef of the IJxo, with soiimHngs made l)y myself. The large reefs ai)j)ear to 210 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGKAPHY. Solitl Reef Rook JOO FT. B.FT. MUD 50 FT, 10 FT a. b. cc. d. e. /■ /?• h. i. k. m. n. 0. P- r. SECTION ACnOSS nOUPKR OF LIXO KEEP. Tiilp-pool with S'ukrnstraa stelliita aiid Fiivia (jrorhhi. Low (like-like border of ser]mlii-tubcs, barniicleij, &c. Low-wiitor level of spring tide. S'ulernstvnn stellatn. AcniilliiiKtnca lirozUiensh. I/tllnslrwn riperta. Pin'ilea solida. Milleiwra Bi iziliensis. ^lilleporn nil ilia. Varieties of .'fillepora ricirornis. Gorgnnin (Uiivifnogorijii) quercifolia. Plexnurella dirhotuiit't. Goryonia griiciUs, Knnicta humilis. ^fu8sa Ilarltii. have been foniicd not only by tlic npwarcl growtli of large patches, but by the fillnig in and coalescence of cluipcifms, which is a feature not hitherto spoken of in the growlli of coral reefs. The jxhkIs on the surface of the reef j)roliiilj1y mark the intervals between the chai)eiroes where the filling in is nearly complete ; though they may i-i some cases mark spots where the corals have been killed by the drift of sand. THE ISLANDS AND CORAL REEFS OF THE ABROLHOS. 211 I visit('(l tlic eastern side of (ho Lixo, but the wiivcs were hniikiiig with too much force ti) allow me to see auythiiijr distinctly. The lioalmeii said lliat this reef drops down ftcrpondicularly into deep water. 1 ohservcd no sand- liiwiks iijion it. On the westen- side of tiie Lixo there are suDMCRneo border Cluqmvuoj S \ r. lint few ehapeiroos, hut the otlier sides ai'o Ijorch^-ed hy an aliiuidance of them, and they stretch ofT southward, forming wiili two other reefs, called the Recife de lA\stc and Recife ila IVdra Clrande, the rest of the Parcel. The Recife da I'dlra fJrande Avas described by Jacob as being like a wall, ([uitc straight, some three miles in length, and only two or tliii'o hundred feet wide. Southwest of the I'aredes are sever"! other quite large reef-grounds. One of the reefs, C'oi'na Vermelha, has become converted into an island by tlu' heaping up of sand in the centre. There are no reefs <'!• cliapeiroes south of the Mucury. North of the Recife do hixG are some small reef-patches, and about ten miles 212 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. northward, a little to tlic west, is a very dangerous roef- ground some three miles long, and one and a half to two miles wide, called the Tinil)el)as, between which and the net's to the sonth is a wide open chainiel called the Itaiiliacin. Tills, as Monehez says in his chart, is the most dreaded of all the reefs, hecanse it is nitnated jnst beyond the limit of visibility of the coast, and there is nothing to mark its po- sition, so that oven the ])ilots of the coast keep well awav from it. I once passed close to it in the steamer Santa Crnz, and saw the waves l)eating over it. Small coral patches occur close in shore along the coast northward as far as to Point Carumba, just otT which is a reef-groiiiiil eight miles long and three to five miles wide, ^hxicln/ says that the reef is uncovered at low tide in the western 4)art, and that the rest of the ground is covered liy clia|»'i- roes. These reefs aie the celel)rated Itacolumis. Tlic next important reef-ground stretches across the month of the Bay of Porto Seguro. I found the reef uncovered over an area as far as I could see no 'th and south while standing on the reef, with a width in some places of a mile ; Imt ir was exceedingly difhcult to judge of distance on so ])lnnc and monotonous a siu'face. This reef is surrounded by chapcuMcs. The same line of reefs extends northward, passes the low point north of Porto Seguro, leaving a decj) chann<'l. allow- ing tlie passage of steamers, and is continued across \h' liay of Santa Cruz, as is represented in the sketch-niiipon p -•!■!. In the summer I passed close to tlie northern part of the reef otT Santa Cruz. It has, like the other principal reefs, finished its growth, and is in part converted into an island, on which I observed a few mangrove-trees growing. A schooner hud struck on the outer .side of this reef, and liai! afterwards been carried over and sunk erect, just bcdiiud the THE ISLANDS AND CORAL IIEEFS OF THE ABROLUOS. 213 rocf. Its masts -were standing:, sliowintr a dt'jttli alongside of the rcoi' of aljoiit thirty feet. Reef patclies (x'cm- along the shore in the vicinity of Camanu'i. Quiei)i)e Island is surrounded by them on all sides, and a little liay between Ciunaniu and I>oya[)eba is full of cbapeirocs, while the en- trance to Jie Barra Carvalhos, according to the •• South American Coast Pilot," is similarly encumbere(l. Along tlic shores of Itaparica Island there are extensive coral- hanks, from which coral is taken for the jturpose of lieing liurued into lime ; and at low title coral is largely colleeted from Iiaidvs lying ofT Periperi, on the JJahia Riiiii'oad, to ■wliicli place it is brought and burned. 1 saw Inrge .,uanti- tics of it at liahia and Periperi'. The corals were of ilie same siiccies as are common on the Abrolhos i-eefs, but IlrliusfrfCi was more connnon. Limestone is very scarce on the Bra- zilian coast, ami corals are largely used for inaking lime. They call the coral pcdra dc cal* in Hra/il, for this reason. Still going northward, 1 am not aware that any coral- patches are to be found until we reat.'h Maceio, l)ut in the harlior of this town 1 cxaminei] (juite an extensive one, which ii;'s some distance, perhajjs a mile, off the town, and at low tide is unct)\ere(l ft)r a large irregular space. Its surlace is tlat, hut irregular, composed of dead corals, and is full of holes. Walking out to the edge of the reef, wliei'e the sea ^v;is breaking heavily, I fomid it exceedingly rouiih. I was uiui':lc to see much, as .ne tide rose rapidly, liowing over the reef, and 1 had U) wade back half a mile over the ruugh siu'facc to my boat. I saw very few live corals in the ponds. f There were a very few little Sidcrastrafc, and * It woiilil not be worth statin;; here that the red coral does not (icciir du the Brazilian coast, il' it were not tliat from my use of the term rwi! tht; report hud been circnhited tliiit I had (Hseovered a reef of red coral at the Ahrolhos i t i'rut'essor Aj^'assiz tells me that he has fine niH'eix res from Maceii). 214 GKOLOGV AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRArilY ail occasioiiiil dwai-fed Aaint/iasfrf/;n. Erhinomctrrr wow, abuiidiuit, and Kiiu'lisli sailors \v('r(3 spearing' the Lu'/c A})lijsi(C for the sake of spilling tii<'ii" purple ink. in ilic liands of a sailor 1 saw a l)cantilul Volula likt; V, tiiusini^ anil 1 C(jlleeted a specimen of Liiicltid onnlhopus. M/ boat man said that on the outer edge ol" tlu; reef lar.:i' coral-heatls grew, and that these were collected and brought on shore I'or burning into lime. From the lighthouse at Maceio the reefs could be seen extending in an irregular line along the shore noi'thwani many miles. In the vicinity of Pernambuco are patches (>!' growing coral, as Dana has renuirked. 1 have specimens from these patches, Ijut I was })revented from visiting tlieui. I know of no one who has cxamine<l the reefs north of IVr- nanibuco with a view to scienlilic results. The llorcas are a very dangerous cluster of reefs in dii' latitude of Fernando de Noronha, noted for its anmilnr shape. From the charts of tlu' Roi'cas, together with what 1 have learned from those who have visited them, thi y must be true coral reefs. Thouuh there is a general resemblance between the l>:;ixil- ian and West-Indian polyj) (aumu in the representative spe- cies of l-^iilrras/rfra, Ftiria, Porift's, P/rxanrefla, S:c., Ac. y<'\ one who has collected in the West Indies, as at St. Tliuiiins, for instance, ny Florida, is much struck with the abseme of 3I(i<lrr/)()r(i, MtcdiidriiKi , Di/i/orui, Maniciiid, ('Idi/oiorii. Ociilind, and other genera characteristic of the West-lii'lian fauna. The Brazilian reefs are l)uilt uj) by a very few sjic- cies, among which Acdulhaslrcca BrrizifirHsis ajjin'ars Id hi' the most connnon, together with Si//rras/rfC(C and (»thi'i massive forms ; but the Mil/rj/orfC and diusscc nuist con- tribute more or less to their arowth. PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 215 CITAPTER V. rr.ovnsCE of baiiia. — coast south of sao Salvador. Tlie TiTtiary Latuis iK'twuen the Uivors Munirv and IVniliyjic ; tlicir Vi'gcta- tioii, i!ic. — Coloiiia Leo])ol(liiia ami its CotVw I'laiitatioiiv — Villa \'i.;i)si. — The CaiKil jiiiiiin;,' the Hivtrs IVrulivja' ami ('aravclla>. — l"(iniiati(m of Biaclu's and Boiifh Hid^'i's, — ( 'oast iR'twoeii ( 'aravellas and I'urto Sc^'uro. — M,iim^.l>a.sfual. — I'uiiu Scj^iin; and its A'dv/i, or Consolidatod IJcaili. — Santa ( ;u/. and its Ucct'. — C'ua>t iioi-tiiward to the Jc(|nitinh()iiha , the La^^oa do liiaii), Canijios, 6i<'. —The Canal I'o-assii au<l the Kioda Sal>a. — Man;;rove Suanips liL'twc'iii thi.' ■It'iiuitinhoidui and I'ardo. — C'annavit'iras. — The Salt Trade of the Jetiuitiiihonha. — Descrijition of the lower I'art of the Rio I'anlo; Caeii'o riantations, ^^e. — Coast northward to Ilhens. — I'riiue Neil \\"\vd'> De-eription of the Country lietweni Uhcos aii<l Con(iiiista, ros>r)cs, and Caihoeira ; the Forests, Cam]K)S, Social Tlants, ^^e. — Uheos. — Uioand Lii-na Itahy]ie. — I)ea<l Coral Hanks. — Uio dasConta-.— I5ay ofCanianiii. — Turfa l)e]K)sits. — Villa de Cainainii. — Coast mirihward ti> the Hahia (Ir 'i'odos or Santos. — The Hay of All Saints deseriticd. — llha Itapariea. — i;i() Ja;.Miarii.e and Nazareth. — Uio rara;:nassii, — Description of Hivcr IkIdw Cachoeira. — The Truin-roud — Sant' Amaro and the Ayrieultural lustitnte. Tin: Tvio Ponihypc lias its source in llio Sorra dos AiiiKuvs, a rc\v miles north of Santa Clara, and Hows in :i ilt'cp, narrow valley, -worn lor the ,iirea(er part ol" the dis- laiice through the eoast tertiary l)elt. It is not more than lil'ty miles in length, and is eonse(|nently an insiixnifieant stream. IJetween the Pernhypc and tlic Mneiuy the lands are almost wholly tertiary, though hrtwecn the mouths (.f llu'si' two rivers there is a strip of sand and marsh. 1 owe ti) tiie kindness of my iViend Sr. Schlobaeh a prolile of a, ruilioiid line snrveye<l liy him to connect the Philadelphia 210 CiKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAniY. lioad at Santa Clara with the Pcnihyj)e uhovc Villa Vi((i>;i. which prolilo is of imu-h interest, since it shows that tlir surlin'c of the tcrtiaiy heds slopes very ivj^'ulai'ly iVom ihr serra to the sea, — a slojtc; which 1 l)elicve to deijcnd dn the slojie ol' the sea hottoni on which the IhmIs were dc- jtositcd, though it is, in part at least, dne to a thickcniii'i oi' the Iteds towai'ds the sei'ra. 'IMie count rv hetweeii die two rivers lornis a ^reat wooded plain ; hut the lui( sts are hy no means so luxuriant in their appearance as on tlic ao Matl leos or I) oce Tl le soil IS saiHlv, weal and ihv, though on the slojies of river valleys it is ])roducti\i', and the hottoms of the valleys are covered hy a veiy rank growth. This I'egion is ti'aversed hy many little streams, !ill of which have cut for themselves deep valleys or caTions widi veiy steep sides. The njiland forests fui'nish many valiui- lilc woods, and rosewood is extensively cut Ijoth on the PeruhyiJC and Mucury. In some ])arts the forest is veiy sjtai'so of underhrush, hid in others it is so matted and tan- gled with l)and)Oos {Tiujuaras) and young Ahi palms (Astrocari/nm Airi ]\rart.) as to he almost impenetralilc. There are large marshy areas on this plain, and these snv -;(in. in part flooded, some of them only during the rainy sea when they f(jnu shallow lagoons. '^IMie vegetation of the ;d- luvial lands hordering the little streams is luxuriant heyeiiil deserijition. Here one finds an ahundancc of J^ahnilDs (Ei(frrj)C ediilis Mart.) and heautiful tree-ferns. The iJoto- cudos still hold the country, and I saw their deserted ranchos eveiy few miles along the path. The forest aboujuls in game. Queixadas, coititiis, antas, oneas. mon- keys, and l)irds of every description are veiy numerijus. Nowhere on the route did 1 see any good exposure of tlio tertiarv beds, hut in the descent into the river valleys rROVINCE OF BAIIIA. 21' 1 lepoiitcdly saw the drift, wliicli licrc as clsewlicrc is coin- piiscd uf I'od clay luil of IVa^me'iils of (luai'tz. All the streams arc " Uack-watcr," and so is the I'cruliyjio.* On tliis last river a colony of Clcrinans, togelher with sonic natives of other countries, was cstal)lished many years ap). It is called Colonia Leopoldina, and consists of a considei'- alilc nunilicr of fazendas situated on hoth sides of (he river for sevei'al miles above Siio .fosc, the head of na\iuatii)n for steamers. Some of these fazendas ai"e veiy lar^c and valu- a'lle, as that of the late Sr. Joao Flach fur instanee. The ciiltivate(l lands are situated on the very edges and slojies of tiie cha])a<las, and they were formerly veiy product ive.f Ciifrec is (he staple product, and is noted in Ihazil as being of very superior cpiality, jjassing by the name of ('afe de ("aravellas, Tlu; trees are not allowed to grow to their full liL'iLiht, but arc trinnned down, so that the picking is easily dniK! liy hand from the ground. Six feet or thereabouts appears to be the average height of the coffee-trees of this region. The trees, when trinnned in this way, ai'e llut-toppcd with pendant branches, and a cafezal, or cotli-e lilantatiun, at the colony is a very prcttv sight. Mandioea, maize, cotton, and other Brazilian ))roducts are cidtivatecl largely, and one riding through the fazendas sees here as elsewhere the orange, banana, lime, citron, ])ine-api)le. c^'C. The mamiio, a sjtecies of Carina, furnishing ;i large and savory fiuit full of seeds, is fre([nently seen, though it is to he (nund almost everywhere along the coast, growing in ciiriiers of fields and gardens. The climate of the colony * Von Tsdimli says (/.'mw, v*ic., Vol. II. j). ,'i.")7) tliiit tin- water of rlie I\iiiliyiii.' at Villa Vii.osa is (U'cp brown, anil tluU, churned up hy the piuUlk'- wlnils of a steainiT, it looks like foamiii;; porter. t These soils heeoiuc rapidly exhausted, uud many of the old fazendas are very nearly worn out. VOL. I. 10 218 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. is very unliealtliy, especially for foreigners, but it is far superior to that of the Mueury below Santa Clara. Tlic Peruliype is navitiable as I'ar as Sao Josd for coasting steamers, which, however, do not enter the river at its month, Ijnt by means of a natural canal which, tluoui^h a very extensive swampy tract, connects the Feruhy])e with the Caravellas River. The bar at the mouth of the river is very l»ail, and is rarely crossed l)y any excei)t very siuall vessels. 'I'he entrance at Caravellas is g'ood. Since tin navigation of the Mucury is so difficult, and its bar so hail. it has been proposed to extend the !Minas Road aci'oss the plains to the J'eruhyj)e below the colony, and ultimately make it a lailroad. The only difficulty in the way of Imilil- ing- such a road would be that of bridging the deep valleys of the streams, which would re([uire very high viadiicis or bridges. It is to be h()i)ed that this project will one day be accomplished. A'illa A'ieosa, a town of some live hiimhcd or one thousaiul inhabitants, is situated on the right hank of the Peruliype, at a distance of about four miles rnmi the sea. and five or six below Sao Jose da Colonia Leo- poldina. The lands of the vicinity are very jn-oductive in niandioca, and a large quantity of fiirinha is exported.* From the moulli of the Peruliype to that of the Caravellas the shore consists of a long sea-beach broken only by <»iio river-mouth, — JJarra Xova. From Villa Vieosa to llio Axilla de Caravellas a rather narrow tidal canal extends * 'I'lio w.'itiT used for (li-iiikinpj .at A'illiV "\'ii;osii is very bail. Von T<rlr...ii says thiit it is coik'i'ti'il in siiallow holes sunk in ;i saiuly i:riis-un>wn |i!;iin soutiiwust of tlie town. AA'lieii first ilrnwii its taste is very (lisafircoalilo, Init it becotnes potalile niter standiiijj; a day or two. A., the towns alon;: the t":i-'. built on the sands of tiie sea siiore, as a fjencral tliin;r have liail water. Tlii:5 is the ease at Caravellas. It is needle-^s to say that the want of i)ure water U one cause of tiie [irevMlenee of sickness in these places. PROVINCE OF r.AIIIA. 219 j)!ii:ilk'l with tlic coast. "W'cstwai'd of this, as Voii Tselmdi has leiuai'ked, is the Irrra Jinna, — tlie tci-tiaiy hiiids trending off iiortlnvard at a creator or k-ss distance Irom the (iiiud. This stream, in wliich the tide ebbs and llcnvs, aiiil whose Avatei-s arc salt, is snlKieiently deep to aUow the [lassaiic of the coast steamers. JJetween the canal and IJH' sea the lands, which are bnt little aliove the water, con- sist in iiart of sandy flats covered with forest or cocoa-pahn gnives, l)ut the greater part appeal's to lie an ininiense mangrove swamp, similai- to that which lies l)et\vecn the Jeiiiiitinhonha and Pardo to the north, and, like this last, it is intersected by •. network of narrow canals, which have never been mapped. fJerlier's map I'cprescnts this aiva as a chister of small islands, with the sea penetrating fioni the coast throngh nunu'rons canals, which jjrobably misled \'on Tschndi, who also descrilics it as an archipehigo. Tlie so-called Rio Caravellas is oidy a nai-row est nary, which penetrates into the intcrioi- " • a distance of abont twelve miles. From this cstnary ncc i 'lias the canal extends sDuthwnrd to Vic^osa, while at its head cm])ty the Rio Cara- vellas and the Rio da Fabi'ica. The water olTthis coast is very shallow, and along shore it is nsually very tiu'bid. Onlsidc are the veiy extensive cnral-ltanks, described in the preceding chaj)ter, which not only liieak th(> force of the ocean waves, Itnt giv(^ lise U) a system of cnrrcnts whoso force and dii-ection dcjicnd almost entirely on the winds. Owing to the protection of the shores Irnni such ])owcrful wave action as obtains almost everywhere else on the coast, we find here a sloping sand-beach, rising to hut a few feet above high-water, and unaccompanied by a lieaeh-ridge. The water along the coast is ordinarily as smooth and calm as that of an inhmd lake. Near the mouth. 220 GLOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY, of tlic Caravollas and a few miles to llie south ward, T nl- scrvcd ilead mangroves standing in clumps in tlio water just outside tlu' land. A short distance south of the Mucuiy, as already remarked, J ol)served tlead trees still erect, aiiil rooted Itelow high-watermark. It would seem that there has liecn, within a I'vw years, a slight sinking of this |(!ut of the coast. The mangrove swanijjs arc sometimes Innncd in depressions caused l)y the wearing away of the hwwv lands l>y the sea ; hut this is very rare. Tluy almost nl- ^vays occupy tracts jjrotected from the waves ly saiid-l)ea<li('s or otherwise, and (died uj) .vuii sand-hanks, or which, liv the gradual rise of the land, have heen hrought so near tlio surface that the scedt. of the mangrove take root. 1 1' diic examines the sea i)ottom along the coast he will (ind that, especially in the vicinity (jf large rivers, such as the Sao Francisco, Pardo, Jeipntinhonha, Doce, Parahyba do Su!. and, as a general rule, oif Hat lands everywhere, the hottoin slopes away very gradually, and consists of IkhIs of saiui. and hut I'arely of nuid, hecausc such fine material is ahimst invariably swej)t out with the current into deep water. A beach nmst of course he formed within the limits of wave action. If these corresjjond with the edge ot' tlie land, then the beach will skirt it, but where, as is freipimtly the case, the water is so shallow that the waves break at a distance from the shore, thei'e will shortly he formed, along this line, a ridge of sand, which will gradually increase in height until at last it will apj)ear above water, foiiniiig a narrow strip parallel to the shore. This may become so high as to form a permanent barrier, enclosing behind it a lagoon of shallow water. Sometimes the formation o!' these beaches is due to the action of storms of extraordiiiaiy violence, which have caused the waves to disturb the bottom PROVIXCi: OF r.AIIIA. 221 fartluM- lliaii usual from llic slmro. In tlio slow riso of a ooast Itorderiug sliulluw wiitor tl.c lim' of surf aftiou would lie liTiK hull ly rcniovod froui the sIimt. if the slope of the hottciii is uuiforni, and (here arc no storms, ilic eirt'ct may lic lit adil slowly to the coast liy a constant throwing up (d' siiiuls liy the waves ; and this is lirautil'nlly illnstratcd at tlic mouth of the Jcquitiuhonha l»y the phiins stretching suiithwai'd from IJeliiKJUtc. 'I'hese plains consist ol" a ui'cat iiiiiiilK-r of parallel beaches, one lying in front (d" tlu.' other, and ti'acealjle for miles; l)ut even here the growth of the c'liast has not been uniform, and occasionally an increased vjiilciice of the sni'f has thi'own up a ritlge a lew yai'ds or |(m1s outside of that last formed, making a narrow dilidi- likc lagoon, like a river, running parallel with the shore. A lagoon of this kind runs behind the l)ea(di ahjng the jiicscnt shore line like a strij) (d' insertion. If the water is very shallow, there will be no regular beach ridue, but there luay lie dunes if the sand is light enough to 1)e rais(Ml by the wind ; but if the water is so deep that the whole force of tlic waves is exjtcnded on the shore line, Itreaking in ;i single line of surf, then we uuxy expect to find a high rilgc acconi[)anying the beach, — a ridge which has owed \*s oriuin primarilv, it mav be. to some verv Ik^ivv storm, and secondarily to the joint action of the winds and waves in piling up the sand. This is Iteautifully seen at the mouth of the Jeiiuitinhonha. At I>elmonte the sea is ex- ceedingly shallow, consequently the shore is low and with- out a ridge. Going southward the water deepens, the surf i.s heavier, and a well-defined ridge begins, growing higher ami liigher the farther south we go. Along the coast of Long Island, and of the ]\Iiddlc and Sunthern Atlantic States, we have these phenomena well 000 CKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GFOGRAPIIY. cxhiliitcd. "Wlion botwoon the rivers tlic shore is flat, siii !i a lic.ich may extend from the mouth of one to that i<\' the other, while the hi^iooii hehind may form ii connuiiiii- catioii like a eanal hetweeii the two, or the mouths of ilir two I'ivcrs may Ite united l»y a more or less wide strip df mai'sh and lagoon. These lagoons an; lial)le to he rdlcil nj, hy sand and silt eari'ie<l down hy streams Ihnn the higlirr grounds. "When the liottom is hiought np to the level df low tide, or a little ahove, the seeds of the mangrove take root, anil the shoal soon hceomes covered with vegetati(.ii. Among the roots of the mangroves the silt of the wnii'iis deposited, and the sand-hank is overspread hy a hnci' n\' soft mud, which may increase in thickness until tjie Lank is covered only at high watei-. The mangrove in lliazil, Florida, and elsewhei-e is a \ei'V elheient agent in the lilt- ing up of marsh lands and swanijis ; Imt it is not alone in this work. It flourishes oidy in salt or hraekish water. Imt after a time nmcli of this swamp land becomes covered with fresh water, Avhen arborescent arums, reeds, rutins. coarse grasses, and other acpiatic plants tend all the ineic to choke nj) and stagnate the water, and often form rafts nt vegetation, on which small trees grow, as is the case in the fresh-water lakes and lagoons of the vicinity of JJai'ia Serca and the rivers Sao Matheos and Docc. On the coast north of Rio the course of the rivers is at right angles with the coast. At the mouth of wvy iiuuiv of them a branch runs ofT bo'h north and south, parallel "with and close to the shore, and in some cases nniting wiili a similar l)ranch from a neighl)oring river, though usually an impassaljle swamp prevents a complete communication, h. some cases these are only lagoons fed by the tide and rains; but occasionally it is a little river, which, having come PROVINCK OF BAIirA. 223 (Inwii to llic slioro, is oIiU^imI to flow for sovonil milos lic- hiiid llic liciu'li I'idfio Iteloi'o it can lind nii exit lo the sea in ili( uKiiith ol'ii lur«^(n' imvlm-. An ('.\iun)tle of this kind is the Itjilu'inas, already dt'scrilicd. All the rivers (lowinjj; IVoni the jiiiciior arc white-water rivers, hnt the Itahunas, jtrohalily IiiivIhl;' ils sonree in the swanijis <il' tl.c eha|)adas east ol'the sciias, is a lilacU-water river. So also is llie Mai'irieu, and so, ill liciieral, are all the little rivei's which I'ise either in the I'll sli-wiiler swanij)S alon<^ the shore or eonie IVoin ihc cha- ]i;i(las eastward of the seri'as. Advantaji'e has iieen taken, ill iiiiiiM'ioiis instances, of the sti-eanis and hejfoons of the liiw lands to cnt caiuil.s nnitin,^' settlements lyinij; on two livers; and a favorite project with some Brazilian states- iiicu has heen that of ojjeninj^ a line of canals, extendinj^ iildiit^ the coast from Santa Crnz, in the ]»rovinee iA' Es|»ii-ito Santo, northward to Caravellas. 1 consider the jiroject as iiiipracticalile, and that good roads over the plains uf the cliapadas would, in most cases, he far preferable. Tlic town of Caravellas is of small size. It owes its im- portance to its heing the port of the snrronndin<i- country, and to its whale-fishery, described in the last chajiter. The town is built on a sand-bank a few miles above the mouth of the river, and on the northern side. In the vicinity are large groves of cocoa-palms. Contrary to the general rule, the river Caravellas just be- fore reaching the coast makes a bend to the northward, and enters llic sea very obliquely. The channel, narrow and marked by poles continues for several miles northeastward beyond the Ponta da Balea. There is another narrow chan- nel running eastward, and still another southward, which lust douljles sharply round the point on the southern side of the river. Between these channels are large sand-banks, which are, in some cases, visible even at high water. ^Ti %. v>. <>«>. <^^ ^ ^><> IMAGE EVALUATSON TEST TARGET (MT.3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ;f:iM lllllM s If Ilia g 1^ II 2.0 IIIW JA 1 1.6 y] <p /] ^r>l ^ «^^ ^'^ ^^^^..'' ''<m> cs: A % > y /^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 iV f^ % .V 6^ rv 224 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The northward l)Ciid of the river at its moutli seems to l)o owing to the prevalence of a nortliward-setting current. The variation of the current through the tides is most jdoU- ably the cause of the existence of tlie other two channels. Off this coast lie the coral reefs of the Parcel das Purijdes and the islands of the Abrulhos, already described. The shore northwai'd to Prado is low and flat, a loii"' monotonous sand-beach, which is broken Ijy the Barra Vellia, the mouth of an inconsiderable stream, and, at a distance of about nine miles north of the Ponta da Balea, liy tlie Barra do Rio Itanhaem,* which is a small river like the Peruhyi)e, arising in the Serra dos Aymords. At its mouth this river bends abruptly southward, and flows for at least a couple of miles almost parallel with the sea-coast ])eforc it escapes into the ocean. According to Prince Xeu-Wifl nianati have been captured in this river. Alcoba(;a, a small town of very little importance, is situated on the seaside between the river and the beach. Prince Ncu-Wied snys that the country aljout Alcoba(,'a is healthy, but that tlio climate is unpleasant from the frequency of strong winds and storms. Twelve miles farther north, tlie Rio Jucurucvi empties into the sea. This stream is formed by the union of the tAvo branches called respectively the Bra(;o do Xorte and Bra^o do Sul, which take their origin in the Cordilheira dos Aymor(:5s. This river, like the Itanhaem, on reaching the coast is obliged to flow southward for two or three miles, behind a beach ridge, before escaping into the scti. * Acrordinc; to T/r. Jose Candiilo (\i\ Costa, in liis ptimphlct entitled "A Comarea dc Caravellas," a copy of which I owe to the kindness of Sr. 1,1. imi Lessa, the Itanhaem is narrower and shallower than the Peruhjpe. Near \t> month it forms a little basin. It is subject to freshets. PROVINCE OF DAIIIA. 225 Tlic Itar of the river allows tlic entrance of schooners and suuill vessels, and the river is said to be navigaljle for small vessels {sumacus) for a distance of some six leairnes. The valley of this stream is rich in hmi))er, and in iH.'u, accordiiisr to Da Costa, almost all the inhabitants of the diu- nicipio of Prado were occupied in cutting it. The town of Prado, another unimportant i)lace, is built l)etween the river and the sea on the left bank. A few miles north of the Prado the tertiary bluffs, which from the Peruhype have skirted the coast at a greater or less distance in the interior, come down to the sea, and thence to Porto i^eguro form a Iniiir stretch of picturesque perpendicular red cliffs, alter- nating with steep slopes covered Avith verdure, and occa- sional patches of sands or swamj)y ground. From the sea the horizontal bright red and white Ijands of clays are distinctly seen. Near Porto Seguro, as well as elsewhere, I observed that the valleys of the rivers enter- ing the sea did not have angular sloping sides, but their profde as seen in a clilT was as in the following sketch, which is a kind of topography that wc should expect to see ill a glaciated surface. The blutTs would, I should judge, average two hundred feet in height. About forty miles north of Caravellas, and a few miles inland, is the beautiful group of hills noted as being the fu'st land of America seen by Cabral. The most conspicu- 10* o 22G GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ous of these liill.s is an iiTcgnlar conical peak wliicli licars tlie nanu! of ^fonte Pascoal.* ^louclicz sets the hill down on his map as f)oC) metres in height, hnt I slionld judge that it was nnich higlier. Tliese hills are undcnibtcdly gneiss, hnt they lie far l)ack in the virgin forest, in tlie as yet un- explored home of the savage liotocudo. The ap[)earance of the group as seen from the sea is represented in llic following Avoodcut. Along this coast several small I'lvors rising in the Serra dos Aymores empty into the sea,l)ut tlioy are of very little importance, and arc usually incorrectly laid down on maps. MONTE PASCOAL FROM THE SEA. * Jlonte Pascoal was the first point seen wlicn Cahral discovered Brazil, on the 21st of Ai)rii, A. 1). 15(H). Todio Vaz dc Caniiulia, one of tlio eonijuiiiicjiK of Cahral, h.is described the events connected with the discovery in a letter writ- ten on the 1st of May, IJOO. This writer sjjcaks of the mountain as very IultIi and roumi, with other serras to the south, together with fiat land covered with larL'o trees. " E neste dia a oras de vespora ouvcnms vista de terra, a sahev : priinei- raniente dc huuni granule monte, mny alto c rcdondo, c doutras serras niais haixas alio Siil dele, c dc terra chaa com grannies arvorcdos ; aho quaal mmifo alto ho Capitain i)OS nome ho Monte Pascoal, c aa terra ha Terra da Vera Cruz." — Comi/mjia Brazilica, Tome I. p. 1.'?. A French translation of ilii? letter is to he found in the Art do Vii-ljhr Ics Dates, Tome XIII. \). 441. The origimil, which is of great interest, is preserved in the government archives at Rio. Caz;>l says, s])caking of the Scrra dos Aymores : " Cuja ])or';,lo mais aha he o ]\Ionte de Joam de Liam [Joao de Leao] e mais fdra o Montr Pn.-rodl que se avista de miutas lc(pias ao mar." This Jouo de LciXo is a notctl land- mark, lint I c. n give no idea of its height. PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 227 111 front or to the cast of Moutc Pascoal lies the groat recf- giDiiiKl of the Jtacohiniis. This is separated from a knv jii'njccting sandy point called Ponta Corumha l»y a very nar- row hnt deep channel. A few miles north of this {)oint is llie llio Craminuan or Caxoeira, which is noteworthy fniiu the fact that, contrary to tlic general rnle, on reach- ing the coast, instead of innnediately entering the sea, it flows northward nearly a mile close to the sea, bnt sepa- rat('(i from it hy a sand-l)ank, showing that the wash of the coast sands is hero northward instead of sonthward, — a fact (lei Tmined ])y the reefs lying off the shore. North of the Craminuan arethcRios Joassema, Frade,* and Taijje. The village of Trancozo is situated on the coast a i'vw miles south of Porto kSegnro, but it is of no importance what- ever. At Porto Scirnro enters the Buranhacm River, a stream of iiioilcrate dimensions, Avhich, according to the maps, rises to the southwest in the province of Minas, a few miles from the li(jundary line. Oerbcr represents this as a consideralile stream flowing throuirh a lartre lake called Gravatu, distant some thirty miles from the sea, and c(unmimicating with an- other considerable lake altout half-way between this and the sea. At Porto Seguro I was informed that this was all very incorrect ; l)ut since I have never ascended the i-iver, I can- not speak authoritatively. The stream is a ])lack-water one, * In sijoiikiiij;^ of the coast between Pnulo and Rio <lo Frade, Max. zii Xeu ^^i^■li says: " Als ieh im Xovcrnber dieses Jaiires noeli einnial diesc Reij-e muchtf, faiid ich bei starker Ebbc wcitc Biinke von Sand- und Kalk-Felscn, (be Mill tief in die See hinans crstreeken, und wolil frrossentbeiis dureii Corallcn- Ihi'iv m'liildet worden sind. Ibre Oberflilehe ist in re;reiinassij;e parallele liisse fritht lit ; in ilcn vom Wasscr darin ausjrewasciienen I>">ehcrn leben Krabl)en und ariili re S;e-Tliiere ; die OI)erflaelie dieser Felsbilnke iiberziebt zuni Tiieil eine piiiu' Hyssus-arti^'c Masse." — I'nnz Max. zu Neu-Wied, Juise nwh Brasilicn, Krstcr Band, 297" Seite. 228 GEOLOGY AXD PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and flows in a deep narrow valley cut in llic tertiary licds. The flat lands bordering it are said to Ijc fertile, and laviii'- ably situated for agricultural jjui-poses.* The forests mv rich in valuable woods, Pao Brazil, Jacaranda, <tc. Poito Seguro is quite a large and conunercial town, situated on the left bank by the seaside. It really consists of two towns, one built by the river and seaside on a broad, flat. sandy, and marshy tract, and part on the top of the bliil'l' on the northern side of the valley. The lower town h tlic ])usiness portion ; the upper contains the ruins of ancient chuiches, monasteries, <tc. Porto Seguro is noted as tlio head-quarters of the garoupa fishery of the Aljrolhos. It has an excellent harbor, protected in front by the coral reef?, which break the force of the Atlantic waves, and by a reef lilvc that of Pernambuco, consisthig of a solidified beadi. This last begins close to the shore a short distance nortli of the mouth of the river, runs like a wall of rock in front of the river, passing close to the point on the southern side, and continues on to the southward with occasional brealcs for a distance of several miles. Its course is remarlvalily straight, and its height and width are very regular. It forms a more efficient breakwater to the harbor than the reef at Pernambuco does ; but this is owing partially to tlie fact that the sea is l)roken l)y the outside coral reef whieli stretches across the mouth of the bay of Porto Seguro. The river escapes around the northern end of the reef. On the inner side it is overhanging, on the outer ])erpendicalur and much undermined, as represented in the woodcnt. As elsewhere its surface is diversified by ponds, in wliieli several S))ecies of corals grow. The northern end of the reef is much shattered, cracked up, and dislocated, * Limllcy says that gold was found on one of the branches of this rivor. PROVINCK OF BAIIIA. '22[) JUghWater SECTION ACliOSS STONIC liKKl' AT I'OUTO SECil'ItO. and it shows tluit the cementing of the heacli-sands lias taken jihu'C to a dej)th of many feet l)eh)w hjw-wutiT h'vcl. Tx'vond the reef, the rock 8h)})es ont with a smooth, rather even surface to a considerable distance, and I have waded <»ut on it in some phaccs a hnndred feet or more. Its limits I ^vas not alile to determine, owing to the surf. On the out- siil(> tlie reef below low-water mark is covered witli a growth of corals. Stony corals, H/jmenog-nrg-iff, Eioiin'cr, and the I'DiniuDU polyi)s of the Abrolhos, are very abundant here. I found a single specimen of Mxssa Hartlii in a deep in- dentation at the northern extremity of the reef. As at Pernambuco, Bahia, Barra Secca, and elsewhere, the rock is obliipiely laminated, as in a sand-beach, the laiaiua dipping seawards at a small angle. It is composeil of rather fine sand, with occasional small pebbles, comj)aetly held together l)y a calcareous cement. It contains an abun- dance of recent shells, Yenus, Cerithiuni, Chama, <tc., <fcc., sucli as now live on the sea-beaches of the vicinity. On tlie insid(> the reef-rock is of little thickness, and tlie reef is flanked by a sloping hank of mud, on which a few man- grov(>s luivc taken root. Oysters grow here on the rocks and mangroves, and a large si)ecies of Liltorina is very common, being found even in the trees at a height of four or five feet al)ovc tlie level of high water. This same species occurs elsewhere, and I have observed it in great 230 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. alniiidaiico liiglicr than I could rcadi in the mangroves at Santa Cruz, a lew miles north of Port Seguro. CruistacoaiLs arc abundant on the reef. Little fiddlers ( Cic/asimus palustris Edwards)^' arc ^ oiy connnon on the sandy Ijeaches in some localities, horinir holes in the sand. There are larger species of the same genus (^Gclasimus Maracuani Latreillc) with a nut-hrown body, and one of the hands enormously developed, looking like a pair of broad-l)ladcd shears. f On the shore of the point on the southern side of tlic mouth of the river is a small patch of beach, which is oiilv partially consolidated. This is separated from the reef hv a narrow channel almost laid dry at low water. Outside the main reef, and opposite this, there arc the reniaius of probably an older reef, which has elsewhere been almost entirely ol)literatcd. Southward of the river the channel soon widens into quite a broad sheet of water, and the reef is left running at a distance of several hundred feet from the shore. The water inside the reef is shallow, and at low water one may Avade about over a large part of the area and collect. The ])ottom is sainly, but on it grows an irregular crust, comjjosed of millepores, corals, bryozuans, ifec, Avhich forms the nestling-place for holothurians, ophiu- rans, crustaceans, and a thousand interesting animals. A large naked mollusk, ]n'obal)ly Aphjsia Arg'O D'Orl), is veiy common here, and I have collected a dozen specimens in the same little pool. Inside the reef the water is deep enough to * Tliis species bears, in every respeet, sin cxcecdinjily close rescnililan''e to our nonliern (1. rocans Duna. Mr. Sidney L Smith considers the Brazilian s])eeies as identical with one occurring in tiic Gulf of Mexico, and even so far north ns South Carolina. t These fiddlers are called by the fishermen Chnmn mnr^ (call tide), becMiiso of their conijreixatin^ at low-water mark and waving their big claws. rROVINCE OF I5AIIIA. 231 admit vessels of ordinary toiuiago and tlie coast inji' steamers. The reel" is liigher than that at Pernunil)U('(), if 1 jnd^'o linlitly, and less shattered ; l)nt, as ahove remarked, the I'ernauihuean reef is exposed to the full action of the sea. At liijah water the waves also break completely over the I'orto Seguran reef. Prince Neu-Wied gives a sketch of Porto Seguro from the southern ])oint. Tiic width of the liver is very much exaggerated. Tlie line of the tertiary slopes continues on without inter- niptioii to Santa Cruz; but the shore on leaving Porto Seguro soon separates itself from the ehapadas, and forms a considerable })oint of land, of which the interior seems to he, for a ccnisiderablc part at least, swampy. On the south- ern side the l^eacli is backed l»y mangrove swamps, from which the water is drained by a little stream that flows across the beach. Tn passing very close to the i)()int at low tide, I observed that the waves were breaking along a lino at some distance from the shore, as if against the edge of a rocf. It would appear that the jjoint has been formed ])y llie filling up of the channel behind a coral reef with sand. Santa Cruz, one of the most ancient towns of Brazil, and at the same time one of the most miserable, is built on the southern side of the mouth of the little river Santa Cruz, partly on the top of the bluff and partly on the sands at the liase, Ijctween the bluffs and the sea. Though it has a fine harl)or, and many natural advantages, it is of not the sliuhtest importance, and is only a miserable little fish- ing village. It is situated in a shallow l)ay, about seven milt's long, which is protected by coral i-ecfs, that extend across it, offering anchorage for large sliijis. The Kio Santa Cruz, anciently called Joiio de Tiba, be- longs to the same class of rivers as the Duranhaem, but it 232 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAI'HY. is a smaller river. It is said to rise in the Herra dos Aymores, to have a course of alxnit ten leag'iu's, and to lie iiavigal)lc for a considerable distance for canoes. It is laid down incorrectly on maps. At Santa Cruz I was infoniu'd that its course was such as to cause it to ai)i)roaLdi the ,h- quitinhoidia, fr(jm which, at Ziuebra, it is sei)arated by only a very short distance, and I was informed that it would ad- mit of navigation u|) to that point by a small river steamer. Prince Ncu-Wicd says tliat the river has two branches, and that the head-waters of one of them lie so near the Je((ui- tinhonha, that the report of a gun can be heard across the in- tervening s])acc. The valley of the Santa Cruz is of the same character as that of the IJnranhaem. It is fertile and richly wooded, furnishing building timber and some Jaea- randii and Piio Brazil. It is noted for the abundance ol' canna Jistula (^Cassia nig'ra), a tree valuable for its medici- nal properties. The river on reaching the sea is prevented from flow- ing innnediately into it by a rccife, or consolidated licaeli, which, l)eginning on the shore just to the south of the vil- lage, continues in the trend of the beach, which is north a few degrees cast, with an occasional break for a distance of about two miles, the river flowing behind it and escaping around its northern extremity. At low water the breakers show that the reef is continued under water with the same general trend northwards, tying in with a reef which, Iic- ginning at a ])oint about a mile north of the river-mouth, fringes the beach for more than half a mile, as represented in the accompanying sketch-map of the bays of Santa Cruz and Cabral, in which not only the stone but coral reefs arc shown, ^[ouchcz has very incorrectly represented the har- bor in his chart. Through the kindness of my friend PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 233 JhvAi AVilson, Esq., supcriiitcmlcnt of tlic Jjuhia Steam Niiviuation Company, I was eiiahlud to revisit Santa Cruz ill I.'"*)!, and to correct Mouchez\s chart by dra\vin<,'s made from tlic toi) of llio old churcli on the bhiff, and tliesc corrections 1 have introduced in the maj). in front of the F^liSliiSP town the reef clings to the shore, though there is a channel beliind it fdled at high water. The reef is nmch shattered, and great blocks lie tumbled about in confusion, broken from it by the waves. For a distance of a mile or so north of the village the reef is backed by a narrow strip of mangroves. There is then a narrow break in the reef, forming a sort of bar, into which very small vessels may enter at high water. Thence to the barra the reef is backed, almost to the end, by a wider strip of mangroves. At the extremity the reef is double, the remains of an older reef being visible on the outer side. An example of a triple reef is represented in the chart of the mouth of the Rio Taraliyba do Norte, published in the old work of Barla3us, GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGHArilY. in lOGO.* I have never seen tliis reef, luid know notliiinr ol' its jn'cscnt appt.'urance. The bar oi" the Santa (.'ruz is froud, and may be safely entered by coasting- steamers nr lai'ge vessels. At the time of my last visit I saw a hri;^- lying- behind the reef at the bar. There is snOicient water to cnalde steamers a' 1 vessels of eonsiderable size to ';n u\> to the town. This harbor could be very nnicli im[)r()V(il by stopping up the channels by which part of the river walci' escaj)es near the town as well as the break in the reefaliovc described. This would cause the whole force of the stream to be expended on the projicr channel of the river, and ii would in this way be kei)t from bein filled uj) by mud ami sand banks. The country in the \ ,cinity of Santa Cruz, embracing the region of the Jequitinhonha, is so natiually rich, that as the coast becomes settled it nnist one day lie developed, and one cannot doubt that Santa Cruz will ulti- mately l)ecomc the port of the Jequitinhonha, and a place of much importance. From Santa Cruz the bluffs run northward, following close to the shore, with occasionally some sandy tracts in front, but they gradually trend off from the coast and cross the Jequitinhonha between Zinebra and the Po-assu. A few miles north of the Santa Cruz is the Tliu Sunt' Antonio, a little black-water river of no account. Aliout ii mile and a half north of this river 1 saw exjiosed at low- water, in a li'tle bay, an area of several acres of dead coral, princii>ally Acanf/iastrcca, etc., in silii, but nuicli worn liy the waves. These corals must have grown when the sea bottom over this region stood at a considei-ably lower level than at present, for 1 have seen them nowhere living at a * For a reduced ropy of a part of the eliart of Barlanis, as well as a recent bkctch map alter Almeida, see eluiptor on tUc Proviueo of Tarahyba PROVINCE OF P.AHIA. 2:15 level where tlicv would 1)C likely to be exposed at low water. When they were growing' th(! sands Conning the low grouiulH l)i)i(l('riiig the eoast here eould not have had so wide an oxtcusioii seawards. 'JMns reel' patch has evidently been killcil liy the joint rise of the coast and the eneroaehnient (if the shore sands. 1 eolleeted on the sh(jre here a tii'eat iiiinil)er of s[)eeiniens of the i)aneake sea-nrehin (Encvpc f)ii(iri^iii(ifiis), so eonnnon in the Hahia de Todos or Santos. Xeii Wied speaks of the jireat abundance of this echinoid oil the slujre near Sant' Antonio, lie refers it to Echinus yn\l(ij)()rus, or as he writes it, Esc/iini<s j/cnlcipurus. Thence northward the coast is bordered l»y a narrow .stri[) of jilain, which widens as the bluffs recede from the coast, and linally opens out into l)road, sandy canipos, which extend from the Mugi(piisaba River, a small black-water stream, to Belniontc. It is interesting to observe how this whole plain has been added to the coast, by the throwing up liy the sea of the sands of the Jequitinhonha, and more- over tliat this growth has taken ])laec to the south of the river rather than to the north, becanso of the sweeping of the .sai'ds southwards by the ol)li(iue beat of the waves, and pLThaps l)y the drift of a sonthward flowing current. In ii'oing northward from the Mngiqnisaba to the Jequitinhonha the water gradually shallows. The result is that the surf heats more heavily on the southern part of this coast, and we tuid a high beaeh-ridgc devcloi)ed. while, near the uioiith of the Jc(iuitinhouha, the water growing shallow, the bottom is disturbed farihcr out by wave action, and the sands are constantly being driven in shore to widen the plain, and of course extraordinai'ily heavy storms arc here likely to throw up Ijcaehes outside the ])resent shore line, riio plain consists of a large number of parallel beaches, 23G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. one lying in front of the other, sometimes united, at otlicrs separated l)y miniature valleys, occasionally only a few feet in width, Ijut often continuous for a considerable distance. Many of tliesc beaches have their slopes almost as })erfeet as if it were but yesterday that they were swept by the waves. In the depressions water accumulates, sometimes forming shallow lagoons. The present beach on goino- southward from the barra sei)aratcs itself from the idaiii, and at the same time increases in height as the surf action becomes heavier. Behind this beach is a narrow rivor-like lagoon, called the Lngoa do Bra(;o. This is at first narrow and shallow, but to the south it deepens and widens s the beach-ridge becomes separated from the plain. Its waters are fresh and clear, and very rich in fish. Cambuus, or fish-weirs, arc common along its shores, which are niiuldy, and to a very large extent support a luxuriant growth of mangroves and guaxiima-bushes. In making a voyngc to Porto Heguro my companion and I became sei)arated from our baggage troop, which was following the beach, and, taking a road on the western side of t'.ic Lagoa, wore nn- able to cross it anywhere, because of the swampy nature of the banks and the dejith of the Avater. Prince Xeu-Wied says that about one half of tlie way l)etween ]\rugi(iuisiili!i and the Jcquitinlionha is the barra where a dried-up arm of the latter river once emptied into the sea. By the dried-up arm he probably means the Lagna do Bra(;o, which, as he travelled along the sea-beach, he probably did not ex- amine, as he says nothing about it. I saw no outlet to the Lagoa. When swollen it may break tlirough the l)each ridge, as is the case with other seaside lagoons. It a]> pears to be drained principally by the slow percolation ot its waters throuuh the beacli into the sea. PROVINCE OF BAIIIA. 237 Tlio itlain is to a large extent open and very sparsely covered with coarse grass, bronieliaeeous plants, cactuses, A'c, with here and there clumps of trees. The Aricuri jialni is very common on this plain, together with tlie pretty dwarf Guriri. This latter, all along the wliole coast, is found growing on and just l)ack of the sea-ljeachcs, and U one of the marked elements of the beach flora. Tlie Fiassal)a i^alm (Attalca furiifcra Mart.) flourishes on the Mimi(iuisaba, as remarked by Xeu-Wied. I have not seen it south of this point. Cactuses, with procumljcnt ])ris- niatie stems, form large patches on the sands. Another very cliaracteristic plant of the coast sands is the Ipomwa littoralis, a convolvulaceous plant, with long, thick, cord-like cr j.,.._ branches, pink blossoms, and large thick oval ... ' This i)lant grows sometimes on the beach almost with" .-each of the waves, and its prostrate stems arc often Ituri by the sands. Tlie right bank of the river, for some eight or ten miles aliovc its mouth, is very low and liable to be flooded. A very large part consists of mangrove swamps. The Po- Qssu* is a very narrow ditch-like canal which runs through the alluvial grounds, leading off part of the waters of the Jcquitinlionha into a small black-water river called the i^alsa. uhich flows into the Pardo. So much higher do tlie waters of the Jequitinhonha stand alcove those of the Pardo, that, though the tide rises and ftdls in the latter river ^vllere the Po-assu enters it, there is a constant flow of water from the Jequitinhonha into the Pardo. Tlie Po-assu is so narrow, tortuous, and fdled up with trees, that * Tin's name is Tupi. Pd-api means lej) hand, so that it mifrht mean Icft- Iiand cli;<nnel. Y(j-<ipa means a swamp. I am inclined to think tliat the name was fii-it Y(j-ap6-u<;u, or the great swamp, which has since passed to the canal. k 238 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGnAPIIY. its current is measurably slackened, else it would swoop out for itself a I)roader channel and draw off a larger (|Uiiiititv of water from the Jecjnitinhonha. What the C()nse(|iioii(c of ill is would he I shall state further on. The soil of the grounds bordering the Po-assi'i is massape, and sujjports a very vigorous and thick forest growth.* From the Salsa, a!'(-r having received the Po-assii, side arms stretch out eastward into llie flat grounds lying between it and the sea. The whole area embraced between the Pardo and Je({uitinhoiilia. the cross-stream and the sea, is one vast swamj), conii)ar- able to that which lies between the Pcruhyi)e and the Caravellas ; the Po-assii being comparable to the Bra(;o de Yirosa, both the Po-assii and Bra(;o being channels hy which the waters of a river with an inelTicient nioiith- 0})ening are enabled to esca^ie into the sea through the mouth of another river. There arc some quite extciisivo sandy tracts in this area and along the coast. These arc jilanted with groves of cocoa-palms, from the fruit of wliich cocoa-oil is to some extent manufactured. A large tract lying northward of the Salsa, and emln-aced l)et\ve('n it and the Pardo, is of the same character. The Panlo is a large river, and has a bar on which the waves beat fearfully, but it usually admits at high water of the passage of steamers under the proper pilotage. The Pardo docs not bring down so much sediment as the Jccpiitinhonha, its * In the forest of the Po-assii the Qititdra (Dcsmoncns), a trailinj;- p;ilni, is exceedingly common, interwoven witli the trees. I saw it in fruit early in May. The fruit is round, about the size of a small cheiry, bright red, and in clusters like cnijics. This is a common species found in tlie ratiiiira woods on the low grounds along the coast, sometimes in such great abundance as to be a nuisance, for it hangs its pendant leaves, terminated with hooks, over the mule-path. The name Quitara is the one given it by my guide. On the Pio Negro the Desmoncus macroacanthus is called Jocitdm. PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 239 clianiicl is clpcpor, and the tide rniis np the river for quite a nuii'l)or of miles. Just before entering the scathe river makes a 1»ond south- ward, and the barra is really cut through a strip of sand-beaeli which forms the shore for a long distance north and south. A wide channel, or riaclio, leaves the river on the south just liclbro it cuts through the sand, and rvnis through the man- LHovo swamps for a consideraldc distance southward. In journeying from Cannavieiras* to Belmonte I f()llowed this route. My comi)anion and I took canoe up this riacho as far as was possible, then coming to a sandy tract, we chose the sca-sliorc for some distance, when we eml)arked in a canoe on another riacho which led southward to the Jcquitinlionha, a dismal, but to the naturalist exceedingly interesting journey. There was a perfect network of channels leading through Iho dense mangrove growth, and for some distance little land was to be seen. The mangroves standino' in the mud or dirty Avater, with their bared basal roots, their fre- quont aerial roots hanging ropelike from the l)ranchcs, and just liefore reaching the soil forking like tripods, their dense green foliage meeting overhead, and their curious cigar- sliajicd seeds pendent in the tree or occasionally sticking iipright in the mud, were objects of wonder and admira- tion ; l)ut among their roots innumerable fuzzy and muddy- logged Guayamu crabs glared at us Avith expressionless eyes, and then hustled away into their holes in the black mud. Beautiful orange Aratiis, with white fingers, lay like rich fruit fallen from the trees; but they, too, took friglit and ran nimbly off to their holes, or hid in crevices under the roots, while myriads of fiddlers marched away, waving their * Tliis is the usual orthography, but one meets with Canavieira, Canaviciras, or even Civmsvieiras. 240 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. big arms, and took refuge in the sandy spots. Parrots* screamed among the branches ; but, prstr ! mosquitoes ami all the liorril>lc Ijlood-sucking race of Muroims, Piiiiny., &c., swarm ; and, how ardent soever the naturalis^t inny be, his ])atiencc can ill stand the plague of flics that fails upon him in these swamps. The air of the swanijis is very unhealthy, and the vicinity of Belmontc and Caniia- viciras is feverish. The town of Cannavieiras is situutoil on the left bank of the river, just above the mouth. It is built on an old beach, an island surrounded l)y a chan- nel, which, leaving the river some distance al)Ove the town. enters it again just before the river reaches the sea. The town is quite a consideral)lc place, numbering, perhaps, two thousand inhabitants. It derives its chief importance fioin the fact that it is the port of the Jequitinhonha and Tardo. and is one of the stations of a line of steamers. Canoes dc- sccnding the Jequitinhonha do not go to Belmontc, but come here by Avay of the Po-assu and Salsa, to exchange tlic cotton, corn, and other articles of export of Minas and the lower river for salt, dry goods, S:c. The salt trade is very large. In descending the Jequitinhonha, we passed cveiy day several large canoes on the up voyage, the most of them carrying salt. It has lieen proposed to straighten and widen the Po-assii. so as to facilitate the navigation between the two gieat rivers. At present the waters of the Pardo during the annual freshets wear away the unstable land on which Cannavieiras stands. "Were the Po-assu widened and a free passage ojicncd for the waters of the Jequitinhonha, the result would ])rovc disastrous to Cannavieiras as Avell as to Belmontc. At ))res- * Psittacus ochrocephalus Linn, builds its nest in the mangroves. Sec Ncii Wictl. PROVINCE OF BAIIIA. 241 cnt tlic struggle between river aiul sea is only sufficient to koo|» llie liar of the Jequitinhonlui open. Draw o\T any eon- siderable j)art of the water of that river, and it is very dituliiful wliether its bar would not l)ecomc a ])ernianent olistniction to navigation, while the sands (jf the .recjui- liuluiulia, thrown into the Pardo, would probably shoal tlio water and render its bar worse. Santa Cruz is the natu- ral port of the Jecpiitinhonha, and it would certainly seem tliat the commerce of the Jequitinhonlui would be vastly iinpi'evcd l)y using the river Santo Cruz so far as it is iiaviuublc by steamers, and then Iniilding a good wagon- road tlience to the Jequitinhonha. The Pardo is joined with the Poxim, a small river said to take its rise in a large lake, and whose bari'a is a few miles north of that of the Pardo, by a narrow arm running jianillel with and close to the shore, and called the Patipe. Caiinavieiras itself is situated on an island formed liv a L'liamiel called the Rio Sip6 which leaves the Pardo and joins the Patipe. The Poxim, just before it unites with this last river, suljdivides and enters the sea by two mouths, one of Avhirh is called the Barra do Patipe, and the other on the north the Barra do Poxim. One or two channels continuing northward from the Poxim like the Patipe, niniiing just inside the coast line, em})ty into the sea a couple of leagues to the north at the Barra dc Com- maiidatuba. This whole coast has been very indifferently mappod inside the coast line. The Jequitinhonha and rardo are often shown as entering the sea by the same mouth. The map of Senhor Henrique Gerber, so excellent for the provinces of Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, and Espirito ^ auto, IS exceedingly defective so far as the province of Vol.. I. 11 f 242 GEOLOGY AND rHY':;iCAL GEOGRAniV. Biilila is concerned ; but it must 1)C remembered that his map dtjcs iKjt j)retcnd to 1)0 a map of JJahia. This ]»art ol" the coast is better shown on the niaj) ol" tlic Tcaenlc 3Ianocl Erncslu tie Sauza Franpa, published in the report of the President of IJahia in 18(J(J ; l)ut even this only g'ives the general features, and is not based on a caro- ful survey. According to Prince Xcu-Wicd's edition of Arrowsniitli's ^[np of the JJraziliau Coast, no connection is shown ar (list- ing between the Jecpiitinhonha and Pardo, and the latter river is represented as dividing into three a long distaiii'c from the coast, two of which unite before entering the sea, while the Poxini and Commandatuba, though joined to- gether, have no connection with the Pardo. TIk! Dicciouario GcogTitphlco declares that the Rio Par m divides into two streams, one of which enters the sea iiiulcr the imme of the Rio Pardo, the other emptying into the l!ay of llheos under the name of Cachoeira or Patipe, which is all simply ridiculous. Mr. Copeland and I ascended the Pardo to the head of canoe navigation, a journey of about three days, and the following notes were made on the return voyage. At the Caxocirinha do Rio Pardo the river reaches the low country and becomes a rio de arcia. Here luivigatioii is obstructed by a series of rapids caused by the river falling over ledges of slate conglomerate, of which the dip was found to be 4")° to the S. 10° W., a dip corresponding with that of no other strata I have studied on the Bia/ilian coast. The material is a very highly altered conglunierato. composed of pel)bles of milky quartz, granite with quartz in lamella?, Arc, imbedded in a slaty mass. Tlie rock is ex- ceedingly hard, and appears to resist decomposition. The PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 243 stratification is not very distinct. On tho water-worn pur- fiiL'i's the i)el)bles stand out \-ery prominently, but a fracture jiiisses straiglit through pebbles as Avell as cement. At the Ctixoeirinlia these rocks are overlaid by tertiary beds, wliii'li form plains elevated thi'eo hundred feet, more or jrss, ubove the river, and which descend with very steep slopes to the stream. The alluvial deposits along the i-iver reach a height of aljout twenty-five feet aliove the river level. During the enchente these are sometimes at least nverdowed. The lands here are very fertile, and the whole country appears to be densely wooded, but uninhabited. Slate conglomerate and sandstone continue to show them- selves in the river-bank for a mile or more below the Caxoei- riiilia. when to these rocks succeeds a fine-grained bluish slaty lock, an altered shale, in which I could find no trace of fossils. A few rods above the fazenda of Sistcrio there are some ledLics of a fine-grained, very hard, bluish, compact, altered samlstoiie, with occasional bands of grit and conglomerate, ami often very beautifully obli(!uely laminated. In this rock 1 ('lisei'ved remains of ])lants, and one surface of rock had the iin|iressious of several stems of a thick-noded ecpiisetaccous l)laiit. One stem showed three nodes and another two. the leiiiiili of tho intcrnodcs being al)Out three inches. Owing t't the hardness of the rock, I was able to bring away only the impression of a single node. This plant resembles in its swollen nodes a plant not uncommon in the ujjjier Devonian rocks of St. John. New Brunswick, and called Aslrrophyl- Ith's / sni/inrra Dawson. These beds appear to me to be piiUi'ozoic. Below this point the river valley becomes wider and the alhiviul lands more extensive, though the river itself is not 244 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. SO very wide, as it averages for a considerable distance only al)Out three hundred feet. The country is ahundantly Inr- cst-clothed, and the river-banks, which arc veiy fertile, air more or less cul'Livated, several large fazendas l)eing scattcivil along the I'iver. Sonic of these are very ])icturcs(|U('ly sitii- tcd, and are surrounded by orange, banana, jack and ('(u'ou trees. Ca^iiio {Theohroma Cacao) is quite extensively cul- tivated here. This plant is a native of the Amazonas, \\ licic it flourishes almost without culture ; * the cacaoeiros, wlicn once they have begun to bear fruit, requiring little care. It needs a warm damp climate and a rich alluvial soil, and appears to suffer nothing from an occasional freshet. South of the Amazonas it is cultivated l)nt rarely, though even in the ])rovince of TJahia there are some (piite large i)lantati()ns, especially at llhcos on the Pardo, and at Yalcn(;a. I saw no cacao in the province of Espirito Santo. A little is cul- tivated in the province of Rio de Janeiro. In the Amazon- ian region the fruit, when ripe, is collected twice a year aiul dried in the sun ; the seeds arc then separated from the shells, and arc emidoyed principally for the manufacture of chocolate or other preparations for beverages. They furnish a thick yellow fatty substance which is sometimes extracted and used for various purposes. Coffee does not produce well here. The trees grow very rank and high, with spreading branches ; but the berric.^s rijien very unequally, and not unfrequently have to be gathered six times during the year. This is owing to the peculiar climate of the region. In Rio do Janeiro, Minas, and elsewhere, there are well-defined wet and dry seasons during the year, and these ai)pear to be necessary for the successful culture of coffee ; but here on the Pardo a very large quantity of * See Bates, The Natnralist on the Amazons, pp. 87 and 162. PROVINCE OF DAHIA. 24; rain falls, and is distiiljiitod tliroiighout the entire year, luukini;,^ the climate very damp, so that wliilo it is especially adapted fur the culture of cacao it does nut ilo foi- cofVee. Oil (lie hiji'lier chaiiada lands, liowever, where the soil is sandy and drier, eoiree and cotton may l)e cultivated. Alluvial, flat, damj) lands are nowhere pro|)er for coflec, which flourishes hest on hillsides. The Jack (^Artocarpiis Brazilicnsis Gom.) is cultivated ill Brazil, particularly in the province of Bahia and to the unith, though I have seen it at Silo Matheos, and occasion- tiiiy as far south as Rio. It also occurs in Minas Oeraes, l)ut ill the ])rovince of JJahia it becomes of considerahle iin- liui'taiicc. The timber is valuable for building purposes, I)eing very durable and strong. The fruit is innnense, being some- times a foot and a half in the longer diameter. It consists (if a stringy, nnicilaginous, sweet, and nutritious pul[), in which are imbedded large seeds, which, Avhen cooked, are ('(HMe and nourishing, and arc largely used for food. In some ]»arts a kind of farinha is })i'e})ared from them, l»ut its use is by no means general. The Fniita pno or l>read- fi'uit, Arforarpus incisa, is also cultivated in Brazil, and may be seen very frequently in the province of Bahia. The forests on the banks of the Pardo remind one of the Dueo ill their luxuriance. The trees by the river-side are loaded with i)arasites and interlaced with pendent rope-like cipos. Ferns arc very nnmerous, and one species, with beautiful fringed pinna), climbs up the trees to a height of forty I'cet or more. One sees here a species of grass called C'ajiim (la Coloiiia, (an exotic?) which has been introduced on the Pardo, and has spread within the last few years quite extensively over the river-banks. At the Estreito there is an isolated patch of tertiary, but below that the 246 GI'OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. lands liordcriiig' the river jirc Jill low. A short distance ho- h)\v the Finado, a channel cut across a hcnd in the livci', the lands become lower and less lieavily wooded, iind anin^a and (Juaxuma bushes appear on the banks, — un inl'allible sign of tlie ajjproach to salt or brackish wah r. There is a I'ei'n connnon to the UKJuths ol' the rivers on tin' coast which ai)i)ears to jireler this kind of water. It lias a tall, erect, narrow frond, with stiff, long", narrow |)iiniiil(s bent ui)ward toward the stem.* It grows al)undantly in ilic vicinity of the Furado, on the muddy banks reached by the brackish water. Fi'oni Cannavieiras to the Rio Foxim runs a canal, scjia- rated from the sea by a beach-ridgo, and thence noiOiwaid this same canal extends to the Conunandatuba, and is said to afford Avater comniunication to the latter river from the Pardo. Tlie Conunandatuba flows into this channel, wliirli is ))rolonged Just behind the beach for some distance iinrili- ward before it opens out into the sea. At the l]ana ila Commandatuba a colony has been estalilished, and there is a little village of thirty or more houses theie. The slioie lic- tween the Commandatuba and the Una is low and ilat, Imt a short distance inland one sees the tertiary slojtes, wliicli stretch along nort^.vard from the Jequitinhonha and Panto. The Una is a little river which, according to Prince Xeii Wied, is so dry at ebb tide as to ])C easily forded. Tlicre arc some excellent lands on this river, and the forests are rich in jacaranda and other valuable Avoods. This river is noteworthy for bending northward just before reaching the sea, and flowing a little distance behind the beach-ridge. Opposite the mouth of the Pardo several high hills, lying * This must lie a species well known, but in tlio absence of speciiuens I cannot ai\e its name. PROVINCK OF HAHIA. 247 some twenty niilcs iiilaiul west (jf Coinniandatulta, aro visihlo ■it sea, and appear to he ^'iieiss, luit wlieii (AY the I'lia a Iiiu\y niouiitain ran^'e, with oiitliiies Hke those of the uiieiss hills iiortli and south, is seen stretehin;;' ol't' iiMi'thwai'd, and tiiiccalile beyond lllu'os, prohahly tyini;' iu with liie nioun- tiiiiis of Canianiu. This ranuc; is ealled the Sena (h' haiiii'a.* Sonic of the hills in this range lunst betiiree thou- siiiitl feet in height or more. 1 insert hero an outline sketrh of this coast, to show the character of the topography. 1 was nnicli struck witli the outline of the tahlc-to])pcd hill on the ri'ilit, which appears to he conii)Oscd of soft horizontal rocks. Mav it not he an outlier of the great tertiary sheet that covers so large an area in the interior, and which in sonic places must have extended down to the coast heforc the deposition of the coast tertiary l)eds? I would suggest a comparison between it and the hills of Monte Alegrc on the Arau/.ouas. From the Una northwards the tertiary plains descend to the coast and extend, with high, stccj), wooded, rarely j)er- ])en(licular slopes, seaward to llheos. A few insignilieant little streams empty into the sea along this coast. As a liciieral thing, a strip of flat sandy or mai'shy ground runs along under the hlulfs. The Piassaha ])abn {Aifft/ca ftitiifcrd) grows very abundantly on the slopes and the plain aI)ove, as Prince Neu-AVied has remarked. This author says that he did not see it anywliere north of llheos. It now covers large tracts on the Rio Paraguassu, below * Prince Xeu-Wieil says that gold isfuuiid hure. li4S GEOLOGY AND rilYSICAL GKOGRAPIIV. Caxoc'ira, and aloiij^ tlio IJaliia and Silo Francisco, ami its fihro is quill' ail impoilanl articlt; ol' commerce!. I'riiicc Xcn Wied sjii'aks oriiiidiii^' roundt'd IVa<.nii('nts of pumice * on the shore near lliis place, and statt's his heliel' that they \\{>\v (h-ifled to the Ih'a/iUan coast, I'rom the ishiud ol' Ascension. f lie sp(?aks of lindint^ them on the shore near Porto Seoiiio. and 1 havi" picked up largo quantities on the island ol' Santa IJarhara dos Ahrolhos. The little village of Olivenra is situated on the toj) (if a hill liy the shore, about nine miles south of Ilheos. Its in- habitants, civilized Indians, employ themselves in makiiiu' straw hats, baskets, itc, which they send to Ilheos i)y wiiv of the beach, on mule-back. They plant only enoniih tu sujiport themselves. As al)ove remarked, in speaking of the Rio Pardo, it ^\•as believed that that river divided, part of its waters tlowiiiLi' into the sea at Cannaviciras, while another ])art, undir the name of the Rio Cachoeira, flowed into the bay of Sao Jorgo dos Ilheos. There is a road, or rather trail, throndi the forest following this river into ^linas, and Pi-incc Xcii Wied travelled over it, crossing the head-waters ol" lln' Cachoeira. lie says nothing ^^>ont tliat river being (inlv an oii^ct from the Pardo, and a his map of the coast be- tween the twelfth and fifteenth parallels, after Arrowsniith, he represents the Rio Cachoeira as taking its source very near the Pardo, at some considerable distance below the Villa da Yareda, and this is probably correct. Just above the mouth of the river a small river called the Rio do Fiui- diio emi»ties into it. * Beisp, Vol. II. p. 85. ■f Tills lianlly scom.s probable, since there is a southwnrd-flowin;,' current setting iilong the Braziliim coast south of Cape St. Roque. rRoviNci: OF r.AiiiA. 240 III tlio year 1S17 rriiR-c 'Sl-.w. zii Ncii-Wicd iiiiKlc a joiinii'V into the interior from Uheos to the borders of Miiias, iiinl then went by hind throntih the interior 1o the IJiiy of Tdilfis OS Santos. His voya,u(i is full of intercsl, but I ex- tract from it only a few [loiiits which Iicar upon the geogra- phy, natural history, tVe. of the country. llis j)icture of the forest on tlu; ri\('r ueai" liheos is so {•Taiid, and so true to natnre, that 1 translate a portion of it : — "• liife and luxuriant plant growth is spread everywlierc. Nitwlicre is there a li\!ic sj)ot without plants. On all stems species of Pdssi/lord, Cafacliuin, DrdcontiiDn, Pi/nr, B(<^(>- iiiit, and J'J/}idi'iidrii>n, besides many ferns, lichens, and mosses of ditlerent kinds, bloom, climb, luxuriate, and at- tach themselves. The forest is made np of the genei-a Cocas, Mi'/fisf()))ia, Bignunid, R/icxia, JM'unosa, L{L>d, Bomhax, Ilex, Lininis, Jf//rf/iiis, Eugenia, Jacuranda, Jutropha, Visinin, Li'ri/f/iis, Ficus, and a thousand other, for the most part, imknown species of trees, whose fallen llowei's one sees lying on the ground, and can hardly guess from which giant trc(^ they eamc. Others covered Avith blossoms shine afar, while, liright yellow, bright red, rose-red, violet, sky-blue, ttc. and in swani]iy places there rise, thickly crowded to- gether, the great elliptical leaves of the Ilidicouias on long stems often ten to twelve feet high, and noteworthy for their bright red or fiery flowers. On the highest trunks, high up in the forks of the branches, grow immense tufts of Broinclias, with large clusters [Bl/imcnfiulbeii vnd Trcnthcii] of light cinnahar-rcd flowers, or of some other color ; from these fall great bundles of roots like cords, which hang down to the earth and form a new obstruction for travellers. Such bromclia-clumps i\\ all the trees, 11 * 250 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGUAniY, and wlicii witli the linsc of years they die, and arc dislod'jod by tlic wuid, they fall with a crash. A thou.sand llianas, from the slightest thread to the thickness of a man's thigh, and of hard, tongh wood (^Bau/iinia, Banisleria, Paulinia, tW-.), entwine the trnnks, climb even to the highest top of llie tree, where they blossom and bear frnit where no human eye can see them. Many of them arc so wonderlullv formed that one cannot look upon them without amazement, as, for instance, certain species of Baahiida. Fnjm many (if these the trunk around which they had wound decays, ami here stands a giant coiled serpent, whose origin makes itself easily understood in this way." * In penetrating into the interior the country becomes grad- ually higher, and at the same time drier, while the forest becomes less and less luxuriant, and finally ])asses, on the higher ground, into a catinga, which begins, on the road to Minas, at Porto da Canoa, on the Rio Cachoeira. Bronulia- ceous ])lants become more abundant, Avith several s])ecics of Sulanacea', Mi/)iosas, and the stinging Cansaiicao {Jatroplia vrens}. In the valleys, however, the forest is still dense and thick. In the catinga grows a cactus (Ccreus) with im- mense stems reaching a height of fifty or sixty feet, witli a diameter of two feet. On the wcotern side of the Kilieirao da Issara is a range of hills, called the Serra da Sussuarana, which arc not very high, Imt covered with nu\sses of loose rocks and stones, Avitli a thick growth of catiniia. The country onward to the Giboya, a little stream flowing southward into ihe Pardo, is covered with catinga. Here. as elsewhere, the low grounds of the valleys are filled with high forests, l)ut the woods on the slopes and high lands grow lower, and come under the class of catinga. The * Rclse, Band IL Sci^c 10(5. PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 251 Prince says tliat tlic Gil)oya flows over Granit-tafeln (uiitiss). I should judge from Ids description that the cmutrv between the Giljoya and llhcos was of the same cliaractcr. A short distance to the westward of the (lihoya is a range of mountains, " wIkjsc hills, of a considerable lu'iulit, have a rounded outline, and are strewed over with luassfs of rocks and granite l)locks in which especially veiy large jjieces of white quartz occur. The whole vicinity is (ivcrgrown Avith very thick forest or catinga. These mountains bear the name of i^erra do jNIundo Novo. The fu'st mountain is the highest ; it rises, it is true, with gentle slu})es, 1)ut it requires a full hour to ascend it. Thence on- Avard hills and valleys alternate, until one at last descends into a cons-.ierablc depression. The Rio Pardo Hows to the kt't, in a deci) valley parallel with the road So soon as wc had left behind us the fatiguing Serra we found the wood still more changed into catinga, for in the depression itself it was only 40 -GO feet in lieight, fdled with many lironiolia and cactus clumps, hung with moss tufts {'IVhin- (Isin), and intermingled with many kinds of trees which reached only an inconsiderable height. Here is found the Pan do, Lcite (in all probal)ility a Ficus), which is feared lieoanse of its corrosive milky juice, but nowhere was seen the Ijcneficent, nourishing milk of the Palo de Vam, which Humboldt has described ; this milk would in our situati()n be a great comfort. Farther on we found the cork-like Barrigudo-tree (Bombax), which here grew to only a small height, many s])ecies of Mimoaa, of Bignonia, and so forth, and between them rock masses and granite blocks. All this shows that one has gradually ascended from the wet, dark region of the coast forests to higher and drier country." This dcscrii)tion is very interesting, because it shows that 252 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. here wc have a region which lias not been so much affcctod by decomposition as the coast belt, and it shows us how the forest zone narrows down as Ave go northward. Beyond the Barra da Varcda one enters a catinga wood. and gradually ascends, the hills being gently rountled, aiul. as the Prince remarks, announcing the ojjen ])lains and ridges which make up so large a jjart of the interior of Bra- zil. " The wood has in many places lagoas grown up witli swamp reeds, in others extensive naked jdaces which have been burned over so as to produce grass for the cattle. Siieli places become covered immediately with high ferns {Pirris caudata), whose horizontally placed fronds wear an atiive- able look. With the end of the wood one reaches pleasant green fields, which, despite the dry climate, appeared to liavf the fresh green of our European meadows." Going westward the country becomes more and more open, and there are extensive open fiat tracts of great extent, covered with a sparse catinga vegetation, innnense oan- delcl)ra-like cactuses, and ant-hills, and diversified by slial- low lagoas. From Tamburil to the boundary of ]\Iinas Geraes one passes through a monotonous and soniewliat hilly country, cut through by deep ravines, and covered liy catiniia. So soon as one has climbed ihe ridges wliieli nni- formly command one another, and throughout are covered in the same manner with catinga or carrasco, small narrow fields, grown up with many rush-like grasses, are readied. In some jilaces near Ressaque the Prince found mica slates with stanrolides in single crystals, together wilii hornblende. This succession of gneiss and mica slate cor- responds to what I observed on entering the basin of the Jeipiitinhonha, but I have seen no staurotides in Bni/.ii. The carrasco is a more or less thick, usually matted, PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 253 srrowtli of Imslics, with stiff, gnarly stems, which grow to a hciiiht of ten or twelve feet, and this is the character of the voti'L'tation of a large i)art of the canipos of the interior, par- ticularly of the wide elevated plains. The country grows Hatter and flatter in going into the in- tv>'ii»r, and at the same time the bushes grow lower until the nonpos geracs arc reached, where, " far as the eye can rcarli, open wooded plains, or gently rounded hills and riducs, are spread out, covered with dried grass or scat- tered laishes." '• In the valleys which intersect these wide, naked ridges and plains, one fnids the hanks of the rivers and brooks 1, ordered l)y woods. Here also single clumps of bushes arc loiind, hidden here and there in the deep places, particularly as one approaches the borders of Mmas Gcraes, and this kind of wood is in part one of the peculiar characteristics of these open places. One often believes that he has a contin- uous iilain before him, Avhen he comes suddenly upon a nar- r'-T, steep-sided valley, hears deep below him the nun-mur of a stream, and looks down upon the forest-trees which, va- riously colored with numerous flowers, line its banks. Con- stant winds prevail here during the cold season, with, for tlic most part, a cloudy sky, and in the dry months a burn- ing, oppressive heat, whereby the grass is dried up, the re- gion is glowing hot, and there is a scarcity of potalde water." Ill the winter these high lands are quite cool, and hail not unfrc(iueutly falls. Prince Xeu Wied describes a large tract over which the vegetation was dead and leafless, and he was informed that it had been killed by frost, though it may l)e that the effect had been produced by excessive dryness. To one accustomed to the climate of the coast, that of these high regions is apt to be very disagreeable. The Prince 254 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. foiiiid the temperature early on a foggy morning 14 Reaumnr =Go..V Falir., and at noon on a dry sun^shiny day V,^y Reaumnr, = To. 87', and this was just at the cml of the rainy season, in February. On the 2:2d January, at Catole, he found in the shade between two and thioc o'clock, P. M., a temperature of 24^^ Reaumur, = 87.12' Fahr., and he states that it sometimes reached ;!0' Reau- mur, = 95.50'' Fahr., in the shade. These campos stretch westward to the Serra das Ahnas, and southward to the valley of the Jecpiitinhonha,* and aie oidy sparsely inhabited, principally by herders of cattli'. Agriculture is confined to the bottoms of valleys and umhi places. The Ema, or American ostrich {Rhea Americana'), oc(Mirs in abundance on the campos of the basin of the Pardo, to- gether with the celebrated scricma {Palamcdca cristata Linn., Dicholophns rrisiatus Illiger), a large bird the size of a crane, very swift of foot, and noted for its shi'ill voice like that of the peacock, whence the English name crested screamer, sometimes applied to it.f With reference to the climate of this part of the coast, Neu-Wied says that generally the months of February, March, April, and May are the rainy months. The four months following are the cold season, while the hottest weather is in October, November, Deccml)er, and January. Our author snys that he never observed a lower tenipcratnie than 13^ Reaunuu', nor a much higher one than 80" Hcunnir. * See description of the campos of the Coiharca da Jequitinhonha in Cliap. III. of this work. t See Eiiij. Wfirmlnq, SkUdn'iir/rr af Natiirrn i (lit tropt'd-r Brasihrn. T. ( am- posdiprnr, Tldsslrifl for Pop. Frcmst. af Xat., Tredie Ea'iike, Fcmto P.iiuls, Tredie lleftc, ISGS, p. 231. This is a very interesting article on the lauiui of the canij)os region. rROVINCE OF RAIIIA. 255 On llie .")tli March, one of the hottest days of the voyage, Xni-Wied obsei'ved a teiu|)Ci'ature of 28.50' Reamnur, and in the twilight of the same day 15^ Rcaumnr, and an hour later, wlien the dew liad begun to fall, 14° Rcaunuu", which olisorvations are interesting as showinu' the diurnal varieties (if temperature. Arraial da Conquista, or Victoria, is the name of a little vilhige lying a ['q\v leagues to the north of the l>arra do A'iireda, and noted for its C(jtton and lai'ge herds of cattle, wliicli are sent to Rahia to lie sold. On the voyage to Bahia, near a place called Urnbii, lying lictween the Rios Caxoeira and Contas, X'Mi-Wied describes Imioks whose waters were salt, discolored, and whitish, and lie speaks of others near the valley of the Contas. Thus far a great j)art of the countiy between the Arraial da Con- iiuista and the Rio das Contas has been hilly and more or less wooded. Between the Arraial da Conquista and Os Possoes (Po(;nes) the country is very uneven and covered with low woods. Xou-Wiod calls attention to a very interesting fact stated by Humboldt,* that the number of species of social plants in * Alex. (Ic Ilumlioklt, De Dlstrilmtione Geographica Pl<intarum, 1817, ])p. 5L^;2: — • Kai-iss^imre autcm sunt plantfc sociatic {Plantcs soridha, rjisrll^f/p jijhmni) ill pliiiriT :vf|ninoctiiili. Difficilitor ciiim, ex jrcncrc 'irhorum Silvis ( )riiioct'iisil)US ii'ininii jionas, qnippe in quilnis nifij:niis spccionnn niiinorus .Tquc commixtns S'it. XiMpic in locis planis ?ub zona torrida N(3vi Orhis, plantas sociatas fcro alias ullas oniinicrcs pva'tcr Rlii/ophoram Mansion, Scsiiviuni I'ortulacastnim, Croton ai'j:ontcnin, Bambnsam Giiailuani, atqne propter ea[)ita fluvii Aniazo- niimct in ealidis Provineia; Jean de Braeamoras, amaMiis.-inia noniora Boiiguin- villoa ct Godoya repleta. Aii<:cntur vcro stirpes catorvatim nasccntcs quo Tiia;;i- per Mexieannm imperium versus Cancrum proeedis, vel per caenniina Amiinin te toliis, ubi altitudine 1800 haxapodarum reperics Escalloniani niyr lilluidLin, Bratliim junipcrinam ct multijugas Molinte species." 256 GEOLOGY AND PIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the tropics is very small, and says that not unfroquciitly wc find largo ti'acts taken possession of by the sanuinil)aia (^MeHcnsla diclioluma or Ptcris candata?) to the exclusion of all other shrnljs. This is the case all alon^^ the C()a>t. It is apt to spring np in abandoned dry fields, and liury them with a thick mantle of foliage. I observed it growing at ltaba])uana, Sao Matheos, and in mnncrous other j)lac('s on the coast, where it was so abnndant as to be a nuisance, and I have noted it as being very common in Minas. It seems to have the same habit as our Ptcn's aquilina, wliiili in the same way takes possession of fields and drives everything else out. The rapid growth of the samam- baia in l>razil is often aided by fires set in the Imshes and grass over dry j daces, which dejdeto the flora and give tlie fern a more open field to grow in. The most remarkable social plants of Eastern Brazil arc the mangroves, Coiio- carpns and Aviccnnia, in addition to which and the Pleris caiidita are some species of R/icxia, Cecropia, Blg-nonia, together witlv the Ubd^Taqnarasstt, some grasses, a hanilnio, and the dwarf palm of the coast, Guriri. The Piassaba ami Carnahuba })alms woidd also appear to merit being included mider this head. Between the Arraial da Conqnista and Os Possoos, Xeu \yied describes a locality Avith high, gently rounded liills covered with the samambaia, and he states that sometimes such tracts are l^nrned over so as to produce a growth of grass. The whole country here is exceedingly dry, and during the hot season the vegetation is Avithercd and scorched. Water then fails, and cattle die if not removed. In this diT region is found a beautiful Bi</7ionia, eight to ten feet high, with large bright citron-yellow blossoms, and a Cassia, together with the Licurl palm, a species which I PROVIXCE OF BAIIIA. 257 found growing over the tabolciras at Alagoinlms on the IJaliia and Siio Francisco Railroad. The soil is of a rcd- (lish-yollow color. The deep valleys are filled with dense forest. Everywhere one sees the ronnd yellow hills of the white ant scattered about. Carajjatos* arc exceedingly iiuinerous, incrusting twigs so as to make them fairly red, and worrying the traveller by day and night. Between Os Possoes and Urubii the country is of the same desolate character. In this region many cattle are pastured, and in sonic localities a little cotton is })lanted. Of the journey from Urubii to the Fazenda da Cachoeira Xeu-Wied draws a striking picture of the country in these words : t " i fal- lowed the way through an inhospitable deserted wilderness, in which, crowded together, mountain after mountain rose behind one another ; all lay before us, monotonous, covered with thick-woven brushwood, rough and wild, and mingled with j)r()jecting rock masses. Some of these mountains are naked and consist of variously formed masses of rock, as a g'onoral thing gently rounded above ; in the places bare of wood the soil shows itself as a red-yellow clay. Bushes of fmely-plumed thorny mimosas, mingled here and there with iicautiful flowering plants, amongst which I will mention only one splendid plant, a new species of Iponuva, with larw, In-illiant fiery blossoms, made on both sides a border to tlie way." '' The rock masses of the strangest forms, often like towers or pulpits, standing singly out above the ])ushes, arc cvciywliere in these mountains inhabited by a little cavia," called the ^Ioc6, — Coelocjenys rupestris. " In these dry rocky * Rates snys that there are two species on the Amazonas. See Naturalist on tlie Amazons, p. 173. t Utise, Vol. II. p. 236. 258 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. woods tlicrc reignod a heat beyond belief; not a broozo stirred, and the rays of the sun were reflected from every side; only tbc proud Araras [macaws] in our neigbliorlujod appeared to enjoy it. They liew screaming altout, Avliilo the most of the other birds took their siesta on tlie isluiilv branches." The mouth of the river at llhdos forms a very good Imr- bor, and is entered by the coasting steamers. Where the valley of the river opens out into the sea arc two isolated gneiss hills, standing one about a rpiarter of a mdc east uf the other. The western of these hills, once an island, lias been joined to the bluffon the north Ity a broad strip of sand, on which is built the villa of 8ao Jorge dos llh(ios. This causes the river to make an abrupt bend southward. The eastern hill, also formerly an island, has been joined to tlie low lands on the south l)y a strip of sand, which coin]iels the river to turn towards the north, when it enters the sea between the two hills. The mouth of the river is shal- low, but is usually entered without nmch difficult/. The waves beat very heavily on this coast, and it is interesting to sec how they arc striving to throw up a S])it across the river- moutli uu the northern side. At high tide the water flows through a channel cut across the sand-beach, uniting the eastern island with the shore; but the waves tend to increase the height of this beach, and the river is ol)liged to escape around the Avestern side of this hill. To the northeast nrc the reefs Sororoca, Itapitinga, and Itaipins, Avhich 1 liave not examined, and north of these arc the islets Ilha Grande and Ilha Pequena, distant about two miles north, a few de- grees cast of the barra. The town of Ilh^os is about as large as Caravellas, but is of much more importance. The banks of the Rio Cax- PROVINCE OF BAHIA. 259 noira and of its tributaries near lllieos arc tliickly set- tled, and there are many lar<>c fazendas lor the t-ultiva- tiou of caciio, sugar, etc., wliicli products arc exported to Daliia. The rocks of tlie hill on the western side of the harra consist of a well-bedded gneiss like that of Bahia, but much ilistiu-l)ed and broken up. The ai)proximate strike is north a few degrees cast. A few miles to the north of Ilhcos the little river Itahypc I'lnptics into the sea. The banks of the river arc largely settled. The river itself is very narrow, but deep, and alto- ovthcr is only about twenty-eight miles long. On the north- iTii side is a little lagoa communicating with the Itahypc liy a narrow canal. Neu-Wied says that sea-shells are found on the baidcs of this lake, and that kettle-formed holes, like Ihosfliullowed by the action of the sea, arc to be seen in the rocks l)ordering it. Spix and Martins found coral banks in the lake, show- ing' tliat it was formerly a bay which has been cut off from the sea by the throwing up of a beach across its mouth. '• Tlu'se l)anks show themselves in many places in the lake at a depth of from six to twelve feet," and furnish material I'oi- the manufacture of lime. The corals o])served l)y Spix and Martins were referred by them to the old species Mad- rrpora cavernosa, hexag'ona, and astroitcs, Lam.* On the sea-shore near the Serra Grande, south of the Rio (le Cuutas, Spix and ^lartius found " l)anks, five to six feet liigh,()t' a soft, coal-black substance which soiled the finger when pressed, and which, carefully examined, seemed to be made up of coal and quartz grains." This appears to Ije some recent formation. * Von Martius, Reise, Band II. Seite 684. tit 2G0 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Fi'diu lUiuos iiortluviird to llu' Rio dc Coiilas llic coast lands, asa licnornl lliinu', iifc iihuiit (wo huiidi'cd I'cct in height. and levcd topitcd, with al)riii>t, slcu]) slopes to the sea, imd tlici'c can 1)0 no doubt (hat (hey are (ertiary. 'I'hc a|i]i(iir. an(,'(; of (he eoustjust sonth of (lie nioidh of (he Contas is I'ejtrescntetl in the following; sketch. 1 lUu tolil (liut (he '„i^ '■f&Sl'&rf" iaM-fi"*^^J^?S 'P^=?-' ^y'-J< r^-ifc^l-r^-*--/'— -^ ■%:.l» t ULli«» VIKSV OK THE COAST SOUTH <>I' TIIF. lilO DE fONTAS. soils of these i)lains arc sandy, l)nt arc in j»art (juitij fertile. On the slopes cacao is planted. The Rio dc Contas, or Jnssiapc, is a considernhle livor. which, according to the Dicchudrio Gcoir-raphico, rises eidit lea<2'nes to the northwest of the Villa dc Rio de Contas, nv at a distance of sonic one hundred miles from the sea ami to the west of the Scrra de Pincorii.* The course of (he main stream is almost east-west. It is navigahle oidy for a dis- tance of some four leagues above its mouth. 7"'he lands on the southern side at the mouth of the river are moderately high, and two or more rocky islands ami a reef of rocks jiroject northward, so that the channel of tlu' river is bent toward the north, as is the case at Ilheos. Tlicro arc other rocky points on the same side of the river, in which a rock like (hat of Bahia is exposed. The town is situated in a little cove, just inside the bar, on the southern side. 1 found the rock in the hill and point Avest of the town to lie * According: to Almeida, it t.ikcs its vise in a lake forty or fifty miles north of the Villa du Kio de Contas. Hurton says that this name slioidd lie I'io (las Contas. I follow Cazal, Almeida, and the common usage of Brazilinii writers. PROVIXCK OF liAIIIA. L"ll 111' the saini' c'liaractcr iis that of I'ahia, and exposed with a strike of X. 4')° ]']., and a vertical dip. The town is a Miiall (,iic, and ol" so little imiiorlaiiee that the eoastiii,!^' steamers laiciy stop there. Jts eoiniuere(' eoiisists jM'iiicipally in t'a- I'inlia, of uhieli something like ')(),()00 sacks ai'e expoi'ted I'vcrv vear ; oaoao, venrlv exportation more than -l.tMiO arro- Kiis: cofli'e, 1^00 to 1,0UU iirrolias; together with a little rice; iiiiij sugar, and largo quantities uf woods, espei-ially Jurd- rmiila, crr/ro, piitiuiuiji'i, viiihalico. Along the ri\('r alio\(! ilic town are many fazendas. 'J'he pojddation is said to he iiiiTcasing. On the opposite? side oi' the river the hmils licnlcrnig \ ic coast arc flat, sandy along shore, luit insid(? they arc largtdy overgrown with mangro\-es. The heach extends southward in a sharp point, which tends to close u|) liic ri\i'r oit'the point just east of the town ; hut the cuiavnt it ojien. The har is not dilKlcult, and there is good aiichoi'age for vessels off the town. 'J'he Iiio de Contas ap- iicarcd to me to he about the size of the Mucurv. The ter- Ki'i'n.> tiarv iliil'fs trend off northward of the rivei', Liraduallv 1< \'- iiig the (;oast. A narrow ehanncl coming I'rom tlie north ami lliiwing tlirough the low lands, })arallel with the coast, empties into the river oj)i)Ositc the town. I ha\i' seen in some ni'a/.ilian work — a llotciro, if I rightly I'ememher — a stulement that there had heen found on the hanks of this river tlio hones of some innnense extinct (puulrnped. Sj)ix and Martins also refer to them. (.See Chapter VIJ. of this Work.)* * Caziii s])oal\S of the cxistciicp, in different part nf Brazil, of tlie liones of an iiiiiiK'n>e extinct animal, wiiieli lie sii)jrj,a"Sts miiilit he tlie lieiieniotli. I translate a few scntenees from his note on it. He ;in's : Moi se Kivu; to tl IIS i|iuiiliiiii((l ilic name of iMainniotli, and says that tlic Indians of North America liivtciul that its s]iecies still exists in the woods which arc to the north of the t'lvat hikes This beast must have heen of ti slow marcii, nut I'l-ojier 2G2 GLOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAI'IIY, 111 l.Sdi) 1 touclit'd at Caniiimii, l)iit uiilui'tuiiiitc iy <liiiiii;.' bad wciilhcr, so lliut 1 wus uiuildc; to sec iiiucli. I havo never revisilcd \\\v. s\nA. I regret iniieh that 1 am uikiIiIi^ to ji'ive a more preeise and detailed deseriptiou of the imv on wlueh it is situated, lor it is of great iiitiTcst, liotli tn tiie •j:eolo<2;ist and the zoillogist, l)eejiuse on the borders u\' the hay are tlie iitrhii deposits which have attracted so imich attention, while oil" the month of the liay are e.\tensi\(' coial reefs. This hay, and tlie streams wiiieh tlow into it. Imvc been most erroneously re[)resented on the maps and iiiart>. Arrowsmith re])resents it as a deep wide hay openinu' hniail- ly to the sea, ludf as large as the Bahia de Todos os Saiihis. and sown with little islands; and Afouehez's chart gives diic really no idea of it. My friend, the Kev. Mr. Nieolay (if Bahia, kindly furnished me with a copy of a recent niap liy Sr. Jose Xascimento, which is here sul)joined, not oidy lie- cause of its value as a eoutribution to the hydrography ef the coast, but liecause Mr. Nieolay has indicated on it tlu' localities where the turba occurs, as well as several other p(/mts of interest. The shores of the bay and its arms are for tlio most for a hiintiiif,' or ciiniivorous animal, and with a bdiy so capacious that only veyetal)lo.s coiiitl sutlicu to noiirisii it. " Amon;,^ the many sivclctons wiiicli have been encountered in the dirt'crcnt proviiiees (;f tiio New World, perhaps iu)ne may help to form a better idea u{ tlio animal than the skeleton wliieli was discovered, at the close of the past eeiitary in the Tcnn<> da Vill>i (li> Rio dc Ciiiitus, by the persons enjrajred in cleariiiL' ""it a hollow in the rock (raldilran dt- judni], in order to make a tank for the eattlt. .... This skeleton, considerably injured, occujiied a spaice of more tliiUi thirty paces in lenirth ; the ribs were a palm and half broad ; the shiii-boiu's were of the len^jth of a man of medium siature ; the tusks were almost a '""'■" in leuffth ; a molar tooth, without the root, wei;,died four ])ounds ; in nriKr to remove the lower jaw, the strenj^th of four men was necessary." — ' 'uro^/nijk Jjrazilica, p. G7, note. See IfAirhlcic, Pale'oiitulujie Strati<jraphi(ine, p. :2')1. [•art f sivo 1 (Iiicis is ill ■ ^■xtcii the ti 1 hav' ill col when Icavii as lie |.lVgl ([uaii mam York ill'OUl aiul liirai iiloni depo 0l)S0 oceu left I * ^ lilt'Il, no (li liki' ! lll'llU: PROVINCE OF BAIIIA. 2G3 part flat, and lartrcly of recent origin, and there arc exten- sive mangrove s\vani[)S bordering them. From over this iv<nnn th(? tertiarv cUivs have lieen ahnost cntirelv denud(Mh (Iiiciss occurs at the town, and just to the westward is the (.'(iiisiilcralde range of hills called the Serra do Condoru, wlii'li is a continuation northward of the coast serras. It is in the low grounds of the ^hirahu, a hroad riverdike arm extending off for sonic distance to the south of the i»ay, that the tiirlia dei)osits are found. The specimens of turlia which I have seen were of a very light material, grayish or browidsh in ci)h'r, and felty in texture. The material hiirned reatlily when ignited in a candle, affording an abundant smoky flame, leaving the mass, however, of the same dimensions and form as lielore. The material appears to ))e merely a nmd im- pregnated with ])itumcn ; and as it appears to exist in largo (juantities, it would be very valuable ibr gas-making or the inuiuifacture of kerosene. Prof. Arthur M. Edwards of New Vnik. the microscopist, informs me that a Mr. S()uthw(n'th lii'Duulit home with him some specimens of carbonized wood, and Prof. Edwards* has some fratrments of leaves from the locality, but they arc unfortunately too l)adly j)reserv(Ml for identification. ^Ir. \ic(day personally examined the turba deposits, and has kindly ftu'iiished me with the following oliservatioiis, which throw some little light on the mode of oocarrenco of the bituminous layers, though their age is still loft in ohscuritv: — * Since tlie above was written, I learn that some of the tiirha distilleil in Nuu- Ynrk yiijileil of first quality, one hundretl giillons li,i;ht, clear oil to the ton ; .■ccoiiil qtiulity, si'venty-tivc j^allons. Prof. Edwards says, iu sjjeakiiii^ of the siKciuRiis he examined : " I consider the tnrha a sand impreiriiated with hitu- iiiL'ii, liut it has evidently nut been (le|)osited nnder water, liecau-;e it contains III) iliatoms and the vtjictahle remains in it are wood, a few leaves, and fibres liki' line roots." An English company has reeeutly been formed to work this 'It'liosit for the above-mentioned purposes. 2G4 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. " The Camainii series docs not appear in any way connected with that of Bahia or with those of the South, unless, as has heeu reported, turba is found on the Kio de Contas. " This series may be designated as follows : — " Jn a basin of gneissose rocks are bitiuninous schists, sands, ami marls containing fossils, (fresh water 1) and it is presumable abuve that the turba. " There are also sandstones, — principally red concretions, — u^t apparently connected with the bituminous strata, Init lying iioaar the sea, and possibly outliers of the J3ahia series. " The following section is from the pit sunk by Sr. Juao da Costa, filho : — " 20 feet in. Argillaceous and arenaceous schists. 3 " " Bituminous clay. 4 " " Ferruginous and arenaceous sandstone. " 9 " Schist with lignite. " " Bituminous stratum. 1 " G " Micaceous schists. 1 " G " Schist with lignite and bitumen below. 2 " G " Schistose strata. 2 " " Bituminous strata, some quite pure. 12 " " Schistose rocks. 15 " " Bituminous strata. 4.") " " Gneissose rocks. 108 feet.'" Mr. Nicolay states that the l)ituminous strata vary nnich, from pure bitumen to an arenaceous kind interstratiliet-l with bituminous sliales ; " out it is to be ol)servcd tliat, at the depth of eighteen feet, two veins of pcdra molle, an iiupor- fect turba occur. Tliese are in many cases present on tlio surface, and the connection should be ascertained, Imt ex- cept in this instance pcdra molle and turba only ap[)eai'al>ove PROVIXCE OF BAIIIA. 