4 
 
;* 
 
 CAN ADA 
 
 DURING 
 
 THE VICTORIAN ERA 
 
 A HISTORICAL REVIEW 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 By J. G. BOURINOT, C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L., Lit.D. (Laval) 
 
 Author of "The Story of Canada' (Nations' Series), "• How Canada is Governed," 
 
 " Parliaiiientary Procedure and Government in Canada." etc., and other 
 
 books on the History and Constitution of the Dominion 
 
 From ihf Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Second Series, 1897-98, 
 
 Volume III., Section II, 
 
 FOR 8 ALE BT 
 
 J. DURIE & SOX, OTTAWA; THK COPP CLARK CO., TORONTO 
 BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDON, ENGLAND 
 
 1897 
 
 » 
 
CI) 
 
Skction II., 1897. [ 3 ] Trans. R. S. C. 
 
 I,. — Canada during the Victorian Era : A Historical Review. Illustrated. 
 
 By J. G. BouaiNOT, C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L., Lit.D, (Laval). 
 
 (Read June 23rd, 18B7.) 
 
 The reigne of three English Sovereigns, Queen Elizabeth, Queen 
 Anne and Queen Victoria — especially that of Her Most Gracious Majesty, 
 whose diamond jubilee is arousing so joyous an acclaim throughout the 
 Empire — will be always memorable for some of the most famous events 
 in the history of maritime enterprise and colonial expansion. It was in 
 "the golden days of good Queen Bess" that Englishmen made those 
 ventures on the seas, which, in later times, led to such remarkable results 
 and placed Engl md in a foremost ])08ition among nations. Sixty years 
 before her accession to the throne, an English ship was the first to touch 
 the coasts of the North American continent, and give to I'-ngland a 
 claim to American territory which the colonizing spirit ol' her sons made 
 good in the seventeenth century. After the discoveries by John Cabot 
 in 1497 and 1498, the pai*simonious, though discreet, King Henry VII., 
 who then ruled England, took no official measures to occupy and colonize 
 the " new-founde-lands " which were then opened up to English enter- 
 prise. No such glamour was thrown around the shores of Cabots Prima 
 Vista as was then seen about the rich lands of the South, from which 
 the Spaniards were yearly gathering so rich a product of gold and silver. 
 However, a few brave tishcrmen from the west country' of England 
 ventured from very early times in the sixteenth century upon the waters 
 of the new lands of Cabot, and brought home valuable cargoes of codrish 
 which previously they had sought in the Icelandic tisheries. But, soon 
 after Queen Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, Englishmen cimiiieted 
 successfully in large numbei-s with French, Portuguese and Spanish tish- 
 ermen on the banks of Newfoundland, which was now known to be an 
 island on the confines of a continental region beyond which, it was 
 believed, lay somewhere a northwestern passage to the rich countries of 
 Asia. Frobisher, who is considered to be '• among the famouaest men of 
 his age for counsel and glory gotten at sea," sailed into Arctic waters 
 and brought home some glittering sand which, he believed, contained 
 particles of gold. Forty yeai-s before the daring, though ruinous, voy- 
 ages of the brave sailor of Yorkshire, Jacques Cartier, of the Breton sea- 
 port of St. Malo, had discovered the valley of the St. Lawrence, and 
 thought he had found in the translucent quartz rocks of Cape Diamond 
 specimens of gold which would reward him and his companions for all 
 the toil and difficulty they had met in their efforts to win a colonial 
 
4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 empire for France. While religious and civil strife prevented France- 
 from making an effort to derive some advantage from Cartier's dis- 
 coveries during the latter half of the sixteenth century, England, under 
 the influence of that new spirit of maritime enterprise which developed 
 itself in the reign of Elizabeth, sent Sir Humphrey Gilbert to Newfound- 
 land and Sir Bichard Grenville to Albemarle Sound in North Carolina — 
 then a part of Virginia — to spread the dominion of the Queen and make 
 the beginning of colonial settlement. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's expedition 
 had no other results than a barren ceremony of sovereignty on a hill 
 overlooking St. John's harbour, while Ralegh's little colony, which wa» 
 placed on Roanoke Island, disappeared in some mysterious way from 
 human ken. 
 
 In the same reign the great Armada was scattered by the storms 
 of heaven, and by the indomitable pluck and superior seamanship of 
 the men who manned the little fleet, which won for itself so high a 
 place in English historic annals and was the beginning of that noble 
 nav)- which, in later centuries, made England Mistress of the Seas. 
 Drake not only robbed Spaniards on the Spanish Main and brought 
 back rich treasures in which even " Good Queen Bess " shared with- 
 out a blush, but was the first Englishman to sail around the globe 
 by Magellan's route and give to England a claim to possessions on the 
 Pacific coast of North America, which received the name of New Albion 
 on maps of the day. 
 
 It is true that Ralegh .^ailed in his schemo of establishing colonies in 
 the beautiful land of Virginia, of which glowi.ig accounts were brought 
 home by English adventurei-s, and it was in the reigns of James the first 
 and Charles, his son, that the English actually founded permanent settle- 
 ments on the Atlantic shore of North America. But the germs of 
 Virginia and New England were planted by Ralegh, and the colonial and 
 maritime enterprise of England was stimulated by such successes as were 
 won by Howard, Grenville, Hawkins and Drake wherever they met the 
 Spaniards who, until their day. were considered invincible at sea and 
 allowed to have a monopoly of the land discovered by Columbus and his 
 successors. Englishmen at last commenced to recognize the fact that 
 their mission was on the ocean and that they could advantageously enter 
 the field of colonial enterprise in the new world, which ottered) such 
 enormous possibilities to courageous pioneers and explorers. 
 
 Nor must we forget to record among the memorable events of the 
 same reign the formation of a famous Company which entered into com- 
 petition for the rich trade of the East Indies, where, in later times, one 
 of its servants, Robert Clive, won an Empire for England, and gave the 
 right to Queen Victoria to be crowned its Empress. 
 
 In the seventeenth century English colonists took possession of a 
 fringe of territory on the Atlantic coast, France occupied the shores of 
 
fBOUBDiOT] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 8 
 
 Acadie and the valley of the St. Lawrence, and the Spaniards confined 
 themselves to the Antilles, Florida, Mexico, Peru and other rich jjinds of 
 the tropics. By the beginning of the eighteenth centurj' France had 
 twenty thousand people on the banks of the St. Lawrence and its tribu- 
 tary rivers, and her adventurous explorers had passed from th« basin of 
 the great lakes i"to the valley of the Mississippi and had given to France 
 a right to a v»' . region which extended to the Gulf of Mexico, The 
 English colonitb were then hemmed in between the Atlantic coast and 
 the Appalachian ridges, beyond which none of their most daring pio- 
 neers had passed when La Salle linked his name to all time with the 
 mighty river near which he met a melancholy death at the hands of 
 treacherous companions. France had now established a valid claim to 
 dominions whose possibilities of greatness were never understood by the 
 King and his Ministers, engrossed in the affairs of Europe. The end of 
 the war of the Spanish succession which brought such humiliation to 
 Louis Quatorze, and won so much fame for Marlborough, had very 
 significant results for France and England in North America. These 
 results have been most intelligently stated by an English writer who has 
 reviewed the various phases of English colonial expansion from the voy- 
 ages of the Cabots until the reign of Queen Victoria, who is Queen of an 
 Empire which would never have been born had not a spirit of maritime 
 enterprise and colonization been stimulated in the days of the Virgin 
 Queen. One hundred and ten years after the death of Elizabeth, when 
 another woman sat on the throne, France suffered a serious blow in 
 America, by the treaty of peace which Louis was forced to accept as a 
 result of the famous victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, Malplaquet and 
 Oudenarde. " At the time of the Armada," says Professor Seeley, " we 
 " saw England entering the race for the first time ; at Utrecht, f]ngland 
 " winr the race. . . . Her positive gains were Acadie or Nova Scotia 
 " and Newfoundland, surrendered by France and the Assiento compact 
 " granted by ^rance. In other words the first step was taken towards 
 " the destruction of greater France by depriving her of one of her three 
 " settlements of Acadie, Canaila and Louisiana in North America. . . . 
 " The decisive event of it is the Seven Years' War, and the new position 
 " given to England by the treaty of Paris in 1763."' 
 
 The remarkable expansion of the colonial dependencies of England 
 during the Victorian ei-a may be then fairly considered as an evolution of 
 a series of events in the history of the empire. From the days of Ralegh 
 and other worthies of Elizabeth's day down to Pitt, Wolfe and Clive, 
 there is a steady succession of events which eventually placed England 
 in the van of colonial enterprise and maritime endeavour, but it was not 
 until three-quarters of a century 1 lad passed after the treaty of Paris — 
 
 » "Expansion of England," p. 132. 
 
6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 aptly stated by Professor Seeley to be "the culminating point of Flnglish 
 " power in the eighteenth century " — and the present Queen ascended 
 the throne, that Canada and other dejiendencies of the Crown may be 
 said to have made the beginnings of that remarkable development, 
 which is one of the most interesting and imjjortant features of the 
 century and of the Queen's reign and has been, in a measure, some com- 
 pensation for the loss of the old Thirteen Colonies through the fatuity of 
 English statesmen in the s'^cond half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 II. 
 
 I purpose to give in the present paper a brief historic retrospect of 
 the position Canada occupied at the time when Her Majesty ascended the 
 Throne and to compare it with that the Dominion now holds aa a federa- 
 tion of seven provinces and organized territories extending from the 
 Atlantic to the Pucitic ocean. No one will gainsay Canada's pre-eminence 
 among the dei^endencies when we consider how much she has done in 
 si.cty years, despite the enormous difficulties that have stood in the way 
 of her progress on account of the rivalry of a great republican Power on 
 her b<5rder8 for three thousand miles, which has drawn away from her 
 the wealth and population of Europe, and also a large number of 
 Canadians from year to year up to a veiy recent period. Jn this review 
 it is necessary to refer briefly to some leading features of Canadian 
 history. In these days, when Englishmen have learned at last to take 
 an interest in colonial questions — to recognize the fact that lessons may 
 be learned from even colonial history and colonial statesmanship, we feel 
 no apology need be made even to my English readers ' if I ask them to 
 give their attention for a few minutes to a short account of the political 
 evolution of the Canadian federation, which has already passed bejond 
 the first quarter of a century of its existence. In this record we shall 
 see what elements of stability this federation possesses, even when com- 
 pared with that great Power to the south, whose remarkable develop- 
 ment has been among the most interesting features of the century now 
 so near its close. 
 
 Both England and France entered about the same time on a career 
 of colonization in North America. Champlaia was already encamped 
 with his little band of settlers on the picturesque heights of Quebec* 
 when the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the rock-bound coast of New 
 England. Then, for a century and a half, the colonies of England and 
 France struggled for mastery. The sturdy independence of the English 
 colonists, accustomed to think and act for themselves, left as a rule to 
 
 ' This special reference to " English readers " originates from the fact that a 
 part of this monograph first appeared as a leading article in the Edinburgh Review, 
 and I have allowed it to remain, though the text has been revised and enlarged. 
 
 " Champlain arrived at Quebec (Stadacona) on .Tuly 3rd, 1608, and laid the founda- 
 tions of the picturesque town. 
 
