NEW 
 
 r 
 
 CANADIAN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR USE IN 
 
 PUBLIC AND HIGH SCHOOLS. 
 
 Authnrizeil hi/ the Drtaril of Education for nse in the Sdiool.i of X<w P>rumin'ck. 
 Autltorhcd lnj the Board of Education for iise in the Schoola of I'rinee Eduaril Island. 
 Authorized hi/ the Board of Kduvation fo>- iise in the School.i of (Jiieher. 
 Authorized hij the Board of F.dueation for use in the Sehools if Manitolia. 
 Authorized hi/ the Board of Education for use in the Schools of North-W'e^t Territories. 
 Authorized by the Board of Education for use in tlie Schools of British Columbia. 
 
 BiGHTY-t'IFTH THOUSAND. 
 
 C. FLOOD & SONS 
 
 ST. JOHN, N.B. 
 
Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in tlie ottice of the Minister of 
 
 Agriculture, by W. J. Gage & Company (Limited), in the year 
 
 one thousand eight hundred and ninety nine. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Vor-iVi'Klan. 
 
 Geogkaphy is in reality one of the most important subjects taught 
 in school, but it has been degi'aded in the past to the memorizing of 
 lists of names of places, coupled with their location. This exercise was 
 the most utterly barren of all the processes of bad teaching. 
 
 Humboldt, Gayot, Geikie, Huxley, Harris, and Parker have placed 
 Geography on a higher plane, and have made it the time basis of the 
 sciences most intimately related to man's physical existence. 
 
 Physically, the earth is studied in this Geography in such a way as 
 to show why some parts of the earth are fertile and some barren. The 
 student wiQ learn not merely that large portions of Northern Africa and 
 Central Asia are deserts, but why they are deserts. 
 He will fmd not only that there are great salt lakes or marshes in a large 
 portion of Australia, in the mountain plateaus of Asia and North America, 
 and between Europe and Asia, but he will learn the causes of these 
 conditions. » 
 
 Structural geography is made the basis of the book, but political 
 geography receives very full attention. 
 
 The height and shape of the "World Ridge and the direction of the 
 winds determine to a large extent the rainfall in different places, and civili- 
 zation absolutely depends for the location of its centres of effort and 
 population on rainfall. The very shape of the land, its fertility, and its 
 continual transformations depend most largely on rainfall. Feiuh 
 
 All the causes that affect the earth as man's home are presented briefly and 
 in logical order ; the influences that break down the highlands and carry them 
 often thousands of miles to form level countries — those simple processes that 
 have been going on for thousands of years and are still actively going on — the 
 methods by which barren lands are made productive ; the many circumstances 
 that affect climate; the influence of the ocean and its currents, of the winds 
 and the mountains ; the seasons and their causes ; are discussed and illustrated 
 ^ so clearly that the child cannot fail to understand them. 
 
 Special attention is paid to the vegetation and to the animals of ali parts of 
 E««aiiuaa. the world. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Ou the Tiber. 
 
 Then, when the child has been logically 
 prepared for the study of man himself, the 
 different races of men are presented, not in 
 the old formal, lifeless way, but in such a way 
 as to make the child see the men, women and 
 children of different races and countries as 
 they really appear in their every-day life and 
 occupations. Governments, religions, produc- 
 tions, commerce, etc., follow in logical order. 
 
 The maps, relief and political, are brought down to date, and are produced in the most 
 perfect style of modern art. 
 
 The illustrations are the finest ever used in any Cauadiau school book, and they cannot fail 
 to give clear and definite conceptions in regard to the most important elements of true 
 geographical study. 
 
 The Map Studies fonn a very important feature of the book. Instead of giving large 
 amounts of printed information about boundaries, rivers, capes, islands, peninsulas, etc., to be 
 committed to memory or studied from the letter-press, the student is guided in the independent 
 study of maps by carefully chosen questions. The difference between the old plan and the new 
 is based on the central principles of the new education. 
 
 The Review Questions at the end of the book will guide both teachers and pupils in the 
 intelligent and related study of the information contained in the letter-press. 
 
 The short section relating to the British Empire is of special value since the closer 
 unity of the motherland and the colonies has become a vital question. 
 
 Much of the merely reference matter usually found in 
 the body of a geography, has been placed at the end of the 
 book. 
 
 This book is based on the excellent Geogi-aphies written 
 by Alex. Everett Frye. The maps have been prepared under 
 the supervision of G. M. Dawson, C.M.'K, LL.D., F.R.S., 
 Head of the Geological Survey of Canada. 
 
 For many of the illustrations on Canadian subjects the 
 publisher? are indebted to Messrs. Notman & Son, the well- 
 known photogi'aphers ; Canadian Pacific Railway, and others. Arab uou>«i-. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 PAIR. 
 1 
 
 THE EARTH, 
 
 ITS PRODUCTS AND INHABITANTS, 
 
 1 . Form and Size of the Earth 
 
 2. The Jiand and the Sea . 
 
 3. The World Rid^e 
 
 4. Continents or Qrand Divisions 
 
 5. The Oceans 
 
 6. Shore Forms 
 
 7. Mountains 
 
 8. Volcanoes .... 
 
 9. Valleys .... 
 
 10. Springs and Streams 
 
 11. Rivers and River Systems . 
 
 12. River Basins and Divides 
 
 13. Plains and Deltas 
 
 14. The Waste of the Land . 
 
 15. Land Wasto on the Way to the Sea 
 
 16. W^inds and Rainfall 
 
 17. Work of the Winds . 
 
 18. Snow and Ice .... 
 
 19. Ocean Currents 
 
 20. The Moon and the Tides 
 
 21. The Motions of the Earth . 
 
 22. Results of the Earth's Annual Motion 
 
 23. The Zones and Climate 
 
 24. Belts of Heat .... 
 
 25. Latitude and Longitude 
 
 26. Phases of the Moon 
 
 PLANTS. 
 
 1. Soil, Water and Heat 
 
 2. Plants of the Hot Belt 
 
 3. Plants of the Warm Belt 
 
 4. Plants of the Cool Belt 
 
 5. Plants of the Northern Cold Belt . 
 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 9 
 9 
 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 I'J 
 14 
 15 
 15 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 25 
 25 
 27 
 
 28-29 
 •?" 
 
 . 30 
 31 
 
 . 31 
 
 ANIMATE. 
 
 1. Animals and their Homes 
 
 2. South American Realm 
 
 3. Northern Realm 
 
 4. African Realm . 
 6. Oriental Realm 
 
 6. Australian Realm 
 
 7. The Bottom of the Sea . 
 
 8. Coral Islands 
 
 RACES OF MEN 
 
 1. The Negro or Black Race 
 
 2. The American or Rod Race . 
 
 3. The Malay or Brown Race 
 
 4. The Mongolian or Yellow Race 
 
 5. The Caucasian or White Race 
 
 6. Religions .... 
 
 7. Governments 
 
 DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN 
 Routes of Trade 
 
 . 82-53 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 1. Map Studies 64-55 
 
 2. Shape and Surface . . . .56 
 
 3. Climate - 56 
 
 4. Rocky Mountain Highlands . . . .58 
 
 5. The Appalachian Highland ... 59 
 
 6. The Lauren tian Highland . . . .61 
 . 7. The St. Lawrence Basin .... 61 
 
 8. The Great Central Plain . . . .63 
 
 9. The Atlantic Coastal Plain ... 64 
 10. The Bahamas and West Indies . . .66 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 1. Map Studies 66 
 
 2. Canada Past and Present . . . .67 
 
 3. Area 67 
 
 fAUK. 
 
 . S3 
 
 33 
 . 33 
 
 34 
 . 35 
 
 36 
 , 37 
 
 37 
 
 38-39 
 . 40 
 
 42 
 . 43 
 
 47 
 . 50 
 
 61 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 DOMINION OF CAH ADA.— Continued. 
 
 , P\OK 
 
 4. Climftto 70 
 
 6. Government . . . . . .71 
 
 6. Canada Commercially and Industrially. 
 
 7. Agriculture . ..... 
 
 8. The Lumber Trade .... 
 
 9. Coal 
 
 10. Gold 
 
 11. Other Minerals ...... 
 
 12. The Fur Trade 
 
 13. Fisheries . 
 
 14. Manufactures ...... 
 
 16. Railways 
 
 16. Canals 
 
 17. The Waterways of Canada .... 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 Map Studies 
 
 Physical Features, Climate, Government, Agricul- 
 ture, Lumbering ..... 
 M :<.Qufac*'ures, Mining, Fishing .... 
 
 C--Mer. 
 
 Cnief Towns . . . . 
 -Ports 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 Map Studies • 
 
 Physical Features, Government 
 
 Industries and Manufactures .... 
 
 Cities and Chi?f Towns 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Map Studies ..... 
 Physical Features .... 
 
 Chief Towns 
 
 Soil and Products .... 
 Industries, Government and History . 
 
 76 
 76 
 78 
 79 
 80 
 81 
 83 
 83 
 84 
 86 
 86 
 87 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 92 
 92 
 94 
 94 
 
 95 
 98 
 98 
 99 
 
 100 
 102 
 103 
 104 
 105 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 Map Studies 107 
 
 Population and Government . . . . 108 
 
 Industries . . . . . . .108 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns 108 
 
 PAOI 
 
 109 
 
 109 
 109 
 109 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 Map Studies ...... 
 
 History, Physical Features, Soil and Climate, 
 
 People and Goveriunont 
 Industries and Manufactures 
 Chief Towns 
 
 MANITOBA. 
 
 Map Studies 110 
 
 History . . . . . . . 110 
 
 Size and Position, Physical Features, Climato, 
 Soil, People, Government, and Occupations 
 
 of the People 112 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns . . . . 112 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA 
 
 Map Studies 113 
 
 Position and Size, Physical Features, Climate, 
 
 Government . . . . . 113 
 
 Resources . . 115 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns . . . . 115 
 
 THF NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. 
 
 Position and Area 116 
 
 Physical Features . . . . . . 116 
 
 Soil and Climate 118 
 
 Productions and Occupations . . . . 118 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Size, Soil and Climate, Government — the People 
 
 and their Industries . . . .119 
 Cities and Chief Towns 119 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Map Studies 120 
 
 1. Government of cho United States . . 122 
 
 2. Chief Products , . 124 
 
 3. Principal Cities 125 
 
 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE 
 
 WEST INDIES 128 
 
TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 2. Map Stuflies ■ ■ . . . 
 
 3. Tlio Andes Hijjliluml 
 
 4. The Highland of Brazil 
 
 5. The Guiana Highland 
 
 6. The Solvos 
 
 7. The Valley of tlje Im Plata 
 
 8. Tlic Llanos ...... 
 
 9. Countries of South America 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 2. Map Studies 
 
 3. Region of tlie Alps . 
 
 4. The Spanish Peninsula 
 
 6. The Po and tlie Apennines 
 
 6. The Balkan Peninsula 
 
 7. Tiie Plain of Hungary 
 
 8. The Scandinavian Peninsula 
 
 9. The British Isles .... 
 10. Low Europe — Western Part 
 
 n. Countries of Low Europe— Western Part 
 
 12. Low Europe— Eastern Part . 
 
 13. Mediterranean Countries 
 
 14. Other Countries of Europe . 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 2. The Highland of Tibet 
 
 3. Map Studies ..... 
 
 4. The Altai Highland .... 
 
 5. Central Basin Region .... 
 
 6. Highlands of South- West Asia . 
 
 7. The Arctic and Caspian Slopes 
 
 8. The Pacific Slope .... 
 
 9. India •...,. 
 
 10. Asiatic Islands .... 
 
 11. Countries of Asia .... 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 1. Map Studies 
 
 2. General View of Africa Physically . 
 
 3. Egypt and the Nile 
 
 4. Northern Africa d the Sahara Desert . 
 
 5. Sudan .... 
 
 * • « • 
 
 6. The Congo Basin • » » . . 
 
 TAam. 
 . 131 
 
 1.33 
 . 134 
 
 136 
 . 136 
 
 138 
 . 138 
 
 139 
 
 , 141 
 143 
 146 
 147 
 148 
 148 
 149 
 151 
 157 
 158 
 160 
 161 
 162 
 
 164 
 167 
 168 
 168 
 170 
 171 
 172 
 174 
 175 
 177 
 
 181 
 182 
 184 
 184 
 185 
 186 
 
 7. Southern Africa .... 
 
 8. Countries of Africa .... 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 1. Map Studies .... 
 
 2. Colonies of Australia 
 
 3. New Zealand, Papua and other Islands 
 
 4. Polynesia 
 
 5. Micronesia .... 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE . 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
 MAPS. 
 
 North America — Physical 
 
 —Political . 
 Dominion op Canada— Physical 
 " " —Political 
 
 Ontario .... 
 
 Quebec .... 
 New Brunswick 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Manitoba .... 
 British Columbia 
 North-West Territories 
 United States 
 
 Mexico, Central America and the 
 South America — Physical 
 " " —Political 
 
 Europe —Physical 
 
 " —Political 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Central Europe 
 Asia — Physical 
 
 " —Political 
 
 Africa —Physical 
 —Political 
 Australia — Physical 
 
 —Political . 
 British Empire 
 
 Tii 
 
 PAOK. 
 187 
 
 188 
 
 189 
 192 
 193 
 193 
 104 
 
 19fi 
 200 
 206 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 68-69 
 
 72-73 
 
 88-89 
 
 96 97 
 
 101 
 
 106 
 
 111 
 
 114 
 
 117 
 
 121 
 
 West Indies 129 
 132 
 135 
 142 
 145 
 152 
 154 
 156 
 159 
 166 
 169 
 180 
 183 
 189 
 191 
 196 
 
Geography treats of the earth as the home of man. 
 This book describes tlie earth as our home. 
 
 We ought to know a great deal about the earth, because we live on 
 it and use many of its products. '^'^' _ 
 
 The earth supplies us with food, clothing and all other usefid things. Lo you 
 not wish to know where wheat and corn grow ? — where gi'assy plains are covered with cattle, 
 horses and sheep ? — where trees are cut down, floated to the mills and sawed iii i,o lun iber ? — 
 where coal, ii'on ore and gi'anito are taken out of the earth ? 
 
 All those products, and many more, arc found in various parts of the Dominion of Canada, 
 our own country, but some of the things which we use are raisf^d by people in other lands. 
 
 From this book we are to learn what kinds of countries those people live in, how they dress, 
 what work they do, what they buy of us, an'"* what tlioy sell to us. 
 
 We shall also leam why the same kinds of products are not found in all parts of th'^ earth. 
 
 Our study will load us to the cold land of the Lapps, where the sun shines low in the sky for 
 several weeks each summer without sotting. In that region, the warm season is too short to 
 ripen much gi-ain, but the flesh, milk and skins of reindeer supply food and clothing. 
 
 In other cold parts of the earth, there are vast fields of ice an " snow, upon which Eskimos 
 hunt the seal or the polar bear. How different is their life from ours ! They see no grain 
 ripening in fields, no cattle grazing in pastm'os, no fruit hanging on trees. 
 
 This book describes wide regions of shifting sand, where no rain falls and no plants grow, 
 except near a few springs. There the people travel mostly on the backs of camels. 
 
Do yoii knoTV how tea loaves 
 are dried and how silk is woven 
 into fine cloth ? You will learn liow, when 
 you read about the yellow people in Japan 
 and China. 
 
 There are waim lands where coffee berries 
 and many kinds of spices gi'ow. Do you 
 not wish to leani about i,he people who 
 send us coffee, cloves and nutmegs ? 
 Every day, as we study this book and look at 
 its jiictures, we shall learn something about 
 the earth, — its fomis of land and water, its 
 plants, its animals, or its people. 
 
 There are no studies that you wiU find more 
 interesting than the study of the wonderful 
 changes that are constantly taking place in the 
 conditions around us. You will learn in this 
 book why the seasons change as they do, ai)d 
 why day and night follow each other regularly. 
 You ^N-ill understand, after reading this 
 
 book, why, in some parts of the earfh, it is 
 
 always extremely hot, while in other parts 
 
 there are always snow and iee. 
 
 You wiU find, too, the causes of winds, 
 
 and rain, and why, in some parts of the 
 
 earth, winds blow regularly in the same directions, and how it is that 
 
 some places have a great deal of rain, while in other places very little 
 
 rain ever falls. 
 
 The tides, and the great currents or streams in the oceans are 
 
 explained; and the kinds of animals and plants that are found in 
 
 different countries, are described. 
 
 Ton will see, in the many beautiful pictures, how people dress in dif- 
 ferent countiies, how they travel, and what kind of houses they live in. 
 
THE EARTH, ITS PRODUCTS, AND INHABITANTS. 
 
 1. Form and Size of the Earth. 
 
 The earth is a great ball of land and water, 
 smTounded by air. 
 
 We see so small a pai-t of the earth at a time 
 that it does not look like a ball, but there are 
 many proofs that the earth is round. Here are 
 a few of them : 
 
 1. Many persons have gone around the earth. 
 
 2. As ships sail out to sea, their hulls are 
 first lost to sight, and last of all their highest 
 sails. 
 
 3. "When travellers go day after day towards 
 the north or the south, new stars rise over the 
 hoiizon before them, while the stars behind 
 sink beneath the horizon. 
 
 4. Sometimes the earth moves between the 
 sun and the moon and casts a shadow on the 
 
 moon. The edge of this shadow always looks 
 like part of a circle. 
 
 The great body of salt water which surrounds 
 the land is called the sea. Various parts of 
 the sea are known as oceans. The oceans lie 
 in broad hollows on the earth. 
 
 The earth is so large that the distance from 
 side to side, through the centre, is nearly 8,000 
 nailes. The greatest distance around the eai-th 
 is about 25,000 miles. Many millions of people 
 live on the earth, and yet a large part of the 
 land is not used. 
 
 If a train of cars were to travel day and night at the 
 rate of thirty miles an hour, how long would it take to 
 go 25,000 miles ? 
 
 ?.'he best globe to use in school is an 8-inch globe, 
 l)ecaiise on this globe an inch in any direction will 
 approximately represent 1,000 miles. 
 
THE LAND AND THE SEA. 
 
 Bfap showing the World Ridge. 
 
 2. The Land and the Sea. 
 
 The gi-eater part of the earth is a mass of 
 rock. On the land most of the rock is covered 
 with soil. Fine mud or ooze^ covers the rock 
 imder the sea. 
 
 Many parts of the land do not rise very high 
 above the sea, but other parts are lofty and 
 rugged. Some mountains rise higher than 
 most of the clouds which we see, — even four 
 or five miles into the air. 
 
 Most parts of the sea near the land are shal- 
 lc:v. Far from the shores the sea is in many 
 places two miles deep, and in some places the 
 bottom is four or five miles below the smface. 
 
 The land and the surface of the sea have 
 hght by day and darkness by night. They 
 have also wann and ^^old seasons. No sunshine 
 
 The observer, in this 
 cut, is supposed to be 
 elevated over the British 
 Isles. Part of South Am- 
 erica and the whole of 
 Australia are shown be- 
 yond the hemisphere. 
 
 reaches the deep parts of the 
 
 sea. The deep water is always 
 
 cold and dark. 
 
 The land has many valleys and moun- 
 
 iiius, but a large part of the sea-bottom 
 
 is a great smooth plain. 
 
 3. The World Ridge. 
 
 The land is not evenly distributed over the 
 earth. Most of it is north of the equator, and 
 therefore much nearer the north pole than the 
 south pole. 
 
 About one fourth of the earth's surface is 
 land, — the rest is water. Only a small part of 
 the surface, south of the equator, is land. The 
 sea is not wholly cut into separate oceans by 
 the land, but it spreads in one large body 
 around them. 
 
 Through the great bodies of land, we can 
 trace a long chain of highlands, somewhat in 
 the shape of a horseshoe. We will call this 
 chain of highlands the world ridge, or the 
 primary highland of the tvorld. The greater 
 part of the world ridge consists of long and 
 wide plateaus, broken by mountains and val- 
 
CONTDTENTS OR GRAND DIVISIONS. 
 
 Key to Hap of World Ridge. 
 
 leys. In many places it is hundreds of miles 
 in ■width. 
 
 On both sides of the primaiy highland, the 
 land slopes away to the shores and there dips 
 beneath the sea. Most of the longer slopes are 
 on the inner side of the horseshoe-shaped high- 
 land. 
 
 These slopes make vdde plains between the primary 
 highland and the sea. There are few large rivers on 
 the outside of the world ridge. Why? 
 
 On which side of the equator are the ends of the 
 primary highlands ? 
 
 4. Continents or Grand Divisions. 
 
 Fi&ch of the gre.it highlands in the world 
 ridge forms the backbone of a largo body of 
 land. These lands are North America, South 
 America, Eurasia and Africa. Southea,it of 
 Eui'asia lies a grea^> body of land called Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 Which of these bodies of land an north of the equa- 
 tor ? Which art crossed by the equator ? 
 
 Tliere are two parts of Eurasia, — Asia on the east, 
 and Europe on the west. Which part is the larger 1 
 
 J.^orth America, South America, Europe, Asia, 
 Africa and AustraUa are called continents, or 
 grand divisions. 
 
 Which of those continents is wholly south of the 
 equator ? 
 
 Behring (Bering) strait cuts through the 
 
 primaiy highland and separates the Old World 
 
 from America, or the New World. 
 
 Wliich continents are in America? Which are in 
 the Old World] 
 
 What isthmus connects the two parts of America? 
 
 Where is the isthmus of Suez? What seas does it 
 separate ? 
 
 Which is the larger, — Africa or Eurasia ? Africa or 
 North America ? Australia or North America ? 
 
 Which continent is farthest from your home ? 
 
 Write as many facts as you can about the continents 
 and oceans, using the map on this page. 
 
6 
 
 THE OCEANS. 
 
 5. The Oceans. 
 The oceans covin" aljont three fourths of the 
 earth's surface and wholly or j)artly separate 
 the continents from one another. 
 
 What thi'co ocoan.s extend northward from the 
 Antarctic ocean 1 
 
 Which ocean is east of America? Which is west of 
 America ? Which of these two oceans is the larger ? 
 
 On which side of the Old World is the Atlantic 
 ocean? 
 
 On which side is the Pacific ocean ? 
 
 What small ocean adjoins the Atlantic on the north t 
 Which polo is near the middle of that ocean ? 
 
 What ocean is south of Asia? What lands partly 
 surround that ocean 1 
 
 Name the continents which border on the Pacific 
 ocean ; on the Atlantic ocean ; on the Arctic ocean. 
 
 What oceans border on North America ? On Asia ? 
 Australia? Africa? South America? 
 
 What continents border on the Atlantic ocean ? 
 
 Wliat is the chief difference between the boundaries 
 of tlie Arctic Ocean and the boundaries of the Antarctic 
 ocean? 
 
 ' a.---'..' :.■■". ■>.'.'> 
 
SHORE FORMS. 
 
 6. Shore Forms. 
 These pictures represent a ptirt of the ocean 
 and the kind bordering on it. Twice each day 
 the water of the ocean slowly rises along the 
 slioi-e, and twice it slowly falls and leaves the 
 beach bare. It takes about six hours for tlu^ 
 water to rise and about six hours for it to fall. 
 This rise and fall of the water is called the 
 tide. 
 
 These ])ic'tur('s show tlui sanio slioro at difToreiifc 
 title stages. 
 
 "^^Tien the water goes all ar(iund a portion 
 of land, the land is called 
 an inland. 
 
 ^Vhen a portion of land 
 is almost an island it is 
 called a j)eninsida. 
 
 A point of land ex- 
 
 ;iui<'ri)'ii. 
 
 tending into the water is a cape. A nan-ow 
 neck of laud ccmnecting two larger portions of 
 land is called an istliiitus. 
 
 A strait is a body of water connecting two 
 huger bodies of watci*. 
 
 A long shallow strait is sometimes called a 
 
 sound. The name 
 sound is also given to 
 shallow bodies of wa- 
 ter lying between is- 
 lands and the main- 
 land. Some straits are many miles wide, 
 })ut they are narrower than the bodies of 
 water they connect. Wide straits are some- 
 times called channels. 
 
 In many i)luces, arms of the ocean reach into 
 the land. Some of these are called hai/s, some 
 gulfs and others seas. 
 
 '» 
 
MOUNTAINS AND Vf)T.CANOES. 
 
 9 
 
 ing gold and silver oro mo foiiiul. 
 Whon tlie Hurfiico is wkiii down 
 near thoin they can bo mined. 
 
 High mountains reach into the 
 upper nil', wiiich is cold, oven when 
 the air in low valleys^, not many 
 miles away, is very warm. On the 
 lofty peaks, three miles or more 
 alx)vo sea level, tlio air is so light 
 or thin that persons find it difficult 
 to breathe there. The lower air, 
 near the level of the .sea, is dense 
 because it is pressed down by all 
 the air above or upon it. 
 
 Great snowslides or landslides 
 sometimes rush from the mountain 
 sides into the valleys, uprooting 
 trees and burying houses. A slide 
 of snow or of rock waste is called 
 an avalanche. 
 
 8. Volcanoes. 
 
 7. Mountains. In some parts of the world melted rock, or 
 
 Mountains are rugged parts of the earth's '«^«. has been pushed up from beneath the 
 
 MonntnliiH (JiinKfrHii, AIp«>. 
 
 sm"face that rise high above the surrounding 
 country. They are generally formed by the 
 wearing of deep valleys in regions that have 
 been greatly uplifted. The mountains are the 
 high parts not yet worn away. 
 
 Some mountain regions are worn away to 
 8hai"p rocky peaks. The mountains of other 
 regions are rounded like domes. Still others 
 have flat tops and steep sides. 
 
 A high and rugged ridge, or several such 
 ridges near one another, may be called a moan- 
 tain range. Some ranges are hundreds of miles 
 long. 
 
 A number of ranges having the same 
 general direction in one gi-eat highland 
 forms a mountain system. 
 
 All the i-anges in the western part of North Am- 
 erica belong to the lioclnj Mountain Systetn. This 
 mountain region was very unevenly lifted, and is 
 now so greatly worn away that its surface has gone 
 down to l)eds of rock that were once deeply buried. 
 It is in such deep layers of rock that veins yield- 
 
 surfact^ llii'ongli l)i't»iiks in llio surface rocks, 
 
 Luvn Field. 
 
10 
 
 VALLEYS, SPRINGS AND STREiVMS. 
 
 tllfSS^ '■'-■■ ''■M7?f/f'\ ^*B Hiul has coo 
 
 1) "' • .^rwjj^v ...Am (.(I ill great 
 
 coiio-shajHMl 
 heaps or in 
 l)road shoots. 
 In some i)la- 
 eos this pro- 
 cess still goes 
 on. Each of those cone-shaped masses is called 
 & volcano. It may be no larger than a hill, or it 
 may be two or three miles in hcnght. 
 
 The bursting forth of lava from a volcano or 
 a fissure is called an crupi'ion. Many eruptions 
 must take jjlace to build up a great volcanic 
 cone. 
 
 The molten rock from volcanoes sometimes spreads out 
 in wide plains. In some places lava lias poured from 
 long fissures in the earth's surface, and has formed plains 
 that covor many thousand square miles. In India there 
 was a iuva flow which spread over an area of about 
 200,000 square miles. 
 
 Most volcanoes are found not many miles from the 
 coasts of the continents, or on islands not far olF shore. 
 Many more volcanoes are found near the Pacific coast 
 than near the Atlantic. 
 
 A large number of small islands have been wholly 
 built by volcanic action, sometimes even growing from 
 the deep floor of mid-ocean. 
 
 9. Valleys. 
 Valleys are low lands between mountains or 
 hills. Some valleys are very narrow, some are 
 wide. Some have gently sloping sides, and 
 others have steep rocky sides. In some places 
 deep valleys with steep rocky sides are called 
 canons. In other places they are called gorges. 
 
 Nearly all valleys have streams or rivers 
 flowing through them. 
 
 In some narrow mountain valleys there are 
 i(!o vivei-s that move only a few inches each 
 day. These ice rivers are called f/larlers. 
 
 10. Spring3 and Streams. 
 Water that soaks into the gi'ound is called 
 ground water. It sometimes travels under 
 ground for many miles. 
 
 "Water may often be seen co ing out of the 
 ground through little crevices, thus forming 
 sprivfjs. JMany springs are found at the foot 
 of hill-.slopos. Others appear along borders of 
 brooks or rivers. In many places the gi'ound 
 water is found rising in the beds of streams 
 or lakes. 
 
 The spring 
 which is 
 farthest up 
 the valley 
 trough is 
 called the 
 source, or 
 head of the 
 stream that 
 it feeds. 
 
 Surface water 
 is often muddy, 
 but nearly all 
 ground water is 
 clear, because it 
 moves too slowly 
 to carry waste. 
 Spring water is 
 
KIVERS AND KIVEU SYSTEMS. 
 
 11 
 
 therefore mu^h bettor than purfftc-o wat«'r for. 
 drinking. Wells also are supplit^d hyl 
 ground water. 
 
 MoHt HpringH flo'v ho slowly that the sup-l 
 ply of ground water from one rain lasts till 
 rain again fallrt. Such springs How in but hi 
 rainy and fair woatlu^r. In long, <liy hjm'Hs,! 
 or droughts, springs yield less and less water,! 
 or they nmy even cease to flow. 
 
 Tn winter, when tlio 
 ground is frozen, tlio^ 
 rain water anil 
 melting snow 
 
 ^■:<i?JS^ 
 
 
 T-if^^ ma:::' 
 
 ,^!&: 
 
 
 IW.X 
 
 ■m^i 
 
 iir^tf'*^ 
 
 cfm-nt^^ 
 
 Sftr^i- 
 
 ■^ 
 
 y 
 
 'W 
 
 '»^1 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 ,,Jir*iW 
 
 
 ^; -^l* 
 
 ■.*-■"" ■V-S?'"'*' 
 
 K'roni Source to Moulh. 
 
 l.'inils or even ciirrviDg it t / tlie sea, wliere in time it 
 forms ni'sv land. 
 
 The ]Mississij)pi river carries down vast (luantitics of 
 nuid, and makes new land at its mouth. I'urt of this mud 
 is carried away by the (iulf stream, and is tlien washed 
 in by the waves towards tlio United Htates. The groat 
 [ilains of the east of Florida, Georgia, South and North 
 Carolina have been formed in this way, and new land is 
 constantly forming under the ocean east of tliese statoa. 
 'I'hus the Rocky JMountains are being transformed into 
 plains on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 fr 
 
 run quickly to the streams and often flood them. 
 They then cut away their banks and wa.sh the rock 
 waste down their valleys, spreading it over the flooded 
 
 11. Rivers and River Systems. 
 Some rivers start from springs. Others flow 
 ■om lakes, swamps, or melting ice and snow. 
 The beginning of a river is called its head 
 or source. 
 
 While on its way to the sea, a river becomes 
 larger and larger as it is joined ])y other 
 streams from side valleys. 
 
 Largo cities are often built near rivers. If the water 
 flows swiftly, it may be used to turn mill wheels. 
 If the rivers are deep enough, steamers and other vessels 
 may go from place to place, carrying passengers and 
 freight. 
 
 The lower end of a river, where it flows into 
 the sea, or into some other body of water, is 
 known as the mouth of the river. 
 
 Many of the largest cities in the world are built near 
 the mouths of rivers. 
 
 Rivers often wear steep places in then* beds. 
 The water leaps down, fonning ivaterfalls. A 
 great fall of water over a steep bank is called 
 
 ..: ,..,L.*;,.i»-^. '.;;a. 
 
12 
 
 PLAINS AND DELTAS. 
 
 Muuiirit t'nllH, 
 
 12. Biver Basins 
 and Dividas. 
 
 All the laud whiclx 
 sheds water into ji singlo 
 i-iver system forms ii 
 river basin. The basin 
 genorally takes the same 
 name as the main riv(u- 
 in the system. 
 
 A river system drains 
 all the land which fonns its basin. From tlie 
 slopes of the basin, the streams cairy the land 
 waste towards their mouths. The longer the 
 streams continue to flow, the lower the slopes 
 of their basins are woni. 
 
 Find the lino which bounds the basin of tho river 
 marked C in the picture, in the opposite column. This 
 runs along the top, or crest of tho ridges, and separates 
 the slopes in basin C from tiioso in tho other basins. 
 Such a lino is called a. divide or %1'atcr partinij. It divides 
 the slopes of the basins. 
 
 Some of the most important divides on the 
 earth cross wide plains whose slopes are too 
 gentle for the eye to detect. 
 
 The Amazon basni in South America is tho largest 
 in the world. Its main river pours into the ocean more 
 water than any other stream. This basin is crossed by 
 the equator, and covers more than two million square 
 miles. Steamers can go for thousands of miles up and 
 down the many branches of the Amazon system. 
 
 The Mississippi basin is the largest in North America, 
 but is only about one half as large as tho Amazon basin. 
 The map on this page shows where tliese great basins are. 
 
 13. Plains and Deltas. 
 After heavy rains, or ul'ler mucih snow 
 has (luickly m('lt<'<l, gi-cnt volumes of 
 water run down tho brooks and into the 
 iiv«>rs. Then tlie rivers oftou overllow 
 their ])anks and spread over tlio flat 
 meadows, called Jhod plains^ on either 
 side. 
 
 I'MoikIoiI rivers are very muddy, for they not 
 only cut their own Imnks, but their Bwollon 
 branches also bring them a great d(^al of land waste 
 from tho sid(!H of their valleys. Tiio water moves slowly 
 on the llooil plains and deposits thin layers of mud, 
 called »ilt. When tho Hood is over, this silt gives fresh 
 food to plants. After u heavy rain-storm, you may find 
 silt in tho hollows by tho roadside, where tho water has 
 evaporated, or has soaked into tiu, ground. 
 
 In narrow valleys the Hood jjlaiiiH extend for only a 
 
 MoiiutuiuoHM itcsloiiH uiKl Ulvvr Divides. 
 
 short distance on either side of the river. In broad 
 valleys the flood plains may be several miles wide. 
 
 Many people live on ^^Ba^3^^>ir 
 flood plains because 
 they are so fer- 
 tile. In dry 
 countries, 
 flood plains 
 are the best 
 places for 
 people to set- 
 tle, because; 
 the river 
 water can be 
 led in canalu 
 and ditches across 
 such plains. 
 
 Auit'i'lcu. 
 
PLAINS AND DELTAS. 
 
 13 
 
 Most of tho Hilt homo nlonj? by V 
 rivers is Hlowly wtisiicd down to tho | 
 sea. A Inrgo part of tlio nilt sottlcH 
 near tho rivor inoulliH, whcro th<* 
 water flows moro slowly. Tho set- 
 tlings, called sediment, form Ic and 
 flat plains. 
 
 
 
 "-r« 
 
 ~^" 
 
 
 :M:^^'i^, 
 
 ffiii^ 
 
 
 ,• «•> ■• •'•.«i*K ''••-'■i&v. . • , 7*f.-»- 
 
 Fn tlio fur oast, a1)out 
 liiilf-wiiy niuiid t lu>i'arth 
 t'i'oin UN, tlioro is a largo 
 ilt'ltii jiliiiri on which 
 iiiillioiiH of Cliiiu'so jHio- 
 jili) live, Mont of this 
 (loltn woH inuilu by the 
 Y«>ll()w river. 
 
 This river Noinotinios 
 takoH a now courHo 
 aerosH itn delta plain. 
 I'"iel(is, villages i'ikI eities aro sometimes 
 fl(Kxled or swept away, and many people are 
 drowned. 
 
 kV ^'^ 
 
 Lowlands lluis loi-nicd at tho mouths 
 of rivers aro knoAvn no deltas. Most 
 deltas aro the lower ends of flood plains 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 *«i; -^ ii-* til*.' ..-->. 
 
 -^■^. ^a|";*»^'' 
 
 ^?*T?^^"!-:-- 
 
 
 
 ^^iB^BOTwT, '^ •''''X' .'««£< .'f.^H 
 
 :.r-^^^:x!m^. 
 
 
 
 ^»- 
 
 ■HH 
 
 
 
 
 I'ralrin or riuln M<;ene In Manitoba. 
 
 Plains aro formed in various 
 ways. In Canada, there aro thou- 
 
 built out into tho sea. Tho soil of 
 delta jilains is generally fine and 
 fertile. 
 
 Deltas gi'adually become flood 
 plains and new deltas form farther 
 out in the sea. 
 
 Delia In Alaska. 
 
 sands of square miles of plains, 
 from the Rocky Mountains to the 
 eastom part of Manitoba, like the 
 gi'ain field in the picture on this 
 page where tho men are at work. 
 Long ages ago this plain was under 
 water. 
 
 Tho rocky plain upon which 
 bushes are growing is a lava plain. 
 Molted rock or lava came up from 
 the inside of tho earth and formed 
 
14 
 
 TUB WASTE OF THE LAND. 
 
 this i)laiii. Tlio lava spread out and 
 cooled and hardonod. Soil forms on it 
 by the action of the weather. High 
 plains are soniotimeH oallod plateaus. 
 
 Mi»st fertile laud is on plains, and 
 therefoni most i)eople make their homes 
 on plains. 
 
 Tho MiHsisHippi river, in America, has made 
 a flood plain several miles wide and hundreds 
 of miles long. Its lower part is a very 
 largo delta plain. These lowlands built by 
 tho great river are very fertile. 
 
 14. The Waste of the Land 
 
 As tho weather changes from wann to cold, or 
 
 t't'oni W(^t to dry, all rocks exposed to the air and 
 
 I lie rain slowly d(>cay, hut many years maybe 
 
 iic(>ded to loosen only a few grains. Ah rocks 
 
 decay or crumble tluy are said to weather. 
 
 'IMie loosened parts weather liner and flner, 
 
 ti'iniiig rork irasfr, or land vaste. In some 
 
 places tlic i-()(!k wa.ste is thirty or forty feet 
 
 in depth, but in most plac(>s it is thinner. 
 
 Finely ci'und)led rock mixed with plant 
 
 and animal nuitter is called soil. Year after 
 
 yeai" plants grow and decay, while m>T- 
 
 iads of insects and worms live and die in 
 
 the lino rock waste, 'ino remains of the 
 
 plants, the insects, the wonns and other 
 
 creatures mingle with tho lino rock waste 
 
 8tcep Alluvial Fan. 
 
 Kock ifaste at Foot orrilflr<Spltili«rgeii). 
 
 to form the dark rich topsoiL The 
 roots of most plants grow in the top- 
 soiL When it is moist, the plants 
 take from it part of the food needed 
 for their growth. 
 
W1ND8 AND KAINFALL. 
 
 IS 
 
 In huuls that litivo but littlo rain mid frost, 
 rocks woithor very slowly. In our own couu- 
 tiy, whcro raiuH iiro coiumou and whoro win- 
 tern " "iuK fro.stH uud thuws, tho decay of rocltH 
 is more rapid. 
 
 Tlio nionuiiicnt shown in tho picturn on tho opposite 
 pftj;i', Httiod for thouHiiiuls of yciuH in K>?ypt, wh(Mo ruin 
 xeldoni fulk. Tliuru its xurfuco Hhuwod but fuw HignH of 
 <leoay. 
 
 Not many yearn ago, this monument, Cloopatrii's 
 Nei'dic, wuH brought to Nt!w York. Tho hk^Ic then 
 crumbled ho fust that it l)ccaiuo noco-s-sary to protect the 
 Burfaeo from tho weather. 
 
 1 5. Land Waste on the Way to the Sea. 
 
 In rainy weather tho surface waste is washed 
 down tho slopes, but in both wet and dry wea- 
 ther tho whole sheet or hiyer of soil and coarser 
 rock waste is vciy, veiy "lowly creeping down 
 111 11. With every change from wet to dry, from 
 wai'm to cold, or from frost to thaw, the rock 
 Waste is weathei-ing finer and finer as it moves 
 down the slopes. 
 
 The coarse rock waste rolls down, making 
 steep slopes at the ^v/ot of the crags. The finer 
 waste is washed into tho lowlands. 
 
 When waste is wash- 
 ed down from valleys 
 on mountain slopes, it 
 sometimes forms great 
 fan-shaped heaps. These 
 heaps of waste are 
 calkd alluvial fans. 
 They often become very 
 large in dry countries 
 where the streams are 
 not strong enough to 
 wash the waste down 
 the valleys. 
 
 Tho topsoil in valleys 
 consists mainly of fine 
 waste that has been 
 washed from the higher 
 land. Most of the 
 ground water floAvs into 
 tho valleys and helps to 
 keep the soil moist. For 
 
 fieneral Plan of the Wlndi. 
 
 (Tho dutU'd nreng liiUk'ate riUii.) 
 
 these reasons many of tho I)cst farms are in lowland 
 valleys. 
 
 16. Winds and Rainfall. 
 
 Winds. — Cold aii-, being heavier than hot air, 
 ilows towards and creeps under the hot air, 
 which rises upwards. 
 
 As all parts of tho earth are not heated alike, 
 
 Eddying Storm movlits Eastward* 
 
16 
 
 WINDS AND RAINFALL. 
 
 the air is kept in motion. Some of the cur- 
 
 lents of air move along the earth's suifac^o, and 
 
 others flo Jar above it. The winds, or surface p'<>JW/*#'sm4^i" 
 
 currents, are the more impoi'tant to know, us 
 
 they gather moisture for the lands and do many 
 
 other kinds of useful work. 
 
 Wide currents of air flow into the hot belt 
 from the 
 
 Dry Weather. 
 
 regions on 
 both sides. 
 If the earth 
 did not ro- 
 tate, each of 
 these cur- 
 rents would 
 flow due 
 '^ o II t h o r 
 north, to- 
 
 v.'irds the heat ecjuator. The turning of the 
 earth on its axis turns these winds westward, 
 so that they flow into the hot belt from the 
 north-east and the south-east. 
 
 These winds are called the trade tvinds. On the oceans 
 they are very steady, and blow with little change by day 
 or by night. The trade winds are seldom interrupted by 
 bad weather or stonns. 
 
 Outside the trade wind path, the winds of the warai and 
 cool belts vary in direction from time to time, and are 
 often stormy, but they blow mostly from the west, and are 
 therefore called the ivestcrhj ivhids. 
 
 The tvesterhj winds bio whig inland from over the oceans 
 are neither hot in summer nor cold in winter. The gi-eat 
 bodies of water over which they blow, and from which they 
 get their moisture and warmth, have nearly the same tem- 
 perature both in winter and in summer. The westerly 
 winds, therefore, give an even temiieruturo to the western 
 coasts of the continents in the warm and cool belts. 
 
 The western coast of Canada owes the mildness of its climate to 
 the westerly winds from over the Pacific l jean. Western Europe also 
 has a more even temperature than the inland regions farther east. 
 
 The westerly winds, north and south of the trade winds, 
 as shown in the diagram, are sometimes called '''"return 
 trade winds," or ^^ anti-trade tvinds." 
 
 As the trade winds blow constan*^'y from the east, why do they 
 not cause the earth to stop rotating '{ 
 
 IUiii:y Wrnther. 
 
 In the cold Ix^lts the winds are variable and 
 jften stormy. They generally blow in about 
 the same direction as the trade winds, — most 
 frequently from the north-east in the north 
 polar region, and from the south-east in the 
 south polar region. These are called polar winds. 
 
 Rainfall. — Vapor rises from the ocean, 
 
 and the winds carry it about in the foi-m of 
 
 clouds. When the air is cool it cannot hold so 
 
 much vapor as when warmer. When cooled 
 
 enough, the vapor in it foiTis 
 
 clouds, often with rain or snow. 
 
 Watenpont. 
 
WORK OF THE AVINDS. 
 
 17 
 
 When tho air grows warmer 
 it can hold more vapor, and 
 no clouds then form in it. 
 
 The trade winds blow to- 
 wards tho heat equator, and 
 therefore do not give out 
 rainfall unless they are chil- 
 led on the way. Lowlands 
 in the path of these winds 
 are generally diy, but the 
 windward sides of high- 
 lands in the trade wind 
 belts receive abundant 
 rainfall. 
 
 When air rises to cross liigh- 
 lands, it expands and cools. 
 Some of its vapor may then ho 
 condensed itito clouds which may 
 jdeld rainfall on the slopes of tiie highlands. 
 
 Some of tho great deserts in the world are lowlands 
 in the path of the trade winds. 
 
 On highlands and on windward coasts tho rainfall 
 from the storms of tho westerl}' winds is very heav}'. 
 Far inland tho rainfall is much ligliter. 
 
 Ucsr"!; OiincCt 
 
 WaTeg on the Seashore. 
 
 17. Work of the Winds. 
 
 Strong winds cannot reach soil that is covered 
 
 with grass or trees, but in dry lauds where there 
 
 are but few plants, tho winds sweep over the 
 
 gi'ound and scatter fine rock waste far and 
 
 wide. Coarse sand is diifted along like dry snow in 
 
 winter. 
 
 The particles of sand are blown against one another 
 and against bare rocks. Thus both tho sand and the 
 rocks are gi-ound to dust. In deserts, wh^re the drift- 
 ing sand is plentiful, it gathers in hills called dunes. 
 8ome of these sandy hills are from three hundred to 
 rux hundred feet high. Dunes are also found on 
 sandy shores. Waves throw sand upon the beaches, 
 and the winds may then blow it inland. Fields, for- 
 ests and villages ai'e sometimes biuied by drifting 
 sand. The " Sand Banks" of Prince Edward Covmty, 
 Ontario, wei*e formed in this way. 
 
 Desert whirlwinds take up fine dust, which may then he 
 blown many miles away. Some of tho dust falls into the .sea, 
 and the winds thus help along the work of rivers. 
 
 Sails of ships on the ocean west of the desert of Sahara are 
 often covered with reddish dust from that barren region. Locate 
 this desert on the map of Africa. 
 
 Whirlwinds at sea are generally formed under heavy c'ouds, 
 ^ from which whirling funnel-shaped spouts seem to descend and 
 join tlio spray raised from the waves. Tho long whirling funnels 
 are called traterspuuts. 
 
18 
 
 SNOW AND ICE. 
 
 Winds form waves and the waves which roll 
 against the land wash stones and sand back 
 and forth on the seashore, giinding them very 
 fine. 
 
 Winds mix the different parts of the atmos- 
 phere and keep it fresh and pm-e. They cany 
 
 water vapor from the 
 sea to the land, and 
 thus help to detennine 
 which parts of the 
 land shall yield gi-ain 
 and fniits, and which 
 parts shall remain 
 barren. 
 
 Winds scatter the seeds 
 of some kinds of plants, 
 
 "Waterspouts 
 occur most fre- 
 quently over the 
 ocean near the 
 equator. 
 
 18. Snow and Ice. 
 On some mountains, snow lies 
 all the year and becomes very 
 deep in the high valleys. Rain 
 soaks into the snow, making it 
 more compact. The heavy mass 
 
 and also aid in the fliglit 
 of birds bv lifting them, 
 somewhat as kites are 
 lifted. If it were not 
 for currents of air there 
 would be no sailing vessels nor windmills. 
 
 Winds are sometimes so violent that thoy wreck 
 vessels and blow ''' trees and buildings. 
 
 slowly changes into ice. As the layers of ice on 
 a mountain grow thicker they creep down the 
 slopes. When the ice enters the lower and 
 
SNOW A2^D ICE. 
 
 19 
 
 warmer valleys, it gradually melts and forms 
 brooks or rivers. Such a body of ice slowly 
 moving down a slope is called a glacier. 
 
 Glaciers carry along rock 
 waste, stones, gravel, sand 
 and clay. The ice some- 
 times hollows out basins in 
 the bottoms of valleys. 
 
 The heap of waste at 
 the end of a glacier is a 
 terminal moraine. 
 
 In former times there 
 were glaciers in some parts 
 of the world, where none 
 are now found. Lakes 
 abound in such regions. 
 The water lies in the basins 
 scraped out by the ice, or behind the barriers which the 
 rock waste formed across old river valleys. 
 
 A large portion of Canada was at one time 
 covered by glaciers that slowly moved south- 
 ward till they melted. The formation of the 
 lake district between Canada and the United 
 States was changed by glacial action. The 
 boulders found in Canada and the northera 
 United States were deposited by the melting 
 of the ice of the glacial period. 
 
 Kock Waste at the End of n tilaeler. 
 
 One of the pictures on page 18 shows a rocky ledge, 
 smoothetl and rounded by the action of ice. Another 
 picture shows a long, low hill built . >i coarse rock waste 
 
 that was loft in this form 
 by an ancient ice -sheet. 
 Such a h ill is called a drum- 
 lin. There are many old 
 glacial lakes, smoothed 
 rocks and drumlins in the 
 eastern portion of Canada. 
 
 When glaciers push 
 their way into the 
 ocean, huge blocks of 
 ice break off and float 
 away. These floating 
 masses ai'e called ice- 
 hcrgs. 
 
 Far away in the north is a land called Greenland. 
 The interior of that land is covered with a thick sheet 
 of ice and snow that moves very slowly towards the/ 
 ocean on either side. Wide and deep glaciers from this 
 ice-sheet creep into the sea, where huge blocks of ice 
 break off and become icebergs. 
 
 19. Ocean Currents. 
 Winds blowing day after day for a long 
 time against waves in the sea cause the surface 
 water to diif t slowly along, and thus form ocean 
 
 Chart of tbc Ocean Cnrreau. 
 
20 
 
 OCEAN CURRENTS. 
 
 currents. These currents move much more 
 slowly thaji the winds or waves. 
 
 In each ocean the cun'ents move in the gen- 
 eral direction of the winds over them. The 
 trade winds blow the ocean cuiTents westward, 
 and the westerly winds blow them eastward. 
 The land prevents the currents from moving 
 round and round the earth, and compels them 
 to circle around, or eddy, in each ocean. 
 
 Tlie Atlantic and Pacific oceans have eddies botli 
 north and south of the equator. The Indian ocean has 
 a large eddy south of the equator, but the ocean currents 
 north of the equator flow back and forth with the season 
 winds, or monsoons, which prevail over that ocean. 
 
 The ocean eddies north of the equator move slowly in 
 the direction in which the hands of a clock turn. The 
 ocean eddies south of the equator move in the opposite 
 direction, or against the hands of a clock. 
 
 In the southern cool belt the oceans spread all the 
 way around the earth. There the drifting waters on the 
 
 © . 
 
 
 
 8un null Moon III conjnnctlon — High Tides. 
 
 southern sides of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian eddies 
 unite to form a great current, sweeping slowly towards 
 the east. The current flows entirely around the Ant- 
 arctic ocean, and may be called the Antarctic eddy. It 
 receives cold water from the south polar ocean. 
 
 Part of the water of the North Atlantic eddy 
 flows betwee"^ the island of Cuba and the main- 
 land of North America. The cm-rent issuing 
 from this passage is called the G^ulf stream. 
 Joining the rest of the eddy, the Gulf stream 
 spreads as a broad drift far to the northeast. 
 Part of this drift turns back southward into 
 the hot belt, and part branches towards the 
 Ai'ctic ocean. 
 
 The large ''Dranch of the North Atlantic eddy 
 which nms north-eastward into the Arctic ocean 
 bears much warmth to it. A cold current from 
 the Arctic ocean flows southward along the 
 north-east coast of North America. This is 
 called the Polar current. It carries icebergs 
 
 and fields of ice southward to the banks of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 20. The Moon and the Tides. 
 Twice each day the ocean slowly rises and 
 falls on its shores. For about six hours the 
 water creeps up the beaches and against the 
 foot of cliffs. Duiing the next six hours it 
 slowly settles back. The rise and fall of the 
 
 © 
 
 ® 
 
 Sau nnd Moon In oppoNltlon— High Tides. 
 
 water is called the tide. The tide is not felt on 
 the ocean, and is seldom very strong on head- 
 lands, but in narrowing bays the water rises 
 ten, twenty, or thirty feet. In the Bay of 
 Fundy the tide sometimes rises even to the 
 height of fifty or sixty feet, when the wind 
 blows strongly up the bay. 
 
 There is a tide on the side of the earth to- 
 wards the moon, and another on the opposite 
 side at the same time. 
 
 Tides are chiefly caused by the attraction of 
 the moon, but partly by the attraction of the 
 sun. 
 
 
 
 M 
 San and Moon at right angles— Low Tide*. 
 
 When the moon and sun are forming tides 
 together, at the same two places, that is at new 
 and full moon, we have high or spring tides. 
 When the moon is at her quarters, the sun and 
 moon attract the earth at right angles to each 
 other, and not in the same line, and we there- 
 fore have small or neap tides. 
 
 The flowing in of the tide is called its flood\ 
 the flowing out is called its ebh. 
 
THE MOTIONS OF THE EAETH. 
 
 21 
 
 21. The Motions of the Earth. 
 
 The Earth has three motions : one through 
 space as a part of the great Solar system of 
 which it fonus a part; oue around the Sun; 
 and one on its own axis. 
 
 1. The sun and the planets that revolve 
 around it fonn the Solar Sjjstem. The solar 
 system as a whole moves through space at the 
 
 orbit of the earth nearest the sun is called 
 perihelion; the part farthest from the sun is 
 caUed aphelion. By examining the illustration 
 on this page it will be seen that the Earth is 
 nearest the sun in December. 
 
 Wo know that the Earth moves around the 
 because : 
 
 sun 
 
 DIacrxn nhowInK the poiltion of the Earth In Its Orbit each Month. 
 
 (1) Ou September 23rd the sun rises due east at the 
 
 equator, then till 
 December 2l8t it 
 rises farther and 
 farther south, when 
 it again begins to 
 rise farther north 
 until March 21st, 
 when it is again due 
 east. From March 
 21st to June 2l8t it 
 rises farther and far- 
 ther north, and then 
 ft goes back so that on 
 September 23rd it is 
 again over the equa- 
 tor. The sun would 
 rise in the same place 
 every day in the year, 
 if the Earth kept the 
 same position. 
 
 (2) The stars grad- 
 ually pass out of sight 
 and reappear at the 
 same period each 
 year. This proves 
 that the earth is 
 changing its place in 
 the heavens. 
 
 3. The daily or 
 diurnal motion of 
 the earth is its 
 motion on its axis 
 once in 24 hours. 
 
 rate of 150,000,000 miles a year. The Earth, as 
 one of the planets, moves with the rest of the 
 solar system. 
 
 2. The Earth's annual motion is its motion 
 around the sun as a planet in 365i days. 
 
 Its path is called its orhit. The Earth's orbit 
 is not a circle, but an ellipse. The part of the 
 
 As the Earth is about 25,000 miles in circumference 
 it turns around more than 1,000 miles in an hour at the 
 equator. The rate decreases towards the poles, because 
 the circumference grows less towards the poles. 
 
 The diurnal motion of the earth causes day 
 and night. The half of the earth turned to- 
 wards the sun has day; the other half has 
 night. As the earth turns, it makes the sun 
 
22 RESULT OF THE EARTH'S ANNUAL MOTION. 
 
 appear to go round iu tho opposite directiou. 3. Carry a glol)o around with its axis inclined 23J 
 
 The sun could cause day and night l)y moving round *lcgreo8 from the vertical, and let the pupils write down 
 
 the earth, but as tho sun is about 93,000,000 miles away *''« conditions as they observe them at the four points 
 
 from the earth, on an average, it would liavo to travel '"""^d in experiment 2. 
 
 an enorjnoua distance every day in order to do so. 4. Carry a globe around with its axis still inclined 
 
 Draw a diagram to illustrate the ^ -.^■-^ - ^ ^=^-^,^ ^~ -^r — ~^ 23J degrees, but keep the northern 
 
 distance the sun would have to /^ "'^■Ci^ffl^'"^" ^-^ I V"'^^ ^^ t'^^ globe turned towards 
 
 travel doily to cause day and night, / "^f?P.o, \ 1 the sun all the time. Let pupils 
 
 and find the distance. (The dis- / ^~~--.,^ '^-'!?»/; \ \ write down the result aa they ob- 
 
 tance from the sun is the radius of | ^"^'^^^ "''-•.. U -==^^^r4 serve it. 
 
 the circle; circumference is 3-U16 I ■"■.., r,^^ ^"^--^^^ p ^^^ 5. Perform No. 3 again,and draw 
 
 times the diameter). \ "°'^-^'<^ ^^7 J ^^^^^ *« show how far north and 
 
 22. Result of the Earth's N^^^, ^""-'-A ^ '""^^ "* *''^ ^'^'^'^'^^ *^° ^""^ ^^''"^* 
 
 ALilual Motion. > ^»'r ^^^^ i Axv^^i\Y overhead, and also to mark 
 
 , ' the limit of illumination north and 
 
 The anuaal motion of the "«• »• ,outh, when it is in its most 
 
 earth around the sun causes the seasons, and northerly and most southerly positions. This will show 
 
 the changes in the length of day and night. the reason why the tropics and polar circles are marked 
 
 The earth might move around the sun every year ^3 j^ degrees from tho equator and the poles respectively, 
 
 without causing any change in the seasons, if the axis -^ block globe is best for these experiments, 
 
 of the earth stood perpendicular to its orbit. The axis is 6. Let the pupils see clearly when the northern or 
 
 inclined 23J degrees (23°, 28') from the verticol, and southern port of the globe is turned towards the sun, 
 
 as it always points north and south the sun does not and the axis i _ . 
 
 always shine over the equator, but shines directly over- inclined 23J ^==^1^ ^^ ^ ' "'''^^^Sv 
 
 head as for north as the tropic of Cancer, 23| degrees degrees, that —^^ W '"-.^ ^ "'VX 
 
 north of the equator, ond as far south as the tropic of the port to- / '^^ *°°^.c« \ 
 
 Capricorn, 23| degrees south of the equator. words the sun B ^^ ^^\^, '*••.. \ 
 
 EXPERIMENTS AND problems: has for a time --ZZIli ' - --j«„ ^^\^ 7 
 
 , _ , , 11. , constant doy, | ~ \ •'»?o, ^~-v^ / 
 
 1. Carry a globe oround on obiect to represent the , ,, ,, ^^==~^=- \ ""-1%... ^^ 
 
 / u-ij i. J i^ i. i.1 \ -tu tu and the other te=:=== \ -^jn, 7 
 
 sun (a child may stand to represent the sun), with the , , , I ^^*>^. "-. / 
 
 . .-1 J T a. ^i •, J -J uiu port constant ^^^ ^■ ^.^o, ->/ 
 
 axis verticol, and let the pupils decide whether any • >, f a [ ^ ^p g:g^ ^^_/ 
 
 change will take place in the season or in the length of ■„. „ ' , „ 
 
 J J • U4. a !?• 1 rru 11 IT ^ Figs. 2 and 3. FI«. 3. 
 
 day and night. See Fig. 1. The parallel lines represent 
 
 the snn's rays. ^^^ pupils solve the following problems. Explain 
 
 „.p. ____^ 2. Carry that only one half the globe can be illuminated at th© 
 
 ^-^a'pctIc'ciVciY"' ~'' « . ■ I g^ globe a- same time : — 
 
 / \ ~ ^3 round an 1. Carry the globe around the object representing the 
 
 / .T??.'JP-?.'-?«!'?.«'! " X^ "^=^ object re- sun, in as many different positions as possible without 
 
 / W^g g^ — — j presenting changing the season, or the length of day and night. 
 
 V ^ -^ ~^ ^ the sun with 3. Carry the globe around with axis inclined 23J 
 
 \ TBOPicoFMTOcoiiN ^^'^== 3 t 1 0^ axis degreesfi'om the vertical, and yet cause no change in 
 
 V' ~ " " y£= =^ — . A horizontal ^^^q^ or in length of day or night. 
 
 ^^^ ^"9.'j°p" q ^f.^^^^ |_ ~^ in"' north ^' ^^^'3 *he globe with the axis horizon tol, and yet 
 
 '•'" rig. 1. ^^^ south cause no change in seoson or in length of doy or night, 
 
 all the time. Let Uie pupils write down the conditions 4. Corry the globe around with the axis so inclined 
 
 regarding light and ]ieav as they observe them at four as to place tlie tropics ten degrees from the equator, 
 
 points ; wlien the globe io south, west, north, and east Vary this question by substituting other numbers 
 
 of the object representing the sun. for ten. 
 
THE ZONKS AND ('LIMATE. 
 
 23 
 
 5. Tf tlio tropics (iro ten tli«j,'rc(<s iiortli and souUi of 
 till! equator, whoro will tlio polar circles 1m) pljiced? 
 
 6. If the axis were liorizoiital, and always jHiiiitefl 
 north and south, where would the tropics he placed, and 
 wliere would the polar circles he placed I 
 
 Mni> III I Ik* Zonei* 
 
 Note. — In order to get a correct idea of tho relative 
 size of the zones from this illustration, it is necessary to 
 remember that the point of vision is over the equator, 
 so that the north and south appear diminished. 
 
 If these experiments and problems be per- 
 foi-med and solved, the pupils will learn that 
 the changes in seasons, and 
 in the length of day and 
 night, are caused by : — 
 
 1. The revolution of the 
 earth around the sun. 
 
 2. The inclination of the 
 earth's axis from the vertical. 
 
 3. The fact that the axis 
 points always in the same 
 direction. 
 
 lictweeu tho Tropica of Cancer and thoArcti(^ 
 Circle is {\ui Xoith Toupcnite Zone. Iietw<H>n 
 tiie Ti-opi(! of Capricorn and the Antar<!tic Circle 
 is the Soittk Tcinpcratc Zone. 
 
 Between the Arctic Circle and tho North 
 Pole is tho North Frigid Zone. Between the 
 Aiitai-<'t ic Circle and the South Polo is the South 
 Fritjiil Zone. 
 
 Speaking generally, the Zones have climates 
 corresponding with their names. Tho temper- 
 ature is vtM-y warm in the Tonid Zone, and 
 voi-y cold in tho Frigid Zones. In tho Tem- 
 perate Zones the climate is more moderate; 
 warm towards the Ton-id Zone and cold to- 
 wards the Frigid Zones. The people who have 
 had most to do with tlie progress of civiliza- 
 tion have lived in tho Temperate Zones, chiefly 
 in the North Temperate Zone. 
 
 While temperature and climate d pend chief- 
 ly on tho distance of a place from the equator, 
 there are several other conditions that modify 
 them. The height of a place has a gi-eat influ- 
 ence on its temperature Even in the hottest 
 countries the weather is delightful at a height 
 of from three to four thousand feet, and thin 
 ice forms at from seven to eight thousand feet 
 above the sea, at night, in the hottest season. 
 
 23. The Zones and Climate. 
 
 The two tropics and the two 
 polar circles divide .'he earth 
 into five belts or Zones. 
 
 Between the tropics is the 
 Torrid Zone. 
 
 -^ 
 
 o 
 
 Heat llcllH and Iht-lr Srafiuns. 
 
24 
 
 TIIP] ZONES AND CLIMATE. 
 
 Ocean oun'onts modify ilw cliiiuitt^ very 
 much. Tho wjinii curnnits fi'om tho torrid 
 zone flow towards tlio wosteni side of tho cou- 
 tinonts iu tho uortheni hemisphere. (See muj* 
 of the (^rreuts, page 10). 
 
 The western part of Canada is much wanner 
 than tlie eastern part at the same distance from 
 the equator, because the v,rost is warmed by tlio 
 Pacific current from the torrid zone, and the 
 east is cooled by tho ice-laden (Uirrent from the* 
 north. 
 