2G5 the limestone, i. c. so far as is known, which forms tlic liottuni of the estuaries wliich miitc to form the Camamu The town of Camamu is only a small one, but is of some little importance, cxportinj^ to Bahia coffee, farinlia, rum, rice, caciio, and woods for building purposes. S{)ix and Martins speak of the occurrence of coral l)aiiks in the Cay of Camamii, and they refer some of the corals to the old La- inarc'ldan species, Madr. Ufa, M. Aslroides, and M. Acrojmra. Tlio lllia do Qule{)pc lies just off the mouth of the l)ay, and is surrounded by coral reefs. The dangerous reef of Surocosii (^Sororocossii ?) lies a short distance to the north- west. Al)out ten miles north of the mouth of the Bay of Camamu lies the large island called Boyapeba. Mouchez, ill a note to his chart says that the pilots represent the ^niir lying between this island and the Bay of Camamu as bring full of corals, probably chapciroes. The island of Boyapeba is about five miles in diameter, moderately high, with a few prominent hills, and separated from the main- land l)y a narrow channel. On the southeastern side of this island is the dangerous point Castclhanos, on which the French ship Beam was wrecked a few years ago. The village of Boyapeba, near the northern extremity of the island, is noted for its little commerce with Bahia in pias- salia, rice, and mangrove bark for tanning. Sejiarated from this island on the south by narrow chan- nels, and from the mainland by a channel which unites thcni with the Barra do Rio Una, is a nnich larger island, called Tinhare, some ten or fifteen miles long and five or SIX wide. Wedged in between these two islands and the mainland is the little island Tupiassii. The northern portion of llio island of Tinhare appears to be high; while the rest, Vui,. I, 12 266 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. together Willi the island of Tupiassu and tlio mainland oppo- site, is low and in great part s\vanii)y. ^loucliez reprcMiits doubtlnlly the island ol" Tinhare as crossed Ity two or tlircc channels. The channel west of this island is very iiaiiow bnt deep. Into it flows from the west the Rio Je(piit', a small stream of little importance. The northeastern ex- tremity of the island of Tinhare is ])rolonged nortliward into a sharp promontory called the Morro dc Sao ?aiiln. which, according to Dr. Anto. de Lacerda, is composed of gneiss.* AVest of this is a deep l)ay some two miles wide. and fonr or live deep, into which the Rio Tinliaru enijitiis from the sonth, and the Rio Una from the west. This liay is remarkable for a long sharp sand-spit, the continuatioii of a saiKi-l)each, Avliich projects southeastward into the iIim'J) curve west of the ^Morro de Sao Paulo. In this bay are several small islands. J^Iouchez's chart ap}»ears to bo v( rv inaccurate. Prince Ncu-Wicd, after leaving Ignez, read •Ilea a river, which he calls the Jcqueri(;a,, which he descended for some distance, when he was arrested and carried across the country to Aldea, a little place near Nazareth. In liis edition of Arrowsmith's map he has laid down his I'oiite, Avhicli he represents as following the Una instead of the Jequiricd, which flows into the sea some ten miles north of the Una. One cannot doubt from his description tliat it was the Jerjuirit^a which he descended, and that, owinu' to tliat river having been represented as emptying into ihc bay of the Una, he laid down his itinerary incorrectly. The town of Valencia is situated at the mouth of the Una, and is noted for its large cotton-factory, and its commerce in woods and coffee. From the Una to the Jequirit^a runs a Pissis also s.ays that it is gneiss. Mtfin. de I'Listitut de France, Tome X. p. 357. oppo- CSC'llls nil', a •11 cx- iward I'aiilo. L'll (if wide, njitii's liav is 11 I if a (let.')) very ■iclied }ik1('(1 [(.'I'ljss 11 his .•onto, •I' the llDl'tll hat it lu; to ) th.e Tlie , and L'O in ins a me X. lon^' (list a PKOVrXCE OF BAHIA. 2G7 lon^r sniKl-l)oacli, bcliind wliicli flic lands arc at no great distance moderately high and hilly. North of the Jcquirii'd tlic liciu'h is interrupted hy a few locky ])oints. The Haiiia dc Todos os .Santos, leaving out tlic islands, is (I iiuiKh'ilateral figure, with unequal sides, as follows : * A line from ihe Ponta de Sant. Antonio to the Ponta Garcia runs approximately southwest, and measures a trifle over eighteen iiiaiinc miles; a line running along the western side of (he hay wijuld run nearly north-northeast, and measure thirty- tliiTf miles ; the northeastern side of the figure reprcscntino- tlif width of the bay, which is remarkably uniform Ihrough- uut. wutild run about southeast, length fifteen miles ; while tlic other side of the figure, bringing us back to the point of dcpai'ture, would 1)C ai)])roximately, south-southwest, sixteen miles. A large island, of a sigmoid shai)e, called Itaparica, and about four or five miles wide in the widest part, lies in the liay with a general northeast trend, its axis lying several miles to the west of that of the bay, and its southern end dis- tant about two miles northeast of the Ponta Garcia. About three miles northeast of the Ilha Itaparica is a considerable island called the Ilha dos Frades, which lies just off a point projecting southward from the head of the l)ay. This point is deeply indented by numerous little estuaries, and several large islands lie off its west side. The Ilha Itai)arica and the Ilha dos Frades divide the bay into two strijjs, a long and narrow one to the west, a shorter and wider one to the cast. With this general description of the bay, let me now enter into a little more detail. Between Ponta Garcia and the Ponta da Caixa de Pregos of the Ilha Itaparica, the river Jagnaripe finds an outlet to the sea, although its waters are free to enter the channel Avest of Itaparica. * These ineasurcnients I take from the best maps and charts in my posses- sion. 208 GF.OLOGY AND PlIYSICAL GKOGRAPHY. This so-called rivcf is an estuary, ^vhi(■ll jit lli(> moiitli is some iwo miles wide, ])ul narrows raj)idly down, liein^- „f Nazareth, a fowii some ten to (ifteen miles up the rivei-, oulv a few hundred I'eet in width. Steamers ascend to Na/aivih, hut navigation ends a lew miles ahovc that town. 'J'lic ii\ii' rises ahout (il'ty miles west of Cachoeira, and has a sunth- eastern course. All its branches helow Nazareth a|»[tc;ii' to have the estuary character, opening- broadly into the ri\ri'. | have never ascended the river, andean Iherelbre g'i\-e no di'li- nite information with respect to the geological characlcr iiml agricultural cajjabilities of the country bordering it. Xn/.a- reth and Jaguaripe, a town about a league al)ove Die nioiitli, are noted for their extensive manufactories of tiles iiml earthenware, whiv^h are sent to Bahia. ()|)posite this lii».i town a canal runs northeastward, joining the Jaguaripe \vi;li the estuary of the Jacoruna, sc])arating a large tract IVoi!! the mainland called the llha do Santa Anna. If the coast should rise firtecn or twenty feet, the islninl of Itaparica would be joined to the mainland at its suutln'in extremity ; for at low tide the channel now separatinu' ir from the mainland at the junction of the canal with t1n> estuary of the Jaguaripe is only some six feet deep at Liw water, but it deepens gradually on going northward. Tl^ ■west side of the channel is bordered bv a line of islands mile:! the llhas dc Parajidiia, which extend almost to the mouth (if the Paraguassu, It is interesting to compare the eastern exposed side of Itaparica with its long stretches of sea-bendios uniting rocky i)oints Avith the sheltered western side, wliicli is exceedingly irregrdar, and cut up by bays and estuaries. Of the geology of Itaparica I know nothing, exceiit tliat 1 am informed by Dr. de Lacerda and ^[r. Xicolay that tlio liigh hills arc gneiss. In Dr. de Lacerda's cabinet at PROVINCK OF BAIIIA. 269 Hnliia is a pcl)l)lc from Ttn])ai-ica full of what a|)])oar \o lit' tortiaiy shells ; l)ut it hears so stronuly llio apix'ur- auce of a European foniiatioii, tliat I more lliau sus- jK'ct that it has found its way across the Atlantic in liallust.* Darwin speaks of deposits of tertiaiy shells, ami FJie (Ic Beaumont says that M. Pissis f)und tertiary (\o- jKjsits resemhling the J']ur()j»ean Dio/lassc in tli(^ hay of l!alii!i. I have seen none, and it is singular that, if they exist, ^Ir. Xicolay, who has explored the hay most indus- triiuisiy, should n(jt have found them. In all ])rol)ahility luiili Darwin and Pissis mistook (most ])ardonahly) the recent consolidated beaches for tertiary. f Coral hanks exist alniii:- the shores of the island, and the coi-als are collected and l)urned lor lime. The species are the connnon ones of tlic Ahrolhos region, though Ileliastrtea a})})ears to be more abundant than at Bahia. Tlie Rio Paraguassii is the largest and most important stream that waters the province of Bahia. It rises in the Sena da Cha|)ada,in the diamond district west of the Bahia <lc Todos OS Santos, and, obstructed 1)y many falls, reaches at last, a few miles below the city of Cachoeira, the head of an cstnary which empties into the Bahia de Todos os Santos on tlio western side and to the northwest of the northern extrem- ity of the Ilha de Itaparica. Tlirough the kindness of my friends Dr. Antonio de Laccrda and Mr. Hugh Wilson, I was * Ono must be on his jrnard on the coast of Brazil ajj^ainst collecting speci- mens Irom rocks hronjiht as ballast not only from other ])iirts of the Brazilian eoi\st, Imt also from other countries. At Maceio I saw pahtozoic rocks which I was tolil came from Xorth America. So the Irish carl)oniferous limestone ^roii'.'ht to St. John, New Brunswick, finds its way all along the coast of that province. t I think it is Darwin who speaks of tertiary fossils as occurring at the head of the hny. I know of no reason why fossils should not exist as the tertiary rwk of that locality. 270 GF.OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOdnAl'IIY. ciialtlod <() nsc.'iiil <1io rivci', or I'iiihor ostnary, ns fiir ns i],v cily of Cacliocira, on the occasion of llic jV/r of tlic oiicii- Imli' of tlic new slcani iranii'oail Just (lonnuonccd liv an Ew'^. lisli coni])any, and intended to nnite the city ol' ('aclincii;i with the \'iHa do ri'nl)n on the Sao Frain-iseo, ami the Inl- lowin.u' ol)sei'\ations were made at that linu\ The entiaiicc of the I'ai'ag'uassi'i is (|uile naiTow, and hordei'jMl \\v lijnli hmds. 'Die watei' is (h'c]). Some ol' the liills at tlic enliniicc may he the hnn(h'ed I'cet hiuh. I>hd'[s on the sontlieni .sjilr showeil that they wcfe eonijxtsed ol' hoi'i/.oidal heds of a scjl't, li^ht ycdlowish hrown sandstone. J li(die\-e this to lie uu extension of the tertiaiy I'ormation of the eijast. On eiitei'inu' tlie naiTow montli tlie riser inuneihaldy widens into a hdce-like expansion, in wliicli is n lout:', naiinw ishmd. Ilig'h hhilTs on th(> slior(> of the i>hnid and on llir IcI't hank of tlie river opposite show red sandstone with Avhite streaks, and a heantirul ohliipie lamimdion. Almut a leagno from the mouth, just ahove the Uarra do Rio Caiiiii- ruji'ipe, the river uaiTows ahruptly, and is here more than nnc humh'od feet dee]). I'he land on each side of the v'ww is three to four hundred feet high, tlat-topj)ed, with slec]i sloi)es toward the river, and occasional liluffs which slinw red sandstone in hoi'izontal strata, as heh)w. 'J1ie soil is red, hut thin, and the veg-ctation is very scanty, eonsistini:' of piassahas and low hushes, with a few cocoa-palms ( ('oms nucifcrd') and Dendes* ( E/(Vis Guincnisis L.). At one place near the liattery, called the Forlinho, the sandstone hcds a|)peared to have a slight dij) northward, hut tins is evidently local, as the wholes formation is (piitc undisturhcd and horizontal. * Thi^^ jKilni, an African spcoios, pocs by the name of Caiaiilii: on tlic Aina- zonas. TIic frnit jrivcs an oranirc-colored oil, ninch used in Brazil for ciiliiKiry purposes. It i>< also employed in tlic manufacture of fine soaps, PROVINCI': OF HAIIIA. 271 Above the fort tlio rivor opcMis out into anotlior broad cx- [iiinso, and a 'icaiiiirul view is prcscnicd. The wliolo country is ail ok'VJited jdain, with steep slopes to the estuary aiul its liiiiiiclu'S. I'hese slopes have the same eliai'aetcr as below, ;iii(i lUf covered hirgely l)y piassaba-palnis. An occasional sii'iarlactory may be seen on the river. From this lake-like cx|iaiisi')n of the ri\-er a l)road arm extends oil' to the siiiilliwestward lor some six miles in a liroad v.alley. into llie head of which emjitii^s the Rio Capanenia, and on which is situated the village of the same luime. This arm is called the l!i() de Capanenia, and it is said to receive the waters 111" a lake. ^hiragojiMpe is a jjrettily situated and llourish- ms villaji-e, built at the base of the chapada, at the Junction (,!' the Capanema wiih the Paragnassu.* The slopes of the rliapadas are here more or less cultivated with corn. <te., mid there are large groves of cocoa-palms on the island in IVuiit of the town. Fidiu the northern ])ai't of the expanse of the Paraguassii extouds northwards another arm called the Igu.qie.f into which a little river em{)ties. The valley of the luiia[)e is liniad and exceedingly fertile, and there are very many ex- tensive sugar-j)lantations situated in it.| The tertiary chu- pailas grow higher as we ascend, and on the Iguape they iimst be at least seven hundred feet in elevation. Passing the Iguapc the river narrows very suddenly, and thence to the citv of Cachoeira it is onlv a few hundred fe(,'t wide. More * {.'iizal, C(iro/p-<ifiii, Tom. II. p. 125, suvs that in the vicinity is t'ound iintlmimio ami holo-dnncn'io. 1 Tills nanu' i.- ratliLM- uncommon, heinf; found only a few timos on the Rnizil- ian i(ia<t. It appears to be anotlier form of Yi/ont/n', eanoc-]jath or elianiul, a iKiiiii' apjilicd to tlic side channels of tlic Amazonas. (See Index.) } Ca/.al says that the soils of the valley of Iiruape are the best known for the eultiinof cane, hein'jof Mack mcissa/ieund strong. Cor. Uraz., Tom. II. p. i;.'.5. 272 fJF.OLOOY AND PHYSICAL OKOGRAPIIY. proporly spciikin«r, the mouth of the l*iira<;nassu la here, nml the ii'iejiiihir sheet of water below, to llic l)iiy, Is u tidaj ostiiiuy. At Uie point where the river (lows Into the estuary, rock shows ItselC In the river-banks, and, aecoi'Jin^ to Sciilior Pr/X'vvodowskl, who aeconipanuMl me on the voyage, is tlic cordfflo lie ni'^^ro rock, like that of IJahia. The stiikc is N. 4U°K. Dip vertical. The country bordering the river consists of rounded hills, back of which are the clfvutcd ehapadas. Bricks, tiles, and pottery are largely nuiuufac- tured on the river, from the clays of the alluvial river-banks. T]io water of the river is very turbid and l)rownish. The stream narrows as we ascend, and is so shallow tliat two of the little steamers with a part of the excursionists from JJahia got aground. There are a few sugar fazendas on the river below Cachoeira. Above Cachoeira the rivor is obstructed by ftiUs and rocks. The town of Cachoeira, a respectably sized village, is noted more i)articularly ibr its export of sugar and cigars. The country bordering the Hahia do Todos os Santos is in general terms very productive, and it has long borne the name of tlie " Rcconcavoy Sugar is the principal j)r()ilu(t. though mandioca, <tc., are cultivated. Tlic tertiary de- posits extend across from the Paraguassu to Sant. Anmi'o, a flourishing city on the river Serigi, some three leagues above the mouth, according to my frieiul Dr. Brunet, the Director of the Agricultural Institute of Baliia. Dr. Brimet informs mo that the If "ds of the vicinity of Sant. Amaro arc very fertile. Suj." farinha are the principal products. ITeie is situa^ .^ricultural Instiiute aboA'c spoken of. East- ward tl .tiary beds extend to the Bahia and Sao Fran- cisco Railroad. It is interesting to compare the Bahia de Todos os Santos PROVINCK OF BAIIIA. 273 witli the "Rahla do Rio do .Itmoiro. The lattor is also divided aiiuost into two jKirts by the lilia do (Jovernador and tlie islands to tho northeast ; but the most interesting^' jiuint 's to observe the dillereneo in tlie chai'acter of the rivei's enip- tyiiij: into the two bays. Those; of Uio are all small, and at tlirir mouths they arc bordered by Hat ^'rounds and mauLnovc swinnps, owin^ to tlie i-apid Imilding out of the land ; for llic lands aliout the bay arc mountainous, and the streams, swollen by licavy rains, bringdown an Innnense (juantity of sediment into the bay. The lands bordei'ing the IJahia de Todos OS Santos are high, and stretehes of sands and man- gruve swamps are rare ; while the rivers, bringing down less sc'dinient, are not so eontracted at their mouths, but oj)cn out broadly hito the bay. 12 • 274 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGIiAPHY. CHAPTER YI. THE SAO FRANCISCO BASIN. The Explorations of Ilalfcld, Liais, St. Julin, Allon, Ward Burton, &c. — Gen- eral Slia])C of the Basin. — Its iinifurni Width. — TIr' Sao Francisco Valley hollowed ont of a Series of horizontal Beds of Limestone and Sandstone — The Chapadas. — The ;;o-' led " Serra" separatinj;- the Sao Francisco from tlie Tocantins Basin an iire{j:ular Strip or Table-land of Sandstone. — 'lln' Serras of Araripe and Dons Irniaos. — Tablc-tojiped Hills in the V' alley ul :.ie Sao Francisco; Ontliersof the Chapadas. — Donhts ahont tiie A';(M)ftlii' Sandstones and Limestones. — Limestones of the Uio das Velhas. — Keiii;iiii> of Ivxtinet Qnadrnpeds in Brazil, spoken of by Cazal, Spix and Martins ^'^c. — Chuissen's Discoveries in the Caves at Cnrvdo. — Di\ Lund's cxhan>tiv,; Researches at La;;6a Santa. — Caves descriiied ; their Nuniber, Extent, Sta- lactites and Deposits of Bones in Saltpetre Earth. — Immense (iuaniitics of small Bones brotiglit in by 0^\■ls, v^ie. — Lar;j;'e \nnd)erof Fossil Animals ills- covered by Lnnd. — Former Existence of Mef^atlieria, Mylodons, MastoddH' immense Aruiatlillos an<l Cats, Horses, &c mi Brazil. — Kemains of a Uacr of Man of hi;4h Anti(piity. — Ueiidiardt's ' ' dizations. — The Kio de SAu Francisco of the Sixteenth Cla.ss amony the i<ivers of the World, I iit tliinl in I\ank in Brazil. — General Description of the Stream. — Its Atllueiifs, the Uios I'ani, Paraopeba, and Das Velhas. — The liio das Velhas alone capable of hm\<r made navi};able for Steamers. — The Sao Francisco na\ i- 1- bio with but few Interru])tions for two liundred and sixty-four LeaLrue- below the Rio das \'elhas. — Cost of rcinovin;^ ()l)structions. — Propo'^cd Railway from Joazeiro to I'iranhas. — I'ertility of Low Lands of Sao Francisco Val- ley. — Liais's Picture of the Campos. Before wc take up the geology of tlic interior and wc^stoni portion of tlic province of Bahia, wliicli latter einl)rai'o.s a considerable part of the basin of tlie Sao Francisno, 1 propose to give, in a few words, a sketch of the g(^)lt)i;y and hydrograj)hy of the whole basin ; and this is the more SlO FRANCISCO BASIN. 275 iiooilod, since further on we sluvU luivc to visit tlie lower 1' the u'reiit river, and it will \ni necessarv to consider ail o some (juestions hearing' on its iia\ ipition, A'c. Xo river in Brazil lias been so carel'ully studied and mapped as the Sao Francisco and its tributary the Kio das Vt.'lhiis. llall'eld exphjred the main river I'roni the conllu- ciice ol' the two streams to the sea, and puhlisiied a irw years ciLiD a niauniricent chart of the river in atlas Ibrm, aecom- icd bv a detailed description of everv leauue. Jfe also Ic an estimate of the cost (jf removing tiie obstacles to jiiivi'iation, so as to render it a great interior water high- iiiiii nuu wiiv ihit. as liurton and Liais have remarked, tlu' rhart 111' ilic river is rather a detailed plan than a scientifically accurate nuip, as it wants the meridians and parallels. M. Eunnanuel Liais, the author of L' JCsp/icf Cclcsfe, ide a most elaborate survey of the Uio das \'elhas and 111 V lier ao 'rancisco. In his report* on this survey di as rocks, rapids, A:( the olistriu'tioiis, such as rocks, rapiUs, Arc, are sPown in dia- uraiii and described, and estimates are given of the proba- lilc exjieiise of removing them. Almost all the well-known cNjilorei's of I>razil have visited some jtart of the Sao Fran- cisco iiasin. Among the later are Messrs. St. -lohii and Allen of the Thayer Expedition, the former a geologist, the hitter an ornithologist, l)ut a good geological observer. Mr. St. .lohn made an exceedingly careful examination of the ^adey of the Rio das Velhas, and of the Siio Francisco as far as iUc IJarra do Rio Grande, whence he crosse(l over into the basin of the Farnahyba, and continued his explora- * HydroLTiijiliio dii Ilaiit San-Franoisco et <lii Kio <la.s Velhas, on ivsiiltats icaimiiit (loviiL' li_v(ln);j;ra|)iii(|iic (I'lui v()_va;;(' ctlVrtiit' dans la iiroviiuvdc Miiias laTais, par Kniiii. Liais. ()iivra;;T jiiililit- par onlrc du jronvcrncnu'nt imjie- riut ilii nrcMl, ct ai'C'()inpaq;TU' ilc iMfti-! lt'V(''s |)ar I' lutciir ;ivcc la collaliDraliiiii lie MM. Kdw. Jusc do Muracs et La(li>ias de Souza .Mello Netto. 180.'). 270 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tioiis across tlio provinces of Piauhy and Maranhao to the city of Sao Luiz. Mr. Ht. .Jolni luid the good fortune to ex- amine the geohjgy of a route ah)ng" wliicli the geohiglcal features of the country, tliough soniewliat monotonous, aie more cxi)osed to view than along ahnost any other tlial couUl have hccn assigned him. He did his work thorough- ly, and his report will be of great interest ^vllcn ])ul)lisli('(l, and wo ho])e that it will not be long delayed. Mr. Allen, suffering from ill health, parted with his comjjanion ami went on to Chique-Chique, where he took mules ami crossed the province of JJahia to Cachoeira. Mr. Allen has made a valual)lc report on that part of the country which he visited alone, anil he has been kind enough to give me some notes on the geology and physical gcogiajiliy of the province of Bahia, which 1 shall insert in a sub.so- quent chapter. Finally we have Burton, who in 1SG7 cx})lorcd the Rio das Velhas and Sao Francisco to the sea, and he has given us an account of his journey in the second volume of his " Highlands of Brazil." This book is like a scries of sharply drawn i)hotograi)hs of nature and life along his route. It is exceedingly full of facts of every kind ; but his peculiar style, and wholly unique geological language, render his geological observations in nuiny cases quite valueless. The basin of the .^iio Francisco is a peculiar one. ll is long, of veiy c(pial width, the lower half making a strong curve, the convexity of which faces the northwest.* The head of the basin, bounded Ity liigh scrras of cozolc and older Palaeozoic metamorphic rock, narrows rapidly to- * Liais calls attention to the very uniform width of the Siio Francisco val- ley, anil says that it varies from (ii'ty to eij,'lity leagues. See his pajier, A' /i'" Smi-Fiaiicitoo an Ihc'sil, Bnll. ik la .SV. (If (i('i>i/ni/iliic, Fifth Serie, 11. [>• 383. THE SAO FRANCISCO BASIN. 277 ward the south, and at the apex, near Ouro Preto, arc some of the highest elevations in Brazil. It is separated I'rom the coast river basins l)y the ridges of the great nietaniorphio coast belt and the line of chapadas running along a part of its summit, the whole collectively culled the Serra do Esj)iuha(,o by Baron von Eschwcge. Tliis mctamorphic belt llaUeus down between the two provinces of Bahia and Per- iiaiubuco, and the basin bends round to the cast and crosses it, ojiening out to the sea. Tlie whole length of the basin is not far from twelve hun- dred miles, and its greatest width not more than two hun- dred and forty. It is separated from the Parana basin by mctamorphic serras, which become lower as one goes north- wanl, finally dii)ping under a sheet of sandstone corre- sponding to that of the chapadas along the Scrra do Es- Iiiiilui(;o, and which run northward to the province of Piauliy, forming a table-land, flat topped, without mountains, and of a varying width, which sends out broad spurs of chapadas between the affluents of both the Sao Francisco and the Tocantins basins. Mr. Ward tells me that the valley of the Siio Francisco, along the western flank of the Grao Mogor, is skirted by high chapadas composed of sandstones and limestones, hav- ing precisely the same character as those of the ojjposite side of the valley ; the chapadas sending out spurs into the valley. These chapadas are, when dry, covered by the ordinary campos vegetation, but magnilicent groves oi Unritf palms arc found in the damp shallo\\ valleys. Mr. Wurd estimates tlic height of these elevated plains at 2,;)00-;),000 feet. They break down a])ruptly on reach- ing the Sfio Francisco valley. Mr. Ward describes the ilat-topped liills of the valley as outliers of the sandstones 278 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and limostoiics, and lie, I think, riuliily ascribes their lower height 1() their having- siiffei-ed denudation. On ncaring the limits of Piauhy the hasin reaches tlie mctanKJiphic Itelt, and, being jjrevented from extciulin.;' north wai'd })y the sandstone-crowned nictamorphic rid^ic of the Dons Irmaos, ])ends round as above described and Hows to the east. The chapadas 1 have mentioned continue (ni. with more or less l)reaks, along the northern side ol" tli,' hasin forming the serra of" Araripe. The n])|)er piirt ol' ihc basin is occu[)ied by h(jrizontal limestone deposits, wliik farther down are sandstones, shales, Arc. The lowei' Imli of the valley, almost to the sea, is cut down to the lioitdin metamorj)hic rocks. The basin was [)rimarily detei'niiin.il by the ancient denudation of the metamorphic rocks ; l)iit as it stands to-day it is worn in the great sandstone slicct, "which I shall in the course of the succeeding clia|it(.'i> attemi)t to show covered the whole j)lateau of Ora/il. it is the fashion among map-drawers to throw in a ranp' of moimtains sej)arating two great river basins, especially it' there is known to be any high ground between them, ami this mountain range is carefully drawn along the sum- mit line of the water-shed. Brazil is usually rejMcsculi'il as traversed in all directions l)y mountain chains, drawn as if they were all alike narrow ridges. But rivers may take their rise on elevated plains, and the water-slu'd may be only nn insignificant bulging. It is so Avilli the Liivat divide between the La Plata and Amazonian systems. In the case of the Tocantins and Siio Francisco the streams traverse an elevated plateau of sandstone, which forms oii top a j)lain. The branches taking their I'ise on the diviia'. and flowing in opposite directions, have cut for tluMiisidves valleys that widen out towards their respective main rivers, THE SAO FRANCISCO BASIN. 279 so lliat tliG liigli lands separating tlio two l)asins, Instead of heing a narrow nionntain chain, consist of an elevated plain sending ont jagged sj)nrs hotwecn the valleys of (lie trilm- tarv streams. Outliers of these chapadas form is(dated tahle- topped lulls and ridges bordering the main stream of the iU> F I'ancisco as hu- d own as the (ireat Falls.* These high lands, usually drawn on maps as narrow I'idges, appear like ranges (jf ui)heaval, an<l the ma])S are only calculated tu mislead the geologist and })hysieal geographer. The stratigraphical relationship of the limestones has yet to l)e worked out, but they appear to underlie the sandstone of the Tocantins->!ao Fran(Msco divide, for both (iardner anil Ward speak of them as ajipearing in the lower part of the' sln])es in descending from the chapadas into the Hao Francisco valley. f I shall leave the detailed description of these deposits to ^Ir. St. John, to whose ; 'port it prop- erly belongs, and confine myself ; nly to a Ivw ])()ints well determined by other geologists, and which 1 neeil to state liere in order to complete that general sketch of Brazilian logv and jihysical geography which I am attempting to i'eo o'lve Aeeordinu to Reinhardt, the limestone of the Rio das Velhas is dark gray in color, fuie-grained and ciTstalline. It splits into thin slabs, and is so sonorous that ])lates of it were used formerly as bells to the churches. Lund, Bur- nieistei-, Reinhardt, St. John, and in fact all the geologists who have examined tlie limestone, testifv that it is with- * I think tli;it I in!\y sall'ly say that all tlic <:roat norili-south ran^res of lii-h liuul in linr/.il, iiortli ol' the latitude of Diainaiitina, c.\cT])t tiic Giao Mo<;or, usually tlcscrila'd ami niiippcd as mountain cliains, are raiifjes of ('lia])adas or luurow |ii:itcaiis resiiltiii"; from denudation. t Mr. St. John tells me that they underlie tlie sandstones of the Sao Fran- ciM'O vulli'y. 280 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. out fossils, and it lias been suj)posc(l, if I rightly iiiidot. stand Lund, to be very old, and probably Pakrozoic. Kcin- liardt would nuike it Devonian. I see no good reason for coining to such a conclusion. The want of fossils is n<) cri- terion of the age of a formation ; it is no proof that a rouk is old simply because it contains no fossils ; nor would (he ai)parently metamorphosed and somewhat crystalline con- dition of the rock necessarily show that it was very ancient. The metamorphism of rocks is largely due to the action of water ; and in the decomposition of the rocks of Brazil we see what a powerful agent meteoric water is in woikinu^ changes in the rocks. We know that the limestones of I ho Rio das Velhas are j)lentifully soaked with water by the licavv rains, and the nietamor})hism of the limestone is doubtless duo to this cause. Compact limestones without fos.sil re- mains are not by any means uncommon all over the globe, and they may be of any age. These limestones were depos- ited at the head of the Sao Francisco basin, in a bay shel- tered on the east, south, and west by high lands. In these limestones are the celebrated bone caverns, of which 1 will give some account before I describe the great river and its navigation. It appears to have been Cazal who, in 1817, first called attention to the existence of bones and skeletons of giant extinct quadrupeds in Brazil;* but similar remains had been found even as far back as 1G02, or earlier, liy the first exi)lorers in Bolivia and on the Pampas. Spix and Mar^ tins have described many localities in the provinces of Minas Geraes and Baliia where mammalia)! remains were found ; and Eschwegc, St. Hilaire, and other travellers spoke of the occurrence of those remains, not only in the * Sec p. 2C1. THE SAO FRANCISCO BASIN. 281 deposits in slmllo\v hollows in the rock, but also in the saltiictrc caverns of Minas Ocracs ; but no one of these travellers made a systematic examination of any of the localities, and we are indebted almost entirely to the dis- tiiiLniislied Dane, Dr. P. W. Lund, for what we know of the fossil fauna of the bone caverns of Brazil. Lund had lu'cn travelliug many years in Brazil in com})any wilh Ricdel, the l)otanist, and was on his return with him to Rio when he accidentally heard of Claussen, another Dane, who was residing near Curvelo, in the valley of the Rio dus Velhas. Claussen had been examining the salt- petre caves of the vicinity, and collecting bones from them, and V\\ Reinhardt* tells us that when Lund visited him he was trying to study them out with the aid of Buck- land's Picliqucc Diluviancc. This was in 1834. Lund saw that here was an immense field to ex])lore ; and as soon as he could lionoral)ly withdraw from Riedel,hc returned to Caehocira do Cam))o to examine some caverns there ; but he soon rejoined Claussen, and worked with him for some time. The two, liowever, seem not to have agreed well to- gether, and in 1835 Lund withdrew to Lagoa Santa, and he has remained there ever since devoting his time to an ex- haustive examination of the bone caverns of the vicinity, reaping, as we shall see, a rich harvest for science. Bur- ton tells us that the distinguished geologist is confined to Brazil by consumptive tendencies, and is bedridden by Hienmatism. The region in which LagSa Santa is situated is composed * For most of the farts in this account of Lund's researches in the hone caves of Brazil I am indebted to the very intcrejitin;^ paper of Professor J. Heinhardt, in Lutken's popular Tidsshrijl, entitled De DmsiUanske Knorjlehuhr Of/ rfs i dan forekommende Dyrelevnmger. 282 Gr:OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY, of bods of liinostono and sluilcs, the limcstono lyinir lif- low and tln' sliales al)0V(', the wliole Ijeing covered l»y h })ed of red cai'tli, which Ileinhardt describes as resuhiiii: simply from the decomposition of tlie shales, bnt wliidi Lund, if 1 I'i.uhtly nndei stand him, Ixdieves to be thr same red chiy wiiich covers the whole country, and wliieli Profi'ssor Agassi/ and 1 would refer to the drift. TIkm' beds are, as already remarked, horizontal, and aie tra\crsi'(| by narrow, often ramifying channels, caused by the widening: of the joints of the limestone by the jtenetration of siirt'u'v waters which sometimes form therein snl)terranean sticain^; for in the limestone region the streams sometimes (lisii|i|i('iir and pursue an nnderground course, often Ibr a long distaiiic. Professor Reinhai'dt gives a ground-[ilan of the ])rin('i|i;il ramifications of one of the most noted caverns, callcfj die Lapa A'ermelha, situated about a mile from Lag.''ia S;iiit;i. and this jjlan 1 have reproduced below.* According to finOUND VIEW OF TTIF LAl'A \K|{.MF.1.1 * It was drawn by Lund's former assistant, the late Tctcr Andreas Briimlt, and frivcs only tlio larircr {galleries of the cavern. Besides these, there are in- niimeral)lc smaller ones, some of wliieii are only mere cracks where the joints have been widened by the water. THE SAO FRANCISCO T.ASIN. 288 Reiiiliurdt, tins c.avorn extends over two tlioiismid feci iiilo till' iDi'k, u'rowinu' iian'owiM- and iiarrowei', until it lieconios Miilv ;i nn'i'e eaiuil. The tloors are usually horizontal. Sonie- tiiui's tJK' caverns ar(! only narrow eraeks, at others they arc uiilf ari'lit'd galleries, which not inlVe([uently ojicn into large halls. The walls and roof are smooth and without sharp iitriK'i's. Ii(.'inhartlt is inclined to believe that the excavation (if the caverns has been jiartially ilue to the surface waters, uiiicli have in soaking through the rock dissolved away the ^lulacc of the walls. That this lias ])een the case to a con- sidcraMc extent is i)r()ved, as Rcinhanlt has reniarke(|, by ihi' projection (roni the smooth hmest(jne wall of" very thin slu'fts of clav, which would certainly have been worn awav if the wliole hollowing out had been perlbrnied by running wait'i'. ()n(' thing seems ([uite certain, that these caverns wtTC excavated before the valleys of the region in which they OL'Cur. The roof and sides of the caves are often covered ly very large and beautiful stalactites of a great variety (4' funus. A stalagmitic crust sometimes covers the earthen ll'Mr. and in some caves there are large pillars. These stila-'tiies. Ibrnied by the exceedingly slow deposition of cal- uareeus matter by the water trickling through the rock, siiu'o the time when the clay of the floor was deposited, lioar SDuic testimony as to the great age of the bones therein liUl'icil. The earth covering the floor is a yellosvish-rod clay, wliirli is, according to Lund, like the superficial soil of till' cnuntrv. All authors describe it in verv nnich the same way. It is however very clear, from its motle of ooeurrcnce, that it is not drift, and that it is a deposit in- troduced into the caves by the action of the surface waters ; I'ut precisely how may be a question. The earth often con- 284 GKOLOOY AND PHYSICAL GEOCnArilY. taiiia frnj^moiits of quartz and oflior rocks. Roinliardt is of the opiiiiuii that it has been introiluced from aliuvc l,v the water (lowing into the caves through the overlying nil earth and deconijjoscd slialcs. It appears, in some cases. to have t)nce fdled the caves from floor to I'oof. and to Imw been subse(iuently more or less comi>lctcly wasluwl our, This red earth is strongly impregnated with saltpetre, ami its extraction is so prolital)le, that tlic IJrazilians lime removed it entirely from many of the caves.* Kcinliaid! says that a small cartful sometimes produces as nnirh us two stones, or an arrobn, of the salt. JJones of extinct ani- mals occur buried in this clay hi almost all the caverns, Imt in such small quantities, in the majority of them, that tliov do Jiot reward the pains of the collector. Lund told Diir- meistcr that he had examined at least one thousand caves ; out of these only sixty contained l)oncs in any quantity, and Imt half that number really paid for working. The mnnlicr (if caves is astonishing, and Burmeister tells us that almost every bank has its cavern. They are not confined to tln' immediate vicinity of Lag^a Santa, but are found in great imml)ers throughout the limestone region. The skeletons found in them are usually disarticulated. The bones aie often much broken and almost invariably scattered about, so that the discoveiy of an entire skeleton is hardly to lie thouglit of. Besides this, the earth in which the boiios occur is much cemented together, and has to be broken iij) to allow of tlicir extraction. The bones are not all of tlh' same age, and a large proportion of those in some caves belong to now existing animals. But in other caverns tliere are found remains of extinct animals of high an- tiquity. *' iSec note on saltpetre, near end of Chapter VII. TIIK SAO FCANCISCO BASIN. oo-. Ponio of tlio caves contain ininionso (|uantitios of snuill limu's lK'loniLi'in'2,' to bat.s and snuill iininiiils of existing- spe- cies. Near Cax(jt'ira do Canipo i.s a cave about 120 feet long, ;50 to 40 feet liigh, and »! to 1» feet hroad. Over a jiart oftlic bottom lay quite a thick lied of earth fdlcd with small lidiirs. liimd can-ied out half a cubic foot of (his earth, ;iii(l counteil all the half-underjaws he found in it. Of mumU opossums (^piiiiiJi'rotlcr^ there were 400. and about 2.000 of (lilTcivnt kinds of mice, l)esidcs bats, jxii-cupines { i)i<i-rollrr), 1111(1 small birds. Another interestinj^- instance is related by 1^'iiiliardt. Lund had the whole of the clay broiidit from a ni\e at the fazeiula of Kscravania, which was only 24 feet (l('C]i. This earth fdled (),5r)2 firkins. Lund (let(>rmined :h(' number of half-underjaws found in a certain mcasui'O, and calculated that in the wlude mass there were the roninins of not less than G,881,;j00 individuals of cavias, opossums, porcupines, and mice ! Beside these there were immense quantities of bones of small liirds, lizards, frou's, A'o. And all these bones had been brought into the cave liy owls ! Now owls are unsocial birds, and wi> cannot resist the conclusion of Reinhardt, that the deposit must have been gathering for many thousands of years. "While these liones lielong to the present geological epoch, those I)uried in the red clay below the stalactite accmnulations Ijcloiig to a more ancient time, and are for tlic greater part of extinct forms; and it is from this source that the l)unes of the Megatherium and other giant animals arc derived. Of these animals there have lieen discovered by ^Messrs. Lund and Claussen 115 species of mannnals, belonging to 58 dilTcrent genera, distributed as follows : — * * Sec D'Arcliiac, Gt^laj'ie et Pale'ontolof/te, p. 722, from which the tatile on till- iKxt iia-c is tiikcn. 28G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL CiKOGILMMIV. (Jiiailniiiiiuia Clifiroptt'i'ii . Curuivora Ilddontia Edentata I'liciiydcrmata . Kiiiiiinantia . Marsujiialia Ooncra Ppcclcs 4 3 7 9 18 15 32 13 2S 9 10 i I 7 58 With lioiios of extinct animals occur tlioso of now liviiin' species, ,'is, lor instance, Ccrriis rufiis, C('n'}(s sinipUruvi'- »i/.s', Scinnis a'shuifis, J'Jc/iiinj/s Cdijrniwnsiit, 3L/niirci>/ili(i'^-(i tcfr(id(ir///I(i, Lr/)iis J)r<tsiliftisis, Friis conco/or, iind Frlis mifis* Anionu; tlio extinct (inatlrnpeds may Ito nuiitidiinl the ^rast()(h)n, wliose remains have hccn only rarely ii uml in caverns, lint more often in pits and holes. There wore hones of species of ^facranchenia, Toxodon, Chlaniydotli.'- rinm, and of the «>'iu-antlc Glyptodon (IIo[)lophorus). Myln- don, and Mejratherinni. Among the carnivora were wildcats and Jau'uars, and a species of Smilodon (»S. tn'oi^'triis).— an immense cat-like animal with enormous knife-lii<e ciuiinc teeth in the ujipcr jaw, allicMl to the fossil Euro])ean species. Of monkeys Lund found hut few, and they helonuvil to the genera Callithrix, Ilapalc, Atcles, nnd I'rotojMthecus, llic latter heing an extinct genus. In six or seven of the holes Lund found stone im])lcments and remains of man so linried with the remains of the extinct fauna, as to leave no doii'it that man was contemporaneous with it in Brazil as in Ln- ropc. In the Sumidouro cavern they were found mingled * Keinhnnlt, nj). cit., p. 315. SSOB THE SAO FRANCISCO ISASIN. w. h l)oncfl of tlio oxtinct cavern ja,L!;uiii' ( FcJis p/'ofopanfhcr) ail iimncnsc CapiUara { IIijilrorlKcnoi sulcidens), toiicihor with rcmaiiis of llamas and hoi-sos, which last cei'taiiily cxislcil ill IJrazil, as in North Aiiu'rica, lonii; heforo the (•iiiii|iicst. Acconiing to Rciiihai'dt, the race of men whose iciuaius Lund has found appear to have been well built, liut .slender. The same writer states that a skull he examined was dolichoeephidic and somewhat progna lions. It was of iiR'dium size and ridged v/ith a very prominent checklionc, ;; sniidl forehead, and eyes wide apart. The walls of the .skull were extraordinarily thick. i'u'iidiardt * has come to some interesting conclusions with ret'ereuce to the history of the cave fauna, and I tran.slate tlieni in full. 'J'hey are : — '• 1. That Brazil, in the j)Ost-])liocene time, was inhal)ited Ity a very rich mannnalian lauua, of which the jtresent may 111' said to l)e a fraction or stunted remainder, since many genera, nay, even large systematic groups, such as families and suliorders, have disapi)eared, and only very few have eonie down to our day. •• L*. That the Brazilian mammalian fauna, in the whole Iiost-plioeene time, had the same peculiar stamp which in tlie present distinguishes the South American fauna in comparison with that of the Old World, while the extinct gcnora belong to families and grou))S which still to-day i)ar- ticularlv characterize South America. Only two of these genera, one extinct, the Mastodon, the other still existing, the horse, belong to families which are entirely eonllned to the Eastern hemisphere, and form excc])tions to the rule. *' •'). That the mammalian orders were far from being richer in genera formerly than now. The Ruminants, Pa- * Liitken's Tidsshij}, 3'^'" K., 4''' Bind, 4" Ileftp, p. 351. 288 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEO<;RAriIY. cliydcrms, Elephants, and the Carnivora have snfTered the greatest loss. Sonic orders, as the Cheiroptera and .Mmi- kcys, nnmber perhaj)S to-day more genera than i'ormoilv. " 4. That in Sonth America the post-pliocene maninuiliiui (iiima was more distinct from the present fauna, and was more especially rich in peculiar and now extinct gencia ilmn was the case with the corresponding fauna in the Old Wdild, " 5. That the poverty in large animals, one may almost sav the dwarfish character, which in our day the South Amciicaii mammalian fauna, in comparison with the mamnuds ol' tlir Eastern hemisphere, was far from obtaining, or rather diil not obtain at all in the prehistoric fauna. The post-iAiocciir Mastodons, Macrauchenia^, and Toxodons, those giant ainiii- dillos and sloths, could well com])ete with the EU']iliiiiits. Rhinoceroses, and Hippopotami which at the samo liiur lived in Europe." Liais shows that the Rio de "Sao Francisco is, so far ii> length is concerned, to be counted as belonging to the mx- teenth * class among the rivers of the world, since its U'liiiili is about 2,1)00 kilometres, or a little more than 1,802 luilis. and ho tells us that in Europe there is only one Idiiiin- river, namely, the Volga. In Amei'ica it is surjiasscd liv only the Amazonas, the ^Hssissijtpi, the combin(Ml rai'iii;! and La Plata, the St. Lawrence, and the ]\IcKenzio. while hi South America it occujtios the third rank. The Sao Francisco takes its source in the highlands Ijctwecn hit. -" and 21° S., and flows almost due north to its confluence with the Rio das A\dhas, in lat. 17° 11' 'A" S., and long. 1' 4:)' 35" west of Rio. It receives two consideralile allluciits on the right liank before reaching the Rio das Velhas.— the Pard, which unites with it in al)Out lat. 10^ 10' ^., * Burton says seventeenth or ciyhtecutli. THE SAO FRANCISCO BASIN. 280 and ilio Paraopcba, a much larger stream, vhicli enters in a'wut 18° 4U' S. Both of tliese streams rise in the same higlilands with the Hito Francisco, and flow northward, iiiiHning toward the west, entering tlie main stream very oliliiiuely. The Rio das Velhas is the main branch of the Siio Francisco. It takes its source in the Serra da Mae dus ll(jniens, near Ouro Preto, and runs almost parallel to ilio Sao Francisco, from which it is sei)arated l)y a little Jiaiii of limestone hills called the Seri'a do Espirito Saiito. IJetween Sahara and its mouth the ri\er has to di'i^i'cnd nearly 208 metres, l)ut it makes so many turns that tlic descent })er metre is very nuich lessened, not only (linmgh the increased distance, but through the friction of the river against its banks. Liais makes the descent of the liver (l.:»lt4"' per kilometre, while the velocity of the current varies IVoni O.oO'" to 1'". The river is some 80'" in width, and, were a few ol)stacles removed, it would Ije navigable l)y >teaiu from its mouth to Sahara, 120 leagues. To remove these olistacles in the way of navigation, Liais calculated that an expenditure of £ 2(!0,000 would be rc([uired. Dnrton thill ks that it could be done for £ ;V),000. The Rio das Velhas th)ws in a narrow valley, cut through the limestone, and liordered liy bluffs like an lowan stream; and Liais's map shows it doubling shar})ly about narrow ridges, some- times isolated, at other times having the character of spurs til the main line of blutTs. Here and there older rocks form hi-iji ridges and peaks, but these are rare. Among these is the Serra da Piedadc, eastward of Sahara, — a mass com- posed itrineipally of h'on ore. It is 1,774 metres in height.* (Ihu'il.) * Fiir a frrapliic account of a visit to the Picdade, sec Hcrr Eu}f. Warming's En Vi{i},u,i til Brasiliens D},rge, Liitken's TiJsakrijl, &c., 1'" Bind, 1"« Ilcfte. VOL. 1. 13 S 290 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRArHV, The low lands bordering the Uio das Vclhas are alluvial. rich, healthy, and .suital)lc i'or cultivation with tlie iilnu-li. The conntry hack from the river is wavy canijxjs laud, jh only for grazing. On the main >ao Francisco also, and its affluents, tluic is much valuable land. The two rivers are (|uiti' wvH settled, and from one end to the other there is seen a siio cession of I'azendas, hamlets, and not a few cons^ideraldc towns. Liais has drawn a beautiful j)icture of the scenciy of the camjios and of the Rio das \'elhas, aiid rather than spoil it i)y a translation, 1 beg the reader to allow me to give it in his own words : * — ''La presence d'lm dpais tajjis de graminces sur toutc la snrface du sol donne, an premier altord, I'idee d'une giaiidr uniformite d'asj)ect. Cependant il n'en est pas ainsi, el Irs paysages des Campos sont des ])lus varies. Des botniucts d'arbres dans les(piels les feuillages Ics ])lus divers s'iillicut aux fleurs tie toutes coulcurs ])ortecs ])ar les guirlandcs des liancs ou j)ar de superlies orchidces on bromdliaci't's parii- sites, rompeut la monotonie du tapis de verdure, et rmi h' croirait dans un i»arc admirablement cnltive. D'autrcs I'nis. sur le l)ord de |)etits ruisseaux, eroissent des gi-oujics di' gigantes(pies ^laui-itia vinifera, palmi(M-s ])recieux di' cos regions. L(HU' tronc dleve, siu'montc d'un magnifKiue |ar;i- sol fornid par do vastcs feuilles en (jventail. produit uu eliii des plus jdttoresfpies, lorsquc surtont une innnensc piaiii'' est }»arsemee (;a et 1<\ de ces vdgctanx gracieux. D'autn s Ibis, et CO fait s'observe surtont dans les regions les plus sc'ches, des arbnstes torlueux convrent tout le teri'iiiii, et dans ces parties des Campos se font remanpier les hcUos ♦ Bull, lie la Soc. Ci'tx]., 5 SiTic, XI. pp. 390, 397. THE SAO FRANCISCO RASIX. 291 llcni'P (los Car"i()c;ir, dcs CoclilDsiierniiiin, des Vocliysi;;. Kiitlii, soiivcut, au luilirii d'unc vastc plaiiic, on voit siiruir mil.' (Ic oes c'lU'ieiises cliaines dc luoiitaji'iies dv urrs roiiuc- atre oil verdali'C, a .sonmict euiipu en lalilc, et si ahondaidos lis tont lo Di'i'sil, ou ^I. do Castclnau Ics a (k'ja sii^iiaU'cs. <ia Lcs llancs ai'idos de ces cullincs. paiiailiMucnt aliu'nc'i's ct ,[ui sc j)rolongent sur plusicnrs Tnjucs de longueur en uar- ihiiit le meme niveau et i)reseutant Tasjieet iTun toit, soiit loiivcils ]iar des Mclocactus et jiar de nia,i:niriiiues Kiel- iiii'vcra. (lout les urandes fleurs i-oses rappellent eelles des taiiu'lias. L()i's([n'on luonte sur ecs collines. <\v.\ parfois iittciiinent Jus(|u'a oOO metres au dessns du inveau de la iv'jioii envii'onnante, un admirable |)anorania se deroide sdus les veux du spcetateur. .Je me J'appelle en partieulier 1111 iiKiuiiirKjue tableau de ee ti-enre (pie j'ai aperrii en <2ravis- Miiit Irs (lanes de la sena de Curumataliy. Le regard eni- lii.issait toiite la lar.ucnr de la vallec du Kio das Vellias. >iiii t'oiid ol'f'rait Tapj-arenee (Tune inunense plaine, d'ori oii voviiit soitii' eoninje des ilols les serras dii I'arauna, de Avres, da Ciarca et du Bu^ndo, lia riviere, aceoiu- l)ll('110S- jiii'iiice sur ses Ucux rives d uii cordon de urands arhres, ilcssiiKiit sou cour au fond de la vallee jiar une liiine trunc Ncrdure IVaiclie (pii traneliait sur la teinte roiiucatre •K's lirainiiiees desseeliees ct eelairees par les I'enx du soleil i'Miicli:int. Do belles teint«>s violettes couvraieiit Irs jianes 'Il's inoiilim'ues rapprocliers, et dans le loinlain, a une t'lKiiine dista!iee, une elialne <le moutaiii'nes lib'U ]m\v se iiiniitiiiit a riiorizou. C'etait la serra da Mata da Corda vv ses (irnnes dioritiipies, (jiii limite a I'ouest le bassin dii av iii-F ruiiciseo. * A similar panorama is to he seen frum the edixe of the chapailas lionleriii; till' C:ilhiiii-Arassiiahv vallev. 292 GEOLOr.Y AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilV. The upper Uio dc Sao Francisco flows with a more diroct course, and its current is conscijucntly more swift than tliat ol' the Uio das N'elhas. It is als(j much impedetl liy rajii^l^ and falls.* Notwithstanding tliat its general level is hiulnr than that of the Rio das Velhas, its lianlcs are vciy un- healthv, and terrililc fevers, called carnadciras, fnjm tiun to time drive away the pojiulation from the vicinity, sn that Nature has made the Rio das Velhas more (it tn sustain a poi)ulation and he a water highway than tin rpper Sao Francisco. From the mouth of the Rio ila^ Velhas the Sao Francisco would he navigalde for steam- boats, with SOUK? interru))tions on account of oltstructinib which might he removed, as far down as the Villa da l!<"a A'ista, a distance of ahout 204 leagues. Fnmi that i»oint tn the Porto this Piranhas, a little over 70 leagues, the riwr is not navigahlc. From the Porto to the sea steamers al- ready i»ly. To remove the obstructions from the main livci'. and make it navigable for steamers, Mr. Halfeld estimates the jirobable cost at about £108,1)00. A canal has htrii projjosed to unite IJda Vista and Porto das Piranhas I Tlii> is certainly not advisable when a railway could be cdii- structeil at vastly less cost. Burton estimates that an cx- j)enditure of £ 20-),000 would be sulhcient to ojien l!if Itio das \'elhas and Sao Francisco, and build a i-ailwav around the obstructions of the Paulo Alfonso to the VmU) das Piranhas. The opening of steam navigation in 1807 below Porto das I'iranhas has given an innnensc impetus to the trade of the whole country adjacent to the Lower Sao Francisco, ami Ihuton savs that its effects arc visilde even in the nei<ih'ioi- * The worst of these is a series of rapids and fulls called the Piraponi, which furnis an oti>ta('le that it would eost eiiuriiiouslv to remove. THE SAO FRANCISCO BASIN. :i'j:] uvi provinces of Piauhy and Ccarii. lUit wlint a fntnio is ill store for tlic ^rreat Sao Franciscan vallev wIkmi it shall ivccive the gift of a steamboat and shall hear the scream of the locomotive ! When any one stops to consider how much Nature has done towards fnrnishing I>razil with a great in- terior water highway, it seems wonderful that it should not loiiu' since have been improved.* Tiic railways of the province of Rio have already been (Icscribcd in the "Journey in Ihazil.'' Oovcrnment is jiu>liiiig the Dom Pedro II. line northwai'd into Minas, with the view of continuing it over the Manti(iucira and across the highlands into t!.c valley of the das A'elhas. A <; im- ruatl has been commenced from Cachoeira, on the bay of IJaliia. to Urubu, on the great ri\-er, and there is hope for tlie Sao Francisco, even if the Pernambuco and .Siio Fran- Li>e() and the Dahia and Sao Francisco railways fail, as they jiiolialdy will, in reaching the river. * The difficulty seems to tie not Paulo Offbnso, nor Sol)ra(linho, nor Pira- pora, \int /loliliis, ami the jealousies of those who have had anytiiiii;,^ to iln with tiie matter. A steamer some time apo was huilt in seetious, and started on its overland journey to the Sao Francisco; hut I cannot learn that it has yet ruhclicd its destination, liiirton says that a M. Dumont liron^rht to Kio from Bi'iileaux two small steamers, which were to he transported in sections to tiie Hill das Yelhas, and commence rmininj,' in ISC'.t, so that it is prohahle that -team navigation has !)een hy this time opene(l on that river. I have tried in vain tlH-()uj;!i my Brazilian corres])ondence to inform myself on this as v»ell as f tilt r matters relatinj; to Brazil, but it seems wel!nit;h as ditliewlt to keep one's H'lf |iusted in the ])rof:ress of ati'airs iu the interior of Brazil as it is to obtain uews from the heart of China. 294 GEOLOGY AND THYSICAL GEOGKAi'IIY. CHAPTER YII. THE rROVlN'Ci: OF UAIIIA, — INTERIOR. Journeys of Sjiix niid Martins, Nicoliiy and Laccrda, Allen, and other Exjjlor- crs. — (ie(ilt);:ieal and rii\>it'al I'\'atures of Country bctwoen Malliiula ,iii.l Cac'lioeiia, deMiilied 1)V Von .Martins. — SandstoiiL's. — Uemains of Ma In. dons fonud near N'illa do Kio de C'ontas, — Iniin r lease i opper lionjiier tidi,: Caclioeiia. — Hev. Mr. Nicolay's Report of Journey from Caelioeira to ihc Cliajiada Dianiantina. • ( )eenrrenee of Diamonds in Sa i(l>tone; . — L stones. — Sterile I'lains. — Diannii.'iforous Sands of the Ciia|iada. — The Diamond Mines of Sineorii and Leiicues. — Annual Yield of the I'rovjiico in Diamond-^. — Mr. Allen's Report of a Journey from C'hi(iue-' 'liii|ui', viii Jaeoliina, to Caehoeira. — Countrv lietween Chi(ine-t,'hi(iue and J icoliiiia an immense Limestone I'lain. — The Cha])ada at Jaeoitina a detaehed Hat- topped Mass of Sandstone. — (i Hills. — " Lake I'li uii. east of Ja olio bina. — Knoiis — I'otholes, proliahly of (Jlaeial < )ri;4in. — Eastern Samlet I'lain. — Climate, Ve;;etatioii, v*ic. of Route. — Ditfereiiee in Topo;:ia|ii'y lietween ( iiieiss Uejiions of Rahia and the Mnenry deserihed and aceoiiiiii.'.l for — Former /greater Extension of Forests. — \'on Martius's Deseri|itiiiii of the Country lietween Caehoeira and .foazciro. — Country near F( iia il.i Coneeirao — Serra do Rio IVi.xe. — Rio Ita])ietini. — Waiu of Rain at C2 ueimailos. Serra de Tiuha. — Tan^ (|iies am 1 F()«sil IJones near Coclic Till' (iri'nt aiiilia. — d'Atrmi, Harri-a Molle, and Neij^hborhood. — Monte Sant<j Meteorolite of IJemdet^o. — Hoek Inseriptions. — Villa Nova da !> Joa/eiro to he the Terminus of Rahia and Sao Franeiseo Railroad. — Ki" 1': Salitre. — Salt Lieks. — Mr. Allen's Note on th lit of the Sao Fraiui"'" Valley. — Saltjiefre. — Cieolo<;y of Countrv between Carunhauha and I'ni bii. — Change in Geological Structure, Climate, Vegetation, &c., below Urubii. Tin: interior of the province of Bahia, notwithstaiidinir its rich diaiiujiKl-iniiies, is ahnost a ierra incognita to tlic geoloo'ist aiul geogTaplicr. It forms, however, so important PROVINCE OF DAIIIA, IXTKRIOn. 295 a part of the empire, tluit I have deemed it worth while to collect the most important fuets that licar (jii its <:-('ol()j:y iiiid ])hysical geo;i'raphy, and with these hel'orc us, J think tlint \v(.' shall he al)le io eonx' to some trustworthy eonclu- sioii as to its general structui'e. Though Sj)i.\ and Afartius t'Xjiloicd the province while geology was yet in its infancy, llicy made many inti'resting o'oservations. The Rev. ^Ir. N'iinlay, a few years ago, visite*! tlu; diamond district in coiupiuiy with Dr. de Lacerda, and he has kindly furnished nil with some notes v)n the route he followed. Mi'. .1. A. Alli'U, ornithologist on the Thayer Kxpc'ition, crossed the jiroviiu'e from (•hiiiue Chii|uc, on the Sao Francisco, to ('a- 'liiit'ira, and 1 am indehted to him lor a very interestiu'.'- sketch of the C(nmtry he traversed. That part of the Satj Frniicisco valley comj)rised in the ]>rovinee has heen ex- amined l)y V(jn Martins, St. John, and others, and linally liy llurton, so that we know its general geological features. These ol)scrvers furnish us with three complete sections across the country lietween the Sito Francisco and the sea, and Mr. Nieolay gives another incom])lete one. In examin- ing this material, we shall take up these sections in their elder, going from north to south, and we will Ih'st follow \'eii Martins in his journev from ]\Ialhada to the coast. This little town is situated on the Rio Sito Francisco, op- posite the mouth of the Rio Carunhaidia, in the jn'ovinee of l!;ihia, at the extreme northern angle of ^linas (Jeraes. \'on Mart HIS says that the vicinity '• is composed of limestone, wlneli the hurning of the woods not infre(piently (dianges nil the surface into a white chalk-like crust. 'J'his rock loi'iualion we left, on the third day's ride, between th(} fazeiidas Currahnho and Pe da Serra, where we oiiserved jTraniie, and on it here ami there layers of a ])orous iron 296 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGRArilY, saiulstonc, in jiart weatlicrod to iron ochre." lie ilesorilios tliis whole reu'ion as beini^ covered hy a catiii^a giowtl, with Ccrci and CnidoscoU, ttc. The water is bad and slimv. The popnUition is principally cnuaged in raising; cattle ami horses. Leaving this part of the conntry, high hanks <>[' red granite, some hare, othei's covered thickly with cir/!, were met with. Near the Serra dos Montes are r(jiiiii|ii| liills and monntains, composed oi' diorite, and destiliili.' both of soil and vegetation. The rock ibrniing the Sciia dos Montes Altos is gneiss and granite, 'i'he soil is in many places highly impregnated with saltpetre, but this salt is extracted to no important extent. In the Sci in (!(■ Caytele ([uartzosc shale or (piartz rock, like that Ibuuil so extensively thnnigh ^linas, aliounds. It is flesh-red in color, almost horizontal, and IVcMpicntly traversed b}' luiiw veins of white (piartz. East of Caytele is a level high Inml of this same (]uartz rock. On leaving this, one descends to reach a hilly country composed of gneiss, covered with catinga forests. The moimtains in the vicinity of the fazcnda of Joazeiio arc of granite and gneiss granite. The roati thence to tlie Villa do Rio de Contas " rises gradually, and leads linally into a valley shut in on both sides by high mountains. Tlic Serra da Villa Velha rises at least 1,200 feet al)ove the villa. The base of the mountain is comjiosed (jf mica slnte, ou which rests red quartzites {Quarzsc/iiefer}, and over these white rocks of the same kind." The strike, according to nur author, is from X. X. W. to S. S. (),, Avith a Avesterly <lii), which is higher in the upper l)eds than in the lower. The foot of the mountain is covered witli light vegetation, which resembles the flora of Herro Frio; on the top it resembles that of Tejueo. Quartz rock, thndy laminated and elas- rnoviNCE OF daiha, — inti:i;ior. L".»7 lie, was observed. Oold occurs in veins in \ho rock, and iilso in the sands and •Travels (»(' the I>rnniadt» and other sti'canis, where it is f(jnnd in iiTains and nnjrg'ets. Spix ami Martins s]ieak of one nutinct havin<i^ been found weigh- 'wj: eiuht pounds. Two leagues noi'th of the villa are (iliicr gold deposits. The great sandstone formation is riditly deserii)ed as extending northeastward under tin; iiaiues ]\I()rro das Ahnas, ►Serra do Catuld, t^erra da Cha- paila. Ac., to Jaeol)ina. Spix and Martins describe the top of the Morro Tle(h)ndo as tiat, and speak of the occurrence there of a hard, white saiiil rock, on which wer(> drawings in red paint, sup])osed to have been made by the Indians. This rock rests upon I^Taiiite, which in some ])laees contains angite. North of lliis is th(> Herra de Tiul)a, and l)etween it and the ^^ao Francisco they found green pistacitc in the granite. Over the quartz rock lies a red sandstcjne, concerning wliicli Von Martins shall sjieak in his own words : — "The third formati(-)n, which we met here, is that of the so-called red Todtlicr/nide, or ohler sandstone. It occupies die liiuhest ])oint of the mountain, as even at nrumadinho, and shows, without distinct stratification, here and there a thickness of sevei'al Inuidred feet. This rock is here com- posed of grayish white quartz grains, in which jiicces of red- •lish (piartz sandstone and of red Grauwacke skate ai"e im- hcilded, and it is not infrequently intermixed with nnudi silver white mica. To this formation or to one of the over- lying clays belong probably certain nodules of clay iron- stone which are hollow inside, and contain a very tine red powder, whicli, according to the results of an examination made liy my honored colleague, Hofr. Vogel, is composed of non oxide, argillaceous and siliceous earth, with some lime 13* 208 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL ClKOGRAniY, find ninfrnosia, mikI is uscmI liy llio iuliahitnnts ns a tonic. Tlic liiuiu'st inoiiiiliuii of this disti'ict, llie Senii dc itiiiiliii;i. l»r<)l)alily presents tlic same formation of tlu! red T'-iltlu- ircnile on its ennical head. We saw it northwestward fidiii the >h)rr() l^'(|(>ndo, rising liigh into the hhie ether, and aiv of the opinion that it is at least r),000 feet high." From tlie vieinily of the river Sant' Antonio a heautifiii variety of alaliastcM- is olilained, and, aeeording to Spix and Martins, it occnrs in hirge qnanlity. It is sent to I)iilii;i to lie made into images an<l oriuunents. Dr. Laeerda kimily presenle(l me with a line s|: mi of this mineral. J>ones and teelh of the ,udon* oeenr apparently in plenty in the vieinity of the Kio de Sant' Antonio, near \U- A'illa do Kio de Conlas, ami near the old fazenda de llnm Jesus de ^leii-a, eight leagues from the Villa, buried in tlic soil. Jietwcen the Villa and the T?io dc Contas arc qnartzitos Avhere miea slates passing into granulitc make their appeur- anee lying in granite. The granulitc " h(dds here and tlictr masses {Knanrrn) of a very hard coarse-grained eelhiliu' gray (piart/. On this formation wc oliserved layeis of ;i light gHMMi, somewhat porous, very com])act sanil^tdiio. Avhieh ajipears exactly like that which in OiM-many is Iniv and there interstratified with the Qiiadcrsanf/s/i'in. PanluM woods, leafless in the dry season, stretch out in innncasnr- alde extension over the hillv or even mountainous hml; large tracts ai'C covered with bushes of the Arirf p;dm. (^Cocos sc/i/zop/ii//Ia Mart.), and here and tlierc a lighter clump of the Aricuri palm {Coros coronata Mart. )." The base of the Serra das Lages is composed of clay ami mica slates, chiefly greeuish-gray in color, some approach- * Sec note top. 261. t^rmtmf^^m^* PROVINCi: OF BAIIFA, — INTKRIOR. 'JlW iiiL' clilnritc slate, find coiitainini:' ot'lalicdi-jil crystals of ii-oii, IlijInT up (juartzitt'S a])i)('ar, ami on the tup the vcn'ctatioii icsciiiliii'S that of Miiias. Near the la/ciida ol" La^LCs, oii the top, arc heavy deposits of iron ore, in the form of luatr- iictic iron, si»ei'nlar iron, and lirown iroii-slonc ; "■the last riniii>lies not iidVecpientiy consideraltle (plant it ics of sti!- jinsL'tierite (ph()si)hate of iron)." 'J'hc prcvaiiinu- strike of tiic ([iiartz rock is from north to soiitli iiii Stiiui/c liii, '2'-), aiiil •J4, the clip of the strata at high angles from to -GO" towards the east. Jii the Serra do Hinijora the rinartz rocks (Qiiarz- srliirp'r) have a strike; of X. S. tin S/iiik/c 'I'l, •2-\, and i,'4, and ilij) with high angles toward the east, it forms the division hctwceu the high and low lands of tin,' province of lialiia ; cast of it obtains a changeahle wet climate, while to the west there is a dry climate. Leaving the Serra of Sincora one meets with granite, liiiriililende, and clay slates and diorite. These are over- laid with layers of clayey sand of an ochre-yellow color, which in some places is even ten feet thick. '• Near Cara- I'atii there overlies the granite an older sandstone ( (hunirs Tix/f/ico-rntfcs), which is comi)osed of rme-grained (piartz, i'cMspnr, and mica, and ajtproaidies feldspar porphyry. In this are inihedded rounded masses of ipiartz." At Olho d'Agua great blocks of white quartz arc ex- posed. '•The soil, -which already at Olho d'Agua hegan to he liilly and mountainous, continues with similar irregularity, and covered with catbw'a, until finallv in the vicinitv of the Fa/.cnda do Rio Secco, which we reached at the end of the iilth day, the I'oad sank gradually l)etween some high, hare, granite mountains, where the traveller rcu " ;s a plain, which. 300 GEOLOGY AND PIIVSICAL GKOGRAI'IIY. covcn.'d iiK^rcly with (Irit'd slinilis a few feet lii;j,h, ]irosoiits a inoix' IVco aspoct At Rio Succo tlicro r<'stcf| on iii^. granit(», wliidi wImmi hcildtMl .sliowod a strike of W.W.W. _ S. S. ()., ami a westi'i-ly dip ( I'Aiisr/iicsscti) uiidci- a lijirh angle, a line-grained iiornltlcndi" rock and iron-stone."' The eonnti'V l)et\ve(Mi N'illa d;i Tedra Ihanea and Caclinciiu Spix inid Miirtius I'onnd to In* eoniposed of gneiss and 'nan- ite, with occasunud beds ol' horidik'nde roek and mirn sh\te. In tlie lust eentnry then; was found near CaehoeiiM a huge mass of native eoi)per, whieh was cai-ried to MsImih. Spix and Martins* visited the loeality whei-e this mass was fonnd, iuid eould discover nothing that would Justify tlicm in helieving that the copjter was derived from the roeks of the vicinity, which consist of gneiss. They afterwnrds saw the si)ecinien in the museum at Lisbon and examiniMl it. It bears the following inserii)tion : — " Maria I ct Petro III im]terantibus, euj)rinn niitiviiiii minenu ferri mixtnm jionderis libr. MMI)(.'X\'l in Didiiriisi Pra^feetura ]trope oppiduni Cachoeira detectnm et in riiii- cipis Mnseo P. MDCCLXXXIl." According to YmuWWu in the Memorias da Acaflemid Real das Sricncias dc Llshon, Vol. I. p. 2(n, the outside of the mass is of a hardeii'il dark yellow color. A portion of the surface v.as analy/ctl. and gave ninety-seven per cent of j)urc cojipcr, with no traei; * Accordiiif: to Voii ^Inrtins, liaise. Band II. Seitc 746, copper oc< iir> at the followinjr places in Riazil : — Riljcrao dc Sao l)oniin;j:os, near Pc do Jforro, in the Comarca do Sirni Frio, Minas Oeraes, where it is fonnd in prenstone. Primeiro-i Campos, in tlie Serrn Ciiraea, Province da Bahia, chloride {>'lt:- saiircs) and sul]diiiret, occnrrinfr in pranite. Arr; ial do Pinlieiro, Cattas Altas da Itaperava and Inficionado in MIiuj Gcracs. PROVINCK OF r.AHIA. — INTF.RIOR. no I i,r •itlicr p:()l(l or silvor. Viult'lli says tluit a socoiid mikI ^iii;illt'r |»i<'t'(' was litiiml ii(>ar it. Spix ami Martins a|i|)i'ar td liavc coiisidcrtMl the mass as u nictcorolitc, hut I luivo xi'ii tVaiiiiR'iil.s of amyj;,ilal()i(lal traji IVdin the vicinity of Ciiiiiiicira, aiu 1 I un iiiclinni to consiikT it an erratic, dc- ri\c( I IVum this trap. Mr. Allen gives nu; the fdllowlni; note: " Tlie eonnti-y ■tuccii Malluula and tl' eoast, in all its leadinu' uculdiiical IcMtiires, as u'lven h\ l.v \ on .Mart nis, Iteai's a most strikini:' rcH'iiililance to tliat traversed hy myself some lOO to Jot) iiii lis to tli(! north of this lim ■>ome nunor leatnre as the occurrence here and there of clays and slates, etc., I iioticcil at only one or two j)oinls, and only as insiunificant patches." "At Chiiiuc ('hi(iue I ohsorved very small jiatclx^s of MKiuiii'tic iron ore, at times apparently in place and ri'stinj^ (111 tli(> limstones, hut commoidy occurrinu- as detached |iat(hcs and irregular fraunients of large size. It is un- (liiulitcilly similar to that spoken of l»y Ihirtun as occurring ill large (|uantitie8 a little helow (.'hi(pie Chiipie." Mr. Xiculay says that the country rises toward the Chapa- ua Diamantina l»y a scries of terraces, and he estimates the height of the chajjada at :).0()0 feet aliove the sea, which would coincide with Mr. Alleu's estinuite of the height of ihe chapada at Jac()l)ina, and of my own estinuite of the hcijiht of the chapada at Minas Novas. At the " cha|)a- la," savs Mr. Xieol av tl de^ lerc arc '' shales sandsiones. and conglomerates. The sandstones vary nmeh in quality, hoth as to comp(jsition and hardness, hut are all evidently the direct products of j)riniitivo rocks. V\)on these sandstones tl ici is (or was) a stratum of (piartzite, in many jdaccs ^till very distinct, in which are foimd crystals of magnetic 3(12 GKOLOGY AND I'llYSlCAL GEOGRAPHY ami oilier jtyiitcs, uiid amoii^ the sands ci'catcd liy tln" disintojii'atiou of this rock, us marked by these crystals, diamonds are usually found. " 'J'he suj)Ci'jK)sition of the harder upon the softer strata is the cause of the itrescnce of those caverns called ^riim, whi(,'h lVi'(|U(Uitly })erforate the hills, and in which niaiiv diamonds are fountl. 'i'hey are all formed hy the peicol - tion of water throuiih the ro'-'-, and the disinteu'ratioii of the sol'ter strata: hut in the larticr lunniier of cases imt a cavern hut a I'uin is fornir(l, and the siu'faee j)rescnts a wild confusion of enormous blocks or shifts of conglomeratic sixty to seventy feet sijuarc, and from t(Mi to fifteen feet thick, lor the laigv^'r examples. As y(>t 1 am not aware that any fossils have been found in this district . The chapada foiaii^ the eastern limit of the barrier of the g'rcat I'iver Sao I'Vaii- cisco, and 1 can trace it Irom the sources of the ParauiUvMi into (Jnyaz. " The chapada is s(>j)arated from the next division by tin; valley of the river Sfio .lose on tin; south, a. tributary on iIh' left bank of the Para,<riias>u. 'J'lie n(>xt ranuc, wliicli may l)e called the limestoiio ranu'C, that rock beiiiL!,' de\('lopi'il ji, mau'iiifieent clilTs, especially on tin; eastern side, ami piv sentiiifi" numerous caverns, is distant about twidvi; mill's. " 1 am not aware that this limestone has Ikhmi m<)r(> than casually examined by \'ivian luiar Joa/.eiro, liy myscll' at Mocambo, and by Cato at Rio Tna, an afluent of the Parau'uassu, riii'lit haid<. nor have 1 heard inal aiiv Ibssils have 'oeen found in it. It is very distinctly bedded.* Iia- * Mr. Allcti, wlio has carofiiUy read Air. Nicolay's report, says ; — " 'I'lif liiuotoiu's itu'iitioni'd liy Nicolay fjifi'lly puz/.io mo. 'I'lu'y socm to oc'C'r (III triliiitarics of llic l*arai;iia>sif, ami liriici' must hv. ds/ iit' tlic ili:i|iaiia. If s>o, liL'tls of liiUL'stouc'S inurit occur on both sides of the divide vhkh scj)- rnoviKCE OF dahia, — interior. 8or'. ni('(li:itcly to tlio east of this occurs a bolt of violent (li^l()- catidii. say twelve leajrues in hreiuith, or more, presenting irrCLailar hills of j)riniitive roek [li'neiss. c. f. h.] with vallovs between them, not hatun!i>- usiKtllij aiii/ oiitU'f* and lor the most i)art covered with a forest of ancient growth. •• Here the road is strewed with large (inai'tz ])(>hl(les, !i il lioulders of all sizes, qualities, and colors. The hrrjos. (ir hnjlows between the hills, are sometimes lakes, nioiv (li'tcii swamps, and souiO occasionally are quite drv. This is the Serra do ]\locambo, Scrra da Calderao da Onra. and Sella da Saude, and is uuirked on the south of the river rai:iLziiassu by the Mato dos ]\Iacacos. •• To thes(> hills succeeds a /.one of faho'c-'-os or a fahohiro er tabh' land, where gncissose rocks are often exposed on tlie siirtaee, wliieh is nearly level, Imt varied by occasional small lak''s (ir ponds, and riachos or watercourses, having no final issues for their waters, and often dry dnring a pait of the vcai-. This is crossed bv the deep cut, Ibrmed bv the l\'io l'ai'ai:iias>u, whic.'h, like othei- rivers to the north, presents. In tlic e.\;(Mit of its cnclicnh', or overflow, sometimes a mile iu wjihh, a belt of verdure; all the ri'st is arid, a region of <aiti and jirickly ami aronuific plants. ■■ 1 |iiin this surface, however, at long intervals, a))|)eai' iso- lateil musses of primitive rock at I>ahu. a'lout loO feet IiIliIi [ali(i\e flu; plain], and a range of similar I'ocks or hills, loiewn as the SeiM'a das Pedras IJraucas, from which some 'I'Kliei-'^, singu' rly rounded on !he suilaee, ai'c presented i" Pe(lia IJedonda. Th;.-; crosses the Taboleiro at aliout iiraic- ill,, \allc_v (if tl>v Sfio Fnmcisco fnmi tliu sen. If ^(), it is ii )>:it(li lie- I 'iiuiiiu' uiKldiilitcdlv to llic liiiii'stoiifs (i('vi'l()|)('(l so cxtciisivclv in the Sfio I lami i(. valley. Iti ills ^qiciss taboleiro 1 rcco;;iii/.c iiiv ' lake iihiiii.' (Scf r'!'"!"! di' my journey.)" * This i> otic of ihc (ealiires of a jjlaeiated tiurfacc. — C F. II. • :'¥ 304 OKOLOC.Y AND PHYSICAL GKOGRArHY. foiii' lentriK's from its castoru cxticmil y, Imt without outip'lr hroiil\iii<i; its continuity. Hoyonil this the Sorra da HiHiur ruo, also of primitive lock, f'oi' the most part hare, and im- mediattdy to the oast tlic Sei-ra Man<2;ali('ira, where I ix- peet on further examination to find s'lidstono; l)eyond thi-; is unihdatin^ wooiU'd ground for six h'agues, tt) anuilur tahoh'iro of the sam<' geoh)g*ical eliaraeter as the other. Imt presentin^a' a superior vegetation, and wliich is again Ixiuinlcil to tiu' east hy a chain of nearly contiiuious elevations, wiiirli forms the main l)uttress of the system, the west limit ol'tln' Lagoa do Rio I'araguassu, and to the east of which, oidy sn far as 1 kiioir^ excepting at the chai)ada, sandstones aiv devch)ped." "Throughout the entire district the hottom rocks ww gneissose, varyivg occasionally to j»orphyry and granite mi the one hand, and hornblende and quartz rock on the other. occasionally presenting micaschist." Mr. Xicolay further remarks that " not onlv near tin' limestone I'angcs, hut on the edge of the great tabuleiio. saline streams are found." From Mr. Nicolay's report, as well as from what he li;i< stated to me in conversation, there can he no douht thai tli' diamonds of the interior of l»ahia occur in a sandstom* I'eil. forming pai't of the great sheet which once ovcrs|)read the whol;' country, tying in with the sandstones and clays of tin' Je(|uitinhonha hasin ; and this sandstone, as we shall sir from Mr. Allen's report, is found also at Jaeoliina, at whii h place, in IToo, diamonds were first discovered in the pi'uv- ince of I>ahia. 1 saw specimens of the diamantiferous rock from th chapada in the hands of Mr. Xicolay. It was not itneulu mite, hut it seemed to me to hear a verv close rosenilihiiiii' PROVIXCE OF BAHIA, — INTERIOR. 505 to llio sandstone bed overlying the clays in the Joqnitin- lioiilia busin. It also bore a remarkable resemblance to the tertiary sandstones on the Uahia Railroad ni-ar Pitanga, wlicre diamonds also occur. The diamantilerous sands 1 >;i\v in the j)ossession ol" Dr. de Lacerda at IJahia ajjjH'ared to have resulted from the disintegration oi" the chaj)ada sauilstoues.* It is nnich to be regretted that the diamond mines of the ("hapada Diamantina have never been critically examined, fur 1 feel convinced that from their study the mystery of the oiiiiin of the diamond is to be solved. The metamorphic l)asis of the province of Ilahia j)reseuts a long and, on the whole, a gentle slope towards the sea, and a shorter and e(|ually gentle incline towai'ds the Sao Fiaiii'isco valley. Along the highest jtart of the pnjvincc tlii'ie runs an irregular strij) of sandstones, occasionally Miuling offspurs in various directions, and not infre(inently forming isolated patches. These sandstones, lying nearly if not (piite horizontally, form a series of chai)adas or table- lands, and flat-toitpcd hills of greater or less extent, and with an elevation of about 3,000 feet. On the eastern side of this line of chapadas is the diamond district, embracing * SiMcimcns of (liiimimtiferoiis sands sent from Bah i a to M. Diiinour were foiuul to (uiitain tlie following; minerals : hyaline ([iiartz, Jasper and silex, iiaiohiniite, (listhene or eyanite, zircon or liyaeinth, feldspar, red jxarint, iiiaLf- ne>i:in }:nrnet, mica, tourmaline (j^reen and Macli), hyalotoiirmMJine (fdjad), tall', wavellite (rulxxlu), yttric phosphate, titaniferon.s yttrie, phosphate, diaspore, niiile, lirookite, anatase, hydrated titanic ncid, tantalite, haierine or ((iliim- liitt', litanifermis ferric oxide, stannic oxide, merenric sulphide, and gold. [Ihdh'iind,' Ja Sorn'lv (InihiijIiiHo de Pnrh, 2''" Serie, S('anee dii 7 Avril, 1856, I- 54 J.) Another paper on the diamantiferous sands of Haliia, by the same auihdr, is to he founil in the Ihilhtin df ht Sorii'ti^ Philomnthiiue, 5 Fevrier, 1^.")3. I have been able to consult neither of these papers, and I quote ilirou'di Burton. .".OG GKOLOCY AM) PHYSICAL GKOGHAl'HV. the licnd-wnlcis of the Parnguassu ami Itapiciiiu, roi'iuiiiir an invmilar area nearly I.jU miles iji kingtli from north to south. The Sena or Chajtada do Shieord lies many leagues to the souilieastwaid of the Serra da Cha|)a(hi j)roj)er, of wliicli ii is a spur or outlier, and it appears to eross the J*ai'a,Liiiiis>u with a northeast ti'end, hut the ma})S vary to so great a de- gree that 1 ean form no satisfaetory eonelusion as to its extent. 'J'he only deserijjtion 1 ean find of the serra is con- tained in a letter IVom the geologist llehniciclKii.* Ar- coiding to him the serra "hears the sanu; raw and iiii- hos])iial»le ehai'aeter to the eye as that of the (Irao Mogul'; extensive eamj)os form the e(juntry hctween its wcstciii si »]h' and the ."^erra (Ui Chapada, -while the e(»untiy from its east- ern slope toward the eoast is eovei'ed l)y Ihiek woods." lie says that there is a close analogy hetwcen this serra and tho Oi'ao ^foiror in u'eolou'ieal sti'iieture. and that iirolialilv it is comjnisi'(l of itaeolinnite. '"The iirst discovery (jf diainoiids was here nuuh' on the lianks of the Maciijc, and the Coin- mercio (the chief plaee), distant ninety miles from l)ahia.is on the Macuie on the lands helonginu' to the Fazenda de San .)oao. \)\ imo ml S W( re found in the serra of Sincoia omt an extent of twenty leagues, The washings on tlie we>t side of this serra have up to the present turned out to lie poor. Consiih'ral)le (piantities of diamonds were, howev washed from tlu' Macuje itself, and from the jioinls wl Cl', ICIC the Paiaguassu and Andarahy cut through the serra. <>ii the Andarahy the j)rineipal washings are confined to tlic brooks of the vicinity, which flow into it on its right liauks. * Qiiotoil In- Von Tscliiidi, Ileism (lurch Slid Aiiifrirn, Zweitcr Bniil, l">r' Seite. IlL'liiUficlien did imt liiiiiscir visit tlie Scrni do Sincorii, but he ol'taiiul his inforriiiitiuu from a traveller in wliDin he juit eoiilideiicc. PROVINCE OF HAIIIA, — IN IKKIOR. 507 IKiv tlierc arc iimiiy snakes, iniiih fvvov and airuo, and ianionds." A vciy rirli deposit has Itucu diseovnvd IlKlllV * uiiliiii the last Ii'w yeafs at Smeora, and the city has grown )(, ;i \cry hii'gc si/A'. The ritv of Ia'Ium'k's, which is the government headnjnar- 1 district, is sitnati-d aliout thiity miles t ul" Macnie or Santa lsali(d do I'a- tcrs ol the diamoni lu the no •th ittl 1 a little easi ra'juiissu. aiu iic vicinity gi'eat (|iian 1 is a large and \-ery impoilant j)laee, and lU titles ol'eliamond^ are washed.* (.'as- icliiiiu says (hat along the C(jnrse oi' the liver of LenrAes ihcre are jjotdioles, some of which are of the depth of th width of one or two hra^os ! In these ciil- thev are called, a considerahle nnmhi'r ol" <lia- t\vriitV-ll\(' Wl '/' li'di s. as lllnlHl have Iieen found. The same author says that these |iiit-linles are found also in the ehapada and are always ricli. I'i.iiiionds also ot'cnr at a loeality not far southeast of Ciiiiliu- ('hit|ue, at a locality calleil the Corirgo de Santo I'liKifio, visited hy Ihirton, who descrilies the vicinity as cDiiijinsed of itacolnmite.(?) lie says (hat there ocenrs here iis at the ehapada "a honldery, not pehhly conglomerate, which re^'iuliles that of the Scottish Old Ited," f «'> 'l<:>t it woiihl M'cni that the hills among which the Santo Itiiiacio I.cs ]iliis bi'iuix (liiuiinnts do In cliapi'liv vicmn'iit An* T,(m1'<)I'< (li's ilraiv lll'll Hi III' il Vlll;:t llOlU'S ( ic Saiita-lsiil)cl, cctn; hoiirLriKlc tire soii iioiii (I'lni ^ros rni.-.H';ti I, tiiihivf dans unc KOfrt" iiiot'oiidc ; il sc ])vvc\\ lite do somnii'ts I'lcvi's siir <li' lai^c d.ilks, et aprcs y avoir parfmini cnvinni trois ci'iits inctris, il sc jitio I'll InniKint (1 cascadi's dans Ic rio Sfi .!( Tout il I't'iitoiir df CCS mines, i Ics mniita^iirs cnticri's, dcs hlocs ciionncs c'i)ni|M)S('s en rrand c panic dc caillimx t lie i(jiili> ct ciintiitcs par nnc jiatc frrniL'inciise ct prcsipic noire, tc'inoi'.Micn j;raiiiks revolutions m''ol()[:ii|iics. I"-n ;_'ciu'i-al, les jiicrrcs out des t'ornics ires tent la cri-tallisation en ocfaJ'ilre torment lii rc^iilurcs, ( t cell es (pll ])rc>en :ranil exception. Castelnaii, Ilislniir. <ht ]'tii/iyi', Tome douxienie, p. 34.'J note t I'.urion, Hie-hlands of Dra/.il, Vol. II p. .Ti6. ?08 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. diiiinoiid (lifrgings are lociited belong to the same forinntidu as tliat of the cliapada,* Jiurloii deseriljes the ^{^vva (i^ Piutur as tablv-topped. I regret that i have been unal)le to obtain precise inlnr- niati(Mi eoiieei'ning the annual yield of the dianioiid-auiicsdf Bahia as well as to the sizc,t (luality, and lelalive value oi the stones. Aeeording to the re})ort of the l*resident of the jtrovinee, jmblished in liSOC), there were exported tlir(iiii;li the custom-house as follows: tlnring the year lM)2-il;l. dianioiuls to the value of 1.047 :4.'J(J.sU00 ; during lM>;J-(i4. 1.47<!:i)00«OUU; and during 1.SG4-05, l.ocSl ioOUnimiij ; whieh figures show a decrease during these three years, luit they cannot be considered as giving even an approxiniati idea of the annual yield, for only a very small pr()})orli<m dl the diamonds actually exported })ass through the custom- house, so great are the facilities for smuggUng. t^u nearly * !\rr. ^llon, in looking over my MS. luis kindly added the foiio\vin_' note : — "The Scrrn do Assnrua 1 did not visit, Imr I saw it at a distMiinc mik! iiilVr red it to lie of sandstone. As it overlies the limestone, it seems to lie evjijeiitlv ;i part of the sandstone formation notie-'il hy me to the eastward, as alremly min tioned. I am now fidiy eonvineed of the trnthfnlness of your >renerali/iui'in in respect to the former <rreat extent and siiliseipient denndation of tin' s:nid<toiie>. Tlu' ocenrrenee of (roid ,niil diinnnnils in tlie ahove-named serra, as aNo at .Iniii- hina, was rejieatediy spoken of to me liy many trnstworthy ]i('r<i'ns." In I8u8 the j;overnment eoneeded to tlii' Companhia ^MetallnrLiieado Assuni.i the ri^ht to mine ^M)id ;md other metals witlun the sjiaee of tour leaLTiies. fili vrirn, /■!.r/iliiniriii) i/i' Miwrnoi, ])nhlished as an Annexo in a government n|ii'ri for I8(')('). My ciipy lias no title-pafxe. t Tiie diamonds of the chapada are often of considerahle size, and Burton says : " Tlic Chapada of Hahia al>o pro<lneed a stone weii;hnii; 'f\\ earat'^. a:i'l, when cut into a drop-shaped iirilliant, it proved to possess extraordinary •>\.\) and ln,~lre. It was IjoiilMu hy Mr. Arthur Lyon of Rahia for .'tO eimtus [■? l.').()on|. and it is now, I am t(d(!, in thi' po.ssession of Mr. E. T. Drojdon." (Burton, Highlands of Brazil, Vol. IL ^.. 153.) rROVINCK OF BAIIIA, — INTKIUOK. 309 as I am able to asccrtuin, tlic animal production in dia- iiionds of the pi'ovinco cannot lull far short of three millions uf dollars. 1 am indcliled to Mr. Allen for the followinf;: — Xotes on the Geological Character of the Coimtrif Jutirpcn Chl<ine- Chiqiie, on the liio de ^uo Fraitcisco, and Uahia, Jini:il. By J. A. Allen. Cliiiiue-Chiiiuc is a small village, situated on the Rio de Sao Francisco, about titty miles below the mouth of the Kio Craude; it is a little north of the parallel of Jiahia. My joiirnoy thence to the latter place was by the route usually taken by mule-trains in pussiug from the Villa dii Baira do Rio (Jrande and Chiiiue-Chique tu the coast, namely, by way of Engcnho VellK», Jacare, .lacdbin-ix, Arniiid do Riaeho do Jacuhipe, Villa da Feira da Sta. Anna, and t'achoeira. As I found it necessary to perform the journey ovei- this unsettled and poorly watered district in company with the lari^c eastward-bound trojjas, I was obliged to pass on hurriedly, Hiul had not time to exph. '<) the country adjacent to my route, or for a satisfactory cxi, .. '' of lUany of the interesting localities iiuniiiliately upon it. 'ah fodowing is a sununary of such geo- loj.'ical observations as I was able to make, the geology t)f the cwuitry Iteing to me at the time a matter of secondary interest. The country between the Sao Francisco at Chi(pie-('hi(iue * and thu coast at Bahia presents three natural regions, which are * Mr. Allon says r " TIils name is always written hy the iiiliabitants of the vilI,\iro as ahovc ; never, so far as I oliserved, Xicjue-Xifiue. Tiie j)lace takes it-- iKUiic tVoni till" ahniidaiit'e of a low lirancliinfr form of (Wius, called hy this iiiiiiR' that jivows here." Hurton uses Chi(iae-Chi(iae for the town and Xiqiic- Xiquc for the caetns ; a distinetion, it seems to me, without ii ditf'Mvnee, since liotli are jironouneed alike. The vicinity of Chii(uc-Chi(|uc appears to be a piTtirt paradise of cactuses. The nami> is ap]ilied to several species of the plant. See Burton, IIit,ddands of Brazil, Chap. XXII, 310 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPHY. s£A i.cif£i\ jjl;iteiius, diiroriiig widely fi'Din Civch otlicr in jfo- logical uiiu utlicr clmractunstics. I he iirsr or v.i >t cm c'xtcndis from tlio river iiltove iiiiinud t(j tin; vicinity of .Ia(.'ultina, a distance of rutlier mov than two liundred miles. It is a vast hnicstipiir j)lain I'isini,' almost iniperccfitiltly from the livij of the Siio Francisco lliver to the summit nt' ihr divide which separates the waters ilowmi,' \v.>t ward and northward into this nol)le stream t'lnin those that reach the sea hy other channels, iltic an<l thei'c large cxj)osures of the underlyinLT I'nk occur, commonly scarcely rising aliove the gt laral level, but occasionally forming irregular, piiniacli il lur mocks or low serras.* The first so-caliril '• serra " met witii occurred at Sta. Kiix.ebiii ; thence eastward they were frequent. At St;i. EuzeMa these elevations rarely attained a Ini-ht of fifty to one hundred feet, above the gi'iiiral level of the country ; farther east, and particiilailv in the Volta da Serra, they rise much hiLiiiir tiiaii this, and in .some cases probably reach an altiti!'!'; of nearly a thousand feet above the plain. Tlic limestone for many leagues to the eastwanl "t' ."^ta. Kuzebia is very compact, dark blue, and dis- tinctly sti'atitie<l, resembling lithologicaliy sinm' that I had j)revioiisly seen on the lower pni-tiiiii of the Itio das Velhas and at Lagua Santa, as al.-" * Burton says tliat tlio llincstoiic at Chi(]iie-('lii(|iii.' i'' lar^a-ly (|iiarrKMl for hiiriiiiiir, :iiiil ho sufrj^csts that it would make a jiuoij iivdraulic cement. Aeconhii.ii: to him, " C'liiiiuo- CirKiue annually sends nj) and down stream hetwocn tJC Villa d;i 15arra and Joazeiru (ifteeii hundred to two flioii-am' al(iueires." Mr. Allen remarks that " the weatherni;:olilie limestone often leaves the surfaec studded with aeieular or small atteiiuateJ points. " PROVINCE OF liAIIIA, — INTERIOR. 311 (in tliL' Sao I'Vancisco at t'rubil, FurtliLT eastward thii) stratiHcd vaiiitv |i!tssc'(l into an ourtliy, liglit-colurod, iiustratiticd kind, uhicli was frLHinently greatly duooniposed at the suriUco, lieeoniing ,^Mtt. white, and chalky scnu'tiuies to the depth of several feet.* Tins ;:;ive to the distant, nearly verdureless hills in many jjlaces the aiijiiaranec of being covered with snow. i»ands of the strati- lu'ij ruck, which was sometimes qnite shaly, alternated with those that were unstratitied ; in some instances the passage of the (^no into the other was easily traced. Tlie strike of the limestone >trata varied Irom K. and NV. in the western part of the plateau t 1 \V. N. W. and K. S. K. t in the eastern. The dip was at first iirarlv vtitical or somewhat to the southward, hut afterwards an iiK'liiiation to the northward was observed. Large caverns were R'|MOtnl to l)e of fre(|nent occurrence throughout this limestone district, from some of which, 1 was told, very large bones had in'tii taken. Many of the caverns are doubtless very rich in I'aladutological treasures, but want of time and other circum- stances would not allow me to visit them, tliough 1 greatly desired to (In so. The extent northwards of the limestone I hail no means nf (k'terniining. Its southern limit I once saw at a locality known a> (tlhos d'Agua, about seventy-tive miles west of Jacobina. At tins [luint we turned soutliward a few miles from our usual course to visit a spring of water, and found an extensive exposure of a com- pact i|uartzose sandstone, which was liorizontally stratified and over- laid the limestone imconformably, the dip of the latter beneath it iiciiiLT at ii considerable angle. The sandstone here stretched away to tlie southward for miles like a vast level floor, its surface cov- ered tmly with detached angular blocks of the same rock, and sup- porting a few cacti. A distant low, even seira seen in the same * Von MartiiLS tJion^ht that this chalky crust resulted from tlie l)urnin<r over "I'lhf sanUce; but the heat wouhl not ite great entnigh to produce such an elllr;. ' Tlii< strike is very remarkable, for it usually varies in Brazil from N. N. E. :>'i:.N.i;.-c.r. 11. ,. ( 312 C;i:OLOCiY .VNU I'IIYSICAL ULOGUAI'IIY. direction, and called Serra das IVdrasd'A^xua, was doubtless of tii. hjuiic foniiiition. At Jae(i!)ina a Hiniilar horizontid sandstone uus oliserved, wliicli {,'ave rise to a lieaiitiful level grassy plain, culli.! tlic''J"al)(i]eM-a (le .laeiiliin.i, and wiiith uccn])ied the sunanit of tin water-shed. Near the Volta da Si'rra two larL'i' hills of hornstone, or clicrf ("])edra de logo" of tlie iJra/ilians), were crossed in tiie ftu leagues intervening l)etween this considerable serra and the ,]ixo>- bina taboleira. One of tliein attained the estimated hei;:iit of several hinidred feet and was several miles across, while tlie ntlur was abdiit half these dimensions. In respect to the relative age <jf the limestone of the wcsttiii plateau 1 obtained l)ut few data. It nuist, however, lie nual older than the sandstones already referretl to. Tlie ((iin]);!!' stratified j)ortion has a very striking lithological resemblaiuc, ;i> previously observed, to limestones seen on the lower jiart nl' tht llio das Velhas, which r^'sted conformablv uijon verv old il;i\ slates. No fossils were seen in it, l)ut nodular concretions wtiv fre(|uent at a few places. The Taboleiro de Jacobina is tiic iinKt elevateil j)art of the region under consideration. On several >ii!' > the country slopes gradually, but to the eastward the descciit t^ the Jacol)ina valley is abrupt, through a narrow precipitous di lil( . called the " Tonil)ador " (literally the " tumble down "). Tin' om trast of the scenejy here with that of the taboleiro, wliirii tin traveller may have left but an hour or two before, is vei'v uivat. Almost vertical walls of rock, nearly a thousand feet in JRiL'iit. (piitc surround the head of the valley, while lower down are iso lated, dome-sha[)ed peaks within these enclosing walls.* These peaks are composed of compact gneiss, though a few "t the smaller aj)pear granitic, but the u])j)er jwrtion of tlio walls is quart/ose sandstone. The valley seems to have been foniuil I'V a rent in the sandstone, which was subseipiently erodeil id it> * This srciUTy must liear tlio closest rcscmblaucc to that of jiaits ul :li>' Arassuahy-Calhiio valley. — C. F. 11. I'UOVINCE OF IIAIIIA, — INTKKIOR. :u3 present size and form. From the villa;.'(' of Jucobiiiii tlu' Icvt'l siinuiiits of tho distant valley walls to tliu westward iiro conspic- iiiiii-i feiiturt'S in tho lamlscapo. T.eaviuLr .Taeoliina and windinir amonir the hills for a few leatr'ics we sdon enter ni)on tho second or middle plateau, which cxtond.4 thenco eastward to the Scrra da Terra Dura, a point midway be- tween Jaeohina and Cachoeira, at the head of llahia l?ay. ThrouLrh- iiiit this distance of nearly two hundred miles I found <renerallv <n\\y (litl'erent varieties of gneiss, usually very compact, an<l somo- tiiues so granitic in structure as only here and there to ])resent weil-(letii\ed stratification. At one or two points hornblende rock wiis Hiitieed, of which there was a consideraldo exposure on the Kiiielio de Jacnhipc, near the arraial of that name. The dip was ulways eastward, and nsually very great ; the strike varied some- what at ililforent localities. Fi-om .bicohina nearly to the Seira lia Terra Dura it was generally N. X. W. and S. S. K. ; sometimes N. \\ . and S. E., and at one or two points N. and .S. East of the Arraial dn Itiacho de Jacuhijje it was nearly E. and "W., as in tho MiiPd i';t Eagoa do "Boi and Mon-o do Curral Velho, which have this tnnd. In the SeiTa da Terra I>ura, but a few miles further VOL. I. 14 V. <^ /a S: ^a '% V> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 !f iia iiM 2.2 1^ Hi I.I 1.25 1 1.8 U 11.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation V •sS ^ A € <;^ L<'- :/ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 Q.< k s 314 GKOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. cast, it varied at (litrcrent points from N. X. K. and S. S. W. t., N. N. AV. and S. S. K., averaging about \. and S. Over this whole region there is an ahnost entire abscmv ,.|' loose materials on the surfaoe. Vast exposures of nearly tiaiM rock, sometimes of acres in extent, occur ahnost constantly uimI nowhere is there more than a very thin sti-atum of soil. Sli^'lit knolls and siiallow ])asins alternate, which raix'ly differ more fhaii twentv or tliirtv feet in elevation.* In the rainv season niaiiv nf these basir.s become tilled with water, fi)rming shallow laL:"a^. varying in area from less than one to more than fifty acres, li-mn the most of which the water evaporates in tlie dry season. Tiitv are filled with rank atpiatic vegetation, the dead parts of wliiih, accumuhiting year by yeai', already form large deposits of paitially decomposed vegetable matter. So mmierous were these la'^'oas i\,v more than fifty miles that it seemed natural to speak of fli;> region in my notes as the " Lake Plain." Almost everywhere tin.' elevations are evenly rounded, indicating that the rocky crust lia- becMi ex[)osed to severe and probably long-continued ahi-asmii. But tlie absence of abraded materials seemed most remarkalili'. Very rarely were even loose boidders observed, thoiigh a few siuli were re])catcdly noticed. At fre([uent intervals there were sin_'i;- lar holes in the rocks, usually nearly filled with water, to which tin inhabitants give the name of " caldeiraos." t These " caldeirrms" are of frequent occvirrencc, but 1 was unable to learn whether all * The country jast below tlic falls of Paulo Affonso, at Piranlia*. for in- stance, though coinposcd of pnciss, is worn clown in tlio same way alino-t t'l a jilain ; luit wliilc it nirrccs with Mr. Allen's " lake jilain " in the tliinins- "( the soil, file part I saw was abundantly strewn with loose rocks. See n-tVrcnce to /'innilids, in index. t The term cahlcimo lias the same deiivation ns our Enj;]ish word cr.ldfn (rhnudirre), and it has the same siirnilieation. It is a{)]ilied to true jiot-lKpk'>, but sometimes to rock basins in whiidi water collects; but these la>t arc men' frequently called fioros, and when excavated they form tdniimn. Maininaliaa bones (Mastodon, &c.) are nut infrequently found in the caldeiraos of the hike plain — C. F. II. '■' "]W"''' -'-iMn'<-y'-g!rt: rROVINX'E OF BAIIIA, — INTKUIOR. .J K) were of a similar chin-.'U'ter. Nearly all of th(> (•(.iisiderablc nunihcr ixuiniiiL'd proved to be gemiino pot-liole.s, and scnue of tliein were (,f u'reat size. The largest one \ measured was elliiitieal in outline, ri-litien feet long, nine or ten in width, and twenty-seven deep, with smoothly Avorn sides. P>eneath the water that jiartially tilled It there must have lieen many feet of matei'ials lh:it for ages have invii falling into it, so that its whole dejith must he much ;rreater lliiui my measurements indicate.* Near the Serra da Terra Dura the country l)ecomes somewhat diversified by the presence of al)- ruptly risuig points or knobs that at intervcals dot its surface, us * ^Ir. Allen tolls rnc that these pot-liolcs often oecnr out on the jihiin, far n\v;i_v fVoiii any liiirh huul, ami that they arc sometimes found excavatcil in till' r.itiiinits of ilicrht Imljiiiicr^^ i" the plain, or even on tlie toj) of a hill, as ill the ease of the ^forro do Caldeiiao. Tiiese holes must have lieon exi'a- v;i!i(l liy fallinLT water. There is only one snfrpestion that I can make as to llii'ir oriirin, and that is tliat tliey were formed hy L:lacial watt'rfails, in the ■ariK way as tlu' iiot-holes foinid over the plaeiatcd rcuions of North Amcrii'a, MS fur instance, in Xew Brunswick a!id Xova Scotia, wliere I have had an "lifiortiHiity of examining thcMii. It is well known that placial waterfalls. iiittuithvtandiiii,'- the constant movement of the ice, are very often stationary, and in the Alps they hoi hnv out enormous potholes in the rocks. Tlu! lake lilaiii i< iu)ted for the small amount of decomiiosition whicli lias taken ],lace over it, owin;:, I hclievc, largely to the fact that it has; never been covcnvl hy llii; vir^jin forest, having always been dry. — C. F. H. 31G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. illustratud in the accom])iiiiyin,<( sketch, taken from an cmMicnco kn«Mvn as the Morro do Caldeiriio-assii, tliere being a large |M,t- hole near its summit. This elevation reached the height of aliout one hundred feet, and was the most considerable elevation crosseil in this part of the journey. It overlooked the j)lain for iniuiv miles in every direction, and the knoljs rising from it looked in.t unlike small rocky islands in the sea. Those examined were cuin- [)Oscd chiefly of ([uartz, the great hardness of which may have pro- vented their being so much abraded as the softer strata enclosing' them. At its ctvstern border the middle plateau becomes more broken, and merges gradually into the Serra da Terra Dura. These hills are all composed of gneiss, varying somewhat in cli;ir- acter, but gcnei'ally very hard and com2;)act, with a rather small amount of mica. The average trend of the strata has idready been given. From the Serra da Terra Dura a considerable descent is made in reaching the third, eastern, or coast plateau. This is chai- acterized, so far as observed by myself, by the general absence of rock exposures, and a deep supcrficiid deposit of compact sand. 2:)robably detritus from the naked aln-aded plains to the westwaid. Its extent and general features are too well known to re([uire a dctaded description here.* The three i)lateaus described above are separated from each other by low mountain chains and belts of broken country. The sandstone serra of the Ton^bador and the gneiss range of Jaco- bina divide the western from the middle one, while the Sei-ra d;i Terra Dura separates the latter from the eastern. In sonio I'espects these several districts are somewhat alike, but geologically they Midely ditl'er. The first, as previously observed, is a vast limestone plain, two hundred miles in extent, rising gi'adually to * This plain, which Mr. Allen has ropresonted on his profile, he (lescribos .t^ continuing; down to Caclioeira, and it is undouhtedly composed of the tertiiuy sandstones which extend over so large an area at the head of the bay of Todos OS Santos. — C. F. H. PROVINCE OF DAHIA, — INTITJOR. 017 the eastward; the second, of equal breadth, is gneissoso, and ;;]inarently everywhere of nearly uniform altitude ; the tliird is narrower, somewhat lower, and sandy. 'i'lie wh(jle region be- tween the Siio Francisco and the sea is covered usually with a low forest, or catinga, excci^t a nari'ow belt along the coast, wliero a inoister atmosphere cherishes a more luxuriant gn)wth. 'I'hc coinitry everywhere wears a b;iri-en aspect, the vegetation is dwarfed and scanty and the aridity of the climate is excessive. Tlio greatest aridity and the highest temperature obtain in the limestone district, where for nine months of the year little or no rain falls and all the herbaceous vegetation anmiully withei'S. (atti in great variety, including some of gigantic proportions, with vaiious species of bromeliacete, arc leading forms in the vegeta- tion. With the exception of a few species, the trees are leafless throughout the long dry season, and the streams either become dry or form mere chains of brackish pot)ls. The couvolvuli and ether vines that overrun the catinga, though dead at the time of niy juurncy, indicate an excessive luxuriance of foliage and flowers during the short rainy period. The middle or gneiss district differs l)ut little in its climate and veL'etation from the preceding ; it is, however, less arid, and cacti are proiiortionately less frequent, though still a leading featui-e of the vegetation. The eastern or sandy plateau is also quite arid in its western pai't, but gradually becomes moister towards the sea, where the vegetation exhibits the ordinary luxuriance character- istic of the Brazilian coast. In the vicinity of .Tacobina, however, where the great altitude of the land arrests the currents of damp air from the sea and condenses their moisture, mists and light rain-falls occiu- at frequent intervals throughout the year, and the forests are not only of larger size, l)ut their verdure is perennial. In the Serra da Terra Dura a nobler forest growth is also seen, resulting from causes similar to those existing at Jacobina. The po])ulation of the middle and western plateaus is extremely sparse. The settlements consist of but a few flimilies each, and 318 GKOLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GEOGRAPHY. occur (inly at li>ng intervals. Xothiiii,^ uijproaching the charactd' of a village is met with between the Sao Francisco and Jacoliin;,. Tlie middle district is more thickly settled, little luunU'ts luin^' more or less f'riMHient, and there are a few small A'ilhiLj'es. Tiip eastern is comparatively well settled and largely under cultivation ; towards the coast the soil is very productive. A jom'uey across the limestone ])laiu is alwa^'s tedious luul dilhctdt. Ivxtra animals must he taken to transport food for Imtli men and beasts, and in the dry season water must in like niaiiiur be ])rovided for use in crossing the long stretches where none lhh be ol)tained. During the rainy season the swollen streams aiid noxious exhalations from the temporary pools render the journey ecpially troublesome and far more dangerous. The topograi)liy of the arid, gneiss country of the intoiior of lialiia, .Sergipc and Alagdas, with its great jilains iiml bare surface, is in striking contrast with tluit of the I'oicst- clothed gneiss region of the coast of these j)rovince.s and of those to tlic sonth, where the sin'facc of the gneiss never forms ])lains, hut is always hilly and ridgy, and covered ly a thick bed of drift-clay. This dilference in topograpliical features has resulted, at least in so far as the last suiiacc- moulding is concerned, from the different climatic infhieiicis to which these jirovinces have been subjected. Over liotli of those parts of the country an extraordinary amouni of erosion has taken pkice. One might at first be iiiclinod to consider tliat the amount of denudation had been greater over the gneiss ])lains than in the hill-roughened basin of the j\rucnry, since on the former the upturned gneiss strata aie })laned down to a more even level ; but it seems to mc that this feature furnishes no criterion. The peculiar topograpli; of the wooded gneiss region is owing to the prevalence ol" a very moist climate, giving rise to numerous streams, which nmMvj r irj B vw i ii iiia iwrsw! PROVINCE OF I5AIIIA, — INTERIOR. 