[BOURiNOTj CANADA DURINU THE VICTORIAN ERA 7 
 
 govern themselves in accordancf with the free instincts of Englishmen, 
 was in decided contrast with the subserviency of the French colonista, 
 kept constantly in trammels by the King and his ministers who were 
 always opponed to the merest semblance of local self-government. Under 
 the influence of the freedom they enjoyed, and of the energy and enter- 
 prise peculiar to a commercial and maritime people, the English colonists, 
 who inhabited a relatively narrow strip of territory from Maine to 
 Carolina, soon outnumbered the population of the struggling community 
 on the banks of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 In the hiscory of the French Canadian there is much to interest ufl. 
 His patient endurance, his fidelity to his country, his a<lventurou8 life in 
 the wildemesj of *^t> West affords scenes for poetry, history, aud 
 romance. The struggles of Champlain, the adventures of La Salle in 
 the valley of the Mississippi, the exploits of the coureurs de bois and 
 gentlemen-adventurers on the rivers and among the forests, the efforts of 
 Frontenac and other F"rench governors to found a New France on the 
 continent, have already found in Francis Parkman an eloquent and 
 faithlul historian. Fi-ance di-eametl once of founding a mighty empire 
 which should stretch from the Island of Cape Breton or lie Royale 
 through the valleyh of the St. Lawrence, the Ohio, and the Mississippi to 
 the Gulf of Mexico and of eventually having the supremacy in North 
 America ; but the genius of Pitt relieved the English colonists of the 
 fears they entertained with reason when they saw a cordon of forts 
 stretching from Louisbourg to the heights of Quebec. Lake Champlain, 
 Niagara and the forks of the Ohio. With the fall of Quebec and Mon- 
 treal in 1759-60, France left the New World to England, and of all her 
 former possessions she now retains only some insignificant islands off the 
 southern coast of Newfoundland, where her fishermen continue to prose- 
 cute the fisheries as they did centuries ago before a European bad- 
 founded a settlement in Canada. The conflict w^ith France had done 
 much to restrain the .spirit of self-assertion among the English colonists, 
 and to keep them dependent ujx)n England ; but at the same time it had 
 shown thorn their power and taught them to have much more confidence 
 in their own resources as a people. The capture of the formidable fort- 
 ress of Louisbourg, one of the triumphs of Vauban's engineering skill, 
 by the New England volunteers under Pepperi-ell and the fleet under 
 Warren, was the principal incident in their history, which showed the 
 people their strength and nerved them to enter into what must have 
 seemed to many a hopeless struggle with England. The fall of Quebec 
 may be considered the first step in the direction of the independence of 
 the old English colonists. 
 
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 in. 
 
 When the war of independence was over Canada was only a sparsely 
 settled country in which the French Canadians were very largely in the 
 majority. In Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island 
 there was a small English population, chiefly composed of United 
 Empire Loyalists.* A considerable number of the same class came oveT 
 from the United States and settled in the eastern townships of French 
 oi" Lower Canada — now Quebec — and in the province of Upper or 
 Western Canada, now Ontario. Few facts of modem times have had a 
 greater influence on the destinies of a country than this immigration 
 of sturdy, resolute and intelligent men, united by high principles and the 
 most unselfish motives. 'Ihey laid the foundations of the provinces 
 now known as New Brunswick and Ontario, and settled a considerable 
 portion of Nova Scotia. From the day of their settlement on the banks 
 of the St. John, Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers, and in the vicinity of 
 Lakes Ontario and Erie, they have exercised by themselves and their 
 descendants a powerful influence on the institutions of Canada, not 
 unlike that exercised by the descendants of the New England pioneers 
 . throughout the American Union ; and it is to them we owe much of that 
 spirit and devotion to England which has always distinguished the 
 Canadian people and aided to keep them, even in critical periods of their 
 history, within the empire. 
 
 During the war of independence the leading French Canadians 
 resisted all attempts that were made to induce them to unite their for- 
 tunes with the revolted colonists. The British Government and Parlia- 
 ment had seen the necessity of conciliating the conquered people, and 
 had passed in 1774 what is known as the Quebec Act,* which gave 
 additional guarantees to that nationality for the security of their prop- 
 erty and the preservation of their language, religion and institutions. 
 Owing in a great measure to this conciliatory policy, and to the eflbrts of 
 the priests, who have always been firm friends of British rule, the French 
 people of Lower Canada were kept faithful to the King of England, 
 and the history of those times records the death of Genei-al Montgomery 
 and the defeat of his troops, who invaded Canada and besieged Quebec 
 under the delusion that the province would be an easy conquest as soon 
 as the invaders set foot within its limits. 
 
 With the settlement of Upper Canada by the Loyalists and the 
 English population that subsequently flowed into the country, it was 
 
 1 In 1784 there were in Canada 10,000 United Empire Loyalists ; in Nova Scotia 
 and New Brunswick upwards of 30,000 In 1790 the population of old Canada was 
 161,311, of whom 120,000 were French. 
 
 « Imperial Statute, 14 George III., c. 83. 
 
IBOCBINOT] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 9 
 
 thought advisable to establish two provinces in which the French and 
 English elements would be kept separate and distinct.' 
 
 "With the light that experience has given us in these later times, it 
 was a great mistake, in the opinion of many statesmen, to have isolated 
 the races, and by hedging in the French at the very commencement of 
 their historj'. to havt; prevented the gradual absorption of all nationalities 
 into one great Engli8h-s])eaking people. Parliament formed a legis- 
 lature for each province, and wished the people of Canada '' God speed " 
 in the new exi)erime'.it of government on which they were entering. No 
 doubt can exist as to the sincerity and good wishes of the English states- 
 men of those daj ut it cannot be said that they always built with 
 wisdom. In the first place they erected a structure of provincial govern- 
 ment which was defective at its very foundation. There was an entire 
 absence of institutions of local government in French Canada— of that 
 system which from the earliest period in the history of the old English 
 colonies, enabled tltem to manage their local aitairs. May it not be said 
 with truth that England herself has received no more valuable heritage 
 than that system of local self-government which, cumbrous and defective 
 as it may have become in the course of centuries, can be traced back to 
 those free institutions in which lay the germs of English liberty and 
 parliamentarj' government ? 
 
 But in Canada there was no semblance of township or parish gov- 
 ernment as in New England or even in Virginia. The people of Canada 
 were called upon to manage the affaii-s of a State before they had 
 learned those elements of government which necessarily exist in the 
 local aflairs of everj'- community, whether it be town, township or 
 village. It was, indeed, surprising tb:it a people like the French Cana- 
 dians, unaccustomed to parliamenvarj- institutions or local self-govern- 
 ment in its most elementarj- form, should in the early stages of their 
 legislative history have shown so much discretion. As a matter of fact 
 they discharged their functions for a while with prudence and set to 
 work to understand the principles on which their system of government 
 rested. For some years the machinery of government worked fairly 
 enough, and the public men of both provinces passed much useful legis- 
 lation. The war of 1812-15, in which Canada performed her part with 
 credit, in a measure prevented any outbreak of political conflict, since all 
 classes of people recognized the necessity of uniting, at such a crisis, to 
 defend their homes and countrj'. But when peace was proclaimed and 
 che legislatures were relieved from the pressure that the war had brought 
 upon them, the politicians again got the upper hand. The machinerj' of 
 government became clogged, and political strife convulsed the country 
 from one end to the other. An '• irrepressible conflict " arose between 
 
 • Constitutional Act, 1791, or 31 Geo. III., c. 31. 
 
lO ROYAL SOCIETY OF CA>'ADA 
 
 the government and the governed classes, especialh' in Lower Canada. 
 The people, who in the days of the French regime were without in- 
 fluence and iH>wer, had learned under their new system, defective as it 
 was in essential respects, to get an insight into the operation of I'epre- 
 sentalive government, as understood in England. 
 
 They found they were governed, not by men responsible to the 
 legislature and the people, btit by governors and oflicials who controlled 
 both the executive and the legislative councils. If there had always 
 been wise and patient governors at the head of allairs, or if the Imperial 
 authorities could always have been made aware of the importance of the 
 grievances laid before them, or had understood their exact character, the 
 ditference between the government and the majority of the people's 
 representatives might have been arranged satisfactorily. But unhappily 
 military governors like Sir James Craig onlj- aggravated the dangers of 
 the situation, and gave demagogues new opportunities for exciting the 
 people. The Imperial authorities, as a rule, were sincerely desirous of 
 meeting the wishes of the people in a reasonable and fair spirit, but, 
 unfortunately for the country, they were too often ill-advised and ill- 
 informed in those days of slow commxinication, and public discontent 
 was allowed lo seethe until it burst forth in a dangerous form. 
 
 In all the provinces, but esjx?cially in Lower Canada, the people saw 
 their representatives practically ignored by the governing body, their 
 money expended without the authorit}"^ of the legislature, and the 
 country governed by irrespon.sible officials. A 8} -tem which gave little 
 or no weight to public opinion, as represented in the House elected by 
 the people, was necessarily imperfect and unstable ; and the natural 
 result was a deadlock between the Legislative Council, controlled by the 
 official and governing class, and the House elected by the people. The 
 governoi-s necessarily took the side of the men whom they had them- 
 selves appointed, and with whom they were acting. In the maritime 
 provinces, in the coui-se of time, the governoi-s made an attempt to con- 
 ciliate the popular element Iw bringing in men who had influence in the 
 Assembly, but this was a matter entirely within their own discretion. 
 This system of government was generally worked in direct contraven- 
 tion to the principle of responsibility to the majority in the popular 
 House. Political agitators had abundant opportunities for exciting 
 popular pession. In Lower Canada, Papineau — an eloquent but im- 
 pulsive man, having rather the qualities of an agitator than those of a 
 statesman — led the majority of his compatriots. For years he contended 
 for a legislative council elected by the people, for it is curious to note 
 that none of the men who were at the head of the popular party in 
 Lower Canada ever recognized the fact, as did their contemporaries in 
 Upper Canada, that the difficulty would be best solved, not by electing 
 an Upper House, but by obtaining an executive which would only hold 
 
[bourinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 11 
 
 office while supported by a majority of the representatives in the people's 
 House. In Upper Canada the Radical section of the Liberal party was 
 led by Mr. "W. Lyon Mackenzie, who fought vigorously against what 
 was generally known as the •' Family Com])act'", which occupied all the 
 public offices and controlled the government. 
 
 In the two provinces these two men at last precipitated a rebellion, 
 in which blood was shed and much property was destroyed, but which 
 never reached any very extensive proportions. In the maritime prov- 
 inces, however, where the public grievances were of less magnitude, the 
 people showed no sjmpathy with the rebellious elements of the upi)er 
 provinces. The agitation for responsible government in those colonies 
 was led by Mr. Joseph Howe, who in the course of his public life was 
 always animated by truly loyal Brit'sh feelirgrs, and was never influenced 
 by passion to step beyond the limits of legitimate constitutional agitation. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Such was the political situation in Canada when Queen Victoria 
 ascended the throne on June 20. 1837. If we survey the general condi- 
 tion of things in those troublous times, the prospect was not encouraging. 
 The total population of the provinces did not exceed 1,350,000 souls, 
 of whom nearly one-half were French Canadians. Trade and commerce 
 were quite paralyzed by the political discontent which had existed for 
 years, and had already broken out into rebellion. The value ot the 
 whole trade of British North America — that is of the imports and 
 exports in the aggregate — was about $25,000,000. The principal trade 
 was in fish and lumber for the export of which a considerable number of 
 vessels were yearly built in the maritime provinces. Xot moi-e than four 
 or five banks existed, and none of them had a large capital except the 
 old bank of Montreal, which has always been the most important mone- 
 tary institution of this continent. 
 
