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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mithode. 1 ' 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 I ■f'rf'-ci KPI COMPOSITION AND PRACTICAL ENGLISH, WITH EXERCISES ADAPTED FOR USE !N HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. , ! <*s;.;^N '^ - wNlLIAM WILLIAMS, B.A, KDITOR OF goldsmith's "DESERTED VlLLi GE." COWPER'S "TASK," ETC. ,\1 TORONTO: CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY (limited). PElill \ Si ■ '/ •%■ .^..« i,;i.., ,^,.jp,M^^>,?' v,^^.; qi-.^: ^> ■■■^'^ ' rV:*' i:*iA.:i*4'.- ■f-iV '" "■■^■<^ W^x -v>.: II,. m^ i- '■'* "."v\", ■ ■ ■*■■■,* ■■ ,' ■ .- -. ■ -',"■ ■ i"."'*"" '. ' .■'.■■-■ ■*. '■.> ■"'T'" ■" • - ::. ' .■ ■ '■■ 'Z^':^": ■ '• ? 1 '-■ " V'"/ ;-"'■•■■''■■ ' ' '■ ' . ':'■ ■ ■■ ' '■■ ■ .'^Sli;,-- ':•.; <^\- ■pPWPPP^^ ■ .''■ '' ,' ' •■ '} . .: ' ',-■ ■'■-■. ■' ■■ !■ ;■- ' '■'^'.■.■' :■ .' • ■■■ -. '■ -.; ;.-■:_;.- X'.y. .XiV: Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year iSw by the Canada Publishing Co. (Limited), iu the office of the Minister of Agriculture. ■ '),i \ - "A = (■■;-.; S.kt' '" ¥£: ■ V - * J ;.;=■...;.:,, m^Zi'.tX* •WSM. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. ■^S\k^iiy: STYLE. 1. The Choioe and Use of WorcU. '] 2. Pbopriett. 8. Freoisiom. 1. FcMPeign Words. 1 i>m>T^« J 2. Obsolete Words. 1. ruMTY. i 3 Newly-Coined Words. 4. Slang. ;o-:_' 1. Periodic. 2. Loose. 1. Kinds, -j 3. The Compromise. 4. Balanced. ^v ? •f'^^ fe • { 6. Short and Long. 2. The Sentenco. -J h o e4 ( 1. The Use of Words. ' 2. Arrangement. 3. Pronouns. 1. Clearness. •{ 4. Emphatic Words. 6. Constrnction. > 6. Ellipses. 7. Long Sentences. .■« i 2. Strength. - ! ?. / 1. Superflnons Words. 2. Order of Words. 3. Particular and General Terms. 4. Connection and Transi- tion, s ,„^ ■-.:.■ >.-,i- \ 6. Variety. 3. Unity. ' 1. Change of Subject. 2. Things Unconnected. 3. Parentheses. 4. Supplementary Clauses. 11. Harmony. 2. Fine Writing. 3. Keeping. »• Co— o». { >: i^s^. ■"-\- W«MIWr>-tM«« A »*<• // ualvtical Tabh of Contents, •^^l^ifwlk'^-' k: 8. Yarittj of Ix- prtinon. / 1. PnoHH. 1. By Trttimponltlon. 2. By Chan^o of Coniitruotion. B. By Synonyms. 4. By Ohanne of Phraieology. IBy re-wriUntf in thePhraHeolngy of Proto. it, PmCTIlT. 2. Heoond Method. - By m«i«Iy reinovinn the- 1. Bhyme. 2. MeaHure. 1. Arranf^e- ment. 8. Die- J 2. Brevity. tion. 8. Words. 4. Terms. 6. Fii(ure«. 4. Figurei of Speooh. 6. Ftoio Compoii* tion. 1. Dimile. t 2. Metaphor. 8. Metonymy. 4. Synecdoche. 5. Personification. 11. Irony. 0, Apostrophe. 7. Antithesis. 6. Epigram, t). Eupnemism. 10. Hyperbole. «(• U; 1. Its Divisions. Letter Writing. TLemoi. INVENTION. 1. How to Construct and Develop a Theme. 1. Narra ion. , 2. Practice in CompoBi-|2. Description, tion. Themes in- i 8- Exposition. 4. Argument. 6. Persuasiou. PUNCTUATION. PREFACE. a%Tmi8 is, on the face of ft, A priiotical book; not that it ox* eludes theory, but that it gives prominence to practice. If Hub were not the case, it need not have been written. There are already books enough that deal ably with the theoretical part of the subject, but there are none that combine with theory a sufficient amount of practice. As composition is both a science and an art, no system of teaching it can be success* "^ ful that does not recognize both of these p^rts. Young people do not acquire facility und correctness of expression merely by memorizing rules or by poring over methods of sentential structure. Stil'. the learning of principles is not to be neglected ; for, though it is not the whole, yet it is an essential part. How, then, can these two departments of the subject be most advantageously presented to the pupil? Every discerning teacher must have found that little theory and much practice is by far the most effective way of teaching composition. . On this maxim this book is based; and its purpose is to furnish the teacher with the means of carrying into effect the plan here indicated. It proceeds on the simple method of laying down a few principles at u time and then illustrating them with such a number and variety of exercises that the pupil may fully master the practical application of these principleK and thei-eby learn not only to write, but to write correctly. The subject) of Punctuation, Lesson XLVI., may l)e taken up at whatever time is most oonvenioiit f- •rir- haS^i^. CORRECTING COMPOSITIONS. I'liB labor of correcting compositions, especially in large classes, is very great; yet it must be undertaken as there is no other way of showing the pupil how to avoid errors and attain excellence. Nor are general remarks of much avail. The beauty and suitability of the various parts are what constitutes the beauty of the whole. Hence it is necessary to point out to the learner the exact points in which he has failed, that he may know just what to avoid in the future. The toil of writ- ing criticisms may be lightened by using a system of abbrevi- ated marks, such as those given below. These marks will also be found useful in residing papers on History, Geography, or Literature, when the teeicher wishes to call attention to faults in the literary form of the answers. sp. Mistake in spelling. pn. Mistake in punctuation. cp. Mistake in capital. ffU'^i'li-; gr. Mistake in grammar. wr. Mistake in choice or use of a el. Lack of clearness. [word. str. Lack of strength. ty. Lack of unity. Ig. Lack of elegance. on. Sjentences not well connected. ctn. Use some other construction. flg. Mistake in the use of a figure. un. Unfinished sentence. br. Break up into two or more il. Illegible. [sentences. tr. Transpose. U Neglect of paragraphing. noH Paragraph not required. O. No mistake observed. ! Positive merit worthy of note. To express general estimates of the exercise, the following symbols may be used at the end :: — + Improvement on previous compositions. — A falling off. X General excellence. -i- Gen. carelessness, olx. Call for explanation. This may be used when there is something that can be better explained orally. ' Compositio should be written in ink, with a margin left for correction. The abbreviated symbols should be placed on the margin opposite the word or part that is faulty. It is generally best not to mark what is wrong, but to leave it to the pupil's ingenuity tq find out the error. COMPOSITION . ; I ▲HD PRACTICAL ENGLISH. INTRODUCTORY. COIEFOBITIOK — is the art of JSnding appropriate thoughts on a subject, and of expressinf' them in suitable language and form. The word composition is also applied to what is written. DIVI8IOH8. — Composition, now more commonly called Rhe- toric, has two distinct departments ; the one, under the head of Invention, deals with the materials of thought : the other, under the head of Style, treats of the form of expression. BELATION to OBAHMAB AHD LOOIO.— In its two-fold func- tion. Composition is closely allied to Gi-ammar on the one hand and to Logic on the other ; but it does not, like the former, treat of the laws of language, nor, like the latter, of the laws of thought. It begins where Grammar ends and ends where Logic begins. OBDEB 07 TBEATMEm. — ^Theoretically, Invention should be discussed before Style, but the reverse order is here adopted on account of its practical advantages. Invention is, for beginners, the most difficult part of Composition. It deals largely with abstract subjects, and requires considerable maturity of mind on the part of the learner. Style, on the contrary, follows closely after grammar and has many details of a simple and positive character, that the pupil may profit- Introductory. ably study before entering upon the process of original thought required in Invention. Then, again, in Letter-writing and, ^ indeed, in narrating >vhat one has heard, or in describing what one has seen, Invention applies rather to the plan on which the thoughts are to be arranged than to the finding of them. These parts of Composition may be advantageously taken up along with Style. '■iitvf^'Hr f ^m' PART I. STYLE. STTII treats of the manner of expression. Its DOMAIV. — All expression of thought may Im viewed in two ways. First, we may ask whether the different parts of speech of which it is composed agree together according to the practice of good writers. This is the domain of Grammar. Again, beyond the bare expression of the thought, we may conceive of it as being uttered in different ways, as, feebly or forcibly, awkwardly or elegantly, plainly or figuratively, con- cisely or diffusely. The consideration of theie various modes of expression carries us entirely beyond the region of Grammar into that of Composition. Its STANDABD. — in Style, as in Grammar, the standard to which all methods of' expression must conform is usage. Indeed, the principles of Style, like the rules of Grammar, have all l»een drawn from a consideration of the usage of the best writers, and are therefore merely conventional. It follows that though Style is based on unchangeable principles, yet the standard it sets up is continually changing. For example, it is always imperative to express thought clearly, but the expression that is clear to one generation may be obscure or unintelligible to another. Some words change their meaning ; others are lost ; arrangements become obsolete ; imagery, dis- tasteful, and turns of expression, harsh or vague. Tones. — The various topics here included in Style will be treated under the heads of Choice and Use of "Words, Sen- tences, Connection, Variety of Expression, Figures of Speech, and Prose Composition. '^ w \ 8 Style — Choice and Use of Words. LESSON I. THE CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS. Vocabulary. — Other things being equal, the person who has the largest stock of words to choose from, will be able to select the aptest words and to frame the happiest expressions. To every person, therefore, who • wishes to become either a speaker or a writer, the possession of a wide vocabulary is of the highest importance. How Obtained. — The best means of securing a command of language are to listen to good speakers, to converse with educated people, to read the best authors, to translate aloud from other languages, to refer to the dictionary, and above all to try to fix in the memory the words learned, by employing them in one's own conversation and composition. It will not do, however, to store up for use every word met with. A careful choice, based on the best usage, must be exercised. As the meaning of words is, likewise, fixed by usage, the pupil, after having acquired the words, must learn to use them in their authorized sense. Its Value. — To be able to choose words judiciously and use them accurately is an accomplishment that every young person should labour to possess. Language is the dress in which the mind shows itself to the outside world ; and, as neat and seemly clothing renders the body more graceful, so choice and refined speech adorns and beautifies the mind. Divisions. — The three points that require attention in the choice and use of words, will be considered under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and Precision. >,T:.' >.V ..•-\.* •r-^:' Purity — F0reign Words. LESSON II. PURITY. PUBITY consists in the use of such words and constructions as properly belong to the genius of the language. Standard of PTJWTY. — in 'h© choice of words, we must be guided by two principles. Fi»st, we must select such words and constructions as are familiar to the great body of edu- cated people ; secondly, we must employ only such as are sanctioned by good usage, — that is, by reputable, national, and present usage : reputable, that of the majority of the best writers and speakers, as opposed to that of the uncultivated ; national, as opposed to local, professional, or foreign ; present, as opposed to obsolete or transient. Diction when PUBI. — Hence, an author's diction is pure when he uses only such words and constructions as are autho- rized by good use, and avoids such as are foreign, obsolete, newly-coined, or without proper authority. I. Foreign Words. Foreign Words that are not fully domesticated should be rejected, when it is possible to find pure English words that fully express the meaning intended, Some foreign w^ords have been so long in use that they have become familiar to ordin- ary readers, while others express the idea intended more accurately than any native word. They are such as ennui^ nom de plume, Jiat, ignoramus, quorum, iricognito, and ana- thema. With such words as these there may be more pedantry in translating than in using them, but many of the words tliat are found in neWvSpapers and otlier corrupters of our language should be peremptorily rejected. Let no young ' ■:»' 10 Style — Purity, i 1 I t ' 1 I I i i! : writer who does not wish to lay himself open to a charge of ignorance and affectation, venture to use such words and plirases as, enmvXe^ poUtesse, cUmwr revnort, nHmportef novs verrotM, 2. Obsolete Words. Obsolete Words are such as were once current in the language, but are now fallen into disuse. A constant change is going on in the vocabulary ; some words are less and loss frequently used till at last they are luid away in the buore- house of our old classical writings, to be thereafter seen only by lovers of bye-gone days and ancient literature. No absolute rule can be given to determine when a word has become so far obsolete that it can be no longer used ; but it may be taken for granted that when words are unintelligible to ordinary readers, the only safe course in prose is to select others in their stead. Such words as erst, whiloniy mist, behest, and irks, add dignity to poetic diction, but in modern prose are to be carefully eschewed. 3. Newly-coined Words. New Words. — From a variety of sources new words are being continually introduced into the language. Some of these, such as those required to unfold the principles of a new science, have fi'om the first a recognized sttinding in the language; some, being used only in conversation and in newspapers, soon disappear fo!'e\er, while others rise to respectability and be- come thoroughly established in the language. The best rule to follow in I'egard to r ow words, is not to be in a hurry alyjut using them. Do not say deputize ior commission, ejfectnata for effect, eveyitiuite for end. 4. Words witliout Proper Authority. Slang. — There is a large class of words that are much used in conversation, and that are continually struggling for a place in the written language. As they are generally brief, Purity — Slmig Barbarism. l\ and 8() frequently used, they Kr« felt to be very expressive. This, no doubt, accounts for the fact that many of them have risen to colloquial respectability, and are unhesitatingly cm- ployed by educated people. Thus we may say "jolly," "plucky," "dodge," and such like. Then, again, some persons fancy themselves clever when they speak of " the rosy," " the fragrant weed," or " the governor," while others from sheer laziness that prevents their taking the trouble to select the right word, fall into the habit of using some slang expression in a great variety ot meanings. With them everything "immense," "beastly," "stunning," "nasty," "jolly," IS " splendid," or "just lovely." Besides these there is another kind of slang peculiar to almost every business or profession. The student is " plucked," the business man is " busted," and the tradesman is "gone up." And when any of them die, they are "gone aloft." When used. — Such of these words as are not vulgar, are quite in place in conversation, but should not be employed in composition by young writers until they have been adopted by the majority of good authors. How to find these marks.