319 havo furroAvcd tlic surface with an intricate system of water- courses, such as we do not fnid over the gneiss ])lains of the nnrdi, for the grand jthysical features of the northern coun- tiv ill (luestion arc such as produce a dry climate, and pre- cludc tlic possil)ility of tliat nneipial erosion such as is jiro- (liiccil ])y the flow of surface waters fed liy heavy jieriodical or constant rains. Decomposition must have {ilayed its part licforc the drift as well as afterward, for else how could tliosc feldspathic sandy clays of the tertiary, S})read (ner the coast })lains and the great Amazonian valley, have been formed ? I cannot resist the conclusion that the present ('(iicst lielt was Avooded heforc the drift, and that this forest a!ul its attendant peculiarities of climate, were the causes of (Icconiposition as at present, Avhich decomposition has aided iinnicnsely in rounding down the hills and producing topo- frraphical features which received their fmishhig touches fi'iim the glaciers. Ill the interior of Bahia, hehind the arid region, where, as ill the Chapada, or the Serra de Tiuba, the country throws r.]i harriers to the air-drift and causes the condensation of moisture, we find a dilferent kind of topogra))hy, and the surface is deeply furrowed. There are forests, and decom- position has taken place to a greater or less extent. Till' limits of the forests, of the belt of decomposition, and (if the area over which copious rains fall, coincide very roiuarkably, and show a dependence ujion each other, l)ut tlic I'nwst lielt has a smaller area than that of decomposition or of the rains. The wooded belt seems to have narrowed frroafly within com|)aratively recent times, losing its foot- liiiM in the west, where immense regions, now campos, over wliii'li the climate and soil Avould normally be ])roper for the gin will of forests, have dried up, the climate has become r,2o GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOfjr.ArilV. hot, less rain now fulls, ancl iho forest cannot i-egain its lost place. DonUlless there arc many natural i)liysical causes to Ijc taken into consideration in studying- the distrihutioii of the Ibrest, catinga, and canipos iionc; Imt there is oin.' agency -wliich has l)ccn at work in Brazil, whose efrects we can hardly overestimate, and that is the burning over of wood and campos lands by man.* The very j)hysicul I'la- turcs of the highlands of i>razil determine a dinercuce of luxuriance in the flora) of different regions, and there are, as I have already shown, regions whei'e for ages the climiito has l)een such that forests could scarcely have had ;uiy noteworthy extension, so that there nuist have always Ikcu in Brazil, naturally, virgin forests, catingas, cam])0s, niid barrens. On the coast, where the forest is dense and moist, and the climate is wet, forest fires are next to impossihk', and one never sees a scorched and dead wood, such as cov- ers so large an area in the province of New Brunswick, for instance. But in the interior, where the catinga forests dro}) their leaves, and are as dead for several months in the dry season, fires arc easily kindled and the wood killed : ami fires set in oj)cn fields or campos, for the jnirpose of ])ro- ducing a new crop of grass, may spread to the ncig]il)oring catingas. It is the opinion of many writers that n lnrQ(^ ])art of the catinga and campos region of the Brazilian liiuh- lands was once covered l)y forests, and that their jiresent bare ai)pearancc and the character of their flora? is in \o\y great measure due to frequent and extensive burning over of the country. Every year the Brazilian campos lands arc systematically and almost entirely burned over, for tlie ])i!i'- posc of producing a new crop of grass. This burniiiij,' of * For .1 very intcrcstin": article on the effect of tlie hurnitif!: over (if tlie campos, see Ti<f.isl-riff for Pop. Fretn. if Xaturvid., — Caiiiposjloraen o(j Campos- brcernlene, by Eug. Warming. PROVINCE OF BAIIIA, — INTERIOR. 321 course lias dcstroyod all those trees and shrubs and jdants (if ill! kinds that cannot bear ihe scorching, and has wrought u pirat alteration in the eliaractcr of the whole flora of the reuion ; the climate also has sni'lered a change, for with the (J('>tnicti(;n of the woods and forests it becomes hotter, the unprotected earth is like a furnace, streams run ih'v a few days after a shower, and the sj)rings disappear, 'i'he whole- sale' iind careless destruction of the foi'ests on the Ih'a/iliiin coast, unless jiut a stoj) to, will in the end work a sure ruiu to the country. Brazil owes her climate and fitness (or auricultural purposes to her forests, and it is absolutely lU'Lcssary that they should be preserved over a veiy large jiart (»f the country, csijecially on the coast. The climate ut' the J>ahia has alreaily sultcred from the destruction of the forests of the Reconcavo, and the burning" over (jf the ]ilains. But I fear that Bra/.il will learn this fact only wiicu it is too late. Tills whole subject of the former wooding of the Brazilian canipos is the same as that i-elating to the North American l»vairies, whicli many sujiposo to have once been wooded. f>aiia has shown that the existence of forests depends upon iiKiislure, and any climatic change which may lessen the aniouiit of moisture over a region may cause the thinning out and fund disappearance of its forest ; and it is more than pn (liable that some such infiuencc, beside that of forest clear- ing and burning, has been at work in Brazil. Taking the Estrada do Capoeirassu on their journey from Ciuliooira to Joazciro, Spix and Martins ascended the steeji slope of the same name as the road to a height of about seven hundred feet, when they reached the t<>o of the dry plateau. 14* V GKOLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GKOGRArilV, The rock in the vicinity of Cachoeira is gneiss, rcddisli or yellowish in color, Avith a N.-S. or N. E. - S. W. s^lrilco and westerly dip. In some parts specular and niagiictii; iron were observed to take the j)lace of mica in the i-ock. Two le.igiies from Cachoeira the country becomes l)nriiii and uninhaljited. Here is a little place called Feini dc Concei(;ao. "The plain, as a general thing elevated I'miu six to seven hundred feet above the sea, forms here ami there shallow hollows, in whi(;h during the rainy seasuu l»rackish water, often nnlit for the nse of cattle, collect.s. In other jilaces one sees in several directions rows of hills with gently sloping sides. The only rock we found was gneiss, gneiss granite, or granular graiiite, for the most part of a reddi.sh or yellowish color, though sometimes also blackish or white. This rock lies entirelv bare over a lariio extent of snrface, or is covered by a thin coat of a heavy red clay, which appears to originate from the decomposition of the same rock. Besides this, fragments of granite and fine granite lie scattered about. In the low lying and wet places one finds little woods very much like the capoos of Minas Geraes ; the higher plains and the hills are in some cases bare of all vegetation, in others clothed with siuulc cactus stems and plants or with thick bnshes and low trees. All these j)lants belong to the catinga group, for they shod their leaves in the dry season, and for the greater jiart clotlic themselves only on the entrance of the rainy season. Only in the low wet ])laccs do the leaves remain on during the whole year The wood is never wholly without sap during ihe leafless season." The trees leaf out with marvellous ra})idity, and a short rain sufilces in two or three days to clothe a wood with spring-like veidnre. Von Martins speaks of the roots of the PROVINCE OF P.AniA, — INTKRIOR. 323 liulMi/cii'O {SpondidH t/ihcrosd \n\) wli'u.'Ii oxtoiid uiidcr- nnmiid iicai- the siirliicc', and arc full ol' sut'lliiius as lar<''0 even as a child's licad, liullow and lull of watci-, — a pvo- vi>i('n against tlic drought. Duiing the dry season these liDt iilaius arc almost destitute ol" life. The same kiiul of couutrv extends on to the Rio do J*eixe, and during the diy sciisoii it is almost wholly without water. When Spix and Martins reached the Rio do Pcixc, they found it only a .string of brackish-watcr jkjoIs. Crossing the Rio do Peixe our travellers passed over a range called the Serra do Rio do Peixe, which is dcscrihed as licing composed of gneiss and granite, and strewn with jiigantic and isolated blocks of gneiss. In some places horn- blende rock was observed. The Rio Itapicuru was, like the Rio do Peixe, dried up, fonnhig only a string of pools. Over all this region this is the stale of the streams during the dry season ; but a week's rain lills their dry beds and converts them into torrents, which if the rain docs not continue, soon become dry again, tor the surface water runs speedily off from the bare rocks and exceedingly scanty soil. Such a country is of course barren and unfit for culture. Rain falls abundantly enough on the sea-coast, but the air soon parts with its moisture, or becomes so heated that but little or none is condensed in the interior. The Arraial das Queimadas lies only about one liundred and thirty miles from Bahia. But very little rain falls there, and Von Martins relates that the inhabitants assured him that in some parts in their vicinity it had not rained for three years. A little cotton and maize are culti- vated there. One league N. W. from this jdace red gneiss was found, strike N. N. E. At Bebedor, one league farther, white granite, with a N. W.-S. E. sti'ike, was seen. Ap- 32-i firOLOiiY AND I'lIVSICAL GKOGRAI'IIV proneliiii^ flio Scrra do Tiiiha li^•llt <.n'CGii pisturile l)ociiiuo inoro and ni'»rc ahiiiidiiiit in \\w ^I'anitt^ at liist in ^liiins. takin<i' llio i)la('C of niiea, al'torwards in hands tln'oiinh ihc rociv. Thin hiycrs ,)f a slatu-liivc honil)londe-htunc wciv als() oltsci'vcd in tho rock. The Hcrra (h' Tiiil)a, where our travellers j)assed if, is about twelve hnndr<M| feet hi^li above its base, and is coiu- poscd of reddish granite i)assing into sienite. It is woddnj to its summit, j)robaIily owinii: to the condensation of llic nioisturi! ill i)assing over the scr produeing ft dani)M'r climale ; and I am strengthened in this opinion, since \i)\\ ^lartins says that the trees hicreasc hi height in goiiiu' iiji the serra. West of the serra a more level country succeeds, and va^w- tiiiues to Villa Nova da Rainha, southwest and north of "which arc mountains which show in their valleys Jii'jii catinga woods and a comi»aratively thick covering ol' It r- tilc soil. From Villa Nova Spix and Martins made a riijiiil j(Mirney to Monte Santo, to visit the great meteorolitc ot' Bemdcgo. The way ascends gradually, with occasional patches of catinga, to the fiizenda called Coche d'Agua, on the west side of the Serra de Itauba. The hills at the liase of tlie mountains arc, like the serra itself, of gneiss-granite. "The rock is for the most part bare, but here and tlicro a thickness of from four to five feet of reddish clay lies in the shallow hollows Avhicli the Scrtanejos excavate to a dej)tli of several feet in order to make tanks for the keeping of the rain-water. In these hollows numerous ))oncs of ancient animals are found, for the most part in a broken state, and so scattered that one hardly dare hope to find a complete skeleton. The bones in a recognizable condition PROVIXCK OF BAIIIA, — INTERIOR. 325 wiiicli wc luul the opportunity to gntlicr iirc the under jaw, a vfi'tcl)ra, ai"l a |»iiit ol"a slionldci-hhuk' ol' a mastodon." At the I'azcnda eallcd Harripi MoUo .similar hones were Ibiiiul, and at Mundo Novo and I'edra Vermelha Sj»i\ and Martins fonnd in a latKine the head of a I'ennn-. (Jther luralities lor these fossil remains mentionecl hy \'(in ^hirliuH arc the Fazenda de Siio (lonzalo and Culdeirues, and at the Fa/ciida Can(;am;ao, near (he ^h)nte Santo. Moiite Santo is an isolated hill ol" miea slate whieh has a X.-S. strike. The height of the mountain is, aeeording- to a liarometrical measurement, ahout seventeen htuulred and .sixty feet ahovc the sea. The rock is said to eontain dis- tliciic. In the vicinity arc several .scrras characterized hy Vou Martins as resembling one another in their " rounded- olC, long-drawn-out ridges, without steep sides, gaps, or rug- god •■lil'l's," the whole heing covered with catinga vegetation. At a place called IJemdego, near Miuite Santo, Spix and Martins examined an enormous block of meteoric iron, al- ready visited by Mormiy * in 1811, and Yon j\Iartius gives a luni-' description of it in his Reisc, to which the reader is referred. It Avas discovered in the year 1784 l)y a man who was searching for a lost cow. Coming under the notice of the Governor, an attempt was made to carry it off, under tlio impression that it was silver ; Init the cart broke down, anil Spix and Martins found it long afterwards lying in a 'iiiHik nearly 1)uried with sand. They give the greatest k'nirth at eighty Paris inches, the greatest breadth 43|", and the greatest height 84^".t The specific weight was * riiil. Transactions, 18IG, p. 270. ^ Moniay,/oc. tvV., f^ivcs its dimensions as 7 X 4 X 2 feet, the cubic contents •it-'S It'ot, and the weight of the whole mass at 14,000 pounds. See Dana's ^^■■^ti'ni of Mincralorry, p. 16. IMorn.ay's paper is accompanied hy a plate, ^howin- clie shape of the meteorite. Von JIartius also fi-rures it in his atlas. ' I. 326 GLOLOGY .AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 7.731. Tlicy estimated the weight of tlic whole lilork at 17,-jOO Paris jjuuiids. Fragments ol" the masjs were cut uli' and carried to Euroi)e, wlierc they were examiiuMJ hv Fici^entscher. Woliaslon had ah'cady made a chemical analysis of it. The latter found it to contain, iron, UO.l ; nickel, 3.U ; while Fickentschcr obtained Iron iS'ickcl Mixture of 9G.10 5.71 .4G 98.07 The prepared surfaf^c showed the "Widmannstadtian Cv;- urcs. In tlic vicinity of Bemdego were found some stramrc characters ])aintcd on a rock, apparently by Indians, and Von j\Iartins gives a slcctch of them in the atlas accom- panying liis worlc. "Burton* gives a long list of localities in Bra/.il in whirl) hiscriptions occur cither engraved in or ]iaintc(l ujniii stone, and he figures a number of the lnerogly]ihi('s he observed on the lianksof the Sao Fi'ancisco,a sliort distance above the rapids of Itaparica. lie gives also copies of cer- tain otluM* g]y))hs, observed by Mv. C. II. Williams, of l!a- hia, on tlu^ Rio Panema, one of the influents of the Lower Siio Francisco. Characters of tliis sort, which his ]\Iajcsty the Empei'or of Brazil has supposed to be the work of ma- roon negroes or QuiJonibriros, but wliich Burton refers lo the Indians, ajipear to lie very common in numerous locali- ties on the Lower Sao Fi-ancisco and in the northwestern » lli-hli\ncls of the Bnizil, Vol. II. Chap. XXVII. PIIOVIN'CE OF BAIIIA, — INTERIOR. :]27 ]iart of the i)roviiice of 13aliia.* A^on ]\I;u'tins speaks of liav- iiiu lound, in the niunediate vie'iuity of ihe hjcahly hv de- MTil.cs, fragments of Indian i)ottery, sliowing that tliero had anciently been an Indian encanii)nient on flie spot. He al'tL'i'waid found rock sculi)turings on the banks of the Jaj)ur;i. Xi'ur the Villa Nova da Rainha is the Scrra do Cado brain), which is described as a granite hill covered in places uitli a layer of red clay affording gold. Fioni \'iIlaNova towards Juazeiro the road leads for some six Ifagues through catinga. The rock for the whole dis- taiiLc appears to be gneiss, often with j)istacite, and the row ' i quite even. Granite blocks lie strewn about over i:;'' ce, with loose pieces {Fundling-e) of verdegris-col- orcd artz, fibrolite, schorl, and conunon ()j)al.f F 1 Joazeiro, Spix and j\Iartius made an excursion to llioriio de Salitrc to visit a locality where salt was extracted. This river flows into the Sao Francisco from the south, about a loauuc to the west of Joazeiro. Accoi'ding to Von Martins, tJR' rock in the vicinity of the town is granite. Going west- isuutliwcst towards the Rio de Salitre this rock was soon left, and whitish-yellow dolomite succeeded. Burton says that at its mouth the Rio de Salitre has tall banks, wdiite with * Mr. Wallace, in liis Travels on the Amazon and Kio \oj;ro, doscrihcs sim- ilar iiirtiuvwririn^s as occurring: fit Monta Alcgrc, tSorjia, at several localities oil the liio Xei,n-o, and on the Uaupes. t 'I'lic Bahia and Siio Francisco llailroad is to terminate at Joazeiro. Ac- ofinliir: to the survey of Vivian, Joazeiro is set down as O.'iO feet above tlie sea. Ilalfeld gives the height of the river at this point at 1383 palmas (998 fuetl. From a MS. map, furnished me by !Mr. Nieolny, showing the line of Vivian's survey, I take the following heights of jilaccs along the line : — Alagoinhas, 300 feet. Agoa Fria, 763 feet. Coite, l,14.'i feet. Faz. da Sta. Liuia, 1,IUG feet. Qucimadas, 888 feet. Faz. da Arueira, 1,997 feet. 328 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tlie finest limestone. Passing the limestone band, Yon Mar tins describes a band of finely bedded mica slate coniposi^i of crystalline quartz grains and Avliite or bright brown mica, A clay slate of a dark green color, highly laminated, ainl containing crystals of magnetic iron ore or pale flesh red oi' bluish, with chlorite, occu})ies a large area along the river. This roclc sometimes passes into mica slate. Associated with it are greenstone and gray linicstono. with garnet, and folia of chlorite, and mica slate. At the Fazenda Aldca, l)et\vcen the hills of the last-named lunna- tion and the river, Von ]\Iartius descriljes a fiat ]»iece of ground, about 00,000 s([uare feet in area, over wliirh the soil is higldy impregnated with salt. There arc many (itlur similar localities. The soil is alluvial, and deposited liy the river. It is ochre yellow in color, and contains more or los of pcljbles and vegetable material. After a rain or freshet has covered this soil, and the sun has dried it, an cffioresecncp of salt appears on the surface. It is not pure, and it ap- pears to contain sulpliate of lime, chloride of lime, ciiloiide of magnesia, and salti)ctre. The basin of the Silo Francisco, from the Rio Ycrde iioitli- ward to the Rio de Halitre, is extensively covered by saliiio dej)0sits, and some of the streams, as, for instance, tlie Rin Verde,* a river navigable for some distance for canoes, aiv brackish. Von Martins says : " To the west tlie mountains Avithdraw themselves still farther from the stream, and llu country consists of a uniform, diy plain, grown up with uiass and low !)ushes. Here one sees, especially in the low phioos, and particularly aftei;rain, white crusts of salt weatiier out, and tUc places where it makes its appearance most abundaiit- * Burton remarks that the fish seemed to be attracted in swarms by the brack ish streams. PROVINCE OF BAHIA, — INTERIOR. 329 ly ^'l^,croas, salines) arc the salt-mines of the inhabitants." Tlu'se mines lie sometimes at a great distance from the livtT. The salt is collected l)y scrai»ing up the crust of salt from the earth, mixing it with water to separate tlic earthy impurities, and then allowing the salt to crystallize out l»y the heat of the sun. liurton says that sometimes the liquor is " strained in bdiiL^-Krs (coppers or hides) evaporated over the lire and al- IdwimI to crystallize." >^alt made in this way must of course vary very nmch in quality, and there is every gradation IVoiu almost jmre salt to a useless dirty vai'iety bitter with inag-nosian salts. The oi'igin of the salt of the "^ao Fran- cisco valley is unknown. So far as we know, no deposits uf rock-salt * occur. The amcjunt of salt manufactured on the Sao Francisco is insufficient to meet the demand, and iniicli sea salt finds its way overland by way of Joazeiro. Mr. Allen has been kind enough to give me the following iiute on the salt of the 8ao Francisco valley. '' A saline efflorescence occurs at innumerable localities in the (liier portions of the Brazilian })lateau, as in other arid districts, Imt chiefly along the banks of the streams. At Jueni'e, situated about midway between Chique-Chiquc and Jacobinn, the efflorescence arising in the dry months from tlic animally overflowed banks or bottom lands of the Riacho di) Jacarc is scraped up at intervals, of course Avith more or less onrth, and the whole leached. The lye thus obtained is placed in small troughs to be evaporated by the sun, by which means a small quantity of impure common salt is ob- * Atronling to tlie Enji^incer Ncsbitt, rock-salt occurs below Chasuta, on the Hio Iliuillaga, one of the great trihutarii'S of the Aniazonas, and he says that the liiiiiks of the river for more than a league are inirc roek-salt! (Brazil and Brazilian?, p. 578.) ' i '^}.. 0'>n GEOLOGY AND PIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. taincd. At times tlie amount of other accompanying: saline compounds, as snlpliatc of magnesia, ttc, is so great us to render it (piitc unlit for use. Tliougli the river bottoms, or the overflowed jjortions of their valleys, afford the priii(i]i;il sources of native salt, the borders of the half-dried Ijignons nut unfrequently abound with a similar cfnorosccnce, Sudi salt licks occur as far south at least as Januaria, whryo they arc numerous. From this fact the city is more com- monly known in the neighborhood as Salg-ado than ly ihe name of Januaria. "The banks of the low^r portion of the Rio das A'(11ki> arc also remarkable for a similar thick incrustation of uluit api)eared to be nearly pure sulphate of magnesia. This incrustation is often of considcral)le thickness, appcai'iiiij- not unlike thick hoar-frost. To the presence of these saline impurities in the waters of the streams of many port ions nf IMiiias is attriljuted the great prevalence of the disease known as goiti-e, that occurs there with such frequency. " Most of the streams of Bahia arc brackish, at least in the dry season." " At Jacarc the apparatus I saw in use in the manudic- turc of salt was extremely rude, a section of a hollow tree serving for the leaching-tub, and small logs iK^llowcd out for cvai)orating-vessels. Saltpetre, as al)ove remarked, occurs with the salt over a large area in the provinces of Bahia and Minas Gcraes : but in the limestone region of the Sao Francisco valley, wlioro caves arc abundant, it is found, as we have already seen, mixed with the earth in the bottom of the cav(^s. A uu Martins says that fifteen leagues up the Rio do Salitre tlior" are extensive caverns excavated in limestone and fdled with a black earth containing ff^ of saltpetre. The process of PROVINCE OF BAIIIA, — INTERIOR. 331 extraction is very simple. The earth is lixiviated with hot or colli water, and the lye is reduced in strength l)y evapo- ratiu'i until the saltpetre crystallizes out.* "When salt occurs mixed with the saltpetre the lye ol)tained by the lixiviiition of the earth is first evaporated down sufficiently to allow the salt to crystallize, after which the saltpetre is olitaincd by further evaporation. Saltpetre is quite largely extracted in some parts of the ?uo Francisco valley, and on the Rio das Velluis. Burton says that on the Upper Rio das Velhas it sells for 10 •f' 000 (altout 8-3.00) per arroba. Fioni Carunhanha to Urubu the Siio Francisco flows through a flat country, Ijordered here and there, at a ifiTatcr or less distance from the river, by isolated hills and riduos. Just below the Rio Carunhanha is the Serra da Lajia, composed of limestone f of a l)luish color, and hori- zniitally stratified. Below Urubu the river valley, accord- ing to Burton, becomes more contracted and is bounded by '• Sci ras," which on one side or the other accompany it at a short distance. These serras arc masses of horizontally stratified sandstone, with which the valley was doul»tless at one time filled, but which has suffered very extensive denu- dation. Burton says that below Urubu, with the change in the geological structure of the valley there is ushered in a change in the climate and the vegetation, which Mr. Allen assures me is very marked. The sandstones in many lo- calities are descri!)ed by Burton, Halfeld, and others as ita- cohmiite. The sandstone lying near the surface of the * Burton, Vol. II. p. 291. t Mr. Alloti savs: "I well remember the serra of horizontal blue lime- stone ;it Mtid below Urubii mentioned, as you .state, by ]\Iartin.s and Burton. The hmestonc for many miles cast of Chique-Chique was litholoRieally of the same charaeter, but the strata there were inclined. See my report." I,- 332 GEOLOGY AXD PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tertiary cliapadas of the Jequitinlionha basin also rcsenilile itacoliimitc. * Below the Barra do Riu Craiule the river valley is (Jc- scril)ed liv Burton as broadening and forming a dead flif, which in i)laces, as at Chique-Chiquc, is covered :viili patches of iilowing sand, reminding one of an African desert. A short distance below Chi(|uc-Chiqiie, near 'I'apcni da Cima, arc heavy deposits of magnetic iron ore, which bur- ton compares ■with the Itabiritc and Jacutinga of (luiigo Socco and vicinity. The relation of these deposits ti) the other rocks he docs not give, but Ilalfeld states that they have a north south conrsc. At Pilao Arcado Burton speaks of finding a conglomerate underlaid by soft green shale, traversed by quartz veins. Here gneiss makes its appearance. The Serra do Toniba- dor, near the Ilha Grande do Zabele, Burton describes as composed of magnetic iron ore resting on limestone. The river for a great part of the way between Cliiquc-Cliiquc and Joazeiro is bounded by conical hills and ridges, ik'low Joazeiro outliers of the great horizontal sandstones, ttc, ap- pear constantly on both sides of the river, and they con- tinue, as we shall see further on, even below the fall uf Paulo Affonso. The bottom rocks arc gneiss, slates of va- rious kinds, limestone, ttc, Init ii competent geologist has been over the country, and its structure has yet to be worked out. * !Mr. Allen pivcs mc the following note : " Rospectini; the sandstone occur- ring below Uriihii, Burton's observations and my own also a<rrce. I niciitinn them in my note as quartzites and qnartzosc sandstone. I could see no difference between them and those observed 200 miles to the eastward at Olhos d'Agua and in the Jacobina Taboleiro. Near Jacobina 1 observed iWm also disintegrated, forming beds of white quartz sand on the declivities of soir.e of the hills." The term " itacolumite" is very loosely used by travellers, and is applied to compact schistose sandstone as well as to the true itacolumite. GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 883 CHAPTER VIII. PROVINCE OF BAIIIA, GEOLOGY OF THE VTCIXITY OF SAO SAL- VADOR AND THE BAHIA AND SAO FRANCISCO RAILROAD. Tnpnf.Tapliy of the Vicinity of Sao Salvador du Baliia. — Tlie U|)pcr aud Lower Cities. — Tiie ropuiatioii, lilc. — Tlie Ilarhor. — T'lie Coiniuerce of tliu City and Province. — Tlie Climate, i.^c. — The Haliia Steam Navination C(iin]iany. — The Bahia and Sao I'ranei.-^co Railroad. — Tlie riirn;xiiassii Steam Tram-road. — The Gneiss of Bahia. — Decomposition. — Drift Dc- ]u)>its — Consolidation of Beaches. — Stone Reef at Rio Vermcllio. — Bluwn Sands coverinjj the Drift of the Hills. — Mr. Allport's Description of the Cretaceous Beds of ]Monserrate and riatafornia. — Fossil Fishes, Croco- diles, &c. — Description of several sjiecies of Fossil Molliisks. — Cretaceous Boils of riatafornia and Vicinity. — Prof. Marsh's Notice of the Re]ttilian licnuiins — Fossil Fishes at Aj^ua C'om]irida. — CJueiss at the Rio .loliannes. — Talioleiros and Sand Plains of Camassari. — Peculiarities of the Tojjo- gra]ihy of the Tertiary Hills. — Tabatinjra Clay. — Sand Plains and Ta- bokiros of the Imhucahy. — Peat-Bog. — Drift. — Diamond-washings at Pitaii^ra. — Cretaceous Strata at Pqjuca. — Piassahas. — Canijios of Ala- goiniias. — Tertiary Hills. — Character of Vegetation. The sca-coast line going sontliward don1)lcs sharply nortli- ward on itself on reaching the month of the Bahia de Todos OS f^autos, forming a sharp peninsula or cajje directed south- ^vard and terminating in the point St. Antonio. This point, wliieli is composed of gneiss, is ahont four miles long, and has a mean elevation of about two hundred feet. On the osaward side the land is hilly, the hills being often hcmi- splierical or hemi-elliptical, and presenting very remarkaldy regular outlines. On the coast, as in the case with the ^lorro do Consclho, and the hills in the vicinity of Rio Vermelho, •).>-t GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GFOGRAPHY. flicsc hills arc liare oflroos, so that their I'oi'in is hoaiitiPillv seen. On the western side, which is ()(.'eui)ie(l hy tiir (ii^- (if Hahia, tliis eajje is very even hi height, and is hoiiinli'il hy a steep, in sonic cases preeij)ituns slope,* which, willi a somewhat zigzag course, is continued many miles to the northward, ai)i)arently marking the line of a IVactine. 'J'he citv of Sao Salvador da JJahia, i.sualiv kuijwn as I>ahia, stretches along the edge of the hhil't" lor scveial miles. The rldddf alta is ii'i'egularly hut well hiiilt tui' a South American town, and there are some heautil'ul resi- denees, es|)CcialIy in the southern part of the city. Tliciv are many churches, some of which arc very fine, together with schools of various kinds. Besides these there is a medical college, a puhlic lihrary of several thousand vul- unies, a large theatre, a j)uhlic garden, and a nmseuni; but the latter is no ereilit to the city. Ikdow the hlnff is the cidddc haixa, whieli occupies a veiy narrow strip along the hay. This is the husincss portion, and though it for the most part consists of hut one or two streets, it is closely huilt uj) with warehouses and stores. Ilei'c are the Alfandega, or custom-house, the markets. the mai'ine arsenal, the consular olTices, l)anks, sevcinl hotels, etc. It is a hot and husy place. The city stretrlics along the shore for several miles to tlic northeast, foriu- ing the suhurl)S of ^fonscrratc and Itapagipe, the latk'r known as the head-quarters of the Bahia Steam Naviga- tion Company. The two cities arc united hy very highly * "In ion, as a result of hcfivy rains, there occurred a destnietivc >liil<' from the suniniit of tlie bluff, \vhii:u prcciiiitiited a large quantity of eartii upon the lower town, destroying houses, burying tiiirty persons alive, and tillini: n;' half of the Praia Si^iilar slides have frequently occurred in the hi-t(jiy of Bahia, notwithstanding expenditure of immense sums in endeavoring to prevent them." — Kidder's Brazil, Vol. II. p. 39. GEOLOGY OF TIIK VTCINITY OF sAO SALVADOR. 335 inclined streets, passable Avitli great difficulty liy carriages or teams.* Tlic whole city nnml.ors from ICOjOOO f to 1HO,000 J iiilialiitants, [jrincij tally of I'orliigiiose and iiogro (U'scent, tlioiiuli there are many foreigners, as at Rio. Quite a num- licr of Englishmen are engaged in liusiness there, hut Ameri- cans ai'c lew. The society is almost thorouuhlv JMn'ooean- izcil. and there is nnieh real cultme among the ]»eo|»le. The I'ay of JIahia forms one of the best harl)ors on the nnizilian coast, and, n(^\t to that of Kio, it is the most re- sditiMJ to. It is, however, so wide, and the entrance is so ciicii, that the ocean-swell rolls in, ja-eventing shipping- lying at llie (piays, which is also the case at Rio. In ordi- iiaiy weather the shipping is protected hy the high land on which the city stands, hut southwest storms cause a heavy swell. The city owes its importance chiefly to its harbor, which eminently fits it to be a jjort for foreign trade, while it makes the city the centre of the trade of the coast for a \iws distance north and south, as well as of the interior. The products of the Suo Francisco and of Sergipe find their way lor the most part to Bahia. The borders of the bay itscir, or the Reconcavo, so called, are highly cultivated, and l>ro(hice much sugar, tobacco, ])iassaba filire, c^'c. The prinei- pal product of the interior is cotton, which is cultivated to a * A strcot witli fi rnodornte praile to connect the two towns wns in process of Iniildiii;: in 1807. By this time it i.s iirobahly completed. Dapper, in his Awrini, piiMished in 1G7.3, <:ives a very curious and interesting' copperplate eiii:raviiii; of the cit\'. He represents the ujtper city as huilt on a plain, sur- roiiiuk'il luliind hy a narrow crescent-shaped lake, and with hiirli mountains in tlio liMckpiound. Two inclined planes for carriaj,'cs elevated by machinerv are sn'ii unitin;^ the upper and lower towns. t ronipc'o, Georiraphin, 1864. t Dr. Candido Mcndes de Almeida, Mas, 1868. M. :v:,Cj GKOLOGV AND PHYSICAL CroORAPIIY. considcrahlo extent in (lie less arid rojiions. Cattl(^ arc raised in great (jnantitics, and large herds arc sent into the ])rovincc fi'oni the eonnlry west and north. Pcrhii|..s no better idea of the connneree of J}ahia eonld he alVordcd than hy giving the oHiciul tables of the cxj)ort.s during tiiu year 1804-05*: — Articles. Agoiirdcnte Cotton Sugar Caciui Coftcc Cigiirs Hides Diamonds Other Articles Tobacco . Woods Piassaba . Official Values. 372:81 ;i81 20 1.3();}:2778r).-);5 G..'?10:()278r)8.3 173:22r).$;{.-)(] l.GU:()(;;},S4,")() 45:8.3!).8n()() 35(5:00883(10 1.381:5008000 81:02').8O4'J 2.000:83.38745 237:2GG8!)!>7 141:4378053 The caCin CO 1 'S principally from Ilhoos, and the colTi-o from the Colonia Leopoldina. Large quantities of good cigars are made in Bahia, and are sold at a very low pi'ice. At Cachoeira, or rather at kSTo Felix, opposite, is a very large manufactory of cigars (c/innitos') and cigaritos. The latter are much esteemed in l^razil. The hides come from the interior of the province and from the Sao Fj-ancisco. I have in preceding pages called attention to the whale- fishery of the port. The following table will show the value of national pn- * Kelntorio of the President, the Commendador Manoel Pinto de Souza Dantas, Bahia, 1866, 2, Quadro No. 11. GEOLOGV OF TIIK VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. a.".? d;irts exported to other provinces during the hitter lialf of the year Ibli."): — '""'•f'*- VUIUOH. ^^J'>J,'"*"^s 115:0:)L'8949 ^'^i^ru. 2G:()(J-i8;H8 Espirlto Santo .... 9:r)l;j$.S77 Miininhuo 27;81l'8877 J't-rnamhuco 1.048:05()$020 '''H"'i G0:()()S,Sl)70 •*'i'''i'iyl'''^ 1:4858500 Kio de Janeiro 3G8:4<J28'J8G l!i() Cinuulo do 8ul .... 212:8G5S'">1 1 ^<^rg\i>e 150:9;]O.S8:}7 2,()2():M() 78845 Tlie elimato of Baliia is liot, hut not uuheaUhy.* In tlie lower eity, where the streets arc narrow and i)roteeted from the sea hrcezo Ijy tlie hi,uh ground hehind, it is very warm 1111(1 nueomfortahle, hut I have never suffered so mueli in the lower town from the heat as I have in early sunnner in New York. In the upper eity the climate is exeeedindy pleasant and healthy for a tropical city. Bahia has .suf- fered at times from yellow-fevcr,t l^ut it has heen for many years remarkahly iiealthy. iialiia is eonneeted with Europe hy two lines of steam- ^liips, and with New York hy the Brazilian mail steamers. It is the head-quarters of the Bahia Steam Navigation Com- * Fur several years past Dr. Antonio dc Laccrda has kc[.t a journal of mctcorolo^ncal observations for M. Araffo, l)ut I do not knoxv tliat tliey liave .vet hocn pul.lishcd. The ciiinatc of Baliia appears to he n;ore moist than that of Hio, and rains are more frequent, being distributed tlirouii,!! tlie entire year. t Tompeo. writin- in 18G4, says {Gnxjraphia, p. 449): "Until 1849 Bahia "■a.s siitliciently healthy ; but since that turn; the yellow-fever became almost tnilHiiic, attacking with preference the Europeans." Pouipeo is not quite ac- Clir;;ti' licr; VOL, I 15 flF.OLOr.Y AND rilVSICAI, (ii:OGI!Al'IIV. ymiiv, unilcr tlu; iil)l() (lircciioii of my ostcoiued IViond, Mi-. Hugh W'ilx)!!. This coniiiaiiy has al incseiit a llcot cil" si\- tcL'ii stoaiiicrs. Of these one rims regiihii'ly hetwoeii thr city and Maeeiu, in the noi'th, ealling at Teueih), and al various jmuIs in the j)i'oviiice of Sergipo. Ueguhir sti'mu navigation lias heen eslal)lisiit'd on the Sao Fi'aneisco, IkIhw the I'orlo (his l*iranhas. Several steamers of the eoniimiiy are engage<l in running hetvveen IJahia, Cachoeira, St. Amain, and vai-ious other points in the Ueeoncavo, and there is a reguUir line j)etween Hahia and Caravellas, or the (.'oloniu. A railr(jad has h(;en comme'need to Joazeiro, hul alter extending ninety miles in a northerly direction from Haiiia. it ends in a desert sand-})lain at Alagoinhas, as we shall mc. and there is no prospect of its ending anywhere else for sumo years to come. From Cachoeira to T'ruhu, on the Sao Francisco, a steam tram-road has l)een |)rojeeled. It was formally opened in July, 1<S(!7, hut I have not learned what progress it lias made n[) to this time.* The road will run nj) the Taiu- guassu valley, through the liiamond region, \.ith ^ido branches to Feira dc Sta. Anna and L(>n(;ues. This raih'oad has a future before it, as it is to run thioiidi a much more im{)ortant tract of country than the JJuhia and Sao Francisco Railroad. The gneiss composing the i)oint on which Bahia is iniilt is composed of a very com])aet, sometimes trap-like variety of gneiss, not infrequently without mica and with v(My in- distinct ])lancs of stratification, as has already been observed by Alli)ort t aiid Darwin. The latter has given the fulluwiiig description of the Bahlan gneiss : :{: — * JIajor Jmiih's informs me tliiU it is projwscd to maivc this a railmail. t Quarterly Journal Geological Society, Vol. XVI. Part 3, p. 263. t Geological Observations, p. 140. GI'.OI.OCJY OF Tin: VICINITY OF i>\0 SALVADOK. '.V.VJ "The iircvailiii;^ rook i.s ^'iiciss dltcii passiiiir, liy the (liHiippi'iir- MiU'C <it" the i|iiiti't/ aiul iiiicii, and liv tlic Irldsjtar losiii;,' its red t'uliir, into a lifilliaiit u'l'ay in'iiiiitivt; ui-cfustoiic NCt iiiilVf- iiiiciitlv «iiiai't/ and hoi'iililciidt' arc ai'raiiucd in lavcrs in almost, ;iiiii'i'|itions i'rlds|iar. Tlioru is sonic tine ;;raincd siiiiitic iiranitc, (irliiculiiriy maiiscd liy rcrrn^inous lines, and wcatlicrini;- into vertical, cylindi'iful holes almost tonehiiii^' each otlicr. In the miiiss, eonei'etit)ns of yranular feldspar, and dtliers of garnets with iiiiia. oecnr. The j^'nc-S is travi'rsed hy numerous dikes composed dt' liiack, finely erystalii/ed, hoi'nlilcndie rock. containiiiLr a little i:l;is>v feldspar and sometimes mica, and varying' in thickness from iiici'c threads to ten feet ; these threads, wliieh are often curvi- liiuar, eoidd sometimes be ti'aced runnin;,' into the larger dikes. One of these tlike.s was remarkable from havin;;' heen in two or three places laterally disjointed, with nnhroken cneiss interposed between the broken ends, and in one jiai't with a portion of tho <mo:ss driven, ap))arent]y whilst in a softened state, into its side or wall. In several neighboring i)laees, the gneiss included angu- lar, well defined, sometimes bent masses of horid)lende rock, (luite like, except in being more ])erfectly crystallized, that forming the dikes, and. r.t least in one instance, containing (as determiuetl l)y Professor Miller) augite as well as hornblende. ". . . . The folia of the gneiss within a few miles romid "Bahia L'oncrally strike irregularly, and are often eui-vilinear, di])ping ill all directions at various angles ; but where liest defined, they extended most frequently in a X. E. by N. (or East 00° N.) and S, W. by S. line, corresponding nearly with the coast line n(jrth- wanls f>f the bay. T may add that Mr. Gardner found in several parts of the province of Ceara, which lies between four hundred and five hundred miles north of Bahia, gneiss with the folia ex- tending 1«:. 4.")° N. ; and in Guyana, accordl ■:; to Sir 11. Schom- Imrgk, the same rock strikes iv 57° N. Again, ?Iimiboldt de- scribes tho gneiss granite over f immense area in Venezuela and oven in Colombia, as striking E. 50° X., and dipiiing to the X. W. ri ;;4ii GKOLOGY AND I'llYSlCAL GEOGRAPHY. ;it nil iiiiglc of litiy dcgroos. liuiiCG all the obscrviitinns liiflnitj iiiudo tend to .show tliut the gnuissic rocks over the whole of this jtart of the coiitiiieut have tlieir folia extendhig generally within almost a point of tlie compass of the same direction." Oil the surface the giici.s.s i.s in some jjluces d(^com))osi(l io a great depth, and so soft as to be easily removed hy a spade or mattock. It is well exposed in tlie numerous ciit- tinu's on llie streets in different parts of the citv and vicin- ity. On the Ladeira do I>om Gusto, on the southern side ascending the hill towards the cemetery, is a vvi-y heavy ex- cavation, in which the decomposed gneiss /// si/u is lieaati- fully shown, and where, at the tim" of my visit, workmen weiv cnttiuL!: it awav with hoes. The decomposition consists of a loss of alkalies on the })art of the feldspar, reducing it to the state of kaolin. The iron of the rock is oxidized and stains it a dee[) brick-red, though the color is rarely uni- form, bnt likely to be in streaks, })ortions of the rock lieinu' white. Between the lighthouse at the bai'va and the jirst little point above to the westward, the rock is the (Imk gneiss above dcscril)ed ; it is well bedded, but the stratili- eation is much disturbed. The strike here is N. 00° E. Dip X. W. o.")°. Nearer the lighthouse the rocks become iniuli distorted ; there are here several large veins traversing the rock ; one trap vein about nine feet wide has a X. S. direc- tion, while a granite vein 1 observed rnns X\ E., H. W, Tlu! lighthouse is l.)uilt on a rock which is joined to the mainland by a narrow and low isthmus. The road whieh skirts the shore crosses this isthmus, making a eonsideralile exi'avation necessary, while the road branching off to go te the lighthouse runs through a similar cutting. The greatest thickness thns exposed is twelve feet. The npper ]i;U't, c c c, consists of the ordinary red earth one finds every- GKOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 341 whore spread over the surfucc of the liills at Baliia. In it are seen oeeasioual loose irre<^ular masses of (luartz and llaliian gneiss, the latter deeuniposed. The nnder jtart, b h, iMjiisists ol' an irregular sheet of boulders of liahian gneiss iiKjre or less dceonij)oscd, sometimes a foot and a halt' in diaiiu'ter, in some eases angular, in olhers rounded, to- ovtiicr with others of that jjeculiar frialde ([Uurtz so eom- iiKHi in the quartz veins of tlie Ikdiian peninsula, also either aiiLiulur or rounded milky quartz pebbles, of all sizes, the whole being thrown together, without any arrangement, in a (•(infused mass. The greatest thickness of the boulder bed ('\ji 1 ,(j(l is about four feet, but it thins out at a to only six iiiclu'S, and is seen to lie immediately uj)on the decomposeil ti'iu'iss. Tliis is the most remarkable gravel deposit which I have scon ou the coast. According to my estimation, the height of tho bottom of this sheet above sea level is twenty to twoiity-fivc feet. On the eastern side of the lighthouse the gneiss is much liidkoii up and faulted. There arc here some interesting granite veins, in which the materials are seen to be very coarsely crystallized on the side of the fissure, while the oiTstals of the middle of the vein arc very small. Near this place I found gneiss of a light color, full of garnets, almost vertical, and with a strike of N. 20° E. < Icing uj) the beach and passing the first little point, one oliscrves a sheet of a soft dark brownish or yellowish sand- 342 GEOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. stone lying- against the lilllsidc, and extending from near low- tide mark to a height of some fifteen to twenty feet. 'J'his sand has l)een evidently washed or hlown uj) from the slioiv over the hillside. The grains of sand in this rijck are vnv fine and uniform, and the whole is loosely cemented liy oxide of ii'on. I had ol)served that the red drift coating in no ])la('e caini' down to tlu^ surface of the sea, ])ut that it was invaiiiililv worn away up to ahout that level to which the waves musr have reacdied at the time when the late rise of the Inml hcgan. ]}elo\v that lino the hillsides were hare and tli^ rock surface broken and irregular. 1 found that the saiiils just described overla])pcd the drift and in part prolcctcil ir. but the waves had washed away a portion of it, so that thr drift is seen underlying the sands and extending to licluw half-tide mark, showing, I think, conclusively that the laml was more elevated when the drift was deposited than it is at present. The seaward sides of several uneiss hills ai'e liarcd am! much broken up by the waves, which beat heavily on iliis coast. It is interesting to ol)scrvc the exceedingly invnii- lar surfaces develoj)ed by this action, and how^ the lianhr rocks become prominent Avliilc the softer arc washed away. This gneiss is of the same general character as that at the Barra, though it varies much in color and general ap- pearance. At the lighthouse, and especially to the eastwanl. ilie beach is partially solidified by the cementing together o^ its materials Ity the lime derived from shells. The shiiido ot' the beach and the sand and gravel packed away in ciiicks in the rocks become cemented solidly together. "Where ilio beach is composed of sand, it is converted into a very hard GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. sandstone np to a level eonsidei-aldy al)()vc half-tide, and in tliis sandstone the strueturc and irregniar bedding of the U;ii'li arc l)eantit'nlly jtreserved. A'eiy eonmKJidy, after this sulidilication has taken plaec to some depth, the iiewly made lock is washed bare, and broken m\> by the waves. In this ease if forms detaehed masses, sometimes an extensive >hvrl of sandstone, whieh aj)i)ears to erop ont on the beach witli a seaward dip of a I'vw degrees, wiiatever tlie trend (if tlu,' beach may be. Masses of this kind wc find at hiter- vals on the shore between 13om Fim and Bahia, and on the (Dast thence to Rio Yermelho. The sandstone of this reef or ^(ihdified beach often contains layers of coarse materials as well as ail abnndance of shells, the latter usually broken, liur sometimes perfectly preserved, and with their colors iinite fresh. It is veiy^ interesting to see liow tliis consolidation goes on. On a long sand beach one may trace it, sometimes, in ■jvory stage of progress. It frecpiently hapitens that, owing ]ire!ial)ly first to a heavy storm, a ridge is thrown np behind the beach. This ojjposes a l)arrier io the sea for a long time thi'real'ter, and may inci'casc in lieiglit ami extent from the drift of the sand liy the wind, wliicli is very likely to take I'lace, ospecially wlien the shores have a northerly trend, on ai'Cdunt of the prevalence of northeast winds. Along tliis line shells are thrown np in great (piantities and buried ill the sands. These shells become dissolved by the water soaking through the sands, whether salt or fresh, and the cailionato of lime thus '^crived is deposited as a cement to th(^ materials of the beach to a height somewhat al)ovc half-tide, I'arely ever to high-tide mark. The copious rains innst tend notably to this result, and the waters from marsh lands soaking tlirou'jrh the beach must also assist in the 344 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY/ solidifying process. Sometimes, after the solidification of the lower part of the beach, the loose i)arts arc swept uwov by a storm, it may be, sometimes, by the bursting of die barrier by the freshet of a river, whicb has inundated tlir low grounds behind. In this case the beach is left stand- ing like a wall running in the water })arallel to the tdast. Such a reef is seen at Kio A'ernudho, where, after skirtiin; the shore for some distance, it jirojects })artially across the mouth of a little bay, like a wall or breakwater of rock. The reef at Rio Vermelho illustrates very well the gcncial character of these consolidated beaches. It is comp()^(Ml di' layers of calcareous sandstone and conglomerate, often some- what irregular, (li})ping seaward, the dip being only a W'w degrees, or about that of an ordinary sand beach. T\\v licJLiiit of the reef is very imil'orm. In the finished and isolatcil reefs, as that of rernaml)uco and the one under considera- tion, the re(;cnt rise of the land has brought this level sume- what aljove that of the sea. The solidified portion is seen to 1)C but a sheet of varying thickness lying on the surface of the beach. On the inner MighWater. side It is quite thin, and from the action of water behind it is undermined and l)roken off, until, at last, it forms a low perpendicular wall, imdermined l)elow and sometinios pro- jecting several feet. Usually this side of the reef is flanked by a slope of sand or nuid, and sometimes by large oblonir blocks of the sandstone. GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 34.3 Tlie snrfaco of ihc roef is, l)roadly speaking-, horizontal, hut it is marked In- longitudinal ridges and nuicli worn awiiy, sometimes honeycombed and exceedingly rough, wilh hiruc, sliallow or deep, ii'regular j)0()ls of water, the homes of s('V(M'al species of corals, etc. The whole mass is divided liy joints into great blocks. On the seaward cd^^c tlio reef is (it'ifii woi-n away by the waves and undermined, present- iuL' always a perpendicular wall to the sea. The upper lied ;iliii()>t always projects a little, and great Idocks broken fruin it lie in front, which afford some protection to the reef. Our lift en finds a depth of twelve to fifteen feet or more at Uv tide along this side of the reef. In most cases corals iridWdii the faces of these reefs l)elow low water. The reef rock is quarried quite largely at IJahia, as well as at Pcrnambuco, for building purposes, and in both cities it has been used for flagging. In the sidewalks of the upper town at Bahia one may sec it in large I ducks which •.W'} full of shells of species now common on the coast. Going lUM'thward beyond the ]\rorro do Conselho, the iinciss hills recede more and moi'C from the coast, and low lauds cniiio in between them and the sea. These I have examined for a short distance north of the Morro do Con- >''llio. The coast is fringed with patches and strips of sands ^vliicli. in part forming dry plains with a scanty vegetation, 111 part swampy, do not rise to a greater height, as a general nile. than eight to ten feet above the sea. Tliere are many patihos of this kind near Rahia, and some are of consideralilc t'xtout. On the sea-coast they occupy several little l)ays ])c- twoon tlie hills. As we go northward beyond the Morro do Conselho these sands become wider in extent and occupy li^i'2'e tracts. The sands on this coast are verv fine, and ■11'c easily raised and carried by the winds, so that exten- 15* r.4G GEOLOGY AND PIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. sivo s.'ind-liills nro foi'incd, '.uid the shores of lla])iiiui, a ^vw leaii'iK's iiortli of I5ahia, are white as snow. Ill an ('.xciirsion inach' aiiionu' the donu'-sliaped ^nieiss hills to Ihc cast ol' <he cily of IJahia, and horderinu' the saiuls. I ol)ser\ed that the lij^lit, white sand was lilown n[) (Ui tlir seawaiMl side of some of the hilis over the rich red (h'it'i. su tliat one half of a hill is snow white and the other hrick nd, These liiUs are cultivated in pUiccs, and it was very iiitcrc^i- iiie to si>e a red liehl set in a framework of wiiite sands, ihi' drift soil l)cin<i' turned up in the process of tillinti'. The city of I'ahia, as already descrihed, is hnilt in ]iiiit on a low strip of land, whieh, hcu'inning some tw.i iiiiirs ahove the lit;'hthonsc on the hay side, accompanii's tin' shore for a mile or two liirthcr on, when it sweeps idiDiJ westward, scparatinu; itself from the gneiss ridge, foriuiiii a long, irn^gnlar tongne of land occupied, by the subiiilis Je(pietaia, Bom Fim, and Ttaj)agipc. From Jeipietaia t(^ I>om Fim this tongne of land is flat and composed of recent sands. At Bom Fim and ^loasei- rate the land is higher and more irregnlar, the heiuiit l^hvi eighty to one hundred feet. It is composed of cretaci'oiis strata. Allport says:* — " The rocky cliff forming the southwest of the hill, (ni which the fort of Monscrrat is Imilt, jiresents to view s( v- cral alternations of conglomerate, sandstone, and shale. Towards the northeast these beds pass into a gritty shale of a bhiish-gray color, and fnll of jiebbles ; the latter gradually disappear, and the upper strata, as (iir as the sea- ward exposed portion extends, consists of beds of shale, al- ternating with bands of sandstone, both of which cental!! the same species of fossil shells. The entire series of these * Quiii-tcrly Journal Geological Society, Vol. XVI. Part 3, p. 2(j,'5. GEOLOGY OF TlIK VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOi;. .•34"; (loposils is covered with tlie iisnnl i-cd loam, and have ilic ofiicral iiirliiiatioii to tlio norlliwcsf . ••The seaward exposed posilioii of tlie eliff of ^fdiiserrat, ;ili,,iil iliirly feet in height, consists chiefly of conulonicrate, wiili irregnlai" wedge-shapetl hands ol' shale and cliiy, and ;i1mi liands of sandstone. '^Fhe cnnuhunerati' is composed of iiiiiie or less rounded ])el)I)les of gneiss, granite, ([uart/, and (ithrr riTstaHin(.' rocks, and (occasionally of sandstone, the ^dl^le forming an extremelv hard rock. The ])ehl)les varv ill si/c from the hnest gravel to largo hunlders. "In the shale, near the hase of the cliff, were found the I'lissils ahout to he noticed, consisting chiefly of scales and (iiIki' ])ortions of fish, hones and teeth of sauriaiis, together with lignite, a few 3Io//i(sca and some J^tilo/iioslracd. "Two miles from the ahovc hill, in a northeast dircc- lioii. is the l^lataforma, another hill of the same foianation, liut litflier; the conglomerates and shales have here the same lithological character, and in the latter arc found sev- rral fossils similar to those found at ^fonserrat. '•The geological i)osition of the al)ovo formation is unde- ii rmincd, as they have not heen traced in connection with iiilici' deposits ; hut a prohahle inference may, perhaps, he nuule from an examination of the fossil remains. "With regard to the fish remains. Sir P. Egerton, Bart., F. ^'. S., to whom the specimens have heen suhmitted, states that " the scales arc those of LrpUlotus. The spe- cies appear to l)e a new one. The nearest aj)pr(mch to it b' an undescrihed species from the lithographic stone of I^ili|ienlieim [middle oolite]. *' Xunierous fish-hones were found associated with the scales: and ])rohahly the greater portion helong to Lrpido- "s al>o. But these and the crocodilian teeth and hones. U8 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRAl'IIY, wliicli arc also cominoii in these clays IVoiu MoiisiMiat aiil IMatal'ornia, have not yet ))ceii sysU'inatieally exainim il. Frufessoi- Owen, on a cursory view ol' the lar<:,'e vertiliiu. figured iu PI. XVII.,* suggested that it would he a iIoimiI vertebra of a Dinosaiirian re2)tilc allied to the Mr^uilo- saurus.''^ At Monserrat Mr. Allport collected a ^lelauia dcsciilMMl by Morris as Mcliuua tcrchrij'onnis, and s})ecies ol" (nii). Faludina, Ncritina (?), together with seven s])ecies of cvii- rids, enumerated and in part described by J(jnes, iiaiiK Iv. C/jpris (?) concu/lala, Candona Candida Midi, Cuprix (':) Manser rattnisis, Cypris (?) Al/portiana, Cypris sj). nun de- script. I was unable to visit the locality at the fort, l)iit T ex- amined the beds quite carefully near the Pcdra Fuiada. On the shore, south of this last-named locality, are ('V)i(imiI thick beds of sandstone, shale, conglomerate, and liiucsfdin'. tlie continnation of the same series as Allport dosciilics. This limestone is of a compact tcxtni'e, and motllci' \\it!i brown, gray, and green. It contains some sand, tuptlur with little ])el)bles of gneiss and quartz, generally aniiular. Freshly broken, this rock shows the fossils very indistinctly, but on the weathered surfaces they stand out in liiu> ii'licf, At the same time the surface becomes granular, as if it were composed of coarse, ronnd, or oval grains of saml. These arc, however, calcareous, and the structure may W oolitic, though the grains look as though they had liccii rounded mechanically. Associated with this rock is a fine-textured argillaceous, light slate-colored limestone, in which there is no traco of this oolitic (?) Btructure, but instead one finds occasionally * Quarterly Journal, loc. cil. GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 340 tlic couc-in-cono stnicturo l)oaiitiriilly developed, — a some- what unusual circuinstauce in rocks of this age. In these rocks, which, at the most, I'onu a bed but two feet thick, several species of shells occur in iininensc numbers. Of those Mc/auia Icrebriformis and Piihidina ( Vicipani) La- ccnhc sp. iiov. are the most al)undant. Species of Unio, P/iiiiorbis, teeth and bones of crocodiles, and bones of Diiiosaurian reptiles are also to 1)0 found here, together with scales and bones of Lepidotus and other fishes. This limestone with its fossil shells resembles very closely specimens of fresh-water fossiliferous limestones from the Wcahl of England. ThiTC are also thick beds of shale, in i)laces l)lack and finc'ly laminated, but for the great part not well laminated and very soft, of a very light color, and full of little flakes of mica. In this shale are to be found layers abounding ill cntomostracan remains, of -which the most interesting is ail estherian with its valves marked with concentric ridges like an Astarte, and ap})arently new. Fish scales and skele- tons arc not micommon. Tlicre are some heavy beds of sandstone in this section, whidi arc seen near the Pedra Furada. This sandstone is finc-toxtured, soft, and of a light, greenish-gray tint. It is a rare thing that it affords fossil remains, and these arc iisnally car])onized stems of plants. Von Martins speaks of rich l)cds of Blatter- Kohl near the mouth of Itapagipe and of a brown coal in the sandstone near the city of Bahia. This last is said to have been worked for a short time ])y the direction of the government, ])y Feldner, a German, early in this century. I saw nothing to indicate the exist- ence of coal or lignite at Bahia, and I do not believe that any deposit of the slightest value exists there.* * Gardner says that Dr. Parigot found the Bahian coal to be lignite. 550 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRArilY- The Monscrrato fossils clearly indicate a fi'csh-water orifrin for the Ix'iis in which they occur. The followinj^ arc tliu iiiolhisks thus fur obtained from this locality : — Mtlniild (ryrhrlfurmlH Morris, CJoologicul Journal, Vol. XVI. p. "Jiiil^ ri. IC), Figs. :\a, Wh, 3c. "Shell subulutL', consisting of 7-S fluttcncd whorls, niarknl with numerous oblique, somewhat prominent, roundL'(l ribs, wliirh arc in some specimens stronger towards the anterii)r part of tlir shell. In some individuals the posterior part of each wlidil is slightly raised, making the suture more distinct. The last whorl is somewhat constricted. The aperture is ovate. The lip of tliu columella is somewhat thickened and rctlexed." Length IS unn. !Mr. Morris gives a tigure of a smooth variety, with a less cvliu drical shell. The top of the spire of the connnon forms of J/, terehriformi)^ is rarely perfect in adult specimens. The younger shells are sharp-pointed, and might be mistaken as belonging to another species. The test is usually well preserved, and the shells arc sometimes hollow. Localitj', ^lonscrratc, and vicinity, TJahia. Age, Lower Crctacoous. Collectors, Allport, Xicolay, Williams, Lacerda, and C. F. li. Mdania Xicolajinna, sp. nov. Shell miinitc, subulate, nearly cylindrical, with six or more whorls which are flatter and more obli(iuc than in J/, terehrifornm. Sutures distinct. Surfiice smooth. Length '2\ mm. This form occurs associated with the preceding, but it is appar- ently a very rare shell. I dedicate it to the Rev. Mr. Nioolay, to whom I am under many obligations. Locality, same as preceding. Collectoi', C. F. H. Vivijxwn {Pahuh'na) Lacerda.', sp. nov. Geological Journal, Vol. X7I. Plato U, Fig. 2. Shell about 20 mm. in length, ovate conical, usually with four GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 351 10 VOlllllJXT very vontricoso wIioHh separated by deep sutures, subuinbdicate, smiidtli, shell rather thiek. This speeies is fij^'urud by Morris as above, and is referred to by 111, II in a note to Mr. Allport's paper as havuig " a smooth shell suliiimhilicate, aud showing four ventrieose whorls, dee[)ly sutured." This shell appears sometimes to have had a truncated spine like i.iir iiiudern V. (\t:cmi. It i.' exceedingly common in the limestones at Mnnserrate, and is occasioiiully found in the shales. I have wwv seen it at Plataforma. 1 take much jileasure in associating with the . ocie.s the name of my esteemed friend Dr. Antonio do haccnlii. Collectors, Allport, Nicolay, Ljicenla, C. F. H. Vlrijiiira (Paludina) Willlamm, sp. nov. Siiell smaller than that of V. Luccrdu:, from which it is also dis- tinguished by being more conical and having whorls nnich less ventrieose and shouldered. Length 9- 10 mm. <.^•llite common with the ])receding species at Monserratc. Collectors, Allport, Williams, Nicolay, C. F. H. PlnnDrhla Monserrntensit^, sp. nov. Sholl minute, flat above, concave below, whorls two and a half in nunibei', flattened from above, rounded, increasing rapidly in witltli, and apparently flaring a little near the mouth, which is oblong, wider than high. Surfoce smooth. This pretty little shell is quite common associated with the Mvipara, Melania, &c. at Monseri'ate. In the conglomerate at Platafumia, in which the reptilian bones occur, there is a form which much resembles this, but the spiral seems more open aud the shell is oblique in outline, apparently from the rapid widening of the body whorl. This last may be a species of Valvata. The v.'.dtli of the shell of the species just described is about 2 mm. Collector, C. F. H. I mo {Avodon ?) Tothmi-Sanctorum, sp. nov. Shell small, ovate-elongate, compressed, wider behind than be- 'I 352 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. fore, the ends and lower margin foiTning u very regular onrvp, which is suniewliat stniiglitcned lifldW. Hinge line nuich filiortir than shell. I'niho (|uite jtrnminent, strongly and broadlv flaf- toned hy a wide and shallow hut well-tnarke<l depression uliich runs downward but obliciuely backward across the valves, givin:; to the shell the appearance of having two rather prominent Imt wide ridges extending from each side of the umbo, one obliiinciv forwards widening and growing lower toward the margin, thodrlio' much more oblicpicly backwards with the same characters. Tlif shell is rather thick, and is marked on the outside by uuiucrous fine, concentric lines or wrinkles. Collectors, Allport, Nicolay, and C F. H. During my last visit to Buliia I nndortook a careful ami systoiuatio examination of the rocks exposed in the cut- tings along the IJahia and Sao Francisco Railroad,* and 1 walked over the greater part of the line to Alagoinhas, ex- tending my observations for several miles beyond among the taboleiros. The observations made on this excursion I give in detail. taking them with little change from my field-book. The Bahia and Sao Francisco Railroad, leaving the station at Jequetaia, follows the low sandy ground skirting the gneiss hills, and runs along the northern side of the bay of Itapagii)e. At a distance of about two miles from the sta- tion at Je([uetaia (Cah^ada), on jjassing a little gully, there are seen exposed in a cutting beds of a loose-grained saiul- stone and a shale, the latter being of a greenish-gray tint, and very finely laminated, but too much decomposed on the surface to offer anything of much interest. These bods * I have to thank Mr. Mowry, the superintendent of the niilroad, fur :i pass over the line, and Messrs. Tiplady, Turner, and Orccchi for m.iuy favors received during the excursion. GEOLOGY OF TIIK VHIXITY OF SAO SALVADOII. 3."3 liavr n strike of about iiortlu'ust, as near as I could make (lilt, and a di]) of a very few degrees to the uortlnvest. (Joing oil towards the long bridge, wc meet no beds well exposed in the railway cuttings, but in a (Hiite deep one oidy a sliort distance from the bridge we find thick beds of finely laminated, dark-coh)rcd shale, mueli decomj)osed, in which aiv fossil fishes like those at Monscrrate, together with a MTcat abundance of cyprids. Crossing the long bridge, the land on the o]ii)Ositc side licconics nmch higher and more irregular, and there arc some heavy cuttings, in which, as well as on the sea-shore a: low tide, the rocks arc very well exposed. These consist of alternate beds of conglomerate ami dark shale, with (iccasional layers of sandstone, which have an average strike of X. 00° E. and a dip of 30" ± X. W. The surface of the beds of shale, exposed on the shore be- tween tides, is very much burrowed into by a marine worm, which excavates a tube that enters the shale perpendicularly to the dejjth of an inch or more, and then, licnding round rather abruptly, comes to the surface again. A little crab also burrows into the shale in places, nuiking deep tubes, whose sides are corrugated after a manner that nuikes them resemble the empty moulds of fossil stems of plants or coi-als, and they arc well calculated to puzzle an observer, who (lid not know how they were formed. The decomposed shale has been used in the works of the Bahia Steam Navigation Com|)any at Itaj)agipe as a iiro elay. and Mr. Ford, the chief engineer, — to whom, l)y the way, I am indebted for many kindnesses, — assured me that it answered well for that purpose. In the cutting at Plataforma, which is a very heavy one, theie is seen a thick l)ed of shale w^ith occasional l>ands of 354 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. sandstone, affuiding fossil fish, and cyju-ids, over whidi lies a heavy bed of conglomerate. This is composed of fiai:- mcntsof the principal rocks of the neighljorhood, j)rcs('ntiiiti' the same a]ipc:iruncc as that of the beds whence they weie derived. The pebbles of this conglomerate, mostly ot' q irtz and gneiss, arc of all sizes, even up to eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. They arc but slightly rouiiilLiI, and are more or less angular. It appears to be a dcjinsit rapidly accumulated, and from its hardness it nov loiins quite a high ridge. This conglomerate is a massive Iml. showing ill itself few traces of stratification. It has alfoidcil a few reptilian bones. The same bed makes its appearaiHc on the shore at low tide, where it may be examined. All these Ijcds are well displayed on the shore, the whole dis- tance from riataforma to the little bay of Periperi, and. as the strike of the l)eds is tangental to the curve of the .siKire between these two places, and their dip is away from ihv shore, they may l>e examined both in ascending and de- scending series, and over a considcral)le area. A'lovc water-mark disintegration makes their examination very unsatisfactory. Below that line it has not ol)tained to so large an extent, and, save a thin coating of half-deeomiMtscil material on the surface, the rocks are nearly in their nat- ural state. About a half-mile from Plataforma, and where tlie lail- road passes close to the water's edge, there is exposed in one jdacc a section like that on the opposite page, of which the height is about ten feet. In many of the other beds, especially in those wliicli arc finer in character, reptilian and other remains arc quite almn- dant ; but, owing to the compactness of the rock, ih'y aio difficult to exi;ract. These fossils consist in spines of li>li, GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. '355 Shale. Conglomerate. Cougloiucrato. Shale. Buiio-boil. < IIi);h-\vatcr level. Shale. with occasionally a vertebra, bones of diiiosaurians, and a few tcetli, both of rc])tilcs and fishes. Of these reptiles' tooth tlic most interesting arc those of cwrodilcs. 'J'hese vfito'brate remains are especially abnndant in a calcareous coiiiilonierate, formiiiir a bed a foot or two in thickness, and wliicli I have designated in the al)ove section as a I)one-l)ed. There are a few lieds of a coarse arenaceous shale, which afford some very perfect specimens of a Teliostean fish, appaieiitly dilTerent from the si)ecies found at Monserrate.* It is wortliy of remark tliat this shale, as well as some of tho other rocks of this series, arc bituminous as well as cal- oai'oous. The reptilian remains from Plataforma and i\Ionserrate I l.laocd in the hands of Professor 0. C, Marsh of Yale Col- loL'c f(»i' description. The following with a ^aw unimportant omissidiis is a notice of them ])uldished by liim in the Amer- ican .Journal of Science and Arts, A'ol. XLVIL, May, iNJU : — "Tho most interesting of the reptilian remains collected l)y IVo- * Several fragments of the jaws of fishes liavc tiecii found. One of ttiese, the viLTlit ramus of the lower jaw of u little Pi-mlns, liad the niiiuite shot- liko tooth ]ireserve(l. All the fish remains from this locality are In the hands of Professor Agassiz. I regret that his illness prevents hitn from furnishing (li'scrii)tions of them for this work. 35G GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. fossor Hartt in tlie I'ahia deposit in the tooth of a larj^'c Croco- dilian, from tho arenaceous sliale near I'latafonna station, on tin. Baliia railroad. This specimen is iu an excellent state of pri'ser- vation, and indicates a species new to science. It is larirer, inniT slender, and more pointed than the teeth of existing crocndilcs. rcsemhling most nearly those of some extinct American spccius. It is conical in form, round at the base, and slightly coni])rossi.'fl at the apex. Tho crown is two inches and three lines in kugtli, along the outer side, and ten lines in diameter at the iiase. One edge is somewhat more convex than the other, and this is also true of one of the sides, and hence the tooth a})pears sli;,'litly curved in two directions. On either edge of the crown there is a sharp ridge, most prominent near the apex, over which it passes, but gradually disappearing before reaching the base, resemljliiig in this respect the teeth of Thoracosaurus, from which, h(jsvevei', this specimen differs in being longer, and less curved than tho teetli of that genus usually are. The sides of the crown arc covereil with fine, interrupted, undidating stritc, which ai)pear to be dili'ereut from the dental sculpture of the Crocodilia hitherto descrilieil. These strife are most distinct near the middle of the tootii. W- coming much more delicate at the base, and nearly obliterated at the apex. " In size and general appearance, this specimen reseml)les somc- whiVt the teeth of Crocodilits antiqiius Leidy, from tho Miocene <jf Virginia, but differs from that species in being less tapering, aiul in having the ridge on the edges extend farther downw.ard. It ro- semV)les still more closely the teeth of a new species of crocodile discovered by the writer at Squankum, N. J., in the tcrti.iry green-sand, which will soon be more fully described under the name Tlwcocavq^i^ci Sqnankcusis Marsh. l)oth species have essen- tially the same proportions, and similar dental striiv, but the ''ut ting ridge of the New Jersey specimens is more prominent, ami extends nearly or (juite to the base of the crown. The two species were ajiparently about the same size, both being considerably Iar<;er than existing Crocodilians. GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF sAO SALVADOR. 357 " Other parts of the skeleton of the Brazilian species would per- haps show generic characters to distinguish it from the ni(»dern proccjuliau crocodiles, but in the absence of these, it may for the present be placed in the same genus. Its form, cutting edges, and cspt'ciully its peculiar strite, readily distinguish it from any species with which it is liable to be confounded, and it may ap])ropriatelv be named Crocodilus Ilarttii, in honor of its discoverer, whose recent researches have thrown so much light on the "-eolof^v of Brazil. "Several specimens of reptilian teeth collected by Mr. Allport at Moutserrate, a k)cality in the same deposit about two miles southwest of Plataforma station, evidently belong to this species, as the illustrations accompanying his paper (Plate xvi., figures 1, 2, 3, and 5) clearly indicate. The exi)hination of the plate refers to tlio specimens as, ' Teeth of crocodile with delicately wrinkled surface,' but no further description is given. "In the same paper Mr. Allport has given figures of several Crocodilian teeth from the localities at Plataforma and Moutser- rate, which arc quite difierent from those above descri])ed. These are represented in Plate xv., figure 5, and Plate xvi., figures 4, G, 7, and 8. and are referred to on page 2G8 as, ' Teeth of crocodile with strong continuous stria), and coarse riblets,' These speci- mens, taken in connection with some imperfect remains in the collection made by Professor Hartt, indicate the existence in this deposit of a second and smaller species of Crocodile, jirobably allied to the modern gavials. The teeth are not so laige as those of Crocodilus Ilarttii, and arc more tapering and more curved. Thev also differ widely in the stria) and lateral folds. These spe- cimens may provisionally be referred to the genus T h or ac()S( turns, and. as the species is evidently new, it may be called T. Bahiensis. " An interesting fossil, found l)y Professor Hartt at Plataforma station, is a fragment of a bone, evidently reptilian, but the exact fithnities of which it is difficult to determine from this specimen alone. It resembles in some respects the extremity of an ulna, 358 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. but after a cuirful comparison the writer is inclined to consider it the proximal end of a ril). It is much flattened at the ai'ticular extremity, and tapers gi'adually to the Viroken end, which is sniiio- what triangular in outline. Its length is about four inches, tlio transverse diameter of the perfect end two and a half inches, auj of the other, one and a (piarter inches. The larger extremity is divided into two articular facets lying oblique to each other, the smaller one being elevated about half an inch above the othei-, and covering rather more than a third of the entire terminal sui-faco. In form and general proportions this specimen is not unlike tlio upper end of a right dorsal rib of some of the amphicojlian {'njc- odiles, especially a rib in which the head and tubercle have so closely approached each other that their articular surfaces are nearly confluent. The size ami other characters of the specimen, however, seem to exclude it from that order, and it pi'obably be- longed to a Dinosaui'an rejjtile, possibly the same as a largo vertebra from Monserrate, which Mr. Allport ligurcd in his paper in Plate xvii., and which Professor Owen suggested might prove to be allied to Mcijulosanrus. "The only other specimen in tins collection that need b..' par- ticularly mentioned here is a small flat bone, about two inclies in length, with t)ne articular extremity partially preserved. This appears to resemble most nearly the fibida of a tortoise, aud probably should be referred to that group of reptiles.'' I have iKit yet observed at this point any of the species of MchiHia and Viripara of Mon serrate. In some of the Iiods, however, a niinute gasteropod is very abundant, and a unio- likc shell also occurs, though somcwliat rare! v. Tho>;e, with the estherians, point to a fre.sli-water origin for tliese beds, Avhile the alternations of shales with sandstones and conglomerates show that there were intervals of quiet (k;)0- sition of fine material with times when currents spread coarse material over their surface. GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOB. 059 This locality, to a patient and jiainstaking collector, would vii'ld a line harvest. Friuu Poripcri to Matto do Sao Joao I went over the rail- luail several times Ijoth l)y cars and with a trolly ; l)ut 1 liavc luid an opportunity of examining a lew points between !hr>L' two stations, and with the aid of the information of my friend, ^Ir. Tijjlady, the engineer of the first section of tlio raih'oad, and to whom 1 am much indebted for aid and hospitality, 1 am able to give the following oliservations. At the tunnel at Periperi the rocks consist of shale and ,>aiulst()ne, with a slight northward dip, and contain but few fu.?sils. Detween Olaria and Mapelle stations there arc heavy beds I if shale and sandstone, the latter a rather soft, bluish kind, whirh is fpiarried for building purjmses along the railway. It is iii)t very durable, as it weathers very rapidly. Fossils arc very rare in it. The tunnel at Mapelle is through shale, tho dip lieing northward and slight. At a place called Cotigipe, between Mapelle and the next >tati(jii, Agua Com{)rida, thick beds of shale and conglom- tratc are cut throuu'h. a. Shale, b. Cuiialcjinorate. Ill the shale of bod, rt, of the al)ove diagram, which varies much in eharactcr from a thin, soft, black, almost papyra- ceous shale to a coarser greenish variety, fish remains and perfect fishes are quite common, but they apjiear to be of tlic same species that is found at Monserrate ; together with these uccur bones and teeth of reptiles, and an abundance 3G0 GEOLOGY AXD PIIYSICAL GEOGRAI'IIY. of cyprids. I liave colloctod nothing from the conploni- cratos. The dip of the beds is northeast, at a small uiiok'. Thus far the country has been irregular, the hills bciiifr rather angular in their outline, and presenting altogftlicr different tojtographieal features from those of the giieis.s regions. The cretaceous hills here arc generally rdund top))ed, "with long slopes. Passing Agua Comprida, at Sapucaia, there arc several cuttings through shale, and here we fnid the conglonicrati' in the hills on the west side of the road. Farther on ik. more of this rock is seen on the line. At ]\I()ritib;i arc found beds of sandstone of the same series, but their dij). according to Mr. Tiplady, is south. There are here some horizontal beds of pinkish sands of a much later format ion. Cuttinu: No. 82, not far from Moritiba, is throuuh a luavv bed of red clayey sand, sometimes used for moulding in the railroad foundry at Pcriperi. This Ijcd is quite horizontal, and aj)])ears to belong to the same series as the sumls to be described farther on. Just before reaching the Kio Johannes there is a cnttiufi through decomposed gneiss. ^Ir. TijAady infornictl nio that in the river-bed, a few rods above the railroad, tln' gneiss is exposed, while the rocks below the railroad aiv sandstones. In this vicinity the hills are rounded aud more or less dome-shaped, yet not more than two to tlnve Iniii- drcd feet high ; l)ut in going on towards Parafuso tliev become lower, and the surface is rolling. At Paraliiso there is a long, low cutting, in which I made the Iblluwing section. GEOLOGY OF THK VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. IGl The lower l)cd consists of a soft, ycllowisli sandstone, with licautiful oltliquo lamination. I have looked long and carefnlly in this and other similar localities for fossils in these sandstones, l)ut withont success. Over this lied, wliicli is quite horizontal, lies a thin sheet of hard, red iron-stone, and over this a hed of clay and pebbles. In cuttings 8, 0, and 10 of the Third ►Section, which are tlu'ungli long and low banks, ai'c seen similar l.ieds of light j)ink-('(il()red sand, slightly consolidated, and showing beau- tilui false bedding. At Camassari I sp^^nt several hours in an examination of the vicinity. The station stands on a plain composed of the sands just described, over the surface of which is spread a slicet of clayey gray or white sand, often containing j)ebbles and lirokcn pieces of rock. In the vicinity are a few low hills, com])Oscd of beds of arenaceous pinkish and white- mottled clays, and sandstones which vary much in charac- ter, being sometimes soft and ])inkisli in color, while at others they arc cemented by ferric oxide, dark red, and very hard. These beds are horizontal and very thick, and Ijc- long to the great coast tertiary formation. In some ])laces they lie in an unbroken sheet, except by rivers, forming very extensive elevated plains, like the sertoes and chapadas of Sao Matheos, the Mucnry, and elsewhere along the coast ; hut sometimes, as on the Bahia Railroad, they are demidcd in such a way as to form deep and wide valleys, in which stand isolated hills that rise abruptly from, or rather j)icrcc through, the thick beds of sands and clays formed from their debris, and which occupy the bottom of the valley, hi the denudation of these horizontal tertiary beds the ten- dency is to form, at first, a mass with a fiat top, and sides steep and abrupt, as represented in the following diagram. VOL. I. 16 Oi'O GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. \^ Such is the cluiractcr of the slopes that border vallcvs. These are rarely ])eri)eiidicular, and are almost ahvavs covered by vegetation. When, however, the sea or a river waslies the foot of a slope, it is always per])cndiciil!ir; ;i< is the case with the red clay cliffs, which at intervals uinl the shore of Brazil, from the Amazonas to Rio. As i\\>' valleys widen and aj)])roach one another, the hills jircsi'ivi' the same to))Of!raphical features, and we may fmd all uriiil;i- tions between ihe broad clia])ada, the narrow hill with it> flat toj), and the roof-shaj)ed or conical hill. Tlicsi.' dr. tachcd hills are called oitciros, or tabolciros. At Caniassmi the toi)ography of these hills may be easily examin('(l. The valley here is quite wide, and there arc a great many sinali scattered hills, that rise like islands from the plain. 1 oii- served that most of the hills had rather a long smooth sld]"' to the east, and an abrupt one to the west. The liill-^ are covered thickly with fragments of rocks. This seems a little singular, because it is not owing to the dip df (ln' beds, for, as already said, they are liorizontal. 1 luno questioned whether it might not be in some way due to glacial action. The whole hill, in every case, was onci' covered with a sheet of clay and fragments of rock, as I shall descrilic more fully hereafter. The finer materials t»f this superficial coating have been washed from the stcciicr slope, leaving the coarser masses l)ehind, while on th<' Iohl' slope these last still lie buried Ijclow the surface. The sands occui)ying the valleys are not deposited horizontally, but form a scries of sand-banks sloping more or less gradu- ally toward the middle of the valley. Tlie surface is not a GEOLOGY OF THK VICHXITY OF SAO SALVADOK. 3Go plain, l)ut rolling. The rollowiiig is the outline of the cdiintiy across the hills iVuiu Cainussari station, going west lor a little more than a mile. It is intended to show thf to])ographical featm-es of the older tertiary hills and jaiid plains. CAMASSAR/ a. Tei'tisirv clavs ami saiiilstoncs. b. Siinda. "While at Camassari station a man l)rought in a mnlc-load oi" ••Tal)atinga," * or pure milk-white feldspathi(; chiy, which lio said came from not far off, pro1)aI)ly Irom a In-d inter- stratified with the sands. The material is exceedingly fine and chalky, and l)ecomcs a pure white clay on Avefting. It is used instead of lime for whitewashing walls. This Taliatinga clay is also found in the tertiary lieds of the luast, where it is often jiinkish or yellowish in color. I liad ohscrvcd the same material, as a cement to the super- ficial sands and gravel, in the cuttings in the vicinity of Camassari. Leaving Camassari and crossing the taholeirosf one soon enters the hills, which arc (me hundred and fifty feet or more in height, com])oscd of the tertiary sandstone and clays aliovc described, and have some of their sides strown with lariie lilocks of the red sandstone. A lonof cuttin<r throudi '—' <> O a heavy bed of quartz gravel, of which the cement appears to he sand and clay, is soon reached, and one then goes "u to another sand plain, which is more extensive than * Tliis word is of Tupi origin, and is derived from the two words, Taud, c'iU", nnd linria, white. Tabatinga is a corruption. t lliia word is also applied to the plains, 304 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY. that first dcscriljcd. Another bed of gravel is scon nt .1 place called Enihira IJranca, and I'arlher on, when fiiiilv out on the taboleiros, at a place called As Pedras, there is what ajjpears to l^e an old Iteach, composed of rounded (piartz pel)l»les, fdled in with snow-white sand. The iH-acli is irregular in outline, and presents many projecting points. The surface of the sand, which is almost level, abuts again.st this gi-avel bank, and lies in the indentations in its outline, like a sheet of water. Just here this gravel is naked, but not far distant it is covered by a dark grayish soil, similnr to that which covers the taboleiros. It appears to have been washed oir here. a. Sand ;uul soil. b. Gravel. A little farther on we find a cutting in which a cap of gravel is seen overlying the sand. a. Gravol. b. Saiifl'^. Thence to the river Imliu^ahi the land slopes very grad- ually, and for miles on each side of the railroad is reniark- bly even, being interrupted only by the isolated tertiary hills that show themselves above the surface of the sands, From the Imbuqahi to Feira Yelha the sands rise with a very gentle slope. On this side they are bounded by tertiary hills and chapadas, some of which are roof-sliapcd ridges. gi:olo(;y of tmk vinxiTY of slo salvadoi: ?i()ij lliilli at Caniiissarf and on tlu^ linliiu^alii tlic sands are liiu'i'cn, and form sliyhtly roHin;^; plains, snpporting only ;i scanty vcjL^elation, which consists of" several species of irrasscs, and a undtitnde of small llowering j)lants. Trees are very few. In the lower uronnds, wheie moisture ••■ath- ITS, and whcr(! there ai'c in some jdaccs streams, a lonji^ cutu'se grass grows most luxuriantly. A (juartcr of a mile south of tlu; Iml)U(;ahi is such a grass-covered area, and here excavations liy the side of the railroad show that a bed of peat luis ac^'umulated, which is two feet thick in some lilaccs. Leaving the taholciros wc enter a valley among the hills, uiiirli arc at lirst low, hut become higher fai'ther on. They Iicloiig to the tertiary series, are often very irregular in shape, and about -joO feet in relative height. As we go uj* the valley it iiai rows more and more. The bottom is occupied by beds "f sands and clays, which form a series of untlulations wiiDsc outlines are in contrast with those of the borderinsx liills. as exhil)ited in the foUowinu' diatrram. a. Tcrtiarv clnvf iuul siunlstonus. b. Sands. In order to illustrate the structure of these lower grounds, I will describe what is seen in a number of railway excava- tions in this valley. Two cuttings towards Bahia of a cutting called Jacu- morim, the road just ])ares away the southern side of a low hill, about twenty-five to thirty feet high, as seen in the followinc: sketch. "V 300 GEOLOGY AND I'lIVSlCAL UKOGIJAl'UV. Teriinrif Tliis liill is t'()iiij)()s(Ml of Hiind, wliicli is cxiiommI \'n\- ^ dcj)tli of twenty fuct. Tlic siinu^ niatci'ial loriiis llic lower ground alon.irsidc, Tlu; hills in tlu' Ijackji'i'onnd arc ('(jin- |)os('(l of the tertiary clays and sands. The most interest- ing feature exhihited in this Hcetion is a sheet of frii^inciib of red sandstone from the tertiary hills extendinjr uii<lrr the soil over tlu; surface of the frauds, not only on the low ground, hut also over the whole hill. Tlie following cut rej)rescnts a section across this snni'' hill, but at right angles to the first. The boulders of saiid- a. Soil oontaiiiinc ])cbMos and boulders of sandstone. b. Srriitifieil siiinls. stone are hero seen scattered over the low flat by the side of the ra-' These Iwulders must have come from tln> adjacf ry hills. G .ip the road wc soon come to another cutting in which a sheet of gravel overlying a bed of yellow sands is ex])osed, as seen in diagram on preceding page. This gravol consists of large, well-rounded pebbles of quartz or de('om- poscd syenite, with a white paste. In the next cutting. Jacumerim, we see the following section. GEOLOGY OF TIIK VICINI'IY OF SAo SALVADOR. <.)<• ( TIh' |)('l»ltlos ill llic uTiiNcl arc of llic siiiuc kiml as tlioso just (Icscrilicd. They arc very lai'ji-e, the luatcrial liciii^x rather a coarse sliiii^'lo, and thoy aro very ch)S('ly pacUcd. Over this elevation, as in tlie other, is still seen the hiycr of liroken ])i('c'cs of sandstone, and the same may lie exam- ined iu the next enttiiiir, which is a very instructive one. SKCTKJN AT CAMTO. a. Fiiio brick-rnd rliiyov siunl, in some pliices with scarcely consistence enough tol'i' nimililcd; in otiicrs very clayoy. b. Wliiti-h luiil yellowisli saml. ('. S.ift white siinils, no consistency under pressure. A thin streak or two in tlie lowiT |i;n-t of tliis bi'il is consolidated. d. Wiiite or reddish sands. e. An in-ppilar mass of liouldcrs, of dark red tertiary sandstone, some of r.liich are throe to fmr feet in <liametor. In this diau'rani tlie dip is cxairc^erated. At the post marking ten lea<rnes from the city of l>ahia is a long low cutting, and in a trench l)y the roadside a stiiT sandy clay, ludttleil with dark red and white, and overlaid l)y a dark brtjwu sandy soil. r.etween this point and Matta station there is much SAvanijiv irround Ijordering the road at intervals, and on this til— o ^ great numbers of jiiassaba jialms grow. 308 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. A very interesting section occurs in a cut a1)ont a niilo and a iiulf below Mutta station. The gravel sheet hci" is very tliick, — ten feet, more or less,* — and is irregularly ami ol>li(iuely stratified, and mixed with layers of sand, as if the whole had been laid down by a current coming from the luirth. The sheet is very irregular, and varies much in thickness. Malta station, and the village of Malta de Sao Joao, are situated on a jjlain, formed by the widening of the vallev which the railroad *')llows. The tertiary hills still bjrder it, and these are, in some cases, nnieh denuded. xVbove Malta, at the cutting at the fazenda of Coronel ."^i- puda, there is a decayed, fme-grained sandstone or arenaeeons shale seen, })robal)ly cretaceous, and thence on to Pitniiga station, rocks of the same general character. Just lieluw the station at Pitanga I made the following section. ct. Snn(l>tono. h. Slmle, .slijrlitly nrotinocous. c. Sliale; vorv iiririlliicoous, and <o soft as to be easily mouMed by the haml. I)i^- co!1i]ios(m1, it is of a srriiy or lijrht slate-color, with brijiht red patches. It contaiin ajiparciitly the same Estherian found at Pojuea tunnel, to be presently descrilioil. '/and e. Shale deconiiiosintf yellow and red. f. Sandstone; soft and ochre yellow. >j. Shale dci'oniposcd to a jiiiik and white clay. h. Sandstone. k. Layer of concretionary iron-stone a foot or two in thickness. The surface is very irrejrnlar. and some of the projecting knobs have a sort of septaria structure- VI. White stiiiilstonc. n. Layer n( ivoti-stone. o. White tabatinpi, witli red iron-stone nodules. /). Decomposed shale. q. Saiul>tt)ne (soft). The dip is exaggerated in this section. The railroad here skirts a flat along which flows the Rio * I have omitted to note it cractlv. GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 309 Pitanga, "wliich a f>liort distance below the station exjiands into a large pond. At the head of this j)ond I lound a gentleman with six men washing for diamonds. An ex- cavation several yards square had been niade in tlic flat allmial ground. The lowest stratum seen was a still" blue rlay, called by the miners pizarra, over this was a sheet of a i'i'w inches in thickness of C(ii<caIho, or gravel conii)osed lirincipally of quartz and fragments of the dillercMit rocivs of the neighborhood, this cascalhu being mixed with a motllcd leildish clay. This was the stratum frojn which the diamonds were washed. Over the eascalho v.as a thin stratum of clay. The washers were seated on benches level with tlie water of a little pond ; a portion of the gravel was thrown into a large shallow wooden ])an, water was mixed with it, and tlie pan with its contents was whirled ahout on the surfiicc ef the pond, the muddy water being allowed to escape until nuly the gravel and sand remained. Tins was now jdaced ill a sort of sieve, the bottom of which was made of copjier, piereed with round holes about an inch in diameter, which nlliiwed all the little pebbles and sand to jiass tluvjugh. Nut long since, at one of the Brazilian diamond washings, a (liauiond too large to i)ass through the openings of the sieve was found in the heap of coarse refuse. It had lieen picked ui) bv a child as a i)lavthinLL-. After washiuir, the ]K'bt)les arc picked out, when the overseer, looking carefully over the sand, selects the diamonds with ease, slinuM there be anv ; but during the weeks which thev \vashe(l at Pitanga only five minute stones had been found. A few years ago quite extensive washings were carried Oil brside the river nearer the station, and a large num- V'ei' of fine stones were discovered ; but the owner of the hnid has j»nt a stop to further operations. On the west side IG* X 370 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of tlio railroad I visited some other old washings, from which diamonds had been obtained. I found that tlicy lia4 been dug from the cascalho or gravel sheet on the slope of the hill near the river, which gravel was covered with tin common red drift jlay of the vicinity. I take this grawl to be drift. The diamonds appear to me to come from tli^^ tertiary lieds of the neighboring hills, and this seems Id be the opinion of Mr. Xicolay, who shows that the diamonds of the Chapada Diamantina come from a conglomerate and sandstone, which, from his descrij)tions and specimens, ajn })ears to lie a tertiary rock of the same kind as that wliicli forms the chajjadas of the valley of the Jequitinhonha. Mr. Nicolay says that the cascalho in the vicinity of l)iiliia dil- fers from that of the c^'apada, in that it is more siliceous and less metaliferous. There is no Itacolumite in the vicinity of Pitanga. The gravel is made up princijialiy of fragments of (juartz and of pebbles of a sandstone like tluit of the tertiary chaj)ada, though somewliat harder than tlio kind usually seen along the road. I do not believe that tlii' diamond ever occurs in the true pala3ozoic Itacolumite in Brazil, Imt that it is derived from the tertiary sandstoiu's. At a sugar fazenda beyond Pitanga there ', a cnttini:' under a l»ridge across the railroad, and in a gully made liv the rain I found a shale full of cypris, and evidently eretu- ceous. The beds appear to be horizontal, or with a sli^ilit inclination southward. The overlying soil here i^ red mottled with white. The next cuttings are not very satisfactory, and ajipcar to be through decomposed sandstones and shales. I introduce a sketch lierc to give some idea of the top i'_^- raphy, and of the general apjiearance of the tertiary hills borderiuL'' the valley on the west, just below the tmmcl. OF.OI.OGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOII. r.71 TEHTIAHY IIII.KS NKAK ro.ILCA TLNXKI.. Tlio sandstone wliich to some extent, at least, forms tlio (■lin|iadas of the vicinity is a somewhat soft, coarsc-irraincd, roddisli and mottled kind, with an argillaceous cement. It lias been occasionally used on the railroad for building pur- poses. l)ut it cannot 1)C very durable. A ridine crosses the railroad, and a tunnel (" Pojucp tun- nel") is made necessary. This ridjre runs nearly north- south, and is com])osed mainly of cretaceous strata, which, accord intr to information received from Mr. Turner, en- Lnnoer of this section of the nmd, have a hi^h westward dip. In the cuttiiiu' at the eastern (Mitranc(( to the tunnel hori- ZDiital beds of a soft brown sandstone are exjwsed, and this is so Soft as to be easily crumbled Ity the haml. Tn tins occurs a bed, fifteen ccntm. in thickness, of a j dlow clay (dt'('oui]»ose(l shale?) in which I liave found a few Esthc- rians. Tlu^ stutT thrown out of the tunnel is a l»ri<rht bluish, very soft shale, containing fish remains, togetlier with a finely lamiuated lilue-gray sandstone, also containing fish rt'iuains and fragments of plants. I did not see these strata in place. O I -I GEOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GKOGRAI'IIV. Ill the cuttiiitr at the western entrance are thick l)C(ls of shale and sandstone, so decomposed that tlieir cliaractLi- cannot well he determined. The strike, as near as J conM make it ont, is N. 05° E. and di}) 78° S. E., l)nt it is to lir remcmhored that Mr. Turner says that in the tnniiet tlic di]) is \V. The licds of the tunnel and western entiaiicc are cretaceous, I think. Those at the east end appcai' hi overlie the cretaceous heds iniconfbrmalily, and may lie ter- tiary ; hut 1 w(^uld not speak )K)sitivcly, on account of the great difliculty of recoirnizing some of these mrks ■when they arc decomposed. This ridge is covered wil'.i red drift. From Pojuca to Sitio Novo I have heen over the roail in the train several times, hut I was i)revented fmui ex- amining the rest of the road on foot, hecause i^f the rain. From Sitio Novo to Alagoinhas I went over the road in ii trolly, l)ut in rain and under nnfavoi'al)le cireumstanees. Soon after leaving Pojuca the valley hecomes narmwer. The railroad follows its hottom, so that there are no r(ick.s exposed, and the cuttings are of very little interest. The low lands are very fertile, and are here and there eoveied hy forest, though they arc planted to a considerabh,' extent with sugar-cane. As for the lands of Bahia, those of the gneiss are lat, deep, and exceedingly fertile ; the slopes are generally somewhat steep, and in the southern i)art of the province they arc favoral)le for cofTee. The soils of the cretaee'ous along the railroad are rich ; Init the rains make fearful havoc with them, carrying them away oomjdetely after a few years of cultivation, leaving them barren, as is the case over large tracts along the railroad. Of the lowlands. those bordering the rivers are very fertile. The teriiaiy GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF S.\0 SALVADOR. O'-O liigli lauds arc sometimes valuable on the sluices, ])ut above, as a .iieucral tliinj^, tlioy are dry and barren. The tuholeiros arc useless, except for grazing. Lumcnse tracts along the railroad arc allowed to grow up with tlio ))iassal»a palm. Considerable difficulty has been experienced by the engi- neers, in diiTerent i)arts of the road, from the instability of the rocks, and the liability of their sliding on oiu) niintlicr, especially -when the shale beds become wet. In (iiie case, where the beds di])ped with the slope of a hill toward the raibvay, the uj)]>er beds over a considerable area slid down some distance, throwing tlie track out of ,dia])C. The Pojuca tunnel caved in from the same reason, about two years ago. Some distance south of lagoiulias the valley ojiens out and an extensive series of taboleiros is ivaehed, in the middle of which is the station of Alau'oin- lias. 1 made a long drlour over these taboleiros on foot, and found them to be essentially like those at Camassari. They were great, gently undulating plains of sand, scat- tered about over which were irregular isolated hills of the hurizuutal tertiary clays and sandstones. The cutting at the terminus of the railroad is a long one, about five feet deep, through white clayey sands, under which is the ever- apiiearing j)ebble line. Ill a cutting for a road through a slight elevation near tlie station, I saw beds of clayey sand slightly consistent and of a white or pinkish cidor. Here the Saiiba ants had formed innnense mounds of a clayey sand of a warm pink- i.di tint, the material having been brought up from a con- Mderahlo depth by those busy creatures in the excavation of tlicir galleries. Ihc village of Alagoinhas is on the sand plains, about a 374 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Icngiic eastward of the station of the same name. The surface of the plains is not level, and there arc dift'ereneos of elevation amounting to lifty feet more or less, Iml the slo])Cs are very long, exceedingly smooth and even, and as a general thing their direction is from the hills towards \h' centre of the plain. The surface is loose white sand, (jf course a most unfertile soil. The vegetation of the siiml ])lains and tal)oleiros differs in the most marked way tVuui that of the s()il-covered hills. Trees are few, scattered, small. and very often with rough bark, and stiff and contdrtcij branches. One of the most conspicuous of them 's tlh' Carahyha, a tree aljout twenty feet in height, which is scat- tered all over the i)lains. The Murici {Bi/rsonima) is a small scrubl)y tree, alioiir eight feet high, with bunches of large elliptical leaves cuv- ered with hairs like the mullein Ijorne at the ends of thf l)ranches. The fruit is about the size of a large chei-rv. yellow, very fragrant and much esteemed. The ^hui^alui {Hancornia spcciosa) is another small tree, with weep- ing l)ranches and small leaves. Its fruit is of tlie size of a j)lum, and very delicious. The Perico is a bush jjiimIu- cing a fruit as large as a goosel)erry, and very pleasant tn the taste. The IJahianos are fond of it, and in the seusim of fruitage the berries arc sold in large quantities in the city. A small tree called Sambahilja is remarkable for its curled leaves, the uj'per side of which is so rouuh imd hard as to scratch wood like sandpaper. The Janulniha is a characteristic shrul) of the taboleiros, and it is notewmthy on account of bearing at the end of its stem a cliisicr jf large leaves, giving out an abundant milky sap whoi lirokfu. Among the other common plants of the taboleiros one oh- GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. OiO serves the Alccrim, with its fragrant leaves ; the Ahncscar, furnishing a sweet-scented resin ; the brucella, producing a material used in stuflhig mattresses ; the Purga do Canipo find Orelha da Oinja, both used in medicine, and the curious liarrigudinha, with its swollen stem. Ci'C('i)ing aliout over the liuslies, one sees here and there tangled skeins of the yellow thread-like stems of the Cipo de Chumlio, a species of i'u^nitd, or Dodder. A large number of the plants of the taliolciros arc medicinal, and very many have aromatic leaves. Small and beautiful flowering jihints abound among the tufts of coarse grass with which the plains are covered. These grasses grow in widely separated clumps. My guide iiKJieatcd the three princij)al kinds as Capi/ii agrcsU\ Ca- piiit de Oieiro, and C(ij>iiii jmho. 1 observed one or two speeics of Melocactus, but 1 do not remember having seen a single large Cereus, a plant so common on the di-y rnrky scrtocs of the Rio de Sao Francisco. A little palm, Licori, is very common, and is the only species I saw on these eani]i()S. Ant-hills are common on the taholeiros, looking like scat- tered lioulders. Under one of these I found a large scor- pion, an bisect which, like the centipede, is common enough in Drazil ; Imt one might travel a year in tlie country with- out seeing a si)ecimen of either, unless he made S])ecial search lor them. As elsewhere, these campos are l)urned over from time t" time, and the flora has consequently suflered great modification. To give an idea of the general character of the vegetation, (IS \\<'ll as of the topography of the sand plains and the ter- tiary hills near xVlagoinhas, 1 introduce the sketch on the ibllowing i»age. 37G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGRAPMY. THE TAIIOLEIIIU.S MvAK Al.AliOINIIAS. These liills arc coinj>o.scd of a soft, reddish, ar<:'ill;ii'0(ni> sandstone, with some layers, however, of a coarse kiml. vi rv hard, of a dark-red color and with a cement of ferri-; o.xidi', In some jdaces these rocks fin-m cliffs. Here, as in tlii' taboleiros of Camassai'f, the sands l)athc the foot of the hills like a sheet of water. The hills are covered from tM|i in bottom with fra,u'mcnts of the coarse red sandstone, with some qnartz pehMes. Usnally round the l)as(; of the liill> the sands have a coating of red soil washed down fiuiii tin hillside. Near Jacard the soil of some parts of llic hill; land becomes Ix'tter in quality, and is soft and lo()S(\ Ifciv wc find a liberal forest coating, and some poor settlers cul- tivate fields of mandioca, tobacco, corn, A'C. The soil i- sandy, and grnyisli-l)ro\\"n in color. Farther liaek vn\w> a Ijclt of forest Itcyond the taboleiros, and a considcnilili' quantity of sugar is raised in that region. The hei<rht of Alatroinhas station aliove the sea, acconliiiL'' to the survey of Mr. Vivian as laid down on the mani)>cniit GEOLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF SAO SALVADOR. 