 The total revenue at this time did not exceed $7,000,000, and in more 
 than one province the revenue was insufficient to meet the legitimate 
 expenses required for public works and other necessary improvements. 
 In Upper Canada the situation was extremel}" serious. In consequence 
 of the construction of ])ublic works, commenced in the infancy of the 
 colony, a debt of $5,000,000 had been accumulated when the whole 
 revenue did not reach $300,000, and was inadequate to pay the interest. 
 A financial crisis in the United States had led the banks to suspend specie 
 payments, and aggravated the difficulties of the commercial situation in 
 Canada. The banks of Lower Canada found it necessary to follow the 
 example of similar institutions in the American republic; though those 
 in the upper province, to their credit, successfully tided over the crisis, 
 
-!• ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 And materially lessened the weight of financial embarraasraent. The total 
 production of wheat was not beyond 5,000,000 bushels, of which nearly 
 four-fifths, at that time, was raised in French Canada. The French 
 habitants carried on their agricultural operations with little energy or 
 skill, and from their ignorance of the system of the rotation of crops and 
 of tht true principles of farming were rapidly impoverishing the soil, so 
 that in the course of a few years their wheat crop diminished and its 
 quality became more inferior. Their farms w^re oi: the banks of the 
 St. Lawrence, deep, narrow stnps, and their houses were crowded as near 
 the river as possible, as aft'ording the most satisfactory means of com- 
 munication in early times between the settlements. The most noteworthy 
 buildings were those belonging to the Boman Catholic Church, which 
 then, as now, dominated the province. The system of land tenure in 
 French Canada was one not calculated to stimulate industry and develop 
 the country. In early days the seigniorial tenure, established by 
 Richelieu with the idea of founding a Canadian noblesse and encouraging 
 settlement, had had some advantages. It was a feudal system modified 
 to suit the circumstances of a new country. It made the seigneur and 
 the habitant, or censitaire, equally interested in the cultivation of the 
 soil. The dues and obligations under which the censitaire held his land 
 were in early times by no means oneixjus. The seigneur was obliged to 
 cultivate and settle certain portions of his land at the risk of losing it 
 within a fixed period ; a penalty frequently enacted under the French 
 regime. He was expected to erect a mill for the grinding of grain raised 
 in the district, but only in very rare cases was he able to afford the 
 expense of what must have been a great convenience to the early settlers. 
 But the system grew to be burdensome as the country became more 
 populous. The seigniorial exactions were found troublesome, and the 
 difficulties that arose in connection with the disposal of lands in the 
 numerous seigniories gradually I'etarded settlement and enterprise in the 
 province. In fact, the system under which lands were granted through- 
 out Canada was not adapted to the encouragement of settlement. With 
 the view, probably, of establishing a state church, the Imperial Govern- 
 ment had by the Act of 1791 granted large reserves, which were in the 
 hands of the Church of England, and much discontent had consequently 
 arisen among other Protestant denominations. Large tracts had also 
 been set apart for loyalists and military men in difterent parts of the 
 province. The natural consequence of this extravagance was that some 
 of the most valuable districts of Upper Canada were kept idle and profit- 
 less for many years. The little island of Prince Edward had been nearly 
 all granted away by ballot to a few landlords in a single day, and until 
 very recent times its progress was retarded by a land question which 
 always created much discontent and prevented settlement. The means 
 of communication in each province were very inferior, in the absence of 
 
[bocrinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 1» 
 
 any liberal system of municipal institutions, and in consequence of the 
 large districts owned by absentee proprietors or by the church. If » 
 road or bridge was required in Lower Canada it was necessary to apply 
 to the legislature. Things were a little better in Upper Canada, where 
 there was a system of local taxation which, imperfect as it was, enabled 
 the people in a county to make minor improvements. Montreal, Quebec, 
 Halifax, St. John, and Toronto were the only towns of importance, and 
 the population of the first — then, as now, the commercial metropolis of 
 British North America — did not exceed 40,000 ; while their aggregate 
 population was 120,000 souls. The streets of all of them were either ill- 
 lighted or left in darkness, and without pavements. The public build- 
 ings, as a rule, had no architectural pretensions. A few colleges and 
 grammar schools had been established where the sons of the well-to-do 
 classes could obtain an excellent classical and English education for those 
 times. The religious communities of Lower Canada at an early period 
 in the history of the country- had established institutions where the youth 
 of both sexes could receive certain educational and religious advantages. 
 But the Stjite had not in any degree intervened successfully in the estab- 
 ishment of a system of popular education. 
 
 The whole public expenditure for common and district schools in 
 Upper Canada was a little above $40,000 r* year, and these schools were 
 verj' inferior in everj^ respect. The masters in many cases in this 
 province, to which I refer especially, since now it stands unsurpassed 
 in the character of its educational progress, were ill-paid, ill-educated men 
 who, having failed in other pursuits, resorted to teaching as their last 
 hope ; many of them were illiterate citizens of the United States, who 
 brought anti-British ideas into the country, and taught their pupils out 
 of American text- books, in which, of course, prominence was given to 
 American history and institutions. In 1838-39 there were in all the 
 public and private schools of British North America only some 1)2,000 
 young people out of a total population of 1,440,000 souls, or about one in 
 tifteen, Tlie administration of justice in all the provinces except in 
 Lower Canada was, on the whole, satisfactory for a new country, where 
 the highest judicial talent was not always available. In the French 
 section there was a lamentable want of efficiency in the courts, and an 
 absence of confidence in the mode in which the law was administered. 
 At times there was a decided failure of justice in criminal cases, owing to 
 the complexion of the juries. In certain cases, where political or national 
 feeling was aroused, a jury was not likel}' to convict even in the face of 
 the clearest evidence of crime. English and French Canadians divided 
 in the jury box according to their nationalit- s. While the judges of the 
 highest (.ourts were generally distinguished for learning and fairness, the 
 justice,-< of peace wei-e chosen without any regard to their character or 
 ability to try the ordinary petty causes which fell within their jurisdic- 
 
14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 tion. In all the cities and towns the police arrangements were notoriously 
 defective. Immigration was rapidly falling off owing principally to the 
 distracted state oi" the country , but also to the mode of transportation. 
 Those were days when the vessels that made voyages to Canada were 
 literally laden with disease and misery. In the over-crowded, ili-venti- 
 lated, and ill-equipped vessels that annually sailed up the St Lawrence 
 death was ever stalking among the half-starved, unhappy people who had 
 left their wretched homes in the Old World to incur the horrors of the 
 holds of the pest-ship, from which for many years had been ascending to 
 heaven the cries of the martyred emigrant. 
 
 No feature of the aspect of things in Canada gave greater reason for 
 anxiety than the attitude of the French and English peoples towards 
 each other. The very children in the streets were formed into French 
 and Knglish parties. As in the courts of law and in the legislature, so it 
 was in social and every -day life — the French Canadian in direct antagonism 
 to the English Canadian. Many persons among the official and govern- 
 ing class, composed almost exclusively of English, were still too ready to 
 consider French Canadians as inferior beings, and not entitled to the same 
 rights and privileges in the government of the country, it was a time of 
 passion and declamation, when men of fervent eloquence, like Papineau, 
 could have aroused the French like one man, if they had had a little more 
 patience and judgment and had not been ultimately thwarted, mainly by 
 the efforts of the priests who, in all national crises, have intei'vened on 
 the side of reason and moderation, and in the interests of British connec- 
 tion, which they have always felt has been favourable to the continuance 
 and security of their religious institutions. Lord Durham, in his mem- 
 orable report on the condition of Canada, has summed up very express- 
 ivel}- the nature of the conflict in the French province. '• I expected," 
 he said, " to find a contest between a government and a people ; I found 
 " two nations warnng in the bosom ol" a single state ; I found a struggle, 
 " not of principles, but of races." 
 
 Amid the gloom that overhung Canada in those times there was one 
 gleam of sunshine for England. Although discontent and dissatisfaction 
 generally prevailed among the people on account of the manner in which 
 the government was administered and of the attempts of the minority to 
 engross all power and influence, yet there was still a sentiment in favour 
 of British connection, and the annexationists were relativelj- few in 
 number. Even Sir Francis Bond Head — in no respect a man of sagacity 
 — understood this well when he depended on the militia to crush the 
 outbreak in the upper province, and Joseph Howe, the eminent leader of 
 the popular party, uniformly asserted that the people of Nova Scotia 
 were determined to preserve the integrity of the Empire at all hazards. 
 As a matter of fact, the majority of the leading men, outside of the 
 minority led by Papineau, Nelson and Mackenzie, had a conviction that 
 
[■oiPiNOT] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 10 
 
 England was animated by a desire to act considerately with the prov- 
 ina-, and that little good would come from precipitating a confliit. which 
 would only add to the public misfortunes, and that the true i-emedv was 
 to be found in constitutional methods of redress for the poJiUcal griev- 
 ances which undoubtedly existed throughout British North America. 
 
 I have endeavoured to summarize above as briefly as possible the 
 actual state of affairs in the tirst years of the Queen's reign. It was a 
 most critical time in the career of the Canadian provinces Had the 
 British Government been prepared to act with haste or temper, the 
 consequences would have been fatal to the provinces ; but they acted 
 throughout on the whole with much discretion and recognized the fact at 
 the outset that mistakes had been made in the past, and that it was quite 
 clear that the people of Canada would not be satisfied with a mere 
 semblance of a representative government. The mission of Lord Durham, 
 who came to Canada as governor-general in 1838, was a turning-jxtint 
 in the political and social development of the Biitish North American 
 colonies. VV liatever may be the opinion held as to the legality of the 
 coui*se he pursued with respeci *'^ '^he rebels — a number of whom he 
 banished from the countrj' without even a form of trial — there can be no 
 doubt as to the discretion and wisdom embodied in his Report, of which 
 Mr. Charles Buller, his able secretary, is generally considered to have 
 been the writer. The statesmen of all parties io England, but especiallj' 
 Lord John Russell, aided in moulding a new policy towards the Canadas. 
 This new j)olicy of which the reunion of the two provinces under one 
 government was the foundation, was in the direction of entrusting a 
 larger measure of seli-government to the people — of giving them as com- 
 plete control of their internal aflairs as was compatible with the security 
 and integrit}' of the empire. 
 
 The union of the Canalasin 1841, when the French and English 
 sections were equally represented in one legislature, was the tirst im- 
 portant step in the movement that has been steadily going on for many 
 years in the direction of the unity and security as well as of the social 
 and political development of the provinces of British North America, 
 ihen followed between 1841 and 1849 the concession of responsible 
 government in the fullest sense of the term, and the handing over to 
 Canada of the control of her public revenues and taxes, to be expended 
 in accordance with the wishes of the majoiity in the popular House. At 
 the same time came the re;)eal of the navigation laws which had fettered 
 colonial trade since the days of Cromwell. The post olfice was given to 
 the Canadian government, and in fact all matters that could be con- 
 
le ROYAL BCCIFTY OF CANADA 
 
 sidered to appertain lu their provincial and local interests were placed 
 under their immediate legislative jurisdiction. The Canadian legislature, 
 r.nder the new impulse cf a relatively unfettered action, v/ent vigorously 
 to work to lay the foundations of a municipal system as indi<>pensable to 
 the operations of local self-government. The troublesome land question, 
 involved in the seigniorial tenure, was settled, after much agitation, on 
 terms favourable to vested interests, while the clergy reserves were also 
 arranged so as no longer to favour one church at the expense of others, 
 or to impede the progress of settlement and cultivation. The union of 
 the Canadas lasted until 1867, when it had outgrown its usefulness, and 
 the provinces found it necessarj' to enter into a federation, which had 
 been foreshadowed by Lord Durham and advocated by mauy eminent 
 men even before his time. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Of all the conspicuous figures of those memorable times of political 
 struggles, which already seem so far away from Canadians, who now 
 possess so many politicil rights, there are three which stand out more 
 prominently than all others and represent the two distinct types of 
 politicians who influenced the public mind during the first part of this 
 century. These are Papineau, Baldwin, and Howe. Around the figure 
 of the first there has always been a sort of glamour which has helped to 
 conceal his vanity, his rashness, and his want of political sagacity, which 
 would have, under any circumstances, prevented his success as a safe 
 statesman, capable of guiding a people through a trying ordeal. His 
 eloquence was fervid and had much influence over his impulsive country- 
 men^ his sincerity was undoubted, and in all likelihood his very indis- 
 cretions made more palpable the defects of the political system against 
 which he so persistently and so often justly declaimed. He lived to see 
 his countrymen enjoy power and influence under the very union which 
 they resented, and find himself no longer a leader among men, but iso- 
 lated from a great majority of his own people, and representing a past 
 whose methods were antagonistic to the new regime that had grown up 
 since 1838. It would have been well for his reputation had he remained 
 in obscurity on return from exile, and never .stood on the floor of a 
 united parliament, since he could only prove in those later times that he 
 had never understood the true working of responsible government. The 
 days of reckless agitation had passed, and the time for astute and calm 
 statesmanship had come. Lafontaine and Morin were now safer political 
 guides for his countrymen. He soon disappeared entirely from public 
 view, and in the solitude of his picturesque chateau amid the groves that 
 overhang the Ottawa Eiver, only visited from time to time by a few 
 
[bockinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 17 
 
 staunch friends, or by curious tourists who found their way to that quiet 
 spot, he passed the remainder of his days with a tranquillity in wondrous 
 contrast to the stormy and eventful drama of his life. The writer of this 
 paper has often seen his noble, dignitied figure — even erect in age — pass- 
 ing unnoticed on the streets of Ottawa, when perhaps at the same time 
 there were strangers walking through the lobbies of the parliament 
 house and asking to see his portrait. 
 
 One of the most admirable figures in the political historj- of the 
 Dominion was undoubtedly Robert Baldwin. Compared with other 
 popular leaders of his generation, he was calm in counsel, unselfi-sh in 
 motive, and moderate in opinion. If there is .some significance in the 
 political phrase, '• Liberal-Conservative," it could be applied with justice 
 to him. The " great ministry " of which he and Louis Hypix)iite Lafon- 
 taine — afterwards a baronet and chief justice — were the leaders, left 
 behind it many monuments of broad statesmanship, and made a deep 
 impress on the institutions of the country. Mr. Baldwin, too, lived t r 
 years aft.3r his retirement from political life, almost forgotten by the 
 people for whom he worked so fearlessly and sincerely. 
 