— It is not to be expected that young persons can know whether words have all these marks or not. The conmion way of determining is to refer to the dictionary. It is the duty of the lexicographer to find out these points and to record them for our guidance, so that it is customary to regard all words found in the dictionary as of recognized authority. A Barbarism is an expression which violates the rule that in language good usage is reputable, national, and present. Divided Usage. — As the usage of good writers is not by any means uniform, no one of them is to bo followed absolutely. Where they differ, the following rules may serve as a guide : — 1. Choose the word or phrase that has bat one meaning in prefer- ence to that which has two or more. Insurance policy is preferable M I i ! i ! ss^ ',;.'ii\v:^f/vvy-;^t»rj;;T»<.;^f'^^' v^^^;!;: --i^'..;-^;.' :'"^'.1'-;*' iS Style — Flxet'cises on Purity. to Aasuratice policy, because "Assurance" moans also confidence. Int«rnational Hxhihition to International Kxponition, since "exposi- tion " is also used in such expressions as " exposition of doctrine." 2. Have regard, in your choice, to the analogy of the language. Use conh'miiorary and not cotftnparan/, since the n of con is usually retained before a consonant, and dropped boforo a vowel. 3. l*refer tlio word that is most agreeable to the oar, as: — ingenuity to ingenioit^meaa. <> 4. Prefer the simpler expression, as : -approm to approve qf. 5. Wlien the othor rules fail to sottlo tl>o doubt, prefer the expres- sion that is most conformable to ancient usage, as:— ^atY and jailer to gaol and gaoler. i ! I 1 II 'l I iH i ml II! EXERCISE I. PURITY. Correct all violations of the rules of Purity in the following : — 1. Ho succeeded in enthusing the company, 2. Ho wired him as soot\ na the office opened in tlie morning. 3. The demagogue tendeth more to words than to works. 4. Unestimable is the good realized by the thousands who have read this book. 5. I go where likes me best. 6. I wot not which to admire most, his delicatesse, his candidness, or his amiableness. 7. Thou needest not pretend to be from France, for fhy speech bewrayeth thee. 8. Any ono can see witli lialf an eye that he has got the blues. 9. Removing the term fi*om Westminster, sitting the Parliament, was illegal. 10. This change of fortune has almost transmogrified him. 11. The king soon found reason to repent liim of provoking these dangerous enemies. 12. I opine that any gentleman who devotes his time to the beaux arts and belles lettres enjoys the highest agrements of life. 13. He remarked en passant that his friend had much esprit de corps. 14. I confess that I was unmitigatedly disappointed with Mr. Proctor's lecture on Tuesday evening. Exercises on Purity. n 15. Ho has a tendency to talk nonsense occasionally, or something very like blague. 16. They have taken a journey out West for the purpose of recuperating their health. 17. Several circumstances sedm to militate against that supposition. 18. Everything may not be so saturated with couleur de rose as represented. 19. He seems to be a harum acarum sort of a mortal, who takes great delight in doing outre things. 20. The temptation to run a toll-gate seems to be irresisti- ble to a bicycler. 21. His father was a true blue Revolution soldier, and his mother a sincere Christian. 22. His style of writing was such as to enable people to clearly understand him. 23. These rooms are generally occupied by the more quiet inclined of the travelling public. 24. There is some agitation over the impracticable charac- ter of the instruction of our public schools. 25. The three months are passed, and Shylock is wild for the fulfilment of his bond. 26. He has just received a cablegram informing him of the death of his friend. 27. Do you catch on to his meaning when he asks for your folks. 28. He is troubled with ennui. 29. She made her dibut last evening. 30. It was comme ilfaut. 31. Horace Walpole was a dilettante in literature. 32. CceteHa paribus^ the Saxon words are best. 33. Juventus, the hero, is bent on going it while he is young. 34. The hero talks fast, like the others, only more so. 35. This was said sub rosa. 36. Uncle Wendell was upon his ear. 37. He gave himself away. 38. He looked down in the mouth. 39. One might see with a coup d'csil that he belonged to the beau monde. 40. I don't pan out on the prophets. 41. A house on Remsen Street was burglarized last night. 42. Not by a long chalk ■m i t4 S/^'/e — Exercises on Purity. 43. All hope soured on me. 44. That is too thin. > \ 45. He attempted to bulldoze the opposition. 46. This is his mcufnum opus. 47. He made b. faux pas. 48. We continued our tete-a-tete until noon. 49. The parents interfered in their affaire d'amour. 50. They were martyrized for the sake of their country. 51. He deeded me the land. 52. Have you heard of that great steal that has lately been made by that absconding party. 53. His house was burglarized the day after he sent in his declamature. 54. He is not thoroughly posted on that subject. 55. I am greatly beholden to you. 56. Having acquired the aavoir/atre, he is never afraid of making a faux pas, and in every conversation plunges in medias res. 57. The fair debuttante is on the look-out for un bon parti, but her nez retrousse is against her. 58. She is accompanied by mamma en grande toilette, who, entre nous, looks rather ridee even in the gas light. 59. They have determined to rendezvous near Qu'Appelle. 60. A poet has suddenly arisen in our midst. EXERCISE II. PURITY. The following words have been selected as an exercise to serve as an introduction to the study of the subject. The student should examine each word and determine which may be used and which is to be rejected. In all cases of doubt, let him refer to some standard dictionary. 1. Donate, on dit, tapis, siesta, ungallantry, confutant, disillusioned, blaze, soupcon, imprimatur. 2. Buildress, enthuse, gent, pant, gubernatorial, hydro- pathy, electropathy, experimentalize, controversialist, walkist. 3. Practitioner, proven, reliable, disposable, anchorable, complainable, unrepentable, preventative, casuality, resur- rected. M< .■■ ? " ',.!'. ■■r,f Exercises on Propriety. 15 4. Inquirable, paragraphist, agriculturalist, stabbist, inter- cessed, flattress, presidential, mulierosity, role, fabulosity. 5. Gallantness, obloquy, periculous, moonrise, docible, ovat«, memento, n^e, locate, currentness. 6. Soi-disant, acrobat, traducement, kraal, distingu^, amende, amour-propre, skedaddle, opaque, confutement. 7. Cablegram, ivorytype, credibleness, ultimatum, incer- tain, exonerableness, persiflage, parvenu, verbatim, atelier. 8. Misafffeeted, fete, plateau, spirituel, fauteuil, confutant, optigraph, employ^, alibi, saleslady. 9. Currentness, impromptu, patois, fashionist, jumpist, matin, mulish, protege, obedential, dilettante. 10. Boycott, Copperhead, blue-stocking, incog, cablegram, cute, educationalist, suicided, reportorial, spec. LESSON III. PEOPRIETY. PKOPEEETY consists in using words in the sense they bear in the usage of the best writers and speakers. How attained. — If a writer or speaker does not use a word in the same sense as it is understood by the reader or listener, he cannot convey the meaning he intends, or, if he does, it will be because his reader or listener has, from the context, seen the intended meaning and mentally substituted the correct word. Hence, it is of the utmost importance that words should be used in their general, well-understood, and estab- lished sense. To be able to do this requires time and patient toil, and he who is unwilling to accept it on these terms may not hope ever to succeed either in writing or even in understand- ing his own language correctly. The best means of attaining Propriety are, first, the dictionary, from which may be learned the etymological meaning and correct application of words ; and, secondly, constant observation of the practice of the best authors. ■1 1 1 \ I I I ' I I i i I i t ! ! I6 Sty/e — Exercises on }^ropriety. Etymology is by no means to be regarded as a trustw jrthy guide to the correct application of words. It is often entirely misleading. The meaning of words is undergoing a continual change, and many that once were used in the sense that their roots indicate, have now acquired a very different meaning. Milton says, "Let none admire that riches grow in hell," i. 6., "wonder;" in Ps. cxix. 147, we read, "I prevented the dawning of the morning," *. c, "went before." The form- ation of words and the changes that their meanings have in some cases undergone, is a very interesting subject ; but for the person who studies English that he may be able to use it in the ordinary business of life, time would be more profitably employed in learning the modern application of words than in committing to memory dry and barren roots that are often but blind guides. Examples. — A few examples are given to illustrate more fully what is to be avoided and what is to be attained. Predicate (from the Latin predicare, to publish or state) means simply to affirm in regard to something that already is, but it is frequently found in the sense of " foretell " or " predict," as — " It is impossible to predicate what he will or will not do." Expect is very widely used in the sense of suppose, think, guess, as — "I expect you had much trouble on that occasion." Expect refers only to that which is to come, and which, there- fore, is looked for [ex, out, and spectare, to look). We cannot expect backwards. Adopt is often used for to " decide upon," and for " to take," as— "The measures adopted, as the result of his inquiry, will be productive of good." Caption. Some of our newspaper editors seem to think that this word is derived from caput, a head, and treat us to replies to some of the monstrous statements of their contem- poraries, that appeared, as they tell us, under " the above caption." The corred) derivation is capere, to take ; and the word means seizure, or ths act of taking. ■ i :.- 'J '-'.^'' Exercises on Propriety. 17 Appreciate (from ap, to, and pretiurn, price), means io estimate justly. Hence we cannot say, ''I appreciate your kindness highly." Demean. To demean yourself (from the French demener) is used incorrectly in the sense of debase, as if it came from mean. It properly signifies to conduct o** behave yourself, as demeanor signifies conduct or behaviour, and misdemeanor, an act of bad conduct. Restive. This word, which means inclined to rest, obstinate, unwilling to go, is employed almost constantly, in a sense directly the reverse of this ; that is, for uneasy, restless. Avocation is often used for vocation, or calling. A man's avocations are those pursuits or amusements that engage his attention when he is called away from his regular business or profession, as music, fishing, or boating. Rendition is sometimes used for rendering, as, " Mr. Booth's rendition of Hamlet." Rendition means surrender, giving up ; as, when we speak of the rendition of a beleagured town to the besieger. Condign is from con, and dignus, v/orthy, and signifies deserved or merited. Many who use it seem to think it means severe, as, "The villain received condign punishment." IMFBOFSIETY. — The application of a woi'd in a sense not authorized by good usage, is called Impropriety. EXERCISE III. PKOPKIETY. Correct all violations of Propriety found in these sentences. 1. The girl aggravates me \ery much by her obstinacy and her impudence. 2. The President intends to evacuate the very day that Congress adjourns. 3. Hearing the engine about a mile oflf, I ran pell-mell down the street. 4. Carson died from blows administenKl by policeman Johnson. p w*^ i*/ " \ 1 P w 1, i ill I 1 w ! I li ill' ■■*f S/y/e — Exercises on Propriety. 5. The measures adopted by the House will l)e productive of good. . '^ V*:*' 6. He allows that he has the finest horse in the country. 7. This road will serve to convene the public. 8. An amount of perfection has been reached whic)^ I was by no means prepared for. •' • 9. He was unwilling to demean himself by making a public apology. 10. The alternatives set before him were to abjure the faith, to submit to the torture, or to go into perpetual exile. 11. While in Utah, he enjoyed exceptionable opportuiiities for observing the peculiarities of the Mormon religion. 12. The troops, though fighting bravely, were terribly decimated, nearly half of them having fallen. 13. The cars have as good a right to be stopped as a car- riage has. 14. I have always considered him an honest man. 15. " Sir," said he to Dr. Parr, " I have a contemptible opinion of you." " That does not surprise me," replied the Doctor; "all your opinions are contemptible." 16. We have travelled quite a piece to-day. 17. More than a century transpired before it was revisited by civilized man. 18. The letter was very plainly directed^ and I think it will be apt to come. 19. That rents are unreasonably high, is a palpable truism. 20. I have every confidence that the ship will arrive in time. 21. I expect you have had a great many difficulties. 22. The platform adopted at that election was calculated to do the party great injury. 23. 1 intend embracing Mr. M.'s district, and will, on the occasion, take the opportunity of embracing all the servants in the district. 24. The Lyceum has both religious and secular aims — religious in the highest sense of eliminating truth from spirit, fact and duty from truth. 25. The elevation of 100 feet eliminated a hearty cheer from all quarters. 26. It also looks 'to the final elimination of the soul from the body. Exercises on Propriety. »f 27. Females mixed with the crowd, and, forgetting tlie stations nature had fitted them to adorn, dealt extensively in the bubbles that rose before them. 28. Can we suppose that good blood replaces teaching? 29. I declare this is the most splendid bay I ever witnessed. 30. They followed the ancient avocation of picking pockets. 31. He is fond of reading such fictitious writers as Haw- thorne. 32. A young Spaniard yesterday al>ortively seized two (J t. 'f. ,'.»>.,• */ .1 . pieces of alpaca. 33 A lady having two boys, would like to adopt one, 34 A society for the prevention of cruelty to animals, has lately been inaugurated. 35. A great part of the congregation went home at ten o'clock, but the l)alance remained till twelve. 36. She has several other little poems of a much higher calibre than that. 37. There is an article in the last issue of our contempo- rary under the above caption. 38 Several citizens carried the sufTerer to a drug store on the next block. 39 The marriage was happily consummated at Paris last April. 40. The Mosque in Eastern lands must go, and the Chris- tian Church will replace it. 41. The President convened Congress early in January. 42. This application of reason predicates a great national future. 43. An invitation was extended to Reverdy Johnson to dinf with the Glasgow bailies. 44. In England, he has lately effloresced into something extraordinary. 45 Heaven gave Eve as a help-mate to Adam. 46. His name has never been replaced by any other in the transaction. 47. There is an impertinent afllVonting about those hats that is especially aggravating to any one who is naturally irritable. 