377 map of Mr. Nicolay, is tlircc liundriM] feet. The tertiary liills of tiie vicinity I sliould judge to I)C one liuiidred and fifty feet higher, moi'e oi- less. As to tlie extension of Die crctaeeous beds on hotli sides of llic line, I luive very scanty information. The island of Miulre de Dens, in the Bay of Hahia, belongs to the same series, as 1 liavc seen in Mr. Xicolay's eolleetion several specimens of sandstone and other rocks fi-oni tliis locality ])nTiscly like those on the railroad ; and the island of Itajja- rica is also, to a large extent at least, cretaceous. I have nut lieai'd of their extension farther south. 1 believe that ihc 15aliia cretaceous series is confined entirely to the I)or- (k'ls and islands of the IJay of ]>ahia, and that it is for the most part an accumulation witliin a closed fresh-water l)asin.* The sands and gravels of the jilains and connecting valleys are certainly newer than the coast tertiary beds, wliieh are denuded in order to form the l)asins in which these were dei)osited. They ai)pear to me to 1)0 of la- ciistiine and fluviatile origin, and I l)elieve that the ])lains ^vore once covered by large lakes, which have been drained 'y the cutting through of the high lands on the south ly the streams flowing from them. From what I have ln-'ou able to observe, these lieds are uniformly overspread ly a sheet of clayey sand, mixed with fragments of rock h'diii the neighboring hills, which sheet I consider to bo •'•lilf. so that the sands and gravels may })ossibly bo of very late tertiary age. It is very probable that they may tiini out to belong to the same series as certain similar de- l"»sits oiiserved by Mr. St. John in the valley of the Rio de >ao Francisco, which arc overlaid by drift in the same way. * In Pnifessor Apnssiz's collection I find a friigmcnt of srconish shale with fypri'ls from Tarahyba do Norte, wliich appears to be from a formation similar to that of Bahia. Oi 8 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER IX. THE PROVINCES OF SERGIPE AND ALAGOAS, AND THE RIVFR SAO FRANCISCO BELOW THE FALLS. Tlic Province of Sergipe. — Its Division into MatUis and Agmsti's.— l'y ]\l, Hfiil. — Estuncia ; Now Hcd Sandstone, H\\<inr Plantations, i^^ic. — Sim-l Dunes. — The Hio Vasaltarris. — The Rio Cotiiigniha. — Aracaj i. — {'r,i. taceous Hcds witli Inocerami at Sa])ucahy. — Maroini. — Cretaceous Lime- stone witli Ammonites. — " Fossil Turtles." — Sujrar Plantations. — M( -m-, Seln-amm and Company. — Tiie Bar of the Sao Francisco. —Sand Dv.u- of the Pontal. — Character of the Kiver helow Pciu'do. — Araciuv. — Vill.i Nova and its Cretaceous Sandstones. — The City of I'enedo and its (un]. ogy. — Its Commerce and Fair. —Notes on the Piranha and its Hiibits - Propria. — Morro do Chaves and Cretaceous Fossils. — Traij-u. — Iron Ore. — Campos, Ye<:etation, Cactuses, &c. — Piio de Assucar. — Ciitilc Fa7.endas. — Piranhas. — County flat and covered hy Houldns. — Tli.' River Valley a Narrow Gorj.'-e in a Gneiss Plain. — The Falls of I'luilo Af- fonso. — Ilalfeld's Description. — Liais's Description. — Comparison iio- twcen Paulo Aftbnso and Nia^jara. — Mastodon Remains from iu;ir ili,' Falls. — Climate of the Sao Francisco helow the Falls. ~ Steam Nuvi.'i- tion. — Character of the Coast of the Province of Ala;j:oas, South uf Maceiii. — The Lajroas. — The City of Maceid and the Geology of its Vicinity. — Tertiary Reds. — Ilarhor and Reefs. The Province of FcroMj)c i.s a very small one, M-etlired in on the coast l)et\vccn tlie jirovince of Baliia and the Rio de Sao Francisco. Its coast lino is onlv about ninctv miles in extent. The eastern part of the province is low ami uneven, and there are extensive tracts of sands aloiii: the coast. In this resrion are some lands fit for cti!ti\.'itinii. The western half of the j>r(ninco is hitihcr and soniowliat mountainous, the ])rincipal mountain range being the Scrra PROVINCES OF SKRGIPE AND ALAGoAS. 370 ) THE rJVKR irTtabayana, of Avliidi I sliall liavo occasion horoaftor to spciik. The eastern linlCof the province passes l)y tlie name 111' Mdtfas, heeausc of its forests, while the term A;/t'( s/rs is iijililicd to tiic western portion, hecanse it is dt-stitnte of I'nivst, and is to a hir<2:e extent l)arren and dry, Ix'ing in sdiue parts fit only for pastnra,<!:c, though durint;' the dry season water fails, the vegetation dries up, and cattle suffer from hunger and thirst. Tiic princi])al rivers of the province arc the Ivio Real, wlinli se[)arates it from the province of Bahia on the south, !iiii| t'ini)tics into the sea at the same mouth with the Rio riuuliy, the Rio A'asal)arris, the Cotinguiba, and the Jaj)a- ratiiha. The Rio Real is a small river navigable for a distance of some nine leagues above its mouth. In its upper course it tlows through the diy belt, and it is bordered l)y cattle fa- zi'iuliis. A little cotton is raised along the river. The Tiauhy, another small river rising in the western part of the province, and to the north of the Real, unites with the latter river just before it empties into the sea. On my return from a voyage on the Sao Francisco I touched at Estancia, and made a hasty visit to the town. Estancia is built on a rolling country, where the heights of the innnc- diate vicinity are not more than two or three hundred feet. The hills are rounded, aiul the rocks com])osing them are coarse red micaceous sandstones, — quite indistinguishaljle in tlie hand specimen from the triassie red sandstoue of Now Jersey. This sandstone covers a large area, and nmst he very thick. I examined it in several ])laces, l)ut found no siiiiis of fossils. The dip, as a general thing, npjiears to lie liut a few degrees to the eastward. This sandstone is covered by a red clayey soil, which bakes very hard, so that 80 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGUAl'IIY. tlic vicinity of Kstaneia is vory arid mid of littlo fci'tilitv, and llio vt'^ctatioii is low and sjiarsc. 'I'licre arc, liowiNcr. voiy jji-oductivc lands lying furtiu'r to the westward, iiml j»rol)al)ly inside of the sandstone range. Ivstancia exjiorts every year 7,00() boxes of sngar (48,000 cwt.), toy(.'tln.'r with sonic cotton, tol)aeco, etc. Jk'low Kstaneia I found a poor exposure of liniostnno. containing shells, and which was (piarried for burning iiifi* lime. I could discover no signs of bedding. The Die riofuirio (Icoij^rdjiliico says that in the neighborhood of the llio Piauhy a mine of coal was discovered, and that since 1H40 no other coal has been used in the forges df the vicinity ; but while at Estancia I made careful in- (piiries about minerals, and heard not a word said about the existence of coal in the neighliorhood. The river is narrow, and at the time of my visit, in Au- gust, 18G7, it was very shallow. The water l)elow the fulls was fresh, but very muddy. As the hot season advances the river falls very low, and the salt water flows uj) to the port. The lower part of the river is bordered by extensive mangrove swami)s; its mouth is obstructed by a liad Imi'. On shore, on the south side, are some magnificent snml- dunes, forty to fifty feet high, as regular in their outlini'S and as white in color as snow-drifts. SAND-DUNES AT THE MOUTH OF THE lUO REAL. PROVINCKS or SKIUilPK AND ALAGoAS. 881 N'oHli of Kstiincia low, i nvii'u hir liills \n'</\n to make their aiilK'iiriiiice^ and seem to lie tertiary uiitlier.s ; l>iit away in the iiiterioi', t\v<Mity or tiiirty miles I'rom the coast, is seen the l»lue oiitlino of tiie Serra de Jtaliayaiia. It jireseiits a IdW, very evenly roinided I'orm, and mnst lie over two thou- sand I'eet in height. It is composed ()i gneiss and mica sliitc, as 1 had an opportnnity ol' seeing on the Kio de Sao I'Vancisco. The Vasaharris, anciently denominated Irai)irang, vises ii. the province of l>ahia, in the Serra lliuha, according to the DiccloiHirio d'co^rajf/iico, and is of \-ery little impor- tance except ni.'ar the sea, where it is navigalile lor a dis- taiirc of ahout twenty nnles. The same authority says that the Rio Sergi](e flows inio it near its mouth, which is manl- I'l'stly a mistake. Not far from the mouth is the city of Sei'gipe d'Kl-Rei, or Sfio Christovao, on the liank of a minor stream emptying into it IVom tlu; norih. This city was, loi* many years, the caj)ital of the ])rovinee, liut so very had is ilic liar of the Vasaharris that the river was not to he depended upon for mivigation. The capital was consc- i|neiitly removed to Aracaju, on the Cotingnilta, a few leagues farther north. The city is iu)W in de(;ay. The Cotingniha, or Cotindilja, is a smaller river than the Vasaharris, and takes its I'ise, as near as I can ascertain, in the Serra dTtahayana. It is navigahle, at high water, fur SI lacks only, as far as Maroim, a distance of some ten or twelve miles. The river has several hranches, on which are a iiumher of towns of more or less importance. At the month the river is very wide, presenting a l)eantifnl sheet of water; hut it appears to he, after all, only a sort of estuary. Between MaroYni and the sea the lianks arc largely covered by mangroves, hut there are some hills and hjij-her lands. 382 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Tlio l)ar at the inoutli of the river is very dangerous, and the snrf l)eats on it with great liiry, sometimes piv- eluding the possihility of entering. Ahnost across tin mouth, from the norihern side, stretches a line of saml- banks of a crescent-like shape. Three of these arc joined I^ar of Rii' Cotin.iiif'i. together, llieir convexities being turned toward the sea. while the extremities arc })roduced nj* the river as Vnvs si)its. iV siniihir sand-bank is attached to tlie noi'tlicin hank. These hook-shaped sjtits of sand are made in tlu; struggle lietweeu tlu? i-iver and the waves of the si'ii, in the same manner as th*^ liook at the mouth of New York Bay is made. Like the otlier rivers on tliis coast, the Cotinguiba enters the sea very obliquely with :• southeast course. The k'ft liank is fhit, composed of sand, and continues low for several nules uj) the river. On tlic oi>i>o- site side, at the mouth, there are extensive <hines forty to fifty feet high, flanking a tract of recently elevated sands, stretching along several miles, covered with cocoa-palms rnOVIXCES OF SERGIPE AND ALAGoAS. 388 as far as tlic city of Arncnju, a small and uninfcrostiii!^ town, tliG capital, built on a Hat of lower alluvial ground, liordering the river at the l»ase of the sands. Jn the upper part of the town the dunes arc very large and cons[)icuous. Ill company with Dr. J>runet, Director of tiic Agricul- tural College at Bahia, I walked over the stratified sands tor some distance u[) the river to a hill on which thei-c is ;; I'hurch and little village. I saw no shells in the samls. Tilt' hill i-eferred ti) is tertiary, and we saw in the soil cov- ering it irreguliir masses of the common dai'k-red tei'tiary sandstone. The height of the sand jilain ahove water level was, if I remenil)er rightly, about fifteen feet. A ^i'w miles above the citv, and also on the riulit bank of tlic river, at a place called Sapucahy, there is (pute a large quarry in a little hill composed of a white flaggy and shaly, ratlicr soft and chalky limestone, used quite extensively lor building purposes in Aracajii. Of this limestone n thickness of over a hundred feet is cxposeil. The stratifi- cation is remarkably regular, and the quality of the stone is very unifiirm. As a general thing it is almost pure, white ami somewhat soft, but there are bands of a gi-ayish variety, niucli harder, which have, at first sight, the ajijjearance of a lithographic stone. The thinner shales resemble strondy tliost of Solenhofcn. A large j.art (X he rock is flaggy, and is readily (piari'ied out in lai'ge thin slabs. T'hei-e ai'C sonic lines of flints in these beds, Itut these are not roundt'(l as ill the English chalk, but tal)ular and angular. T have suhiuitteil some specimens of tliesc rocks to my friend ^fr. Arthur M. Edwards, the microsc(;pist, of New York, who has lioeii unsuccessful in discovering in them any micro ><.'o]iic remains. On the surface of some of the layers of limestone I have found great numbers of valves of a pretty 584 GF.OLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GKOCHAI'IIV In()crr(inu(.%, most jji'obahly new, totrctlier witli a little Ami- inonitc ail. I sonic tdiostiar. fisli-scak's. I am ti;lil thai \,^^\^^ I'cct ri>lics have hocii ohtaiiu'd liiTc as well as at liaiau- gi'iras, ami some s]M'cim('iis were colk-c'ted a lew years mv"') ill this \ii-iiiity liy his Majesty llie Emjieror ol' i>ra/.i!. ;; shrewd geological ohserver. 'I'his white liinestuiu; a|ij'rais to represont the while chalk. The ix-ds at Sapucahy laivc a moderate dip to tlio southeast approximately. MAIIOI.M. Botweor. i^nimcnhy and ]\Iaro'im, a few miles up the livor. the grounds are low, and the Itoatmen inronned m( that liuio ahouiided in the vieiiiity. The limestone of Sa]iiu;ihv is said not to furnish good lime. At ^faroTm 1 was gratified te find the streets ])avcd with largo Mocks of a coarse yellev.i>li limestone, and to sec on them the imjiressions of some larire Antmouilcs and Cvrnlilcs^ some of wkick 1 tools' i;| and brought away with me.* IJesides these fossils J oliiaineil. * I visited \\w, (niarry tliiit supplied tliu stone, hut in tli" short tinu :if mv i1i-p()>:i' I touiii! liut little. PKOvixcr.s OF sKnniri-: and alaooas. ;)s:, tlllK at mv tliioiiti'li the kindness of Mr. Aduljili liiuic,* several speri- iiKUs of a large X<(tica. Mr. Xirolay once showed the diiiwiiitr <»f a Cidaris sent to him from that hx-ahty. Al the Sah'ni nu.-ethig of the Association for the Ailvanee- lui lit of ."^cienee, in Angnst, 1S('>'.>, I exhibited my eoUection iti' )hii'oini fossils, and expressed the opiiuon that they wci'C livtMceons. Pr(jfess(jr Alphens Hyatt, in examining the sjicfiinens, was strnek with the r(.'markalile peenliarities ])ii>sessed hy some of them, and which recalled Jnrassic I'nriiis. Professoi' Hyatt kindly consented to stndy the sjieijiuens ci'itieally, and 1 am glad to he aide to present till' fiiUowing report npon them, which he has j)i'epared for this work. I am especially glad to have the opinion of this iialiiialist on the Ceratites aiul Anuuonites, hecanse he has made such exceedingly careful studies of these groups. It'ij'nrf nil till' Cr('t<ic('<Hi!i FiitixilA frum Jfio'i/im, Proi'/in'c of Scrijiji", /l/ii-.if, ill the CitUfftinii (if Pkoi'kssor Hahtt. ]')V Ai.iMii'.rs HvATT, S.B., Caratiif in tlir PcaJiodij Afiahmu, Suliui, .U'ls.^. hi the small collection of fossils from the ahove loculitv, placed in iii\- hands for examination, I have been aMc to make out the I'ulliiwiiig species : — X<itif(( pr'tlniir/a Leymcrie. N'ltU-n pmhnga Loynicric, 1S42. Mi'in. dc l;i Soc. (IcmiI. t. v. pi. IG, fiir. 8, j). l-T; I'oil,.. Voy. (hitis rAmer. Mer. t. 3, p. 73, pi. LS; I'ul. Fran., Terr. C'n't. p. ir,2, i.i. i:^, li-. 1. This species is (juite closely allied to Adtirn /^'i-rifcii'i/is nf l!iir!iK'i-. I'lillected in Texas, hut has a longer and more acute spire. I III' I' iviicli specimens were found at 'fhietfraiu and Vandoeuvre, 111 the 1,1. wer Neocomieu, liy M. Leymcrie, and the identitication * Since my return iioinc Mr. Laiui lias heeii so kind as to seiul inc small lot.-J of tli'-e I'ussils. Vol. 1. 17 Y 386 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPHY. was made liy a (/(jinpariHon between the l>razilian specimens aul the figure given hy D'Orbigny in the l'(tlciniti)ln</le Friiiii;ii.<_ D'Orhigny's tiguro of the specimen from Cohunbiu, in his I'n,/,/,/, d'liti CAini'rl'iiii' MifliliuiKili', is that of a young specimen found by IJonssingault on the Kio Suba, one of the aflhients of the Kiu Snare/.. This agrees j)erfectly with tl»e figni'e of the FreuLli specimen. The l''rench, Cohuubian, and JlraziUan specimens ;uv all casts of the intei'ior. Locality : Cretaceous of MaroTm, C. F. II., 18G7, and Mr. Adul|/li Lane. Ceratlti'.'i JInrtdi n. sp. Tliis si)ecimen I was at first disposed to consider as a rtoniatite in spite of the septa, the characteristics of which are uncpu'stinn- ably ceratitic. It is evidently a fo.ssil cast which has l}een tr.iuv ported to the beds in which it was found, ft'om some older stratum of precisely the .same lithological composition. Serpuhe have iu- crusted the surface, stretching their long cornucopia-like .--hrll- cases across, or fitting closely into tlie abraded dejjressions wliich mark the former edges of the septal partitions. The pi'eseuri df these sei'pulie sliow conclusively that the specimens inusi huvi' been a fossil long before they began to grow u|)ou its surface. -mxA that it had sufi'ered much from the wear and tear of the eleiiK iits before they could have fitt(>il themsclvos so accurately into tlio de])ressions of its rouizh and jiitted extei'ioi". The nmlulicus is filled with the tou^h calcareous nuitrix, but its form must iieLVS- sarily be that of a very dee]) fumiel, the whorls enveloping tlie greater portion, if iKjt the whole, of the sides of the young. Thi-; is certainly the case with jvgard to the last whoi-j, which covers nearly the whole breadth of the sides of tiie innnediately i>rectM|- ing volution, leaving only a nan-ow band exposed. This jmluH- arity, and the great transverse l)rea<lth of the volutions, gives to this species a remarkably close resemblance to Coiiintitcn vyausfna autl other allied forms, and this it was which, at first sight, led lue to imagine that the older Coiiidtitix, ;is well as the Ccrntit'.x, i;:id PHOVIXCES OF SElIGiri; AND ALAGuAS. 387 cimcns ai;:: ••ijdlonizcd" the cretaceous shores of liraziL 'I'he hjnL,'cst diameter ,.f the cast is nearly five ( + 1,7) inches. The latter half of the l;ist volution, occupied by the terminal chaml)er, is devoid <if sep- tal markings, and has sutl'crcd too much from alii'asion t(i allnw of accurate measurements. Near the last septum, however, llie fiil- ii(.>s of the oriyiual shell is very well preserved, and here the (lurso-al)dominal breadth of the last whorl was found to 1)e two sevenths shorter than the dorsal l)readth, measuring irom shoul- der tu shoulder of the umbilical edge. The abdomen and sides arc symmetrically rounded, reaching their greatest width or de- [larture from each othei on the umbilical edge. The curvature of the sides is so rajtid, liowever, and the a[iparent elevation of the aliilnnien so great, tluit, without actual measurement, no one would be apt to suspect that the base of the arch was longer than its axis of elevation. The edges of the septa, though worn away to ii considerable e.xtent, are suihciently distinct to allow of the de- termination of their general characteristics, 'i'liey are eviilently nidvc closely allied to those of C(-r/ifi/(.<i ( Ahuii<i////is) L'olilull, as ti'iured liy Von Buch,* than any other sjiecies. 'i'he abdominal lulie, liowever, has a sijihonal cell of ordinary size in place of the laru'c broad cell occupying the abdomen of that species. The lateral lobes and cells have very nearly the same geiiei'al outline as in ('irnfifes /lofj/'/iii, and the superior latei'al cell has a similar triiile division of the base line, due to the presence of two minor lebes of e(pial size. The snj)erior lateral lobe is about one third tleopcr tlian the abdominal lobe. 'I'he inferior lateral cell is very imuh broader than in Ccrnfifrs Hnliiiiil, and the liase, instead of lieiiiLf smooth, is bri'ken by two or more minor lobes, almost obliter- iitcil, however, in the cast. In oilier respects these cells are veiy like those of Ccvdtitex Rubinli, having precisely the same hum{)-liko unu rising gradually on the abdominal, and bulging out on the irsal or umbilical sides. The inferior lateral lol)es in both sj)e- cies are, on account of the contiguity of i\\e septa, in contact, and * l\h<r Ccnitittn, Abhaiul, d. Kong. Akad. Bcilia, 1848, p. 17G, i'v^. 4. lul ill)! Olio GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRArHV. set one into the other like a i)ile of cotVee-cups ; this lohc, hnw- ever, in (.'crat/'fi's Ifartdi is either deeper or of aliout the saiii" depth as the siiiierior hiterul. Tiie first auxiliary eells and 1 il)t'.> are eipially imitative, but the basal outlines of tlie former are di- vided by two minor lobes similar to those of the superior auil inferior lateral eells. The fii'st auxiliary lobe, also, reaches the mnbilical ed^-o, instciul of being situated at some distance tlierefrom, as in Cirdtlttf^ UoIiIkH, and the smaller auxiliary lolies and cells are u[)on the unexpus. il. inturncd portion of the border, and are not seen upon the sides, as in Von Huch's lii^ure of the latter. I'rol)al)ly no very close cum- parisons can l)e made between Hie form of the shell in these tun species, since Ccratitcs IlDhiiili lias a shallow umbilicus and nar- rower whorls. There seems to l)e no doidit, therefore, that this fossil is undcsci"ibed, and as it is the remains of a very remarkalilu cretaceous animal, its dedication to its discoverer cannot be classed among connjliments of a similar sort which are too often couunnu- place or misapplied.* Ceratiti's {Ammonites) Pienlenrdis Von Buch. Xo. 4 of the collection is so closely allied to this species in the form of the whorls and the extent to which they envelop each other that 1 have no doubt of their specific identity, 'fhc septa are not apparent, but the hollowing in of the umbilical sides nt' the volutions and the acuteness of the abdomen are well Uiariail and cvidentlv the same as in A}nmi>nlt('!< Pierdenalis, Locality. In cretaceous beds at Maroim. C F. H. and Mr. Adolph Lane, collectors. Ammonites Ifnllii Meek and lyden ] Xo. I is probably a fragment of a largo whorl of Ammonites Ilallii of Meek and Hayden, or a closely allied species. Althucgli * This Coratito was oljtaiiipil fmm the cretaceous beds of Maroiui. <• I'- ll, ami yU. Aildliili banc, collectoi's. PROVINCES OF SKIIGII'E AND ALAGoAS , A 380 iiAiie i>f the inner whorls ure preserved, the lunliilicus was evi- (liiily deep and eumparatively narrow, a eharaeteristie eaused liy t!ie liroiid dorsum, small number, anil very rapid increase in size (,| the volutions. Tlie eost.e, or pil;e, as I prefer to call them, cross the abdomen wirlitiiit interruption, and not more than one in four reach the uiiiliilical edge, where they develoi) large, coarse tubercles and dis- a]i]M ir. An outline or section of the whorl would cin-ve like a llouian arch, the abdomen being rounded far down on the sides, the sides flattened only when near to the umbilical edge, which is vnv aliHipt, and in the whorl examined measm'ed about four tifths of ini inch from the edge to the side of the })reeeding whorl. The base of the whorl in its liroadest part, from edge to edge, measures tliive and two Hfths inches, anil its height, from a line connecting; till' luiiliilical edges, three and one fifth inches. The se})ta are noL sutiiuiently well preserved to aflbrd an accurate description. No. 2 is a species of the Ligati group. The ligatm-e-like dcpres- >iins constricting the whorl are jdainly visil»le, and the form iviiiimls one of A mmain'tcs scmistrinfns D'Orb., at least the genei'al itspect nf the last whorl somewhat resembles that species. Xo. ;5 ai)pears to be identical either with Ammoiudx P('riiv!<nnix \o\\ lliu'li, or Ammonites acu/ocan'iiatns Shumard. The fragment is very nuich compressed, and the true characteristics of the ab- deinea (>l)literated. Xn. .■{ " is a fragment of a young specimen of So. ^. This is lint eoinpressed, and shows the prominent keel and broad [lihe of thi:5 spceies much more plainly. Lnrulity : ]\[aroTm, in cretaceous beds. C. F. H. and Mr. Adolph Laue, collectors. Ammnirltcs G'ifihoiu'avuK Lea. Xo. 5 is probabh' the young of No. 0. The ])ilie (ribs or costre) make their appearance on the first quarter of the second whorL Attor this first period the whorls arc obscured more or less until tlie ia^t tjuarter of the fifth whorl. From this time until the com- 390 CnOLOGY ANT) PHYSICAL GLOGRAPllY pletion of the sixth vuliition there arc Lirge tul)erculiitc,l pi,. whicli iilteniiite witli others of h'sser height unci thickness, Ihoi;.':. in a very irregnliir manner. The larj;'er pilu: begin to Ih.mj tlni'- greater iiroportidii.il height on tlie latter part of the sixth uIimiI. and ajjpear iihont to assume the same form as those of Nu. (1, il^. serihed below. The (lurs'.nn of the sixth whorl is mnch broader than llio u],>h- men ; the umbilical edges iire rounded and the sides slopi' ovoilv to the base of the keel. The jiihe have sipiai-ely cut gciiiriih, probal)ly tubereulated on the shell, and which bend ibrwaitl dii t the abdomen and terminate close to the keel. The keel is very in'ominent, thin, and sharp, and the sjilcs )•:■ tween the pihe are evenly rounded upon the edge of the ahdwiuin, in those parts not affected by com])ression. The sejita were too obscure to be observed with any apimjaili to accui'acv. No. (i. The keel is very nearly i)crfect, and shows to the fi;!l'>t extent its great breadth and the entirely external pnsitiun .4' i!i" siphon. In this respect it resend)les Xos, o and 7, in Imth if whicli the siphon is not present at all in the internal casts of lln' whoi'l, but disappears with the removal of the shell. The latter part of the sixth and the iii'st hiilf of (he scviiitK whorls are exposed, and tolerably well preserved. The lanliilinil edge is roundt'd, and the sides slope evenly to the I)ase of the lacl. The umbilicus itself rather deep. The al)(U)men is not 'piitc » broad as the doi'sum, measured from edge to edge. The ]iilic ai"'' depressed on the umbilical l)order, but the genicuhe arc sliuht!;. more ])roininent, but not tubereulated, and bend foi'waiil uii I' the abdomen, terminating near the keel. They continue to remain straight until near the second (|iiartur of the seventh volution. Pfere a double curvature begins to !."-■ apparent. The lower jiart bends forward over the mnlid'AMl cL''' with a salient curvature, and is continued bv a reentrant cr.rvo, which, also, takes a forward direction over the edge of llic ali'lo- PROViKcr.s OF sKr.Giri; and alag.ias. 301 fuiy fi]iiirij;irli iiicii tn the ?»!ise of the kcfl. 'I'lio pihu lose sonietliin;^ of their finiici' [irouuiionce iieiir the Lceiiiculie, and conrofiu iimre ileeuleiUy to the c'lirvatiu'e of the sides of the whorl. The keel itself on the seventh volution measured nea..yono liiilfi'fan inch, and the whorl nearly two inrhcs. Nil. 7. The lariLCest of this lot hardly reaches heyond the sixth wimrl. Though diil'ering eonsiderahly at first si^ht, they are really ^t;ll vounger specimens of No. <i than No. .">, with the easts of the pihu lietter preserved. The uudiilieal edire slopes shar[ily inwards, tliL' sjilcs incline outward to the edge of the aliddincu, and then vjiipi.' with a reentrant ciu've to the hase of the keel. The envel- i']iiu'iit extends only so far as to cover the abdomen and pei'haps t!ir tiiliei'cles on the genicuhe. The pike conform to the cui'ves (if the umhilical ed.ue and then rise gradually to greater pronu- i.i'iiic and ac([iure tuherculated genicuhe upon the edge of the ul'ilniinii, with extensions winch raise folds ujidu the alulomen vadiiiig neai'ly sti'aight across to the base of the keel, 'j'he keel itM'lf is very prominent, and possesses the same remarkable thin- u 'ss iind prominence observed in No. (1. Ail the specimens, with I'lio exception, have the })iku evenly developed antl I'ijuallv prond- iii'iit, but in this one the same alternation of laige and small pike iiiay be dliserved as in No. •"). Thus there can be little doulit of all four of these varieties l't.loiiL;iiig to one and the same species. l''or the specimen last ik'.sL'rilied diifers from all other specimens of No. 7 only so far as it ::.'rL'('s with No. T), namely, in the altei'nation of the pike ; and No. "i (lillers from it only in those characteristics which it shares in ceiuuinu with No. (>, namely, untuliei'culated genicuke much I'.'ss ]ininiinent than in No. ■"), and I'ounded i\nd)ilical edges with siilus which slope evenly to the base of the keel as in No. 0. Ihc ucneral aspect of a section of one of No. .'•, the amount of euvcl,i|)iiu'nt, and the outline of the whoi'l, closely resend)le .Mar- C'ous ti-iire of Ammonite!^ (ri/>f>(i»i'i/nis, found in Texas, and there !-^ ii. faint re.semblance to Lea's original, but miserably iuudequato 302 GEOLOGY AND PIIYSICAI. GKOCnAI'lIV. fiLrnre ;uh1 (loscription of !i fraLrniciit <jf' the sumo sj^'cics fuiiiiil ■;. Js'c'W (iieuiulii. It iiiiiy, pfvliJips, excite surprise that the Aiiunonites iioticMl i., this ivport are not piihlished under ditlei-ent f^enei'ie )ip[icll;iti(iih from tlmse usually eni]tloyed, and this iuileed calls for sonic ('X|,!,i- nation on niv part. All the nenera (Icscrihed hv me in the HiilK-ii:! of the MusiMun of Comparative ZniiloLiy were collected from l,i;i>.; beds, and their characterist' .s were determineil hv eanlMl (nm. parison of S o f tiic ynunu and specimens thi'ou^j^hout lar-e scrio specimens. This kind .rk has led to the coiii'lu>inii tlm; it will ni>t in in«ist instances pi'omote the knowledi^c' <it' iiaLinii toluiiV to (K'scrilie isolated ;_'enei'a in other formations. \\ lnii :, series of conut'cted generic j^i'oujis can lie delineated sraiidiii:; ;:i their serial relations to each other, and ilhistrat iui;' natui;d l;i\(- of ai'ranuenii'nt, or when the diagnoses of new genera, ivcii though iscjlated, may indicate imjiortant facts of stratigrapluLal m' geographical distribution, the readjustment of the older and lu i ■ comprehensive names and groups may heeouio imperative. Tin Brazilian specimens, however, evidently belong to new geiiii'a. in- core ling to my views of the relations of species amonu' the A IIIIIK niiwu iiaiiR' nites, but for the present any change of their welbk seems unnecessary. All of the Brazilian .\nuiionites arc either identical with. ii'>" closely allied to, sjiecies already descriTied from the Texas licdsly Boeiner and others, that they cannot l)e safely separated. The ])resence of sui'h well-characterized species as Xcfii'i I'r-i- Ji)ii<l(t, Aunnoiltca Pfr/ir/'tm/s, and ]ierha])s of other species mi tin/ western as well as eastern side of the Andes-Rocky Mmrita;;! chain in IJi'azil and Texas, indicates the connection lietweeu Husi' slopes, either across the Isthmus or west of P>ra/.il, whih' a ctvM- ceous oi'can still tlowed over the wliole of the noi'iheni piirtinn "t South America. These facts, when considered in coiiv.eitieii w'h the di.sct)very of a fossil Ainiin7ti/trs on the I.sthmus. as ivninlal by Mr. Alexander Agassiz, have a direct bearing upon a very portant cpicstion. nil- PROVINCES OF si:n(jii'i; and alagAas. ;;•.•:; Tlir rxpoditioiis of IhcC'oiist Survey, us is ik-w well known to all ii,ituiali.-ts, hiivc! estiilijislied tin' t'lift of a rumarkjihlu siiuilaritv lio- luaii tliL- pi-fsent (lt'C'i)-so!i fauna and the spcck'S of cretaceous .'inrra : ami it has licen shown tliat the surface or littoral animals urri' nmre or less represented liy identical or closely ailieil sjiccie.s f the I'acific side of the Isthnuis. Tims the (|uesti(in has arisen wlirthii' or not the closely allied oi- identical forms are the de- ^.Tiidauls of (Inlf species, which, havin;x niigrated throuL^h some ;iiiririit chaimel subsecinently (loscd hy the rise of the neck of laii'l tunniny the Isthmus of harien. Of course the first step to- wards thi' solution of this proiilem would lie to prove the existence nf a liiamiel affording: a IVee ])assa-e to marine animals at some jirmdiuLi- period, 'j'his ;,dvcs great interest to facts like the above, uhicii appear to confirm the conclusion of Mi\ Alexander A^-assiz, that .luring the cretaceous period the (hdf of Mexico and the I'aeilic Ocean were really continuous seas. 1 heard it frcquoiilly reported, tluit larti-c fossil turtles were louiid nt ^hiroTin. One of lliein 1 saw at IJahia, and it WHS iKitliiiijj; l)ut a liu.u'C Scjt/drtKui. Tlie .MaroVni limcstono is cvidoiitly upjior cretaceous, and iii'lniiHs lower down in the series ilitm the white tia<i'gv liuie- >tiiiie of Sapiiealiy. I saw no trtiee of red sandstone like i!i:it of Kstnneia. which may perhaps nndi'rlie the Maruini limestone. lhon,t:li it may 1/C wantinn-. as 1 have seen it no- wiiere else, and it seems to lie a local formation. The I'Hiiitry ahout ]\rar(mn is liilly, hut low. Tlie soil is very li'li. and a large trade is carried on in simar, the ji'reater I'liit of which is in the hands of the wealthy house of Messrs. S'lmr.nni A' Co. The ^ll,)re hetwcen the mouths of tlic Cot... juiha and ?ao Fiinicisco Rivers is low, with a few scattered hills, and is of little interest. 17* :vM Cir.OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GF.OC.RAIMIV. Tlic linrra oCtlu; Rio di; Sao Friincisco is, like (li;il -if tlii Cotiii^niiha, ohstniclod by saii(l-l>aiiks, ami at times ilir i u- trance is daii^eroiis, oven lor steamers.* A liook-.sliiiiidl sand-spit is seen oxtendin;^ IVoni the soutliern side (if tl,i. entrance. On enterinir tlie river, tlie sonthcrn side is seen Id !,. swampv and lor a considei-aMe ilistance covered li\ n grove-trees. The opposite side is sandy, and tliiic ;iiv some larjjro areas covered Iiv line dnnes of Mown smikI. Since IlaHeld's snrvey tiiis has nuich chan^iiMl it: laii- |i|"';ii- ance, the dimes have increased in heii'ht, hnrvim:' <iiiiii o r tlie cocoa-trees to their crowns, and encroachiiii:' Mil the I'iver.* Strongly in contrast with the smootl I SWCl'li- \u<X on lline> s ol tlie ti'rouniy: dnnes ai'C the irreii-nlMi' cui til ical hills of sand which occupy a large jiart of the i'(Uit;i! tin; coarse trailiim' pLuit Aft( er a (iiin(! nas u'rown, some oi take root, and shi-nhs and little trees sjjring nj) on its siir- Aicc. These jirotect the area over which they grow, wliilc the renuiinder may snlTer removal hy the wind, Inriiiiiii;' little conical hills with tufts of veuetation on tlicir tuiis. The sand is very fine and of a liulit hrown coh A llinl the sand-hills are large flats, partially occui>ied liy niuisiio and jionds, and the rt'sort of great nnmhers of wiidiiiu' iiiul water hirds, cranes, jdover, and the long-toed Parnt .liriiii'!. Just about the mouth a channel called the li'io PaminiL';! * Liais says that near its nioutli, after the dry season, the Sao rraiiri<co ilo- livers 2,8U(i eiihic metres (jf water jier second, {/hill, ili: la Soc. '/«' ^Vi*'/., .')"" Se'ric 2, p. 390.) Gardner in liis Travels, p. 104, draws a very discoiiinfrin;' view of the prosjicets of rendering the Sao Franei^eo navi<:a!)ie, and s;iys tli;it here is seldom more tlian four feet of water on the bar. Th(^iii;,h di.iij,'eroii5, it is regularly crossed by the liirpe coast steamers. t Gardner describes similar dnnes at Peba, five leagues north of the Barra do Sao Francisco. riiOVIN-CKS OF SLKGIl'E AND ALAUnAS. :vj:, o Fraih i-ro ilo- K. ill' fi'l'i'/., ')"' ■y iliscdiinifrin;' , iuul s:iys lh;lt ifih (h.ti;.rroii5, '.hnf tlic Barra ;,avc.^ tlic niiiin river and ciuptiL's into tlu.' soa alfoiit a IrllL'Ilt' to tlio soulli. IVoiii the I'oiital to I'l'iirdo, a distance of alioiit twonty- l';\i' miles liy the rivei", the shoi'es oC tiie rivci" are very \nw iiiid Ihit, and there ai'<' many lar^-e i>lands. Ascond- iiiLT seme distaneo the ini...,<irove swainjis disa[»i)eai', and a :■(!« til of auhiiiii Is eoninion, while the <:iant nlia ura ss iiuL'times covers considerahlc tracts. These islamls and If iK'i^jhhoring Hat lands are j)artially wooded, hut the rrnw th is neither so hixnriant noi- so thick ;is that whirh Lluiiacterizes the Mncnrv ami Doce in the sonth, th A.uiizniKis in the north T\ le rncr-hanks are (|Uite low te 1, .tud lai'i:e tracts are cverv vear covered lor a time hv the waters ol' the annual freshet, which, however, deposit a fresh coatiaji' uf mud over the surface, addinji to the feitility of llie re;ii()n. The hanks are, in some places, seen to he ooiniioscd entirely of snnd, hut usually thei'C is a supcrlicial stialum, more or less thick, of nuissape, or yidlowish and I'lowaish alluvial clayey soil, which is veiy fertile. These flat lands are exceedingly well adapted for cultivation, and aiv especially suitahlc for sugar-cane, of which, howevei-, little is as yet planted. There are several settlements o:i these lands, of which Piassaliossu is the Largest, where tlicre are several cnjcnhos for the manufacture of sugar aii'l (.' nel laca. The higher lands hcgin a short distance hclow Penedo on the rii^lit hank of the river at Porteii'a, and consist, so far ii> 1 have heen aide to sec, of cretaceous rocks and outliers of the <:• I'C )een coast tertiary sheet. At Aracar(j, a jirominent rocky point just below Villa ^'iva. I found a scries of beds much broken up, and about diusc stratigraphy, from my time having been occupied in 396 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPIIY. a search foi- ibssils, I do not feel (|uito sure. Tlic spdt i> rf coiisi(k'!al)l(' interest, Ijeeausc rocks are found llieic that 1 liave not seen elsewhere. I'here are l)eds of a light yellowish or hrownisli ll'n. ti'rained, shaly, micaceous i?andstone, in Avhich J luiiml i nndtitude of fossils Avhich are almost, if not (juite, uinlcti ■- minalde. ^Nfost abundant is a little l)ivalve which has lilli ,i some layers, hut which has left only empty moulds of ih,' valves ; in addition to these are what apjjear to he the s]iiiitN of fishes and fi'agnients of plants. There are some li'\•l'l^ of a light-colored shale, in which, however, I found iin lio-il reuuiins. These beds are considerably inclined, but 1 nuit- ted to take an observation of dip and strike. '['he shore is cncundiei'ed by great masses of a consiilir- able vai'ielv of rocks, some of which 1 did not see /// .-i'/'. Of these is a light, porous, argillaceous, warm red saiiiUiniii'. which resembles somewhat the sandstone of the tcitiarv hills near Pitanga on the Bahia Railroad, and with this air associated laru'c masses of a coarse sandstone and ^'Miiiilnni- erate coated by (day and oxide of iron, in which (piai't/. ami agate pebbles are found, wduch rock also appears to lio tt"- tiary, so that I am inclined to think that we have luic nvt r- lying the fossiliferous sandstone and shale fi-agmenls I'lum the now generally denuded tertiary sheet. The ros>ilit'('r"ih Ijcds I l>elievo to lie the upper members o*" the series ul' sandstones of Villa X(jva and Penedo, about lo be descrihi'i]. and which I regard as cretaceous. 1 found here numerous fragments of a rock with a snrt ef oolitic structure which is very interesting ; when a fiesh. undecomposed species is br')ken, it is seen to lie nrcle np of round or irregularly s))herieal masses f)f a graniihir Im-iwii quart/, al)out the size of coarse duck-shot, fdled in with a lie Sjiiit is r'.f ilit'i-e tliat 1 iwiiisli Inic. i lullllll '[ tc, Hli(lrt( •- •li lias liUci iiilds of tlh' (lie sjiiiirs sonic li'ViT^ 11(1 no lusvil Imt 1 'niM- a CdllShliT- 800 /// ,.,7'/'. S!Ulil>|ii||i'. lie tciliary til lliis aif d vMllinlmil- (liiai't/. ami s to liO tl"'- ' ho re iivcr- noiits iVmn :(is-ililrruu^ } SOl'icS ij( ' doscriht'ii. li a sort cf '11 a IVi'sli. nride n]' u'ac lii'nwn ill witli a rUOVINCES OF SLCCJII'K AND ALAGoAS. o'Jl ?. m:. ' Ml,. I ' I' Urn ccmoiit of !i l)liiish, transliicont ('luilecdony, in whicli are i,c(|(l('il very luuch siuallci- masses. Tlicse shot-like ui-aiiis A\t\>v;iv to lia\e Iieeii formed l)y the (illinu; up of ^loltuhir cavities l»y (|uartz, for some of them are mimitt; i^rodes, still liollow ill the centre. Kacdi has a thin eoiiceiitrie eoat- iiii of milky e'haleedony. In deeom|iosiiin-, tlu' cement of tilt.' grains heeonies white, and sometimrs is lir>t i'eiiiov('(l, k'uviiiu' the si'rains j)r()jeetin,u'. At others the material eom- |iiisiim' the u'rains is dissolwd out, leavini:' a hoiieyeomlieil >iiil;ire. It is a eurioiis rock, whose formation 1 do not I'l'i'l ]»ro|)ared to explain. It looks more like a j)seiidomorph alt.T t)illit(> than anythinii' else. At \'illa Xova w(,' liiid the low. I'oeky l)lufTj)oint on whieh ilic \illa,u<' is Imilt composed of thick lieds of a fine, sharj), whitish or sliiihtlv yellowish sandstone without fossils, with wcll-iiiarked oI)li([ue and irreu'ular lamination, and a strike X. :.u' E., a dip of \:)^-'2{)^ s. 4<r k. The city of Penedo is Ijuilt on the Alaji'oas si(h\ at the font and on the side of a ridge which rims from the left liaiik of the ri\-er touarils the northeast. This ridge has a str('|i slope to the southeast, while for some distance on the Jiurthwcstern side it is i)r(.'cipitons and aliout fifty feet liiLih. Tiie rocks exposed on the shor(> and in the (diffs at I'enedo moot the same genei'al character as those of \'illa Xova. A layer of dceomposed shale or iday is seen in the cliffs skirting the town, together with some thin hands of a fine slialy iiiicaceiMis and ferrnginons rock. The whole, like the \ ilia Xova heds, dip to the southeast at a smaH angle.* 1 have carefully examined these sandstones lor f(jssils, hut luivc seen only some hadly proerved remains of jilants. * fiiirlniT says tliiit tlic siiiulstunu;- iin'line from east to wust, wliiih is (.lt- tailllv illi'dlTrct. 308 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The liill nt I'ciiL'do is covered by red drif<-('lny, lictwccn Mhieli and the loek 1 I'oiiiid a sheet of (iiiurtz peljliles, min- g!ed with iinguhir friigiiieiits of sandstone. The PenrMJo sandhtones are very porous, and of a liin' ;\\\t\ e\('n sharpurain, wliieh makes them suitable j'or shai)i(iiii|n tools. The stone is highly <.'steemed Ibr that purpose, and. owing to tlie want ol" sandstones oi" the same kind elscwlmv along the Dra/.ilian coast, it is exported to a small extent, finding its way even as lar as I^io. T\h' same sandstone shows itself at Boassiea,* about tlnvc miles farther up the i-iver, on the Alagoas side. U has luiv the same dip and strike and ol)li(iuc lamination as at I'c- iiedo, and contains occasional layers of pel)l)le.s. On the Sergipe side it is seen again at Coijueiro and \'ill;i Nova, ami at oue of these places it has been (piarrieil I'ni building purjjoses at I'enedo. At Carra|)ixo, on the Sergipe side, the native eivili/nl In- dians manufactui'e a very good rpiality of earthenware IVum the (day of the low grounds. The city of PenT'do is (piite a i'es])cctable little town of some .■),()()<) or 4.000 inhabitants. It carries on a consideialijc conunerce in rice, corn, hides, mandioea-farinha, cotton. Ac. Ac, ^vhich are sent to Pernambueo and Bahia. Evoiy week a fair is ludd, and a great concourse of peo])le from up ami down the I'iver assembles there, bringing hides, coarse >\\<sAr. ])ottery, tobacco, and a host of other articles, which are e.\- * Tliis iiiuiic. wliicli i< !i|i)ili((I to a little stream ami lak<' as well m>; tn ''n' settlonicnt, is of Tii]ii' (irij:iii, ami is derlvecl from lioyo, a MTjifiit, aiiu f/o'^f. niitilateil, the name oi' a speeies of serpent wlileh n|)pears .as if it wiic inu;i lated. See Ttipi Dictionary and Chrialomathla da l.iwjiut Iinizili<<i. I '1" not know what s]i('oii's is nicMiit. The same name is applie'l to a laki' in 'In' jirovime of Hio de Janeiro situated hetween the Kio Maeulie and ilic liiu das Ostras. Dlr. (i'n>;/., sub voce liua»»icu. PROVINCKS OF SERGIl'E AND ALAfiuAS. ]'X) posed for salo in booths on the broad sand-l)cacli bordering'' the Idwn. renC'do is a callinjr-iilaco fur stcanicrs (.•oniicct- iiiir with Bahia, and it has steam coninHinication with the river above as far as Piranhas. The city is exceedingly well supplied with fish. Among these are Tul)aranas, Curimaiaes,* I'ians, Sai-ajius ( Cara- jiiis), I'ialias of several si)ecies, Caehimbaus or Acai'i's, Pl- laiilias, Pirampebas, etc., A:c., of which I made a large collection. f 1 extract from my journal son\c notes on the color, hab- its, iVc, of the Piranha I {P//guccntrus), which .seem t(j be (if interest. This s| 3cies of Piranha, according to the testimony of the natives, is confined entirely to the SHo Francisco and its triliiitaries, though other species of the same genus (or Sci'ia- sahiio) occur elsewhei'C in South America; but 1 cannot VDiieli for the truth of this statement. Tlie Piranha of the Sao Francisco is strictly a fresh-water fish, and it occurs not only below the falls of Paulo Alfonso, liiit also al)0vc tlicm. It descends the river (piite to the salt water, lint never goes intt^ the sea. None ol' those 1 saw at * I liavo spclk'il tliis iiuiiic as I iicanl it cuininonly iiniiiimiicud. Rati-s writes it CnriiiKitd, and so does Fonsoca in his diftionai'v. The Tiiiu ilictiuiiai y L;ivts it Ciiii/imilit. Tliis fisli 1)cIoiil;s to the <j::enus Amxlus, and several species are very common in tlie Hraziiian rivers. t .\il tlio fishes eolieeted liy me on liotli jonrncys are in the iiiuids of I'ro- ti'>si)r A;.'assiz. Wlieti the al)ove was written Professor A;:assiz intended to eon- fi'iliiitc to tliis volnine a series of articles and notes on the Irc-h-water taiiine of the coast I explored, hut illness ha.s prevented his preparinj.-- tlieni. t III iho Tu|)i dietionary the word "Piranha" is translateil sfissors, and most writ<r< seem to suppose that the name was j;iven to tlic li-li hceansc of its seis- .'iMs-l ike jaws. The 'ru])is knew nothinjr ahont this implement before the com- iii.L' or the Europeans. Piranha (root I'ira, (isli) is an ancient 'I'lijii name, iiriil it was doubtless afterwards applied to the seissors because they bit like the I'iniiiiia. 4tt0 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRArilY, Peni'do were uioro tliaii twenty inclies long, but tlio fislioi'. jnon say that tli«y souicthues •^row to the length ul" two liri. The iipiier hall' ol' the liody and head of a specimen just canght were, wlien seen IVoni above, (jf a (bdl and i;ii!icr dark bhiish-gray or lead color. The lower halt' oi' the Inail and body have as a gronnd cidor an oj)a<ine white, over whit-h is a wash ol' a clear Ijright ganiljoge-yellow, di'c|icii- inu' in some soots to a rich orange. All the vouiiu' riiaii- has I saw had the belly of a rich red-orange or hliMiil color. On the sides the yellow is sometimes shaded with light gray, and the yelhjw or orange tint extends ilsell" iqi- Wiird in irregnlar lines over the dark gray of the liiick. The pectorals are light orange-yellow, the tint deeiiciiiiig in the lower antl middle jtai't oC the lin. The anal tin is on the thickened base grayish, washed with a light clear yellnw tint. The border is light purplish-brown. The dorsals nml caudal art^ a dark, dull bluish-gray. The iris is pearly white with a cloudy patch of black above and below the i)ii|iil.' During the freshets the water overflows the low grounds and swam[»s, and the different kinds of lish leave the river pi<i)M r and enter the lagoons and quiet overflowed jilaees to sp;i\rn. * (iiinlncr ('rmvels in Brazil, ji. OG) (lc<c'riti('s the l^iranlui fish as follow.^ ; ' I. is coininoiiiy uliout a (uot in Iciiiitli, hut sioiiiL'tiim's it is as much a? two foil lon^, huiiifj; wry iiiiicli coniprcssetl laterally and very (Icfp ; tlie Inuk is ul' . (lark hr()\vni>h cdlor, and tlie hclly yellow ish-whiic, huth heinir thinly niiukcl with reildish >-;iuts; tlie lower Jaw jn-ojeets a little hcyond the upper, iiml 'mtli are armed with alioiit fourteen flatfish triaiii,'ular-shaped teeth, up\vanl< ot' ;i quarter of an inch in length and very short." Tlirs deseriptJ'iu appears ti> reli r to a ditl'erent s]ieeies from the one I ileMiii)e. llmnliohlt in lii< TimmIs Vol. II. p. lt)7, speaks of the Piranhas, or Curihis of the Orinoco, as lia\i!i.. "the hi'lly, ■.nil-covers, and the pecto'M' amil, and ventral fins of a fi le i rMii;,'e hue." My s]pccimuiis from the Sacj Francisco still |)reserve their oniiL:'' im'iii-. The Silo Franciscan siiecies apjiear-s to be much lari^er thiiii those ul iK -Vuia- zonas and Orinoco. PROVINCES OF SERGIi'E AND ALAcioAS. 401 Tlio fislionucn said tliat tlie I'iraiilia also leaves tin' river and chooses a shallow sjiot w ith a sandy hottoia to dt'|)os- itc its etigs. Stooi)ing down, the (isherinau with whom 1 \\as convcrsijig one morning took up a I'iranha lying lie- I'orc him, and showed nie Just how the eggs were hiid. Tilt' lish having chosen the ])roj)er sj»ot, swecjis away the ,s;iiid with its tail and anal (in, so as to make a littk sauci'r- >li;ili<'d dej)rcssion lour (jr live inches wide. The eggs, of alidiit the size ofnuistard-seed, arc then laid in the nest in a liall. two or three inches in diameter. This accomjilishcd, tlir mother fish takes u}* hei" [)osition near tin- nest, and k((|ts watch over the eggs nutil the young are hat(dieil. Wn' tlir I'iraidia has enemies in the hungry little I'ialtas, which swaiin ahout in countless numhers, and IVom which she must delend her eggs. Looking over a large lot of I'iahas iu a canoe, I found it difficult to ohtain a ])erfect siiecinicn, nil account of the mutilation of the tail a.nd lins. "This is ilic Piranha's work ''•aid the fisherman, '' and the nuirks of tlic terrible teetl' . ,. monster." The larger fish of till' river also bear similar scars. The laying, accoi'ding to the fisherman, takes ]»lacc ]»rin- ciliiilly in October, oi- soon after the freshets set in. iMu' iiii this time the Piranhas are especially fierce. <*iM' fisherman described in a \ivid manner his finding' a, Piiaiilia Avatchinu' its nest in a shallow ]»lace bv the riser- ■M'lc. "I thought to catch it," said he, ''ami wad(.'d softly into the water to jiut a l)asket over it, but I was not (piick enough. The fish darted at me and took a piece out of my Ic-. Look there!" and rolling up his pants he showed a imir of crescent-shaped scars left l)y the fish's jaws. The ''i>licniien are often Ijitten, and almost every man present ii;i«l scars to show, cither on the arms or legs. 402 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRAIMIY. The fislicrmou imitod in snyiiiL'' fliat just a« this n,>h is about to sj)a\vu tho c'uh)i- of the Itclly chaiijit's IViuii \il low or orangi! to the same color as the hack, hut thai mkui al'U'r the cii-gs arc laid the original color I'cturns. The IMrauha frequents iiither the deeiicr parts of ilif river, and altounds in the eddies among the rocks, Imt I have set.-n it caught, as at I'enedo, close in shore, wlicic ihr water was not very deej) and the bottom was san<ly. During my stay at Penedo a j)oor little idiot sitlin'i nn the pier, having Ix'cn IVightened by a cannon, rdl over iiiin th(,' river. The i \\ morning the Piranhas caught ui the vicinitv wei'e I'ound to contain i)orti(.)ns of his Itodv. Tlu iv arc numei'o is well-authenticated cases whei'c persons Imvc l)een attacked by the (ish while bathing and (h-voureil. Only a shoi't time before my visit to Pencdo a young lady \\a,= thus attacked and eaten. A horse fording the ri\('r sH|is and wounds himself on a stone ; the Piranhas, atliac'^'il ly the blood, crowd about in great numbers, each cultiiii:- (nit mouthful after mouthful of llesh, until, in many instamcs, the voracious ci'eaturcs have been known lu devour th' entire aninuil in a few hours. They sometimes throng al"iut their prey in such mnnbers that they may be seen lca|rnii.' one on top of the other out of water, in their eagrnc-^s to get at it.* ^o far as I could learn, these fish ai)pear to he particnliuly * Bates speaks of the f,'rcat swarms of I'iranlias in tlie AmazDiias. llum- boKlt (Travels, Vol. II. p. 167) says of the Piranhas of the Oriiiocn: "'I'lie Indians dread extremely the.sc earilies ; .and several of them sliowcil i^ lla' scars of deep wonnds in the ealf of the leg and in the thigh made h\ tlii'.*c little animals. They swim at the bottom of the rivers ; Imt if a few ilroi'S of blood be shed on the water they rise by thousands to the sinface, >(> tliai il ;i person be only slightly bitten it is difHeult for him to get out of the water uiili- out receiving a severer wound." : TROVINCKS Ul' SlLIlGIl'i; AND ALAGoAS. l(i:5 ;oiiiis. Hum- iiioco : " The lOWi'd li- till' lailc I'.v tlii'.-i' lew lliOI'S of L>, SO tli.il it' a e Wiiwr with- (liuiocrous only (liirin.i^ tlio s|»awiiiiig sonson. DiiriMir my Fniiu'iscd 1 saw ovcrvwlicrc! l(iii('-l<',Lin»Ml \llV Mie uii lilt' Suu wniiicii standing- in tho water on the Itaiiks washiiiii;. ami that iKit only in sandy and (|iiit't localities, l)ut anion<;' the IS at I'l'opria, while 1 I'ejx'atedly !?uw men wading in rocKs, I tlic water and hoys l)atliin'jr in the river The r n'anha is nun :h est eemei I for lood md n lav ordma- siM'iies IS s ;iiiii 111 rilv lie round I'ur sale in the market at I'enedo. There is a species orSerrasalmo {: ) I'oiimi at I'enedo called Piriiiii/>rha, the name heing evidently a c(mi|M)inid iA' the t\v()Tu|if woimIs Pir(tn/i(i and /)r/}<i, oi' the fhit Tiranha. This mailer than the last, very luucii Ihitter laterally, ihciT-white Ixdow. 1 did not learn that it pos- sesscil aiiv of the V(»racions propensities of the Piranha.*" Ilctweeii IVnedo and l*ro[)riJi,t a distaiu'c of aliont six lira/.iliaii leagues uj) the river, the Sergipe side is hordercd liv li)\v hills, some of which are irregular and isolated, and loiiijiDsed of the sandstone ahovo descrilied. The country hack IVoiu the river is flat, moderately (devated, and appears tu lie, in jiart at least, tertiary. On the Alagoas side, for Mimcinstanee aliove IJoassiea, there is a considerahle stret(di lit' l(.»\v ineadowdand. At Morro \'erinelho, on the Alagoas >i(lc, cretaceous sandstones show theinselvo.s on the shore, liiit the (lij) hero is approximately to the N. "\V. 1.')°. Thoy arc covei'cd by red drift-earth and great qrantities of (piartz liilililcs, and at Prazeres, half a mile farther up, we again sec till' same sandstones with a dip of ahout IS". In this vicinity the massape lands bordering the river arc about fif- teen feet in height. * (ianlncr s])e.il<s of sccinp drird stnr^'con exposed for sale in the market at IVni'ilo. There are no stnr^reons in South Aineiica. t_Thi> i.<, I believe, the correct ortiiogmjihy, hut it is often written Propia. 1 1 14 GHOLOGV AND IMIYSICAL GKOGRAPFIV. iMiMKlioca flourishes well hclow I'l'ojji'ia, ainl is iilniitiii ns well nil llu' allinial rivci'-haiiks as on tlic liillsidrs; \h\[ on llic low uroiiiids covered hy (lie eiiclienle it ciiiiiiot rum,. t(» luatiirity. It is usually plautccl in Fehniaiy or Mnnli. and is ucnei'tilly lit i'or use in a year, when jtlanled on liir upliinds. It is also eiiltixaled to a, cousitleriiMe extent mi the sl(»|iinjj; river-lianks. tJust het'orc the enelienle it i> |»nlled n|», iiiid is eaten sometimes when not more (linn six inches lon^'. Tin; v'lwv hegins to rise in Octoher. One iiiiU' Indow the town of I'roiiriii, on the Serjiipe sido. is a small hill cidled (he Moito do Chaves, or. as ihdltM lias i(, ^h)rro do iOiiseliio. This hill, whiedi has rockv sido towiicil (he river, I examined in eompany wi(li my t'licinls J)rs. I>rnnet and Lacerda. The rocks eomjiosinii- it ci)ii>.i,f of a series ol" limestones, eong'lomerates, shales, and miihI stones, the whole of whicdi have a strike E. 1.")° S.. and a (li|i (d" aliout 20^ to (he X. To^ K. The lower sti'ata e()nsi>t u\' thick beds of limestone, ealcareous sandstone, and eoii;iInni- crate, soni(> of the hiyers of whidi ai'e made up ol" sliclls. Tliese beds are well exposed on the side of the hill neaii^t the town. This limestone is usually more or less arenaceous, and oftoii contains jirains and pelddes of the undei'lyin|:j: metamDipIiir rocks, so as to form a calcareous couirlonierate. In <>n\\i' ]»laccs it is ciystalline and metamorphosed. It is iisnl (n some extent for burning- into lime, but the most (tf it is very im])uro. The shells so exeeedinuly ahundaut in some parts aii' laniellibranchs, about one half to three quarters inch in diameter, and with veiy tlii(d\ valves. I fear that ev< ii tlw tivnus is -whollv unrecou'nizable. Ovcrlyinj:: these liinostDue heds arc shales, rather soft, not well laminated, calcareous, TROVIXCKS OF SKKiill'i; AND ALAtioAS. 405 [I ol sliclls. lill iiraiv>t inicnconiis, ami ofti prociiisli ('(dor, in wliirli 1 fuiiiul fi l:ir;jf(' i|ii;iiility of holies of tclcoslcjin lislu'S, iiml mm im|ti('ssi()ii wliirli had tlic oiithin' of th(! tiiuth oTii SoUihiniis. A fiir- Ih' •r cxiuniiiatidii of tlu'se shales luav icNcal soiacthhitr of iiiniv interi'st. diiiiiu' around the liill wo conic to a hr(>ak wliirli cxh'iids trmn tiu; Inp of jjic hill lo the hottoni, and in whiili we lind a ciihI'iisimI mass of hrokcn |>i(r('s ol" sandstone. This series of rocks 1 lia\e relen'e(l hi the cretaceous. Karilier up Ihe I'iver we .see wo niesozoic rocks. On llalield's iiia]» a note says that in the Moi'ro do KiiM'liio there is a riniiadd dc cal ctn inin'ss i>-r(Uiif(>, a he(| of iiijcstoiie ill <rnciss-i>'ranite T\ lis is not correct, as is seen I'nuii the ahove deseriittion. 'i'lie liniestones, shales, Am,'., overlie ht'ds of clay slate, which I saw very iiadly e.\|iosed nil sin the river-side. There apjiears to lie a (hstinct slaty idnre to the rock, hut 1 diil not see eiioiiiih of the Ibi"- iiiatioii tt) enalile nie to make out the heddin^. 1 have seen 1111 rock like this elsewhere on the coast of IJia/.il. Pi'(i|iria its(dl' is hnilt on the river-hank, and has in front i>f it ledu'cs of tla^ti'iiy gneiss and mica slate, with a north- west strike* and a di}) toward the southwest. It is only a small villa<ro of little iiniiortance, hecause the lands of lln' vicinity are not very productive, yet it exports some ciittdii, hides, ttc. A little lake near the town is said to aliiiiiiid in fish, and to furnish a considerahle rev(Miue t(j the village government. Opposite Propria the lands arc This st:iko is almost at right antrlcs with thiit of tlie niiks of tlie Scrra (111 Mar, litit it coiTL'sponils to that of the ;;iiL-is.s ii nils lii'twco 11 Capi' ( 'orrii'iiios ami Taii;il(|U('n, and of tiic gneiss near Montevidoo, in \\iiii.li the dirci'tioii is W. i.")'^ -.'joc X. D'Orhigny thinks tliat tlic systum of uiihuaval hy which these rxtra-Rrazilian rocks were distiirlicd was very nearly as (jM as that which Uis'.urhal the y-neiss of the Serra do Mar. K^J ■,'iu .^^ V^> o^. \%^z.% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / O f^s <,y^:%^ c?. Va 1.0 I.I ■-IM 1!^ 1^ 12.5 18 1.25 1.4 1.6 6" ► "/a ^ n ''a. ^> (? / Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ »^' ^s 'q> V cS^ <i3 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 406 gp:ology and physical geography. very low and flat over a very large area. Behind tlicni aio seen the tei'tiary cliapadas lying a few miles off. Win n the enclicnte comes on the river rises some fifteen to twenty or more feet here, and converts the low grounds just spoken of into a magnificent lake-like expansion. Between Propria and Sao Braz the land is still low, Imt the hills are of gneiss and rounded. The rocks fiHMnicntlv show themselves along the river-side, the dip being usually up stream, though at Agua Comprida I observed a dij) duwii stream. The hills in the vicinity of Lagoa Comprida are 300-400 feet high, with rounded outlines and steep sides, which arc well wooded. Farther up the river-banks grow higher on the Sergipe side. There are very irregular cliffs of gneiss, broken and rough, and almost like those of our nortlieiii gneiss regions. The country in the vicinity is, goneially speaking, not very fertile, but, on the Sergipe side, (wo or three miles from the river, the hillsides are highly (.ulti- vated, presenting an unusual and pleasant appearance. The same gneissose and mica-schistose rocks, often traversei] ly large veins, arc well seen in the bluffs. Their strike vari(>s little, and the dip is southwest, varying from nearly liori- zontal to forty-five degrees. The river thus follows the same general direction as the strike of the rocks. In front of Traipu, on the opposite or Sergipe side, there is a range of high hills, with steep bluff sides towards (lie river, and a long slope from it. It is composed of gneissose and schistose l)eds, which, inclined at a rather high angle, dip away from the river. Lying on the southern slope of these hills is a thick bed of a compact rock, which, ii. the steep rocky sides bordering the river, as well as in tlie trans- verse valleys separating the hills, forms a line of blutl's. PROVINCES OF SERGIl'E AND ALAGdAS. 407 Tiaipu is a little villairc of no iniportanco on the Alagoas siili'. At this place a specimen of .specular iron ore, said Id have come from near I'ao d'Assucar, was presented to uir. It is equal in richness to the Swedish iron ores, and if ill workable quantity wouhl be very valuable. r^Jrfftss TRAiri' FI!0:\I NF.AI5 MAIiCACAO. I At Marca(jao flaggy gneiss, very regular in stratification, is exiioscd on the shore. Strike N. o5° W. Dij) 35° S. W. A short distance above Traipu the same rocks with a north- cast dip arc seen on both sides of the river. The country above the Herra do Tabanga becomes every mile more and more rockv and barren, while the vctretation becomes more sparse, consisting of small Imshes with a great almiidance of bromeliaceous j)lants of several species. Of these last there is a very common one known as macambira, with narrow leaves, bearing along their margin long hooked siiiues arranged wide apart. This ])lant furnishes a strong filu'c, and during the dry season its roots contribute largely to support the cattle. Several species of Ccreus, some of which attain the size I'f lai-ge trees, grow thickly over the rocky hillsides, and 4(».S .GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY. form one of llic most clmractcristic features of the vcnotiv tioii. One of these is the Chi(iue-Clii(iuc, so conunon on barren and arid lands in the interior, and so often des( riliLil by travellers. One never sees the Chi(i[uc-Chi(]iie in the zone of fonst and fertile lands bordering the coast, but as the foicsts di>- appear it makes its ai)pearance, and sometimes grous to the height of forty feet. Meloeacti* also abound, touotlicr with opuntias.f With these arc associated many species of crotou and of sapotaceous plants. There is a species nf Big'nonia, B. Tecoma Mart., very common on the hills iniil shores, sometimes growing to a height of forty to tifty lar. with a trunk three or four feet in diameter. Its foliage is very light and the flower is yellow. The Joazeiro {Zizi/phus Joazciro^, a very beautiful (nv with dense heavy green foliage, is rpiite fi'C(]uently seen m;i the river-banks, together with species of Azo/hi, Miino^^a, Gcoffroija^ Pcltophorum, &c. Along the river here the meadow lands have liecomo vow much narrowed down, and occupy only little bays iiiiKnm the hills, though sometimes these are only shut olf from ilir river by beaches, and form lagoas, numbers of wliicli wf liul all along the river. The elevated country is of use only fui' pasturing. The thinness of the soil is not the only reasuii why the vegetation is so sparse and ])eculiar. The surface is yearly burned over during the dry season, when the cattle * One of tlie most intcrcstiTi": of these curious oaettiscs is a large sjiccies described by Gardner under tlie name of Mi locartits Iloahri'ivn^. t Gardner speaks of the occurrence of a species of cociiineal insert on tlic leaves of these plants. Dr. Brunei called my attention to the same fiH'f. .ind assured me that there was no reason why the insect should not be succe<?tully cultivated. PROVINCES OF SERGiri: AND ALAGoAS. 409 tVoil on tlic cactuses and the roots of the bronicliaceous [ilauts. Till' meadow grounds are sandy and not very fertile, l)ut iliiriiiu' the time when tlie river is low, mandioca, rice, beans, cotton, mandubi * {Arac/ns liijpoga'a Linn.) or the i)ea- uiit, are planted, and in front of the numerous fazcnihis ih [/'(do, or cattle estates, and villages the green plots of these plantations bordering the river ajjpcar in cheerful con- trast with the hills behind, whi^h arc scattered all over with louse l)locks of stone, and bristle with cactuses. The country in the vicinity of Curral das Pedras is roU- iiig. and not very high. At Jacobina there is a lag^^a where much rice is planted. !)ue niiin makes more than IjOUO^i^OOO per year by renting ii lor this purpose. At lutaes there is a group of high hills near the river, while others arc seen in the distance on both sides, but the louutry continues with the same general character nearly to I'an il'Assucar. At Lagna Funda, Alagoas side, strike X. :^li^ K., dip. X. W. 3° - 40^t Flaggy gneiss. Looking ahead from this point there is a very hue view, tlie dnuitry still presenting the same low flat lands, ])ut Itc- yuiid we sec the in-egidar tops of higher hills, which ap])ear to he of a different structure. At Cajueiro (Alagoas) strike f X. %' E., dip 80° N. W. Passing the island of Sao Pedro the river narrows while * Tliis curious and well-known ])lant is a native of Africa. In Brazil it ^ocs I'V tiic name Ainindoim, Mnmhihi, and .}f(tii(Iiihiin. Tlie second furni appears to I'c the cdrrect one. The name is of African, not 'i'u))i', origin. This plant i> li>r;;rjy cultivated in Brazil, and is nsed for the niakinjr of sweetmeats. It Iiroduces an oil cmjdoycd for hurninp; and the manufacture of soap. t Both these observations were made as we pa-^sed close alon;^ shore in the t^ti ;uH ir, and Were carefully tuken. llalfeld makes the strike northwest. VOL. 1. 18 410 GEOLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GKOGRArilY. the liills become much higher and excessively rocky, tholi sides being- covered witli blocks of stone. The rock is still gneiss, traversed by many veins. A little })eyond, the view opens ont, and one looks up to the town of IVio d'Assucar, bnilt on tbe low groiiiul iior- dering the shore, with a wall of high hills in the backgiDiiuil. and over them, seen away in the distance, arc the liiiic tii]i> of the Serra do Pao d'Assucar. Fao d'Assucar is a considerable village built on ilic Al;i- goas side of the I'iver, on a high, narrow strip of alliivinl ground. In this vicinity these alluvial lands have a ouii- siderable extension, and arc well planted. lookim; down the kiveu fkom pao u asslcau. The rocks at Pao d'Assucar are gneiss, but siliceous aiii flaggy. At the upper end of the village there is a liii:li sugar-loafed hill, which gives the name to the locality. Thi is one of a numl)er of hills which together form a ranu' running southeast, crossing the river here, being contimuM on the opposite side. The gneiss is vertical, and has a stri of N. 40° W. It is seen in the same position in a ]iniiu- inent bluff opposite the town on the ^ergipe side. Krtweeii the town and the hills behind are some quite oxliiisive lagoas, on the borders of which rice is planted. I asci'iidcil the Pao in company with Mr. l>runet. From the toj) i> one of the linest views I have seen in Brazil. i\i.' rPiOVINCES OF SERGH'E AND ALAGuAS 411 In the vicinitv of Pao d'Assucar arc verv many cattle fazcndas, to which bchjiig' great numhcrs of cattle, and on which cheese {rcqucijao) and hides * are manufactured. immm ^^?S-.-fi f- CATTLE FAZKND.V AND CAHDEN KEAR PaO D'ASSITAR. Immediately above Pao d'Assucar the river narrows much, and the banks become still more steej) and craggy, varying in height IVoni two to three or four hundred feet. The hills bordering the river seem to \)Q conical or dome- shaped, but are really in most cases the ends of ridges cut across obliquely by the river. In proportion as the river mirrows, the alluvial deposits on its banks grow higher, and at Entrc Monies, an cxcced- * Tlic Iiides are taimod in stone vats, of which each fazenda possesses one ornioiv. Tlie process is as fol'ows : The hides are cut in two ieiijithwise and soai<i'(l in the river. They are tlien placed in vats in alternate layers of Iiides and till' iblies of Baranna (Melanoxylon) or Catiit<in de Porro. At the end of three (lavs tlie liair is removed. They arc then scraped and placed once more in the vats with tlie hark of .l^y/ro stanijK'd with water. This hark is removed tlirie times in the tanniii<r of the hest skins, the hark rcmainini^ each time a furtiii;;ht on the hides. The jirocess is finished by washinjj: the skins and ex- tundin^' them over poles in the siin, when they ave ])resscd into hoxes for expor- tation. Many -xoat-skins are prepared in the same way. At Penedo I saw a fhocniaker hlaekiiij:; leather by rnbbinjr it over with mud from the bottom of a poiul near by. He assured me that he used no other preparation, and that 'lie niiul alone gave a rich black color. 412 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ingly jiicturosque little village built in a notch amonir lillls some sevcji hundred feet in elevation, these Hats are, 1 slinuli] judge, at least (U'ty feet high. At AUegria and Cdlcito the ruck is red, very homogeneous, and compact. The rivLr VIEW NEAi: ALLEGRIA. l)ecomes so narnnv that in some jjlaces it is not more than four hundred feet across, while the precipitous rorky ■>valls, three or four hundred feet high, make the scenery of this part of the river exceedingly fine and Ijeautiful. P(jrto das Piranhas is a miserable little village l)uilt on a sand and gravel bank on the Alagoas side of the rivt.T. at the foot of the hills, which rise with steep sides to a licidit of about seven hundred feet, if not mor^. The river lu re is somewhat tortuous, with rocky shores and occasional rocks and ledges. At the upper end of the village is a suiiar- loafed hill which I found to be composed of gneiss, — strike X. 20= W., dip vertical. I had lieen told that the country on top of the lulls is flat. I climbed in a miserable rain-storm to the sum- mit of the steep slope bchhid Piranhas, a height of wellniiih seven hundred feet, from which in the intervals between «h PROVINCES OF SEliGIPE AND ALAGuAS. 413 tho showers T was altlo to look over tho whole coimtry. liistfad oi' fiudnii^' a chapada or absDJulc ])laiu like that of ;li(' tertiary regions, as 1 had hcen led to exju'ct, I foiiiul the i^ciK'ral surface country renuirkal)ly even, but consisting of VIEW LOOKING UP TOWAIiDS riUANlIAS. <i irroat numher of very low ridges avIiosg summits all came to nearly the same level. In the distance on l)oth sides (if tlic I'iver pcrras or short chains of hiu'h, irreo-ular hills were visible. The whole seemed to be formed of irneiss ami other nietamorphic rocks. The surface (.)f the slope and top was thickly strewn with Ijlocks, usually angular, and of the same material as the surface on which tliev lav ; how- over. I did observe a number of l)oulders of a red svenite Iving oil jjuoiss ; Init they could not have come from far, for I saw the same material in |)lace (piite close to the edge of the I'iver valley al)0ve. Soil there was scarcely any, and the red clay and pebble sheet were absent. Rounded l)oultlers were abundant. It is not possible that these l)oulders could have been the result of decomposition, for this action has obtained here to only a very slight extent. My stay at Piranhas was necessarily limiteo . a few hours, which I 4U GKOLOGY AND rilYSFCAL GF.OGRAPIIY. very muc'li rogrcttctl, for 1 Imvo sccmi ho ro<rioii on tin Brazilian coast wlierc polished and scratched surfaces woiilij be more likely to he jirescrved than here. Ifalfcld gives it as his opinion that gold may he fdiiinl in the vicinity of Porto das I'iraidias, hut 1 do not coiisiih r it prohahle. The same author describes the coiuitry fnnii I'iraidias to the celebrated falls of Paulo AlTonso as l)(iiii: rcmarkaldy even, and composed of g'j'cuiite, which is, J siiji- pose, compact gneiss, or, in part at least, syenite ; the rock over which the falls [)recipilatc themselves being of tli" same material. My good friend Mr. Franz Wagner of ha- hia, who tarried behind our party to visit the falls, said that the rock was sandstone. Burton speaks of sandstone as occurring there, and of a conglomerate at the rapids of Itapariea, a short distance above the falls. On the road to the falls from Porto das Piranhas is a serra called Serra d'Olho d'Agua, where occurs a sandstone. This rock, according to the reports of some friends wlm visited the falls shortly after I left Piranhas, is wliite and much denuded. Ilalfeld represents it as dipping irreg- ularly from the hills northward and iiorthwestwaitl, and he indicates a locality where sandstone occurs at the Ca- choeira Cancamunhi d' Acinia. The Falls of Paulo Affonso are situated a])out 50 leagues. or 168 miles, from the sea.* I have not been able to visit them, so I translate a few selections from Halfeld's descrip- tion of the cataracts and of the neighboring country : f — " The first fiiU, 44 palms G inches [about 33 feet] in liei^'lit, throws itself into a basin garnished by granitic nu'ks ahuost perpendicular, and sometimes even overhangiug the river ; from * Liais savs 300 kilometres. I quote from his Explora^ao do Rio de Sao Francisco, PROVINCKS or StUGIl'E AND ALAGOAS, 41 r. this liasin tlie river makes a sharp turn to the left at a ri-lit uii- glc. and ]>recij)itates itself between stee{) rocks into the hottoni of all aliyss OG [)alinH and 1 inch in heijiht, transforming themselves ill cunse(]ucnct' of this leap apparently into milk foam, castin;j;- and CACHOKIUA DE I'AL'LO AFKONSO.* lilowinp; \ip, similar to the explosion of a mine, great masses of water into the air, which are turned into a vapor that rises still liii:lu'r Transferred by this fall into a river of milk, the wa- ters ])recipitate themselves in great billows and waves, and b.>- twucn towering masses of granite, beating at a right angle against the left bank of the river. This side consists of a native granite rock, which is 305 palms [about 250 feet] high above the surface of the water, and having still 120 palms of depth. t * I rc^rrct not to be able to f^ivc n better view of tlicse falls, but the jihoto- frrapii (Vom which it was drawn was not a ^ood one. I am assiirc(l, however, it {.ivcs .1 better idea of the falls than any other sketeli yet imblisiied. ^ " Kesserre' entrc deux iminenses murailles do fiierre, il coule d'abord en torrent et sur un fond dont la doclivite' accroU la vitesse, puis tout ii eoup il se preciijite en trois olnttes conseViitives dont la hauteur reunie et de 84 metres. \' 41G GKOLOOY AND TIIYSICAL GKOGRAIMIY. "The impetus with which tho waters jjrecipituto themselves agiiinst this wall makes thoin constantly ascend and descend fiMm the point of contact with the rock. On the right they dcsccinl in right angle to tho bed of tho river helow ; hut to the It If. as they have no way of egress, they produce, in consequence of tlnir advancing and retiring movement, a come-and-go like the waves of the sea on the shores, from which has residted, for thotisamls of years up to tho present time, not only the wearing away of the rock, and tho formation of a little bay, l)ut even of a cavern in the rock, whicli is 444 palms in length, and whoso month is 80 jkiIuls high and 40 broad ividod in tho interior into two great halls, the dwelling-placo of tlionsands of bats, and for this reason calleil Furna dos Morcegos "The rock in which this furna is formed, as well as in all the ex- tension of tho Cachoeira, is of the hardest granite, of a fine grain, and in truth it is incomprchensiblo how it should bo possihlc fur the waters to form such a cavern in a rock of so groat liardncss. 1 am inclined to attribute this fact to tho circumstance that the granite in the direction of tho cavern, as well as in that of the river, from the mouth of the cavern below to tho Riacho da ( ian- goiTa, presents many veins of calcareous spar, of flesh-colored feld- spar and quartz, which have a thickness of ^ to 5 inches. The granite by the sides of these vehis is less hard, and sometimes is decomposed and saturated with muriate of soda [salt], in such abundance that those living near tho foil mine this stone on a small scale to extract the salt T am inclined to think that the circumstances now indicated with respect to the ready decom- La dernicre de ccs chutes, la phis grande dcs trois n'a pas moins de 10 nu'troa d'altitiide La compression de I'air a la surface dos eaux apres la chute est telle, qu'nne picrre lancce avec la plus grande force ne pcut rosister uii vent re'sultant, de sorte que sa vitesse est aneantie apres un parcours de 6-T me'tri'?. Cctte particularite' a repandu, parmi les habitants des environs roiiinimi que le lieu de la cascade est enchaute." (Liais, Bulletin de la Sor. de (le'ofj., .5"" Seiie, XI. pp. 390-392.) I'ROVIN'CKS OF SKRGII'E AXD ALAGOAS, 41- position of that rock, over tlio breadth wliich comprises all the veins lueutioned, proljably detorniined the excavation of tho cav- ern below, — a circumstance which would have given place to the furmation and present existence of the falls, whose bed is really excavated in the rock, since, for a great distance on both sides of tiiL' steep banks of the river, the soil presents a ])Iain without hills ur Hcrras, which could have determined the cataract of I'aido Aftuiiso. "From Paulo Alfonso down the river to Porto das Piranhas, the waters of the river are narrowed and run with nuiny falls between steep rocks of 350 to 800 palms in height, which, with the exception of a very hw places, as at Porto do Salgado, Monto Escuro, JSitio Novo, itc, are inaccessible to alhnv of descent til the river. These clills arc connnonly called here Tdthndo [or Tulliaduo], since the width of the river is generally reduced to a few lumdredi:'. of palms and sometimes less, as in the falls of the Garganta, where the river is only 85 palms wide, and runs like ;i mill-race between perpendicular walls of rock 350 palms in height." The falls of Paulo Affonso arc of the same class as those of tlu! Jequitinlionlia at Palto Grande. lu l)i)tli cases a large river just before it reaches the edge of the ])lateau, and flowing a broad stream witli a -wide flood plain, dashes lirst down a slope forming a series of rapids, and then, a few miles farther on, contracting suddenly, plunges in a magnificent scries of cascades and rapids into a narrow valley, in wliicli, witli a swift and rock-imjieded course, it descends to the coast plains, wdiere it spreads out widely and flows calmly, ])rou(lly on to the sea. The river is, so to speak, strangled in the Estreito, or Talhadao. As the rocks of the regions cut through by tlic falls of Salto Grande and Paulo Affonso are lioth crystalline and highly inclined^ it is manifest that 18* AA •ii8 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGRAPIIY. I llicii- retrocession must have opci-atcd in a very difforfnt luaniier from tluit of the falls of Niagai'a, and tliat the time oe('iij)ie.l hy the excavation of the gorge below the IJraziliuii falls cannot be estimated according to the same rule. I should judge that the falls of Paulo Alfonso are finer tliaii those of Salto (Irande at ordinary times ; but when the Jequiiiuhonha is swollen the Salto nnist be a grand si^ht. P»otii these falls, as navigation on the coast and on the rivci.s becomes more prompt and commodious, will erelong lic- cume well known to travellers. Burton, who visited Patilo Alfonso in 1SG7, says, that if Niagara be the monarch of falls, Paulo Alfonso is the king of rapids. Liais thinks that, seen close at hand, the latter exceed the former in ma""'' cence.* Ilallleld, speaking of the Tliacho da Yaca, saysrf "At mouth on the sonlli side of the river is the Lagoa da P. where I found the fossil bones of a mastodon. Tlie lag(...ii, which consists of a concavity or l>asin, is surrounded by tircat cliffs of the said rock, and is seventy paces in leuglli. tea in width, and ten to twenty-five palms in de])th. It was fall of earth, sand, and gravel in lieds. Of these the lower about twt'uty years ago contained the bones of a mastodon. The neighl)ors, residents of the Lagoa da Pedra, had eonnueuccil * " Yue II distance la cascade de Nin<rara romporte done en Tnaj:nificciH'0 sur eelle de I'anlo Att'ouso, niais do jiies, ravaiitane est pour le Saii-Fiaiuisro, dont les eanx I'urienses sc relevent nvee ]ilus de violence ct formcnt uiic si'rie d'ininienscs vajiiics cliarfrc'es <r('ciimc. L'eftct de ees jrrandes vafrues, d'oii sort, conime de la chute elle-nienie, nne gi;j,'autesqiie eolonn^ de vapeur, ajoiitr ii !a splendeur dii spectacle, et la force expansive de I'air ([iie les caux, dans ict etroit canal, cTitraincnt et conipriment an ])icd de la chute, jiroduit nne >orte d'ouragan dont la puissance eontribue a accroitro rcNtcnsion de cette i:nnionse colonne de poussiere aqueuse." (Liais^ Bulldin de la Sue, Ge'og., 5"" Scric, XL p. 391.) t Description of the 328th league. PROVINCES OF SKRGIPE AND ALAGoAS. 419 to dig out tliis cavity, in ovder Unit it niifzht be made to serve as a reservoir for the water of the ruins, and as a (iiinkin<r-plaee for cattle ; tliere tlien ai)i)eare(l at tli(^ cutting the bones of a mastodon, which they tluvw outsidt; the hasin, Ijut the intended excavation was never completed, and (wo thiids of its lengtli remained full of soil in which, at the head of the ancient opening still a])i)eared the j)oints of lioiies of large dimensions." From this vicinity, a few years aL^o, an innnensc collection of l)ones, teeth, A-c., of masto- dons were collected and sent to Rio, where they may now lie s('(m in the Pnidic Museum. '•The country for a considerable distance around the hill ineiiiioned presents an extensive [)lain, over which are ruiuid dispersed thousands of enormous loose rocks of gran- ite, and sometimes superimposed one on the other, and set sometimes only upon a point or very small base without falling." I have already remarked the character of the country above the Serra dc Tabanga, the want of a soil, the way in which the surface is strewn by lilocks of stone, and also the little amount of disintegration which it has suffered. I cannot conceive how these loose masses could have resulted from decomposition, without showing some evidence of it in a nuich dccom])Osed surface and an al)undant soil. The surface of the country looks precisely like that of our drift- covered regions of the North. Ilalfeld states that granite occurs as the foundation rock of the country for many leagues up the river beyond the falls. The term as used by him is rather too comprehensive, and may comprise gneiss and syenite. The Serra de Itaparica, which forms a long, sharp-backed, uarrow ridge 720 palms high, which runs from the river nine 420 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPHY. leagues al)Ovc the Cacliocira do Paulo Affouso to tlio \v( st- ward for several miles, is, accordiug to the same authijr. ((im- posed of saudstone. " The sandstoue in the top (,>r tlic serra is of a fme, but the lower lieds are of eoai'sc grain to the base, which is situated upon granite uf exti'enie limd- ncss, whei'e it forms l)eds of coarse gravel."' * Tliis siiiul- stone is doubtless of the same series as that of the Sniii d'Olho d'Agua. ]Maiiy of the other hills of the vicinity are also composed of this sandstone. The whole country was evidently once oversj)read by n sheet of this rock, and has subsecpiently sulTered very exten- sive denudation. The clinuite of the Lower Sao Francisco jiresents sonio interesting features. On the coast i-ains are fre(|uent uin! plentiful, and along the shore, as ali-eady I'emarked, tliciv is a belt of forest. Inland, howevei-, the climate Ix-eomo more dry ; three or four months of the year — June, July. and Auirust — are usually without rain, and evervthinu- ibics up. The heavy rains, as a general thing, begin in Mardi. The river rises to a great height, and sometimes overtlow s llir high banks on which the towns of Proi)ria and Piranhas nw built, inundating the lower stories of the houses. At bnili places I saw the muddy line along the fronts of the houses left by the last freshet. Huch an immense volume of waiii' |)ouring tumultuously through the racecourse-like clianncl between the falls and Piranhas, and, as at Propi'ia. spivad- ing out over and inundating the extensive low a'rounds, converting them into a great lake, must be a grand spectacle. The annual overflow takes jJace in October and lasts until March, during which time it is raining in the highlands. Nothing strikes one more strongly on the Sao Francisco * Exploragao do Rio de Sao Francisco, p. 44. PROVINCES OF SERGIPE AND ALAGoAS. 4'2l tliau the regularity with which the winds ris(^ and hlow. In the morning- I used to look out of my window at Penedo ; all was still, and the river was without a ripjjle. Canoes and montarias dropped down on the eurreut, and all was ri'iKise. About nine o'eluek* a hreeze from the sea stole (jvcr the water, rullHiig its surface with ripple-jtatches ; tills increased gradually, until at noon a stiff wind \\as s\veei)ing inland ; the montarias s[)read their pictures(iue sails and scudded before it up the river ; thus steadily the hrceze continued until well into the niuht, when it hushed down, and a calm morning again dawned on the rijipleless river. This sea-breeze is perfectly regular. Boats can sail ii]) the river, but they must drift >v be rowed down. Tlio Lower Sao Francisco below Piranhas admits of navi- gation liy small steamers and sailing craft during the whole year. In August, 18G7, the river above Peneih^ was formally ojieiicd to steam navigation by the Bahia Steam Navigation Coiniiany, but Penedo has been in communication with Per- iianibuco and Bahia for some time. Through the politeness (if my friends, ^Ir. Hugh Wilson, the able superintendent of the company, and Dr. Anto. dc Laeerda, I was enaided lo participate in the fete ; and to them I owe the oppor- tunities I afterwards enjoyed of making the observations recorded above. To Dr. de Laccrda and Dr. Brunet, who iicconi{)anicd me on the voyage, I am indebted for valuable ('outril)utions to my note-book. I take jileasure in express- ing here my gratitude to these gentlemen for their kind- ness. The country below Propria is very fertile, and there are large areas of rich lands admirably adajtted to the culti- * Giirtlner says that the sea breeze reaches Penedo about noon, which is not correct. 422 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGUAPHY. vation of siigar-cano, cotton, mandioca, (to. The region al)ovc Proj)ria is proper fur grazing. The wliole Lower .^uo Francisco forms a district of much promise. Tlic coast of the province of Ahigoas is formed In- ;i l)road belt of tertiary lanils of the same general character as those south of Bahia. The country embraced in tlii.s licit is a vast elevated plain two or three hundred feet al>ovc tlio sea. The western or interior j)art of the province is a table- land of gneiss, the continuation northward of the gneiss district of the Sao Francisco already described. It is dry, barren, and fit only for grazing. At Jequiti, some miles south of ^faccio, the tertiary Idiiffs come down to the sea line, forming a long range of clifts of a bright red color, like the Barreiras do 8iri. In the south, I know of only one lake which occupies a basin of doniida- tion in this tertiary sheet, and that is the Lagoa Juparaium on the Rio Doce ; but in the province of Alagoas tlioro are several such lakes, and it is from them that the jiroviiKt takes its name. These lakes in Alagoas are lona- ajul luu- row, and have usually a nortliwest trend. The valleys oceii- ])ied by the Lagoa do Xorte at ^laceio, and of the Lagna do Sul a short distance to the south of Maceit), open orit broadly to the sea ; but a strip of sand more or less wide. extending across their mouths, bars out the sea. The Lagoa do Xorte at Macei6 is salt. It al)ounds in lislu and it is said that sea-turtles are found in it. The Lag'Sa do Norte at ^Maceio strongly reminds one of the lakes of Ceiiiral New York, — Cayuga or Seneca, for instance. These lakes of Alagoas, as well as Juparanita, are very deep, and tlieir basins must have been excavated at a time when tho laud stood at a greater height than at present. Tiie city of Macei6 is built at the mouth of one of the PROVINCES OF SERGIPE AND ALAGoAS. 423 laiycst of these valleys, and at the foot of the Lagna do Xoite. The entrainic to the valley is barred by a wide strip (if recently elevated sands, covered with a low and sjiarsc veuvtation, consisting of clunii)S of bushes, among which the firueira (^Schinus terehinthlfolins'), as Gardner has remarked, is very abundant, together with si)ecies of DioKp^rus, EsfJi- veilem, Uriocaulon, Marcetia, Cereus, Me/ocactiis, Sec. The lagoa communicates with the sea l)y a narrow channel aci'oss this Hat. The tertiary plains are almost perfectly level, and cuiuc down close to the coast line. They have stec]) slojies tcmards the lakes, and the same towards the sea, where, at their feet, lie sand plains ; but they are precipitous when the >ca washes their base. The average height of these tertiary phuns along the coast is about one hundred and fifty feet, ihoiigh they evidently rise gradually toward the interior as they do elsewhere. From the top of the lighthouse at Maccio, built on the edge of this plain, the eye ranges for a hiiig distance both up and down the coast, and into the iutciior. Save the depression of the lagna, the country, appears from the sea to be level ; ])ut inland, at the dis- taiiee of a few leagues, arc visible the tops of a few hills, evidently of some earlier formation, l)ut proljably gneiss. The slopes of the tertiary lands, as elsewhere, are fertile and heavily wooded, but the higher plain is as usual exceedingly i!rv, sup])orting a dense growth of small bushes, with many Licnri {)alms. The character of the vegetation is, as I have ahcady remarked in speaking of the Rio do Sao Francisco, not wholly due to natural causes ; for this whole country has lieen repeatedly burned over, and the virgin forest de- stroyed. During the political disturbances a few years ago hirge tracts \\ere fired purposely. A stranger will occasionally oljserve in the pavement of 424 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the streets palaeozoic rocks contaiinu}^ a few fossils, wlijcli might mi^>lcad one if he did not know that they were bi(jiiu|it thither from Nurlh America as l)allast. Large quant itic-, of the finer (jualities of Rio de Janeiro gneiss arc cairieil along the coast, and used both for building and pavinti'; luit it is of so ])eculiar a quality that one learns to recognize it immediately wherever it is found. The uj)per beds of the tertiary sheet arc well exposal in a cliff and cutting on the side of the spur on whicli tlir lighthouse is built, behind the Matriz church. The lnwcr bed seen consists of a soft yellowish or reddish argillacL'ous sandstone, very loose in texture and full of quartz [(chlilos. "which arc arranged in layers and lenticular masses. Tlicie are some pebbles of a white substance that looks like do- composed felds[)ar. The fragments of quartz, whether in tlie foi'ui of pebljlcs or sand-grains, are more or less roumli'd. Over this lies a thick mass, very indistinctly stratificii. of red, pink, and white variegated soft, friable argilhicooiis sandstone, of the same general character as that fuuiid in the southern part of the province of Espirito Santo, nml at Par/f. on the Amazonas. The colors of these bods aiv very warm, and are distributed unevenly. Over all is a layer of clay and soil with pebbles beneath, like the usuul drift coating of the tertiary plains. The tertiary coast belt extends, to my knowledge, some thirty to forty miles above Macei6, and I have seen tlic same kind of a coast fifty miles south of Pernambuco. The flat-topped hills in the vicinity of Cape Sant. Au<i'n^- tinho arc portions of this sheet, which is much worn away in the vicinity of Pernambuco. The country back ( f Vcv- nambuco is quite hilly, and it is probable that cretaceous rocks will be found there. PROVINCES OF SKRGIPE AND ALAGuAS. 42 :o Northward of Pernambuco I linvo seen the same kind of coast in the province of Rio Grande, where the lands> are precisely like those of Maeeii'i, tlie vaHey.s liaving tlio same steeply sloping sides so characteristic of the tertiary plains. Tlio city of ]\racei6 is a town of respectable size, built a short distance inland, in part on a slight ehn-ation at the liasi' of the bluits on the noi-lh side of the valley. On the soa-sliore is built the town of dai'uuna, which is the j)ort of Maccio. The flat lands in the vicinity of ]!daccio are cov- ei'od with cocoa palms, Avhich give to the place a vei-y pretty ijijioai-ance. Dendo pahns ai'e also numerous, and I saw a li'w (late palms which bore fruit, A few specimens of the Assahi {Euterpe oleracea^ of the Amazonas are ibund here. The harbor is formed by a line of coral reefs, which extend off shore at a distance of half a mile or more, and protect shipping from the northeast winds; but the harbor is not M'll protected during southerly storms, and, what is worse, it is filling up by the drift of samls over the reef. The shore is a sand beach, from wliich long |)iers are built out ; hut owing to the sea, the shi)iping cannot come along- side, and goods are landed in lighters. The principal trade iif the city consists in sugar, cotton, etc., which are princi- pally sent to Pcrnaml)Uco. As al)ove remarked, the ui)per phiin appears to be very dry ; and in the vicinity of ]\[acei6, at least, is not cultivated. The slopes of the tertiary lands are very fertile, ami usually very lioavily wooded ; as also f^i'e the alluvial lands bordering the lake, which last are extensively planted. The water of Maceio is bad ; at the time of my visit steps were being taken to supply the city with good water from the river Bebidouro. 426 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Comjmnhia Bahiana was about to put two little steamers on tlic Lagoa do Norte. AVhilo at Maccio, 1 heard a Schhlo bUuminoso spokoii of as occurring in the low lauds near the Lagoa do Sul. I was unable to visit the locality, but, from the information I re- ceived, it seems to be an inflammable vegetal )le dc|)osit of very recent date, underlying the sands of a plain similar to the lower plain of Mucciu. PROVINCE OF PERNAM15UC0. 421 lit two little CHAPTER X. PROVINCE OF PEUNAMBUCO. The Limits, Area, &c., of tlie Province. — Its Topojirapliy, Geolojry, Climate, Sdils, &('. — Tlic Rivers. — I'rudiictious of tiic Province. — The City of Per- nuiiilnico or Recife. — derivation of these Names. — Situation of tiie City. — Tli(' St(mc Reef. — The Port foi-nied hy it. — Shallowness of Water along this [iH't of the Coast. — i'Ci'namb'ico a Callinj^ Station for Foreign Sliiiipiii;^. — The IVrnainhueo and Sao Francisco Railroad. — Taiile of Ilei-hts along the Line. — Island of Itamaraea. — Fossiliferous Limestones. — Fertility of the Island, Cocoa Palm Groves, &c. — Ferniindo de Noronha. — Darwin's De- scription of the Geology of the Island. — Its Dryness and Sterility. Tiu.s rich and populous proviucc 1ms been so littlo ex- plored by the physical geographer and geologist, that it is not possible to give more than a very general sketch of its physical features, — a sketch which the writer hopes future explorations may help him to fill out with needed detail. The province comprises the northern side of the basin of the Rio dc Sao Francisco from the point called Pao d'Arara 10 the llio Moxoto, a few miles above the Cachocira dc Pimlo Affonso. East of that point the little province of Alugnas is wedged in between it and the Sao Francisco. The coast line of the province is only about forty-four leagues in length. The superficial area of the province is Tariously estimated at from 4,467 (Pompco) to 7,200 square leagues of twenty to a degree.* The province is separated from that of Piauhy by the narrow plateau known under the name of the Serra dos * Dr. Almeida, in his Atlas, makes it 5,287. i 428 GF.OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GF-OGRAPIIV. Dois Innrios and Sorra A'cnucllia. Fi'oin Toaru i( is separated liy tlio eliapadas or plateaus known under tlii> name of >ei'ra Ararii)e, while the Serra <los Cuiriri's \"( 1- lios se[)ai'ates it from the ])rovlu('C of Parahyha, whicli lies just to the north. Farther on, in treating of the proviiuT; of Piauhy and Ceara, 1 shall discuss the facts we jto^scss relative to the structure of the Serras Dous Irniaos iiml Araripe, which, as already remarked, app(\'ir to consist in the main of a narrow strip of horizontally disposed tcrtiiiiv sandstones lying along the summit of a ridge of mctanioi jiliir rock. We have already seen from Halfeld, Burton, and others, that the part of the province I)ordering the Uio de Sjlo Francisco is composed of umch distur1,>ed gneissoso ami other metamorphic rocks, here and there overlaid hy ]tal(lio> of horizontal sandstones and associated rocks, like tho'-c of the Sao Francisco valley farther uj). The great mass (ifliio western pai-t of the country appears to he formed of gneiss. mica-schist. A'c, and these rocks here and there afford uold. hut, so far as I can learn, not to any very large extent. Of the mountain ranges of the province next to notliinci' is known, and they arc very inaccurately represented on ilic maps. From the description of some who have visited tlio Serra dos Cairirfs Yelhos, it would aiipear that they weic in part formed of horizontal sandstones like the Serra ,\raiijie. Some of the mountains of the interior of the province arc of consideral)lc elevation, though I cannot learn that any exceed 4,000 feet in height.* Pompcof says that the coast for a width of ten to fifteen * Some of tlicsc lii^lilnnds are vi-^ihlc from the sea, as for instance the Serra Scllada, whieli one sees lying a few leaguea liack of Cape St. Augii.>tinIio. t Geographia, p. 4'25. s-«a PROVIXCE OF PF.RNAMr.LXO. 420 Icairuoa is low. Tliis ))orti()ii is oovoi-imI in part liy (iiiito iic.i\y \V(t()(ls. It is very I'crtilc, jukI is called Diaffds. Bo- Miiiil tills llierc is another zone ol" uneven, unduliitinu' coun- ny coNei'ed by cinTdsco, and dry, hut it iirodnees hirn-e crops of rntton and V(\uetahlos. 'J'he interior, which o()(.s hy tho iianu' of scrfdi), is very mountainous, stony, and dry, being tlr thi- nothing but ])asturagc. The same author says that " the interior, jirincipally on ijie liordei'S of the Silo Francisco and of the province of riuiiliy Is subject to droughts, like the ])rovinccs of the north ; still it does not j»rescnt tho sandy deserts and the verdurous I'ltKCs seen l»y the traveller Kostcr." * The coast is low, and, generally speaking, resemltles that of the province of ^Vlagoas ; consisting along the shore of a more or less wide strij) of tertiary IkmIs, which, though -inietiuies extensively denuded, form high red cliffs i)re- >t'iif((l to the sea, as in the vicinity of Cape Ht. Angustinho. rmlerlvinii' these are in some loealities cretaceous I'ocks which have ne^'er been carefully examined. The tertiary licds have been swept away over considerable tracts which WL'ic occupied by tho sea just ])revious to the last rise of tlie coast, forming deep ''vlentations in the coast line. On Mich ail indentation, now filled nj) with sand and alluvial de- I"'sits. the city of Pernambuco now stands. 1 am excecd- iiitily sorry that, though I have three different times visited IVrnaniliuco, I have never l)een aide to examine the high lauds in its vicinity. Mr. E. Williamson, in a shori paper pre- sented to tho Manchester Geological Society, and ])ul>lished ill the Proceedings of that society, says, that "at Caxinga, a ^1'^' miles out from Pernambuco, several fine sections of the •ands and marls " of the tertiary " have been exposed by * Loc. cit. \ 4;u) GROLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRAl'IIY, liin(l-sli|)s ; llie strata Ihm'o hoiir sucli a rcscMnMaiico to I]|,' now red sjiiidf^loiio of our own districts, that it WdiiM !»■ iinpossihk; hy color and apjXiuraiice alone to distin^iuisli oiKi IVoiu (lie other.'" The huiils over larn'O areas near tlio coast arc vcit fer- tile, and |irii(hice excellent siiuar-canc and cotton. All the drainaj;(; of the middle and western i)art oftln' province is into the Sao Francisco. S(jnic of the sti'cams arc quite lar<2;e ; hnt, as has been remarked hy Cazal,* tlim disajijieai' in the dry season, and the same is the case with tli ' majority of the rivers of the eastern part of the provinc.'. "which flow into the sea.. Durinu,' thi' rains the sti>'anis. lik^' those of IJahia, swell tremendously, hut in diy weather tiny dry up entirely. The principal rivers emptying into tlic sen arc the following : the Uiui, whose mouth is a Ihw Icaiiiics north of the l)oundarv line of Alajinas ; between this rivur and l'ernaml)uc() are the Serenhaiun, Ipojnca, and I'iia- pama. The CapiI)aril)C empties at Pernamhnco. The Tiio. Ipojuea, and Capiharihe are quite rcspcctal)Ic rivers, if wf consider (i ic length, the Ipojuea having a course of iilHUit one hundred and fifty miles ; but during the dry season they disa])pear, except in the immediate vicinity of the scii.t so that tlu'y arc consequently of little or no seivice fdi* unvi- gation. The climate, of course, varies in diffci'ciil pin't.