 Joseph Howe, too, died about the same time a.s Papineau — after the 
 establishment ot the federal union ; but unlike the majority of his com- 
 peers who struggled for popular rights, he was a prominent figure in 
 public life until the very close of his career. All his days — even when 
 his spirit was sorely tried by the obstinacy and indift'ei-ence of some 
 English ministers, he loved England, for he knew, after all, it was in her 
 institutions his countrj- could best find prosperity and happiness, and it 
 is an interesting fact, that among the many able essays and addresses 
 which the question of Imperial Federation has drawn forth, none in its 
 eloquence, breadth, and fervour can equal his great speech on the Consoli- 
 dation of the Empire. The printer, poet and politician died at IsLct at 
 Halifax the lieutenant-governor of his native province in the famous old 
 government house, admittance to which had been denied him in the 
 stormy times of Lord Falkland. A logical ending assui-edly to the life 
 of a statesman who, with eloquent pen and voice, in the days when the 
 opinions he held were unpopular in the homes of governors and social 
 leaders, ever urged the claims of hh countrymen to exercise that direct 
 control over the government of their country which should be theirs by 
 tirth, interest and merit. 
 
 In New Brunswick the triumph of responsible government must 
 always be associated with the name of Lemuel A. Wilmot, the descendant 
 of a, famous U. E. Loyalist stock, afterwards a judge and a lieutenant- 
 governor of his native province. He was in some respects the most 
 notable figure, after Joseph Howe and J. W. Johnston, the leaders of the 
 Liberal and Conservative parties in Nova Scotia, in that famous body of 
 public men, who so long brightened the political I'fe of the maritime 
 
 Sec. n., 1897. 2. 
 
18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 provinces. But neither thoM) two leailcra nor their tlirttinguished com- 
 peer», Jume8 Hoyle Uniacke, William Young. John Hamilton (rray and 
 Charles Fisher — all iiamen familiar to students of Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick history — surpassed Mr. VVilmot in that magnetic eloquence 
 which carries an audience oil' its feet, in versatility of knowledge, in 
 humoroii^ sarcasm, and in conversational gifts which made him a most 
 interesting personality in social life. He impressed his strong individu- 
 ality upon his countrymen until the latest houn: of his useful career. 
 
 " A life in civic action wami ; 
 A soul on highest niixsion s«nt ; 
 A potent voice in prrlianient ; 
 A pillar steadfast in the storm." 
 
 VII. 
 
 The results of the development of Canada since 1841 may be 
 divided, for the jmrposes of this review, into the follo.ving phases : 
 
 Territorial Expansion. 
 
 Increase of Population and Wealth. 
 
 Political Development. 
 
 Social and Intellectual Progress. 
 
 National Unity. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 From 1841 to 1867 the provinces of Briti.xh North America remained 
 isolated from each other as distinct i)olitical entities, only united by the 
 tie of a common allegiance to one Sovereign. Their ])olitical organiza- 
 tion was confined to the countrj" extending from the head of Lake 
 Superior to ♦he countries watered by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the 
 Atlantic Ocean. Of these provinces Ontario was the nn>st populous and 
 the richest in agricultural wealth, although it has not as great an area as 
 the province of Quebec, where .h more rigorous climate and large 
 mountainous tracts — the hills of the Laurentides — have rendered the 
 country less favourable for extensive and productive farming operations. 
 A verj'^ considerable portion of Ontario, even in those days, was a wilder- 
 ness, and the principal cultivated tracts extended for a few miles from 
 the St. Lawrence, and the most populous settlements lay between Lakes 
 Ontario, Erie, and Huron. The confederation of 1867 brought four 
 provinces into one territorial organization for general or Dominion pur- 
 poses : Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick — and it was 
 not until 1873 that little Prince Edward Island, the garden of the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, united its political fortunes with those of the young 
 
[BoCRisor] CANADA DURING THE VKTOKIAN ERA 19 
 
 coiifeduralion. Etforto were made to bring in Newfoundland, but purely 
 Heltish lo<-al considerations prevailed in that island over the national 
 sentiment; though the unwisdom of the course pursued by the island 
 politicians has become evident according as the rishery question with the 
 United States comes ujt from time to time, and it is now quite clear that 
 this large colony, which has been placed as u sentinel at the |)ortals of 
 Canada, must, ere ong, fall into line with its sister colonies in North 
 America. One of the most important n>sults of confederation in its 
 early days was the unnexati*m by the Dominion of that vast tract of 
 country which, up to that time, had l)een alnu>st excliLsively in the pos- 
 session of the Indians and the traders of the Hudson Hay (-ompany — 
 that region well descritted by (leneral Butler as • the lone land.'" over 
 whose titickless wastes French adventurers had been the first to j)ass — a 
 region of prairies, watered by great rivers and lakes, above whose 
 western limits tower the lofty pictui-esque ranges of the Rockies. Next 
 came into confederation the jtrovincc of British Columbia, which e.Ktends 
 from the Rockies to the watei-s of the Pacific Ocean — a country with a 
 genial climate, with rapid rivers teeming with tish. with treasures of coal 
 and gold, with sublime scenery only rivalled by California. A new 
 province was formed in the Northwest, watered by the Red ami the 
 Assiniboine Kivors and temtorial districts, a.«> large as Kuropean st;ites. 
 arranged for purposes ot government out of the vast region that now, 
 with the sanction of the Imperial authorities, has been brought under 
 the Jurisdiction of the government of Canada. Within a |>eriod of 
 thirty yeai-s Canada has stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and 
 the territory now under her control is very little infei-ior in extent to 
 that of the great Republic to the south, and contains within itself all the 
 elements of a prospertnis future. It is. unhappily, true that this result 
 Was not achieved until bloi»d had been shed and much money expended 
 in cinishing the rebellious half-breeds led by the reckless Kiel ; but, 
 apart from this sad feature of Canadian histor}', this important acquisi- 
 tion of territorj-, the tirst step in the formation of an empire in the west, 
 has been attained under circumstances highly advantageous to the 
 Dominion. Canada now possesses an immense territory of varied re- 
 sources — the maritime provinces with their coal, tish and shipping, to- 
 gether with a valuable, if limited, agricultural area, not yet fully 
 developed ; the large province of Quebec, with ranges of mountains on 
 whose slopes, when denuded of their rich timber, may graze thousands 
 .of cattle and sheep, with valuable tracts of meadow lands, capable of 
 raising the best cereals, and already supporting some of the finest cattle 
 of the continent ; the rich province of Ontario, which continues to be 
 the chief agricultural section of the Dominion, and whose cities and 
 towns are full of busy industries ; the vast Northwest region still in the 
 very infancy of its development, destined to give the confederation sev- 
 
20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 eral provinces outside of Manitoba, as large and productive as Minnesotar 
 and to be the principal wheat-growing district of Canada ; and, finally, 
 the gold-producing pi-ovince of British Columbia, whose mountains are 
 rich with undeveloped treasures, and whose mild climate invites a. 
 considerable industrious population to cultivate its slopes and plateaus, 
 and collect the riches of its river and deep-sea fisheries. Even that 
 inhospitable Arctic region of the far north-west of Canada through whicb 
 the Yukon and its tributaries flow appears to be rich with untold 
 treasures of gold and other minerals, and promises to be a source of 
 wealth to a country which is still in the infancy of its material develop- 
 ment.' 
 
 IX. 
 
 The population, which owns this vast territory, is confined chiefly at 
 present to the countries by the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence and the 
 Atlantic Ocean. A considerable number of people has within a few 
 years flowed into the Northwest, where the province of Manitoba is 
 exhibiting all the signs of a prosperous agricultural country, and its 
 capital, Winnipeg, has grown up in the course of sixteen years into a 
 city of nearly 30,000 souls. The population of the whole Dominion may 
 now be estimated at about 5,200.000 souls, and has increased four times 
 since 1837. Of this population more than a million and a quarter are 
 the descendants of 70,000 or 65,000 people who were probably living in 
 the French province at the time of the conquest (1759-60). The re- 
 mainder of the population is made up of English, Scotch, and Irish. 
 The immigration of late years has been insignificant compared with that 
 which ha*j come into the United States, and consequently at present the 
 natural born population amounts to about 85*09 per cent of the whole. 
 The people of Canada have already won for themselves a large amount 
 of wealth from the riches of the land, forest, and seas. The total value 
 of the imports is now about $110,000,000 and of exports at least $120,- 
 000,000, or an aggregate of $230,000,000 a year, an increase of $175,000,- 
 000 within half a century. Of this large export trade at least $50,000,000 
 represent the products of the farms. The province of Ontario now 
 raises over 28,000,000 bushels of wheat alone, or an increase of over 
 19,000,000 since 1837. The Northwest and Manitoba raise upwards of 
 50,000,000 bushels, or an increase of 20,000,000 in ten years. The people 
 have now deposited in government savings-banks, leaving out of the calcula- 
 tion the ordinary monetary institutions of the country, about $60,000,000, 
 
 1 As I read the proof of the text the world of enterprise and adventure is startled 
 by the reports of the wealth of the region of the Thron-Diuck (corrupted to- 
 Klondike), one of the tributaries of the Yukon in Canadian territory. 
 
[bourinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 21 
 
 made up of about 176,000 depositors, mechanics, farmei-s. and people of 
 limited meaus. For years the only industries of imjKJrtance were the 
 building of ships, the cutting of timber, and a few ill-sui^ported manu- 
 factures of iron and various hard and soft wares. Xow there is upwards 
 of $360,000,000 invested in manufactures, chiefly cotton and woollen 
 goods, of which the coarser fabrics compete successfully with English 
 goods in the Canadian market, even crowding out certain classes entirely. 
 Some fourteen lines of ocean steamers call at the port of Montreal, which 
 has now a population of over 350,000. Toronto comes next in popu- 
 lation, about 194,000, whilst the other cities, like Halifax, St. John, 
 Quebec, Ottawa, Brantford, Gruelph, St. Catharines, Fredericton, Hamil- 
 ton. London, range from 60,000 to 8,000. The aggregate of the popu- 
 lation of the cities and towns with over 10.000 population amounts to 
 some 1,000.000 souls, or the total population of Canada in 1837. The 
 urban population of Canada increased in 1801 to 1,390,910. compared 
 with 912,934 in 1881, or an increase of 2877 \>eY cent in ten yeai-s, 
 illustrating that there has been going on the same movement that has 
 prevailed in the United States. The total revenue of the Dominion, 
 apart from the local and provincial revenues, is about $37,000,000 a year, 
 raised mainly from customs and excise duties, which are high, owing 
 to a largely protective policy, although much lower than those on 
 similar goods in the United States. If the expenditures of Canada of 
 late years have been very large, they have been mainly caused by the 
 development of the country, and by the necessity of providing rapid 
 means of intercommunication for trade and population in a countrj- ex- 
 tending between two oceans. Canals, lighthouses, railways, the acquisi- 
 tion and opening up of the Northwest, and government buildings, have 
 absorbed at least $200,000,000 since 1867, and it is not remarkable, under 
 these circumstances, that a gross debt has been accumulated within half 
 a century of over $325,000,000. against which must be set valuable a.sset8 
 in the shape of buildings and public works necessary to the progress of a 
 new country. The public buildings, churches, and univemties display 
 within a quarter of a century a great improvement in architectural 
 beauty, whilst the homes of the people show, both in the interior and 
 exterior, decided evidences of comfort, convenience and culture. Instead 
 of the fourteen miles of railway which existed in 1837, there are now 
 over 16,000 miles in actual operation, atfording facilities for trade and 
 commerce not exceeded by any countrj' in the world. One of these rail- 
 ways, the Canadian Pacific, which reaches from Quebec to Vancouver, 
 on the Pacific Ocean, is the most remarkable illustration of railway 
 enterprise ever shown by any country ; certainly without a parallel for 
 rapidity of construction, even in the United States, with all its wealth, 
 population, and commercial energy. These railways represent an invest- 
 ment of nearly $1,000,000,000 in the shape of capital stock, municipal 
 
22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 and goveriimeui bonuses. The interprovincial trade — a direct result of 
 the federation — is at least $120,000,000 a year. These are some of the 
 most remarkable evidences of matei-ial development which Canada has 
 exhibited within tifty years. All those who wish to pursue the subject 
 further need only refer to the official publications ' of the government to 
 see that the fisheries, the timber trade, and the agricultural products of 
 Canada have all increast^d in the same ratio, notwithstanding commercial 
 crises, bad harvests, and depression produced in certain branches of in- 
 dustry by the policy pursued by the United States for some years 
 towards the Canadian Dominion. When we consider that the United 
 States has received the great bulk of immigration for half a century, and 
 that it is only quite recently that a deep interest has been taken in the 
 development of the Dominion by the people of Europe, it is remarkable 
 that in every branch of trade and industiy so steady a progress h&n been 
 made during the reign. 
 