48. This cry for compensation is altogether too thin. 49. Fellows like these just scrape through their examin- ations, and then settle down to make their pile. !) ! ! 1 t- i'i ill V ii! mil p^' i"i ti ■ i! ' • l!l i ao .;(|^,-;< .V/y/if — Prt'cisioM, M* « I • |^«« 1^0. Hi» otlenct} ig of Uie inoMt uygruvHUMl luid f\ii/>|^ ., ,. ft I. H« ruHhod pell-inell out of the houao, !>ML?« ft2. The piwtt of I'OUHt Xmul ia |HM*fw^ly Hploiuli<1. ft.'i The polii'o 5. How are you to-day ? Nicely, thanks. '■■' ' IK-' vv , ) > LESSON IV. PRECISION. PbiCIBIOH consists in selecting the word or woi-da t.lij..t express tho exact meaning intended — no moi-e, no less Examples. — If to express the idea of potinng water from a pot^ w« siiy " turfiing it out," we express also the tidditional meaning of turning the pot in oHpr to cause the water to flow. Hence w*» ^rpi'ess more than we intended, and the word turning !« !iot ri.;ed • reoisely. " Notwithstutidb^,' the entrentios of the prisoner, the judge \vas injl^ble.' A i:',rson is indexible who cannot be turned aside by «wy motive, lus by brilwry, intimidation, or foix». 'C- ^ " :■;.>■ ■!•', Preciiion — floiv A ttaimU, / ai 1 niK^iu'iouM »il.L Ht*ro, t»fiwev«»p, A Hpecttnl motlv«», tlmt of ontronfy, U infin- ti'«:;''(l, mid thcrcforo wo Hltould u«o in*'x*^uahlf^ which iii(*tu>H •* that cannot \hs niovod hy entreaty." " John disphiyod j(rcat amnajn whih* undergoing tKt^ opoi*a- tioM." Courage is shewn in hmvin)]; dun/;;er, facing? an en >niy, or opponing any outwat-d att^iek, antl implies an active resistance. Tlie word thnt. (>\^.res.sea the firm endurance of suHering in t'ltrtitmlf. li > ..rlii an inward strength of mind that does not 8UC(niMil) thou^i) the person may he suhjected to the greatest p !vh!' •»n, suffering, or pain. Hence, if we would say j ist - lat we mean in this sentence, we must suhstituto /}>•'( I for rowmf/f, otherwise, we add the extraneous idea of active reslswUico. The Diiferenoe.— The learner should notice can)fully the distinction l)etween Purity, Propriety, and Precision. The iirat t^'tiches which words to accept and which to reject ; the second, to use words in their proper sense ; and the thiitl, to choose the right synonym. How attained. — As English al>ounds in words that express nearly the same meaning, great exactness of expression is possible, and much cai*e and thought are necessary to be able always to select the word that conveys just what is meant. Much may be learned by observing the practice of good authors, but the most efficient method of attaining precision is the careful and continuous study of synonyma This may be carried on by collating and examining words of nearly the same meaning ; by revising every sentence that one writes, and i' 'Uousiy inquiring whether each word in it is accurately used ; and by the study of some standard work on the subject, such as Crabb's English Synonyms. m,;., Ezamplea. — Toillustrsr* tins subject a few synonyms are here explained, but those who would attain proficiency must regard them as a mere bejE^nuing. 1. Visitor, Visitant. Vinifor or **m'fnnf is one who pays a visit ; but a visitor is a human Iteing, and a visitant, a supernatural one. I 1 i;i li! Hiii vm m !: 22 Sty/e — Precision. 2. Neglect^ Negligence. Neglect is an fut, or, rather, a failure to act ; negligence implies a failure to conform to an established standard or custom. 3. Contimial, Continuous. Continual is said of acts that are frequently repeated ; continuous of uninterrupted action. 4. Act, Action. Act implies something done ; action, the doing of something. An act is a single exertion ; an action, a continuous exertion of power. Act is applied to some riB- markable doing ; action, to what is done in general. 5. Excite, Incite. To excite is to awaken or rouse feelings that are dormant or calm. To iiicite is to urge forward into acts corresponding to the feelings that have been aroused. . 6. Receive, Accept. To receive is to take back ; to accept is to take to one's self : the former is an act of right, we receive what is our own ; the latter is an act of courtesy, we accept what is offered by another. We may receive with indifference, but we must accept with willingness. 7. Manners, Morals. Manners respect the minor forms of acting with others and toward others ; morals include the important duties of life. Good manners make us good com- panions ; good morals make us good members of society. 8. Truth, Veracity. Truth belongs to the thing ; veracity, to the person. The truth of the story is admitted upon the veracity of the narrator. 9. Kill, Murder, Assassinate. To kill means simply to deprive of life. A man may kill another by accident, or in self-defence, without the imputation oi guilt. To murder is to kill with malicious forethought and intention. To assas- sinate is to murder suddenly and by stealth. The sheriff may kill without murdering ; the duellist murders, but does not assassinate ; the assassin both kills and murders in the meanest and most ignoble manner. 10. Love, Affection. Both these words express good will : affection is a tender sentiment that dwells with pleasure on the object ; love is a tender sentiment accompanied with long- ing for the object ; we cannot have love without affection, but we may have affection without love. Love is a passion, Precision — Synonyms. 23 exclusive, restless, and capricious ; affection is a chastened feeling under the control of the understanding. 11. Bring, Fetch. To briny is simply to take with one's self from the place where one is ; to fetch is first to go to a place and then hring the object ; to fetch, therefore, is a species of bringing : whatever is near at hand is brmight ; whatever is at a distance must be fetched : the porter at an inn brings a parcel, a servant who is sent for it fetches it. 1 2. Character, Reputation. Character lies in a man ; it is the mark of whjit he is ; it shows itself on all occasions : reputatio7i depends upon others ; it is what they think of him. It is possible for a man to have a fair reputation who has not in reality a good character ; although men of really good character are not likely to have a bad reputation. 13. Deadly, Mortal, Fatal. Deadly is applied to what is productive of death ; mortal, to what terminates in or is subject to death ; fatal applies not only to death, but to everything which may be of great mischief. A poison is deadly ; a wound or a wounded part is mortal ; a step iii walking, or a step in one's conduct, may be fatal. Things only are deadly ; crea- tures are mortal. There may be remedies sometimes to counteract that which is deadly ; but that which is mortal is past all cure ; and that which is fatal cannot be retrieved. 14. Energy, Force, Vigor. With energy there is connected the idea of activity ; with force, that of capability ; with vigor, that of health. Energy lies only in the mind ; force and vigor are the property of either body or mind. Knowledge and freedom combine to produce energy of character ; force is a gift of nature that may be increased by exercise ; vigor, both bodily and mental, is an ordinary accompaniment of youth. 15. Enough, Sufficient. He has enough whose desires are satisfied ; he has sufficient whose wants are supplied. We may therefore frequently have a sufficiency when we have not enough. Enough is said only of physical objects of desire ; sufficient i? employed in a moral applici"ti(.n, for that which serves the purpose. I i ;'i if i'^ ai !! Ilji : il !i' i .il i ^ liii i ! ! I ilii .!;■ i,l 24 Style — Precision, Exei ises. EXERCISE IV. PRECISION. Explain these synonyms so as to she^v clearly the distinction in the meanings they bear, and write a sentence in which each is properly used. 1. In, into ; sea, ocean ; lie, la) ; shall, will ; two, couple ; few, less. 2. Many, much ; lease, hire ; on, upon ; exceed, excel ; hope, expect ; learn, teach. 3. Sex, gender ; gaze, stare ; like, love ; pile, heap ; live, dwell ; high, tall. 4. Hot, warm ; right, just ; fault, defect ; deist, ath(ust ; certain, sure ; safe, secure. 5. Vain, protid ; learning, wisdom ; education, instruction ; artist, artisan ; haste, hurry ; excuse, apology. 6. Lovely, amiable ; brute, beast ; boyish, puerile ; bid, order ; handsome, beautiful ; cry, weep. 7. Talk, conversation ; letter, epistle ; servant, domestic ; purpose, intend ; news, tidings ; lie, untruth. 8. Fraction, part ; find, discover ; wood, timber ; want, lack ; home, dwelling ; annual, yearly. 9. Boy, lad ; fatherly, paternal ; branch, twig ; bleach, whiten ; kind, affectionate ; want, need. 10. Beauty, loveliness ; sing, chant ; crown, diadem ; cold, frigid ; child, infant ; deny, refuse. EXERCISE V. PRECISION. Write sentences in which the following groups of synonyms are properly used. 1. Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy ; add, join, annex, unite, coalesce ; adjacent, joining, contiguous ; adjourn, pro- rogue ; admonition, reprehension, reproof. 2. Amend, emend, correct, reform, justify ; amidst, among; ample, abundant, copious, plenteous ; amuse, divert, entertain ; ancier.i;, antiqua'ed, antique, obsolete, old. PI ; liUi^ ^*' ••:;' Precision — Exercises. 25 3. Bn,(l, wicked, evil ; band, company, crew, gang ; l)(»auti- ful, line, liandsome, pretty ; beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, supplicate, implore, crave. 4. Bring, fetch, carry j call, bid, nunnnon, invite ; character, reputation, fame ; clear, lucid, bright, vivid. 5. Command, order, injunction, precept ; compensation, satisfaction, amends, lomuneration, recompense, I'equital, I'eward ; complete, perfect, finished. 6. decision, judgment, sentence ; declare, publish, pro- claim ; deface, disfigure, deform ; defection, rev(jlt. 7. Enemy, foe, adversary, antagonist ; energy, force, vigor ; equal, even, equable, like or alike, uniform ; escape, elude, evade. 8. Fable, tale, novel, romance ; fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble ; fame, reputation, renown ; family, house, lineage, race. 9. Great, grand, sublime ; hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, merciless ; hateful, odious ; help, assist, aid, succour, relieve. 10. Idle, lazy, indolent ; inactive, inert, lazy, slothful, sluggish ; injury, damage, hurt, harm, mischief ; insidious, treacherous. EXERCISE VI. PRECISION. lonyms are In the following sentences, select the correct synonym. 1. What (further, or farther) need have we of caution ? 2. We may try hard and still be (further, or farther) from success. 3. Our (acts, or actions) generally proceed from instinct or impulse. 4. It is difficult for one unaccustomed to (sophism, or sophistry) to succeed in a (sophism, or sophistry). 5. The house was stripped of its furniture, and was en- tirely (empty, or vacant). 6. This circumstance (alone, or only) is sufficient to prove the worthlessness of the criticism. 7. We (avow, acknowledge, own, or confess) a neglect of duty. I ^ it'' b it'S ,ir ii J^ -«-- •" !i i lit • * llil 'II Pii IIh Eli ill i A 26 Style — J Precision. 8. Though iiuinoroua applications wore mado for tlio prisoiuMH (t'orgiveiieas, or pardon), th(e converted into Periodic by some change in arrangement. The first example will become Periodic, if arranged thus : At last, after much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather, we came, with no small difficulty, to our journey's end. 3. The Compromise. The Compromise is a sentence that is partly a Periodic and partly a Loose Sentence. It consists of two or more parts, one of which is Periodic, while the sentence taken as a whole is a Loose Sentence. Example. — We left on Monday, about noon, during a snow stf)rm, and whatever our thoughts may have been, we, cer- tainly, did not expect to reach our journey's end. 4. Balanced Sentence. A Balanced Sentence is one containing two clauses that are similar in form, and either parallel or contrasted in meaning. Examples. — (1) Contempt is the proper punishment of aff'ectatioi^ and detestation, the just consequence of hypocrisy. (2) In peace, children bury their parents ; in war, parents bury their children. (3) A jugglsr is a wit in things ; and a wit, a juggler in words. (4) The style of Dry den is capricious and varied, that of Pope is cautious and uniform. Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind ; Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid ; Pope, always smooth, uniform, and level. Dryden's page is a natural lield, rising into inequalities, and diversified by the varied exul)erance of abundant vegetation ; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe and levelled by the roller. '■''': ■ V: \ 1 1 m 'J ■ ;) m ''11 if- . . itil n H Styie — Kinds of Sentence. m\ 5. Short and Long Sentences. ThoHO ty variety. If, however, too many of them are used together, the eflfect is irksome und abrupt. Long sent^mces, on the other hand, although retpiiring closer attention, afford greater scope for the addition of subordinate particulars, for the expansion of the main thought, and for the introduction of liner oratories ^ cadences. When Used. — It is impossible to lay down rules to deter- mine M lien each of the different classes of sentences should l>e ii.-sed. Perhaps the Loo.se Sentence is best adapted to composition in which simplicity and clearness are the aim, such Jis Narration, Description, and Exposition ; the Periodic and the Compromise, to those which are required to l)e forcible, as Persuasion ; the Balanced Sentence, to Satire, and to Essays, in which cliaracters or subjects are compared or set off by contrast. Long and Short Sentences should be introduced to relieve one another. As the continuous use of any one kind l)ecomes monotonous, the best rule that can be given is to study variety. EXERCISE IX Feriodic Senteuces to be reconstructed into Loose Sentences. 1. This w;ii5 forbidden both by taste and by judgment. 2. He kei.t liimself alive either with the fish he caught or by the goats he shot. 3. While the Romans consider religion a part of virtue, the Jews, on the contrary, consider virtue a part of religion. Sentences — Exercises. 35 4. Though his actions were frequently criticised, his character was above critiv ism. 5. Grantinj* that hi^ word is as good as his lM)iid, we have still to ask how good his bond is. 6. Were this opinion well founded, one generation would have no advantage over another. 7. Unless this measure is clearly constitutional, I shall not vote for it. 8. Jenny Lind, enchanting the he^art of the world, and Anna Dickinson, pleading for the equal lil)erty of her sex, are doing what God, by His great gifts of eloquence and song, appointed them to do. 9. Mythology has it, that in order to render Achilles invulnerable, he was, when a child, dipped in the Styx. 10. Where this is the case in any part of the world, those who are free are by far the most proud and jealous of their freedom. 1 1. Where ho was not under the influence of some strange scruple, or some domineering passion, which prevented him from boldly and fairly investigating a subject, he was a wary and acute reasoner. 12. When he talked, he clothed his wit and his sen.se in foi'cible and natural expressioiis. 13. It was during the thirty years which preceded the appearance of Johnson's Lives that the diction and versifi- cation of English poetry were, in the .sense in which the word is commonly used, most correct. 14. Supposing the story true, we may remark that tlie f^radual change of manners, though imperceptible in the ])rocess, appears great when different times, and those not very distant, are compared. 