 Winds affect climate. Those blowing? steadily 
 from tho direction of the equator make the 
 temperature waiTnor, and those from the diroi^- 
 tiou of the polos make it colder. 
 
 The nature of the soil has some influence 
 uj)on climate. 
 
 PnOBLEMS. 
 
 1. Mako a largo circlo and divido it into Zones of pro- 
 pt)r n^lativo widtli. Draw or pasLo on tliiu circle the 
 chief aninmls that are found in each Zone. 
 
 2. TMako a circlo as in cjuestion 1, and draw or jwiste 
 on it tho k-adinj^ plants jiroduccd in each Zone. 
 
 Tiio animals and plants may ho cut from magazinos, 
 illustrated pajx-rs, or old toy Ijooks. It is interesting to 
 have a largo map of the Zones and their chief prcnlucts 
 niado by tho class as a whole, Tho Zones niay bo made 
 in pap(U' of different colors, or drawn on an unused 
 l)lackl)oard, and tho animal? ad plants pasted or drawn 
 on them. 
 
 ' C^o ^ P 
 
 The pi'oximity of a place to tho ocean modi- 
 figs its climate. Tho ocean does not change its 
 temperature so rapidly as the land does, so that 
 in summer tho ocean lowers tho temperature of 
 places near it, and in winter it makes them 
 warmer than they would be without it. 
 
 Land and sea breezes occur Iwcause the land gets 
 warm more quickly than the ocean during the* day, and 
 cools more quickly during the night, iao that the air over 
 the ocean is cooler than tho air over tho land during the 
 day, and warmer during the night. The cool air always 
 causes a breeze in the direction of the warmer air. 
 
 Mountain ranges affect climate by interfer- 
 ing with the wind cmTonts, and by preventing 
 the free distribution of rain. 
 
 3. How many degrees are there in the part of a circle 
 running from tho North to the South Pole % 
 
 4. If the circumference of a circle contains 360 de- 
 grees, how many degrees are there between the equator 
 and the North or South Pole ? Tho Equator is an im- 
 aginary line drawn around the earth east and west mid- 
 way Ixitween the two Poles. 
 
 5. What is the width of the Torrid Zone in degrees? 
 
 6. What is the width of each Temperate Zone in de- 
 grees ? 
 
 7. What is the width of each Frigid Zone in degrees 1 
 
 8. State the width in degrees, of the Earth's surface 
 in the Torrid Zone, in the two Temperate Zones together, 
 and in the two Frigid Zones. 
 
BELTH OF HEAT. 
 
 25 
 
 24. Belts of Heat. 
 
 The sun is a liot glolm moro tliaii a iiiillion 
 times as largo as the oarth. Tliis globo is very 
 far away, yet it keeps the earth warm enough 
 to 8111)1)011 life. 
 
 If when ColumbuH sot sail on liis first voyago to 
 Aiucrica, soino object could have left tlio sun and tra- 
 velled at tlio rate of twenty-fivo miles an liour towards 
 tlio earth, tliat object would still Ih) several million miles 
 away from tlio earth. The avia-ago distance of tho earth 
 from the sun is about 93,000,000 miles. 
 
 The sun's rays shine through clear air with- 
 out wanning it very much, but thoy warm the 
 clouds and the dust in the air, and also tho 
 surface of tho land niul tho S(^u. All these hel|) 
 to warm tho air about them, l)ut tho land and 
 tho sea wann the air much more than tho 
 clouds and tho dust do. 
 
 Near the equator the sun's rays are vertical, 
 or nearly so, at noon every day. There the 
 air is hot all the year, except high above the 
 sea level. The region of hot air is called the 
 hot belt. 
 
 Around 
 the poles the 
 rays are veiy 
 slanting, 
 and the air 
 is always 
 cold or cool. 
 The polar 
 regions are 
 known as the 
 cold belts. 
 
 Between 
 the hot belt 
 and the cold 
 belts, there 
 are other 
 
 belts neither so hot nor so cold. 
 On either side of the hot belt lies a 
 belt of land and sea on which the 
 sun's rays fall with but little slant. 
 We call these two belts the warm 
 belts. 
 
 This illus- 
 I ration shows 
 liow the sun 
 shines on dif- 
 ferent parts 
 of the earth. 
 Over tho lino 
 7i all tho rays 
 are nearly 
 vertical. Over 
 tho lino A tho 
 
 rays strike tho earth with greater slant. As many rays 
 shino on Ji as on A, but tho slanting rays sprtuid over 
 tho grc?ater surface, and tlioreforo cannot heat it so 
 much. The moro nearly vertical the rays aro tho 
 greater their heating power. 
 
 Between the warm belt and the cold belt, on 
 each side of the equator, lies another bolt on 
 which the rays fall with a great deal of slant. 
 These two belts are tho cool belts. 
 
 25. Latitude and Longitude. 
 
 In order to be able to locate places 
 accurately on maps and globes it is necessary 
 to fix their distance north or 
 south of some line and also 
 their dista::ce east or west of 
 some line. 
 
 This may bo shown by ruling a large 
 square on the blackboard and asking the 
 pupils to locate a spot in it of which you 
 are thinking. They will 
 realize that they can- 
 not do so until you 
 define the 
 some way. 
 
 C««skt in am lee Floe— BalBn Bay. 
 
» 
 
 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 
 
 MOfVTM ^OLf 
 
 •OUTH POLB 
 
 Parallelii of Liitiludn. 
 
 Decree* nf Lntltade. 
 
 Druw tlio vertical (liaineter of tho H(juttro and toll them 
 the spot is six inches to the right of that line. Somo 
 may attempt to fix the exact spot now, but again they will 
 fail, Ixscauso it might be anywhere on a line six inches to 
 the riglit of tlio diameter. Draw the other diameter 
 and fix the point at, say, six inches to tho right of tho 
 first diameter, and eight inches above tho second diam- 
 eter. They will then be able to locate the exact spot. 
 In this way they will learn the necessity for two base 
 lines to count distances from on maps and globes. They 
 should then be trained to use the numbers at the sides 
 and top and bottom of the maps in finding the location 
 of places indicated by specifying their latitude and 
 longitude. 
 
 The lino from which distance noi'th or south 
 is moasiirod is the Hquator. The distance ol' 
 
 of it shall bo moasurod. Ooi'inau 
 
 goograi)hors take tlio moritUan of 
 
 FeiTo, one of the ('aiiaiy Is- 
 
 i<r lands, as their Jhst mvr'idiaHy 
 
 and French goograi)hor8 
 
 run their first nieridiau 
 
 thi'ongh Paris. 
 
 Longitude is tho dis- 
 tance in degrees of any 
 place east or west of the 
 first meridian. 
 Longitude is measured 
 half way around the earth, so 
 that a place may be in 180 de- 
 grees oast or west lonfjilude. 
 No place can bo more than 90 degrees north 
 or south of the equator^ and, therefore, latitude 
 is measured only one quarter of the distance 
 around the eai-th. If we were at the North 
 Pole we should get nearer tho e(|uator, if we 
 moved in any direction. Similarly, if we 
 moved in any direction from the South Pole, we 
 must be going northward, and therefore nearer 
 the equator. 
 
 We might know that a place is situated 50 
 degrees north of the equator without being 
 able to fix its location accurately. It may be 
 anywhere on the line running around the earth 
 
 50 degrees north of the equator. But if we 
 anjT place north or south of the equator, is ^"0^ ^hat a place is 50 degrees north of the 
 called its Latitude. equator, and 120 degrees west of tho first mer- 
 
 Lines drawn around the earth from 
 north to south through the Poles and 
 cutting the equator at right 
 angles, are called Meridians 
 The meridian of any place 
 is an imaginary line run- 
 ning due north and 
 south through the place. 
 
 The makers of geo- 
 graphies in England and 
 America usually take the 
 Meridian of Greenwich, near 
 i London, as the line from which 
 the distances of places east or west 
 
 Uenreei* of LonKltuile. 
 
 Herlillans of LouKitiide. 
 
PHASES OP THE MOON. 
 
 27 
 
 The t'rciceut Muou. 
 
 idian, wo know exactly irhrre to find it. This 
 is tho use of Latitude, unci LoHffitude. 
 
 ruonLEMS. 
 
 I. If ono niuii \H IHO dogreoH oant longitude, aii<i iin- 
 othtir JH ISO di')?r«Hi8 woHt loiigitudo, }n>w iiiiiny dcgnH'H 
 are they a{>art, if thoy aro Ixith on tliu uijuator ? 
 
 2. In 1, how 
 fiir would thoy 1)0 
 apart if ono wiut 
 oit thu equator 
 and tho other on 
 tho tropic of 
 Cancer t 
 
 3. Ilowmany 
 dogrct^s aro two 
 men apart, who 
 aro on tlio namo 
 
 meridian, if ono in 30 degrees north latitude, and the 
 other 40 degrees south latitude 1 
 
 4. Where would a man bo if lio had no latitude or 
 longitude 1 
 
 5. Where would you be if your latitude should grow 
 leas in wliatever direction you walked 1 
 
 6. Find the latitude and longitude of the place where 
 you live. 
 
 7. If it takes 24 hours fcjr the sun to pass around the 
 whole earth, it takes it ono hour to go 15 degrees, or 4 
 minutes to go one degree. Find the difference in time 
 between places having 45 degrees difference in longi- 
 tude. 
 
 8. Wlmt is the difference between the time of two 
 places, one of which is in 25 degrees west longitude, and 
 the other in 32 degrees west longitude ? 
 
 9. What is the difference between the time of two 
 places, both 50 degrees west longitude, if ono is 20 
 degrees north latitude, and the other 22 degrees south 
 latitude t 
 
 10. What is tho longitude of a place wh'so time is 
 3^ hours slower than the time of a place in 1'5 degrees 
 east longitude ? 
 
 When we stand at the equator, tho North Star is in 
 our horizon. WTien we go north the North Star ascends 
 degree by degree, as we get away from tho equator. The 
 height of the North Star in degrees tells us our latitude. 
 
 II. Why is there is a differcuco between sun-time and 
 standard time in most places ? 
 
 12. Some children have to go to school earlier and 
 some later than formerly, on account of the use of 
 standard time. Explain this. 
 
 Phases of the Moon. 
 
 Tho moon is u diirk body. Tlio light that 
 shines from it is n»ll<"*"<l light that (H)miisfrom 
 thesnn. Wlion tho moon is directly between 
 tho earth and tho sun tho bright side of the 
 moon is tiiniod away from lis, so that wo say 
 there is "no moon." When it moves on a 
 little ve can see tho edge of tho bright half of 
 the moon and wo say there is a " new moon." 
 When it has moved to tho side of tho earth 
 away from tho sun, wo can see the whole of 
 the bright half of the moon, and wo call this 
 " full moon." 
 
 Tho moon moves aiound tho earth in a little 
 less than a month, and so wo have " new " and 
 •'full" nu)()n thirtoon times a year. 
 
 The earth and moon may bo drawn on tho blacklnmrd 
 in the four positions, as at new m<K)n, full moon, and the 
 quarters. Assuming that tho sunlight comes from the 
 right or left the proper half of tho nuwn may 1x3 tlrawn 
 in white, and with tho earth in tho centre tho pupils 
 can see the portion of tho bright side that is visible 
 from the earth in (!ach case. 
 
 Experiment: Take a small black globe and make 
 one half of it white with chalk. Carry it around the 
 class keeping tho white side always in tho same direction, 
 towards the place where the sun is supposed to bo. Let 
 the pupils write down the conditions they observe at the 
 four leading points in the moon's orbit. 
 
 Note : A football, or a pumpkin, may bo used instead 
 of a globe. Pupils may bo trained to make globes by 
 pasting paper projxjrly cut. These are very useful, if 
 one half is made of white paper and the other half o£ 
 black paper. 
 
 1. At whal 
 time of tho day 
 does tho moon 
 rise, at "full" 
 moon? 
 
 2. In w hat 
 part of the hea- 
 vens is the "new' 
 moon always 
 seen? 
 
 3. Do tho 
 horns of tho 
 " new " moon 
 point in the same 
 direction as the 
 horns of thn 
 " old " moon. jj^p ,, ,„„ ^oon. 
 
■-.^^^ .^^• 
 
 
 
 M^^. 
 
 &-^ 
 
 PLANTS. 
 
 
 1. Can you namn two plants that thrive in wet 
 soil 1 Two that thrive in Hundy Hoil ? 
 
 2. Whero do water lilifs grow ? Do you kno^v 
 where pussy willows aro found ? 
 
 3. What flowers have you seen growing in the woods % 
 
 4. What flowers grow best in the open fields ? 
 
 5. Compare the growth of the same flowers in the 
 woods and in open places. 
 
 G. Of what use are long roots to trees ? Would short 
 roots bo as useful ? 
 
 7. Try to find a plant growing on the bark of some 
 tree ; on stones ; on fences ; on the roofs of old houses. 
 
 8. Name two trees that drop their leaves in autumn. Name 
 two that hold their leaves all winter. When do cone-bearing 
 trees drop their leaves? 
 
 9. Of what use is the tuft on the thistle seed ? 
 
 10. Name as many plants as you can that have winged 
 seeds, and others that have hooked seeds. Which of those kinds 
 of seeds grow on trees ? Why ■? 
 
 11. Do you know of any seeds that are blown about l)ecau8e 
 they are so light ? 
 
 12. Try to find a seed that will float on the water. 
 Jiight that seed be carried from one place to another 1 
 
 13. Name some birds that feed on seeds ; on fruits. 
 
 14. In what ways may seeds scatter over level land? 
 may they be carried over high land ? Across rivers ? 
 
 15. Name two plants that yield fibres from which 
 cloth is mode. Name three plants that are used in 
 making medicine. 
 
 16. Name an enemy of each of these plants : potato, 
 tomato, wheat, apple. 
 
 renNS 
 
 Hi' 
 
 
 ), ■»>«» -.r^^^^ 
 
 How 
 
 How 
 
 
 17. What is tar ? What is India rubber ? 
 
 Note. — Study the maps of the Heat Belts and their 
 Seosonc on pages 23 and 24, and learn what countries 
 are in the Hot belt, the Warm belts, the Cool belts, 
 and the Cold belts. 
 

 ROIL, WATP:R A^I) iikat. 
 
 ■w*»E^^ 
 
 ••^ 
 
 1. Soil, Water and Heat. 
 
 Plnnts f'linnot live iu ovi'iy phu-o wIhmo thoir h(>o(1s may 
 all, l)iit only whoro the soil, boat and iiioiHttiro uru Huitod 
 to thoir growth. 
 
 Somo i)laut.s need a longer hot season than others in 
 order to rijM'n thoir seeds. 
 
 Plants aro not found in all ]»la<!es where tlie soil, heat, 
 and nioisture are suited to tli<>ir growth. It' tho jtlaut is 
 not native to the i)laee, its seeds or the plant itself must 
 first 1)0 taken there. 
 
 Whon white jhjojiIo iirst settled in Aincri(!tttlu>y found hero iieithtT wheat nor 
 cotton. After a time the seeds were l)n)u<^lifc across the ocean, and now tliese 
 plants aro anion;; the most valuahle in the New World. Most of our grains 
 and fruits aro natives of other lands. 
 
 2. Plants of the Hot Belt. 
 The toriid belt is often called the halt of palms, beeauso so many 
 ptdm trees thrive in it. Among these is the useful cocoa palm. 
 
 Some palm trees produce dates. These are the chief article of 
 food of many desert tribes. Other palms yield wax, oil, sago and 
 wine. 
 
 India rubber is made from the sap of many kinds of trees 
 and vines that grow in the hot belt. Many dye-woods are also 
 found there. Among the trees of the hot bolt yielding valuable 
 wood are ebony, rosewood and mahogany Another useful pro- 
 duct of the hot belt is bamboo. This is a veiy strong, coarso, grass- 
 like plant, growing to the height of sixty or seventy feet. 
 
 In India, China and the East Indies entire huts with their furniture are mode 
 of bamboo. Its seeds and tender shoots are served as food, on dislu;s cut from its 
 tough joints. Other parts of this plant aro used in making baskets, paptir, ropes, 
 boats, cloth and weapons. 
 
 Among the chief articles of food of people in the hot belt arf uj^na- 
 nas, plantains and breadfruit. Bananas and plantains are very much ahke, 
 - -the latter being slightly the coarser. 
 
 Breadfruit grows to about the size of a child's head. The fruit is often baked, and sometimes it is ground to flour 
 after being baked. On many islands in the Pacific, bananas and breadfruit are almost the only food o* the natives. 
 
 The East Indies and many other parts of the hot belt are very rich in spices. There are 
 
30 
 
 PLANTS OF THE WAEM BELTS. 
 
 found the sweet-scented kernels of nutmeg, the also tree ferns, huge lilies and countless other plants 
 
 biting flower-buds of the clove, the fragrant ^^^ich we see only in hothou.^es. 
 
 bark of the cinnamon, the hot root-stock of the 3. Plants of the Warm Belts. 
 
 ginger, and the stinging, dried beiiies of the The plants of the wainn belts resemble those 
 
 pepper. 
 
 This belt supplies the 
 world with coffee. Am- 
 ong the other chief pro- 
 duets are cotton, sugar- 
 cane, rice, and the opium 
 poppy. 
 
 J'Le vegetation of the hot • 
 belt surpaases in vax-iety and 
 density that of any other belt. 
 In places the trees grow in 
 dense masses, with long vines 
 weaving networks among the 
 branches. Many orchids of 
 rich color and beautiful shape 
 grow in the forests. There are 
 
 in the hot belt. 
 Most of the trees 
 are evergreens, — 
 that is, they do 
 not shed their 
 leaves in winter. 
 Figs, dates, olives 
 and grapes abound, 
 and large gi-ovesof 
 oranges and lemons 
 are a source of wealth 
 in many parts of these 
 belts. Cotton also is 
 one of the leading pro- 
 duets. 
 
 The most produc- 
 tive cotton regions in 
 the world are the warm 
 plains of the United 
 
PLANTS OF THE COOL BELTS. 
 
 31 
 
 States, India and Egypt. Nearly all kinds of of Norway and in the valley of the upper Nile, 
 grain thrive in parts of the warm belts. Among not far from the equator. 
 
 the other valuable plants are tea, sugar-cane, 
 sweet -potato, and tobacco. Most of the tea 
 comes from south-east Asia. There is also 
 found the teak tree, which supplies valuable 
 lumber, and the mulbeiTy, upon whose leaves 
 
 silkworms feed, 
 
 Flax and hemp thrive in the cool bolts. 
 Next to cotton, flax is the most valuable of the 
 fibre plants. 
 
 Many hard-wood trees, such as the oak, 
 maple and walnut, grow in the wanner parts 
 of the cool belts. Forests of cone-boaiing 
 trees, called evergreens, thrive in the 
 colder parts of these 
 belts, both on 
 plains and 
 highlands. 
 Trees of 
 this kind 
 
 4. Plants of the Oool Belts. 
 
 The cool belts are often called the belts of 
 grains. Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and bar- 
 ley are raised in nearly all parts of these belts. 
 
 Among the leading nations, wheat is the 
 gi-ain most widely used for food. The crops 
 that supply the markets of the world are raised 
 chiefly in the prairies and other plains of the 
 cool belts. 
 
 Com is another valuable grain. It was raised 
 by the Indians long before the white man came 
 to this country. Corn is a rapid grower and is 
 wide-spread over the cool belts and the lands 
 still nearer the equator. This grain is better 
 suited to the prairies having hot summers, 
 than to the Britif-a Isles with their mild 
 weather lasting nearly all the year. 
 
 Rye, oats and barley are hardy gi'aius and 
 thrive in most parts of the cool belts. 
 
 Barley is perhaps the most wide-spread of 
 grains. . It grows both upon the Arctic shore 
 
 abound 
 also on y^ 
 cool moun- 
 tain sides 
 in the warm 
 and the hot 
 belts. 
 
 Orchard-fruits, 
 hay and vege- »^| 
 tables thrive in 
 many parts of these belts. 
 
 5. Plants of the Northern Gold Belt. 
 
 Some kinds o;" pine, spruce, birch, willow 
 and other hardy trees grow in the warmer parts 
 of the northern cold belt. Northward the trees 
 become fewer and smaller, ending with dwarf 
 birches and willows, only a few inches in height, 
 on the dreary plains near the Arctic shore. 
 There in the cold, marshy tundras, are also 
 found mosses, lichens and stunted shrubs. 
 
 Very little is known about the islands in the icy sea 
 around the South Polo. 
 
 The cold belts have very short summers. 
 
82 
 
 ANIMALS AND THEIR HOMES. 
 
 PARROTS * • 
 
 *^i^ 
 
 %.'^ 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 1. Am'malfl and their Homes. 
 
 Every kind of creature grows to suit its 
 native haunts. By its teeth, feet, and other 
 parts of its body, every animal is fitted to seize 
 and devour its proper food. 
 
 Ducks take their food largely from 
 ponds and streams. These fowl have 
 webbed feet, and can swim easily and 
 swiftly. The oily bodies of ducks grow 
 very wide, and are thus suited to float. 
 Along the inner edges of a duck's bill 
 are many bristles that form a kind of 
 strainer. When the duck swims with 
 her open bill in the water, insects and 
 small plants are caught in this strainer. 
 
 Every kind of creature has a 
 covering that suits its native 
 home. 
 
 Whales that live in polar seas have 
 thick layers of fat, or blubber, to keap 
 the icy water from chilling their 
 muscles. 
 
 Animals make their homes in 
 or near the places that supply 
 their food. 
 
 Moths of many kinds lay eggs on 
 the loaves which will form the food of 
 ; the larvae, when the eggs hatch. Spiders weave webs 
 in places where flies and other insects flit about. 
 
 Among wild animals there is always a strug- 
 gle for food and for life. 
 
 Tigers pounce upon deer and cattle ; many birds feed 
 on worms and insects ; owls destroy field mice ; polar 
 bears catch seals and fish. Each creature may be the 
 prey of some other. 
 
 Eveiy animal has some means of defense or 
 escape. 
 
 The chamois leaps from crag to crag ; the rattlesnake 
 strikes with poison fangs ; the deer runs swiftly ; the 
 frog dives into water ; the ostrich kicks and runs. 
 
 Nearly all animals have power to move about 
 and seek new homes. There are places that 
 animals cannot cross. They may be swift and 
 
ANIMALS AND THEIR HOMES. 
 
 33 
 
 strong, hut they cannot live in regions that do 
 not supply their food. 
 
 Many animals have been taken by man to 
 new homes. 
 
 Cattle, sheep, hogs and liorses^ 
 have been shipped from 
 Europe across the ocean, 
 and now thrive in many 
 parts of America. 
 Countless birds have a „ 
 been carried to ff"^{ 
 places far from 
 their native 
 haunts. 
 
 SIIF.. «NT EATCfl 
 
 Most animals have 
 a much wider range 
 ^: - than plants. The for- 
 mer are always free to 
 move from place to place as the seasons change 
 or as pel iods of drouth come on. The chief bar- 
 riers to their travel are oceans, deserts and 
 highlands. These features divide the earth into 
 great realms, each having some groups of ani- 
 mals that differ from those of the other realms. 
 Many kinds of animals in each realm are also 
 found in other realms, for some can cross 
 places that are barriers to others. 
 
 2. South American Realm. 
 This realm includes South America, Central 
 America, and the AVest Indies. It reaches from 
 the plateau of Mexico to Cape Horn. 
 
 Among the animals of the Andes high- 
 land are the llama and alpaca. 
 
 Two other kinds of animals in South Am- 
 erica resemble the llama. One of these, the 
 vicufia, has fine wool and is kept in flocks. 
 The other, called the guanaco, is hunted by 
 Indians on the plains southward from the 
 pampas. 
 
 The large running bird known as the rlwa, or 
 American ostrich, is found in the same region. 
 
 Two large cat-like animals, the jaguar and the 
 
 puma or panther, are also found here. So are the 
 
 shy tapirs, the sharp-clawod ant-«aters, armadillos 
 
 with bony armor, shaggy sloths, harmless iguanas or 
 
 lizards, huge boas and fierce peccaries. 
 
 The condor, largest of flying birds, may often be seen 
 on the high peaks of the Andes. 
 
 In the forest and along the streams may be seen 
 alligators, monkeys, parrots, toucans and other creatures 
 without number. Brazil is the home of swarms of 
 bright-colored insects. 
 
 3. Northern Realm. 
 
 The Northern realm embraces all the lands 
 extending northward from the plateau of Mex- 
 ico, from the desert of Sahara and from the 
 Himalaya mountains. 
 
 The grizzly bear of the Rocky mountains, the black 
 bear of the forest regions, and the polar or white bear 
 of the Arctic regions are foimd in many parts of the 
 Northern realm. 
 
34 
 
 ANIMALS AND THEIR HOMES. 
 
 Among the animals which make their home in the 
 highlands of this realm are the bighorn, or Rocky moun- 
 tain sheep, the chamois and the ibex of the Alps, the 
 Kashmir goat and the yak of Tibet. 
 
 Millions of fur-bearing animals live in the great pine- 
 forest belt cf the north, both in America and Eurasia. 
 
 The forest belt of the north is the home of the elk. 
 This animal is noted for its speed and for its broad flat 
 antlers. The American elk is called the 7)wose. It is 
 the largest of the deer family. 
 
 The reindeer also belongs in the cold regions both of 
 America and the Old World. 
 
 The American reindeer on the mainland is called the 
 caribou. Reindeer range northward to witl oss than 
 a thousand miles of the pole. , 
 
 The milk and the flesh of reindeer are used for food. 
 Warm clothing is made from the skins. On the 
 bleak slopes of the Old World many a ma "'s wealth 
 is counted in reindeer. 
 
 The walrus is a large animal of the seal family, and 
 lives along the Arctic coasts. The walrus has strong 
 ivory tusks that it uses to defend itself and to dig shell- 
 fish from the bottoms of bays. It is killed for its oil, 
 ivory, hide and coarse flesh. Seals feed chiefly on fish 
 that they catch with their sharp claws. They swim 
 with great speed but are clumsy on the land. Some 
 seals are valued for their fine fur. Many of these are 
 killed on the Pribilof islands in Behring sea. Seals 
 form a large part of the food of the Eskimos. Among 
 the sea fowl which visit the Arctic shores in summer, 
 to feed and to hatch their young, are eider ducks, 
 geese and auks. 
 
 4. Aftican Realm. 
 
 The African realm includes tlie peninsula of 
 Arabia, and all Africa, except the region north 
 of the Sahara desert. 
 
 This realm is tlie home of many man-like apes. 
 Among these 
 the fierce gor- 
 illa holds first 
 place for size 
 and strength. 
 
 This species 
 of ape is 
 found near 
 the west 
 coast of Af- 
 rica, not far 
 from the 
 equator. domtiBvifiB" 
 
 <9 
 
ANIMALS AND THEIR HOMES. 
 
 3a 
 
 The chimpanzee lives in about the same region as tlie 
 gorilla and also far inland near the upper Nile. Many 
 other apes and monkeys are fouad in nearly all parts of 
 Africa. 
 
 The vast barren tracts in this realm are the home of the 
 camel. 
 
 One species of elephant is found in Africa. Each year 
 thousands of these beasts are killed for their ivory tusks. 
 
 The lion and the leopard live in many parts of this realm. 
 They prowl about the places in which they can pounce upon 
 deer and other animals. Among the huge creatures that abound 
 in this realm are the thick-skinned rhinoceros with horned nose, 
 the tall giraffe with long neck, the giant ostrich with fine plumes, 
 and the dreaded crocodile with scaly armor. 
 
 The tsetse fly is about as large as the house fly and has 
 almost the same colors as the honey bee. The home of this in- 
 sect is in parts of central and south Africa. The sting of the 
 tsetse fly is fatal to cattle, horses and dogs, but harmless to man. 
 
 The Cape buffalo is found in the southern half of Africa. 
 
 In south and east Africa there are two kinds of animals 
 related to the common horse. These are the zebra and the 
 «[uagga. They are hard to tame and are of but little use to man. 
 
 5. Oriental Realm. 
 
 The Oriental realm lies southward from the Hima- 
 laya and Nanling ranges. See map of Asia. This 
 realm extends almost to Papua and AustraUa. 
 
 The orang-outan, one of the great man-like apes, is a native 
 of Borneo and Sumatra. 
 
 The most useful animals in this realm are the zebu and the 
 buffalo. These are found in nearly all parts of southeast Asia 
 and have spread westward into Africa. Zebus are a kind of 
 cattle with a hump upon their shoulders, used for riding, 
 ploughing, draw in » cai ts and doing other kinds of work. 
 
 The true buffalo of India is often found wild. Tame buffaloes 
 «.re useful beasts of burden. 
 
 There are both wild and tame elephants in this realm. Many of 
 
36 
 
 ANIMALS AND THEIR HOMES. 
 
 these huge beasts are trained to work, but the cost of 
 feeding them is very great, and tlieir places are to a 
 large extent being taken by horses. 
 
 Largo crocodiles, called (fa vials, infest the Oanges 
 delta and the lower parts of many streams in this realm. 
 Gavials are of service to man, for they devour the bodies 
 of animals which float down the streams. 
 
 6. Australian Realm. 
 
 The Australian realm includes Australia, 
 Papua, New Zealand, and many gi'oups of 
 small islands in the Pacific ocean. 
 
 Most of the animals in 
 this realm diifer widely 
 from those in other parts 
 of the world. Many have 
 pouches for carrying their 
 helpless 
 young. 
 
 These 
 pouches ar^ 
 made by 
 folds in the 
 skin on the under 
 side of the body. 
 The name Anw- 
 garoo is given to 
 several species of 
 pouched animals. 
 
 The Australian realm abounds in black swans, lyre 
 birds, parrots, brush turkeys, pigeons, ducks, geese and 
 other kinds of birds. 
 
 Sheep and cattle are not native to Australia, but are 
 now counted there in millions. 
 
 The chief grazing regions are near the eastern ranges 
 of the continent. 
 
 The emu is related to the ostricli. 
 
 The apteryx of New Zealand belongs to the same 
 order of birds as the emu, the ostrich and the rhea. 
 
THE BOTTOM OP THE SEA. 
 
 37 
 
 7. The Bottom of the Sea. look like branches of trees. There are tiny soft 
 
 In some places there are very long and wide spots on the sides and ends of the branches, 
 banks under the sea. The tops of many ranges This is one of the wonders of the sea. Each 
 and lidges also rise above the water and form soft spot is a living body. It has a mouth and 
 islands. a stomach, and takes its food from the water. 
 
 Many volcanoes rest upon This tiny creature is called a polyp, and the 
 the bottom of the deep hard part is coral. The coral is part of the body 
 sea. Their peaks of the polyp, 
 form hundreds Some poljqjs 
 of lonely is- 
 lands, far out 
 in the ocean. 
 Most of these 
 volcanic islands 
 are in the Pacific 
 ocean. 
 
 A Spiny t'lHb. 
 
 grow like 
 trees, and send 
 
 out buds that '••"p S'" ►"'»••• 
 
 foi-m branches. The polyps on the branches 
 bud again, and thus a dense coral forest gi-ows. 
 Polyps lay tiny eggs in the water, and the 
 eggs float about. If they reach a rocky bank or 
 
 By far the gi-eater part of the bottom of the a hard bottom where the water is shallow, clear 
 
 sea is a vast smooth plain 
 
 Sunlight does not go veiy far down in the 
 sea. If we were to sink in this gi-eat body of 
 water, we should find the light growing fainter 
 as we went deeper. At less than one fourth of 
 W^^^^^m a mile below the 
 
 C'orttl Inland. 
 
 t^ surf ace, the ocean 
 is always in dark- 
 ness. In some 
 places the water 
 is five miles in 
 depth. 
 
 Near the sur- 
 face of the sea, and on the bottom^ there are 
 many kind>< of fish, and other creatures. At 
 times the shallc .v water near the shores of the 
 continents seems to be aUve with fishes. 
 
 The pi<^'tures on this page show a coral island 
 and also some of the forms of life found on the 
 bottom of the sea, — such 
 sponges, corals and fish. 
 
 8. Ooral Islands. 
 
 Many pretty islands grow in 
 the sea, especially in the warm 
 portion of the Pacific ocean. 
 They are called coral islands. 
 When they are growing they 
 
 and warm, they start another forest of coral. 
 
 When the coral has grown nearly to the sur- 
 face of the sea, 
 waves break off 
 many branches 
 and wash them on 
 to the top of the 
 coral mass. Each 
 storm sends" up 
 more, till thebank 
 rises above the 
 water and foims an 
 island. 
 
 The waves soon 
 grind some of the coral 
 
 to powder. Sea-plants Branching Coral, 
 
 diift to the new shore and mix with the coral 
 dust. Soil is thus foi-med on the island. 
 Fine seeds are carried many miles by winds 
 in storms. Other seeds drift 
 with the sea from shore to shore. 
 In some such ways seeds reach 
 the new island, and grow to trees 
 or smaller plants. In time the 
 coral island is ready for man to 
 come and make it his home. 
 There are many kinds of coral, 
 8poac«. forming many pretty shapes. 
 
 / 
 
 \H 
 
88 
 
 EACES OF MEN. 
 
 RACES OF MEN. 
 
 The people in various parts of the earth do 
 not all look alike, do not eat the same kinds of 
 food, do not wear the same styles of clothing, 
 nor live in the same kinds of houses. 
 
 The people of the earth are divided into five 
 groups, or races. The people of one race differ 
 from those of the other races in color, in size, 
 in the shape of their skulls, in kinds of hair, 
 in language, and in other respects. 
 
 It wUl be very interesting to see the different 
 homes, and the varied kinds of costumes "worn 
 by people in different parts of the world. 
 
 In some places we shall find that people of 
 two or more races live side by side, but certain 
 lands are known as the home of each race. 
 Thus, America is the home of the Indian, or 
 red-brown race. Most of the brown people are 
 
 found on islands southeast of Asia. The north 
 and east slopes from the Asian Highland are 
 the home of the yeUow race. 
 
 The home of each race is bounded on nearly 
 all sides by oceans, destji-ts or lofty highlands. 
 The desert of Sahara lies between lands of the 
 black and the white races. The Himalaya 
 mountains separate homes of yellow and of 
 white people. The land of the Indian is bound- 
 ed on all sides by the sea. 
 
 No race is now limited to its original home, 
 for the people of each race have spread TnoT<^ 
 or less into the lands of other races. Thus, 
 white people are now found in nearly all settled 
 parts of the earth. 
 
 There are about 1,500,000,000 people in the 
 world. 
 
RACES OF MEN. 
 
 80 
 
 1. The Negro or 
 Black Race. 
 
 The natives of 
 middle and 
 soutliem Africa 
 vaiy in color 
 from black to 
 brown. Most of 
 them have broad 
 flat noses; thick, 
 protruding lips, 
 and short, black, frizzly hair. 
 
 The time negi'oes are found in nearly all 
 parts of Sudan, but the people in the tribes 
 southward from Sudan to the Cape of Good 
 Hope also belong to the Negro race. 
 
 Many of the people of Brazil, the "West In- 
 dies, and the southern plains of the United 
 States, are freed descendants of African slaves. 
 The black natives of Australia are classed 
 with the negi'o race. Their color is dusky 
 brown, and their hair is cm"ly. 
 
 The number of Australians is small, compared with 
 the number of white people who now live in that con- 
 tinent. There are only about thirty thousand in all tlie 
 tribes. These are thinly scattered around the continent, 
 chiefly within about tvo hundred miles of the coast. 
 The Australians are savages of a very low grade. 
 
 The savages of Papua or New Guinea belong 
 to the black race. 
 MiUions of black people have been taken 
 
 from their homes in j\iri(;a and sold 
 as slaves, but the slave trade has 
 now been almost stopped. The 
 chmate of their native land fitted 
 the Nogroofl to work in the low and 
 hot regions of the earth. 
 
 The number of people in the black 
 race is about 150,000,000, — one- 
 tenth of the people ou the earth. 
 
 The picture on this page shows a 
 
 company of people in Africa near 
 
 the great river Kongo, south of the 
 
 iiir tou»i. desert of Sahara. Ivory is one of 
 
 the chief products of this coimtry. 
 
 Look carefully at the tall house. This is the 
 kind of a house the boys and girls of the Kongo 
 country live in. "Wlien a man builds a house, 
 he first breaks off many strong reeds and sets 
 them in the ground in a circle. Then he ties 
 them together with long grasses, and fastens 
 bunches of grass all over them for a roof. He 
 leaves a doorway, but no windows. He makes 
 no chimney because the fires are always built 
 out of doors. 
 
 Little boys in Kongo have to watch the com 
 fields to keep away baboons and other animals, 
 with httle bows and aiTows. 
 
 TThen they come hoine they get a good 
 supper of eggs, fish, and corn porridg(\ The 
 gu'ls help their mothers to pound com between 
 stones for the porridge, and assist in making 
 cloth from long strips of bark soaked in the 
 water and then pounded till they are very soft. 
 
 E/ery-[ 
 body go j 
 to bed at 
 dark, for 
 there are 
 no lamps. 
 
 Negro 
 children 
 are very 
 
 fond of J 
 
 ^^^^' Bunalo or Egypt. 
 
RACES OF MEN. 
 
 Kaffir itlrl and Uaby. 
 
 Many tribes 
 called Kaffirs 
 live iu South- 
 ern Africa. 
 They all be- 
 long to the 
 black race, al- 
 though their color varies from red-brown to 
 black. They make garden tools and weapons 
 of copper and iron. They have herds of cattle 
 and raise large crops of corn. Milk and corn 
 are their chief articles of food. 
 
 The Hottentots too live in Southern Africa. 
 They are usually very small men. They move 
 about from place to place in search of grass for 
 their cattle and sheep. This is the reason they 
 have huts like the one in the picture. The 
 Hottentot women do all the hard work about 
 home. The people use sheepskins wrapped 
 about the body for clothes. 
 
 2. The American or Red Raxse. 
 Formerly, the Indians lived in eveiy part of 
 America. Now the white man has taken their 
 hunting grounds and there are not many In- 
 dians left. In North America they live chiefly 
 
 in Mexico, Central America, the western part 
 of the United States, and the north western 
 portion of Canada. Most of them live in tents, 
 although in Ontario many of the Six Nation 
 Indians have fine farms and live in good 
 houses. 
 
 In Canada nearly all the Indians are upon 
 reservations. These are largo tracts of land set 
 apart as homes for the tribes. 
 
 Most of the Indians have high cheek-bones 
 and straight, black hau'. Their skin is reddish- 
 brown or copper color. 
 
 Some tribea of Indians still live in tents. Others 
 build ptieblos — houses or villages made of sun-dried 
 b !• ic k s or of 
 stone. 
 
 The native wea- 
 pons are the bow 
 and arrow and the 
 tomahawk, or 
 hatchet. The In- 
 dians shoot the 
 arrow and throw 
 the tomahawk 
 with great skill. 
 Many are now 
 skilful with rifles. young Indian Chief. 
 
RACES OF MEN. 
 
 41 
 
 Tho Tiuliuns had no horscH lieforo 
 tlin Eur()|HmiiH came to America, but 
 moHt of tlio BuvagoH aru now uxcolluiit 
 riders. 
 
 Ill all tho eomitrij's of 8i)uth Ain- 
 erieii tlio ruceH iiro greatly mixed. 
 Most of tho wliito jHfoplo livo near tho 
 coostH, but thoro, aa well oh fartlier 
 inland, are found Hoveral million 
 IndianH. Thotto of the interior are 
 
 Littjo Iiidiuu boys aro 
 ti'uin*>(l to limit tuid fish, and 
 tlu) littlo girls loaru to fook 
 
 (jf very low 
 grade. 
 
 When tho first white 
 settlers came to Am- 
 erica, the Indians of 
 Peru and !Mexico liad 
 temples and otiier buildings of stone. They made 
 cloth, and worked in copper and gold, but tho use of 
 iron was not known to them. Tlioy built good roads 
 and bridges. These people liad made more progress 
 than any otliers in tho red race. 
 
 ^^^- - - Indian babies have 
 Stlv^^^'^^jp^ ^t^'^^S^ cradles. They 
 
 are made of boards with 
 cloth wi-apped around 
 them. The babies are tied 
 in them "with the boards at 
 their backs, and then the 
 cradles are tied to branches of 
 trees, or placed against walls, 
 or leaned against trees. In- 
 dian mothers carry their 
 babies in their ci'adles strap- 
 ped on their backs. . 
 
 and work in the garden. Th«3y take down the 
 tents and put them up again when their camps 
 are moved. 
 
 Indians live in tribes, and obey tho chief or 
 head of their tribe. Thej- aro fond of daiujing 
 and other amusements. Some of their dances 
 are religious ceremonies. They used to have 
 strange, wild dances before they wont to war. 
 You may see a picture of t'lclr sun dance on 
 page 67. 
 
 The game of lacrosse was first played by the 
 Indians. They played it with a stick with a 
 bag at the end of it. 
 
 Tho term Indian is a mistake, as the "Red 
 Men" have no if-r 
 connection with 
 India or the 
 Hindus. 
 
 The American 
 or red race in- 
 cludes only 
 about one-twelfth 
 as many people 
 as the black 
 race. Most of the 
 Indians live in 
 the ton-id zone. 
 They are gi-ad- 
 ually dying off. rm iniaudcr.. 
 
42 
 
 RACES OF MEN. 
 
 3. The Malay or Brown Race. 
 
 Tlio BrowTi pooplo livo mostly on iMltuuls, but 
 thoir home iiicludna also the Mahiy jMMiinsula. 
 Bomoo, Humutiii, Mmlugusdur uiid Java aro 
 the most 
 important 
 IslftudH 
 peopled 
 by t li o 
 brown 
 race, but 
 the region 
 includes 
 countless 
 islands 
 that ox- 
 tend for 
 t h o u - 
 sands of 
 miles out 
 into the 
 ?acific. 
 
 Java is 1,1*1., 
 a land of 
 flowers 
 and fniit. 
 
 It is so beautiful that it is 
 called the "Pen.i of the 
 East." The house in the pic- 
 ture is made of bamboo. 
 
 The little gh-1 helps her mo- 
 ther in the house. She makes 
 pillows with soft white down 
 that grows on a tree near by, 
 'd.A weaves dry grass into 
 mats that are used as beds. 
 
 Her brother pounds the rice 
 for breakfast to take off the 
 yellow hulls, and gathers a 
 few cocoanuts and ripe ban- 
 anas. The fniit is eaten raw, 
 but the rice is cooked. Their 
 only table is a mat, and all 
 
 As Java is very near the oiiuator, it is so hot 
 by ten o'clock that all work in the fields has to 
 bo stopped. During the nii<ldle of the day the 
 people sit in the sluido and weave baskets. By 
 four o'clock, the air is cooler and the father 
 goes back to the rico fleld. 
 
 The people of the brown race liavo coarse 
 l»la<^k hair, Ihit faces, and short skulls. Many 
 of them have strong and well-])uilt bodices. 
 Tiiey have some marks of the three chief races : 
 tlio skull and oyiss of the Caucasian, the long 
 coarse black hair of the Mongolian, and the 
 llattened features of the N<»gro. 
 
 'I'Ik* fniit-cjitiii^' l»its iiibhlo tlu) corn atid toiidor shoots 
 
 of tliu iMilms. Tlio Iwys Hot 
 Mtiun^s to catch tlioin. 
 
 S[any poople o£ the 
 Alalay ra<;o aro yet savaj^os. 
 Others an) tnwhirs or sailors. 
 j\[aiiy tliousaiid pooplo of 
 tluH race iiihubit tho north- 
 
 era part of Now 
 Zealand. These aro 
 known as Maorin. 
 They are brave an.l 
 war-like, and havo 
 fought hard t o 
 prevent the whiu 
 man from seizing 
 thoir island homo, 
 but thoy liave lost 
 tho largest and best 
 parts of their islands. 
 
 A Malay Boy. 
 
 A J«v« *Url. 
 
 At tho present time the white 
 man rules over most of tho brown race. 
 
 The brown poople raise a very large portion of the 
 spicos used in the whole world. 
 
 The brown or Malay race includes only about 
 sit on the ground while eating, one-fourth as many people as the black race. 
 
 \ 
 
RACES OP MEN. 
 
 48 
 
 FIJI Hal 
 
 4. The Mongolian or Yellow Race. 
 
 Tho pooplo of tho yoll()\v" and tlio Lrowii nicos rosemblt* 
 ouo auothoi'. Most of tlicm luivo eourso bUuik liuir, flat faces, 
 and short skulls; small, oblique, and narrow eyes; long, 
 thick and lank hair, and little or no beard. 
 
 Tho races differ slightly in color, in tho slant of their eyes and in soiiio 
 other roHjMicts. Tho brown race is perhaps a branch of tho yellow rac(\ 
 Tho American Indians also resemble soiuewhat tho peopltt of these two 
 groups. 
 
 The Yellow race is found in nearly all parts of Asia, on the 
 noi'th and east of the gi-ent central highland. The home of 
 this race reaches from the Himalaya mountains to the Arctic 
 coast, and also includes eveiy river ' asin sloping to the 
 Pacific coast of Asia. 
 
 The Japanese and the Chinese are fame u:' for tho weaving of silk and 
 the making of porcelain. Centuries ago. the Chinese invented printing 
 
 and gun- 
 
 '^*„ .f 
 
 A Japanese Vllla<e. 
 
 .Maori Ciller, New Zcalaii«l. 
 
 powder, but for many years this nation has made 
 little progres.s. Tin' Japanese havo made more 
 progress than any other people of tho yellow race. 
 'I'hey have good schools, and have been wise enough 
 to adopt many of tiie customs of tho leading white 
 nations. 
 
 Wany tribes of Yellow people are found on the' 
 long Arctic slope of Eurasia. 
 
 Tho Liipps and Finns of Northwest Europe and 
 the Eskimos of America belong to the yellow race. 
 
 The yellow race includes more than 
 one -third of the people on the earth. 
 About one - fourth of the human race is 
 found in China. 
 
 "/} 
 
 y. 
 
 r/ 
 
44 
 
 EACES OF MEN. 
 
 the house. The girls and boys m Japan 
 have a good time plajdng. Their fathers 
 and mothers like to see their childi-en 
 plajdng. (Hrls often go out to play with 
 their baby brothers and sisters tied on 
 their backs, as you see them in the 
 picture. 
 
 The Japanese liouses are made of bam- 
 boo, with paper windows and doors. Many 
 things are made of paper in Japan : fans, 
 lanterns, hats, cloaks, caps, napkins and 
 many other things. 
 
 The Japanese sit on mats of wadded cloth, or straw. 
 They do not use chairs. They sleep on a padded quilt, 
 and rest their heads on a wooden pillo-.r. 
 
 The Japanese workmen make many very artistic 
 things, and weave very beautiful cloth. 
 
 There are ponies in Japan, but most people prefer to 
 be drawn by men, in the way you may see in the pictm-e. 
 
 The Chinese. 
 The Chinese people look like the Japanese, but their 
 eyes are set aslant. They belong 
 to a very ancient race. They do 
 
 Scrurit III Jiipun. 
 
 Japan and its People. 
 
 The girls and boys of Japan have round 
 faces, bright black eyes, and pearly teeth. 
 They often have ruddy cheeks, though their 
 skin is brownish yellow. The boys dress nearly 
 hke the girls, but the boys have their hair 
 shaved very close, while the giiis' hair is twisted 
 into many odd shapes. 
 
 They wear very large sleeves which serve as 
 pockets. Their shoes are simply wooden soles 
 tied on with strings. They are not worn in 
 
 Japanese Rain- 
 
 ^L A 
 
 coats. ' 
 
 
 not like to let A 
 
 
 strangers into i—^ 
 
 
 their country, r^ 
 
 
 They form ^m 
 
 ^ ^*^^ 
 
 about one- ^ 
 
 
 fourth of all the 
 
 people in the 
 
 
 world. They 
 
 Chlneie. 
 
 J>J 
 
 
 Woman oi 
 Burina< 
 
RACES OF MEN. 
 
 45 
 
 grow a great deal of tea, and are 
 noted for their fine silks. They 
 live chiefly on rice. You may see 
 how they dress, and what kind ot 
 houses they hve in, by exanaining 
 the pictures. 
 
 The Eskimos. 
 
 The Eskimos live along the 
 north coast of North America and 
 the islands near by. They live 
 also on the south-west coast of 
 Greenland. 
 
 Eskimo babies sleep in bags of feathers and large lamp 
 sometimes in large hoods in the skin » >ats worn made from a 
 by their mothers. When they are old enough 
 they wear pretty suits of sealskin. The Eski- 
 mo homes are huts made of stone or ice and 
 they are partly under ground. The doors are 
 
 hollow stone. 
 
 The oU is got a CUnese VUlace. 
 
 from the whales, and the wick is made of moss. 
 The lamp makes the air of the hut smeU close, 
 
 so small that the 
 people have to 
 creep in on their 
 hands and knees. 
 
 and fills the hut with smoke, but it keeps the 
 children wann, and you may see how the cook- 
 ing is done over the lamp, if you look at the 
 picture on the next page. 
 
 h 
 
46 
 
 KACES OF MEN. 
 
 Insfdn an Kskinio Hat. 
 
 An Eskimo boy gets a great many splendid 
 rides on Ms sled, drawn by his dogs. They 
 run very fast over ice and snow. 
 
 The Eskimos hunt seals for food and cloth- 
 
 ing, and whales for their blubber, from which 
 oil is made to burn. They hunt in a naiTow 
 canoe called a kayak. The kayak is covered 
 with seal sldns so that water cannot get into it. 
 The Eskimos eat fish, soals, bears, and parts 
 of the whale. Th(>y have no bread because 
 they can grow no grain. 
 
 A Lapland Home. 
 Here is a Lapland homo. It has to bo very 
 warm because the weather in Lapland is very 
 cold. The Lapps live in Lapland in the North 
 of Europe. They belong to the Yellow race. 
 
 Inside the hut you would find strips of meat 
 hanging from the walls. This meat is the flesh 
 of the reindeer. The reindeer gives the Lapps 
 skins for clothing, meat, milk and cheese for 
 eating, and does the work that horses do for 
 us. They can run one hundred miles in a day. 
 The people sleep between deer-skins, so that 
 the reindeer is of great service to them. The 
 babies sleep in skin hammocks. 
 
 A Lapland Home. 
 
EACES OF MEN. 
 
 47 
 
 5. The Caucasian or White Race. 
 The Caucasian or White Race is distinguished 
 by a white or fair skin, oval face, straight eye- 
 brows, prominent, regular features and straiglit 
 or curly hair. 
 
 The liome of the Wliite race in the Old World 
 lies between the lands of the black and the 
 yellow races. 
 
 the north of the Alpine system, and most of 
 the white people in Canada, the United States, 
 Southern Af ri 3a and AustraUa. 
 
 The people in the peninsula of Arabia and in the 
 countries on the north of the Sahara desert, as well as 
 in parts of the desert itself, are very dark, but moat of 
 them belong to the White race. 
 
 The White race outnumbers even the Yellow 
 race. These two gx-eat races together include 
 all but about one seventh of the people in the 
 world. There are nearly 700,000,000 people in 
 the Caucasian race. 
 
 It will be interesting to learn about the white 
 childi'en of some other countries; how they live, 
 how they dress, how they work, and what their 
 countries are like. 
 
 It is thought by many persons 
 that ages ago there lived in central 
 Asii'. a race of people now called 
 Aryans. 
 
 Many of the Aryans, with droves 
 of cuttle, went into India. 
 
 T le descendants of this branch of the Aryans are 
 now called Hindus. 
 
 ]\iany tribes of Aryans fought their way 
 across the plains of Low Europe. These have 
 grown into the leading nations of the world. 
 
 Scenes la Holland. 
 
 Children of Holland. 
 
 Holland is a low country. It is crof. ■^d by a 
 network of canals and ditches. Its wide 
 meadows look as level as a floor. No fences 
 
 They include nearly all the people living on are needed, for canals separate the fields. 
 
48 
 
 RACES OF MEN. 
 
 Boats with white sails seem to 
 skim over the meadows, but of 
 course they are in the canals. 
 The ghis are often more skilful 
 than the beys in handling the boats. In winter 
 the girls and boys skate on the canals, and 
 di'ive loads to market before them on the ice. 
 
 Some of the children in Holland are bom in 
 boats, and spend their lives floating about on 
 canals. 
 
 Banks or dykes are built to keep out the sea 
 from the low land, and many windmills are 
 used to pump the water from the fieldc into the 
 canals. 
 
 The people burn dry sods, or peat for fuel. 
 
 In many parts of Holland the horses have to 
 wear br^ad boards under their feet to keep 
 them from sinking in the soft gi-ound. 
 
 Children of Switzerland. 
 
 The children of Switzerland live in a land 
 
 entirely different from Holland. There are high 
 
 mountains which are always covered with ice 
 
 and snow. Sometimes great masses of ice and 
 
 snow crack and break away from 
 the sides of the mountains and 
 slide down into the valleys, de- 
 stroying houses and caiTying 
 away trees and rocks. Those 
 crashing, rushing 
 masses are called 
 snow-slides or 
 avalanches. 
 In the spring 
 time the men 
 and boys take 
 their cattle and 
 sheep higher up 
 the mountain 
 sides for pasture. 
 They are to be 
 away all summer, 
 so the day of their 
 departure is a day 
 of great excite- 
 ment. As the 
 snow melts they 
 climb higher till 
 A swiH Cottage. ill the Autumn 
 
 time when the snow storms threaten they drive 
 their flocks home again. The day of their re- 
 turn is a day of rejoicing. Bells are rung, flags 
 fly, and all the people who remained at home 
 go out to meet 
 those who 
 have been 
 away. 
 
 The girls 
 helped their 
 mothers while 
 their fathers 
 and brothers 
 were up the 
 mountains. 
 
 They mowed 
 the grass, 
 plaited straw 
 hats, milked 
 
 the cows and Bemaln. or a Snow.Ilde. 
 
 
 
 
 
 W0^ 
 
 
 wi 
 
 
 
 
 J^^^i^i^te^' 
 
 
 ,3i-;>.i?-^'^ 
 
 
 — — -.J 
 
RACES OF MEN. 
 
 49 
 
 goats that were not sent to the mountains, and 
 made butter and cheese for market. 
 
 The Arabs. 
 The Arabs may be divided into the settled 
 population of the towns and villages and the 
 wandering Bedouins of the desert. The fonner 
 live in houses made of stone or wood, or in huts 
 of sun-dried bricks; the latter Uve in tents. 
 The people are kind, polite and hospitable. *' The 
 guest is sacr'>d in his camping-gi-ound, and the 
 foe himself is welcome once he has touched 
 the tent-rope." They do not use chairs and 
 tables like ours but take their meals seated on 
 the floor, with the food in a dish on the floor 
 or on a low table in the centre of then- circle. 
 The little boys go to school and sit around 
 
 luftlde of nn Arab lloafie. 
 
 their schoolmaster, within reach of his rod. 
 They all study the Koran, which is their Bible. 
 
 In Arabia the date takes the place of wheat 
 as used in our own land, of rice in Japan and 
 of fruit in Java. It gi'ows on a beautiful palm 
 tree, called the date palm. These date trees 
 wave in the fertile vaUeys as far as the eye 
 can reach. The Arabs also eat butter and cheese 
 made of goat's milk; diink the milk of the 
 camel, and eat its boiled flesh. 
 
 C offee is the chief drink of the Arabs. The 
 coffee beiTies grow on the hilly lands near the 
 strait that foims the outlet of the Eed sea. 
 
 Arab School. 
 
 The camel is the most useful animal in 
 Arabia. They travel rapidly, carry large burd- 
 ens, and can go for days over the deserts with- 
 out drinking. The camel is sometimes called 
 " The Ship of the Desert." Its hair is soft and 
 fine. It is used in making cloth. The tents of 
 the Arab tribes that live in the desei*t are 
 made of this kind of cloth. 
 
 The Arabs are veiy fond of their horses. 
 They have the most beautiful horses in the 
 world. An Arab loves his horse so much that 
 he does not use a bit in its mouth, but guides 
 it by pressing his knees against its sides. 
 
 Arab ranulx. 
 
 / I /■'/ 
 
50 
 
 RELIGIONS. 
 
 6. Religions- 
 People who worship idols, or objects such as 
 the sun, fire, animals or images, are called 
 2)ayans. As a rule, they believe that there are 
 spirits having magical power to do good or evil. 
 Nearly all savages are pagans. Most of them 
 belong to the Black and the Eed races, but 
 there are many savages in each of the other 
 
 Buddha, a groat sage and native philasopher of the fifth 
 century B.C., tauglit that caste liad nothing to do with 
 religion. His followers are called Jiiuldlusts. The 
 nudfliiist religion in India soon passed away, but it 
 s|iri'U(l over central and eastern Asia. 
 
 Most of the people of the yellow race, or 
 about 
 ono-tliird 
 of the 
 
 one-seventh of 
 the people on 
 the earth are 
 pagans. 
 
 India is the 
 seat of a very old 
 religion that di- 
 vides its followers 
 into classes called 
 castes. The four 
 principal castes 
 are the priests, the soldiers and rulers, the merchants, 
 the servants. Below these are the outcasts. 
 
 Brahma is one of the chief gods in this religion. Tlie 
 priests art called Brahmans, and all the believers are 
 Brahmanists. 
 
 About one-half of the people in India, or 
 one-tenth of mankind, are Brahmanists. 
 
 Buddhists. 
 
 The Semitic 
 branch of the 
 white race has 
 given to the world 
 the three religions 
 whose followers 
 worship one God. 
 The Christians 
 believe in one God 
 andtheBihle; the 
 Jemsh people be- 
 lieve in one God but not in the New Testament; 
 the Mohammedans believe in one God, but 
 their sacred book is the Koran. 
 
 Mohammed, the founder of the religion 
 which bears his name, lived in Arabia about 
 a thousand years before the first English colony 
 settled in America. . - . 
 
GOVERNMENTS. 
 
 51 
 
 7. (lovenmients. 
 
 A number of savages living under one ruler, 
 or chief, form a tribe. A chief generally has 
 absolute power over the lives and property of 
 his subjects, but as the tribes become more 
 civilized the people secure more rights. 
 
 The tribal government is the common form 
 of rule among pagans. 
 
 Among some nations the rulers have abso- 
 lute power. They make the laws and enforce 
 them, and also hold office for life by right of 
 birth. A nation thus ruled is an absolute mon- 
 archy. The rulers, or monarchs, take such 
 names as czar, shah, .sultan, ameer. The Mo- 
 hammedan and Buddhist nations, except Japan, 
 are absoli'te monarchies. 
 
 A government in which the ruler holds office 
 by right of birth, but is limited in power, is 
 called a limited monarchy. Such a ruler is com- 
 monly called a king, queen, emperor, or empress. 
 A government in which the people elect 
 their own ruler is a republic. 
 
 The Christian nations, except Russia, are 
 either limited monarchies or republics. Russia 
 and Turkey are absolute monarchies. France 
 
 and Switzerland 
 are repubhcs. The 
 other nations of 
 Europe are limi- 
 ted monarchies. 
 
 All the coun- 
 tries in America 
 are republics, ex- 
 cept the colonies 
 of the nations of 
 Em-ope. 
 
 All the nations 
 of yellow people, 
 except Japan, 
 have absolute 
 monarchies. Ja- 
 pan has a limited 
 monarchy. All 
 the white nations 
 of Asia and 
 
 Stadylng tbe Koran. 
 
 Africa, which have their own rulers, are abso- 
 lute monarchies. 
 
 Review of the Races. 
 
 What races are separated by the Pacific ocean 1 By 
 the Atlantic ocean ? By the Indian ocean ? By the 
 desert of Sahara 1 By the Himalaya mountains ? 
 
 Wliere is the home of the brown race ? Of the block 
 race ? Of the white race ? 
 
 Tell what race or races are found in each of these 
 river basins : Amazon, Kongo, Mississippi, Nile, Ganges, 
 Lena, Niger, La Plata, Mackenzie, St. Lawrence, Volga, 
 Yang-tse, Amur. 
 
 To which race or races do the people in each of these 
 lands belong'? — China, British Liles, Brazil, Arabia, 
 Germany, United States, India, Greenland, Borneo, 
 Russia, Japan, Congo State, Egypt, Peru, Mexico, 
 Sudan, Java, Australia. 
 
 Total Population op the "World . . 1,500,000,000 
 
 Caucasian 690,000,000 
 
 Mongolian 600,000,000 
 
 Negro 150,000,000 
 
 Malay 35,000,000 
 
 American 12,000,000 
 
 Mixed Races 13,000,000 
 
 Christiana . . 400,000,000 
 
 Buddhists 500,000,000 
 
 Mohammedans 200,000,000 
 
 Brahmanists 150,000,000 
 
 Jews 8,000,000 
 
 Pagans and others 242,000,000 
 
fi2 
 
 DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN COMMERCE. 
 
 EddyRtone Lluhii England. 
 
 DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN^ 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 No state nor country produces all the things 
 which its people need, Lut each has a surplus 
 of some products. 
 
 The buying and selling, or the exchange of 
 goods, is called trade. Trade on a large scale 
 may be called commerce. Domestic commerce 
 is that canied on between various parts of one 
 country. Foreign commerce is that canied on 
 between one countiy and another. 
 
 Great Britain 
 leads in foreign 
 commerce. Ger- 
 many ranks second ; 
 France third; the 
 United States 
 fourth ; and Canada 
 fifth. 
 
 The rivers which 
 are of greatest use 
 as routes of trade 
 are those which are 
 deep and slow, and 
 which flow through 
 the most productive 
 
 regions. No other river surpasses the S^- Law- 
 rence for trade purposes. 
 
 Lakes and inland seas that lead in the direc- 
 tion of trade centres are often of gi-eater service 
 than rivers. 
 
 The wator way along the Great Lakes between Canada 
 and the United States is of more importance than any 
 other lake or rivor route in the world. 
 
 The oceans form the main highway of trade 
 between distant nations. The sea spreads in 
 one vast body around the continents, so that a 
 ship can sail from any one of the oceans to all 
 the others. 
 
 Many large seaports, such as London, New York, 
 Liverpool, Boston, San Francisco and Montreal, are on 
 deep harbors formed by the slight drowning of river 
 valleys. The harbors are in many cases some distance 
 inland, at the head of the drowned part of the valleys. 
 Tidal currents flowing in and out of the rivers help ves- 
 sels to enter and clear from the ports. 
 
 Thus, London is seventy miles from the mouth of the 
 Thames, — 70 miles inland towards the farms and work 
 shops of busy England. Montreal is about 1000 miles up 
 the drowned valley of the St. Lawrence. Philadelphia 
 and Baltimore are near the heads of two bays in 
 slightly-drowned valleys. 
 
 England, with her extensive manufactures 
 and her numerous colonies, has gi iwn to be 
 the centre of the world's ocean commerce. 
 
 By examining the chart of great ocean routes it will 
 be seen that the world's commerce centres in Ijondon. 
 It can also be seen that Canada occupies a central posi- 
 tion in carrying on the trade of the British Empire. 
 
 :/^ 
 
 i ..r'^i 
 
ROUTES OF TRADE. 
 
 53 
 
 Routes of 
 Trade. 
 