 X. 
 
 In a new country like Canada one cannot look for the high culture 
 and intellectual standard of the old communities of Europe. But there is 
 even now in Canada an intellectual activity which, if it has not yet pro- 
 «'aced a distinct literature, has assumed a practical and useful form, and 
 must, sooner or later, with the increase of wealth and leisure, take a 
 higher range, and display more of the beauty and grace of literary 
 productions of world-wide interest and fame. The mental outfit of the 
 people compares favourably with that of older countries. The universities 
 of Canada — McGill, in Montreal, Laval, in Quebec, Queen's, in Kingston, 
 Dalhous'.o, in Halifax, and Trinity and Toronto Univei-sities in Toronto — 
 stand deservedly high in the opinion of men of learning in the Old 
 World and the United States, whilst the grammar and common school 
 system in the English-speaking provinces is creditable to the keen 
 sagacity and public spirit of the people, who are not behind their cousins 
 of New England in this particular. We have already seen the low con- 
 dition of education sixty years ago — only one in fifteen at school ; but 
 now there are almost a million of pupils in the educational institutions of 
 the country, or one in five, at a cost to the people of upwards of $10,000,- 
 000, contributed for the most part by the taxpayers of the difi'erent 
 municip£.litiee in connection with which the educational system is worked 
 out. In Ontario the class of schoolhouses is exceptionally good, and the 
 apparatus excellent, and the extent to which the j)eople tax themselves 
 may be ascertained from the fact that the government only contributes 
 annually some $1,512,000 out of a total expenditure of about $4,200,000. 
 
 1 Especially The Statistical Year Book, ably compiled by Mr. Johnson, the 
 Dominion statistician. 
 
[bourinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 23 
 
 In French Canada th(;re is an essentially literary activity, which ha» 
 produced poets and historians whose works have naturally attracted 
 attention in Frame, where the people are still deeply interested in the 
 material and intellectual developing ut of their old colony. The names of 
 Crarneau, Ferland. Frechette and Casgrain, especially, are recognized in 
 France, though they will be unfamiliar to most Englishmen, and even to 
 the majority of Americans, who ai"e yet quite ignorant of the high attain- 
 ments of Fi-ench Canadians, of whom Lord Durham wrote, in 1839, 
 " They are a people without a histoiy. and without a litei'ature,' a state- 
 ment well disproved in these later times by the works of Parkman, and 
 the triumphs of French Canadians in Paris itself. The intellectual work 
 of the English-speaking people has been chiefly in the direction of scien- 
 tific, constitutional and historical literature, in which departments they 
 have shown an amount of knowledge and research which has won for 
 many of them laurels outside of their own country. In the infancy of 
 the United States, works like '• The Federalist," with its wealth of con- 
 stitutional and historical lore, naturally emanated from the brains of 
 publicists and statesmen. In laying the foundation of a great nation the 
 learning and wisdom of the best intellects were evoked, and it has been 
 so in a measure in Canada, where the working out of a system of govern- 
 ment adapted to the necessities of countries with distinct interests and 
 nationalities has developed a class of statesmen and writers with broad 
 national views and a large breadth of knowledge. On all occasions when 
 men have arisen beyond the passion and narrowness of party, the debates 
 of the legislature have been distinguished by a keenness of argument and 
 by a grace of oratory — especially in the case of some FVench Canadians 
 like Sir Wilfrid Laurier, the present premier, and Sir Adolphe Chapleau, 
 lieutenant-governor of Quebec — which would be creditable to the 
 United States in its palmy days. Any one who reviews the fourteen 
 volumes already published bj"^ the Royal Society of Canada — one of the 
 most useful results of Lord Lome's administration — will see how much 
 scholarship and ability the writers of Canada bring to the study of 
 scientific, antiquarian, and historical subjects. In science, the names of 
 Sir William Dawson, of his equally gifted son, Dr. G. M. Dawson, as well 
 as of many others are well known in the parent state and wherever 
 science has its votaries. In poetry we have the names of Frederick G. 
 Scott, Pauline Johnson, Roberts, Bliss Carman, Archbishop O'Brien, 
 Speaker Edgar, Ethelwyn Wetherald, Lampman and Wilfred Campbell, 
 who merit a high place among their famous contemporaries. The his- 
 torical novels of Major Richardson, William Kirby, Gilbert Parker, — 
 notably "The Seats of the Mighty" and other works of the latter,— show 
 the rich materials our past annals otter for romance. " Sam Slick the 
 Clockmaker " and other books by Judge Haliburton, a Nova Scotian by 
 birth and education, are still the only noteworthy evidences we have of 
 
 -*;-.5* ■ 
 
24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 the existence of humour among a practical people, and his " Wise Saws" 
 and " Sayings " were uttered fully half a century ago. In art we have 
 L. R. O'lBi-ien, George Reid, Bell Smyth, Robert Harris, J. W. L. Forster, 
 W. Brymner, and Miss Bell, who have done much meritorious work. 
 Yet, on the whole, if great works are wanting nowadays, the intellectual 
 movement is in the right direction, and according as the intellectual soil 
 of Canada becomes enriched with the progress of culture we may 
 eventually look for a more generous fruition. The example of the United 
 States, which has produced Poe, Longfellow, Irving, Hawthorne, Howells, 
 Parkman. Lowell, Holmes, and many others, famous as poets, historians, 
 and novelists the world over, should encourage Canadians to hope that 
 in the later stages of its development the Canadian people, composed of 
 two distinct nationalities, will prove that they inherit those literar}' 
 instincts which naturally belong to the races from which they have 
 sprung. 
 
 XL 
 
 The political syst-.m under which the provinces are now governed is 
 •eminently adapted to the circumstances of the whole country-. 
 
 In the working out of responsible government, won for Canada 
 during the Queen's beneficent reign, there stand out, clear and well- 
 defined, certain facts and principles which are at once a guarantee of 
 efficient home government and of a harmonious cooperation between the 
 dependency and the central authority of the empire. 
 
 1. The misunderstandings that so constantly occurred when the 
 ■Queen ascended the throne, between the legislative bodies and the im- 
 perial authorities, and caused so much discontent throughout the prov- 
 inces on account of the constant interference of the latter in matters 
 which should have been left exclusively to the control of the peo])Ie 
 directly interested, have been entirely removed in conformity with tue 
 wise policy of making Canada a self-governed countrj' in the full sense of 
 the phrase. These provinces are, as a consequence, no longer a source 
 of irritation and danger to the parent state, but, possessing full inde- 
 pendence in ail matters of local concern, are now among the chief glories 
 of England and sources of her pride and greatness. 
 
 2. The governor-general, instead of being constantly brought into 
 •conflict with the political parties of the country and made immediately 
 responsible for the continuance of public grievances, has gained in 
 dignity and influence since he has been removed from the arena of public 
 controversy. He now occupies a position in harmony with the principles 
 that have given additional strength and prestige to the throne itself. As 
 the legally accredited representative of the sovereign, as the recognized 
 Jiead of society, he represents what Bagehot has aptly styled the dignified 
 
tBouiuNOT] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 
 
 part of our constitution, which has much value in a country like ours, 
 where we fortunately retain the permanent form of monarchy in 
 harmony with the democratic machinery of our government. It would 
 be a great mistake to suppose that the governor-general is a mere roi 
 fainSant, a merely ornamental portion of our political system, to be set to 
 work and kept in motion by the premier and his council. His influence, 
 however, as Lord Elgin has shown, is wholly moral, an influence of 
 suasion, sympathy, and moderation, which softens the temper while it 
 elevates the aims of local politics. If the governor-general is a man of 
 parliamentary experience and constitutional knowledge, possessing tact 
 and judgment, and imbued with the true spirit of his high vocation — and 
 these functionaries have been notablj' so since the commencement of 
 confederation — they can sensibly influence the course of administration 
 and benefit the country at critical periods of its history. Standing above 
 all pai-ty, having the unity of the empire at heart, a governor-general at 
 times can soothe the public mind and give additional confidence to the 
 country when it is threatened with some national calamity or there is 
 distrust abroad as to the future. As an imperial officer he has large 
 responsibilities, of which the general public have naturally no verj' clear 
 idea, and if it were possible to obtain access to the confidential and secret 
 despatches which seldom see the light except in the colonial office, it 
 would be seen how much for a quarter of a century past the colonial 
 department has gained by having had in the Dominion men, no longer 
 acting under the influence of personal feeling through being made 
 personally responsible for the conduct of public afl'aii-s, but actuated 
 simply by a desire to benefit the country over which they preside and to 
 bring Canadian interests into unison with those of the ompire itself 
 
 Self-government now exists in the full sense of the term. At the 
 base of the political structure lie those municipal institutions which, for 
 comj)leteness, are not excelled in any other countrj'. It is in the enter- 
 prising province of Ontario that the system has .ttained its greatest 
 development. Every village, township, town, city, and county has its 
 council composed of reeves or mayors and councillors or aldermen elected 
 by the people, and having jurisdiction over all matters of local taxation 
 and local improvement, in accordance with statutory enactments. Under 
 the operation of these little local parliaments —the modern form taken 
 by the folkmote of old English times — every community, regularly 
 organized under the law, is able to build )ts roads and bridges, light the 
 streets, effect sanitaiy arrangements, and even initiate bonuses for the 
 encouragement of lines of railway. 
 
 The machinery of these municipalities is made to aasist in raising 
 the taxes necessary for the support of public schools. Free libraries are 
 provided for in every municipality whenever the people choose — as in the 
 cities of Toronto, Hamilton, Guelph, and other places— to tax themselves 
 
26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 for the supi>ort of these necessary institutions. In tlie other provinces 
 the system is less symmetrical than in Ontario, but even in the French 
 section, and in the maritime provinces, where these institutions have been 
 more recently adopted the people have within their power to manage all 
 these minor local ati'airs which are necessary for the comfort, security, 
 and convenience of the local divisions into which each province is divided 
 for such ])urposes. Then we go up highei" to the provincial organizations 
 governed by a lieutenant-governor, nominated and removable by the 
 government of the Dominion, and advised by a council res]X)nsible to the 
 people's repi-esentativos, with a legislature composed, in only two of the 
 provinces of two houses — a council appointed by the Crown and an 
 elective assembly ; in all the other provinces there is simply an assembly 
 chosen by the people either by universal suffrage or on a %'ery liberal 
 franchise. The fundamental law known as the British ^«'orth America Act, 
 which was passed by the Imj>erial Parliament in 1867, gives jurisdiction 
 to the provincial governments over education, provincial works, hospitals, 
 asylums, and jails, administration of justice (except in criminal mattei's), 
 municipal and all other purely local affairs. In the Territories not yet 
 c<mstitut«d into provinces there is provided an efficient machinery', in 
 the shape of a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Dominion govern- 
 ment ; of an advisoiy council to assist the lieutenant-governor ; and of a 
 small legislative body of one house elected by the people, which has the 
 |X)wer of passing, within certain defined limits, such ordinances as are 
 necessary for the good government and security of the sparsely 
 settled countries under its jurisdiction. These Territories are now 
 represented in the two Hoases of the Dominion Parliament. These 
 representatives have all the rights and privileges of members of the 
 organized provinces, and are not the mere temtorial delegates of the 
 United States Congress. The central or general government of the 
 Dominion is administered by a Grovernor-CTcneral, with the assistance of 
 a ministry responsible to a Parliament, composed of a Senate appointed 
 by the Crown, and a House ol' Commons elected under an electoral 
 franchise practically on the very threshold of universal suffrage. This 
 Government has jurisdiction over trade and commerce, post-office, militia 
 and defence, navigation and shipping, fisheries, and railways and public 
 works, of a Dominion character and all other raattere of general or 
 national import. The appointment of a Governor-Genei-al by the Crown, 
 the power of disallowing bills which may interfere with Imperial statutes 
 and treaty obligations, and the right which Canadians still enjoy of 
 appealing to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council from the sub- 
 ordinate courts of the provinces, including the Supreme Court of Canada ; 
 the obligation which rt^sts upon England to assist the colony in the time 
 of danger by all the power of her army and fieet, together with the fact 
 that all treaties with foreign powers must necessarily be negotiated 
 
[bourinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN KRA 2T 
 
 through the Imperial authoritie.^, will be considered as the most jiatent 
 evidences of Canada being still a dependency of the empire. Even the 
 restraint impo^sed upon Canada with renpect to any mattei-s involving 
 neg()tiatit)ns with foreign powers has been modiried to a great degree by 
 the fact that England has acknowledged for over thirty years that 
 Canada t?hould be not only consulted in every particular, but actually 
 represented in all negotiations that may tie carried on with foreign 
 powei-8 atl'ecting her commercial or territorial interests. 
 