15. Of the mind that can trade in corruption, and can delibertitely pollute itself with ideal wickedness for the sake of spreading the contagion in society, I wish not to conceal or excuse the depravity. •-'^'-.j ^,*« ■■ .'A i I \ ■■I V i\ %■ ^ M 'IM il/m 36 Style — Sentences, Exercises. EXERCISE X. ijjj '':'m\ ni«l«| Reconstruct each of these Loose Sentences into one or more Periodic Sentences. 1. They aspired to gaze full on tlie intolerable brightness of the Deity, instead of catching occasional glimpses of Him through an obscuring ^ eil. 2. Language is a dead letter till the spirit within the poet himself breathes through it, gives it voice, and makes it audible to the very mind. 3. Lord Byron afiected the frequent use of quaint, obso- lete, and outlandish terms ; and by this artitice, no doubt, he rendered his style both gorgeous and venerable. 4. Milton always selected for himself the boldest literary services, that he might shake the foundations of debasing sentiments more effectually, 5. When Hastings was first impeached, if he had at once pleaded guilty, and paid a line or iifty thousand pounds, he would have been better off in everything except character. 6. Spenser's poem strikes the note of the coming Puritan- ism both in its conception and in the way in which its conception is realized in the portion of the work that he completed. 7. His habitation is some poor thatched roof, distinguished from his barn by the loop-holes that let out smoke, which the rain had long since washed through but for the double ceiling of bacon on the inside, which has hung there from nis grand- fire's time, and is yet to make rashers for posterity. 8. I hereby caution all parties against giving credit in my name without an order from me, as I will not be responsible for the same after this date, without my written order. 9. Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest ex- perience in Parliameni,, where he had served very long, and was always a man of business, being an officer in the Ex- chequer, and of a good reputation generally, though known to be inclined to the Puritan party ; not yet so furiously resolved against the Church as tlie other leading men were, and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford, who had nothinj:; of that spirit. Sentences — Exercises. 37 10. Whatever talent the lecture courses in cities seek after and try to obtain, the country towns desire also ; and conse- quently a few prominent lecturer's and entertainments are in demand everywhere. 11. Those men and women who make a comfortable income out of their lectures can be numbered upon the lingers of both hands, while many get but a living, and the vast majority are content, perforce, to pick up what crumbs fall in their way, and must look to other sources for the rest of their meal. 12. Gathering up lately a portion of what I had written, for publication, 1 have given it as careful a revision as my leisure would allow, have, indeed, in msiny parts rewritten it, seeking profit by the results of the latest criticisms, as far as I have been able to acquaint myself with them. 13. A history that does not serve this purpose would be perfectly useless, though it might be filled with battles and commotions. 14. The mind is crippled and contracted by perpetual attention to the same ideas ; just as any act or posture, long continued, will disfigure the limbs. 15. This happy region was peopled with innumerable swarms of spirits, who applied themselves to exercises and diversions according as their fancies led them. i" % I :m ^:M vii ''*r ' 'hi '11 EXERCISE XI. * 51 Short sentences to be combined into longer ones. Caution. — In combining these sentences the greatest care should be taken to grade, distribute, and connect all the parts properly. For example, in combining the statements : "In the sterile parts of Chili grows the white strawberry. It yields fruit as large as a walnut," it will not do to make yields the verb, as this would bring out the idea too prominently ; it should therefore be made a participle. Thus : In the sterile parts of Chili grows the white strawberry, yielding fruit as large as a walnut. 38 Style — Sentences, Exercises. Separate: — A frog had seen an ox. She wanted to make herself as big as lie. She attempted it. She burst asunder. Combined: — 1. A frog had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big as he ; but when she attempted it she burst asunder. 2. A frog that had seen an ox, and wanted to make her- self as big as he, burst asunder whtn she attempted it. 3. When the frog burst asunder, she was wishing and attempting to make herself as big as an ox which she had r.een. 4. Because a frog, when she had seen an ox, wanted to make herself as big as he, and attempted it, she burst asunder. 5. It is said that a frog, having seen an ox, wanted to make herself as big ns he, and burst asunder in the attempt. 1. A stone was placed at the head of the grave. This st,one had a simple inscription on it. This inscription was written by an intimate friend. 2. There lay floating in the ocean an immense irregular mass. This mass was several miles off. Its top was covered with snow. 3. Those days are long past now. But still I walk upon the Battery. I look towards the N-^.rrows. Beyond them there are many friends. I know this. Of these I would gladly know. Of these I rarely hear. 4. Beware of avarice. Avarice is incompatible with reason. Avarice has ruined tlic souls of myriads. 5. Charlemagne was the most powerful monarch of his age. He added much to his glory by inviting learned men to his court. He added much to his glory by inviting scientific men to his court. 6. Xerxes resolved to invade Greece. He raised an army. The army consisted of two millions of men. This was the greatest force ever brought into the field. 7. It is the struggle of the noble Othello. His heart relents. His hand is firm. He does nought in hate. He does all in honor. He kisses the beautiful deceiver. He destroys her. +1. Sentences — Exercises. 3^ 8. I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to tli« magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He had a right to do this. This right is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I remonstrated. 9. I am satisfied. The ship sails on. We cannot see, but we can dream. We have no work. We have no pain. I like the ship. I like the voyage. I like the company. I am content. 10. Many a wife becomes a mere housekeeper. The hus- band accepts the arrangement. One is not expected to chat with one's housekeeper. One is not expected to stay in of an evening to please her. These things explain the condition ol some households. Such households are not the happiest. 11. Antony has done his part. He holds the gorgeous East in fee. He has avenged Crassus. He will make kings, though he be none. He is amusing himself, and Home must bear with him. He has his griefs as well as Caesar. Let the sword settle their disputes. 12. The Agnostic tells me he is blind and deaf, dumb, torpid, and dead to the spiritual. 1 must believe "him. Jesus tells, me that. Paul tells me that. Science tells me that. He knows nothing of this outermost circle. We are compelled to trust his sincerity. 13. Calvin was educated for the Church. Calvin was bom at Noyon. Noyon is in Picardy. Calvin was born in ^ 509. Calvin was the son of a cooper. 1 4. Before the Council Fawkes displayed the s^me intrepid firmness. This firmness was mixed even with scorn and dis^ dain. Fawkes refused to discover his accomplices. Fawkes showed no con«" 3rn but for the failure of the enterprise. 15. Peter III. reigned but a few months. He was ileposed by a conspiracy of Russian nobles. This conspiracy was headed by hi? own wife, Catherine. She was a German by birth. She was a woman of bold and unscrupulous character. S' « ; Ul !; ::|'' r I •■■XM '. , M I'i ! ' I i [II m 40 S/y/e — Sentences, Exercises. Ill' ■, ill 1: I is; f fi 'I iiii L2*i». EXERCISE XII. Sentences to be resolved into simple statements. Combined : — I awoke at six o'clock one day last week, and at once got up and dressed myself. The morning was not very light ; for though the sun was up it was hidden by clouds. As I walked out into the garden, where the grass and bushes were still wet with the dew that lay upon them, I saw a bird lying on the ground. It could not tiy, because some one had wounded it with a stone. I picked the bird up and brought it into the house, put it into a cage, fed and tended it until it got Avell, when I released it and it flew away. Separate : — I awoke one day. It was last week. It was six o'clock, I got up at once. I dressed myself. The sun was up. It was hidden by clouds. The morniiig was not very light. I walked into the garden. The grass was still wet.. The bushes were still wet. The dew lay upon them. I saw a bird. The bird lay on the ground. It could not fly. It was wounded. Some one had hit it with a stone. I picked the bird up. I brought it into the house. I put it into a cage. I fed it. I tended it. It got well. I released it. It flev/ away. 1. 1 was born on the side of a mountam, near a village of Peru, and made a voyage to England in an ingot, under the con\oy of Sir Francis Drake. 2. The people favored my disposition and shifted me so fast from hand to hand, that, before I was Ave yePTS old, I had travelled into almost e 'erv corner of the nation. 3. The Mound-builders knew how to model in clay a variety of objects, such as birds, quadrupeds, and human face?:. They practised farming, though they had no domestic animals to help them. 4. Livingstone's example and death have acted like an inspiration, filling Africa with an a*'my of explorers and mis- sionaries, and raising in Europe a powerful feeling against the slave-trade. 5. When the prisoners were ordered to enter the cell, they imagined the soldiers were joking ; and, being in high spints n Balanced Sentences — Execciiirs. 41 on account of the promise of the Nabob to spare their lives, they laughed and jested at the absurdity of the notion. 6. Mr. Pickwick paused, considered, pulled off his gloves, and put them in his hat, took two or three short runs, balked liimself as often, and at last took another run and went slowly down the slide. 7. On the 2nd April, Francis Drake sailed from Ply- nouth with four vessels belonging to the Queen, and with twenty-four furnished by the merchants of London, and otlier private individuals. 8. After the Restoration the entire control of printing was placed in the hands 01 the Government by the Licensing Act of 1662, which, though originally passed only for three years, was continued by subsequent renewals until 1679. 9. Of nervous lire, indeed, he had abundance, though it was not the tire which flames up in the radiant colors of a strong imagination. It was rather the glow of a thoroughly convinced reason, of ijitellectual ingenuity, of argumentative keenncsj;. 10. The new and fair lady of Castle wood found the sad, lonely little occupant of this gallery busy over his great book, which he laid down when he was aware that a stranger was at hand. EXERCISE XIII. BALANCKl) SENTENCES. 1. Construct Balanced Sentences similar to the tirst ex- ample, and containing parallel statements about genius and wealth, hope and expectation, lienor and dignity, bravery iuid courage, wit and humor, p'.^sure and profit, promising and performing, giammar and rhetoric, poetry and painting, advice and money, shrevdness and hard work, fame and fortune, sympathy and support. 2, Form Balanced Sentences similar to the second example, and containing statements about the opposite?, love and hate, virtue and vice, labor and rest, summer and winter, pride 42 Style — Formation of Sentences ^ and humility, knowledge and ignorance, innocence and guilt, friend and enemy, violence and moderation, wisdom and folly, pleasure and pain, right and wrong, flattery and detraction, reward and penalty, sobriety and drunkeimess, ornament and blemish, taste and vulgarity, beauty and ugliness, content- ment and discontentment, perspicuity and obscurity. 3. Draw up a series of contrasts after the manner of those in the fourth example, about North and South America, Italy and Switzerland, France and England, Canada and the United States, history and geography, mathematics and classics, reading and writing, Scott and Byron, Pope and Cowper, Irving and Goldsmith. LESSON VI. 1 S3 n. THE FOEMATION OF SENTENCES. The formation of sentences will be considered under four heads : Clearness, Strength, Unity, and Elegance. 1. CLEABNESS. Clearness requires a sentence to be so constructed that the meaning is easily and readily apparent to the reader. When the meaning is not clear, the sentence is said to be obscure ; and when there is an uncertainty as to which of two different meanings the author intends to convey, the sentence is said to be ambiguous. How Promoted. — Clearness is a relative terai. What is clear to one person may be obscure to another. A writer's aim should be t'^ make his meaning easily intelligible to persons who understand the language. Clearness is promoted by attending to the following points : The Use of Words, Arrangement, Pronouns, Emphatic Words, Construction, Ellipsis, Long Sentences. Clearness — Hoiv Pr o moted. 43 The Use of Words. Use of Words. — We have thus far given our atttention to choosing words and using them in their proper and exact sense. If we would speak clearly, we must not only select words of good standing in the language, and use them in their general ond well-understood meaning, hut we must likewise be judicious in employing such woi-ds as are suitable to the subject and to its treatment. In composition where tlie aim is to express ourselves with simplicity and clearness, we should, where possible, give the preference to short and familiar words. Discourse is sometimes rendered partially or wholly obscure through an excessive use of long, unfamiliar foreign words. In dealing with abstract subjects, and in unfolding the principles of the various sciences, diilicult, tech- nical language is often necessary and proper ; but in treating commonplace subjects, such as are dealt .» ith in ordinary narration or description, shoi't, sii iple, and familiar woi-ds should as far as possible be used. Much mistiness of expression is caused by the haze that partly hides the subject from the writer. No one should at- tempt to write a sentence till he has a clear conception of the thought he wishes to express. 11 m ?. H EXERCISE XIV. THE USE OF WOEDS. Study these sentences till you understand them, and then re-write Lhem in simpler words. 1. He was assaulted during his precipitated return, by the rudest lierceness of wintry elemental strife, through which, with bad accommodations and innumerable accidents, he became a prey to the merciless pangs of the acutest spasmodic rheumatism. i ' • '! £,.<, :/l 44 Stvle— Clearness, Use of Words. 11 2. The aggregation of bioplasmio germs evidences an irre- sistil le tendency to correlate the molecules in inverse ratio to the capillary procet* of differentiation. 3. He found on examination a contusion of the integuments under the orbit, with an extra vasion of blood and ecchymosis of the surrounding tissue, which was in a tumefied state, and also with a slight abrasion of the cuticle. 4. Dr M. E Wadsworth says the Earth lias "a heterogfni- eovTS viscid, elastic, liquid interior irregularly interlocked with, and gradually passing into, a lighter heterogeneous crust." 