 "We have 
 seen that 
 the same 
 products 
 are not 
 found in 
 all parts 
 of the 
 
 earth. The rich prairies are best suited to 
 fanning, and the higher plains to grazing. 
 The soUwuem plains yield large harvests of 
 cotton, ■•vhile the highland of the west pro- 
 duces gold and silver. 
 
 If we look into the stores a moment we 
 find tea from China, and coffee from Brazil ; 
 spice from Java, and fruit from the groves 
 of California; rubber from a tree in the 
 selvas, and knives that came from tho work- 
 shops of England. 
 
 liiveis, railroads and oceans are the chief highways 
 of trade. Much has been done to improve many of these 
 highways. Rocks have been taken out of rivers and 
 harbors, and sandbars have been dredged away. Canals 
 have been made round rapids and waterfalls, as weU as 
 from river to river and from sea to sea. 
 
 It is far cheaper to carry goods by water than by land. 
 On the sea there are no costly roads nor tracks to build and 
 to keep in repair. 
 
 Every producing region needs one or more shipping 
 points. These become centres of trade. They should be 
 within easy reach of all parts of the region, and should con- 
 nect by water, rail or other route, with the markets of the 
 world. 
 
 Railroads cross the continent of North America from 
 ocean to ocean, by half a dozen routes. They run along 
 every seacoast. They wind with great rivers. They cHmb 
 mountains and cross canons. 
 
 Years ago rivers were the chief highways of inland trade, but now 
 railroads have taken first place. To-day cities and towns are dotted all 
 along the lines where freight trains gather up the products of farm, 
 forest and mine. 
 
 \/^ 
 
RBIiIBF MAP OF NORTH AMBRIOA. 
 
NOKTH AMERICA. 
 
 06 
 
 NQ-RTH AMERICA. 
 
 1. Map Studies. 
 
 On the relief map of North Amoiicii 
 locate the placo where you live. 
 
 What oceans border on North Am- 
 erica? What continent adjoins it on tlio 
 south? In what direction is Euroim 
 from North America? Which part of 
 our continent lies nearest Asia? 
 
 Turn to the map of the heat bolts and 
 tell what you can alx)ut the seasons in 
 North America ? See pages 23 and 24. 
 
 Which part of North America is in 
 the path of the westerly winds ? Of the 
 trade winds ? See page 15. 
 
 In what direction does the Rocky 
 Mountain highland extend? Along 
 which side of the continent does it lie ? 
 
 Which part of this highland looks the 
 highest? The widest? 
 
 Into what gulf does the Colorado river 
 flow ? Name a large river flowing into 
 Behring sea. 
 
 Wliere is the Appalachian highland ? 
 In what direction does it extend ? Is 
 it higher or lower than the Rocky Moun- 
 tain highland ? Is it longer or shorter ? 
 Wider or narrower ? 
 
 On which side of the Rocky Mountains are there 
 vast plains ? Name the largest river flowing into the 
 gulf of Mexico. What highlands are on the east, and 
 west sides of the Mississippi basin ? Which part of the 
 central plain is drained by tlie Mississippi river and its 
 blanches ? 
 
 What river forms the outlet of tlie Great Lakes? 
 What highlands are separated by the valley of this 
 river ? 
 
 Which portion of the central plain is in the basin 
 of the Nelson river? Into what bay does this river 
 flow? 
 
 Describe the course of the Mackenzie river. Which 
 part of the central plain does it drain 1 
 
 What are the names of the longest two rivers that 
 flow into the Pacific ocean ? 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 KEY TO RELIEF MAP 
 
 What bodies of water partly surround the peninsula 
 of Florida ? The peninsula of Labrador ? The peninsula 
 of Alaska ? The peninsula of Lower California ? 
 
 Name the largest river that flows into the gulf of 
 California. Into the Arctic ocean. 
 
 Compare the size of the basins of the St. Lawrence, 
 Mackenzie, Nelson and Mississippi rivers. 
 
 In what direction does the St. Lawrence river flow ? 
 The Missouri? The Yukon? The Rio Grande? The 
 Colorado? The Ohio? The Nelson? The Mississippi? 
 
 Sketch the general outline of North America, — 
 using only three straight lines. In what general direc- 
 tion does the east coast extend ? The west coast 1 The 
 north coast? Which coast is the longest ? . , ., 
 
 Draw the north coast of this continent; the west 
 coast ; the east coast. Which is the most irregular t 
 
56 
 
 2. Shape and Sxirftice. 
 
 North Araorica is broad in 
 the north, but it tapers towards 
 the south. This contiuont 
 covers nearly one-twentieth of 
 the earth's surface. 
 
 North America consists main- 
 ly of a groat wostoni highland, 
 a lesser oastoni highland, and a 
 central plain. It is a largo 
 triangle in shape, and the Rocky 
 Mountains divide it into two 
 slopes; a short slope to- 
 
 NORTU AMERICA. 
 
 wards the west, and a long slope towards 
 the east. The eastern slope is broken by the 
 Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains, and 
 by the Laurentian Highlands. The Appa- 
 lachian Mountains are near the eastern coast 
 of the United States. The Laurentian High- 
 lands extend from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 the River St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes 
 towards the Arctic Ocean west of Hudson Bay. 
 
 3. c^^imate. 
 This continent crosses the wann and the cool 
 belts, and also enters the cold bolt on the north 
 and the hot belt on the south. Only a small 
 part of the continent is in the hot or the cold 
 regions. Far the greater part is in the belts 
 having cold or cool winters and warm or hot 
 summers. . • 
 
 In the warm belt the winter is short and mild, 
 but northward the cold season lengthens, till 
 near the Arctic coast there are only a few weeks 
 of mild weather each summer. The extreme 
 north of the continent is cold and dreary. 
 
 Only the southernmost part of North America 
 is reached in summer by the equatorial rains. 
 The highland of Mexico receives rains from the 
 trade winds on its eastern slopes, but the 
 western slopes are not well watered. The wide 
 middle poriion of the continent is in the path 
 of the eddying storms of the westerly winds. 
 
 The westerly winds from over the North-Pacific eddy 
 give a mild and even climate to the greater part of tlio 
 west coast of North America, for the seasons over the 
 broud ocean do not change so much as over the land. 
 
 In the interior of the continent, far from the sea, the 
 summers are very warm and the winters very cold. 
 There, the change of seasons is much greater than near 
 the coast. 
 
 On the east coast the winter weather is mild whea 
 the southeast wind blows from over the Gulf stream, 
 but is very chilling when the northeast wind from over 
 the Arctic current reaches the land, or when cold air 
 flows out from the interior of the continent. 
 
 When the cold heavy air of winter covers the interior 
 of North America, not much moist air can flow in, and 
 the inland rainfall is therefore not very heavy. When 
 
58 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 tho warm light air of summer spreads over the interior, 
 the moist winds from tho soa flow inland and give plenti- 
 ful rains, except on the lowlands among the western 
 mountains and on tho plains along the eastern base of 
 the lloeky mountains. 
 
 4. Rocky Mountain Highlands. 
 
 Tho plutoau of Mexico is about a mile 
 and a luilf above tbe soa level. High 
 ranges of mountains lie along its borders, 
 and steep slopes descend from them to 
 the shores on the east and west coasts. 
 The highest range, named 'he Sierra 
 Madre, runs along the west coast. 
 
 The widest part of the Rocky Mountain 
 highland is about midway between the isth 
 mus of Panama and Behring strait. 
 
 In this broad portion, lofty ranges almost in- 
 close a vast plateau, about a mUe above the sea 
 level and several hundred miles wide. The va- 
 rious ranges lying along the eastern side of this 
 plateau are known as the Rocky mountains. 
 
 This chain extends far northward into the basin 
 of the Yukon river, and southward to the Rio 
 
 Grande, at the place 
 where that river fonns 
 the boundary be- 
 tween the United 
 States and 
 Mexico. 
 
 CsBon of Colorad*. 
 
 Crossing the Kockles. 
 
 The Great Basin north of Mexico consists of 
 a number of plateaus and valleys framed in by 
 several mountain ranges. The most important 
 of these ranges are the Rocky moimtains on 
 the east, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade 
 ranges on the west, and the Wasatch 
 range, running between the Rocky 
 and Sierra Nevada ranges. 
 West of the Sierra Nevada and Cas- 
 cade mountains lie several moun- 
 tain ridges forming a low Coast 
 range. Being neiir the ocean, and 
 in the path of the westerly winds, 
 this range has a milder and more 
 uniform climate than the regions in 
 the interior of the continent. Most 
 parts of the range are wooded. 
 The Cascade range and the Rocky moun- 
 tains continue through British Columbia. 
 Towards the north the ranges become generally 
 lownr, but just before the Rocky mountains 
 enter Alaska there are two peaks. Mount St. 
 Elias and Mount Logan, which are the highest 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 59 
 
 peaks iu the entire Rocky Mountain range. 
 They are in Canada, a short distance east of 
 Alaska. Mount Logan, recently discovered, is 
 about a quarter of a mile higher than Mount 
 St. Elias. Mount Logan is 19,500 ft. in height, 
 and Mount St. Elias 18,010. 
 
 In the far northwest, the ranges of the Rocky 
 mountain highland spread apart in the gi-eat 
 peninsula of Alaska. The main range bonds 
 westward along the coast, to the end of the 
 Alaskan peninsula, 
 
 The western coast of British America and 
 the southwest shore of Alaska have a mild 
 climate, although so far from the equator. 
 The ocean winds are there wanned by the di'if t 
 from the Japan current. 
 Wann moist winds from the 
 sea are chilled in rising over 
 the mountain slopes in Alaska, 
 and therefore yield veiy heavy 
 snowfall. 
 
 6. The Appalachian High- 
 land. 
 
 The portion of the Old Ap- 
 palachian range known as the 
 New England highland stret- 
 ches from the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence to the Hudson river. 
 This highland consists of a 
 Mexico. ' broad and rolling upland, 
 
 above which rise hills and moun- 
 tains. The sui-faco is also broken 
 by many valleys, in which lakes 
 abound. 
 
 Tlie highest gi-oup of peaks in this 
 highland is known as the White 
 Mountains. The Connecticut valley, 
 with its fine furining lands, lies be- 
 tween this group and the Green 
 Mountains. 
 
 Mount Washington, ono of tlio "White 
 Mountains, is tlio Iiighost peak in the 
 northeast part of tlio United States. 
 
 The rolling or hilly slope of the 
 New England highland reaches to 
 the sea. The cities and towns of this regic.i 
 are nearly all on tlio sea coa.st or near the falls 
 
 Hcxicau Tillage. 
 
 in the rivers. Boston is the gi'eatest seaport in 
 this region. 
 
 The surface of the New England highland was heav- 
 ily scoured by the ancient ico-sheet from the Laurentian 
 highlana. 
 The weak- 
 er rocks 
 were won 
 away, and 
 rock wast i 
 was lefi 
 unevenly 
 s p r ead 
 over the 
 region. 
 When the century riauU, Mexico. 
 
60 
 
 NOKTH AJVIEltlCA. 
 
 ice melted, the strcama were lield 
 back in the scoured baHins and behind 
 the barriers of drift, or rock waste, 
 thus forming numerous lakes. Many 
 of the streams were pushed aside fi-om 
 their old valleys, and were made to flow 
 over ledges from which tlioy now fall 
 in rapids and cascades. Since the ice 
 melted, there has not been time 
 for the streams to cut down 
 the ledges and drain the lakes. 
 Towns and cities have grown 
 up at the falls and rapids where 
 water power is supplied to 
 many mills and factories. 
 
 For some distance 
 south-west of the Hudson 
 river, the Old Appalachian 
 range is neither so high 
 
 nor so wide as in the New *'•• canai. 
 
 England highland. This lower part looks like 
 a long and narrow plateau. Still farther south- 
 west, the old range becomes higher and wider, 
 and is there called the Blue ridge. 
 
 Monntalu I'ornieil of I'uldcil UucLs. 
 
 Note. — The picture of a mountain fold should be 
 carefully examined by the pupils in order tliat they may 
 learn how mountain ranges were really formed. In the 
 gradual cooling of the earth the out«r crust became too 
 large, and in shrinking, certain parts folded outwards 
 and formed the world's highlands. 
 
 New York and Brooklyn. 
 
 On the south the Blue 
 ridge runs into the Caro- 
 lina highland which con- 
 tains the highest peaks in 
 the whole range. 
 
 Mt. Mitchell is about a mile 
 and a quarter high and overtops all other peaks in the 
 Appalachian highland. 
 
 The slope east of the Blue ridge and Carolina 
 highland is a hilly region, gradually descending 
 to the wide coastal plain with its farm lands, its 
 pine forests, and its cypress swamps. 
 
 The Great Valley in the Appala- 
 chian highland is a long lowland, 
 with mountains on the east and the 
 west. At the north, the Great Valley 
 opens into the St. Lawrence basin ; 
 and at the south, mto the Gulf, 
 coastal plain. The gi-eater pai*t of 
 the long valley is covered with 
 farms. 
 
 The largest rivers rising in the Appa- 
 lachian region do not run along the Great 
 Valley but across it, and escape by deep 
 and narrow gorges worn through the in- 
 closing highland. The Hudson, Delaware, 
 Susquehanna, Potomac, and James rivers 
 rise in the highland west of the Great Valley, and flow 
 across the valley and the Old Appalachian range. The 
 Tennessee river rises in the old range east of the long 
 valley, but flows westward across the valley and reaches 
 the Ohio river. 
 
 The most important of these cross-gorges in 
 
NORTH AJVIERICA. 
 
 61 
 
 the Appalachian range is that of the Hudson 
 river, for it unites with other valleys to make 
 an open 
 highway- 
 northward 
 to the St. 
 Lawrence 
 basin, and 
 westward 
 up the Mo- 
 hawk river 
 towards the 
 Great 
 Lakes. 
 
 North- 
 ward the 
 valley route 
 leads through 
 Lake George and Lake Champlain. 
 
 Nearly three-fourths of a centuiy ago, the long 
 Erie canal was built along the Mohawk branch 
 of the Great Valley, from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
 son river. This canal furnishes a cheap route of 
 trade between the great lakes and the Atlantic 
 sea coast. Railroads now follow closely along 
 the same route. 
 
 6. The Laurentian Highland. 
 
 The St. Lawrence river flows in a valley that 
 separates the Laurentian highland from the 
 Appalachian. 
 
 The Laurentian highland extends from the 
 Labrador peninsula southwest towards the 
 Great Lakes; thence running north of these 
 bodies of water, the highland bends to the 
 northwest and approaches the Arctic coast not 
 far from the west shore of Hudson bay. 
 
 Northwest of the St. Lawrence gulf and river 
 the highland is a desolate region strewn with 
 
 boulders and broken 
 by valleys. Bare 
 rocky hills rise in 
 some places, but no 
 part deserves the 
 name of mountain 
 range. 
 
 ThLs region was once 
 more raountainous than 
 it now is, but ages ago it 
 was worn down. 
 
 The northeast part of 
 Canada has sunk partly 
 beneath the sea, making 
 Work or Beaven. the coast line veiy irregu- 
 
 lar. The St. Lawrence valley was thus partly drowned, 
 forming a broad gulf and carrying the navigable water 
 far inland. 
 
 In the valleys of the low plateau are many 
 lakes and swamps through which streams flow. 
 Near these grow thick forests that make travel- 
 ling very difficult. 
 
 Many fur-bearing animals are found in this region. 
 Among these are beavers, foxes, martens and musk- 
 rats. Two specie." of large deer, the moose and the 
 caribou, graze on mosses and tender shoots of trees in 
 this cold country. Ducks, geese and other sea-fowl 
 abound along the rocky shores. 
 
 Par to the north and northeast of the Laurentian 
 highland are many large islands. Ages ago these were 
 probably part of the continent, and were afterwards 
 separated from it by the sinking of the land. The 
 largest of these islands is Greenland. 
 
 7. The St, Law- 
 rence Basin. 
 
 The Great Lakes 
 between Canada and 
 the United States 
 fill hollows on the 
 southward slope of 
 the Laurentian 
 highland. These 
 lakes and the St. 
 Lawrence river 
 with the streams ^m. 
 
62 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 and rivers 
 flowing into 
 them, fonn 
 the St. Law- 
 r e n c e sys- 
 tem. 
 
 The basins 
 of the Great 
 Lakes wore 
 deepened, 
 though not wholly 
 foi-med, by the scouring of the ancient ico- 
 sheet that moved across them from the Laur- 
 
 entian highland. 
 
 No long slopes 
 
 Btmoza send large 
 
 MOSS . y 
 
 rivers to 
 
 the Great 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 Lock in the Soo Canal. 
 
 
 f ' 4 
 
 SI \ eooMoes V 
 
 \''%1 
 
 r .vT 
 
 |k A^^ >/ Much of 
 
 X*",*^ 
 
 V ' *^ 
 
 Wi Y X their water 
 
 \i 
 
 »l^ 
 
 B J/ supply comes 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ni y^ du'ectly from rain 
 
 Along the ^ 
 
 V 
 
 y^ and snow. The bot- 
 
 Arctic Shore. 
 
 V 
 
 toms of all the lakes, 
 
 ItapliI* lu the St. Mary'H Strait. 
 
 except Erie, descend below the sea level. The 
 suiface of Lake Supei-ior is about an eighth 
 of a mile higher than the mcath of the St. 
 Lawrence. The outlet of this lake is known as 
 St. Maiy's strait. It is not navigable, because it 
 descends in rapids to the level of Lake Hiu'on. 
 
 The so-called St. Mary's strait is a river about sixty 
 miles long. Which picture shows the rapids in this 
 river 1 Vessels avoid these rapids by going through the 
 " Soo" canal. One of the pictures shows a steamer ready 
 to come from the canal lock. 
 
 There are no rapids to prevent vessels from 
 sailing between lakes Michigan, Hm-on and 
 Erie, but between lakes Erie and Ontario there 
 is an a^jrupt descent of the upland country, in 
 a low bluff. 
 
 Niagara river, the outlet of Lake Erie, originally fell 
 over the northern edge of this upland, thus forming the 
 falls of Niagara. Since then the river has slowly cut a 
 deep gorge back into tlie b'uff, — the falls always keeping 
 at the head of the gorge. They are now about six miles 
 back from the edge of the bluff. 
 
 The falls of Niagara are about three-fourths of a mile 
 wide and one hundred and f.fty feet high. Below the 
 falls, the river rushes through its long gorge, making 
 rapids of great size and grandeur. 
 
 The cliffs at Niagara consist of layers of limestone on 
 softer rock. From time to time, as the lower rock is 
 worn away, huge masses of limestone break off and fall 
 into the gorge. The stream must have worked thou- 
 sands of years to cut this great valley, yet that time is 
 short compared with the period during which the Hud- 
 son river was cutting its long gorge. 
 
 A lai'ge water-way, known as the Welland 
 canal, has been made to join lakes Erie and 
 Ontario. 
 
 From Lake Ontario the St. Lawrence river 
 forms a water-way to the sea. The river has 
 rapids, but canals have been built past them. 
 
 ■ »-♦«■/ 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 63 
 
 The St. Lawrence system is 
 the best inland water- way in the 
 world. Hundreds of large 
 steamers and other vessels help 
 to cany on trade between the lake 
 ports of Canada and the TTnited 
 States and the rest of th( ' world, 
 and bear away the pro'' acts of 
 the r/iines, the farms, '.he .'or- 
 ests and the worksho})s. 
 
 
 ■.fi^m» 
 
 ;^: 
 
 M^'i 
 
 8. The Great Central Plain. 
 
 The main portion of North America is a gi'eat 
 plain extending from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
 Arctic Ocean, between the Rocky mountains 
 on the west, and the Appalachian and Laurcii- 
 tian highlands on the east. This plain is 
 di'ained by three great river systems ; the IVIis- 
 sissippi system, the St. Lawrence system, and 
 the northern system, the chief rivers of which are 
 the Mackenzie and Nelson. The height of land 
 dividing these river systems is near th e bound- 
 ary between the United States and Canada. 
 
 The northern slope is chiefly in Canada and 
 contains the gi*eat wheat belt, and the best 
 gi'azing lands of North America. Along the 
 western part of this slope the climate is influ- 
 enced by the warm winds that come from the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Along the Arctic shore there are low level 
 plains from seventy to one hundred miles wide. 
 South of these plains a large part of the country 
 is cove]'ed with forests, till the immense tracts 
 of level land forming Manitoba, Assiniboia, 
 Saskatchewan, Alberta and Athabasca are 
 reached. In these provinces the wooded dis- 
 tricts lie chiefly near the rivers. 
 
 rniirlo Farm. 
 
 Several large lake a extend 
 norths estward in the basins of 
 the Nelson and Mackenzie rivers. 
 These bodies of water, together 
 with the Great Lakes, form a 
 remarkable chain stretching 
 along the south and southwest 
 borders of the old Laurentian 
 highland. 
 
 The basin of the Nelson river is mostly in 
 the cool bolt. The southern part of that basin 
 includes the wide fertile prairies of the Red 
 River valley — ^famous for their crops of wheat; 
 for although the winters are veiy cold, the 
 summers have long days of strong sunshine, 
 and plants gi'ow there very rapidly. 
 
 Ages ago a great Lake covered the region now known 
 as the Red River prairies. Muddy streams flowed into 
 the lake, and fine soil settled evenly over the bottom. 
 When the lake was drained, the smooth bottom became 
 a level plain. The water flowed off long ago, and yet 
 the plain is so young that streams have hardly cut its 
 surface. 
 
 The lowlands in the uppor Mississippi valley 
 
 ()*I>S ** Market, New OrleMU. 
 
64 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Bice Culture. 
 
 consist of level or 
 
 roUiug gi'assy plains, 
 
 called prairies. They 
 
 merge into tlie forest 
 
 lands on the east and 
 
 south, into dry plains 
 
 on the •west, and into 
 
 colder plains on the 
 
 north. They form one of the richest gi-ain 
 
 regions of the world. 
 
 South of the prairies lies the southern plain. 
 The gi'eater part of this plain is low rolling 
 upland. It is cut into eastern and western 
 parts by the wide flood plain of the Mississippi 
 river. 
 
 The part near the 
 shore is young, but 
 farther inland the 
 plain is older and 
 much worn by 
 streams that have 
 extended their 
 courses across it 
 from the higher and 
 older interior. 
 
 A large part of 
 the aulf 
 coast is 
 low, randy 
 and barren. 
 Nearly all 
 parts of the 
 Southern plain 
 were at one time 
 wooded, and for- 
 ests stiU cover the ^reater portion 
 
 of the region. Pino lumber is a valuable pro- 
 duct of these forests. 
 
 Large districts in the South have been 
 cleared of trees, and now rank among the most 
 productive paiis of the country. Cotton is the 
 leading crop on these cleared lands. 
 
 Rice thiivos on low flood plains and on 
 the swampy borders of lagoons behind 
 coastal sand bars. 
 
 9, The Atlantic Coastal Plain. 
 
 East of the Appalachian highlands lies 
 the Atlantic coastal plaui. This plain has 
 been formed from soil carried down by the 
 rivers from the Appalachian range, and 
 by the Mississippi river and Gulf stream. 
 As in the Gulf coastal plain, the region 
 near the sea is young and smooth, while 
 the plain farther inland is older and is 
 more deeply and widely cut by streams that flow 
 across it from the Appalachian highland. 
 
 The widest part of the Atlantic coastal plain 
 is southeast of the Carolina highland. Thence 
 the plain narrows northeastward to the mouth 
 of the Hudson river. 
 
 The southern part of this coastal 
 plain is in the warm belt and 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 65 
 
 has seasons like thoso of the Gulf coastal plain. 
 The northern part of the Atlantic coastal plain 
 has the seasons of the cool belt. South-east 
 winds from over the wann Gulf 
 stream help to make the winters of 
 this coastal i)lain milder tlian those 
 of the inland regiors in the same 
 latitude. 
 
 The long Atlantic coastal plain has 
 plenty of rainfall. It is brought by winds 
 from over the Gulf of IMexico and tho 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 In the southern part of the plain, 
 the land slopes so gently under the 
 sea that good harbors are found 
 only in the liver mouths. Sand bars, built by 
 waves, lie along the coast and partly inclose 
 many sounds. Inlets through the sand bars 
 are kept open by tidal currents. 
 
 Large quantities of rice are raised in the 
 wet lands in the warmer parts of the Atlantic 
 coastal plain, as well as in the Gulf coastal 
 plain. This gi'ain thrives in lagoon swamps 
 inside the sand bars, and in river swamps 
 which at certain times can be flooded or 
 drained. 
 
 The best cotton in the world gi'ows on some 
 
 of these border islands and on tho shores of the 
 mainland near by. The soil is sandy, })ut the 
 plants which gi"ow on it produce long and fine 
 
 fibres. 
 
 Tlio peninsula of 
 
 Florida, lying between 
 
 OCtAH 
 
 Orange <iroTx. 
 
 New Coaatllne showing Bars. 
 
 the gulf and the ocean, is chiefly a coastal plain formed 
 by the uplifting of the sea-bottom, but partly also the 
 work of coral polyps. Tiny creatures of this kind, ia 
 countless numbers, are still very active in building the 
 southern portion of the peninsula farther out into the 
 warm Gulf stream. 
 
 10. The West Indies. 
 
 South-east of Florida lie several groups of islands, 
 known as the West Indies. These consist mainly of 
 huge banks of dhell and coral limestone. 
 Only small parts of the great banks rise 
 above the water. 
 
 The larger islands of the West Indies 
 are mostly the upper portions of moun- 
 tainous country that has been partly 
 drowned. Tho flooded valleys in this 
 region form many largo and deep harbors. 
 Many of the small islands stretching in 
 a chain to the northern coast of South 
 America are almost wholly volcanic. 
 
 Tlie large islands, Cuba, Hayti, Jam- 
 aica and Porto Rico, are called tho 
 Greater Antilles, the smaller West India 
 islands are called the Lesser Antilles. 
 
 Note. — The West Indies are not 
 really parts of the coastal plain, but 
 owing to their position, they may be 
 studied here. 
 
66 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Dominion Furllament Building!), Ottawa* 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Note. — The physical deacrlption of Canada lias been pivcn under "North Amorioa." 
 
 1. Map Studies. 
 
 "Write in detail tlic southern boundaries of Canada. 
 "Wliat parallel of latitude forms this boundary for a con- 
 siderable distance 1 
 
 Name the three oceans that bound Canada. Name 
 two oceans between Canada and Russia. See map paije 4. 
 On which coaat are there the fewest large bays 1 Why ? 
 
 Name the Great Lakes between Canada and the 
 United States. Wliich of the Great Lakes is wliolly 
 in the United States 1 What river is the outlet of the 
 Great Lakes ? 
 
 What does the relief map of Canada show about the 
 surface of Canada? Find the names of the two great 
 mountain chains of British Columbia, 
 
 Which country has the greater number of lakes, 
 United States or Canada? Why are there so many 
 small lakes in one country and so few in the other ? 
 
 What is the greatcist Canadian river west of the 
 Rocky mountains ? Locate the Mackenzie and Saskat- 
 chewan rivers. What three large lakes are drained by 
 the Mackenzie river ? What two great rivers flow into 
 Lake Winnipeg ? What river connects Lake Winnipeg 
 with Hudson ISay ? Wliieh are the three largest rivers 
 
 that flow into Hudson Bay? Into what docs tlio Peace 
 river flow ? In what district is the Mackenzie Uasin 1 
 
 In what belts of temperature is Canada ? See page.i 
 23 and 24. Why is the western coast much warmer 
 than the eastern coast ? 
 
 What large bay runs into the north-eastern part of 
 Canada ? Why are there no great ocean routes through 
 Hudson Straits ? See paje 52. 
 
 On what river is Montreal situated ? Quebec ? Ot- 
 tawa ? Frederictou i On what two rivers is Winnipeg 
 situated ? 
 
 What provinces of Canada lie wholly or partially 
 farther south than a considerable part of tiie L'nited 
 States ? 
 
 What large island is in the mouth of the St. Law- 
 rence river ? At the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? 
 
 What island forms a whole province of Canada? 
 What is the most important Canadian island in the 
 Pacific? Name the chief Canadian islands north of 
 Vancouver Island. 
 
 Wliat part of the United States lies north-we&t of 
 Canada ? What large island is separated from Canada 
 by Bafiin Bay 2 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 G7 
 
 Draw a relief map of Canada showing its higlilands 
 and Hlopes. Draw a map of Canada and place on it : 
 Lakes — Superior, Huron, Eric, Ontario, Winnipeg, Atha- 
 basca, Great Slave, Croat Bear, llfindecr and Woods; 
 Kivors — St. Lawrence, Alackcnzic, SaHkatcliowan, lied, 
 Assiniboine, Fraser, Yukon, Ciiurcbill, Nelson, Peace, 
 Albany, Ottawa and East Main ; Straits— Davia, Hud- 
 son, Belle Isle, Canso, and Juan do Fuca, 
 
 Draw a map of Canada showing the provinces, terri- 
 tories and districts, with their 
 
 capitals. 
 
 2. Canada Past and 
 Present. 
 
 A little more than four 
 hundred years ago there 
 was not a white man in the 
 two continents of America. 
 Canada was then a vast 
 soHtude of untilled plains, 
 unbroken forests and 
 lonely mountains. Here 
 and there, by lake or stream, 
 or on the inaccessible brow of a wooded hill,stood 
 a little stockaded town of wcll-buiU "lodges," 
 
 Blackfeet luflluii sou Duucc. 
 
 surrounded by a strip of tilled land 
 
 pumpkins and 
 corn; for, some of 
 the forest Indi- 
 ans, such as the 
 Iroquois, Hurons, 
 and certain tribes 
 of the gi-oat Al- 
 gonquin family, 
 had made some 
 progress towards a rude civilization of their 
 own. The rest of the tribes dwelt in wigwams 
 growing of bark beside their favorite streams. The 
 present Indian population of Canada is about one 
 hundi-ed thousand. 
 
 To-day Canada is occupied from ocean to ocean by 
 more than five millions of people. The camping 
 grounds of the Indian by lake or portage trail, have 
 become the sites of populous cities, loud with the hum 
 of factories and the bustle of trade. The lakes and 
 rivers are thronged with the ships of a busy and grow- 
 commereo. Large districts which once seemed 
 
 mg 
 
 ladtaii Totem Foles. 
 
 only a wilderness of rock and scrub, are yielding 
 vast treasures of gold, silver, iron, coal, copper, nickel, 
 plumbago, and other riches of the mine. Canada has 
 become the richest and most powerful of the gi'eat 
 colonies of the British Empire. 
 
 3. Area. 
 
 Canada forms about one-thii-d of the whole British 
 Empire, and is only a little less in size than the whole 
 continent of Eui'ope. The continental portion of the 
 United States, without the territory of Alaska, is 
 
70 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Binallor thau Canada by about foui- huudrod 
 tlumsand square miles. In other words, if the 
 United Htates, without Alaska, wore placed u{)on 
 Canada, British Columbia and half of Alberta 
 would be loft uncovered. The one Canadian 
 Province of British Columbia is larger than the 
 European countries of France, Italy, Portugal 
 and Switzerland, taken together. Germany and 
 Switzerland taken together are smaller than 
 Ontario. Nova Scotia is the smallest 
 but one of the provinces of Canada, 
 but it is larger than Switzerland, Hol- 
 land, Greece, or Denmark. The rivers 
 and lakes of Canada cover so vast 
 an area that if the whole of Great 
 Britain and Ireland were sunk in them 
 there would be nineteen thousand 
 
 Looking down the VraNer, near Vale. 
 
 square miles of water left unfilled. If Canada 
 were in the form of a square, a man walking 
 twenty miles a day could not travel once around 
 it in a year. 
 
 There are large tracts of Canada which, owing 
 to the climatic and other conditions, can never 
 be available for agricultural purposes, but 
 some of them, such as the Klondike, are rich in 
 minerals. 
 
 4. Olimate. 
 
 Canada lies chiefly in the cool belt, extending 
 on the north into the cold belt. See maps on 
 pages 23 and 24. 
 
 We may roughly divide Canada, in respect 
 to climate, into three general sections: (1) an 
 eastern region extending almost as far west as 
 Manitoba, and including all the older pro- 
 vinces ; (2) an inland region from east of Mani- 
 
 Lnke LoulNe, Alberta. 
 
 toba westward to within a short dis- 
 ance of the Pacific coast, embracing 
 Manitoba, the North-West Tenitories, 
 and the gi'eater part of British Colum- 
 bia ; (3) the Pacific Coast region. 
 
 The first division is characteiized 
 by ample rainfall, and by a great range 
 of temperature. Its summers are hot; 
 its winters severe. 
 
 The second division is characterized by a 
 wide range of temperature, as in the eastern 
 region, but the rainfall here is somewhat re- 
 stricted. Some of the central and southern 
 sections are apt to suffer from drought. 
 
 The third includes a nan-oM' belt along the 
 Pacific Ocean. Here the climate is not subject 
 to so much change, and the rainfall is abundant. 
 Even in winter, the temperature is moderate, 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA- 
 
 71 
 
 along the coast as far north as Alaska, on ac- 
 count of the currents from the equatorial part 
 of the Pacific Ocean, and the warai westerly 
 winds. 
 
 The District of Alberta has a more equable 
 climate than any other part of Canada east of 
 the Rocky Mountains. Cattle can live hero on 
 the gi'eat plains in winter. The warm Chinook 
 winds from the Pacific find their way over the 
 mountains, and modify the temperatm'e of this 
 District. 
 
 Canada is a land of sunshine, as the follow- 
 ing statement shows : — 
 
 Annual percentage of sunshine at Fredericton, 44 ; 
 at Montreal, 46 ; at Toronto, 44 ; at Winnipeg, 46. In 
 England the percentage ranges between 25 and 36. 
 
 5.' Government. 
 It is important for every one who will some 
 day become a Canadian citizen to know some- 
 thing of the Government of the country in 
 which he lives. At the head of our affairs, as 
 well as of the whole British Emnire, is tire 
 Sovereign — now King Edward VII. He wears 
 his crown by right of inheritaiico and is not 
 
 chosen by 
 popular 
 vote, as is 
 the case 
 with the 
 ruler of a republic like the United States. As 
 Canada is a colony of Great Britain, the chief 
 executive of Canada is the representative of the 
 British Sovereign. He is called the Governor- 
 General. Imperial control over Canada is lim- 
 ited to the settling of International affaii s, dis- 
 puted cases of law, and matters involving 
 the relation of Canada to other parts of the 
 Empire. 
 
 In all matters relating to local affairs Cana- 
 dians enjoy full powers of self-government, and 
 are not subject to any interference from the 
 Mother Countiy. In everything pertaining to 
 taxation and expenditure we are independent. 
 
 Canadian Paelllc etesmer. 
 
.0' lyo- loo" jo:; jo" 
 

 
 \. 
 
 '«. 
 
 ^.. 
 
 r/ 
 
 .91. 
 
 WW 
 
 >** / 
 
 
 
 
 
 '=''?'-!!*;>^'((c-F"<;^iS^^v'^ 
 
 
 •'c*' 
 
 j»o« 
 
 
 
 ,0 
 
 
 •'xcjs'^ ^'-''t 
 
 
 
 
 ■.'^ ^r^— 1 /!» .->- z,^ ^^^„, 
 
 
 
74 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Canada is governed or. what is known as the 
 Federal System. It is made up of a number of 
 provinces, which have federated, that is, entered 
 into a kind of close partnership for mutual 
 advantage, while retaining their 
 own individual independence 
 in local, provincial affairs, 
 When the old pro--, .nces 
 — Upper Canada, 
 Lower Canada, 
 Nova Scotia, and 
 New Brunswick— 
 decided on 
 Confedera- 
 tion, they freely ^ 
 gave up some 
 
 of their own ' \. '^'^^ 
 
 powers into the hands of a central government 
 in which they were all represented. But they 
 retained other powers in their own hands ; so 
 that Canada is in reality governed by a num- 
 ber of what are known as Provincial Govern- 
 ments, dealing with the local affairs of the 
 several provinces, and a central or Dominion 
 Government at Ottawa, which deals with the 
 affairs of the Dominion as a whole. 
 
 It is, of course, this 
 
 made up of four factoi-s : — (1) The Governor- 
 General, (2) The Executive Council or Cabinet, 
 (3) The Senate, (4) The House of Commons. 
 The Governor-General, the Senate and the 
 
 House of Com- 
 
 Ml, 
 
 A Shot W«ll. 
 
 Oil Pump. 
 
 Dominion Govern- 
 ment that is known 
 as the Government of 
 Canada. 
 The Government is 
 
 ■- mens togeth- 
 er constitute 
 the Parliament of 
 Canada. The Sen- 
 ate is not elected 
 but is made up of 
 members appointed by the Governor- General, 
 acting oh the advice of his Cabinet. They 
 hold their positions for life, unless they re- 
 sign, or in some way become disqualified. 
 Each Senator must be a British subject, 
 must live in the province he represents, and 
 must own property to the value of at least 
 $4,000. 
 
 The House of Commons directly repre- 
 sents the people. Its members are elected 
 by the people. They sei-ve for a tenu of 
 five years, unless the House is dissolved 
 by the Govemor-in-Council in the mean- 
 time. Each member must be a British 
 subject. The various provinces of the 
 Dominion are represented in proportion 
 to their population. The representation 
 of Quebec is fixed at sixty-five and after 
 each decennial census the representation 
 of the other provinces is changed, if 
 necessary, so that the number of their mem- 
 bers of parliament shall bear the sam<^^. ratio to 
 their population as sixty-five to the population 
 of Quebec. 
 
 The Cabinet, or Executive Council, which has 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 75 
 
 the actual control of the country in its hands, 
 consists usually of thirteen members. These 
 are the leaders of the party which has the 
 majority in the House of Commons. Most of 
 them are chosen from the House of Commons, 
 and upon appointment, must go back for re- 
 election, that the people may have a chance to 
 say whether they approve of the appointments 
 or not. The other members of the Cabinet are 
 chosen from the Senate. The head of the 
 Cabinet is called the Premier or Prime Minister, 
 and he is for the time pi'actically the ruler of 
 Canada. He is the leader of his party in Par- 
 liament, and almost always is a member of the 
 House of Commons. He may, however, be a 
 member of the Senate instead; just as the 
 Prime Minister of Great Britain may belong 
 either to the House of Lords or the House of 
 Commons. The members of tho Cabinet are 
 
 known as the Ministers of 
 Justice, Public Works, Fi- 
 nance, Militia, Railways and 
 Canals, Agi-iculture, Trade 
 and Commerce, Marine and 
 Fisheries, Interior, Customs, Inland Revenue, 
 the Secretary of State, and the Postmaster- 
 General. Sometimes the Premier holds no 
 other office but that of President of the Council. 
 In addition to the members named, there are 
 sometimes members of tho Government without 
 portfolios. 
 
 Wlien a government no longer commands 
 the confidence of a majority of the House of 
 Commons, it goes out of power, and a new gov- 
 ernment is formed from the members of tho 
 opposing party. The Governor-General may, 
 
76 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 if he thinks fit, first order the election of a new 
 House. 
 6. Canada Commercially and Industrially. 
 
 Canada is rapidly taking its place as one of 
 the groat 
 producing 
 countries 
 of the 
 world. Al- 
 th ough 
 Canada 
 ranks fifth 
 
 among Cattle Ranch near CulKury, 
 
 the nations in the number of its commer- 
 cial vessels, these vessels are not able to 
 carry all the Canadian ti-ade. Many British 
 vessels are engaged in carrying Canadian pro- 
 ducts to the United Kingdom and bringing 
 back foreign goods to Canada. 
 
 The principal industries of Canada are Agii- 
 culture, including grain production, fruit gi'ow- 
 ing, stock raising, dairying, and other work 
 connected with the cultivation of the soil, 
 Lumbering, Mining, Fishing, the Fur Trade, 
 and Manufacturing. 
 
 Among the chief wheat regions in Canada are the 
 following : — Ontario between Lake Huron a.icl Lakes 
 Erie and Ontario, and eastward to the Ottawa, the Prov- 
 ince of Manitoba, and the southern part of tho North- 
 West Territories. In almost every other inhabited 
 
 part of the 
 Dominion, 
 however, 
 w li e a t is 
 grown in 
 large quan- 
 tities. Ifc 
 is a staple 
 fa rm pro- 
 duct o £ 
 Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Prince Edward Island. In 
 
 New Brunswick it is grown for home consumption. 
 Wheat fanning in Manitoba and the North-West 
 Territories is conducted on an ^"mmense scale, some- 
 times by tlie aid of dteam ploughs, and usually with 
 the iincst agricultural machinery, which reduces the 
 cost of production, and makes up for the cost of getting 
 the wheat to far markets. 
 
 The bulk of !e wheat trade of Canada is conducted 
 by a few large firms, whose warehouses or elevators are 
 Duilt at many stations in Manitoba and the North- 
 West Territories, and in the railway towns and lake 
 ports of Ontario. 
 
 Wheat-flour milling is an important Canadian industry, 
 and the pioduct finds a repdy market not only throughout 
 the Dominion, but in Great Britain, China, Japan and 
 Australia. 
 
 Stock and Dairy Pro- 
 ducts. — Cattle are not native 
 to any part of America, but 
 they now thrive in almost 
 every part of Canada where 
 there is good grass land. In 
 
 7. Agriculture. 
 
 Agriculture holds the first 
 place among Canadian 
 dustries. 
 
 Grain-growing is the chief 
 department of agricultural narvesiinn in Manltoim. 
 
 work. All the most useful grains can be grown in Canada, 
 but certain parts of our country are especiully suited to 
 the growth of wheat. The wheat of Manitoba and the 
 North-West takes a leading place in the Biitish market. 
 Wheat grown at Fort Chipewyan, in latitude 58, took a 
 prize at the Centennial Exhibition. 
 
 PlawUm In Hanltolw. 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 77 
 
 every province of tlie Dominion there are great num- 
 bers of cattle, while in the western territories are to 
 be found immense cattle ranches, where thousands of 
 thera are owned by one "rancher," as the big cattle 
 farmers are called. Every year great numbers of these 
 cattle are sent to eastern cities, or exported to supply 
 the markets of Great Britain and other countries. 
 Hearses, sheep. 
 
 region. The area in orchards is not less than 320,000 
 acres. The number of apple-trees of bearing age, if 
 planted in a I'ow twenty-five feet apart, would reach 
 around the world. In the Niagara peninsula, and along 
 the shores of the western part of Lake Erie, peaches are 
 grown very successfully. Grapes are also grown in large 
 quantities, the number of bearing vines being estimated 
 
 and 
 
 pigs are 
 
 among the lead- 
 ing products of 
 Canada, and 
 the exports of 
 these are year- 
 ly increasing. 
 0\'ing to the 
 car 3 exercised 
 hy <j\ii' farmers 
 in breedingand 
 fattening their 
 hogs, Canadian 
 bacon has a 
 high reputation 
 all the world 
 over. The ship- 
 ping of poultry 
 and eggs forms 
 
 an important 
 
 branch of our 'M^m,^ ^'^JM^ m. 
 
 agricultural industries. 
 
 Butter, cheese, and milk are 
 known as dairy products. On- 
 tario ranks first among dairy pro- 
 vinces ; but milk, butter and cheese "** 
 are valuable products in almost every part 
 of the Dominion. 
 
 Nothing shows more clearly the growth of Canadian 
 trade in recent years than the rapid increase in the 
 exports of butter and cheese. The liigh excellence of 
 Canadian cheese is winning it a world-wide reputation. 
 Canada took nearly all the prizes for cheese at the 
 World's Fair in Chicago, 1893. 
 
 Pruit-Growing. — Small fruits are grown in abun- 
 dance in nearly every province in Canada. Though the 
 winter in some parts is too severe for the successful 
 growth of the larger kinds, yet the fruit industry, as a 
 whole, has become an important department of agri- 
 culture. 
 
 The Province of Ontario is an excellent fruit-growing 
 
 at three millions, with 
 an annual product of about 
 fifteen million pounds. 
 
 Nova Scotia also has important fruit 
 industries. The Annapolis and Cornwallis 
 valleys are especially adapted by climate and situation 
 for the growth of large fruits. Here the choicest '.arie- 
 ties of apples, pears, plums, and cherries are produced 
 in abundance. The quantity of apples exported from 
 Nova Scotia, in 1896, was about 500,000 barrels. 
 
 During 1896 more thon two million barrels of apples 
 were exported from Montreal. Most of them weie sent 
 to Great Britain. 
 
78 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA- 
 
 8aw Mill. 
 
 None of the other provinces compete 
 with Ontario and Nova Scotia in tiie fruit 
 trade. New Brunswick, how- 
 ever, produces excellent small 
 fruits. British Columbia grows 
 good fruits, and will doubt- 
 less become a fruit ex- 
 porter, and the Island 
 of Montreal is famous 
 fop its apples, pears, 
 and plums. 
 
 8. The Lumber 
 Trade. 
 
 Canada is one of the 
 chief lumber produc- 
 ing countries of the 
 world. We produce in 
 vast quantities all the 
 varieties used in the 
 building of houses, 
 railroads, ships, and 
 bridges, as well as those 
 needed for carriage- 
 building, tool handles, 
 carving, and decorative work. 
 
 Lumbering, or the production of timber of all kinds, 
 is carried on chiefly in British Columbia, Ontario, Que- 
 bec, and New Brunswick. In Nova Scotia also it is an 
 industry of some importance. The coniferous or cone- 
 bearing trees, of which the white pine, spruce, larch, 
 Douglas fir, cedar and hemlock, may be specially men- 
 tioned, yield the 
 greater part of 
 the timber. Ma- 
 ple, beech, birch, 
 walnut, butter- 
 nut, hickory, ash, 
 bass wood, oak, 
 elm, and other 
 deciduous trees 
 add their share. 
 A large propor- 
 tion of all the 
 lumber cut is ex- 
 ported as logs, or 
 in some partially 
 manufactured 
 form, such as 
 cmini €e.i*p. B.€. Squared timber, 
 
 circular Haw. 
 
 deals, boards, and 
 Uang »aw«. laths. 
 
 The chief forest regions of 
 Canada are three in number : 
 (1) the western region extending from the Rocky Moun- 
 tains to the Pacific Ocean ; (2) the eastern region reach- 
 ing from Ontario to the Atlantic, and (3) a sub-arctio 
 tract situated north of the prairie lands of Manitoba and 
 the North-West Territories. The fbrests of these dis- 
 tricts are almost inexhaustible, under judicious forestry 
 laws. Timber in its various forms makes up the greater 
 part of the exports of New Brunswick, most of the out- 
 put going to Great Britain. Spruce is the most import- 
 ant product of the New Brunswick forests, but white 
 pine, birch, larch, maple, and cedar are abundant, and 
 the gathering of hemlock bark for tanning purposes is a 
 considerable industry. 
 
 Spruce logging, as it is called, is carried on chiefly 
 in winter in New Brunswick. The inhabitants of the 
 back settlements are occupied with farming in the sum- 
 mer, but in winter they go to the woods. Through 
 December, January, February, and March their axes 
 are busy feUing the spruce trees, and cutting them into 
 logs, which their teams of horses drag to the banks of 
 the nearest streams. In spring, when the melting snows 
 turn these streams into torrents, the logs are carried 
 down to the saw mills about the mouths of the chief 
 rivers. 
 
 In Quebec the lumber trade stands next to agricul- 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 79 
 
 Lumber t'liuip. 
 
 ture in importance. White and 
 
 lofl pine, cliiefly obtained on the 
 
 tributaries of the Ottawa, are the most 
 
 important woods, followed by spruce, larch, 
 
 codar, birch, maple and otlier woods. The lumbering 
 
 operations are carried on as in New Brunswick. 
 
 Tn Ontario, as in Quebec, the lumbering industry 
 stands next to agriculture in importance, and the forests 
 are similar to those of Quebec. 
 
 In British Columbia lumbering is carried on for lf)cal 
 purposes in the interior, but much more extensively on 
 the coast, where there are large saw-mills cutting for 
 export. The most important tree is the 
 Douglas fir, which frequently attains a 
 height of from two to three hundred feet, 
 with a diameter of from eight to ten feet. 
 The western cedar is another valuable 
 timber tree of British Columbia. Most of 
 the lumber is exported to various places 
 on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 In cutting these huge trees of the Paci- 
 fic Coast, tiio axe of the Eastern lumber 
 woods proves insufiicient, and the great 
 cross-cut saw largely takes its place. 
 
 The export lumber and timber trade of 
 Canada is about equally divided between 
 shipments to Great Britain and the United 
 States. The figures for the year ending 
 June 30th, 1896, are :— 
 
 Exports to Great Britain $12,187,000 
 
 Exports to United States $13,528,000 
 
 A considerable part of the lumber reported 
 «3 shipped to t^e United States is really sent 
 
 through the United States to the countries of South 
 America. 
 
 The Canadian forests yield many other trees 
 of commercial importance. A valuable tan- 
 ning sui)stanre is obtained from hem- 
 lock ouk and other trees; and tar 
 / and resin, turpentine and other 
 
 oils, are produced from pine 
 trees. Largo quantities of 
 timber are made into wood 
 pulp for the manufacture of 
 paper. 
 
 9. Coal. 
 
 Coal is dug from layers in 
 the eartli. These are called 
 «eams and have a wonderful history. 
 Each of them is made up of the re- 
 mains of a vast number of plants — 
 chiefly ferns and mosses. Coal beds 
 o are from a few inches to several feet in thickness. 
 
 Coal is used chiefly for fuel. It has several other 
 uses, however. From coal we get coal-tar, paraffino oil, 
 and many of our most beautiful dyes — such as mauve, 
 magenta, violet, a number of useful drugs and chemi- 
 cals, and what is still more curious, many of the finest 
 essences used in flavoring sweets and making perfumes. 
 Thus coal is seen to be a mineral of widely varied utility. 
 
 Coal Breaker. 
 
80 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 In Canada there are numerous coal-fields, some of 
 thorn of very gn^at importance. Tlio moHt productive 
 mines are found in ^^ova Scotia and British Columbia. 
 
 In the latter the chief mines 
 are in the southeastern part 
 and on Vancouver Island. 
 Most of the coal is exported 
 toCaiifornia. In Nova Scotia 
 
 the principal coal-fields are those 
 of Pictou and Cumberland coun- 
 ties and the eastern part of Cape 
 Breton. The coal from these mines 
 ij shipped to the neighlwring 
 parts of the Dominion, and also 
 to the New England States. In 
 New Brunswick the coal seams 
 are tliin, and are worked only on 
 a small scale for local purposes. 
 Quebec is at a disadvantage in containing no coal-fields, 
 the coal recjuired for manufacturing purposes being 
 brought chiefly from Nova Scotia. The absence of coal- 
 fields in Ontario is compensated to some ex- 
 tent by the existence of petroleum, which is 
 obtained in large quantities in the south- 
 western part of the Province. 
 
 The coal area of the North-West Terri- 
 tories is extensive, though the mines are as 
 yet but little worked. Much of the North- 
 West coal is of an inferior quality called 
 lignite, which is useful for local purposes, 
 but does not bear transportation well. 
 
 When hard coal or anthracite is taken 
 from the mines much of it is in large lumps. 
 These could not well be used in that shape, 
 
 so they are crushed between neavy steel rollers ia 
 great buildings constructed for the purpose. Sue. a 
 building is culled a breaker. In the illustraticm on 
 page 79 you will notice a numlier of boys seated at work. 
 They are picking pieces of slate from the coal as it slides 
 do^m a long trough or chute from the rollers. 
 
 10. Gold. 
 
 Gold and silver are called precious metals. 
 Gold is one of the most valuable minerals 
 found in the world, and the search for it has 
 always called forth tiio spirit of a>l venture. 
 It is found in a purestato, either distributed 
 in veins of qua'-tz rock, or in gravel beds 
 formed by the action of water in slowly 
 wearing down the quartz. It is also found 
 
 united with other 
 metals. 
 
 When gold is 
 found in veins, the 
 quartz is cru.shed 
 by heavy machin- 
 ery called stamp- 
 ing mills, and the 
 gold separated by 
 a chemical process. 
 When it is found 
 in river-beds, it is 
 usually in the form 
 cf gold dust, and 
 ia separated from 
 the sand and gra- 
 vel by washing. 
 The latter method 
 
 Mo. 1 Shaft, Nanalmo ColUcry. 
 
 is called "placer" mining. 
 
 In Canada there are numerous gold-fields. The most 
 important of these are found in Nova Scotia, Ontario, 
 
 HrdranUe HlBlng. 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 81 
 
 A Smeltery. 
 
 and British Columbia. Tlie most valuable district of 
 all, commonlv known as the Klondike, has been re- 
 cently discovered in the Yukon district even within 
 the Arctic circle. 
 
 In Nova Scotia the gold mines are in a bed of old 
 slaty or quartzite rocks, situated on the Atlantic slope 
 of the peninsula — the gold being obtained from quartz 
 which has to be mined and crushed. In 
 this province the annual product since 1861 
 has averaged about $350,000 ; and tlie 
 whole amount of gold produced up to 1898 
 is over $12,000,000. 
 
 What gold there is in Quebec is found on 
 the Chaudiere river and its tributaries. But 
 comparatively little work has been done on 
 these mines — the whole product amounting 
 to about $2,000,000. 
 
 Gold was first fcund in Ontario about 
 1866, but up to 1896 the mines were little 
 worked. The chief gold region is a strip 
 of land about two hundred and fifty miles 
 long, and about half as broad, lying to the 
 west and north-west of Lake Superior. 
 Oold has also been found in Hastings 
 
 county. In 1895 the 
 output in Ontario waa 
 va'ued at $50,000. In 
 1898 it was over 
 $400,000. 
 
 Gold mining on an 
 extensive scale began 
 in British Columbia in 
 1857. For a long time 
 the chief source of gold 
 was the Fraser river 
 Mining Town. and its tributaries. In 
 
 the year 1860 the output was over $2,000,000. In 1863 
 it reached a little less than four million dollars. Within 
 the past few years gold-bearing quartz has been dis- 
 covered and mined in other sections of the province. 
 Now the mines of the Kootenay, Boundary Creek and 
 Cariboo districts are among the must valuable in the 
 world. 
 
 The mines of the Yukon district are very rich. They 
 are situated on tiie Klondike stream and other tribu- 
 taries of the Yukon river, some distance east of the 
 )oundary line Ix^tween Canada and Alaska. 
 Dawson city, at the junction of the Klondike river 
 with the Yukon, is the centre of the Yukon gold region. 
 It has grown rapidly, and is a prosperous mining 
 town. The climate is somewhat severe in winter, but 
 warm in summer. 
 
 11. Other Minerals. 
 The mineral productions of Canada are of so varied a 
 character that it is impossible to deal with each one 
 separately. Nearly all the minerals of value, and 
 
 Nickel Mines, SndVtiUT, Ont. 
 
82 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 utility in manufactures, are found in Canada. In coal 
 gold, silver and lead, as we have seen, and in nickel, 
 iron, lime, petroleum, salt, copper and asbestos, the 
 resources of Canada are all but inexhaustible. There 
 are also deposits of platinum, manganese, phosphates, 
 gypsum, antimony and plumbago, and of almost all the 
 other important minerals. 
 
 Silver is found chiefly in the Provinces 
 of Ontario and British Columbia. In On- 
 tario the richest silver district is along the 
 shore of Lake Superior. In British Colum- 
 bia the Slocan district of "West Kootenay 
 has recently come into great prominence as a 
 producer of silver and lead. 
 
 Nickel is found in the province of Ontario 
 in the vicinity of Sudbury, Algoma district, 
 in larger quantities than in any other part 
 of the world. With the growing use of this 
 metal in combination with steel as a protec- 
 tive armor for battle-ships, the Canadian 
 mines must become very valuable. Canada 
 can supply all the nickel used in the world. 
 
 Copper occurs in Canada in two forms, as 
 the native metal, and in combination with 
 sulphur. The latter variety, called copper 
 pyrites, is found in many plr.ces. Of the 
 former, the richest veins are found along 
 the north-eastern shore of Lake Har n, in 
 
 the Sudbury district, llie 
 metal exists in largoquan- 
 titioH along the shore of 
 Lake Superior, as well as 
 in various parts of British 
 Columbia. 
 
 Petroleum is found in 
 Ontario, Quebec, Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, 
 and especially in the 
 North -West Territoriee, 
 where there are very large 
 oil regions comparatively 
 unexplored. In the Arc- 
 tic wilderness of the Mac- 
 kenzie Basin there are 
 vast petroleum fields. 
 The best known oil wells 
 in Canada are in the 
 county of Lambton, On- 
 tario. The oil wells in 
 Lambton are from 350 to 500 feet deep. The quantity 
 of refined oil produced in Canada in 1896 was about 
 ten and a half million gallons. 
 
 The chief iron mines are in Nova Scotia, at Lon- 
 donderry and Torbrook. There are Icrge quantities of 
 iron in Ontario in Hastings, Haliburton and Victoria 
 counties. In Quebec the iron mines of Three Rivers 
 
 Pkoiptaate and Hica MlnlnK, Silver UJte, Oat. 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 88 
 
 rhietly In'longH tho honor of ojKTiinf? up Uumi groat inland 
 watcrwayH, wliicli luivo had so much to do with tlio later 
 development of Civnada. In Canada the fur trade is in- 
 Hoparal>ly uHsocitttcd with the history of the iludson'H Bay 
 Company. This great Company had its forts estal>- 
 li.shed all over tho North- West up to tho Arctic Circle, 
 und on tho Pucitic coust as well as in tho East^irn 
 centres of population. For nearly two hundred years 
 it practically ruled tho north-western part of Can. 
 ada. Soon after Confederation its lands and .sjM^cial 
 powers were purchased by tho Canadian Ooverninent, 
 ond now it is simply a great trading corporation 
 without political authority. It still holds posts in 
 tho Norlh-West, and its ships como over every sum- 
 mer from London to gather tiie year's liarvcsfc of 
 furs. The skins of chief conuncrcial importance 
 are those of tho bear, badger, Ix^aver, fox, mink, 
 marten, luuskrat, otter, roccoon, rabbit, wolf, and 
 wolverine. Tho an- 
 nual sales of Can- 
 adian furs in London 
 amount to more than 
 a million dollars. 
 
 Far Seals, 
 
 13. Fisheries. 
 
 Of tho world's great lish- 
 
 were discovered 
 
 and worked when New Franco was an infant colony. 
 
 There are rich and valuable deposits of antimony in eries, those of Canada are 
 New Brunswick, and the gypsum industry of Nova the greatest and tho most 
 Scotia is of well-established importance. varied. The salt waters 
 
 12. The Pur Trade. '^'^ '"'^ ^''^^^*' ''"'^ ^^'*": 
 
 _,,,,,, , . , • i i_„„ tic coasts, the vast and 
 
 The fur trade has always occupied a promment place 
 
 in Canadian history. In 
 
 the early days of French 
 rule in Canada the busi- 
 ness was of great impor- 
 tance, and directly or in- 
 directly furnished 
 occupation to 
 nearly all the in- 
 habitants of New 
 France. 
 Much of the 
 exploration 
 of the coun- 
 try was done 
 by the ad- 
 venturous 
 and hardy 
 fur- traders; 
 and to them 
 
84 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Fishing Fleet at the Month of the Fraser River, B.C. 
 
 countless fresh water lakes, and the many rivers which 
 make Canada a network of waterways, all teem with 
 fish of commercial value. The importance of the inland 
 and sea fisheries has rapidly increased during the last 
 half century. In 1850 their annual value did not exceed 
 $150,000. In 1859 the value had risen to $1,407,000 
 — over nine times as much as in 1850. Ten years later 
 it amounted to necrly $5,000,000. This rapid increase 
 has continued until now the annual value of the fisheries 
 amounts to about $21,000,000. An army of fishermen 
 over 70,000 in number, possessing boats, nets and fishing 
 gear, valued at $10,000,000, is now engaged in this trade. 
 
 Of the many fishing enterprises carried on in Canada, 
 the salmon, lobster, and oyster industries are perhaps 
 the most remarkable and interesting. Nine or ten 
 million salmon are annually canned in British Col- 
 umbia; while every year from eighty to one hundred 
 million lobsters are packed in the factories of the 
 Eastern Provinces, Of oysters, from 50,000 to 
 70,000 barrels are taken each year along the 
 Atlantic coast. The cod, mackerel, white fish, 
 lake trout, and herring fisheries are hardly less 
 important. There are fourteen governmental 
 fish-breeding establishments in Ce^nada, devoted 
 to the hatching of fish-spawn and the stocking 
 of waters with young fish. 
 
 The fisheries are an object of incessant care 
 to the Government, which protects them by 
 armed cruisers and strict laws. 
 
 Very many different 
 methods are employed 
 for the capture of fish. 
 The most common are 
 the "pound - nets," 
 otherwise known as 
 weirs or fish-traps, and 
 the "drift nets." The 
 former are constructed 
 with what is called a 
 "leader," which turns 
 the fish from their 
 course and heads them 
 into a staked enclosure, 
 or trap, out of which 
 they are unable to find 
 their way. The drift- 
 nets hang like a long 
 wall in the water, sus- 
 pended by floats and 
 weighted at the bottom by lead. The fish in theiir 
 tiforts to pass through are caught by the gills and held 
 fast. 
 
 14. Manufactures. 
 
 Canada has made rapid development as a manufac 
 turing country. Most of the common articles and 
 machines we use, from mu,tches, pins, boots, and clothing 
 to agricultural implements, engines, and mill-machinery, 
 are now made in our own country. The money invested 
 in manufacturing in Canada amounts to about four 
 bundled million dollars, and more than one hundred 
 million dollars are paid every year in wages to those 
 who work in Canadian factories and workshops. 
 
 Canada has such vast resources of raw material that 
 she has already begun to export largely not only the 
 natural products of the farm, the forest, and the mine, 
 but manufactured goods also. 
 
 Bat Portage, Ont. 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 85 
 
 One of the most interesting and distinctive manufac- 
 tures carrici' on in Canada is the preparation of wood- 
 pulp, used in the making of paper. When wo think of 
 all the books in the world, of the millions of newspapers 
 printed every day, and of the thousands of tons of wrap- 
 ping paper used every year b}' merchants, we shall 
 readily understand that the making of paper must be 
 an industry of immense importance. 
 
 In times past rags, 
 which were bleached, 
 soaked, and ground 
 into pulp, were the 
 chief material used in 
 the manufacture of 
 paper. It would be 
 
 quite impossible now- ^»«-'' ««<:•«•"« ««»"«. 
 a-days to get enough rags for this purpose 
 Paper-makers are tnevefcre compelled to seek 
 other materials, an.ong which are straw, the 
 fibre of various plants, and v.'ood-pulp. Of these, 
 by far the moso widely used, is wood-pulp. 
 
 In the northern part of Ontario, in Quebec, 
 and in the Maritime Provinces there are vast 
 areas of sjiiuce forest. This wood makes excel- 
 lent pulp for the manufacture of paper. Most 
 of the paper used in the United Kingdom is jnade of the 
 wood of the spruce tree. 
 
 Wood-pulp is of two varieties. One is called the 
 "mechanical" or "ground-pulp," and is obtained by 
 simply grinding up the spruce logs in water to a pulpy 
 mass, and afterwards pressing this mass till it is dry 
 enough to handle conveniently for shipment to the paper 
 mills. The other variety is called the "chemical pulp." 
 