-> nl' the country. Along the coast it is dam]) and hot, tlioimh * "Da Villa do Pcrn'tlo nth"' a da Barra do Kio-Grando, ein cujo iiinr- vallo OS viaiidaiitL's contain aciiiia do duzi'iitas li'j:iias, iiao salic ]i!ira u rio 'le S. Francisco um so rcgato no tempo da sccca." Corografia Brazilicii, ^ nl. II. p. 158. t Dr. McGratIi of Pcrnambuco kindly sent me a tracinpj of a mnpofthe eastern part of tlic province. In a note lie says : " Tiiese rivers look very for- midable on paper, bnt, as yon arc probably well aware, they amount to alinu.^t nothinir above tide-water during the dry season." PROVINCE OF PKnXAMr.UCO. 431 j; into tilt' sea li-iizilicii, \'o\. II. refreshed l»y sea bree/es ( I'oiiipeo), In the interior it is very hot juiil veiy (hy, espeeiiilly (hu'in^' the niiny seiison, uiiith lasts from March to June. Von Tsehndi says that it is not so opprcssingly hot at IV-rnaniltuco as at Rio. The |i(i|iulation of the i)rovinee is j)rin('ii)ally eonlincd to the ta>tern part near the eoast, and to the border of the Sao iVanciseo. In the region of the nialtas there arc ninnerous aiul well-condueted sugar estates, which jtrodncc,' a large (|iuniiity of sugar, molasses, and rum. I'onipi'o says, that in IS.")? the i)resident of the province reported 1,10(1 sugar- mills, lis of which were operated by steam and -'M*) iiy water. These produced, in 185G, l8,41)8:0UU.sUU0 worth of sugar. and the same year 1,^41,-3^4 canadas of aguarden'" (native rum) wei'e exported, worth GU):0(JU<i!0<)0. I'onipeo, writ- iiiu in 18()4, places the exjjortation of sugar at over fuin- millions of arrobas. Von Tsehndi, in l<SGt), estimated the yearly export at over one hundred and forty mil; s of liuunils. The cotton of Pcrnambuco is reckoned very good, anil, according to Von Tsclnidi, it brings the price of good Louisiana cotton. The region of the (Jaranhuns, lying Just iiorlli of the middle of the [)rovince of Alagoas, is notetl for its cotton. Cazal * says that the Serra de (Jaranhuns is cuvorcd by woods, and that streams descend from it, but nrc soaked nji and disappear on reaching the snudy campos (if the vicinity. This region produces also maize, mandi- i»a. feijao, and fruits of various kinds. Among the fruits for which this j)rovincc is famous arc llic mango and the delicious giant pine-aj)})le known as the Aliacaxi. Cocoa palms are jdanted in large groves on the toast, and i)roduce a vei^ considerable revenue. In the •"^ortao a large munber of cattle are raised. Pompdo esti- * Cororjrnjia lirazilim. Vol. II. p. 159. 432 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSlCAL GKUGKArHY. iiiatod llial ill 1804 there ouj-'lit to bo 1,:M:0,000 inhaliiuiiits; but tlic'i'c litis Iiceii no ccusus for many years. Ahucida. in his Athis, estimates the ])()piihition of the province ut 1,2:20.000 souls, of Avhiuh the capital has 90,000. Owing to the flatness of the eoast and the small si/r nf the rivers, there are but few ports eaj)al)le of ad milt mil: lai'ge vessels. We find in use on this coast, priiieij)idly lur the pur])ose of fishing, the Jangada, a narroAV raft of liulit logs, eai'iying a large triangular sail, — a craft which may be launched through the surf (^n the o})cn coast. Of tlicsc in 1804, the j)roviiice possessed between seven and eidit hundred. The city of Pcrnaml)UCo,* or Recife,! owes its importance to its consolidated 1)cach or stone reef. Exccjit for this, it would otTer no advantages for trade. Its ]i(isi- tion, in the very easternmost jiart of the empire, makes ilie port exceedingly convenient of access ; and shijis hMin * Tlic name Pcrnambuco is derived from the Tupi. Schalzo snvs tliat it means imire sbucato. Cazal {Curo. Brnz. II. 170) makes it a eurnijitinii of raranfilniea, wliicii is said to he tiie name given to tlie i)ort iiy ilic Calutis wiio iiiliiihited the ])lace. Tlie lioteiio Grral, cap. 16 (quoted in ilie An d' Vvnfier /rx Dales, Vol. XIII p. 256), says that the name was given JiciMuse the reef was hroken tlirongh hy the sea: " wSe diz de Pcrnamhneo, jinr mui pedra jnnto delle estii furada do mar, e qner dizer, ]\Iar fiirada." ])"()rhi:;iiy {/.'I /online Anuricnni, Tom. II. ji. '280) makes it a eorriii)tion of raraniinilni. The Frencli call the phiee Fernambone or rernamhoiic, and tlie Kiigli.-ii um'I to call it Femamhnco. t The name lieeife was given to the city becansc of its reef The rcrtu- guese for reef is rerifr, wliieh word is not derived from tlie Latin rf.rijun, ib so many authors wotild liave it; as, for instance, Baiheus (lUnim j\fr Ocltn- niinn, Sic, ]). 66), who says : " Uhi terininatur, ])agus fiiit, Keeitfa diet.i, UiVi al) hoe, quod intra hune et alium terne siuiilein tractum oblongum qiuiii !'■ i il- iam Lapidosam voeant reccpi naves possint et soknint, nceij)iendis exiiDiieii- Jis([ue onerilms." The authors of tlie Art de Verifier Irs f)iil<s (Vol. .Mlh p. .3.'1) make the same mistake. The word rerifi' is, according to Foiisi'i'a, derived from the Arabic rarif or razlf, signifying a pavement. See note on p- 190. PROVINCE OF PKRNAMBUCO. 433 ilzo snvs tliai it NoHli America or Europe, bound for South American, East Inilian, or African ports, have to go but very httlc out of ilu'ii' way to stop there. I have ah-eady called attention to the fact that the city is •situated on a tract of low ground, occu))ying a (loc|) indcn- tatiiiii in the coast tertiary sheet, and extending from OHnda nearly to Cape St. AugustiiUio.* It is l»uilt at the mouths of the rivers Bcberibc and Ca|)ibaril)e, which unite, forming a sort of delta, composed of a number of irregular islands very (lifTicult to describe, which are enclosed by a iiet-woik of channels. All of these islands arc low, and some ai'C marsliy. The Ueberibc is the noi'thernmost of the two rivers. It takes its rise to the northwest of l\'rnaml)Ui'o ; at Olinda, about two miles north of Pernambuco, it meets a very narrow stri}) of sea beach, which extends southward to I'cruambuco, a part of the city being built on the end of tlie spit, v\ hich broadens in the manner rc))re.scnted in the sketch-map on the following page. A channel from the Rio Capiharibe joins the Beberibe just above its mouth, and this cuts otf from the mainland a large island, on which a second division of the city is built, while the third quarter is situ- ated on the mainland, on the opjjositc side of the Capibaribe, opliositc its mouth. These three quarters are united l»y liriilgcs, several of which arc of excellent construction. Ti) the southward a bay penetrates deeply into the land, but its waters arc very shallow. That part of the city built on the extremity of the sand ticaih aliove described is called llecife, though foreigners ahuost invariably use the name Pernambuco. It is very cliisely l»uilt up with warehonses, stores, custom-house build- ings, (tc, and is the centre of the commerce. On the beach * Kidder romparfs this tract to the Baliian "Rcconravo." ^01. I. 19 I! I! 434 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGUArtlY. just to the north are the celebrated old fortresses of Drum and Buraco. 0[)))0site the former, and distant about 250 braivas fioin the shore, the stone reef* begins abruj)tly, and runs in al- * Tlie reef luis 1)een described over and over again by tbe oKl navii:a!urj and travellers in Brazil. A very curious drawinj^ of it is to be fouiul in a Duii i work published in 1624, and entitled lie/js-boeck van htt n/i-Lr Bmsilli)!. I li'i not know the author's niinie. The sketch is, however, so inaccurate as to lie ut no value as showing- tlie structure of the reef. Barhvus not only spoaks of tin' reef, but he gives a large copper-plate engraving of it, together with an excel- lent map. There is another large and curious copper-jjlate of IVTmnniiinn an! the reef in the " Ilistoria delle Gverre del regna del Brasilo, dal P. F. (ilo Gioseppe di Teresa Carinelitano Schnlzo," published 1698. Speaking of the ixvt, Schaizo says ; " Vien reparato dii vn come inarauigioso uiolo iui fonnato ii:i!!a natura il quale s'inalza sopra Pacrpie, distendendosi gran quantity di li glie ta^li ato dall'istessa natura con tanta egualta, come si veggono i nioli con inniKii-i dispendij fatti dalPartc," Dapper also figures it in his Amo-im. This reef is represented in Kidder's "Brazil," and in Kidiicr and Flctclicr's "Brazil and the Brazilians," as if it were two or three miles distant from the city ! A comparis(jn between the views of Pernambuco in these work^ with .\ good map will prove amusing ! What is the use of stating a ihing in wonis. and then giving the lie to it in an illustration ? PROVINCE OF PERNAMBUCO. 435 3SCS of Driiiii most a straight line southward, passing within a few hundred feet of the eity, extending across the bay, and then skii-ting the shore fur sonic distance south. I have hcen alile to ex- ainine it oidy in the vicinity of the city, and, since the maps and charts differ so widely among themselves, 1 can form no (Iclinite idea of its real length. IJarhens gives a map and (hawing of a similar reef extending across the month of a hav to the south of Pernambuco, near Cape Saint Augustine, if 1 remember rightly. 1 have already described with much detail the stone reefs or consolidated beaches of Porto Seguro, Santa Cru/., and Uahia. The Pcrnambnean reef, so far as 1 have see-., has precisely the same structure. It is the consolidated core of an ancient beach which has been separated from the mainland by the encroachment of the sea. It is remark- ahh; for its great length and the straightness of its conrse. It is exposed to a much heavier surf than the Porto Seguro and Santa Cruz reefs, and at high tide and during heavy weadicr it is usually deluged by the waves. The northern end breaks down abruptly as at Porto Seguro, and forms a wide opcnhig for the entrance of shipi)ing. Near this ex- tremity stands the ancient Dutch fort, known as llie Picao, touctlier with a lighthouse. A part of the reef is artifi- cially built up ^\itll masonry, to make it a nioi'e effici('nt breakwater. Ships of ordinary draught and small steamers cuter the port, but the larger men-of-war and the ocean steamers usually anchor at a distance off the reef. The water along this coast is very shallow, and the sound- iiijrs continue for manv miles out from the shore. The tides rise at Pernambuco about six feet. Pcrnam])Uco is one of the calling stations of tlie United .^tatcs, English, and French mail steamers, and it is the 4;;(i GKOLOUY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'HY. head-quarters of a stcaml)oat company wliosc boats nin tw various j)oiuts on the coast to the nortli and south. The reriuiiul)uco and Sao Francisco llaih'oad is in aliout the same c(Mulitioii as the Bahia and Sao Francisco iiin'. It extends southwestward from the city through tlie Iritlli' sugar lands, l)ut it is, 1 believe, comideted Ibr a distance of only about eighty or ninety miles, the present terminus IicIum Una on the river of the same name. I owe to the kindness of Dr. McGrath of Pernand»uco, and Mr. Mann, the super- intendent of the road, the following table of heiglits. uloiiti' the line : — Distances in Kilometres. Feet iibovc tlie Sou Marca 9 no Ar.scnal do Mariidia . 10.00 Turntable do C. Pontas IT.'iG 2iV Pontc do Afogados . 27.1G 8iV Esta(^\xo do Bua Viagem 3.-). 11 Ponto do Jal)oatao .... . 2G.2.5 Pontc do Pirapama . 29.12 31tV Villa do Cabo .... . 5G.00 Centre do tunnel . 184.00 Ponto de Utinga .... . 210.00 45 Estacjiao de Olinda . r 10.00 51^ Pcdrciras do Timbo-assu . 373.00 57^ Esta(^ao de Escada . 314.50 70 " " Froxeiras . 404.00 Contcndas .... . 413.00 Pontc de Amaragi . 29G 18 Plana ..... . 387.30 113A E.-ita^lo d'Agoa Preta . 4G3.00 Poutc de Formiguoiro . 418.9G Excava(j"ao no Sitio Gomes . 505.9G 124,^, Esta(;ao Una .... . 437.9n About thirty miles north of Pcrnambuco is the large and PROVIXCK OF rERNAMBUCO. 40. <-»( honts run u, lih. i'S ill aliiiut uicisco liiir. :h the I'ci'til,. ' distance of minus liciui:' lie kindness 1, the siijd'i'- iglits, along t !il)ove tliu Sea. 10.00 17.!J(; 27.10 3.-). 1 1 20. 2.5 29.12 50.00 184.00 210.00 no. 00 373.00 3U..')0 40t.00 413.00 290 18 387.30 ^03.00 118.90 )O.'5.90 t37.9fi fertile island of Itaniaraca, wliieh is separated from the maiidaiid by a narrow Ijut deej) channel like a river, the island being set into the mainland, and not lying off the coast as it is usually represented on mai)s. It is about ten or twelve miles long from north to south, and very narrow. The land is low, and it is intere.sting geologieally on aeeount (if its limestones, which contain fossils, and apparently be- long to the cretaceous, if one may judge from a report made to the Brazilian government by the engineer Paulo Jose do Olivoira, Avho was sent to examine the island for coal, which had been reported to exist there. Oliveira speaks of a bed of chalky limestone," containing some fjssils of the turUUe and carditns family," and also of other fossils of the " aiuui- chiics family," found at Porto das Caixas. Dr. McGrath of Pcrnambuco has kindly undertaken to have a collection made from these limestones, and I \\c>\)G that we may soon have their age satisfactorily determined. Linic is manufactured on Itaniaraca from these rocks, and also from corals which aliound in the vicinity.* Oliveira reports the existence of iron ore on the island. A small ^;uantity of salt is made on the coast from sea-water. The island is very fertile, and is covered with sugar plantations and cocoa-palm groves. The eastern side is thickly jdanted from one end to the other with these beautiful and useful trees. Fernando de Xoroidia belongs to the jirovince of Pernam- hiieo, though it is situated to the north of Cajic Sao Roque. It lies in lat. 3° 55' 8. and long. 32° 40' W. of Greenwich and is distant from the coast about two hundred miles. It consists of one large island and several smaller ones, the whole being, according to Darwin, nine miles long and tiiree * Sec Kidder's Brazil, Vol. II. p. 172. 438 GEOLOGY AND niYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. in breadth. This distinguislicd observer visited it, ami I cannot do i)etter tlian to o-.iote lus own description of tlic geological structure of the island : — IbLA^D Ol'' I'liliNAMJO I)E NUUUMIA.^ ** The whole seems to be of volcanic origin, nlthougli there is no appearance of any crater or of any one central eminence. Tiic iiin>i remarkable feature is a hill one thousand feet high, of wliiih tin' upper four hundred feet consist of a precipitous, singulaily slmiinl pinnacle formed of colunmar })honolite, containing numerous crys- tals of glassy feldspar and a few needles of hornblende. Fnn.i the highest accessible point of this hill I could distingiiisli in dillerent parts of the group several other conical hills, a|)parciilly of the same nature. At St. Helena there are similar great (.•uiuluI protuberant masses of phonolite nearly one thousand feet in lioight, which have been formed by the injection of fluid feldspatliic lava into yielding strata. If this hill has had, as is probable, a similar origin, denudation has been here effected on an enonnous scale. Near the base of this hill I observed beds of white tuff, intersected by numerous dikes, some of them amygdaloidal basalt and otlieis of trachyte ; and beds of slaty phonolite, with the ])lanes of eleavip' directed northwest and southeast. Part of this rock, where th" crystals were scanty, closely resembled common clay slates altered by the contact of a trap dike. The laniimc of rocks, wliitdi un- doubtedly have once been fluid, seems to me to be a subject wefl deserving of attention. On the beach there were numerous frag- ments of compact l)asalt, of which rock a distant faij'ade of coliuuns seems to be formed." f * Tliis sketch I copy from Ulloa. The water) inc has been inadvertently omitted, t Geological Observations, Part II. pp. 23, 24. ■"^'•'tWH^i-.E PROVIN'CE OF PKRNAMBUCO. 430 The island is almost deprived of vegetation, resulting IVoni the dryness of the elinmte, and UUou* tells us that sometimes two or three years pass without rain. On this hai'ren roek the Brazilian government has estalAislied a jieiial station. Floeks of sea-hirds resort to the island to hicL-d, and sea-turtles in great numljers hiy in the san.ls of the shore during certain months. The harbor is an oi)en roiulstead. If the rei^rts of navigators are correct the inland is surrounded by coral reefs. * " La csterilidad (le esta Islii no proccdf de la mala calidad <lc su Tierra, pucs produce todo (luauto su sionibra en ella proprio do PaVes calidus, sino de la falta de huniedad ; ponpie passaii dos, y tres afios sin Hover, ni verse el mas kve apurato de A-ua ; y su escasez es causa de que se se(iuen totalmeute to.las las plantas, taltando la Agua a los Arroyos, y lo mas pinguc de toda la Isla qinuido las Nubcsno la feeundizan con su rie-o, sc vuelvc tan lirido, y desapaci- ble, wnio los Peuones, y Uoeas ; eu la casion, que llegamos, se liavian passudo (los anos siueaerA^'ua alguna." -- Ulloa, Rdaciun Ilistorica del Via(je,&.c., Parte IL, Tomo Quarto, p. 416. sen inadvertently 4-iO GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHATTER XI. THE PnOVIXCE OF PAKAIIYBA DO NORTE. Limits of tlie Province. — The Serra or Plateau of the Cairiris Velhos.— The Climate, Proiliietions, &e., of the Pruviiicc. — P'ertile Laiuls foiiiul uiilv aloii- the Coast. — The Kio Parahyha do Norte, its Navi^'ahility. — The City m Paraliyba, — The Consolidated Beach at the Mouth of the Hiver. — Tlic Uivir and Town of Mamaiiyuajie. — The Geolo^'v of tiie ^'icinity of Puraiiylia. — Cretaceous Limestone with Possils. — Observations of Professor A;:a>>iz and Mr. Williams. — Mr. Williams's 01).servations on the (jleolu;.''y of tlie Country between Paraliyba and the Gold-Mines of Pianco. — Mode (if Occurrence of the Gold. — " The Tasso Brazilian Gold-Mining Coinjiimy (Limited)." The Province of Paraliyba :lo Norte lies to the north of that of Pernanihnco, from wliich it i.s separated by tlio Sorra dos Cairiris Vclhos, wliich seems to be the continuation ea.st- ward of the Serra Araripe. As laid down on the maps, (lie serra is noteworthy for its west-east trend, though it pre- sents a gentle curve to the southward. This is in diicit contrast with that of the other serras on the coast, which usually have a more or less northeast direction. The jiriiicijial mountain ranges crossing the province, as the Borborcma and Teixeira, have a direction consideiably to the cast of north. These are comjiosed of gneiss. This abnormal trend attril)uted to the Cairiris Yelhos would he sufficient to lead one to suspect that the so-called serra he- longed to the same class as the Araripe and the "serras" dividing the SSo Francisco and Tocantins basins, and the suspicion is confirmed by Poni{)eo, who says that the Serra PROVIN'CK OK TARAHYBA DO NORTE. 441 ■norl)orcma forms in tlic south an extensive plateau. So tliat it is more than probable that the Cairin's Vellios are Mny erntiieously laid down on tlie nia])s, and do not Ibrni a iiar- iTiw mountain ehain, as represented. The ])rovinoc forms a regular oblonii; al)Out one lumdrcd anil ciglitecn* miles in leng'th from east to west, and about ninety miles from north to south. The inteiior. as in IVr- nauibueo, is uneven, and there arc some eonsidci'abh' serras. The climate is very dry. The eountry is very poorly watered, and is eonse(iuently covered with a very scanly veizctation, so that it is fit only for })asturage. Pompeo snys that the eaftlo sulisist largely on the macamhira, a brouioliaceous j)lant, wliieh not only furnishes food, hut is suHlciently juiey to iiuench their thirst. The coast is low, and much of it is very sandy. f As in Pernambuco, there are some fertile lands along the coast admitting of cultivation, and they arc in ])art covered by forest. The^c lands i)roduce cotton, sujrar, J toliacco, <tc. The climate of this province is hot, but on the coast the heat is modified by the breezes from the sea. It is very dry, and from time to time severe droughts ])rcvail, co.using nuich distress. The province is reputed healthy for Brazilians. The ])rineii)al river of the province is the I'arahyba do Norte, which takes its rise in the Serra dc Borborema, near the southern border of the province, and, skirting the prov- ince line, flows cast a few degrees north to the sea. At its mouth the Parahvba forms a sort of estuarv, which * Pompeo says one hundred and ten leagues, wliich is very far from being correct. + Sec Roster's Travels. t I'oiniioo says that in 1864 there wore one hundred and sixty sugar factories in tlie province. 19* 442 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. is quite wide, and opens into the sea from the south, as do many of the other rivers along- this part of the coast. Tlie Pai'ahyha is navigal)le for Uirge vessels up to the city of the same name, the capital of the province, a distance (if three leagues above the mouth (Pompdo).* Small vessels ascend about the same distance al)ove the city, and ciuioes are said to go as far as I*ilar, many leagues farther, but the influence of the tide, according to Pompdo, is felt oidy si\ leagues above the river mouth. The city of Pai-ahyba is situated on the right l)ank of tlie river, and is divided into an upper and lower t(,\vn. h numbers, according to Almeida, 14,000 inhal)itaiils.t lis exports arc principally cotton and sugar, which are scut fe Pernambuco. Pompeo says that during the year lS(!2-i'i:! there were exported 201,800 arrobas of cotton, worth ?5,021:1248800,and 020,270 of cotton, worth 821:120sO()(). riarlicus X gives a chart of the mouth of the Parnhyliti Iiiver, of which 1 give on the o]»positc page a reduced e(i|iy. It is interesting because it shows a stone reef exteiidiim' across its mouth, leaving an entrance between it iind tin' point on the southern side of the river. The reef begins ol'f tlie point on which stands the old fort Cabedcllo, and runs parallel with the shore in a southwest direction for some distance. At its southern extremity it is, accortling to narhens's chart, triple, two short reefs lying insitle of it. I introduce, for comparison with Barlieus, a coj)y of part of a map of the mouth of the same river by Almeida, which ought to 1)0 more accurate, though it does not represent the reef with so much care. * Jiulnjing from Mrs. Agassiz's description of the Professor's visit to Parahvba, tlic steamer was iinahle to po up as far as the town. t Tlie population of the province is about 300,000 (Almeida). } liertim per Octennium in Brasilia, &c., 1647. PROVLNCK OF rAItAIIYBA DO NOIME. 443 '^''•«Z'«m7/y<5^r?.a7^^:^ SiaUAjilonio. ^ isit to Parahvbil, Al)Out oiji'htocn miles north of the mouth of tlic Paraliyba is the mouth of the Mamanguajje, a much smaller stream than the Parahyba. It is said to admit of na vibration for smacks as far as the important town of Mamau^juape, which lies about four leagues from the sea. According- to the Diccionario Gcograpfiico there is a st(uie reef at the moulh i»f the river, and Almeida represents a line of reefs as run- uinu' along part of the coast. Cotton is one of the chief rxpoits of the district of ^[amangua])C. or the geology of the province of Parahyba we know very littl(>, except what is to be found in a short paper l)y Mr. E. Williamson,* from which I condense the following: — " From Tambalic (Tambahii 1) to Parahyba the surface is covered by thick beds of ferruginous conglomerate In some * On the Geology of tlic Paraliyba and Pcrnainlmro Gold Rcfrions, by E. Williiunsori, Proccedinfrs of Manclie?tcr Geological Society. This paiii|)li- Ict, which I owe to the kindness of Professor Bonainy Price, of Oxford, bears no (late. 444 CKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGHAI'IIY. places the conglomerate becomes so very coarse tint it is wliolly made up of water-worn pebbles, of quartz, gneiss, and tlio hurdor schistose rocks, cemented together liy peroxide of iron. The «izu of the pebbles varies from that of a small nut to bonlders weighing fom- or five pounds. This class is well repi'cscnted bcl(\v ^ho baths at Tambalic ; but as they approach the river towai'ds Parahyba they gradually become mixed with finer and more argil- PROVINCE OF PARAIIYDA DO XOUTE. 445 Iiicpons beds, until, at last, at Sta. Ilita, a tow miles nut from rmahyba, they Imve bocomo divided into reiT'dar l)ands of marls, siiiids, and ei)ni,domorates." Tlicse deposits are prolnibly tertiary. " Inimediat(!ly underlyin;,' the fenMiifinous eoiij^lomerates of Para- hylia there occur beds of secondary limestone, haviuL,' a strike marly north nnd south, and dippin;; gently to the east. For the most part the'so limestones are siliceous, though at intervals beds nf nearly pure limestone and argillaceous bands occur." .Ml'. "Williamson stiitos tliat he found a ca't of a fish toofli mid sonio cstlierians iu this limcstono, ainl that simihir liods iiliouiidin,t^ in fish remains oi^cnr at Miiias da ''acliocira. I'ldfcssor Aj^assiz touched at Paraliyba on his i-ctuin IVoni till' Aiua/onas and visited e.xposures of these roeks iu the vicinity. II(! fomid the limestone of a soft texture, of a white or gray color, and destitute of rei'()g'ni/,able I'ossils. From the green shales he obtained species of cstlicriaiis which appear to be identical with some occurring in the jiahian beds. This latter observation is of nnieh inter( st, since it would a|)pear to indicate the existence, on this part of the coast, of fresh-water deposits like those at Bahia. Mr. William.son's description of the gneissoid rocks and of the gold deposits I give in full, as it is the only clear account of the way in which gold occurs in this kind of rucks in IJrazil : — " Tiic first clear outcrop of the rocks, from Parahyba, occurs at l!atiill>a on the river Parahyba ; it is a hornltlendic rock, with nuiiici-ous small bands of (juartz and feldspar much contorted. ■■ between the river Pai'ahyba and Pilar a very coarse gneiss ■jtciirs, with large crystals of white feldspar and black mica ; at I'iliir the gneiss is interstratitied with mica schists, generally fine iu texture ; at Mendon^a, Mochcira, and Ingii Velho beds of similar cluiractcr again occur, interstratified with gneiss ; at the last-named 44G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. place the schistose beds become more frequent, until at Ingii the whole of the beds are micaceous and hornblendic schists. A littl' past Inira a hard close-grained gneiss rock appears ; this flanks tin- mountains of Lagradoura, which chiefly consist of a white por- j)hyr()id gneiss, holding large cleavablc crystals of pure orthockse, interstratified with bauds of syenitic and granitoid gneiss, much reseml)ling granite. On the noi'thern flank the hard close-graiuod gneiss rocks again occur. "Between Lagradonra and Campinas a well-marked b;ui<l — gi-anitoid porphyry — occurs, standing out some fifty and out.' hundred feet highei- than the softer rocks which suiTound tluMii , this porphyry contains large crystals of white orthoclase. At Campinas a series of micaceous beds occur, containing plates of mica. The largest was about two inches in diameter ; but 1 wu.-, told that plates a foot square had been found ; following this I'un of micaceous schist is a band of porphyry, in which large clciuahli crystals of white orthoclase are embedded in a granular matrix df quartz and feldspar. I could distinguish no true bedding Hues in this band, but from its dip and strike, an unbroken outcrop, I uiu inclined to think that it might be interbedded ; the succeodin.; rocks are mica-schists, and gneiss. " At « aximba Nova another band of hard gi-anitnid rock occurs : following this there are a long series of mica schists and gneiss : near to Caracol occurs a series of black schists, alternating with bands of gi'atuilar black rock ; the schists are occasionally niii';i ceous. At Caracol a small series of mica schists divide two l)iv)ibi bands of granitoid rock, in places these much rescml)le the true granites ; overlying the upper one is a small band of hornblondic schist, this is followed by a long series of flaggy mica schists. At Carnahubi', these are succeeded by bands of hard, close-giMinod gneiss ; this flanks the mountains of Teixeira (rocks similar in character occur at Queimada on the opposite flanks) ; the rocks ot the Teixeira mountains bear such a strong resemblance to those ot Lagradoura, that I think they may be but a repetition of the same PROVINCE OF PARAIIYBA DO NORTE. 447 beds. Between Queimada and the Minas da Caxoeira, another broad scries of the same elass occurs ; the roraainder of the rocks oil the section arc gneiss, alternating with bands of mica schists. " At various places on the section beds of quartz and quartzite, with plates of mica, were interstratified with the harder rocks ; the lieds varied from a few feet to two hundred feet in thickness ; the smaller bands were often beautifully opalescent, the larger bands p-aiiular or amorphous. H.nomatitic and titanic iron ores always occompany them. " On my journey from Parahyba to the mines I failed to detect any beds of limestone interstratified with the Laurentian rocks, l)ut I was informed tliat limestone interstratified with the rocks hail liceu oliserved in other places where the limestones had not been liiddon by the covering of ferruginous detritus. "The rocks at the Minas da Caxoeira, and the position of the gold-hearing veins, will be best understood on reference to the accompanying section, taken along the bed of the Bruscus Iiivc". for a length of about six miles.* "At the southern extremity, divided by a band of softer rock, arc two broad and well-marked bands of syenitic gneiss, one of which forms the bed of the 1)eautiful waterfalls of the Bruscus ; luulcrlying these is a series of schistose gneiss, and a narnuv band of syenite ; it is a bluish-gray crystalline rock, and bears a strong resemblance to some of tha Welsh upper Cambrian feldspar rocks. Succeeding these are the gold-bearing series, which almost wholly consist of fiut-grained micaceous gneiss, passing imperceptildy into mica schists. "Crossing a bend of the river a little before reaching the Lima lode, a small band of dark brownish-gray feldspar rock occurs ; it is snbtranslucent, and in places shows chatoyant colors ; a little farther on is a band of white crystalline limestone, containing hexagonal crystals of biotite ; in the bed of the river it is small, * This section is omitted. 448 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. but al)out a mile forther cost from this point, at a place calkil Piao, it is said to 1)g a mile broad on the outcrop. " A little east from where the Descubridora lode crosses the stream there occur a few beds of eai-thy plumbaginous schists, in which are two lenticular veins of graphite ; they seem to he nf small extent and of a very indifferent quality. " At Cacimbinhas, a few miles farther on than the Boa Esperaiira lode, another broad and w-ell-marked band of syenitic gneiss occurs, quite as Imge as that of the waterfolls. " The auriferous veins which traverse these rocks are very nu- merous; they appear as irregular lenticular masses, running iKU-alkl to the strike, often dijjping between, but rarely cutting throuu'l), the beds. The matrix of the lodes is a coarse white scmi-opjuiuo quartz, containing small quantities of the arsenides and sulphides of iron, sulphides of copper, lead and zinc ; most of tlie ualeuas contain antimony. The variety of minerals resulting fi-iuu the decomposition of these ores are very numerous, — carbonate of zinc, carbonate and chloro-phosphate of lead, phosphate, arscniato and carbonate of copper, oxides of antimony and native suli>hur are common in some of the lodes ; sulphate of copper, sul[)liate and chromatc of lead were more rare ; native gold was spaiinirly scattered throughout nearly all the lodes, and in the Boa Espcrauca veins, grains of platinum wore found. *' The run of rocks in the valley of the Bruscus are very aurifer ous, and quartz veins abundant ; and though the rocks arc gi'catly contorted, no trace of a true fault can be found anywhere in the whole district ; this singularity appears to belong to all the alteieil rocks which I examined in Parahyba and Pernambuco, for during a ride of 1,000 miles I ftiiled to detect any ; it is to this want of true fractures that I ascribe the poorness of the quartz veins, there being nothing favorable to the concentration of the ores ; the iS"\'l has been equally distributed throughout all the veins. It is well known to miners that no veins are so rich as tliose in which the faces of dissimilar rocks are brought opposite each other on the walls of the vein. PROVINCE OF PARAHYBA DO NORTE. 449 "On my journey from the mines to Pernamlnico I crossed the siiiiic run of rocks as those marked on the section, and dui'ing my ride was able to trace several anteclinals ; this accounts for tho vast extent of country covered by rocks of the same ago. " About seventy leagues from Pernambuco I found a band of quartziferous porphj-ry ; a s[)ecimen is exliibited ; it has a compact liaso, composed of an intimate mixture of ([uartz and feldspar, eiuldsing crystals of orthoclase and grains of (piartz. " Near to Jerimu there occur, within a few leagues of each other, two bands of crystalline limestone ; one a narrow and highly crvstalline band, the other a very broad band : in stjme [)arts this is micaceous, but none of the beds are so highly crystalline as the small band. " The country between Jerimu and Pernambuco bears a strong rcseiiiblancc in character to those marked on the section betweeu Parahyba and Campinas. '• The whole series of these rocks ago-eo in every respect with the characteristic features of the Canadian Laurentian rocks, as given liv Sir W. E. Loixan, viz. : — " I. The total absence of anything like argillite or clay slate. " II. That nothing corresponding to slaty cleavage has ever been remarked. '• III. That the lamination of these masses is apparently in every case coincident with, and dependent upon, the original stratification of the sedimentary layers." There was formed in 18G5 an Eiiglisli company under the name of the " Tasso Brazilian Gokl-^[ining Company (limited)," to work the mines, not only of Paraliyha, i)nt also of Pernambuco. Among the officers of this company ap- pear some very honorable names. I am entirely uninformed as to what this association has done, or what its prospects are. Sr. Jose Jacomo Tasso, in an official report made to the CO K 450 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. government not long since, said that seven distinct auriier- ous veins had been discovered, but washing was carried on with great difficulty, because water was scarce, and had to be brought from a distance of some two or three miles. PROVLNCE OF lilO GRANDE DO NORTE. 451 CII.VPTER XII. THE PROVINCE OF RIO (;RANDE do NORTE. Limits of the Province, its Position, Mountain and lliver Systems, &c. — The Rio Piranhas. — Vegetation. — Productions. — Tlie Carnaiiuha Palm and its I's^.s. — Cochineal. — Cattle. — Climate. — Natal. — Geology of the Prov- ince. This province occupies the extreme nortliea^teru part of l]r;r/.il, and forms an irregular quadrilateral al)out one hun- (licd and eighteen miles in greatest length from east to west, and Ijetwecn eighty and ninety miles in width from south to north. From Ceara it is separated hy the so-called serra or plateau of Appodi. Two water-sheds running north-south divide the })rovince into three aluK^st equal parts. The eastern of these water-sheds is formed by a continuation of the Serra Borl)orema or the Cairiris Xovos, east of which a number of little rivers run eastward to the .sea; these rivers being of the same character as those of Pernambuco and Bahia, disappear in the dry season. Pompco says that the Ceara-merim and Trahiry are per- ennial. None of these rivers are navigable for more than u few miles above their mouths. Tlie Rio Piranhas, which originates in the province of Paiahyba, passes through the middle third of the province of Rio Grande do Norte with a course almost due north, emptying into the sea by several mouths, forming a con- sidcral)le delta. This river is sufficiently large to allow small vessels to ascend al)Out seven leagues to the town of 4r,2 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Assii, an important place, noted for its cattle, its salines. and connnerce in salt. 'J'lic Piranhas takes its name lion. the lisli oi' tlie same name, whieli abounds in its waters. The western third of the province is traversed by the !;io A[)p()di, of which the Upanema forms a branch. TIk-sc two streams take their source in the serras bounding tlu' province on the south and flow northward, uniting onlv a i^cw miles from the sea. Cazal says that the lands l)or(loi- ing the A})podi are, for the most ))art, plains diversillcd liy numerous lagoons that dry up in the rainless y(>ars. The river is navigaltle for canoes only as far as Santa Liiziti, six leagues from the ocean. The greater part of the ])rovincc is, like the province of Parahyl)a, dry and largely covered by low, sparse vegetation {Caling'as carrasquentas), Init on the higher lands, win re the soil is good, there are considerable areas covered In- forest and adapted for cnltivation. Forests arc also round in the eastern part on the low, swampy grounds, and along the banks of some rivers. Cotton and sugar-cane are the principal productions of the country, and arc cultivated on the serras and rivoi- margins, ))articularly of the rivers Ceara-merim, Cariniatau, Potengf, Trahiry, &c. Pomjjeo says that there were, in 1862, one hundred and eighty-five sugar factories in the province, producing 87o.0i'i' arrobas. The caniahuha palm (^Copcrnicia ccrifcra) is cul- tivated largely on the low grounds, and is one of the most important vegetable productions of the country. This I)cau- tiful palm, which is met with all over the northeastern provinces of Brazil, is of so much interest that I will give a short description of it and its many uses. It grows to a height of thirty or thirty-five feet, TliC PROVINCE OF RIO GRANDK DO NORTE. 453 ! province of leaf-stalks rcnuiiii ijcrsistcut to a height of six feet, more (jr less, from the gi-oiiiid, the I'est of the stem beiiig smooth. The fronds arc faii-sha}}ed, furnished 'with thorns, and dis- jiosed in a close ball-like head, so that the tree presents a very different api)earance from that of any otlier s[)ecies of imlin. The uses to which the different part of the plant can Ijc put arc exceedingly numerous. The roots are used as sarsaparilla. The stem, when about six feet high, is furnished with a j)ith wliieh, treated with water, gives a sort of meal used for food in famine times. The adult stem is an excellent timber employed in building. The midribs of the fronds are nsed for jnakiug fences, &c., the leaves for thatching, the rd)re for cordage. The fruit, [iroperly cooked, tastes like boiled Indian corn, and is used for food. The gum is cdilile. Soon after the young leaves have opened, they arc cut and dried in the shade. Scales of a waxy substance are then easily dislodged from their surlace, and may be melted over a fire into cakes. This is the carnahuba wax. The same substance is said to be furnished also hy the berries. It is very brittle and brown in color, but it may be bleached. Mixed with common wax or tal- low, it is made into candles of a fair quality. The i)ro- poi'tion is usually three parts carnahuba to one i)art wax, or one eighth to one tenth of tallow. (Burton.) This palm is so very abundant that its wax is likely to be- come a very important article of export from the northern provinces The carnalmha may be occasionally seen in the prov- ince of Bahia. Burton met with it in the valley of the >uo Francisco, just above the Barra do Rio Grande, but it k 454 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAPHV. is most abundant growing on the low lands l)ordci'ing tlio streams in the provinces of Pcrnambueo, Parahyha, Ccui i. and Piaiihy. The wax is collected to a considerable cxttin. and one may buy carnahuba candles or wax all along the coast.* In addition to sugar and cotton and the carnahuba, rice. mandioca, beans, tobacco, &c. are cultivated. A species of cochineal insect is found in Brazil, living on the leaves of cacti, and it has been supposed that it might be cultivahil successfully in this province, and made an article oi' cniu- nierce. Pompeo says that it is found in the Serttio (»!' Scrido, but he does not say whether it is made use uf oi' not.f In t)ic interior large herds of cattle arc raised, and in 18G2 there were 2,013 cattle fazendas, J with about iji)M) head of cattle. The climate of the province is very hot and dry, ami droughts of great severity sometimes prevail. The most impf)rtant place in Rio Grande do Norte is Natal, situated at the mouth of the Potengy. It is a small town, but of some little importance. The entrance t<» the river is very ditlieult, owing to shoals and rocks. On l\w. southern side is a stone reef represented m the following sketch-map from Almeida. * Sec Von IMartius, Palms, p. 49 ; Dr. IManoel Arriula tla Caniara in Koster, Travels in Brazil, Vol. II. p. 311 ; Bramle, An Ai.connt of ;i Vegetable Wax from Brazil, Phil. Trans., 1811, p. 261; Boussingiiult, Ann.de C/dmie, Vol. XXIX. p. 330; Sir M. A. tic Machedo, Notice sur le palmier Cdniauba, Paris, 1867 ; Aj^Mssiz, Journey in Brazil, ]). 453. t Sjiix and Martins (Travels in Brazil, Vol. II. p. 19) speak of the occur- rence of the cochineal insect in the province of Sao Paulo. J Accioli, Cvro(jr(ipltia do Brazil, p. 61, says that cheese and butter arc manufactureil and ex2)orted to a considerable extent, TROVINCE OF RIO GRANDE DO NORTE. 4.j5 and buttor arc The coast is bordered by reefs, Itut they have never been oxaiuined by a competent observer. So far as the geology of the provhicc is concerned, the southern i)art appears to be largely composed of gneissose ami other metamorpliic rocks, which form in the interior a liigli and more or less mountainous country like that of the provinces immediately south. Bordering this is a consid- orablc band of tertiary rocks. The immediate vicinity of the sea is flat, sandy, and often, as in the vicinity of Natal, covered by dunes of blown sand. I know of no mines or mineral deposits in the province, though gold is said to occur there. In the Exposition Univcrselle of 18(37, a siiccinien of native sulphur, said to have come from this province, was exhibited. I know of no localities in Brazil which atTord native sulphur, though it has been affirmed to exist on the Itatiaiossii. One of the principal products of the i)rovincc is sea-salt, which is largely manufactured at the Salinas d'Assii and ^Iossor6. 45G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER XIII. THE I'llOVIXCE OF CEARA. Geof^rapliical Position and Limits of the Province. — Tlio Sorra da Yltiajiabiv — Its Toi)ojj;ni|)hy and Ueolo;,'ical Structure. — Scrra de Araripc. — Hivtr Basins. — (ichcral Siictfii of tiie Gcoio;ry of ilie Province. — Clinuiic. — Character of tlie Soil. — Productions. — City of Fortalcza. — Po]>uhiiiuii ut' tlie Province. — Gardner's Skctcli of the Gcolopry of Cearii. — CiiarMctcr of Country in tiic Vicinity of Aracaty. — Description of ('ountry lutumi Aracaty and Ic(). — Scrra de I'crcira. — Villa do Ic() and Vicinity. — Conn try latwcen Ic() and Crato. — (iold Washings. — Crato. — Scrra dc Aiiiri|it — Villa da Barra do Jardim. — Dus(ri])tion of I'ossil Fish Locality. — Tin' Fishes noticed by Spix and ALirtius and Otlicrs, and described by Professor Agassiz. — Glacial Phenomena of Vicinity of Fortalcza spoken of liy Pro- fessor Agassiz. — Mammalian Remains. — Minerals, — Metcorolites. The province of Ccara is l)ouiidcd on the noi'tli liy tlic Atlantic, on the oast by the provinces of Rio Grande do Norte and Parahyba, on the sonth liy the province of I'it- namhuco, and on the west by Piauhy, and, accordino; to I>r. Pompeo, has an area of 4,G81 sqnare miles. Its wcsti'iu bonndary line is formed by a narrow range of hi«:li liiiuls called collectively the Scrra da Ybiapalia.* l*onii)eo say.s that this serra begins near the coast not fiir from the ea.stcni month of the Paraliyl)a, and runs, under the names of Serra Grande, Serra da Ybiapaba or Crathcus, in an al- most southerly direction, to the confmes of the province of Pcrnambuco, M'here it ties in with the great serra rnnning * This name is spelled in a variety of ways, as Ybiapaba, Hihiappidia, Ipin- paba, &c. Some vould make it mean land of prrcipices. Accord iu^ to tlie Diet, da Lingoa Tupi, Jl'ji apdha means terra tdl/uula, or (jashed hind. PPwOVINCE OF CKARA. 4; H riiu.'c ot" TiT- )r(liiio; to I>i'. soulliwcst, forniiii.tr the wutcr-shcd between tlio l)iisins of tlic I'iirimliylia aiul Sao Fi-unciseo, and called the Serra dos r)()iis Irnirius or Jjorltorcnia. In all this extension the scrra presents steep slojies and nl'tcn pi'ecipitons sides towards the east, hut its top is jiei- I'l'ctly tlat, foi-niinjj; a ehapada, aeeording- to Feijo, 2,000 to 2,400 teet hi^h. This ehapada is in some places tVo!u tliii'ly-two to fit'ty-six nnles in width. On the westei'n side the slope is not so marked, and the I'ountry a|)pears to grow 'Tiulnallv lower all tlio way eastward to the river J*ai'na- Iiyliii. At Cratheus the scrra is al)ruptly liroken through liy the valley of the Poty. As to the exact structure of any part of this scrra in detail our information is very scanty, liut from tlio ol)servations of Gardner, Capancma, Feijo, Ponipco, and others, there can ])C no douht that it is com- posed of comi)arativcly modern stratdied ?ocks lying hor- izontally on disturbed gncissosc and other metaniorphic strata. The horizontal strata appear to be ])rincipaH3' oandstones. Oardner sui)])osed that the whole range was cretaceous. On lliis head 1 shall have more to sav farther on. The serra separating the Province of Ceara from Pernambuco is called Araripe. This range is of the same general character as llio scrra just described. At the Ciid of the Tcrmo do Jar- dim it grows very low, and Dr. Pompeo describes the watcr- sIkmI l^etween the Riacho dos Porcos, which flows into the Rii) Salgado in Ceara from, the Riacho do Mundo Novo, \\\w\\ ilows towards the Sao Francisco, as of very little ele- vation, and it has been thought practicable to connect over it llie waters of the Rio de Sao Francisco with those of the >algado in Ceara. Beyond this point the sei'ra, after suffer- )n;i contiimal interruptions, stretches northward along the Vol. 1. 20 458 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGnAPIIY. oastoiT. l)()r(lor of llio province, until near tlio soa It niocfs vitli tlic IMatcau of Appodi. The province is divided into two portions by a lino of scrra.s wliicli runs from the sea-shore near the capital s(jiit!i- west or south-southwest to the .Serra da Yhiapalta. The southeastern half of the })rovince forms a single river Imsin. and is watered by the river Jaguaril)e and its trilmlaiics. The western is watered by a host of little rivers, all IJowiiiLi- directly into the sea. The coast forms a broad belt of sands but slightly clevntod above the sea. This belt varies in width from four to six leagues. (Pompdo.) The sands are light and piled u|( more or less in dunes, while in some places they diil'i inland to a consideral)le distance. The low coast lands, which have a coating of alluvial matter, arc very fertile, niul arc ])lantcd with cane, mandioca, &c. From the coast the land rises gradually towards the scrras, and is uneven though not properly mountainous, being diversified by hills and plains. According to tlio descriptions of Dr. Pompdo, the sertao, or the greater i)ai't of the area of the lower country, is composed of miea-slatc. gneiss, and other metamorphic rock.* The country appears to have been once covered by a sheet of sandstone similar to the great sandstone formation of Piauhy, to be descril>ed in the next chapter. This has been denuded to a great extent, the sandstone in many cases being left capping the hills. The climate in the interior is very hot and dry, but on the sea-coast it is moist and more tempered by the rciVebli- * Pompco, Ensuio Esfntistico da Promncia do Ceard, p. 145, saj's: "In the sertao limestone and marble occur in many places, as in the Scrrote de Ciinta- gallo (Caminho de Baturifc'), where the rock is a primitive marble, Giboia, four or five leagues from the capital, &c., &c. Capancma reports graphite in con- nection with limestone. PROVIXCF OF CKARA. 4.VJ in,r lircozos flint blow in from tlic nco^ii. The grontost licnt cxp(n-ii'iico(l on tlio sortao is :].")° Ct-iit. (!>.")° Fahr.), and Ihc t<'ini)cratiirc docs not fall hclow 1S° Coid. (('»]. 4 Fahr.) Tlio rainy season be^-ins in Jannaiy or March and lasts iiiilil June. The rest of the year is without rain, the rivers anil s( reams dry uj), and occasionally the want of water over iritain tracts Is such that the inhabitants are olilioed to Icavci for more favored districts. Accioli * says that in 17'.'- !i drought i»rcvailed for four months, and caused the iulialtitants of seven frequezias to abandon them entirely.! OtJKi' noted seems j)i'cvailed durinj^-the years \X'li') and 1H45. P()nii)uo divides the soil into bcira-mar, which is fitted for agricultural ])urposes ; moutuoHO^ ])roductivc and covered with forest; and si'rt.ao, dry, cut up by taboleiros, hills, <fcc., ami with brooks dry during the summer. Tlic sertao is valuable for pasturage, aiul Ceara is noted tor its cattle, of which, according to oflicial jinpers, there wore, in 18.34, about 310,000 head, with nearly 40,000 lioi-scs. Cheese is manufactured in consideral»le quantity, lint only for home consumption, but for ex])ort. Among the natural vegetable jn-oductions may be men- tiitn('(l the following : The Quina, ipecacuaidia, tatajuba, jafaranda, ccdro, pao d'arco, and a host of other species of woDils valuable for Imilding and dying purjioses, and the lialsanio, jatoba, almescar, maneqoba, carnahulia, caju, man- gal ta, A'C, &c. Cotton, coffee, sngar-cane, and the other vegetable pro- ductions of Northern Brazil, are here cultivated. :{: * (iimjrnjia do Brasil, p, 49. t A very gra])hic account of the droughts of the northeastern coast of Brazil is to Ix' foiind in Koster's Travels in Brazil. t I'mnpeo gives the ibllowinji amounts of cotton, sugar, and coffee cxportoil Knwr.'n July, 1857, and April, 1858 : Cotton, 5:2,552 ; sugar, 121,697; Coffee, SCH.no'j arrobas. 4G0 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. The caj)ital city is Fortalcza, or Ccarii, a city of sodio 10,000 iiihal)itaiits, situated on tho coast about two leai^iKs distant from the mouth of the river Ccarii. Its priiici|)al importance consists in its export of coflec. Besides the "aiii- tal tlicrc are seven other fuiall cities in the province, nam Is . Aracaty, eight miles ahove the mouth of the Jag'uarHic on the cast bank, a place next to the capital in impoitain o. and noted, amongst otiier things, for its manufactuic ot carnahuba candles, sole-leather, Arc, S:c ; Ico, a fcaifully li place, about thirty leagues from Aracaty, on the Rin Salgado ; Crato, situated in a fertile district eighty Icaiiucs from the sea ; Granja, at the mouth of the river Cainocini. a good })ort and stopping-place for steamers from Poniaiii- buco ; Quixeramobim, a little city in a cattle district in tln' scrtao ; Baturite, sixteen leagues from the capital, and inttci! for its activity in the cultivation of coffee, sugar-cane, Ac. : and Maranguape, also noted for its coffee and sugar planta- tions. The whole population of the province is probal)ly ahoiu 540,000. In the year 1841 Gardner published, in the " Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,"* a short paper on the gcdhiuy of Cearii. This article gives so clear and minute a descii])- tion of the country, and contains so many important gonhni- cal facts, that I think it worthy of being reproduced almost in full, ])articidarly since I shall have to examine critically some of his general conclusions arrived at, not only in this paper, but also in his since published " Travels in Brazil." * Gpolofriciil Notes made (liirinjr a Journey from the Coast into tiie Interior of tlie rrovinee of Ceara', in tiie Nortli of Brazil, embracing an Ac(<mrn i>l' a Deposit of Fossil Fishes, by George Gardner, Esq., Edinburgh New riiiiuM'plii- cal Journal, April, 1841, \). 7,'). PROVINCE OF CKARA. 4G1 robaltlv aliont Mr. Gardner says : — " I landed at the northeast corner of the province, at the town of Araeaty, whieli is situated on the cast baidv of the llio Jaguarihe, ;it three leagues from the coast. The first thing that struck mo (.ill my arrival was the flatness of the country around it, reminding (luo of the descriptions which arc given of the i)aui})as of IJiicnos Ayros. With the exception of a few low sanddiills towards the sea, ami a round, isolated one about eight hundred feet high, situated two and a half'lcagucs to the southwest of the town, calh.'d the Serra doArcre, there ia nothing to interrupt the uniform level. The soil f(ir many leagues around is of a sandy nature, and the character- istic vegetation is a heautiful species of palm called caruahul)a liy the brazilians. It is the Corypha cerifera of Martins, and is so aliuiidant that, on my journey south to the Villa do Ico, I ixxle for aliout two davs through a forest of almost nothing else. Two and a half leagues to the soutlx of Araeaty 1 first met with rocks. Tills was on crossing the river at a place called the Passagem das Pedras. I found them to consist of thin strata of gneiss, almost in a vertical position. The little inclination which they had was towards the northwest, in the direction of the above-mentioned Serra de Arerd. From this place to the Villa do Sao Bernardo, a distance of a little less than eight leagues, the country continues perfectly flat, but the ground among the carnahuba palms, and in several large open spaces almost destitute of vegetation, called '■avirons, is covered with abundance of gravel ; and this, which oxteiifls over large tracts, gives it the appearance of the dried-uj) lied of an immense rivci'. Intermingled with this gravel there are muncrous boulders of various sizes, the largest I saw not being more than four feet high. They are all more or less rounded, and consist of granite, gneiss, and quartz. For the next ten leagues the country continues nearly of the same character, with the exee])tion of a low range of gravelly hills running from cast to west. ;ind wooded with shnd)s and small trees, the most common I'f which is a species of mimosa. During the next ten leagues a 4G2 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. sliglit l)ut porct'ptil)le rise of the country takes place. Tlie soil i> generally a yellow-colorod clay, in many places thickly coveruil wnl, gravel and lioulders, while in others gneiss rocks are seen croppin- out and forniing often long slightly elevated ridges covered with ,1 species of cactus and a large hromelia. Their sti'ata, like thuM farther down, ai-e almost vertical. In this tract carnahuha ]i,iliii> become less numerous, and small dicotyledonous trees and >liniliv more abundant, but all of them in the drv season, at which time I passed, destitute of leaves. These deciduous woods, whicli nftin cover large tracts of country, are called catingas by tlie lira/il- ians. These tracts are still farther characterized by three laivf species of cacti, belonging to the genus Cereus. Duriiiu' tin next twenty leagues, which bnnight me to the Villa do Ic'i. thr nature of the country ditfers in again becoming moi-e level, cmi sisting of large open campos or vargens, the vegetation of whiLli, during he dry season, is quite burnt u]), but they are said to yield abundance of grass during the rains ; and the catinpis nr deciduous woods are much larger than they are farther dcwii. The rocks are gneiss and (piartz, and in several jilaccs large tract > arc covered with fragments of the latter, more or Icsk i-ouiidcil. At about ten leagues below Ic6, the monotonous level of the cinni- try is varied by a mountain range, which makes its appcaraurc t^ the eastward. This is the Serra de Pereira. It runs from tla' southwest to the northeast. It ' sixteen leagues in lenuth. Init its greatest height is not more than one thousand feet ;d)t/ve the level of the ])lains in which it is situated. The structure of it> southwest extremity at least is entirely primitive, but near its lia>e I observed a coarse red conglomerate, containing rounded frai:nieiits of both primitive and secondary rocks. "The Villa do Tco, which is one of the finest in the interior of the north of Brazil, is situated on the east bank of tlu' Iti" J^i- guaribc, in the middle of one of the large open campos wiiirh I have alreadv described, and during the drv season is one of tin most miserable places imaginable to live in. The country urouuu PROVINCE OF CEABA. 403 intrv urouuu it is then so raucli dried up that not a green leaf is to be seen ; iiiid the river, which (hn-ing tiie rains is of cunsiderahle size, becomes quite dry. The houses are all built of l)rick, which are iiiiule from a very good kind of clay found in the neighborhood, iuid are all white\rashed on the outside with a wliite limestone, which is found about ten leagues to the west of the villa. " r-'rom Ic:') I went to the Villa do Crato, which is about thirty- four leagues to the southwest of the former place, lietwoen these two places the country is of a more hilly, undulating character, more al)undantly wooded, the trees larger, and many of them ever- ;.'recn. Owing to these circumstances but few of the large caiupos which exist l)elow Ico arc met with. The carriage of gfidds between Aracaty and Ico is effected in large wagons, gener- iilly ih'awu by twelve oxen ; but the hilly nature of the country between Ico and Crato do(}s not admit of this mode of convevance, the 1 lacks of horses and even of oxen being made use of instead. Shnrtly after leaving Ico I passed over the southwest end of the Srrra de I'ereira at a place where it has but a slight elevation and consists entirely of gneiss. From this i)lace to the Villa das Livras da Mangabeira, a distance of about ten leagues, the country is of a gently undulating nature, and in m:iny places well wooded. This villa, which is situated close to the llio Jaguaribe, takes its uaine from a number of small gold-workings (/((ryis) which, fi'om time to time, for many years past, have been wrought in its nei'zh- burlidod. Nothing, however, was done to any extent till about t\V(i years ago, when two English miners were sent for l)y a com- piiiiy in the city of Ceara, the capital of the province. They con- tiiuiud their labors tdl about two moiiths before I passed through tlie phice, having been recalled by their employers. I could not liarn what amoimt of gold they had obtained, but the persons of \vhom 1 made inquiries remarked, with apparently much truth, tliiif they did not believe it was sutlicient to repay the expense, "1" the work woidd not have l)een abandoned. The ;;old is here fouiul in small particles, in a dark-colored diluvial soil, at a con- 4C4 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOfiRArilY. sklcrahlc depth ; but the place being shut up, I had not an ojtjjnr tunity of examining it. " At about eighteen leagues below Crato I lost siglit of tlir gneiss rocks, and for the next four found them replaced l)y a lt.iv colored primitive clay-slate. At the termination of this, thr secondary stratified scries begins, the few rocks which 1 met with from thence to Crato consisting of a white coarse-grained haml- stone. " Tlie small Villa do Crato stands in the middle of a lai'tri.' undulating valley, which is bounded to the soutli, to the west, uinl 1o the north by mountains which, in their highest jjarts, do iint rise more than from l,-()() to 1,.")()0 feet above the level of tlic town. The country around is very fertile, producing alinndaiiiv of cane, from which an impure sugar, in the form of small sijuuiv cakes, is made, mandioca, Indian corn, rice, cotton, and tobacco. besides all the varieties of fruit which are to be met with on tho coast. The gi'cat cause of this fertility is the numerous spriiiirs which exist along the foot of the mountains. The small streams which proceed from these are divaricated in a thousand diixctions, for the purpose of irrigating the plantations. The mo mtaius arc branches of the long range which sc])arates the ])roviiices of tin.' coast from that of Piauhv to the west, which here receives tlio name of Serra dc Araripc. Their tops are perfectly levtl. ami ex- tend so for many leagues to the westwaixl and soutliward, foriniiu' what the Brazilians call Taboleiras. I have ascended this raiiLiv in all directions, and have universally found it to consist of a generally white-colored sandstone, but in many ])lacos it is of a reddish tinge. In the bed of one of the largest streams wlurh pro- ceed from it, where a section of the rocks to a considenilile iKpth is formed, 1 found a stratum of limestone about three feet tliick, immediately below tlie sandstone, and below it anotiiei- o* an impure coal, two feet thick, resting on another stratuii; of limc- stonc. Nothing seems to have disturl)ed the strata, as tiny all lie in a perfectly horizontal position, and the level nature of tli'' PROVINCE OF CKARA. ■ili,") ■^criiv proves that this is geuci'iil. In the Umestono I could iiiuct with no fossil remains. The tcnipcraturo of two of the springs, wliich rise at the base of tlie serra 1 found on examination to ho 7.')° Fahrenheit. '•That part of the serra which lies to the south of (Jrato is a linnifh which runs about ten leag'ues to the eastward. < *u tlie :.uuth side of it thei'e is another small villa called IJari'a do .hu'diui, distant from Crato about fourteen leagues. I went to this jilacc piirtly for the purpose of botanizing and jjartly to make a collec- tion of fossil fishes, which I was informed were found in great [ilfuty in its neighboi'hood. The road skirts along the base of the MiTa in a southeast direction for about five leagues, at the termi- uatinn of which it is necessary to ascend it for the ])ur])(ise of crossing to the other side. The ascent is far from being good, it lieiug left entirely in the li.iti's of nature. Tlie only rock I uliserved was sand^t nio, similar to that which exists at Crato. The breadth of the serra here is nearly eight leagues, and during till' whole of this distance the road is as level as a bowling-green ; ;aul. as no water is to be found on it, travellers are oliliged to siiiiply themselves with it before ascending. For small ]iai-ties it is carried in calabashes, but when many pass together a horse is provided to carry two large leather bagfuls. These Taboleiras are generally thuily wooded, with small trees, the principal of which are a sj)ecies of Cari/ocar called Pike, a small tree belong- m to the natural order ApocynaccfO, which ])roduces a delicious fruit called Mangaba, a fine species of Jtri/.^oi/ema, the Cashew [caju] [AuacanUnm ocddentale), a purjde-flowercd (Jnalcd, and several small leguminous trees belonging to the division Kectem- hriie. '' The Villa da Barra do Jardim stands in a small valley, upwards I'f a leauue in length, and in its broadest {)art al)out half a league in hreadth. It is bounded to the north and cast by the branch of the serra which I crossed over, and to the west by another, but neither so broad nor so long. Having made inquiries for the place 20* DD 4G6 GKOLOGY AND rilYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. where the foHsil fishes were to he fouml, I was directed to a risiiii,' "round which extends idoiig the foot of the serrca. On my arrival at an open place of this gently sloping ridge to the north of tlio villa, I ft»und the ground covered with great abundance of st^iius of various sizes, and I was informed that almost every one of them on being broken ])resented some part or other of a tish. These fragments I soon found to consist of compact fawn-coloixd limestone. They ai-e of all sizes, from pieces not larger than an c-ir to blocks of several feet in circumference, .and are tdmost all rouinkil and smoothly pi)lishcd, having apparently been for a long time under the influence of a current of water. They, in general, split vei'y readily, and almost all of them ])resent parts of a lish in a more or less perfect state, lint by far the greater nunilicr nf them are so much broken that it is with consideralile ditiiciilty tolerably perfect specimens can be obtained. The spot which these stones occupy is not above an hundred yards s(piarc, anil almost no other stone is mixed with them ; but on every side of this deposit the ground is covered with little rounded sandstones, similar to the rock of which the serra is com[)Osed. Besides this I afterwards visited other dejjosits, one half a league to the mmxlx of it ; one at a place called Alaccape, five leagues to the east <if Jardim ; and another at Mundo Novo, three leagues to the west: all perfectly similar to the one I have described, being all situated on the declivity of the low hills which stand between the valley and the serra, and all occupying places which are almost altogether free from other kinds of stone. From these places 1 have obtained a suite of si)ecimens, cndiracing npwai'ds of a dozen species ut fossil fish.* They vary in size from those of a few inches in lenj^th to othei's which must have been several feet; and all of tliein. ^o far as my limited knowledge of the sidiject allows me to judge, except two species, belong to the order Ci/cloiJca- (;f M. Air^issiz. The most abundant species is one of those which do not Ixlon.: to * Mr. J. E. Bowman in a. noto says: "Aj:!is>iiz makes tlieni Imt .-own species, and rcfei's tlirec of theni to the (^toucjid group." PROVINCE OF CEARA. 467 this order. Of it I possess ii nearly pei'fect specimen aliout a foc^t anil ii luilf long, but, judj^ini,' tVom other fnigments of the same sni'cics, it must have attained a much lai;uer size.* it has the head very mueli elongated, and the scales of the hack and alnlo- iiKii are angular, while those of the sides consist of but one row uf long, narrow ones, arranged vertically. Of the other spec. I i.ii]\ possess the tail and a very small part of the body. It ditlers tViiia the last in appearing to be entirely covered with small aiiiiidar scales. Both of them 1 have no doubt belong to the order t;,iii(,nl('(f of M. Agassiz.f "On breaking these stones, some of them e.\hil)it abundance of a minute bivalve shell ; and at Mundo Novo I met with a very (lorft'ct specimen of what 1 believe will prove to be a species of Tiirrilitcs, about an inch and a half kmg, and a single valve of a Venus about half an inch in length and in very excellent pi'eser- vatinn. Both of them were found in the same fragment of lime- stone. I was informed by a person in .bu'dim tiiai. a few years ago he found a small serpent coiled np in a stone whicii had been split. hut this, no doubt, was a species of Ammonites. In the several hundred stones, however, which I broke in search of fish, I met witli nothing of this description. During my excursions in the neighborhood of Barra do Jardim I nowhere met with limestone When wc come to discuss, in the next chni)ter. the n;c- oldgy of the neighboring province of Pianhy, wo sliall have iui opportunity of seeing how correct Dr. Gardner's conclu- sions are Avitli reference to the age of the sandstone beds. :hcm but »cvcn * " Tlie fish hero described is tlie Aspidovhynrhus Compfoni A<xnss. — .1. E. 15." t Specimens of these fish find their wny all alon;; tlio coast, und it may be well for future observers to remenihcT this. I hml a siiecinicn of .l«/»/</o- ■hiliwliiis <;iven nie at Peneilo, and specimens of another genus were sent ine recently by Mr. Luue from Maruim. 4G8 Gi:OLOGY AND rilYSICAL GKOGIJAI'IIV. Tlio above imiici- Avas followed in tho samo joiiiMial i,\- a coniinunit'alioii liy Professor Agassiz, in wliieli llie spi cics of f(js.sil li.sli \v(M'e named and desci'il)ed, the opinion hcinn expresi^eil that lliey were of crelaecous age. The (list notice 1 have seen of the fossil fishes of Piaiiliv and Ceara is made hy Sjiix and Martins in Iheir ''rrav(l>. one of Ihe species being' hgured in the atlas aceompaiiyin^' their w(.Jv. In 1S;;,S Mr. Xlcolet jdaced in the hands of Professor Agassiz a few specimens he had received froii) Pernaniliiicn. (lardner's si)Ccimens, in the collections of ^Ir. IJowiiiiin. the Manpiis of Sonthampton, Lord Ennislcillen, and Sir Philip Egerton, were examined by Agassiz in IS-JO. Tw.i years later M. F. Chahrillac sent to ^f. Elie de llcau- mont from Pernandtnco a few more specimens he li;iii olttained from Ceara. These were jdaccd in the hands of Professor Agassiz, who made a long rejjort on them in ;i letter addressed to M. Elio dc Beanmont, itnlilisheil in Ilic Cnmiytes licmlns, Vol. XVIII. p. 1007. In this letter Agas- siz enumerates seven species as known to him from the province of Ceara, viz. : — Aspi(Ior/it/nc/uis Conijilus Ag. Lr/fufo/iis tail minis Ag. ]lhacu/i'j)is biircdiix Ag. Rliacolrpia Olfcrsii Ag. R/i(iro/r/n's hit II H Ag. Cladoci/cfiis (iiirdiicri Ag. CalamopJcnriis. cijUndricus Ag. Professor Agassiz in the above-mentioned letter restates his belief in the cretaceous age of the fishes; and recent examinations of considerable collections in Rio confirm liini ill this opinion. PROVINCE OF CEARA. 4G9 .cc(>iiij)aiiyiiii:- From Ccarii, the capiUil of the province, Pi-ofcssor Agasslz made a journey to the serras, and studied tlie ghicial phe- iiomena there exhibited, between the sea and the .^erra lie Aratanha he rei)orts that he fonnd everywiiere on the hi'dier hinds a niorainic soil with lioulders. "On this very serni of Anitanhu," suys .\h's. Agassiz, " iit the foot of which wo happen to have taken up our (piarters, tlie ylaeial jilR'nouiena are as le.uihle as in any of the valleys of Maine, or in those of the mountains of (.'uniberland in luigland. It had evi- dcutlv a local <;lacier fornied by the nieetin-- of two arms, which Jesrcnded from two depressions spreailiii-- riglit and left on the iipprr part of the sorra and joining hedow in the main valley. A !;u--(' part of the medial moraine formed, by the meeting of these two ai-ms can still be traced in tiie central valley. One of the Literal moraines is perfectly i)resorved, the village road cutting thrnugh it; while the village itself is biult just within the ter- liiiiud moraine which is throwi; nj) in a long ridge in front of it.'" * At the close of the chapter Ironi which I make the above extract Prui'essor Agassiz hinisel!' says : — " I spent the I'cst of the day in ;\ special examination of the ri-ht lateral moraine and part of the front moraine of the glacier of I'acatuba ; my object was especially to ascertain whether what ;i[ipcared a moraine at first might not, after all. be a s],>ui- of the j^urra decomposed in place. I ascended the ridge to its very oi'igin, and there crossed into an adjoining depression, immediately below tlu' sitio of Captain Henri(iues, where I found another glacial bot- tom of smaller dimensions, the ice of which ])rol)ably never reached the [ilain. Everywhere in the ridges encircling these depressions tlic loose materials and large boulders were so accumulated and imbedded in clav or sand that their morainic cliaracter is mi- luistakable. Occasionally, where a ledge of the miderlying rock * A Journey in Brazil, p. 4.50. The Serra de Aratanha is composed of gneiss. 470 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGUAl'HY. crops out, in places where the <h'ift liiis lieeii removed by (loim.la- tion, the ditlereuce hetweeii the inoraiiie and the rock deennqMistd in phiee ie> recognized fit once. it is (■([ually easv to distiii;L;iiisli the boulders whieli here and thei'e have I'olled down fi'oin tlu.' UKJuntain and .stnp])ed against the moraine. The three tliiuus arr side hy side, and nnght at tirst be easily cunfniuided, l)nt a little familiarity makes it easy to distiugiush them. When the lat( la! moraine turns toward the foot of the iuieient glacier, near ilir point i'.t wiiich the lirook of I'acatidia cuts through (lie fnii,iir. and a little to the west of the lirook, theiv are colossal houldcrs leaning against tlie luoi'aine, from the siuumit of whicii tiny havi' probal)ly rolled down. Near the cemetery the front moraine inn- sists almost entirely of small (juart/ peldiles ; thei'c are, iioucv' i', a few lai'ge blocks among them. The medial moraiuc! t'xti'inls uearlv throuuh the centre of the villa<!e, while the leftdiand latnal moraine lies outside of the vdlage, at its eastern end, and is trav crscd by the road Iciiding to Cearii. It is not impossible that eastward, a third tributary of the scrra may have reached the main glacier of the Pacatuba. T may say that in the whole valh'^ of Hash there are no accunudatious of moraiuic nniterials lunn. characteristic than those T have found here, not even aliout thi Kirchet ; neither are there anv remains of the kind more strikiii. about the valleys of Mount Desert in >b\ine, where the -larial phenomena are so remai'kable ; nor in the valleys of Loch i'"i!io. Loch Augh, and Loch Long in Scotland, where the traces ct ancient glaciers are so distinct." Froin Dr. Felice, a land .<snrvoyor fnmilinr witli the Pen-:i Grande, Professor Agassiz learned that •' there is a wall <>f loose materials, boulders, stones, Arc., rnnninfjj from east to west for a distance of some sixty leagues from the l\io Araeaty-assu to Bom Jesus in the Serra Grande" ; and tliis wall I^rofessor Agassi/, believes to be a part of the lateral moraiiu' lefl by a ,grcat Amazonian glacier. riiOVIXCES OF CEAIJA. 471 i-ed by (l.Miu.la- •t'k (Ic'cdiiniii.scd to (listiiigiiisli luWU fl'Olii tll(; lirc'o thiiiLis arc Ird, liiit a litili^. H'll tlic latiial icii'i', Ileal- tlir ;li tin; fnihirr, loSSill lllilllil,!-:, liioh tlicv havi' t uioriiiiR' cuu ' ui'e, linwcvi 1'^ oraiiu; I'Xtcuils .'ft-hiiii<l laltTal 1(1, ami is ti-av inpossihlu that reached tliu 10 whole valli';' liiati.'vials inniv veil iilioiir till' more strikin-,' ■re the ul.icial of Loch i'"iiie. tlie traces (if ith the Scrrii, ) is a wall ni from cast to om flic ]\io ! " ; iind tlii-^ if the lateral lloiios of huge Mammals, ^[astoiloiis and ^^o^•atll('ria, ar*^ iliiiiidaiit in various jiai'ts of the in'oviiicc, and jiL'rfct'l skel- ■toiis lui\(' hcfii found. ome of the locidilics are the [\)\- lowino': .'^anta Cathai'ina, (lagoa,) Silio Cron/('t, at tin.' foot dt'lliL' Serra Yhiajiaha at Jiduimuns; iH^twccn Cratlicus and (^iii.\eram(jl)im ; Timliaiilta ; in the place called Sncatinga a >k('leton was found in an excavati(jn, and jiart was scid \o Iho : at Sta. Cruz, in a iagvVi, another skeleton was loniid. The lollowing notes on the mineral i)r(Kluctious of the lii'ovinee ai'c taken fnjm Dr. l*omj)eo\s Ihisido : — .liiir//ij/sts. Sei'ra do Tana. Sonic of the eiTstals from this prov- iuci' are very lar^e and of a heaiitiful color. <iii/isiiiii. Araripe [Fihrons) (.'airh'i. .\i/t/,ifre. Found all over the interior, l>iit more jiarticularly at the following places : Tatajuha, whei'e it was (.'Xti'acted hy the unvernnient ; I'indoha (jioverumeiit works); TaLiVcioca em Ciinl; raniahul)'d cm Sao Pedro de Villa \'ii^-osa ; Boassii na (jlranja ; Ciiiiceii^rao, Cui-ii ; Pirangi, ( 'hor(') ; rruburctama ; Ipil, etc. >'//. [ii various parts of the Jai'dim, of the Sei'tao, and especially in the .Vracatv-assii, the wtiters arc impregnated with salt. As L'lsewh lere there are, in ai' 'illaceous soils, salt licks much frc- (11 U'lited l>v cattle. Salt is lariixdv manufactured on the coast fi'eia sea-water. Ahmi. Feijo says that a considerable surface in the Inhamuns is cdvered with alum. Caiianema reports it from Ararijie. }f ii Ik IS Id. Cafundo, Inhanum^ r,/r/- yhiiilH \iiiiiiiilh II fh. tc of Pofassixm. Tpil, Serra (Jrande, C'rato. S. (Jom; Cairiri, in veins. (Juixeramobim near Lavras. do. ■'//ii/r. (.)uixeram( )bini. fiolil* Cranja, Batiu'itC', Crato, Termo do .Milagres, Ipii, Puo Sab * F(ii(i, quoted hy Pr. Pompt'o. Ensnio, &.C., 1.52, snys : " T>o, oiirn oncontnun- "c iiiii:< on monos vestiuios por fedo-: os riiiclios, cerrcLTOs e veTtcntcs das iiion- laiiiiiis, (jiie Ibiinao as costuuciras da surni grunde, dcsde a Tuuoiihii ate C'ari- 472 GKOLOGY AND I'llVSICAL GKOGHAl'IIY. giulo from Missilo-VcUia to LavruH. Tn nil tla'so places tin gold occurs in grains or powder in sands, gravels, or clays ; its source is not known. Copiicr. Said to occur in the Serra (Jrando and elsewhere. Zinc. Sao I'etlro, near the Serra da Maosinha, Tei-nio de Milagros "Dr. Thebergc says that he encountered near Milagres a lariri' quantity of hlende (sulphide of zinc), so abundant that in wx- tain localities it was only necessary to burn a clearing to ivdua the metal, which ran into the hollows, where pounds in wciLfht were collected." (I'onipeo.) GaleiHi. Ipi'i, t^)ui.\eraniobim, Miibjliddte of Li'dd. (Capanema.) Near Villa Xova. Snipliiife of Aiifimoiii/. (Capanenia.) Near Villa Nova. G'r<(j>hite. Baturite, Quixcraniobini, S:c. Sjiecitl((r Iron. Cangati. Iron ore occurs in many localities in the province. In the Coinjifrs Jiejidits, Tome T)""", p. 211, I find a statement that on the 1 1th of December, IS'-W, a largo meteor passed over Ccara and exploded over the village of Macao, at the entraticc of the river Assii, showering down over a large tract of country fniL'- ments of stone, many of which penetrated houses and desti'dvod cattle. One of these fragments was seat by M. F. Ijerthou at Paris for analysis. ris, com ])!irtic'ulafi(l,i(lc nas vortcntcs do Siilfrado, Acaracil c Jairuaril)!', no Iiiliitinuus, IJanaljiiiliii, (inixorainobim, c calmceiras de Jure. Em to<l,is I'ssus verteutcs e terrenos visiiilios basta lavar a terra que sc uilia dcbaixo du i^bcalho para ])iiitar o oiiro." TROVINCK OF I'lAlliY. 473 CHAPTER XIY. PROVINCE OF I'lAlIIY. localities in tlic Gcofrrnpliicnl Position, Limits, &e., of the Province. — The Rio Ptirnahyba nml its 'rriliiitarius — l)L'scii|itii)ii of its IJasin. — (icnenil (Joolojiical Stnu'tmr ami ToiiOf^rapliy of tlic Province. — TaMc-toiipcd Hills of Sandstone. — 'I'lic Scrra dos Dous Irinaos and its Stnictnrc. — Discussion of (iardncr's ( >liscr- vuiions on tlic tJeolo^'^y of Piauiiy and C'cani. — (iardiicr mistaken in refer- liii;; the {,n'eat Sandstone Sheet to the Cretaceons. — Sandstones ])rolialily Tiriiarv. — Their }j;rent Kxten.sion over Brazil. — Distrilmtiori of the Creta- ceous Hcds in Brazil. — riiniate of Pianhy. — The Campos Mimosos and the Campos Anresfos. — Peculiarities of their Ve<^etatioa. — Prodnciious of the Province, Population, &c. The province of Pinuliy forms a rntlior lonir and irrofrtilar strip lyinji: Avost of the jn-oviiice of Coara, autl to tlio iiortli- wcst of Pornaml)Uco and I>iiliia. Its area is about 0(iiial to tiiat of Baliia, and it embraces all the conntry watered liy tlic trilmtai'ies of the Parnahyba on tlie eastoin side. Tliis river takes its rise in thi; Serra da Tabatiiiira in Oova/,, nearly on the same ))arallel as that on which the nimith of the Rio de Sao Francisco is sitnated, and in the aimio formed by the nnion of the two hydrou'raphical l)asins of tlic Tocantins and Sao Francisco. Its conrse is a])prox- imatcly north-northeast; and Pompdo gives its hnioth as o80 leaii'nes, which appears to me to be altoo-ether too high an estimate. The same author says that it is naviuable for a distance of 2G0 leagues. It has, according to Pomji^so, six months, Imt I cannot learn whether it has a regular delta. On the west side, in its very ujijicr course, a few small 474 GEOLOGY AND niYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. streams, namely, the lialsas, Balsiiihas, reiiiteiite, t^'C uiiitc, and with one or two other little rivers enter the main stiomn. but for the remainder of the distance to the sea the I'ar- nahyba flows so close to the western rim of the liydid- graphical basin that it does not receive another arihient nf imj)or(ance from that side. On the cast, however, it ic- ceives a host of little rivers which take their rise in tli • k^erra dos Dons Irmaos and its continuation the Seiiii da Ybiapaba. ^Most imjmrtant among these is the fliiiuiuia. which drains the extensive lake of Paranaguii,* (lie Ca- ninde, and the Poty. The Kio Parnahyba is a white-water stream, flowini)- Inr the most of its course through level, more or less swaiiijiv lands, grown uj) with thick bushes and groves of cni'iinliiilm and piassaba palms. It is without oltstructions, and iia\iLi i- ble for a great distance. The basin of the Parnahyba is a one-sided on(>. the diniii- agc being towards the east. As the little coast streams east of the Parnahyba nic rdin- priscd within the limits of the i)rovince of Coara, Piaiiliy has a coast line of only al)Out twenty miles, cxteiidini; from the mouth of the Parnahyl)a to the P.arra dn l-iui- rassu. The base of the country consists in the south an i southeast, at least, of gneiss and other metamorpliic nuk>, much inclined, but the greater part of the counti-y is ov r- sprcad I)y a thick sheet of sandstone in hoii/.ontal strata. extending southward to the edge of the liasin. This sheet of sandstone has been verv extensivelv wein away by the rivers, and between them are isolat(Ml taMr- topped hills or extensive ehajiadas. Such is the ( liaiacter * TIic same nniiie is np|ilicil to the bay on wliicli tlii' jirincipal Sfaport ol'ttio province of raraiui is built. PROYI^'CE OF I'lAUIIV. 475 no. tlio (Irniii- jal scaiiort oC tlio 111' the country in the vicuiity of Oeiras, wlicrc the sau<lst(»ne i- of a re(hlish tint, anil is sometimes exi)osed in |K'r|HMi- (licuhir cUrfs, The Ari'aial de Sao Gonrah.) is situated at the foot of one oi" these sandstone hills, whie-h is lour hun- dred ieet high.* The Serra da Topa is another sandstone iiiiiuntain, the rocks being of a white or i)ale red color and ilisposed in terraces, the top being perfectly Hat. These sandstones lie on a basis of metamorphic strata, whii'h has a gentle slope northward or northeastwanl, and just south of the Lake Paranagua they lap up ovei' these older links, abutting against the Scrra dos Dous Irniaos, r(>aching, iii'coiding to Mr. St. John, a level of about I.-VIO feet. Westward they rise toward the so-called Scrra de Ybiapal»a. The (piestion now is, whether they tie in with the sandstones ef the Ybiaiiaba, and of the rha[)adao da ^langabeira, or whether they are newer than the sandstones of ,l;icol)iiui ami the Sao Fraucisco-Tocantins divide. From all that 1 have been able to learn 1 thiidc that they will ■ founil to I'oriii part of the great sandstone sheet of Minas, Cloyaz, (Vc, and that the table-topped hills of IMatihy will be foimd til lie the exact e(iuivalents of those of Santarem, ^lonte .\l('i:i'e, A'C. The clays and sandstones of thi' lower grounds Imnlefing the coast would seem to belong to the same series as those of the vicinity of Para. The water-shed between the hydrographical basins of the >au Francisco ami the Parnahyl)a is, according to the testi- iiiDiiy of Spix and Martins, (Jardner, and other travelh-rs, a luw, very gentle swellirg, comj^sed of gneiss, nuca-schist, uud other similar rocks, all more or less disturbed and vKiuided down very evenly, as is the case with the simihir Miala forming the divide between the Sao Franejsco vid- * Alcidc (I'Ortiiirny, ]'<)!/(tge PiUuresqin', 14'.i. 476 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGKAl'IIY. ■:(, ley and that of the Parafiuassi'i, and willi a gentle slope hoili to the cast and west. This gneiss ridge is ahoiit l,:io() i; ,1 in height where the road IVuni Oeiras to Joa/.eiro crosses it. (Jardner, in describing the jonrney from Paranagiui, acios- the -water-shed, sonthwai'd into the jtnjvince of P''iii;iiii- buco, says that, shortly after having passed the houndaiv dl the i)rovincc of I'iauhy, an elevated table-land is r< arlici called the 8erra da JJatalha, which he desci'ibes as Ixin- covered on its sloi)es with huge blocks of sandstone, (j|' wliidi he snpj)osed the serra to be composed. Two otlier .s(ii;i> of the same character lie to the south, and (Jarihiej- supjinsi^ them all to f'M-m part of one great range. Padre Cazal, in his Corog-r<qili'ui^ says that in some |iiirts the serra dividing Pernambuco from Piauhy has two or tluvc leagues of chapada on top. From Mr. St. John's observations it would appear 1h;it in some places tlu^ sandstones are completely removed, as is the case in JJahia also. That the Serra dos Dons Trmaos should have its ca|t|iiir:' of sandstone is not wonderful, Avhen we find the Scini da Ybiapal)a so cap])e(l to a height of over two thousaml fret. and when o\\ the highest land on the Sao Fi'ancisco-Paia- guassu divide we find patches of the same rock, fi)nuiiii: ;i series of (.■haj)adas traceable southward, and tying in witl. the chapadas of the I'ardo and .Jeijuitinhonha valleys. The age of the sandstones of the Serra da Yliiajiaba ami tlic Serra de Ararijic, and also of the great sand'^tone >li<'t't covering so large an area in the ]»rovincc of Piauhy. reiuaiiis to he determined. Gardner has called them all cretaceous. Let us examine upon what grounds he has liasod his cini- clusion. The whole mattc«r turns ujion the i-elation ilf iish-bed bears to the strata composing the serra. He mivs PROVINCE OF I'lAUIIY. 4 I t ill liis "Travels" (p. 202) that "the place where these [fish] were found was on the slope of a low hill aliout a mile from ilie serra," and that the specimens all come from loose nuusses, ronnded, as he erroneously su]»i)Osed, by the action of water, and scattered over a very limited surface. IIo conse(piently did not sec them in jtlacc. Owing to his find- in-: in the immediate vicinity })ieces of sandstone * like that which form the serra, he arrived at the conclusion that the fishes come from the sandstone, and that because the lislies were cretaceous, therefore the serra, and not only the sei'ia, hut all the great extension of sandstones coveiing the noitheastern shoulder of Brazil, must l)e cretaceous also, and he even went so far as to divide these rocks into a scries of groups, referring them to Euroj)ean horizons. The fishes do not occur in rolled masses, as Gardner >:ays, but in concretions, as Mr. J]ov>-man has remarked in a note to Gardner's ])aper, and as I can also testify after an examination of specimens in my own collections. The oecurrence of these concretions on a surface miassociated with other rock would lead one to suspect that they had weathered out of some softer rock, and this is confirmed by a statement made by Pompeo, on the authority of Dr. 'i'he- heriie,that the fossils are found in " an extremely sticky clay." Theberge says that they cither occur in this Avay or at the liottonis of deep valleys in brooks whose bed is a schistose limestone, so that wc have no evidence whatever that these fossils occur in the sandstones of the serra ; on the contiary, they occur in a band of rocks lying well l)el()W the sand- s'tonos, and l)ared in the valleys l)y the denudation of the sandstones, so that we may safely conclude that they are * In liis pajx^r in the Phil. Trans., Gardner says that these were little rounded sandstones. In his Travels he speaks of them as rounded llorks. 478 GEOLOGY AND rilYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. older than tlic sandstones.* Gardner was misled, in tlif first ]»laee, into the belief that the sandstones wei-e creta- ceous from fmding rocks having some resemblance to Hint. and by mistaking for chalk a white tal)atinga clay on tlic to]» (jf the serra, dug by the inhabitants for use in white- Avashing. That the cretaceous rocks form an extensive seiios underlying the sandstones is vciy probaiile, l)ecansc Gardiiir speaks of a mnnber of localities, all of which he desci-jlics as being situated on the declivities of low hills skirting tlu' base of the seri-a. On the west side of the Serra da Ybiapaha he found a similar dejxjsit of fossil fishes, which would Ica.l one to suppose that this serra was also underlaid Iiy the same de|)osit. Gardner, in his "Travels," says that the series of creta- ceous rocks in Ceara and Piauhy forming the serras, Ac. consists in descending order of — 1. AVhite chalk with Hints exposed in pits, and partially overlaid by red diluvial clay. 2. Sandstone with ichthyolites, equivalent to the English upper green sand. 8. A series of marls, soft and compact limestones, and lignite, e(|uivalent to the Engli.sli gault. 4. A ferruginous sandstone deposit, ecjuivalent to tlio lower green sand or Shanklin sands. Now, of this series, the white "chalk" is a Tabatinna clay. There is no evidence that it contains flints, and he himself says that he found none in any of the "chalk- pits" he examined. In the second ])lace, there is no evi- dence that the fossil fishes occur in the sand.stones, and if * In a ]i!i]H'r read at the Salem iiuTtiui,' of tlic American Association, I ven- tured to state my strmiy: suspicion tiiat the l)eils affordinf,' the fislics wnM turn out to lie distnrlied and inclined, like the other cretaeean beds in Eastern ]?iM/ii, wlicu I'rot'essor Agassiz remarked that this Iiud been rejiorted by Dr. Coutiulic PROVINCE OF riAUHY. 479 tlicy did tlicy would not prove the deposit to be upper pveii ^;iiid, since Professor Agassiz lias called attention to tlie iTseniblance borne by Aspidor/z^nr/ins Comjitoni and Lc/ti- (Ih/ks tcmnurus to allied species of the chalk of Kent. So far as the third and fourth series arc concerned, tlardner fDiiiid no fossils in them, and their cretaceous age is un- pinved. Toinpeo, with Capanenia most proliably as author- ity, gives the followiug as the succession of rocks in the sei ra of Arari|)C : — Tlie ui^pcrmost beds, A, consist of beds of Psninrnifo, sandstone of a reddish color, with bluish, sometimes black iiodides. liC'low these conies a bed, 1>, of an cxcccdinii'lv foliated limestone, under which lies a bed, C, of black clay CO, (Taua), with layers, a ])alm in thickness, of a liluish and very hard sandstone, containing veins of j)yrites and galena (?), or with a very bituminous schist containing the same sulphides and sjtherieal nodules. This is in tuin underlaid by a scries of sandstones, T), less argillaceous in cliai-acter. In a sandstone similar to this occurring at St. Piilio, Dr. Gon^alves Dias found fossil wood. Of this scries, A corresponds to Xo. 2* of Oardncr's scries, 1> and C to Xo. 3, while the lowest sandstones of his f^iTJes may or may not correspond to D. hotli of the above sections aj)pear to have been made in tlio Serra de Ararijie, near Crato. Gardner says he saw no linu'stone in situ at Jardim. That these horizontal strata, and especially the sand- t^tdiies, have anciently had an innncnse extension over the surfnce of Ceara there cannot be the least doul)t, as Dr. f'aiiaiiema has remarked, for the sandstones are often * fiiinltuT mimbcrs the buds from below ui)wiirds ; accordingly this would i-oriL's]ioiid to his No. 3. 480 GEOLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GEOGRAPHY. found capping isolated hills, at a long distance from tlie scrra. Indeed, there seems every reason to l)elieve that tlio ])r(tvinces of Ceard and Fianhy were covered with it o\tii beyond the coast line. It has been swept away very laiuvly from the coast and the basin of the .lagiiaribe almost to Crato. The upper part of the Scrra da Yl)iai)aba for ai)|)ai( utly its whole length is comj)osed of the sandstone, and the plateau of Apodi seems to l)e formed in part of it. h is true that where Spix an<l Martins crossed the Scrra dds Dous Irniitos they found, up to the highest point of the jiass, l,*2o0 feet, only nietamorjthic rocks; l»ut they fouiiil overlying these rocks thick beds of laminated clay (^sc/iirfrr- f/ion), and they report the Serra da Topa as comjioscd nf Qxadcrsandsfcin. Mr. St. John did not meet with thf sandstones, but Gardner did in crossing the Sena da Batalha, and he descril)es the top as a flat chapada. The Chapada de Sta. Maria, lying Ix-twcen the Sao Francisco and the eastern branch of the Tocantins, is another dead- level table-land composed of sandstone, south of which comes the great Chapadao de Urucuia, evidently only the prolongation of the Chapadao de Sta. Maria. On the oii|m> site or southern side of the valley of the Urucuia we see the chapadas once more. In the southern part of ]\rinas, as already remarked, tliofc arc the chapadas between Tiundiy and Passos on the Ki" Grande, east of which is the immense Chajtadao de Taha- tiiiira, some two Inmdred miles in lensrth, between the two l)ranches of the Parand, the Paranahyba, and Rio Ciaiide. Then we have the elevated plains of the j)rovinces of >ao Paulo and Paranii, composed in great part of argillaccmis sandstones. The valley of the Sao Francisco to the Caciio- PROVIN'CF, OF I'lArilY. 4Sl cira dc Paulo AfTonso is filled with horizontal dojiosits, calca- reous iu the upper part (jf the valley, silicious and calcareous ill the lower j)art. East of the valley of the Sao .Francisco we find the hills of the water-shed between the Siio Francisco liasin and the streams ilowing eastward into the Atlantic e;ii»ped here and tlicre with horizontal dejjosits, worn away on every side; the basins of the Rios Pardo and Je(|uitinhonha iue iiMed with these beds, and eveiy where they rise to a very unirorni height over the country, — a height of 2,000 to 8,000 fuct above the sea. Westward we know that an inunense tract of country in the province of Matto Grosso and the Ainazonas is covered in like manner with .similar deposits. All these facts sj)eak of a very uniform sul)mergence of the whole country to a depth of at least 2,000 or 8,000 feet liclow the present sea level, during which the valh'ys were tilled u]) with beds of clays, sandstones more ov less ai'gil- hiccous, limcstimes, ttc, to a greater or less heiglit. These deposits apjx'a. in great part to have been rajjidly formed ill the bottom of a muddy sea, the material being derived froni the decomposed rock crust covering the country. The fossil fishes, according to Agassiz, rescmlde those of the European seiionien, so that if the sandstones are cretaceous they must belong to the veiT ujipermost di- vision of that formati(^n. We have seen how this same trivat formation extends over almost the whole Emjiirc, but nowhere that 1 have heard of allfording a single fossil. Put on the coast outside the edge of the plateau, lying on the extension of the gneiss basis, we have, beginning at the Alirolhos and extending northward through Pahia, Sergipe, l^'inambuco, and Parahvba, a u-reat series of cretaceous I'ueks jjclonging to ditfercnt epochs in that period. Wher- ever I have seen them they are always disturbed, while VOL. !. 81 EK 482 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. they moreover Ibnu border deposits abruptly abuttinu- the edge of the plateau, showing- that the plateau was out df water when they were deposited. These cretaceous licils are compact sandstones, shales, limestones, conglonicr- ates, A:c. The beds of the great sandstone formation approach the coast in very many jjlaces, as on the Rio de ISao FraneiscD, whci'c they make their appearance near the Cachoeira de Paulo Alfonso. But they arc everywhere horizontal, and aio nowhere disturbed by the foldings which tilted the licds of the cretaceous a few leagues to the east. Uut the cretacrdus beds of the coast are overlaid by a series of clays, sandstones, (fee, which, though strictly a coast formation, Ijcars in litliu- logical character a very close resemblance to the great sand- stone sheet of the interior. This latter, which is overlaiil liy the drift I have referred, as already stated elsewliero, to tin.' tertiary; but this coast formation is, I think, without doulit, younger than the similar formation of the interior, so that the latter must be either upper cretaceous or tertiary, and I nuist give it as my (h-m conviction that it will be foiuid to be the latter. As to the occurrence of drift in the province of Piauliy, I have no information whatever. I know of no workable mines, though gold is said to occur at Olho d'Agua, near Oeiras. The climate of Piauhy is hot and, according to Poiiiin-'o, rather damji. It is apt to be very prejudicial to foreigniM.s, esiiecially in the low gi'ounds along the baidcs of the Par- nahyba, Poty, and other streams, where intermittent fevers are [irevalent. The inhabitants make a distinction between the vciivtn- tion of the eastern part of the province and the central and I'ROVLNCE OF I'lAUIIY. 483 'Aostcrn ]iart. Tliat of the former rctrion is called mimom, anil is clmnictcrized l»y cutiiiga I'orcsts, wink' its jilauts arc riirnishcd with an abundance of hairs and iiricUles, still" leaves, small flowers, a very tender ^'orc, and very often a milky juice. (Jardner says that the grasses of the minioso jiiisturcs are annuals, their color is a hriuiiter green, and they have more {diant leaves than those of the agrestes. S|iix and Martins give a long list of grasses which ai'C characteristic of the eanipos niimosos. 'I'he canipos agrestes of Lower Piauhy consist in part of woods, in part of quite open jjlains. The trees are, accord- ing to Gardner, almost all deciduous, and many are giuirled and stunted. S\vam])S are not infreijuent and suj)i)(jrt cluuips of Buriti ))alms. The grasses of the open plains are coarse and perennial. Tlic rains begin in Octol)cr and last until April, heavy thunder-storms prevailing during that season. The })rincipal industry of the province consists in the raising of cattle, and agriculture is pursued only to a small extent. The population amounts to about 250,000, of whom about 30.000 are slaves. The capital is Theresina, which has aliout 6,000 inhal)itants. The other cities are Oeiras and Painahyba. The latter is i)articularly unhealthy. 484 CEULOGY AND I'HYSICAL GEOGRArilY. CHAPTER XY THE PROVINCES OF MARANIIAO, PARA, AND AMAZONAS.* .Sandstonus of tlic Coast of Maraiiliilo. — The Interior composed of Metaninriilik Hocks. — ( Id-Mines of Turi and Maracassuine. — CiinuUe of the I'roviiur — Wains 'cs of Maranliuo, Caxias, &c. — Turoroca or Hurc ;it thr Montli c: .ivcr Mcarim. — Professor A;,'assi/'s Hketdi of tlio (jic()l(i;;y, of tile Amazonian Valley. — His Theory of the Mode of l)e))os''i()n of tin Amazonian lU'ils. — Di^cllssiou of this (^"cstion. — Cretaceous Kocks in tU Amazonian Valley. The coast of the Province of ^laraiihao is low and flat. and consists of a tei'tiaiy feiTutiinous sandstone pus.sinn into con<ilomerate, and overlaid, as in the vicinity of tin.' j)ort of Maranhao, by a series of sandstones and clay.s. Gardner, apparently on the principle that all sandstones mnst he cretaceons, refers this series to that format ioii, while Spix and Martins, as usnal, call the rock Qiuidrr- satuhtvin. The sandstones and associated rocks foriu a line of hi^h red clitfs along the shore of the island on which Maranhao is hnilt, jnst north of the city, east ol' jMiint Sao Marcos, On the mainland west of the channel a similar line of clilfs stretches from the village of Alcantara to the cnrions landmark, Monnt Itacolnmi. The same rocks extend far np the valley of the ltai>icnru, on the hanks of * That this name was ^nven in commemoration of the supposed xr\\»' "t female warriors described by Orellana there ennnot be the sli^rhtest doiilit. The attempt to derive it from atnassoiKi, a word not to l)e fouiul in the Pnrtii- piiese dictionary, falls into tlie same cate;rory as the derivation of .l/anni/omtVnin VKir oil )i(lt> ? or Alcramhr the (ireat iwm all e(fffs under the rjvate ! It is not tlic Kio Amazonas, but the I?io das Amazonas, the river of the Amazons. PROVINCES OF MARANIIAO, PARA, AND AMAZONAS. 485 LMAZOXAS.* ^\liic.']i at Manjruc Alto thoy were observed liy Spix ami Mai- tiiis to lie on granite containing pistacite, and at Cacliocira tills rock passed into a syenitic f'urni. Mr. St. John, who descended the Itai)ienru and made a considerable stay at Maranhao, will doubtless, in his re- port on the geology of the country, furnish us with valua- lile information concerning the character and extent of the s^aiidstone dej)osits. hi the south and west the countrv is hitiher. more \m- Kjual, and very largely composed of ancient metamorphic rucks. (!old occurs in the province, and is or has been worked liv a mining company; but 1 have been unable to obtain facts bearing upon the nature of the deposits or their yield. The two i)rinci[)al mines are those of Turi and Mara- cassnm(3. The climate of !MaranluTo, — situated as the country is on the edge of the great Amazonian valley, of wliicli we are told liy Professor Agassiz it anciently formed a part, — lias the same general character as that which i)rcvails on the Ama- zoiias, being hot and damp; the greatest heat is about :il° Cent., 07.8° Fahr., and the lowest 21° Cent., (50.8° Fahr. (Pom)>oo.) "The rains begin with great regularity at the ciiil of December, although from October on showers occur, commonly called the cimvas de caju [the cashew-rains]. The rains are very abundant, and acccmipanied by much thiiiKJer and lightning, becoming more fretpient and heavy in May, the end of the winter season." * From June to becomber the winds called reutos g-eracs blow steadily from the northeast or east-northenst during the day, and during the night-time fronj the east. * I'oniiieo, (j'coi/rcijiliia, p. 391. 48G CKOLOGY AKI) niYSICAL GEOCnAPHY. TliG climate, except in the vicinity t)f the I'uranaliylta River, is said to lie (piito liealtliy. A <:iTeat jiait of the country is heavily wooded with tlir virgin forest, Imt in the interior there are some extensive campos and alluvial flats often inundated during the i;iiiiv season. The princi])al jtroducts of the country consist nt' rice and cotton, although a little coffee is phintefj. \ large nundier of cattle are raised. The poj)idatioii of the {jrovince amounts to ahont iliio.O'io inhaliitants. The capital is Maranhrio, a l)eautifid city of .^0,000 iuiuili- itants, built on an island lying oil' the; mouth of the lf!i|pi- curu IJiver. iVlcantara is another consicU'rahli^ town s i- uated on the maiidand opposite the cajtital, and in the midst of a region noted for j)roducing a most excellent quality of cotton. The city of Caxias, on the navigable river Itapicun'i, about three hundred miles from Maraidiao, is a large town. the centre of an im})ortant trade with the interior, ("aiu- lina, on the Tocantins, is a town of but little imj)ortan<'o. About twelve leagues west of the capital of the provinec is the mouth of the river Mearim or Meary. 'J'his river li;is so strong a current, and its channel is so shaped, that it cmixs the tide to enter with a bore. Cazal says that the river susi)ends for a long time the rise of the tide, then it conn'S in Avith great fury, rising in a quarter of an lujur the dis- tance it had taken nearly nine hours to fall, and tlnii running for three hours Avith the rapidity of a mill-race. f * The river is nnvi;,'atc(l by steam. t Sjiciikiiig of tliis river, Cazal says : " Sea alvo he profimdo, e larL'o ; i' '^n^ corronte tao rajiida, (jne .siisjiende a eiichente da man- ])or iar;;<> tt'iii]io : rc-nlt- audo de.sta ojijiusieao oiidas encaiielhidas, ciianiadas pormviun, (jiic (k'in'i> do riJOVINCLS OF MAIIANIIAO, I'AIiA, AND AMAZONAS. 