5. Language, or speech, is the utterance of articulate sounds render-ed signiiicant by usage for the expression and communication of thoughts, articukite sounds being those which are formed by th^ opening and closing of the organs. The closing or approximation of the organs is an articulation or joining. 6. When an intelligent foreigner commences the study of English, he discovers that the words he recognizes as Greek, Latin, and French, have dropped those inflections which in their nati ve use were indispensable to their intelligibility and gram- matical significance ; that the mutual relations of vocables and the sense of the English period are fiequently detei-mined by the position of the words ; that the sentence is built upon structural principles wholly alien to those of the classical lan- guages. He ffnds that very many of the native monosyllables are determinatives, particles, auxiliaries, and relatives ; and that the intellectual parts of our speech are derived from a native source. Further study teaches him that immbers of our apparently insigiuiicant and barbarous consonantal mono- syllables are pregnant with the profoundest thoughts ; that the language of the purposes and the affections is genuine English-born ; that the vocabulary of the most impressive and effective pulpit orators is principally drawn from the same source ; that the advocate who wishes to convince the technical judge or to confuse the jury, speaks Latin ; that the domestic tongue is the language of passion and per-suasion ; the foreign, of authority, or rhetoric and debate. ArraHQ^euient — Phrases and Clauses. 45 LESSON \ 1 1. j^ i *tsl 'A ARRANGEMENT. Arrangement. — Qualifying words, phrases, and clauses should 1)6 placed so near the words they qualify that there can be no mistaking the connection intended. (^1) An Adverb should stand close to the word, phrase, or clause it modifies, as : — " The French nearly lost five thou- sand men." Here "nearly" is so placed as to qualify "lost," though it was probably intended to qualify "five thousand." (2) Adverbial Phrases and Clauses These, also, must be placed near the words they qualify, as : — " The witness had been ordered to withdraw from the bar of the House in consequence of being intoxicated, by the motion of i'.u honourable member." To give the meaning intended, this should read ; " In consequence of being intoxicated, the wit- ness, by the motion of an honourable member, had been ordered to withdraw from the bar of the House." (3) Participial Clauses. — In placing participial clau'^es, care must be taken not to leave it ambiguous to which of two nouns the participle and its qualifying words belong, as : — "I saw my old school -fellow by mere accident when I was in London at the Exhibition, walking down Regent Street." Arrange thus : — "When I was in London at the Exhibition, I, hy mere accident, saw my old school-fellow walking down Regent Street." When using, instead of adverbial phrases, participles imply- ing "while," "when," " though," "that," or "if," make it clear, by the context, or by the arrangement, which conjunc- tion is implied. If this cannot be done, turn the phrase into a relative pronoun and finite verb, as: — "Deafened by the sound, he went away." This sentence, as it stands, is open to ll ,-;•'» 46 Style — Arrangement, Exercises. different meanings, and unless the context makes clear whicli meaning is intended, tlif, conjunction should he inserted. Thus, it may read, "because," "since," "as," "though," "when," " he was de:ifened by tlie sound, he went away." " Men following after shadows, are sure to be deceived." This may mean : " Men that," tkc. ; or, " When men," v 54 Style — Pronou ns. ^^ £ m 31. It is said that there was under- the tree a dragon with a Imndred heads, and fifty of which were always on the watch while the other fifty slept. 32. There is a touchii enderness in a mother's tears, when they fall upon the f of her dying babe, which no eye can behold without emoti« 33. It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves agairst tile accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father. 34. He told the coachman that ho would Isc the death of him if he did not take care what he was al)out and mind what he said. 35. There was a pubre-house next door, which was a great nuisance. 36. He told tlie man to meet him at the Bank, that lie might pay hiui the money he owed him. 37. The general gave the captain who accompanied him an account of the battle. 38. The priests transmitted to the ignorant population the instruction which they tJiemselves were unable to acquire. 39. He told his friend tliat if he did not feel better in half an hour, he had better return. 40. Her own story was that she had a quarrel with the deceased, first, about her wages, and, secondly, about the soup, and that she scuzed the deceased by the throat, and she fell, and when she got up she was looking for something to strike her with, and upon this she struck the deceased a blow on the throat, and she fell, and died almost instantaneously. 41. His servant being ill, he had consented to allow his In-other, a timid youth from the country, to take his place for a shoit time, and for that short time he was a constant source of annoyance. 42. The mountain stream fell into a basin, which was black from the shadows of the mountains which surrounded it. 43. We have received a basket of grapes from our old friend Jones, for which he will accept our compliments, some of which are nearly two inches in diameter. 44. While he was out hunting he met an Indian, and he attempted to take his life, but he could not. easily the re£ and; «iihject <'('cupy •■"■-pv Rniphatic Words. 55 45. A tremendous fall of snow rendered his departure impossi-ble for some days. When the roads b«»oran to become somewhat practicable, they received news of the retreat of the Chevalier into Scotland. 46. Rasselas was the fourth son of the mighty emperor in whose dominions the Father of Waters begins his course ; whose bounty pours down the streams of plenty, and scatters over half the world the harvests of Egypt. 47. It was the loss of his son, on whom he had looked with an affection which belonged to his character, with an exagger- ated admiration which was a most pardonable exercise of his fancy, which struck tlic fatal blow to his spirit as well as to liis body. 48. He wrote to that distinguish 'd philosopher in terms polite and flattering, begging him to come and undertake the education of his son, and bestow upon him those useful lessons of magnanimity and virtue which every good man ought to possess, and which his numerous avocations rendered it impos- sible for him to bestow upon him. 49. On his way, he visited a son of an old friend, w'lo had asked him to call upon him on his way northward. He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his workmen and told him to consider himself at his service as he could not take him as he wished about the city. ■n ' '1 LESSON IX. EMPHATIC WOEDS, Emphatic Words should occupy emphatic positions. Subject and Predicate. — In order that a sentence may be easily and clearly understood, it is of prime importance tnat the reader should have a definite idea of wliat is the Subject, and; also, of what is the Predicate. Hence, the principal subject and principal predicate of every sentence should occupy prominent positions. 56 Style — Emphatic Words. 1 m (1) The Subject. — When the principal suljject is the same as the grammatical there are three places of prominence that it may occupy : — (a) At the beginning of the sentence ; as, " Learning taketh away the wildness, barbarisr.i nd fierceness of men's minds." (6) After an adverbial, -ticipial, or other subsidiary clause ; as, " With great difficulty, we managed to glide down the slippery trunk of a pine tree." (c) At tlie end of the sentence ; as, " On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is his wonder- ful invention." (2) The Predi.oate. — It is no less important that the predi- cate should be placed in a conspicuous positioa Its natural place is after the subject. When, however, it is specially emphatic, it may precede the subject, or even stand first in the sentence. Thus, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians," is much more emphatic than "Diana of the Ephesians is great." Caution. — The grammatical subject and the principal subject of a sentence though risually the same, are not always so. For example, in each of the following sentences the principal sub- ject is the part in italics: " Upon the remaining adventures of that luckless day, neither reporter nor artist is disposed to dilate." "Add to your faith, virtue." Other Emphatic Words. — Clearness as well as force further requires that all other emphatic words in a sentence should occupy emphatic positions, and that where there are several emphatic words it should be made clear which are the most emphatic. -,j _.-^ ,.t^,^-.^,^.j.^ ^^.. ,^.,^.^,^^.^^^^ .^^ "r^ V, *''*•. ^V' '"''7 ^."'■■■i'V^if.i'i ft^'-'X^' '/■■'■■■*'(^*' EmpJiatic Words — Exercises. 57 r.r W m n ■h\ kK 9 'it ipfi ' ;; i; 1 1 '"t ■S EXERCISE XVII. r J EMPHATIC WORDS. Give the emphatic words a more conspicuous situation. 1. A dozen will do, for illustration, as well as a million. 2. The praise of judgment, Virgil has justly contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled. 3. Nor is the reason which has led to the establishment of this moral law difficult to be discerned. 4. I should have come up last Aveek, if I had known you were sick. 5. No matter in what season we view nature, we are always struck with the unity of her design. 6. His is a mind that, in discerning and reflecting what- ever odd or amusing things occur in life around, occupies itself pre-eminently. 7. If, whilst they profess to please only, they advise and give instruction secretly, they may be esteemed the best and most honorable among authors, with justice, perhaps, now .'.,s well as formerly. 8. He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes ; for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one. 9. That our elder writers to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, quoted to excess, it would be the blindness of partiality to deny. 10. Every attempt to dispense with axioms has proved un- successful ; vsomehow or other in the process, assumed theorems have been found. 11. People are utterly insensible to the blessings which England has derived from the Revolution. 12. Then, O Cromwell, thou fall'st a blessed martyr, if thou fall'st. 1 3. The sons of men shall, one V)y one, be gathered to thy side, as the long train of ages glides away. 14. The business will task your skill and fidelity. (Make "fidelity" emphatic.) % kt -'M ■■% \: it - ;m ii C8 Style — Saiue Coutnution. 15. The state w;is made under the pretence of serving it ; in reality the prize of their contention to each of these two opposite parties. (Make "parties" more emphatic tlian "state.") 16. The lovely stars blossomed in the infinite meadows of heaven, silently, one by one. 17. A mere concpieror ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind. 18. My conlidence in the people governing is unlimited ; my conlidence in the people governed is inlinitesiraal. 19. Colored people are more successfully photographed, as a rule, than white people, in the opinion of an experienced artist. 20. All thy towers are sunk in shapeless ruin. 21. The man avIio, void of cares, retains a shilling in silken or in leathern purse, is happy. 22. To the command of the parliamentary party was ap- pointed the Earl of Essex, a man of respectable abilities and of som military experience. 23. The house occupied hve years in building, costing the proprietor a hundred thousand dollars. 24. The Indians are exceedingly skilful in shooting buf- faloes ; sending an aiTow quite through the body of a full- grown buffalo, he being in a fa voidable position, and sufficiently near. 25. Zenobia assumed the government after the murder of her husband, avenging his death, and making herself formid- able to all the nations within her i-each. LESSON X. ! THE SAME CONSTKUCTION. The Same Construction.— In the different parts of a sen- tence that are joined together in the same connection, the same construction should generally be maintained throughout. This rule applies, chiefly, to words, phrases, and clauses that come near together ; it must not be adhered to so closely as to make the sentence stiff or monotonous. Same Construction — Exercises. 59 Examples, - Say "good and brave," or, "of goodness and bravery," not, "of goodness and brave ;" "riding and walking," or, "on horse-baok or afoot," not, "riding or afoot." " Believing that his honor demanded this sacrifice, and in the hope of satisfying his creditors, he determined on selling all his estates, and, as soon as this was done, to quit the country." Re-^onstruct thus : — " Believing that his honor demanded this sacrifice, and hoping thereby to satisfy his creditors, he determined on selling all his estates, and as soon as this was done, on quitting the country." In Contrasts, the sentence is both clearer and more forcible, if the contrasted members are constructed alike. The sen- tence, " The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation, the fool, when he recommends himself to the applause of others," is improved by writing thus : " The wib3 man is happy when he gains his own appi-obation, the fool, when he gains other people's. EXERCISE XVIII. SAME CONSTRUCTION. Ill these seiitenceri, make both parts of the same form. 1. The opponents of the Goveinment are naturally, and not without justification, elated at the failure of the attempt. 2. The general was quite aware how treacherous were the intentions of his entertainers, and of the dangers from which ho had lately escaped. 3. With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and intend- ing also to clear himself from suspicion, he determined to ascertain how far the testimony was corroborated, and the motives of the prosecutor. 4. One is naturally repelled, when brought into contact with a system that forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and to being barbarously ill-treated. 1 ■AT 1 ■■il: m K > -i >• V i' \ i , ■' 1 1 ' i 'I . viV\ 6o Style — Same L onstruction. 5. Yet these are not doomed to the base fate of beiii tirst rush, the gamblers being either too friglitened at the sudden appear- ance of the police, or, having a wholesome drejul of the batons, deemed discretion the bettei* pait of valor, and submitted to their fate. 7. He is one of the few surviving stipendiary magistrates of the island of which he is a native, and has lived in it all his life. 8. The causes he assigned are not the defects in our legis- lation, nor did he suggest that the depression coukl be removed by a readjustment of the tariff. 9. All returned to their homes well pleased with the exercises of the evening, and in the conscious enjoyment of the time profitably spent. 10. The love of Christ is like a sea, into whose bosom you can look a little way, but its depths are unfathomable. 11. In Encfland we are said to learn manners at second hand from your side of the water, and that we dress our behaviour in the frippery of France. 12. As far as appeals there was no prejudicing the case, and no attempt to strain evidence to accomplish their convic- tion. 13. He lived to see almost all the great principles which he had advocated, not merely recognized, but a commence- ment made in carrying them into practice. 