 To obtain this the wo(h1 is cut into small chips, then 
 hoiled with lime and acid, and afterwards pressed like 
 the ground pulp. The chemical pulp is much the more 
 valuable, and is used in the manufacture of paper of 
 t^uperior quality, such as you find in the better class 
 of books. There were upwards of forty pulp mills in 
 Canada in 1898. 
 
 The output of Canadian pulp-mills is about 200,000 
 tons per ycnr. The value of the material ranges 
 from about $15 a ton for *;lie ground-pulp to 
 two or three times that sum for the chemical 
 pulp. On account of the superior qualities of the 
 Canadian spruce, — the best for the purpose in 
 the world, — there is no reason why, with the em- 
 ployment of ample capital and the introduction 
 of the most modern machinery, Canada should 
 not lead the world in the wood-pulp industry. 
 
 At present the greatest 
 producer of wood-pulp is 
 Norway. It supplies 
 over sixty per cent, of the 
 amount shipped into the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Besides its use in the 
 manufacture of paper, 
 wood-pulp is capable 
 
 Uriiidrr Kooni. 
 
 of being employed for a great variety of purposes. 
 Already it is manufactured into pails, tubs, barrels, 
 doors and sashes, and it is thought that before long 
 it will be used in producing imitations of rosewood and 
 mahogany, in making car wheels, and even in con- 
 structing railway carriages and steamships. 
 
 Canada exports large quantities of agricultural ma- 
 chinery to Europe, Australia, and South America. 
 
SG 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 15. Railways. 
 
 The growth ami development of Canadian railways 
 haa been most rapid. The fiiHt Canadian railway was 
 begun in 1832, and ran fioiT> La Prairie on the St. I^aw- 
 rence to St. Johns on the Richelieu. In 1897 Canada 
 'lad one hundred and thirty railroads, with over sixteen 
 thousand miles of railway in operation, and tliis mileage 
 is yearly increasing. In the matter of railw.ay mileage 
 this young country already ranks seventh among the 
 nations of the world. Tuirty years ago there was not 
 a mile of railroad in Canada, west of the Province of 
 Ontario. Now the great railway systems form a net- 
 
 between East and 
 strongly fortified. 
 
 i 
 
 West. At both terminals it is 
 
 16. Oanals. 
 
 Look at a map of Ontario and you will find that 
 Lake Erie is connected with Lake Ontario by the 
 Niagara river. But this river is barred by the great 
 cataract of Niagara, rendering it useless for navigation. 
 To overcome this dilliculty, and to open an unbroken 
 waterway, the Welland canal was dug between these 
 two lakes. The St. Lawrence river also, the great 
 waterway of Canada, is obstructed at certain points by 
 I'apids up which boats or vessels cannot pass. These 
 barriers are overcome by canals at Lachine, Beauharnois, 
 
 and Cornwall, deep enough to admit vessels of fourteen feet 
 
 draught. 
 
 Soraetim'3s, too, a canal is dug merely to shorten a circuitous 
 
 Waterways of the Oreat LakcSi 
 
 work of lines touch- 
 ing every important 
 commercial centre, 
 anl reaching from 
 Halifax on the At> 
 lantic to Vancouver 
 and New West- 
 minster on the 
 Pacific. As soon as 
 any tract of land is 
 discovered to be 
 rich in minerals, or 
 well fitted to agri- 
 culture, steps are 
 taken to provide it with railway facilities. In this way 
 the growth of railways has gone on hand in hand with 
 the general development of the country. 
 
 Of viie numerous railway systems in Canada, the three 
 most important are the Canadian Pacific railway, the 
 Grand Trunk railway, and the Intercolonial railway. 
 
 By the building of the Canadian Pacific railway, fin" 'led 
 in 1885, a trans-continental route ha? been established, 
 and the vast fertile and mineral regions of Manitoba, the 
 North -West Territories, and British Columbia, have 
 been thrown open to settlers. This railway is of incal- 
 culable importance not only to Canada but to the Em- 
 pire, forming as it does the great imperial highway 
 
 water route. The distance from 
 Kingston to Ottawa by way of 
 the St. Lawrence river and the 
 Ottawa river, is little short of 
 three hundred miles. Looking 
 again at the map of Ontario you 
 .vill rotice a canal which, begin- 
 ning at Kingyton, passes through the Counties of Fron- 
 tenac, Leeds, and Grenville, and finally joins the Rideau 
 river. This is the Rideau canal. By this route the 
 distancf^ from Kingston to Ottawa is shortened to one 
 hundred and twenty-six miles, of which only twenty-nine 
 mile" had to bj artificially constructed. The remaining 
 ninety-seven miles are made up by the Rideau river, 
 Rideau lake, and otlier connecting bodies of water. 
 
 The first Canadian canal built was that at Lachine, 
 begun in 1821, to surmount the famous Lachine rapids. 
 The largest Canad'an canal, — that is the one giving 
 passage to the largest ships, is the Sault Ste. Marie 
 canal, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. This 
 
DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 87 
 
 has a depth of tw ly-two feet, and a lock 
 nine liundred feet long l)y sixt}' feet wide. 
 
 17. The Waterways of Canada 
 
 Canada contains the finest waterways in 
 tlie world. The larger portion of fresh 
 water on the globe is in our country. With 
 only one trans-shipment freight may be car- 
 ried more tlian two thousand miles from 
 the Atlantic. Lakes and large rivers abound 
 everj-where. The great lakes between Can- 
 ada and the United States form by far the 
 best inland system of water transportation 
 to be found anywhere. The lakes of tliis 
 system alone contain more than half the 
 fresh water of the world. 
 
 Area ari Population.. 
 
 Area in Population 
 
 PnovJNCES. sq. Milij . (liwi). 
 
 Ontario 220,000 2,167,978 
 
 Quebec 844,000 1 ,620,974 
 
 Brit. Columbia. 882,000 190,000 
 
 New Brunswick 28,000 831,093 
 
 Nova Scotia .. . 20,000 459,116 
 
 Manitoba 74,000 246,464 
 
 P. E. Island . . . 2,000 103,258 
 
 Territories ami 
 
 Districts 2,255,000 
 
 Athabasca, 103,0(X) sq. nils. 
 
 Poplat'ii 
 CAPrrAL. (liKilj. 
 
 Toronto 208,041 
 
 Quebec 68,840 
 
 Victoria 20,816 
 
 Fredericton . . 7,117 
 
 Halifax 40,832 
 
 Winnipeg . . . 42,840 
 
 Charlottetown 12,080 
 
 220,000 
 
 1 Alberta, lo.'i.ooo sq. mis.; Saskatcliewan, 
 107.000 sq. miles.; Assiiill)oia,90,0()0sq. mlr .are luuierone Bovernmeiit. 
 Total population about 145.(i00 ; capital, Regin:>., population 2,(Jlu. 
 
 Analytical Review of Canada. 
 
 How long is it since Canada was discoven <1 ? Who 
 inhabited Canada when it was discovered ? How many 
 Indians are now in Canada? 
 
 Mountain Creek Bridge, C.P.R., l,50«,000 ft. of Timber 
 (as orlKlnally linllt>. 
 
 "KIcliInK ilursr" i'niiyoii, <'.P.R. 
 
 Compare the area of Canada and Europe ; Canada 
 and the United States. What European countries are 
 smaller than Nova Scotia? 
 
 Draw a map of Canada with lines indicating the Delta 
 of temperature in Canada. (Pai/cs 23 aiui 2i.) Why is 
 the heat line so far north on the west coast ? How does 
 Canada compare with England in sunshiny days? 
 
 Who is at the head of the Government of Canada? 
 AVhat is meant b}' the Cabiiif t ? Nume the four factors 
 in the Government of Canada. Who appoints the 
 ( Jovernor-General ? How is the Cabinet chosen ? How 
 is tliQ Senate appointed ? How are members of the 
 Iiou.se of Commons chosen 1 How does Can.ada rank 
 compared with the rest of the wo.ld in number of her 
 commercial vessels ? What are the principal industries 
 of Canada? Wliere is wheat chiefly grown in Canada? 
 What other important departments of agriculture doos 
 Canada excel in ? Which are tlie leading fruit-growing 
 provinces ? W^hat is the chiet fruit exported ? What 
 country uses most of the Canadian fruit exjjorted ? 
 
 Vhat are the leading kinds of wood produced in 
 Cmada? What is the largest Canndian tree ? In what 
 province does it grow ? Describe the chief forest regions 
 of Canada. What countries receive most Canadian 
 lumber? What are the chief u.ses to which Canadian 
 wood 3 are applied ? 
 
 Name the leading minerals found in Canada. In 
 wh,at prov ces is co. found in paying quantities ? In 
 which provinces are the largest coal mines? Which 
 province produces most gold} 
 
i«- Chin ^ ^-i^'tfl^mffia? w I \t^' 
 
 '" ^fyiIIi«hH\p' KTA 
 
 ifunu^ 
 
 i^CHh'fi-i.t \ , " ■ 
 
 .o« 
 
 .,„'^-. 
 
 Oornili 
 
 |\g Foiinead^ 
 
 (J V Elinvale /f ^^Jfcf 
 
 // p Round >< wj 
 
 , Vl\rtUi£^ "'"'.■,"'i'2T»-~0., 
 
 k *"T'>^H/Br«l»l5S-N \vi '"/>• 
 
 ^\ »>lk.^-dr„^^,„.l, r,w.,„.>fe:t" 1n::^^"J?'7^ '^^f«y^'» 6r 
 
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 13 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 :5^s 
 
 DelroiU 
 
 Sanilul, 
 
 »»l''*^illS«wo.*''^ cj; 
 
 1 L^ke 
 ' Sf/oiai, 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 Rondeau 
 
 V, 
 
 ^ 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
90 
 
 PEOVINCE OF ONTAEIO. 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 Map Studies. 
 
 Name the bound- 
 ary lakes and rivers 
 of Ontario. Of the 
 rivers, whicii two are 
 the largest ? Where 
 do they rise ? Where 
 do they empty ? 
 Name the Great 
 Lakes. Which is 
 
 What islands in the 
 Ottawa river belong 
 to Quebec? With 
 what lakes is Georgian 
 Bay connected r Is iu 
 salt or fresh water? 
 Name five of the 
 largest inland lakes of 
 Ontario. 
 
 What are the two 
 
 Toronto. 
 
 the largest? De- 
 scribe an all-wa'er 
 route from Lako 
 Superior to Mon- 
 treal. Describe two 
 all-water routes from 
 Kingston to Ottawa. 
 How is Lake Erie 
 connected ^vith Lake 
 
 Ontario ? Is Niagara river suitable for navigation ? 
 Why? How is the difficulty overcome 1 
 
 What is the largest island in lake Huron ? Name three 
 others in this lake. Name two islands in Lake Superior. 
 
 Parliament Buildings. Toronto, 
 
 leading railways in 
 Ontario? What rail- 
 ways run into the fol- 
 lowing places? (Take 
 each p! ice separately.) 
 Toronto, Hamilton, 
 Ottawa, London, 
 Kingston, G u e 1 p h , 
 Belleville, Peterboro', 
 St. Catharines, Brant- 
 fc rd, St. Thomas, Stratford, Chatham, Sarnia. Name the 
 chief rivers of Ontario that flow into Georgian Bay; 
 Lake Huron; Lake Erie; Lake Ontario; the OttawaRiver. 
 Draw a map of Ontario with the leading rivers, and 
 
PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 
 
 91 
 
 Niagara Falls. 
 
 mark the highest parta of the province after studying 
 its watersheds. 
 
 Wliat counties are drained by the Severn t The Mait- 
 land? TheTliames? The Grand? The Trent? 
 
 In what latitude is the most southern pai't of Ontario ? 
 
 What is the longitude of the most easterly part of 
 Ontario 1 Of the most westerly f 
 
 Name the counties, with their county towns, border- 
 ing on Lake Ontario j on Georgian Bay ; on Lake Erie ; 
 on the Ottawa River ; on Lake Huron ; on the St. Law- 
 rence River ; on the Bay of Quinte ; on Lake Simcoe ; 
 in the interior of Ontario. 
 
 Where is Manitoulir island 1 
 
 What waters are connected by the Rideau canal? 
 By the Welland canal ? What cities or towns at the 
 
 ends of these canals ? 
 
 bio- 
 physical Features.— The northern and north- 
 western part of Ontario is hilly and rocky, with many 
 lakes, formed by the ice-flow during the glacial period. 
 The southern portion, near the great lakes, is chiefly 
 level and very fertile. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Ontario varies 
 greatly in the different localities. Along the 
 siioro of Lake Erie and in the Niagara dis- 
 trict, on account of the modifying influence 
 of the Great Lakes, neither the heat of 
 summer nor the cold of winter is excessive. 
 Ileie peaches, grapes, and many other varie- 
 ties of fruit grow in abundance. In the 
 central district greater extremes in tempera- 
 ture are observed ; wiiile in the nortiiern 
 sections of the province, though the suuuners 
 are warm and bright, the winter seasons are 
 long and severe. Everywhere, however, the 
 climate is healthy and invigorating. 
 
 Government. — The government of On- 
 tario consists of a Lieutenant-Governor 
 appointed by the Dominion Government, an 
 E^cecutive Council, and a Legislative As- 
 sembly elected by the people. 
 
 Agriculture. — Of the various industries 
 carried on in the Province of Ontario, agri- 
 culture is the most important. The soil, the 
 climate, and the splendid means of transport 
 ation both by rail and water largely account 
 for this. Wheat, barley, oats, peas, hay and 
 potatoes are grown in large quantities. Stock- 
 raising and dairy-farming are leading de- 
 partments of agricultural work. Fruits of many varie- 
 lies are produced in abundance, especially in the Erie 
 and Niagara districts. 
 
 Lumbering. — The lumber industry is very impor- 
 tant. Ontario has millions of acres of unsurpassed 
 timber lands. These lands are, for the most part, 
 confined to the northern districts, and are among the 
 most valuable resources of the province. White pine 
 and spruce are the trees of greatest value. 
 
 Niagara Gorge. 
 
92 
 
 PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 
 
 Manufactures. — Among the iinportant prixiucts of 
 Ontario's fiicLorios arc machinory of all kinds, cotton 
 and woollen goods, furniluro, musical iutitruments, boots 
 and hIiocs, tobacco, 
 wood jiulp, and jiajHT. 
 Mui'ii of this output is 
 consumed in Canada, 
 but tlieio aro very im- 
 portant exports of man- 
 ufactured products to 
 
 Cottou Sliills, Cornwall. 
 
 other countries. Agricultui ,1 machinery, musical instru- 
 ments, and furnituie, are sen^ to Europe, South America, 
 South Africa, and Australia. 
 
 Mining. — The mineral aieas of Ontario are widely 
 scattered throughout tlie province. Gold is found in con- 
 siderable quantities near the Lake of the 
 Woods and in the Rainy River district, and 
 to a les.ser extent in Hastings county and 
 other places. Copper and nickel are found in 
 abundance in Sudbury district; valuable 
 iron ores to the north of Lake Huron, and 
 in Victoria, Hastings, and Lanarli coun- 
 ties ; salt and petroleum in the western 
 peninsula; and natural gas in the Lake Erie 
 region. 
 
 F hing. — Though Ontario is an inland 
 province, she has a great fishing industry. 
 Her fresh -water fisheries are the greatest 
 of their kind in the world, and give annua,! 
 employment to over three thousand men. 
 The most important fish in her waters are 
 white fish, salmon trout, bass, pickerel, and 
 sturgeon. 
 
 Cities in Ontario. 
 
 Toronto is the capital of the Province, and is the 
 second city in size in the Dominion. It has agocKJ harl)or, 
 
 biihind the shelter of a 
 low is'ind. It possesses 
 fine parks and many 
 handsome pul)lic build- 
 ings. The manufactured 
 products of Toronto are 
 of a most varied charac- 
 ter. Agricultural im- 
 plements, engines, mill 
 machinery of all kinds, 
 bicycles, furniture, 
 musical instruments, 
 and carpets, are the 
 leading maimfacturcs. 
 
 Ottawa is the se- 
 cond largest of the cities of Ontario, and the seat 
 of the Dominion Government. The ParliaiEent 
 buildings, superbly situated on a high bluflf over- 
 looking the Ottawa river, are noted for their 
 architectural beauty. The saw-mills and pulp 
 mills along the river, — from which they derive 
 their power, — provide work for a great number 
 of men. 
 
 Hamilton is bea.itiiiwly situated on a bay at the 
 head of Lake Ontari- ■. It is the third city in the Pro- 
 vince. It is a progressive city, and has manufactures 
 of considerable value, among which machinery, farm 
 implements, stoves, boots and shoes, cotton and woollen 
 goods, and pig iron are the most important. 
 
 Petrolea, Out. 
 
PROVINCE Ol<' ONT^VRIO. 
 
 93 
 
 Ottawa. 
 
 London Ih the chief city 
 of tlie western penirisula of 
 tlio Province. It is surround- 
 ed by a splendid farming 
 <listrict from which it derives 
 much of its importance. 
 It is in tliu centre of a very 
 Jfiige district, and does a 
 wholesale trade witii the 
 surrounding towns. It manufactures agricultural im- 
 plements, machinery, boots and shoes, furniture, and 
 railway cars and engines, and lias largo oil refineries. 
 
 Kingston is the oldest city in the province, and 
 was originally a fortified post established as a defence 
 against the Iroquois. It ranks next to Quebec and 
 Halifax for military strength, -.nd is the seat of Queen's 
 University and the Royal Military College. The chief 
 manufactures are railway locomotives and cars. 
 
 Brantford is an important railway centre. Its 
 manufactures consist chieHy of agricultural implements, 
 machinery, and cloth, both woollen and 
 cotton. 
 
 Stratford is a railway centre, and is in 
 the best dairy district of Ontario. It manu- 
 factures agricultural implements and furni- 
 ture. 
 
 Windsor is an important railway term- 
 inus, and is the centre of a fertile district, 
 noted for its fruit. 
 
 St Thomas is a busy railway centre. 
 The Michigan Central railway has large 
 shops hero. 
 
 Guelph is iu the heart of a fine agri- 
 
 ( ullural district. BeHidc4 doing a largo trade in farm 
 protluce, it is also noted ns a tiittio market, rianns and 
 organs, engines, and agri(ultunil implenieats are somo o£ 
 the most important nianuf ictun^d pnMlucts. 
 
 Belleville is a chatming city, and manufactures 
 large cpmntities of lumlKT and agricultural iniplenieiit.s. 
 It ia a distributing centro for tlio largo farming and 
 
 mining country north 
 
 of it. 
 
 St. Catharines is 
 near tlio enmuiee to 
 the Wollaiid canal 
 from Ijiko Ontario. 
 It hivs largo nurseries, 
 flour mills, and paper 
 mills. It manufactures 
 edgo tools, and is sur- 
 rounded by a fine fruit 
 district. 
 
 Chatham is Iwth 
 
 a railway and shipping 
 centre. It manufac- 
 tures engines and agri- 
 cultural implements. 
 
 Uldeaa Vulls. 
 
 HoMK Exercises — Make a list of the cities of Ontario, 
 with tlio names of the rivers or other waters on which 
 they are sihiated, and the loading railroads that run 
 through or into them. 
 
 Draw a map of Ontario and mark on it only the 
 cities and railways runninji into them. Draw a map of 
 Ontario with its chief rivers. Draw a map of Ontario 
 showing the counties and county towns. 
 
 Examine the locations of the cities of Ontario on the 
 map and write the reasons you can give to prove that 
 they are situated where large cities should be found. 
 
 C. I*. U. urulu Kievuturii ut Furt WltUiuu. 
 
94 
 
 PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 
 
 Cities of Ontario. 
 
 I'opillutioil. 111))). 
 
 Toronto 20«,041 
 
 Ottiiwa OO.ifiS 
 
 Hiimilton B2,fm 
 
 I^)iulo,i 37.983 
 
 Kiii(;Nton 
 
 Brunt ford 
 
 Windsor 1 
 
 (in('l|iii 
 
 8t.. Tliomas . . . 
 
 Striitford 
 
 Ht. Ci.lluirlniw. 
 
 buUuvillu 
 
 Ghuthuin 
 
 :,1M1;» 
 (l.tHH 
 :i,l5:» 
 l,4!t« 
 1,485 
 9,!t59 
 n,<,»40 
 it, 117 
 9,0ti8 
 
 Noi mnl College. Uumlllun. 
 
 Chief Towns of Ontario. 
 
 !■( piiliition. llNll. 
 
 Peterlioioiijrli . 1 1 ,2;{0 
 
 Berlin {,747 
 
 BrockviUe t-.,940 
 
 Woodstock .... S,833 
 Owen Sound. .. . 'i,770 
 
 Sarnia '^,176 
 
 Gait 7,af)0 
 
 Siiult Ste. Mario 7,1C9 
 
 Lindsuy 7,003 
 
 Connvnll 0,704 
 
 Toronto Jiinct'n 0,091 
 
 Fori Williiun . . . 3,633 
 
 Perth 3,588 
 
 Wiiterloo 3, ,■.37 
 
 Giinunoijno .... 3,526 
 
 St. Mury's 3,884 
 
 Purls 3.229 
 
 Port Arthur ... . ii,214 
 
 Midland 3,174 
 
 Dundas 3.173 
 
 Renfrew 3.153 
 
 Napanee 3,143 
 
 Ahiionlo 3,023 
 
 Prescott 3,019 
 
 Walkerton 2,971 
 
 Strathroy 2,933 
 
 Parry Sound . . . 2,884 
 Wallaceburg . . 2,763 
 
 Brampton 2,748 
 
 Bowmanvillo . . 2,731 
 
 Listowel 2,693 
 
 Sinicoo 2.627 
 
 Clinton 2,517 
 
 North Bay ... 2,,>31 
 Orangeville .... 2,511 
 
 Leain';ii,^ton 2,451 
 
 Penetanguishene 2,422 
 
 Scaforth 2,247 
 
 Whitby 2,110 
 
 Kincardine .... 2,077 
 
 Locate the above towns thac are notcounty towns, 
 NoTE.-There are in Ontario 13 cities, and 100 towns. 
 
 Barrio 
 
 5,949 
 
 C'ollin<rwood . . . 
 
 . 5,755 
 
 Rat Portage . . . 
 
 . 5,202 
 
 Pembroke 
 
 . 5,150 
 
 Smith's Falls . . 
 
 . 5,155 
 
 Orillia 
 
 . 4,907 
 
 IngersoU 
 
 . 4,573 
 
 Oshuwa 
 
 4.394 
 
 Niagara Falls . 
 
 . 4,244 
 
 Cot ion rg 
 
 . 4,239 
 
 Trenton 
 
 . 4,217 
 
 Port Hope 
 
 . 4,1K8 
 
 Godcrich . . . . 
 
 . 1 158 
 
 Hawkesbury . . . 
 
 . 4,1.50 
 
 Arnprior 
 
 . 4,152 
 
 Petrolea ...... 
 
 . 4,139 
 
 Carleton Place. 
 
 . 4.0.59 
 
 Picton 
 
 . 3,098 
 
 Vhe »t. t luir Tunnel. 
 
 Ports of Ontario. 
 
 Lakk Supehiou : — Miehii)i(;oton, Nipigon, Fort Williuni, 
 I'ort Arlliuf. 
 
 Gkoikjiax Bay ; — Parry Souiul, Magain^tiiwan, ^lidlaiul, 
 Penetaiiguisliene, CollingwoiMl, iloaford, Owon 
 Sound, Wiartoii (Co'^^ioy Bay). 
 
 I.1AKK HuKOV : — Sariiia, TViyficld, fiodcricli, Kincardine, 
 Elgin, Southampton, Bruce Minos, Littlo Current, 
 Manitowaning. 
 
 Lakk EniK : — Rondeau, Stanley, Burwell, Ryerse, Rowan, Dover, 
 Maitland, Port Colborne. 
 
 Lakk Ontauio and Bay of Quintk: — Niagara, Dalhouaio, Hamilton, 
 Oakville, Credit, Toronto, Liverpool, Whitby, Oshawa, Bowinan- 
 ville (l^arlington), Port Hope, Presqu'lsle (Brighton), Treijton, 
 Belleville, De.seronto(Mill Point), Napanee, Picton, Kingston. 
 
 St. Lawrence : — Gananoquo, Brockville, Prescott, Dickinson's 
 Ijanding, Cornwall. 
 
 Klugitton. 
 
PKOVINCK OF (QUEBEC. 
 
 95 
 
 QUKBEO. 
 
 Iloniiiiirnt to Wolfr nn<I M<>nl<-ulni 
 
 Map Studies. 
 
 What rivers form tlio nortliorii boundary of Queixjc? 
 What is the wostoni boundary? The eastern boundary'? 
 Tlie southern ? 
 
 Wliat river separates Quebec into two divisions? 
 Where does it rise? Into wliat gulf does it empty? 
 
 81. Loiiiit iiatc. 
 
 Niiine six tributaries flowing into it from the north and 
 f'!ur from tlie soutli. Wliat is the largest island in this 
 river? What island is at its mouth ? 
 
 What largo lake is there north of the Ht. T^wro:ice 
 River ? How is it drained 1 Name three lake expan- 
 
."1 
 
 MAP OF 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 SHOWIHg HIOVINCE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3t.Boriiabf6./pstySii ^'^ _ . 
 
 
 is 
 
 4-VER- J?'''""j;ii" 
 St. H|icinthel#^^ — ^^-o^-— 'i'AciMNk ib^iS^Sl 
 
 
 74 73 Ixiii(fiHia(. Wpsi 
 
 
Ori'miwlrh 71 
 
 ""..-.., Laterri(\re?. 
 ' (Ortnd BnilBl 
 
 'oMt4^ 
 
 f^ \ 8l.rXn«cl«l 
 
 Graiiiltt Baie* 
 
 Ol.r.IlaHlal 
 
 l.'Anis 
 
 /Wm 
 
 * It Utmoii«l 
 
 Lea Encoumminajr V JI^^BuFaM^^ 
 
 lt.Stmon >""" 
 
 \- ^ y?V^ Ri. la 
 
 1,'Anomiitlor^ 
 
 Poliite au'l 
 I Boiileaii 
 
 Vo u s 
 
 I 
 
 GREEN 
 
 lile Vfi 
 
 vbV)NaIenture 
 
 si-' <" 
 
 I .-y jy oy]ger;Vy^i^ 
 
 U-ChUumdi ^t.M,.atanM 
 
 H^>-f^ L E V(0!5..IW><-.: 
 
 Murray Day I 
 St.IreoM ■/![,„ 
 
 WL. St.Urbaln 
 
 
 St.AleM 
 
 ■&t.FiJrl<! ' 
 
 PoIdU a Flc 
 
 I -aika. 
 
 Mlfinlay ' To" 
 
 Notrt? Daine <Ilf Lai'i 
 
 
 kamourXska 
 
 .Phlllplie J« tJerl 
 JTt.CarniBl | 
 
 St.Roch dea , 
 Auluaies JU^ 
 
 l^.^^l.AMte'VTTSJjolK Daine ill' Lai'^|X 
 
 y/.. 
 
 V 
 
 '"■^..'iS^lS 
 
 1 ^ . \nf :jt CUMlt.jf 
 
 8tJ Fer«)l J3s|/rite ia/ff' 
 
 ^'st.Louia?^ 
 /Elgin V.Ui ■■ 
 K^t .Jean .Port jJoIP, 
 Xr^'Saum!)^*/ J 
 ' ii'Ialet-i 
 
 Connors^lo'^ 
 
 
 ■Wilerf y^\ r^ y 
 Jiritte BoiytlalV/ StXKapU 
 
 /st.FJ/lrlri/XS^ci 
 
 y .. /E R *E'>^ 
 
 '^APMrthoi'jlaills 
 
 i^*/^>\i I'arkliuVit o 
 
 ^8t.8;Vc»tcr^:agt ■ 
 
 /LjatPfJJyAT" 
 
 M EarA„NV hc- 
 
 /l>iwer Ir«laiiS"j^^ 
 ^ ,_ ^ oRlcliarilSOto 
 
 rt>Uial)a«la '?"'/^/5ii-, 
 
 WibttiSfl in*i;^=^" -H 
 
 !ra!A.nil<>?'^^i^"" 
 
 'Sl.PaulW 
 lI yr o Bqton 
 
 Atkea ^ 
 
 Limealo 
 
 / 
 
 -V oSTtMaglotn 
 md-?'- 
 
 M»«t DORCHES/ER 
 ^sLj^aeph de he/iuS^ j ^- 
 
 ll.Fnifrraajdt^ (V 
 
 ^Sl.Fortunat 
 --•DisraTlli 
 rll/utm 
 
 .1 
 
 > TVirtoj* Caribou j 
 \Lat' Jl^ 
 
 I Ft.Fai.field\ 
 Jo. 
 
 Ashlandi] 
 
 ALakt 
 
 
 SI. EvariiW \ „ .!/„ .-, 
 
 ■"•' IJ i.l^nR E JMfr^loValletort - 
 tart. Elamo ] (■ /ffi-v^''^"'''V%i ^SUHtaJnti it I 
 t»W.n Wc„l„„m'V''" »Y"^ 
 
 [ Schoodic] 
 
 myb^ii 
 
 * SooUKwtt -^ 
 
 
 Lake 
 
 nitre o Iilan^fljooiJI Jw Bolll 
 
 i|*nvniX, J ,V?""fc'^&l/ 
 
 1J,\ V Sa»jer»lljl °~ '"^ 
 mil. 
 
 /Greenville) 
 
 Z^ 
 
 vV 
 
 I C4^ Katalidin Iron 
 Works <: 
 
 BrownvUle Jo. 
 
 Brownville\ 
 
 Jfjlallawamlieag 
 
 PROVINCE OF 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 g 10 
 
 'Dexter 
 
 SCALb CF MILES. 
 
 Greenwich 71 
 
98 
 
 PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 
 
 sions of the St. Ljiwrence. Name tlirce lakes south ri 
 tlie St. Liiwrcnce. How are thoy drained ? 
 
 What mountain range traverses tlie northern section 
 of Quebec 1 In wiiat direction docs it run 1 How does 
 it compare in extent and average lieight witli the llocky 
 Mountain Highland of Britisli Columbia'? 
 
 Give the exact locati()n of Quebec, Three Rivers, and 
 Montreal. What other cities are there in Quebec? 
 
 Trace the Grand Trunk, Intercolonial, and Canadian 
 Pacific railways in Qui'bec. AVliat railways run into 
 Quebec City? Name those that run into Jloutreal.. 
 
 What is the most easterly county in Quebec ? 
 
 Which of the United kitates lie immediately tv) the 
 south of Qu >bec ? 
 
 What bay lies between Quebec and New Pirunswick? 
 What hii'ge river Hows into this Iwiy at its head- waters'! 
 
 Physical Features. — Between the St. Lawrence 
 and the range of the Laurentides, in the north, tiio sur- 
 face is level and fairly fertile. Beyond the Laurentides 
 there are many unsettled tracts of luidulatiiig lands. 
 These are all well wattu-ed. Tliere are also sevei'al ex- 
 tensive plateaus to the east of the Saguenay, extending 
 as far as Lidirador. In the soutli-west tlie sui'face is for 
 the most part level and comprises many line farming 
 tracts. In the east and south-east the country is rugged 
 and hilly. The Notre Dame ^fountains in the Gasp^ Pen- 
 insula form the eastern end of the Appalachian range. 
 
 Government .—The 
 
 Legislature of Quel)ec 
 consists of the Lieuten- 
 ant-Governor of the Pro- 
 vince, wlio is appointed 
 by the Dominion Gov- 
 ernment ; a Legislative 
 Assembly ciiosen by 
 popular election ; and a 
 Legislative Council 
 chosen by the Lieuten- 
 ant-Governor-in -Coun- 
 cil, that is, by the Pro- 
 vincial Government. 
 Quebec and Nova Scotia 
 are tiio oidy provinces 
 Moutreal nocks. that have two chambers 
 
 Where are they sit- in the Legislature, an Assembly and a legislative Council. 
 
 Industries and Manufactures. 
 
 Agriculture.— ^luch the great.T portion of the 
 population of Quebec is engagtnl in agriculture, or in 
 pursuits directly resulting from it. Oats and hay are 
 the two most valuable crops, followed in order by pota- 
 toes, peas and beans, wheat, barley and buckwheat 
 
 uated ? 
 
 Wliat provinces 
 
 MnlNoiiurnvp'H Monument. 
 
 of Canada border on Quebec? What gulf washes its 
 <;oast ? 
 
 What counties of Quebec lie west of the Ottawa 
 River? What counties border on New Brunswick? 
 
 What counties border on the St. Lawrence on its n..rth Stock-raising and the production of butter and cheese 
 side? On its south side? On the east side of the Ottawa ? are of increasing importance. Beet-raising is carried on 
 
 What diflFerenco do you find between the counties in some parts for the manufacture of sugar. Ljirge 
 north of the St. Lawrence and tlioso south of it in regard quantities of apples are raised, and nearly every farm 
 tt) size 1 Why is there a great difference in size ? has its own maple grove, for sugaring in springtime. 
 
PKOVINOE OF QUEBEC. 
 
 99 
 
 Lumbeiing. — The timber trade stands next to agri- 
 culture, at J furaiiliea a large part of the exports of the 
 province. White and red pine, spruce, larch, cedar, birch 
 and maple are the most important woods. The regions 
 of the SL. Maurice, and the tributaries of the Ottawa 
 are the chief lumbering centres. The export of pulp- 
 wood is largely increasing every year. 
 
 Fishing is carried on to a c ,ii?iderable extent along 
 the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. There are 
 famous fishing estab- 
 lishments on the Gasp«5 
 coast. Cod, salmon, 
 mackerel, herring, hali- 
 but, and lobsters, are 
 the chief varieties of 
 fish that are caught. 
 The river and inland 
 fisheries are among the 
 finest in the world. 
 
 Minerals.— Que 
 bee is at a serious 
 disadvantage in 
 having no coal fields. 
 Of the minerals ob- 
 tained the chief are 
 asbestos, an incombust- 
 ible fibrous substance Mctiiii toiirge, Montreal. 
 used in making lampwicks and fire-proof fabrics of 
 various kinds ; apatite or phosphate of lime, used as 
 a fertilizer ; and copper. Gold and silver are found 
 in limited quantities. Slate, building stone, and 
 marble of various kinds, are becoming important pro- 
 ducts. Thetford is the centre of the asbestos mining. 
 Iron is manufactured in considerable quantities at 
 Radnor and Drummondville. 
 
 Manufactures. — The manufacturing industries 
 of Quebec are steadily increasing in importance, 
 water-power being much used in the absence of cheap 
 coal for steam purposes. The chief branches of manu- 
 facture engaged in are tanning leather, boot and shoe 
 making, sugar refining, manufactures of iron, furs, 
 hats, cottons, woollens and india rubber. Most of 
 the products are for the Canadian market. 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns. 
 
 Quebec, a strongly fortified city, is the capital of the 
 province. It stands on the lake-like expansion of the 
 St. Lawrence at the confluence of the St. Charles with 
 that river. It consists of a lower taum, where the more 
 
 importrnt trading houses and factories are to be found ; 
 and an upper tomi, built on the intersecting p)atea,u 
 above. In population the city is the seco'iJ in the p'o- 
 vince. Beisides liaving important commercial interests 
 ar a shipping port, it is the leading centre of the Can- 
 adian boot and shoe trade. Tiie attractive .scenery iu 
 its vicinity and its historic associations make it a favor- 
 ite reset for tourists. 
 
 Montreal has a splendid location on an island of the 
 
 same name, situated in the 
 St. Lawrence river where 
 the Ottawa flows into it. 
 It is tlie largest city in the 
 Dominion. In wealth and 
 commercial importance, as 
 well as in size, it takes first 
 rank among Canadian 
 
 interior of Noire Uaiue ('ulherfrnl, Uoiilreal. 
 
 cities. The manufactures of ISIontreal are varied and 
 extensive. Hardware, boots and shoes, clothing, cot- 
 tons, woollens, fur goods and sugar are the most im- 
 portant. It is here also that the principal car shops of 
 both the Canadian Pacific and Grand Trunk railways 
 are located. In the early days of Canada's history 
 
100 
 
 PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Montreal, founded by Maisonneuve as an outpost n^^'ainst 
 the Iro(iuois, wielded o vast influence because of its favor- 
 able position for the control of the fur trade. Its com- 
 mercial supremacy is largely due to its unrivalled situa- 
 tion at the head of deep water navigai'on on Canada's 
 great \/aterwHy. Its regi.stered tonnage in 1898 was 
 ^^8,976. The suburbs of Montreal, including St. Henri 
 and Westmouut, are beccming populous adjuncts to 
 tho fit J.-. 
 
 Hull, <<j)posite the city of Ottawa, on the Ottawa 
 
 POPULATION OF CITIES AND 
 Population, I'JOl. 
 
 River, is noted for its timber trade and extensive manu* 
 facture of matches, paper and wowlenware. 
 
 Sherbrooke, situated on the St. Francis River, has 
 large manufacturing industries, chiefly in the making of 
 woollen goods and machinery. 
 
 Three Rivers, situated a little to the west of the 
 triple mouths of the St. Maurice, has an important 
 timber triide. 
 
 St. Hyacinthe is a busy manufacturing city south 
 of Montreal, on the Yamaska, 
 OWNS. 
 
 Montreii 2(!7,730 
 
 Quebec (i8,8IO 
 
 Hull u.ma 
 
 Sherbrooke 1 1 ,7lii 
 
 Viillcy field 11.0,55 
 
 Three Uivers 10.73 1 
 
 St. HyaolnUic .... U,'210 
 
 LevLs 7,78:» 
 
 Sorol 7.0,57 
 
 Lacliiiic ,5,561 
 
 St. Johns 4,0;« 
 
 .loliette i.aai 
 
 Fmserville 4,.5C9 
 
 Chicoutiini 3,820 
 
 MiiKotf ;),.')HI 
 
 Kiirnhiiui 3,111 
 
 niickinKhiiMi 2,036 
 
 Coaticook 2,,S80 
 
 LonKUouil 2,8:15 
 
 Ayliner 2,291 
 
 Locate the above cities and town.s. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Map Studies. 
 
 What province on the 
 north of New Brunswick? 
 Name the waters between 
 this province and Quebec. 
 What large body of water 
 on the east? What large 
 island on the east? Be- 
 tween it and New Bruns- 
 wick what water? Nome 
 
 city Sqnare and NomiHl School, Frrdrrlrton. 
 
 the province south of New Brunswick. Between the.se 
 two provinces what large body of water 1 How is New 
 Bruniswick bounded on the west? What joins New 
 Bnvnswick and Nova Scotia ? Name the counties of this 
 province that have coast line. Name those counties 
 that have no coast line. How many counties haa New 
 
 Brunswick ? What natural outlet during 
 summer for the products of the inland 
 counties ? Name the chief river basin in 
 each of the counties having coast line. 
 Name the principal tributaries of the St. 
 
 John. What is 
 a river basin? 
 Name and locate 
 the capital of 
 New Brunswick. 
 Locate the seat 
 of Municipal 
 Go\ernment for 
 each county. 
 What is meant 
 by Municipal 
 Government? . 
 Name and locate 
 three of the 
 largest lakes of 
 New Brunswick. 
 Locate the im- 
 portant island.s 
 of New Bruns- 
 athrdral, Fredorlclon. wick, also the 
 
 capes. Between what parallels of latitude is New 
 Brunswick? Between what meridians of longitude? 
 What is the area and population of New Brunswick 1 
 
 Trace the course of the Canadian Pacific railway and 
 its branches in the province, also Intercolonial railway, 
 the Canada Eas*^ern railway, the Central railway, the 
 Shore line, the New Brunswick and P.E. Island railway. 
 
longitude West 66*" from Greenwich 
 
102 
 
 PROVINCE OF NEW BRTTNSWICK. 
 
 KrnrrnI View of St. John, N.B. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 The surface of New Brunswick is gently undulating 
 and covered with valuable forests. No part of its 
 surface rises to any very great height. 
 
 In the north-western sections are several ranges of 
 hills from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in height, being an 
 extension of the Appalachian system. In the south- 
 west are similar ranges. 
 
 The rivers are numerous and afford excellent inland 
 communication. No other country possesses, vithin 
 the same area, so many beautiful lakes. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 The St. John River rises in Maine, flows towards 
 the north-east, then to the south-east, and after a course 
 of 450 miles, empties its waters into the Bay of Fundy. 
 It is navigable for. large steamers to Fredericton, and 
 for smaller ones to Woodstock, and during high water 
 to Grand Falls, nearly 225 miles from the sea. 
 
 The St. John receives on the left bank, St. Francis, 
 Madawaska, Grand, Tobique, Nashwaak, J^mseg, Wtish- 
 ademoak, Belleisle, and the Kennebecasis; on the right, 
 the Aroostook and Oromocto. 
 
 The upper parts of the St. John Basin are heavily 
 wooded, and vast quantities of lumber are floated down 
 its waters. In spring part of the valley is overflowed, 
 covering its far-reaching meadows with a rich sediment. 
 About 225 miles from its mouth are the Grand Falk, 
 
 ym wiiere the waters rush down into p. rocky gorge 
 ] from a height of 74 foet. These fal's rank with 
 the fine.st on the continent, attracting visitors 
 rom all parts. Tlie river owes its name to 
 Champlain and De Monts, who first visited it 
 on the day of St. .Tohn the Baptist, June 24th, 
 1604. 
 
 The Miramichi rises in two main branches, 
 the northwest and southwest, which unite a 
 few miles above Newcastle, und after a course 
 of about 220 miles, empties into the Gulf of 
 Si. Lawrence. 
 
 It is navigable for largo vessels to Newcastle. 
 Much of the basin of the Miramichi is still 
 unexplored ; but the lumbermen are yearly 
 penetrating further into its valuable for- 
 ests. It is one of the far-famed salmon 
 rivers of New Brunswick. 
 
 The Restigouclie River forms part 
 of the boundary between Quebec and 
 New Brunswick. From Dalhousie to 
 Metapedia it is noted for its beautiful scenery, and 
 measures about four miles across. It is the most noted 
 trout and salmon stream in the world, its salmon aver- 
 aging about twenty-two pounds. 
 
 The other important river basins are the Petitcodiac, 
 noted for its great tides and "Tidal Bore," and the 
 St. Croix, forming the boundary between New Bruns- 
 wick and Maine. 
 
 n" Islands. 
 
 The largest islands belonging to New Brunswick are 
 Mi.scou and Shippegan in Gloucester County, Grand 
 Manan at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, and Deer 
 Island and Campo-Bello in Passamaquoddy Bay. The 
 last named island attracts large numbers of summer 
 visitors, and is well provided with hotel accommodation. 
 
 Coast Waters. 
 The Bay of Chaleur on the north, the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, Northumberland Strait and Bay Verte on the 
 east, the Bay of Fundy and Passamaquoddy Bay on the 
 south, abound in fish of almost every kind. 
 
 Towns. 
 St. John, the largest city, and the commercial 
 centre of New Brunswick, is situated at the mouth of 
 the St. John river. It has a population of about 
 41,000. The city lies on both sides of the harbor. 
 Adjoining St. John, on the west, is the pretty suburb of 
 Fairville. A suspension bridge connects Fairville 'rith 
 
PKOVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 103 
 
 St. John Eiist. Juat north is a f no cantilever railway 
 brit' o, and immodiately l)e:ieat'j these bridges are the 
 selebrated "Reversible Falls" o£ the St. John river. 
 
 St John contains numerous saw-mills and factories, 
 large pulp mills and foundries, ^ts chief buildings are 
 its schools, custom house, post-office, hospital. Provincial 
 lunatic asylum and grain elevators. 
 
 St. Johu has a fine harbor, open for navigation all 
 the year round, and is the only harbor on the Atlantic 
 coast north of Baltimore that is never obstructed by 
 ice. This city is rapidly l>ecoming the winter port of 
 Canada, because through ifc is the shortest available 
 route between Montreal and Liverpool. 
 
 In tonnage, St. John ranks fourth in the British 
 empire. It is finely situated as a distributing centre, 
 having quick rail and steamship communication with 
 all the Maritime Provinces. St. John was nearly de- 
 stroyed by fire June 20th, 1877, but quickly recovered 
 from the disaster. 
 
 The real founders of this city were the United 
 Empire Loyalists, who landed May 18th, 1783. The 
 following year New Brunswick was made a separate 
 province, and the first legislature met t\t St. John, then 
 Parr Town, Jan. 3rd, 1786. bu. Johi; was incorporated 
 May 18th, 1785, the oldest incorporated city in Canada. 
 
 Predericton, situated on the right bank of the St. 
 John, about eighty-four miles from its mouth, is the 
 capital of New Brunswick. Its streets are broad, and 
 shaded by beautiful elms. Here are the Parliament 
 Buildings, Provincial University, Normal Scliool, and 
 Infantry School. 
 
 Fredericton is not only a beautiful city, but a stirring 
 business centre of about 7,000. It possesses first-class 
 railway and steamship communication with all parts of 
 the Province. 
 
 This city, formerly St. Anne's Point, was founded 
 about 1 740, and received its present name about 1 785, 
 becoming the capital of the Province i / 38. 
 
 Moncton, situated on the Petitcodiac, is an import- 
 ant railway centre, with manufactures of iron castings, 
 leather, cotton, woollen goods, sugar and flour. One of 
 its most interesting features is the " Bore," or " Tidal 
 Wave," of the Petitcodiac river, which empties into the 
 Bay of Fundy. The difference between high and low 
 tide at this point, is from thirty to forty feet. 
 
 Moncton is growing rapidly, having at present a 
 population of about 10,000. 
 
 St. Stephen, ine of the prettiest towns of New 
 Brunswick, is situated at the head of navigation on the 
 St. Croix. 
 
 It is the centre of important luml)er interests and 
 has a population uf about 3,000. Joining it on the 
 north is Milltown, with over 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 These twin towns are important centres of oaudj, 
 cotton and soap manufactures. 
 
 St. Andrews, beautifully situated on a small 
 peninsula between the St. Croix and Passamaquoddy 
 Bay, is a popular summer resort. 
 
 Woodstock, having a population of about 3,000, is 
 situated on the right bank of the St. John, in the 
 centre of a fine agricultural district. It has important 
 wool, grain and lumlier mills. 
 
 Newcastle, population 2,500, six miles fart' r up 
 the Miramichi, on the left bank, is at the heiid I deep 
 water navigation. It carries on a large lumber trade. 
 
 Chatham, population about 2,000, situated on the 
 right bank of the Miramichi, has an excellent harbor, a 
 large lumber trade, and several important manufactories. 
 
 Sackville, is the home of Mount Allison University 
 and Colleges. Near it are the Tantramar marshes. 
 
 Memramcook is the seat of a Roman Catholic Univer- 
 sity. The Penitentiary for the Maritime Provinces is at 
 Dorchester. Marysville, on the Nashwaak, about two 
 miles from Fredericton, is a centre of the lumber 
 industry, and contains the largest cotton factory in 
 
104 
 
 PEOVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Canada. Dalhousie, Camp- 
 bellton, Bathurst, Ricliibucto, 
 Shediac, Sussex, Hillsboro', 
 and Gagetown, are important 
 towns, in the midst of magni- 
 ficent natural scenery, and 
 rapidly becoming favorite 
 resorts for tourists. 
 
 Edmunston, in the County of Madawaska, about 
 265 miles from the mouth of the St. John river, is a 
 town of considerable importance. 
 
 Soil and Products.— The soil, especially along 
 the courses of tiie riveis, is very fertile. Tlie uplands 
 are a light loam, generally free from stone, and under 
 good cultivation yield bountiful crops. Westmoreland, 
 Kings, Queens, Sunbury and Carleton counties contain 
 some of the finest agricultural tracts in the world. 
 
 All kinds of vegetables may be grown in great 
 abundance. The hardier fruits, as apples, plums, 
 cherries, currants, strawberries, etc., under intel- 
 ligent and well-directed labor, yield highly profit- 
 able returns. 
 
 In many sections tiie uplands are well adapted 
 for sheep-raisir.g. 
 
 Few countries in the world are so well wooded 
 as New Brunswick. Her forests of hard and soft 
 woods are exceedingly valuable. 
 
 Animals. — Moose, caribou and deer roam 
 through tlie forests. Wild ducks, geese and part- 
 ridge are abundant. The streams abound in smelt, 
 trout, salmon and other fish. The fox, bear, mink 
 and musk-rat are found in great numbers. 
 
 The fisheries of New Brunswick are of great 
 value. The annual value of these fisheries is about 
 
 four and n half million dollars, while the boats, vettselH, and nets 
 emph>yed in tlio lisliuries are valued at jt', 700,000. Cod, mack- 
 erel, sliad, lobsters, herring, and had(i(x;k, form the chief part 
 of the catch. Tlio salmon and oysters of tlie Gulf Coast, and 
 smelts of the Miramichi, have a wide reputation. Extensive 
 oyster beds are found on the eastern coast. Jjobstera are plentiful. 
 
 Laws for the protection of fish and game are rigidly enforced. 
 
 Minerals.— Tlio mineral re- 
 sources of New Brunswick are 
 very important, and tiie Govern- 
 ment is taking active steps for 
 their development. At the head 
 <jf Grand Lake is a valuable coal 
 deposit. Graphite has been found 
 to some extent in St. John 
 County. In Albert are very ex- 
 tensive beds of pure white g)'p- 
 sum. Bituminous shale and 
 Albertite are also found. On the 
 Tobique are profitable deposits of 
 gypsum, of reddish and chocolate 
 colors. The granite quarries of 
 tliis province are of great value. The product of the red 
 granite quarries of St. George has a rich, reddish color 
 when polished. Limestone of most excellent quality is 
 abundant in New Brunswick, and is largely quarried at 
 St. John. Antimony is found at Lake George, in York 
 County. Manganese is found in large quantities in 
 Kings. New Brunswick is rich in quarries of freestone. 
 Salt, iron and sulphur springs are found in different 
 parts of the province. 
 
 LoKKlng Scenes on the Mlramichl 
 
 <irind<ttone«, French Fort Qanrrles, Newcastle, N. 
 
PKOVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 105 
 
 Olimate. — Tim climato of New Brunswick is health- 
 ful. It is lesf ■ 'ibiect to extremis than that of Ontario 
 or Quebec. In ter, tiie atmosphere in not as dry as 
 it ia farther north. 
 
 Hummer and autumn are oxce«>ding1y pleasant, and 
 vegetation is very rapid. 
 
 Industries. — The chief industries are farm..ig, fish- 
 ing, lumbering, mining and manufacturing. 
 
 Th-B people of New Brunswick are making rapid ad- 
 vancement in agriculture through tht adoption of schools 
 for dairying, poultry and stock-raising. 
 
 The great lumlxu- trade is still one of the first indus- 
 tries, giving constant employment to great numbers of 
 men. Many are engaged in fishing. The Government 
 keep* the lakes and streams well stocked with the best 
 varieties. An ever-increasing number of the people find 
 employment in the cotton and woollen mills, the boot 
 and shoe factories, the foundries, sugar refineries, pulp 
 mills and tanneries. Shipping and commerce engage the 
 attention of a largo portion of the population. 
 
 Oommunications. — New Brunswick is na,.1 sup- 
 plied with first-class communication . 1 .h all parts of 
 Canada, the United States, and the great trading 
 centres of the world. 
 
 Subsidized lines of steamers run from St. John to Liver- 
 pool, London, Manchester, Glasgow, Belfast and Dublin. 
 
 The chief railways are the following : The Interco- 
 lonial, belonging to the Federal Government, runs 
 from St. John northerly through the entire length of 
 the province, and connects it with all parts of Nova 
 Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario and the 
 West; the Canada Eastern, running in a nortli-eastei'ly 
 direction, connects Fredericton with Miramichi Bay ; 
 the Canadian Pacific, extending west from St. John, 
 gives communication with Northern and Western Can- 
 ada, and all parts of the United States. 
 
 There are several minor lines of railways. 
 
 Fine steamers ply upon all the chief rivers, as well as 
 between St. John and Nova Scotia, and Shediac and 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Education.— New Brunswick has a line system of 
 free, non-sectarian public schools, consisting of primary, 
 intermediate and .secondary schools. 
 
 At Fredericton are the Normal School and Provincial 
 
 University, supported by *he Government. 
 
 CITIES AND CHIEF TOWNS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 
 
 Population, 1901. 
 
 Tiio chief denominational schorls are Mount Allison 
 University, maintained by the Methodists, and St. 
 Joseph's College, Iwlonging tv the Roman Catholics. 
 
 Government. — The government of New Bruns- 
 wick consists of the Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by 
 the Federal Government, and a House of AsHembly of 
 46 membors, elected for four years. The Ijegislative 
 Council was abolished in 1892. 
 
 History. — New Brunswick was first settled by the 
 French, about the year 1605. Along with Nova Scotia 
 and Prince Edward Island, it was included in the grant 
 made to De Monts in 1603, under the name of Acadia, 
 a name supposed by some to have l)een derived from 
 a Micmac word, " ft k a d 6," indicating " abundance." 
 In 1713, however, the French tried to restrict this name 
 to Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick did not l)ecome 
 an undisputed part of the British Empire until the con- 
 clusion of the Treaty of Paris, in 1763. 
 
 The first permanent European settlement in New 
 Brunswick was made between the years 1632-35. At 
 this date, Charles La Tour, having received a grant of 
 this part of Acadia, had built a fort on what is now the 
 harbor of St. John, probably on the west side, opposite 
 N vy Island. 
 
 The first settlement attempted by the English was in 
 1763, when a few families from New England took 
 possession of the country, about seventy miles from the 
 mouth ot the St. John. To this colony the name 
 Maugerville was given. 
 
 A second English settlement was made in 1764, by a 
 body of Scotch farmers and laborers. These made a 
 home for themselves in the Miramichi and adjoining 
 districts. On May 18tli, 1783, a large body of United 
 Empire Loyalists landed in the harbor of St. John, and 
 formed a settlement known at first as Parr Town, from 
 the name of the Governor of Nova Scotia at that time. 
 In the following year, 1784, New Brunswick, which up 
 to this time had formed part of Nova Scotia, was made 
 a separate province, and placed under tlie administration 
 of Governor Carlton. The first Legislature met at St. 
 John, Jan. 3rd, 1786, but the seat of government was 
 removed to Fredericton in 1788. New Brunswick 
 remained a distinct province until 1867, when it united 
 with Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario to form the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 StJohu 40,711 
 
 Moncfcon 9,02t) 
 
 Fredericton 7,117 
 
 Woodstock 2,984 
 
 St. Stephen 2.810 
 
 Campbellton '.'.(5o2 
 
 Nowoasllo 2.J07 
 
 Sussex 2,289 
 
 Mllltown 2,044 
 
 Bathurst 1,899 
 
 Chatliani 1.779 
 
 Siickvlllo 1,079 
 
 St.Goorge 1.588 
 
 Dorchester 1,216 
 
 Shedi.ac 1,174 
 
 HI. Andrews 1,064 
 
 Dalhonsic . . 
 
 Kichibucto 
 
 Sblppcgan 
 
 912 
 760 
 430 
 
 Locate the above cities and towns. 
 
PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 107 
 
 NOYA SCOTIA. 
 
 Map Studies. 
 
 Wliat narao do you apply to a body of land oh nearly 
 BurrouncU'd by water as Nova Scotia? What islaiid 
 forma part of the province? How is it separated from 
 the mainland? 
 
 What separates Nova Scotia from Prince Edward Is- 
 land ? Give all the boundaries of Nova Hcotia. 
 
 Fundy ; on Nortliumt)erland Strait ; on the Atlantic. 
 In what county is Halifax 7 
 
 What railways do you find in Nova Scotia? What 
 places does each railway connect ? 
 
 Are there any large rivers in Nova Scotia 1 Why ? 
 Physical Features.— The west and north-west are 
 
 What mountains do you find in the pro- 
 vince ? Where are they located ? What 
 lake in the western part of Nova Scotia? 
 Wliat lake in Cape Breton ? 
 
 What bay lies to the north-west of the 
 province ? Name the other bays along the 
 coast. Which are the two largest bays in the province ? 
 
 What cape is at the southern point of Nova Scotia ? 
 At the north-east corner of the mainland? At the 
 northern point of Cape Breton ? 
 
 What is the capital of the province? Wliere is it 
 situated ? What town is nearly opposite it ? Locate the 
 cities and towns in the list on page 108. 
 
 Name the counties in Cape Breton ; on the Bay of 
 
 Public Ciardens, Halifax. 
 
 mountainous. The rest of the province is hilly, witli 
 very fertile valleys. The north end of Cape Breton is 
 high and bold. The long coast-line is one of tlie most 
 remarkable features of Nova Scotia. The coast is gen- 
 erally rocky. 
 
 Climate. — The climate is mild and healthful. Tlio 
 excellence of the climate is due to its being nearly sur- 
 rounded by the ocean, and to the influence of the Gulf 
 Stream. 
 
108 
 
 PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA 
 
 Population and Ooverament. 
 
 The proHoiit provitu;o of Nova Hcotio, call«;d Acadia 
 in early tiiucM, wum the hcoiio of tlio ilmt purrnanuut 
 Prpioh Hettleinont in North America. In 1713 Nova 
 Scotia pnHHed into the liandM of the EtigliMh. 
 
 Of the proNont population of the province, Home trace 
 their descent from t'lo early French settlorH, some are 
 Euro[M3an immigrants of a later date, but many arf. 
 doHcendantH of the oM New Eii^'ltiiid colonistH and of the 
 Jnited Empire IjuyuliHtH. The Uuvernment iu the same 
 *n form an that of Quebec. 
 
 Industries. 
 
 Mining. — The mineral wealth of Nova Scotia is vaat 
 and varied. Coal is the most important pro<luct. It 
 is found principally in Pictou and Cumberland counties, 
 and in the eastern 
 part of Cape Breton. 
 The Pictou coalfields 
 are characterized by 
 seams of great thick- 
 ness, and have been 
 worked for many 
 years. The gold 
 mines are situated 
 chiefly along the At- 
 lantic slope of the 
 peninsula, the ^old 
 being obtained Irom 
 quartz ore of a com- 
 paratively low g 'ode. 
 Qypsum, iron, man- erand 
 
 ganese, copper, building stone, and other minerals, are 
 found in considerable quantities. 
 
 Fishing — The fisheries of Nova Scotia are of very 
 great importai.ee. They aflFord occupation to nearly 
 thirty thou8a)id men, employing over 14,000 boats 
 and vessels. The value of the fish obtained is about 
 one-third of that of the whole Canadian product. 
 The chief varieties are cod, mackerel, lobsters, herring, 
 and haddock. Nova Scotia has a remarkably extensive 
 coast-line, and fine harbors. These advantages account 
 for her prominence in the fishing and shipping indus- 
 tries. 
 
 Agriculture. — The soil, especially in the valleys, is 
 Tery product ve, except near the coast. Hay, oats, and 
 potatoes are the largest crops. Nova Scotia exports 
 more apples than any other province, except Ontario. 
 Many cattle are raised. 
 
 Chief Towns and Cities. 
 
 Halifax, the capital of the province, is its only o'^f. 
 It wuH f<tiiiidf<l in 1711), by the English government, as 
 a means of securing the hold of England u])on Acadia. 
 It has a splendid harlnir, oi>en all the year round, and 
 jM).sH«'Hs('s nin) of the finest ilry-do«;ks in the world. It 
 has an important shipping trade, doing a large business 
 with the W(!8t Indies. It is one ■ ' 'lie most effectively 
 fortified cities in Canada, and is occupied by a strong 
 garrison of Imperial troops. It is also the chief station 
 of the British North Atlantic H(piadron. Halifax is the 
 eastern terminus of the Intercolonial Railway. 
 
 Yarmouth, situated at the soutli-western extremity 
 of the province, has a largo shipping trade. Its regis- 
 tered tonnage in 1898 was 39,882. Its lumlxjring and 
 
 fishing industries are 
 very extensive. Im- 
 portant steamship 
 lines ply between 
 Yarmouth and Bos- 
 ton. 
 
 Trui O is the seat 
 of the Provincial 
 Normal School. 
 
 Windsor had a 
 registered tonnage of 
 83,547 in 1898 rank- 
 ing next to Montreal. 
 
 Pictou and New 
 prt, N.». Glasgow, on 
 
 Northumberland strait, are very busy com.nercial towns. 
 They are in the heart of the coal regions, and besides 
 their mining industries they have large shipping interests 
 and are rapidly developing their manufactures, 
 
 Sydney is the chief town of Cape Breton. It is 
 noted for its coal trade. 
 
 Annapolis, on Annapolis basin, is the oldest town in 
 Nova Scotia,and is full of historic interest. It was tLe Port 
 Royal founded by Champlain ; but its name was changed 
 wlien the English finally took possession of Acadia. 
 
 Liverpool and Lunenburg, situated on the Atlan- 
 tic coast between Halifax and Yarmouth, are of im- 
 portance as lumbering and fishing centres. They carry 
 on a large trade with the West Indies. 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Population, 1901. 
 
 Halifax 40,8S2| Amhorst 4,H(B Windsor 8,888 
 
 Sydney 9,901) | Kartniouth 4,806 Pictou 3,236 
 
 Ynrmouth B,4:a) I Now GlaKicow .. 4,447 Lnnenburjf 2,916 
 
 Truro S,tFi | SprinKhiU 3,430 Liverpool l,tB7 
 
PROVINCE OF PRINCE EDWiUiD ISLAND. 
 
 109 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 Map Studies. 
 
 What Hoparah's Priiico Kilwiud iHliirid from New 
 Brunswick ? What body (»f wutor lioH to tlio nortli of 
 tlio iHhiiid ] 
 
 What bay in nortli of Priiico Edward Isluiid 1 What 
 oiu) on tlio casf? Niinio thrco on tho Houth-w«>st. 
 
 What is tiio capital of tho provinco 1 Whoro ia it 
 aituated ? Name throe other im[)ortiint towns. 
 
 Name the counticH of Prince Edward Island. In 
 which county is C. ' capital ? 
 
 Draw a map of tho island, and mark on it tho railway 
 and the most important towns on its route. 
 
 H i story. 
 
 Princo Edwiird Is- 
 land was orij,M»ally 
 part of the French 
 territories known 
 as Acadia, and then 
 bore the name of 
 Isle St. Jean. It 
 was given its pre- 
 sent name al)out a 
 hundred years ago 
 in compliment to 
 Prince Edward, 
 Duke of Kent, 
 father of Queen Vic- 
 toria, who was at 
 that time com- 
 mander of tho forces at Halifax. 
 
 I'arlliiuieiit Buildings, r.E.I. 
 
 Physical Features— The province is undulating, 
 but has only slight elevations. The long coast-line is its 
 most striking feature. 
 
 Soil and Climate.— The soil is U<i' it but kindly, 
 and the climate moderate and healthful. 
 
 People. — Most of the people are native born, the 
 majority of them being of Scottish descent. Of the 
 remainder, bonie are English, some are Irish, and still 
 others descendants of the original French settlers. 
 
 Govemment. — There is but one "house," consisting 
 of thirty members, styled " The Legislative Assembly." 
 
 Fiftotni of theso named ((luncillorsarooliHstod by pn)perty 
 voters, and tho other lifteen by tho franchise voters. 
 
 Industries and Manufactures. 
 