 Another illustration of the growng importance of Canada in the 
 Councils of the Empire is the fact that quite recently, in this jubilee 
 year, a Canadian judge has been placed on the Judicial Committee of the 
 Privy Council, the Supreme Court of Great Britain and Ireland. India, 
 and all the dependencies of the Crown, 
 
 XII. 
 
 From this brief historical summary of the leading features of the 
 political organization of Canada it will be seen how remarkable has been 
 the expansion of the liberties of the people since 1837, when they exer- 
 cised no control over the executive, when England imposed restrictions 
 on their trade, and officials of Downing Street were practically the 
 governing powers. 
 
 In the formation of their constitution the Canadians have naturally 
 borrowed the best features of the federal system of their American 
 neighbours, and of the governmental institutions of the parent state, 
 though not without improvement. The following brief summary shows 
 some of the advantages which Canada possesses over the infelitutions of 
 the United States as far as an experience of many years goes to pi-ove : 
 
 1. That the iK)wer8 of the provincial and federal governments are^ 
 enumerated, while the residuum of power is left, in express words, to 
 the central authority of the Dominion ; the very reverse of the constitu- 
 tion of the United States, which gives to the national government only 
 certain express, or necessarily implied, powers, and leaves to the several 
 states all those powers of local or state sovereignty not so expi-essly 
 taken away. 
 
 2. In adhering strictly, in the Dominion and every Province, to the 
 principles of parliamentary government which makes the ministry or 
 advisers of the executive responsible to the legislature for every act of 
 administration : a flexible system which works admirably compared with 
 the too rigid constitutional rules of the federal and state governments, 
 which separate the executive from the legislative authority and do not 
 permit the advisers of a president or a governor of a state to sit in the 
 legislature and direct its legislation. 
 
28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 3. The latent powers of a disHolution of parliament, which may be 
 used at any time by the Crown, under the advice of responsible ministers, 
 with the view of obtaining the opinion and judgment of the people at a 
 political crisis — a safety valve wanting in the rigid system of the United 
 States, which constantly and necessarily creates friction between the 
 executive and legislative authorities. 
 
 4. A permanent Civil Service in the Dominion and provincial gov- 
 ernments — a system which lies at the veiy foundation o^" all stable 
 government, but only partially adopted of very recent years by the 
 national government of the United State?, and now urged in almost all 
 the old States of the Union. 
 
 6. The appointment of all judges and public oflRcials by the Crown, 
 on the advice of ministers responsible to parliament for every such 
 executive act, in contradistinction to the elective system of the United 
 States of the federal republic, where judges are. in most cases, elected by 
 the people — the federal judges being the exception. 
 
 6. The independence of the judiciarj- of all party and political 
 pressure, when once appointed, since they can be removed only by the 
 Crown, as a consequence of a successful impeachment by the Dominion 
 Parliament, while in the several states their tenure is limited to a certain 
 number of years — ten on the average. 
 
 7. The infrequency of political elections and the practical 8e}>aration 
 of national, provincial and municipal politics at such elections — a separa- 
 tion now advocated in many states and adopted by the revised New 
 York constitution, in the case of municipal elections, especially in the 
 cities, where the running of municipal officers on a federal or state ticket 
 has led to gross corruption and abuse by the political machine and its 
 professional politicians. 
 
 8. The trial by judges of all cases of bribery and corruption in 
 municipal as well as legislative elections, a system not yet adopted by the 
 States, and necessarily of doubtful application in a country where so 
 many judges are elective. 
 
 No doubt there are difficulties constantly occurring in the working 
 -of the Canadian federal constitution, arising from conflicts of juris- 
 diction between the Dominion and the Provinces, despite the careful 
 enumeration of powei-s in the fundamental law, or British North 
 America Act of 1867 ; but these doubts are gradually being removed by 
 the wise practice which places the interpretation of all written legal 
 instruments in the courts. 
 
 Here also the wisdom and learning of the Judicial Committee of the 
 Privy Council of England and of the Canadian judiciarj' are to a large 
 extent nullifying the contentions of politicians and bringing about a 
 solution of difficulties which, in a country divided between distinct 
 nationalities, might cause serious complications if not settled on sound 
 jirinciples of law which all can accept. 
 
[boubinot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Odc of the most encouraging results of this political system has 
 been not merely the material development of the country but the crea- 
 tion of that national sentiment which muHt lie at the basis of any political 
 structure, if it is to withstand the storm of passion and faction which 
 from time to time will beat against its walls. The government of an im- 
 mense country like Canada is surrounded by man}- difficulties which an 
 Englishman or an American not thoroughly conversant with its history 
 and conditions can hardly realize. The great extent of territory and the 
 diverse interests of the populations that inhabit it from the Atlantic to 
 the Pacitic shoi-es require that there should be much wisdom and patience 
 used in the exercise of the large responsibility which these circum-stances 
 throw upon the government. If we look at the map, we see lying on 
 the Atlantic seaboard three provinces whose industries are chieny mari- 
 time, and whose propinquity to the Uniteil States naturally gives great 
 importance to the commercial arrangements which may exist with that 
 country. These provinces are separated by many hundreds of miles from 
 the populous, prolific province of Ontario, and all commercial intercourse 
 must be by means of railroads, or by the long and expensive navigation 
 of the St. Lawrence. To encourage interprovincial trade under these 
 circumstances, and make the jjeople see that their true interests should 
 not lie in dependence upon the United States, or on any single country, 
 but on opening up new avenues of commerce wherever practicable, has 
 been the natural policy of the governments since 1867. The result has 
 been on the whole moderately .successful, considering that the fight has 
 not been merely against geographical obstacles but also against the 
 antagonism exhibited by American politicians, ever since the repeal of 
 the reciprocity treaty of 1854. The tinnness with which the government 
 has adhered to the rights it possesses in the fisheries, and the liberality 
 with which it has promoted maritime interests by the construction of 
 lailways and other public works necessary to the material development 
 of the country, have succeeded in restraining the clamour that was 
 raised for some years in the maritime provinces against the operation of 
 the union. 
 
 The situation has still its difficulties ; bui there is every reason to 
 believe that the national sentiment is largely predominant, and that the 
 mass of the people clearly see that by strengthening the confederation 
 they ai-e assuring their true happiness and prosperity in the end, and 
 that to weaken or destroy it by the withdrawal of any single province 
 would mean the destruction of British interests on the continent and the 
 annexation of Canada eventually to the United States. Then, leaving 
 that branch of the subject, if we look at the distinct national elements 
 
80 ROYAL SOCIETY OF C*.N%DA 
 
 that exist throughout Canada we have furtlier evidence of the difficulties 
 with which a government has to contend in .striving to achieve the unity 
 and sei'urity of this widely extended confederation. When the Canadian 
 provinces were united, in Ifi-tO. the French Canadians were restive and 
 uncertain of their future. The Act of Union was considered by many of 
 them as an attempt to make them subservient to British influences. The 
 elimination of their language from legislative records was to them a great 
 grievance, because it was in their opinion, a clear evidence of the spirit 
 which lay at the basis of the union. As a matter of fact, however, the 
 Union Act was a measure which, from the very outset, gave to Lower 
 Canada a political su|)eriority in the government of the whole country. 
 The representation of the two provinces was equal in ihe Assembly, but 
 the greater unity that distinguished the French Canadians in all matters 
 that might atfect their political |K)wer. or their provincial interests, natur- 
 ally enabled them to dominate the Knglish parties, divided among them- 
 s< :<7e8 on no many jwlitical issues. The French language was soon 
 restored to its old place and step by step all the principles that the popu- 
 lar party of Lower Canada had been fighting for previous to 1840 were 
 granted — even an elective legislative council — under the new regime. 
 The consequence was that French Canada eventually recognized its 
 power, and its people forgot their old grievances and svere ready to sus- 
 tain the Union into which they had entered with doubt and apprehen- 
 sion. It vvas the English speaking people of the West that now rai.sed 
 the clamour against French domination, when the representation 
 granted in 1840 did not do justice to the increase of population in Upper 
 Canada, where, since that year, the progress had been more rapid than in 
 the French section. The consequence was that the two provinces, united 
 in law, were pi-actically divided on the floor of parliament and govern- 
 ment, at last, liecame almost impossible from the division of parties and 
 the controlling influence of French Canada, always determined to yield 
 nothing to the cry fi"om the u[)per province that would destroy the 
 equality of representation. The solution of the difficulties, arising, it will 
 be seen, from national antagonism, was found in a federal union, under 
 which Lower Canada obtained a supreme control over the provincial 
 matters in which she has an immediate interest and at the same time has 
 been able to exercise great influence in national affairs by means of her 
 large representation in the Dominion parliament. The results of the 
 political changes, which have occurred since the days of Lord Durham, 
 have been very different from what he hoped would be the case when he 
 wrote his famous report, throughout which there is a strong desire to 
 diminish French Canadian influence and gradually absorb the French 
 Canadian nationality in an English speaking people. In Lord Durham's 
 opinion, " the first and steady purpose of the British Government should 
 " be to establish an English population, with English laws and language, 
 
[BoiTRiNor] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA SI 
 
 " in this pi-ovince, and to tru!<t its government to none but a decideilly 
 " English legislature." As a matter of fact. Lord Durham entin ly 
 underrated the national instincts of the French Canadian ix*]iulation and 
 the tenacity with which they cling to their national life. Le Canadien, 
 a newspaper established in French Canadian interests, in the early days 
 of this century, struck the key note of French Canadian aspiration, when 
 it adopted as its motto, " Notre langue, notre foi, et nos institutions." 
 Under the favourable conditions of the federal system Quebec has Ijecome 
 essentially a French Canadian province in which the English are actually 
 in a verj' small minority though it is one distinguished always by its 
 great intelligence and superior enterprise. In the province of Ontario, 
 the French race has recently controlled the election of more than one 
 county which heretofore has been English in its representation. At the 
 same rate of ])rogress, and under an equally favourable condition of 
 things, five millions of Fi-ench-speaking people will inhabit the Dominion 
 in four or tive decailes. In the nature of things they must always exer- 
 cise a powerful influence on the future destiny of the young confederation. 
 It is therefore all-important to understand their actual sentiment with 
 respect to the Union. At times, when they believe their nationality is in 
 danger or an injustice has been done to one of their race, thej- become 
 aggressive, but. happily for the jx-ace and unity of the country, the con- 
 servative instincts of the I'-tiding classes ultimately j)revail over the 
 passion and impulsiveness of Aie masses. 
 
 While reason and common sense have the masteiy in Fi-ench Canada, 
 all classes can hardly fail to see that the institutions which they value so 
 highly can only be preserved by such a system of government as they 
 now possess under the protecting influence of the Imperial State, and 
 were they, to-morrow, to find themselves in the ranks of the federal repub- 
 lic, their position would, in all probability, become eventually, like that 
 of their compatriots in Louisiana, interesting from the point of view of 
 the antiquary and the student of human life, but insigniticant fn)m a 
 political or national aspect. No French Canadian writer or politician of 
 weight in the country now urges so impossible or suicidal a scheme as 
 the foundation of an independent French nationality on the banks of the 
 St. Lawrence. 
 