14. We could see the lake over the woods, two or three miles ahead, and that the river made an abrupt turn south- ward. 15. He was left v/ith her injunctions, and the spirit of the oracle, though the divinity was no longer visible, pervaded his mind and life. 16. I recollect studying his "Complete Angler" several years since, in company with a knot of friends in America, and, moreover, that we v/ere all severely bitten with the angling mania. 17. I recollect the good, honest, wholesome, hungry repast which we made under a beech tree, just by a spring of pure. Improper Ellipsis. I 6l sweet water that stole out of the side of a liiU ; and how, when it was over, one of the party read old Isaak Walton's " Scene with the Milkmaid." 18. The Soldan undertook the preparation of the list, and t) provide accommodations and refreshments of every kind for all who were to assist at the solemnity. 19. I amused myself by prophesying, as we drove into town, how this ugly lot of suburbs would join with that ugly lot, and tliat there would soon bo one continuous street. 20. No matter how bright the future may appear, we should not depend on it, but let us act in the present. >, 21. He embraced the cause of liljerty faintly, and pursued it without resolution; he grow tirod of it when he had mudi to hope, and gave it up when there was no ground for apprehension. 22. He decided to visit the gorge, and if he saw any of the party, he would ask for his dog and gun. 23. I should like to defer telling you the sad news en account of your ill-health, and because you have already had many troubles, and owing to a natural dislike to say what is disagreeable. 24. The politician thinks of himself ; his country is the object of interest to the statesman. 25. If tlie Cretans were the champion liars of ancient times, the Russians are confessedly and beyond all dispute their legitimate modern successors. ,:S.* \ "J. I ': ■ M If- i :'|. ■ h fi i LESSON XI. I 'I IMPROPER ELLIPSIS. Improper Ellipsis. — Although, as we shall hereafter see, a sentence is strengthened hy omitting all words not necessary to a clear expression of the thought, yet if this is carried too far, ambiguity, obscurity, or loss of vigor, will be the resalt. This is particularly the case; — ■iT'^f 62 Stjfle — Improper Ellipsis. ^TTSb (1) When tho iirticles a^ an, or the are omitted, as; — "Tlie treasurer and secretary," means one ptirson who Jiolds two offices ; " the treasurer anon said, thus : — " Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports and populous cities, althf>ugh matters of great moment, these arc not tlic elements that constitute a 3 1 EXERCISE XIX. IMPROPER ELLIPSIS. Supply the words whose omission causes obscurity or ambiguity. 1. She always thoiiglit more of attending to the wants of others than of hei'self, 2. My boyhood days were, in a measure, like all other boys, spent in school and at lionie. .3. Arbitrary power I look upon as a greater evil tli n anarchy itself, as much as a savage is a happier state of life ^han a galley slave. 4. There are few artists whf) draw horses as well as Mr. Leech. 5. There is a great difference between the language under Charles I. and Charles II., l)etween that under Charles II. and Queen Anne. 6. There is a great difference between the dog and cat. 7. One should covet nothing less than the best. 8. Much to his comfort few of liis creditors niet, and gave »iim little encouragement. 9. It required few talents to which most men are not born, or at least may not acquire. 10. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence. 11. I am far from a very inquisitive man by temperament. 12. If the heroine is depicted as an unlovable character, there is little to be said of Guy's that is at all attractive. 13. Again, the theorists of absolute monarchy have always affirmed it to be the only natural form of government. 1 4. A little dinner, not more than the muses, witl all the guests clever, and some pretty, offers human life rnder very favorable circumstances. 15. His political education was due to Jeremy Bentham, whom he edited and admired. 16. Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as the Spaniard Olivares. 17. I have no more control over him than others. 18. His childhood was like many others, the happiest part of his life. 64 Style — I'Ong Sentences. 19. Because he liad committed a crime, lie was shut up in prison, and let out aj^ain only yesterday. 20. I have always and still do belieAe that the soul is immortal. 21. Those who drove James from his throne, seduced his army, alienated his friends, imprisoned him in his palace, were his nephew and his two daughters. 22. We ai-e glad to leai-n that our friend, who has \)een. lor several weeks suffering from catarrh of the stomach, is im- proving, though, we regret, but slowly. 23. There is no writer so addicted to blunder as Isaac Disraeli. 24-. Noah and his family outlived all who lived before die flood. 25. Every advantage manufacturers desire can be had, and substantial aid when deserving. 26. The CVnincil and Synod maintained that the unity of the person implied not any unity in the consciousness. 27. Our wedding-cakes are got up in a style equal to any baker in the city. 28. The man of polite imagination often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and meadows than anotnei' does in the possession. 29. There are, indeed, but very few who know how to ])e idle or innocent, or have a relish for pleasures that are not criminal. 30. She had not yet listened patiently to her heart-beats, but only felt that her own was beating violently. LESSON XII. 1 1 LONG SENTENCES. Long Sentences. —With young persons there is no more fruitful source of obscurity than long sentences. The begin- ner plunges with such zest into his subject, that he never thinks of a full stop, but goes on in one continuous sentence and is soon hopelessly lost in his ma/e of words. Then he ! ■M Long Sentences — Exercises. 65 llounders about evidently without the faintest idea or what is tlie subject, what the predicate, which the dependent, or wliich the independent clause, in his never-ending sentence. His remedy is to put in plenty of full stops, and, if the style liiis no other excellence, it will at least possess some degree of clearness. The sentences of some experienced writers' would be improved in simplicity and clearness, by being broken up into slioi'ter ones. If, in a sentence, the subordinate clauses are all of the siuno kind, all constructed in a similar form, and all depend- ing^ on the same principal clause, there is not necessarily any ()l)seurity ; l>ut, when a sentence consists of many clauses promiscuously thrown together, or when the dependent clauses )i;ive others depending on them, very close attention — closer than the writer is entitled to demand — is required to gather the meaning. « EXERCISE XX. LONG SENTENCES. Improve these sentencea by breaking them up into shorter ones. 1. It is to be hoped that the distinguished author will be spared to fill up this gap himself, when, in his own words, there will be a "continuous history of the French occupation of the Continent," written, we may add, with the most pains- taking x'esearch, and the most praiseworthy impartiality, combined with such picturesque and graphic narrative power as have already made it the great authority on the subject of wliich it treats, and will, we doubt not, long maintain it in thiit most honorable and deservea position. ■J. There is a great controversy about the most convenient and genteel way of holding your plate at meals ; some stick it l)et\veen the frame and the back of the chair, which is an ! 1: in: <. 56 Style — Long Sentences. excellent/ expedient, where the make of the chair will alloAV it ; other>.\ for fear the plate should fall, grasp it so firmly that their thumb reaches to the middle of the hollow : which, however, if your thumb be dry, is no secure method ; and there- fore, in that case, I advise your wetting the ball of it with your tongue ; -ib to that absurd practice of letting the back of the plate lie leaning on the hollow of your hand, which some ladies recommend, it is universally exploded, being liable to so many accidents. 3. Notwinhstanding the urgent entreaties of his friends, for him to abandon his enterprise, Columbus, the discoverer of America, ser sail from Palos on tlie morning of Friday, the 3rd of August, 1492, and after a stormy and difficult voyage he landed on one of the West India Islands on the 4th day of October in tJie same year ; although his sailors had always despaired of ever reaching land, and had been wishing during the last few weeks of their- voyage, for Columbus to return with them to Spain. 4. To the appr-ehension of the Cor-poration of Trinity Uni- versity, and the Board of Regents of Victoria University, that, were the pi'oposed University Pr*ofessoriate and the new University College in the same building, i. e., the building at pi-esent occupied by Univer-sity College, then University College would, by its location under the University roof, its proximity to tlut "aces, ['arious- diat is Ise that •ied tn luue-li Iday <'t' [ousaml helped liith ill to gne 26. The polar bears live on seal and wains, crawling stealthily up to the former on the ice-floes and catching them ; while of the walrus only the young are caught, for an old walrus is twice as big as Bruin. 27. Obrutschetf regards war as inevitable, and urges imme- diate mobilization, and that not a moment should be lost in pushing on to Herat and Candahar. 28. The intellectual qualities of the youth were superior to those of his raiment. 29. The same night, while Crozier was at Carlton, Riel sent him word to come for liis dead, and afterwards to Prince Albert, and said if they did not come he would l)ury them. 30. Jay Gould is said to prefer plain food ; he is also said to be extremely fond of bread, and dotes on water. 31. We have only two days' provisions here now, but some are expected to overtake us in two days, and both transfer and commissariat officers say they are not to blame. 32. The young man did not want natural talents ; but the father of him was a coxcomb, who affected being a fine gentle- man so unmercifully that lie could not endure in hin sight, or the frequent mention of, one who was his son, growing into manhood and thrusting hiin out of the gay world. 33. He advanced against the old man, imitating his address, his face, and career, as well as the vigor of his horse and his own skill would allow. 34. Their rebuke had the effect intended. 35. Dr. Prideaux used to relate that when he brought the copy of his "Connection of the Old and New Testaments" to the bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject and the print- ing could not be safely ^■entured upon unless he would enliven tlie work with a little humor. 36. The sharks who prey upon the inadvertency of young lieirs are more pardonable than those who trespass upon the good opinion of those who tj'eat them with respect. 37. It cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded l)y a subject of such importance from any professing to be a philosopher, be given, be denied that such is the fact. 38. When thousands are left without pity and unattended on a ffeld of battle, amid the insults of an enraged foe and the trampling of horses, while the blood from their wounds, freez- Ir m Iff Lv, •-ii \ ■ I 70 Style — Exercises on Cleuiness. it I mx ing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and they are exposed to the piercing air, it iTiUst be, indeed, a painful scene. 39. Pleasure and excitement had more attraction for him than his friend, and the two companion j became estranged gradually. 40. The bull I am speaking of was granted five years ago to the faithful people of Spain, by the late pope, which a gen- tleman of the army took accidentally from a master of lu ship, whose name is Peter de Zologa, in the bay of Biscay, •«.s it 'is signed by himself in the same bull, and may be seen at the publishers. 41. He seemtd a very promising young ma i, for he had been carefully edu-. ; iod while n, boy, and had always been en- abled to look for a modol to his excellent unci? who died just before his nephew reached 1. > tvverity-third year and engaged in business for himself. 42 The accuracy and ckariie: s of a .sentence depend very much upon the proper iind det«^ r ininati\ <; use of the relative, so tlvit it may readily pr( -cut its antecedent to the mind with- out any obscurity or ambiguity. 43. The peison who inmiediately walked before him was remarkai/!e for an embroidered garment, who, not being well acquainted \vith the place, was conducting him to an apart- ment appointed for the reception of fabulous heroes. 44. We couhl see that the river made an abrupt turn southward aroui 1 the northwest end of the cliff on which we stood, or a little above us, so that we had cut off a bend, and that there was an important fall in it a short distance below us. 45. The elder of the two sisters was not yet twenty, and they had been educated since they were about twelve years old, and had lost their parents, on plans at once narrow and promiscuous, first in an English family, and afterwards in a Swiss family. 46. Nine times out of ten when you hear a farmer's boy set down as a hard case, you find his father to blame for it, foi he has been too harsh and arbitrary. 47. In order further to advertise my business, I will send my new pipe organ to any one sending me $75, provided I receive fifty names, the same as given away at the concert of December the 3rd. Clearness — Exercises. 71 48. The critical position of the new free state, which is being founded in Africa by the King of the Belgians, is owing to its present jurisdiction on the Congo, being an island, and to t}'.»^ rights it possesses on the sea coast to the north of the Ooniio being coveted by France. 4v?. !' ■ch is the depravity of the world that guilt is more likely : J meet with indulgence than misfortune. 50. iJames son of Charles I., before the breath was out of his body, was proclaimed king in his stead. 51. I look forward to a time when every new dress will reqaire a pattern, especially when made up at home, and that moie taste and economy will be inculcated by this home practice. 52. The result of Mr. White's visit was in the extending to Briggs the desired amount of credit, and who thereupon moved his family to the neighboring village of Bacuy, where were better business facilities, and entered upon a new career. 53. He furnishes a mournful example of the very impor- tant hope of a future life, and a firm belief and trust in the all-wise and over-ruling Providence, which qualities a man to pass through this world. 54r. This they effected by conveying their letters to her by means of a brewer that supplied the family with ale, through a chink in the wall of her apartment. 55. We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, and we have hope and anticipation in the future. 56. A brazen statue of Justice stood in the public square, once in an ancient city, whose name I no longer remember, raised aloft on a column, upholding the scales in its left hand, and in its right a sword. 57. The boy came to the schoolmaster at all his leisure liours, and learned so rapidly that he recommended him to a nobleman of the neighborhood. 58. He now visits Mrs. Cavendish, who is quite delighted with him, and who reads him a letter from the captain, and which she had just intei-cepted. 