 Agriculture, in its tlifTeront branchoh furnishes the 
 chief oircupation of tho people. Wheat, oats, barley, 
 potutiH!S and turnips are tho ))rincipul c,-oi>s. Much 
 attention is paid to tho raising of super or breeds of 
 horses, cattle, sheep and i)igs. 
 
 Princo Edward Island fisheries are tho In^st in the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence. Tho total numlxT of men engaged 
 in the trade is about four thousand. INIaukerel, cod, 
 
 oysters and lobsters 
 form the bulk of 
 the product. 
 
 Manufactures 
 are carried on only 
 to a small extent 
 for the supply of 
 local markets. 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 Charlotte- 
 town, tho capital 
 and largest town, is 
 situated on tho 
 south side of the 
 island, at tho 
 mouth of a long inlet known as Hillsborough River. 
 It has a splendid harbor, and does a tlirivirig trade. 
 It is tho chief distributing centre for the whole 
 provinco. 
 
 Summerside, on Ledequo bay, has an excellent 
 harbor, ond carries on a lurgo trade with New Bruns- 
 wick, just across the strait. Tho province is famous 
 for its oysters, and Summerside is the centre of the 
 oyster industry. 
 
 Cities and Towns of Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Population, I'JOl. 
 Charlottetown . . . 12,080 Summerside. 
 Georgetown 1,123. 
 
 2,875 
 
110 
 
 PROVINCE OF ]yiANITOBA. 
 
 city nail, WliinlpeK. 
 
 /:V'f.^UMjJ3li 
 
 
 Map Studies. 
 
 What Districts lio to 
 the north and west of 
 Manitoba? Wliat pro- 
 vince to the east 1 "What 
 country to the south 1 
 
 What is the name of 
 the largest lake in Manitoba ? Parliament Bnlldlngs, WInnlpcK. 
 
 What large river flows into it from the south 1 What important tributaries has this 
 river ? What river flows into the same lake from the uorth-west 1 What other lakes are 
 there in IManitoba 1 
 
 Where is Winnipeg situated ? Portage la Prairie 1 Brandon 1 
 
 Locate on the map — Emerson, Rapid City, Minnedosa, Morris, Birtle, Carman, 
 Deloraine, Stonewall, Carberry, Virden, Morden, Manitou. 
 
 Trace tne railways in Manitoba and mark the most important towns on them. Name 
 the railways that enter Winnipeg. 
 
 Why is the site of Winnipeg a good place for a great city 1 
 
 History. — In 1812 Lord Selkirk purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company a vast 
 tract of land on the Red River, and settled thereon a band of Scotch and Irish pioneers. 
 It was called Assiiiiboia, aid was governed by the Hudson's Bay Company, from Fort 
 Garry. When, after Confederation, the Dominion Government purchased the North- 
 west from the Hudson's Bay Company, thia district was erected into a new province 
 
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112 
 
 PROVINCE OF MANITOBA. 
 
 under the name of Manitoba (1870). Under tlie care 
 of the Canadian government immigration flowed in 
 rapidly, the city of Winnipeg rose suddenly at the junc- 
 tion of the Assiniboine with the Red River, and Mani- 
 toba grew in a few years to be an influential and pros- 
 perous province. 
 
 Size and Position. — Manitoba is the central one of 
 the seven provinces of the Dominion of Canada. It is 
 situated near tlie centre of the North American contin- 
 ent, being midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific 
 oceans. lb is called the " pniirio province." It is 
 larger than Wales, Ireland and Scotland combined, 
 having an area of about 74,000 square miles. 
 
 Physical Features. — Manitoba consists chieliy of 
 rich, level prairie land. There are elevated districts in 
 the south-west, the west, the north, and especially the 
 north-eastern p o r- 
 tionof the province. 
 The northern and 
 north-eastern parts 
 have many lakes. 
 The north-east is 
 well supplied with 
 timber. 
 
 Climate.— The 
 summers are warm 
 and very pleasant; 
 the winters are 
 severe. Owing to 
 the dryness of the 
 air, the low tem- 
 perature in winter 
 is not so severe in its 
 
 effects as in places where there is more moisture 
 climate is healthful and invigorating. 
 
 Soil. — The soil of Manitoba is for the most part a 
 rich deep mould or loam, especially adapted to wheats 
 growing. Manitoba wheat is of the finest quality. 
 Other grain, and root-crops, give astonishing yields on 
 this inexhaustible soil, growing with wonderful luxuri- 
 ance through the hot summer. 
 
 ^c People. — The population of the province came chiefly 
 from Great Britain and eastern Canada. The French ele- 
 ment is also strong. The remainder of the population is 
 nr'"de up of immigrants from various countries of northern 
 and central Europe. There are interesting colonies from 
 Russia and Iceland. 
 
 Government. — The Government is similar to that of 
 Ontario, there being only one Chamber in the Legislature. 
 
 Occupations of the People. — The wealth of Mani- 
 toba lieu in its fertile and easily tilled soil, so that agri- 
 culture is now, and always will be, the most important 
 industry. In addition .to wheat, oats, barley and pota- 
 toes, which are the principal field crops, the soil and 
 climatic conditions are very favorable for the growth of 
 flax and hemp. Much attention is given to stock-raising 
 and dairy-farming. 
 
 The lakes of the province abound in fish, and the 
 annual product of the fisheries is already considerable. 
 The people give little thought, as yet, to manufactures. 
 Lumbering is carried on to some extent in the northern 
 and eastern sections, for the supply of local needs. The 
 chief export of Manitoba is wheat. 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns. 
 
 Winnipeg, situated at the j^inction of the Assini- 
 boine and the Red 
 River, is the capital 
 of Manitoba, and 
 the chief centre of 
 distribution for all 
 north-western Can- 
 ad a. It is the 
 largest city in the 
 province, and the 
 most important as 
 regards its literary, 
 educational, and 
 manufacturing in- 
 terests. It is a 
 great railway cen- 
 tre, and has fine 
 means of communi- 
 
 wiBuipeg. cation by water. 
 
 The From its situation it bids fair to be to the north-west 
 what Montreal is to the east. 
 
 Brandon, on the main line of the C. P. R., one 
 hundred and thirty-tliree miles west of Winnipeg, has 
 great grain elevators, and does a large export trade in 
 wheat. 
 
 Portage la Prairie is on the main line of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, fifty-six miles west of Win- 
 nipeg. It is the centre of an important agricultural 
 district and has fine flour mills. ^ ^ ^_ 
 
 Cities and Towns of Manitoba. 
 
 Population, 1001. 
 
 Winnipeg 42,340 
 
 Brandon 5,380 
 
 Portage la Praii"- 3,901 
 
 Selkirk 2,118 
 
 St. Boniface .... 2,019 
 Morden 1,522 
 
PiiON'lNCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 iia 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 Map Studies. Physical Features. - Tlu> province is chiefly 
 
 What mountain range separates I'.ritisli Colunihia inountainDUs. lU-tween tlie yreat ranges are elevated 
 from Albei'ta ? Nanu^ sonio of tlie iiigiust j)eak.s in tliis 
 
 range. Nanio tlio mountain passes in tlie Roekies. 
 What other mountain ranges are in the Province? 
 
 What hirge island form, part of the Province? How- 
 is it separated from tlie mainland of the Province ? How 
 
 tahle-lands. These tahle-lands are cut into nairow 
 valleys hy rapid rivers. The coast has many hays, 
 soincw hat like; the fiords of Norway. The scenery of 
 iiritish Columbia is magnificent. 
 Glitnate. Tim climate of British Columbia, as is 
 natural in si, immense a territory, 
 varies a great deal in the diirerent 
 districts. The mild winds from 
 the Pacific moderate the climate 
 along the coast, where all the crops 
 of temperate countries may be 
 grown. The southern part of the 
 interior is dry, with very hot 
 summers. Farther to the north- 
 west, in the same region, be- 
 tween the Rocky Mountains and 
 the Coast Range, the rainfall is 
 
 Tirtorlii, U.«. 
 
 from the United States? What other 
 islands lie along the Pacific Coast? 
 
 Tn what direction do the rivers of 
 British Columbia flow ? Why? Name 
 three of the largest rivers. Are there 
 any lakes ? Name them. 
 
 Draw a map and locate on it the chief 
 rivers, and the leading cities and towns. 
 
 How do you account for th(? fact that these cities and 
 towns are placed in tiieir present positions? 
 
 Ti-ace the railways of the Province. 
 
 Position and Size. — British Columbia is the most 
 westerly province of Canada. It is about seven hun- 
 dred miles long, extending from the 49th to the 60tli 
 parallel of latitude, and has an average width of about 
 four hundred miles. It is the largest province of 
 Canada 
 
 yy- 
 
 I'arliuoieut UullUiugitr Victoria. 
 
 much greater and the heat less excessive. Everywhere 
 the western slopes of the mountain ranges are moist, the 
 eastern ones dry. This is caused by the eastward How 
 of the air currents, which deposit their moisture in 
 ascending the western sides of the mountains, and then 
 descend on the opposite sides as dry winds. In the 
 extreme north the climate is of sub-Arctic severity. 
 
 Government. — The Government ctmsists of a 
 Lieutmianl -Governor and one Legislative Assembly, aa 
 in Ontario. 
 
PROVINCE OF liHITlSII COLUMBIA. 
 
 115 
 
 Water-front) VancouTer, B.C. 
 
 Resources.— In regard 
 to both variety and volume, 
 the resources of British 
 Columbia are among the 
 I idlest in Canada. The 
 province has immense areas 
 
 of mineral wealth, forests of great extent and value, 
 coast waters and streams abounding in fish, and many 
 large districts well adapted for agriculture and grazing. 
 Mines. — The minerals of most importance are gold 
 and coal. The gold mines are among the most valuable 
 in the world. Immense quantities of gold have been 
 obtained by wasl'ing gravel from the beds of the Fraser 
 and its tributaries. Very rich mines are operated in the 
 Kootenay, the largest of which are at Rossland, and in 
 Cariboo, Omineca, and the Boundary Country. Very 
 rich coal mines are found in the south-eastern part of the 
 province, and at Vancouver. Valuable deposits of silver, 
 lead, and copper are also located in different 
 parts of the province. 
 
 Lumber. — The most important forest 
 tree is the Douglas fir, which on the coast 
 frequently attains a heiglit of from two to 
 three hundred feet, with a diameter of from 
 eight to ten feet. It is only one, however, 
 of the many splendid trees which make the 
 forests of British Columbia famous through- 
 out the world. Lumbering is a great and 
 growing industry along the coast. 
 
 Fisheries. — The abundance of fish in the 
 wat>ers of her rivers and coast supplies a 
 large part of British Columbia's trade. Of 
 these fish, the most valuable is the Salmon, 
 which frequents the waters of the Fraser 
 and Columbia in astonishing numbers. Other 
 important varieties are halibut, sturgeon, 
 
 herring, trout, and cod. Throughout the pro- 
 vince there are numerous canneries, which an- 
 nually ship millions of cans of salmon. The coast 
 Indians are largely engaged in this industry. 
 
 Agriculture. — In the southern parts and 
 along the Pacific are situated tlie most important 
 
 agricultural districts, 
 but there are largo 
 areas in the more 
 northerly interior 
 wliich will support a 
 farming population. 
 Agriculture is yearly 
 engaging more and 
 more attention 
 throughout the pro- 
 vince. Wheat, barley, 
 oats and peas are the 
 principal grain crops. 
 Fruit is also grown to 
 vancoaver, B.C. some extent, and is cer- 
 
 tain to become an important crop owing to the suit- 
 ability of the climate. 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns. 
 
 Victoria, the capital oi British Columbia, has a 
 situation of great beauty on a smal' but excellent har- 
 bor, at the south-eastern extremity v/i Vancouver Island. 
 In early times it was a post of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany, and was then called Fort Victoria. This city is 
 one of the largest in the province, has numerous fine 
 buildings, parks, and gardens, and is the centre of im- 
 portant business and shipping interests. 
 
 Boisland, B.C. 
 
116 
 
 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. 
 
 r 
 
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 Vancouver, on Burrard Inlet, is the western teiminus of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway. It is surrounded by a fertile country, 
 and enjoys an exceptionally mild climate. It is the centre of the 
 lumber trade of the province. Extensive iron, soap, and cement 
 works are located here, in addition to a sugar refinery, and numerous 
 factories for canning fish. 
 
 New Westminster was founded in 1858, during the Fraser 
 river gold excitement. It is situated on the north bank of the river 
 about fifteen miles from the mouth. The salmon trade and .lumbei 
 business are its chief industries. 
 
 Nanaimo. — North of Victoria, and on the east coast of Vancou- 
 ver Ishind, is situated the thriving town of Nanaimo, which depend-^ 
 largely on its coal mines for its support. 
 
 Kamioops and Revelstoke are mining towns on the main line 
 of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and Nelson, Rossland, Kaslo 
 and Sandon are mining towns in Kootenay. 
 
 Cities and Ohief Towns of British Columbia. 
 
 Population, IHOl. 
 
 •'Tbe L«ov," In Ibe HellOrkg, B.C. 
 
 Vancouver 20,133 
 
 Viotoiia 20.81B 
 
 New Westminster. 6,498 
 Rossland 6,164 
 
 Nunaimo 0,130 
 
 Nelson 4,610 
 
 Kaslo 1,680 
 
 Fernio 1,640 
 
 Revelstoke . . 1,600 
 
 Kamioops. . . . 1,504 
 
 Trail 1,.360 
 
 Greenwood. . . 1,359 
 
 THE NORTH-WEST TEREITORIES. 
 
 The North- West Territories include all those parts of 
 the Dominion, formerly included within Rupert's Land 
 and the North-West Territory, known as the Provisional 
 Districts of Ungava, Franklin, Mac k enzie, Athabasca, 
 Alberta, Saskatchewan and Assiniboia. 
 
 These North- West Territories are administered by a 
 Lieutenant-Governor, aided and advised by an Execu- 
 tive Council. The Legislative Assembly for these Terri- 
 tories is composed of members elected from the Provi- 
 sional Districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and Alberta, 
 representation therein not having been granted as yet 
 to the remaining Districts. Regina is the capital. 
 
 Assiniboia, Alberta and Saskatchewan. 
 
 Position and Area. — These three Provisional 
 Districts form part of the Great Central Plain of North 
 America. They extend eastward from the summit of 
 the Rocky Mountains to the western boundary of Mani- 
 toba and the Nelson River. F'om north to south they 
 lie between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth parallels of 
 latitude. 
 
 The area of this region is about 303,000 square miles, 
 made up as follows : Assiniboia, 90,000 ; Alberta, 106,- 
 000; and Saskatchewan, 107,000 square miles. These 
 Provisional Districts are, in area, about six times that of 
 
 the Maritime provinces, two and a half times that of the 
 British Isles, and one and two-fifths times that of Ontario. 
 
 Physical Features. — The greater portion of these 
 Pi'ovisional Districts is a comparatively level plain lying 
 on the eastern slope of the primary axis of the continent. 
 This plain is divided into two distinct levels or steppes. 
 Here and there low ranges cf hills rise above the level 
 of the prairie. Chief among the e are the Moose Moun- 
 tains, Touchwood Hills, Cypress Hills, and Eagle Hills. 
 Numerous shallow lakes are found in each of the Dis- 
 tricts, but chiefly in Saskatchewan. 
 
 The prairie level nearest the Rocky Mountains extends 
 eastward to the Missor.i'i C6teau, an escarpment which 
 runs in a noi th-west'jrly direction through Assiniboia, 
 near Moose Jaw. ft comprises the whole of Alberta 
 and the western portioas of Saskatchewan and Assini- 
 boia. Near the mountains it is very diversified, being 
 broken by the foot-hiUs, and by numerous deep ravines 
 or coulees, which wine, their way out into the open plain. 
 
 The other prairie level occupies the remaining portion 
 of these Pro\'isional Districts, and extend into Manitoba 
 to the Riding, Pembina, and other ranges of hills. Its 
 area is less extensive than that of the higher steppe, but 
 its surface features are more uniform in character. 
 
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118 
 
 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. 
 
 BanO National Park. N.W.T. 
 
 Drainage. — Their general slope from the summit of 
 the Kooky Mountains is towards tlie head of Lake 
 Winnipeg. Tlie greater portion of the immense area of 
 land lying within this region is drained by the Saskat- 
 ohmvan llivcr and its many branches. In Northern 
 AllK'rta a lieight of land separates the North Saskatche- 
 wan and Athabasca basins, and in Soutliern Alberta tlio 
 Milk River Hidge divides the head waters of the Mis- 
 souri from those of the South Saskatchewan. The 
 eastern part of Assiniboia is drained by the Assiniboine 
 River, which flows eastward through Manitoba to join 
 the Red River on its way north to Lake Winnipeg. The 
 surplus waters of this lake find an outlet to Hudson Bay 
 through the Nelson River. 
 
 Soil and Climate. — The soil varies in character. 
 In most localities it is a rich loam or clay loam, and 
 wliere the climate is suitable, is especially adapted for 
 agriculture. In southern Alberta and western Assini- 
 boia, where the rainfall is oc( sionally insufficient, large 
 areas are being brought under cultivation through the 
 construction of irrigation ditches. 
 
 The climate is subject to extremes. In summer the 
 days are long and warm, but the nights are cool. The 
 rainfall, although not abundant, is usually sufficient. 
 In winter, snow falls to a depth of from eighteen to 
 twenty-four inches. In the eastern and northern por- 
 tions it usually remains until the approach of spring. 
 In Alberta and western Assiniboia the winter tempera- 
 ture is moderated by tlie warm Chinook winds. Through- 
 
 ont the whole year there is an abundance of sunshine 
 and the air is always dry and healthful. 
 
 Productions and Occupations. — Assiniboia is 
 
 adapted to grain growing in the eastern half, and to 
 cattle raising in ^he west. Northern Alberta is a goo<l 
 country for mixed farming and dairying. Southern 
 Alberta is one of tiie finest ranching countries in the 
 world. The snow fall is light and the temperature is 
 such that cattle and horses can live out of doors on the 
 naturally dried hay all winter. The greater part of 
 Saskatchewan is fertile and is suitable for mixed farm 
 ing and ranching. 
 
 Coal is found in southern Assiniboia and in nearly all 
 parts of Alberta, although in most places the beds are not 
 very thick. Indications of the presence of petroleum are 
 seen in many places in northern Alberta and Athabasca. 
 
 Lumbering on a limited scale is carried on in the val- 
 ley of the North Saskatchewan and along se^'eral of the 
 streams that issue from the mountains in Alberta. 
 
 Gold is found in the bed of the upper course of the 
 Saskatchewan and neighboring streams, and has been 
 successfully mined for years. 
 
 Imports and Exports. — The chief imports are 
 farm machinery, clothing, groceries, fruits and lumber. 
 The chief exports are grain, cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, 
 coal and but*^^er. 
 
 The chief towns are Regina (the capital), Calgary, 
 Edmonton, Lethbridge, Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, 
 Medicine Hat, Moosomin, Macleod and Battleford, 
 
ISLAND OF NEWFOUHDLANIJ. 
 
 119 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 Si26. — Newfountlland is about twice as large as Nova 
 Scotia, liaving an area of 42,000 square miles. Its 
 greatest length is about four hundred miles, and its 
 greatest width three hundred and twenty miles. It is 
 shaped like a triangle, and has a very irregular coast 
 line, with many harbors. 
 
 Soil and Climate.— The soil of the island, at least 
 in the inhabited districts, is not very well adapted for 
 agriculture, to which little attention has as yet been 
 given. But .ong some of the rivers, and at tiio heads 
 of bays and inlets, the hardier crops are successfully 
 cultivated. On account of the i* rctic current which 
 brings down icebergs along the eastern coast, spring 
 is often delayed, and the 
 change from winter to 
 summer is very sudden. 
 The climate of tho we.'tt- 
 ern shore is much milder 
 than that of the Atlantic 
 coast. 
 
 Government.— The 
 
 Governor is appointed by 
 
 tlie Kiiif,'< iiiid, lik(> otlier 
 
 provincial governors, ho 
 
 is assisted in his ofKce by 
 
 an Executive Council. 8t. Jfolui'» 
 
 The Legislature is like that of Nova Scotia. 
 
 The People and their Industries.— The popu- 
 lation of Newfoundland in 1898, including that of 
 Labrador, was estimated to be 206,862. Around the 
 chief towns farming is carried on for the local market. 
 Barley, cats, potatoes and garden vegetables are the 
 chief crops. 
 
 Though the island possesses some fine forest areas, 
 lumbering is not yet largely developed. Of minerals, the 
 most important is copper, and within the last few years 
 NeNN foundland has taken rank as the fifth in the list of 
 copper-exporting countries. There are also silver and lead 
 mines. Large quantities of iron are exported annually, 
 and coal mines and oil wells are being developed. At 
 present, however, the people of Newfoundland live mainly 
 by the fisheries. By the census of 1891 there were 1,681 
 fishing vessels engaged in this industry, and 21,052 fish- 
 
 ing boats. The principal varieties of 'Ish caught are cod, 
 herring, lobster and salmon. The cod fisheries are the 
 most important in the world, and are carried on partly 
 around tiiu shores and partly on what are called the 
 Grand Banks. These lie to the south and east of the 
 island, and are in all over six hundred miles long by 
 about two hundred in breadtii. They form a wide sub- 
 marine plateau, covered by a depth of water averaging 
 about forty fathoms. Upon these banks fish of all kinds, 
 and particularly cod, abound. 
 
 Next to the cod fisheries the seal fisheries are the 
 most important. In the spring large fields of Arctic 
 ice are brought down to tho shores of Newfoundland 
 
 by the Arctic current. To 
 these floating ice - fields 
 the seals resort in herds. 
 The sealing ships push 
 their way into these ice- 
 fields and slaughter the 
 seals. The annual capture 
 reaches nearly half a 
 million. 
 
 The herring, lobster 
 and salmon fisheries rank 
 next in importance. A 
 great part of the product 
 Uttrbor, Nfd. of the large herring fish- 
 
 ery is sent to the United States in a frozen condition. 
 
 Cities and Chief Towns. 
 
 St. John's is the capital of the island and the seat 
 of the Government of Newfoundland. It is situated on 
 one of the best harbors in the world. This harbor is 
 said to have been named by John Cabot. St. John's is 
 the commercial centre of the island, and the chief place 
 of export for the product of the fisheries. 
 
 Harbor Grace is the second town of Newfound- 
 land, and is situated some distance north of St. John's, 
 on the same peninsula. It has an extensive shipping 
 and mercantile trade, and is the chief outfitting post for 
 the I^brador fishery. 
 
 Hearts' Content is a town in Trinity B; , and 
 is the landing place of the Atlantic cable between New- 
 foundland and Ireland. 
 
120 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cotut near Man l'rancu< «• 
 
 C«Mut of MaUie. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 NoTB.— Tho relief map of North America on pogo 8t, ond the key on page M, should be consulted for answers to some of the fuUowlnK ques 
 tions. Most uf thum may be answered from tliu map on pn^u 121. 
 
 the Columbia river? In what state is the Great Salt lake? 
 
 What states border on Mexico? On the Paciflo 
 ocean ? On Canada ? 
 
 Name the six Now England states. 
 
 Write out a list of the United States, with their 
 capitals. Bound the United States. 
 
 Which states border on the Atlantic ocean ? Which 
 of these states contain no part of the coastal plain ? 
 
 What state in the New England highlanrl lias no 
 seacoast? Where are the White mountains? The 
 Green mountains ? 
 
 Which of the Great Lakes border on New York? 
 What lake is between that state and Vermont ? 
 
 Name the river between Pennsylvania and New 
 Jersey. Which states are on Delaware bay ? On Chesa- 
 peake bay ? The city of Washington is in the District 
 of Columbia ; on what river is it built 1 
 
 Between what states does the Savannah river flow? 
 What states are crossed by the divide be- 
 tween the Atlantic and the Gulf coastal 
 plains ? 
 Between what states does the Ohio 
 
 Map studies. 
 
 Wliat states are sefitratod by thci Delaware river ? 
 By Delaware bay ? By Chesapeake b ly ? By the Poto- 
 mac river ? By the Savannah river ? 
 
 Name the states along the gulf of Mexico. In 
 which state is the delta of the !Missif.sippi ? What two 
 gulf states are separated by the Mississippi river? Wlmt 
 river flows between Texas and Mexico? 
 
 Which states border on Lake Erie? On Lake 
 Michigan ? On Lake Superior ? 
 
 Name the states along the north bank of the Ohio. 
 On what lake does each of theso states border ? What 
 states are on the south bank of the Ohio ? 
 
 In what state does the Mississippi river rise? Name 
 in order the states along the left bank of this river, 
 Name those that lie along the riijht bank. 
 
 What states are crossed by the Missouri river? 
 Between which does it flow ? Across what states does 
 the Arkansas river flow 1 
 
 What states are crossed by the Rocky 
 mountains ? What states border on the --.. 
 Colorado river? Which are separated by 
 
 CMUt of Soathern California. 
 
 Caaat of nerlda. 
 
122 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 rivor flow ? Wliirli of tli(>H«i Hiatal 
 arn wholly or in part in tlio Alle- 
 ghany plateau ! 
 
 Which of thti (ln<at Tiiikcw jMvrtly 
 surround Miohipm I Whiirh 
 ttroiMirllyinthi'Si. 
 Lawronco baHin 
 and partly in tlir 
 MitwiHHippi basin t 
 
 Which Htatcs arr 
 partly in tho prai- 
 rioH and partly in 
 tho W o a t o r n 
 plains 1 
 
 JjDcaiAi tho fitl- 
 lowinjj citiuH in tho 
 Unitod Stat<!H and 
 try to d«>cido from 
 their looation why 
 thoy Ixjcanio great 
 citioH. Mako a list 
 of them, with tho states in which thoy aro situated : 
 
 nui.a Population 
 
 New York.. . . .1, 4:17,20'2 
 
 Chicago 1,(198,575 
 
 Philadelphia . . 1,293,697 
 
 St. Louis 575,2;{8 
 
 lioston 500,892 
 
 Baltimore 508,957 
 
 Cleveland .... 381,768 
 
 Buffalo 352,387 
 
 San Francisco. 342,782 
 
 Cincinnati 325,902 
 
 Pittsburg .... 321,616 
 Now Orleans.. 287,104 
 
 Detroit 285,704 
 
 Milwaukee . . . 285,315 
 
 Name the two states that are almost 
 wholly in thegreat Basin region. What three 
 states include the Columbia river region? 
 
 What states are cro.sscd by the Cascade 
 range? In which state is the Siorra Nevada? 
 
 Name two territories crossed by the 
 Arkansas river? Which is the largest 
 state in the United States ? 
 
 What bodies of water partly surround 
 Alaska ? What country is on the east of 
 that territory? Where are the Pribilof 
 islands ? 
 
 Name the leading cities of the United 
 States on the Great Lakes. 
 
 Cities. 
 Washington 
 Newark . . . . 
 Jersuy City 
 Louisville 
 Minneapolis 
 Providonce 
 Indianapolis 
 KansasCity 
 St. Paul . . 
 Rochester 
 Denver . . 
 Allegheny 
 Omaha . . 
 Albany . . 
 
 .VI 
 
 Population 
 
 (t'.KKl). 
 
 278,718 
 246,070 
 206,433 
 204,731 
 202,718 
 175,597 
 169,164 
 16.3,752 
 16.3,065 
 162,608 
 13.3,859 
 129,896 
 102,555 
 94,151 
 
 1. Government of the United 
 States. 
 
 Tho Iftw-mukiii^, or Icgiala- 
 ///v, (l(>2»irti(i(>iit<»f th(<TTnit(«l 
 tStiitcs i.s known 
 uM CoHf/ri'ss. It 
 couHlsts of two 
 b o d i o 8 — t li 
 Senate, and \\w 
 Jlou.se, of liepre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 The representa- 
 tives aro chosen by 
 tho p«'oplo. Tho 
 ; siwiators aro chostMi 
 ; by tho law-making 
 : ImkHo.s, or legula- 
 tiirt's, in tho various 
 states. There are two senators f loni each stat<i, but the 
 reprosontativos aro chosen according to the number of 
 people in each state. Senators aro oloctod to ser^ ..>r 
 six yoars ; representatives, for two ycjars. 
 
 Tho hond of tho nation is (uillod tho Vresi- 
 dent. lie it^ oloctod to sorvo for four yoar.s, 
 and his chief duty is to enforce or exocute the 
 hiws. He is Coramandor-in-cliiof of tho army 
 and navy of tho United States. 
 
 To aid in conducting the govorinnent, tho Piesident 
 (with the approval of ^ho Senate) appoints eight men 
 who are known as raomber.s of tho Cabinet. These 
 officers superintend the foreign aff'airs, tho money, tho 
 army, the navy, tho homo affiiirs, tho law cases, tho post 
 offices, and the agricultural interests, of the nation. 
 
 _. 
 
 *"«»fe 
 
 yip. 
 
 *«'.»• 
 
 * ^ •- 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Cotton Field. 
 
imiTED STATKS. 
 
 123 
 
 Tho Supreme Court of thollnito*! Stutos con- Soiut- portions of tho country do not belong 
 Rists of a ('hirf Justice unci {''mht Aasociale touuysluti', l)utuio known us /r/7/7«/7Vv. Tlu'ir 
 Justices appoiiitt'd by tin* l*rosid«»nt, with llm governors uml Judges aro appointed by the 
 consent of the Senate, and holding oftico for President, with tho eons«>nt of tlio Heiuite, but 
 life or during good behaviour. tho p«H)plo of eacli territory ele('t their other 
 
 otllcers. Th(^ Territories luive also 
 their own legislativo bodies. 
 
 Tliero are now <lvo territories, aH fol- 
 lowH : — AloHka, An/.ona, Indiiin Terri- 
 tory, Now Mexico, Oklalioina. From time 
 to time, oa tho territories inereiso in 
 
 
 m^Mm^!SStimmtms;ssmsk 
 
 i 
 
 
 '^f' '^-A 
 
 
 
 'l'*^ ■'^■*~"'--*- 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 Fabllc tlardenn, Boitoa. 
 
 The chief duty of tho Supreme 
 Court is to protect the rights of 
 the people, according to the Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 All powers that the states did not 
 give to the nation under the Con- 
 stitution, they reserved for them- 
 selves. The^'^ ire now forty-five states, and each 
 resembles a republic, iiacli has its constitu- 
 tion, its Senate and House of Representatives, 
 its Supreme Court, its chief executive oflBcer, 
 called a Governor- -as well as other officers. 
 
 ITaler Front, New York. 
 
 population, they are admitted into the Union as states. 
 
 The city of Washington, with its suburb 
 Georgetown, is on a tract of land set apart for 
 the use of the government. This tract is known 
 as the District of Columbia. It is neitiier a 
 
 A SeeMe la New Orleaas. 
 
124 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 state nor a territory, but is under the control 
 of Congi'ess. 
 
 2. Chief Products. 
 
 Cotton is the chief product of the states on the Gulf 
 of Mexico, with Arkansas, South Carolina, and North 
 Carolina. Some cotton is grown in Missouri and Ten- 
 nessee, i^all River and Lowell make more cotton cloth 
 than any other American cities. 
 
 Draw a small map of the United States, and color 
 the states that produce cotton. 
 
 Wheat is grown in tlie states north of the cotton 
 states in the eastern half of the United States, and 
 small quantities are also grown on the Pacific Slope. 
 
 Indian Com is grown 
 
 in every state in the eastern 
 half of tho United States 
 south of parallel 45, especial- 
 ly Kansas, Iowa, Illinois, 
 Indiana, and Oliio. 
 
 Oats are grown in the 
 corn states, omitting the 
 cotton states. 
 
 Tobacco is grown large- 
 ly in Tennessee, Kentucky, 
 
 New Jersey are the chief centres of the fruit trade of 
 the United States. Apples are grown largely in the 
 northern states from New England to Nebraska, as far 
 north aa Wisconsin, and in Kansas, Missouri, and 
 northern Kentucky. Grapes are grown around Lake 
 Erie, and the valleys of New York, and largely in 
 California. 
 
 Animals — Hogs are raised in large numbers in all 
 the corn-growing states: west and south of New York, 
 and beet-cattle in all the states east of the Rocky mouiv 
 tains, between the cotton states and the 45th parallel. 
 Washington, California, and the Rocky mountain valleys 
 are good districts for cattle-raising. Tho best district 
 
 North Carolina, and Virginia. It is grown 
 
 to a, considerable extent in Missouri, 
 
 Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, and southwestern 
 
 New England. 
 
 Forests — The central portion of tho United States 
 is prairie land, on which there is very little timber. The 
 states along the Great Lakes, all the Southern States 
 east of Kansas, Oklahama Territory, and Texas, and all 
 the Northern States east of Indiana, are well wooded. 
 The Northern States on the Pacific, and the northern part 
 of the Rocky Mountain Highlands have large forests. 
 The best lumber regions are along Lake Superior, in the 
 Southern States bordering on the Mississippi, in the 
 Appalachian Highlands, and in northern New England, 
 
 Fruit — California, Florida, Maryland, Delaware, and 
 
 OCtAWARS 
 PlA&HrS 
 
 for dairy products in the United States is the portion of 
 the northern states east of Nebraska. Sheep are raised 
 in tlie dairying districts, California, Montana, New 
 Mexico, an. I Texas. Fish are caught in nearly all waters 
 around th'. United States, especially along the Northern 
 coasts of the Atlantic and the Pacific. 
 
 I/Jnorals — Coal is found in many states, especially 
 in the Appalachian Highland, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, 
 Kansas and the Rocky Mountain States. 
 
 Iron is found in a range of states following the gen- 
 eral direction of the Appalachian Higlilands frori\ 
 Alabama to Vermont, and in some mines in Texas, 
 Missouri, Minnesota, Colorado, Utah and Montana. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 125 
 
 Petroleum, is found in largo ciuantities in PennHyl- 
 vinia, West Virginia, and Oliio. 
 
 Gold and Silver are found in all the States o£ 
 the Rocky ^Mountain Highland and the Pacific slope, 
 esjxjcially in California, Colorado and Montana. 
 
 3. Principal Cities. 
 Washingrton is the Capital of the United States. 
 It is noted foe its lieautiful private residences, and its 
 magnificent national puhlic buildings. 
 
 New York — In amount of foreign trade, London 
 alone surpasses the 2>»rt of New York. The great .sea- 
 port at the mouth of the Hudson river carries on more 
 than half the foreign trade of the United States. 
 
 The chief exports from New York are meats, cotton, 
 petroleum, wheat, and 
 flour. Most of these 
 are sent to Great Bri- 
 tain and other coun- 
 tries of western 
 Europe. 
 
 New York's prin- 
 cipal imports are — 
 cloth from Eng- 
 land, Germany, 
 and France ; coffee 
 from Brazil and 
 other parts of 
 tropical America ; 
 cane sugar from the 
 West Indies, and 
 beet sugar from 
 Germany; tin plate 
 from England; 
 rubber from Para ; 
 tea from China and 
 Japan. New York is the greatest manufacturing centre in 
 America. The total value of the manufactures of this 
 city is greater than that of all the articles of import into 
 the United States. 
 
 Brooklyn, Long Island City, and many towns 
 
 and villages have been annexed to New York, making 
 the total number of people in the city about 3,500,000. 
 The refining of sugar, and the roasting and grinding of 
 coffee and spices are important industries in Brooklyn. 
 It contains a United States navy yard and has dry docks 
 and other facilities for ship-building. New York and 
 Brooklyn are joined by the largest suspension bridge 
 in the world. 
 
 Chicago is the greatest railroad centre and lake 
 
 port in the world. The city ranks first also as a meat, 
 grain, and luml)er m<i"ket. No other city in the union 
 makes as much furniture or as many farming imple- 
 ments. In the manufacture of iron, only Pittsburg 
 surpasses Chicago. 
 
 In the value of its manufactures, Chicago ranks 
 second among American cities. The various articles 
 made or prepared for market in a single year in this 
 great city are worth nearly as much as all the goods 
 iuiported into the United States during the same length 
 of time. 
 
 Philadelphia has a fine harbor on the tidal portion 
 of the Delaware 
 river. This 
 
 city is not far from rich mines 
 of coal and iron ore. Phila- 
 delphia, therefore, exports coal, 
 and manufactures great quan- 
 tities of iron and steel goods. 
 Philadelphia now leads the world in making woollen 
 
 carpets. Nearly all the new iron ships of the United 
 
 States navy are built there. 
 
 The foreign tra^e of Philadelphia is about one-tenth 
 as great as that of New York. 
 
 Boston, the chief trade centre of New England, now 
 has a population, of more than half a million, — about 
 one-tenth of the people in this group of states, Boston 
 owes its growth largely to the fact that here the rail- 
 roads from the west reach the chief harbor on the New 
 England coast. Among American cities Boston ranks 
 second in foreign commerce. It has also a large domes- 
 tic commerce. ^ ' / "' • 
 
126 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 St. Louis haa a population about equal to that of 
 Boston. The former city is the principal trade centre 
 of the middle Mississippi valley, and is reached by rail- 
 roads and rivers from nearly all parts. Many of the 
 products of this fertile valley find a market in St. Louis ; 
 and this city sends out groceries, clothing, and agricul- 
 tural implements. 
 
 No American city, except Minneapolis, surpasses St. 
 Louis in the production of flour. This great 
 river port is near the Kentucky tobacco district, 
 and ranks next to New York in the manufacture 
 of tobacco goods. 
 
 ^<Ieat-packing is an important industry in St 
 Louis. 
 
 San PranciSOO is the natural outlet for 
 the products of the valley of California. More 
 wheat is exported from this sea-port than from 
 any other A cnerican city. It leads also in the 
 refining of s igar. 
 
 San Francisco has a large inland trade in 
 wheat, flour and fruits. The principal manu- 
 factures of the city are clothing, boots and shoes. 
 
 Among the imports are silk and tea from 
 China and Japan, and sugar from Honolulu. 
 
 New Orleans has an excellent harbor on 
 
 the Ohio river, and fully a score of railroad lines enter 
 this city. The chief manufactures of Cincinnati are 
 clothing pnd liquors. Meat-packing is an important 
 industry. Many kinds of iron goods are also made here. 
 Cleveland is within easy reach of the coalfields of 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania ; and the oil districts in the 
 same states; of the iron mines of the Lake Superior 
 region ; of the soft-wood forests of Michigan, and the 
 
 the Mississippi river, and has grown to be the largest 
 city in the Southern States. Though its important trade 
 in foreign goods is not large, yet its foreign exiwrt trade 
 surpasses that of every other city in the Union except 
 New York. New Orleans sends yearly to Europe cotton 
 valued at nearly $100,000,000. This city has also a 
 very large trade in sugar, rice and corn. New Orleans 
 has had rapid growth in manufactures. 
 
 Cincinnati has about ten miles of waterfront on 
 
 hard-wood forests of Ohio. 
 
 With these advantages, Cleve- 
 land has become a leading city in 
 iron and steel manufactures, in 
 oil refining, in ship-building, and 
 in other great industries. More 
 petroleum is refined in Cleveland 
 than in any other city of the 
 Union. 
 
 Minneapolis. — The flour 
 
 made yearly in Minneapolis 
 could not be purchased by all the 
 gold mined in the United States 
 during the same length of time. 
 No other city in the Union pro- 
 duces one-half as much flour. 
 More than one-fourth of Minnesota i3 covered with forests 
 of white pine. The Mississippi river, above Minneapolis, 
 is fed by many streams from the forest area, and this city 
 has therefore become the leading lumber market in the 
 Northwest. 
 
 St. Paul is a great railroad centre, and is at the head 
 of steamboat navigation on the Mississippi. The princi- 
 pal industry of this city consists in gathering the products 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 127 
 
 of the surrounding region, and in shipping supplies to the 
 farming and lumbering districts. 
 
 Baltimore is on a fine harbor not far from the head 
 of Chesapeake bay. The foreign commerce of this city 
 is about equal to that of Philadelphia. Its bay supplies 
 more oysters than are taken from any other equal area 
 in the world. 
 
 Providence, the second city in size in New Eng- 
 land, is at the head of Narragansett bay, — a partly 
 drowned valley. This city has great woollen mills, and 
 the largest jewellery factories in the United States. 
 
 Buffalo is a great railroad centre, and is the western 
 terminus of the Erie Canal. 
 
 EansaS City, Mo., is one of the leading railroad cen 
 
 Denver is a supply city for mining districts in the 
 Rocky mountains, and for cattle ranches on the West- 
 ern plains. Few cities in the United States have had a 
 more rapid growth than this state capital of Colorado. 
 
 Milwaukee is the second city in size on Lake 
 Michigan. This port has an excellent harbor, and car- 
 ries on an sxtensive lake commerce similar to that of 
 Chicago. 
 
 Detroit has a fine harbor on the Detroit river. This 
 city, like Chicago and Cleveland, is within easy reach of 
 the limiber and iron regions. Detroit is noted for the 
 manufacture of cars and iron goods. 
 
 New Haven is the largest railroad centre and port 
 in Connecticut, and is the seat of Yalo University. This 
 city manufactures hardware and fire- 
 arms. 
 
 Duluth. is the eastern terminus of 
 the Northern Pacific railroad, and is 
 at the south-western end of Dike 
 Superior. This city is the outlet of 
 the wiieat district in the Red River 
 prairies. 
 
 tres in the Mississippi basin. This city, therefore, has an 
 extensive trade with the surrounding agricultural dis- 
 tricts. It is one of the greatest markets for farming 
 implements in the country. 
 
 Pittsburg's leading industry is the manufacture of 
 iron and steel goods. Among these are locomotives, 
 steel rails, car wheels, and armor plate for ships of war. 
 
 Excellent sand for glass-making is found in the upper 
 Ohio valley, and Pittsburg is famous for glassware. 
 
 This city has a large trade in soft co%l and petroleum. 
 
 Indianapolis is the centre of trade of the rich farm- 
 ing and grazing districts of middle Indiana. Several 
 lines of railroad meet in this city. They bring in grain 
 and cattle, and carry back the various kinds of goods 
 which are needed on the great farms. Meat-packing and 
 flour-milling are leading industries in Indianapolis. 
 
 Fall River and Lowell manufacture more cotton 
 cloth than any other two cities in America. It would 
 take thiee-fourths of all the gold mined yearly in the 
 United States to pay for cotton goods made in Fall 
 River alone. 
 
 Portland, the largest city in Maine, is on a fine harbw, 
 and has a large coasting trade. In winter, when the 
 St. Lawrence river is frozen over, Portland serves as a' 
 port for some of Canada's foreign trade. 
 
 Omaha is a large railroad centre and a shipping' 
 point for cattle and grain. 
 
 Charleston is the chief sea-T)ort of South Carolina. 
 This city and Wilmington export more resin and turpen- 
 tine than any other two ports in the world. 
 
 Salt Lake City is an important ran. -tad centre. 
 
128 
 
 MEXICO, CEXTEAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 Mexico, Central America, 
 and the West Indies. 
 
 Mexico — About nine-tenths of the people of Mexico 
 live in the uplands, where there is good farming and 
 grazing land. Cattle-raising is a leading industry. 
 Among the agricultural products are cofiFee, cotton, 
 sugar cane, and tobacco. 
 
 Mexico has rich mines of silver and other minerals. 
 The most valuable mines are in the region of the Sierra 
 Madre. This country has few mills or 
 factories. The chief manufacture is cot- 
 ton cloth. 
 
 The leading exports from 
 Mexico are silver, coffee, and 
 cattle. The trade is car- 
 ried on largely through 
 the ports of Vera 
 Cruz on the east, 
 and Acapulco on 
 the south. 
 
 Mexico, the capital 
 and principal city of 
 
 Central 
 America. 
 The small 
 republics in 
 Central 
 America do 
 not form a 
 Union like 
 the states ia 
 the United States or in Mexi- 
 co. A large part of the foreign 
 trade of Central America 
 consists of coffee, bananas, 
 rubber, and indigo. 
 
 British Honduras ia a 
 
 British Crown Colony, and consists of a coast strip 
 about one-fourth the size of New Brunswick. It is very 
 valuable on account of the forests of mahogany and dye- 
 woods, which are largely exported. The chief town, 
 Belize, has Bj good harbor. 
 
 West Indies — The name West Indies ia given to the 
 group of islands which partly enclose the Gulf of 
 Mexico and the Carribean sea. The products of these 
 islands are similar to those of Mexico and Central Am- 
 erica, but the most valuable are fruits, sugar, tobacco, 
 and coffee. Cuba is a republic ; Jamaica and the Bahama 
 islands belong to Great Britain and Puerto Rico to the 
 
 the republic, has a population one and a half 
 times that of Montreal. 
 
 United 
 States. The is- 
 land of Hayti 
 comprises the 
 two small re- 
 publics of 
 Hayti and 
 Santo Dom- 
 ingo. 
 
 Two- thirds 
 of the popu- 
 lation of Cuba 
 
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 120 
 
 LoniUoil* 
 
 
 
 
 
 ««vaL«Ri 
 
 XICO ^ 
 OENTBAL AMERICA A>D 
 yWESIIHDIES 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 '* 
 
 « 
 
 
 West from 
 
 C?<i, S ^ OX. O M"B J 
 
 Greenwich 
 
 E Z U Ef L 4 Or^£> 
 M B 
 
 are of Spanish descent, but there are many Negroes. 
 Havana, the capital and chief seaport, is one of the 
 greatest sugar markets in the world. 
 
 The western half of the island of Hayti is settled 
 chiefly by Negroes ; the eastern half has a mixed popu- 
 lation of Negroes and people of Spanish descent. The 
 latter outnumber the former. 
 
 The island is divided into two states. The negro 
 republic of Hayti occupies the western part. Port au 
 Prince is the Capital. The Dominican republic occupies 
 the eastern part. Its capital is Santo Domingo. 
 
 The British West Indies.— The British West 
 
 Indian Islands are Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of 
 the Lesser Antilles. Jamaica is next in size to Cuba 
 and Hayti. The scenery here almost equals that of the 
 Rocky mountains at Banff. The climate in the moun- 
 tains is healthy. Sugar, coffee, fruits and spice are the 
 chief exports. Kingston is the chief commercial city. 
 It has a fine harbor. 
 
 The Bahamas consist of about 20 inhabited islands 
 and several thousand i"ocks. These are of coral forma- 
 tion. The trade in sponges is krge. Coral, green turtles 
 and salt are also exported. Nassau, the capital, is an 
 important health resort. 
 
 The Leeward Islands are a group of nine princi- 
 
 pal islands under one government. St, John, the capital, 
 ib on Antigua. 
 
 The Windward Islands do not all belong to the 
 
 British. The southern islands are grouped under a 
 British govenor. Bridgetown, the capital, is on the 
 island of Barbadocs. 
 
 ■exlean CMIdrfea. 
 
130 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 South America is not so large as North Am- 
 erica. Both these contineuts have the same 
 general outline, narrowing towards the south. 
 
 The two lauds resemble each other in their 
 relief or surface forms. Each has a long 
 western highland and also a great central 
 plain, with lower eastern highlands. 
 
 The isthmus of Panama joins the two parts 
 of America. Along this neck of land, the 
 primary highland consists of a hiUy ridge. 
 Passes among the hills are only about three 
 hundred feet above sea level. 
 
 This isthmus is only about thirty miles 
 wide, and a man can walk across it in a day. 
 A railway crosses from shore to shore. An 
 attempt is being made to dig a ship canal 
 through the isthmus. 
 
 East of the Andes, South America consists 
 
 chiefly of great plains covered with forests or 
 
 grass. 
 
 The great plains are broken on the north- 
 cast by the highland of Guiana, and on the 
 south-east by the highland of Brazil. These 
 are much lower than the Andes. 
 
 The north and middle parts of South Am- 
 erica are in the trade wind belts and therefore 
 have frequent rains wherever these winds rise 
 over the mountains. The equatorial rain belt 
 also shifts north and south across the northern 
 half of the continent. 
 
 The southern part of the continent reaches 
 far into the cool belt, in the path of the stormy 
 westerly winds. 
 
 The warm equatorial currents of the Atlantic, moving 
 westward under the trade winds, divide on the eastern 
 point of South America and sweep along the north-east 
 and south-east coasts. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 ini 
 
 2. Map Studies. 
 
 What oceans border on South Am- 
 erica] Which part of the wofld ridge 
 is in this continent t Along which coa^t 
 does it extend t 
 
 In what direction ia South America 
 from North America? What isthmus 
 unites these continents? What oceans 
 lie east and west of both ? 
 
 On which side of the equator is the 
 greater part of South America? Over 
 which part of this continent does the belt 
 of equatorial rains shift north and south ? 
 Which part is in the belt of westerly 
 winds? 
 
 In what direction does the Andes high- 
 land extend? Which coast does it fol- 
 low ? Which part of the highland looks 
 the highest? The widest? 
 
 Compare the Andes highland and the 
 Rocky Mountain highland as follows : 
 Which is the higher ? The longer t The 
 wider ? In what respects are they alike ? 
 
 Where is the plateau of Bolivia ? What 
 lake is on this plateau ? 
 
 Where is the highland of Brazil? 
 Compare it with the Andes highland, in 
 length ; in width ; in shape. Compare 
 the Brazilian and Appalachian highlands 
 in width and shape. 
 
 Where is the Guiana highland ? Is it 
 larger or smaller than the highland of 
 Brazil ? 
 
 On which side of the Andes is the great plain of 
 South America t What highlands are on the northeast 
 and the southeast? 
 
 Describe the course of the Amazon river. In which 
 heat belt does the greater part of the Amazon basin lie ? 
 
 Where is the La Plata river ? Which river system 
 drains the larger basin, the Amazon or the La Plata? 
 To which river basin does the northwest slope of the 
 Brazilian highland belong ? The southwest slope ? Which 
 part of the central plain is drained by the Orinoco river ? 
 What highland partly separates the basin of the Orin- 
 oco from that of the Amazon ? 
 
 Compare the central plains of North America and 
 South America as follows : What large river system 
 drains the southern part of each ? The northern part ? 
 The north-central part ? 
 
 SOUTH IHEBIOA 
 
 fi "' too ' «N ' M" aio 
 
 Draw the general outline of South America, — using 
 only throe straight lines. State the general direction of 
 each coast. Which is the longest ? : 
 
 Sketch the Pacific coast of all America. Which is 
 the more regular, the west coast of North America or 
 that of South America ? 
 
 Sketch the north coasts of both continents. Which 
 of these coasts is the more irregular ? Which is in the 
 colder belt ? Sketch the east coast of • all America. 
 Compare the two parts. 
 
 Where is the Caribbean sea ? Namo a river flowing 
 northward into the sea. Where is the San Francisco river? 
 
 Make a list of the countries of South America with 
 their capitals. 
 
 Why is the climate of Quito pleasant, although it is 
 at the equator t 
 
RBUl^i? MAP OF SOUTH AMBRIOA. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 133 
 
 3. The Andes Highland. 
 
 The Andes highland consists of 
 a gi'eat mountain system, with 
 many long and high valleys be- 
 tween its ranges. This highland 
 extends about one-fifth of the way 
 around the earth. 
 
 The west slope of the Andes is 
 short and in most parts steep. 
 East oi this highland lie broad 
 plains. In the vaUey of the Ama- 
 zon' are the selvas, or forest plains. 
 Other parts of the plains are grass 
 lands. 
 
 The southern portion of the 
 Andes has partly sunk beneath the sea. Many 
 fine fiords now occupy deep vaUeys worn in the 
 western slope. Ridges and peaks that the sea 
 did not entirely cover, form a fringe of iplands. 
 
 About half way between Cape Horn and the 
 
 Chlmborazo. 
 
 sharp bend in the Pacific coast, the Andes 
 chain is very high. Some of the peaks are 
 more than four miles above the sea level, and 
 are white with snow all the year. 
 
 West of thiS part of the iaides lies the long 
 and narrow plain of middle Chile. The land near 
 the sea is rugged but not veiy high. The plain 
 is between this rough coast land and the Andes. 
 
 The plateau of Bolivia Hes in the widest part 
 of the Andes. It is the highest plateau in 
 America, and is shut in both on the east and 
 west by lofty ranges. The plateau of Bolivia 
 averages about 12,000 feet in height. 
 
 On the plateau of Bolivia there is a large sheet of 
 water, known as Lake Titicaca. 
 
 Titicaca is the largest lake in South America, and is 
 the loftiest large body of water in the New World. 
 
 City <>r I'aiiaiiia. 
 
 Although high, the plateau of Bolivia is too near the 
 equator to be very cold. Corn and potatoes grow around 
 the lake, and cattle, alpacas, and llamas graze there. 
 The mountains yield much silver ore. 
 
 North-west of Bolivia the plateau is neither 
 so wide nor quite so high. In the Andes of 
 Peru, the ranges on the east are separated by 
 long and deep valleys in which many rivers 
 flow to the lowlands. The rains of the trade 
 winds are very heavy on this eastern mountain 
 slope, which is therefore covered with dense 
 forests. 
 
 For more than a thousand miles along the 
 west slope of the middle Andes, there is a 
 region known as the rainless coast. The desert 
 of Atacama, at the southern end of the rainless 
 coast, merges into the fertile plain of middle 
 Chile. This desert is at the northern end of 
 the country of Chile. 
 
 Cape norn. 
 
134 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 In the northern part of the Andes are many 
 high and wide valleys, wallod in by mountain 
 ranges. Some of these valleys are covered 
 with coarse wash from the mountains and are 
 dry and barren. Others are coated with fine 
 soil, largely made of weathered volcanic ash. 
 One of the most noted of these high valleys is 
 that of Quito, a little less than two miles above 
 sea level. 
 
 The valley of Quito is in the iiiidHt of the most noted 
 group of volcanos in the world. There may be seen 
 cones so old that their sides are cut by streams, and cones 
 smooth with recent flows of lava and showers of ashes. 
 
 Some of the volcanoes are very active. Cotopaxi, 
 about twice as high as the plain of Quito, is the loftiest 
 active volcano known. The summit of this great cone is 
 buried in snow, and is of tta hidden by clouds. Another 
 famous peak is Chimborazo. This giant cone is higher 
 than Cotopaxi, but is not active. 
 
 Many earthquakes occur in this volcanic region. For 
 this reason most of the houses are built low and flat. 
 They are made chiefly of sun-dried bricks. During one 
 
 earthquak c, 
 about a cen- 
 tury ago, forty 
 thousand peo- 
 ple are said to 
 have been 
 killed in Quito. 
 
 In the ex- 
 treme north 
 the Andes 
 divide into three 
 main ranges. 
 The western 
 range is not 
 
 Tke (Condor. 
 
 very high, and it ends near the isthmus of Pan- 
 ama. The middle chain runs almost due north. 
 The eastern range curves for some distance 
 along the northern coast. 
 
 The long valleys east and west of the middle 
 chain are drained by the Magdalena river and 
 its branches. The Magdalena river is the chief 
 watei-way in Columbia, and is navigable for 
 many miles from the sea. 
 
 4. The Highland of Brazil. 
 The highland of Brazil is shaped like a tri- 
 angle, with one side lying along the 
 east coast. The coastal part is the 
 highest. As a whole, fhe 
 highland of Brazil is only 
 about one-sixth as high as 
 that of the Andes, or about 
 equal to the Appalachian 
 liighland. 
 
 Long rivers flow 
 northward and south- 
 ward from about the 
 middle of the highland 
 of Brazil. This part of 
 the highland is a pla- 
 teau, not yet deeply cut 
 by streams. Farther north 
 and south, deep and wide 
 
to Longltsde M Weat 70 ham SO Qreenwlch M 
 
 to 
 
 mm 
 
ISfi 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 voUeys have boon worn in the plateau, louvliit? 
 long ridgeH ' ntween thorn. Rapids niul fulls 
 abound in must of tlio stroainH and inako thoiii 
 unfit for watoi-ways. 
 
 The coast of this highland region is ]»ot 
 broken by long bays. Tho bost liarbor is that 
 of Rio Janiero. It is doop and broad, and ranks 
 among the finest in tho world. Ro(^ky reefs 
 help to form harbors in sonio placios along tho 
 coast of Brazil. 
 
 Towards tho (H)aHt dons(» forests (iovor largo 
 areas in tliis higliland. In tho inland region, 
 where the rainfall is lighter than it is near 
 the coast, there are wide gi'assy plains known 
 as the campos. Herds of cattle graze on tho 
 campos. 
 
 Many useful plants are raised on tho high- 
 land, — chiefly in the rainy eastern pai-t. Among 
 these are coffee, sugar cane, cotton and cassava. 
 
 Rio Janiero is tho ^ji catost coffee market in the world- 
 
 6. The Guiana Highland. 
 
 On the northeast tho gi-eat 
 plain of South America is 
 broken by tho Guiana liighlai 
 
 Tliis lugldand is readied by tho equatorial 
 rains and therefore lias itr wott»wt season dur- 
 ing the hot months. In all seasons (ho highest 
 portions aro well watoi-ed, for tho trade winds 
 give out rain as they rise over the hif^hlund. 
 
 On tho north of tho Guiana lii^liland lies a wixxlod 
 coiiHtal plain. Largo HwampH that oxtcud along the 
 Hliorearetho liomo 
 of many alligatorH. 
 Tho slope paHHCH 
 HO gently under- 
 the H(>a that ut lou 
 tide wide tracts ot 
 sand and mud are 
 laid bare. 
 
 0-^ 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 ! \.^-f i 
 
 Py 
 
 •""""l :xc:z-^^:-g' 
 
 
 the 
 to 
 
 sea 
 the 
 
 IS for the most 
 [part a much- 
 w o r n plateau, 
 I with flat- topped 
 hi'ls and moun- 
 I tains rising in 
 high cliffs from wide valleys. One of these 
 table mountains, near the central part of the 
 highland, rises about a mile and a haH abuve 
 sea level, but most of the peaks ai'e not half so 
 high. 
 
 Much of th(* 
 
 south slope . of 
 
 the highland 
 
 consists of 
 
 rough hills and 
 
 bare rocky val- 
 leys, for the winds from 
 give their rains mostly 
 northern slopes. 
 
 6. The Selvas. 
 
 The slopes oast of tlio crest of the 
 Andes are mainly in throo gi'oat river 
 basins. The divides between these 
 basins cross the highlands of Brazil 
 and Guiana, and the lowlands farther 
 inland. 
 
 The Amazon basin is between tho 
 other two. The highest parts of its 
 long slope are h the Andes. The lowest pai-t 
 are coastal swamps, more than two thousand 
 miles oast of the snowy peaks. The side slopes 
 descend from the highland of Brazil on the 
 south, and that of Guiana on the norih. 
 
 Tho Amazon basin is the largest in the world. 
 It comprises about one-th'-d of the continent. 
 
 This basin is in the equatorial rain bolt, and 
 its rainfall is veiy heavy. The Amazon river 
 carries more water to the ocean > inn any other 
 river in the world. Its muddy water is seen 
 
SOUTH AMEKICA. 
 
 137 
 
 V I i» 
 
 ;' '.,1 ' . . '.' V, 
 
 ,/'^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 ':' •■ •» 
 
 ,7^ 
 
 ^ li ^;. 
 
 W. ,^•■/_ T^KJkj 
 
 Nallvei of the Helraii. 
 
 at sea for a great distauce from land. Some 
 branches of the Amazon rise in the Andes, 
 and the water which follows the winding 
 bank down from those sources to the mouth 
 flows about four thousand miles. 
 
 The main branches of the Amazon are the 
 Madeira river on the south and the Negi'o 
 
 Scene on the Amazon. 
 
 river on the north. Large steamers go up 
 the Amazon from the sea to the foothills of 
 the Andes. For great distances many of the 
 tiibutaries are deep, wide, and free from rapids. 
 The length of navigable streams in the Ama- 
 zon system is greater than the distance round 
 the earth. 
 
 Par of tho wide mouth of the Amazon lias so strong 
 
 a tidal wave or bore, that small lir/ats cazmot 
 
 outride it. 
 
 Dense forests, called sclvaa^ cover 
 
 the lowlands of the ,\.iiazon basin. 
 
 Long vines hang from the trees, and 
 
 reeds and rushes grow in the wet soil, 
 
 fomaing a network so tliick in some 
 
 jilaces that one cannot pass through 
 
 without first cuttuig a path. 
 
 Tree ferns and palms in great 
 variety gi'ow in the selvas. Many 
 beautiful birds live among the high 
 tree tops. 
 
 Many small tribes of Indians live 
 
 near the banks of the streams. 
 
 These natives catch fish in the 
 
 rivers, and animals in the forest. 
 
 Large rubber trees grow on the hot anfi 
 
138 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 daanp banks of the 
 Amazon. Deep 
 cuts are made in 
 the bark, and cups 
 are placed be- 
 neath them to 
 catch the milky 
 juice which oozes 
 out. When 
 heated in certain 
 kinds of smoke, 
 this juice dries, 
 thickens, and 
 forms rubber of a 
 fine quality. 
 
 The most 
 splendid for- 
 ests of rose- 
 wood, ma- 
 panipiiH <irH»>,. hogaiiy, and 
 
 other expensive woods found in the world, are 
 in the valleys of the Orinoco and the Amazon. 
 
 7. The Valley c*' the La Plata. 
 
 South of the Amazon basin Ues the La Plata 
 basin. It reaches from the crest of the Andes 
 on the west to the crest of the coast range on 
 the east. 
 
 This basin is about one-half as large as that 
 of the Amazon. The main stream is the Par- 
 ana river which flows into the broad La Plata 
 river. 
 
 The lowland of the La Plata basin is a young 
 plain in which the rivers have cut only narrow 
 and shallow valleys. The northern part of this 
 plain is called the gran chaco, or great hunting 
 ground. South of the chaco the lain takes 
 the name of pampas, meaning jtelds. The 
 pampas extend also far south of the La Plata 
 basin. 
 
 Deep rich soil covers large portions of the 
 La Plata plain, and its grass feeds millions of 
 cattle, pheep and horses. Much grain also is 
 raised in this region. In some places there are 
 clumps of tall coarse grass covered with soft 
 plumes. This is known as pampas grass. 
 
 8. The Llanoa 
 
 The third large river basin in South Am- 
 erica is that of the Orinoco. On the south 
 it adjoins the basin of the Amazon. On 
 the west and north the Andes form the 
 boundary. 
 
 The lowland of this basin is a very young 
 coastal plain. Its rivers flow in naiTow valleys 
 worn only a little below the level of the plain. 
 The main river has made a large delta that is 
 low and swampy. 
 
 The plains of the Orinoco are called the llanos. 
 When the sun is north of the equator they are 
 visited by the equatorial rain belt. The rivers 
 are then swollen by heavy rains, and spread 
 far and wide over their flood plains. Im- 
 mense herds of cattle and droves of sheep 
 feed on the rich gi-ass which springs up all 
 over the wet plains. The region then teems 
 with life. 
 
 As the sun's rays become more and more 
 slanting the rains leave the llanos and move 
 south towards the campos. The overflow in 
 the lowland is slowly drained off. The rivers 
 then grow smaller and shrink away from their 
 banks. Ttirtles and snakes bury themselves 
 
 in the 
 mud. The 
 smaller 
 streams 
 dry away, 
 leaving only 
 parched beds, 
 with here and there 
 muddy pools. 
 During the dry 
 season a great 
 change takes 
 place in the 
 life on the 
 plains. 
 Hot trade 
 'winds scorch 
 the grass 
 and other plants. They die down to the roots 
 
 Tree Dwellers of the Orinoco. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 189 
 
 and thus await the re- 
 tui-n of the rams. The 
 cattle and sheep move 
 into the flood plains, 
 or are driven to the 
 gi'ass lands along the 
 border foothills. The 
 plain becomes almost 
 a desert. 
 