4^7 3 Puranalivl.a ibuut 890,0(11) It will 1)0 rcmeiuhcrcd lliut a siinilai* iilicnoniciioii Is wit- m'>.si'd at the inoiilh of the Amazoiuis, and in the vieniify of I'iira, where, as in Maranhao, the liore is calletl pororoea. rrofessor Aizassiz has treated so laruelv of the |)hvsical L'CM^raphy (jf the provinces of I'ara and Ania/.oiuis, or the Aiua/onia. valley, in the "Journey in IJra/il," that it is not necessary lor nie to repeat here any of his eonehisions ; liesides, the limits of this vc^lume lorUid that I shouhl at this time enter ujjon the discussion ol" so IVuitlul a sulject. I shall therefore conllne myself, so far as the Ama/onas is Cdueerued, to a very condensed statement of Trofessor Auassiz's views with reference to the origin and strati- i;i'!ipliy of the various formations which occupy the Ama- i iiiian valley, and with a few renuirks thereujion ; this si>ems nt'ci'ssary in order to complete my sketch of the (Jeology of Brazil. In the Bidldhi da la SociHe Gcolofjique de France (2""" Seric, T. 2"), p. thSo) is a short article on the (ileology nl'lho Amazonian valley, by Professor Agassiz and Dr. Cou- liiilio, })resented by Professor .Jules ^hircou, which gives I'ldtrssor Agassiz's views with great conciseness and clear- lu'ss ; and as it is n(jt accessible to general readers, I have njiioduced the most important part of it here, together with the section accompanying it. Professor Marcoii says : — " .^h•. Agassiz thinks tliat the whole valley of the Amazonas was firmed at tlie end of tho cretaceous period, wliiih lias left traces of deposits ill the province of Cearii and on the Upper Punis. Here viiii'iiliis, tudo quanto vazou em qiiazi novo lioras, ciiclie cm mciios (riuuu 'jiiarti.; Heaiido a mart' eaniiidiaii(l(j para eima tres lioras coniidetas cdiu iima ra|iiilt'z sciiielliantc a eallia triiiiiii moinlio. I'<ste t'eiioiiieno ()ceui)a o espaeo do tiiR'o li';;nas com ;rraii(le roi'do. Ila sitios, deiioiiiiiiailos M/ir'/v/s-, omle as canoas i-|itrrn) a deciziio do combatc, c cuiuiiuiuo a viagcm scm jicriyo." — Cor. Biaz., T'Jiii. II. J). -JGO. 488 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and there, whether hy demulations or hy anterior dislticatinns, cue sees more ancient rocks. Thus Major Continho has iunvA pahcozoic brachiopods iu a rock which forms the first cascade .if thf Ta])ajos ; carboniferous fossils have been collected on the bauk.s of the rivers Guapore and Mamoro, in ^hitto Urosso ; and Hually, ut Manjlos, Coutinho has recognized slates or jt/ii/lldclex in a ver\' in- clined position, and beneath the formations of red sandstone t.i' tlio Amazonian valley," Professor Agassiz suiJixjsi'd tluit during the tertiary tin Amazonian region was above water, and that the san(Utuin.'> and elays that now fill it are drift. The following is a cojiy of the ideal seetiou of tlicsi- latir deposits by Professoi- Agassiz, forming a Vtsumd of the ult- servations of M. Coutinho and himself: — " I. Coarse sands {S<tlile ijrosxicf) forming t!ie base of tiie tlril't throughout where the level of the water has uncovered the lnwcr beds of plastic clays. " II. The streaked plastic clay (An/i/c p/a.^fh/ur Jiij/arrci) shows itself ^ a a large scale along the sea-coast at Parii, at the Islaml of !Marajo, Maranhilo, and hero and there in tl'C hollows along tlio course of the Amazonas. "III. Foliated day in very thin beds, with frequent indications of cleavage. This deposit appears to be more consideralile in tlii' banks along the course of the Kio Soliinocs than in tlie lower part of the Amazonas. It is in the : beds at Tonantins, on tin' liio Solimoes, that M. Agassiz has found leaves of dicoty1eil"iii'US ]»lants, which appear to bo identical with species at present living in the valley of the Amazons.* * Tlicse leaves ocour in n fine, soft pray cl.ay, rcsemMiiifr ^■Cl•y clixoly the recent all-ivinl clays of tlie Rra/.ilian rivers. They are excellently pn-crviil. The leaf is partly earhonized, luit it curls up from Mie surfaee on dryiu;:, iiini may be detached, leaving a beantifnl impression of the venation, &c. PROVIXCKS or MAIIANHAO, PAIiA, AND A.MAZONAS. -ISO '>>ia a- I H : i' '• IV. A crust of sandy clay, very hard, moulded in the hicciuali- ties of the foliated clay. '•v., VI., Vll., VIII., and IX. S,n„lstn„c fnnn(ttii»i, sometimes regularly stratified and compact, especially in the lower beds (V.), siicli as one sees on the borders of the ill'ivdpes of ^Manjios ; sometimes cavernous iiiul intermixed with irre;j:ular masses of clay (VI.), especially well developed at Villa I'.ella uikI at Maniios ; at others all the characters of a torrential stratiHcation (VII., VIII., and IX.). The deposits of this Inst nature arc only seen in the elevated hills of Vlmeirim, Krorc, and Cupati, and in the mo.st elevated clitfs of the borders of the river, as at Tonan- tiiLs, Tabatinga, Sao Paulo, and ou the bor- ders of the Rio Negi'o. " X. The argilo-arenaccoua, unstratified drift, occupying all the inequalities of the si'il resulting from the denudation of the sandstone with torrential stratification. It is in this drift that MM. Agassiz and Cou- tinho have foimd true erratic blocks of dio. rito. of a metre in diameter, at Ercre. This formation is never met with on the clifl's elevated several hundreds of feet in height. There is not a trace of it on the summit of u.o hills of Erere. " Tlie fact that the coarse sand, No. I., ap- pears throughout at the level of low water, thut it follows the general slope of the val- ley, shows incontestably that the deposition of this formation does not reach back to an epoch anterior to the excavation of the val- 21* VA^ 41 (0 GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGHAPIIY. ley ifself. Tlie total tliickiicss of the Amazoniiiii drift docs n^f cxcce<l three hundred metres; it covers the whole basin nftli' Amazonas. from the Andes of Peru and Bolivia to Cape Suo li(ii|ii( ; or, in other words, it ..-. the most colossal drift formatir>n known." I'rofossor Agassiz Itcliovos that the beds I., 11., III.. IV.. or the coarse sands and clays, were dejwsited in a lake ni- sheet of fresh water ()C('n|)ying the valley of the Ania/.inias. and sustaining u\\ its surface a glacier, descending eastwunl from the Andes, and furnished with a gigantic moraine in front stretching across the mouth of the valley and coii\cit- ing it into an inland fresh-water lake. After the ice hud broken up and become moi'e or less disintegrated, ainl tlic waters of the lake had swollen, the sandstone formatidii \'.. YI., Vll., A'llL, TX. was laid down, then the barrici- w;(> burst ; the waters of the lake, suddeidy released, fur rowel and wore down the sandstone beds, sweepiing them ciitiivly away over an immense area, leaving only isolated hills, like those of Erer^, Obydos, Cupatf, Almeyrim, tte., standing as renmants of the once universal .sandstone sheet. After iliis period of turbulence and denudation came on an I'jiocli of quiet, and in the bottom of the diminished lake tliC clays, No. X., were deposited, while ice-rafts floating on its surface droj>ped here and there boulders, to be Itnricd in the accumulating material. Then the moraine was d','- stroyed ; the drainage of the waters furrowed deeply tln'sc clays, and even cut through them into the sandstone Ik'ow, in which the various channels of the system of the .\ni;i- zonas are excavated. Professor Agassiz believes thai llic great barrier stretched across the Amazonian valley far east- ward of its present extremity, and he has called pttention to the similarity between the formatiojis found spread over the coast of Maraidiao and Piauhy and the Amazonian lor- TROVIXCES OF MARAXHAO, PARA, AND AMAZONAS. 4'.)1 nations here described, sliowinj^ conclusively tluit these dc- [in>its were once continuous. It is his helict" tlmt the Ania- zMiiian formation formerly extended a hundred lea<>-ues out to sea beyond the present mouth of the Amazonas. There riui he no doubt that there is a rapid waste of land f^oinji; on along the sea-shores of the mouth of the Amazonas and of iIk; coast eastward f(n' a long distance, — a waste amounting to even so nmch as two huiulred yards in ten years in the bay of i'.raganza, or a mile in twenty, as on the coast near ^'igiaJ where an island a mile wide disapi)eared in that time.* I have three times visited Paia, and have had an opportu- nity of seeing something of the Amazonian formation. The luck underlying the town, and exposed at ordinary low- water level at the base of the bluff under the fort, is a (■oiu'sc dark-red sandstone with an abmidant cement of iron oxide, and j)rcciscly like the red sandstone I have so I'fti'n described as occui>ying a similar level and luider- Wnvj: the tertiary clays of the coast of Hio, Kspirito Santo, Ac. Over this sandstone is a considerable beil ol" red, white, ami particcdored fels])athic clays, with a greater or less ailmixture of sand, which clays present exactly the same a|i|iearancc and level as the tertiary clays of the j»rovinces just referred to. iSefore I knew anything of the conclusions of Professor Aiiassiz as to the age of the Amazonian dejtosits, 1 had sat- islit'd mvself that the clavs and sandstones extendiiiL'' alonyr till' whole eastern coast of Ijrazil, from the Cay of Rio to * Since the tertiary, nt least, nml I l)elievc fortlie preater part since tlie drift, t'u' wliule eastern Brazilian coast has sutfered (leiiiuhuidn liy the sea to an ininu'iisc amount, ami a very wide strip of tertiary rocks has hecn removed. 1 1'^lii've that these deposits once extended beyond the Ahrolhos. and tliat >iiiith "t Cnpe Roque the sea has cut them away for a mean width of tit'ty miles or more, 402 GEOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tlic Aniazonas, avcm-c older than llio drift clays wlileli ovor- sjd'cad tlieni; and as tliey ai'O stratified deposits on an n\Hu coast, tlicrc can lie no douljt of tlicir marine origin. At rii'>t, misled l)y what 1 had read of the geology of Jh-azil, as wtll as by the strong resc ml dance the sandstones hore to the new red sandstones of the JJasin of Minas in Nova Scotia, with which 1 have l»ecn familiar since my boyhood, 1 was disposed to regard the Brazilian formation in question as triassic ; hut 1 soon found that it was underlaid unconlbiiu- ahly liy cretaceous rocks in Bahia, and I came to the (inly conclusion possil)lc, — that it was older than the drift and newer than the cretaceous. I can see no reason, therefore, for considering the coast l)eds as anything hut tertiary, though they may be, and probably are, very late tertiary. 1 have attempted no conijiarison between these beds and the tertiary Iteds of the pamjias, because, in the aljseneo of fossils, and having never seen the })ampian tertiaries ami post-tertiaries, I have nothing to aid me in instituting sneh a comparison. It has seemed to me that the fact of the occurrence on an ojien sea-coast of clays and sandstones precisely similar to those occupying the lower plains of the Amazoiuis, as at Para, and in fact tying in with tln'ni. re- lieves one of the necessity of looking to a fresh-water origin for the Amazonian beds. There cannot be the slightest doubt that the beds forming the mountains of Krere, Almeyrim, once covered the whole valley, and have been enormously denuded. 1 should never have doulited whether the red sandstones at i'arii really belonge<l to the scries of beds forming the Monte Ah'gre- Ererd hills, if I had not found along the coast of Espirirn Santo the same sandstones with precisely similar overlying •■lays, with no talde-toppcd hills piercing them as at Ererc. riMJVINcF.S OV MAIIANIIAO. l'Al;\. AND AMAZi'tN'AS. 4'X\ ( )iily oiicc liiivc I seen wliiil I tliDUU'ht to ln' a lal>U' tii|»|i(*il liill staiKliiiii' on the (.-oast tertiary jilaiii. That was im the I'iVAst south of Rio dc Coiitas, the oliscrvatioii w: < a doiilit- iiil one, ami I have felt more like iiistitiitin,!:; a coiiipari- 1 i)et\vt'cii the eliaiia(his on llic Aina/.oiias and those of >i)\ V iKiDalia aiu 1 M uias X ovas ; oi", in othn- woi-i Is. I am (lis- |iiis('(l to rcuard the eliapathis of Krci'e as the outliers of the i:ivat tei'tiaiy sheet that once eovcred the uri^at Ura/ilian phitcan, and now lies unl)i'oken over such an nnnu-nsc I'Xii'iit in the province of Matto (^irosso. Aecordinu' to the (ili>(M'\atioiis of Dr. 11. I\ Stevens and others, the iilatcau n[ (Inyana is covered liy an t'xtension of tjie same ii'r<'at hii'l. while the \alley of the Orinoco is ocen|)ie(l with clays })i'eci>ely sinular to tlu.ise of the valley of the Ama- :'.iimis.* It is with nnich liesitation that 1 e.\|)ress an o]iinlon at >ari;ince with so distin,u'iiishe(l an authority as Professor AL:a>si/ ; Imi the I'acts have seemed to nee(l a difU'rent iiit('r|iretation from that which he has m'iven them. .My iMiiiliision>. after all, do not afli'ct his theory of the foi'iner ■lcin;e of Lilaeii'rs nnder the tropics, down to the present •1 of the sea, — a tlieoiy which 1 hold as firmly as he.f i'\i k\i * Professor Ortoii fomul wi'st of TiiUiitiiiLr.'i tirti^iry .slu'lls in l»uil.s wliuli liu iiin>iili'iN to tic a part of tlie Amazonian iomiation. TIu'm' fossils wvvv ilc- Miilnil liy Profi'ssor (Jahl) in t\u' Jniuiiul nf ijinrliu/oi/i/. Tlu' spccit's arc Xiriliini /"'/"', TnrhimiHii minnsruln, ^fcxsulid (hiani, I'lllinti Aiinr.iunnsia, /'(n/ii/iltnt iih- /"/"", and /'. teiimi. It is nuiili to l)e r(.'}::retted tliat I'rofi'ssor Orton lias not L'ivcii aik'scriiition of the locality where these (osils are found, ami of their iiMih (if ocenrrencc. t I have ei>ntined inyself in tliis (•!ia])ter to a short discussion of the question of till' M^ry of il,|. .Vuiazduian sand-tones, and I have atteni]>ted to ;:ive no ile- scri])tiou of the ^^reat river ami its wonders. I would reti.'r the reader desirous of kimnin^r more cf the Amazonas to the "Journey in Brazil." It i- inilieii surprising,' that ufter several hundred volumes, classic in seienee, 4'J4 GEOLOGV AND PHYSICAL GKOGKAPIIV, Prolbssor Auassiz luis callod atttMitioii to tlic fossils fioiu cretaceous beds discovered l»y ^Ir. Cluuidless on tlu> ri\t'r Aquiiy, one oi" the aHluents of the Purus. These beds (.'(in- sist of hardened clay and ''pseudo-conglomerate,"* — tlh latter being a sort of clay rock full of concretions, wliich give to the formation the ai)[)earancc of a conglonieralo. Associatetl with it is a sandstone. The fossils are said liv Mr. Chandless to be very a1>undant, and, according, 1 lu'lievc, to the determination of Professor Agassiz, they C(jnsist of the bones of Mosasauri f and turtles, together with f »ssii wood. These remains appear to be principally conrnieil to the clays and " i)seudo-conglomeratc." Professor Agassiz regards these fossils as indicatiiiL:' a horizon lilcc that of the Maestricht l)eds in Europe (J/a-- strichtlcn, — upper chalk). Judging from the descrijjtiuii ul' have l)cen written on Brazil, and some scores of works have been puhlislicil on the Aniazonas, hy sucli writers ns De la Condamine, Ilumboldt, Spix ami M:'r- tiiis, Prince Adelhcrt, Bates, Wallace, Aj^assiz. and a host of others of ixivnWr or less note, the idea ,-lioidd be so f^enerally prevalent that the cmuitry is uihx- ])Iorcd, a jierfeet tirni iucoipiita, and that every year or two some traveller ikmi' before heard of shonld astonisli himself, if not the world, by reiliscoveriii:,' tin.' river. Perhaps after spcndinj; a month on its waters, the jjreatcr part of whiili is consumed on board his canoe or the steamer, he writes a book, or at least a ma;razine artick' or two ! Few countries have suffered more in America at the hands of superticial travellers and writers than Brazil. I would es|ie('iiiily recommend to the attention of my readers the excellent little book ly Mr. Bates, " The Naturalist on the Amazonas." Its niithor is a f.'ood natunili-t, and his eleven years of residence in the country liavc enabled him to write with great accuracy. * Chandless's papers on the Bio Aquiry. (Jour. Roy. Geoj^. Soe.) t Professor O. C. Marsh, in t)ne of his papers read before the Salem mectiiii; of the American A,ssociation, called attention to the rarity of the Mosasaiiruiil forms in the Kuropean cretaceous and their jrreat abundance in the eretaci.oiis of North America. It is interesting to obserxc the occurrence of this iumc type in South America. mim PROVINCES OF MAILVNIIAO, FAUA, AND AMA/.ONAS. 4'.I.j Mr. Tlic'ljorgc, tlic A(|aiiy l)e(ls must rcsemljlo those of Ccani, in which the fossil lislies occur. On tlic I'urus Mr. Chandloss * found the same beds at aliuut hit. 7° iry 8., long. G0° W., with bones and an abui.\- dance of fossil wood. * Ascent of I'liriis, Jour. Roy. Gcog. Soc, Vol. XXXVI. •4'JG GEOLOGY AND I'lIVSICAL GLOGRAI'llY. CJIArTKU XVI. PROVIN'CKS OF GOYAZ AND MATTo GIIOSSO. Tiio Gi'ni:ra]iliiciil Position of tlie I'rovinTO of (Joyaz. — The C'linpailn tin Maii;;al)L'ira. — (jL'olo^ry of tiie \'iciiiiiy of Nativiiiatle. — (iol(l-Wa>iiiii-s ut till! SfiTii (la Natividade, tlic Arraial da Ciia|ia(la, and tiio Arraial ilaCon- i , i.ao. — Stiuctuiv of the Serra at tlie Town of Arrayas. — Tin- Sum (icral. — S\ii)terranean Streams. — Western and Southern (ioyaz eonijuiMil of .Mctanioriiliic HoclxS. — Distriiintion of Gneissosc and (.iraiiiiic l{ink> in We-tern IJrazil. — Tlie Monies I'yreneos and their Height. — Tlic llii.i Ara;,Mniya and its Navigation. — Dr. Coiito de Ma;,'aiiiaes. — Iliia (Kr IJa- nanal. — Xote on Tiraniias. — (ioid, Diamonds, Iron, and Cla'ome On-.— Climate, Forests, Population, i^c. — The Western J'art of the Plateau ..t 15ra/,il eoni|)osed of undisturhed IJeds of Sandstone, iS:e. — The Aiuazniiii-- Paraguay Water-slieil a I'lain without Sernu. Till-: niatoi'iiils for writint"' a sketch of the OooIoqv df tli'- Pi'ovince of (Joynz arc very nioagro, since it lias never 1 ii explored l)y any competent modern geologist. St. Ililaiiv. Polil,* Ijnrcbell, and several other natnralists visited ili' province in the early part of the century. Gardner niaili' a Journey through the eastern part in the year 1S4<K iii;ik- ing a few geological observations; l)ut Castelnau, in 1^14. travelled very extensively through the length and lucnilili of the province, furnishing us with connected and valiuil'l'' geological sections, though these sections and the ai-cniu- panying text rarely ever do more than indicate the litlio- * Pohl's (G. E.) Tteisf im Tnnern von Brasiliin in rfrn Jaliren 1817 -1*-1. 2 Bde., mil Atlas (Wein, 18.'J1 -37), and his BiitiiUje zur GcbirrjxknnLk Band- icns (Miinehen, 1832) I have never seen. rROVIXCES OF r.oVAZ AND MATTO GIIOSSO. 4!C h'/\ci\\ character (^f the lonnatioiis. The strut ig-nipliy is v:imit'Iy given, and no atteniitt is nuide to show the age ui" the (lillerent dejjosits. (Jdvaz lies west of the ]»rovinces of Piauhy, JJaliia, and Miiias Geraes, and is very long IVoni north to south, and i:;iirow from east to west. It coin|)ris('s the liasiii of the Tucantins ahove its junction witli the Araguaya, the part oj" ihe hasin oi" the Araguaya east of that rivrr, and the riglit M«lc of the hasin of the raranuiiylia, from the Rio Jacarc ti; the Rio Apure. The Chapaihi da Ahmgaheira is, as ah'cady i'emarke(I, the xiuthward continuation of the taMe-hmd scpai'ating the |inivince of Piaidiy from the vaHcy of the Sao Francisco. h is in some phices (jnite forty miles in width. Its top loiius a plain, and it consists of horizontal beds of saml- MuiK.' lying on metamoi-phic rocks. iJetween the chapadu ;;iiil Xatividade the countiy is composed of these latter >trata, while the scrra at Xatividade has, according to Gaid- iK'r, the centre of granite, overlaid l)y schistose rocks. The WL'stern side of the serra is hounded hy l)eds of a very coni- pnct grayish-colored limestone, which extends northwards for >evcral leagues, forming a range of low hills. The surface •loposits oil this serra, which are lai'gcly composed of a fer- niuiiious gravel, doulttless like the drift casraUio of Minas Xuvas. contain gold, anciently mined to some extent. Gard- ner says that the view east and north from tlu^ serra is liouiided hy several low ridges, Imt that to tin? west and >i>ii(li the country appeared to be one vast })lain. The Ninic traveller tells us that the whole country ahout the Anaial da Chapada, a few leagues west, has Ijeen turned "ViT in search of gold. The Arraial stands on a low cha- I'ii'la. liut Gardner does not describe its structure. Gold IF k 4'JS GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRArilY, iilso occurs ill the vicinity of the Arraial da Conccirrm. (Jardiier's account ol" the structuix' of the serra on wlii.li the town of Arrayas stamls is interesting. The roeics aiv all nietaniorphic and almost vertical, the inclination tcml- ing toward the east. CJardner says : " The most westriK of these rocks have an arenaceous, schistose Ktructur(\ iiml these oNerlie a very eonijiaet, grayish-coloi'ed, sti'atifKMl idrk very much reseml)ling gneiss, in ^vhich ;ire imlieddcil in- numerahlc rounded pehhles of granite and ([uart/, of all sizes, from one to three or four inches, and which is proliaMy eiiuivalent to the gray wacke rocks of the ( )ld World." Limt'- stoiies, which occur both to the noith and south, were not ohserved here. Whether the linu'stoncs mentioned \nh w: in the same series with the slates does not ajipear IVnin (lardner's statement. The Serra (Jeral, eastward of Arravas is dcscrihed as heing of no great elevation, and jirt'siiit- ing a level top as far as the eye can reach, heing evidently the continuation of the Chapada da Mangalielra, and, like it, composed of horizontal sandstone lieds.* In speakiii'i of the road I'rom IJonita to Arraial de Sao Domingos, we are told that "the top of the serra still continued to lie level, with a precii)itous face, the rock being of a r('(l(li>li yellow," and that "shortly after leaving J>onita an ejcvatcil |>yramidal peak of the same elevation as the scna i> descried to the southeast, ])resenting a remarkable ri'<iin- blancc to some enormous work of art," so that tiiere <aii be no doul)t al)out the general structure of the serra. Castelnau represents on his map a little stream Just mulli of Sao Domingos as flowing in a sul)terranean chaiim l.f Crardner describes a river near the Fazenda de Sao .loan, * This is conlirmcd by Mr. Thomas Ward, wlio has travcllftl ove;- it. t Castelnau, V""' Partic, Grwirnpliip, Alios, PhiiKhc 4. PROVINCES OF GOYA/ AND MAITO CROSSO. r.'ii tliiit (lisfiii]i('ars in nn o]ioiiin^^ in liincsfniK" strain, and runs undci'iri'Dnnd Ini- scvcial miles, wlicn it n'ajtpcnis.* On his jonrncy to Sao Knniai) (laiMJutT lullowt'il tlu' Scrra llcral from near Sao honiintios to llic Iicatl-watci's of the lincnia, ami he dt'sci-ilios il as one vii't-al clcvatcil plain or rlia|iadao. Of the p'olo^'ical strnctnro ol'llic southern part lie <aiv('s Imt few lunts, hut a> he occasionally mentions the (icenrrenee of limestone it is M-iy |ii'ol>alile that it may he, in piirt at least, comijosed of strata of that rock, the continnii- tinii of the horizontal limestone deposits of the K'io das \'elhas. Most ma|»s repi'esent a narrow mountain-chain separating the hasins of the Sao Francisco iuul tlu; Tocan- tiiis, and (h.'riier, in his map of Minas (leracs, thonuh he ivpresents correctly the ('hai>adoes de Santa Ahiria and rrncniu, with their jjreat levid tojis. draws aloim- the ter-shed a mountain-chain on to]) of tlui chapada, call- \u<j: it till' Serra das Araras and the Seri'a do I'ai'anan. Along this whole region W(^ have no evidence that 1 iiave seen of the existence of any extensive elevations aking through tlie great tahle-land. Castelnau's ma|) of the southern j»art of the province shows the chapada as extending southward nearly to Catalao. (Jei-her represents il eha]iada on the oj)p(jsite ov south side of the \alley of the L'rucuia. When we come, however, to the southeiMi part tit' the ju'ovinee, we find, just over the limits, in the I'rov- iiice of Minas Geraes, the innnense Chapada da Taljatinga Iviiiu' hetween the Ilios Grande and Paranahvha, and com- (iii \va hr( iKise d of horizontal heds of samlstones, Ai Aecordin<>; to Castelnau, Saint llilaire. and others, the * Tlieiv iiiv otlicr oxniiiplcs of siilitorniiuaii strcuns in RrM/.il. Ciciljcr n].ri'sc'iits tlic Uio I'anlo, an alilueiit oi' tlic Si'kj Fraiici>io on tlic lift sido, it> tlowinu^ nnclcr a riel^c. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 'r '^ MM. lii 1^ ^ IA£ III 2.0 UUi- II 1.8 U III 1.6 /j. "c>l <>^. ^^ 7 /^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ts £>< 5(J0 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GLOGRArHY, foundation rock of western and southern Goyaz is evci'v- wlierc gneiss, luiea-scliists, elay-i^lutcs, and limestones, evi- dently lielong'iny; t(j the same metanioi'iiliic series we llml in the eastern part of the Hrazilian })lateau. These rocks are nnieh folded, rising in mountains comparing in eh'vu- tion with those of Minas (Jeraes. The ridge dividing tlie basin of the Toeantins from that of the Paranahyha hrancli of the Parana is of the same character. Clay slates aiul other metamorphic rocks are seen at Cuiaba and Dianiiin- thio in Matto Grosso, and Chandless * sj)eaks of granite seen in the bed of the river Ta|)aJos, ten miles above the Rio de Peixcs, just Iielow the Rio das Tropas, at the shal- low of Mangaljal Grande, and at various points below on the same river. All these observations go to show that the great Brazilian i)lateau, like that of Guyana, was originally wholly composed of gncissose and schistose metamorphic rocks, much disturbed throughout. It has been supposed ly some that, going westward from the Serra do Espinha^o, the signs of metamoriihism disappeared, and that r(.»cks wliieh in eastern Minas Geraes might have been highly metamor- phosed s})read out flatly westward, as in the eastern part of the United States the pala30zoic rocks which were folded along the Alleghanian region spread horizontally over the west. This is not the case, so far as I can learn, in Brazil. The metamorphic part of the Brazilian plateau, so high on the east, in ^Minas sloi)CS off to the north-northwest, and southwestward from the vicinity of Ouro Preto, and dips under the gi-eat sheet of tertiary rocks, showing itself only where these are denuded, or where an occasional and rare prominence i)ierces these strata, but a ridge of these rocks stretches off in a series of high lands from Ouro Preto and Rarbacena into Goyaz. * Juiiriml Royal Geograithical Society, Vol. XXXII. PROVINCES OF GOYAZ AKD MATTO OROSSO. 501 Mr. Thomas Ward, in a note addressed to the antlior, very a])t)y describes the Province ol' (loyaz as a nietaniorjihic ishuid in a sea of sandstone, and snch seems indeed to be t!ie case. The sandstones have Ijccn swejit away from tlie greater part of tlie Aragnaya-Tocantins basin, leaving the irregular surface of tlie metanioi'iiliic rocks exposed. The highest points hi Goyaz are the Pontes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz, which are said to lie over 1»,;">00 feet.* The highlands in Southern Central Goyaz, collectively known as part of the l?erra dos Yertentes of IJaron von Esehwege, form the water-shed between the Tocantins- Aragiiaya bas^in on the north and the Parana l)asin on the south. The Araguaya and Tocantins altove their junction are both largo rivers, but the Araguaya is very much longei-, and should rank as the main river. It flows for the greater part of its length at a much lower level than the Tucantins, and it olfers much greater facilities for navigation. The Araguaya has been several times exjdored. Castelnau f ill 18-44 descended the river from the mouth of the Crixas to its union with the Tocantins, and then ascended the Tocan- tins, making ])lans of both rivers. lie found the Araguaya navigal)lc and with but few obstructions. In 1X'A\ the President of the Province sent vSr. Vallee to exjilore the S'ame river, and he reported that it might easily lie nuide navigable.:}: * I find in the Bahia Intnesxr- Publico for the 21st of NovcmI)ur, 180B, a letter Irom Sr. II. R. dos Genettcs, dcscriliing an ascent of the Pyirneos. Tliis <:en- tknum says tliat ho ascertained the lieij^ht of the most elevated point to be 2,932 mutirs, or ahont 9,G19 feet, wliieh is mneh greater than liad been siipiiosed. + Ciistelnau, Expe'd. clans I'Amcr. du ^ud, Hist, du Voijayc, Tomes I. ct II. ; also Atlas. \ E. J. C. Vallee, Explomcnn do Rio Aw;iiai/n. Pul)lished in the Annexo V, to Olio of the Government Reports, jHihli-lied, I tliink, in ISO."). My copy wants till' tit]e-pay:e. 502 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Dr. Couto de ]\[{igalliuc.s, formerly Prcsiilcnt of Goynx. espoused the cause of the Araguaya, and navigated it in u little steamer from Jurujjeneeu), fourteen leagues fi'oni ilic capital on the Ilio Vernielho, a l)ranch of tlie Araguaya, to Pard. The president pulJislied not long since an excellent memorial on the advantages to be gained by the navigatimi of the river. ^Ir. Ward tells me that a steamer n(j\v niukcs regular tri}»s from Para to Goyaz. I have told the stoiy mi Araguaya to show that Brazil is not wholly without lln' sjiirit of enterprise. She is exploring her great rivers and establishing, slowly it is true, steam navigation upon tiiein. and in a few years the interior of Brazil, so long shut out from the world, will lie accessilile to conmiercc. The lands bordering the Araguaya arc in great })art flat. low, and com})Osed of sands, clays, and other very i-eceut tie- posits. An interesting feature in the river is the liha <lij Bauanal, formed by an arm leaving the main river on the east in latitude about 12° 30' (a})prox.), and entering it again in about 9° 80'. Castelnau determined the length of the island to be seventy-five leagues. Almeida, in his luap of Goyaz, does not re})rescnt it as quite so long. Tiie Araguaya is very rich in fish,* and a sjiotMes u'' doli)hin occurs in it. Gold is found in many localities in the province. The * Castelnau says that piranhas — he calls them pimngas — aiv very nunn i- oils and voracious. According to liim, " lour voracite est telle, que iire>i|U',' tons les oiseaux aquatiqnes (jue nous procurions avaient Ics piittes en ]iarrio devore'es par cux Un de nos coni])a^nions de voyage jxjusse j)ar Vnxvl'^ 'lo hi ehaleur, se init ini])riideniinent a I'eau, et ftit iiresqiie aiissi t"t attinim' li;ir (les legions de ces animaux ; imniediatcnicnt les cnux furent teintesdesoii saiis: et il flit henrcux pour lui qu'il se trouvat tres jjres du rivage, vers IiijikI il h' preeipita avec rajadite', eehappaut ainsi aune niortcertainoet afiVensi-. " — //'>'. du ]'wjii;/(, Tome I. p. 404. TROVINCES OF GOYAZ AND MATTO GROSSO. 503 )1'U\111C(.' (.'Oimtry in the vicinity of the capital is largely auriferous. Castclnau speaks of the occurrence of the })recious metal at the following Ljcalities, Rio Verniellio, Rio Ragageiu, Serra Dourado, Districto de Ouro Fino, !M(jrr(j do Calisto, Districto duAnta, Thesouras, Rio C'laro, Julgado de Crixas, Nativi- dadc, Trahiras, &c. DiauKJuds have ))ccn found on the Rio Claro ; iron occurs at Ouro Fino, Anta, Aldea de Sao Jose, and chrome at Ouro Fino, where it is said to have been found Ity Pohl. The Province of Goyaz is, generally s})eaking, dry, con- sisting of campos and catingas. Fi^'csts have but a small extension. There is a large tract covered l)y the virgin forest between the ca[)ital and Meia Ponte. The province is especially adapted for grazing. The climate is dry, l»ut varies much, according to latitude. The poi»idation is, ac- cording to Almeida, 2-30,000 souls.* The western part of the high lands of Brazil, forming the Amazonas-Paraguay water-shed, and comprised in the prov- ince of Matto Grosso, is completely covered with uiidis- tur1)cd tertiary beds, and forms a low swelling })lateau, oil which the rivers take their source. This is well shown in the maps and geological sections accompanying the great work of Count Castelnau. The rivers Xingu, Ta])ajos, and Paraguay all take their rise in this plain f within a few miles of one another, near Diaman- * Castclnau devotes Chapter XVII. of tlie second volume of liis Ifist. dn VoijiKje to a description of the Province of Goyaz. t Chandlcss says that the water-shed between tlie Amazonas and the Para- guay, " thoui^'h commonly called a serra, has nothing of a mountainous charac- ii.'r. It is simply a high range of country, varying but little in its general flovation, tliough deeply grooved by the valleys of the rivers. Around theni Olio linds more or less virgin wood ; the rest is eanipo, that is, pastures sprinkled iiiuio or less thickly with stunted trees, in jnirts including the 'iniim tree. This 504 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAniY. tiiio, and the water-shed is so low that wooden eanoes ascend the Tapajos f'loni .Santarem, cross over, and embark on the Paraguay, descending to Villa Maria. In descending the 'ra[);ijos, on his way from the Diamaii- tino to the Amazonas, Cliandless Ibund the river bordcroil by sandstones, whicli, as at Creporc, he describes as soft in character. On the road from Goyaz to Cuiaba one passes over an immense })lain of sandstone in horizontal beds. The viiUcv of the Paraguay at Cuialja and Diamantino is excavated in this sandstone sheet down to the mctamorjjhic rocks lyinu beneath. In the valley of the Pai-aguay, near Cuiaba and Diamantino, diamonds and gold occur in considerable altnn- dance. So little is definitely known about the geology and pliysi- cal geography of the Province of Matto Grosso, that 1 cdw- tent myself with these few general remarks. Castelnau lias written more than any one else on the physical featui-es of the pi'ovince, and the reader is referred to his Illduire du Voyage for more details. range seems to consist mainly of sand-rock and clay. In general it drops steeply and often |ireeipitously to the lower country, the plain below appenviiifr as a sea with deej) bays and inlets." PROVINCES SOUTH OF KIO. uOo CHAPTER XVII. PROVINCES OF SAO PAULO, PARANA, SANTA CATIIARINA, AND RIO GRANDE DO SUL. Tlie Serni do Mar of Sao Paulo a Plateau. — Its Cliaraffor. — 'Drainasc in the Provinces of Sao Paulo ami Parana to tlie Westward. — IOa>t\vanl-tio\\in"' Streams of no Importance. — The Sao Paulo Kailroail. — Dcseri]ition of the Country, alon;,'' the Railway lietween Santos and Sao Paulo liy Major <). C. James. — Gcoloiiy of Viiaiiity of Sacj Paulo. — Mawe'.-> Descrijition of the (iolilMines of Jaragua, and tlie Method of extracting the Hold. — C'ountrv westward to Campinas. — Iron-Mines at Yjianenia — Serra Arassoiava or Guaracoiava. — Climate, Products, &.i:, of the Province of Sao Paulo. — General Topographical Features of the Province of I'arana', its Climate, Productions, &c. — Matte or Paraguayan Tea. — Tca-Pliuiting in Pra/.H. — Rivers. — Colonics. — Paranagna'. — Coal Basin on the IJio Tuberao in the Province of Santa Catharina. — (Jeneral Description of the Physical Features of the Province and that of R\o Grande do Sul. — History of the Coal-Mines of Brazil.— Observations of Perigot, Bouleich, Avi^-Lallemunt, Plant, ^<:c. — De.-criptiou of the Coal-Fields of the Hiver Jagu.irao. — Engineer McGintv's Report on the Candiota Coal. — Coal Basin on Hio Sao Scpe. —Basin near Sao Jeronymo. The so-called Serra do ^far, seen in sailing along the coast of the Provinces of Sao Paulo and Parana, is the edge of tlie great Brazilian })lateau, which along the coast of Sao Paulo has a height of 2,500 - 3,000 feet.* Towards tlic sea it pre- sents a very steep declivity, hut on the opposite side there is no corresponding slope. Climbing the serra at Santos, one liiulsliimself on an immense table-land of gneiss, rougliencd 'a' a line of considerable hills a few miles from its edge, but * Mawc estimated the height of the plateau on the Santos and Suo Paulo rnad at fi.ooo feet. Vol. I. 22 i) 06 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. soon growing gradually lower in going westward, until at Cajni>inas l)roud plains arc rcacheil, that stretch off wiih more or less interruption toward the Parana, tying iu with the great jdains of Paraguay and the Argentine Iit.- publie. The united provinces oi' Sao Paulo and Parana lie, like Ohio in North America, on the western slope nf the Ijorder of the great interior continental Itasin of Sniiili America. As the hluff edge of the plateau so nearly cuiii- cides with the coast line, the drainage in these two prov- mces is i)rincipally westward into the Parana, while tlic rivers flowing eastward are of very little importance. The ])rovince of Santa Catharina, just south of Parana, lirs partly on the seaward side of the serra and partly beiiiiid it. The streams flowing eastward are of no importauco, while those flowing westward form the head-waters of the Uruguay. South of the province of Parana the water-slicd bends inland some two hundred and fifty miles, and then runs southward through the province of Rio Grande tlo Sul, ending as the high lands break down and disa})pear on approaching the Hio de la Plata. The city of Sao Paulo, the capital of the ])rovince of the same name, is situated on the top of tlie jJatean, at a distance of forty-five miles from the sea. The i»rin- cipal port of the province is Santos, a considerable town of some 7,000 inhabitants, and noted for its export of coffee, which reaches 160,000 sacks yearly. From fliis place to Sao Paulo runs a railway, which is continued west- ward beyond Campinas. This railway was constructed by American engineers, and my friend, 'Mn]ov O. C. James,* was one of the corps. On my last voyage, while at Rio, I * I wish I could fully express my indebtedness to Major James : I owe him a thousand acknowledgments for his kindness. Wli PROVINCKS SOUTH OF KIO. "'07 nes : I owe him a olitaincd so many facts of interest from him with reference to the topography and geoh)gy of t?rio raulu, that, as he was altout to return to Sao Paulo, 1 aslced him to nuikc obser- vations on the surface deposits along the line of railway, which he did, furnishing me with a rejiort, from which nearly all the facts relating to the route of the railway luive been taken. Major James says that Santos is " within a league or two of the foot of the great back-ljone of moun- tains, — a league or two of soft, oozy mud, a few feet al)ove the sea,-level, the base of a sort of estuary, of which the spur and main range form the bounds. This interlying marsh or lagoon is overgrown with very shabliy palms, large moss-covered trees, looking like spectres in the land- sca})e, and with a very heavy, tangled undergrowth, — lazy, sinuous lines of water, having their beginnings and endings in the sea, traverse it, as if it were just for a stroll inland beneath the uml)rageous foliage and ])ack again to the ocean refreshed." * Just before the railroad reaches the base of the serra the mud is left, and a broad liaiid of gravel is crossed. This lies at a higher level than the nuid, and appears to slope away from the serra. The materials are very coarse, and there were no sands seen. Major James says: "We dug into it ten feet or so, to get gravel for ballast. There arc no shells in it. The height above sea-level is not great, — say ten or twelve feet, not more than twenty." This deposit evidently corre- sponds to the raised beaches of Rio and northward. A few small streams flow into the estuary, and the rail- road follows one of these until a deep gorge in the moun- tain is reached, — a gorge formed by two spurs jutting out at light angles to the line of the serra, placed ^•'■'e abutments * It is hardlj' necessary to add that the locality is very unliealtliy. 508 GKOLOGY AND niYSICAL GKOGKArilY. to .sn])j)ort tlie niouutaiii. 'r.ikinu: tlic sonlheni slope oCili' noi-llKTii spill-, the railway cro('i)S up at an anjjlc (tf mi,' in leu until it readies the suiumit, live miles IVoiu the pluln. having attaiiK.'d an elevation of twenty-six huiuhvd I'ccf, CUTTING ON TIIK SAO PAULO KAII-WAY. SIIOWIXG DKIFT LYING ON DLCDM- I'OSKD HoClv.* BcgMuuinir near the font of the serra, an cxaniinatioii nf some of.thc cuttings throutih the massive corrugations nl'tlio hillside reveals a yellow unstratified clay,t not very e(»in|i;i('t, interspersed with pebbles, stones, and rocks, nearly all \\t-'U * The ck'composed rock is seen jijnllicd away underneath the drift. t Major James says that this is generally the color of the drift-"1ay even to its wluile lU'pth. He eom])ares the drift-paste on tlic Silo Paulo Hailroitil on tln' >lopc of the serra to that exposed in the deep cuttinff near Kodcio on tii-' Doin l'e(iro ScL'nndo Railroad. At Silo Paulo, however, it is more red. a- «o shall presently see. rK(n'iNci:s south or kio. ."DO 'IXG ON F)l;( OM- roumlc'd, overlying tlie rock In sih'i, a (Ifcomiiosod ii'iieiss. Hero and llicn.' in a ll'w cuttiiiii's a thin sheet of jieldiles may lie traced hctwocn the yellow (lay and the roek, losing; itseU" now and then. This desciMptioii will aj»|ily ,ueiieially to all liie cutting's except a lew where the excavation is made tliiough partially decuiuposed rock. Ma/ior James iiitbrms me that the clay is thicker on the (oji ul" the rihs or corrugations ol' the hills cut through liy the railroad than on the sides, which is (nving to the demidatiou of the slopes. This clay sheet may he lll'ty or moi'C feel in thickness. On reaching the top of tiie serra one hiuls him- self on an elevated country, a taljle-land diversitled hy hill and valley, the hills heing generally low and I'oinuled, the valleys wide antl with a luxuriant vegetal ion (lourishing on marsh} bottoms. On the old nude-road near the edge of the ]ilateau the country is gently rolling, and for some eight or nine miles the soil, when not covered l)y a sparse vegeta- liou, is of a gray color, and j)resents a dreary asjX'ct. On the surface is a layer of white sand, only two or three; inches in thickness generally, hut when drifted of course more. I'ndcr the sand is an almost white clay, of ahout the same consistence as potter's clay. Ad()])0 houses huilt with it ai'O iieai'ly white. Under this is the drift, which is exposed in tlie hanks of the Rio das Pedras, that flows through this tract and runs toward th.e coast. The highest point in the >*ciia is to the west of this region. Near Tamanduatahy the land spreads out hetwoeu the liiUs level as a lake, and al)Out two miles wide, covered with 4eep layers of hlack soil, which Major James descrihes as "■ fil irons and woody like peat." lie informs me that the rail- read was huilt over the surface of this hog, and he did \\v>t blow what kind of a soil underlay it, but he felt satisfied ilO GKOLOGY AND I'HYSICAL GKOCIJAl'UV. tluit it ()f'CMi]ii(.Ml a shallow valley in the drift, which he hc- liovcd cxtciulLMl undorncatli. IJcyond this air some cu(tiiit:s throiiji'h hi<^iu'r (n'oiiiid, in wliich the reddish dril't-|iasti'. nearly one luniuiod feet in thiekness, is cnt throniih. In lliis clay are "hitnlders like those of the serra, of a vei-y Imid. blnish-gray rock scattered thronji'h the h)osc material, iiml in one oi- two instances ex])Oscd on the surface. '" The city of Sao Paulo lies at a distance of forty-five miles from Santos. It is a lartz'c nnd iinportant city of 2(>,(mi(i inhabitants l)uilt on liijih g'n id, nearly surrounded liy ii low plain, through which flows, on the west, the rivci' T\ct6, one of the aflluents of the Parana. Acc(irdiiig in Mawc. the hill on which Sao Paulo is Ijuilt consists of tlir following deposits in descending order. First of all, a coat- ing of red soil more or less thick, impregnated with iiMii oxide ; under this is sand, together with other materials associated with ])ebbles, the whole being from three to six feet thick. Uuder this comes a layer of ])urplish or varie- gated clay, with thin layers of sand ; then follows a layer of stratified materials, the whole resting on decomposed giieiss- granitc.* At Itii, a short distance from Sao Paulo, the Kio Tietd is represented by Major James as cutting through hori- zontal deposits of red sandstone and conglomerate, and tiiis is the material which is used to jiave the streets of (he capital ; as Fletcher and Mawe have remarked, the rock contains gold.f * M. Pissis pivcs a similar description of the deposit, .and illustrates it l.y a section. He calls the horizontal dcjiosits of Sao Paulo and Itii fre;-h-\\ Jiter ter- tiary, and s.ays that a similar lacustrine deposit occnrs in the upper part of the valley of the Parahyba do Sul. {^f('ln. <h' rinstitutr de Franrr, Vol. X.) t Mawe (American edition, p. 7.T), speaking of the streets of Silo I'aiilo, says : " The material with which they arc paved is lamillary grit stone, ceiiientcii with oxide of iron, and containing large pebbles of rounded quartz, apinuxi- PROVINCKS SOUTH OF RIO. r.ii wllicll lie lie- ■iOlllC CU(tillL:> ii <ii'irt-j)iistc. )udi. Ill tlii> Ji very liiiiil. nmlcriiil, ami n'ly-rivc mill's iity of 2(»,(HMi •(Hilldod iiy ii st, the i'i\cr Accord ill If tn insists ol' till' of all, a cuat- 0(1 with irmi ler materials three to six lish or vaii"- \vs a layer of |)osed giH'iss- atilo, the Kio trough liori- ate, and this reets of the xl, tlic rock llustratcs it liv ;i fVoli-wMter tcr- ic iij)in'r ]iiirt of nr,; Vol. X.) of Sfio I'iiiilo, stone, coiiioiitcii [Miirtz, ai^pi'uxi- Westward of Sao Paulo ar(> some high hills ; the most cunspicuous among whicdi is .laragna, in whose vicinity liold-mines were anciently worked. Mr. ^hiwe, during his travels in r>ra/il, visited these gold- mines, asid described them in his ''Travels in the interior III" i5ri\/il.'" 1 am unable to refer to the English edition, hut i translate a few paragraphs from a French abstract,* siuc(> it gives very neatly the mode of occurrence of the gold and the ancient method of extracting it. After speaking of the discoveries made by tlie rnulistas. lie goes on to say : — "The gold-miiios cf Jaraguil, hohig situated at a distance of fniir leagues from Sao Paulo, were the first that were; (hscovrrril. This part of the country i;; unc(iual and inonutuiuou.s. Tlie rock tunning the princi])al l)ase of tlie soil rarely ever shows itself, it appears to be a granite f passing into gneiss. "This primitive roek is immediately covered over in many points by a bed of a not very solid agglomeration, formed principally of pel lilies of cpiartz and gravel. This itself is covered only by the vi';4L'table earth. " It is this conglomerate that is intermingled with grains of L'lilil. They give it the name of cascal/io.l " The mining takes place in open cuttings, and the extraction nt' the gold is carried on by washing ; negroes are employed iu this work. niatinof to the conjrlomcratc. This pavement is an alluvial formation, rontain- inL: i:ol(l, many particles of whieh metal are foiiml in the I'liink- and hollows, dftiT heavy rains, and at such seasons are diligently sou{,^ht fur hy the poorer 5ort of peo])le." Sir also Spix and Martins, " Travels in Brazil," Enf:lish Translation, Lon- (Imi, p. '21. * Annaks des Mines, 1817, Vol. II. p. 202. t In the German edition Mawe describes the gneiss as containinj^ some liurnlilende and an aliundanee of mica. } Mawe, iu the original l-jnglisli edition says, rnsralhao. il2 GEOLOGY AND TIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. " When a current of water can be found wliose level is suft,- ciontly elevated, stejjs are cut in the earth, each twenty to thirtv feet long, two or three wide, and a foot in height. At the Imm; a trench two or three feet deep is dug. " On each step arc placed six or eight negroes, wh(i, us th ■ water slowly descends from above, stir up continually the uartli with shovels, until it is all converted into a liquid mud and lai'- ried lower down. *' The particles of gold contained in the soil descend into the lower cutting at the bottom, to wliich they soon settle bocaiiso of their greater specific gi'avity. The workmen are '•ontiuually employed in removing the stones from the ditch, and m oleaiiiiii; the surface, an operation which is facilitated by the current ui' water which falls thc^'c. After five davs of washing thev remove the sediment from the bottom of the cutting. It is of a deep carbonaceous tint, and composed of iron oxide, pyrites, ferruginous quartz, and scales of gold. " This sediment is transported to another current of water, there to imdergo another washing operation. For this purpose fiuiiiel- shaped wooden bowls or gamellax, two feet large at the mouth and five or six inches deep, are used. Each workman, standing upi'iuht in the brook, takes about five or six pounds of the auriferous sedi- ment in his gamella. He then causes a certain quantity of MiUer to enter, and agitates it with dexterity, in siich a way that the scales of gold soon fall to the bottom and on the sides of the vessel, miiting themselves together and scpai'<ating from the other lighter substances, which the water holds in suspension and carries away little by little with it. He then rinses the gamella in annthti- of larger size, full of water. The gold is deposited there, and he reconnnences a similar operation. The washing of a gamella takes eight to nine minutes. " The gold taken out varies in the lunnber and the si/o of the scales ; some are so small that they float, while others are as large as peas and even larger. ri!OviNci:s south of hio. :.i:; "This operation, of which tlio result is of the greatest impdr- tiince, is watched by inspectors. The gold-dust is cai-ried to a mint, where the impost of the fifth is taken out and the rest melted " The mines of Jaragmt have been flimous for two centuries for their great yield. This district was regarded as the Peru of Brazil ;* but its riches are to-day infinitely less." The occiUTcncG of gold in the gneiss regions of the Sorru do Mar, at Sao Panlo and Cantagallo and in the saniL' cuzoic belt on the Miienry, as rejxn'ted l)y the cngincor Schiebcr, is interesting, as tlicse roelcs arc rarely e\cr lii h in the i)rccious metal, and the -whule gneiss lielt of Iha/.H is remarkably barren of metalliferous dejiosits of all kinds. I'j.l is said to ocem* in the A'illa de (Juarajtnava, t(j the ^v jf the river Tibaji and elsewhere in the ju'ovince. ajor James reports that the euttings beyond tiie Tieto Si sv the line of pebbles and stones overlying the I'oek. The high hill called Cabellos brancos is bare of soil finl vegetation on top, whence the nanicf At Jundiahy, according to Major James, the rounded hills are nearly bodily composed of the nnstratified paste. Imt behind the station the line of i)ebbles may be distinctly traced, like a thin sheet or veil over the rock. A few leagues farther on, near Campinas, the country becomes less nigged, — one might say it is heavily nndtdating,— and here from a slight eminence tlu; gradual descent into the great bashi of the interior is plainly i)ercei)tible. The hills arc * Pompeo savs that die gold-minos of Sun I'milo ]ii-oiliicc(l. \\\> tn tlio licuin- iiiriLr of die present century, 4,G5() iirrobas of p)]il. ( Grii/niji/iin. p. 4S0.) t Von Tschudi, Vol. III. p. a.",! : " Sie fiilirt Hiren Xanioii ' Das j^ebir-c di's weissen Ilaarcs,' weil der Kamm wiihreml iler kaltt'n ,IalirL'>/.i.'it in diii Fiiilistuiule oft niit llnf \wdwkt i>t." '22* OO oU GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGHAPHV. now coinj)ij^od of a very dark-red ferruginous earth resem- l)ling ingrain coarse l)r(jvvn sugar; a mass s(|ueczed by tlic hand retains the impress of the pahn. Major James says that " travelk'rs in dry weather get to hjok like Indians 1 " This earlli goes l)y the name of terra roxa* I'he tena roxa of Camjtinas Paulo is, according to Major James, the continuation of the drift-paste of the higher hinds ami seaward slope of the serra. It varies much in thickness, and lies usually on the tops of ridges between the ri\(is, not descending into the valleys, Avhich, as in the basin of the Ji'(iuitinhonha, arc very deep, steep-sided, and niirrow. This red earth forms a most fertile soil, and the country covered l)y it is clothed by an exceedingly luxuriant veg- etation. Bamboos are very numerous, but there are wvy few cacti. Xo soil is l)ctter suited to the coffee-tree, and in this i)art of the country it is extensively cultivated on the u])])er lands, but never on the slopes or on the intervales. The terra roxa rarely ever contains {jebbles. It lies on horizontal beds, which, according to my friend, consist of' a soft frial)le rock, generally of a light-gray color, often hard and laminated like that used for flagging our sidewalks: sometimes it is a red sandstone, very soft ; this latter is what Fletcher says Sao Paulo is paved with." This snnie material forms the great plain extending west to .Slo Joao do Rio Claro, and, as I have already remarked, tying in with the formation of the j)lains of the Parana and ihc south. This formation I believe to be the same as that occui)ying the valley of the Jequitiidionha, and which 1 have referred to the tertiary. f * Litcially, deep-rod earth; the ordinary red soil of liio goes by the name of barro rcrmelho. t SiiH'c writinir the above I have received from ^lajor James a sjucimcn of this roek, wliicii is precisely like the clayey sandstone of the chapadas of the Jequitinhonha. TROVINCES SOUTH OF RIO. ;i; OlO by the naino of At Sao Joiio dc IpauOnia, near Sorocal)a and about twenty Iciigiics southwest of Sao Paulo, there are l)eds of sandstone and limestone assoeiated with diorites and porphyry, with iieavy deposits of magnetie iron ore.* This ore is mined . U) a considerable extent, and is smelted almost on the si)ot. Von Esehwcg'O says that the sandstones arc modern- secondary. f I would suggest a comparison between them and the sandstone and iron deposits of the Siio Francisco River, descriljed by ]]nrton. These iron deposits were discovered in loTS by one Affonso Sardinha, who is said to have found at the .same time J " a vein of silver (?), of whose c.\ I'aetion the i!()vernment took charge ; but as the cxi)ensc was gi-eat all was soon al)andoned, and these sites remained unpeopleil until 180-), an epoch in which some naturalists, exploring the serras of the district of Sorocaba, came to recognize the true importance of the iron-nunes of Guaracoiava. After seven years the prince-regent brought over from Sweden, at no small expense, a company of miners, under the direction of an individual of the same nation, named Tledlierg, who set up four forges, which, owing to their bad arrangement, were of no service In 181") new forges were con- structed by order of the same prince, together with •dfabrica on a larger scale than the first, and the Count of Palma .... was charged with the direction of the work of the engineers and the superintendence of everything. This governor or- dered two enormous furnaces to be btiilt beside those which * A collection of spcciiricns from this locality inuile by Olfor existed in 18:2S in the Konif^l. Mineralo;:ische Museum at Berlin. '• Arm. (l(X Minpx, 8™« Vol. 182.T, p. 405. I l)ic. Gewj., art. iiCio Jum d'llipaiu'ma. 51G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. still cxii^tod." * " The iron manufactured is excellent, ami the ore gives fifty to eighty-five ])ounds of metal to ilic (quintal. At present there are two high furnaces mcasuiiiin eight metres in height, i)roducing regularly 3,000 kilo- grammes of east-iron in twenty-four hours with uninli'i- rui)ted W(n-k." The region in which these iron-works arc situated is cov- ered with forest, and wood is the fuel use<l. The flux ciu- ploycd is limestone and diorite. In the immediate viciii'iv of the furnaces is found an excellent quality of sandstone of which a refractory kind is emjdoyed in the lining of tin furnaces. The serra Araassojava (Guara(;oiava), according to S|)ix and Martius,t is an isolated ridge, ahout one thousand fcot high ahovc the level of the river Ipaneina, and a league in Icimth from north to S(juth. The ore occurs in a laruc dc- posit, and our authors speak of seeing a mass of it fmiy feet perpendicular. It is associated with a yellow siind- stonc with a scanty argillaceous cement, and a cliiv slatf or shale of a dirty lavender color. Its strike is east-west. In the same hill a porous quartz rock of a light-iirowii color Avas ohscrved, containing light-hluc chalcedony. On the liio Tiete at Araraitaguaha Ppix and Martms report a sandstone similar to that of Ipanema. The soils of the Province of Pao Paulo arc exceedingly fertile, and the climate is favorahle to the growth especially of coffee, sugar, and tohacco. Coffee flourishes exceedingly Avell on the campinas west of Sao Paulo, and it is j)r()1iiilile that there is no more valuahle cotTec region in IJra/il. 'Hi'' climate is so mild in the vicinity of the city of Sao Paulo * Ciitnhnn (hi Si';/>iinf(i Exjiosici'io \acioiml de 18G6, p 0'.). t AV/*e, Vol. I. pp. 2.5.3, 254. PROVINCES SOUTH OF RIO. r.i7 that many European ])lants may 1)0 successfully raised, siu'h as flax, ^vhcat, the vine, peaches, ttc, ttc. The climate on the higher lands is very healthy and agreeahle, and well suited to Eiiroi)eans. The province has now nearly S00,000 inhabitants, and counts a considerable nunil)er of ilourishiug towns. There arc some German colonists in the province, and 1 understand that a consideraljle numl)er oC Americans iVom the Southern States have settled there. The Province of Parana, which lies just south of that of Sao Paulo, has very nearly the same to[)ographit;al features, licing low along the coast, rising more or less steeply to the summit of the plateau, and then sloping off towards the Parana in extensive campinas. The capital is Curitilia, situated, like Sao Paulo, at some distance west of the edge of the plateau. The greater [lart of the country is covered liv heavv forests, thouuh in the northwest there arc extensive plains. An important business of the })rovince consists in the raising of cattle, of which large numbers are exported. Coffee, cotton, potatoes, sugar-cane, Indian coi'u, wheat, veg- etables of different kinds, &c., are cultivated to a consider- able extent. The '-'■herva matc^' or malle of the Brazilians, — Ilex parag-uayciisis, or Paraguayan tea, largely grown in the Paraguayan repuljlic, and used hi lieu of Chinese tea, — is grown in large quantities and forms an article of export. Bousquet* says that the Chinese tea grows well, but that it is not as yet much cultivated. Tea will al^o grow at Rio, Siio Paulo, and elsewhere in the south. Bous([uet s)»eaks of the vanilla as growing si)ontaneously in the vicinity of Paranagua. The province has never been explored by a competent modern geologist. It is just possible, as admitted * Note sur la Province de Parana, pur ^I. Boiisqiiut, Bull, dc la Svciili- dc Gcufjntphie, 5"" Scrie, T. 9, p. 528. k 518 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. by Mr. Plant, that coal may be found on tlic low lands bctwccMi the Scrra do Mar, or Cnl)atao, as it is connnonlv called in Parana, and the sea. ]>ons(|uet says native nior- cnry occurs near Paraiuagiui. Gold and diamonds are found on the bordors of the Rio Tibagy.* This ])ro\ince, like Sao Paulo, is well Avaicrcd 1)} lui-yo streams. Pctwcen the two i)rovinccs runs the Paraim- panema, on the west is the Parana and to tV ; south the Uruguay, Avliile the Ivahy and Tibagy, both rivers navigable for canoes,! run through the ])rovincc, one cmi»tying into the Paranapanema and the other into the Parana. Tlio Parana is navigable for about ninety leagues from the falls of Urubuj)unga in the Province of Goyaz to nearly oppc^site the Tiete in Sao Paulo, Avherc navigation ends at the island of Sete Quedas. The Salto Grande on the Parana is de- scribed as being comparable to the Caxoeira de Paulo Affonso. So far as water highways are concerned, the province is well furnished. There is a little Brazilian-French colony, called Santa The- resa, established on the Ivahy, and another colony of sonic five hundred inhabitants, called Su])eraguy, near Paranagua, of which the inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and fishing. The seaport of the province i Paranagud, a considerable town, situated on a large and beautiful bay which forms an excellent and spacious harbor. The province of Santa Catharina lies just south of Parana. It is one of the most fertile of the provinces of Brazil, and is * Olivoira, E.qtlora^iio de Mineraes, p. 11. \ Vorekcr " On Brazilian Province of Parma," Jour. lloy. Gcog. Soc-., \^ XXXII. ].. 1'37. PROVIXCF.S SOUTH OF RIO. 1 19 c province is Gcogr. Sop., Vol, l.lossed with a delightful and tenijK'ratL' climate; hut except iiu the scacuast it is not well settled, and the ])opulation is })iuhahly not more than l.")0,000. The capital is Dcsterro, a lai'iic town, delightfully situated on the western side of the island of .Santa Cathaiina. There are several flourishing colonics in the province. Uetween the edge of the plateau and the sea there exists ill Santa Catharina a c(xd-l)asin, in which alonu' the hanks uf the Rio Tuberao beds of bituminous coal of fair quality are exposed. The Visconde de IJarbacena is interested in the develoimient of this region, and we may hoi)e erelong to SL'C bome results oi' his labors. 1 am not aware that any ivport on this field has yet Ijcen published. I understand that the coal-beds lie quite flat, as elsewhere to the south. The Province of Rio Grande do Sul is the most soutli- cni of Brazil, lying just north of Uruguay, and situated be- tween 27° 50' and oo° 4.7 south latitude. :Much of the country is hilly, i)articularly in the eastern and ntn'therii lioi'tions, but towards the west and south it consists of plains Lovered with hcrl)s and forming the pasture-grounds of herds iif cattle. The northern and eastern portion is more or less heavily wooded. The interior has never, so far as I can learn, been scientifically explored, and 1 am unable to find any reliable description of its physical features. Of the geology of the province we have little information L■.^:eept with reference to the coal-mines. In an article in the Quarterly Journal of Science, No. 11, l.^lU, Mr. Edward Hull says that the first notice of the coal deposits of the Province of Rio Grande do Sul was taker, by one Guilherme Bouleich in the year IHOO. This is not quite lorrcct.* In May, 1858, Dr. Ave-Lallemant visited eoal- * Tlie real discoverer of tlu Brazilian coal-fickls was Dr. I'erigot, of Flusii- r.o 20 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'IIY. mines on the Arroio dus Rfitos, which were at that timo "worked on a small scale. lit.' refers t(j an examination di' the locality made sonie time bel'ore by a Bacluirel Vascon- ccllos.* Dr. Lalleniant descriljes two horizontal seams of coal, — an upper, worked, about four feet thick ; a lew fct't below this seam a second was found of the same thickness. 1 have not had tiie oi)j)ortunity of examining specimens of this coal ; but 1 learn that it is a fail* IjiUuninous variety, witli a more al)undant ash than the English coals sent to Rid. Ii has been in use some ten years on the steamers of the Com- panhia Jacuhy, and has been found more economical to employ it than the English coal. That of the Arroiu dds Ratos sells for la.ii'OOO - 17*000 (•i'G.GO- 8 8.50 Ameiicaii currency) per ton, which, as we shall presently sec from Mr. Plant's rei)ort on the Jaguarao coal-field, is a nuieh Idwer price than that of the Engli.sh c<;als. There are three scji- arate coal-fields in the Province of Rio Grande do Sul.f all of which Mr. Nathaniel Plant has studied with care. This gentleman informs us that the basins are sejiaratcd from one another by rolling hills of syenite, mica-schi.st, and granite, together with trachytic and l)asaltie rocks. The largest of these basins is situated in the Jaguarao and Candiota valleys, between lat. 81° and 32° S. and long, oo' and 54° E. infr, Long Island, who was ciijraircil in 1841 by tlie Brazilian frovcnimont to make ficulogioal ol)sorvations in tlie Empire. Tiiis gentleman reported tlie ex- istence of a coal-field in Santa Catliarina, some three hnndred niile.s long from north to south and twenty to thirty miles wide. * Ave'-Lalleniant, licisc tliin-li Sml-rinixilio) im Ja/ire 18.')8, Thcil I. p. 478. t The Brazilian Coal-Fiehls, l)y Nathaniel Plant, F. K. G. S., .*ic., Geolo-iwl Magazine, Vol. VI. No. 4, April, 18G9. I owe a copy of thi.-* paper to tho kindness of Mr. Plant's brother, Mr. .John Plant. Curator of the I'oyal Museiini of Salford. Much credit is due Mr. Plant for his lon<,'-continueil cxcruoiis m working out the stri e and limits of these coal-fields, and for his jjerbistence in endeavoring to bring the coal into market. piioviX'-ES sonri of nio. r.ijl cd miles lony: from M\\ Plant presented Professor Auassiz in l^l!.') with a sliort dewcri})tion of this coal-Held, toiivther with sjteeinicns of rocks, fossils, and coals, which 1 have examined. The fos- sils are of true and eharacteristie carhonifcrous genera, ami 110 donht can exist as to the eiiuivalency of the dcjiosils.* 1 give Mr. Plant's paper in full.f One of the photograjihs nicntioned I have had engraved as a frontispiece to this volume. I may add that ^fr. Plant has heen for several years ex- ploring the coal-basins of the province with a view to having tlieni worked Ijy a mining company. It is to be hoped that his etlbrts may be abundantly successful. Coal-Fields of the River Jxiiunran, and its T'rihiif<ir!(K, (he Hivers Candiota and Jaguardo-chico in the Province of Rio (Jrnndf do Sul, Brazil. The coal-basin of the river Jaguai'ao is situated in the soutlicni part of the province of Kio Grande do Sul, between lat. bl° and 32° S., and long. 324° and 32")° (French meridian) in the valley of the Jaguarao and its tributaries, the rivers Candiota and Jaguarao-chico. It covers an area of about fifty miles by thirty, its greatest diameter being from north to south. The cual strata which the ffeolo<>-ical section illustrates, and whence the ac- cunipauying specimens have been obtained, and the thickness of the beds determined, arc exposed in an elevated escarpment on the hanks of the river Candiota, at a place called " 8erra Partida," X whore they appear in the following order of superposition : — * Strange to say, that, after all the explorations made of those coal-fields, their carl ion iferoiis age was long in being recognized. AHbnso Malildc, in a report niaile to the president of Rio Grande do Sul, says tliat the coal is a lignite of tertiary age. t This paper also appears in Fletcher's work I presume Mr. Plant fur- nished him with a duj)licate copy of the ]MS. t Sec frontispiece, which is engraved from a photograph presented to Pro- tessor Agassiz by Jlr. Plant. r.oo GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY. 113 ft. <^ Thickness iii)t cletcnniiied. Snil 1 ft. ■ 1. Fcmigiiioiis saniUtonc, 28 ft. 2. Conl sll.^lc, !» ft. 3. Siimlv slmlo, 5 ft. 4. ('niil.".S ft. 5. Wliitt,' fussiliferous shale, 5 ft. \ C C.iiil. 11 ft. • 7. rartiiij; of Ithie clay. 8. Coal, 17 fcet. 9. Fossiliferous clay, 9 ft. , 10. Coal, 25 ft. ,11. Inin~tono shales with fossil ferns. 12 Sainl-toiie. 13. LiiiiP^tone. 14. Mica-schist. 15. Mutalliferous Iime!«tone. No. 1. The tippermost bod is composed of sandstone of a liidily forniginons natni'c, resembling in its aj)poarance tlie "fors Bigarre " of Europe ; it contains nodules of a silicious ponixidc of iron, yiel-'ng from twenty-five to thirty-five per cent of motal. It varies considerably in its thickness, in some places being cmii- pletely worn away, and in others attaining a depth of upwaiMs of two hundred feet. Immediately below this occurs a lull. No. 2, of coal-shalo, very argillaceous, and perhaps nnfit foi* fuel ; it possesses a thickness of nine feet, and can be seen croppiiiLf out wherever the superincumbent bed has been denuded ; it rests upon a bed, No. 3, of sandy-ochreous shale containing septaria of an ochreous oxide of iron, which, together with the ironstone found in tin' sandstone, will, in all probability, be turned to pr(,)fitalt]e ac- count when the coal-beds are worked ; underneath this is, No. 4, a bed of bituminous coal, three feet thick. The niiu- rnoviNCKs south of rio. r>'2?, oral, althniiirli it leaves a higjj porcptitago of ash, will he found useful ill siucltini,' the inm ores from the intor.stratifyiii^ heds ; and there is every reason for siii)])()siiig thiit it will he found of a better quality when the l)ed is fairly worke<l. The samples tested were taken from very near the surface, which may in some measure account for its apparent impurity; it rests on, No. 5, a bed of white clay or schist, containing innuiueralilc im- pressions of fossil plants (perhaps acpiatic), the general api)ear- ance of which would lead one to conclude that these carbonifer- ous deposits belong to a later period than that assigned to the coal-measures of Juigland and the United States, were such a con- clusion not confuted l)y the fossil ferns found in the otiier inter- stratifying shales; it has a thickness of five feet, and overlies a. No. G, bed of good coal eleven feet thick. This coal resembles very much in its appearance the Newcastle, and may be ti-aced for many miles along the banks of the river Candiota, soinetimes forming the bed of that river and of the small streams falling into it ; it is separated from another seam by a thin partiiii,', No. 7, of blue clay. Xo. 8. The coal of the lower bed appears to be oven of u lietter quality than the one above ; it has a clean, shining fracture, and in some places thin seams of ])ure cannel-coal may be traced along the bed. It is highly inflammable, boiling up like oil during combustion. This coal has been used as fuel in various ways with marked success. It has been tried on the steamers navigating the Lagos dos Patos in the province of Rio Grande, and although it left a greater portion of ash than the Cardiff coal, it was found to be a good caking coal, and served every purpose of a steam fuel. Below this is another bed, Xo. 9, of blue clay, containing vestiges of fossil plants; in everything else it is similar to the upper bed of the same mineral. It reposes on, Xo. 10, the thickest seam of coal exposed in the escarpment at the Serra Partida. This is the lowest bed of coal exposed in C24 GKOLOGV AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGUArilV. any part nf the coiil-ficlds of randidtn, but, in all i>rf)l)aliility, other hods will he found nearer to the centre of the hasin, '<r this, as well as the incunihent beds, may become! thicker, jiid;;- ing from the fact that all the beds a])pear to thicken as thi v aj)pr()aeh the middle of the valley of the river Ja;^'uarao. Tin great thickness (twenty-five feet), the good and homogeiuMnis character of the seam, are imj)ortant features in this coal-fidil. The mineral (although taken from near the decomposed face nf the cliff on the river C'andiota) was foimd to leave even less n^li than that from the scam above. It has frequently been ustij on steamers with the same success as that obtained from New- castle coal. The coke obtained from this coal by Mr. W. (I. Ginty of the llio Gas Works (vide Mr. (Jinty's report) was even better than that derived from Newcastle coal. It overlies a litd, No. 11, of ironstone shale, which, in a scientific point of viiw. is the most imi)ortant deposit of the coal-measures of the Jaguarao, from the fact of its containing im])7'essions of or- ganic remains, by whicli the geological age of the coul-iicils can be determined ; the fossil jilants found embedded in this shale all belong to the same genera as those which cliiinic- terizc the coal-fields of ..•itain and the United States, the most abundant l)elonging to the genera Lcpidodcndron * iiml * Three species of plivnts have Iuhmi (IcscribcJ l)y Mr. W. Carriuhers, viz.; — Flcm'mfitcs P<(lroa))us Cvkuctukks. Geol. Mag., Vol. VI. No. 4, )). .'), I'l. 1'. V. " Stem lopiilodcndroid, scars small, obovatc, without any markiiij;s ; ]>ii>v of the petiole jjermanently nttachctl to the stem ; leaf slender, linear. Fruit ;i cone (?) the scales of wiiieh support numerous .sporanjria." The stems of this plant at first siirht resemble those of some speeics of Lepi(lo(l(ii(lr()n ; hut they may he readily distinguished from Lejndodeiidnin hy the character of the scars, which never show any impression from articuhitiii.' surfaces. Associated with the stems and leaves of this species are found in ;:r(;it nhundance minute flattened bodies which Mr. Carnithers considers to be tlic sporangia of the plant umler consideration. Odontnptcrh Plantiana C.vhrctiiers. Lor. cif., p. 9, PI. V. Figs. 2 & .3. "Pinnules broad at the base, irregularly lobcd, obtuse at the apex; basal PROVINCES SOUTH OF RIO. nor. Olossnptcvis ; others have lu'eii rccn;,'iiizc(l as lu'iiii; siiuilur to the iiTiis found in tlio very oldest sccoiidiiry rorks, thus leaviiij^ no uncortuiiity us to tho true {;arl)oniforous charac- ter of the coal-nioasiires of tlio river Cindiota. This soani is very prolific of fossils, and tliorc can lie no doidit that when those imnionso hods of niiiioral trcasiu'c iirc woi-ked many new and intercstinj,' forma of vogetahle life will lie liroii^iht to li^dit to enrich our kno\vle(li,'e of the coal-lields of tho Southern hemisphere. The ironstone shale is very rich in metal, and will doubtless he worked as an iron ore when the mines arc opened. Below this there occurs another hed, No. \'l, of sandstone, similar in all respects to the uppermost bed. After which is a hod, No. 1.3, of fine crystalline limestone, containing small fragments of graphite, disseminated throughout the mass. It is trav- ersed also by veins of a very [)iu'e carbonate of lime in the form of double-refracting sjjar, which, in some places, attain a con- siderable thickness. This limestone will not only bo of immense value for manufacturing into lime, but also as a flux in smelt- ing the iron ores. The three things essential for the erection of smclting-works are thus found in the same district interstratified with each other : the ore, the fuel, and the flux, all of the wry first quality, — a combination of mineral riches (otdy waiting for the hand of man to realize them) scarcely to bo found together in one spot in any other part of the globe. Evidenth', No. 14, the two lowest beds of those coal-moasm-es are mica-schist, Xu. 15, and another limestone rock of a very dark and conipact pinnules large, much and irregularly lobcd ; nerves nrcu'atcly parallel, dichoto- nious. Xiffjfjernthi'a ohornffi Carrt'TTIEHS. Lor. rit., p. 9, IM. VI. Fi;,'-- 1- "Frond sessile, flat, entire, elongate obovate, attt lated towards the base; ncn-es dividing dicbotomonsly, paral .1." I have seen CaUtmitcs and a Sphon, ^< >•?•.■ (n. sp.) in specimens of eoal sliale from one of south Brazilian coal-fields ; but the laliels having been lost, I have Wn unable to determine the exact locality. — C- F. H. 52G GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPIIY. nature. Tt is scarcely possible to determine which is the lower- most, as in some places the mica-schist* is seen lying on the sj'enitc which suiTounds the coal-basin, and in others the lime- stone ; the name of " metalliferous limestone " has been <,qvL'n it. owing to the innumerable crystals and thin veins of siil- phuret of iron which ap])car in it. In all probability other metalliferous veins will be found in this limestone. Nearly the whole of the coal-basin of the valley of the Jaguariio is enclosed by syenitic hills of from two hundred to three hun- dred feet high ; the sides towards the coal-licld slope gently down- wards till they disappear under the sandstone overlying the coal : on the other side the syenite, after presenting an uneven and uiulii- lating aspect for some three or four leagues, gradually sub>;i(le.s into an even country, which continues on almost perfectly ])lain t till the seaport city of Rio Grande do Sul is reached, so that the com- pany (already formed for making the survey for a railway to carry the mineral riches of the valley of the Jaguarao down to a seaport, where the coal can be shipped to the different ports along the coast of Brazil, and the River Plate) will find no difficulty in discover- ing a route along which a cheap line of rails can be laid down. The photographic views of the different escarpments in which the coal-beds are shown along the river Candiota will show the great facilities afforded for workhig the coal in almost any part of the basin bv open cuttings. Tramways can be laid down branch- ing oflP in different directions from the main tnmk lino, aloni:' which the coal-wagons can be run right into the seams of coal. thereby rendering the sinking of expensive shafts quite unneces- sary. The general dip of the beds is from .^° to 10° S. W., and in H" place are there signs of subsequent upheavals or dislocations of * The micii-schist is without doubt much ohler than tlie carlioniferous. — c. F. n. t Mr. Hull speaks of a frcntly slopinpr plane of basalt stretcbinc: fmni tlie coal-mines toward the port on the Rio Gon(;alo. ( Quarterly Jo>u-nal of Science, No. 11, April, 1864.) PROVINCES SOUTH OF RIO. cariioniferous. — strata visible, so that very little obstruction will bo mot with in carrying the tramways along the seams as the working of them goes forwards. It is almost unnecessary to dwell upon the immense value of these coal deposits as a commercial enterprise, when it has Iteon already ascertained, by a "running survey" of the country be- tween the seaport of Rio Grande do Sul and the coal-mines of C'andiota, that in all probability the coal will be delivered on board vessels lying in the port of Rio Grande at, perhaps, less than T.'^OOO per ton, where it is at the uresent moment being sold at 24$000 ; and as soon as a bill is jjasscd alhnving vessels of all nations to trade between the Brazilian ports, there will l)c no lack of ent: prising shipowners to carry the Rio Grande coal to Rio do Janeiro — in which port alone the enormous amount of 18(1,000 tons of coal are annually imported — for a jn-ice which will oual)le the coal-mining company to sell the Candiota coal in the market of the capital of the Brazilian Empire for about loi^OOO jjcr ton, — a price which will annihilate any competition from foreign mar- kets, seeing that the foreign coal is seldom sold for less than 228000 per ton. The consumption of coal in the river Plate is perhaps as groat as that of Rio de Janeiro, and the facilities for supplying the markets of Buenos Ayres and Montevideo from the coal-niines of the river Candiota are still greater than those for supplying llio. The coal can be sent from the mines, put on board colliers, and de- livered in Montevideo in three or four days, at about half tlio ci>st of delivering the same article in Rio, which is a market where coal is never less than fifteen dollars per ton (or 30!?00()). The consumption of coal along the Brazilian coast and in the IJiver Plate increases yearly, and in all probability it will be fnund, after the coal-mines of Candiota have l)een opened for a few years, that a single line of railway will not be found sufHcient to Ciu-ry the supply of coal to meet the increasing demands. Xatiiaxii::!, Plant. Rio de Janeiko, 20th July, 1865. 528 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GPLOGRAPIIY. . I Report on the Candiotn Coal by W. G. Glnty, Engineer-in-Chief <,f the Rio de Janeiro Gas Works, Mr. Nathaniel Plant : — Dear Sir, — I have received and examined your samples of Brazilian coal from Candiota with great interest, and I am glad to he able to congratulate you on its really good quality. The samples you sent me were too small for complete and satis- factory analysis in the apparatus at my disposal. I found als(j that the samples varied a good deal in appearance and quality. This has arisen, no doubt, from their having been obtained from various positions on the nearly perpendicular fiicc of the immense stratum, and from variable periods of exposure, as, owing to the crumbling away or disintegration of pieces under the incessant action of the weather, these samples may have been exposed for periods varying from each other as seconds do from centuries. The Candiota coal resembles the Newcastle steam-coal (which comes to this market at least) very much in structure, cleavage, and general appearance, nor docs it differ very much from New- castle coal in its useful properties, except that it contains more than doul)le the quantity of ash, which is detrimental to its heat- ing powers ; but this objection is likely enough to disappear alto- gether in samples from the deeper narts of the mine. The coke from the Candiota coal is, however, very diftercnt in appearance from that of the Newcastle coal, and resembles tho coke of (what is sold here as) Cardiff coal in its silvery-colored laminations. Some of this Candiota coal, however, especially that of the lower scam is very friable, and is evidently what is called cakins^ coal ; that is, it boils or becomes molten during the process of carbonization. However, all the qualities of the coke from the Candiota coal are very good. As yon say the dip or inclination of the seams or strata of this Candiota coal is 5° from the plane of the horizon, I think it most reasonable to presume that a much finer, more compact, and PROVINCES SOUTH OF RIO. 529 ir samples of equable quality of coal may be calculated upon at lower dejjths. 5° is a gradient of 1 in 11.4 or 8.77 per cent, or 402 feet per mile. Thus in such an immense field as you have described to me there is ample margin for obtaining other than surface coal, which for obvious reasons in Brazil, as elsewhere, cannot l)c as pure, as com- pact, or as uniform in quality as that obtained at great depths, I shall watch the prosecution of your explorations in this direction with great interest. The following are the results of my examinations (as far as thev went) on the Candiota coal, the samples of Newcastle, Cardiff', and Wigan cannel, with which it is compared below, having been tried at the same time in the same appai-atus : — Specific Gravity. AViikT 1,00). Condiota coal (mean of three quant-ties) 1,240 " " Lower scam .... l ,230 Newcastle 1,250 Cardiff 1,275 Gas, or Cannel Coal (Case and Morris) 1,240 From the appearance of the lower scam I do not despair of your finding a good gas coal for us in the Candiota district, and thus freeing the Brazilian gas companies from the fearful tax they have to pay in the shape of freights from England, amomiting to from 200 to 300 per cent on the value of the mnt'Tin prima. I send you labelled samples of the different qualities of coke above referred to. I remain your ol)edient servant, (Signed) W. G. GINTY, Mem. Inst. C. E., Ewfmeer Rio dc Janeiro (itis Company. Mr. Plant describes a second coal-l)asiii exposed in Hie valley of one of the tributaries of the Rio Jacuahy, called the Sao Sep(;, in lat. 30° 20', long. 53° 30'. There are two beds of coal exposed in this basin, one fourteen, the other seven feet in thickness. The sandstone lieds ovc'-lying these veins are disturbed and overflowed by Per Culiio ffct Illuininiitiiig Cent of Gas I'owiT in of piT Ton Statiiliinl Coko. CunJIes. G3 G,'.)00 5.00 CO 8,198 5.80 G2 80 62 9,000 20.50 VOL. I. 23 HH 5:30 GKOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tracliytic cruptiuns. The area of this basin, so far as i.s known, is altoiit fifteen miles. Near the town of Sao Jcronymo, on the l)anks of llic Jacuahy, is a third coal-basin, situated in lat. 80°, long. i)V •50'. At a depth of fifty-seven feet ])c\o\v the surface there is at this locality a l»ed of highly bituminous coal six feet in tliickness. This is underlaid by a Ijcd of ironstone slialc with fossils like those so connnon at Candiota. Several other coal-beds of from two to six feet in thickness, and intcrstratified with clay and ironstone, have been jiasscd through l)y the shafts of the mines, which have reached a dej)th of one hundred and eighty-three feet. Since the foregoing was sent to ])ress 1 have had the op- portunity of examining the valualile pajjcr of Weiss on the collections made by Sellow in Southern IJrazU.* I regret that want of space jirevents my giving a short abstract of this pa])er. I confine myself, therefore, to a quotation from the introduction. f " On the 30th degree of south latitude," says Weiss, " tliere ex- tends from the sea in a direction west a few degrees south (in (kr T**"" Stvuide I) obliquely into the country for more than ^)° oi latitude a range of liills of ' basalt,' that is of amygdaloid and 1 )lack porjjhyry or melaphyr, § but nowhere is the rock true basalt. * Uh'r (lux Mhlhche Endo rfi'.< Gohirqsznqrs von ririisilien in ihr Proriii: S. Pedro do Siil tiiid (hr Banda OrimUd odir dtin .^twilc roii Monte Vidto; wuh den Snmnduniicn d<s Ilcrrn Fr. Scdoir, Aljliundhinireii dor KiJniglichen Akadc- mic dcr Wissonschaftcn, zu Berlin, aus dom Jiihre 1827. t Lor. rit., p. 222. t The German miner's compass, accordino; to Gelder's Plii/sikalif'chrs WiirUr- biii/i (see article on Compass) was divided from north to south aiid soutli to north into twelve hours (Stundcn) instead of deurees. ^ Melajihyr is the name j;ivcn hy Von Hiich to a species of porphyry found PROVINCES SOUTH OF RTO. 531 <hr Prorhiz S. mle 1 7(/( ; 11(11 h lijiliclien Akadc- " On the southern side of its round and roof-shapod liills lies the valley of the Guaiba or Jacuy, with Porto Alegre at the junc- tion of four rivers with the Lake Vianiao. Nearer the Uruguay it slopes to the west, hut even there it is united with a range of the same character extending soutliward (in der ll""' Stunden) sepa- rating the head-waters of the Ibicuy from those of the Caavcra, forming between the Caavera, II )irapuitani Grande and ll)irapuitam Chico considerable ridges, and when it turns to the west toward Salto Grande it sends streams southward to the Daiman and Kio Negro, northward into the Arapcy, (>>iiai'aiiii and Ibirapuitam. This chain of amygdaloid is the S(jurce of the great (piantities of chalcedonies, agates, carnelians, rock-cry stuls, and amethysts which cover the banks of Uruguay downward below tiie lUo Negro. These uniting chains divide the country in a nat\u-al manner into a northern and southern half, while fartiier south there is no mountain-chain, as formerly supposed, to foi'm the boundary be- tween the Portuguese and Spanish possessions. The amygdaloid formation is probably continued on the I'ruguay above, since it fi)i-ms reefs and cliffs on the river at Salto Grande and Salto Chico, tis well as fourteen leagues forther up at the Cai)ella de Belem, anil among others the map of Nunez gives just above the Saltos Grande and Chico a * Monte Grande del Monteil.' On the slope of the amygdaloid formation there is spread an extensive clayey sandstone formation extending into the country, and it ascends to the foot of the granite coast mountains. It is certainly very young, and much younger than was supposed by one traveller (Sellow), who referred it principally to the Permian (llothliegende). From its cliaractcr as well as its situation, it is extremely probable, not to say certain, that it is tertiary, and may be })rovisioually referred l)v us to the Molasse or Braunkohlen sandstone." porphyry fotiml in the Alps. The <,n-ouncl mass is black or lilackisli frray with cin])cil(lcil crystals <jf Labradorite ( ? ) anil Aufxitc, witli occasionally mica, horn])lcmle, and ]iyritps. Sometimes it becomes amyjidaloidal- Sec Mtkiplii/r in IlumliciJrk-ilm'/, ihr nincn uml (uvjcwandten Clicmle. GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGKAPIIY, CHAPTER XVIII. THE GOLD-MINES OF BRAZIL* Geological Distribution of Gold in Brazil. — Gold in Gneiss, at Jaragiui, Can- tayallo, Pianco, and elsewlierc. — The richest Deposits found in Vi'iii> traversing Clay Slates. — Character of Auriferous Quartz. — Granular Quartz, or Cac(). — Gold when associated with Sulphides rarely visible.— The auriferous Iron Ore, Jacutinga. — Gold-Mines of Sao Joao d'El-Uci. — The Morro Velho Mine, Mode of Occurrence of the Gobi, Method of Extraction, Yield, &c. — The Congo Socco Mine. — The Uossa Grande Gold-Mining Company. — Mines at Morro de Santa Anna, Congonhas do Canipo, Sao Vicente, Cata Branca. — The Gold-Mines of Brazil not yet fairly developed. The gold of Brazil f occurs in the ancient metamorphic rocks, and in drift gravels and clays, and alluvial sands and gravels derived from the wear of these rocks. The cozoic gneiss of the coast-belt furnishes gold at numerous localities along its whole extent. J The mines of * In this chapter I have not tried to treat exhaustively of this subjecv. I have endeavored rather to present such facts as will enable the reader to obtain a fair idea of the mode of occurrence of gold in Brazil, and of the character of the mines. A great amount has been written on the gold-fields of Brazil, but it is for the most part lacking in scientific accuracy, and much of it has rather tended to obscure than throw light upon their real structure. t For a short and interesting sketch of the early history of gold-mining in Minas Geraes, see Bnrmeister's Rdse in Bnisilioi, p. .")90, " Zur Geschicbte der Goldminen und ihrer ci-sten Entdeckung." Consult also Von Esclnvege's Pinto Dmsilii'iisia, and Mawe's " Trarcls in the Interior of the Brazils." Sjiix and Martins, St. Ililaire, Castelnau, and almost all writers on the interior of Brazil, have had more or less to say about the gold-mines. J I think that the auriferous deposits occur in the upper part of the gneiss THE GOLD-MINKS OF BRAZIL. •■ * » . > Oo.) interior of Bnizil, part of the gneiss Jcai-agiia in Suo Paulo, of Cautagallo in Rio do Janeiro, and of one of the tributaries of the Itapenierini, are among the most important in this region. Gold also oceurs in the gneiss of the Mucury Basin and in the north, as at Pianco. Over this whole region the gold is found rather spai'ingly, and appears to be derived from the quartz veins traversing the gneiss ; but the only instance 1 know of where gold has been extracted from a quartz vein in the gneiss-belt is the mines on the Rio Bruscus in Parahyba. "Witii this excep- tion mining has been conlined entirely to the washing of the cascalho * underlying the drift-clays, and of the gravels and sands of the rivers. These washings have all been aban- doned. Between the coast gneiss-belt and the sea I know of no auriferous deposits, but in very numerous localities in the interior of the country the newer metamorphic rocks are rich in gold. The formations affording most gold are clay slates trav- ersed by auriferous quartz lodes, the itacolumite rock which is also veined with auriferous quartz, and certain iron ores variously known under the names of Itabirite and Jacu- tinga.f All these formations are, I believe, of lower silu- rian age. In the clay slates the quartz veins sometimes show free series. According to Mr. Wall, " Geology of a Part of ¥01167,1101.-)," Quiirt. Jour. Geol. Soc, Vol. XVI., p. 460, gold is found disseminated in gneiss near Valen- cia, Venezuela. Gold occurs in the gneisses of the Itacaina Mountains. (Tate.) * The auriferous cascalho of Brazil is quite a different thing from tlic aiscajo of Venezuela. The Spanish word has the same derivation as the Portuguese, hut .according to Mr. Le Neve Foster, it is ajiplied in the Caratal gold-field to a decomposed schist, on which the pay-dirt rests. t This term is derived from two Tuju' words, — Jani, a kind of bird (PcnrJopi'), and timja, white. The name was given to the rock hecause of its rescmMance in color to the feathers of the ahovc bird. Sometimes foreigners spell it jaco- linga, which is not correct. 534 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. gold with very little pyrites associated. The auriferous (|iiartz varies iiiiieh in character. Sometimes it is comjiact and milky, at others, as at the Cata Branca mines, it is very granular and sugary. A specimen of vein-(|uartz with gold, from the mine of ^«ao A'icente in Minas Geraes in tlio Museum of Comi)arativc ZoJUogy, is composed for the most j)art (jf clear, colorless quartz in rather coarse granules, giving to the roclc the apj)earancc of a ])urc (juartz sand- stone, or of white lump sugar ; * but in the same specinicii the ([uartz j)asses into a more compact rock, which lias a bluish look. In the (piartz veins, as elsewhere the case, the rock is not all auriferous, but the gold runs in streaks. The Sao Vicente specimen al)0vc described shows well-marked streaks, rich in free gold, which appear to have run ])arallel with the side of the lode. Where the vein rock is rich in suli)hide3 the gold is, as a rule, not visible, but intimately mixed with the rock. This is the case at Morro A'elho. The sulphides consist of magnetic iron pyrites, which is the most abundant and yields a little gold ; common iron pyrites is less al)undant, and gives more gold ; and the mispickel or arsenical iron pyrites, which is the principal gold-l)earer. Of the ferruginous auriferous deposits none is more inter- esting than the so-called jacutinga formation. Heusser and Claraz f say that the jacutinga is a i)ulverulent variety uf * This sujiravv quartz goes in Brazil by tlie name of Card. t Heusser and Claraz, Ann. clis Mines, Tome XVII p. 290 : — "L'itabirite est sim])lement nne varie'te ilc for oligiste seliistcux qui c?t nc- compagnee ile quartz et de mica. EUe ])rescntc quelquefois des couche.! ]iu'i^- santes et tres-etendues qui ])euvent etre e.\ploit('es comme mineral de fer. QuaiiiJ elle est pulve'rulente, on la designe sous le nom di.' Jacutimja." THE GOLD-MINi:S OF BRAZIL. 535 Itabiritc, a name given by Von Eschwcge * to a rock com- jiorfcd of micaceous specular iron ore, compact ispecular irou, rarely laminated, a little oxide of iron and (piartz dis- scminatcd. It is the rock of which the Peak of Italdra and the Scrra da Piedade arc com{)oseil. Burton describes the jacutinga as follows : f " This sul)- stauce, of iron black with metallic lustre, sparkles in the t^uu with silver}' mica; the large ])ieces often aj)])ear of a dark reddish brown, but they crumble to a powder almost Mack. The constituents arc micaceous iron-schist, and fiialde quartz mixed with specular iron, oxide of manganese, J and fragments of talc The floor rock at Cocacs is lino micaceous peroxide of iron (specular iron), thin and tabular ;^^uch of the jacuthiga is foliated It shows great ditrerences of consistency ; some of it is hard and compact as hasmatitc, and this must be stamjjcd like quartz. In parts it feels soapy and greasy, not harder than fuller's earth ; it is easily wetted and pulverized, but it is hard to dry." Gardner describes the jacutinga as a soft frial)le greenish- colored, micaceous iron-schist. § The gold of the jacutinga is free. Castelnau || says, that at Gongo Soco it is always confined to a little vein which winds about in the rock. This is never more than five to * " Imbirit, — Eiscnglimmcr, Eisciifrlanz, meist difhtor, audi hlilttritrer, liin uiul wieder niiiynetischci- Eiscnstein iiiid wonig Quiuv, erschi'incii eiitweder ills t'l'stus, diclitcs Gestein, oder haben eiii Ki"trnif;scliict'ri;,a^s Gefiige," — Von Esca- wK(iK, Geor/iiostisc/tcs (lemiddc. von Bnisilien, 28"« Seite. t Burton, Vol. I. p. 301. \ Castelnau speaks of the occurrence of man;^anese in the jacutinga of Gongo SuCO. § Travels in Brazil, p. 373. !: '>i<. cil., p. 24G. 53G GEOLOGY AND I'HYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. seven millimetres in width, and sometimes it is as thin as a hair ; it contains mnch manfj^ancsc. In the gold region is found an auriferous superficial de- posit of broken fi-agments of ferruginous rocks cemeiiteii together, and called Tapanhoacawja or ctnuja* 1 have already described in previous chapters the mode of occurrence of gold in the drift gravels and clays, and in the sands and gravels of the river bottoms. With these introductory words, let us now examine suine of the more noteworthy gold-mines of Brazil. At Sao Joao d'El-Rei and Sao Jose, situated a few miles west of Barbacena, on the Rio das Mijrtes, ai-e auriferous deposits formerly worked for many years with great profit. In I80O an English company called the " Sfio Joao d'Hl- Rei Mining Company " was formed, and these mines were leased ; but in 183-A it was found that they were unprofit- able, and they were abandoned. Cajjtain Burton says the gold was principally obtained from a lode, which however he does not describe. The jacutinga formation is said to oceiir here. The country over a very large area in the vicinity of Ouro Preto is very auriferous, and here are situated the richest gold-mines of the empire. The gold occurs primarily in quartz veins traversiiiir various metamorphic rocks, such as clay-slate, mica-slate. iron-schists, &c., and also disseminated through the rock in some places ; and secondarily it is found widely distributed in drift and alluvial sands and gravels. The celebrated Morro Velho mine is situated on the west- ern side of the valley of the Rio das Yelhas, not far from Sabard. It was lomr worked bv native miners, but on (lie * For a detailed description of this formatioa see page 559, next chapTor. TIIK GOLD-MINt:S OF BKAZIL 5:;7 t is as thill as a ' cxaiuino some 59, next chapter. failure of tlic mines at Siio Joiio d'El-Rei, it was pnivluisptl liy tlie company of that name, and lias l)cen worked with remarkable success ever since. The g(jld is extracted from a l(jdc of quartz enclosed in clay-slale. The followiiifji; ac- eount of the vein and the mine, with the accompanying statistics, I extract from the work of 'Mv. Arthur IMiil- li[)S : * — " The formation affording the gold is a strong, wcll-dcfincd lode, though i -egular in direction, dip, iiud dimensions ; its inclination or underlie has also been found to vary at dirtbrunt depths and in (litlerent parts of its extent ; the vein-rock is mostly composed of (luurtz, with iron ])yrites disseminated more or less regularly throughout its mass, and the lode is not unfrecpiently traverse<l by Lliiy-shitc and barren white quartz. When pyrites is al)seiit in these rocks gold is seldom present. + In s(jine places the vein is iiivernous and less close in its texture than in others ; but where ilrusy cavities are frccpient the yield of gold diminishes ; the most productive matrix for gold is a cimipact mixture 'if (piartz and pyrites, with varying quantities of slate. The great metalliferous ileposit called the Cachoeira, 13ahu, and Quebra Pauella, is one continuous, very irregular vein varying in width from seven to seventy feet, and at one point reaching one hundred feet.;}: The * J. Arthur Phillips, The Mining anil Metallurgy of Gold and Silver, p. 82, which see for additional iufonuation concerning these mines. t " Arsenical, magnetic, and ordinary iron pyrites jjredoniiuatc at different points and in varying quantities : carbonate of lime, dolomite brown spar, and, very rarely, copper pyrites are also j)resent in the vein. } Burton, Vol. 11. p. 2.34, says : " The breadth of tlic lode varies from four to sixty feet. The general direction wlien worked is west to cast with north- erly shiftings. The dip is 4;")°, rising to a maximum of 4i'>° -30' or 47°. The strike is from S. 82° E. - S. .58° E. The cleavage planes of the killas are in some places transverse to, in others parallel with, the lode. In certain sections of the mine walls they bear N. 36° E., but the average is more easterly. The 'iirection is S. 46° E., and their dip is at angles varying from 4.3° - 70° The underlay or underlie dip, or ineliuati(m of the mineral vein, is G° in tho 23* % 538 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GCOGRArilY. avorngc tliickucsH, 17G fiithoms pcriictulicular on the Cachooira iind lli') fiithuiiis on tho liiihu, is ninotoon feet. Tho 8t(i|iiiiir Hjincc extends over 807 wjuivrc fiithonis, .... the cnchmin;.' nuk is a clay-shite of tolerably luiifonn texture Tho niiiHinl brouglit to the Kurfaee is first freed from slate and other unprodiiL'- Hve stone on the spidliiijjj-Hoors, and the ore, after being broken tun uniform size, is 8tanii)ed fine The stamping-mills, as is iiImi the punii)ing and other machinery, arc moved by \vater-pn\\\r. The j)ulverizc(l ore, issuing from stamp eotlers through finely [k r forated copper grates, passes o\'er i)ullock-skins iu the first in- stance, and, lower down the inclined tables, over -woolk-n (.jnth, The bullock-skins are taken up and washed in vats every hour, ami the woollen cloths at longer intervals. The subjoined tal)le shows the (piantities of rock raised and stamped, the amounts of gull produced, and annual net profits made since 18G8."* Tlic following account of the Morro Vcllio mines I trans- late from Gerber.f " This company, after having worked for some time the gold- mines in the vicinity of Sao Joiio d'El-Kei, acquired the auriferous lands of Morro Velho, which since then they have explored witli great profit to its stockholders, owing this happy result not only to the richness of the formations, but especially to the perfection of the method of extracting the gold, and to the great skill with which tho establishment is regulated. The auriferous lodes of Morro Velho arc in general pyrites, contained in argillaceous scliist, and inclined to the soutiieast, aliout 45°. The principal mines explored are those of Cachoeira and Bahil. The first has in hori- zontal section a length of 1,120 palmos, a width which varies from Balui and 8° in the middle Cachocirn. Its dip varies from S. 82° E. - 8. 58° E., and tlie inclination from 4-J°- 7°, but everywhere parallel with the striie." * For a minute account of the jirocess of separating,' the gold at Morro Velho, see Burton, Vol. I. Chap. XXVL 1 yoyoes Gtographkas, &e., de Minas Geraes, 1863, p. 33. THE GOLD-MINES OF DUAZIL. amounts of go mines I trans- .Stone ruUvJ, tons, .... Stonu aud Ore stampcil, tonH, (iolil {iroilucvil, pouudH Troy, Nut profit, ... 1849. IS&O. isrn. 18C2. IHM. l8o4. (H),;m I 07,1<«1 'U.Hlit 82,t542 8r.,f.ltM 80,f»48 H!t,iHil ' (U,;n.'i 81,t'tf.t 81,23*5 8ii,8(l(! 8«i,433 2,W3 ' 2,r,17 3,067 :),323 ' 3,'B3 3,4(14 .£a8,13<i I .£35,880 X61,68« | X£1C,3U1 X 40,273 X 44,740 1855 Stone riiisiHl, tons, .... Stone and Ore Htiuuppd, tons, (iold produced, pouud;^ Troy, 1850. 1857. 87,297 89,877 1 8(5,407 80,848 I 87,424 ' 8ii,3.'35 3,325 ' 2,992 ! 2,539 Net profit £34,400 C32,233 X787 1868. 1 1859. : 18tX). 88,901 88,908 01,301 87,270 82.880 74,528 2,73o 3,29 J 3,974 X 8,645 'X 38,068 X 00,400 Stone raised, ton.s, .... 8tono and Ore stamped, tons, Oiild produced, pounds Troy, Net profit, Loss, . . 1801. 1802. 1803. 1804. 90,012 90,89(5 i 84,758 05, 43*-, 71,902 ' C7,.'".0S ' ft'),097 ' 02,147 5,051 ' 6,1S2 ] 4,713 I 2,852 X 90,709 .£.^7,531 X 03,285 X 14,029 lSli5. ISGO. 78.ss;i £; ,:. _ J3 5!t,(;07 ?j^ 4,153 t? X80,4a8 ~ r 13 to 85 palmos, and it had in March, 18G1, a perpendicular depth of 1,190 palmos, and in February, 18G2, of 1,480 pahno.s. The mine of Bahii averages the same dimensions. Pxtth possess si.\ inclined planes for the transport of the ore. In tiie year 18') 9 there were occupied in the service of the mine 271 free natives aud strangers and 407 slaves; in all, G81 men ; among them 242 broqueiros [bhistei-s], who extracted in 311 working-days 89,000 tons of ore, of which G,119 were rejected as poor, and the remain- ing 82,881 tons were stamped in G mdls with . 34 hands. With the breaking of the stone, in the service of the mills and the amalgamating establishment, were occupied in this year 9 Europeans, 21 native men, and 24 native women, 79 men-slaves, 540 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and 254 womcn-Hliives ; in all, 387 persons. Tho moan yield per ton was 3.9 oitavas.* The amalgamation has been made at the rate of 70 pounds of mercury to the ton of stamped ore, and tho loss of mercury was 0.58 ounces for each cubic foot amalgamated. which makes about G%. Tho total product of the establishment was in the year referred to 342,885 oitavas of gold, with whose extraction was incurred an expense of 115:808 $0(j7 lleis [about $58,000 more or less], i. e. 357 Ilcis [less than 20 cents] jier oitava. Tlie state of health of the establishment is flattering ; the mortality in the whole of its population amounted during 1859 to only 2.70%, and, excluding accidental deaths, only to 2. 