 Sir Wilfrid Laurier. now the brilliant leader of the government in 
 parliament, only voiced the sentiments of his compatriots, conservative 
 as well as liberal, when he said, some months ago, in the pi-esence of a 
 large English audience in the city of Toronto : — 
 
 " If there are any amongst my fellow-countrymen who have ever 
 " dreamed of closing themselves into a small community of Frenchmen 
 " on the banks of the St. Lawrence, I am not one of them. It would be 
 " an act of black ingratitude if, after we have sought from England the 
 "• privileges and rights of British subjects, we were now to reject the res- 
 
M ROYAL SOaETTY OF CANADA 
 
 " ponsibilitiee of such subjects ; if having souglit the protection of Eritain 
 " to grow strong, we were, when strong enough , to attempt to stab the 
 " fViendly hand, and refuse to cast in our lot with those who are fellow- 
 " countrymen of ours, and whose birthright we claim as our inheritance. 
 " When confederation was established it was not intended that it should 
 '' be based upon the humiliation of any one race ; that any one should 
 " give up its characteristics ; but it was expected that though every 
 " nationality might retain its individuality, yet that all would b^ actuated 
 " by one aspiration and would endeavour to form one nation." 
 
 At times when the French Canadians press their national prejudices 
 to extremes, a spirit of antagonism is at once evoked between them and 
 the English classes, but the unfortunate state of things that existed before 
 1837 no longer shows itself with its original intensity, and whatever 
 jealousies or rivalries break out now and then above the surface are 
 sooner or later carried away by the current of sound public opinion, 
 anxious for the harmony of all classes and creeds and only solicitous for 
 the safe working of the Union, A certain rivalry will always exist 
 between the two nationalities, but as long as moderate and conciliatory 
 counsels prevail, it will be, let us hope, the rivalry of i)eople8 animated 
 by the same patriotic impulses and engaged in the same great work of 
 building up a new nation on this continent. At all events a great deal 
 has been gained since 1837 in the direction of creating a friendly and 
 harmonious feeling between distinct races who, at one time in their 
 history, seemed on the point of engaging in an internecine conflict like 
 that which convulsed the North and South for years. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Every one who is at all conversant with Canadian political history" 
 for the past sixty years will recognize the fact that Canada owes much 
 to men like Sir Louis Lafontaine, who successfully inaugurated respon- 
 sible government after the Union of 1841, and did a gi"eat deal to a'.lay 
 sectional jealousies and antagonisms. It was Sir George Cartier, a 
 French Canadian statesman, who carried the province of Quebec with 
 little or no friction into the federal union. In Mr. Pope's biography of 
 Sir John Macdonald, which appeared some time ago, justice is done to the 
 broad statesmanship and imperial conceptions of that great Canadian 
 Premier, whose name must be always associated with the political devel- 
 opment of Canada since 1844 ; but, while we may commend the natural 
 effort of a devoted private secretary to eulogise and emphasise the ser- 
 vices of his chief, it is apparent that he has been too forgetful of the 
 claims of Sir Greorge Cartier, and of his followers from French Canada 
 to recognition. Canadians, at all eventa, know full well that, without 
 
[■ocKJXOTl CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 83 
 
 the aid ui' hia fuithful friend and ci'lleajL^ue. Sir John Macdonuld would 
 have iM'en hoipiuss time and again, and couhl never havu i-arried out h\» 
 
 national schi'nich. 
 
 With the names of Sir John Miu-donuld and Sir iioor^e Carlier, who 
 did HO much hy their broad 8tatesman«hip to mettle si'ctional ditticultioH, 
 and lay the foundations of Confederation, must be also intimately asso- 
 ciatwl that of Mr. (reori^e Brown, for nuiny years a prominent journalist 
 in Upper Canada, and the leader of the Uadieal section of the Liberal 
 party. The |»ertlnaeily with which he jiriissi'd the claims of the upfter 
 province to larger rejtresentation in the Canadian legislature; and the 
 violence with which his newspaper The Globe, attacked the institutions of 
 French Canada, more than once excited sei-tioiuil passion to a high pitch, 
 and iiMidercd government almost impossible. Hut by his readiness at 
 last to cooperate with Sir John Macdonald and Sir (ieorge Cartier in the 
 bringing about of Confederation, Mr. Brown showed he had statesman- 
 like conceptions of his dutj at a national crisis, and j)laced his name in 
 the front rank of the eminent public men who have done so much lor 
 Canada in the Victorian Era, 
 
 Happily for the present Dominion, there were also at the hea<l of 
 atfairs in the maritime provinces men of large national ideas and signal 
 ability ; and while mistakes were undoubtedly made in the case of JJova 
 Scotia, where the majority of the people for a time resented the haste 
 with which their province was forced into the Union of 1867, yet one 
 may now hesitate to dwell on the errors of judgment of those exciting 
 times, thirty-two yeai-s ago. a.nd may well urge that it might have btien 
 a far greater mistake had the Unionists of Nova Scotia delayed in seizing 
 the opportunity of consolidatin«r the provinces and j)reventing the jierils 
 to \.-hich they were exposed by remaining isolated from each other, at a 
 time \\ !'en they weiv subject to Fenian raids and the unfriendliness of 
 the dominiint pai'ty in the United States. 
 
 Of the di itinguished men who brought about Confederation at so 
 critical a period in Canadian affairs, nearly all have joined the rank.-^ of 
 the Great Majority. Sir Charles Tupper, who has tilled many imj)ortant 
 positions in the councils of his country, and was premier of Nova Scotia 
 from 1864 to 18(i7, and Sir Oliver Mowat, so long the discreet Premier of 
 Ontario, still remain in active political life. Sir Hector Langevin, 
 Senators Dickey and A. A. Macdonald, lion. Peter Mitchell, and Hon. 
 William McDougall complete the list of the survivors of the Quebec 
 Convention of 1864.' The encouraging success, which has so far attended 
 
 ' The following are the names of the statesinea who took part in the Quelle 
 convention : 
 
 Canada.— Hon. Sir Etienne Tache, M.L.C., Premier ; Hon. John A, Macdonald, 
 M.P.P., Attorney-General of Upper Canada ; Hon. Geo. Etienne Cartier, M.P.P,, 
 Attorney-General of Lower Canada ; Hon. Geo. Brown, M.P.P., Preoident of Execu- 
 
 Sec. II., 1&W7. 3. 
 
34 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 the operation of Confederation, entitles the actoi's of 1864-67 to a memor- 
 able place in the annals of the reign. 
 
 XV. 
 
 In this review it has been my object to refer only to those salient 
 features of the development of Canada, and to point out how much 
 reason Canadians have for congratulating themselves on the events of the 
 last sixty years — a period contemporaneous with the reign of the present 
 Queen — in which they have laid the foimdations of their happiness and 
 prosperity as one of the great communities which make up the empire. 
 It is not within the scope of this paper to point out the shadows that may 
 obscure the panorama as it unfolds itself before us. It would be strange 
 if. in the government of a country like Canada, man}' mistakes had not 
 been made, or if there were not many difficulties in store for the youthful 
 confederation. Dr. Goldwin Smith, from time to t'me, has been disposed 
 to perform the part of the Greek Chorus to the gloomy predictions of 
 the enemi'..'s and lukewarm fnends of the confederation, but Canadians 
 will hardly allow themselves to be influenced by purely pessimistic 
 utterances in the face of the difficulties that they have hitherto so success- 
 fully encountered, and of the courage and hopes that animate them for 
 the future. For a century and a half the French Canadiirs fought and 
 bled for their country; they had to face famine and savages, war with 
 the British, and, what was worse, the neglect and indifference of the 
 parent state at the most critical period of their historj' ; but since the 
 conquest they have built up a largo community by the banks of the St. 
 Lawrence and its tributaries, and even the superior energy and enter- 
 
 tive Council ; Hon. Alex T. Gait, M.P.P., Finance Minister ; Hon. Alexander Camp- 
 bell, M.L.C., Commissioner of Crown Lands ; Hon. Jean C. Chapais, M.L.C., Com 
 missioner of Public Works ; Hon. Thos. D'Arcy McGee, M.P.P , Minister of Agricul- 
 ture ; Hon Hector L. Langevin, Solicitor-General for Lower Canada ; Hon. W. 
 McDougall, M.P.P., Provincial Secretary ; Hon. Jas. Cockburn, M.P.P., Solicitor- 
 General for Upper Canada ; Hon. Oliver Mowat, Postmaster-General. 
 
 Nova ScofiA.— Hon. rhas. Tupper, M. P.P., Provincial Secretary and Premier; 
 Hon. Wm. A. Henry, M.P.P., Attorney-General; Hon. Robert B. Dickey, M.L.C. ; 
 Hon. Adams G. Architwild, M.P.P., Hon. Jonathan McCully, M.L.C. 
 
 New Brunswkk. -Hon. Samuel L. Tilley, M. P. P., Provincial Secretary and 
 Premier; Hon. Peter Mitchell, M.I^.C. ; Hon. Chas. Fisher, M.P.P. ; Hon. W. H. 
 Steeves, M.L.C. ; Hon. John Hamilton Gray, M.P.P,; Hon. Edward B. Chandler, 
 M.L C. ; Hon. JohnM. Johnson. M.P.P., Attorney-General. 
 
 Princk Edward Island.— Hon. John ^amilton Gray, M.P.P., Premier ; Hon. 
 George Coles, M.P.P.; Hon. Thomas Heath Haviland, M.P.P.; Hon. Edward Palmer, 
 M.P.P., Attorney-General; Hon Andrew Archibald Macdonald, M.L.C; Hon. 
 Edward Whelan, M.L.C; Hon. H. Pope, M.P.P., Provincial Secretary. 
 
 Nkwfoundlanu.— Hon. Frederick B. T. Carter, M.P.P., Speaker of the House 
 of Assembly ; Hon. Ambrose Shea, M.P.P. 
 
[bourixot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 
 
 prise of the English Canadians have not prevented them from treating a 
 province which is essentially French Canadian, and atlords many evi- 
 iiences of prosperity due to the hardihood of the race that inhabits it. 
 A century and more has passed since the English-speaking people sought 
 their fortunes in the West or on the shores of the Atlantic. For yeans 
 many of these hardy pioneers led toilsome lives — lives of solitude, among 
 the great forests that ovei-shadowed the whole country; but year by 
 year the darkness of the w^oods was brightened by bursts of sunlight, as 
 the axe opened up new centres of settlement and echoed the progress of 
 the advanced guards of civilization. Years of hardship and struggle 
 ensued and political difficulties followed to add to individual trials, but 
 the people were courageous and industnous and soon surmounted the 
 obstacles of early times. The material development went hand in hand 
 with the political progress of the country. The magnifioent heritage 
 which the people of Canada now own is the result of unremitting toil 
 and never-failing patience and, summing up the achievements of the 
 past, the}- may well look forward with hopefulness to the future, for of 
 them it may be truly said, 
 
 " Men the workers ever reaping something new ; 
 That which they have done but earnest of the things that they will do." 
 
 "What is to be the next great step in the political cai-eer of Canada is 
 a question which frequently occurs to imperial as well as colonial states- 
 men. One thing is quite certain that the movement is towards the 
 placing of the relations between the parent state and its great depend- 
 ency on a basis which will strengthen the empire and at the same time 
 give Canatla even a higher position in the councils of the imperial state. 
 
 The federation of the empire in the full sense of the term may be 
 considered by some practical politicians as a mere political phantasm, 
 never likely to come out in a tangible form from the clouds where it is 
 now concealed ; and yet who can doubt that out of the grand conception, 
 which first originated in the brain of Fi*anklin and Otis, statesmen may 
 yet evolve some scheme that will render the empire secure from the 
 dangera which arise from continual isolation, and from the growth of 
 peculiar and distinct interests, that naturally result from the geo- 
 graphical situation of communities so widely separated from each other 
 throughout the world ? 
 
 At the Ottawa Conference of 1894, when delegates from Austrahisia 
 and South Africa discussed with Canadian representatives questions 
 affecting the Empire at large, not a word was said on the subject of 
 Imperial federation. Imperial defence was not even considered ; but, 
 despite this studied neglect of a scheme which, more than once, had 
 been eloquently urged by several representatives — especially by Mr. 
 Foster, then Finance Minister of Canada — it is probable that this con- 
 
36 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 vention would never have met were it not for the efforts of enthusiastic 
 supporters of the movement for some j'eare back to create a deeper in- 
 terest in colonial affairs and Imperial connection. At the Conference 
 commercial questions absorbed the attention of the delegates, and per- 
 haps some historical students may recall tl: ' fact that considerations of 
 trade and finance led to the famous convention that created " a more 
 '' perfect union " in 1787 for the American States previously bound 
 together by a loose confederation. 
 