 In some places it is diffi- 
 cult to trace the divides be- 
 tween the three great river 
 basins of South America. 
 
 The Orinoco river and Rio 
 
 Negro tributary of the Amazon are connected by the 
 Cassiquiari river. Tributaries of the Amazon and 
 Paraguay rivers, navigable by canoes, are separated by 
 only three miles of plain. 
 
 With the exception of a few rapids and the portage 
 of three miles, a person might journey in a canoe from 
 the delta of the Orinoco to the broad mouth of the La 
 Plata. 
 
 9. Oountries of South America. 
 
 The countries of South America are 
 repubhcs, except Guiana. 
 
 Bra<zil — This country is nearly as large as 
 Europe. The selvas give many kinds of 
 wood useful for dyeing, for cabinet work, and 
 for ship-building. Coffee, cotton, tobacco, and 
 India-rubbeiare the chief agricultural products; 
 About half of all the coffee produced in the 
 world is grown in Brazil. The country is also 
 very rich in minerals. Quicksilver, copper, and 
 diamonds are the principal minerals. 
 
 Rio Janiero, the capital of this republic, is 
 on a deep and spacious harbor sheltered by 
 hills on all dides. This port is ne-^j the richest 
 coffee districts in Brazil, and is the largest 
 coffee market in the world. 
 
 Other exports from Rio Janiero are sugar, hidos, to- 
 bacco, and diamonds. 
 
 The principal imports into Brazil, are cotton cloth and 
 machinery. 
 
 Bahia, a large port north-eastward from Rio Janiero, 
 resembles the latter in its foreign trade. 
 
 Pernambuco is the leading sugar port of Brazil. 
 
 Paha is on one of the wide distributaries of the 
 
 Amazon. This city has a large 
 
 rubber trau;*. 
 
 Other exports from the Ama- 
 zon basin, mostly through Para, 
 are cocoa, Brazil nuts, hides 
 and Peruvian bark. 
 
 Argentine Republic— 
 
 Five-sixti of Argentina con- 
 sist of plains. The people of 
 this republic are engaged chiefly 
 in raising cattle, sheep, wheat, 
 and Indian corn. In the pro- 
 duction of wool, Argentina is 
 second only to Australia. 
 
 Buenos Atres, one of the principal ports of the con- 
 tinent, has a large foreign trade in hides, wool, mutton 
 and wheat. The leading imports are cloth and railway 
 materials. 
 
 Cordova and La Plata are important trade centres. 
 The former has a university and an academy of sciences. 
 
 Uruguay — This is the smallest country in South 
 America. The people are mostly natives of mixed races. 
 Wool and hides are the principal exports. 
 
 Montevideo is the capital and the largest port. 
 
 Paraguay — In this small republic the most valu- 
 
 A tiqaaro iu Montfevldea. 
 
140 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 able product is Paraguay tea, or yerha tnat^. Tliere are 
 good grazing lands in, this country. Ascuncion, the 
 capital, is the commercial centre. 
 
 Chile is a long, narrow country west of the Andes 
 extending from the southern point of South America to 
 Peru. The country is mountainous, with fertile valleys 
 between the mountains. The people are enterprising. 
 Their export trade is chiefly with Great Britain. This 
 republic has great mineral wealth. Copper, silver and 
 nitre are abundant in the northern half of Chile. Rich 
 mines of coal are being worked in the southern half. 
 
 The principal farming products of Chile are wheat 
 and wine grapes. 
 
 Valparaiso is the chief pert. Most of the imports, — 
 such as cloth, cattleand sugar, — are received into this city. 
 
 Santiago is the capital and largest city of Chile. 
 Santiago is in a wide valley on the western slope of the 
 Andes, more than one-third of a mile above sea level. 
 
 Bolivia — West of the Andes this country is chiefly 
 desert. East of the Andes it is a great plain covered 
 with trees. This inland country has rich mines of 
 silver. Its rubber product is of the Hnest quality. It 
 aJso produces sugar, spices, quinine, and alpaca wool. 
 
 Bolivia has no seaport, but many of its products are 
 exported through Buenos Ayres, Arica (Chile), and 
 other ports. 
 
 La Paz and Sucre are the principal cities. Sucre is 
 the capital. Potosi is noted for its silver mines. 
 
 Peru — Sugar and cotton are raised in the flood 
 plains of the small rivers of western Peru. Sheep and 
 alpacas are reared in the highlands. Sugar, cotton and 
 wool are the leading exports. Silver, Peruvian bark, 
 nitre and guano are also exported. Cloth is tlie most 
 valuable article of impi '-t. 
 
 Lima is the largest city and capital of this country. 
 
 Callao is one of the principal seaports of western South 
 .Vmeriea. 
 
 Ecuador — The western part of Ecuador is moun- 
 tainous. Tlio eastern part is flat and very hot. Sugar, 
 cotton, coffee and tropical fruits arc produced in con- 
 siderable quantities. The staple product of Ecuador is 
 cocoa. This country, like all the others crossed by the 
 Andes, has rich mineral deposits. 
 
 Ecuador is crossed by the efjuator. The lower part 
 of the country is very hot. The high western part is 
 pleasant and healthful. 
 
 Quito is the capital. Guayaquil is the largest city. 
 
 Colombia — The leading exports of this country are 
 coffee, cocoa, mahogany, rubber and su^ar. 
 
 Bogota, the capital, is over a mile and a half above 
 tlie sea level. 
 
 Panama, at the Pacific end of the Panama railroad, 
 is an important port. A large portion of the freight 
 which passes between the Atlantic and the Pacifio 
 goes through Panama 
 
 Venezuela — Coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton, mahogany 
 and rublier are the most valuable exports from Vene- 
 zuela. Many hides are shipped from the Orinoco basin. 
 
 Caracas and Valencia are the most important cities 
 of this country. 
 
 Guiana — This country is owned by three European 
 countries, England, France, and Holland. The climate 
 is pleasant, owing to the trade winds, and strong land 
 and sea breezes. Sugar, Cayenne pepper, coffee, rice, 
 medicinal plants and spices are the chief productions. 
 
 British Guiana is the largest division. George- 
 town is the capital. Dutch Guiana is the central part. 
 Paramaribo is its capital. 
 
 French 
 Guiana is the 
 eastern part 
 of the coun- 
 try. Its capi- 
 tal is Cay- 
 enne, after 
 
 which Cay- 
 enne pepper is 
 named. It is 
 situated on an 
 island witli 
 the same 
 name. T h e 
 French use 
 this colony as 
 a penal settle- 
 ment. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 141 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 1. Europe is a little larger in size than the 
 Dominion of Canada. This continent fonns 
 the western port of Eurasia. 
 
 Europe may be divided into three regions, — 
 mountainous highlands in 
 the southwest, lower high- 
 lands in the northwest, with 
 lowlands between the high- 
 
 Europe is in the path of the westerly winds. 
 The west coast, therefore, receives the heaviest 
 rainfall, but a fair amount of rain falls in the 
 interior, though becoming less and less as the 
 farther inland regions are reached. The rain- 
 fall around the Caspian sea is light. 
 
 Owing largely to the winds from over the 
 
 land regions, 
 and also 
 spreading far 
 to the north-east. Many peninsulas and seas 
 make the coast of Europe more kregular than 
 that of any other continent. 
 
 Alm ost, the whole of this continent is in the 
 cool belt. Only the southern peninsulas pro- 
 ject into the warm belt. 
 
 drift of the Gulf 
 stream, the western 
 part of Europe has a 
 much milder climate 
 than the Atlantic and 
 Arctic coasts of Am- 
 erica at the saiie dis- 
 tance from the equator. 
 The many seas which 
 border on Europe help 
 to give much of it an 
 even climate ; but the 
 great plain in eastern Europe is far away from 
 the Atlantic ocean, and therefore has hot sum- 
 mers and cold winters. 
 
 2. Map Studies. 
 
 Which is tlie larger, — Nortli America or Europe? 
 What oceans lie between these continents ? 
 
 What seas and mountains bound Europe on the 
 south? What mountains, river, and sea, separate the 
 

 
 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 143 
 
 northern plain of Eurasia into two parts, 
 
 — one in Asia and the other in Europe ? 
 
 Which of tliese parts is the larger ? 
 
 Which half of Europe consists largely 
 
 of highlands? Of plains 1 What coun- 
 tries are partly bounded by the Pyrenees 1 
 
 By the Caucasus and Ural mountains'? By 
 
 the Alps? By the Kiolcn mountains? 
 
 By the Carpathian mountains ? 
 
 What countries border on the North 
 
 sea ? Baltic sea ? Gulf of Bothnia ? Bay 
 
 of Biscay? Adriatic sea? ^gean sea? 
 
 What great seas partly bound Russia? 
 
 Where is the Irish sea? The strait ol! 
 
 Dover ? The strait of Gibraltar ? 
 
 Where does the "Volga river rise ? De- 
 scribe its course. Into what sea does it 
 
 flow ? In what general direction does the 
 
 Danube river flow and into whiil sea? 
 
 Where is the Seine river ? The Thames ? 
 
 ThePo? The Dnieper? The Rhine? The 
 
 Rhone? The Elbe. See map of Central 
 
 Europe, page 159. 
 
 Which heat belts cross Europe ? In which of these 
 
 belts is the broad middle part of the continent ? What 
 
 portion of Europe is in the warm belt ? In which belt 
 
 of winds does Europe lie? See maps on pages 15, 23 
 
 and 24. 
 
 Where are the Alps ? In what general direction 
 
 does the highland of south-western Europe extend? 
 
 Compare it with the Rocky Mountain highland, — in 
 
 trend, — in length, — in breadth. See globe map, page 4. 
 
 Where are the Valdai hills ? Name two rivers flow- 
 ing into the Caspian sen.. Describe the course of the 
 
 Dwina river. 
 Which one of these 
 rivers flows in the 
 coldest region ? 
 
 Draw the gener- 
 al shape of Europe, 
 — using three or 
 four straight lines. 
 Sketch each coast. 
 Which has the 
 more regular coast 
 line, — North Am- 
 erica or Europe ? 
 
 Make a list of 
 the countries and 
 capitals. 
 
 ^// 
 
 
 ^^m BBTTISH 
 
 
 
 kjl^^ ISIiES 
 
 
 > ^& 
 
 
 Kyi^^i^sis^ KEY TO RELIEF MAP 
 
 
 *^ K 
 
 
 k^V Xi SCALE OF HU.E9 
 
 
 
 Hfejfc m S T0"5) Tio 
 
 
 c ^m 
 
 
 vr^ m 
 
 
 o ^""''"'^ 
 
 
 ^^I^K^ar fl s'T n 
 
 
 "*"*'• ''"•mbJ^ 
 
 
 t^^~l-^^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^^5^1 3 Jff^ 
 
 
 ^ /^»^fvl 
 
 
 
 Syj^^^f^ _/•' 
 
 
 ^Shftl^^^i 
 
 
 aSiv ^'^ «i 
 
 w 
 
 |™raLf iKv 'jl^ 
 
 
 ml'' 1 
 
 
 ^^» '1^ 
 
 
 
 »! 
 
 ^^0^ ^^^ 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 ^My^xL^ 
 
 
 <^^ *o 
 
 
 ^s^^^^^ Dmn' '^S'S'^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 Name five large bodies of water that partly surrount 
 the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 What sea is east of England and Scotland ? 
 What three continent? surround the Mediterranean seat 
 
 3. Region of the Alps. 
 
 The outlet of the Black sea separates the 
 plateau region of southwest Asia from a chain 
 of highlands stretching -westward to the Atlan- 
 tic coast. The Alps, which form the mountain 
 centre of south-west Europe, are about as high 
 as the Rocky mountains in the park region. 
 
 The Alps have many sharp peaks, for they are too 
 young to be greatly worn down. They are not nearly 
 so old as the Appalachian highland. Slight earthquake 
 shocks are frequent in the Alps, and are taken to mean 
 that the mountains are still growing higher. 
 
 Among the Alps are great snow-capped peaks , down 
 whose sides long glaciers slowly wind, melting in the 
 valleys. ,1. . . ,' 
 
 The Alps are pierced by several railroad tunnels. The 
 St. Gothard tunnel ia nearly ten miles long, — the long- 
 est in the world. It connects the Swiss plateau with 
 the basin of the Po river. Mount Cenis tunnel ia near 
 the western end of the Po baain. 
 
 Thousands of cattle graze in the valleys 
 among the Alps. As the warm season ap- 
 
144 
 
 EUEOPE. 
 
 preaches and the winter snow melts away, the 
 cattle are di-iven to the grassy slopes high up 
 the mountain sides. The cold season finds the 
 herds again in the lower valleys. Choose is a 
 valuable product in this highland region, and 
 is a leading article of export. 
 
 There is veiy little coal in the Swiss plateau, 
 but swift streams supply plenty of power for 
 the mills and fac- 
 tories. The Swiss 
 people weave 
 large quantities 
 of sUk and cotton 
 goods, and make 
 many fine 
 watches. 
 
 The western 
 part of ihe Alps 
 bends southward 
 between the val- 
 leys of the Po and 
 the Ehone. This 
 part of the 
 mountain chain 
 extends to the 
 shore of the 
 MediteiTa- 
 nean sea. 
 
 Along 
 branch 
 called the 
 Apennines 
 runs the en- 
 tire length 
 of the pe- 
 ninsula of 
 Italy. 
 
 On the western side of the Rhone valley 
 rises the broad range known as the Cevennes. 
 These mountains are much older and lower 
 than the Alps, and contain the sources of many 
 streams flowing westward to the Atlantic. 
 
 The Jura mountains extend from the Ehine 
 river southwest into the valley of the Rhone. 
 
 They consist chiefly of low arches or folds, so 
 young that they have not yet been greatly 
 worn. Seepage 14it. 
 
 The mulberry tree, tipon whose leaves the silkworm 
 feeds, is common in southern Europe. The city of 
 Lyons, at the junction of the Rhone and Saone rivers, 
 has the largest silk manufactories in the world. 
 
 The Rhone, like all other rivers flowing into 
 
 seas having only faint currents, 
 is making a delta. This river is 
 so rapid that only steamers can 
 stem its current above the delta 
 plain, and thus reach Lyons. 
 
 On the north of the Swiss pla- 
 teau, many old and low moun- 
 tains extend far into Germany. 
 The surface of these mountain* 
 has been worn down to layers of 
 rock that were once deep in the 
 
 earth. They are rich in iron ore and other 
 
 minerals. 
 
 There are so many mines in these old mountains that 
 
 the Germans speak of all mining as mountain work. 
 On the east the Alpine highland reaches out to the 
 
 Carpathian range. On the southeast the highland sends 
 
 out branch ranges into the Balkan peninsula. These 
 
 are mostly low, like the mountains shown in the picture 
 
 of Maratlion, on page 146. 
 
146 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 4. The Spanish Pen- 
 insula. 
 
 The great peninsula 
 in sontliwest Eui'op(> 
 is kno A-n as the Span- 
 ish ])(')tinsula. The 
 lofty Pyrenees moun- 
 tains extend across its 
 isthmus. This gi'oat 
 peninsula is shared by 
 two countries, — Spain 
 and Portugal. 
 
 Among the moun- 
 tains of south-west 
 Europ(>, the Pyi-enees 
 are next in height to 
 the Alps, and fonn a lofty barrier between 
 France and Spain. 
 
 The Spanish peninsula consists mainly of 
 broad table-lands, with a border of narrow 
 coastal plains on 
 the east and 
 the west, 
 Mountain 
 ranges 
 almost 
 inclose 
 the up- 
 land re- 
 gion, 
 and oth- 
 
 Kldges 
 
 aad Troughit uf the Jura Ut'ilou. 
 
 extend across it. The general level is about 
 half a mile above the sea. This broad upland 
 surface is swept by chilly winter winds, and is 
 parched by summer sunshine. Only the spring 
 and autumn months are mild. The rainfall is 
 so light that the plateaus are almost treeless. 
 
 The river valleys in this peninsula are fertile. 
 Those of tlie Ebro and Guadalquivir rivers 
 form the broadest lowlands, but even these 
 are not very broad. The narrow coastal 
 plains also are fertile. Those on the west 
 and south-west coasts receive heavy rainfall ; 
 those on the east are well irrigated from im- 
 mense reservoirs in the uplands. Wheat and 
 barley are the chief gi-ain crops, but the pen- 
 insula is noted for its vineyards and 
 orange groves. Wine is the chief 
 article of export. 
 
 On the southern coast of Spain, near the 
 strait of Gibraltar, a small but famous penin- 
 sula extends into the sea. The body of the 
 peninsula consists of a mass of rock, about 
 two miles and a half long, known as the 
 Rock of Oibraltar. This Rock was once an 
 island, but sandy waste filled in the strait at 
 its northern end, and now a flat neck unites 
 the Hock with the mainland. Oibraltar is the 
 strongest fortress in the world. It belongs 
 to the British nation. 
 
EUKOPE. 
 
 147 
 
 5. The Po and the Apennines. 
 
 The Po river flows through a plain that is 
 not many foet above the sea level. This plain 
 is made of waste worn from the Alps and th'j 
 Apennines. The lowland consists of flood and 
 delta plains. No other region in Europe rivals 
 
 the vaUey of the Po in 
 
 the grandeur of 
 
 its magiiifioont 
 
 lan<l- 
 
 Itork of Cilliraltar. 
 
 The melting 
 .snow and ice 
 in the high 
 Alps feed 
 many of the Po 
 branches. One 
 of these flows from a glacier on Mount Blanc. 
 
 Along the northern border of the plain, near the foot 
 of the Alps, are some of the Alpine Lakes that are 
 famous for their beauty. Among these are Como, Garda 
 and Maggiore. 
 
 The Adige river drains part of this lowland but does 
 not join the Po. The floods of these rivers are so dan- 
 gerous that long banks, or dykes, have been built to 
 confine the water. As the streams continue to fill their 
 channels with waste from the mountains, the dykes are 
 built higher. In some places the surfaces of the rivers 
 are now higher than the plain. 
 
 The marshy deltas of the Po and the Adige are rap- 
 idly growing into the Adriatic sea. Some places that 
 were once seaports are now several miles inland. Along 
 the coast, sandy islands almost inclose lagoons. 
 
 The city of Venice is built on islands in one of these 
 lagoons. In this city, canals partly take the place of 
 streets. Boats called (jondolas are seen everywhere on 
 the canals. 
 
 Irrigating canals reach almost every part of 
 the valley of the Po and the Adige, making it 
 one large garden. Grains of all kinds thiive 
 
 there, and the foot hills are covered with vine- 
 yards. The meadows are mowed Ave or six 
 times a yoar, — yielding flno grass for dairy 
 cattle. Mulberry trees abound. 
 
 The St. Bernard pass is one of the most famous juisses 
 in the routes over the Alps from the Po valley. Since 
 the building of the railroads tlicse lofty passes have been 
 little used by travellers. See jnuje 148, 
 
 From the fertile plains in the north, the Apen- 
 nines extend towards the south-east through 
 the enthe length of the peninsula of Italy. This 
 celebrated range is older than the Alps, and 
 has no such lofty peaks as those 
 rising on the northwest of the 
 Po basin, but the upper parts of 
 the Apennines are buried in 
 snow all winter. 
 
 The foothiUs and coastal 
 plains southwest of the range 
 are sheltered, and produce many 
 kinds of fmit. Among these are 
 oranges, lemons, olives, and 
 grapes. This region is also fa- 
 mous for mulberry trees. Silk is the most valu- 
 able export from Italy. 
 
 The leaning tower, 
 shown on page 148, is in 
 Fisa, a city on the Amo 
 river, Italy. TSvo thou- 
 sand years ago Pisa was 
 only two miles from the 
 mouth of tlie Amo; 
 now it is six miles, 
 for the river has 
 meanwhile built 
 its delta out into 
 the sea. 
 
 The famous 
 leaning tower is 
 183 feet high, 
 and it leans 13 
 feet from an up- 
 right position. 
 The walls of the 
 tower aite very 
 thick, and are 
 made of marble. 
 
 m 
 
 1*1 
 
 
 • '■ 
 
 n 
 
 i^^m 
 
 f/' ' 
 
 ■ '1 
 
 ■ ' m 1 
 
 
 
 ■ i 
 
 1 'w.' 
 
 
 V' 
 
 •>* 
 
 it 
 
 
 :\- 
 
 >£iJ;lL~ . 
 
 t'enetliin 
 
 nondoller. 
 
148 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 PaNit of Ml. Ucriiuril. 
 
 6. The Balkan Peninsula. 
 
 Many ranges branch from the eastern end of 
 the Alps. Some of these turn towards the 
 south-east and div-ide into smaller ranges, form- 
 ing the highland in the Balkan peninsula. This 
 broad peninsula stretches from the Black sea 
 to the Ach'iatic. 
 
 The Balkan range is the highest in the pen- 
 insula. These mountains extend east and west 
 along the southern border of the Danube basin. 
 
 Forests of pine and oak grow on the Balkan slopes, 
 and in other parts of the rugged highland of this penin- 
 sula. Thousands of swine feed on the acorns. 
 
 The roses which thrive near the Balkan range yield a 
 perfume kno.vn as attar of roses. 
 
 The lowlands in the Balkan peninsula are very fertile. 
 The hilly portions afford good pastures. 
 
 Tiie middle belt of tlie Balkan peninsula is occupied 
 by Turkey. Owing to the poor way in which the coun- 
 try is governed, the people are shiftless, and do not make 
 good use of their land. Wheat, raisins, and tobacco are 
 valuable products. Constantinople, on the strait called 
 the Bosphorus, is the chief port of Turkey. 
 
 The Pindus mountains are low, 
 but they run like a backbone 
 through the southern part of the 
 peninsula. Tliere, in the small 
 country of Greece, many deep and 
 broad valleys lie between the 
 branches of this range. 
 
 On the plain of Marathon, shown 
 
 in the picture on page 140, the 
 
 ancient Greeks won a grfeat victory 
 
 over a large army of Persians. 
 
 Italian Piper. This plain lies between the moun- 
 
 tains and the sea. Mont of the raountaina in Greece 
 are small and greatly worn, like thoso which overlouk 
 the plain of Marathon. 
 
 Tho southern part of Greece is a peninsula having a 
 very narrow nock known as tho isthinm of Corinth. A 
 ship canal has been cut througli this isthmus. Tho 
 snuiU raisins of Greece are called currants, — a corruption 
 of tho word Corinth. Currants are tlie most valuable 
 product which Greece sends to other countries. 
 
 Many years ago the Greeks were famous for their 
 learning and their works of art. They built grand 
 temples in which they placed l)eautiful statues made of 
 marbio, or of ivory and gold. Many of the marble sta- 
 tues, and the ruins of some of their temples, still exist. 
 The most famous temples were built on a fortified hill, 
 known as the Acropolis, in Athens. 
 
 On the highest part of this 
 hill stood the Partfierum, — the 
 grandest of all the temples. 
 Within and without the Parthe- 
 non were statues and friezes 
 which rank foremost among 
 ancient sculptures. Many of 
 these are now preserved in the 
 British Museum, in London. 
 
 7. The Plain of Hungary. 
 
 The Carpathian moun- 
 tains partly divide High 
 Europe from Loiv Europe. 
 The lowland part of the 
 i/eaning Tower or risa. Danube basin which lies 
 southwest of the Carpathian mountains, is 
 known as the plain of Hungary. This is a 
 young plain which was formerly the bed of a 
 lake. The leading products are sugar beots 
 and grain. The plain of Hungary supports 
 nearly three and a half times as many people 
 as there are in Canada. The Danube and its 
 branches foim a waterway to almost every part 
 of the plain. The main river affords an outlet 
 eastward. 
 
 Far the gi -eater part of the Danube basin, is 
 in the country of Austria- Hungary, which 
 includes the plain of Hungaiy. The leading 
 articles of export from this country are beet 
 sugar, grain, and lumber. Vienna, the largest 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 149 
 
 VeiNTlH*. 
 
 m oimtain district on 
 the west and enters 
 the plain of Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 city, is built near Along the we«t coMt o£ tho gront ptminMuln oxtoiula 
 
 t]lO ))]a('0 where "' I'^rics of liunks uvor whicli tho wutor in Hhiillow. lie- 
 ho Da 1 1 111 )0 liver y'>"*l tlif" tho water in very dct'i). TIwho ImihIch, like 
 loaves tho "'""i'^ along many other Hliori-H, ulM)un(i in linh, 
 
 Tho LoftMlon ifllanda form a group off 
 tho north-wGHt coaMt of tho jMininxula. 
 Tho tido ruslii's with gnjat foroo Ixstwcen 
 two of thi'NO isliinils. ItoiitH are Munie- 
 tiniofl loHt in tltis Htrong tido, known m 
 tho viaeUtnim . 
 
 The eastern slopo of the Rcan- 
 <linavian highland is more gentle 
 than the western, and descends to 
 a rolUug lowland. Many rivoi's 
 cross this lowland, and flow into 
 tlio gulf and sea on the east and 
 south. 
 
 Exravatloni iii I'oiupeil. 
 
 8. The Scandinavian Peninsula. 
 
 The Scandinavian peninsula is the largest 
 peninsula in Em-ope, — being more than a thou- 
 sand miles long. The highland in this great 
 tongue of land is very old, like the Laurentian 
 highland. 
 
 The Scandinavian highland was once worn low, then 
 raised again, cut by deep valleys, and at length partly 
 drowned. 
 
 The western slopes of this highland are steep 
 and rugged. They descend to many long and 
 deep fiords. Along the coast are countless 
 islands formed by the partial drowning of the 
 highland. 
 
 The western slopes of the Scandinavian highland 
 resemble the 
 sides of the Alps 
 in having gla- 
 ciers, torrents, 
 falls, lakes and 
 forests ; but, un- 
 like the Alps, 
 the old Scandi- 
 navian m o u n - 
 tains are often 
 flat-topped, and 
 together they 
 form a rugged 
 
 plateau. North Cape, Norway, 
 
 Although the northern part of this penin- 
 sula Uos within the Arctic ch'cle, no portion is 
 in the cold belt. The mildness of the cUmate 
 along the coast of this northern land is largely 
 
 A Fiord, Norway. 
 
 due to the di"ift from the Gulf stream, part of 
 the North Atlantic cun-ent. 
 
 In winter the sea and gulf on the east of the penin- 
 sula, as well as the wide straits leading into them, are 
 frozen over, for here the mild winds from the ocean do 
 not enter. At the same time, the ocean around North 
 cape is free from ice. Thus the heat given to ocean 
 currents in the torrid zone proves a great blessing to 
 people in this far-away land. 
 
 The North cape is so far away from the equator that 
 in the warm season the sun for more than two months 
 does not sink below the horizon. During the cold season 
 there is a night of equal length. The other days and 
 nights vary in length from a few minutes to twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
150 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Two couiitiu»s (roinpriso tho gn^utor ])art of 
 tho Seaiulinuviuii injiiitiHula. Thoy are Nor- 
 way on tho wcHt, and Kwodon on tho oaHt. 
 Nearly all tho yx^oplo in thoHo couutrioH belong 
 to tiio white race, but tho 
 Lapps, in the north, are a 
 branch of tho yellow race. 
 
 Some of the Lapps koop 
 herds of reindeer. O thorn 
 catch flsh in the lakes, stroani.s 
 and sea. In winter their laud 
 is buried in snow and ice. sorwegim. < art. 
 
 Largo crops of grain are raised in tho south- 
 
 '.'J^m > 
 
 era lowland of tho Scandinavian peninsula, 
 and there most of the people live. This pen- 
 insula is in the gi-eat forest belt 
 
 Tho peopUi in those countries carry on trade 
 chiefly through tho two large cities of Stock- 
 holm and Christian ia. 
 
 Tlio pouiiiaula and iHlandHof Doiirimrk form a part of 
 Hcandiiiavin. Tliu Hurfaco, cliinate 
 and productH of Doniuark aro Hini- 
 ilir to thoHo of tho lowlandH in 
 HO Jthorn Swedon and Norway. Tlie 
 people of tho80 tlirwj countries, ex- 
 cept the LappH, are culled Nortenun, 
 meaning nnrthmcn. 
 
 Iceland and the Houthem part of 
 Greenland Ixslong to Denmark. Ice- 
 land is a volcanio island about .300 miles long. Its mid- 
 
 ^LWm''^'.M 
 
 die region is a table-land less than half a mile above sea 
 level and covennl with lava and saiitl. 
 
 which extends from the 
 Atlantic ocean to the Pa- 
 cific. Norway pine and fir are leading expoits. 
 There are also rich mines of iron ore in tiia old 
 rocks of the peninsula. 
 
 Parts of tho island are perpetually buried in ice. 
 
 Most of the people in Iceland live near the coasts. 
 The chief exports are codfish, wool and eider-down. No 
 grains and only a few vegetables are raised on the island. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 IM 
 
 The bewt-known of the Iccluiirl volcanoor, {h Mt. HccIh. 
 Iceland in riimiirkahlo fr>r itn jji-ywiM, one of which thrown 
 a column of water alxiut oin- liuiidri'd feet into the air. 
 
 9. The Britiuh Isles. 
 Two large islands mid niuiiy smaller ones 
 
 UttniluKH, Knitland. 
 
 form tlio group known us tlio British Isles. 
 The largest of these is Great Britain, the most 
 impoi-tant island in the world ; yet it is only 
 one-fortieth as large as Canada. Ireland is 
 second in size among the British Isles. 
 
 These famous Isles are at about the same dis- 
 tance us the Lubi-ador jjcninsula from the equa- 
 tor, but the islands enjoy a mild, climate and 
 even seasons, while the peninsula has low tem- 
 ])erature with severe seasons. A great branch 
 of the North Atlantic current drifts past the 
 coast of the British Isles, and tempers the 
 westerly winds which prevail thei*e. 
 The slopes of the British Isles which face 
 
 the Atlantic re- 
 ceive of course 
 the heaviest 
 rain -fall from 
 the westerly 
 winds, but all 
 pa.ts of the is- 
 li'uds are well 
 watered . 
 
 Most of 
 the high 
 land in 
 Great Bri- 
 
 tain is in the north and west parts. There the 
 rocky coast, like that of western Scanflinuvia, is 
 broken by many (ioids and fringed with small 
 islands. The s(»iith and east parts of the ishuid 
 an» mostly lowhmd, with clayey or sandy shores. 
 The northern portion of Scotland is v(My 
 nigged, bnt it contains no lofty chaii' 
 like the Alps. Ben Nevis is the iiigii- 
 est point of land in the Britisli Islo.s. 
 
 Aluny of the Htrciuns in tlii! Iiiglilami hU'uh 
 Hpread into Ix^autiful lakes or lorlis. Tiit'so 
 may Ih) countcnl by hiiniin'd.s. They aiti 
 formed by glacial action, like the lakes in 
 the northern part of North America. 
 
 Southward froin the Scottish high- 
 lands spread the >lling or hilly low- 
 lands of a fine farming distiiet. 
 
 Under many of the farms are 
 
 isIS 
 
 
 Fimgal'it C'live, Isle of Staff*. 
 
 (liiunl'it i'auKcwu}'. Ireluiiil. 
 
 mines of iron ore and of coal. 
 
 Where is the Clyde river? A rich farming and 
 mining belt cresses the Clyde basin, and extends to the 
 coast both on the east and on the west. 
 
 Owing to the nearness of iron and coal, the 
 city of Glasgow, on the Clyde river, has become 
 a great manufacturing centre. Iron steamships 
 built on the banks of the Clyde may be seen in 
 all the large poi'ts in the world. 
 
 The mountains in England and Wales are 
 little more than high hills. Southward from 
 the Che\'iot hills, the highland grachially be- 
 comes so low that it merges into the lowland. 
 In Wales the ranges are higher than in Eng- 
 
i° 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 AND WALES, 
 
 )°Longliuile Weat 3° rram OrMnwIgh > ' 
 
 
 S6 
 
 Towoi above 500,IH)0 iuh;il,it»nt»: . . LiverDOOllI v^"^""a'w 
 
 Towns abovo KKi.iHHI inhabitiiuta: Bri>t j| ■ " ■■ 
 
 Towns abovo 5(I,(KJ|» inhabitiiula: PI;uouth • 
 
 Tuwnii below S(I,IHX) inhubitiiuts'. Dotct o 
 
 t'apltnl of Country: Tlr County Soati: n « ig '-' 
 
 Sites of Battlos and datos: « 1174 o 
 
 Novations in KoKlinb Foot: »,«oo 
 
 tNOLIIH yiLlt. 
 ',» tp 1,0 « ^0 tu ;o 8ol»., u. 
 
 04 
 
 
 Mor|wtj 
 
 
 
 ■ — ~sp/jS' ■■' j£?f^ 
 
 B^irraw In yornc,(«J''"tV' 
 
 lio't 
 
 
 
 Formby 
 
 Braic/ii/-ii-puii//j 
 
 
 L Spurn //'a(/ 
 Jirlliimber cf 
 
 ,6!, W.*//, ■ BoHon. fll,:-., J"'"''""""''''' <fff /7f .i^lmil.^ 
 irnnni.'.:.. ' ^ / ^^ai >JB^I%%^i p it J.. .aV^'^^iyii iC^^iwh \ 
 
 ^i"^!. ,11-"! ftS^r/amboroua/i W«oi/ 
 
 I.... -. ° oJ! 
 
 Rif /A-St, ■ ,11- . o^ramoor 
 
 
 
 /,."■(!/; Thetford 
 
 jtf-T-'J^Birmiiicimm ,.=<":-^ / 4i^^•rl^V*''.)^aP''*'^fe^J_ 
 
 
 nitfiMii 
 
 Conil)rW 
 
 Milfonl /2. 
 
 
 •''"tVorm^.^* 
 Wearf ^ 
 
 |c»'* -"'■"" 
 
 LUNDr 1^ Ji, 
 
 nrrmcoiabc 
 
 Hartlund Pti 
 
 DlitcfnnlJ 
 
 
 Htnubjbe 
 
 J Bo.imln 
 <.WALl 
 
 Bristol Clmnnel 
 
 Chi. S - ■■•'■ so M' 
 
 
 
 , HILLS Tni.bRBii Wl' "'^ 
 ,,'Ol'BBt'unbun. 
 
 TlTtnoiili '^-i "y ^)^ Yeorll"!/— "" 
 /*" Ilonlton^ 
 
 fv O is _> 
 
 ■^^-■Wmm^^lKii^suih flay '°* 
 
 -fifo^itotu 
 
 tnionth JL 
 
 i'igtUhmm 
 
 3' Louyllmle West 2° from Greeuwluh 1° 
 
EUEOPE. 
 
 153 
 
 land. This highland district in England and 
 Wales is good gi-azing land. It is also one of 
 the richest coal and ii'on regions in the world. 
 Many large manufacturing cities are therefore 
 
 Lukes or killarney, Irvlaud. 
 
 located in this part of Great Britain. Their 
 foreign trade is carried on chiefly through the 
 great ports of Liverpool on the Mersey river, 
 and London on the Thames. 
 
 The middle and southeast parts of England 
 form a rich farming and grazing lowland, but 
 it cannot raise enough grain and cattle to feed 
 the millions of people who live in that country. 
 Shiploads of wheat, com, beef, and apples, 
 are sent from Canada to England. Shiploads 
 of cotton from the Southern States are sent to 
 the English mills. In return, many kinds of 
 cloth and manufactured goods are sent from 
 England. 
 
 The groups of low moimtains or hUls in L-e- 
 land are mostly near the coast. The inland 
 district is a wide plain. 
 
 Land's End, England. 
 
 Ireland, in the ^ath of the westerly winds, 
 lies to windward of Great Britain, and there- 
 fore receives the heavier rainfall. Ireland is 
 often called the "Emerald Isle," because 
 the grass 
 there is 
 green all 
 the year. 
 The in- 
 land dis- 
 trict has] 
 fine graz- 
 ing lands, 
 and the 
 country is 
 
 noted for scene on the Coast of Ireland. 
 
 its dairy products. 
 
 The soil in many parts of Ireland is suited 
 to the growth of flax. Among fibre plants flax 
 ranks next in value to cotton for cloth-making. 
 The flax grown in Ireland is made into the fine 
 linen for which the city of Belfast has long 
 been noted. 
 
 The British Islands are the centre of the 
 trade and commerce of the world. 
 
 The Goveenment of the British Isles is a 
 limited monarchy. The ruler holds office by 
 claim of birth, but the authority is limited. 
 The law-making j>ower is given to Parliament. 
 
 Parliament consists of two bodies, — the House of 
 Commons and the House of Lords. The members of the 
 former are elected by the people ; the members of the 
 latter are nobles and bishops. 
 
 The execution of the laws is in the hands of a Prime 
 Minister who is assisted by a Cabinet, The members of 
 the Cabinet supervise the foreign affairs, the treasury, 
 the army and other departments. 
 
 The British Isles 
 constitute the United 
 Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. 
 The United King- 
 dom with all British 
 colonies and other 
 possessions, forms the 
 British Empire. The 
 ruler of this empire rhaiii cum, Dover, England, 
 
5 LoDfitude Weit 4*^ from 
 
 SCO TLAN D. 
 
 Towns abavis SUU.UOU Inliabitanta: GlaSgOWH 
 
 Towns alraro 1()U,0U0 inliabltniiU: Dundee ■ 
 
 TuwDB abovo 25,00U InliabUnnts; Pprlh • 
 
 Towns bolow 25.000 iiilialjltanta: Abcrfoldy o 
 
 Capital of Coantry: iti County Suats-. «. #(B 
 Sites of Uattlca Auil dates ;- x ictx) 
 ElovatioQS in English feet'- 3|S93 
 
 Orren«i,li JfU H 
 
 "CE NORTH 
 nONALOSHAV/j 
 
 ruNST I. 
 
 ■J>- 
 
EUEOPE. 
 
 155. 
 
 appoints a Governor or a Govcnior-Genend for eucli 
 colony. Some of the colonies take no part in govern- 
 ing themselves. Others elect their own officers, except 
 Governors ; but the British ruler retains authority to 
 veto any bill passed by a colonial government. 
 
 The large British possessions, — such as the provinces 
 of Canada, and the colonies of Australia, — have Parlia- 
 ments of their own. 
 
 The foreign commerce of the British Isles is carried 
 
 ing district of northwest England. This port receives 
 the raw materials from abroad, and ships away the manu- 
 factured products. 
 
 Canada and the United States send more products 
 to Liverpool than to any other port in the world. Most 
 valuable among these are cotton, grain and meats. Large 
 quantities of wool are sent from tho Argentine Republic 
 and from Australia to Liverpool. 
 
 Tho exports of Liverpool are mostly cotton, woolen 
 and silk cloth ; cutlery and other 
 kinds of hardware ; heavy iron 
 goods, such as engines, rails and 
 armor-plates. 
 
 The rise and fall of tho tide in 
 the Mersey at Liverpool is so great 
 that many steamers enter inclosed 
 docks to land and unload. In these 
 docks the wp.ter can always bo kept 
 at the same level. Other steamers 
 use great landing stages that float, 
 — rising and falling with the tide. 
 
 on mostly through the great 
 ports of London, Liverpool and 
 Glasgow 
 
 London controls most of the 
 British trade with India, Aus- 
 tralia and the mainland of Eu- 
 rope; also a large part of the 
 trade with tropical America. 
 
 From China and India, this 
 great port receives tea, silk, 
 suga-, coffee, spices, indigo and 
 other products of southeast Asia. 
 Greece sends currants ; Italy and 
 Spain send olive oil and wine. 
 
 From the Baltic ports, shiploads 
 of lumber, wheat, cattle and wool 
 reach London. Steamers from 
 tropical America bring sugar, coffee, hides, rubber and 
 cocoa. Australia ships chiefly wool and gold. Canada 
 ships live-stock, grain and dairy products. 
 
 London, with its great trade, has grown to be the 
 
 largest city and one of the chief seaports in tho world. 
 
 Liverpool is the principal port for the manufactur- 
 
 GlasgOW leads all other cities in the world in ship^ 
 building. Tho success of this city in making iron steam- 
 ships is duo chiefly to its excellent harbor, its nearness 
 to mines of coal and iron ore, as well as to its skilled 
 workmen. Glasgow carries on a large foreign trade for 
 the manufacturing district of southern Scotland. 
 
IRELAND. 
 
 Reference: 
 
 Tuiril>«boT« iva.imO inhabitanti Belfast ■ 
 
 Tuwns above 2S,U00 Inliubltants. Cork * 
 
 Tuvi Di lieluw ii,»)0 InliaMtanti: Sllgu a 
 
 Capiutl ofCountr) 1^ County Soata.OtB 
 81tea of liattlai and dates:- "l«nj x 
 Elevattuna iu KngKsh Feet;-->,ttt 
 
 INOLI«H WILIS 
 
 Longllnt* 
 
 Wm I* Am 
 
 Brrit Head ^%,i 
 
 INISNKSA rs.* 
 Blacksod Bay I *^/* ' -^^Ul 
 
 ■%5 
 
 Aohlll Head 
 
 ACHILL I. 
 Achmsoutuir — 
 
 CLA«. t.Jsf'"' 
 
 T.ongiiiifle 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 157 
 
 Majichester is one of the cities which owe their 
 growth to the nearness of coal and iron. This city has 
 tlie largest cotton mills in the world. Great quantities 
 of woolen cloth also are made here. 
 
 A ship canal has lately been built from Manches- 
 ter to +he tidal portion of the Mersey river. Ocean 
 steamers laden with cotton or wool can now 
 reach this city, and thus save the coat of 
 transfer by railroad from Liverpool. 
 
 Birmingham is famous for its work in 
 metals, — iron, copper and brass. Among its 
 best-known products are screws, nails, pens 
 and fire-arms. ShefBeld manufactures 
 heavy iron goods and cutlery. Bradford 
 is noted for its woolen manufactures. 
 
 Cambridge and Oxford have famous 
 
 universities. Dublin is the centre of trade 
 for middle Ireland. Belfast manufactures 
 fine Irish linens. 
 
 Cardiff is the seat of the coal and the iron trade of 
 southern Wales. 
 
 Edinburgh, he capital of Scotland, is a great edu- 
 cational centre. Dundee has the largest linen mills in 
 Qreat Britain. 
 
 10. Low Europe — ^Western Part. 
 
 West of the Alpine highland lies the lowland 
 of France. 
 
 In what general direction do the rivers of this 
 lowland flow ? Name two of them. 
 
 ^^9 
 
 
 
 ■- ■ ~ - 1 - ""-^ ' ■ i ''■ ' ■■ 
 
 fc ■ ■• 
 
 
 ^i'"-'-'^,'; f"il'l^'5^aBE; 'ii* • 
 
 
 KBfflP^-- 
 
 L^^ 
 
 
 •ii.w. 
 
 
 
 
 <- \ 
 
 Shannon Blvcr, Ireland. 
 
 Between the Pyrenees and the wide mouth 
 of the Gironde river extends a young coastal 
 plain, low and flat. This region is known as 
 the Lanes, and consists of wide marshes and 
 sandy tracts. 
 
 Northward from the Gironde river the cen- 
 tral part of France is rolling and hilly. 
 
 Very low plains lie along the southern shore 
 of the North sea. Part of this lowland is a 
 young coastal plain, and part is the delta plain 
 
 of the Rhine river. In 
 some places the land sur- 
 face has sunk below the 
 level of the sea, and dykes 
 have been built to keep out the salt water. 
 Portions of the plain have been reclaimed from 
 the sea. Lagoons were surrounded by dykes 
 to prevent more water flowing into them, and 
 were then pumped dry. 
 
 Canals form a network over these lowlands and afford 
 cheap water ways to all parts of the low country. Thou- 
 sands of windmills are kept busy pumping water from 
 the fields into the canals. A man's wealth may here be 
 counted in windmills and cattle. One portion of these 
 flat plains is known as Holland, or the Netherlands, — 
 meaning loidands. On the south-west is Belgium. 
 
 The Rhine river, above its delta plain, has cut 
 a deep valley through a broad rolling upland. 
 Many of the Rhine branclies also have worn 
 valleys in this upland. 
 
 The battle-scarred house shown in the picture is near 
 the village of Waterloo, about nine miles south-westward 
 from Brussels, in Belgium. The house was torn by shot 
 and shell in the great battle of Waterloo, in whicb the 
 power of Napoleon was broken. This famous French 
 general was banished to the lonely island of St. Helena, 
 where he died. See picture on page 158. 
 
 North-eastward from the Netherlands, low 
 swampy or sandy coastal plains border on the 
 
1S8 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 North and Baltic sea-coasts. The lowlands are 
 crossed by the Elbe, the Oder and the Vistula 
 rivers, flowing from the border of the highland 
 region. 
 
 The regions on the west an<l north of the 
 Alpine highland are in the path of the westerly- 
 winds of the cool belt, and are therefore weU 
 supplied with rainfall. Cereals are plei ful in 
 the rolling uplands, and many of the sunny 
 slopes of the river valleys are covered with 
 vineyards. Most of the grapes are used in 
 making wine, some of which is sent to our 
 country. 
 
 A large and thriving industry, on the plains reaching 
 from France through Germany and into the valley of 
 the Danube, consists in raising sugar beets and making 
 sugar from their juice. 
 
 We have learned that iron ore, coal and other miner- 
 als abound in the old mountain uplands. These products 
 have led to the building of mills and factories of almost 
 every kind. Cloth and iron goods are leading manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Excellent clay for making pottery, and sand for mak- 
 ing glass, are found in many parts of the region west and 
 north of the Swiss highland. 
 
 The western part of Low Europe is thickly settled, 
 because the climate is good, the country is suited to easy 
 travel, and products are plentiful. Among the great 
 centres of trade are Paris, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Ham- 
 burg and Berlin. 
 
 1 1. Oountries of Low Europe — Western Part. 
 
 Germany — G e r - 
 many has rich 
 coal and iron 
 mines 
 beds of 
 clay 
 
 Battle-Hcarrrrt Honiie, Waterloot 
 Belglnm. 
 
 Caslle on the Rbliie. 
 
 for making porcelain, and sand for making 
 glass. The river valleys of this countiy are 
 famous for their wine grapes. Large areas are 
 planted with sugar-beets and with cereals. 
 
 The principal manufactures of Germany 
 are cloth, ii'on articles, beet sugar, glass and 
 porcelain. 
 
 Germany 
 ranks second 
 among commer- 
 cial countries. 
 
 Berlin, the capi- 
 tal, is the third city 
 in size in Europe. 
 This city is a great 
 trade centre, and is 
 the seat of a famous 
 university, 
 
 Leipsic has a 
 large university, 
 and is noted for book-publishing. Munich and Dres- 
 den have great galleries of painting and sculpture. 
 
 Hamburg, on the tide water of the Elbe, is the 
 leading port on the mainland of Europe. 
 
 France. The products and the industries of 
 France resemble those of Germany, but the 
 former country extends southward into the belt 
 where the mulberry tree thrives. 
 
 Paris, the capital, is the second largest city in the 
 world. It is situated on the Seine river, and is noted 
 for its art galleries and fine buildings. This city is the 
 railroad centre of France. 
 
 Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, is the port of 
 Paris. Steamers from Havre reach nearly all great sea- 
 ports. Among the French exports to our country are 
 silks, woolens and millinery goods. 
 
 Lyons, the centre of the silk manufactures, is not 
 far from the coal region of the Cevennes, nor from the 
 silk-worm district of southern France. 
 
 Marseilles is the largest port of this country. A 
 canal from the Rhone river to this city makes it the 
 chiei port on the Rhone valley. 
 
 The Garonne basin produces great quantities of 
 grapes. Toulouse is in the vineyard district. This 
 city and Bordeaux are famous for red wines. 
 
 Lille is in the fiax-growing region of northern France, 
 and is near coal mines. This city has large mills for 
 (he manufacture of linen cloth and thread. 
 
160 
 
 EUEOPE. 
 
 Belgium. Belgium hns valuable coal mines, 
 and is iu tho ^.ax district. Laces and linen are 
 important manufactures in this country. 
 
 Sugar beets are a leading crop in Belgium. 
 Here are also bods of excellent sand for glass- 
 making. 
 
 Antwerp, the chief port, is the centre of the rail- 
 
 colonies, among which are Java, Sumatra and 
 Dutch Guiana. Those colonies send tobacco, 
 tea, coffee, sugar and spices to Holland. 
 
 Amsterdam and Rotterdam are important ports. 
 Many skillful diamond-out i live in these cities. 
 
 Denmark. This country resembles Holland 
 in its products. 
 
 road and canal systems which roacli nearly all parts of 
 Belgium. 
 
 Brussels is noted for carpets and laces. Liege is 
 well known for its fire-arms. 
 
 The Netherlands or Holland. The people 
 of this country are largely engaged in dauying 
 and in raising cereals. Holland has many 
 
 Copenhagen is the capital and 
 principal city. 
 
 Low Europe— Eastern 
 Part. 
 
 The great lowland of eastern 
 Europe is known as tho plain of 
 Russia. It forms with the Siberian 
 plain the northern lowland of 
 PJurasia. The plain of Russia 
 stretches from the Black sea and 
 the Caucasus mountains to the 
 Arctic coast, and includes one half 
 of the continent. 
 
 One of the richest petroleum fields 
 known in the world is in the Caucasus 
 mountains. 
 
 The northern portion of the 
 plain of Russia consists of frozen 
 treeless tundras like those along 
 the Arctic coasts of America and 
 Asia. South of the tundras hes 
 the forest belt, which crosses the northern plain 
 of all Eurasia. 
 
 The portion of the Russian plain known as 
 Finland is very flat and contains thousands of 
 lakes. The southern half of Finland is in the 
 forest belt, but the northern part merges into 
 the desolate tundras. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 l()l 
 
 On tho south of the forest belt are fertile 
 treeless plains extending to the Black sea and 
 to the salty steppes around the Caspian sea. 
 The plains, except in the drier salty portion, 
 yield immense crops of gi"ain, and afEorti pas- 
 turage to large numbers of cattle, horses and 
 sheep. 
 
 Through the forest belt and across the plains 
 flows the Volga, the largest river in Europe. 
 The Volga basin comprises about one fifth of 
 the plain of Russia. The main river in this 
 basin rises in marshes near the Valdai hills. 
 These hills are only a few hundi-ed feet above 
 ■ea level, but many large hills rise in or near 
 them. 
 
 The Volga 
 river, with its 
 met- work of 
 •anals, forms 
 the main 
 water way 
 through the 
 Russian 
 plains. It 
 reaches al- 
 nostall parts 
 of the forest 
 »nd g r a i li 
 
 districts, the mining region in the Ural moun- 
 tains, the fur belt in the Dwina basin, the oil 
 wells near the Caucasus range, and the salt 
 beds around the Caspian sea. These water 
 routes lead to all the border seas of the plain 
 •f Russia. 
 
 13. Mediterranean Countries. 
 
 Spain. The soil of Spain is rich in the val- 
 leys, ohves, figs, lemons, and grapes grow 
 abundantly. There are fine pasture lands on 
 the higher lands, and sheep raising is a large 
 industry. The mines produce iron, lead, and 
 quicksilver. The quicksilver mines are the 
 richest in the world. A great deal of cork is 
 exported from Spain. The climate is very hot 
 in the valleys. 
 
 Madrid, the capital and largest city of Spain, iu in 
 the central plateau. 
 
 Barcelona is the chief city of oastern Spain. Thia 
 city exports fruits, olive oil, silk and wine. Valencia 
 is noted for its fine silk manufactures. Malaga is a 
 wine and fruit port. 
 
 Portugal. — The climate of Portugal is very 
 delightful, and the soil in the river valleys is 
 veiy productive. The exports arequitesimilar 
 to those of Spain, especially wines, figs, oUves, 
 oranges, and lemons. 
 
 Lisbon is the principal trade centre of Portugal. 
 Tills city, as well as QportO farther north, has a large 
 trade in wine and in olive oiL 
 
 Italy. The valley of the Po is very fertile; 
 
 gi-ain grows abund- 
 antly, and there is 
 excellent pasturage. 
 Vast quantities of 
 wine are produced 
 on the foothills of 
 the Apennines. The 
 slopes on the west- 
 
 em side of this range have a warm climate, 
 and are suited to the growth of oranges, 
 lemons, grapes and other fruits. Italy is 
 noted for its marbles and silks. The leading 
 exports of this coimtry are silks, wine, oil an^ 
 fruits. The imports are raw cotton, sugar, 
 coffee and other food supphes. 
 
 Naples, on the beautiful bay of the same name, is 
 the largest city in Italy. 
 
 Rome, the capital, contains the Vatican, or residence 
 of the Pope ; and St. Peter's, the largest cathedral in the 
 world. This city is famous for its historic ruins. 
 
162 
 
 ETTT?(>PE. 
 
 Milan i» tlm moHt important city in tho Po valloy. 
 
 Gtonoa is tlio chief port of northwest Italy. Florence 
 
 and Venice Imvo famous art galltsriet. 
 
 TuuKEY is a mountainouH country, 
 with wido vulh'ys and ridi itlaiiis be- 
 tween tli(^ mountains. Tlie Turks 
 
 :,'ypt and Tripoli. The chief ruler, or mtitan, is the 
 iieiul of the Mohammedan rt'ligion. 
 
 GuKKci;, once tlio l«>a<liii)tf eountiy in tlie 
 world in j)<)wer, in litera- 
 ture and in art, is now 
 <'onii)aratively unimport- 
 ant. It is chiefly of inter- 
 est on account of its past. 
 It has a fino (dimat<>, and 
 its .soil is very pro(hi('tive. 
 (h'ape.s, oranges, lemons, 
 and especially currants are 
 largeh' j?i"own. 
 
 AtlienS, tlu5 (;a[)ital of Greece, 
 
 '% 
 
 s famous for its hi.story, and for 
 ho ruins of its ancient temples. 
 
 14. Other Countries of 
 Europe. 
 
 , Switzerland. The swift 
 
 streams of this country sup- 
 
 I )1 y good water power. Here 
 
 are also mines of brown 
 
 touMuuau..pi4', ou th« uoHporiu. coal, or Uf/nite. Raw silk 
 
 have not been a veiy progressive people, and is brought from Italy; cotton from the United 
 
 have not much foreign trade. States; flax from the countries of Low Europe. 
 
 Constantinople is the capital of the Ottoman Switzerland manufactures laces, silks and 
 
 Empire, including Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, cotton cloth. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 168 
 
 Zurich in tlin principal manufncturinf< city. 
 Geneva i» notod for its watcheH, clockH anrl mUNic 
 boxuH. 
 
 AusTRiA-IIuNOAiiY. Tho foi-tilo plain of Hun- 
 gary yields grain, Hugar, beots and grapes. 
 Cattle and shoi^p Ikm-o find good pastnrngo. 
 Tho surrounding highliinds aro rich 
 in niinorals. Tho higher slopes tu-o 
 forested. 
 
 Vienna is the railroarl centre of t\w 
 enijiii(», Hiid in also a river port. This city 
 has ono of tho largest and boat universi- 
 ties in tlie world. 
 
 Budapest, on the Danube, is the 
 seconri city in iinportanco in this country. 
 
 pire. Railroads ami canals connect this city with the 
 prcxluctive parts of tho groat plain of Uussia. The 
 leading exports are wheat, (lax, lunil)or and wcxjI. 
 
 Moscow is tho railroa<l centre of tiie empire. This 
 city has an iniinense tradti, not only with other parts of 
 KurojM'an Russia, hut also with Hil)eria. 
 
 .•*.' 
 ■%*-■ 
 
 xAk. 
 
 Mk 
 
 k. 
 
 - l u . j t ijiil ' 
 
 mill*' 'iii»i/Tfi- ,0 
 
 -<rtr*wj 
 
 ♦^i*ife 
 
 '■,^.^I^H9P^nBr 
 
 -irmiai*''''!; 
 
 li!;T.^i?^tt5J5u 
 
 
 
 
 ■ lu 
 
 1T^ [SfmiaTCC M .Hmw^f 
 
 
 «Li t« nijii ..jiP 
 
 W 1 V.-'iin/ ' 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 
 ■I.' If ,IJ 
 
 ^ "."^ 
 
 m 
 
 fHtgrrs 
 
 L' ^1 
 
 M 
 
 IM 
 
 'm-'Tmim-.m, 
 
 iZ\li\i':''ilU^i^\ 
 
 
 It is the trade centre of 
 the plain of Hungary. 
 Trieste is the princi- 
 pal port of the empire. 
 
 Russia. — This is 
 the largest countiy^ 
 in Europe. It is ^ 
 a vast plain, 
 well watered 
 by large slow- 
 flowing river.s. 
 It has a great 
 range of tein- 
 peratui'e, as it ex- 
 tends thi'ough twenty- ucucvn. 
 three degrees of latitude. The rainfall is small. 
 The chief productions of Russia are — u-on, coal, 
 wheat and other gi-ains, flax, hemp, and leather. 
 Many horses and cattle are exported. 
 
 St. Petersburg is the capital of the Russian Em- 
 
 Krriiillii, MoNrow. 
 
 Odessa and Riga are important 
 ports. The former i.s the largest city 
 on tlie Black sea and is a famous wheat 
 port. 
 
 NouwAY AND Sweden. — These 
 
 countries are united under one 
 
 king. They form the longest 
 
 peninsula in Europe. The west 
 
 coast has a wanner climate than 
 
 any other country in the world in 
 
 so high a climate. Wheat grows 
 
 as far north as 63°, oats in 68°, 
 
 and barley in 70°. 
 
 Fish, lumber, minerals, and wood- 
 pulp for the manufacture of paper, 
 ire the chief exports. 
 
 Christiania, the capital, is the chief 
 poi-t of Norway. It has a large trade 
 in lumber. 
 
 Bergen is the second port of this country. 
 
 Stockholm is the principal city of Sweden. It 
 stands on nine islands, and is noted for its Ijeauty. 
 
 Gothenburg is the leading port. It is noted for its 
 botanic gardens. 
 
104 
 
 AHIA. 
 
 1. Asia covers about one-twelfth 
 of the earth's surface, includes 
 nearly one- third of the total land 
 surface, and is larger than all 
 America. This continent may be 
 roughly divided into three parts, — 
 wide and lofty central highlands, 
 with broad plains on the north, 
 
 and 
 
 nar- 
 rower plains on the east and south. The 
 great Asian highland extends north-east and 
 south-west. 
 
 The central part of Asia is an interioi: basin 
 at a long distance from the sea. This great 
 basin is inclosed by lofty ranges and therefore 
 has but little rain. The northern slope is in 
 the path of the westerly winds but is far from 
 the Atlantic ocean. The rainfall on that slope 
 is therefore light. Summer monsoons yield 
 heavy rains to the south and south-east slopes 
 of Asia. 
 
 2. The Highland of Tibet. 
 
 South of the Basin region rises the great 
 highland of Tibet. 
 
 The rainfall of the inner part of the highland 
 of Tibet is veiy light, owing to high ranges on 
 its southern or windward border. Many of the 
 valleys of Tibet are like those in the Great 
 Basin of North America, but the former are 
 much the higher. They are covered with waste 
 from the inclosing ranges. Streams from the 
 mountains run into the valleys, but there is not 
 enough water to overflow and reach the sea. 
 The lakes and marshes in these inclosed valleys 
 are therefore salt. 
 
 Several of the lakes in the western part of the high- 
 land of Tibet are the highest in the world, being about 
 17,000 feet above sea level. 
 
 In some places, where the salt lakes or marshes dry 
 away, the surface is covered with layers of white salt. 
 
 The inner part of Tibet is almost a desert. Owing to 
 
A8TA. 
 
 165 
 
 its great height it is very cold, oxcopt (luring the dayH 
 of a short summer seaHoii. The soil in jmkjp, ami tlioni 
 am long j)ori(HlH of dnmght. Lirgo herds of wild yaks 
 and muHk do«ir Heareh out griiSHV placoH near the Htreaaw 
 and on tho mountain sidos. Few p«Hjplo live in the 
 inner part of Til)et. 
 
 Throe Inigo raonntain ranpfes rise above tho 
 platiiuu of Tibet. Those 
 are the Kuon-Luu ou 
 the iiortli, the Kara- 
 korum on tlie north- 
 west, and the Himalaya 
 on the south. 
 
 Mt. Everest is thought to 
 be tho highest peak on the 
 earth. It rises moni tliaii 
 five miles and a half alK)ve 
 sea level. 
 
 The Himalayas are 
 lofty that they form a 
 barrier to about one- 
 half of the air and 
 three-fourths of the 
 moisture moving 
 towards 
 them. '*■' 
 
 for a long tini«i their rivers liavo had outlets to 
 the sea, and havec^aiTiod away a groat quantity 
 of waste frotn the valleys. These vall(»ys are 
 drained by two largo rivers, the Indus and the 
 
 Hrahnianutra, — the one 
 
 flowing westward and 
 
 the other eastward 
 
 behind tho range, 
 
 :uid then escaping 
 
 by deep gorges 
 
 that they have cut 
 
 Ihroiighthemoun- 
 
 taiihs. 
 
 The eflfect 
 
 of such a barrier 
 
 is very marked. Few \^=^ 
 
 of the kinds of plants whicii 
 
 thrive south of the Himalayas are 
 
 found north of the great chain. 
 
 The Himalaya mountains separate two races of men, 
 — the yellow people on tho north and the white people 
 on the south. 
 
 Just nortli of the Himalaya chain, the val- 
 leys in the plateau of Tibet are deep, because 
 
 The upper parts of tho Indus and Brahma- 
 putra rivers are fed chiefly by snow melting on 
 the lofty mountains. Along the sides of these 
 streams are found most of the people who live 
 in the highland of Tibet. 
 
'.:•:.-.>•!:■■ 
 
ASIA. 
 
 167 
 
 3. Map Studies. 
 
 "Which is the larger, — North America 
 or Asia? What strait separates these 
 continents ? Name the smallest ocean 
 lying between them ? WTiat other oceans 
 border on Asia ? 
 
 What oceans lie between North Am- 
 erica and Asia? What sea and strait 
 separate Alaska from Asia ? 
 
 What continents lie on tlie west and 
 south-west oi Asia? What name is 
 given to Europe and Asia together ? 
 
 What heat belts cross Asia ? Over 
 what continent must the westerly winds 
 blow before reaching central Asia? 
 
 Which is the coldest coast of Asia? 
 In what direction does the main portion 
 of the Asian highland extend ? Which 
 part of the highland looks the highest ? 
 Compare the Asian and Rocky Moun- 
 tain higlilands as follows : Wliich looks 
 the higher?— The wider?— The longer? 
 page 4. 
 
 On which side of the Asian highland is the plain of 
 Siberia ? Name three rivers which cross this plain. In 
 what direction is the central plain of North America 
 longest? In what direction is the northern plain of 
 Eurasia longest? WTiich of these vast plains is the 
 larger ? In which heat belts does the northern plain of 
 Eurasia lie ? 
 
 See f/lobe map, 
 
 Enratla. 
 
 Into what sea does the Amur river flow? — The 
 Yang-tse river ? Name two streams that cross the plain 
 of China? 
 