14';. a circumstance very noteworthy for a population composed for the most part of miners, which proves the solicitude the super- intcndcncy feels for the welfare of its employees. The capital uf the company subscribed since 1830 is £128,400 sterling, which has during thirty years, up to 18G0, jn-ochiccd a net income of j£4G6,874 Gs. I J., the possessions of the establishment being wortli, beside this, £ 100,000. The last dividend of the company was £2 for share of £15." The Morro Vclho mine is an example of successful vein- mining to a great d( ptli. There is no appearance of a dimi- nution in richness of the ore in descending. Phillij)s states, on the authority of Mr. Ilockhi, tlic managing director of tlie mines, that " The rock treated at tho ]\Iorro Yelho mine is principally a mixture of magnetic, arsenical, and common iron pyrites, finely disseminated in, and intimately mixed with, a quartzose ganguc. The composition of what is called pure ore may be taken at ab('Ut 43 per cent of silica, and 57 per cent of pyritous matter. Of these minerals, arsenical pyrites is usually tho most auriferous, though it does not occur in large quantities. Pure specimens of * An oitava is 7.343 grains Troy. THE GOLD-MIXFS OF BRAZIL. 541 r. Ilockin, the tliis substance atlbrd by assay from fom- to six ounces of gold })er \im, and wherever crystals of this mineral make their appearance the yield of tlie precioiis metal is lai'ge. C'ul)ical ])yrites is of more frequent occurrence, but is far less rich in gold ; solid specimens of tliis substance, but slightly mixed with cpiartz, yield about an ounce and a half of gold per ton by assay. " Magnetic pyrites constitutes the largest proportion of the sul- ])hides found, but this is very slightly auriferous since pure spieci- niens generally yield rather less than four jjcnny weights per ton. branches of clay-slate are often found in the 2)rincipal veins, and this rock, by assay, affords from five to seven and a half peiuiy- weights of gold per ton. Quartz without any admixture of sul- jihides has never been found to be auriferous, and it is a remark- al)le fact that the smallest speck of gold is rarely seen previous to concentration in any of the ores of the mine."* The gold-mines of Oongo Soco lio about twenty miles cast of Morro Vcllio, on the opposite side of the vallev of the Rio das Velhas. Tliey were once very ])roductive, and became famous ; Weddell says that the old miners oiu'o took out one hundred pounds in three hours I but throuuh had management the company that worked tluMn failed. The income of tac company during the thirty or more years of its existence was £ 1,888,410, of which £ :j7.J,1(33 was profit. f Gardner says, on the authority of ITelmrcichen, that at the Gongo Soco mines theri. is the following succession of rocks: abed of itacolumite, underneath which is a bed of auriferous jacutinga fifty fathoms thick ;$ then a thick layer * For the details of the method of treatment of tliesc ores at Morro "\'fllio -ce riiillips, op. cit., to wliich there is a fronti.-idLce represeiitiiii^' tlie Mono V(.Hio establishment. f Lieutenant Moracs quoted hy Burton. } Tills section does not ajjreo very well with Castelnau's deseription of the 542 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of fornijrinous itaoolumito, witli a dip of 45°, lying" on chy- slate, cuntaiuiiig- great masses of iruiistone. Underlying the slates is granite. Castelnau says that these beds di}) to the south. The gold oecurred free in the jacutinga, and niis sej»arated l)y washing. M. Weddell* deseril)es the (Jongo k^oco jacutinga as black and I'rialile as coal ; it was said to be very sol't, so as to admit of being worked with a })ick : blasting was unnecessary. When the gold was not visible, the ore was stamped and washed without using niercuiv. "\Mien the precious metal was visible it was treated first in a mortar, and then washed in a baleia or wooden washing- bowl. The Congo Soco gold is said to contain })alla- dium,f and is deep yellow in color. Burtcni says that he has seen sj)ecimens " of a bright brassy tint, and sometimes dingy red, like worked unpolished copper." The Rossa Grande Gold-mining Company owns a tract of land twenty-one square miles in area, not far from the mines of ^lorro Velho. The gold occurs in a mixture of (piartz sometimes associated with iron-ore, at others with arsenical pyrites, or ferric oxide. Some of these ores arc said to be very rich, producing even as much as fifty oitavas to the ton. Besides the vein-rock, gold oc- curs ill jacutinga, and in alluvial washings. Burton visiteil the mine, and reports it as looking very much like a failure. The Morro do Santa Anna, where the Dom Pedro North mines : Cas^telnau says that the jacutinga is ordinarily only sixteen centimetre? in thickness. * C'astc'lnan, ITIsf. dn Vnj/nrjp, Tom. I. p 243 {hix). t Tlie ^'old of Brazil is always alloyc(l with silver, nnrl occnsionally wirli jiLitini ; simu'tinies it loitaiiis a consiilerahle porcotitn^re of iron, wlioii it is very ilark in color. Iridium and irid-osmiura occur in the gold-washings of Minus. THE GOLD-MINES OF RKAZIL. 543 Pedro Xortli ixtecn centimetre? d'El-Rci Company was ostablislied, is a mountain al)ont ionr thousand feet in liciglit above the sea, and some two thou- sand lect above the nciuhljorinu; vallev. I give rhilHps's deseriittion of tlie geologieal structure of tliis mountain, but 1 nuist coniess that it is somewliat enigmatical : * — " The foce of the mountain is covered with cnvfin, an iron Cdn- rrlomerate, about four feet thick ; this is auriferous, and w ill probably pay for stamping. Beneath the ain;i<i is the first jacu- tmga formation, about sixty feet in thickness, coutaiuiug veins I'i^li in the precious metal ; the jacutiuga partakes more of tiie churac- ter of mica-slate than of iron-sand, and the auriferous veins in it are more like (puxrtz than ironstone. This rests on a stratum of hard ironstone about three feet in thickness, which is the second jacutiuga formation, but fjuartz is the predominating constituent, and rock is, according to Ca])tain Treloar, a more correct name foi- it than jacutiuga. This lode averages ahout four feet wide : it opens and contracts, and where it expands it is generally foMKl most productive. Subjacent to the layer is a layer of hanl clay and mica-slate, of about five feet in thickness, and then conies \\\o rock formation which has 3-ielded the chief returns of gold. In the present workings it i.s about ten f et wide ; but in its loni:i- tudinal course it so expands and contracts as to become in some places extinct The general direction of the lodes at .Morro do Santa Anna may bo said to be easterly and westerly, and their underlie northerly ; but lioth vary, owing to the lodes hugging the contour of the mountain." Xear Santa Anna is another mine called ^rnquiiu', worked hy the company owning the Mori'o de Santa Anna, which has heen abandoned. Out of all the gold-mines of Brazil only two have paid, — Morro Vellio and ]\Ia(piine. * Pliini]i<, op. rit., ]). 85. li ',U GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Tlic rest liavc failed, some of tliem after a more or less prosperous career, and notoriously in most cases from bail management and an imprudent outlay of funds. At Congonlias do Campo, Burton describes the gold as occurring '• in the pores and cavities of friable or rotten quartz injected into greenstone," * and states that " ^fr. Luccock detected dust-gold ' among schist-clays and tht; other component parts of the ground,' and the latter con- tained the ore ' with equal certainty, and nearly equal quan- tity, whether of the ])revailing red hue, or any of the shades of brown or yellow.' " The gold-mine of Sao Vicente l)clongs to the East d'El- Rei Company, which is, wc understand, about to be recon- structed. The gold is found in a quartz vein that strikes east- west with a dip of 28°, and whose rock character we have already descrilied. Burton says that " failure is its actual state," but that " the little lode nuiy pay if worked safely, that is to say, scientifically and economically." A specimen of the Sao Vicente gold was examined for me by Mr. Clarke of the Cornell Chemical Laboratory for palladium. There was not even a trace. The Cata Branca mines belong to the Morro Velho Com- pany, and are situated two miles east of the village of Corrego Secco. The following notes on the mines arc from Burton f : — " The serra of Cata Branca trends where mined from east of north to west of south. The containing rock proved to be mica- ceo\is granidar quartz with visible gold, as in California. The strike was N. 1.5° W., and the dip 80° to 85° ; in some places the stratifi- cation was nearly vertical, in others it was bent to the slope of tlio * Captain Burton, Highlands of the Brazil, Vol. I. p. 174. t Vol. I. p. 182. THE GOLD-MINES OF BRAZIL. o4: mountain, and generally it was irregular. The lode, narrow at tlie surface, widened below from six to eighteen feet, and the greatest dejjth attained was thirty-two fathoms." He describes the veiii-rock as varying granular to compact, and states that canga and jacutiiiga occur here. "The lode, which could not be called a ' constant productive,' abounds in vu/jhs, or vein cavities, tubes, pipes, and branches, called by the Brazilian miner ' Olhos,' — eyes, surrounded by a soft ma- terial, mainly running vertically, and richer in free gold tiian the average. Near these pockets, but not disseminated through the vein, was a small cpuuitity of auriferous jjyrites, iron and ai'senical. A little fine yellow dust, oxide of bisnuith, ran down the middle of the lode and gave granular gold. The best specimen averaged from 21.75 to 22 carats, our standard gold. " The Santa Antonio lode lay parallel with and east of the Cata Branca. The Aredes mine, eight miles to the southwest, was lie- yond the peak ; hej'c the serra is covered with boulders of hard quartz, very numerous at the base of the great vein. Tliey rest on the common, soft, variously colored clays of the countj-y, and are intersected with lines of sugary quartz, which gave a very little very fine gold. This formation extends fiir to south and west of Itabira ; openings were made in it, and one, the ' Sumidouro,' was successful. Aredes showed also a small formation of jaeotiuira containing red gold, sometimes alloyed with palladium and accom- panied with oxide of manganese." In 1843 M. d'Osory, geologist of the expedition of Count Castclnan, visited and examined the Cata T]nuica mine. He reported* that at the locality the rocks consist of itacoliunite and clay slates alternating, and in strata almost ])cr{)endic- iilar. He described the auriferous vein as running nearly * Castclnan, Kxpc'dilion ddiis VAm&i'pie dc Siid, Hist. <hi ]'oii(iqc, Tome I. p. 244. By a bhiiulfr in pagination, pp. 241 -2jG arc rci)eatu(l in this volume. I I 5-tG GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAl'HY. iiortli-soutli aii»l traversed by fissures or faults in wliidi the gold occurred. It was also found in the fissures Tor ;i distance of two or three palms on each side of the line ol the faults, tog-ether -with bismuth. Sometimes gold wa- found where the vein (juartz came in contact with the cii- elosing j-oek ; the interior of the vein was very bancu. D'Osery thought that originally the vein was composed nf pure quartz, which was afterwards disturbed and the gold and bismuth introduced by sublimation. The mine i»roved a failure because of bad working and n want of economy. Gold-washings occur, as already described, in almost e\ci'v province in the empire. In !Maranhao is a mine belonging to a company called the Montes Aurcos Gold-Mining Com])any (limited). I know nothing of it further than that it is said so far to lune been worked with but little success. The generally received opinion that the gold-mines uf Brazil are exhausted is a very great mistake. There aic still surface dej)0sits of great extent which, with modciii appliances, could be successfully worked. The underground wealth of the country is almost untouched,* and if (lie mining puldic of America knew Brazil better, I am j)or- suaded that the gold-fields of that country would not lie neglected by American capitalists. * In this boliofi am supported by Burton, and Liais, in treating of tlie licad of the liasin uf the SiIo Francisco, says : " Quant aux fiions pyritcux (jui ahon- dent dans les regions niontagneuses circonscrivant le I)assin du San I-'raiuiscd, et oil ses divers affluents prennent leur source, ils sont et(' ti peine attaqiu's. C'est la cependant que reside hi grandc richesse anrif ere do hi province de Miiia-- Geraes. Car c'est de hi surface de'coniposec de ces tilons pyriteux qu'i'tair firo- venu I'or (pii fiit jadis retire des d('p6ts meul)ics " — D' .S'lii-Fraticisco uu IJn'ail, par M. Liais, Ltiill. dela .Socitte Gicxjrnjihir-, 5"" Se'rie, E. 2, p. yu'J. BtSUMt OF THE GEOLOGY UF DIIAZIL. :>47 atinjr of the lieml CHAPTER XIX. RESUME OF THE GEOLOGY OF BRAZIL. Eo.oie Rocks nn>l th.!. Distribut.on in Bnuil. - M-nce of Li.ne.tono. - The Silunan A,c in Brazil. -Tl.. Auvitlvous Clay-Slat.s ot M.-M-o ha- bly Lower Silurian. -Note on tl.e Silurian of t!.e An.les. - li.e D.smhn- tiol, of Murine Anin.als in the I'aheo.oie. -The Devonian A,e m l.ra.,1 and South America. - The Ca.honiterous of lira.il and lU.hvuu - 1 he Neu- Rcd Sandstone, -The Cetaceous, its Distribution in P.ra.d and South A,nerica.- Several distinct Periods represented. - Tertiary l^-'"- - 1>>"^- -The Glacial Phenomena of I'atauonia. - Tapanhoacan^a.- I he Dntt of Kio and of the Region of Decomposition. - The Drift of the Dry lleoion of Bahia, Ser;.ipe, and Ala^nas. - Kxauunatiou into the Merus ot thc"varions Theories proposed to account for the Kor.nation of the Bra/dum l),i,t -The Th.-ory of Subacrial Decomposition. - Wave Aci.on .lunn- a Subsidence. -Wave Action duriu- Fdevation. - All these Theories unsat- isfactory—The Glacial Hypothesis the most reasonable. j;ozoic. — T\\o gneiss of the province of Rio de Janeiro is an orthoclase variety, varying from schistose to coarse- grained and porphyritic, or homogeneons and granitic ; so far as I have been al)le to observe, it is everywhere stratified, and consists of metamorphic sedimentary deposits. Tbough mnch of the rock wouhl be described as granite if seen in the hand specimen or in a single quarry, I have never failed to fmd the large masses stratified, so that in this work 1 have inclnded all the varieties under the general head of gneiss. These rocks in tlie province of Rio arc of great Thickness, and the Serra do Mar and the Scrra da Manti- .pieira are wholly composed of them. According to Pissis llicy are divided into two groups, an upper and L.wcr, sub- divided as follows : — I'l U8 GF.OLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GEOGRAl'IIV. Upper. Lower. Giieibs, with nuiuoroiis lioiivy beds of ([imrtzite, and an iibuiulaiicc of ininerul veins which ure not found in the lower division. 1. Fine-jj'niined gneiss, without garnets and with soiuc subordinate beds of quartzite in coarse grains with u little mica. 2. Gneiss tine grained, very rich in mieu, and with an abundance of garnets. ;}. Porphyritic gneiss. On crossing the j\Iucury district I found the gneiss, which was at first coarse and i)ori)hyritic, bcconiing finer on goiuL; westward, an'' finally giving way to heavy beds of mica- slate or niica-schistose gneiss with bands of quartz. The same succession seems to obtain elsewhere in Brazil, llic gneisses proper being overlaid liy mica-slates, the older rocks along the coast generally lying to the eastward. Tiiis corresponds very well with what D'Oi'bigny says of the suc- cession of similar strata in Bolivia and the Andes, where the gneisses are immediately overlaid by mica-slates. Elie dc Beaumont and other geologists of note have long since sig- nalized the gneisses of the Serra do Mar as among the very oldest stratified rocks of the globe. The system of upheaval of the gneiss of the Scrra do Mar D"Orl)igny calls the Bra- zilian ; and Elie de Beaumont, in his report on the " Considv- rations ^ene rales sur la Gcolop^ie de V Ameripte merldlo- nale" by M. D'Orbigny,* says that this system is one of the oldest known, and that perhaps it preceded the soulevemcnt of the most ancient system of mountains hitherto described in Europe. It is certainly the oldest of the rock formations of the Brazilian plateau. When we come to compare the Brazilian uneisses with the Laurcntian rocks of Canada and * Conintfis Remliis, 28 M:iv, 1843. r£sum6 of the geology of brazil. 549 I, and with an Europe wc find such strong rcsoml)lancc in lithological cliaracter, and in the system of the upheaval, 1 can sec no reason wljy we shoukl not refer them to the cozoie. The axis of ui)heaval is the same as that of the Laurent ides. In North America heavy beds of limestone arc interstrat- ificd with the gneiss of the Laurentian. in the Serra do Mar beds of limestone are very rare, and the thin bed I ex- amined at Pirahy is the only one 1 have seen in the 8erra do Mar. This contained only foint streaks of serpentine. Limestones ajjpear to occur intei'ljedded with the gneiss at Cantagallo. .Some of the limestones of the interior of Bahia may belong to tlie same series. The absence of clay-slates among the gneisses in Brazil recalls also the Laurentian of North America. There can be little doubt that the great mass of the gneisses of the coast provinces north and south of Rio are cozoie, Iiut these rocks liave in tlie northern provinces l»een so slightly examined that it is impossible to describe them witli any detail, and some of the mica-schists associated with them may be Lower Silurian or Cambrian. Along the coast of tlie Province of Bahia there are dioritic gneisses in the series, and on the Sao Francisco and elsewhere we find syenites. The study of these old rocks in the southern provinces is attended with immense difficulty, owing to the forests, the decomposition of the surface, and the thickness of the drift. ]]ut in the tlricr northern provinces, where the rocks are more exposed and less affected by decomposition, they may ])e well exam- ined. Li the preceding chapters I have shown that gneiss is found in every province of the empire. Not only does it form the great coast belt extending from ]\[ai'anhao to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, but it sends off a band from southern Minas Geraes into Goyaz, and the Montes Pyiv- 550 Gi:OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGnAIMIY. ncos and a eonsidorablo part of the nunintainons roj>'i(iii df Central (Joyaz are eompD.sed of it. The ^-auie rock shows itself ill the cataracts of the Toeantius, the Xingu, the Tap;i- Jos, the Arinos, and the Madeira, showiiij^ that the tahlc- laiid of Brazil is everywhere underlaid l»y it. In the {)rcseiit state of our knowledj^'e of the stratigraphy of these rocks it is (piite iin))ossilile to do more than .u;u('s.s at their thickness, for as in Canada and elsewhere there arc numerous reversed folds, and one may travid for iiiil(>s over the surface of the Brazilian gneisses, linding them always highly inclined, and all dipping in the same way. The Serra do Mar, where crossed liy the Dom Pedro 11. Rail- road, is a monoclinal ridge, but it must he coini^oscd of several reversed folds, else the thickness would be enor- mous. The highlands of Venezuela and Guiana arc Inrgoly composed of gneiss similar to that of Brazil, and disturlied by the same system of ii})heaval as has l)een remarked ly Humboldt, IVOrljigny, Agassiz, and others, and this gneiss area, bounding the Amazonian valley on the north, was doubtless an island at the opening of the palaiozoic tiiiio. The highlands of Brazil formed another island. Avhile tin-' Chi({uitos gneiss region to the south westward was })robably another. Since the foregoing was written and sent to the jirintcr, 1 have been honored by a visit from Pr. T. Sterry Hunt, who has examined with care the large suite of metamoriiliic rocks I brought liomc from Brazil. Dr. Hunt has kiiully furnished me with the following note for jjublication : — " The irneissic rocks of llio do Janeiro and the Serra do Mai" present the characteristic typcn of the Laureutiau of North Aiult- ica, including as they do coarse granitoid and porphyritic varieties RfiSUMt OF THl:: GKOLoUY OK liliAZlL. ooi wiLli rod ortlioclrtso and fiuo-gmiuod gray and white iKindcd gneisses, cften liornblendic. 'I'lir wliitu crystalline limestone with pale green terpentine which occnrs with these liruzilian gneisses is nut distin- guishahle from that of the Xurth American Luurentian. Tho fine-grained, tender niicaceous and hornblendic schists, which in IJrazil sncceed the gneisses, are very like the similar rocks which in some parts of New England and Acadia ajipear to follow tho Lanrentian, and arc associated with stanrutide, cyanite, and chias- tolite slates ; while tho auriferous aigillites and ([uartzites which follow these schists in Brazil strikingly resemble those which iu Nova Scotia occupy a similar stratigrai)hieal pt)sition. This tri[)lo parallelism in lithological and mineralogical character in tlie rocks of regions so widely separateil is iu itself a strong iirgumeut iu favor of their geological ])arallelism.'' Silurian. — Nohvitlistnnding all tliat lias been published by the various geologists who have studied the gold region of Minas Gcracs, the cxaet succession of tlie diiTerent uiem- liers of the metaniorphic scries lying just inside of the gneiss iielt has never been satisfactorily worked out. Tlie clay and talcose schists, the itacoluniite,* itabirite, and other as- sociated metamor))hic rocks of this region appear to be lower jialajozoic in age. I have called attention to the striking I'cscmblance borne by the clay-slates and associated (juartz- ites to the gold-bearing rocks of Nova Si-otia, and I have suggested that they may be the e(|uivalents of the Quel)ec group of North America. The gold-bearing rocks in ^linas Geraes resemble the similar auriferous scries of the south- ern Atlantic States in which itacoluniite occurs. * On ])age 149 I liave spoken of tho occurrencL' on the Rio Gavatiiof ii schis- tose qnartz rock reseniblinff ii Siuulstone. I luul not a good o))])()rtiuiityot' ex- iunininjjr tho locality, and I doubted whether it was a nn'rainiirphic roik. X fiii'ther examination of a sjtecinien of the rock In company wiih iJr. T. tj. Hunt has proved it to i)e a true itucolumite. V 552 GKOLOGV ANU IMIY^rlCAL Ui:0(JI{Al'llV, III Clay-nlutos witli iiiiriferous veins occiu' in other parts of IJi'uzil lt(>si(les Minus, ns, fur instanec, ill Goyuz, luul in llir vieinity of Cniahu in Matto Cirossu. Tlies(.' roeks are everywliere so niotaniorjiliosed, tliat all trace of fossils lias been coniplelely obliterated.* * The Silurian rocks of tlic Ai\ili'S of IJolivin and IVi\i liavc boon pxnniiiicd liy till' Kn-ii.-li ^^I'oloj-ist, Mr. Foivlis (tiuart. Jour. (Jeol. Hoc. Vol. XVII. ji. ri.'t), who thus (Ifscrihes their distrihution : "The rocks which I have t;rouii(il tn ^'ctlicr as |iertaiiiiii},' to the Silurian ciioch show themselves continuously, or very nearly so, o\t'r an area from northwest tt) southeast of more than seven hundrcil mill's; and the area oi'cupied l)y them cannot lie estimated at li'ss than 8(i,(t()ii tn lOO.OOO si|uare miles. They form the mountain-chain of the lui^h Andes, risiiii; to an alisoiulo hei^^ht of ii."),(J()() fict ahove the sen, and, in ilie part of South America more jmrtieidarly the suliject of this memoir, continuous throu>:h I'rni from the north ol' Cusco over the snowy ran;,a'S of C'aralniya and A]iolloliandia, across the provinces of Muneeas, Larecaja, La I'az, Yiin;;as, Siea-Sica, In(|ni- sivi, Ayopayn, Coehahaniha, Ciiza, Mis([ue, Chayanta, Yamparez, I'orco, To- mini, and Ointi throwing- otf spurs alou}^ the eastern side of the main chain, rij::ht throu;.jh the |)rovinee of Cau]ioliean down to the river Beni in Mqjos, into Yuraco"es, Valle Gran<le, Santa (.h-uz and Chu(pnsaea, and to the east into the jiroviiiees of Oruro, I'utosi, and Chiehas." The rocks consist of elay-slaif, shales, and frraywackes, and, — ivceordinj,' to Mr. Torhes, they ]iroltalily re])ic- sent the whole Siluriai\ from \o\\ to hottoin. l)'()rhij;ny had already do- scrihed ten species of Silurian fossils from the Central Andes; to this list Mr. Forbes has added nineteen new species, described by Mr. Salter in his paper fol.owinjx that of Mr. Forbes. The jreiicra represented in the Andean Siluri:m are Crnzeami, Linjxnla, Orthis, Graptolithns, I'haco|)S, Asaplms, Boliviaiia, Pa- tella, Hellerophon, Area?, Ctenodonta, rucnllella, Strophomena, Tentaculitcs, Beyriehia, 1' ■"alonotus. Two sjieeies of Phacops described by D'Orbi^iiy a'v doubtful I l)ably Devonian. If we subtract these we have left only twei.- ty-sev .t fossils known for the Andean Silurian. In the course of his pa; alter makes an interesting remark that s])ecii's in the Silurian had a w ., lited range, tho.sc of India, Australia, and Kuropc being entirely uif- ferent. On the other hand, the s])ecies of the Dcvtinian, esiiccially of the upper part, had a very wide range, while the carboniferous tyjies are almost c(js- mo]iolitan. I must confess that, after a careful stiuly of the carboniferous Brachiopoda of Nova Scotia, I am hardly prepared to go quite so far a" to admit that tl'.o Frodueti from Bolivia, Nova Scotia, Ireland, and Belgium, thrown together under the name of Cunt, are all the same species, and I may l;fisiMI^; OF TIIK GKOLOliV OF DltAZIL. '.":'. This scnes olTers a largo niuulxM- of crvstalli/cil niiiicral-;, iiinoiig Nvhicli arc the topaz, (.'iiclazr, Ac. 'I'lic tn|(:i/.i's of .MiiuiH nj)])('ar to l>o found in tliu cas<:alho lurnicd IVoni tlio Ji'liris ol" tlu.'.so rocks. Drroiiidn. — Sonic of the nictaniorphic rocks of ^^inas (!criH!s or I)ahia may be devonian, hnt 1 have seen no i-ocks rcferaltle to that age on the coast, unless it be that (he slate coniiloniei'nt(!s, sandstone, and shale, wilh fossil planl.^- found on the Rio I'ardo, may Ijelong to it.* Carboniferous. — There can be no uncertainty a')out the (•xistciu!0 of true carboniferous strata in IJrazil, for besides tiie coal we have an abundance of fossil plants of carltonif- (M'ous genera. The coal-basins lie? just south of the trojiics, lint within the range of the palm, and they are a coast for- mation, corresponding in this rcsju'ct to the coal-basins of Acadia, Massacluisetts, and Rhode Island. 1 know of no car))oniferous strata north of Tlio on the coast. It would i^ccm as though the depression of the coast which allowed the accumulation of the coal-l)eds of the southern provinces liad not extended to the north. The very slight disturb-- ance of the coal-beds is noteworthy, as is also their bitumi- nous character.! say the same of tlic other Xova Scotiun Brachiopoda rcforrcd by the distin- guished Mr. Davidson to European forms. But whetlier ilie species were or were not absolutely cosmopolitan during; tlie earbonlferous, the rescmlilanco of the marine animals was much {greater during the carboniferous tiian before that time. * Messrs. D'Orbiojny, Salter, and Forbes refer to tlie devonian certain fos- siliferous rocks of the eastern plateau of Bolivia. See Forbes, op. rit., p. 51 ; and Salter, op. rit., p. 63. The Falkland Islands, described by Darwin, are coin]iosed of rocks prol)ably belonL'in;,' to the Lower devonian. (Quarterly Journal Geological Society, London, Vol. IL p. 207, 184G.) t Carboniferous rocks are found in the Rio Guapore, one of the brandies of the Madeira. The carlxmiferous rocks of Bolivia have been studied by D'<_)r- VOL. I. 24 554 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Triassic* — I have referred to the triassic a thick sorirs of red sandstones, litliologically identical with the Connecti- cut River and New Jersey new rod sandstone, ai»[)arently barren of fossil remains, and which occui)y a large area in the Province of Sergii)e, underlying the cretaceous. Tiicsc rocks arc more or less inclined. I know of no trap asso- ciated with them. Jnrassic.f — I have seen no rocks on the Brazilian coast referable to this age. I can explain their absence only Ity bipny and Forbes. I ■..vtrai"t a short account of these last by D'Artliiiu', (m'j- lo(jie d Palcuutologie, p. 4'J9 : — " Les rochcs cavbonil'oros de hi Bolivic, sitiic'es a I'onest des Andes, se rcn- contrcnt, pur places, eoninio de jjctits bassins allonges generalement du S. (). lui N. E. situes au milieu de la grande piaine quaternaire qui cntoure le hie du Titieaca, se montrant aussi au nord du lae, et plus au sud dans les ])i-ovini\.s d'Arque et d'Oruro. Le point le plus has ou on les observe est a 3,8H0 nietres d 'altitude et on pent les suivre jusqu'a 4,000 et 4,500 metres. A I'ouest du hv, cntrc Tiquina et la Guardia, M. Forbes donne iine idee complete de la serie des assises disposers en bnssin rcnversc' f ">rc'sentant sueeessivement des plus aii- ciennes an\ plus recentes qui oceupci lilieu du plissement, des gres bianes, des conglome'rats et des gres rouges, des argiles iiianehes panaehees, des enl- caires en bancs epais, bleus et jiunies, des argiles schisteuses panacliees, un ca!- cairc blcn puissant, cnfin des gres jaunes et blanes." And in a note he say^ : "Les fossiles de ces assises, e'tudies par ]\I. Salter, sont ; Prodnrtus Smiirrtini- latiis {P. Tncn d'Orh.) P. lonfiisjiiiiiif {Cdiiiiril d'Orli.} Sj)irif(r Comhr, S. Bolirl- f«s/s, At/ii/n's sulitilild, Ovthk rix'ipiiKitn, O. Amfii, Plii/tirfiouilln nov. sp. Eiiom- plinliis (Phnnrrotliiiis?), BclJprnphoii voisin de B. Uril. dos polyjiiers et des crinoides inde'tcrmine's. Des provinces d'Arque et d'OiMirn out .'t(' obteniis les Spiri/rr Condor et tineatus, les Pnxlartus Cora, semireticulatus, Bolirimsift et rOrtlils Amlli." * Mr. M. D. Forbes refers to tlic Triassic or Permian a series of re<l ami yellow sand>itones, saliferous and gypseous marls, clays, gyjisums, cujiriferous sandstones, and red conglomerate found in the Ande*;, but which contain w> determinable organic remains. (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soe., Vol. XVIL ]>. ■'iO.) t Jurassic rocks containing Ammonites, Terebratuhe, Sjiirifers, and other fossil characteristics of that epoch have l)een found in tlie Andes by MM. Crns- nicr, Mayen, D'Orbigny, Darwin, Donieyko, Forbes, &c. Tiiey extend from Chili to Peru. e£sUM6 of Tin- GEOLOGY OF BRAZIL. ;)o.) supposing that during the Jurassic the coast stood higlier than at present. In this respect the Brazilian coast would resemble that of Eastern North America. C'-ctaccuus. — The cretaceous rocks of Brazil arc un- known on the coast south of the AUrolhos, which islands I l)eliove to be outliers of this formation. Properly speaking the cretaceous de])Osits begin a few mUes south of the Bay of Bahia, and occur at intervals along the coast northward, occu^jying, at least in several instances, scjjarate basins, some of Avliich arc fi'csh-watcr. AVe lind cretaceous rocks in Bahia, Sergipc, Alagoas, Pernanil)Uco, Parahyba do X(M'te, Ceara, and Piauhy. It is difficult to estimate their exact extent, because they are largely covei'cd uji by tertiaiy beds. It is very proljablc that marine cretaceous bed^' un- derlie the tertiary deposits throughout the wlude valk'y of the Amazonas, but the only place where they show them- selves, so far as I can ascertain, is on the A(iuiry, an affbient of the Rio Purus, Avherc they have been exauuned by ^M. Chandler, as is stated l)y Professor Agassiz.* I am wot aware that they arc exposed anywhere to the eastward on either side of the valley. Among the cretaceous rocks of Brazil severnl jteriods are represented. The fossil moUusks of the fresh-Avatcr beds of the Bahia Basin have a very strong wealden h)ok, l>ut they arc asso- ciated with teleostian fishes and other remains, which arc certainly cretaceous. They evidently belong low down in the series, and they may rei)rcscnt the Neocomicn. The compact limestones at ^Nfaroim aflfording Ammonites, Ceratites, Natica, &c., arc probably middle cretaceous. Over these are the flaggv white ;ind grayish limestones with Ino- * Journey in Brazil. ooG GEOLOGY AND niYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 11^ ccramus, Ammonites, fish, <fcc., ai)iiarciitly representing the white chalk, Senonicti. For the Iresli-water beds at J>uhia I w(nihl jiropose the name Bahian gronj) ; for the Maro'im limestones, that of .Sergipian gronp; for the flaggy limestone beds near Ar-ieaju, the Cotinguiban group, and for tlu; Aquiry beds the Amazonian group. The cretaceous of Bra- zil v> ould then be divided as follows : — Amazonian (jrnvp (Aquiry) with Mosasaurus, Mtestrichtien ? Cotitujuibaii ijrnup with Inoccrumus, Ammonites, ttc, Seitouicn 1 Senjipiangrovp with Ammonites and Cenitites, middle cretaceous i Bahian aroiqi, Crocodilus, Pisodus, species of Molania and other fresh- water sliells, cyprids, Arc, Xeocomieii ] The sandstones, shales, and limestones of the Abrolhos and the lower Sao l^rancisco I believe to be cretaceous, but I have no fossils by which to determine their exact age. They may correspond in part to the Sergipian and Cotinguilian groups. Those of the Sao Francisco are mud and sand deposits instead of limestone, which accunui- lated along the coast elsewhere in clearer water. It will be remembered that I have dcscril)ed the limestones near Pro])ria as sandy and even pel)l)ly. The cretaceous rocks nowhere form very high hills. They ai)pcar to have been deposited in a shallow sea, which was not deep enough to j)enetrate into the Sixo Francis- can valley above the falls. The sandstones al)ove tlio falls, described by Burton as cretaceous, I am ])ersuaded will be found to be tertiary. The cretaceous rocks ha\o suffered sliirht disturbance, and at the Abrolhos it is worthy of note that they are associated with volcanic de- posits. At the time of the deposition of the cretaceous, the north- r£suii£ of Tin: gi-ology of nn.Azii,. i>'J i crn part of South America was depressed more tliaii at pres- ent, wliilo the coast ol' (he scnitlieru lu-ovinces of Urazil seems to have been higher than now. In speaking of the cretaceous of South America, M. D'Archiac, G'aolog-ie cl Palcuntu/og-ie, p. 024, says: — " Xous avous fait voir que, d'lijnvs los rccherches de M. IF. Karsten, contirmuos dcpuis par cl-Ucs do M. Wall, uu pouvait prusumcr cpio letago iuferieur de la craie tutfeau, le gault et luie partic du groiipe neocomien ctaieut re})r6seutcs dans le Venezuela, particulierenient dans les cordilleres de .Merida et Truxillo. Tous les calcaires cretaces des chatnes du ce jiays, eoinuie eeux du nicnie age, que \\>n jsuit jnsqu'au Chili, sont d'ailleui's entieivnieiit Udirs, liitumineux et semblablcs a, ceux des Lrrandes niontaLfues do I'Europe." Tertiary. — The clavs and ferruuinous sandstone forming the coast phiins outside the cordilheira arc undisturbed, and overlie the cretaceous unconformably. Tlicy are over- Uiid by the drift-clays, winch descend from the cordilheira and cover tlicir glaciated surfaces, so that, tliough I liavo nowhere found fossils in them, I have felt jr.stified in referring them to the tertiary. The horizontal beds of clays, sandstone, <tc., of the Jequitinhonlia and Siio Fran- cisco valley are everywhere undisturbed, even where they closely ajiproach the coast where the cretaceous rocks liavc suffered uplieaval. They resendde the coast beds, except that tliey are thicker, stand at a very nnicli h.gher level, and in some cases form beds of pure sandstone and con- glomerate witli limestone and iron ore. They, too, are cov- ered by the drift-clays. 1 sujjpose that they arc also ter- tiary, but older than the coast clays. To the same group evidently belong the horizontal deposits of the [datean ')f Sao Paulo, similar strata occu[iying the upper part of the C5S GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. valley of the Parahyba do Siil, and the clays and sand- stones of the elevated })lains of the north. These beds must have been dejjositcd when the continent stood !ii a level full 3,000 feet lower than at present. The male- rial was evidently derived from the wearing away uf tlic decomposed gneissosc rocks, and it ai)))ears to have b(N'ii dej)Osited rapidly in a nniddy sea, not favorable for the existence of life. After these beds were deposited tlie coast rose verv unifoi-mlv, and tliey suffered verv extcn- sivc denudation. Along the coast outside the cordilhcira there were deposited, j)robal)ly in a large part made uji of the results of the older Ijeds, the coast saiulstoncs and clays. According to my own observation the ui)])er level (jf llic coast clays south of Bahia is always nuich below the level of the lowest beds of the older l»cds. I have never seen them tie in with one anolhcr, l»ut I strongly suspect that in the vicinity of Monte Pascoal an outlier of the older beds lies surrounded b}' tlie newer. The stratified and loose sands and clays of the Tabolciros at Alagoinhas ap])ear to be older than the drift. They arc certainly newer than the Coast Tertiary group. They need much more study, and I nmst confess that there arc some puzzling ])oints in connection with them.* Drift. — In South America from Tierra del Fuego north- ward, to at least 41° S., glacial ])henomcna have been observed and reported by Darwin and others, and tlieso phenomena apjjear to be identical with those so well studiotl in the northern hcmis]»here. Drift occurs in the Falkland Islands (Darwin), Australia, and New Zealand. The An- tarctic Continent is buried in ice and snow. No doubt can exist that a drift period prevailed over the southern part of * Tertiary rocks are found over large areas both north and south of Er.i/.il. EtSUMl^: OF THE GEOLOGY OF DRAZIL. 550 the southern hemis])herc. D'Archiac* has ah-eady called attention to the fact that no mention of either striae, fur- rows, or polished surfaces has heen made by those who have studied the drift of South America, which seems very re- markahle. lie suggests that it may be perhaps owing to a want of attention on the ])art of tlie travellers. It is not to be wondered at that, when Professor Agassiz claiuied in 1865 to have found glacial drift in the vicinity of Rio, scientific men were astonished and doulited the coi - rectncss of the Professor's deductions ; and when from under the ecpiator he reported the discovery of glacial moraines the statement seemed past belief. In the preceding pages, in eonnccliti- with a careful descrii)tion of the Brazilian coiist, I have noted with much detail the occun-ence of certain surface deposits northward to Pernaml)uco, at least, which dcjiosits I have claimed to be glacial drift. I propose now in this chapter to bring together as concisely as possible all the facts bearing u[M)n this subject, and then to discuss them for the lairjjose of showing that no other hypothesis than that of the glaciation of the coast is sufficient to account for them. \"on Eschwcge descriltcs a formation which is known in Minas Geraes as Tapanoacanga.^ It consists of angular * GAifiyili' I't Pale'ontnJn'jio, p. 719. t Von Ksi'liwcfre, in liis (Jioiimstixrhfs Gnnitldp von nrnsHim, ]). 30, y:ives so interesting an acconnt of tlie Tapanhoacanga tliat I translate it almost entire. He says : " This rock is composed of sharp-cornered, an^rnlar, rarely slightly rounded frau'nients of micaeeotis iron (I'iaftyilinimir], specular iron, and ma^:- netic oxide of iron, held together by a red, yellow, or brown ochrcons cement. Tlie>e fragments are from several lines to eight inches in diameter. It is. often verv aurifemiw, and contains sometimes scales of talc chlorite, and here and there fragments of itacolnmite. The cement beeumes in some jilacc! 5G0 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. V or rounded fVfigmcnts of micaceous iron and otlicr rock«; cemented together hy an oclucous paste, which somctinics exists without the gravel. Tiiis formation, with a thickness of from six to nine feet, more or less, he states, wraps the higliest mountains round about like a mantle. The sanic material is found elsewhere. Mawc, in his dcscri[)tion of the mines of Jaragua in Sao Paulo, speaks of the gold as so iibundiint that the ciiil)eJiIed pieces are not visible ; this then forms ilis- tiiict (k'ljosits of red ironstone in tiiin layers, containinfj ordinarily inaiiv little flakes of mica. This rock is not only fuiind in the valleys and on the slojjcs of the mountains, hut it covers their most elevated ri(l;,''es anil flanks like a sort of mantle from half a toise to a toise and a half in tliick- ness [a toise equals 6,3'J5 feet] ; it is in geni:ral superimposed upon the fer- ruginous schist and clay-slnte The most important foreign mhieral depos- its found in it are brown lueinatite and wavellitc, which occur in consider- able masses near Villa Rica The Serra do Tapanhoacanga near Con- gonhas do Campo (I'lovinee of Minas), whose summit rises to a height of 4,800 feet, is completely covered, over an area of several miles ; all the H.iuk of the mountain where Villa Kiea is situated is incrustcd with it; the surface is overturned hy the mining works. The Campo de Sarameuha, vis-a-n's. U a^ if paved with it. It is abundant along the route from Villa Hica to Serro do Frio; it is jirohably also foun>l in the Province of Goyaz. Tapanlwacan^a »\<:- nifies in an African idiom* negro's head ; the miners have given this name to the rock in fpiestion because of its uneven, knotty surface, which appears con- cretionary like an hrematitc. It is difficult to exjdain the origin of this con- glomerate. The angular fragments, the irretrularity with which they are jiilcil U]) one on the other, the manner in which this rock covers, like a coat or glar- ing, the top and Hanks of the mountains, tend to make one believe that it is not the result of the rapid degradation of the ferruginotis mountains which t'orii'dl only the most elevated points in the country, and of which the peak of Itabira, the Serra da Piedade, and others are the remains, l)ut that it is due to the ex- tremely prompt drying up of the liquid, which sojotirned formerly on the moun- tains, and has brouglit there the fragments which to-day cover them. These cotdd not follow the litpiid to the bottom of the valleys, and were arrested, lii<o solidified lavas, on the iTiidst of the slopes. The disorder with which they are piled up proves sufficiently that the deposit was not gradually made." Caste!- uau says that the canga is certainly of ])lntonic origin! * Tlii? i? not Afrionn, but Tiijii, Titpriiiliuiia ineiiiiing nfi;rn, ami ncaiii;n head. EtSUMli OF THE GEOLOGY OF I'.RAZIL. 'A\l ncaiiirn hen J. occurring in a layer of cascallio, — lie writes it incorrectly cascalhao, — or gravel of rounded pelihles, principally (]iiartz, which wrai)S the hills round ahout, and is covered l)y a sheet of soil. This surface deposit rests on gneiss. At Minas Novas the gold, as Ave have already descril)ed, has been mined from a similar gravel conqx^sed of rounded (juartz pebbles, i*cc., with a ferruginous cement, ami over- laid by a similar bed of clay, the whole resting on clay-slate decomposed in })lace. At Rio the rounded surface of the decomposed gneiss is covered by the same sheet of (piartz i)ebldcs and ovei'lying clays, and all the })r()vince, excejit the Ihit alluvial jilains, such as border the coast, and whose elevation is usually less than twenty feet, is covered with the same deposit to the tojjs of the highest hills I have examined. The peld.dc sheet, it is true, varies in thickness, and in some localities is absent, especially over areas in which quartz veins arc not abundant. In some jjlaccs the pebbles arc coarse, in others fme, and occasionally we find intermingled with them frag- ments of gneiss, traj) or tertiary sandstone. We (liid tliesc surfiico deposits everywhere lying immediately over a rounded surlacc of gneiss, albeit the rock may be decom- j.osed to a great dejith. The pebldes and rock fragments are not confined to the i)el)l»lc sheet alone, but, sometimes rounded, sometimes angular, they are freipiently found in the overlying clay. This last may vary greatly in thii'kness and color, but the general comi)osition is very uniformly the same. The whole deposit is everywhere without struc- ture, presenting no trace of stratification. Tlie same layers extend over the provinces south of Rio. To the northward they are found all over ^Minas. I have seen them covering uniformly the hills of Espirito Santo, and the coast of 24 * JJ r.ijj GEOLOGY AND I'lIYSICAL GKOGRAPUY. i Bahia, Scr.u'i))0, Alagoas, and Pcrnanilmco. Xortlnvanl I have mysulf iKjt seen tlieso doposits, hut Professor Agas>iz ro})orts their existenee in various localities on the coast north of Pernanibuco, and in the valley of the Ama/.onus westward to the confines of Pei'u. At Rio, as described by Professor Agassiz in the "Journey in Brazil," and by myself in the ehai)ter on llio de JaneiiD, there arc, in the valley of Tijuca, near Rio, and elscwheic. deposits of immense l)ouldcrs of trap, gneiss, Arc, which are evidently moralnic and the work of local glaciers; ami the Professor has described similar moraines as existing in the Province of Ceard. The peljblo and clay sheet covers a largo })ortion of the province of !Minas, and is found nut only on the hills, but on the campos. In the provinces of Bahia, Sergipe, Alagoas, and of the north there is, as I have described, a zone of dry country, lying just behind the coast forest belt, and largely composed of gneiss, mica-slate, ami the like, over which the surface deposits consist of boulders of rock of all sizes, rounded and angular, scattered over the surface, and sometimes })iled up in confusion, Avith very little soil, the rock fretpiently being bare ; witli these occur rounded quartz pebbles. The surface of the gneiss country in this dry zone in Bahia, as ol)scrved by ^Messrs. Alien and Xicolay, and in Hergipo and Alagoas by myself, is re- markably even, and over large tracts f(jrms a plain. Tlio topograpliy is remarkable for shallow de})ressions without outlets, forming ponds during the rainy season. Mr. xVlleii describes having seen inuncnse pot-holes worn in the rocks by the action of falling water on some of the highest swell- ings and elevations of these plains, now far away from any obstacle over which water could be precipitated. Such, in brief, are the characteristic features of the sur- iM'SI'm£ of tmf. geology of brazil. 5G3 i of the sur- laco deposits uf the JJriiziluui coast, to whieli I have ai)i)hed the name ol' drift. 1 have many times called attention to the rounded surface on which the drift rests, though 1 have nowhere seen either polished or striated rocks, which is not at all wonderiul, as the surface of the rock, wherever 1 luivc examined it, even where the decomposition was least, as on the Rio de Sao Francisco below the Falls of l*aulo AffV)nso, was always more or less decomposed. Nowhere over the whole region covered l)y the drifts do we find other water deposits than those clearly referalde to the action of rivers or lakes. Above the old sea level of Rio, Victoria, Bahia, Are. there are neither raised beaches nor any other testimony of the action of the sea. All this innncnsc sheet of structureless clays, gravels, and boulder deposits stretching* along the whole coast, and cov- ering alike the coast tertiary plains, the elevated campos, and the scrras from bottom to top, belongs to the same for- mation, and is referable to the work of the same geological agent. We have claimed with Professor Agassiz, to whom belongs the honor of the first announcement of the occur- rence of drift in Brazil, that that agent was glacier ice. This liypothesis has been much disputed, and many other ways of accounting for the formation of the sheet of detritus have been proi)oscd. Among them the most im])ortant arc tho following, the respective merits of each of which we propose to examine in detail : — I. Sub-aerial decomposition. II. Wave action acting over the surface of the country during a slow subsidence of the coast. III. AVave action extending over the surface during a slow rise of the land. I. Decomposition. — AVe have seen how dccom})ositiou r,CA Cii:OI.i)OY AND rilYSICAL GKOfiUAl'IlV mny, as at TWn in the case of trap-dikes, at Victoria, aiul on the i>^lan<ls of tlic Ahiolhos, produce, Avitli the aid ol' rains, not oidy a soil, but houldci's of deconi})osition, Mliicli may lie rounded or angular, and resendde drift Itouldcrs so closely as to make it exceedinuly ditVicidt to dislin- ^uisli tlicm from ei'ratics. One can easily conceive liow, in the gradual decomitosition of a bare surface of rock, — gneiss, for cxami)le, — as the rock wasted, the resultiiii: clay and sand may be washed away, and spread over the surface of the soil on the lower grounds. Such is indeed the ease, and one sees at the foot of the gneiss precijiices, not only at Kio, but elsewhere, a soil of this kind. It closely I'csembles the drift, but is more washed, the sandy ))ortion I'cmaining near the foot of the })reci|)ice, while the muddy part is carried farther off. Where the surface of a hill is very uneven, unfurnished with soil, and strewn with blocks of rock, as in the dry zone of Bahia, and the Sao Francisco, one may readily see how by decomi)osition a structureless soil might be formed covering the surface; but there are a few facts which make this whole hypothesis of the formation of the drift of no value. In bluffs, natm-al or otherAvise, in the vicinity of Ji'io, as well as in the cuttings on the Doni Pedro Segundo and Cantagallo railways, and on the Uniao e Industria road, and in the Minas Novas region, one may s(X) a great thickness of the surface deposit lying on rock decomposed in silu, and lying inidisturlted on the solid rock. Though in old excavations it is very diflficult, in any fresh cutting it is the easiest thing in the world to point out the line of separation between the surface detritus and the decom])osed rock,* which, by the by, may have only the very thinnest coating of clay, or may * This line is shown in the cnp:ravinf^ on paje 508. Rf:SUMt OF THE GKOLOGY OF BRAZIL. iJG'i 'icforia, and I tlio aid of sition, wliich fin. Ixjiddcrs ( to disfin- iiK'cive liow, of rock, — It' resultiiiii- lid over tlir li is iudccd • prcM'ijiiccs. s kind. It , the sandy L>, while tlic im furnished he dry zone see how by :;d coveriiiii tills whole value, li! as well as Caiitagallo iiid in the less of the and lyiiiu- xeavations siest thhi<i' 3twccn the eh, by the ly, or may 1)0 hare. The distiiuition lietwcon this drift aiul the ('e- composed rock is of liu; sharj)cst kind. The surfaee (k'posit is without structure, and has the same appearance that the decomposed rock ))elow would have if it were tiround up, and intimately mixed together without washinii', while in a mass of the dc(!onipos(!d rock one sees the rehilivc arrange- inent of tiie materials preserved undisturbed, with the (j.iiartz veins, iVre., in i)lace. The veins invariably terminate ab- ruptly at the line separating the decomposed rock from the overlying deposit. One never sees a quartz vein tracealde tiirough the elays, as it certainly would be if these had resulted from decom- position alone. Tlie clay is usually remarkably free from (juartz j)ebbles or boulders, and one rarely sees even a peb- ble on the surface of the ground in the gneiss regions near Uio, which would certainly not be tlie case if it were shnply a product of decomposition. The greatest objection to the theory under discussion is presented by the sheet of rounded and angular quartz iicljldes, for that could never have originated through decomposition. It is evidently the result of mechanical action of some kind, and I am con- vinced that wc must refer the overlying clay-sheet to the same cause. It is evident that the agent, whatever it was, that rounded the pebbles and ground up the clays must have had some part to play in the moulding of the country, though it is to erosion and decomposition that I should attribute the liroader to[)Ogra]»hical features of the coast, and I would refer to the agent that formed the drift the moulding of the actual surface on which the superficial (lei)osits now^ rest. Let us now discuss the merits of the hypothesis thai the surface detritus has been the result of water action, and li' 5GG GI'OLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRArilY. cxjiinlnc tlic two llieorics of wave action brouglit to lioar over the eouiitry cluriujjj a gradual I'i.se of the hiii<l IVom the sea, and of shnilar action exerted in like manner over the country ihu'ing a snhsidencc. II. Wfwe Action during- a Rise of the Land. — It has been suggested tiuit, in a rise of the hmd, wave action brought to hear over the surface miglit leave a coating of loose; mate- rial similar to the drift strewn over the whole country, hut 1 nnist confess that, even for a single isolated hill, I can- not see how this theory would have the slightest weight, for it could never produce an arrangement of the materials such as actually exists. Suppose, for instance, that we have a hill a few hundred feet in height, and which is rising. At a certain time the sea level is found at a, so that the waves will wash the hill-top. No one who has boon on the sea- shore will doubt that the ctTect will be to remove the finer materials, and carry them otT to be de- posited somewhere in quiet water ; and this is the nat- ural effect of the sea where it breaks against a slope or over a ridge. It may be that on the sides of the moun- tain these materials, if in sufficient abundance, may !)C deposited, and wc will suppose that they are so dcj)os- ited at e, but on steep slopes we should not expect to find them. Gravels and sands would be washed by the waves into deeper water, but could rest only on gentle .slopes. If the slope from o to e were twenty or more degrees, and Rl'lSUMf: OF THE GKOLOOY OF r.RALIL .ill llic lnn<l should rise <rrii(liially so as to l)i'iii<r wiivo action to hoar siu'c'i'ssivcly over that slope, wo sliouM oxpoot to llml the rork surface rfwepi (piitc clean of loose materials, only sand and i^ravel heing thrown heyoml the reach of the waves into hollows or Hat places on the rucks; and it seems to mo that the result of such a rise would be, even if there were already a coaling of decomposed rf)ck on the surface, only lo wash it over and gully it out on the hill tojis and sides, if it were deep, and cover it with sand and gravel, or to re- move it entirely, leaving the hill tops and sides hare, tho loose materials heing transjjortod into the valleys, and there left as stratified deposits; and not oidy in tlu; valleys, l)ut u[)()n Hat }»laces on the hill-sides, should we expect to tind such dei»osits. Now we find nothing of the sort. Asso- ciated with the drift are neither sands nor stratified de|)osit3 of any kind. Besides, this hypothesis docs not t(jucli the question of the formation of the great angular and rounded Itoulders unassociated with sands strewn over the dry zone, nor does it explain the transport of boulders over an ii'i-eg- ular surface. The tendency would have been to swecj) tho hill-tops and the steeper and seaward slopes bare, which is not the case. III. Wave Action during a Subsidence. — The hypothesis of the action of waves over the country during a slow subsidence of tho land is ecpially untenable. On a gentle slope sands and gravels would be formed, and perhaps deposited immediately upon the rock, and this sheet one might sui)posc drawn up like a curtain over the hills as the land sank. The lighter materials settling in deei)er water might, at tho same time, form a sheet drawn up over the first, so that we might have the surf\ice covered by a sheet of sand and pebl)les and over this a sheet of clay. 508 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. i But wc have the })chlilc shoot unaccompaniod by wasliod sands, which is something iiiconi])rohonsiblo under this hypothesis, and, what is of more in)})ortance, we fuid thoni lying on slopes so steep that it would ()e impossible for them to remain unless supported by the weight of the overlying clay. It is ineonii>rehensible how water could have formoil these deposits without at the same time laying down strati- lied beds of sand, gravel, ttc. in the valleys, or of leaving sand de|)Osits on the i)lains. It is imi)ossible that the sea should have been without currents and without tides, and the inevitable eflect of their action would be to sweo]) away the lighter material and de])osit it along the shore. In the ter- tiary beds, not only of the coast, l)ut of the interior, we have an exami)le of a sandy deposit rapidly thrown down in a muddy sea, and which, Itesides sand, contains a very large percentage of clay, passing even into j-are white clay ; but nowhere is it dilhcult to distinguish these tei'tiarv deiiosits from the drift. The tertiary clays wei'O the products of the destruction of gneiss and other metamorphic rocks, and so was the drift, but in the foi-mcr the material has been washed, though rarely ever arranged. The mica lias been comi)letely destroyed, and one sees nothing of it, while in the drift-earth it is constantly to be found. One would cxi»ect that, if the Brazilian drift were a sedi- mentary deposit, the clays would resemble those of the icv- tiary, which is nowhere the case. They are everywhere just such a material as would result from the mechanical trituration of the rocks, and are Avholly without stratilioa- tion or signs of having been deposited l)y the action of water. There has been within recent times a slow elo\a- tion of the Brazilian coast. In sheltered as well as ex])os(Ml situations the do^tosits which it has brought above the sur- ^ EfiSUMl^: OF THE GEOLOGY OF HRAZIL. 500 face consist of sand : g-ravcls and clays ai-e oxcoedinnlv rare along the exposed coast. XowIktc in river, lake, or sea deposits have 1 e\('r seen on the Hrazilian coast any- thinfr resemhling the drift-clays. 1 have studied with car*; the effect of the action of the sea on the solid rocks of all kinds along the coast, with the view to ascertain, if possiltle, whether the pecnliar evenly moulded surface cov- ered l>v the drift could in any wav he due to water action joined to the effects of deconijiosition. Where the rock is gneiss and very lioniogeiieous in structure, and not well hedded, as is the case in the range of hills skirting the sea- shore on hoth sides of the entrance to the hay of Rio, the rocks swci)t hy the waves may have a very smooth and i-eg- ular outline, hut where, as on the shores near lioa Viagem at Kio, Os Busos, Ilheos, or IJahia, the n^ck is well hedded and the strata arc very liighly inclined, the softer heds give Avay first and leave the harder j)rojectiug, and the rocks witliin reach of the waves are worn in the most irregular manner. Now I do not see how we can resist the con(du- sion that, if the surface clays and gravels were the products of wave action, we ought to find tlie surface of the rock on which they rest showing some signs of that action in the wearing away of the softer heds, leaving the har(hM' stand- ing np ; hut this is never the casj. Tlie. 2 can he no transi- tion more ahrupt than that from a wave-washed, rock-hound shore, and the smooth, even outlines of the hills ahove tlie line of wave action. Take, for instance, the coast hetween the litrhthonse at Bahia and the ^forro do Conselho, which is to a large extent rocky, and examine the moulding of the rocks washed hy the Atlantic surf, and then compare it with the moulding of the rock on the seavrard side of any of the exposed hills, where, if washe<l l»y the sea, the rock would i> I GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. liavc lioon suljjcctod to tlic poinidinf^ of tlio same surf, aiil you will l>e coiiviuct'd that the mouldiiig of the drift-covi'iiil rock-surface was due to an agent that did not respect sm thoroughly the dilferencc in hardness hetwcen the heds a< water does. It is useless to suppose that the sea nuglit have waslied against a decom))ose(l surface which miglit have been rounded down l)y the surf. The wash of tlio waves would have removed it entirely. The rounded wave- washed rocks on the shoi-es of Rio are hare, and it is incun- ceivablc how, in the face of the tremendous Atlantic sui f. they could ever l)e covered l)y detritus l)y wave action, as all the hills lying along ine C(>ast of IJahia and Kio inva- riably arc. Along the coast where decomposition j)revails. from the wetness of the climate, the clavs are verv alum- dant, and it is a rare thing to find ])0uldei's of any oIIk i- rock than quartz ; but in meastu'c, as one goes inland an^l ap}»roachcs the dry zone, as is beautifully seen on the Sao Francisco, the clays grow less almndant while the peblilc- laycr gradually passes into a sheet of l)oulders of ro(dc scat- tered over the surface with little admixture of earth. The rock being of the same general character over large aivas. it is usually a dilhcult matter to decide whether a boulder is travelled or not;* but I have seen at Pii-anhas syenite boulders lying on gneiss, though evidently coming from nnt far away, and I have seen gneiss and qtuirtz l)ouldcrs lyinir in the clays on the tertiary plain on the Mucury. I have already called attention to the intermixture of greenstone and gneiss botdders of innnense size hi the valley of Tiji'.ca. occupying situations into which water could not have brought them, and into which they coidd not have fiillcn. * Tliis is an iniportnnt point to lioar in mind. Tiie ^'colnL'y of" Brazil is so very simple that \vc find the same kind of rock ovir immense are.is. r£sum£ of Till-: croLOCY of hhazil. o< 1 Xo one scciiiu" llio Itouldor-scattcrcd surface of Dalua and the Sao Francisco, where the de(;onn)osition is exceedingly sliglit, wouM ever, 1 am persuaded, seek for an expUmation of the distribution of these masses over tlie surface in run- ning water or wave action, which hist wouhl have l)cen \n)\v- erless over so uniforndy level a surface. 1 nmst insist u])on the fact that the unarranged materials arc precisely like our umnodified drift in the north, and that the surface of the rock on which they lie has the moulding of Die surfaces on which our northern drift lies, and that if wc refer the north- ern drift to the action of glacier ice, we nuist do the same thiuii' for the Brazilian sui-face detritus, contrary as it is to all our preconceived opinions of the distribution of drift. The fact that neither Professor Agassiz nor myself, nor any one else of our exj)edition, has been aide to dis('o\er glacial striie in Brazil is of very secondary importance. The drift itself exists all over the country, and it cannot lie exj)lained away. I have looked carefully for stria?, Itut tlierc has been everywhere enough decomposition of the sur- face of the rock as well as of the boulders scattered over it to have destroyed all trace of them. Once 1 thought 1 ha<l found striiic. On the Pom Pedro Segundo Railroad, near Mendes, while enga<;"ed in making an examination of the cuttings, I found one in which the drift-clay had been removed from over the decomi)Oscd gneiss, exposing the gla- ciated surfiice. This appeared to be quite fresh, and to my surprise was deeply furrowed with parallel stria\ 1 took pains to inquire of the engineers of the road, and learned that the drift had slid off from the upjier part of the cutting, which was a sufficient explanation. I speak of this only in order to put other observers on their guard against l)eing deceived by any similarly striated surfaces. I can olTcr Init 572 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. one explanation of the formation of the j)ot-liolos oliscrved by Ml". Allen, and that is that they wei-e formed hy glacial cascades in the same way as the pot-holes seen so often on the surface of ridges in the north have been formed during the drift ; for, according to the testimony of Mr. Allen, the pot-holes of the Province of ]3ahia occur on the gneiss j)lains, far away from any present obstacle over Avhieh the water may have flowed. Mr. Allen describes them as being exceedingly well preserved, and having smooth sides. The drift is, as above stated, removed everywhere down to the limit of wave action before the later elevation of the coast; but the occurrence of the drift on some out- lying hillocks of the tertiary clays on the line of the exten- sion of tlie Cautagallo Railroad, between Porto Novo and Porto das Caixas, which arc now surrounded by recent sands, made me suspect that the clay was once continuous below the present sea level between them and the main- land. The fact, too, that it extended uniformly down to the same level everywhere was almost sullicient jiroof tlint it formerly extended to a much lower level. At Bahia, as already described, recent sands blown or washed over the drift have been cemented and have protected it from the action of the sea, so that it may be seen extending l)eneath them down nearly to low tide. This fact seems to prove satisfactorily that formerly the land stood at a higher level even than now.* Drift occurs on some of the islands off the coast. * From tlic observations of Danvin nnd others we know that this recent uprise lias been nmeli greater in the soutli than in tiie north, and it seems to increase in going south from Kio to the Straits of Magellan. It would seem that the great movements just antecedent and posterior to the drift period in EfiSUMfi OF THE GEOLOGY OF Y.UA7AL. ii 1 o I liclicvc that duriiin- the time of tlie dril't the country stood at a niucli higher level than at present, and that it was covered by a general glaeier. Over the coast region, Avhere decomposition of the rocks had largely obtained, and where the surface of the rock, rendered even by this agent, had been covered by a thick layer of loose material, the glacier reworked this loose material, and when it disai>[)eared left it as a j)aste, in which the harder materials, such as fragments from quartz veins, kc, more or less rounded, were embedded. The layer of (piartz pebbles underlying the paste appears to have consisted of coarser fragments l)orne along by the bottom of the glacier, while the paste seems to have been more or less distributed througli the body of the glacier. A glacier moving over the gneiss regions of Rio or Espirito Santo to-day wouUl find few loose roeks to trans- port, for the precipices are smooth and unliroken, and little falls from them, so that one could not expect to see mo- raines of coarse materials formed by the glaciers oi that region, and if the ancient glaciers moved over a country whose surface was decomposed, it is not wonderful thai the drift consists of paste with but few boulders. On the con- trary, over the dry zone the cliffs are ragged and broken, and the rock surface is apt to be l)roken up, and we should expect to find over such a region drift of a dillerent char- acter from that which obtains over the moist c(jast region, and resembling more closely the drift of North America. In the drift-})astc I have never seen the slightest trace of organic remains of auv kind. Poat-Tcrliar//. — To this epoch l)elong the cavern depos- South Amcrioii have corrosponded with tliu>ie of North America during the same iwriod. In North America the oscilhitioii of level was greater in the north than in the south ; in South America it was just the reverse. ,^f' 574 GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GKOGRAPHY. its ill Minas Gcracs, afTording the remains oi' Mastodon, Megatheriuni, ttc, and the lagoa deposits on the borders uf the Rio do Sao Francisco already described. Recent. — To recent times belong the sands containing recent sliells, &c., exposed by the late uprise of the coast, the solidified beaches, rock reefs of Pcrnambuco and else- where, the coral reefs, the peat deposits, and the alluvial beds of the rivers and lakes. )i' Mastodon, ic borders of is containing: of the coast, nco and elsc- thc alluvial APPENDIX ox THE BOTOCUDOS. Orifrin of the Name Botocndn. — Stature, — Pliysicnl Form and Characteristics. — Manner of Wearing,' Hair. — Li]) and Ear Ornaments. — Professor Wyniau's Description of Slcidl of Dotoeiido from Sao Matheos. — Comparison with other described I5otoci;do Skulls. — Color of Botoeudo. — Manner of Taint- ing the Body. — Dislike to heii^^' clothed. — Bows and Arrows descrihed. — Gerber's Emimeration of the Tribes. — Von Tschudi's Dcseription of the T,.ii,es. _ Hanehos and Huts. — Tood. — Mode of procuring,' Fire. — Manu- factures. — Marriage Customs. —The IJotocudos cruel Husbands.- Fa- cility with which Wounds heal. — Treatment of Children. — Religious Ideas. — Behef in the Bad Spirit, Janchon. — No Belief in a Supremo God. — Burial Customs. — War Customs. — Cannibalism. — Dance. — Tiic Boto- cudos fast disai)i)earing. — Botocudo Character. — Geographical Distribution of the Botocudos. — Peculiarities of their Language, Prouuntiation, Gram- matical Structure, &c. — Botocudo Vocabularies. No Indiiin tribe of Brazil save the Tupi's has hoen iiK^rc cele- brated than that known as the Aimores, Ainibores, or Botocmhis, the latter being the name by which it is known in Brazil, as well as in most recent works on the country. Tliey call themselves Enge- rcichnmiri* a word which I cannot translate. Mvikj, in Botocudo, means to .70, and the termination, which is more likely to be a separate word in the proper name, probably has the same meaning, but I have not been able to find a definition for the remainder of * I give Prince Neuwied's orthography. Gerbcr. also a German, in his Nocoes Geo;jraJicos, &c., p. 24, spells the word E,><l,<rd-nmnr,, an<l he says that Guido Marliere gives it Cmckmnn. The name Botocudo is spelled by ditferent authors in all possible ways, as, for instance, Botokoudy, Botoknde, Bootoo- cudv, &c. VOL. I. 25 KK 578 ArPENDIX tlio word. Tlio name Bntociulo was without d<tul)t ni)])lic(l to tli} trilif l)y the I'ortugucso, bcciiiiso of the custom of ])ierciuy' th>' under lij) and the eurs, and insertinj,' therein romul, tlut piooos (t' wood, Hke barrel-corks, or hofot/iies, as they are called in PortUL,ni('<(>. The termination ut(<> in I'ortu^'ueso has the signilication of/V/- nt'shetf with, as in the words cdhc/hif/o, vclhido. It is true that lUnloipie means a pellet of clay, such as is tlirown from a sort <{ bow in use anion*,' the Indians of IJrazil, and that the same woid means also a kind of ston or earth, employed by the Indians to ornament the body. V /e thouglit that the name of the tribe was derived from W\\t> \\<»'(l, l)ut the derivation 1 have above given is without doubt the correct one. The Cordf/rnjia Jiraslli- f«* gives the same origin fur the word, and so do Neuwied and Von Tschudi. In Esijirito Santo and in the Mucurv region thcv arc com- monly called Bitf/res, a name which Von Tschudi derives from thu French. In Stlo Matheos and on the Doce I lieard them called Tapuyos, a Tupi word applied to savages generally. Judging from the Botocudos I have seen, I should, with V^n Tschudi and M. Serrcs, descrilie the race as of middling height. I have seen manv who were five feet ten inches in height, and T remember especially one powerful fellow, who could not have measured less than five feet eleven inches. D'Orbigny makes the * "As ontrns nnrncs ronvizinlins, no nionos al^riimns chnmam-llios Aymboros, c OS coii(|ui.sta(lorcs por corniprito Ay mo res ; nuis tic nniitos tempos por c;t quasi niio tern outre nomc cntrc os Cliristn(js seiifio o de Botociidos jielo extra- va^ante c ridieulo costume dc fiirarem ns.orollias e os licii.-os c dilatnreni-nos notavelniente com rodellas de jiiiu, iiareecndo-llu's que licam assim inais gcntis e ftirozos." — Corofjmfin BrnKilinr, Tome II. p. 72. The Dicciomirio Geof/raphico derives tlie name from Doto and cwlm, "because the Indians of this nation were rollio.t [short and thick], and went with tlic hody covered witli a coatinc; of jrnm-eopid, with which tliey were accustomed to paint themselves, to jireserve them from the stiuirs of mosquitoes and other insects." This is a custom which at jwcsent, at least, does not seem to be in use among the Indians. ON THK DOTOCUDOS. ■ • ( .ipjilicul to tlio 'I' pierciii;:' tli.' I, Hilt pieces <.f ill Purtiimu'si'. icjition of ///,■■ t is true that from ii sort ^t' the same woiil •y the Iiidiiuis e iiaiiio of the 1 I liavc ah(jve 'f/rrifid Jh-asiH- • Xouwied ami they arc coin- rives from th'' (1 them called iild, Avith Toll ddliiig heii,dit. n heij^ht, and nild not have ;iiy makes the 1-1 lies Aymboro'j, s toni|ios por ca lidos ]iuIo ixtni- 3 c (lilatiircni-nos ?siin inais gcntis codrn, " because nt with the hoily istoniod to piiiiit other insects." •e in use amonsr mean hciixht of the male Uotocudo l.fll!*) metres, and liis extreme height only l.OOO metre, hut this must lie a typoj^'raiihieal error.* Aeeordiiifjf to M. I'orte, the height of the male iiolocudo varies from I.S.") metrcH to l.lS metres, and that of the U(jiuen from 1.3") metres to l.U» metre. f The limbs and body of the I'.otoeiido, though e.xeeedingly strong, look soft and effeminate, and the mnscle.s have not the same prom- inence and knottiness seen in the nuisculaidy developed white or negro. They arc generally broad-slK^ddered and large-bodied, Imt their arms, and especially their legs, are apt to l)e tiiiii. tliou^li very ninscnlar, and tiie latter strike one as lieing disprojiortionately small, when compared witli those of the negro and wiiite man, tiio calf being ijut slightly develo|)ed. Von Tsehiidi e.ills attention to this, and Agassiz speaks of tiie small size of the legs of the Indian in comparison with his sipiare, heavily built trunk, but I have seen Botocudos as well ])roportioned as the whites. { In all the males * L'llomme Amcrimiu, Tome I. p. 102. t Coiiifites licndus. Tome XXI. \\. ."). t Specimens of Naknenuks were earried to France liy M. Porte and were examined In- M. Serres, who puhlislud in tlic (.'iDnjitcs f!<i,ihis (Tome XXI. p. 7) a descri])tion of them. I am not aware that any other scientist has made a more di'taiied stndy of the notoeudo than he, and I (piote a i)arai:raiih or two from him rehitin;,' more especially to tlie configuration of tlic trunk. M. Serres says : — " La poitrine etait hien eonformee ehez riiomnie ; mi immi aplatie .-urlede- vant elle jjaraissait d'uneseide venue ct ne i)resentait ]»as Fesjieee de v()u-;>ure(nu! Ton remari[ue au niveau d« grand pectoral ehez les homines de la r:ice c.iiicasicpie dcvelopiies au memo de;rre ; voussure (prot^Vaieut d'nne muniere manpu-e Ics Ameiieains loways, comme on Ic remaniue chc/, Ics honimes les plus torts de la race caueasi(|ue. Kn revanche elle paraissait ])lus allon:;i'e clie/, le I'.oto( ude ct plus lariiC cpie I'ordinaire a la re';;ion infe'rieure. La jjoitrinc de la t'emine etait, en arriere plus anpiee, epic eelle de I'homme; en avaut, elle s'inclinait en has d'unc nianiere .si maniue'e, (pi'il m'a fallu l;- -'esiirer ]i!iisieurs fois pour m'assurer(pi'il :i'y avait rien d'exaire're dans le ]iorrr.iit (pi 'en a fait uotre jieintrc si distiuirue du Museum M. Verner. De eette iuelinaison de la jiciitrine nsul- tait rabaissement du seiu, abaissement <iui rajipelait celui des fenimes e'thio- nso APPENDIX. tho pelvis seoincd oxtnionliiiiirily uiirrow, iind tUv liiudcr pai-ts very siiiall. 'I'lic liiuuls lire well lunnod Imt snmll. 'I'lioso of the woiiaii are particuliirly so, as M. Serres has rouuirkuil. Tlie feet are smaller than in the Caucasian race. The physiognomy tjf the I'.otocudos varies so extraordinarily that it is exceedingly ditHcidt to descrihc its peculiarities. Of a do/cn iir more I5otocudos in the fazenda of Capitiio Grande no two looked alike.* There were two young men who were partially civilized, and spoke Portuguese, and I should never have taken tliem for anything else than very light-ctdored undattoes. Tlioy all have low forehea<ls, ius Von Tschudi, Xeuwied, and M. Serres have re- mai'ked. Their eyes are hlaek, usually small and full of life. Neuwicd says that l)lue eyes sometimes occur. .M. Serres says that those of the women he saw were more open than those of the men. Tho exterior angle of the eye is sometimes a little ol)li([ue. As for the nose, it is usually rather short : and in the four protiles of Botocudos at Sao Matheos la my note-book it is represcnteil as having a concave outline, the extremity being large, while the al;e are rather wide ; but I have seen examples of narrow and arched noses. I give two of these jjrofilcs in the following wood-cut. t piqnps, ct qui ponrrnit dovpnir un ^;^r^^t^ro do prnndc importanco s'il ii'y nvnit ricn d'individuel duns cintc disposition. " Comnio c'oliii do I'lioninio, le thorax de la fommc otait tri's-('lar!.n inforicnre- nicnt ; n-t ('largissLMneiU np parait avoir sa cansc dans I'ahaissctni'nt de la volume du foil', f|ui je recnnnus jiar la ])eiTns<i(>n dans les limitcs infcVictnrs (pio n'attcint jamais cct orjiane dans son ctat natnrcl clu'z la f'cmino cancasi(|no. " Avec cet ahaissoincnt ilu foie coincidait un nbaissenient de rom>)ilit', ct H cclui-ci n'i)ondait un ahaisscnicut dii puhis, qneje rcconnns avee jieiiie, ii cause de la saiUie praisseuse du niont de Venus. L'al)aissenient dc roinliilie faisait saillir l'al)doinon en has ct snrlcs cote's ct cchii dn pnliis inelinait en has et en arrierc Ic has^in ; de la resnltait amplenr de la rcfrion fcssierc, deja moins de- vclopee que chez la fern me caueasicjue." * Nothinir can be more false than the oft-qnotcd and sweeping assertion of Ulloa : " A'isto un Indio de qual(|ucr region, se pnede decir (juc sc han visto todos on qnanto el color y Contestnra." — Xntirias Anipriranm, p. 2.52. t I do not offer these <krri'he< as accurate jiortraits. They were drawn from (•N lilt; liUlUCLDuS. oSL iler parts voi-y of the wuuaii Tlio foot iiiv rdiimrily tliat or a dozen no two li>okfil illv civilized, \vn them for 'hey uU liiivo nvs hiivo re- full of life. . Serres says I tiioso of the ittle ol)li(jue. ! four prolile.s J presented as ivhile the alie r and arched ood-cut.f ce s'il n'y nvnit Inrn;! info'rictire- iit (le la volimu; c's (|iio n'iittcint rombilic, ct H peine, 11 cause 'oiiiliilic faisiiit lit en hi\^ ct oil dcjii moins dc- ng assertion of e sc lian visto 5. 252. re drawn from ''^'0^' )r* ■■m^m 1^ &i \ noTOCCDO MAN ANK WOMAN. M. Sorrcs describes the nose of the men as straij:lit, and those of the women as slightly arched at the hase. In Ixitli, aecordin;.,' to the same author, the alte are large, Imt more so in the men than the women. Neuwied's plates of the Botocudos arc well drawn, hut they give one absolutely no idea of the race. The chief Krengniitnuick, barring his abominable head, has the figure of a Caucasian, while his wife might have [msed for a Venus. Mcuwied's figures were evi- dently drawn from Caucasian models. The liotocudos as a race arc very ugly, but some of the young girls might, by a very lil)eral construction of the word, \)e called pretty. As a general rule, tho women have the abdomen very large, the l)rcasts flabl)y and pen- ilent, and not nnfrequcntly they are bow-legg>'d. The children, like all Hrazilian children, are a])t to fall into the hal)it of dirt-eating, and are very often stunted, swollen, and sickly,* Tiatiirc, and the outlines are not far from correct. I have introduced them also for the purpose of showing the appearance of the pierced car and lii». Tho woman carries a l>a'^ on her hack. * I saw in Brazil a larij;e nwuiher of children and adults who were addicted to this habit. In most eases the clay is not eaten because of want of nourish- ment, but from a inorliid v] n-tite. Ami)n_' -"u-.e nations, however, as the r,s2 ai"im:ni)IX. Hi The olicok-liniu's arc ^'ciicrally (|i!ite Iiigli, iIkmi^Ii not so nnich sn us anion;,' tiic Tupi (k'sccndiints. Tlicy iip[)e;u' i.'s[tcci!illy pvomi ni'iit in the einaciatcd old women, who are wretchedly nuly hi a|i pcarance. The face is somewhat flattened. The mouth is always very lai'uc, and the li[is ai'c (luite thick. The hair is black, coarse, and ?(trai,<:ht. The heard is of the same character, and very sparse.* Tliey ^i'enerally pull it out ; hut I have frcnpiently seen men with a very sparse l)eard.t as, for iu- stance, the one whose profile 1 have ^iven. 'I'hoy sometimes cut vi\' or pull out the eyebrows, and the women at least sutler hair td pMw on no part of the liody e.\ce))t the head. The hair is alway> worn short, and falls over the forehead. Sometimes it is shaviil away for two or three tinu'cr-hreadths all r(»uiid, with a I'azor made from hanilioo ; hut this custom is not general, and none of those I saw at Sao Matheos were shaven in this wav. Tiie wdiuen usuallv ■we.u' in tiieir perforated lips and ears round disks of W(k I (oo- tni/Hc.'i), like the cork to a lame, wide-mouthed hottle. Of the many ])otocudos T have seen on the Hio Doce, at Sao Matheos, at ("olo- nia Leoi>oldina, I'mcu, and I'hiladelphia, only the adult women had hoth ears and lips pierced. The old men invarial)ly had the eai's p(!rforate(l, hut 1 do not rcmemher ever liavinir seen a male witli a hole in his lip, and I never saw a child with either ear ci' lip perforated, which leads me to suppose that the custom is sjfoinLr out of use. The picrcinif of the lip and car is jierformed, accordiim to Xeuwie(l. when the child is seven or eiyiit vears of atre. Xeu- wied says that it is done with a sharp ])ioce of wood ; other writers Oti'iiiiMcs on llio Orinoco, lar^o (|iiantitiis of cImv are .ten in tini(>s of prcat scarcity of food. Ilniiilioldt has investigated tlii- suliject, m Iiis usual exhaust- ive manner. See liis Travels, Holm's Kdition, Vu]. II. p. 4!l."). * M. Serres rays (lor. ell.) : " Leiirs clieveux e'taicnt noirs, o])ais, court.s, lisscs ct limite's en deuM-cercle sur le front. Ceiix de i'hoinme etniciU ])lus nules (|iie cenx de la femine." t Dr. Karl Anpiist Tt'iUiier descrihes the T?otocndos of the rdonic Leo- y.^ldina as wearin;; a sparse beard. [Dk Coloitie Leojioklinu in Dntsilieii,Gf)tUu- gen, 18C0, p. G.").) I ON' THE nOTOCUDOS. r»8"-) ; (it her writers £^ say that tlie sharp spine of tlio Airi pahn is used. The oponiii-s once made, small pieces of wnod are inserted to distend tht in. afterwards lar;jrer ami lai'L'er ones Ikmiii: nsed nntil the ojieninLT nf the ear may he, aceordinir to Xenwied, even four inches in diam- eter ! 1 have nevor seen a lii)-phig in use more than two inches in diameter. The car-plu^ is much larger. The lip or ear ci-iia ..lent consists of a thin section of the stem of a l!ai'riLrndo tri'C (f'/inrisi'it), which furnishes a wood (juite as light, if not lighter than ciii-k, and of a white color.* Th" M])-plug is usually almut three fourths of an inch thick. The li[» surnnnids it like a tiiiik red cord of Hesh. It is nsually W(jrn the most of the time, hut may he, and is fVom time to time, removed. Tiie li[) tlicn iiaii;^s of eoiu'se against the chin, a hideous loop o' flesh, comparahle more to a great worm tiian anything else, displaying the teetii with a horrilile grin. The pressure of the plug against the lower incisors in front pushes them out of place, and even causes thnu to fall out, so that in old woman with the lip ornament alwav wants the lower front teeth, and not iiifre(iuently the npp''r. ]S'euwied describes and fimip's the jaw of a I'otocudo in whitii the alveolie of the front incisors had completely disappeared, leav- ini,' tl le hone as sharp as a knifi Xenwied, in the .Vtlas to his Travels, on Plate 1 7, re|)i'esents four heads, — three profiles and one full face. These figures are really ^f very little value, as they have evidently not l)een drawn from na- ture. In Figure 1. the ear-plugs are represented twice as tliick as they ought to he, and the under lip is represented as touehiiij- the upper, which is ahsohitely i:,ipossihle. The iiosition of the phiir is hetter repres\...ted in Fi'j:ure IV. It is usually carried, in tiie rr- pf>se of the features, nearly horizontally. In a smile it is inclined upwards, and often touches the nose. In eating it may lie taken I'Ut, hut none of the IJotocudo wi'iuen 1 have seen eatimi' removed it. re comical sii:ht than an old woman suckiiiLC a stick of su.rar- mo * Fl(nf'licr "iny- tliat tlicsc jiIul's mo inailf tVom tlie wood of the nluc, wlii.'h i< iiicorrncf. F.whaiik sjieak^ of tlu' lilu;,^s as made of yxVo wood, doiilitk'ss uioau- ing the same tliiii''. ;s4 APPEXDIX. cane can scarcely lie imagined. In (piaiTels the perforated oars aii'l lip are apt ti> sulFor, ami it is no unconunon thing to see thcia lirnken. In tiii.^ case tlie ornament is not necessarily discarded The two ends are tlien tied together ,,ith a bit of hark, or sduic- thing of the sort, and the plug is replaced. At Iriuu 1 saw a I'atlh r yoinig woman whose lip had been torn and tied np. I'sually tlic ear-])hig is not worn, and the loo|» of Hesli is left dangling, some- tinges reaching to the shoulder. When the plug is removed tlie i'|)ening generally appears very irregular, as in the man whose jiro- tile 1 have given. In travelling through the forest this looj) wouM lie likely to be caught against limits of trees and be torn, so it is very often turned uj) and laid ovur the ear, which shortens tli(; organ in the first place, and jtroduces a horrildc deformity. I observed that two old women at Sao Mathco.s wore the ear-flap in this way even in camp. Neuwicd* cites a number of examjiles of nations that pierce the ear and lip. The Aguitecpicdichagas, Lengoas, and Charruas of Paraguay wn'e large blocks of wood in their ears and lips, but the lip-plug was smaller than that t>f the Uotocudo. The (Jamellas of Maranhao used immense wooden lip-plugs, and Major O. C Jaiiu.s informs me that the I'ugres of Sao Paulo have the same custom, though it is, however, now gfiing out of use as the Indians becoine civilized. Major James says that the civilized Indians close up the openiuij: in the lip with wax. The Muras, on the Amazonas, useij to pierce the lip, but the custom is now abandoned. The Tupi- nainbas wore ornaments of nephrite stone in the? li]). Mr. (Iforgo (Jillis has called my attention to the fact, that the Koloshians of Alaska pierce the liji and wear a J)lug. It is very interesting t<' know that this cistom obtains among savages so widely separatiil. \N'ood describes a nation in Africa that pierces and distends tlir u])per lij) by inserting a ring, a custom more hideous than that ot the Botocu(K). I give figures of the skull of a male Botocudo T obtained f t * Jitise luwh Draailliii, IJaiul II. scitc 7. ox THE nOTOCL'DOS. 58.J 'ated onrs mii'I '^ to see tiii'iii rily (liscanltMl l)iirk, or SI line- T 8ii\v a ratlicr I'simlly fhi' anu'liiig", some i rcnuiVL'il till' iHii wliose jiro- liis l("i]) WDiiM e torn, so it is sliortciis till.' dcforiiiity. 1 the t'ur-tlap in hat picrt'o tlio (I Charruas of (1 lijis, Init the le ClaiiR'llas nf .r O. ('. Jaim'< same custi'iii. idiaiis heniiiir IS close up tlir mazouas, usli] 1. The TiM'i- ]\Ir. (Jeoi'L;!' le Koloshiiiiis iiiterestiiiLr t'' ely separatiil. distends thf s than that ot T obtained fur i i tlie Museum of Comparative Zoiilogy at Sao Miitheos. 'I'ln- man's name was KujiririVck, or the ( >nea. lie had died of disease, and had been liuried in the vieiniiy of the fazenda, ImU tlie I'aiiis had uncovered the hodv, which his relatives had left to rot in a swamp. A half-civilized Indian led me to the sjjot, and himself pro- ctu'ed for me the skull, which we carried to the house and |ilaced on a table. When the Indians came in to supper the Hotocudos feathered around and made spoi-t of it, thrusting,' their fin^'ers into the eyeless sockets and lauirhiuL: at it, thou^rh at the same time they knew that it belonired to one of their near relations. This skull I iilaccd in the hands of \^,_^'*'^ ^i^ Ji 8^ / ^9 I'rofessor JellVies Wynian, of (."ambridj,'e, Massachusetts, who has kindly furnished me with the followin;^; interestini,' and val- uable notes upon it. " From tiie references in the Tli(stiiiiii.< Cru/it'ontm of Dr. ,F. I'arnard Davis, paue '2']'), it apprars that oiilv a few crania of r»utociiilus have been dcscrilied, — not mon> tlian five in all ; and of these but one lias lieen lueasinvd. and this very im- perfectly by Dr. Davis, as he had oidy a cast, the oriLri- n,d lieiiiLT in StiH'khohn. The specimen from S'lo Ma- tiieos is, therefore, a valua- ble addition to the previous collections. It is that of a man somewhat advanced in litV', tin' teeth pine a;id the alveoli lar;^elv absorbed ; the sa^'ittal and •>:. * 580 APPENDIX. lamlidoidiil sutuvos are closed in those portions where the two johi. The side widls of the head arc vertical and the top some- what root'-.shaped. The foramen magnum has about the same po- sition as in the American aborigines generally, its index being 40. <i, while in these it is lO.'J. The breadth across the malar bones, together with the njof- shaped top, give to the whole, when viewed in front, a somewhat py- ramidal form conijiared with that of the otlicr barbarous tribes gener- ally. The size of the cranium is large, its length being 51U milli- metres, and its capacity l.l''i-"i centimetres, or 88 cubic inches; while theirs is only l,37t) centimetres, or 84 cubic inches. The length of the skull being taken as 100, its breadth is 72.8, and it is, therefore, decidedly elongated or dolichocephalic. The whole is massive and heavy, antl, at the hinder part especially, quite thick. "Though somewhat smaller, this skull, as will be seen by the following tixble, agrees very nearly in its proportions with that de- scribed by Dr. Davis in his ThcsaHvm. rircuiii- tV'ri'iico. Ill III. Length. Brcailth. Height. Length. ni.iii. 111. 111. III. III. in.ni. Sao Matlu'os .... ulO 187 136 138 380 Davis's collection . . . 525 190.5 139.5 144.5 401 Blumcnbacirs collection • • 165 139.5 • • " When compared with Blumenbach's specimen there is a wide ditference. Tiic onr figtu'cd by him in his Decades Vvaniorum, ON Tin-: noTOCL'DOS. 587 lore the two ic top sonio- ;ho .Siune po- X being 40.(i, iiiiiltir bones, th tlio ro(»f- give to the 11 viewed in mewluit py- m conij)iireJ if the uther ribes gener- sizc of the 1 large, its ; 510 milli- its capacity s only l,."j7ii skull being 'c, (leeitledly and heavy, seen by tlie vith that de- ght. Length. .in. S 4.5 9.5 n\.m. 380 401 re is a wide Crtdilorum, riato LVTII., was bronglit from 15razil by the Prince Wied Neii- wied, and is also tigm'ud in Morton's Cnntiti Anicricdiia, Plate XV. In the tirst ease the view is obli(|ue, and in the second exactly in profile, this view being taken from a drawing furnished by the Prince. " In its thickness and niassiveness it agrees with that of Sao Matheos. As far as one can judge from the ligures of Plumcn- bach and .Morton, the one descril)ed by them is short and liigh, and, according to lilumenl)ach's de.scrii)tion, remarkable for its I)ru- tality, or, to use his own words, ' If you disregard for a moment the under jiiw and interval of tlie orbits, the pi'ojcctinir nasal sjjine, and the other particulars peculiar to man, the general as[)ect approaches nearer to that of the orang-outang than tliat of any other skull from a barljarous nation to be seen in my collection.' His figiu'c seems to justify his words, and rejjresents the jaws moi'e projecting and simious than does that of Dr. Morton. "Of the original shape of the jaw of the cranium of ."^ao Ma- theos it is now hardly j)0ssiblc to foi-m a c(jrrect idea, since it is somewhat broken. The teeth are gone, and the alveoli partly absorbed. There is nothing, however, in what remains to in- dicate great size or forward projection. The whole cranir.m will compare fiivorably with the crania of other liarbarous trilu?s of America. Certainly there is nothing indicative of extreme degra- dation." In a letter accompanying tiic above notes Professor Wyman says : " It is (piite curious to see what an entirely different look- ing thing the skull of Sao Matheos is when compared with the famous one descrilied and tigured by lUumenlnuh, and wliieh has hitherto given the key-note to all that has been written about the skulls of P>otocudos. If there were only your Sao Matheos skidl and his, and they had fallen into difl'ereut hands for description, one would have given us the connecting link of man with the apes, while the other would have given us a highly respectable American savage. ;ss APPEN'DTX. The skull described by niiimc'ibiich* is iij^'uivd as a vif^'iietto t. tlio second \ :)luino of I'rince Max. zu Xcuwicd's lieine uach Jirn- si/ien. It sccnih to mo to be most extraordinarily short and small compared with the size of the jaw. Among all the Botocndus I saw in IJrazil there was not one with so ape-like a head and siicli projecting jaws. Von Tschiulit figures the skull of a Botocudo chief, named Pom- kum, from the Mucmy. Ho gives a front but somewhat obli(j\ie view of it, which, however, shows that it agrees with my s|)Ocinu.'ii in the perpendicularity of the sides and in the roof-shaju'd top. The col(jr t)f the I'otocudo is a light yellowish-brown, like that of a very white mulatto, or perhaps more correctly speaking that of a white man somewhat tannc^l, not burned, by exposure tn the Sim. Xeuwied says that they are of a reddish-brown coldr. Von Tschudi a dirty, nearly bronzed Ijrown.f The color varies nmch. 1 should say that tiie bodies of the Botocudos I have seen were, on the average, much lighter in color than those of the white canoe-men of the Jequitinhoidia, accustomed to work almost naked in the sun, and that as a race they were much whiter than the Tupi descendants along the coast, who ditfer most markedly in their whole physiognomy, stature, &c., from their uncivilized neighbors. D'Orbigny has called attention to the yellowish skin-tint of the Brasilio-Guarani races. It is interesting to observe that the Botu- * Prince Neuwiod quotes at the end of the chapter on Botocudos, Vol. 11. p. 7(1, a fow words from Hlinneid)iuh rolativo to this skull, Rlunicnliatdi says: " Dor Botocuile woniit K\v. mt'iTie cthnolo<iisc'he Saniuilunfr iHTi'icluTt hahi'ii, und dcr elicn so schr zu den mcrkwiirdi^ston als zu den selti'usten Stiickcu di i- sclben geln'irt, iiliiult in si-iner Totalforiu (dochohnedcn Untorkiefer) dcni vom ( )uran;iutang nielir, als eiueni dor acht Nc<rerst'liUdel die ich hositze, wcnn ix\M\ Ik'v niaiu'Iien vou dicsen die ()i)erki('for s-tiirkcr als :iu dem brasiliuniscli. n Canuiliak'n iirimiiniron." t lu'iscti (luirli Sml-Amm'kd, Z\v '..r Baml. 328" Seite. I M. Scrrcs di'scrilivs the color of the Botocudos he examined as " bruu ron- frcfitri.', uii ]iru plus ro<(v i|!U' ccllc dcs loways." ON THE r.OTOCUDOS. r.so s a vi<,niotto t'l iV/.vf Hdch Ilra- liort and siuiill c JJutocudo.s I head and such f, named Porn- ewhat ohh(|ue 1 my specimen ihaped top. awn, hke that speaking that y ex])usuro to i-l)i'(nvn culiir, e color vai'ies JS I have seen e of the white ahncst nakcil iter than tlie markedly in ir uncivihzeil :in-tint of the hat the IJotu- nciulos, Vol. II. iiinunliiU'li .'iiws : iTciclicrt IialH'M, en Stiicki'ii lUt- kiefer) deni votii tzc, woiin ;.;lilili brasiliuiiisflu u I a.s " Itriui rou- ciidns, a nation fitted for a life in damp shady forests, and unahlo to bear the stni in the open campos of the interior, are of a very pale color, and very much less dark than those races which live on the i)lains or on open grounds. Southey* thought that their pale color was the result of their life in the sliady forests, and D'Or- bignyt held the same belief, stating in coiitii'mation of it that, while the (Juaranfs of the plains of (,'orrientes and the (iran Chaco are dark colored, the (iuarayos and Sirionos, though belonging to the same race of the Guaranis, who for about four hundred years have lived in the damp and shady forests, are very light c<.tloi'ed. (Jumilla says, that the people living in the forests of the Orinoco are almost white, while those of the plains are dark, t I am tcjld that the iJotocudos ai'e capable of bli'shing. 1 never detected any- thing of the sort, and I doubt whether it is possible in any except those considerably civilized. Among the Indians I saw on the coast only one yonng woman had her cheeks painted, though the custom seems, at least for- merly, to have been (piite common with the Indians in the forest not only to paint th<"' *. ':e but the body. This young woman had a bright reil spou . ' "heck, jiainted with a tint prcjiared from the seeds of the Ur> .a {liixa Onll'iva Liiui.). a fruit common in the Brazilian forests, and from which anatto, or clieese-colovinir, is prepared. This same color is also used l)v other tril)es in Brazil to paint their bodies. A deep blue-black of greater (l\n'al)ility is extracted from the fruit of the (j!eni]i;ipo (G'oiijxi), and is also nsed for ornamenting the body. § The style of ornamentation ap- ])ears not to be fixed, but to vary according to the cajjrico of the individual. Xeuwied describes three jjrincipal styles. In one the face fn)m the mouth ui)wards is painted red with urucii. In * History of Brazil, Chap. XIII. t L'flciiimf Amc'ricaiti, Tome I. ]>. 79. \ Hist, de rOrviioque, Trad., Avignon, l".'i2. Tome I. p. lOS. Cited by D'Orliifrny. Soe Humboldt, Travels, Bohn'.s edition, Vol. II. p. 463. § Henderson, in liis usually inaecurate style, says that the Botocudos paint tliemselves gr(«.'n or yellow. 500 AI'PKXDIX. another the liudy. upper arrrs, and thighs to just below the knee.s are staiiiLMl lihick, the colored portii'U bein;^ separate<l frmn the niipainted liy a red stripe. Sometimes one half the l)ody was ])ainted liliick, the rest being left uneolored. Occasionally a Ijlack liui' like a mustache was drawn across the npj)er lip, and ex- tended to the ears, the rest of the face bciny red, and Ncuwicd savs that sometimes the sides of the bodv arc blackened from tin shoulders to the feet, the middle of the body being without coldr. The cokirs arc usually i)repared in the upper shell of a turtle, and are carried in a joint of bamlxio. As Von 'I'schudi has well remiU'ked, a naked I'otocudo warrior, with his black i)ain' A oody, red face, and lip and ear ornaments, nuist [iresent a most demoniacal appearance. In the forest the Botocudos g\ naked. .Not a single Indian I saw wore any orna- ment on the head or liody, unless it were a simjile string of beads. "When at work on the fazendas they go as nearly naked as jiossiljle: tlie men often tie a shirt by the arms around the waist, letting the liodv hang down in front; the women wciir only a tattered skirt. These garments aiv inunediately discarded as soon as they return to the forest, and one may see little bands entirely naked in the vicinity of Philadelphia and other settlements in the Botocudo region. Like other savage nations, the l)otocndo shows no symp- tom of shame on exposing the person in the presence of those who are di'essed. The ornaments of the wild Indian woman consist of a bami sometimes worn abo\it the head, from which on one side dejiend a number of long strinufs to the ends of which ai'e attached hoofs of capibaras ; of collars made of hard berry-like fruits strung on threads, together with the teeth of monkeys, .tc, or of strings of the hoofs of wild pigs ; and of armlets of beads and teeth. The chiefs sometimes oniament themselves with feathers, but this is rare. I never saw a savage Indian woman wearing a flower, though the civilized Indians are very fond of them, as Mrs. Agassiz tells us m the "Journey in Brazil.'' ox TIIi: BOTOCUDOS. rj 01 : liflow till' )iiratc!fl frniii he liody was iiully a Mack lip, ami cx- ,11(1 Ncuwifil 110(1 IVdlll the ■ithdiit ciilur. a turtle, and cudo wavr'uir, r ornamoiits, lie lorost till' ire any oriia- rinu; of Itciulss. ■d us ixjssililu: st, k'ttiiiji' tlie ixttovcd skirt, tlicy return naked in the ic Botocudu )\\s no syinp- iif those who 1 of a bani'i side dejieiid ttaehed hoofs its strunj; on of strings of teeth. The s, hut this is )wer, though uassiz tells ns The arms of the Botocudo consist of the how an<l arrow ; clulis are rarely used. The how in ordinary use is ahout live feet in length, and is made from the wood of the Airi-pahn. Tiiis wikkI is exceedingly hard, heavy and strong, and of a very dark reildish- brown color. The how is thickest in the middle, where it is round, and it tajjors regularly to each end. So ditlicnlt are these hnws to hend, that no one hut an Indian can use tliem. Mr. ("o})eland brought one from the (Juandu with him, which not even mir strong eanoe-men could bend.* These bows vary somewhat in size, some being even seven feet in length. The arrows are usually about six feet in length, ami aiv madi' of the ('//d, Cuniiac/iuba, 6ic., which furnish light and stn^ng reed- like stems. The arrow used in war is tijjped with a javelindike head, five or six inches long, and sometimes two inches broad, which is made of a j)iece from the side of a joint of Bamboo, and is eonseijiuiitly convex on tme side and concave on the other. This is cut intn a sort of elliptical shape, and sharpened to a long acute point. It is then hardened in lire, and the arrow-head is prepared with an edge as sharp as a knife. The head is bound into the arrnw- shaft with bark. This arrow, which is employed not only in war, but in the chase of the 'i'a[)ir, is, like the other kinds in use among these Indians, ti[iped with the feathers of some large bird, a single feather being bound on each side. It makes a terrible wound, and one particularly dangerous, because of the concave shape of the arrow, which facilitates bleeding. Another arrow in use sometimes in war, but usually in the chase, is furnished with a thin, narrow head, about a foot long, with backward j)rojecting jioints cnt on one side, — a terrible weajjon. For birds and small game an arrow is used whose tip is made * S]icakinix fif tlio strcncrtli of the buliaii'; of tlie vicinity of Rio, and of tlic stitfucss of their hows, Tatv .<ays, Cap. XIII.: "81 loniritmlinc et crassitu- diiic nostros afleo su)it.'rt\nt, ut cos nee I l)Ossit ; i[iiin potius immo totis virihus piic ntare nee adihicere ulliu"> nostrum roriiiii decein annoruni areuhus cur- vaiidis opus esse. 502 APPENDIX. from a stem cut at the node wliero several little branches have their origin in a circle ; the stem is fashioned into u lilunt point just above the node and the branches are cut otf short. An arrow of this kind, of course, does not tear but only bruises. I once en- countered several Indians near Urucil returning to tlieir camp from hunting small lizards with these l)lunt arrows. (Juns are ntit nnuii in use among these savages, though they soon learn to use tiiem very expertly.* 'I'lie IJotocudos use a sort of speaking-trumpet made of the skin of the tiiil of the great armadillo {JJdf^t/jfus </t;/<i.s) to call one another in the forest. IJefore the discovery of America the Indians of Brazil, both Tupi and Botocudo, used cutting instruments of stone of various shiiiies, and at Linhares on the llio Doce the subdelegado pre- sented me with a stone instrument, probably of Tupi origin, of the shape of a saddler's cutting-knife. It was made from a very hard gray stone. 