51). Even if it were attended with extenuating circum- stances, such conduct would deserve reprobation, and it is the Hiore called for, because it would seem that it was the intention of the author of the crime, in perpetrating it, to inflict all the misery that was possible upon his victim. ii- m 72 Style — Strength. 60. Into the lock of the wicket wliich opened into the castle garden, at the dead liour of midnight, the page put the key, when all was silent. 61. He liad good reason to believe that the delay was not an accident, but premeditated, and for supposing that the fort, though strong both by art and naturally, would be forced by the treachery of the governor and the indolent general to capitulate within a week. 62. The tossing of a tempest does not discompose him, which he is sure will bring him to a joyful harbor. 63. He would not say the Government possessed all the facts in the case, but they possessed facts which created an impression adverse to some of those formed by tlie other party to the covenant, but they would not deviate from the strictest principles of justice. 64. These funds will be available for meeting such ex- penses, and to enable the committee to carry out the scheme properly. 65. The actions of princes are like great rivers, the mouths of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few. LESSON XIII. 't ;! 11 ;3^ :i!i 2. STEENGTH. Strength consists in constructing sentences in such a way as to give full force to the thought or meaning they contain. When to be Sought. — In some kinds of composition, sucli as judicial opinions and text-books of science, all that is neces- sary is to make the language clear. If, however, the connnunica- tion of knowledge is not the only aim, if the reader's attention cannot be taken for granted, the language nmst be more than clear, it must be forcible. This quality that gives efficiency to language, is known under various names, as Vi\acity, Energy, Force, Strength. .V trength — Superfluous I Vords. 73 How Promoted. — As Strength in expression depends largely on the manner in which a sentence is formed, muuli may be gained by attending to the following points : Superfluous Words, the Order of Words, the Use of Particular Term* instead of General, Words of Connection and Transition, Variety. Superfluous Words. E\ery word that does ixot add to the meaning of a sentence, enfeebles it. Hence, a sentence is strengthened by rejecting every clause, phrase, or word, that is redundant. Thus, "Hats off!" is more forcible than "Take your hats otf " ; ''Well doie ! " than "You have done well." Superfluous woids will be considered under the heads. Tautology, R'idundancy, and Verl)osity. Caution. — Beginnej-s mu.st not run away with the idea that every sentem e should be constructed with the smallest number of words possible. There are many considerations to be taken into account in determining just how many should be used. The nature of the subject, the diaracter of tlie treatment, as well as the capacity and intelligence of the persons addressed, demand variations that only a due attention to these things can justify. Connnon place thoughts on familiar topics admit briefer expression than original ideas ; greater conciseness is demanded in a book than in a newspapei* or a speech ; intelli- gent people require less explanation than ignorant ones. In any case, one should avoid excessive conciseness on the one liand, and excessive ditt'useness on tlie other. (1) Tautology is the fault of saying again in other words what has just been said. Examples. — " False m/^representations." '-'• Un\hmffe<)us .-difide." "He was by no means deficient in the .oihordhiate and limited virtue which allecintes and relieves the w^ants of otiiors." fu each f)f these expressions one of the italicized words may be omitted with advantage, i > 74 Style — Strength. xwBm l| ^ f if When permissible. — Wliat might appear Tautology by a strict vvw{\i\v'\n\f of the rule, is allowable : — {(i) When one word does not express the full sense intended; as : — Snhjert -matter, part and parrel, ways and means. (h) For greater emphasis; as : — '* The head and front of his oiiending." (<•) In strong passion; as : — " I am astonished, I am nhocked to liear hucIi principles confessed." (2) Redundancy, or pleonasm, consists in the addition of usel(!ss words. Examples " They returned back aijain to the same city from whence they came forth.^' " "Throughout his whole career." " The hook cantiot be under stood." When permissible. — Redundancy is permissible when neces- sary to impoi'tant statements, to give emphasis, and in the language of passion. Sometimes what is said directly, may be said again indirectly, the abstract may be reproduced in the concrete; form; the literal, in a metaphor ; an object may be pr(!sented in a new point of view ; an argument may be pre- sented in a variety of forms. Thus, " We have seen it with our own ci/es." " Kings will he tyrants from policy when sub- jects are rebels from pi'inciple." Epithets. — The handling of epithets i-equires great care on the part of beginners. With them the tendency generally is to heap up adjectives that add neither force nor beauty to the sentence. Although it is not well always to have the waves "silvery," the sun 'glorious," the snow "feathery," and the groves "shady," yet whenever force, beauty, or an additional interest can be secured by the use of an adjective, or even two, theie need be no scruple about employing them ; as, " The tideless Mediterranean." (3) Ver^,0 5ity consists in a diffuse mode of expression that so pervades the sentence, that the only remedy is to recast the whole in fewer words. f: Strength — Superfiuous I ^^on/s. 75 Example. — " Sh« regrets that tlie multiplicity \)f lier en- gagements precludes the possibility of her accepting your polite invitation." Ciroamlooution, or Pai-aph rasing, which is confessedly one form of Verbosity, is permissible as a means of explanjition or illustration. It is a method of diluting strong thoughts so as to suit them to weak or uninformed minds. It may also be used with advantage to avoid the repetition of a word, or to give greater prominence to some point of importance. Prolixity, another form of Verbosity, consists in enumer- ating unimportant or o})vious particulars that might have }>een left to the reader to supply. As : — "On receiving this message, he arose from his chair, put on his coat and hat, took his umbrella, went down stairs, walked to the railway station, bought a ticket for Plymouth, and started in the eleven o'clock train." " On receiving this message, he started for Plymouth by the eleven o'clock train.'' I ' '1:1 ' I EXERCISE XXII. i[ h ,;: SUPERFLUOUS WORDS. Rewrite these sentences, omitting all superfluous words, and note the gain of strength. 1. He is a monster. 2. May woe betide those within. 3. Let it be rich, but let it not be gaudy. 4. What news have you heard from Genoa ? T). Thou art a Daniel come to judgment. 6. Do you let my deeds fall upon my head. 7. Woe be unto the man, and woe be unto the party, and woe be unto that fated policy. 8. It is true that Napoleon did not with bared arm rush into the midst of the combatants. c {! ■I •■ if 'f^i it 'I 76 Stylt' — SupirjJuous 1 1 ^m/s. 9. Thanks he unto (lotl, nion have at last Iwguii to undor- staiul one anotlier's ri<,'htH, and have at bust begun to feel for one another's wrongs. 10. The (lifieroiit departments of science and of art mutu- ally reflect light on one another. 11. The universnl opinion of all the people is, that the prisoner who is in the prison, is innocent. 12. The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, and heavily in clouds brings on the day. 13. I never was so astonished before in the whole course of my existence. 1 4. He was a man of powerful str-ength. IT). All praised his magnanimity and greatness of mind. 16. He has arrived at the final completion of his work. 17. He stood gazing at the spangled canopy, which appeared to l)e lit up with innumerable orbs. 1 8. Because all othei- feelings are false and spurious and tend to corrupt our minds, to vitiate our primary morals, to render us unfit for I'ational liberty. 19. After he had finished his speech, he said he did not think it possible for him to come back after the morning session. 20. This wo!k whicli is of so much importance, was origin- ated by a man who, beginning in very low circumstances, by his own unaided exertions raised himself to the high position he now occupies. 21. Does your Majesty imagine that Job's good conduct is the effect of mere personal attachment and affection ? 22. I am sorry to hear that you are an invalid, that is to say, that you don't enjoy good health. 23. The house was closely crowded with an immense number of people. 24. God is eternal, and His existence is without beginning and without end. 25. He had the entire monopoly of the whole salt trade. 26. In conclusion, my dear hearers, I hope you will remain pure and unsophisticated, and not become tainted or vitiated by acts of immorality. 27. Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused to receive the honor that was offered him. I'-'f SuperJIitous I Vords — Exercises. 77 28. There can bo no doubt that newHpa|H*rH are at present I'ead altogether too much. 29. Redundancy .sometimes arises from a want of thouglit, wliicli leads the author to rej)eat, over and over ajj;ain, the litthi modicum of sense at liis command. 30. Cast your eye in retrospect hack over the past. 31. Charles V. and Francis I. were lK)th nnitually ex- liausted. 32. Tlie annual anniversay of the landing of the Pilgrims, celebrated yearly, took place a few days since. 33. The children need constant supervision all the while. 34. An equestrian statue of Lafayette on a horse, was unveiled. 35. Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the uni- versal love and esteem of all men. 36. This subject, which caused mutual astonishment and perplexity to us })oth, entirely engrossed us for the rest of the evening. 37. Out of one of the beds on which we were to repose, started up, at our entrance, a man as black as a (Jyclops from the forge. 38. He is a royal messenger sent by the king. 39. She was necessarily obliged to communicate it to her parents. 40. At the police station he was recognized as an old oftender, and was afterward sentenced to a term in the State prison, a few weeks later. 41. Parent Divine, who inhabitest the celestial regions. 42. He performed his ablutions, and immediately proceeded to partake of some refreshments. 43. There is nothing that disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language, 44. They told us stories about what they had experienced in Japan. 45. He never attended to the interests of those whom he had the honor to represent, 46. The establishment of Penetanguishene, now shortened by the railways to " Penetang," extends back to a very con- siderable antiquity. 47. The quiet surface that usually pervades the sea of love, was displaced by the overwhelming billows of difficulty, 1.? .. I \v w\ ''- 11 i I ill! 8 i'i lift ;:'^- ?«> 1,1 J 'I mil 78 Sty/e — Order of Words. whilst their dashing spi'ay served as a centre of attraction to allure the gaze of the silly, the imprudent, and the indolent. 48. It is with the most unfeigned and heartfelt gratitude that I appear before this enlightened and intelligent audience, to thank them, as I do, for their kind and generous sympathy. 49. All that lovely autumn day our beautiful, fast-sailing boat glided over the smooth and glassy waters that sparkled in the glorious sunshine, till the shadowy shades of a gloomy evening began to darken over us, and the feathery snow commenced to light upon our flapping sails. 50. The prevailing passion of the nation is the love of coiKjuest, and this ardent desire, which burns as fiercely in them as democratic ambition does, in the people of Western Europe, is the unseen spring which retains them submissive under the standard of their chief. LESSON XIV. ORDER OF WORDS. Much of the force of a sentence depends on the order in which the parts are arranged. (1) Emphatic "Words. — Strength as well as Clearness is promoted by disposing of the important words in the place where they will make the greatest impression. Examples. — "To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, is useful.'' Better thus : — "It is use- ful," &c. "iV^o?^ is your time." " Such a show 1 never saw before." " Down dropjjed the thermometer." (2) Closiog. — Care should be taken in bringing a sentence to a close. The mind naturally dwells on the last word and is disappointed when, contrary to expectation, it finds at the end of the sentence some unimportant or merely relational word. For this reason it is rarely well to end a sentence with an advei-b, a preposition, or even a preposition and the pronoun "it." ■ t Order of Words. 79 Examples. — " Such things were not allowed formeily." " These are such words as Columbus himself would have made use of." " This is a question I did not expect, and I nmst ask time to reflect on it." These sentences will be improved if written thus : — " Formerly, such tilings were not allowed." " These are such words as Columbus himself would have spoken." "This is a question I did not expect, and must ask lime for reflection." (3) Form. — In the same way, a sentence should i\ot, except in the easy and familiar style, end with an unimportant })hrase or clause. The Period is, therefore, more forcible than the Loose Sentence, as it keeps the reader in suspense. Examples. — " He mounted his camel, and thus performed the circuits round the Caaba, beiny too iveak and infirm to yo on foot," " He slew sixty-three of the camels with his own hand, ivhcn they loere to he offered up in sacrifice." These sentences may be made more forcible by placing the clauses in Italics at the beginning. (4) Climax. — Strength may be gained by the arrangement of the parts of discourse in the ordc- required by the Climax. The Climax, usually reckoned a flgiue of speech, consists in arranging the parts of an ex[)iession in the order of their strength — the weakest standing flrst. This order may hold in the ( I ) words, (2) phrases, (3) clauses, (4) sentences, (5) paragraphs, (6) or even in the leading divisions of a subject. When a weaker expi'ession or thought follows a stronger, the mind is disappointed, and receives but a feeble impression from the whole. The Anti-Climax consists in arranging the parts in the opposite order to that followed in tlie Climax — an arrange- ment that is always weak, except for the purpose of burlesque or I'idicule. Examples. — " In tliis state of mind, ev(ny employment of life b(!comes i\\\ oppressive burden, and every ol))e(-t appears gloomy." Place the weaker meiid)ef tirst, 'Uid oltservf^ how much more forciljlc the sentence ))ecomes ; thus : — " in this ;■ :;| w i!;:, W 8o Style — Order of Wot'ds. state of mind, every object appears gloomy, and every employ- ment of life becomes an oppressive burden." " It nmst be indeed wrong to crucify a Roman citizen, if to slay one is almost paricide, to scourge him is a monstrous crime, and to bind him is an outrage." Write : — " If to bind a Roman citiicen is an outrage, if to scour-ge him is a mon- strous crime, if to slay him is almost paricide, to crucify him, what shall I call it T EXERCISE XXIII. ORDER OF WORDS. Arrange these sentences in an order that gives greater strength. 1. Dryden possessed, in a pre-eminent degree, the power of reasoning in verse, as we hav^, said, 2. So able a critic was never so free from fastidiousness. 