 What river runs eastward in the plain of India? 
 
 Draw the general sliape of Asia, by using three or 
 four straight lines. What is the trend of the Arctic 
 coast " —Of the Pacific coast ? — Of the Indian coast ? 
 
 Sketch each of these coasts. WTiich is the most 
 irrejjular ? Which is bordered by the greatest number 
 
 of islands ? 
 
 What seas partly surround the peninsula of Kam- 
 chatka ? — ^The peninsula of Korea (Corea) ? — The pen- 
 insula of the Deccan ? — The Arabian peninsula ? 
 
 What seas or bays are separated by the peninsula of 
 Kamchatka? Of Korea? Of Indo-China? Of Dec- 
 can ? Of Ambia ? Which of these peninsulas are in 
 southern Asia? 
 
 What continents are on the west and south-west of 
 Asia ? Name two aeaa between Europe and Asia ; a 
 river and two mountain ranges between the same con- 
 tinents ; a sea bet^^ween Asia and Africa. What gulf is 
 on the east of Arabia ? 
 
 On which side of Tibet are the Himalaya mountains? 
 What range is on the east of the desert of Gobi ? What 
 mountains are north-west of this desert ? 
 
 Which part of Asia lies nearest the equator ? In which 
 heat belts are the three great peninsulas of southern Asia? 
 
 Locate the following islands : Borneo, Sumatra, Cey- 
 lon, the Phillipine and the Japanese groups. 
 
168 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 4. The Altai Highland. 
 From the rocky shore of Bchi-ing strait, the 
 WO) id ridge turns to the south-west in Asia. 
 For a long distance low ranges of mountains 
 follow the Pacific coast. 
 
 The Yablonoi range runs into the Altai higliland 
 which extends inland towards the middle of the conti- 
 tinent. The Altai plateau is about as high as the Great 
 Basin in the United States. 
 
 The rainfall of 
 this far-inland re- 
 gion is light. Most 
 of the rain falls on 
 the mountain 
 
 alike in many respects. They are about the same dis- 
 tance from the equator, — nearly half way to the north 
 pole. Their surfaces are bi'oken by low ranges, between 
 which lie long troughs. None of their streams reach 
 the sea, but all waste away, or flow into salt lakes or 
 marshes. 
 
 In both basins, the sides of the trough-like valleys are 
 covered with coarse waste from the ranges, while the 
 middle parts of uho valleys receive the finer waste car- 
 ried by the few streams. Strong winds that sweep over 
 portions of the surface lay bare the rocky ledges, and 
 drift the sand into dunes. Most of the towns are built 
 near the mountains where the streams flow out into the 
 open valleys. These streams are fed mostly by rain or 
 by snow melting on the high border ranges. 
 
 Less than half the region marked Gobi on the maps is 
 really a barren waste. 
 
 In eastern Gobi, summer rains sometimes last for two 
 or three days. Grass then springs up and provides 
 food for the camels and horses in the caravans 
 which carry tea from China to Siberia, whence it 
 is taken to Russia. Over a large part of the so- 
 called desert of Gobi, camels and sheep eke out a 
 
 i,,*'--.. MOrJgtfLIAN HUT 
 
 land, and a large part of the great plain 
 on the north are forested with cone- 
 bearing trees. 
 
 In the broad valleys among the ranges, 
 grain thrives and cattle find good grass 
 land. Most of the towns in thit; region 
 are built near the foot of the moun- 
 tains, where the streams can be used to irrigi ,te the land. 
 
 5. Central Basin Region. 
 
 The diy Basin region of central Asia is south 
 and south-east of the Altai highland. The east- 
 ern part of this almost rainless basin is called 
 tha desert of Gobi. The west<3rn part is the 
 Middle Basin. 
 
 The Basin regions of Asia and ]S orth America are 
 
 living on grass and bushes. 
 
 The southern slopes of the llii.uaUiyas luce 
 moist monsoons from over the Ind.an occjan, 
 and have very heavy rainfall when the south- 
 west trade winds of summer blow. 
 
 On the east, the highland of Tibet sends long 
 streams down the slopes of China. Several 
 large rivers from the highland bend also to the 
 south-east. These rivers flow in long valleys 
 
Canada ^ 
 
 United estates 
 
 jopBjqB-| 
 
 Qouejj 
 
 BU9?IV Si Bjoqcg g uopng 
 
 eaumr) jodd^ ® 
 
170 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 between lofty ranges which extend into the 
 peninsulas of southeast Asia. The mountains 
 are heavily forested. 
 
 At the western end of the highland of Tibet stand 
 the Pamir plateaus. We may think of this region as 
 the mountain centre of Asia. Almost all the loftiest 
 ranges of the continent radiate from the Pamirs. 
 
 Eastward stretch the three huge ranges of Tibet. 
 Towards the northeast run the Thian-Shan mountains 
 along the border of the Middle Basin. The Suliman 
 range extends southward to the coast, and cuts off India 
 from south-west Asia. The high Hundu-Kush chain 
 stretches westward along the northern border of the 
 plateau of Iran. 
 
 6. Highlandb of South-west Asia. 
 The south-west portion of Asia is mostly a 
 plateau region, forming part of the great Asian 
 highland. 
 
 The plateau of Iran is about one-third as 
 high as the plateau of Tibet. The former is 
 almost inclosed by mountains, and is too far 
 west to receive the rainy, summer monsooi 
 which blows from the south-west towards the 
 Himalayas. 
 
 The plateau of Iran 
 
 resembles the 
 
 Great Basin of 
 
 kbybpr Pshh. 
 
 rig Tre« and FIga, 
 
 North America. Both have small streams, 
 salt lakes and salt swamps. • 
 
 Persia occupies the greater part of the pla- 
 teau of Iran, and extends from the Caspian sea 
 to the Arabian sea. 
 
 On the plateau 
 of Iran is a re 
 gion known as the 
 Persian salt desert. 
 This covers a large 
 area, and consists 
 of solid salt sever- 
 al feet thick in 
 most places. In 
 some parts it is of 
 unknown depth. 
 Centuries must 
 have passed while 
 the water whicii 
 has now evapor- 
 ated was deposit- 
 ing this great bed 
 of salt. 
 
 South-west of the plateau of Iran lies a small 
 river valley sloping to the Persian gulf. The 
 greater part of this valley consists of the flood 
 plains of two rivers, — the Tigris and the Eu- 
 phrates. Canals have been made to lead water 
 over the plains, and some parts of them are 
 very productive. "Wheat is the leading crop. 
 Figs and dates also thrive here. 
 
 There are many old lake basins in the region 
 
 south of the Black Sea. These contain small 
 
 lakes most of which have no outlets, for there 
 
 is not now enough rainfall to supply more 
 
 water than evaporates. Several small rivers 
 
 flow down the north slope of the ylateau. 
 
 Mt. Ararat, in this plateau region, is a 
 
 famous volcanic cone, a little more than 
 
 three miles and a quarter high. 
 
 Many small but fertile slopes descend from 
 
 western Asia to the Mediterranean coast. 
 
 They receive light rainfall from the westerly 
 
 winds. Figs, olives and grapes in large quantities 
 
 are raised in this district. 
 
 The Dead sea is in one of the most famous valleys on 
 the earth. The water of this sea is about ten times as 
 salt OS that in the ocean, and is also very bitter. The 
 
ASIA. 
 
 171 
 
 •eaisnot quite fifty miles long. Its surface is about 
 one-fourth of a mile below the level of the ocean. 
 
 North of the Dead pea is a beaiitiful lake known as 
 the sea cf Galilee. This lake also is 
 below the sea level, but its water is 
 fresh because the river Jordan forms 
 its outlet. This river also feeds it. 
 
 The Jordan and the two lakes 
 are in one long valley. It is shut 
 in by high land on both sides. One 
 low range near the south-west shore 
 of the Dead sea contains a deposit 
 of rock salt about six miles 
 length. 
 
 The peninsula of Arabia is 
 mostly a desert plateau. In 
 many respects it resembles the Great Bas.^, 
 but is much drier. Dates and wheat are raised 
 in some of the narrow valleys near mountain 
 ranges. Camels and horses also graze there. 
 
 The hilly slopes near the southern end of the 
 
 ca sea are famous for their coffee crops. 
 
 7. The Arctic and Caspian Slopes. 
 The northern part of Eui-asia consists mainly 
 of a broad low coastal plain. The Ural moun- 
 tains run north and south a(!ross the plain and 
 
 Lake Baikal is the largest body of fresh water in Asia, 
 but it is not quite half so large as Lake Superior. The 
 water of this lake is vory ({vvy, und it abounds in sal- 
 ^ ■ " ■ " ■ » tnon. In summer 
 
 many seals are caught 
 along its shores. 
 
 A largo part of the 
 
 ain of Silxiria lies 
 
 within the Arctic 
 
 circle. For two 
 
 months or 
 
 more in 
 
 Cedar or Lebanon. 
 
 foi*m a part of the boundaiy between Asia and 
 Europe. The Arctic lowland in Asia is known 
 as the plain of Siberia. Nearly all of this plain 
 is in the basins of three large river systems. 
 
 winter, 
 
 the greater 
 
 portion of 
 
 the Arctic 
 
 coast of this plain 
 
 is in darkness. The 
 
 longest period of summer 
 
 daylight lasts for an equal 
 
 length of time. South of the A-"x;tic circle, in all parts 
 
 of the Siberian lowland, the summer days are long and 
 
 the winter days are short. 
 
 Being far from the equator and far inland from the 
 warmer oceans, the plain of Siberia has long and very 
 cold winters. The summers are short. They are cool 
 in the northern part of the plain, but warm in the 
 southern part. 
 
 The map of the heat beltn, pages 23 and 24, shows how 
 far south the cold belt extends in Siberia. There, in the 
 lower part of the Lena basin, is the coldest winter region 
 known in the world. The extreme cold is due to the 
 fact that the region is far inland from the warmer 
 oceans, that the winter nights are long, and that warm 
 winds from the far south cannot cross the great central 
 highland. 
 
 Along the Arctic coast of Siberia are mossy, 
 marshy plains called tundras. They resemble 
 the marshy plains along the Arctic coast of 
 North America. 
 
 In summer large herds of reindeer visit the 
 tundi'as to feed on reindeer moss. White bears 
 and seals are seen along the Arctic shore, but 
 
172 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 both the plant and the animal life are scanty. 
 The region is dreaiy and desolate, except for a 
 few weeks in summer. 
 
 South of the tundras, as in North Amei*i?a, 
 lie the forest plains. Most of the trees are 
 cone-bearers, — larch, fir and pine. The forest 
 belt crosses northern Eurasia, from the Pacific 
 ocean to the Atlantic, In Asia the forests 
 extend southward to the bordcn- of the desert 
 of Go1)i, the Middle Basin, and the dry plains 
 around the Caspian sea. 
 
 In the 
 Obi basin, 
 east of 
 the Ural 
 Mount- 
 ains, the 
 growth of 
 trees is 
 
 very dense. Here the forested swamps cover many 
 
 thousand square miles. 
 
 The fov(>st belt is broken in many places by 
 wide open plains. In the warmer parts of the 
 Siberian rive;: basins, the plains yield harvests 
 of wheat, rye, and oats. 
 
 Along the southern border of the forest belt, 
 the open plains, or steppes, are covered with 
 fine, fertile soU. Large crops of grain are raised, 
 
 and many cattle, sheep and horses graze on the 
 plains. 
 
 The south-west part of the northern plain of 
 Asia is drained toAvards the Caspian and Aral 
 seas. As the region is low and far inland, it 
 has only light rainfall, and is therefore almost 
 treeless. 
 
 The grass in any one part of this region is not plenti- 
 ful enough to support the cattle and slicop. The people 
 therefore wander with their herds from place to place, 
 living in tents and carrying all their possessions with 
 
 them. Such wandering people are called nomads. 
 
 East of the Caspian Sea the plain is desert- 
 like and barren, except where streams from 
 
 the mount- 
 ains are ?.ed 
 aside in 
 canals to 
 irrigate the 
 land. 
 
 The surface 
 of the Cae- 
 ])ian sea is 
 lower than 
 the level of 
 the ocean, 
 but the sur- 
 face of the 
 Aral sea is 
 higher. Both 
 
 these seas are salt. 
 
 The Caspian sea is more than four times as large as 
 
 Tjake Superior. 
 
 8. The Pacific Slope. 
 
 From Behi-ing strait to the Amur basin, the 
 east slope of Asia is very narrow, and therefore 
 has no large streams. 
 
 The Amur river is the natural highway from 
 the Altai plateau to the Pacific coast. The 
 basin of this stream is so far from the equator 
 that the winters are long and severe. The 
 region is thinly settled and is largely over- 
 grown with forests. 
 
 The south-east slopes of Asia, including tht basins of 
 the Yellow and Yang-tse rivers, are watered partly by 
 I'ains from the summer monsoon, and partly from win- 
 
ASIA. 
 
 173 
 
 ter storms. The summer rains are much the more abun- 
 dant. 
 
 The great delta plain of China is mode of soil carried 
 down by the Yellow and Yang-tse rivers, — riostly by 
 the former. This delta plain contains many thousand 
 square miles, and is one of the most thickly settled 
 regions in tho world. 
 
 Loegg Bedi, Yelloiv Biver Bagln, 
 
 Above the delta plain, the Yellow river flows through 
 a district covered with deep, yellowish soil. This was 
 brought as dust by the winds from the dry inland Easin 
 region. The area covered by this soil is far greater than 
 than that of the lava plains of the Columbia plateau 
 region. 
 
 In some places the yellowish soil, called loess, is hun- 
 dreds of feet in depth. It fills valleys, buries hills, and 
 rises far up the slopes of the mountain ranges. Rivers 
 have cut deep valleys in it, and in the sides of the val- 
 leys, at points which the streams no longer reach, mil- 
 lions of Cninese people have dug caves for homes. This 
 soil is very fertile, and gardens cover a large part of 
 . the region. 
 
 The Yellow river has carried down countless tons of 
 the yellowish soil, and has made of it the larger part of 
 the great delta plain of China. Each year the plain 
 grows farther into the sea, for no ocean current strong 
 enough to carry away the silt sweeps past the mouth of 
 the river. Cities in China that were once seaports are 
 now far inland. 
 
 The Yellow river takes its name from the yellowish 
 soil which discolors the water. This river performs its 
 chief work in making delta lands, for it is of little use 
 to steamers entering from the sea. The current in some 
 places is very swift, and numerous bars form not only 
 at the mouth of the river, but also far upstream. 
 
 As the river has changed its course, and as it is 
 hardly navigable, only a few large cities have grown 
 up along its banks. 
 
 The Yang-tse river has built the southern 
 part of the great delta plain of China. This 
 stream forms the best waterway on the eastern 
 slope of Asia, and is open to large steamers for 
 more than a thousand miles from the ocean. 
 Many of the greatest cities in China have gi-own 
 
 up on the banks of 
 the Yang-tse river. 
 
 Above the delta 
 plain, for a long dis- 
 tance inland, the bas- 
 i lis of the Yellow and 
 Yang-tse rivers are 
 lolhng or hilly. The 
 western portions of 
 the great basins are 
 in the mountainous 
 regions of Tibet. 
 The leading exports from China are tea and 
 silk. Rice and a grain called millet are among 
 the chief food products. 
 
 Canals extend almost the whole width of the great 
 delta plain of China, and form fine waterways. They 
 supply water also for largo tracts of land on which rice 
 
 China. 
 
 Chinese I'va lioasc. 
 
 and other products are raised. A largo inland trade is 
 carried on by way of these canals and rivers. 
 
 More than two thousand years ago, a high and wide 
 wall was buUt along the former boundary of China, to 
 shut out fierce Tartar tribes on the north. The wall 
 
174 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 runs for more than a thousand miles over mountains 
 and through wide valleys. Many parts of the great 
 wall are now crumbling to ruins. 
 
 China contains aljout one-fourth of the people in the 
 world. The Chinese Iwloiig to the yellow race. 
 
 From the Tibetan liighland J >ng mountain 
 ranges extend into the great j-oninsula of 
 Indo-China. Swift streams flow in the val- 
 leys lietweon these ranges. The longest of 
 the streams is tlie Mekong river. 
 
 The course of the Mekong is in many 
 places broken by rapids. The river is there- 
 fore not open to navigation, except for 
 alKJut tluco hundred mile fi-nm its mouth. 
 The Mekong is building a delta plain, but it 
 ic not nearly so large as the delta plain 
 of the Yellow river. 
 
 9. India. 
 
 The gi'eat country of India is 
 bordered on the north by the Hima- 
 layas. In the .south it contains the 
 plateau of the L»eccan in the large 
 V-shaped peninsula. Between the 
 Himalayas and the Deccan are 
 broad river plains. 
 
 India is in the path of the monsoons. In 
 the hot season these winds blow from the sea 
 to the land ; in the colder season they blow 
 from the land to the sea. 
 
 The Himalaya mountains form the greatest 
 rain and snow producer in the path of the sum- 
 mer monsoons from over the Indian Ocean. 
 Both the northern and the southern slopes of 
 this range are drained by rivers that flow into 
 the low plains of India. 
 
 llio largest annual rainfall in any part of the 
 be at the town of Cherra- 
 
 Most of the rivers of the plain of India are 
 included in throe systems, — the Indus on the 
 west, the Brahmaputra on the ea.st, and the 
 Gauges in the middle part. 
 
 These three river basins are in the 
 warm belt and also in the path of the 
 
 world is 
 
 supposed to 
 
 A 4:itlueiie Jiuik. 
 
 punji, in the mountains, 
 about two hundred miles 
 north of the bay of Ben- 
 gal. This town is a little 
 more than 4,000 feet above 
 sea level, and is walled 
 in on the north by steep 
 ranges rising 2,000 feet 
 higher. 
 
 Ton Farm. 
 
 moist south-west monsoons. The climate is 
 therefore hot or warm most of the year. The 
 heavy ruins fall while the summer monsoon 
 lasts. The dry season occurs when the winds 
 blow from the land to the sea. 
 
 The upper portion of the Indus lowland, near 
 the foot of the Himalayas, is well watered, and 
 is the richest wheat region in India. The lower 
 part of th's river basin is a desert. 
 
 The plain of northern India, like that of the 
 valley of California, is formed of land waste 
 brought by the rivers from the mountains. 
 Many branches of the G-anges rise in the south- 
 ern slope of the Himalayas. 
 
 The Ganges system has built very large flood plains, 
 sloping only a few inches to the mile. In the rainy 
 season these plains are flootled far and wide, thus receiv- 
 ing fresh soil from the highland slopes. The Ganges 
 and Brahmaputra rivers unite in making a large delta 
 plain crossed by a great network of distributaries. 
 
ARTA. 
 
 175 
 
 The plains of tlin Oangos basin aro carefully irrigated 
 by moans of canals ami ditches Icaumg from the rivers. 
 The rainfall of the summer season is thus made to serve 
 through the entire year, often through long perio<ls of 
 drought. 
 
 Rice is tho leading crop in the delta lauds 
 and in tho lower parts of tho flood plains. Far- 
 ther inland, itiilhi is the chief product and 
 is the staple food in nearly all parts of 
 India. Cotton is the most valuable 
 article of export from the Ganges 
 plain. 
 
 Tho Ganges river is navigable for 
 more than a thousand miles through 
 its great flood plains, and is alive 
 with boats canying products from 
 place to place. 
 
 The Brahmaputra river, like the 
 Indus, flows in a deep inland valley 
 on the north flank of the Himalaya 
 range. Cutting through the eastern part 
 of the range, the Brahmaputra crosses the 
 loyr plain of northeast India, and joins its delta 
 with that of the Ganges river. This gi*eat 
 double delta is slowly growing southward into 
 the bay of Bengal. 
 
 The lowlands of northern India, except the desert 
 
 Most of the natives are called Hindm. They belong to 
 the white race. 
 
 Southward from tho Ganges basin extends 
 
 Uanibuo. 
 
 Working Eleptaaat. 
 
 region of the lower Indus, are densely peopled. These 
 lowlands, together with '. 3 V-shaped peninsula on the 
 8t>uth, support about out. rifth of the people in the world. 
 
 Bnnyam Tree. 
 
 the great V-sh»pod 
 peninsula of the Deccan. 
 This is mostly a low plateau 
 region, about equal in height 
 to the Appalachian highland. Th« 
 peninsula has low ranges facing the sea on botk 
 sides, and is partly separated from the rest of 
 India by a hilly range on the north. Within 
 the triangle thus formed, about 100,000,000 
 people now have their homes, — many more 
 than dwell in North America. 
 
 The lava-flows of the Deccan peninsula have beem 
 fully as groat as those in and around tho Columbia 
 plateau. In each case the molten rock covered many 
 thousand square miles. The Deccan lava-flows are much 
 the older and the more deeply (;ut by valleys. Tli<3 sur- 
 face is finely weathered, making dark soil that is very 
 fertile. 
 
 10, Asiatic Islands. 
 
 Long curving chains of islands lie east and 
 southeast of Asia, and partly inclose large bor- 
 der seas. These islands contain hundreds of 
 volcanoes, many of which are now active. 
 
 The large islands in the Japan group consist 
 mainly of old volcanic hilly country, but there 
 are also many wide plains. Tea, gi"ain, and 
 the mulberry tree are raised in the uplands, 
 
176 
 
 A«^TA. 
 
 while nearly all the low- 
 lands are used for rice 
 fields. Two crops of rice 
 are taken from the fields 
 each year. 
 
 A coarso gross-liko plant collod 
 bandioo grows in Japan, as well 
 as in most parts of south-east 
 Asia, and the border islands. 
 Bamboo I^ oiso found in other 
 warir :ands. Tho hollow-jointed 
 stems grow to the hei^jht of forty 
 or fifty feet, but some stems are 
 more than seventy feet high. 
 
 Houses and boats are made of 
 bamboo stems. The seeds and 
 ;/ender shoots are served as food, 
 
 on dishes formed from the joints A uindn. 
 
 o£ the stalks. The softer parts of the stalks are beaten 
 into pulp, and are used in making paper. Strips of 
 bamboo are made into baskets, chairs, beds and various 
 other articles. 
 
 Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, the Philip- 
 pines and many other islands south-east of Asia 
 are often called the East Indies. 
 
 Thousands of years ago these islands were probably 
 connected with Asia. The seas around them are mostly 
 shallow, and the broken coastlines formed by the drown- 
 ing of valleys show that the land has settled. 
 
 The groups of Islands in the East Indies have a hot 
 climate and abundant rainfalL Their soil is therefore 
 very productive. Sugar, ^ iffee, tea, spices and rice in large 
 quantities are raised on these isiands, but chiefly in Java. 
 
 The banyan tree is 
 found in some parts 
 of the East Indies, 
 and on the mainland 
 of south-east Asia. 
 The branches of i\\U 
 tree send do^vn shoots 
 that take root in the 
 ground. These shoots 
 also branch, and the 
 new branches send 
 down other shoots. 
 A single tree may 
 thus spread and form 
 a grove covering 
 8iai« Elephant, India. several acres. 
 
 Java is the most productive 
 and the iiumt densely populate 
 inland of the East Indies. This 
 one small island supports a 
 population equal to about four 
 times that of Canada. 
 
 Most of the people in the 
 East Indies belong to the 
 brown race. Many white 
 people from Europe have 
 settled along the coasts of 
 the islands, especially in 
 the seaports. Nearly all 
 the islands are claimed by 
 nations in Europe. 
 
 Sumatra consists mainly of a 
 mountain region along its south- 
 west coast, and broad lowlands stretching from this 
 highland to the north-east coast. The rivers which 
 cross this lowland are building great deltas. Coffee and 
 sugar are valuable exports. 
 
 Borneo is one of the largest islands in the world. Its 
 area is equal to nearly one-tenth that of Canada. 
 This great island has a central plateau from wliioh 
 several ranges branch into the coastal lowland. 
 
 The Philippine group consists of more than 1,000 
 islands. In the more rugged portions of these islands 
 are found thousands of dwarf people called Negritos. 
 The more fertile lands are held by Malay people who 
 have driven off the Negritos. There are also many 
 Chinese and some white settlers, — the latter being chiefly 
 Spaniards. Rice is the staple food of the people. 
 
 Large quantities of sugav, hemp, and tobacco are 
 raised on these islands, and are the most valuable ex- 
 ports from Manilla, the chief seaport. 
 
 Cart drawn by Zebiu. In JL' 
 
ASIA. 
 
 177 
 
 11. OountrieB of Asia. 
 
 Indu. — Tho Ernpiio of India foiisists of twelve 
 Provinoes directly govornod by tlio British, and 
 about cue hundred and lilty Stat«\s under native 
 rulers who acknowledge the sovereignty of the 
 British Crown. It is one of the most interesting 
 countries in Wut world. Its civilization is one 
 of the oldest, and its literature is one of the 
 most ancient. 
 
 This coiuitry tradi's chiefly with Grciit Britain, 
 China, Italy, Franco, and the United States. 
 The most valuable exports from India are cotton 
 and cotton seed, wheat, rice, opium, jute, tea 
 and indigo. The principal imports are cotton 
 cloth and hardware. Tlie yearly exports amount 
 to $425,000,000 and the imports to al)out $310,- 
 000,000. There are more than 5,000 vessels engaged 
 in the Indian trade. 
 
 Bombay and Calcutta arc the greatest seaports of India. Cal- 
 cutta, tho capital of India, is on the II(Kij;ly river, in tho Ganges delta. 
 The city is the principal shipping-point for tiio produce of the Ganges and 
 the Brahmaputra basins. Ilailroads, rivers and canals form the inland 
 highways of trade to and from this great port. No large rivers carry products to Bombay, but the city 
 is reached by railroads from nearly all parts of India. This port owes its rapid growth largely to its situation 
 on the west coast, much nearer than Calcutta to the Suez canal and tho British Isles. 
 
 Madras is the largest sea-port of southern India. 
 
 Benares is the chief seat of tho Hindu religion, and is one 
 of the oldest cities in the world. In this holy city of tho Hin- 
 dus, the north bank of the Ganges is lined with great temples. 
 
 Rangun is tho chief port of Burmese India. This city hag 
 a largo trade in rice. 
 
 Delhi and Mandalay are large centres of trade in India. 
 
 French Indo-China. French Indo-China includes Anam, 
 Cochin-China, Cambodia, and other provinces. All these are 
 
 under the control of France. 
 
 The pr(xlucts of French Indo-China are similar to those of 
 
 British India. Hanoi, Hu6, Saigon and Pnompenh are 
 the chief centres of trade. 
 
 SiAM. This country is ruled by a native king, — an absolute 
 monarch. Tiio resources of the country are poorly developed. 
 Teak and rice are the principal products. Bangkok is the 
 chief city. 
 
 East Indies. Sumatra, Java, Celeljes, and middle and south- 
 ern Borneo are possessions of Holland. They are called the 
 Dutih East Indies. North-west Bcrneo is under the control of 
 Great Britain. The Unitefl States controls the Philippine islands. 
 
178 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 China. — This great country is larger than rice swamps, its silk- wonn nurseries, and its 
 the whole of Europe. The people have lived tea farms. The imjjorts are mostly cloth, metal 
 apart from other nations, and have preserved goods, and petroleum. Japanese trade is car- 
 distinct manners and customs. Recently, ried on chiefly with Great Britain and the 
 England, Russia, France and Germany have United States. 
 
 obtained enlarf;ed treaties with China, so that Japan is the most progicssivo of As! Hie couafcrips. 
 the country is being 
 opened up rapidly to 
 foreign trade. The Brit- 
 ish nation controls the 
 greater part of China's 
 foreign trade. The island 
 of Hongkong, on the 
 coast of China, is a Brit- 
 ish colony. It exports 
 Chinese tea and silk; 
 and imports opium, cot- 
 ton cloth, sugar and flour 
 for the great em- 
 pir« near by. 
 
 Canada imports tea 
 »nd silk from China, — 
 chiefly from tlie ports 
 •f Shanghai, Can- 
 ton and Fucha. . 
 
 Peking, tlie capi- 
 tal, and Canton are 
 the largest cities in 
 the Chinese Empire. 
 
 Yarkand is in the 
 
 principal oasis of the 
 province of Eastern 
 Turkestan. LaSSa 
 is the chief city of 
 Tibet. 
 
 Japan. — Japan is the only 
 limited monarchy in Asia, 
 having its own ruler. All 
 the other independent coun- 
 tries are absolute monarchies. 
 
 Japan is often called the 
 "Great Britain of the Pacific." 
 It resembles Great Britain in many respects, and Trans-Caucasia* are parts of the gi-eat 
 chiefly in its insular position and ity naval Russian Empire, which comprises about one- 
 
 i^ .' • Note.— Trans-Caucasia Is the mime of the Asiatic portion of the 
 
 mi i. n T X 1 * -i larpe Russian province of CaucMus, lying on both sides of the GaucMui 
 
 The exports of Japan are taken from its mountains. 
 
 The Japanese hava good 
 schools, railway and telegraph 
 ines, and large Manufac- 
 tories. Among the latter are 
 iron foundries, gla-sH- works, 
 pap(>r mills, cotto» and silk 
 mills. Tlio people of Japaa 
 are noted for the ■wearini' 
 of silk and the oarring of 
 ivory. 
 
 Tokyo is the cajHtal and 
 the commercial ccatrs •£ 
 Japan. Only tw» attiea im 
 
 America ara larger 
 
 than Toky». 
 
 Yokolir T&a, 
 
 on the bay •£ Takya, 
 is the chief seft-p«rt. 
 
 Osaka ii an im- 
 portant manmfactui- 
 ing city. KlotO is 
 surrounded bjr a 
 great nmmber •£ 
 Buddhist temples. 
 
 Korea. — The Ja- 
 panese have recently 
 won for Korea its 
 freedom from Chin- 
 ese authority. The 
 foreign trade of (his 
 country is small, and is mostly 
 in the liands of the Jap.anese. 
 Seoul is the chief city of Korea. 
 By the terms of the China- 
 Japanese treaty of 1895, Korea 
 was made an independent king- 
 dom, — an absolute monarchy. 
 
 Russia in Asia. — Siberia 
 
ASIA. 
 
 171) 
 
 seventh of the land surface of the earth. 
 Bokhara and Khiva also are under the control 
 of Russia. 
 
 Tashkent, the largest city in Asiatic Kussia, is in a 
 district made fertile by irrigation. Tiflls is a city 
 through which Russia conducts a large part of its trade 
 with Persia and 
 other countries of 
 south-west Asia. 
 The railroad which 
 carries great quan- 
 tities of petroleum 
 from Baku to the 
 port of Batum 
 passes through 
 Tiflis. 
 
 Irkutsk and 
 Vladivostok are 
 centres of Siberian 
 trade. The latter 
 city is the Pacific 
 port of Siberia. The 
 Russians have re- 
 cently got permis- 
 sion to cross the north-east part of Chuia to secure a 
 winter port for the terminus of the Siberian railroad, 
 one of the greatest railroads in the world, which has 
 recently been constructed by Russia. 
 
 Persia. — This country occupies the western 
 part of the plateau of Iran, and is about 5,000 
 feet above the sea. Cereals and the opium- 
 poppy grow in the fertUe portions of Persia, 
 chiefly in the districts near the Caspian sea. 
 Many sheep are reared in the highland regions. 
 Dates thrive along the coast, and pearls are 
 obtained from the border waters on the south. 
 The Persians are famous for their hand-made 
 carpets and rugs. 
 
 Teheran and 
 Tabriz are the 
 principal cities. 
 
 Afghanistan is 
 a very mountainous 
 country. The peo- 
 ple are divided into 
 about 400 tribes. 
 The coimtry is im- 
 HUukdo'* Palaee. JapM. portant to the Brit- 
 
 ish because it controls the passes that are the gateways 
 to India from the north-west. This country is crossed 
 by the caravan routes that load into India. Kabul 
 is the chief city. 
 
 Baluchistan is little more than a province of India. 
 It is a rough plateau, with little fertile soil. The peoplo 
 
 of this rugged coun- 
 try are mostly shep- 
 herds. Khelat is 
 the largest city. 
 
 Asiatic Turkey. 
 Turkey now con- 
 trols the portion of 
 Arabia lying along 
 the Red Sea, and 
 m jst of the Arabian 
 territory on the 
 Persian Gulf. 
 Smyrna is the 
 
 largest city and port 
 of Asiatic Turkey. 
 Damascus has an 
 extensive caravan 
 trade with the 
 
 Arabs. The products of this country are similar to those 
 
 of Persia, but the Red sea coast is famous for its cofifee. 
 
 Mocha is the chief port for the shipment of this coflfee. 
 
 Mohammed was born in Mecca (Mekka). 
 
 Jerusalem is famous for its religious history. 
 
 Arabia. — This country is the largest peninsula in the 
 world. It is nearly one-third as large as Canada. Its 
 population is about the same as that of Canada. The 
 Turks control the chief coasts on the Red Sea and Persian 
 Gulf ; the English own the island of Perim and Aden, 
 controlling tiio entrance to the Red Sea. Aden is a 
 very important city. It has a strong fort and does a 
 large trade. 
 
 Arabia, like Per- 
 sia and Turkey, h 
 a Mohammedan 
 country. 
 
 Oman is an in- 
 dependent Ara- 
 bian State. 
 
 Ma skat, the 
 
 capital, exports 
 dates, and imports 
 
RBIiIBF MAP OF AFRICA. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 181 
 
 1. Map Studies. 
 
 Kote : Now that we have studied four 
 continents, we should be able to read 
 maps, without the aid of many questions. 
 
 Describe the position of Africa with 
 regard to tlie other continents and the 
 oceans. 
 
 Sketch the map of Africa. Which of 
 the continents that we have studied does 
 it most closely resemble ? 
 
 How does Africa compare in size with 
 North America ? With Asia ? Compare 
 maps on pages 4 and 5. 
 
 What.does the relief map show about 
 the surface of Africa ? Describe the 
 course or five large rivers in this con- 
 tinent. 
 
 Refer to the mops on pages 15, 19, 23 
 end 24, and tell what you can about the 
 heat belts and seasons in Africa, — the 
 I'inds which carry moisture to it, — and 
 the ocean currents which reach its shores. 
 
 In what respects is Africa like any 
 other continent 'i In what respects does 
 Africa differ from each of the other con- 
 tinents ? 
 
 What seas almost sever Africa from 
 Eurasia ? What isthmus connects the two 
 land masse". ? 
 
 Name two Nile branches that rise on the highland 
 of Abybsinia. 
 
 Where is Lake Victoria (Victoria Nyanza)? On 
 which side of the equator does the gieater part of this 
 lake lie ? 
 
 Describe jhe Nile basin. What part of this basin 
 is in Eg3rpt? — In Nubia? What European nation 
 claims the region about the highl .nd of Abyssinia? 
 
 Where is Tiipoli? Where is- Morocco? Describe 
 the Sahara. In what respect does the Suda ■ differ from 
 the Sahai'a ? 
 
 Locale Liberia and Sierra Leone. What nation 
 claims the region stretching north-eastward from Liberia 
 to the Mediterranean sea 1 
 
 What state or country comprises the greater part 
 of the Congo basin ? Between what two European 
 claims is Lake Victoria ? What lake partly separates 
 Congo State < ron German East Africa ? Where is the 
 territory kno"? .i as the French Congo ? 
 
 What European nation claims a broad coastal bilt 
 on both sides of the lower Zambezi? What name is 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 KEY TO RELIEF MAP 
 
 SCALE OP MILI8 
 
 r *3W 400 eoo ami "illiuu lioo c. of Ooad 
 
 given to the middle region of the Zambezi bacin ? ''Vhat 
 European nation controls Zambezia and Cape Colony ? 
 
 Describe the surface of Cape Colony. Locate the 
 Orange Free State. 
 What country is 
 on the north of the 
 Free State ? 
 
 Locate Maaeira, 
 the Canary and 
 Mauritius islands. 
 For what is St. 
 Helena noted ? 
 
 Locate Zanzi- 
 bar, Tananarive, 
 Mozambique. 
 
 Locate tlie parts 
 of Africa claimed 
 by Italy, Qttrrcany, 
 Spain, and Pcrtu- 
 
 S^ Date PalM. 
 
182 
 
 AFEICA. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 2. General View of Africa Physically. 
 
 A deep and wide canal, about one 
 hundred miles long, has been dug 
 across the isthmus of Suez. The canal 
 has nc locks, for the two seas which it 
 connects are on about the same level. 
 
 Beforo the Suez canal was made, the water 
 route from all ports in Europe to India led 
 around the Cape of Good Hope. Vessels 
 can now go through the canal and thus save 
 aljout 4,000 miles in the voyage. Port Said 
 is at the Mediterranean end of the canal. 
 
 Africa has a rounded outline, broken by xavy 
 few bays. Almost the entire continent is a 
 highland. Its average height above sea level 
 is double that of Em*ope. The southern half is 
 higher than the northern, and the eastern part 
 is hi/^her than the western. The coastal plains 
 are \ ery narrow, because the border ranges of 
 the highland lie near the sea. Almost all parts 
 of the continent inland from the coast ranges 
 consist of plateaus. 
 
 All the great rivers of this continent have 
 falls or rapids, and not a stream is open very 
 far inland to large vessels from the sea. Great 
 areas in Africa are deserts. The coastal regi- 
 ons near the equator are very unhealthy. For 
 
 these and othe:* reasons, large pai'ts of Africa 
 are still little known. 
 
 Africa is the hottest of the continents. Only the 
 extreme southern part of this great land mass is in the 
 cool belt. 
 
 The Sahara desert is swept by the north-east trade 
 winds. Their eilect is very drying, because they blow 
 mostly from over wide land areas, and gradually become 
 warmer as they approsich the heat equator. 
 
 At the north and south ends of the continent, the 
 highland slopes facing the sea receive winter rains when 
 the trade winds shift towards tlie equator, and the storms 
 of the westerly winds reach those parts of the continent. 
 The summers are dry. 
 
 Because of this arrangement of winds and 
 rains, Africa has a wide forest belt across its 
 equatorial region, where the rains are frequent 
 and heavy. On both sides of this belt, the 
 
so Joniiitudtt 10 West Lotitfituila 10 Kaat W from 30 (}rr<>nwlrh 40 
 
 80 lAogitada 10 
 
 00 fifiMnwich 40 
 
184 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 forests merge into open grassy plains, wlioro 
 the rains are lighter, — falling vhen the equa- 
 torial rain belt moves over them. Beyond 
 these grassy i^lain.-", lie desert regions, — the 
 Sahara in the north and the Kalahari in the 
 south. 
 
 the most thickly settled parts of the world. 
 Most of the people belong to the white race, 
 although their skin is very dark. Millions of 
 Negi'oes dwell in the basin of the Upper Nile. 
 
 4 Northern Africa and the Sahara Desert. 
 The highland which includes the Atlas 
 
 Katrance to Maez t'auul. 
 
 3. Egypt and the Nile. 
 
 The highest plateau in Africa is that of Abys- 
 sinia. Its east slop*^, facing the Red sea, is 
 steep, and is not broken by large river valleys. 
 The west slope is more gentle, and is drained 
 by branches of the Nile river. 
 
 The main river of the Nile system rises in 
 the lake region of middle Africa, and is the 
 only large river flowing northward to the Medi- 
 terranean sea. The basin of the Nile is thought 
 to be about as large as that of the MississipjiL 
 
 For hundreds of miles this great river flows through 
 the desert and does not receive a single tributary. There 
 the river has cut a long and broad valley, and has made 
 a flood plain several miles in width. Every summer, 
 after the equatorial rains have fallen in the highland of 
 Abj'ssinia, and in the lake region of middle Africa, the 
 Nile overflows its flood plain, ami deposits a thin coat- 
 ing of new soil. Most of .this sediment is given by the 
 Atbara to the Nile. 
 
 In the han'^est time on the f ci'tUe delta, an d 
 flood plains of the Nile may be seen cotton, 
 sugar-cane, rice, wheat, corn and other pro- 
 ducts like those raided on the southern plains 
 of North America. Cattle and sheep also gi'aze 
 in the pastures of the Nile valley. 
 
 The flood plains of the lower Nile f onn one of 
 
 I mountains consists of long and naiTow 
 plateaus with border ranges. These pla. 
 teaus, like other high plains between 
 ranges, receive but Uttle rainfall, and are 
 suitable only for pastm-e land. 
 
 The northern slopes of this highland re- 
 ceive rains from the westerly winds in 
 winter. These slopes are fertile, and 
 produce cereals and fruits like those of 
 southern Europe. The slopes of the 
 highland which face inland are almost 
 
 barren, because they are on the lee side of the 
 
 mountains. 
 Most of the people in the lands on the north 
 
 of the Sahara desert have dark or swarthy skin, 
 
 but they belong to the v/hite race. 
 The desert of Sahara, though about as large 
 
 as Canada, supports only about one-third as 
 
 many people. Most of these live near the 
 
 fertile places, or oases, where there are wells or 
 
 natural springs. The desert tribes are mostly 
 
 wandering Arabs, or Bedouins, and Berbers. 
 
 Although their 
 
 skin is swarthy 
 
 they belong to 
 
 the white race. 
 In the middle 
 
 and eastern parts 
 
 of the desert, the 
 
 surface consists 
 
 largely of stony 
 
 taole-lands. Some 
 
 ot these are a mile 
 
 high. They are 
 
 swept by hot dry 
 
 winds which blow away the dust from their stony or 
 
 gravelly surfaces. 
 
 Near the desert mountains and table-lands are many 
 
 springs around which date trees grow. Some gram also 
 
 is raised there. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 185 
 
 The western part of the desert of Sahara is mainly a 
 great sand*' region in which countless dunes form. Some 
 of these are more than six hundred feet in heij^ht. Much 
 less than half the great desert of tiuiiara is a sandy 
 waste. 
 
 Violent winds, like the squalls of our thunder storms, 
 but without rain or clouds, often raise great quantities 
 of dust in the Sahara. These hot winds, called the 
 nmoom, sometimes darken the sky ^vith dust. Caravans 
 hardly survive the stifling heat and dust of the simoom. 
 Tlie camels crouch to the ground, and the men wrap 
 their heads in their cloaks. 
 
 The Sahara is the 
 largest desert on 
 the earth. 
 
 Gobi roj^ion. A wido braTich of thin burren 
 bolt spreads northward around the Aral and 
 Caspian seas. 
 
 6. Sud8in. 
 
 A wido bolt of country south of tho Sahara 
 dosort i.s known as Sudan, It extends from 
 the Atlantic coast to the highland of Abys- 
 sinia. 
 
 Sudan is wholly north of tho equator, but 
 is within the range oi" the equatorial rains. 
 They are heaviest, however, in the southera 
 part, and decrease towards the border of the 
 Sahara desert. Southern Sudan, therefore, is 
 
 Ut'iluiiiu < aiui> ir ilic .Saliiira Ueitcrt. 
 
 This desolate region is too far south to receive rains from 
 the westerly winds, and too far north to be reached by 
 the equatorial rain belt. Even along the Atlantic coast 
 of the desert there is no rain. 
 
 The Sahara desert is part of ^ great belt of 
 arid regions, whose rainfall is so light that they 
 have no overflow to the sea. The desert belt 
 crosses Arabia, Iran, the Middle Basin and the 
 
 heavily forested, but noi'thward 
 the trees give place to open gi-assy 
 plains, which still farther north 
 merge into the desert. The gi'eater 
 part of the countiy is fertile. 
 
 The greater part of central Sudan is in the 
 basin of lake Chad, — the largest basin of inte- 
 rior drainage in Africa. 
 
 There are many large towns and villages in 
 the park-like district south of Lake Chad, and 
 the region is thickly settled. Most of the peo- 
 ple are Negroes. 
 
ISfi 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 TheHG people are woU aflvance<l in matiy roH|)octH be- 
 yond the wvvage state, for they carry on an extonsivo 
 trade, and have Honio inaniifacituroH. 
 
 Tho towns near Lake Chad are trade cou- 
 tres where cai-avans moot. Tho ivory tusks 
 
 of olophuiits form a 
 oadiug article of ex- 
 tort. Camels and 
 lorsos in large num- 
 bers are roared for 
 market. Grain and 
 (^otton are important 
 iroducts. 
 
 The Niger basin is 
 
 thought to bo about 
 
 k,v three - fourths an 
 
 large as that of 
 
 tho Mississippi. 
 
 The Niger 
 
 river rises in 
 
 the hilly district 
 
 near the south- 
 
 '' west end of the old 
 
 region. After making 
 
 bend northward, and 
 
 several hundred miles in 
 
 Algerian 
 
 plateau 
 
 a. great 
 
 flowing for 
 
 the Sahara desert, the river turns southward 
 
 and enters the sea through the largest delta in 
 
 Africa. 
 
 The greater part of this delta is covered with forests 
 and coarse grass. Small steamers from the sea can go 
 a few hundred miles up the Niger, before their progress 
 is stopped by rapids ; but the steamers can ascend the 
 Benue branch to a point about 600 miles from the river 
 mouth. No other river in tropical Africa is navigable 
 for so great a distance inland from the sea. 
 
 The coastal regions south and south-west of 
 the Niger basin are reached by tho equatorial 
 rain, and most parts of them are forested. 
 White people from Europe have many trading 
 stations along this coast. The products are 
 like those of the Niger basin. 
 
 6. The Congo Basin. 
 
 The Congo basin occupies the gi*eater part 
 of middle Africa and lies west and south-west 
 
 of tho upper Nile basin. Almc^^t all the Congo 
 basin is a plateau with a general slope west- 
 Avai'd. Tlio average luu^ifht of the region is 
 about half a mile above sea level. 
 
 Tho (^ongo baHin is nmiiily in the southern 
 l)ortic)n of tlio equatorial rain bolt, and parts 
 are heavily wooded. This ba.sin is thought to 
 1)0 the second largest in the world. 
 
 The Congo, like tho Nile, rises in the lake 
 region of middle Afi-ica. One branch of the 
 Congo is the outlet of Lake Tanganyika. Other 
 branches flow from smaller lakes farther south. 
 
 The vegetation of the Congo basin is very 
 luxuriant. Among the useful food plants are 
 the cassava, the yam, the plantain, corn and 
 sugar-cane. Palm oil and cotton are other im- 
 portant products. 
 
 The basin of the Congo is the homo of uiany large and 
 fierce animals. Among these are the chimpanzee, the 
 crocodile and the rliinoceros. Every year thousands of 
 olepliants are killed for their tusks. 
 
 The natives of the Congo basin belong to 
 the black rac Their 
 number runs tar into 
 the millions. 1 liey live 
 mostly in small towns 
 and villages. Many of 
 the huts of these black 
 people are made of 
 gi'ass, woven into mats 
 and fastened to poles. 
 
 White people have 
 established many ;,, 
 trading stations 
 along the coast 
 on the upper 
 CTongo and its 
 tributaries. 
 These traders pui- 
 chase ivory, 
 palm oil and 
 other products. 
 
 Why has the Amazon about 25,000 miles of streams 
 navigable from the ocean, and the Congo only about 90 
 miles? 
 
 Bedonin. 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 187 
 
 7. Southern Aft*ioa. 
 
 In tho Zaiubozi btisiii aro fouiul tho sumo 
 clinnges, from forost to grass lund and thou to 
 desort, as in Sudan. Tho forests of tho Zam- 
 bezi basin aro dousost in tlio noi-thorn part, 
 "where the equatorial rains fall in summer. 
 The southeni part of tho basin reaches the 
 Kalahari desort. 
 
 The Zambezi is the largest African river 
 flowing into ^^^t^. ^^^ho Indian ocean. 
 This stream is ^'l^^. ^^^. thought to 
 
 .~d,jS^. 
 
 
 The richest diamond mines in the world ni"e 
 nt Kimborly. Tho value of tho diamonds is 
 gi'oator than that of all the other exports of 
 Capo Colony. 
 
 Tho native people of this country belong to 
 the negro race, but white j)cople from the Brit- 
 ish Isles control the land, and form about one- 
 fourth of the population. Cape Town is the 
 chief port in South Africa. 
 
 Madagascar, the largest island off the 
 coast of South Africa, is about two 
 and one-half times as large as 
 Great Britain. Its coastal 
 region is mostly low and 
 unhealthy, but the in- 
 terior consists largely 
 
 
 
 t«5>:.~.,^ > 
 
 
 m 
 
 M.-^ 
 
 drain an area equal to about two-thirds 
 that of the Mississippi basin. 
 
 The Zambezi has built a large delta. The dis- 
 tributaries which cross it are generally barred with 
 sand, but vessels that can float over the bars may 
 ascend for about three hundred miles. 
 
 The natives of the Zambezi basin are 
 savages of the black race. They raise grain 
 and have herds of cattle. 
 
 The southern part of Africa, including nearly all 
 the region south of the Orange river, and a small area 
 north of that river, is known as Cape Colony. It is crossed^ 
 from east to west by a rugged plateau that forms the 
 southern end of the great African highland. 
 
 The seaward slopes of this plateau, like those of the Atlas highland, 
 have winter rainfall and summer drought. 
 
 Wheat and other kinds of grain are raised on the seaward 
 slopes of Cape Colony, and many cattle, sheep and ostriches 
 are re ed there. Wool, ostiich feathers and hides are 
 valuable exports. _ 
 
 fti' 
 
 ■«ai'^^:aJ 
 
 of grassy 
 and wood- 
 ed pla- 
 teaus. The 
 leading 
 1 exports 
 J jire cattle, 
 hides, cof- 
 fee, and 
 Indiarub- 
 ber. 
 
188 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 8. Ooontiies in AtHca. 
 
 Egypt. — This country is roiiiimilly pnrt of 
 the Ottomuu Einpiro, though tho Sultnu of 
 Turkey has very little control over the affairs 
 of Egypt Tho Khcd'ire, dr nilor, of Egypt 
 resides in Cairo, tho cu[)i'al. This is one of 
 the oldest cities in the world. 
 
 Tho prill cipjd exports of Egj'pt are cotton 
 and (totton seed. The most valuable imports 
 here, as in all ether African countries, are vari- 
 ous kinds of cloth. Groat Britain controls tho 
 greater part of the foreign trade of Egypt. 
 
 Alexandria, in the ^lie delta, is the largest 
 seaport of this country. 
 
 Tbjpoli. — 
 This portion 
 of the Otto- 
 man Empire 
 is thinly set- 
 tled. Tho 
 capital is the 
 only import- 
 ant city. 
 
 Tunis AND 
 Algeiua. — 
 These coun- 
 tries have 
 been added 
 to the pos- 
 sessions of 
 
 I'airo, E|{ypt. 
 
 France. They fonn part of the French teni- 
 tory wliich now extends across the Sahara and 
 Sudan. 
 
 The coastal districts of Tunis and Algeria 
 have many tortile valleys that produce wheat. 
 Olives gvow here in abundance, and cattle and 
 sheep find good grazing land. The cities of 
 Tunis and Algiers export wheat, olive oil, 
 wool and hides to France. 
 
 MoRocico. — The products of this country are 
 similar to those in Algeria. 
 
 Feia and Morocco are the piincipal cities of 
 Morocco. 
 
 SrERUA. Leone. — This small colony belongs to 
 
 tho British nation. Freetown oxports palm oil. 
 
 LiuKuiA. — This is a n(>gro ropublio settled 
 largely by freed slaves from tho United States. 
 
 Monrovia, the capital, is named after a 
 foiiner president of tho United States. The 
 chief expoiis from Monrovia are coffee and 
 palm oil. 
 
 Congo State. — Tho King of Belgium is the 
 ruler of the Congo State. Boma is the local 
 capital. 
 
 The most valuable exports of the Congo State 
 are coft'ee, nibber, ivory : 'd palm oiL 
 
 Cape Colony. — 
 (^ape Colony 
 is a large 
 and valuable 
 British pos- 
 ses s i on. 
 Cape Town 
 is the chief 
 city. 
 
 Transvaal. 
 The Trans- 
 vaal gold 
 mines are 
 among the 
 richest in 
 the world. 
 The native 
 black people 
 
 are called Kaffirs. The early white settlers in 
 
 this state were Dutch, here known as Boers. 
 
 There are also many settlers from other white 
 
 nations. Pretoria is the capital 
 
 Johannesburg, the principal city near the 
 gold region, has had very rapid gi'owth. 
 
 European nationa I\ave seized nearly all parts of Africa. 
 Italy is trying to cjntrol the territory in the region of 
 the higliland of Abyssinia ; Franco not only claims 
 large aroaa on tho mainland, but is also seeking to con- 
 trol Madagascar ; Great Britain, Germany and Portugal 
 possess the greater portion of middle and southern 
 Africa. Spain has a footing in the Sahara, and also 
 directs the affairs of the Canary Islands. 
 
189 
 
 BeUerMSi. orAulraUa. 
 
 1. Map Studies. 
 
 Describe A.ustralia, — its size, its place among the oceans, 
 its direction from the other continents, its position in the 
 heat and wind belts, its highlands and lowlands, its rivers, 
 its coastlinen. 
 
 In what Inspect ia Australia like Africa? In what 
 respect does Australia differ from North America ? Locate 
 
 Papua ; Tasmani.i ; 
 New Zealand ; the 
 Fiji and Samoa 
 Islands. 
 
 What parts of 
 America, North and 
 South, should havo 
 about the same clim- 
 ate as Australia 1 
 
 Make a relief 
 map of Australia and 
 mark the location on 
 it of the chief cities. 
 
190 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 1. Australia, the si^ailkst of the continents, 
 is about equal in area to Canada. 
 
 This small continent consists mainly of a 
 half circle of low plateaus and ranges, around 
 a wide central desert plain. Except in the 
 
 fed chiefly by rains in the highland on the 
 south-oast. 
 
 The basin of the Murray river is thought to be aliout 
 one-third as large as that of tlio Mississippi. The Murray 
 riv3r and its brandies form the only large river systtm 
 in Australia, and yet even the main stream of this sys- 
 tem is not deep enough to float large sea-going vessels. 
 After heavy rainfall in the mountains, small vessels can 
 ascend the Murray and some of its branches ; but in 
 seasons of drought the rivers become too shallow for 
 
 shipping, and some of them 
 are little more than chal ^ 
 of ponds or shallow pools. 
 
 Inland Australia 
 has a number of large 
 lakes with no outlet 
 to the sea. These lakes 
 are fed by long shal- 
 
 llot HprliigM, 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 south-east, the 
 ranges are little 
 more than hills. 
 The Australian 
 Alps are about 
 equal in height to the 
 ranges of the Appala 
 chian highland. 
 
 The Pacific slope of 
 Australia is in the path of 
 the trade winds. The sea- Tree Fern.. 
 
 ward slopes of the Australian Alps and the low streams from the border ranges. During 
 Blue mountains are therefore well watered, the dry seasons, many of the lakes dwindle 
 Aft^r crossing the mountains, these winds can away to salt marshes. 
 
 give very little moisture to the basin of the The largest forests in Australia are in the 
 Murray river. The str jams of this basin are eastern highland region, where the rainfall is 
 
 Bine MoantnlnR, 
 Anatralla. 
 
S ©obiqwMOW S 
 
 c UMOX sds^ ^ 
 
102 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 heaviest. Wide areas of the inland plain are 
 covered with coarse scrubby bushes. The 
 wild auiinuLs of this contiiiont differ widely 
 from those in other continents. None of the 
 kinds of large animals in the other conti- 
 nents which we have studied are native to 
 Australia. 
 
 The native* of Australia belong to the black 
 race. They are savagc^s and 
 \ivvi wretcihed lives. The total 
 number in all the tribes is 
 only about thirty thousand. 
 
 The fertile portions of the 
 continent are inhabited by 
 white people, mostly from the 
 British Isles. The white men 
 have driven the savages from 
 
 2. Oolonies of Australia. 
 The colonies in the soafch-easteru part of this 
 continent are *;he most thriving. Here are the 
 vast grazing districts that support millions of 
 sheep and cattle. Large areas are planted with 
 wheat, Indian co':n, and other ccn-eals. Great 
 quantities of gold and tin are » lined. Middle 
 and western Australia are thinly settled. 
 
 NatlveM of Australia. 
 
 these fertile jilains. Neither sheep, cattle, 
 wheat nor corn are native to AustraUa, yet 
 they now form the chief sources of wealth 
 there. The continent is famous for its gold 
 Tnines, — mostly situated in the hilly belt along 
 the Pacific margin. 
 
 NatlTcs and Temple, Solomon Islands. 
 
 Melbourne, the chief seaport of Vic- 
 toi-ia, is the largest city of Australia. Its 
 population is larger than that of M n- 
 treal and Toronto combined. Melbourne 
 has extensive manufactures. 
 
 Sydney, the principal port of New 
 South Wales, is on a long and deep lanil- 
 locked bay. This is the oldest and the 
 second largest city in Australia. 
 
 Adelaide is the commercial centre of 
 ' " '~7^r"^ South Australia. Brisbane, on the 
 
 river of the same name, is the capital and leading port 
 of Queensland. 
 
 3. New Zealand, Papua and Other Islands. 
 
 A little more than a thousand miles south- 
 east of Australia lie two lai-ge islands and 
 
AUSTRALIA. 
 
 193 
 
 FIJI narrlor. 
 
 several small 
 ones, forming* 
 the group 
 kno\.Ti as New 
 Zealand. 
 
 The moun- 
 tains of south- 
 ern New Zen- 
 land, rival- 
 ing in height 
 the Rocky 
 mountains, 
 receive 
 heavy rain- 
 fall f I'om the 
 westerly 
 winds. Great 
 glaciers de- 
 scend the slopes of the New Zealand mountains. 
 Many parts of these islands are forest-clad. 
 Among the trees are lofty pines and large tree- 
 ferns. 
 
 The natives of New Zealf.nd belong to the 
 brown race. Their number is small compared 
 with that of the white people who have in re- 
 cent years chosen those islands for their home. 
 
 Sheep-raising is the chief industry in New 
 Zealand, although there were no sheep on the 
 islands when the white man first settled there. 
 
 Dunedin is the chief port of the South island ; 
 Auckland, of the North island. Wellington, is the 
 capital. . 
 
 Tasmania lies south of Australia, 
 formerly called Van Dieman's 
 Land, and was used by the British 
 Government as a penal colony. 
 Hobart is the capital. Agiieulture, 
 mining and whale fishing are lead- 
 ing occupations. There are large 
 coal beds on the island. 
 
 Papua is the largest island in the 
 world. It is about as large as 
 Ontario and Manitoba combined. 
 Except along some parts of the 
 coast, Papua is in the possession of 
 
 black people who do very little to develop its 
 resources, although the lowlands of the island 
 aj'b ■'oi'tile. 
 
 Coral and Volcanic Islaads.— Many of the 
 low islands in tbe Pacific aro of coral origin. 
 Some are in the form of long bai-s, or reefs; 
 others take the shape or rings, or atolls, inclos- 
 ing lagoons. These coral deposits are constantly 
 wasting away in the still water of the lagoons, 
 and increasing outwards towards the open sea. 
 
 The higher islands far out in the Pacific are 
 volcanoes. Many of these are still active, but 
 others are extinct. Coral roefs, called harrier 
 reefs, surround most of the lofty islands. 
 
 Pol3mesia.- Several groups of small islands 
 lying eastward from Papua and Australia ai-e 
 included in the term 
 
 t;>>.;oauutH. 
 
 Cocoanot Tree. 
 
 Poljmesia. They are 
 the Fiji, Friendly, Sa- 
 moan. Society, Mar- 
 quesas, Ell ice, and 
 Cook islands. 
 
104 
 
 AUSTRAJJA. 
 
 There are about 300 islands in the 
 Fyi group, but only two of these 
 are of fair size. Tlie most import- 
 ant is Viti-Lovu. These islands 
 are chiefly f)f volcanic origin. 
 They are rugged and moun- 
 
 lionolulii, Uawallau IsluuUit. 
 
 tainous. Suva is the 
 capital. It is on the south 
 shore of Viti-Levu. 
 The Fijians have strong and well- 
 built bodies, as shown in the picture on 
 page 193. As a race they are fierce and 
 warlike. 
 South-east of the Fiji group are the Friendly is- 
 lands, of which Tonga is the largest. Since white 
 people first went to these islands to teach the natives, 
 most of them have learned to read. Christianity pre- 
 vails on these islands. 
 
 The Samoa islands 
 are north-east of the Fiji 
 group. Apia is the chief 
 town. The Samoans arc 
 very skilful in using can- 
 oes, and for this reason 
 their is- 
 lands are 
 often cal- 
 led th 
 Navigato?-'s 
 islands. 
 
 The peo 
 pie of Sa- 
 
 moa are a^ve the average Pacific islanders in intelli- 
 gence and morality. The govcruiaent is monarchical, 
 and the people are under the joint protection of Grjat 
 Britain, Germany, and the United States 
 
 Micronesia . — North-east- ard from Papria are 
 sevr J groups of islands which togethcT* take the name 
 of Micronesia, meaning small islands. 
 Among these groups, the ^iadroaes are 
 mostly of volcanic origin ; but the Caroline, 
 Marshall and Gilbert islands are chiefly 
 the work of coral polyps. 
 
 The savages who dwell in these islands 
 may be grouped with t^ o people of the 
 brown race ; but in language and customs, 
 tlie Micronesians differ r'rom the nati ^es of 
 the large islands of the East Indies. 
 
 The Hawaiian islands form part 
 
 of the United States. They are near 
 
 the tropic of Cancer, about 2,000 
 
 miles south - Avestward from San 
 
 Francisco. These islands were built 
 
 up by volcanic action, from the deep 
 
 bottom of the middle Pacific. They form the 
 
 most important gi'oup among the many islands 
 
 which rise far out in that ocean. The lowlands 
 
 of the islands are fertile. Among the products 
 
 are sugar-cane and rice. Hawaii is the largest 
 
 of the gi'oup of eight islands. Honolulu, the 
 
 chief city, is on the island of Oahu. 
 
THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 a^^l 
 
 n 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 V .. 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 m^ - ^H 
 
 i^i..JLi. ■• 
 
 1 
 
 .^-4 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 k-r" 
 
 
 i8#¥:' ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 %;•!;.'''* 
 
 
 
 »■■'■■■■■■ -f.,.' 
 
 ^_;' 
 
 ■*' ■■, ''1 
 
 -I "" *■ 
 
 
 
 -.'«' ' "'" - 
 
 - •**^-^ 
 
 ki« 
 
 t 
 
 ,■ . . ' .•' Ml >.' ■ J^ 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 '■:Wf?- 
 
 ".-. - "-^,- 
 
 >S.... ■, « 
 
 ■• 
 
 
 Hoiuei or Purliament, Londou, England, 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 Extent.— The Biitisli Empire, of which Can- 
 ada forms so large a part, is the hirgest empire 
 that has ever existed. It contains about one- 
 fifth of all the laud in the world. The British 
 Islands, which foiin the head of the empire 
 and are the source from which its chief power 
 comes, are really veiy small compared with the 
 rest of the gi'eat empire which they have formed. 
 The British Empire consists of the United 
 Kingdom of Groat Britain and Ireland, together 
 with colonies in every quarter of the world. The 
 following table gives the area of the principal 
 parts of the empire : 
 
 Canada .... 
 
 3,470,257 square miles 
 
 Australia . . . 
 
 3,171,978 
 
 
 India .... 
 
 1,378,044 
 
 
 South Africa 
 
 250,000 
 
 
 British Guiana . 
 