1 unfortunately lost the specimen, so that I am unable to figure it. I have never seen any of the stone imple- ments of the Botocudos. Their principal cutting instnmiont, be- sides their bamlioo razors, consists of a common stout knife, like a butcher-knife, tliough they make knives from hoop-iron, or any- thing else that will serve rhe jjurpose. This knife tliey always cai'ry slung over the back by a cord around the neck. The nation of the Botocudos is divided into a number of little trihns, as they are called, or collections of a larger or smaller number of families, each tribe inhabiting a certain region in which they have their AJdeamenio or head-quarters. Each one of these tribes is governed by a chief usually selected for his strength and bravery, and the tribe frequently takes its name from the leader. Thus a tritie in the Mucury region, headed by a chief of Herculean strength named PoJic/id,f goes by his name. Henrique * Von Tschudi says that the Inilians not only shoot more successfully, but to a greater distance with their arrows, than the European can with his j^un. t A son of Pojicha was a servant in the house of Signor Gazinelli, in Santac Clara. f5 ox Tin: noTOcuDOS. ."1)3 bmnches have hint pohit just An arrow of ;3. I onco cn- to thi'ir caiiiji w.s. (Jims uro ^ soon learn to \tlo of the skhi .s) to cull one if Brazil, both one of various bdelegado i)ro- ru})i origin, of do from u very len, so that I ic stone implc- nstrumcnt, bc- tout knife, like >p-iron, or any- 'e they always neck. umber of little ^cr or smaller tain region in P/ich one of or his strength lamo from the I by a chief of me. Henrique I snccpssfully, but n with his jj^un. izinelli, in Santac rJerber* says that "they divide themselves into scveml tribes, of whicli some are domesticated and gathered together into vil- lages; others, still wild, wamh-r through the f(jrests (jf the valhys of the Mucury, Docc, Tumbacury, l^rui.uca, itc. All of them, hnw- cver, distinguish themselves disadvuntageously from the .Maclia- lalis and Malalis by the inferior degree of their intellectual facul- ties. The principal domesticated trilies are : — (t. The Naknenuks (dwellers in the Serra), a confederation of various tribes, who occupy the valleys of the upper Tn.lus os Santos, Pote, and Mucury, in the Al'h'umentox of the CupitAo Felippe, in the forest of Sa(. Joao, of the Captain \\A(', on tiie margin of the brook Pote, of the Captain Timothe'o, on the Iicitd- waters of the 'J'odos os Santos, itc. i. The tribes - f Pojicha, encamped three leagues beh.w Phila- delphia. c. The tribes of Ciporok, on the margins of tlie rruci'i and Lower Mucury. (/. The IJakiu's, on the left margin of the Mucury. €. The Aranaiis on the margins of the Surubim and Sassidiv. Von Tschudit has given the distril)ution of the tribes with so much detail and apparent precision that I quote what he has to say on the subject : — "The nation of tlio Botocudos is broken up into a multitude of tribes, of which the most divide themselves again into iiuli'pcu(hnt hordes. On the head-waters of the Mucury and 'I\k1os os Santos live the Nakncnuks. From my researches into the meaning <.f this word two entirely opposite cxplatiations have presented them- selves to me. According to one version, the name should nietm ' Lords of the land,' according to the other, ' Not /rom this land.' I am not in the position to determine which translation is the more correct. ;!: To the Xaknenuks must be reckoned as belonging the * Nocoes Geofirnjicas, &c., ))p. 24, 27). t lieisen diirch Siid-Amerika, Vol. II. j). 264. t Sue Gurher, quoteil above. Yon Martius translates the name " homines tm-cc." IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 2.2 12.0 i^ 11 1.6 7 A 4. ^ /^^ *v ^<° :/. C/a ^ Hiotographic Sdences Corporation 23 WE^T MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 iV L1>' \\ %^ .-'■'* '% 5114 APPENDIX, Americanos d'Agoa Branca on the Hio Proto, belonging to the basin of the Jcquitinhonha, where they possess a considerable ahlea. " The Nakneniiks of the ilncnry consist of the following known hordes, which arc called after their chiefs : The horde of Potc, probably the strongest of all, only two leagues distant from Phila- delphia, that of Cramtan, liraz, Fotou, Timothco, Inhome, Ft'lipc, Xiiikatc, and yorti'tc. The last, which formerly numbered over a hundred 'bows' tit for war, has lately melted away to only a few families " South of the Serra Mapmap-crak, which separates the basin, live the Anuiaus, the bitterest enemies of the Naknenuks, on the Piio Aranau. From the northern tributary of the Muciuy, the Kio Panpan [Pampam or Pampao] to Santa Clara stretch the Bakucs, and west from these to near the shore the tribe of Urufu. On the source of the Rio Preto are the bands of Joao Ima, Caaumro, Maciel, and other subordinate chiefs, Jumemi, Capord, ximpaqueja. In the southern basin of the Mucury we meet at the Ilibeirao do Saudade with the tribe of the rcdoutable Captain Poschischd* some- what farther east of the Riberao das Lages, the tribus of Jfd-mck, Shiporok, and Pnfil; and still eastward toward the coast, in the basin of the Silo Matheos, the hordes of Pokoriin, Pxitata, and others. On the Rio Urucu, or the largest southern affluent of the Mucury, the .Shiporoh and the chiefs Jnqnirann and Maron. " On the subje<;t of the name ' Sln'poroF I have no more ligiit than on that of Xaknenuk. According to some, Shiporok means enemi/, and with this name the Indians commonly designate theii- adversaries. The tribe, howevei', does not name itself so. P>y what name it designates itself I could not learn. An Indian sol- dier, and one excellently acquainted with the language of this race, and of whom I made numerous inquiries concerning it, * Von Tschiuli, like a German, has mistaken a sound very near the French j for an .s/(. Shiporok is pronounced zhl/xlnl'lc, tlie sound zh representing a sound somewhat intermediate between tlie French / and the Sjianish ch. ii ON THE ROTOCUDOS. 50.J assni'ed nic tliat Sliiporok meant \frii)u tliix side of the uio'iiit'tln,'' or '■from hch'uid the moualuin,^ and that this was the only iiamo of tlie race. In the hiiiguage of the BotociKU)s, 8hi]x)rak means brother, and .Sliipurok, arm. Jn the year 181(5 I'rince Max. zu Neuwied met witli a brave lj<jtocn(lo chief, called Jcparak, at the Qnartel dos Arcos ou the river IJelmonte. It is not unlikely that Ills band went later southwaixl, and settled in the basin of the Mu- cury. About thirty years later the Shiporoks were at the Liigna d'Arara, on the north bank of tlie Mueury, and about eight years after we find them ou the Uio Urucil, a southern tributary of this stream. By the indistinct, often suppressed soiuuls of tlie vowels in many WH)rds of the language of the Botocudos, I believe that the mode of writing the word on the part of Prince ^Maximilian is no hindrance to the opinion that the Indian race of the .Jepa- raks which he met with at Belmonte are identical with the ^5hi- poroks at Urucil. " All the Indian bands ou the basin of the Mueury, with the exception of the Malalis, ^lachacalis, and perhaps the Arauaus, belong to the race of the Botocudos or EiKjerakmunii, as they call themselves. Some bands have settled down in permanent dwell- ing-places, Aldoamcntos or Aldeas, and we have especially to notice the Aldcamento do Poton, the Aldo. do Pote, Aldo. do Tra- catan, Aldo. de Curien(,'a (das Cursiumas), Aldo. do Xoi-tete, Aldo. do Sao .Joao, Aldo. d'Agoa Boa, Aldo. dos Aranaus. In the year 1817, out of these eight Aldeamentos one hundred and four indi- vidiuds were converted to Christianity (of course only in name) : among them the three chiefs, Pote, Poton, and Cra'iiatan. By the inhabitants of some of those villages some cidtivation of the gi'ound is carried on, but it is confine<l chiefly to the cultivation of maize and mandioca. The number of individuals in these bands varies much. Some coimt several himdreds, others scarcely eighty to a hundred, with oidy about twenty efficient fightiu'j: men. From the number of the bow-bearing warriors one can with surety estimate the number of souls in a l)aud, because this last, ou the 5'JG APPENDIX. average, amounts to four tiiurs tlic nuiulior of warriors. T believe that I ;uu not fiir from the truth when 1 estimate tl>e total num- ber of Indians in tiie basin of the Mucury at from twenty-eight huiuh'ed to tliree thousand souls. 'I'he I'otoeudos, when travelling in the forest, build for them- selves shelters of palm leaves, whieh they stiek in the ground in a half-eirele, the tips of the fronds arehing together forming a sort of roof In travelling through the forest between the Mueury and Peruhype, I saw great numbers of deserted ranehos of this kind in the forest. Where they eneamp long in one plaee they make their ranch more substantial with a better roof, and often of sidiieient size to hold several families. The whole furnishing of the eabin of a Botocudo is of the simplest possible kind. The lire is made in the middle. Rarely ever are earthen pots used for eooking. They make use of gourds and the eup-like receptacle of the Sapueaia (Lect/tkix) for drinking purposes and for the i)reparation t)f their food. "Water they carry in the joints of the Ta([uara-assu, in which they also keep their painting materials. Beils iire made of esfopa or bast-fibre. The food of the Botocudos consists of sapueaia nuts, palmito buds, and the fruits of the Ing;i, Jabotieaba, Arat^-a or Ooyaba, :Maracuja (passion-flower), etc., with the roots of Cipos and other ]-)lants. They are fond of Indian ' rn, bananas, and mandioca, which thev steal whenever thev can from the plantations. They hunt game of all kinds, but they arc particularly fond of monkeys, whof,-e flesh, as I can myself testify, is exceedingly savory. They even cat the on(,'a and other carnivores, the ant-eater, alli- gators and lizards, and the boa-constrictor. Among birds they are particularly fond of the Mutum, the Jacupemba, itc, and they also eat their eggs. Fish are usually shot with small bows, which are used with great dexterity. Some- times thoy employ a poisonous root, which, put into the water of a pool, kills the fish. ors. I believe the total uum- ii twenty -eight uild for thoni- thc ground in liei" forming a L'li the Muenry anehos of this \C their ranch sutiieient size the ciihin of ) tii'e is made ;1 for cooking, .'ptacle of the he [)reparation I Taqnara-assu, jeds are made nuts, palmito a or Govaba, )os and other id niandioca, ions. larly fond of lingly savory. mt-eater, alli- Mutum, tlio I arc usually erity. Some- to the water ON THE r.oTocrno.s. 597 They arc very fond of the gn-eat, fat larvic of certain inscjcts which burrow in decaying wood. Among these, according to N'eu- wicd, is the larva of the Priinnia ccnuroruis, which, with (jLlicr species, live in the trunks of the Iloinhn.i; or Barrigu(k». Numbers of these disgusting grubs are impaled on a sharp stick and toasted at the fire. Usually all animal food is cooked in this way. T'ananas, pota- toes, itc, they sometimes bake in the hot ashes. Ants also are eaten. ' They arc fond of hone\', and foi'mcrly they used to cut down hollow trees with stone axes to obtain it. 'I'o-day steel axes and hatchets are occasionally to be seen among the Indians. Fire is to the 15otocudo an object of nnich care, because if it is lost it is only to be rekindled with great dilliculty. In order to obtain it the Indian prociu'cs a stick of some light, dry wooil, and makes a small hollow in it. This stick he places on the gi'ound and hohls securely with his foot. He then takes a long dry stick, one end of which is somewhat blunted, and places it in the liollow above mentioned. The other end is taken between the two palms, the stick is held vei'tically, and by a rapid motion of the hands it is caused to twirl until the friction of the lower end in the hollow of the otaor stick has caused it to take fire, when estopa or bast is ignited, and a fire is speedily made. This method of procm-ing fire is also employed by some of the aborigines of North America. We find the same custom in Africa among tlio Bush- men and Catfres,* and in the Aleutian and Caroline Islands. The only things miuiufacturcd by the Botocudos ctjnsist of bows and arrows, a few little ornaments, and bags made of the l)ast-fibre of different plants. These last they barter with the whites for food, &c. They bring in to the fazcndas the wax of wild bees, ipecacuanha, skins, <kc., but this barter is conducted only on the very smallest scale. * Albert!, Descrip. Pfii/s. ct Hist, des Caffrcs, p. 36. Campbell, Riisein Siul- Afrilcii, p. 37. 598 APrKXPIX. The Botociulos tako usually but one wife. Von Tschudi says that when a irau has chosen a \voman for his wife, he agrees witli the fatlier as to a certain tribute whicli he shall pay in game or something else, when the woman is handed over to him and with no finther ceremony is thereafter his wife. Neuwied says that a man may have as many wives as ho can take care of. Adultery is I'are, and is visited with heavy punish- ment on the woman. The husbands are very cruel and unkind to their wives. The husband, when angry with his spouse, beats her unmercifully, and cuts her with his knife. I never saw a mar- ried woman who was not covered with scars, on her face, back, breast, and arms ; it is the conmionest thing to sec them six inches or more in length, and one woman may bear the marks of many terrible wounds, which it seems marvellous she should have sixrvived. The good health of savages, and the facility with which they recover from injuries which would have proved fatal to an ordinary civilized man, have been often commented upon by many authors. Numerous instances are on record of Negroes, ^Malays, Pacific Islanders, and American Indians who have survived horrible wounds and mutilations, showing that Nature's power of healing is greater among savage than among civilized nations.* The woman is really the slave of the husband, and all hard work falls to her lot. On the march she carries the family goods, or the larger share, packed in a biig, which is slung on the back by a band which passes over the forehead. The mother carries her child on her back sitting in a loop of bark which passes over her forehead, the child clasping her neck. The children arc kindly treated, at least when young, but the tie between parent and child is not strong, f At Stlo Matheos * Wiiitz, Introduction to Anthropoloj^y, p. 126. t Tlio women cany their children on tlieir hacks sitting in a loop of hark wliich passes over the mother's forehead, the child clasping the mother ahout the neck. ON Tin-: r.OTOcuDOs. 599 there was on the fazenda a yuuuL,' woman wlio liad two children ; one, a boy several years old, was sick from dirt-eatinj^, and was stunted in growth, yellow, and swollen ; the other was a babe at the breast. The mothei' was anxious to sell the elder, and 1 could have bought hhn for a trifle. One day the babe suddenly died. The raoth.er immetliately dug a grave for it in the floor of tho ranch(j, and went pleasantly about her work as usual, the only cifect on her being to make her determine not to sell the boy. Children are frequently bartered away to the fazendeiros, who in reality hold them as slaves. (Jf the religious ideas of the Botoeudos we have not so much information as we could wish. Most writers agree with Neuwied that the Botocudos believe in and fear a l)ad spii'it called Janchoii, and Xeuwied says that they recognize many of them, which they distinguish as great and small. The great devil comes in the guise of a black man visiting the camps ; sometimes he sleeps awhile by the fire and then goes away, but all who see him die. This same devil is accused of beating the dogs to death with sticks, and of killing children. The Tupi race seems to have some idea of a God, and they called Him T)fpa or Tiipnn, which name is derived from tho word tuhn, father. It is a ditRcult matter to-day to arrive at any clear knowledge of the pi-imitive religious helief of the Botocudos, because they have derived so mtuiy ideas thr(-)Ugh intercourse with tho Portuguese. I was unable to learn that the Botocudos had any idea of a God. The moon, which they call Tdiirir, is an object of fear, the Indians believing that occa- sionally it falls upon the earth, destroying men, and that it sends storm and famine. Xo worship is offered to any of these things, and they have neither priests nur medicine-mcu like tho Tnpis. The dead are buried in the immediate vicinity of the camp, or even in the wigwam, and this last api)cars to be usually tho case. The child that died at Sao Matheos was buried in the coo APPENDIX. earth forming tlic floor of the ranch in wliich the Iu(hiiiKs •were quartered. When a death t»ccurs they usually desert the camping- ground for another, but 1 feel sure that I saw the Indians occupying the same ranch in which the dead child was buried. 'I'hc relatives gather together and howl for one day after the death, the women taking a specially prominent part in the ceremony ; lait the next day they idl go about their work as if nothing had happened. In some places the hands of the defunct arc bound together before burial. The corpse is buried in a horizontal position, and a fire is lit to keep away the devil, for they believe that if this evil spirit should find no fire at a grave he would dig out the body. Deserted wigwams in the vicinity of graves are a common sight in the forest. Sometimes a shelter of ])ahn-leaves is built over the burial-place, as Neuwied has remarked, xsothing is put in the grave with the dead l)ody,* The different tribes or Aldeamentos are frequently at war witK one another. At the time of my visit to the Mucury there was a skirmish between two bands near Cannas Brabas on the Phila' delphia, the i)articulars of which I was unable to learn. I had sent my baggage on ahead of me to Philadelphia in care of Signor Battista, who was conducting a train of ox-carts witl* salt, itc. Near Cannas Brabas he was attacked by the Botocudos and shot at, but escaped by plunging into the forest, from which he cmci'ged nearly naked. On arriving at Cannas Brabas we found the place nearly deserted, but wo passed the place of danger in the night wdthout seeing an Indian. Their mode of warfare is the attack by night or from ambush. A victory is celebrated by song and dance. I found the belief everywhere current that they sometimes ate the bodies of the slain, and from all the information I have received, I think there can be no doubt that cannibalism is one of the customs * Tlie foitor at Capitiio Grande told nic that when a little child died it was the custom to jmt by tlie grave a hottle of milk drawn from the mother's breast, toirethor with the hones of some wiUl animals. Indians were I't the ciimping- lians occupying 'I'he relatives iitli, the women ^ ; Imt the next liad liappened. toicctlier before on, and a tire is tliis evil spirit jody. Deserted lit in the forest. he burial-place, the grave with tly at war witK ury there was a J on the ^hila^ > learn. I had :iia in care of ox-carts wit]» the Botocudos st, from which mas Brabas we )lace of danger from ambush, and tlie belief bodies of the eived, I think if the customs 1(1 diod it was tlio iiiother'ij breast, ON THE r.OTOcrnos. GOl of the Piotocudos. At present the Tmlians arc very peaceful, but from time to time they have committed outrages on the whites, miH'dering, rnul burning houses on the Mucury, at Sao Matheos, and on the Doce. When at the Fazcnda do (\a})itao Grande I witnessed one even- ing the dance of the ]}ot()ctuU)S. A bottle of cacluK^-a, or native rum, had been given them, over whicii they were very meiry. Four of them took their position naked in the yard in front of the house, and formed a s(piare, facing one another, then all four placed their left feet together, the right leg remaining stretched out. All bowed their heads together and placed their arms on each other's shoulders. Then they began a monotonous song,* Ci'i/diu-d-ct, CAlCint -d-ha , to which they all kept time by hitching a step forward with the right foot, keeping the left (luiet. This dance they kept up for some time. They are apparently very fond of it, and the overseer of the fazenda informed me that they sometimes kept it up imtil, exhausted by fatigue, they fell to the gromid. These Indians used to be very numerous at Sao ^lathcos, living in the forests even quite close to the sea ; but they have been so killed ott' that at present none are found in the vicinity except on the head-waters of the river. They were hunted down by the Por- tuguese settlers like wild beasts, and one gentleman told me at , that during his life he had, either with his own hand or at his command, been the means of putting to death by knife and gun and poison over a thousand of these poor creatures ! The injuries committed by the Botocudos on the whites are as nothing com- pared with the wrongs inflicted upon them by those who have dispossessed them of their home, and have almost destroyed the race. The Indians have learned the use of rum and tobacco, of both of which they are very fond, and which are rapidly working their ruin. In the Mucury, Colonia Leopoldina, Sao ^Matheos, ana ■ <-he Doce, * St. Tlihiire compares the song of theBotociulo to that of the Chinese. VOL. I. 26 602 APPEXniX. the Indians come into tlio settlements to beg, and they not nn- frcfinontly arc employed to worlt on the fuzendas, tlicir service being voluntary. At Siio Matheos they are paid in victuals and rum ; but on the Mucury tliey have learned the use of money, which they call ^^rt^rav/. At Siio' ^latheos I saw botli men and women at work witli the negroes. They arc not much to be de- pended upon, usually remaining but a few days on the fazcnda, and then returning to their wild life in the forest. They arc very lazy, and half a dozen arc scarcely worth an able-bodied negro. Thoy seemed very docile and good-natured ; indeed, I was particularly struck with this last feature hi their character. At their work they laughed and i)laycd jokes on one another, and in the house at their meals were quite as merry as the negroes. They have nothing of the gravity, stolidity, and want of curiosity of our Northern In- dians. They have no idea of meiim et tuinn, and they are particu- larly addicted to stealing bananas, corn, or anything else they hap- pen to take a foncy to. They often come almost stark naked into Philadelphia and Urucii to beg. One may occasionally find a civilized Botocudo on a fazenda, but the children sold by the parents and employed as servants on the plantations scarcely ever grow up. At present the Botocudos are confined to the virgin forest be- tween the Rio Doce and the Rio Pardo. They are very rarely seen near the coast, and never fre(|ucnt the campos of the interior. The race is fast diminishing, and in a few years will pass out of exist- ence. The Indians of the coast tribes of the Tupi race, — thanks t' » the labor of the Jesuits, — have become civilized and converted to Christianity, and now form an integral part of the Brazilian popu- lation, but the Botocndos resist civilization and the influence of Christianity, and are simk in the lowest barbarism. The language of the Botocudos is entirelv diiferent from the Tupi, and from that of the other coast tribes, as the Patachos, Machalalis, &c. Although spoken by all the Botocudos, there are dialectic differences observable in each band, different words id they not un- LS, their service in victuals anil use of money, both men autl much to 1)0 (Ic- :he fazcnda, and cy are very lazy, :l negro. Thoy vas particularly their woi'k they e house at their lave nothing of r Northern In- licy are particu- g else they hap- tark naked into on a fazcnda, as servants on irLnn forest he- i'ery I'arely seen interior. The ss out of exist- cc, — thanks to id converted to Brazilian popu- hc influence of )rent from the the Patachos, udos, there are ifterent words ON TlIK r.OTOCUDOS. G0;3 being sometimes used by diflerent bands to distinguish the same object. The language of the Xaknenuks, Jiporoks, i\:c. is one and the same. Latham's division of the Hotoi-udo into the I'xito- cudo pro[)er and Naknenuk is incorrect, and the ditlerences ob- servable between his vocal )ularies are traceal)le to the collectors of these vocabularies, who have spelled the words incoirectly, as they caught the sound from the lip of the native. At present wo know very little of the graunuatical structure of the language, the vocabulary being very incomi)lete. It is a very simple language, with very few or no inflexions. The first words the stranger is likely to hear uttered by a native — namely, </lin;/-ijlht<j — bear one of the most distinguishing featui'es of the language. It is extremely rich in I'eduplicated words. Thus we have T('>n-t(jn = l)ad ; Kiacu-kiick-kiick = a butterfly; Ong-oug=:to sing; Xaak-naak = a gull ; Encarang-cuong-ciKjug- gil)akiu = thc great boa, t^'c, itc. This reduplication appears rarely ever to extend itself to words of two syllables. Instead of doubling a word of two syllable^', only the last syllable is reduplicated, as in the sentence, mlii->j'ili-i/'i7i- ri-mn-h(l-nm = \ am thirsty. These constantly recurring doubled svllables give to the language a stutterini; character. The Tui)i- Guarani is also rich in reduplicated words, but not so much so as the Botocudo. The principal points in the structure of the language thus far noted by Xeuwied and others are these : — There is but one gentler, namely, neater. There are two num- bers, a singidar and a plural, and perhaps a dual. The plural is formed by adding urnhd or ruhl (many) to the singidar, thus : Kjiem = house ; Ivjiem-nruhu = houses, also village ; 7\t/o// = tree ; 7^//u)i-t(rnhu = tYCCH or forest. In writing my vocabulary at Sao Matheos, my interpreter, a native; Botocudo who spoke Portu- guese quite well, gave me what appeared t(.) be a dual form for several words, and these I subjoin exactly as I noted them from his lips. 004 ArrENDix. Man cuali-hrdi Two men 'nl't-cho-viJ Woman pu-clii'k Two women 'nit-fh(">-v<5-i5'n Eye kl-t(Vni Two eyes nlk-l-to'm-chd-vo Kar fion-ho'n Two ears fion-hun-cho-vO' Ai-m y(-miin Two arms yT-miin-ch5-vo Hand ip-ii' Two hands ip-ji'-cliu-V(5 Leg ip-mfik Two legs ip-mrik-cho-vo The word for man in this vocal )ular3' coiTosponds with that given by Nenwied, bnt in no vocabidary can I find the word 2^0- cln/i, meaning woman. The dnal forms of botli are strange, yet my Botocudo insisted that ' iit t-ch6-v6 meant dons homens, and *nit- chu-vu-o'h, (Ittns mulheres. There may possibly be some mistake hero, bnt I have given the words in the hope that some one else may be able to explain them. With the other words the dnal was formed by adding the termination -chu-vo, bnt in the case of Kitom a prefix nl, was added. One thi.'g is certain, the Botocndos cannot connt. Their only nnmcral adjectives being viokcnam, which means, rather, single, and urnhu, viani/* The Botocndos at Capitao (Irande kept an acconnt of their days' work on their fingers and toes, and I was assured that the largest number they could reckon was twenty. At the expiration of ten days' work, for instance, an Indian who wished to settle with the feitor would go to him and count off templdn, day, ten times on the fingers. In the examples above given there is * The Tupis count only to three ; for higher numbers they use the Portu- guese. ) u hu-Vu' ij-VO l-VU mds with that d the word ]iu- ro stran,t,''o, yet wiens, and 'nlt- somo mistake some one else s the dual was case of Kttom Their only ler, single, and !pt an acconnt '. was assured jnty. At the who wished to templdn, day, given there is y use the Portu- ON Tin: noTocrnos. 005 a ttTinination whicli si;j;iiiii('s two, and wliitli answers to a (hud. 'I'hu .sultject is oneof nim'h intorost, ami I roLcret much that during,' )uy stay in the Miicury 1 was iinal)le to i^^ive it more study. Vou 'rschiidi gives numerals \\\) to ten, wiiich he olttainod from a Nak- nemdc through the aid of an Indian soldier; hut he himself ex- presses a douht as to the veracity of his interpreter. There are in the Botocudo language two cases, a nominative and an olyective. The latter is marked l)y the syllable te (ti or de) between two substantives coming together and governing (piio another ((Jottling quoted by Neuwied) ; thus, Tarii means vi'^on, but also stm, sky, and time ; Taru-ti-p6, literally, shy-runner. The adjective always fjUows the substiuitive, as cnidTi-ciuhi'i, the small ant-eater. Xeuw'ed says that the comparative is formed by adding the terminatioii urit/iu, and the superlative by the addi- tion of the adverb r/icarnm, iis caang-vinh, the stomach is empty, cuanri-mah-f/icaram.* The only pronouns we know ai-e Kjickzzz. /, and lid = he, she, or it. We have KJnch for my, which, by the way, may be used before the noun it (pialifies, as KJick kjack ma(jndn-jo(>p, but Neuwied says that his Botocudo Quack used Kjick as well as Kjuck. So far as the verb is concerned it seems to be very simple in its construction, and to have only two foi'ms ; namely, infinitive and participle. The third person singular pres- ent is formed by prefixing to the verb he, het, or simply a, which appear to be only different forms of the third person singular present of the verb to he. We at present know too little of the language to speak at all positively about other points in its con- struction. Prince Max. zu Neuwied gives in the second volume of his lieise a German-Botocudo vocabulary of several hundred words. Latham {Elements of Comparative Philology, p. 509) gives four short vocabularies, and Von Tschudi (lieiseu durch Brasilien, Vol. II. p. 288) has another short vocabulary. Other vocabularies have * I slioukl hardly call this a superlative. 60G APFEXDIX. been collated by Guido Marliere, Von Eschwctrc, Jomard, Renault, Von Martins, St. Hilaire, D'Urbigny, and others. Xeuwiod's is prei^ared Avith great care, and be bad the advantage of long inter- course with a lad, whom bo retained in bis employ. Von Tscbudi's was bastily written witb tbe aid of an Indian interpi'eter, and tbc sounds are veiy imperfectly represented, a soft ch or zh sound being re[)resented by tbe German Kch, ie. I do nut know wberc Latbam's vocalndaries were collected. Tbcy are very inaccurate. Wbile at Sao ^bitbeos I spent a long time witb a young Botocudo, "wbo spoke Portuguese, and collected (|uite a vocabulaiy, using a pbonetie alphabet of my own, by whicli, witb an ear accustomed to tbe pronunciation of many languages, 1 tbink I bave b^en able to express vcr}' nearly tbe true pronunciation of tbe words. Tbe pi'onunciation is exceedingly indistinct, and ibe woi'ds are very hard to catch. Tbc stu})idity of my pioidii was discouraging, and the labor of getting together the vocabulary was very great. This vocabulary is too voluminous to be inserted in this volume. I hope to publish it elsewhere. The language is usually spoken on a high key, but in a weak tone and rather rapidly. It is particularly rich hi nasals, but has neither gutturals nor sibilants. The sounds of s and z do not occur in it, nor those of / and x. I have obscn-ed tbc sound of v only in the dual termination -cho-vo. In many cases it is impossible to distinguish between I and r. )mard, Renault, XouwR'd's is J of louLj inter- Vou Tscluidi's •preter, and the ch or zh sound :ot kut)\v where •cry iuaecurato. uung Ijotocudo, l)uliiry, using a .-ar accustomed have 1 en able 10 words. The voi'ds are very scouraging, and rv great, in this volume. but in a weak nasals, but has 5S0 of f and x. *■' al termination guisli between INDEX. Ahacjixi pinp-npplp, 131. Abrnlliiis l>liiiii|.v, dt'rivation of nanio ; ilanpor iu li;i,ssiiit£, 171: .Mtuation of, 175: jrcdU^y of, li.")- 17'.t : cie|itli of w:itcr in vicinity of 1U2 : I'onil reefs of, 102 - 1,1'J : ii:ivig:il,lf chim- ncl iiisiili' of, 2nl. Ai-riiiti'iiiiUri-itB)iizilinisis Vorr., 02 : dcscrilicil Ul;"), 205. Aj;iiria<i Aifitriniu.s Edw. iind Hiiimc, (;2, 195. A,':is>iz, I'rof Louis, on jrl.icicr of l':ic;itubu, •iti'J : on till' ,-tnicturu of tlie Ant.i a pest nn tlio Ilha do Govornador, 5. Ant-hill.-, 82, ;i75. Antiuionv, 44S. Ai,li/si,t Ar:;,, U'Oi-li, 21)4, 214, 2.'!il Aiiliisin Ilruzilinisis S^iiidci' l{;inf:, 2ii4. Ai)nitiMiiicdicli;it.M,><, custom of piercint; till' li|i and c,-irs lunonr;, 5n4. Anicajii (citv), ;jsl, ,'jS,'i. Aniciire, fos.silifcrcrii.-i slmlcs, &c. of, .391!. Aracaty, 4i;il ; coinitry in vicinitv of, 41II Araiiaiis, trilic of. 5!i;i. Aranlia caranniicjcira {Mui;f,/f) of Alirolh..^. ISl I, ' (Jrjrtm .Mouu tains, 15 : on the Aiiiazoniaii s:ind.stoia'S,487. Aran ( Rsiitnriis iiuiron). it5 A,.;assiz, .M;idainc, 4tj'J. ....... , , . " ' Ai^Mssi- r. .\. !•;., on tlic former connection Mie Athmtie and I'iicific across the ■hi.iu- of l):irien, 3L»3. nihas, 151. n:ime jriven to Western Sorgipe, 379. or AiiulMiri's, 577 11 (Aslriiairi/in/i), 94, 210, 208. -■r, 29,s. , general description of province of, A„'oa, A:;re AiM' Air Ala; Al:i-, 422, Alcoliaca, 224. Aldea Vellia, 85. Allen, Mr. .1. A., 275, 295, S'^l : notes on the geolodeal clianicter of the coinitrv liefween C'hiiiue-Cliinni' iind li;iliia, 3n9-318 ; on s;tlt dei»isit of .S,'io Fr:incisc<i V.illey, 331. Alluvial lands on Hio I'ardo, fertility uf, 243; not proper for colVee, 245. Alto dos Bois, excursion to, 142. Alum, 471. Aniazi a:is, derivation of n:ime, 4S4. Ani;izoiii:in form:ition descrilieit tiv Professor A^:issiz and M;ijor Coutinho, 4^8; Prof. .^j;. assiz's theory of the, 4."): |ivol)ably iiiariue and tertiary, 491 ; of I'.in'i. 4!tl. Aniazoniim ^rroup, cretiiceous, 550. Amethysts, 471, 530. Amiiinthus, 471, Aininoiiiln), 3S4. AiNnidiiitfS ncKlnrarinntus Phumnrd, .3S9 ; A. Gihhoiiiiinus l.cii, 389, A. Hnllii Meek and Ila.v.len, 38S: A P'nnvrr)i».s Von liueh,38y ; A. sniiistriatii.s O'Orh,, ;j89. A))ii nUnria, egf^s of, 47. Ann;xd:doid, 530. Aniviuilium ncciilftitnle, 405. Aiiiiiirlii/tfS, occurrence of, on Isthmus of Pan- ama, 392, Anchieta, letter on Manati, 75. Anjiieo, liark of, used in tanning, 411. Aning;i, 395. .\ntii (Tn/'iriis Amfn'cnn)'^)^ 94 Antitloii Diibenii or A. Briniliensis, 62. Arar;(it,-igualia {Arum macaw, iia stone, i:iiii'„i eat, locality so c-ijli'il from a stone whicli the p:irrots are s!iid to e;it), 510, .Vnit 1 limd cnili, 23!i. .■Vn'Mles gold-niin<', 545. Aricuri p,-ilm ( Cocos srJiiznp/njlln), 2.37. Armacao, 40. Armii(,;,io, locality, 40 ; a trying-Iiouso, 182, l'!3, I 184, I Arms of Botoeudos, 590. Aroeir.a Sr/ihiii.^ hnhinlhiMiii^), 423. j Arraial d,i ('hapadi, gold-wa.-hinu's of, 4:'7; i their present condition, 101 ; da ('onceic,-io. I 498 ; d:i Conquista, 255 : dTtinga ( Vi,' or /ni water, and linnd white), 105 : ,|.'i> (^ueiina- d:is, want of rain, 323 : de Sao (ionralo, 475 Arroio ilos K:itos. co;il-miiies of, .520. .\rrows of Hotocudos, 591. Arsenic:il (lyrites, .540, Article, detinite, use of before names nf places in lirtizil, i.x : u-e of before n;une lirazii, viii. ArtarnriiKs Hrazilimsis Uom., 245. As Azeites, II5. Atpi'lor/iipir/iifs Cnmptnni, iCu^ 408. .\ssahi (Eiitfr/ifi oleracea), 426. Assii (town), 452. Aslroriiryinii Ain Mart., 210 -Vs Trovoadas, 144 Alilex, 2W0, Atf/,s lii/jiiixniii/iiis, 95. Attii/in |i:ilm, 144 Augite, 297. Ave-Lallemant, Dr., on ooal-uiines of Rio Grande i|o Sul, 52o. Avicenniii, social plant, 250. B. IJahi.T, description of point on which city is built. ;i33 ; description of citv, .3,34 ; climate of, ,337: iioimbition, ;{.35: lay'aml harbor of, 3.W : exports of, ;«5, 3.30 ; st.'junshiii con- nections, ;i37: liahia de Todos os Siiatos, 207 ; compared with Hay of Itio, 272. G08 INDEX. Uiiliiii Stoam Navinntion Cc, ,337, 421. Baliiii ami .-'iU) Kraui'isco Uaili'Dad, 338 ; gcol- o^'y of, 3.')3. Haliia lie CaiiiaiiKi dcscribi'd, 2(12. Italiiii lie Kspiritn Saiitii ilcscniH'J, C") ; ilcpth iif, 72 ; liltiiral tUuiia (if, 73 lialiia ill' Nova Aliiiciila, b5. lialiia (If Santa Ci'ii/,, bo. lialiian ^'nui)', iViii. lialiii, iMilatnl liills or guuiHs plain at, 303. llakiirs, trihr >:{, nWi. liaiiil.uu, S4, HI, 210. BiiriiiiiKi (Mclauuxylou), ashes used in tiin- iiiii;:, 411. liailiaiTiia, 4. li.irliacciia, Vi.-;eonil(' do, 519. liailaii.'j, 4-')2; uii luouth of Kio Paraliyba do Nuitc, 442. ]<aniarl<'S, 73. H.ui-a do .lardiui, 405. liarra do t'lumiiaiidatuba, colony at, 246. Jiana do Kio dc t'ontas, 200. liarra ilo I'atifii', 241. liarra do I'o.xiui, 241. Darra do Kio (Jrande, width of S.lo Francisco vallry l.clow, ;i32 Barra do Kio di' .Sao Franci(«'o, 303. liarra da \arrda, country in vicinity of, 252. Barra .S'cca, lUtj; lands at, 107 ; consolidated licach, 107. liarrcira> do .'^iri, tertiary beds of 56. Barrel quartz at .Minas Nova.s, 15(. Iiarrifiiido trees, !M, 106, 251. Barro vcrnielho, 514. Basin of Kio I'arnaliytia one pidod, 474. Bateia, wooden pan for washint; S'>i*i "ftl ^^^' nioiiiH, I'iO. BatcH's ''Tlie Naturalist on the Amazonas," 4114. Beach rid};es, 113, 114, 115, 123 ; formation of, due .sonictinies to storms, 220. Beach, raised, at .Santos, 507. licaclu's, solidification of, at Bahia, 342: at Kio Vcrnielho, 344 ; at the Abrolhos, 17'J. Heachcs .solidilicd, 181). Bat I! rite, 400. Bats, liones of, in caves at Lagoa Santa, 285. Bail hi II id, 25tl. Bay of Kio, dcscrijition of, 6; depth, 7; sliell deposits of, 7 I corals of, 7 ; tide of, 7. S ; saltne.«s of, S ; entrance to, 8 ; ouce filled with tertiarv beds, 22. Beans, 12(1, iril Bcira-mar, 45i). Belnionte, 173 ; sand plain near, how formed, 2.35. Benidcfin nieteorolite, 325. Benevente, harbor of, &c., 00. Bi^iiniiin Bmzilif litis, 93; B. Tecoma, 408; species if, social plant, 256. Biotitc, 447 Birds, bones of, in caves at Lagoa Santa, 285. Bisnuith, occiirrcnco of in auriferous vein at Cata Br.mca, 545- Black water streams, Kl, 217, 227. Bluniciib ich on skull of Botocudo, 587. Boa.ssica, cretaceous sandstone at, derivation of name, 3!W, Boa Vista, height of pass of, 12, 26. Bolcrio, 141. Bom Kim, cretaceous strata of, 346. Bone of whale valuable for manure, 184 Brines, fo.nsil, in caves, mode of occurroncp of, 2^4; inimen.-e number of recent siiecies, 2>>5. Bone caverns, extent of, liow fornieil, stal.ic- tites and clav d^■pllsit.^ in, 'lb'6 ] nuuiljer of, 2S4 ; of Kio das Velhas, 280. ]!iidiii|Ue, 578. Bore or I'ororiica, 4.80. liotocudos, 210, 577; origin of name, 578; stature iif, 5T8 ; physical characteristics of, 579: nunilier of, 5'.Ci , livelinos of, 012, skulls of, 5S.): colorof, 588, di.-.|ikeiif cloili- ing among, 59il: hiiiisc,> of, o'.Mi ; tbod of, 500 ; method of making lire, 507 : cruelty of, 598 : treatment of wives and children, ;')9S , religions ideas of, 599 ; fnnenil cu.-toiiis, 500 ; want of numerals, 004; warfare of, OUO; lan- guage of, ti02 : Butonue, or lip and ear orna- nieiit, 578, 583. Boulders, scarcity of in drift, 24; occurrence of, at 'I'ijuca, 28-30; paucity of, owing to decomposition, 573 ; boulders of decomposi- tion, 504 ; at Victoria, how formed, 09. Bows of Botocudo, 501. Braco do Norte of Uiver S.'io Matheos, 11". liraij'o do 8ul of Rio ."^ao Matheos, 117 Brachiopods, paUeozoic, at first cachoeira of the Kio Taiiajiis, 488. Brackish streams, 255. Briif/i/iiiis triiliirtfiliis, 94 BriKtypus torr/iiaiiia, 94. liraganza, waste of land on bay of, 4P1. Brazil, deri\«tion of nume, x; use of article before the word, viii. Bromeliaceous jilants, 249, 250 Brnnct, Dr., 272, 421 Bugres, .578. liuriti (lalni {Matirilia rinifern), 277. Burning of forest, injurious effects of, 78; change of Mora caused by, 423. Burton, 27(i ; on use of definite article before word linizil, viii: on .lacutinga, .5.35: on occtirrcnce of cocoa palm at Brejo do tjalga- do, 119. Byrsouuma, 405. Cabbage palm, 94. Caliral, discovery of Brazil, 226. CacAo [Theobroma Caccin), 120,230,244,259, 200,201. Cnritofiros, cac'io plantations, 244. CachiM'ira (Town), 272 Cachoeira (Bahia), county in vicinity of, 322. (!achoeiras, 21. ('ac('i| sugary quartz, 5.34. Cacti, 237 : arlHircscent, 152. Cn^tld whale, 182. Caiauhe ( Elrris Guineensis L.), 270 Caititu, !t4. Cajii or Cashew, 459, 405. Cajueira (Aiinrardium occidentale), 116. rn//ulliiiii,2'id. Cnlnmitea, 525 Cnldinnplpiinis ei/linrln'nis, 408. Caldciroes,314 , otiirobable glacial origin,. 315 , mastodon remains at, 325; occurrence of diamonds in, 307. Calh.'io, 1,52 Caliitlirix, 95, 286. Camamii, geology of, 202. Camajjsari, geology of vicinity of, 361. INDi:X. liUl rwlc of oopurr''»ipp of, III' recent spi>('ic.<, 2Sj. Iiiiw tnriiieil, M.'ihic- iii, "2^3 ; miiiiber nl', . USO. •ipin of iiainc, 578; til oli:iractci'i>tic.s of, , livcliiios (if, (il2 , r.SS. ili.-liku of clot li- es of, iV.M) ; fooil of, ttirc, r/j; : cruelty of, ■s iiiul chililreii, oDS , funeral cui-toihs, ;V,)',) ; warfare of, (iOli; lan- •, or liji and ear orna- Jrift, 24 ; oocurrenco )iaiicitj- of, owin^ to millers of decouipo.si- how formed, Uy. S'lO JIatlicos, 117. Matlu'os, 117 at tirsit cuchovira of in baj' of, -IPl. lie, X ; use of article 3,250 ni/frn), 277. rious effects of, 78 ; In. 423. lefinite article before Jacutinsra, o.T) ; on Im at Dreju do Salga- i 1,220. ., 120,236,244,259, ions, 244. in vicinity of, 322. .52. 15 L.), 270 i(lentale), IIC. 5, 408. e)rUu'ialoriKin,315, 325 ; occurrence of iuity of, 3G1. Canipina.s, plain.^ of. .'00- (Jai .po, .section at, 3G5, Cauiiio.s, city of, 4() ; vicinity of, 47. Ca-iipos, cliaracter of tlieirtloru; larccly due to fires, 320. (Campos of Alto dos IViis, 140 Campos, Mais's picture of, 2110. Canal nnitinn Macalie with Cainpofi, 43: be- tween I'ainiavieiras and Coniniaii.latulia, 240; lietween JUo Doce ,and \ ictori.i iui- jiracticable, Sl» ; coiiiiectiiif; Itio ,lecii with Vi( tori.i, 04 , projected along coast south of Ca rave lias, 223. Candles of Carnahulia w.nx, 453. Ciiniliinn cauilidd Miill., 3JS. Can;;;i, t;old in, 530, 543. Cannihalisni ani(.nj; liotocudo.s, O'X). ('ansanc^'iLo (J/itrojiliii iirnif), 250. ('.■iiitanallo, olil (<old-niiiies at, 50. Canon of the .lenuitinlionlia, 103. Ca(ie Ki-io, .30 ; liei.;:lit of, .'!!). Cajiihara {Hi/i/rarh,/ riis Cn/jrihitni], 94. Capiliara, fossil [Hydrudiarus suUidtns), 2S7. Idl'Di.s, l40, J47. Carapato (/.r»(/ei- ricinus), 153, 155, 257 Carapina, 82. Canivellas, 223. Carboniferous in Brazil, 553; fo.«sils, occur- rence of, on (iuaiioiti and Maniore 4^S. Cariocar, 2'Jl, 4i;.5. Carnaileiras, fever of Upper Sao Francisco, 202. Carnalmba iiahn {('o/jn-niria rfrifirii), de- scription of, 452, 440, 45'J, 400, 401 ; wax of, 453. Carnirora more abundant in Post Tertiary than at p-v.sent, 288. Carnelian, 531 Carrasco, 147, 253, 429. Ca.scallio, nieaniiif; of woril, .51 ; auriferous, of Mina.s Nova region, 15'J ; auriferous, at .laragn;i,512. Cascate (ininde, 27 Ca.tsis Mnilrmnsrnrifiisis {C. CdWfo), at Os Husios, ;J0, 108, 20.3 Castelnau, 400, ,501, 504: on chapada dianian- tina, .307; on whale fishery at liaiiia, 1><5. Cata Itninca gold-mines, 544 , aiu'ifcrous vein at, 545. Cating.a do I^orco (tree), iishes u.^ed in tanning, 411. Catiirnas, 144, 151, 250, 251, 200. .322, 452. Cattle ami cattle fizeiidas in I'rovinco of Itio firandc ilo Norte, 454. Cavia ( f Vr'oi,f(i//.\- rii/nstris), 257; bones of, in caves, 2S5. Caxiniba Nova, 440. Cnxoeira do .\ngelini, 108 ; do Campo, hone caves at, 281, 285; de Donna, 107, da Ka- rinha, 10,8 ; do Tnferno, 88, ItiO. Caxoeirinha ilo .Ii'i|uifiiihoiiha, 171. Ctu'hoeira dc Paulo .\lfonso, dist.-mce from the sea, Il.itfeld's description of, 414; Liais on, 415, 418 , comp.'ired witli those of S.alto Grande on the .lei|nifinhonha, 417 ; liurton on, 41'> ; conipareil with Niagara, 418. raxiM'irinha do Uio Pardo, 242 ('.■ixo<'ira de Santa Anna, lOli. Cazal, 220, 4.311, 48(i . on inastodon remains, 201 : on foscil bones, 280 Cebns, 05. rVrrn|)iV(, 04 ; social plant, 25G. Cedro cedrela, 04, 201, 450. 'iS* Cemeterin of the Abrollios, 1^0 (Centipede, 375. Ctniiitfs H(iri/ii,S-%; C. (Amvt.) Pierdenalis Von liuch, 3>5H. r-rMM-,250, 20(i, 407, 423. Ciritkiinn, 220. CtrrKS, 05. Cirrus riijiis, fos.sil with megatherium, &c . 280. Onus sinijilirirarnis found with nieg.itheri iiin, &(■., 2S0. ('i.sii'/iiiiit niiiiintd, 04. Chalcciloii.v , ,531 i'lidiiin, 220 (,'handless, 5iiO, ,5li3; discovery of .Mosasanri an and turtle ren:ains on the Pin-i'.s, 404 Chap.ida, meaning of term, 132; at .Agiia d.i Ni'va, 140, 150; magnilicent view from edgi> of, 1,50. Chapada Diamantina, geology of, 205; height of. 3lil ; da Mang.ileir!!, 407; at .Santa Kita, 141; do Sincor.i, 3iiO ; between Sncuriii and Agna Suja, lo3. Cliap.id.is of Pi.iidiy. 474; of liio ,Ie()iiifin- lionha, 105, lO.S ; of Kio de Sao Kniiicisco, 277. 201 ; between the bains of tlie Tociin- tins atid S.ao Francisco, 4. :i. ('hapadao de .Santa .Mari.i, 400. do L'rucuia, 400. Chapeiroes, 211, 212, 213 ; ilangcrous to navi- gation, 2iil; (listribniii.ii of, 211; modi. ./ growtli of, 100; coalescence to form reef.-, 2110 ; appearance of, 2oo Charruas, custom of pien ing lip and ears, 584 a^loiiio Mi/dns, 112, 113. Chii'fs, P.otocudo, 502. <'hii|ue-('hi(jne, cactus, 408; town, origin <f name, 3ii0; occurrence of diaUitud.s neai, 307 C'l'iiinydiitliirium, 280. <'hU.nt<',328. ChlO'ile slate, 200. Chron.e 1,'Cidities in Goyaz, 503. Ciiliiris, S.'^C. C/diliiri/r/iis Gnrdmri, 408. Claussi'ii, Mr., 2M. Cla\s of .Amazonian formation, 488. Clays of Tertiary, 57. 124. 225. Clay-eating among liotocudos and Brazilian.', 5S1. Clay-slat.', 151, 20S, 328, 401, .5(10; auriferous, distribution of, ,5.52 Clay-slates, auriferous, of Brazil, resemblance liorn ■ to the gold-bearing rocks nf Nnva Scotia, ,551; probably l.ouer Siliu'ian, 5.'1 ; auriferous veins in,5,'i! ; ali.'ence ipf, in eozoic of Brazil, 540. Climate of campos, 253. of Ceara, 4,58; nioist- ness of, dc'pendent on forests, 321 ; of Co- Inula i.,ecipoldina, nnlualtbiness <if, 217: of Kerii.ando de Nfironha, 430; of .Maran- hao, 4.'<5 ; of Kio (irande do Norte, 454; of S.'io Fraticisco below falls, 420; of per- nambiico, 420, id' Kio Doce, OS; of Bio (iranile do Norte, 441; of Lower Sao Fran- cisco, 4211 Coal, Candiota, report on, by Mr. flinty, 528 , facilities for nnning in Kio (irande "do Sul. 520; cost of, 527; sjiid to occur on llio Piauhy,3.80 Coal Basin on Bin .laeuaby. 5.311; on Rio Sfio Sepe, 520 ; of Kio Tub^rao, 510 MM CIO INDEX. IViiil-niinos of lUo Oranilc i!o Sul, Uisoovory (if, ."jI'J. (■(M-liiin.al, .lliS, 454. Ci'iMKi I'iilui {)'iii(is iiiirifirii), distribution of, &<•., lis, -JW tiTl, 4:J1, 4;dT ; oil of, 23s. C<irij.i cdraiKilii .Miirt., 'J'.IS ; ('.Jltjriio.su, 14'3 ; ('. niiei/ini, (li.-tfiliiitiou of, &i'., 118; C. srhiziijiliiiHit , 'So' , "ill"'. Come, ?,<,lul, lz;j, 241, 2ijl, 2t:o,_4.")'.) ; oxport (■f. IVoiii Hii.iia fur \\-,w I8ti4- twj, .'>j(i ; |il,!ii- t:i'iiiu iif ( Miiiiiiiia-, "ill ; of tin; C'uloiiiii Ia'o- i )ioliliii;i, cxrcllcnci' of, 21". | ro;iiiii;i .lu iliiMiiilu, 1)11; LcopolUiua, 217: do , Miicury. Iiistory :inil present state of, 131; j lie Siii'ta l.eoiiolililia, 7S ; poViTt.v of soil, I 7U ; -le Saiitii Isaliel,fi5; ile .S.iiita .Maria, 7il; de .'"anta 'I'lieresa, .'jlS ; ilo I'nicu, pi-oilue- tiolis, climate, seeiieiy, ite., V.l'.',. Colony, .Xnierii'an, on .leiiuitiiilioiilia, 172 ; on Kio'Doee, lilfj. , Color of skin ligliter ia forcst-dwcUiug triljes, .5^S. CiiiiiKtiilii, (12. ('•'inniereio, '.itv't. CoiMpass, miner's, .".3'1. Conglomerate, 242, :iol, 4(!2 : cretaeeous, o'oi ; tertiary at .V^oa da Nov.i, Ijn. Coie.:nnlias do I'amiio, ^'old a , 54+. Criii'Kfr/iiis, -oeial pl.int, 25ii. Consi'li.lated lieaeli at .\> I'edr.as, 11.3 : iit I!ar- r.i Seeea, lo7 : at month of l{io I'.iniliyba do Norte, 412: at (iiianipary, ij2 ; of I'er- n.imlitieo, 4:34 ; at tlie i.slauds of tliu Abrol- hos, 171J. Cfjiuifirii iif/iriiifili.i, 11.3. Cop,.l,nid, Mr., 112,242. Copoeati.ana, irnei-s of, 10. Copi'er, 472; bniij.u.r, foinid near Caehoeira, ,3110; Idealities for, in I'razil, .3U0 ; sulphate and other suits of, tSS. j (orals at Itamar.ie.i, 137 : dead, near Kin Stmt' ^ Anteiiio, 2.'!4 : distrilmtion of on sulimeriied bolder of Keeife do LLko, 21u ; used for uiun- iifaetnrinv; into linu', 213. Cor.al lianUs near lllia It.ip.ariea, 2'\\) : in Bay i.f I'amamii, 2(J5 ; dead, in Lagoa near llliOos, 2.-,;(. ■ 1 ; or.al inlands, 211, 212. ' Ci.ral reefs, lieis-'lit of (.,Ip> of, 1(9 : in vieinity of I'ern.imbueo, 214: ne.ir t'.imanu'i, 213; around (ini<'ppe Island, 213; of .^lirolho-^, 1^7:ofl'eriiambueo, 1S,S ; ,,fMaia.in, 1S><,21;J, 425 : near Cape Sao i!o((ne, I'^S ; nf lt(ieea<, 214 ; olT l'eri|ieri,213 ; of Santa liarbara dos Abrolho", T.(2 ; species tliat eoiitribnte mo.-t to Imild up. 214 : raised border to, composeil of barnacles, -^erpuliv, &c., 205 ; submer^red bnrderof, 205. ('..rcovado, di scviptiou of, 0; maguificencu of view from, 11. I Corn, 1.52. Coroa Verinelha, 211. f\.ii,niilii, 112. ( orrei'o ill' Santo iL'naoio, dianinnds in, 307. <'oti'.;-i; •, <'retr,'e(ins i "clis at, 35'J. t'l.riiiiiiiiban trrouii 55>!. Cotton, 225, :W. 441, 442, 443, 459, 4Sfi: of (_'alh;io, excellent i|Uality nf, 152 ; of l'(>r- ii.inibuoo, (|uality of, 431 : of Kio (irande do Norto, 4.52 : value of, exported from Hahiii durinir ye.'ir lSi;4 - (;5. 33(i ; fact<iry , 2(j(j. Crab.;, burrows made bv, in shales, 353. Crnthcus, 457. Crato, 4(JU, •4b3. ('lllj\ 'Jo. Cretaceous, of .\brollios, 175; of Mnnsorrato and vicinity of li;iliia, 34(1; beds at lialiia of tresh-wa(er ori;iin, li> ; soil.> of lialiia, 372; near Arae.aju, 3S3 ; at .Maro'iiii, 3^4; fossils described, :is5 ; ;it and near I'enedo, 3;ti>; limestones at I'ropria, 4(l4 ; (d'ltamar- c.i, 437: I'ar.iliyba do .Norte, 445; fo»il fishes of Cear.i, 4(j(), 47'i ; of I'urus, 4'J4 ; Ilesuiiie, ,5.55. i:rtii:(iililiis Uiirltii Marsh. ;i5j. Crustaceans, abiimlance of. on reefs ; list of species occurring on the .Vbrollios reefs, 2113; list (jf sjieeies uccurrilii; elsewhere in I!razil,2ti3. Crjisiihu-iils, 151, 1(14. <'ui:il' I, 5(10 ; diaiiiond.s at, 504. Curhnatao (hsli), 3Jy. Curitiba, 517. Ciisniln, 375. Cutia (l)(i.'ii//irortri). 04. Ct/jiriKi I .riuilki iiKi, 4(). Ci//"''-'!.').!"/""'''""" ''ones.. 34^ ; C. cnnriilrntii Jones, 34i3 i C. (.') Monscrr.ili ;(.)(i Joues,olti. D. Dance of Botocudos, (JOl. D.irwiu on phosphate incrustation of .\brol- hos, 17s ; on cor;ils of lirazii, lo7 ; ou l.-.iauj (if b'eriiaiido de Noronha, 437. D.ite p.ilm, -425. Davis, Dr. J. liaruard, on skull of Botocudo, 5S5. l)'.\rcliiac, caiboniferous rocks in Bolivia,. 554. De lieaninoiit, Elie, on tlie gneiss of the Serra do .Mar, .54S. Decomposition of jineiss, 24; Darwin, .\;;;issiz, l'is>i-, lleusser, and Claraz on, 24 ; cause of, 25, 2(i. Decomposition of rocks iu India and North .\iiierica, 2(). Decomposition, drift not referable to, ."''i3. Decoiiipii.'ied rock sep.arate between drift and easily distinL:uisheil,5(i4. Deer of Canipos, 147. Den. 10 (E/r/'is f. ■;////' Mi.s(.v), 270, 425. Denudation, subaerial, elfects of, ;j3 D'Orbigny on gneisso of Bolivia, 548. D'Oscry, on (lata Branca mine, 546. Destcrro, 51'J. Devonian rocks in Brazil, 5,53. l)iamaiitif<'rous rock from chapada, 3(]4. Diamantiiio. 500, 504. Di.amantina, diamonds at, l,5(i. Diamonds, discovery of, at Diamantina, 150; mode of laa'UiTence of, at Chap.ada Diaman- tina, 3o2-.3oit; yielil of, at, 31':-;, of Siii- oora, .30() ; of Ct'tanira, Baliia, mode of oc- currence of and method of washing, .3(5!) ; )irobable source of, .370 ; localities for in (fovaz, 503; occurrence of iu I'roviucu of l'anna,51S. Diileliihiis, H4. Dinosaurian remain?, cretaceous, Bahia, .'iJC Diorite, 2'J(i. Diplnria, absence of, in Brazil, 211. Difilntlimiiinn inaritiinunt, 237. Disthene, 3"J5. ; of Mnnsprrato 1 ; ljf(l.'< lit ISiiliia ; .-nils (if liiihiii, it .Miiroiiii, .'i^t ; 111 in'iir I'ciiidii, 4(i4 ; nC Itiiiiiiir- >rti', 4-l.J; ti>--il 111 i'urus, i'Ji ; 111 rci'fs ; list of Alji'nlhds rci'ts, iiiij; t'lsowlRTu ill 48 ; C. coneidrata tiition of Abrol- 1, 187 ; ou Isi.iiul il. ill of Uotociuli), s in rioliviii, ').'j4. I'iss of tliL' .Surni ).'irwin, A^.-issiz, on, 24 ; I'liusc iiliii iuiil Xurth iMc to, r,i;3. ttufu drift mill ', 425. ■f, ;j;5 i;i.r,48. 546. liila, 304. (nmiitiiia, W^ ; ipiid^i Di.iiii/iii- , ol'.'-^ . of ."^iii- 1, lrui<lr of (M'- wiishiiij;, 3i)!) ; n'iilitics for in iu Province of i.«, Biiliia, iyjj 211. INDEX. (Ul '')oli)hin, gpcrics of, fnunci in the Ara(;uavn, r)02. Doui I'cdro II., till! Kniiicrnr, geological oli.scr- vatiiiii.s (if, ','io. Ddiii j'cilro II liuilniad, p'oldj^'ical dliscrva- tiiiiis (111, 14 Doni I'cdro, North d'Kl-llci Cniiiiiaiiy, ri42. Drawings, Indian, 2'.I7. -i'Ji. Drift on runtatrallo llaiiniad, 20 ; of Uio, 2.3, i')iil ; at 'I'ijnca, 27 : of Niclm-ia, til) ; (in IMiila- dclliliiardad, I:i2 ; at .Vllddns lidi,-, U.'j ; near Fa/.enda da l/ai.'ua, 14s ; near Caili.iu, hjl : of Minas Ndva and vicinity, iiiddc df occur- reiKciif ^'dld in, I'lO; at lialiia, .■i4I ; once cdiitiniidUs ihiwn Id tile surface of tlic sea, 342; on r.a!ii;i Uaili'dad. 3iiii ; on l.ducr ."-.ci Kr.-iiici-cd. 41'.t . df I'eara, 4'ili ; en .-^ad I'aiilo liaih'dad, h"> ; df I'atairdiiia, oi> ; Id siinio (if ar;,'iiiiicnts td prove existence of in lirazil, 5d.S : distriliiitidii (if in lirazil, ;Vil ; cla_\sdt, totally unlike tlm-e (if the tertiary, iji'>>^ : for- mer extellsidii ddwii to level of sea, 572. Drdii^rht in Cear.i, 45'.). Dry sea.-dii, almndai ■(' df liti' ihiriinr, 155. Dual fiinn in I'ldtdciidd l.niL:naL;c, (i04. Dniies, 124, :i:;2, :!!.'),. •i.'^ii,;3'^2.;)'.i4; in I'roviiu'o of Kio Grande do Morle, 455 ; L'earJi, 158. K. Ears, p(.'rforation of, by Potocudor!, how p^T- foriued, hX'i. Ear-plu};, 5."'.'J. Erhiiuistir (irissisj.lii'i, 02. EchiiitDiiHra Mu-liilnti Desnr. 02, 2^.3, 214: nests of, in rm k at i-land of Marie •-, ;ji. Edu.ards, I'rdf. .V. M., on tiirlja of Cainaniil, 20.3. E^'t,'s df ldi;u'erhead turtle, 110. Klephants iu I'dst Tertiary in Unzil. 2SS. Elevation ofco.-ist within recent times, evidence of, at l!i(i, 35. Eniliaiili.'i ( CrrojilK). 94, Eiiia {KUki Aimrininii), 140, 254. Enrajip niKiraiiKiUis^ occurrence of, at Uio jsaiit' .Xntdiiid, 235. EiifrcracUmunir, 577. Eiitdiiiosirdid, cretaceous, 347, 348. Entre Montes (villatrel, 411, Eozdic I'dcks, dccurrence of irold in, .532 ; dis- triliutidii (if, in 15r;izil, 547; of Venezuela and liiiiaiia, 5.VI, Enti)ior/iih/s iiiihrirntn, iioti.'S on, 112, Eriiirniiliin, 423. Eriisidii, tdpduraiiliical features )iroduced hy, in nidist ami wodded reicidii, 318. Erratics, 4Sit. Kseadiiilias, ('achdeira das, S!). Estreitii on .lei|nitinli(inlia, 100. Estanei.a, (Jcdldiry of vicinity uf, 379. Estherians, 445, Eu'jniin, 24!(. Emiirtrt /iiiiiiilis Edw. and Iliiiino, 02, 74, lilO, 22;». Exjiort* (if city of liahia during year 18'J4-C5, 330, 337. F. Falls of P;uilo AfTonso, 414 ; of Je(iuitiiihonl\a, 170. Karinha, 120 ; exportation of, from Rio de Cou- tas,201. Farrancho, I'i". Kaiiits, a|ipareiit iilisence of, 41^. Fauna, inarine, (if Itrazil, rescnililance to tliat df U'e-t Indies, I'.W. Fauna', coiiiparisdn of liraziliau radiate fauna Willi the \Vest liidi,in, 214. Fdi'Kl riiiifi-rtd \'err., I'.U ; E. i;rin-iilit Verr., I'.il ; E.' Iij/liiii/ii/llii, 2o7. Feira da Coik i-i(,'a.(i, country in vicinity of, 322. Eitis riinciiU>r, ',(5, 2.S0 ; E. iiKurdKrn^ [),'>: E. iiii^ii, 'j5 ; E. iKti'lnliSj 'j5 ; E. iintis, 2.NJ ; E. I'niliijfiiiithfr, 2>>7. Ferns, fussil, of lainliota c(ial-miiies, 522. Fazelida dd Capilad lir.nide, 117; do 'I'l nelifo lldiidrid (Ktdui, drift in vi( iiiity df, 14> ; at Escravaiiia, inmieiise nuuiOcr of hone.s in cave at, 2.V) Feijao (liean-), 7!'. Feijij ou slnu tiire of Serra da Yhiapaha, 457 ; (III K'old of ('ear.., 472. Fevers of Uio llm e, .'S ; of jJ.'u) .Matheos, 118 ; on the ,lenuiiiiilidi.ha, cau.-u of, lO'J. Fiddle crali,-,230. I Fires, elfect df, (.ii vc-etatidn, S3, 320, ,375. Fish, excellence of ISr.izili.iii, iN'i: fossil, 347, I 3.'i3, :ij4, 355, 3.59, 371, 384, 445, 400, 477. Fisheries of lOspirito ,-^aiito, ricliness of, >!. Fishery of (laroup.i in .Miroihds rej^ion, l55. E/miiitailts I'ti/r(iniiiis Carrulliers, 524. Fletcher, liev. .1, C, 514. Fold-, reversed, in Ivizojc, 5.50, Forlies (in ,'^iliiri,i of liolivia and Peru, ,552, Fdi-est. luxuriance of, on Uio Ddce, 93 ; im Uio Pardo, 24.5, Fiiresfs, licit of, coinridonoo with belt of rains, ; 319; Insiiif; their lidid, (.'ivini; way to cani- pds, 319 : elfect of fires, 32IJ ; dei oinjiosition \ dependent on forests, 320. ' Forf.aleza (citv), location and population of, 40O, Fossils (foreijrnl, carried in liallast, necessity (if cantidti, 209, Fossils (if ."'iluri.i in Bolivia and Peru, 5.52. Fossil lidiies, 2^0, 311; plants of Ahnilho-", 170: plants of ciirli(niiferous, 523; shdls of recent species in reef rock at Porto Sci^iiro, 229; shells, re|itilian reiiiaius, &c., in cre- t,ici'.nis of .Mdiiserrate, .345; of cret.-iceoua of .Maroiiii, ■I'^'i ; shells ne,ir I'miiri i, 404. F'rade lie MiealK', lieiirht df, 42: de Itapeine- i rim, liei,L'lit df, .''^ : de ."".hi hcupMnld, r,8. I Francylvania, kicatinn. history of, &c,, 95. Freshet (annual of ,"<r,o Fmncisco. 420, Friirate-liird {Tmliyjiitts (I'jitiiiiui), ceuietery ] of the, IN). Froiis, hones of, in raves, 275. Frnita pao {.Arlnrarpiix iiirisn . 215. Funerai eustunis of Ih.itocudos, 5J9, G, ("ialemi, 44S, 472. liamella (hut- /rf), 512. tiaiia Has, Indian trihe, oustoin of jiiercinf; lip and ear, .584. Gardner on niythical reef, 1S9 ; note on Pi- ranha, 4oo ; Paper on the Interior of the Province of Cear.'i, 4'''l : prriliMlily wronir in referrini; tin; sandstdue of Piauli) and CearJ. to the crutact'ous, 470, G12 INDEX. ,11' Onrnots, 13, 21.49, 50,151. (iiirriitTiii, iicur Kio Italjiiiiuana, height of, 53. (iiiviii, lifi^'lit of, li). (iiizzinclli, Si^;niini, 121). Gtlitsit/nis MiiriiiiKini Liitrcille, 229; G.jmliis- tri.s Kilwiinls, 2iJil. Gi'iiipiiiio, liliick color, furnished by, 58i). (leojfniyu, 408. Uerbur, 3. Gcniiiui roloiiists ftt Pnnta Clara, 132. Ciilili.-i, lion, (irorgc, 5S4. (fl!i(i;itiil .-iirfiice.-:, diiinirtiT (if, 24. liUiciiT of IV.catubii, 4iiit ; of the Amazona.s, ] 4yi». I Glacial ii!icii.>riiciiaof Patagonia, 558. (JlyiiUiili),!, '^Wi. Uuci.-.s 1, 4, y, 12, IS, 24, 25, 4S, 5n. 52, 53, 01, (57, !iti, *J3, lli'J, l;j3, KJi"), 14S, 1(15, lliii, 107, liiS, I7u, 'mI, 25i), i:tiii, •J.W,, 312, 313, 322, 323, 324, ;«S, 34o, 3oU, 372, 4o5. 445, 44'J, 458, 4til, 402, 4tJ3, 474, 5tJU, uUl, 64'J, 55U. God, lintocmlos, dcstitutiou of belief in, 599. Goitre in lirazil, 331). Gold, 207, 448, 471, 497, 503, 513: at Canta- gullo, 5U ; on tlie Kio Man;;aiaby, 77; on Jiio do t'a.~tello, 59; in diilt at t-uciu'iu, 153 : of vicinity of Miiias N(iva.<, ancient method of workiu;;, llJd ; aliiioilance of, in Minus Nova reirioii, not yet exhausted, 15li, Itil ; lirobable existence of, in tertiary deiio.-its in llra/.il, 1()2 ; iiimle of oc<urr- t'lice of, in i'arahylia do Norte, 448 ; at Villa da.s Lavras da Mangabeira, 4lio ; mines of •laragiia, 513; of lira/.il, i\iV of, 532: dis- tribution of, in 13razil, 532: uiocU' of oc- nn'renee at Morro \elho, 537: of Mono Velho invisible in the ore. 541 : mode of oc- ctirrence of, ut Kossa Grande, 542; red, 542, 545; of Gongo .""oco, 541; color of, 542. (SeeChaji. XVIII.) Gor^iii\i(i ixracitis Verrill, 2u9. Goviibcira, 47. Granite, 295, 500. Granja, 400. Gravhite, l-l^, 4.58, 472, 525. Grazina { I'/ia, Ion), 180. Greenstone, '.flH. Green turtle, 112. Grisolitas, lol. Guarapary, h;irbor of, 03. Guarapnava, gold iit. 5b3. (iuayana. Tertiary rocks of, 493. Guavanni, or (iuainuniu (Oin/iosoma Guan- /iiiiiii),2:'>'.). Gullies fornicMl by rains, 1,")9. Guriri { Dipldt/ii-iiiiiini manlhniim Mart.), 237: a Mu-ial plant, 2.5(3. Gypsum, 471. II. IlalfcM, 414 : on mastodon remains found near I'aulo AlfoM.-'o, 418. Harbor of Ilbeos, 258; of Maceio, 425) of I'ernambuco, 435. Hares, 95. H,/,„slran nprrln Verr., 207, 213, 2(j9. II-;>rn»i(i. 94. 240. llelmrcicneii. Dr. Virgilio, section across the ,le(|uitiidiiiidia valley, 138 ; ■on the Serra da Chapada, 3(Jt;. Ilpus.ipr atid Claraz, 5.34. "liighlan.U of lirazil," 270. Hills or .Serras, isolated, on limestone plain, 310. Ilolothurians, 62. l/(ijiltiji/tiin(s, 280. llorii-tone. hills (jf, near Ynlta da .''crr.'i, 312. lloUM'S of liotocudos, .5'J(>. Humboldt ou namelUazil, X ; on distribution of cocoa ])alm, 120 : on social jplants, 255. Humpback whales, Ihl Hunt, Ur. T. iJterry, on Laurentian of Brazil, 550. Hyatt, Alplieus, on cretaceouK fo.ssils from .Maroini, 385. Hi/>iif>ini;()rgia {Gorgonia) qu<. cifolia, 62, 74, 196, 229. I. led, 460. Igiiape ( y^' water, q-i/n of varied color, /)<! way, ."Mart.), lertility <if vicinity of, 271. llt.r ]i(iriii;iiiii/i nsis, 517. llha ilo l'a(|iiet.i, das Cobras, do Governador. Knxaila,*;: do Lima, 45: Kscalv.ada, Kaza, 63; dolioi, ilccomiiosinggnciss,7ii : Halceiro, corals of 74: de yanta li.'irbara dos Abrol- hos, 175 Uedonda dos ,\brolhos, 17S ; Ita- parica, 207, coral lianks of, 213: (irande, 258: rciiiicna, 258; lioyapeba, 205; dos Fradres,207: Itamaraca, 437 : de Fernando de Noronha, 437; do liananal, 502; de (iuieppe. ,023. Illias dc .Maricas, evidence of recent rise of, 35, 30: de 8anta Anna, 41 : dos I'acotes, 71. llheos, 258. Induizeiro {S]}oniliiis tiilifrasn Arr. ), .323. Imiilenu'iits, human, in bone caverns, 286; of liotocmlos 592. IndiM.'i palm, 144 ; (Altakn cow/ita Mart.). 144, 100 Inga, il+, 110, 249 : gneiss at, 440. liiiirnduins in cretaceous near Aracaju, 384. I lie (Tccoma), 94. Ipec.-iciianha, 459. l/ioiiir/it liltiiialis, 237. Iron ore. 58, 299, ,3ul, 407, 447, 503, .515, 525. Iron mines and works of Ypanema. 515. Islaii.l of Victoria, (jO : height of, ti7. Itali;i|iiiana {lly water, luljd vill.-ige, npuan roinid .') It'.Oirite and jacutinga auriferous, 533. Itaiiiri'' , 534. Itacoli . beiatlit of, 3 • (JIaraiiliao), 484. Itacoliuiiile, 541. 545: tlie term loosely em- ployed, 3.32 : gold ill, 533. Ttaiiiins reef, 257. Itamlie {Ilii stone, and fninibd rough), Itanhaein {Iia stouc, and nltttng speak, echo- ing rock). Itapau'ipe, .3.34. Itajiitiiiga (reef), 258. Itapuan {ilii rock, npvan round), 346. It.'itiaiossi'i, l>ico dc. 2 ; height of, 3. Itu {llxi or Ylii a fall), gold at, 510. J. Jacamnd.'i ( nis;nonia Braziliensis), 93, 228, 240, 201, 45i). Jacare, salt deposits of, 329. 70. on limestono plain, I'nltii (la Scrrn, 312. I, X ; nil distrilnirioii ^(iciul jiliuits, 2oo. liuireiitiiiii of Brazil, ncenus fossils from () iju, cifolia, 62, 74, raricd color, ]ic way, it) of, 271. ras, (1(1 (iovcrnador. j; Ksi'Mlvada, Kaza, }:iiciss,7ii ; lial("ciro, liarliai-a dos Alirol- Alirollios, ITS; Ita- ;s of, 2iy ; (iraudc, lovaiK'lia, 2ll.j ; do.< L, 4;J7 ; dc Kcniaiido liaiianal, iJM2 ; de of recent rise of, 35, dos I'aeotes, 71. vsaArr), 323. Iione caverns, 286; 'tn comjita Jliirt.), at, 446. ear Arucajii, 384. 447, fjOa, 515, 525. iiieliia. 515. It of, 67. ba villatre, npuan I'erous, 533. iraiihfio), 484. term loo.^ely em- he rouirh), ■iif; speuk, ceho- n.d), .S46. lit of. .3. It, 510. liftisU), 93, 228, INDEX. G13 Jncrhw: (Hnpnle) Inicocephnlu.^, 95. Jagiiariire, 268. Jack tree (Arturarpns firdzilienfi.'i Gnni.), 245. Jacoljiua, eliaraeter of country iu vicinity of, 312 ; eliniate of, 317. Jaciipciiiba ( /'• nclofip mnrrtil), 95. Jacntiiit;a, derivation of name, 5.33 ; de- scrilied, 5!i4, 535; gold in, frei', 535; at Uoiigo .'^ocii, MX. James, Major I). C, 507, 514, 584. Janaliulia. 374. .lanehuii, liad spirit of Rotooiidos, 599. Jangadas, nunilier of, in I'rovince of I'eruam- huco. 432. Jamiaria, salt lirks of, .320. Jaragua, (inrt of Maceid, 425; gold-mines of, .Ma\vc"s account of, 511. Jiitrnjilui, 24'J. .)e()iii.i, tertiary MnlTs of, 422. .Tipcji'oi'k, trilie of, 593 ; IJotocudo chief, 594. .loazeiro, 327,408. Jniidialiy, 513. Jurassic rucks not yet known in Brazil, 554 ; of Andes, 5.")4. Jnrupcnccm, litad of navigation of Araguaya, 501 K. Kifhnn/na, 291. Kjockkenuiocildinfc.s on tlin Ilia do Governa- dor, 6 ; at ."-aiitos, 6 : at Santa Cruz, 6, 85. Knolis, isolated, on lake plain, 315. Kolosliians of Ala.ska, custom of piercing the lip, 584. Kuparack, skull of, described, 584. Kyanite, 145. L.icprda,Dr. de, .3-37, 421. Lagfa de Freitas, 11 ; de MaricA, 37; Saqu.arc- ma, 37: Araruama, 3S : Keia, 44; do ('im- pello, 45; .Marob.'i, 66; Jacuiie, 83; .lupa- ran.aii, it* depth, color of water, tcrtiir^- beds, loo ; do Aviso, 103; dc Moiiserras, 106; Tapada, 11)7; Mariricu, 115; Gavata, 227; do liraco, near Bchiioiite, 236 ; 8anta, 281 ; at .lacohin.a on the ."^ao Kr.aiicisco, 409 ; da I'edra, mastodon remains in, 418; do Norte, Alag("ias, 422; do tful, Alagdas, 422 ; I'aranagiui, 474. Lairoons .along coast, formation of, 44. Lake Plain of Bahia, 314; lakes of, 314. Lameirao, 76. Lands of Uio das Velhas, 290. Language of Bofocndos, 6o2 ; simplicity of graniniatical structure of, 603. Lajia Verniellia, 282. Laurentian rocks, 447, 449 ; resemblance be- tween Brazilian gneisses and Laurentian of Canada,, 549. Laiini.f, 249. Le.id, siiliiliate of, chromate of, .sulphide of, carbonate of, chloro-phosphate of, 448. Leather-back turtle, 112. Leaves, shedding of, by catinga woods in dry season, 322 ; rapid growtli of, oa approach of wet season, 322. Lerythis, 94, 249. Leite, Dr. Frainja, his colony on the Bio Uoce, 95. Leugoaa custom of piercing lip and ear."!, 584. I.eni^c'ies, diamond washings at, 307 Linh.ires, fertility of lands near, lo3. Lizards, bones of, in caverns, 285. Li^liiiliitus, 347. Lriiidiilus tminiirns, 4<]8. Llianas, 250. L. .luparan.aa (.//", a frog, parri- ll'i, sea or l.-lke), desciilicd, 9"J ; coiiipaivd with lakes of Alaguas, 422. Liais on height of I'icdade, 3 ; on Sao Francis- co, 275 ; on the L'old-mineti of Brazil, 546. Legs of lioiocudo, thinness of, 579. Liciiri p.ilni, 256, 423. Lignite, 471. Lime manufactured from conils, 213. Limestone at Yiiiranga, 15; at Caiitagallo, 51 ; of coral reefs, 198; of .'^ao Francisco, 270; of Kio das Vclhas, 2^1 ; at Malhada, 2'X, ; east of ('ha)iada Uianiantina ; plain in Western Baliia, 310; aridity of, 317; at Estancia, 3Sii; at I'arahyha gold-iiiiaes, 447 ; near Crato, 464 ; almo-t entire ah.-ence of, from Laurentian of Brazil, 551. Linh.ires, Kio Dote at, 07 ; nias.-iape soils, 97; situation of, 00 ; tertiary beds at, 99. Linrkin (iniit/iopits Liitkeii, 214. Lip, perforation of, by Botocudos, how pcr- fornieil, 582 ; ornament, 583. l.ittiirinn, 229. Lixo, Kecife do, 202. Lizards, abundanc(! of, on Abrolhos, 180. Lode, U(^*cubridora, l';:raliyba, 448; Lima, 447 ; Boa Kspciantja, 448. Loggerhead turtle {Thuliissor/ir/i/s cniinii'i), abundance of, at Barra 8ecca, notes on, li)S. Lund, Ur. P. W'., ou hone caverus of Brazil, 281. M. Macah(5 and Campos Canal, 43. .Mac^anibamba, beach of, .39. Macaiiibira, 407,441. .Maccipe, loiMlity for fossil fishes in Cear'i,46t!. Macci I Ucef, 213; to|)ography and geology of the .icinity, 422 ; city Jiud harbor, 425. >bicliacalis, village of, 167. Miiiriiiir/iniia, 286. Macnji'', discovery of di.imonds at, .306. Mailrf/inrn, absence of, from Brazilian polyp fauna, 214. ^ladrijiis, female whales with young calves, 1S4. Mriiitiilrinn. absence of, from Brazilian polyp tauna,214. Mrfstrirhtieii, 494. -Magalhaes, Dr. Conto de, 502. >bigncsia, 471. .Maiiuine, gold-mine of, 543. Maize, 79, 142. ^bilaphvr. ,5.31. Malhada, 265. Mammals, number of fossil .species discovered by (-'laiissen and \Am>\ in tlie bone caverin of Brazil, 2! remains ot recent species of. found occurring with extinct species, 2S6. Mammalian fauna richer in the post tertiary than now, 286; of true South American type, 287 ; not richer in genera f irmerly, 287 ; richness in i;i.int forms, 288. Main.io (Pujnii/ri), 217. .Man, reuiain.s of, in bone caverns, 286. 014 L\'Di:x. ill! M.'inali ( Mnnatin: A>Hfririiiiits),nt Victoria, T'l , III S;>ii .Mallii'iis, 121^; in Itln I'criili^ |ii', 2Ui. Maii.linrii, 7'J, ;i!i, I'Ji, VS.I. \oi, iM. Maiiiliil'i, ilri Iv.iliiiii lit II. line, iSir., tn',). Maii;;Mliii, or Maii>;aliriia (Hi(iicuniiii sjuciasn liiiiii.), 14'.",;{Ti.l.V,l, HiT). .MaiiHiiiu'M', iVtt, ■>•!'!, iitu. Maiiiiiiiiiiios, Iri'tiary ImvIs at, 55. Maiiniiivi- s«,iMiiis, mill ■it',[>i>; foniiiitimi of, Lilin ; iiiiliialtliiiM'>Mir, lilii; nwiuiii>iif iiiuiah if Kill .liqiiitiiilii'iilia, 'J^i'.i. .Maiii;rnv<'s, nil {l.'ii;ininiiiiiiii rurmiitsn) ii.il Nvlijtr [Arin nil id loiiii iilo\ii), 1211 : as aj^ciits ill tlir silling up 111' swaiiijis, 222; .siirial plant.-, 2;")!). Mtiniiiiii, ali.-iiii'i' i>r, tVoni Uni^iliaii iioly|) taiiMa,2l4. .Maraia.-siiiiii', unM-iiiiiios of, 485. Marapij;i|n', 271. Maraiiniialii', I'iH. Maiaiiliaii, |«ipulaliiiii of province and city, ■ISl) ; ^'(ilil-niiiii'.-, .')4l). Miiruuii, >pn irs ..1 ll_\ , nott'il for liitiii;; just at ni^Ciilfail, 2111 ; iil> uf, 3^54; civtarrou.s of, Marsli, I'rof. (). C., ili'scriplion of nrw croco- ililians, liou ; on nciiirrcnco of nio.sasau- rian.-- in Kiiropo ami .Anu'rica, 494. Massapo soils, ll'.l, IIS, ;jSI,-,. Mastiulon, ivniaiiis of, 201,280,208,324,325, 4LS,411t,47l,5:;3. Mall', I'.ir.i^juayaii tea, 517. .Matta ill' ."".lo .loao, 308. Malta.-, 37'.t, 42>J. Muiiriliii riiii/im, 2'.ll\ Mawi', Ifavi'ls in Uiaiiil, 51 ; on golj-miues of .laraLtu.'i, 511. >li'(iratli, Ui-._ .137. M>i:nptn;, IS], Miutit/iniinti, 2">i>, 471. Mtlnuid tn,i,ri/(}n/iis ^lorri.'s, 348,350; M. i\i(it'i,i/iiiiii ll.artt, 350. Mrl.iph.vr, 530. Miltisii,/n(i, 240, 201, 375; M. Hookerinntis, 4(18,423. Mrliii.sid rlir/inliiiiiii, 250. Mtss,i/i(, Orliiiii (iaiil), 403. Mi'sti-i' .Mvaro, S3. Mrti'orolifi' of lii'iiiilriro, 325. Mi'tt'iiniiifi's, -linwrr of, in ("I'ari, 472. Mctaniorplii-ni no rritirion of atri', 2S0 ; sifrns of, in I'll/nil' roi-k not ilisapprarin;.; toward till' wi'stiTii part of plateau of Drazil, 500. Mialivpf, 01. Mii'.a-sl.it,., 135. 142, 148, KU, 252, 29G, 208, 328, 445, 440. 45S, 525, 551. Mire, oeenrn lire of lione.s of, in CHTcrns of lii'ipia Santa. 2S5. Mill' pi, rn ulrironiix l,inn, 40, 200; vnr. l\t. i/ii:iliilii. 20i;; i-iir. M. nllii'dsii, 200: '-nr. ]\l. I', i\istml:i Verv., 201 i ; M. liraziliinsii Vevr.,lit5; I\l. .\,ii,/ii Verr., 2(15. Mille|iiires, stintrin^ properties of, 20". IMiitiiisii. 240, 2511 4'i8. Miiias (la Ca.xoeria, 447. Minas (ieraes, a laml-loeked province, iiocessi- t.v of roads to tlie coast, 130. Jlinas Novas, caii-e of failure of mines, 157 ; ^reoloiiy cif vicinity of, iri7. Mining conip.iiiies. Conipai. letalluririca do Assuruii. .3oS : Tasso l!r, ...ii (iold-Min- iiig (Jouipauy (limited), 440 ; t*au Joao d'El- Ilci Miiiint; f'ompaiiy, 530; Ui«sa (irande (lold-.Miiiing I'oinpaiiN, 512: liom I'etlri) Ni.nh dKl-Kei I'niiiipany, 542; liast .li:i- l!ei rompany, .544; Monie- .\uiios (icild- Mining Conipany (limited), 510. Mi-pickel, llie principal ;;old-licarer, 531, 540. Moisture, e,\i.stence of fore.sls, depeudcli(.:e uu, 321. .MolvOdateof lead, 472. .MonUey.s of Kio Dure, 05. .Moiiserral, (.{colony ol, 334. .Monte .Moreno, 05; .Inlmiuani, height, &o., i;,S; i'areoal,220 ; S.intn, 325. Montes I'yrelieos, liei;f|it of, 5ol. .Moon, superstitious n ^^ailiiij,', among Hotiicu- dus,r.itO, Moraine, ^dgantic, of .\niazouiau glacier, 400. .Miiraines of I'iieatiilia, 400. Morainie deposits uf 'I'ijiiea, ,502. .Miirro do .Sapateiro, 4S; de Me.-Ire .\lvaro, 81 ; lie Agali, 50 ; de No.-.-a .Senlmni da reiilia, Oli; da Serra, 81, S3, S4 ; do P.'idie, 02; da Terra .Vila, 07; do Kupaii, l.)3 ; do .\riao, 104; de Sao I'aulo, 200; Keilondn, 207 ; do Caldeirao-assu, pol-lmle on, 310; do Ciin.sel- ho, sand-plains I if vicinity of, 315; doCiiaves, geology of, (04 : dos Caliellos llrancos, 513; Vellio -'olil-miiie, 530: mmle of extracting Hold, 53S : prolits, i'hiO, 540; deptli of Uiiues, 53;t ; lie Siinta Auua, 542. Moucliez, 220. Moulding ol drift-covered .surfaces wholly dif- ferent from that of surfaces exposed to tho action of waves, 500. MouuUiiu ranged badly reprcscuted on maps, 278. Muciiry region, resenildance in topojrranhy, soils, &e., to the colTee regions near Kio, l.'U : topnirraphical features due to moist climati' and forests, .310. Mud bottom bordering cond reef, 200. Muiido Novo (Mahiii). mastodon remains, 325 ; locality for fossil tishes in (lear.'i, 400. Muras, custiim of piercing lil), 584. Miirici ( ni/rs(>tii»iii), 374. l\l,i^^(, Hnrltii Verr., 73, 100, 220. .Mussels, 73. Miituni (Trrcr), 05. Mi/Hdl', ISO, Mi/ritrs Ursiiilis. 05. Mi/ldi/oii. 2S0. .Mysti(;ii whale, 182. Mythical reef, belief lu accounted for, ISO. N. Naegeli, Dr. U., 0. Xaknenuks, 570, 503. Natal, 454. Ndtiiii prrilnnsn Leynierie, 385. Natividade. 40". Navigation hy steam of SIVo Francisco, 300, 421. Navigation of the Araguaya, 501. New Hed Samlstone of Estancia, 370. Nazan'th, 208. Neocomeii, 5.55. iS'iriliiin, 34S : .V. /iiifin fiabb. 403. Nests of sea-urclnus in rock, 30. Nest of loggerhead turtle, mode of excavating, loo. n '^ "'^,. , 530; llnssii OmiKU- ;, uVJ ; I'oiii I'r.li'o III), ;,\2: i;;i.-t .ii;i- llllilO AllllUH (iuid- ;uUl-l,c,inT, niU, 540. I'usCs, Ut'lituduiKiL' on, iii|iirini, hiiglif, &<•., In, :;i',. iif, r,(ii. I. linn, uiiioug Uotocu- iiiziiiiian glacier, 4'JO. i'.t. rii, M'i. iU- Mc.>licAIviin), SI ; 1 S<'lilin|-:i ilii I'dilKi, vl; .!(. I'.i.liv, liJ; .la iipiiii, l.iii ; (til Ai'i.'io, ; licilcmiln, 'J'.i; ; .In (' on, Jild; do Cohscl- i(y ol',;iiri; iloCiiMvi'S, ilicllos llnuK-os, ol;! ; ; nio.lc ol' cxtrMcl'ng 040 ; di'iitU ol'uiiuf.s, 42. 1 surfmi'S wliolly dif- .■tUcii.s f.\ posed to tin; •opro.sL'uti'd oil maps, liinoc in topoLrrapliy, I'cc n';;ions near Itio, ilnrus due to moist ). ovi.l i-ccf, 200. to.loii remains, 325 ; 1 ('ear.'i, 400. lili, M4. I'JU, 220. ■counted for, ISO. .3S5. S'lO Francisco, 390, va, ."lOl. ;ancia, 370. itil.. 40.3. •k, 30. mode of e-xcarating, INDEV. Gl." N'cnwieil, Prince Maximilian 7n, 122; on I'.'to de Assueiii- (I!io), S, ; Vietoria, •>'. ; Kio journeN tVom lllicos to llalii.i, 2411; on eoun- .le .'<a.i l''ran.|-ro, llil. ti.v l.r"t«een rrnlin an.l ¥:\i. da Caxi.eira, I'.io Ura/.il ( ( V,m(//i//i/" c/ii/i'it'Oi 04, 22S. 2oT. See Aiifii mtix, raraluso, ,-,an.l-lie.ls at, 3l'>li. Nie.ilay, liev. Mr., .Ill t.irlia .lepnsits of Cama- I'aralislia (eity), populiition, eomuieri'e, &(•. m.i,'^04: on p'olo^y of l'li:ip;i.|a Uiamanti- of, U2. iiM, .'Jill ; neul.ijry of iiili'i'i.ir of Italiia, 3t»l. \ I'ariiiij l.ia do Norte, K''i>li'n>' of gold-region .d', !\'ii:mi nitliiii ()^/('.M/. (Jarriitlii I's, iVij. 44ri. Nonie>;a whale, lh;i. I I'.aran.i, proviiiee of, 517. Nova .Mmeiila, Ho. I'.■u■an.■l^;n.l, 51s. Nuggets of t;ol.|, 207. ! I'aiv.;! .io.- Al.rollicjs, I'JO ; dius rarudes, 201. Nnmeral.s wunling in laiiguagi.' of Ikitoeudo.s, l'i(s.\i/lnni,\H'.t. Oti4. 0. O.'topods, 03,2114. Oniliiiii, aliseiii .• of, from Ilrazilian imlyp Ian na,211. Oilinitdiiliris riiiniiana Carrutlitrs, 524. oiieiio, ;ii;2. "()lli..s,'- ;V15. <lliven..ii, 24S. Oljveir.i, ."^r., 437. Onea, 05. Oolilie rock at Araeare, .300. Olnil, iiimnioii, ;i27. Uliliiii'lit Kiihsii liiilken, 107. O/i/iiii'i /fi!^ liiiiicisiJiiiii .Miill. and Troseliel, 107 OliliKiiHi/.ni /liir{ iiln l,ijlken, 107. Oliliiiiii' II i^' riih iihiid liiilken, 107, 2ii3. ] Ojil(iiilhnx viiiinnn .Mull, an.l 'J'roselnl, 107, i 21 13. O/'/iiind niirnii I,\nian,l.2, r.l7,2('3. Opo-sums, ',il ; great aliundanee of lioiie.s of, in lione eaverns, 'Ikb. O/iiiiUiu, 4(.i.S. Oiiiistir i.'/i,'"", lOT. Oig.-inie remains, none in drift, ,073. OrgAos, Serra .|os, lieiglit of, 3, 7. Ornament of Uofoendo, 500. Oitliocla-c, 0, 140. Orton, 403. (Is Hnsids, 40. 0- lVi.<soes (Poroes). 2"). Ostri.h, .\meriean, HO. Ottiini, Seiiat.ir 'rhe..pliiln 1^., his jirnject t( l'al..'.;.Hiia, .liifl of. 55H. Paul.. Alloii>o, I;. lis of, 414 ; eompareil witli -Niag.u.i an.l llii' ,^alto (Jraiide do .Icjui- tiiilionlia, 4tH. I'l .•n.nl (,I/Y((7ii,v lii/jini,'riii), 400. IN'Ml, Koo, 51.0. Pel. Lie sill el of drift, 24. I'iiliiiia,~,\ ; I', lintzdnn.si.^ Kdw.und Ilaiux', 2iiS. Pe.lra Honita,32; Pormosa, 53 ; Lisa, 54. Peiie.lo, geology of vii ii.iiy of, 31>7 ; popula- tion, ei.n:nn r. e, fti-., -i'M. Penn, .-^tiilf ('..iiimaii.ler, on the reefs near Cape Sao lti..(ue, Is.S , on ni ife, 1>H. Peri'-'ot, Dr., .lisi overer i f the ISrazilian eoal- fields. r,2ll Peripen, I relaeemis roeks at, 350. Pi rn;in.l.ueo, rivers of, 1.30; eonveiiience of, as a |orl,4;;2; .-iiiiaiion of eiiy, 4;i3 ; liar- hor of, ■\:'„',: ).. piilation of i its an.l prov- iiiee, i:i2 ; .leiiv.itioii of name, •i:;2 i'hil.iileipliia. l;il ; height alu.ve sea, \"A ; eouiitiy In v'eiidiy of, I.!4 ; ri.diiie-s of soil, fitness for i o.oiii/;ition, 134 ; roiel. ple.ent slate ol, 1;j5. Ph. .oolite ..I Pei-iian.li. .le Noroiiha, 43S. Phjsiognoiiiy of l'.o'oeiid..s, oSl). Pias-al.a {Alinlni /iiiK/im .Mart.), 2.37, 217, 271, 3.30, .'i7.3. Pie.'.lo Kn. ha.ir.o, plO : ilo Knehadinhi., li;0 ; lie Kami..-, l:i7 ; d'H.-.Mra, 535; Piedade, Alto ila ."^1 rra .la, height of, 3. Pine-apples, l^il. I'iin'iiits ifii'^iKt, V'4. Kir liriisilieni'iliiix), 1 tO. .settle the .Mueiirv aiel o).en a \va._'..n-road Pi.|iii ('vin/o-v,/- /;m.w7(e,i,.i'/».s), 1 tO. from Santa Clara 't.i Mioas Novas, l:;l : mill- \ Piranha (I'l/nnr, nlnis), .lin>ati..ii of name, ;';.iO: .le-<iiption of lialiils, :;:iO : note on, hy (iar.lner, 4iiO : vorai ity of, 101, 402, 502. I'imiii 11,1,11 (IMii,403 iiig right of in Miiuis .Novas ilistriet, 102. Oiiro Preto, vicinity of auriferous, .530. (Iriilinii iiHihiitiiiii . I'.Hi. Owls, insfriniieiital in aecuniulating hones in caverns, 2S.'i. Oyster.s, 73, 220. P. Paca {C(Tln<;rniis Parn). 04. Paehv.lernis. more ;.l.nii.lant in post tertiary than at jiresent, 2S7. raei.ic an.l Atlantic eonncctc.l .luring the cre- taceous, ;!01. Palla.liiim. 515; in '.'oM of Congo Socn, .542. I'alnis of Pay of Itio, 7; of liio Doce 04; cocoa {Corns iliirl/',rii), IIS; y,ii/d, US; Mini, 11«; Tiiiihnrc, 118; Indai.i, 144; Carnalniha, 452 Pis. I on I'.r.-i/iliaii rei.-f, 1^7. riso'liis in i-ri'taieoiis at li.ihi.a, .'!.55. Pissis (111 giieissof Corcova.la an.l Copocahann, 111; on eo/.oic gneis-es of lira/.il, 548. Pi,-taete,207. 324,327. 4S5. Pitanga, section at. IJi'.S : .liamond mines, .300. Piraiigueira ( Km:' iiin). 10,50. Plain of tertiary at Cinipina, S2. Plains of s.in.rat Victoria, S2 ; coast, foniin- tioi of 221 ; at mouth of tleiiuitinhonlm, 221 riiiniirliis Moiis/rriilnisis Ilar't, .'!51. Plants, fos.-il. on l!io PjinIo,i;43 ; Alirollios, 170; of carl ifera of Kin (ir.iii.le do Siil, .524 Plant, Nathaniel. K<.|., report ..n c..al-lii Lis of Iti.i .laguarao. 521. Plataf.irma, cretaceous heds of 347. Palm oil, 2711. , V\h\U'nolF.tUerpe)'i\: (Euterpe eihdisyiATiA, I Pl'iteaii of Province ot Hahia,310: mi.l.lle, of .)li; I Pallia, ;il3: third or coast, of liahi.a. 310; Pfi/.V//m«7.40, 02, 102. 103. I'io d'Arco (Bignuaiii), 04, 459. secon.l, ..f Pallia, vegetation, climate of, 317 of Aiipodi, 451 ; of lirazil in Sao Paulo and GiO IXDKX. riiraii.'i, Wl'i ; of llrazil, even wlicro iimliT- liiiil liy niicis.i, iV)!!. I'liiliiiiim, llS; (M rurrriii'c nf in (;(ilJ-niilK'H (if l(iii/.il, iM. I'lt.niiirrllii ,li(h,il«)iui K'ill, 1)2, lit". I'o-iis.xii ^YL'-llllM-ll,1Sll, niiiitiiii; ifnltr or liii; siriiDii'), 'SM ; iirtiliiilili' results (p|' wiiUuiiiK, 2H1. Pncdc-i, '2,V). I'ohi, r.ii;. l'iijirli.i,cliirfiiiiiltriboof BdtocuilDS, (J02, 5J4. I'djiii'ii tiiriiii'l, ;i7l. r<>h|is ilistrilmtiuii of, uloug UruziUiin ouiist, liM. r(iiiiiHMi,.t2H. I'OII.IS Oil ITcfS, 210. I'(piit;i ill' .Iccii, 111 ; ilo Tiiliiirru), (io ; Ciiixa dc I'rririis, 'JtiT ; (i:in'iii, 2'iT. rmitiil lit iiiniiili 111' Kin Ariissuiiliy, U",l\ ilii H.'irni ilo Sao Kraiiri-^co, iliiiics at, 'A'X) P(inii|iiiicn, lioiics of ill caves at liiigoa Santa, 2sr.. Pontes, in Ilav of Kio, ll»2. Pinihs siiliild V.'iTill, 2li;{, 208. Piirplivi-v, iH;, )l'.». I'oroUiiiii, -^Uiill of, oSrt. I'oiiii'oca or lioi-c, 4S7. Porto lie Sonza, >;coloi:y of vicinity, OO ; iVis Caixas, ll, 21 ; da Villa Nova, I'cccnt ilc|iiisit nt, IS ; ila I'cilra, T'l ; ili' Sou/.a, S!» ; ricliiics.s of soil at.ltl. Porto Alc^rc (Itio Miicniy), 12S ; (l;io (;ranilc do Sill), 'hil Porto Sctrnro, 22S ; liarlior and reef of, 228. Porto das I'iraiilias, 412. Post tertiary, iu'.i. Pot-lioles, (iccnrrence of diamonds in, ."Oy ; of hake I'laiu of luobable glacial origin, 315, f)i!2, fiTl. Prado, 22,'). Praia (Jraiide, frcoloirioal .section at, l,"?. Precijiices, character of, near llio, HI. Priiiiiiis rtrriairni.t, larva' of,eaten hy liotocu- d(is.6i>7. Prist is, species of, in Kio Doce, 91. Propri.i, 4114. Protoifillitrus, 2Sl'i. IMzewddowski, .Mr., 272. Psiiliinii (iiiiiirri, il. Pit lis cdiiiliilit , l44, 2.52; social plant, 2.")t). Pliroi:i>n;i(i ( (iitn^diiid) ^rar.ilis Verr , 81. Piiinice. IT'.t, 248. ' 1 ri/i.'omitnis (tisiri, 4(1,3. Pyritts, niatinetic iron, pold of, '1,34,541 ; iron, a.ssociated witli gold ut Morro Velho mine, 537. j Q- I Quartz, nnriferoiis, 448 ; Tpins, 448, .').33. Qii.irtzite, 152, 21)ii, 2'J8 ; iiuriferous, 534. Qnadersandsteiii, 298. i Qnixeramoliim, 4G0. Quiii.a, ll», 459. Quiricaro, Kio, 117. n. Kailroad.s of nrazil, 293 ; rnntapallo. G, 19 : Dnm Pedro Sciinndo, peolotry of, 14 ; Pcin iianilnicn and S.'io I'ranci.sco, 43tj; Santos and Srio Paulo, 500. j KaiiH on Lower Silo Frniiplsoo, 420 ; of Ma- r.inlifiii, 4S5. Kecife, ineaiiint; of word, I9l, 4''!2 ; I'itv of, 4.32 ; do Lis.., 2n2 ; do l,e-ie, 211 ; da Pedr.i (Ir.nide, 2\\ : It.'iiiliaeln, 212: dns Itacolil- mis,212,227; das 'I'imliclias, 212 ; do Porto .S'^'iiro,212 Keconcavo, 272. Iteefv, Coral, ...ee Coral Keefs ; stone, or con- solidated lieaclies, of (iiiarapary, ti2; at Ilarr.'i Secca, lii7, ll;i; Purto Sepiro, 229; Santa Crn/., 232; llaliia, 312; liio Ver- mellio, 311; I'i'i'iiainliuco, 431; Paraliyha ilo .Norte, 412,454. Keinlianlt, Prof (},,279; trineral conclusions Willi rctereiice to tile fossil fauna of hniie ciiveriis, 'JS7 ; on Ib.ssil man of !!ra/,il, 287. li' iiillii IhiiKi , 192. liliiiro/fjiis huccutis, 408 ; li. olfersii, 408 ; A'. /'(n(.'i,4il8. Il/ii'ii Dfinvini. 1 17. Uliij-iii, sjiecies of, social plants, 250. Iti.Kdio, iiieaiiinn of word, 123; dos Porcos, 457; do Mniido .Novo, 157; dns Ostras, 124. Kil'iiiMo Diamantiiio, \V.\ ; dW^riii Nova, 149; da !<sirM,250: do .Mcio, 154. Uii-e, lb;.20l,4iH», 410, 454. ltirlel,2Nl. Kill, liiiy of, I'll d'.V^iia Liinpa, 1.54; d'.Vsua Siiji, 137, 15.3; das .Vniericanas, 120; .\n- d.iraiiy (Amlirii li.it, /(// river), di.ainond wasliiiifTs (HI, ,300; A|iia|iitan^M, S5 ; .\p- podi, 452; Ar;i;;iiaya, 50l ; .\riissiialiy (Arti- ussii-lii/ (jreat parrot water, or ('(iiiriiii/-ri/ water of the sun, Alart.), 137, 103; K'old in sands of, li;;j ; d'.Vrei.t, that p.irt of a river whose lied is composed of sand, .so called in contrast with tlie part whose lianlis and hed are rocUy, 120, 171, 242; da liarra Secca, Idll ; lieiievente, 00; lloiu Successo, discovery of jrold in, 1.5ii ; lirns- cns, 447; llnraiil'iaeiii, 227; Calh .o, 137, 151; Caiiiociiii, 400; Candiofa, co.al-mines of, ,521 ; Caiiindi', 474 ; Cap.iiiem.i (nin leaf or wood, I'lineiiui sterile), 271 ; C;ipi- liarilie, 430: C-ipivary, 137, 145; Carihype, 83; Car.ipina, 70; C.ir.avellas, 219 : (_:aravel- liis, mouth of, 223 ; Cariniataii, 4.52 ; C.irnii- lianlia (Curi/rd to run, niilic eiionirli, " Flu- vius sat r.apidns," .Martins), 295; do Cas- tello, i;olil-wasliiiip;s on, .59; da C.ixoeira, 227; Cear.i-mcrim, 451 ; Chopot.,87; Coiii- m.ilid.itulia( CiDli'iii'tii rei.iaii..and ///'"( place), 242; lie Coiita.-, 200; Corrientes, SS ; Cutin- Huili.i ( Cnhir to wash and Hi'i tree, Kiver of the .S(/)/»'/»,\ or soap tree .'), 379 ; Cotiiiirni- lia luM'otindilia. 3S1 ; Oar of, 382 : Cramiiiu- aii, 227; v'ruliixa, 75; Cuiti', 89; Curipc, 70 ; Doce, description of K.isin of, 80 ; width at Po. to de Soiiza, 90 ; luxuriance of forest in, 93; freshets of, 98 ; productions of, 98; It.ir of, 102, 104 : lielow I,iiiliaves, lo3 ; Cinn- p.'iny (if, lo4 ; American colony on, lo5 ; salt tr.ade of, ilillicultv of carrvinjr on, lo4, 105; da raliric,i,219; Kanado, 1.37, 145; do Krade, 227: do Kiuiiirio. 248 ; (iihoy.a, 2.5o : (ir.indo do Norte, 451: Ifauhaem, 224: Imhucalii, 304; Ipo.juca, 4.3'l; Irapir.aiifr {Ym honey and /iirdiii;/! red), S'^l: Iriritih.a, 00; (!ra- vat.i, l:i7, 148; (iualacho, SS; (iuiiiniri, 89 ; (iiiarapary, 03 ; <iuaxiiulilia, 122; tiur^rueia, 474 ; Igiiiissu, 44 ; Itabapuaua, 52 1 Itucam- 'rniipinoo, 420 ; of 5Ia- )r,l, r,)l, .|;i2; cify «(, lo hole, 'M\ : (111 I'nllM inn, 212: <l(>.i Itacolii- miIm'Ij^is, 2\2 ; (Id I'drti) Itccts ; sfoiic, or c'oii- if (iimnipiin, tU; at 1; I'oi'to Si')iiii-o, 22i) ; Italiiii, ;irj; liiu V.T- buoo, 4;jl ; I'iinili)!),!. • ; p'lii'riil cnticliisioiis ■ r<p»il liuiim iif Imhii? il man 1)1' l;ra/,il, 287. i I U. olfersii, 41)8 ; A". i1 plants, 2.')i!. ml, 12;i ; ildH I'orcos, , I'll: ilisOstras, 124. 1'.'; (I'Ah'w Nova, ll'J; ■io, 154. 464. I Miiipa, ir>4 ; iTAfriia Aiiicricaiias, 12H; Aii- /(// rivi'i'), (liaiiKiMit V|iiapitaii^'a, N") ; Ap- odl ; Anissiialiv {Ani- vvatcl', or ('<i<irnri/-ri/ ai-f.), i;j7, li;;5; ptiii '.Vrcia, rliat part of < composcil ot' sand, wifli llic part whoso oi'Uy. 12(), ITl, 242 ; Iti'iicvonti', C.il ; Honi ' v'oM in, l.")(i; liriis- 1, 227 : Calli.o, l;J7, Taniliota, coal-mines 74 ; Capannoa (run I stcrilrj, 271 ; Capi- , l.i7, 14') ; Carativpc, ivc!l:is,21',t; C'aravi'l- imafaii, 402 ; Carnii- luilii ciionuli, " b'lii- rtins), 2'.l.') : do t'as- 1, .")H ; da Caxocira, ; I'liopot ', S7 ; Coui- jan.aiid fi/hii place), orrii'Otcs, SS : Cofju- Mil ihii u-vv, KiviT of 'cc '), ■i''->: Cotiiinui- irof, ;)S2 ; Cnimiiiu- Ciiite, SI) ; Cnripe, Hasin of, Sli ; wi.ltli uxuriaiice of fon^st productions of, iW ; hinliares, lli;i; Coni- colony on, Ido ; salt rryin,;; on, 104, 1(15 ; , l.)7, 145 ; do h'rade, iil)oya, 2.S0 ; (Jrande in, 224 : Imhneahi, piraii^ ( Vni honey Iriritilia, lio ; (Jra- o, SS; (iuandi'i. Sit; liha, 122 ; (inrtriieia, puauii, 52 ; Ituoiim- ixm:x. or Mrussii, 130; Tfnhi'inas, 122; Italiype (iV'i Hlojie, /((/ water, //i way, riviM' anion); stonesi, 25'.l; Itiimarandilia, "l:!7; llapiiiini, ;i2;i ; l'a))enierini, 5S ; .lacurnnii or •laiiirnna, (./(o I'j .-pecii'S of I'enelope, unit hlaik), 2l)'> ; .lacnaliy, coal-liasin on, 5.!ii; .laciUiN , 7'i; Jaffnarilie, 45S ; .lannaripe (rivi'r of the (tii- • ■a;, 2»')7 ; .lapariitnh.i, .'!,',» ; .lecn, lij ; .lci|ine, 'li'ii'i ; .h'i|niriea {jin/iiirn salt, ami rii'iwi hay, .Mart I, 2)i>> ; .le<|uJtinhonha, PiU ; .lo.io de Tiha, 2:il ; .loa^sema, 227; .lohajines, :W^} : .liicnrncn, 221; .hiparaiiaa, ',!'.); .In>.-lape, 2.5'.l; Macaho, 44; .Maciica, IS; da Mai' il'.Vi^iia, l.'il ; .Maman^rnapi', 44'j ; Man^ara- hyha, 7'); Man;,'arah,\ , 77 ; .Manhna.-si, ',Mi; Mariricii, lo7,o;i;j; Mrariin or .Meary, hore of,4S(;; do Meio (Medio), 77; .Mm-nr\ , 125; Mn;;ii|iii.-aha, 2;J5 ; Mnriahe, 4, 47 ; Mutimi, \ Ul: I'ampio, la;, I'.iMca, 115; I'ar.i, of .Mi- lias, 2nS ; l'ara;;na>sii, 2t;'.t, ;jo;j ; i'araf,'iia.\ , valley of, worn in tertiary sandstones, 504 ; I'ara'hyha do .<nl, :j, 45; i'arali.\ l.a do .Norte, 441; l'arah> hiiTia, 4 ; l'arana,51s; I'arana- paneiiia, 51S ; I'araopelia, 2S'.t ; I'arapnca, ;;',ll ; I'ar.lo. l;i7, 2;ir ; I'anialuha, 47;i ; I'atipe, 241; I'eroCio, i;;i ; l'crnii.\ pe, 215 ; I'iali.inlia, 4 ; I'i.iiiliy, l>')l,:ii'J; I'ir.icicalia, SS ; l'iraliy,;{; l'irah\ tin;;a, n.cme (ziven to upper part ol the Tarah^ha do .Sii|, ;j ; I'i- laidias, 451 ; da^ riraii^ias, S7 : I'irapama, 4;iO; l'ii'apitin;,'a, 4 ; ririiiiii-a.-sn, S5 . I'iri- c|ni-miriui, S5 ; .lo IV'ixe, ;i2;i ; I'imna, 5U ; I'omha, 4 ; I'litenui, l.')2 ; l'oty,474; I'oxini (I'li.riiii, n;:l\ ), 211 ; I'relo, 4, 125; I'nrus, 4',)4; Ileal, :J7'.t, .'iSd ; dos ilei.- .Map.s, S5 ; tie S.alitre, 1527; Sal^iailo (Cear.'i), 457; da •Salsa, 2;!7 ; Santa Maria, t)5 : de Sao Kraii- cisco, 271), tr<'olo);y of, 27ii, exiilorers of, 275, rank of, amoiiir rivers, 2SS, courses descrilied, 2'sS ; I'pper, uiihealthiness of, 2'J2, iiaviL'ahility of, cost of ri'inovimr oh- Htructions from, 2'.t2, openin;: of, to steam navi^'atioii helow I'iranhas, 421, S.ioMathe- OS, 117; ill' Sao Itdfael, Ml ; S'lu Sepe, coal- li.asin on,52'.t; Santa .\ntoiiia, Ss ; de Sanf' Antonio, mastodon remains found in vicinity of, 2itS; lie Santa ('niz(Ksp. Sant.), S5: Saii- ta Cruz (Itahia), 2;jl ; Santa Maria, (it!, 77; t>aiifa Kit.'i, 14.3: Sa(;uhi-pei|neno, 8S ; .Sa- \iitii-;;randc, SS ; Setuhal, 1157; country in vieinitv of, 1 lU ; Serenhaeiii, 4oO : Serici, 272; da Serra, t!5 ; Setuhinlio, 14il, 147; Sip., 241; Soledade. l.'J7 : Taipe, 227; Tap- igos, frranite on. 5oii; sandstones of, 5ii4; Tauh.i, 7li ; Tiluije, 513 ; 'I'iete. 510 ; Tocaii- tins, 5(il; Todos os Santos, 12' i ; Trahiry, 451 ; Una (binrk rii-i-r) of K-pirito Santo, poiith of Victoria, fVl ; west of Victoria, 7t') ; of li.ahia, 24i) ; of reriiandiuco. 4.3o : Upiin- cma,4.')2; Urucii, 12t!; Urui;Mav,51S : ajr.ates of, .531: Vacaria, 1.37; Vasahafris, 379, 3S1 ; das Velhas, laais survey of, 275, 2Si), coursi', %'elocity, obstruction, navitraliility, &e.,2S9, Liais's picture of the scenery ou, 2itl, Verde, 328; Xin,u'a,5(i3. Ri.so, trraiUial, of coiipt within recent times, prohahly still in progress, 30; observation on, at Victoria, 72. Uoads, scarcity of wnpon-roads in Minas • Genies, 130 ; wapon-road from Sauta Clura to I'hiladeliihia, 131. i Hock crystals, 531. j Hock salt said to occur on Ulo IIuallaKai.TJO, lioccas, 214. llo.MWlind, 03, 1(12. Kumniant.'^ more ahundant in pottt-tertiury than al present in Itru/.il, 287. a. .'^ahar.i, 20il. St. ,liihn,.\lr. O. Il.,275, 295,475. Saline sli'eiuns, 3('4. Saline de|iosit.s of Valley of Sao Fmnrisro, 328 ; method of exti letiii),' the .salt, 32'J. Salines of Arariiama, 3S ; of .\hn;.imhamlia, 30. Salt, eo.^t of, ni the interior, l;iO; cunniierin in, on Kio Dme, lil.| ; of Ka/.elida Aldeu, iiapurilies nl, 32s ; of Sao Kram i valley, note \,\ .Mr. Allen, 32; i ; in (Van, 471; Ir.ide in, of Mucur) , 128; of Iliu CirauUu do .Norte, 4.')5. S.alter on fll^^ils of Silurian of Andes, 552. Salto (iraiiile do .lei|ultiMhi>Mha uillagu and falls), r,(l; do Parana, 518. Saltpetre in hone caves ut La);6a Hanta, 284 ; of Itiii lie .'~;ilitie, .'^jil. Samanili.iia, 141; a pest in IJrazil, ;;rowtli of, aided hv tire.-, 2.Vi. Saniliahiha, 374. Sand-heaches, formation of, 210. .Sand, hlowin;;, on Sao I'rancisco, .'i.32. Sands Mown over drift at liahia, 31(< ; of Ta- hoieiros, ii;;e of, 377. Sandstone, lertiarv, 47, 48, .55, .5(1, 57, (iO, 100, Ml, 113, 123, 121, 15(1, 243, 270, 277, 3(il, 305, 311, ;i;i2, .371, 370, 458, .p;.!, 474, 475, 4.>'4, 4^0, 511I ; cretaceiius, 175, 34i., 347, 348, 307, 30^; pala-ozoic, 243; triassic, :).'0. Siinta Catharina.eoialsof, 11)2; S. Clar.a, 12S ; S Crnz, 85; S. liuzehia, 310 ; tj. I.uzia,452 ; S. .Maria, 70. Santo .\miiro, 272. S.atitos, -,(!(;. Sr.i) Christor.-io (city), .381; p, Fidelis, 40; S. .louo il.'i liarra, 45; S, .lo.ao irKI-llei, 530; S. .loao d'lpanema, 515; S. .Matlieos, 80, 121 ; S. MifTUil, 107; S. I'aulo (city;, uUU, 510; S. Vicente, .5.34. S.ipucahy, cretaceous limestone.s tit, 3S3. Sapncai.-i ( Leriiihis), 04. Sauri.ans, remains of, at Monserrate, 347. Siiwti-h in l!io Doce, 01. .^cliielicr, Mr. deorp', 120, 120. Srhiiiiis !' rihiiilliiln/i/i, 10, 423. Schist-', hornlilendic, 44(;. Sehlolach, enninuer, ou height of Philadel- phia, 1.34. School, 151,. 327. SriiirKs II ftiirins, 28G. Scori)ions, 375. Sea-anemones, 02. Sea breeze at I'enedo, 420. Sea-level, ancient, at Victoria, 71. Sea-urchins, nests exc.ivated in rocks by, .30. Sebasti,"'o l.enie do I 'rado, discoverer of gold- inines of Minus \ovus, 150. Sellow,.5.3(). Senonieii, .5.50. SeriripedEI-Hei, .3.81. Serjriliian croup, 5.5t). Seriema ( Dichnldjilius cn.itntus), 2.54. Serpentine, occurrence of, iu eozoic limestone . at Pirahy, ,540. Serra dos Aimorus, 84 ; das Aliuas, 254 ; Uas G18 LNUKX. M. Arnrns, 400: di- Anirlpi' (Arnri-ipi', Incnlity (if),-"'', 4.')7,4ii4; AiM.'-MpiiiVii or (iiiiiriirnl- IIV;i,ri|ii; ill' Ar itiililiii, ;.'liii'i,'il plirMiiliii-llil <if, 4tl',» ; ill' Ari'if, 4i)l ; ilii AshUni.i, '.ius; ila lliii'liori'iiiii, 4111, 4''>1 ; iln l<iii|ui'rriii, ■!'i4 ; (Ic Iliii'iioM Ami'>, "i'.U ; ilip.i ( iiirin.s Niivus, 4'")1 : iliis Ciiii'lri-i Villms 42H, 44ii; ili.Ciil- (li'ii':ic>.|;i<»ll(,;i,;j(i;j; ilcCiiJti'It'. •J'.til ; ilnCiiii- iliilii, 2iH ; ill' (Jiii'iilimtiiliy {('iiniiiiitu llsli, 4'.'ii, ami /(.(/ wiiirr in- rivi'i'), r.H ; 'Ins Dunn Iniii'iiis, '2TS, 4Tii; iId Ks|iiiiiiii(;ii, lii 1 211 ; ill! Krijiial, h)H ; ilo (imlu llnilm, W; ili' (i:iiaiiliiiiiM, cottiiii «it', 4:U ; ila (iiil(,'ii, '201 ; (Ji'i'ai, 408; (iramli', ■l.>i; i|i> (ii-an Mupir, l.'iii, l.'JO ; ila'* lljitiiniliu.i, H7 ; illtaliawiiia, U70, 'i"! ; iritiiaiiiMia, i;iil; ilr lta|iai'ii-a, 410 ; ilr Itai'aca (Iln stnm',»lii| aril lliiniril), 247 ; ill' Ilaiiliini (Ila >tiiiii', hfin^j llaiiiiiif:), 20S; ill' .lai'a^'ila, fjll : ilas La^io, 'JOS; ila i.a|iii, :ji!l : ila Liiii Cliria, liis, lilO ; iicai' Rlai-alu', lirinlit nt', 42 ; ilo Macaio, li'i2 ; Maiijralu'ini, yu4 ; ila Maiilii|Uiii'a, p'ni'ral ilrM'ii|itiiiii lit', p'liiiittiial ^triirdivi' \c.,2; (la .Maiitii|iii'ini, .St) ; iln Mar, 1, 1 1, rjlifi, (')47 ; (la .Mata ila Ciiril.'i, 201 : iln Matiira, ri2 ; iln Mocaiiilpo, ;jn:J; ilns .Muiiti's AitnM, 20t;; i|.. IMiirro Ijili'iiiiailii, 21 : irollm il'A^iiia. sanil- stiiiir at, 414; ila Oiiia, 4S ; iliw ()i');aiis, tii|iii^'i'aiiliii'ai ami p'olnfiiral ili'M'ri|itii.n nf, 1"); lias I'aiii'llas, lUS ; ilu I'ai'uuaii, 400 ; iln Paraiiiia ( I'ard rivrr, iiiki lijark, lilark- riviT), 201 ; ilan I'l'ilras (l'A!.'Ma, ;il2 ; iliis J'niras Itramas, [iii;j ; di. j'fnii'a, 4t;2 ; ilii I'ii'ila.lc, 2S!t, f)3o; iln I'iiitnr, WiH ; iln Kin iln i'(4\i>, 82;i ; ill' Sao KMi'Ms 40 : ili. Sih) Joan, 41 ; ill' San Uoiiian c Santa I'az, f>2 ; <la Samli', Ol'S ; iln Siiicni-,'i, 200, Jidll; Snl.rn- dn, l.'J7 : iln Sussuaraiia {Siiassu tWvr, niiKi fiilsc, — Suasiiiarana pliiiia, nr Krlis inii- onliir),2r)il ; ila 'ralpatiiiira, 47^5 ; il.'i Trixrini, 4411, 44ii : ila Terra Dura, !!Hi : ilr 'I'iiilia, 324; iln Tiimliailnr, :i\>'<: ila 'i'lipa, 47ri ; ilns Vi'rti'iiti's, 501 ; ila Vitria, li;S ; ila Villa \ ha, 2011; ila Vliiapalia, lici-ivatinu nl' iiui; 4'iii : stnii'turc nf, 457' Pi'rra.ln, 147. Sicrtaii, 420. 4.")0. Sliairs, cri'tarcoiis, of Mniisorrato, 340; with fisli rriiiaiiis iii'ar I'mpriA, 4ii4. Si'hrnslmf, sit/hui Vrrr., (',2, 74, 103, 203, 207, 214 ; var, coitferla Vcrr., 104. Sii'iiiti', 324. ii^incnr.'i, iliamoTiil-wn.nhinp.'' (it, SI". Silurian rnrks nf nni7;il,r>r)l ; liiiiitfil rancro of animals iluriiifr, r)-")2 ; of linliv.'ir anil Peru, 5.52: fnssilsat, iV,2. Silver always fnnml in Brazilian gnUl, 542. Slate, ennL'lnnierate. 242. Slates nn jlio ila Mae ilAL'tia, 1.54 : (lUiriferos) of Minor Xovas iiiul IMiapaila, 157; deeoui- linsitinn nf, 15.S. Slides nf rooks on Bnhia Kailroad, 373. Sloths, 04. Sini/nilnn )ifn!;rTi(X,2^0. Sndth,Mr. S. I., on Uraziliaii rru.siaoeaii,203. Social plants, variet.v nf, in Hrazil, 255. Soils of the Uio Doce repon, fertility of, 00- l03 ; thinness nf m Lake I'lain of Hahia, 314 : of Itio Sao .^latheos, 117, IIS : of tertiary lands of Mnrur.v, VVi; of Urucu, 133; of vicinity of Calhiio, 152. Spar, donhlo-refrarflnif, 525 f^liliiiri;i.s niriiiiHi, 112. S/i/iriKil'l' ri.s, 52i'). Speenlnr imn, 472. Spiders nf AlirnliiiPH, prey on llznnlH nnd hlriN, Isii Spix and Martins on letretatioii nf Hand iilain near Kin, 10 : nn jnMriii',\ tmni Malha.la to rai'lineii'.'i, 205 ; On ile.'nl inrajs in lake near lllieiis, 2.50; oil beindL'K'n melenrnlitt', ;j25. Siiiiirrei, Sl5. Slaurniide, 252. Steamlioat lines from Ilahia, 3.38. Stnlie implements nf llnlneudns, 502; reefs. See liiijs. Srni'p'nns, none in Snutli America, 40;i. Stralitled depnsits, alpM'Uee nf, in cnnnectinn "ith dritt, 5tli). Stria', jjlaeial, reason for not tindintr in lirazil, 57. Sfriateil surfaces, alisence nf, in lirazil, 5'i2 ; not repnrtcd in I'ata^'-nni.i anil Chili. Strnctnre, want nf, in drill, 5ti4 Sliiiiiliii (e. \t. in der 7tli Stnnde), 530. Sulmierned Ijurder of cnral reels nf Lixn, life of, 205. Sniiterrane.ari streams, 40K Snpu', 12(1, 2i;i.272,;>o,;!0.3, 4.il, 441, 442 i nietlioil of pieparin),' at .Muri.ilii', 4H ; cane, 00, 4.52, 45.S, 450 ; plautatUius, 45, 48, 52, 271, 452 Supiry unartz, 545. Snipliate of nia;;nesia, 3.30. Sulphide nf aiifimotiy, 472. Sulphide* nil urviMH "I'll l-'olil. 5.34. Sulphur said tn incur in tliu I'rovinco of Uio (■rand dn .Nnrte, 455. Sniuidourn cavern, lemains of man in, 2W. Swanips nf Kin .Slarici'i, Ihi: lietwecii the Kins I'endi.viieand (.'aravellas, 210 ; lietweeii Jtios ,lei|niiinlinnha and I'ardo, 23.S : jour- ney in, 230. Syviji/tyUia Hartlii, lOlJ. Tahatinpra clay, .3(!3 Tahle land hetween Sao Franci.'co and Tocam- tins tia.-ins. 277 : nf S.'m I'aiiln, .5<iO. T.'di|i'-tnp|ied hills or Serras of tlie San Fraii- cisi ovallev, .331 <if Krere, Ohydos, Cupati, Almevrim", 4S0, 40(». Taholcii-os, 3113,3114, 312. .3(12, .3i!5, 373, 4fU Talcnse slates, auriferous, prohably Silurian, 551. Talhail.an, 417. Tamaniluataliy, pent-hops near, 5TO Tapaidioacaiipi, .5.3i>, 5.50. T.ipera di Cinia, deposits of iron ore near, 332. Tajiir ( Tnjiiriis Amfricunus), M. Taiiuvos, .578. Taiiu'ara (Hamhoo). 216. Tai|uara-assii 7-cc|nires humidity and cowid- er.itile elevatinu, 84 ; social plant, 250. Tai(nar;i lisa, 141. Tea, I'arapn.'ivan, 517 ; Chinee, culture of, in Hrazil,517" Tela lizard ( Tfiii.t vionitnr), 111. TtUinn AmnzcDthtisix Gabb., 493. Ternio do .lardiui, 45" Terra ruxa, 614. Mo ■yon lizanls nnd liIrN, L'ctlltloll (if Wltlil |il,l|ll I'ljcy ti'diii .MiilliMilii to 'iiil iciniN ill liikc i.i'iir i-'fe'd uifti'onilito, iUij. ilila.aiM. ii>i(icui|(i>, r,U'2; rcrfs, h AiiuTicH, 10!). nil' (if, III ('(iiiiit'cflriii ii"t titnliiiir in llriizil, (T of, in Urnzil, 502 j iiiiiii mill C'liili. 1 Stiiiiili'), .'30. ii'iil wvU iif Lixii, life 1(8 Kr,m. -i.;!, 4ii, ivi-, It .Mnri.ilR', 4S; nmr, iinliitiouh, ii), 48, iVJ, 3n. 72. ipilil.Wt. I tile I'mvinco of Ulo ins i)f nmn in, 'JSt!. , llt'i; lirtwi'i'M the iivrlliis, 21l(; lii'twi'i'ii 111 I'ai-ao, 'ZS>^: juur- ^raneispo nnd Topam" I'lmlo, ."(09. lis (if flic tf.io Friin- n'', Oli.vilo.s, Cuimti, 3(i2, 31!.",, 373, 4fi4 , inobiibly Silurian, i near, 509 nf iron oroncar, 332. 'IS), U4. niiidity and consid- lial plant, 256. linose, culture of, in ,111. jb.,493. I.NDEX. ci;> Tprrnoc fnmi of tlio jirnvinrp nf naliin, 301. i 'J'rriiiir.v, t'.intiiu'illii Knilrniid, 'Jn; lii'twrcn Os r.il/.iiiM Mild M.ii'hIk^, 41 ; lliirrriris do !"li'i, 5>i : Liiiliiii'i's, !•') ; Luum.i .lii|i;iniiiria, l'>0: S.IK M.ifl s, 117; Itiiliiiii.i, rj;t ; Siintii Cliirii, I'J'J: .liii|iilliiil ha Viillr.v, 13:t : lic- twi'i'ii rri'iili\|n' mid Miiciirv, 21') ; near ' I'nrdi ."ii'^rMrn, 225: lii'f'.Mi'ii I'lirtu Sr^'iiro nnd Snnf.'i Crn/., "J.'il ; ilin I'ardii, 243; (<>*• , bils of, ri'|inrfcd fnini liny nf Italiia, 2li;» ; Krriini'aVH, 272 ; virinifv nf <'miiii.'<.'<m'i, JJiil ; l.'iiid-iiif lialiia, 373; .Viavrniiilia.s, ;i7."> ; Ala- ^'■|:l■^, 422 ; M i I, 424; I'miaiiilnini, 42'.t ; I'ai-alivlia do Nnrlr, 413; riiiiliv, 474 ; .Ma- ranhan, 4-<4 ; .Vinazniias 4;t2 ; i'r'ia.s, 4113; wc.'tcni |i,ii't of .\iiiiizii|iiis-l'ira^iiay watcr- hIic I, i')ii3; (if llra/.il, />V«»</. ,')')". T/i" 'ii <<"'•''» ''/«'''(i'(/i'(, II I III iida 111 I' of, at Barra .■^cri'ii, nio.li' nf .lc|in-i(iiii,' i'W-, ^r., lOS. Th(iriiriis{iiirii.< lliil.ii ii>iis Marsh, !i"7. Tldr pooU oil till' 1 {', life of, 1U7. Ti tstkrill l,iilkrirs,2Sl. Ti.il. '•.t, iii'iili of, height, 12 ; drift of valley of, 2'1. r-//'//i'/v'V/,21,2.'l. Ti.luiro, :i3ii, tll,4.'.4. TniM/, l."il, r,o3. ToiioiriMiiliy nf v'ni'iss rcirioii in tlip interior nf Hahia, .-i'ev^rilie, mid .Mie.'.'ias, .'jH ; nf ter- ti:iry, near ("nrtn Se;.'nrn, 225; of tertiary near I'njiiea fiiiiiiel, 371. Tnr'.Aiilseli, .lai'oli. 'Jli2. Tniinii.iliiii', 13'i, 1 15. Tnrtni-^e, eretaeeous, 3")^. T'.riii/dii. 2Si;. Traip'i, p'lilnnv of vicinity, 401). Traiieo/.n,'J27. Traiiiro.iil, steam, of the I'araiiuassii, 2"0, 33«. Trap of .\lirnlhiis, 17'i ; deioiiipositinn of. 177 ; hills, rmnre nf, in Kin (Irmidu do Sul, 530. Travelled Imulders, 570. Tres Irniaos, lU. Triassie sandstones nf Kstanein, 370, .554. TriiniPiitli t, iili-eiire of, from lirazilian radi- ate fauna, T.N. Tniiiipet used Iiy Hotnrudos, 502. Tiirhii deposits at ('amaiiui, 202. Tinhiiiii ll/i iiiiiiii.siiila (ialili., 403. Tiieiini (.lNV)V)r()/-)/»,/) tiiriiinii), 110. Tiipi naiiie-i in lir.izil, ix. Tupiiiaiiilias, lip nrnaiiients, 5S4. Tliri, Jtnld-lililies of, 4S5 Turtles (sea), llW. " Turtles," f,i-.ii nr ?i>ptaria, at Maroim, 393. Tiu-ner, Eugiuoer, 371. Uhi prnf^t (Giinfrhim parvlfnliumyec!^), ib, 94,305 ; sneial plant, 250. IV(( 101(1,204. I CUoa, ou the I.sland of Fernando de Noronha, . 430. ; Unio, 101. Unio {Atio/lnn ?) Totiinn-Sanctnrinn, llartt, .34'^, 351. Urubii, 257; cbanpp in gcnlogical Ptrupture, climate, and vegetation below, on Sio Fran- cisco, VM. Urncu {Fi.rn On-llnnn Linn.) used a.s paint by Botocudos ; colony ou Mucury, 133. I V. Viipplnlnni, IIS. Vadelli,30l. Valenni, 2i'i0. Valley of ,<rio Sinirid, lOS ; of flic CalliHo Arassuahv, 150. Valleys of 'vicinity of Alto dos Dnis, VA: without (intlets, 3'i3. Vanilla, 517. Vegetation of snnd-plains ncnr Victoria, t!2, li.'i ; nf Swamp nf itin Maririci'i, 110: ou the Kill S,"io Matlieos lielnw the city. 121 ; nf I hapada near Santa llita, IK; nf Alln dos llols, 14i; ; of" ('hapada of Miiias .\n. vas, 117: of viiiiiity of Callno, V:i: of vicinity of Siicuri'i, l.'l ; of .lei|uitiiiliniiha less liiX'U-laut than that nf the llnee, 17'.i ; of the Alimlhos, isii; ,,f , ,|tr\ lietHeeii Mui'iirv mid I'lTUhvpe, 210; nf saiid-pl.iiii at li-liiiniite, li:;7; mi Itio I'ar.ln, 'Jtl; nf I'.irdo, 'JIA : nf CaiiipiK, "'.in; nf Si'vra da Villa Velha, 20';; nf interior nf Italii.i, 317; nf t'ainpns nf .Magiiiiihas, ;i7") : near niontli of Si'in Krancisen, :i!i5 ; of Kio (Jrande do Norte, 4.')2. Veins ill decomposed riick iHver traceable into diift, ')i'5 ; of granifi', li;i; I'liiartzi, in Mi- n:is Novas region, l',7 ; miril'ennis, at Cha- p:id;i, l'i~^: aiivifcroiis, of I'arahyba, 44S. Villus //•.riKisii ill s.iiids on tliu Cantagallo Railroad Kxfeiision, 10. Veri'iU. on re<enilil.incc lietweeii niarine fauna of West Indies and Ilrizil, lOS. Victnri.i, harbor of, 00, S(i ; iCniii|iii.ita), 2.55. Villa da Itarra do Sao Matlieos, l'J2; d.i liarni do It.abapiiana, .54; Vii-nsa, 21''^; da liarra do .lardiiii, 405 ; do Ci-atn, 4''i-l ; las l/ivras da Mangibeira, 403; Nova da Uiiiilia, .321 ; \iiva near I'ciiedo, 307; do l!io de Cmitas, 20S: Sio licrnardn, VW : d.a Seri-a, S4 ; do Siicnrii'i, l."i3 : Nova, S.'io Frani isco, .sand- stones at, .307. Vinliatico(.4.v(r;((1, 04.201. Vii'i/inra { Pii!ii'/inii) Lartrilfi' Il.artt, 350; V. (Pd'iiilinn) H'i/liinnsii llartt, Jijl. Vncabuliries, liotncudu, 0o5. ro/i(/r),203,214. Von F.s(diwi'i:e, .501, 51."i. .5.".", .5-"r) Von Tscliiidi on Hofocii4n tribes, ,",;i2: on dis- tribution of cocna-iialiu in lir.azii, U'J ; op the Colony of .Santa Lcopnldiua, 77. ^Varil, Mr. Tbnmas, 277, 279, .'',01. U'aste of land at nioutli of the Ainazonas, 401. M'ater. scarcity of, in interior of liahia, 2.50. Wax of Cariiahuba, 4."i3. Wave action, contrast between the rock sur- faces produced by wave action mid those formed by the glaciers, 342 : during sub- sidence, drift t referable to, .'ii;3, .507; during rise of .and, drift not referable to, 5a3. 5il5. Vcddel,.541. .v'idmannstadtian figures shown by DcmdSgo meteornlitc, 326. Weiss, ,5.30. Wet season, few animals fpen, 1.">. Whale, fiesli of, used for " .d, IS5. G20 INDEX. MTinle fishery of Rmzil anj of tht Abrolhos, l.sl ; iluiiitioii (if hslicry, 1H2. Arinin;oi'.s or tl'.villK lloiirs, isy ; huiMclU'S luiil liuats used ill, iiiuiilicr (if mull Liiiployeil, wni^cs, ditft- cultiiM (if tisliiu;,', iuiiierffct uiutliojs, 183 ; at lliihiii, IS;"). WhalclKiiie, lb4. ■\Vliciit, 112. ^^■llitl• water rivers, 223. Wliite ants, liills of, 25('. AViiids of caiiipos, 2ol ; on Silo Francisco be- low fulls, 421. Wilson, Ml- IIu(,'li, 209, .338. Williams, Mr. C. II., ou Indian rock drawings, Williamson, Mr. E., on tlie freolopy aud gold- miues of I'urahyba do Norte, 443 Wounds, fnoility vitli which they heal among liotoeudos, Oli'S. Wymau, I'rof. Jelfrioa, on Botocudo skull, 6S5. Y. Yellow fever, 33". Ypirangu, liuiustonc at, 15. Z. Zinc, sulphide of, 448, 472. Ziiielira, 172. ZizyjiliHS Jnmeirn, 408. Zoanlkus, U2, l'J2. THE END. Cambridge : Electrotyped and Printed by Welch, Bigelow, & Co. vhich thpy hoal among on Botocudo skull, 685. lo. ■2. Co.