 Some strong reasons may be urged by not a few persons, from an 
 Imperial point of view, for giving Imperial assistance to such practical 
 propositions as a fast Atlantic and Pacific steam service between Canada, 
 Australasia, and (xreat Britain — soon to be realized between Canada and 
 the parent State — and the laying of a cable, " free from all foreign con- 
 "trol" between the Dominion and Australasia. One can see in the 
 resolutions of the Conference advocating larger and freer commercial 
 relations between the colonial dependencies, as well as the removal of 
 any restraints that may be imposed by Imperial treaties on the right of 
 Canada and other colonies to regulate their tariffs as they deem most 
 expedient, some important evidence of the growingdesire amongcolonial 
 statesmen to give greater unity to the colonial empire. The Conference 
 also urged on Knglish statesmtm the necessity of reconsidering the posi- 
 tion they have assumed since the days of Cobden and Peel, and adopting 
 a policy which would give a preference to colonial jtroducts in the 
 markets of Great Britain, and create an Imperial Zollverein ; but while 
 no practical step has been taken in this direction by the Imperial Min 
 istry or Parliament since the passing of the resolution yet one sees in the 
 speeches of prominent British jmblic men as well as in the strong desire 
 evinced by Mr. Laurier and his Ministerial colleagues to draw closer to 
 the imperial state, the most encouraging sign for the unity and integrity 
 of the empire at large. 
 
 Indeed it is obvious that while Canadians may differ as to methods 
 of action, neither government nor opposition have any doubts as to the 
 advisability of strengthening the connection between the Dominion and 
 the Mother Country. This is the paramount question of the day among 
 all chisses — among i>eople and statesmen — and practical results of great 
 signilicance must be evolved ere long.' 
 
 ' Since this paper was read before tlie Royal Society of Canada, tlie Diamond 
 Jubilee, which showed so powerful sentiment of attachment to the Crown and 
 Empire, has already brought forth a practical result by the "denunciation" of 
 the imperial treaties with Germany and Belgium, which for some years past have 
 evoked the hostility of the Canadian government and parliament as entirely at var- 
 iance with the commercial freedom of the Dominion and her rights, expressed or 
 implied by the British No-'th America Act of Union, and as interposing serious 
 obstacles to more intimate commercial relations with the parent state. This action 
 on the part of the imperial government, in response to the bold and decisive tariff 
 
[bocbikot] CANADA DURING THE VICTORIAN ERA 87 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Only a few words in conclusion. Looking at the history- of the 
 Canadian dependency for sixty years, one can see in all the phases of its 
 political development there has ever run "an increasing purpose." The 
 statesmen of England and her colonies have, perhaps, builded better than 
 they knew. The destiny that shapes our ends, " rough-hew them how 
 we will," has been carrying the empire in a direction beyond the ken and 
 conception of probably the most sanguine and practical minds. When 
 we consider that the union of the two Canadas was followed in about a 
 quarter of a century by the federation of all the provinces, and that this 
 great measure has been also supplemented, after a lapse of thirty years, 
 by a conference of delegates from the most distant colonial possessions, we 
 may well believe that the thoughts of men are indeed widened throughout 
 England and her dependencies " by the process of the suns," and that 
 powerful current of human thought and progress which is everywhere 
 making itself felt is carrs'ing forward the Empire, not into an unknown 
 sea of doubt and peril, where it may split into many fragments, but into 
 a haven where it may rest in the tranquil waters of peace and security. 
 
 As long as the respective members of the Federation observe faith- 
 fully the principles on which it necessaril}" rests — perfect equality among 
 all its sections, a due consideration for local rights, a deep Imperial as 
 well as Canadian sentiment whenever the interests of the whole Federa- 
 tion is at stake — the people of this Dominion need not fear failure in their 
 efforts to accomplish the great work in which they have been so long 
 engaged. Full of that confidence that the historj^ of the past should give 
 them, and of that energy and courage which are their natural heritage, 
 and which have already achieved the most satisfactory results in the face 
 of difficulties which, sixty years ago, would have seemed insurmountable ; 
 stimulated by their close neighbourhood to a nation with whom they 
 have always shown a desire to cultivate such relations as are compatible 
 with their dignity, their security, and their self-interest as a separate 
 and distinct community ; adhering closely to those principles of govern- 
 ment which are best calculated to give moral as well as political strength ; 
 
 policy of the present Canadian ministry, is not merely another step in that evolution 
 of events which have placed Canada in the position of a semi-independent power in 
 the course of thirty years ; but, judged by the spirit that has animated both Can- 
 adian and English statesmen in bringing it about, it is a part of tbat movement 
 which seems irresistibly forcing the parent state and her greatest dependency to a 
 closer alliance, eommtrcial and defensive, that will make the empire impregnable. 
 It is a forerunner, many Canadians hope, of a scheme of imperial federation which 
 not long since seemed chimerical to those who cannot look beyond the interests of 
 mere sections of the empire. Mr. Chamberlain has certainly not disappointed his 
 friends who have always believed that he would make his position of administrator 
 of colonial alTairs a position of value to the empire at large. 
 
38 KOYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
 
 determined to put down corruption in whatever form it may show itself, 
 and to cultivate a sound public opinion, Canadians may tranquil ly^ 
 patiently, and determinedly face the problem of the future. 
 
 When Canadians review the trials and struggles of the past in the 
 interesting storj' of their countiy, they may well gain fro?Ti them lessons 
 of confidence for the future, and cannot forget to pay a tribute to the 
 men who laid the foundations of these communities, still on the threshold 
 of their development, and on whom the great burden fell ; to the P'rench 
 Canadians who, amid toil and privation, amid war and famine, built up 
 a province which they had made their own by their patience and 
 industry, and who should, differ as we may from them, evoke our respect 
 for their fidelity to the institutions of their origin, and for their apprecia- 
 tion of the advantages of English self-government, and for their coopera- 
 tion in all great measures essential to the unity of the Federation ; to the 
 Loyalists of last ceniuiy who left their homes for the sake of •' king and 
 country " and laid the foundations of prosperous and loyal English 
 communities by the sea and by the great lakes, and whose descendants 
 have ever stood true to the principles of the institutions which have made 
 England free and great ; to the unknown body of Pioneers, some of whose 
 names. ])erhaps, still linger on a headland or river, or on a neglected 
 gravestone, who brought the sunlight year by year to the dense forests, 
 and built up by their industry the large and thriving provinces of the 
 Dominion ; to the Statesmen who laid deep and firm, beneath the political 
 structure of this Federation, those principles of self-government which 
 give harmony to the constitutional system and bring out the best quali- 
 ties of an intelligent people. And above all, let Canadians of all classes 
 and nationalities unite with heart and soul, in this remarkable month of 
 this remarkable year, to pay a just tribute to the Great Queen, during 
 whose beneficent reign Canadians have received such large political 
 privileges, and whose virtues as a woman and sovereign have placed her 
 in the estimation of her subjects in every part of the J'>mpire. on an 
 eminence of love and respect which none of her royal predecessoi-s. not 
 even "Good Queen Bess," have ever been able to reach in the brightest 
 eras of English history. 
 
[bochxnot] CANADA DURING THE VICl'ORI/ N ERA 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS AT END OF TEXT. 
 
 PAQ£. 
 
 1. Montretil In ld3!J 4S 
 
 2-3. Place d'Anues, Montreal, with views of Parish Church of Notre Dame, 1837- 
 
 1897 46 
 
 4-6. St. John's Gates, Quebec, 1837-1»97 47 
 
 6. View of Rideau Canal and Parliament Hill, Ottawa, 1837 40 
 
 7. Halifax in 1837 4tf 
 
 8. Montreal Churches in 1838 51 
 
 «. Ibid, 1897 SS 
 
 10. Country School House, 1837 56 
 
 11. Hamilton Public School, 1897 56 
 
 12. Some Makers of Canada, 1S37-1891 ; Lord Elgin, Robert Baldwin, Joseph 
 
 Howe, L. A. Wilniot, George Brown, Sir Georgt E. Cartier, Sir J. A. 
 
 Macdonald 57 
 
 13. Some Canadian Litterateurs, 1837-1897: "Sam Slick'" (Judge HaJiburton), 
 
 O. Cr^mazie, F.-X. Garneau, Sir J. W. Dawson 59 
 
 14. Parliament House of Lower Canada, 1837 gl 
 
 15. Parliament House of Upper Canada, 1837 gj 
 
 16. Government Buildings, Fredericton, N.B., 1837 83 
 
 17. Province House, Halifax, 1837-1897 ^ 
 
 18. Government Building, Fredericton, 1897 gg 
 
 19. Go\ ernmenl Building. Winn ipeg, 1897 gg 
 
 20. Government Building, Quebec, 1897 ^n 
 
 21. Government Building, Toronto, 1897 ffj 
 
 22. Government Building, Charlottetown. P.E.I., 1897 gg 
 
 23. Government Building, Victoria, B.C., 1897 00 
 
 24. Toronto University, 1897 Yj 
 
 2&. Parliament House, Ottawa, 1897 71 
 
 26. Kent Gate, Quebec n« 
 
 27. Government Building, Regina, N. W.T., 1897 73 
 
 28 29. London, Ontario, 18431897 75 
 
 30. Winnipeg in 1870. .' jj 
 
 31. View in Winnipeg, 1897 77 
 
 32. Some Canadian Litterateurs, 1807 : Gill>ert Parker. L. Frechette, A. Lamp- 
 
 man, Professor Roberts, p:thelwyn Wetherald, Pauline Johnson, D. 
 
 C. Scott, Bli-s CarTiian, W. W. Campbell 79 
 
 33. Some Canadian Statesmen of 1897 : Sir W. Laurier, Sir C. Tupper, Sir O. 
 
 Mowat, Sir R. Cartwright 81 
 
 34. Map of the Dominion of Canada gg 
 
1fe« 
 
 t 
 
lLi:UST [RATIONS 
 
 CANADA. 18:57-1897 
 
43 
 
 I 
 
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 45 
 
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 1 I 
 
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 47 
 

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 llALD'AX IN l>-:;7 — ^')•"l)l ilnrihit^ Ihili^h \urth Aimiir 
 
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 81 
 
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 10. ClirXTHY SC'IIIIIII. HorSK IN 1>:;7. — /■')■..». h'.iqhtii Years l'i-n,iri":s uf U. S. .\ . Tnmtito, l«fi3. 
 
 11. HAMILTON (Ont.) PUBLIC SCHOOL, 1897.— From Buidinof's " Hoic Canaiia 13 Governed." 
 
 SB 
 
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 I If 
 
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 IK IX. K. HAl.DW.X. 
 
 Slii (i. K. CAIiTli:!!. 
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 57 
 
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 39 
 
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 U. PAIM.IA.MKXT llolM; lU' l.oWKIi CANAHA, l>:i'i.— ^V..m //.("/.,„>> l-i'hi,,-^ ../ V"'''«c 
 
 1.'). I'Aia.iA.MKNT norsi; of ii'1'i:i! canaka, i> 
 
 61 
 
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 63 
 
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 I'l. MANlldliA linVKIiNMlM' 111 li.lUM.. WlNNIl'KC I^"t7 
 
 65 
 
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 67 
 
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 23. BKITISH COLLMBIA GOVEKXMEXT bllLlllXUS AT VICTdKIA. I>!i7. 
 
 69 
 
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 25. PAKLJAMf:XT H( HSK ( (K lAXADA AT Ol TAWA. 
 
 71 
 
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 i-. X- use n»* l.:»ri"Hi|i « •»' ■ iTi'.-* 
 
 I 
 
 27. GOVERNMENT BUILDING, RKGINA, N.W.T. 
 
 73 
 
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 • I.Wr.nl, 
 

 3(1. WIXXIPEG IX lS7(]. — f' /■..,« .1. J. lOitiseir^ }{,idsnns Haij an,l SAV.T. 
 
 31. VIEW OF MAIX STUEET IX WLXXII'EU, 1S'J7. 
 
 77 
 
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