 110,000 
 
 
 New Zealand . 
 
 104,032 
 
 
 England . . . 
 
 51,000 square miles. 
 
 Newfoundland . 
 
 42,000 
 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 31,759 
 
 
 Borneo (part) 
 
 31,000 
 
 
 Scotland . . . 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 Honduras (part) 
 
 7,562 
 
 
 Jamaica .... 
 
 4,193 
 
 
 Questions : Omitting Australia, how does Canada 
 compare in size with the fhole of tlio rest of tlio empire? 
 How many times is the whole empire as large as the 
 United Kingdom t How many times is Canada as large 
 as the United Kingdom? How many times is Aus- 
 tralia as large as the United Kingdom? How many 
 times is British India as large as the United Kingdom { 
 With Canada as the base, draw on the blackboard a 
 series of squares in colors, representing the relative size 
 of the chief parts of the British Empire. 
 
 Note. — An approximate idea of the relative sizes of 
 the different portions of the empire may be given to 
 junior classes by lines. 
 
THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 197 
 
 Population.— The population of the British Empire is a 
 little more than one-fifth of all the people in the world. 
 
 Oommerce— The British Empire is vastly superior 
 to any other empii'e in the extent of her com- 
 merce. The total number of merchant vessels 
 belonging to the British Empire, in 1896, was 
 35,735. The tonnage 
 was 10,503,307 tons 
 net 
 
 The British Empire 
 has been appropriately 
 called "The Ocean Em- 
 pire." Dr. a. R. Parkin 
 says "All the great 
 oceans wash its shores. 
 Water, more than laud, 
 forms its boundaries, 
 and the sea is the chief 
 means of connection 
 between its different 
 
 parts. The ocean trade of its people is greater Australia to London is about the same as from 
 than that of any nation of present or past times. London to Leeds. The gi'eat manufacturers 
 British ships not only carry British commerce, of iron in England pay as much to send their 
 but also a large part of the merchandise ex- goods to Liverpool as its costs to send them 
 
 from Liverpool to the colonies. 
 
 The different parts of the empire are con- 
 
 Tower of London. 
 
 changed between other countries." 
 
 The ocean really does not keep the different 
 parts of the empire apart as in former times. 
 So far as trade is concerned it brings the em- 
 pire into closer 
 unity. Wheat 
 or cattle or ap- 
 ples can be car- 
 ried from Mon- 
 
 Westmiustcr Abbey. 
 
 nected, not only by swift steamships, but by 
 telegi-aph lines, so that events occurring in any 
 part of the empire may be known in a few 
 minutes in all the other parts. Of 125,000 
 miles of ocean cables the British Empire owns 
 about 90,000 miles. 
 
 Canada's place in the Empire.— If we ex- 
 treal to England amine the map of the British Empire, we may 
 as cheaply as note three important facts: Canada is the 
 largest part of the empire; it is nearer the 
 " mother land " than any other large part of 
 the empire; and it lies about in the centre of 
 the empire, between the British Isles and India 
 and Australia. The quickest route from Eng- 
 land to India or Australia is by steamship from 
 England to Canada, by rail across Canada, and 
 by steamer from Vancouver. These facts make 
 Canada a very important part of the empire. 
 
 from one end of 
 England to the 
 other. The same 
 is true of the 
 cost of bringing 
 wool from Aus- 
 tralia. The cost 
 of taking a bale 
 of wool from 
 
198 
 
 THE BRITI8B EMPIRE. 
 
 Trade Routes of the Empire.— The leadiug 
 trade routes between dif^ereut parts of the em- 
 pire are : 
 
 1. From the British Isles to the East by v ay 
 of the Straits of Gibraltar, Mediterranean Sea, 
 Suez Canal, Red Sea, iuto the Indian Ocean, 
 thence to India or AustraUa and New Zealand. 
 
 2. From the British Isles to the East down 
 the Atlantic Ocean and round the Cape of Good 
 Hope, thence to India or Australia and New 
 Zealand. 
 
 3. From the British Isles across the Atlantic 
 Ocean to Canada. 
 
 4. From the British Isles to the West Indies, 
 Guiana and Honduras. When a canal is cut 
 across the Isthmus of Panama this will 
 make a new route to Australia. 
 
 5. From Canada to Hong 
 Kong, taking Chinese 
 and Japanese trade and 
 connecting with India. 
 
 6. From Canada 
 across the Pacific 
 Ocean to New Zea- 
 land and Aus- 
 tralia. This route 
 with the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway 
 and the route to 
 England from 
 Canada makes the 
 most rapid route from England to the East 
 
 7. Fron Canada to the West Indies. 
 
 These routes are defended by the best fort- 
 resses and supplied with many of the finest 
 harbors in the world. 
 
 Exercise : Draw a map of the world and mark the 
 positioa of the following fortresses and harbors belong- 
 ing to the British Empire : Gibraltar, Malta, Perim, 
 Aden, Bombay, Colombo, Trincomalee, Singapore, Hong- 
 Kong, SierrarLeone, Ascension, St. Helena, Table Bay, 
 Simon's Bay, Mauritius, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, 
 Port Darwin, Hobart, Auckland, Wellington, Lyttle- 
 
 ton, Dutitdiu, Quebec, ^^.alifax, Bermuda, Kingston and 
 Esquimalt. 
 
 Great dookt xor the repairing of ships have 
 been constructed at Gibraltar, Malta, Bombay, 
 Hong-Kong, Sydney, Auckland, Lyttleton, Hal- 
 ifax, Esquimalt and Bermuda. 
 
 For the pm-poses of commerce or defence 
 coal is of gi-eat importance. The British Em- 
 pire keeps abundant supplies of coal for coaUng 
 her merchant vessels and her gi'eat battleships 
 in the harbors? named and in other convenient 
 places along the gi'eat trade routes of the world. 
 A great deal of this coal comes from Great 
 Britain, but there are inexhaustible supplies 
 for tbis purpose in Nova Scotia and British 
 
 Columbia, 
 New Zea- 
 land, Aus- 
 tralia, 
 
 India and South 
 Africa. 
 
 Government 
 of the Colonies. 
 — There are 
 three classes of 
 British colonies: Self- 
 governing Colonies, Crown 
 Colonies, and colonies with 
 Representative Institutions. 
 Self-governing Colonies 
 elecu the members of their pailiaments or 
 legislatures to make their own laws, arrange 
 their own taxes and customs rates, and conduct 
 their own public works. Canada, Australia, 
 Tasmania, Newfoundland, and parts of South 
 Africa belong to this class of colonies. 
 
 Crown Colonies are governed directly by offi- 
 cers appointed by the British Government. 
 
THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 199 
 
 Enqulniult Dry Djck*. 
 
 India, Hong-Kong, Gibraltar and Sierra Leone 
 are Crown Colonies. 
 
 Malta, near the centre of the Me^terranean, controls 
 the commerce of that great sea. 
 
 Aden controls the mouth of the Red Sea, as Gibraltar 
 guards the entrance to the Mediterranean. Both are 
 t)ractically impregnable. By these forts Britain con- 
 trols the trade of the Indies, which is of very great 
 importance. 
 
 Importance of the British Empire.- L(»rd Rosebeiy 
 has said : — " A collection of states spread over every 
 region of the earth, but owning one head and one flag, 
 is even more important as an influence than as an Empire. 
 From either point of view it is a world-wide te<it of 
 supreme significance ; but in the one capacity it affects 
 only its own subjects, and in the other all mankind. 
 With the E japire statesmen are mainly concerned ; in the 
 influence every individual can and must have a part. 
 Influence is based on character, and it is on the character 
 of each child that gi-ows into manhood within Biitish 
 limits that the future of our Empire rests. 
 
 "If we and they are narrow and selfish, averse 
 to labor, impatient of necessary burdens, fac- 
 tious and self-indulgent; if we see in public 
 affaii's not our Empire, but our country, not 
 our country but our parish, and in our parish 
 
 For its 
 
 In the third class of colonies, the government 
 is a kind of unity of the plans adopted in the 
 other two. The parliaments that make the 
 
 laws in these colonies are partly elected by the our house, the Empu-e is doomed, 
 people of the colonies and partly appointed by maintenance requires work, and sacrifice, and 
 the British Government. Jamaica and most of inteUigence. The time cannot be far remot,e 
 
 . the West Indies, Malta and Guiana are colonies 
 with Representative Institutions. In all Brit- 
 ish colonias the ruler of the empire is repre- 
 sented by a Governor appointed by the British 
 Government. 
 
 The Self-governing Colonies are represented the growth 
 in London by agents appointed by the gov- of its popu- 
 emments of the respective colonies. The re- lationandits 
 presentative of Canada is called "The High 
 Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada." 
 
 when the 
 British Em- 
 pire must, if 
 it remain 
 united, by 
 
 British Strongholds.— British statesmen 
 have shown wisdom in securing control of the 
 leading strategic joints of the world: 
 
 GiBRALTAE, at the entrance to the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, is the strongest fortress in the 
 world. 
 
 ubiquitous 
 dominion, 
 exercise a 
 controlling 
 authority in 
 the world. 
 To that trust 
 our sons are 
 born." 
 
 .lanuting €ar, Ireluiitl. 
 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Of what does geography treat ? What is the shai>o 
 of the earth ? Give ati mauj reasons as you can for your 
 answer. 
 
 How far is it around the centre of the earth ? ^ow 
 far is it through the centre ? 
 
 2. Of what is the greater part of the earth composed ? 
 How high are the highest mountains ? How deep nre 
 the deepest parts of the sea ? What is the general cliar- 
 acter of the bottom of the sea ? 
 
 8. Is there more land north or south of the equator ? 
 Is there more land or more watei on the surface of the 
 earth? Describe the world ridge or primary highland. 
 On which side of the primary highland are the longer 
 land slopes? What is the general shape of the world 
 ridge ? Why are there no long rivers on the outside of 
 the world ridge ? 
 
 4. Name the four large bodies of land of which the 
 world ridge forms the backbone. Name the six conti- 
 nents or grand divisions. Which continent lies wholly 
 south of the equator ? What strait cuts the world ridge 
 in two? Draw an outline of the world ridge. 
 
 6. How much of the earth's surface is covered with 
 water ? How much with land ? What continents are 
 washed by the Arctic Ocean ? By the Antarctic Ocean ? 
 By the Pacific Ocean ? By the Atlantic Ocean ? By the 
 Indian Ocean ? 
 
 6. What changes take place in the height of the water 
 along the shores of the great oceans twice each day ? 
 What are tides ? Describe an island, a peninsula, a cape, 
 an isthmus, a strait, a sound, a channel, a bay, a gulf, 
 a sea. Make the land forms with sand, or draw them on 
 your books or slates. Make or draw the water forms. 
 
 7. What are mountains ? How are they generally 
 formed? Draw the shapes of different kinds of moun- 
 tains, or make them with rock and sand ? What is a 
 mountain range ? What is a mountain system ? What 
 two changes take place in the air as we ascend high 
 mountains? Why is it hard to breathe on high moun- 
 tains ? Is it eabier or more difficult to run as we go 
 higher up ? Why ? Why is the air heavier at the foot 
 of the mountain than at its top ? What is an ava- 
 lanche ? 
 
 8. What is lava ? In what two forms does lava 
 usually cool ? How are volcanoes formed ? How many 
 
 acres are covered by a lava flow in India ? Where are 
 most volcanoes found ? Near what ocean are most vol- 
 canoes found ? How are volcanic islands formed ? 
 
 9. What are valleys? Describe as many kinds of 
 valleys as you can. What is a gorge or canon ? What 
 is a glacier? What is usually found at the bottom of a 
 valley ? 
 
 10. What is meant by surface water? By ground 
 water? What is a spring ? Where are springs usually 
 found ? Are all springs on land ? Why is ground water 
 usually clear? Why do springs sometimes dry up? 
 Why do rivers often have floods in the spring time? 
 How were tlio great plains of Florida, Oeorgia, North 
 and South Carolina formed ? What change in the bed of 
 the ocean is still taking place east of these States? 
 
 11. How does a river grow larger as it goes towards 
 the sea? Why are large cities often built near rivers? 
 What is the source or head of a river? What is the 
 mouth of a river? How are water-falls caused? What 
 is a cataract ? A cascade ? 
 
 12. What is a river basin? What is a river system ? 
 What is the effect of a river on the land over which 
 it flows? What is a divide? What is the largest river 
 in the world ? What is the largest river in North Amer- 
 ica ? Comparo the size of the basins of the largest rivers 
 in North America and in South AmenVa. 
 
 13. What are flood plains" What is silt? How is 
 silt deposited ? Why are flood plains fertile? Do many 
 people live on flood plains ? Why? What are deltas? 
 How are they formed? What kind of soil is usually 
 found on deltas? What do deltas become when they 
 are old ? Where is the largest delta plain in the world ? 
 Why are some cities that were once on the sea shore now 
 far inland ? Describe as many ways of forming plains as 
 you can. How was the great Canadian plain formed ? 
 What are high plains called ? Why do most of the peo- 
 ple in the world live on plains ? 
 
 14. What effect have weather chancres on rocks exposed 
 to air ? What is land waste ? How is it formed ? How 
 is soil formed from rock waste ? In what countries do 
 rocks weather most slowly ? Why did Cleopatra's needle 
 begin to crumble rapidly when it was brought to New 
 York? • 
 
 15. How does rock waste reach the valleys ? 
 an alluvial fan ? 
 
 What is 
 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
 
 201 
 
 16. How aro winds oauswl ? Why aro wIikIh ro impor- 
 tont in decidinK wtiat purtM of tlie eartli are most fertile? 
 What are trade winds? How are they caused? In 
 wliat direction do tiiey blow north of the e<juator ? South 
 of the equator? In what direction do the winds north 
 and south of the trade winds (generally blow? What is 
 the eCfect of the westerly winds on the climate of the con- 
 tinents over which thoy blow ? To what does Western 
 Canada owe its mild climate? To what Western Europe? 
 Do the Rocky Mountains inake Canada warmer or colder 
 by stoppinj; tho proi^ress of the westerly winds from the 
 Pacific Ocean ? What other names are given to the west- 
 erly winds ? Where does rain come from ? Wliy does 
 vapor form into rain? What are clouds? What car- 
 ries the clouds across the land ? Why do the trade winds 
 give out little moisture ? Why do mountain ranges have 
 more rain on one side than on the other ? On which side 
 do they recei the larger rainfall ? How are deserts 
 formed? How might they be made fertile? Why is 
 there so much rain in Ireland ? In tho western part of 
 British Columbia ? , 
 
 17. What effect have strong winds on soil not covered 
 with grass or trees? What are sand hills called ? Ho\v 
 were the "sand banks" of Prince Edward County formed? 
 What are whirlwinds ? How are waterspouts formed ? 
 What effect has wind on the ocean ? What effect has 
 wind on the air ? What other advantages hare winds 
 in making the earth fit for man to live on ? In what 
 part of the earth are waterspouts most common ? 
 
 18. What is a glacier? How are glaciers formed? 
 What is a moraine ? Why are there so many lakes in 
 Canada and so few in the United States ? Why are 
 there so many boulders in Canada and so few in the 
 United States ? Why are there no boulders in the 
 Southern States? What is a drumlin? How are ice- 
 bergs formed? 
 
 19. How are ocean curreYits formed? Why do not 
 currents move in direct lines around the earth ? Where 
 are the Atlantic and Pacific eddies ? In what direction 
 do the ocean eddies north of the equator turn ? In what 
 direction do those south of the equator turn? In what 
 direction does the Antarctic eddy flow? What causes 
 the Gulf stream? Trace its course. What is its influ- 
 ence on the British Isles and Norway ? What current 
 flows southward along the north-east coast of North 
 America? What effect -has this current on Labrador 
 and Newfoundland ? 
 
 20. What causes the tides? In what places do tides 
 rise highest? Is the tide high in mid-ocean? Why is 
 it higher at the shore ? In what parts of the earth are 
 there high tides at the same time ? What are the higb- 
 
 e«t tides cHJed? The ■mallent tides? When are th« 
 highest tides formed? W lien t lie lowest? What is meant 
 by flood tide ? What by ebb tide? 
 
 21. What is the Solar system? How mnny motions 
 has Mie earih ? How long does it take the eurth to go 
 around the sun ? What is the earth's orbit? What ia 
 the shape of the earth's orbit? What is perihelion? 
 What is aphelion? How do we know that the earth 
 moves around the sun? What is the diurnal motion of 
 the earth? What is the result of the diurnal motion of 
 the earth? How could day and night be caused, if the 
 earth did not revolve on its axis? 
 
 22. What ia the result of the annual motion of the 
 earth ? Could the earth go around the sun without 
 causing a change of seasons ? How is the earth's axis 
 inclined? How often is the sun vertical over the 
 equator each year? On what dates? When is the sun 
 J(re"tly over the tropic of Cancer? Over the tropic of 
 Ca;)rIcorn ? What are the conditions necessary to cause 
 the change of seasons ? 
 
 23. How many zones are there ? Name them. Where 
 are they located? In what zone do most civilized r>eople 
 live? State as many conditions as you can that influ* 
 erce climate, 
 
 24. How many times is th-s sun as large as the earth? 
 How would the absence of clouds or dust from the 
 air affect the temperature? Where is the hot belt? 
 Where are the cold bel s? Where are the coof belts? 
 Where are the warm lielts ? Why have the sun's rays 
 more influence at the equator than near the poles ? 
 
 25. What is meant by latitude ? By longitude ? Why 
 are latitude and longitude necessary ? What are merid- 
 ians? Where is the equator? What are the poles? 
 Where is the first meridian? Why is this meridian 
 chosen by English geographers? What is the highest 
 longitude possible ? The highest latitude ? Why have 
 not all places the same time? Why '' there a difference 
 between sun time and standard time in most places ? 
 
 27, Is the moon a light or a dark body ? Where does 
 its light come from? When do we have new moon? 
 When do we have full moon? How many times does 
 the moon go around the earth in a year ? Why does the 
 moon rise later each day ? 
 
 Plants. 
 
 Are all the grains and fruits grown in Canada nativ* 
 
 n t.Vift p.nii n fr \r V 
 
 to the country ? 
 
 What are the most important trees that grow in the 
 hot belt? Which is the most useful of these trees? 
 
202 
 
 REVIEW QCESTIONS. 
 
 Stat« as many products of these trees as you orn. What 
 uses are made of bamboo? What Hre the r'lief articles 
 of food in the hot belt ' What are the chief imports 
 from the hot t)flU to Canada ? 
 
 What is the chief distinction between the treeii of 
 the warm belt and those of the cool l>elt ? Wl.at 
 are the great cotton producing countries of the world ? 
 Name the leading fruits "' 'he warm belt. Where doei'. 
 most of the tea used in our country come from? What 
 belt produces most sugar ? 
 
 What is the most distinctive product of the cool belts 
 of the world? Which is the most useful Kcain? Which 
 grain grows in the widest range of temi^rature? In 
 what belt does most timber grow ? What trecH grow 
 farthest into the cold belts, and highest on mountain 
 ranges? 
 
 NoTX. — One of the best maps in a schoolroom may he made 
 by making a circle and dividing it into tho bolts of ditTeront 
 temperatures, and pasting ur drawing on it tho character- 
 istic plant products of each belt. 
 
 Animals. 
 
 Give some illustration of the adaptability of animals to 
 their native homes. Give some illustrations to 'ihow how 
 animals are constructed to suit their modes of living. 
 Name as many animals as you can that are now common 
 in America which were not natives of America Which 
 have a wider range of temperature adaptation— plants or 
 animals ? 
 
 Name the leading animals of the South American 
 realm. Which are the most useful of these ? Which is 
 the largest bird that flies? What very large bird of 
 South America does not fly ? 
 
 What are the general characteristic's of the animals of 
 the northern realm ? What are the most useful product 
 of animals in the northern realm ? Where is the moose 
 found? The reindeer? The walrus? The seal? The 
 chamois? Of what use is each of these animals? 
 
 Name the leading animals of the African realm. What 
 are the two largest kinds of monkeys called? Which is 
 most like man ? What is the largest bird in Africa ? 
 What is the largest quadruped? What is the fiercest 
 animal ? 
 
 What are the two most useful animals of the Oriental 
 realm ? Of what use are elephants in India ? 
 
 Which realm has the strangest animals? What is the 
 chief difference between kangaroos and other animals ? 
 Are there many species of animals called kangaroos? 
 
 What are the most useful domestic animals in Australia? 
 What countries produce most wool ? Name some strange 
 birds of Australia. 
 
 NoTB.— A very interesting and uiieful map may be made 
 by outlining tho continonts on strotchod canvas or un a 
 largo ihoet of manilla paper, and pasting on or drawing the 
 animals that live a the dilToreut oontinonts. Pupils may 
 maku unlargod pi ' ures from those givuu in tliis book. £uoh 
 pupil niuy maku a smaller animal map for himself. 
 
 Tho best way to learn tho production of a continent is to 
 draw or fasten on a map the chief products of each country 
 in it. 
 
 The Bottom of the Sea. 
 
 Describe the bottom of the sea. Are there any moun- 
 tain ranges under the sea? What do the tope of the 
 paaks form? Are there any volcanoes under the sea? 
 ^v'hat do they fornr ''hen they reach the surface? How 
 f ir down in the ocean does light penetrate ? What is the 
 greatest depth of the ocean ? Uow do coral islands 
 grow? 
 
 Races of M^n. 
 
 How many races of men ore theio? In what respects 
 do they differ? Wheie are the red men found? The 
 black men V The yellow men ? The brown men ? The 
 white men ? How many people are there in the world ? 
 
 Which race includes nearly one-half oi ..ho people of 
 the world? Which race includes more than one-third 
 the people of the world ? What i)ortion of the people of 
 the world belong to the Black race ? To the Brown race ? 
 To the Red race ? 
 
 What are pagans? To what races do the pagans be- 
 long ? About how many pagans are there in the world ? 
 What is the religion of the natives of India? What is 
 the religion of the Yellow race? What part of the race 
 belongs to the Buddhist reli^'ion ? In what part of the 
 world did the worship of God begin? What three great 
 religions took the worship of one God ? What are the 
 chief distinctions between these three religions ? 
 
 What is the prevailing form of government among 
 savage people ? "What is an absolute i.^ua chy? What 
 nations or races have absolute monarchief f What is a 
 limited monarchy ? What countries hav j limited mon- 
 archies ? What is a republic ? What Eurtpean countries 
 are republics? In what continents are there most 
 republics ? 
 
 What is meant by trade ? What is domestic commerce? 
 What is foreign commerce? Name in order the five 
 countries that have the largest foreign trade? Why is 
 England the greatest commercial country in the world? 
 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
 
 203 
 
 What oommeroiftl advantagen ban Canada ? NamM four 
 wajTH by which goods are tranaported from ona plaoe to 
 anothar. 
 
 North America. » 
 
 What is the general flhape of North America? How 
 much of the earth's surface in in North America? What 
 divides the continent into two great slopes? Which 
 slope is larger? How is the eastern Hlope sub-divided? 
 What belts of temperature cross North America? Why 
 is the western slofM of M^rc'co dry and the eastern slope 
 well watered ? Why is it tlu.t north of Mexico, through 
 the United States ai^d Canada the western slope of the 
 highland is well watered, and the eastern slope dry ? 
 Explain the rainfall ia tbb central and eastern parts of 
 North America. 
 
 Describe the Rocky Mountain highlands. What part 
 of these highlands is called the Rocky Mount<«ins? How 
 far do the Rocky M untains extend? Through what 
 countries do thoy run ? What mountains run between 
 the Rocky xvlountaina and the Pacific, in tlie United 
 Stutes? In Canada? What are the highest peaks of 
 the Rocky Mountains? In what country are they? 
 Why ia the climate of Canada west of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains so mild ? What are the chief rivers of the Rocky 
 Mountain highland? 
 
 DeF . ibe the Appalachian Highland. Through what 
 parts of Canada does it run ? What are the chief rivers 
 of the Appalachian Highland ? How was New England 
 affected by the glacial ice-sheet? What is the highest 
 peak of the Appalachian range? Explain the general 
 formation of mountains after studying the illustration 
 on page 60. What are the most important valleys in the 
 Appalachian Highland ? What great canal runs through 
 the Mohawk valley ? 
 
 Between what highlands does the St. Lawrence ri^er 
 run? Trace the course of the Laurentian Highland. 
 What is the general character of tiK'> Laurentian High- 
 land east of Hudson Bay ? How was this highland worn 
 down? How do you account for the irregular coast-line 
 of the north-east part of North America, and for the 
 many large islandj to be found north and north-east of 
 this continent? 
 
 Name the great lakes of the St. Lawrence basin. How 
 were the basins of these lakes deepened ? What is the 
 difference between the height of the surface of Lake 
 Superior and the mouth of the St. Lawrence? What 
 obstructions are there to the passage of boats from Lake 
 Superior to the ocean ? How are these obstmotions over- 
 come? 
 
 What is the oharaotar of the great central portion of 
 North America? What three great river systems drain 
 the great central plain of North America? Where is the 
 watershed dividing these three-river systems ? What Is 
 the obaraoter of the northern or Canadian slope of this 
 MOtral plain? Dosoiibe tlio Arcti.1 slojie of this plam : 
 The forest tract ; The wheat b<' How were the rich 
 plains of the Red River district lormed? Describe the 
 prairies of the United States. What is the character of 
 the Gulf coast? What are the chief products of the 
 so "^ hern plain? How was the eastern plain of the 
 Uni ed States formed ? Uow was Florida formed ? 
 
 United States. 
 
 What is meant by Congress? How many bodies are 
 Included in Congress? How are the members of the 
 House of Ropresentatives chosen? How are Senators 
 chosen? For how many years are Senatois chosen? 
 For how long are Representatives chosen? How is the 
 President elected ? For how long is he elected ? Wiiat 
 is meant by the Cabinet ? How many States are there 
 in the Union ? How ure the individual States governed ? 
 What are the Territories? How is Washington con* 
 trolled ? Make a map of the United States and mark on 
 it the cities described on pages 136, 120, 127. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Where do most of the people of Mexico live ? What 
 are the chief agricultural products of Mexico ? The chief 
 minerals? What is the capital ? The chief port ? Com- 
 pare the cities of Mexico and Montreal. 
 
 Central America. 
 
 Name the States of Central America. Are they united 
 into one country ? What are the chief exports from 
 Central America? What colony has Great Britain in 
 Central America ? How large is it ? What is its chief 
 town? 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 What are the chief products of the West Indies ? Which 
 is the largest island in the West Indies? What is the 
 form of government ? What is the capital ? Name the 
 leading islands in the West Indies that belong to Great 
 Britain. Which is the largest of the British possessions 
 in the West Indies? What country owns Puerto Rico? 
 What form of government has Hayti? What is the 
 capital of Hayti ? What is the capital of Jamaica ? 
 
204 
 
 EEVIEW QUESTIONS. 
 
 South America. 
 
 What is the general shape of South America ? Is it 
 larger or smaller than North America ? In what respect 
 are the two continents alike? "What isthmus connects 
 them ? How wide is this isthmus ? What mountain 
 range divides South America into two slopes? Which 
 slope is longer ? Why do no large rivers run into the 
 Pacific? 
 
 Which parts of South America are in the trade wind 
 belts ? What is the chief advantage of being iu this belt ? 
 
 What are Selvas? What is the highest plateau in 
 America ? How high is it ? What great lake is on this 
 plateau? Why is the plateau of Bolivia not very hot? 
 Why is it not very cold ? Which side of the Andes has 
 most rain ? Why ? Where is the region known as the 
 rainless coast ? Why is there no rain in this district ? 
 What causes the desert of Atacama? What is the 
 highest city in South America ? How far is it from the 
 equator? What is the nature of its climate ? What is 
 the name of the highest active volcano in the world ? 
 To what dangei is Quito exposed ? Into how many 
 ranges do the Andes divide in the northern part of South 
 America ? 
 
 What is the shape of the Brazilian highland ? How 
 does the Brazilian highland compare with the Andes high- 
 land? With the Appalachian highland? V/'hat large 
 rivers flow from the Brazilian highland ? What are 
 Campos? 
 
 Describe the Guiana highland. When does most rain 
 fall on these highlands ? Why ? 
 
 Name the three great river basins of South America, 
 Which is the largest river basin in the world ? What 
 are the chief branches of the Amazon ? How far can 
 steamers ascend the Amazon? Describe the Selvas. 
 How is rubber obtained ? What tre the chief products 
 of the Selvas? 
 
 Where is the valley of the La Plata ? Compare its 
 size with that of the Amazon. What are Pampas? 
 What is the chief use of the Pampas ? 
 
 What are Llanos ? How were they formed ? Why 
 have they wet and dry seasons ? Describe the changes 
 on the Llanos in the wet and dry seasons. What are 
 the differences between tlie three great South American 
 plains ; the Selvas, the Pampas, and the Llanos ? 
 
 Which is the lare-est country in South America? 
 Which the smallest? What part of South America is 
 owned by Great Britain ? 
 
 Draw Laaps of South America for the following par- 
 posos: — (1) Draw the three great highlands. (2) Draw 
 the river basins. (3) Mark the position of the Llanos, the 
 Selvas, and the Pampas. (4) Locate the countries and the 
 capitals. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Compare Europe and Canada in regard to size. What 
 is the general character of the south-west part of Europe ? 
 Of the north-west of Europe ? Of the central and eastern 
 part of Europe ? What is the peculiarity of the coastline 
 of Europe compared with that of other con inents ? In 
 what heat-belt does the chief part of Europe lie ? Which 
 part of Europe receives most rain ? ' Why? Which part 
 receives least rain ? Why ? Why is the western part of 
 Europe much warmer than the eastern parts of America, 
 in the same latitude ? What is the influence of the bodies 
 of water around Europe on its climate ? What part of 
 Europe has warmest summers and coldest winters ? 
 
 What is the chief difference between the Alps and the 
 Appalachian Mountains ? How do you account for this 
 difference ? Name the most important tunnels through 
 the Alps. Which is the largest tunnel in thi9 world? 
 What branch of the Alps runs through Italy':' What 
 great rivers rise in the Alps ? Where i .ethe largest ailk 
 manufactories in the world ? Why are they in this 
 district ? 
 
 What is the general character of the mountains that 
 run from Switzerland into Germany? What branches 
 of the Alpine range run to the east and south-east? 
 
 What is the character of the mountains in the Balkan 
 peunisula and in Greece ? 
 
 Which are the highest mountains of Europe ? Which 
 are next in height ? Give a general description of Spain, 
 How high is the chief portion of Spain ? Describe the 
 climate of Spain. Why are the Spanish plateaus almost 
 treeless? What are the most fertile parts of Spain? 
 What are the chief products of Spain ? What very 
 important rock at the south-west of Spain ? Why is it 
 so important ? Who owns it ? 
 
 What is the most important river of Italy ? What is 
 the chief mountain range of Italy ? What lakes in the 
 northern part of Italy ? In what way does Venice differ 
 from other cities ? How is Italy made fertile ? What 
 are the chief productions of Italy ? 
 
 What mountains divide High Europe from Low 
 Europe ? Describe the Plain of Hungary. Why are so 
 many aarvesting machines sent to the Hungarian Plain 
 from C inada ? What are the leading products of Austria- 
 Hungary V 
 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
 
 205 
 
 How long is the Scandinavian Peninsula ? Describe 
 the western coast of Norway. Why are so many fish 
 found near Norway ? What celebrated whirlpool is on 
 the west coast of Norway ? Explain why the part of 
 Norway within the Arctic Circle has such pleasant wea- 
 ther. How long is the day in summer at North Cape ? 
 What two races inhabit the peninsula of Scandinavia ? 
 What Yellow race lives in the northern part of Scandi- 
 navia? What are the chief exports of Norway and 
 Sweden? How was Iceland forced ? Whr.^ two large 
 islands form the leading portions of the Ei'itish Isles ? 
 Why is there so great a rainfall in the British Isles ? 
 Which is the most mountainous part of the British Isles ? 
 What are the chief natural productions of Great Britain 
 and Ireland ? What is the leading ship-building district 
 in the world ? Why is this district suit«.ble for ship- 
 building ? Describe the government of the British Isles. 
 Explain what is meant by the United Kingdom : By 
 the British Empire. How are governors of British Colo- 
 nies appointed ? 
 
 Describe the physical condition of France. What is 
 the nature of the country in Holland and Belgium ? 
 What is the greatest difierence between the appearance 
 of these countries and of Canada ? What celebrated 
 battle was fought in Belgium ? Ate the regions of Eu- 
 rope north and west of the Alps well or poorly supplied 
 with rain ? Why is this so ? 
 
 What are the chief productions of France, of Belgium, 
 of Holland, of Germany ? 
 
 What country ranks next to England in trade ? 
 
 What is the general character of the surface of Russia ? 
 Why are there such large rivers in Russia? What is 
 the nature of the climate of Russia ? Why is there such 
 a wide range of temperature in Russia ? Why is there 
 not enough rain in all parts of Russia ? Why is the 
 district around the Caspian Sea a salt marsh ? 
 
 What are monsoons ? What inflaecco do they have 
 on the climate of Southern Asia ? On the productiveness 
 of the country ? Where is the Dead Sea ? Why is it so 
 salt ? Describe Arabia. What is the most noted pro- 
 duction of Arabia ? 
 
 What mountains run between Europe and Asia ? What 
 great plain in the north of Asia ? What is the largest 
 lake in the world ? What three great rivers in the 
 northern plain of Asia ? What are tundras ? What 
 are steppes ? What part of Asia has the largest forests ? 
 Where are the greatest grain fields of Asia ? 
 
 What two great rivers have made a large part of the 
 eastern part of Asia ? Describe the delta plains of the 
 Yellow River. What fractional part of the human race 
 lives in China ? To what race do the Chinese beloi:g ? 
 
 What part of the world has the largest rainfall? 
 What are the three great river systems of India ? How 
 was the great plain of Northern India formed ? What 
 is the leading crop of the flood plain of India ? What 
 fractional part of the human race lives in India? Name 
 the chief islands east arid .'^outh-east of Asia. Make a 
 list of the countries oi. .\.'n&, and. their chief products. 
 
 Africa 
 
 Why are the rivers of Africa not navigable far from 
 the coast ? What is notable in regard to the coast line 
 of Africa, Why is the Sahara a desert ? What is the 
 general shape of a vertical section of Africa ? What 
 race inhabits most of Africa ? Where is the Sudan ? 
 Why is it an important country ? Whai, European 
 country controls the Sudan ? 
 
 Where are the richest iron mines in the world ? How 
 does tlie Nile compare in length with the Amazon and 
 the Mississippi? What large island is south-east of 
 Africa ? 
 
 Asia. 
 
 What proportion of the earth's surface is covered by 
 Asia ? How much of the land surface is in Asia ? 
 
 Why is the rainfall on the inner part of Tibet so light ? 
 Why are the lakes of Tibet salt ? Where are the highest 
 lakes in the world ? What is the name of the highest 
 mountain in the world ? What is the highest mountain 
 range in the world ? Why do the rivers of India over- 
 flow their banks ? 
 
 Why is the Desert of Gobi barren ? Which is more 
 barren — Gobi or Sahara ? 
 
 Australia. 
 
 How does Australia compare with Canada in size? 
 What is the nature of Australia near the coast ? What 
 is the nature of the central portion of Australia ? Why 
 are the lakes and marshes salt in the interior of Australia ? 
 Why are the largest of the Australian forests in the 
 eastern part of the continent? Where are the great 
 Australian gold mines found? To what race do the 
 natives of Australia belong ? Where are the most thriv- 
 ing Australian colonies? Name the most important 
 islands and groups of islands north and east of Australia. 
 Where are the Hawaiian Islands ? To what country do 
 they belong ? 
 
o 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Population of the Principal Cities of the World. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 1 
 
 Chlle- 
 
 1 
 
 Denmark- 
 
 
 Norway and 8w 
 
 eden— 
 
 ^rm A A. M ■- A - . . ■ 
 
 
 Yenr. Population. | 
 
 • Tear. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Populatloii. 
 
 Biltlfth America— 
 
 1899 Santiago 
 
 320,000 
 
 1890 Copenhagen 
 
 . 875,0uO 
 
 1900 Stockholm . 
 
 . 802,000 
 
 1901 Montreal . . 
 1901 Toronto 
 
 267,780 
 208,041 
 
 1899 Valparaiso . 
 Colombia— 
 
 143,000 
 
 EuKland and Wales— 
 
 1899 Greater London 
 
 1900 Christiania. 
 1900 Gottenborg. 
 
 . 226,000 
 . 126,000 
 
 1901 Quebec 
 
 68,840 
 
 1886 Bogotfi, 
 
 120,000 
 
 
 6,291,000 
 
 1900 Bergen 
 
 68,000 
 
 1901 Ottawa 
 
 59,928 
 
 1886 Panama 
 
 80,000 
 
 1901 Liverpool . 
 
 . 684,000 
 
 Portugal— 
 
 
 1901 Hamilton 
 
 62,634 
 
 
 
 1901 Manchester 
 
 544,000 
 
 1900 Lisbon 
 
 . 801,000 
 
 1901 Winnipeg . . 
 
 42,340 
 
 Fxuador— 
 
 
 1901 Birininghani 
 
 522,000 
 
 1900 Oporto 
 
 . 188,000 
 
 1901 Halifax 
 
 40,832 
 
 1897 Quito 
 
 80,000 
 
 1901 Leeds 
 
 . 428,000 
 
 
 
 1901 St. John 
 1901 London 
 
 40,711 
 37,983 
 
 1897 Guayaquil . 
 eulana— 
 
 51,000 
 
 1901 Sheffield . 
 1901 Bristol 
 
 . 881,000 
 . 829,000 
 
 Bussla- 
 
 1897 St.Petersburg 1,267,000 
 1897 Moscow .; 989.000 
 
 1898 St. John's . . 
 
 29,000 
 
 1891 Georgetown . . 
 
 53,000 
 
 1901 Bradford . 
 
 , 279,000 
 
 1897 Warsaw 
 
 . 688,000 
 
 1901 Vancouver .. 
 
 26,183 
 
 1900 Paramaribo. . 
 
 80,000 
 
 1901 Cardiff 
 
 . 164,000 
 
 1897 Odessa 
 
 , 405,000 
 
 1901 Victoria 
 
 20,816 
 
 1900 Cayenne 
 
 12,000 
 
 France— 
 
 
 1897 Riga 
 
 . 283,000 
 
 Central Amerlca- 
 
 1895 Guatemala .. 
 
 66,000 
 
 ParuKoay— 
 
 1895 Asuncion . 
 
 70,000 
 
 1896 Paris 
 1896 Lyon 
 
 .2,587,000 
 . 466,000 
 
 Scotland— 
 
 1898 Glasgow . 
 
 . 760,000 
 
 1897 San Salvador 
 1900 Leon 
 
 60,000 
 45.000 
 
 Peru— 
 
 
 1896 Marseille . 
 1896 Bordeaux . 
 
 . 442,000 
 . 257,000 
 
 1898 Edinburgh . 
 1898 Dundee 
 
 . 816,000 
 . 160,000 
 
 1900 Managua . . 
 1900 Sau Jo86 
 
 80,000 
 
 1895 Lima 
 
 162,000 
 
 1896 Lisle 
 
 . 216 
 
 
 26,000 
 
 1896 Callao 
 
 48,000 
 
 1896 Toulouse . 
 
 . 150, ) 
 
 Spaln- 
 
 
 
 
 1896 Arequipa . 
 
 85,000 
 
 1896 Havre 
 
 . 120,000 
 
 1897 Madrid 
 
 . 512,000 
 
 Mexico— 
 
 
 1896 Cuzco 
 
 80,000 
 
 CSemiany— 
 
 1895 Berlin 
 
 
 1897 Barcelona . 
 
 . 609,000 
 
 1895 Mexico 
 
 344,000 
 
 
 
 ,1,677,000 
 
 1897 Valencia . 
 
 . 204,000 
 
 1895 Guadalajara 
 
 84,000 
 
 Urngmay- 
 
 
 1897 Malaga 
 
 . 126,000 
 
 
 
 1900 Montevideo . 
 
 . 253,000 
 
 1895 Hamburg . 
 
 . 625,000 
 
 
 
 United States- 
 
 
 
 
 1895 Munich 
 
 . 411,000 
 
 Switierland— 
 
 
 See j»affe«W. 
 
 
 Tencznela— 
 
 
 1895 Leipzig 
 
 . 400,000 
 
 1900 Zurich 
 
 . 166,0CiO 
 
 West Indles- 
 
 
 1891 Caracas 
 
 . 73,000 
 
 1895 Breslau 
 
 . 878,000 
 
 1893 Basel 
 
 . 106,000 
 
 1899 Havana 
 
 236,000 
 
 1891 Valei-Ja . 
 
 . 89,000 
 
 1895 Dresden . 
 
 . 836,000 
 
 1900 Geneva 
 
 . 63,000 
 
 1894 Port au Prince 60,000 
 
 1891 Maracaibo . 
 
 . 34,000 
 
 1895 Cologne 
 
 . 821,000 
 
 1900 Bern 
 
 . 66,000 
 
 1898 Kingston . . 
 
 47,000 
 
 EUROPE. 
 Aastrla-Hungary 
 
 
 Ireland- 
 
 
 
 
 1899 'Santiago 
 
 43,000 
 
 _ 
 
 1891 Belfast 
 
 . 349,000 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 
 1899 Matanzas . . 
 
 36,000 
 
 1890 Vienna 
 
 1,364,000 
 
 1891 Dublin 
 
 . 286,000 
 
 Asiatic Bnssla- 
 
 
 1899 Cienfuegos .. 
 
 80,000 
 
 1896 Budapest . . 
 
 617,000 
 
 1891 Cork 
 
 . 99,000 
 
 1897 Tiflis 
 
 . 160,000 
 
 
 
 1890 Prague 
 
 184,000 
 
 1891 Limerick . 
 
 . 45,000 
 
 1897 Tashkend 
 
 . 156,000 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 1890 Trieste 
 
 158,000 
 
 Italy- 
 
 1 f\/\t\ XT 1 _ 
 
 
 1897 Baku 
 
 . 112,000 
 
 A-^entlua- 
 
 
 
 
 . 544,000 
 
 1897 Irkutsk 
 
 . 51,000 
 
 1898 Buenos Ayres 
 
 758,000 
 
 Belglnni— 
 
 
 1900 Naples 
 
 
 
 1895 Cordoba 
 
 47,000 
 
 1899 Brussels 
 
 661,000 
 
 1900 Rome 
 
 . 512,000 
 
 Cfalna— 
 
 
 1895 La Plata . . 
 
 45,000 
 
 1900 Antwerp . . 
 
 282,000 
 
 1900 Milan 
 
 . 492,000 
 
 1899 Canton 
 
 .2,500,000 
 
 
 
 1900 Liege 
 
 171,000 
 
 1900 Turin 
 
 . 359,000 
 
 1899 Pekin 
 
 .1,500,000 
 
 Bolivia— 
 
 
 1900 Ghent 
 
 165,000 
 
 1900 Palermo . 
 
 . 292,000 
 
 1899 Tientsin 
 
 .1,000,000 
 
 1896 La Paz 
 
 62,000 
 
 
 
 1900 Genoa 
 
 . 237,000 
 
 1899 Hankau 
 
 . 850,000 
 
 1898 Sucre 
 
 27,000 
 
 Balkan States- 
 
 
 1900 Florence . 
 
 . 216,000 
 
 1899 Puchau 
 
 . 650,000 
 
 Braill— 
 
 
 1895 Constantinople 
 
 900,000 
 
 1900 Venice 
 
 . 157,000 
 
 1899 Shanghai 
 
 .. 615,000 
 
 1892 Kiode Janeiro 522,000 
 
 1900 Bukharest .. 
 
 282,000 
 
 Nctberlands— 
 
 
 British India— 
 
 
 1892 Bahia 
 
 200,000 
 
 1895 Saloniki 
 
 150,0'10 
 
 X900 Amsterdam 
 
 528,000 
 
 1891 Calcutta 
 
 .. 862,000 
 
 1892 Pp- \mbaoo 
 
 190,000 
 
 1896 Athens 
 
 111,000 
 
 1900 Rotterdam . 
 
 , 819,000 
 
 1891 Bombay 
 
 .. 822,000 
 
 1892 . . 
 
 40,000 
 
 1893 Sofia 
 
 47,000 
 
 1900 The Hague. 
 
 . 206,000 
 
 1891 Madras 
 
 .. 468,000 
 
 206 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 207 
 
 British Indta— Cont'd. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 1891 
 
 Hyderabad . 
 
 1891 
 
 Lucknow . 
 
 1891 
 
 Benares 
 
 1891 
 
 Delhi 
 
 1891 
 
 Mandalay . 
 
 1891 
 
 Rangoon 
 
 1891 
 
 Singapore . 
 
 French IndtnCh 
 
 1895 
 
 Hanoi 
 
 1896 
 
 Hu6 
 
 1895 
 
 Saigon 
 
 Population. 
 415,000 
 278,000 
 219,000 
 198,000 
 189,000 
 180,000 
 145,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 85 000 
 
 Eact India Islandi— 
 
 1900 Manilla .. 350,000 
 1896 Surabaya .. 125,000 
 1896 Batavia .. 115,000 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1898 Belize 
 1901 Canada 
 
 1899 Costa Rica 
 
 1899 Cuba 
 
 1900 Guatemala 
 
 1894 Haiti 
 
 1897 Honduras 
 
 1895 Mexico 
 
 1898 Newfoundland 
 1900 Nicaragua 
 
 1894 Salvador 
 1900 United States 
 
 SOUTH AHFRICA. 
 
 1899 Argentina 
 
 1895 Brazil 
 
 1898 British Guiana 
 
 1894 Bolivia 
 
 1900 Chile 
 
 1895 Colombia 
 
 1892 Dutch Guiana 
 1890 Ecuador 
 
 1895 French G"iana 
 
 1897 Paraguaj 
 
 1896 Furu 
 
 1900 Uruguay 
 1894 Venezuela 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 1898 Austria-Hungary 
 
 1899 Belgium 
 
 1893 Bulgaria 
 1890 Denmark 
 
 1901 England 
 1896 France 
 1896 Germany 
 
 Japan- 
 Year. 
 
 Population of the Principal Oities of the World— Continued. 
 
 Year. Population. 
 
 1896 Mecca .. 60,000 
 
 1895 KandahAr . 50,000 
 
 1895 Jerusalem .. 41,000 
 
 1895 Herit .. 80,000 
 
 1899 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 1899 
 
 Osaka 
 
 1899 
 
 Kyoto 
 
 1899 
 
 Yokohama . 
 
 Korea— 
 
 1900 
 
 Seoul 
 
 Mam— 
 
 1900 
 
 Bangkok . 
 
 Bonthweiit Asia- 
 
 1899 
 
 TeherAn . 
 
 1895 
 
 Smyrua 
 
 1895 
 
 Daraasr'13 . 
 
 1895 
 
 Tabriz 
 
 1900 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 1900 
 
 Aleppo 
 
 1895 
 
 Ispah&n 
 
 1895 
 
 K4bul 
 
 Population. 
 .1,440,000 
 . 821,000 
 . 853,000 
 . 198,000 
 
 201,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 230,000 
 201,000 
 200,000 
 180,000 
 145,000 
 127,000 
 80,000 
 60,000 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 1897 Cairo .. 570,000 
 
 1897 Alexandria.. 819,000 
 
 1900 Tunis ., 170,000 
 
 1895 Fez .. 140,000 
 
 1895 Morocco .. 140,000 
 
 1896 Johannesburg 103,000 
 
 1895 Tananarive 100,000 
 
 1896 Algiers .. 92,000 
 1890 Cape Town.. 83,000 
 1896 Gran .. 81,000 
 1835 
 
 Kuka 
 
 60,000 
 
 8,000,000. 
 
 Area. 
 
 7,500 
 
 . . 3,450,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 , . 63,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 767,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 49,600 
 
 7,200 
 
 . . 3,622,930 
 
 7,000,000. 
 
 . 1,778,000 
 . 3,210,000 
 110,000 
 567,000 
 294,000 
 514,000 
 
 46,000 
 120,000 
 
 47,000 
 
 98,000 
 464,000 
 
 72,000 
 694,000 
 
 8,000,000. 
 
 265,000 
 11,400 
 38,000 
 15,300 
 50,800 
 204,000 
 208,700 
 
 Countries and Colonies 
 
 102,000,000 
 
 Population. 
 34.000 
 
 5,338,883 
 
 310,000 
 
 1,572,000 
 
 1,647,000 
 
 1,580,000 
 
 398,000 
 
 12,631,000 
 
 208,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 803,000 
 
 76,215,129 
 
 40,000,000. 
 
 4,569,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 286,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 3,110,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 1,276,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 666,000 
 
 4,569,000 
 
 882,000 
 
 2,444,000 
 
 400,000,000. 
 
 44,744,000 
 
 6,744,000 
 
 3,310,000 
 
 2,186,000 
 
 80,805,000 
 
 38,518,000 
 
 62,279,000 
 
 Year. 
 
 1896 Greece 
 1901 Ireland 
 1900 Italy 
 
 1894 Montenegro 
 
 1900 Netherlands 
 
 1898 Norway 
 
 1894 Portugal 
 
 1900 Rou mania 
 
 1897 Russia 
 
 1901 Scotland 
 1900 Servia 
 
 1898 Spain 
 
 1900 Sweden 
 1898 Switzerland 
 1896 European Turkey 
 
 1901 Wales 
 
 1896 
 
 Afghanistan 
 
 1895 
 
 Arabia 
 
 1895 
 
 Asiatic Turkey 
 
 1900 
 
 Baluchistan 
 
 1897 
 
 Borneo 
 
 1897 
 
 Celebes 
 
 1900 
 
 Chinese Empire 
 
 1891 
 
 India (British) 
 
 1896 
 
 Indo-China (French) 
 
 1896 
 
 Java 
 
 1899 
 
 Japan 
 
 1896 
 
 Korea 
 
 1896 
 
 Nepal 
 
 1899 
 
 Persia 
 
 1900 
 
 Philippines 
 
 1897 
 
 Russia in Abif., 
 
 1895 
 
 Siam 
 
 1900 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 Year. 
 1897 
 1895 
 1896 
 1895 
 1895 
 1890 
 1895 
 
 1898 
 1898 
 1898 
 1898 
 1899 
 1898 
 1898 
 1899 
 
 Port Said 
 
 Zanzibar 
 
 Freetown 
 
 Tangiers 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Kimberley 
 
 Monrovia 
 
 Population. 
 42,000 
 80,000 
 
 . . 30,000 
 80,000 
 
 . . 80,000 
 
 . . 29,000 
 6,000 
 
 OCEANIA. 
 
 Mclbourno . . 
 
 Sydney 
 
 Adelaide 
 
 Brisbane 
 
 Auckland . . 
 
 Dunedin 
 
 Wellington 
 
 Hobart 
 
 1900 Honolulu 
 
 469,000 
 
 427,000 
 
 147,000 
 
 107,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 49,000 
 
 47,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 89,000 
 
 Area. 
 25,000 
 32,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 3,aoo 
 
 12,600 
 
 125,000 
 
 34,000 
 
 48,300 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 80,400 
 
 19,000 
 
 198,000 
 
 173,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 61,000 
 
 7,400 
 
 17,000,000. 
 
 212,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 687,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 71,000 
 
 4,218,000 
 
 1,560,000 
 
 138,000 
 
 51,000 
 
 148,000 
 
 82,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 628,000 
 
 143,000 
 
 6,660,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 161,000 
 
 Population. 
 2,433,000 
 4,456,000 
 
 31,856,000 
 227,000 
 6,139,000 
 2,122,000 
 6,300,000 
 6,912,000 
 129,000,000 
 4,472,000 
 2,462,000 
 
 18,226,000 
 5,097,000 
 3,119,000 
 6,086,000 
 1,720,000 
 
 876,000,000. 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1,060,000 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 1,760,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 402,680,000 
 
 300,000,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 26,125,000 
 
 46,542,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 3.000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 22,697,000 
 
 6,820,000 
 
 3,209,000 
 
 
 t»M'\^^>^ ^ 3 3 ,y^ 3 ,<rr», 
 
 r... 
 
 a ^ J M . 
 
208 
 
 SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 Oountries and Oolonies. 
 
 Average Height of Plateaus. 
 
 (continued.) 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1806 Abyssinia 
 
 1896 Algeria 
 1898 Cape Colony 
 
 1897 Egypt 
 1900 Kongo State 
 
 1894 Liberia 
 1896 Madagascar 
 
 1895 Morocco 
 
 1895 Orange Free State 
 
 1900 Sahara 
 
 1895 Sudan 
 
 1898 Transvaal 
 
 1895 Tripoli 
 
 1896 Tunis 
 
 1 1,500,000. 
 
 Area. 
 194,000 
 186,000 
 221,000 
 400,Q00 
 900,000 
 
 14,400 
 228,600 
 220,000 
 
 48,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 119,000 
 
 340,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 130.000,000. 
 
 Population. 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 4,429,000 
 
 2,202,000 
 
 9,811,000 
 
 !in,000,000 
 
 ,068,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 208,000 
 
 2,550,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 691,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,906,000 
 
 OCEANIA. 
 
 1900 Hawaii 
 
 New Guinea 
 New South Wales 
 New Zealand 
 Queensland 
 South Australia 
 Victoria 
 West Australia 
 
 1895 
 1898 
 1898 
 1898 
 1898 
 1898 
 1898 
 
 8,500,000. 
 
 6,500 
 811,000 
 810,700 
 104,600 
 668,500 
 904,000 
 88,000 
 1.060,000 
 
 6.000,000. 
 
 154,000 
 971,000 
 
 1,846,000 
 748,000 
 494,000 
 867,000 
 
 1,176,000 
 168,000 
 
 Rivers and. River Basins. 
 
 Amazon 
 
 Kongo 
 
 Nile 
 
 Miasissippl (Missouri) 
 
 Plata 
 
 "^angtze 
 
 Volga 
 
 Ganges 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 Danube 
 
 Orinoco 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Colorado 
 
 ARRA OF nASIN, 
 SQUARE MILBS. 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 210.00' 
 
 LGNOTH 
 IN MILES. 
 
 4,000 
 
 8,800 
 4,000 
 4,200 
 2,800 
 8,800 
 2,800 
 . l.SOi 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 1,500 
 1,400 
 1,100 
 
 Area of Oceans. 
 
 
 Sqaare Mis. 
 
 
 Square Mis. 
 
 Pacific 
 
 .. 70,000,000 
 
 Indian 
 
 .. 28,000,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 .. 85,000,000 
 
 Antartic 
 
 . . 7,000,000 
 
 
 Arctic 
 
 . . 4,000,000 
 
 
 Tibet 
 Bolivia 
 Mexico 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 14,000 
 
 Great Basin 
 
 12,000 
 
 Gobi 
 
 8 000 
 
 Brazil 
 
 7,000 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Feet. 
 4,000 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 
 Ijeading Cities of the United States. 
 
 Population, 1900 (over 100,000). 
 
 New York, N.Y .. 
 Chicago, 111. 
 Philadelphia, Pa. . 
 St. Louis, Mo. . . 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 Cleveland, Ohio .. 
 Buffalo, N.Y. . . 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. . 
 Pittsburg, Pa. . . 
 New Orleans, La. . 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 Milwaukee, Wis.. 
 Washington, D.C.. 
 Newark, N.J. 
 Jersey City, N.J.. 
 
 3,437,202 
 1,698,575 
 1,298,697 
 575,238 
 560,892 
 508,957 
 881,768 
 852,387 
 342,782 
 825,902 
 821,616 
 287,104 
 285,704 
 285,316 
 278,718 
 246,070 
 206,483 
 
 Louisville, Ky. . . 
 Minneapolis, Minn 
 Providence, K.I. . . 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 
 St. Paul, Minn. . . 
 Kansas City, Mo. . 
 Rochester, N.Y. . . 
 Denver, Colo. 
 Toledo, Ohio 
 Allegheny, Pa. . . 
 Omaha, Nob. 
 Worcester, Mass . . 
 Syracuse, N.Y. . . 
 New Haven, Conn . 
 Paterson, N.J. 
 Fall River, Mass.. 
 Los Angeles, Cal. . 
 
 Height of Noted Mountains. 
 
 204,781 
 202,718 
 175,597 
 169,164 
 163,065 
 163,752 
 162,608 
 133,859 
 181,822 
 129,896 
 102,555 
 118,421 
 108,374 
 108,027 
 105,171 
 104,868 
 102,479 
 
 Naue. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Height 
 In Feet 
 
 Aconcagua 
 
 .. Chile 
 
 . 22,422 
 
 Ararat 
 
 . . Turkey 
 
 . 17,260 
 
 Chimborazo 
 
 . . Ecuador 
 
 . 21,420 
 
 Dapsang 
 
 . . Tibet 
 
 . 28,278 
 
 Elburz 
 
 . . Russia 
 
 . 18,526 
 
 Everest 
 
 . , India 
 
 . 29,002 
 
 Xc J, 
 
 . . East Africa 
 
 . 18,045 
 
 iiiL aea 
 
 . . Hawaiian Islands 
 
 . 4,040 
 
 Kilimanjaro 
 
 . . East Africa 
 
 . 19,600 
 
 Kanchanjanga 
 
 , . India 
 
 . 28,156 
 
 Logan 
 
 . . Canada 
 
 . 19,500 
 
 Mauna Loa 
 
 . , Hawaiian Islands 
 
 . 18,600 
 
 Mitchell 
 
 . . North Carolina 
 
 . 6,711 
 
 Mt. Blanc 
 
 . , France 
 
 . 15,810 
 
 Orizaba 
 
 . , Mexico 
 
 . 17,880 
 
 Pike's Peak 
 
 . . Colorado 
 
 . 14,147 
 
 Popocatepetl 
 
 . . Mexico 
 
 .. l.,784 
 
 St. Elias 
 
 . . Canada 
 
 .. 18,010 
 
 Shasta 
 
 . . California 
 
 . . 14,440 
 
 Vesuvius 
 
 .. Italy 
 
 . . 8,948 
 
 Washington 
 
 , , New Hampshire 
 
 .. 6,288 
 
 Whitney 
 
 . . California 
 
 . . 14,898 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 209 
 
 AGGREGATE TRADE OF CANADA (IMPORTS AND 
 EXPORTS) BY COUNTRIES, 1900. 
 
 Great Britain . .1168,208,662 
 United States . . 186,591,577 
 Germany . . 10,422,644 
 
 Total Exports. 
 Great Britain . .1107,786,868 
 United States . . 68,619 028 
 
 West Indies ., $4,819,762 
 France .. 5,889,708 
 
 China and Japan 2,766,582 
 
 Total Imports. 
 Great Britain . .$ 45,472,294 
 United States . . 116,972,654 
 
 TOTAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BY PROVINCES, 1900. 
 
 Exports. 
 Ontario ..$66,116,756 
 
 Quebec .. 76,791,668 
 
 Nova Scotia .. 12,608,973 
 New Brunswick.. 14,165,506 
 Manitoba . . 3,668,676 
 
 British Columbia 17,851,812 
 P. K Island .. 1,849,529 
 N. W. Terr'tories 9,441,804 
 
 Imports. 
 Ontario ..871,268,644 
 
 Quebec .. 79,508,622 
 
 Nova Scotia .. 10,646,716 
 New Brunswick . . 6,673,709 
 Manitoba . . 6,691,864 
 
 British Columbia 10,560,582 
 P. E. Island . . 602.565 
 N. W. Territories 1.101,840 
 
 PRODUCE OF MINES, 1900. 
 
 Coal 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Lead 
 
 Copper 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 Iron 
 
 Valae Exported 
 in 1898. 
 
 $12,668,475 $ 4,599,602 
 
 27,916,752 ' 14,148,643 
 
 2,730,698 1,864,058 
 
 8,227,707 1,040,498 
 
 2,760,521 688,691 
 
 8,063,119 1,887.388 
 
 269,009 286,065 
 
 583,168 24,034 
 
 PRODUCE 0"? FISHERIES, 1899. 
 
 Codfish 
 Salmon 
 Lobsters 
 Herring 
 
 $3,738,228 
 4,534,020 
 2,872,052 
 2,164,050 
 
 Value Exported 
 In 1900. 
 
 $2,294,688 
 
 3,057,608 
 
 2,678,368 
 
 842,644 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, 1900. 
 
 Exports of 1898 
 
 Wheat ..$11,995,488 
 
 Apples (green) . . 2,578,283 
 Maize . . 1,188 
 
 Hay 
 
 Valneof Ex 
 
 inl90( 
 
 Lumber ..$28,746,761 
 
 Square Timber . . 2,018,746 
 
 1,414,109 t Oats 
 
 PRODUCE OP FOREST. 
 
 irts 
 
 Exports of 1898. 
 
 Barley .. $1,010,425 
 
 Peas .. 2,146,471 
 
 Flour .. 2,791,886 
 
 2,143,179 
 
 Valneof Exports 
 in 1901). 
 
 Bark and Logs . . $840,681 
 
 Cheese 
 Butter 
 Cattle 
 Bacon 
 
 ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS, 1900. 
 
 Exports of 190a 
 
 ..$19,866,824 
 5,122,156 
 9,080,77() 
 12,471,609 
 
 Exports of 1900. 
 Horses .. $1,166,981 
 
 Furs .. 1,806,966 
 
 Wool .. 418,119 
 
 Eggs .. 1,461,902 
 
 FOREST PRODUCTS OF THE DOMINION. 
 
 Ontario 
 Quebec 
 Nova Scotia 
 New Brunswick 
 British Columbia 
 Prince Edward Island 
 Manitoba 
 Territories . . 
 
 LONGEST CANADIAN RAILWAYS. 
 
 Canadian Pacific 
 Grand Trunk . . 
 Intercolonial and Prince Edward Island . . 
 
 -■-'■"y''--::.: CANALS. 
 
 RiVKR St. Lawrence and T„ kes — 
 
 Per Cent. 
 40-22 
 82-92 
 8-40 
 7-75 
 4-57 
 2-35 
 2-12 
 1-67 
 
 Lachine . , 
 Soulanges . , 
 Cornwall . . 
 Farran's Point 
 Rapide Plat 
 Galops 
 Murray 
 Welland .. 
 Sault Ste. Marie 
 
 Ottawa and Bideau Rivebs — 
 
 Ste. Anne's Locks. 
 Carillon . . 
 Chute k Blondeau 
 Grenville . . 
 Rideau 
 Perth Branch 
 
 Lent^th 
 in Miles. 
 
 8J 
 14 
 U 
 
 1 
 
 261 
 If 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 16i^ 
 6 
 
 Richelieu and Lake Ghamplain — 
 St. Ours Lock and Dam . . ^ 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 100-00 
 
 Miles. 
 6,874 
 8,158 
 1,686 
 
 No. of 
 
 Rise In 
 
 IjOcIis. 
 
 feet. 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 84 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 8J 
 
 2 
 
 llj 
 
 8 
 
 16J 
 
 26 
 
 826f 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 43i 
 282i 
 
 5 
 74 
 
 Chambly .. .. .. 12 
 
 Note.— The Soulanges Canal takes the place of the Beauharnoit 
 Canal. 
 
 Note 2.— Total length of navigable waters on the Rideaa Canal is 
 126^ miles.