3. No writer has carried the flattery of df lication to a greater length, it nuist be owned. 4. We ha\'e prostrated ourselves at the foot of the throne, we have remonstrated, we have petitioned. 5. If you give this clause a fair construction, what is the true meaning of it ? 6. The Seventh Regiment marched last of all. 7. He was indel)ted for many a good suggestion to liei". 8. Smith started on a trip to California, but died on the way, having poor healtli. 9. After working haid all day he soon went tcj sleep, being very tired. 10. The teacher should endeavour to repress the practice of throwing sU)nes as far as possible. 1 1. A quaint or poetic thought appears in e\ery line of it. 12. What pen can describe the tears, the hunentations, the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate pris- onei'K ! 13. The powei- of man, his gloi-y, and his greatness, depend on essential (jualities. 14. The approaching marriage of Bonanza Mackay's daugh- ter to the prince of Ualati, is to l)e celebrated with great simplicity, so it is said. ilP MJ'f'T Order of Words — Exercises. 8i 15. The news of any prominent person being shot is received everywliere with regret usually. 16. The young general represented to them, that they were increasing the difficulties of a position in itself difficult, by their conduct. 17. In apprehension, how like a god is man ! in action, how like an angel ! in form and moving, how express and admirable ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! 18. A thought from his brain, a word from his lips, might influence their passions, might affect their destiny, might change their opinions, might turn their hearts. 19. All the talents and virtues of Charles I. did not save him from prison, from unpopularity, from a scafibld, from civil war. 20. It is good to commemorate patriotic sentiments, good to honor them, good to have them, good to encourage them. 21. I sink into the bosom of the gi'ave, it opens to receive me, my race is run, my lamp of life is nearly extinguished. 22. We should constantly aim at perfection, though we have no expectation of ever arriving at it. 23. Sensualists, by their gross excesses and frecjuent indul- gences, debase their minds, enfeeble their bodies, and wear out their spirits. 24. He then drew a picture of the sufferings vT the Savior, His death. His crucifixion. His trial before Pii.:.,te, and His ascent up Calvary. 25. We can look to the throne of God : change and decay have never reached that ; the waves of -ternity have been rushing past it, but it has remained unshaken ; tlie )evolution of ages has never moved it. 2(). I ha\'e no wish to trample upon the memory of Napo- leon the First, whom I regard as by no means the worst of men, the most arbitrary of despots, or the most ambitious of concjuerors. 27. The eyes gleaming on the terrified Romans through the foliage, were theirs. 28. The moonlight was lovely as it gleamed and danced on the watei's. 29. Let us at least make one more efibrt, and let us fall like men, if we must fall. #r' 82 Style- — Classes of Forcible Words. 30. The students of the past toiled, explored, constructed for us. 31. He would be heard by the most profligate minister with deference and respect, whenever an important question called for his opinion in Parliament. 32. He, deserted by his friends, was compelled to have recourse to his enemies for aid. 33. The great English nation was then foimed ; the national character then began to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since retained ; and our fathers then became emphatically islanders. (Make ''then" emphatic.) 34. I rushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, with his tale half told, horror-stricken at his crime. 35. We will not pretend to guess what our grand-children may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited in his poetry. LESSON XV. CLASS?:S OP FORCIBLE WORDS. There are three classes of words that convey ideas with great energy to the mind. These are (1) native English words, (2) particular terms, and (3) concrete terms. The first of these have great force, because, being familiar with them, we more fully and readily realize their meaning ; the second and third, because they present to the mind ideas that it can more easily grasp. Example. — " I have neither the necessaries of life, nor the means of procuring them." Instead of this, write : — " I have not a crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one." Connection and Transition. The strength of a sentence may often be increased by a careful use of the words that mark connection or transition. These are, chiefly, the relative pronouns, the conjunctions, and the prepositions. No rules can be framed to suit all Classes of Forcible Words — Exercises. 83 cases that arise ; but from the subjoined examples it will be seen that the too frequent repetition of connectives is some- times a source of weakness, and that when, on the other hand, it is desirable the transition from one object to another should not be too rapid, the conjunct' on may be repeated with advantage. One of the most common faults or beginners is the excessive use of and^ but, wheri, and other unimportant words. Similar rules hold with respect to the omission or repetition of articles, pronouns, and adjectives. IiXamplbS. — " But I began and read it all over again, and this time I remembered it was only a letter ; and when I had done, I felt very happy, and thought what blessed things letters are, and I determined to write to you every week, and I hope you will do the same." "And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell ; and great was the fall of it."— Matt. vii. 27, 2£. The days of Charles II. were the golden age of the coward, the bigot, and the slave. They have been more distinguished by zeal than by candor or by skill. Idioms, Proverbs, and Quotations. A thought may sometimes be expressed forcibly by being put into idiomatic language or by being thrown into the form of a proverb, or of a pithy quotation. Examples. — " He is out of his head " i? a vigorous way of saying "He is not in possession of his right senses." "A burnt child dreads the fire " is a proverbial expression that conveys with energy the idea that "A person who has been injured by anything, will take good care to avoid it in the future." Brevity. Strengfth may sometimes be gained by adopting brief modes of expression. P^ 'l\ '.■■.■<:' y lk4 •■ t 84 Style — Forcible Words. m mm. {a) By omitting words easily supplied, as : — " They asked what would be the next development, who the next victim % " {!)) By expressing the idea contained in a phrase by a single word, as: — "With the introduction of this character, the plot reaches its point of highest nterest" (climax). (c) By the use of apposition instead of a connective, as : — "There is much of dialogue, and this always interests the reader," is better if written, " There is much of dialogue, a featui ; r.ivvays interesting to the reader." (d"^ By using an adjective, noun, or phrase *or an adjective c^i,u:a, a,s : — "There was no sound in the forest save that of tii v/ind, whicli went moaning through the tree-tops," write, i^.iv'e that of the moaning wind." W- :m EXERCISE XXIV. FORCIBLE WORDS, fill #1 Make these sentences more forcible by employing some of tne expe- dients mentioned in the last Lesson. 1. Had he intended to keep Ireland in slavery, he should have kept her poor. 2. They knew that he was false and dishonest. 3. Along the coast of the sea are to be found all the deli- cacies that may be had in tropical countries. 4. The ancient erections of ^gyr;^ naturally excited feelings of veneration. 5. In Havana there are modern improveni«^^nts in the ra^e of living. 6. Some village patriot that with dauntless breast the little tyrant of his fields withstood. 7. She was turned out of doors without a friend in the wide world, without a character, and without any money. 8. They sank like metal in the mighty waters. 9. Will you die of want on the land which your labor has made fertile 1 Forcible \ Vords — Exercises. 85 10. God is seen in the growth of vegetation, in the move- ments of the heavenly bodies, in the song of the birds, and in the rage of the elements. 11. A very small proportion indeed of those who have attempted to solve this problem, have succeeded. 12. The garden was filled with flowers. 13. When he began to light, he meant to win or die (sword scabbard). 14. Will you behold your country in flames, and the fruit of the people's toil (harvests) destroyed ? 15. Peace had now been enjoyed by the nation for a con- siderable time, during which the public revenue had increased by a large sum. 16. Will you look on while the inhabitants (Cossacks) of the far north crush (tread .... foot) your dearest friends (fathers?, mothers, etc.)^ 17. Do men gather grateful and nutritious fruit from trees that bear only prickly armor (tigs .... thistles) % 18. I sat by her when she was a babe (cradle), I followed her to the grave. 19. The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of its pro- phets, looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as the heavenly bodies, when the products of the earth should be abundant, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own trees, and when the instruments of war should be converted to the uses of peace. 20. To inundate (dykes) their land, to man their ships, to leave their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities, its villas, and its pastures (tulip), buried under the waves (name the water) ; to bear to a distant climate their faith (what?) and their old (Batavinn) liberties; to establish, under happier auspices, the new constitution (Stadthouse) of their commonwealth in a foreign region (stars) and strange land (vegetation), in the Spice Islands of the Easte.-n Seas ; these were the plans they had the spirit to form, 21. Such a man might fall a victim to power ; but '■ruth, and reason, and liberty would fall with him, 22. Then did ^neas pass on his way, and the goddess led him, and the flames gave place to him, and the javelins harmed him not, 23. They brought beds and basins and earthen vessels and 86 Sij'h\ wheat and barley and flour and parched corn and beans and lentile and parched pulse and honey and butter and sheep and cheese of kine. 24. I cannot but imagine that the virtuous heroes, the vir- tuous legislators, and the virtuous patriots of every age and of every country, are bending from their elevated seats to wit- ness this contest. 25. True liberty can exist only when justice is equally administered to the king and the beggar. 26. The walls are scaled, and the gates stormed, and the conflict follows and blood flows. Then the magistrates inter- fere ; Savonarola and one of his chief friends are seized and conveyed, by orde oj. the magistrates, to prison. 27. Although he was then nearly eighty years of age, he sent to England for books, and began the task. 28. Thou hast done well, thou who are a good and faithful servant. 29. Let us have Liberty first, and then let us have Union afterwards. 30. Newton was very far from being correct (was out) in his calculations. 31. He reached a conclusion without giving the matter due consideration (jumped to). 32. People who make \ ery loud threats seldom have the heart to carry them out. (Barking dogs, &c.) 33. When our difficulties are overcome, we frequently for- get to be grateful to those who aided us in the hour of need, (The river past, and God forgotten.) 34. The poet is born, he cannot be made by any course of training. Strength from Variety. 87 LESSON XVI. STRENGTH FROM VARIETY, Strength is promoted by Variety. Sameness of any kind in writing, is tiresome ; variety is one of the chief source of pleasure. Light and shade, energy and ease, strength and weakness, beauty and deformity, liave a greater effect when l)laced side by side. Kinds of Variety. — The variety here spoken of may be of several kinds. (1) Instead of repeating a word, it is generally bette • to use some synonym, as : — "We stayed a day in Albany, stoj^jx'd half a day at Rochester, tai'ried a week at Niagara, and spent the remainder of the summer at Thousand Island Park." (2) Variety of expression, as illustrated in a succeeding lesson, should be constantly turned to use, so that no stereo- typed form may be allowed to appear. (3) Specific and generic terms should be introduced in due alternation. tH (4) Sentences of all kinds, long, short, simple, compound, and complex, the period, loose sentence, and compromise should all be employed, not with studied stiffness and mea- sured pi-ecision, but in such alternation that they may relieve one another, and effectually bar all monotony. (5) The natural order should now and then yield to tjie inverted. (6) The full statement shouJc; be interwoven with the abbreviated ; and where great vigor is demanded, all unneces- sary words should be avoided. \-i i 8X S/v/t'—S/rt'f/^if//i from Variety. (7) IiiiJi(;«'i'v ot' the v.' 'ions kinds should he introduced to enforce, beautify, and enliven the })hun lan»,'ua;;e, , tlie nature of the subject and its treatment will pei-niit. (H) Discourse, in which ener^'y is of special importance*, may l»e n^idered more animated by turninij; some of the leading declarative sentences into interrogative. This arrange- ment is usually known as a hgure of sp(;ec]i, under the name of Inferriufation. Thus, the expression " Who is ecjual to him ?" is more lively than '' He has no equal.'' Besides, if such interrogations are interspersed among declarations, they break th(> monotony 'is well as flatter the reader by asking him to take part in the discussion, and by shewing respect foi- his opinions. (9) Sometimes the last-mentioned method may be so ex- tended that til ' speaker or writer goes on asking questions of those he is addressing, and answering their supposed objec- tions in such a way as to keep up a kind of dialogue between himseii: and them, whom he fancies questioning, denying, or asserting. (10) Again, when strong feeling is being expressed, the writer may, instead of making a full length statement, break out into an Exclamatioa. Thus, it would both indicate and arouse greater intensity of feeling to burst out with the ex- clamation, '' Beautiful !" or, " How beautiful !" than to say, "This is beautiful.' This, also is generally cla.ssed as a figure of speech. (11) In impassioned narration or description, one may conceive so lively a view of his subject as to fancy that the distant or the past is actually present, and may speak of it in the piesent cense, as if at the moment under his view. This manner of speaking is commonly called Vision. Strength from I \iyiety — Exe irises. 89 EXERCISE XXVI. strp:ngth from variety. ihe numbers refer to tlie sections of the lant lesson, and ure in- ■ jnded to assist the bej^inner in using the means there pointed out. ^). •ly be able to hing sub- 1. There are liere inaiiy goodly creature 2. He that hath planted the eai*. in' lioar (8). 3. All this bustle and terror is not bi stantial is expected (8). 4. He must exert his talents at home, tor* there is surely no other place where he can obtain a profitable ci-edit for his exertion (8). 5. The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart (10). 6. The fears which such a situation must inspire, are boundless (10). 7. You cannot put your hand into the fire and not be burned (8). 8. Our hearts \'ere Ideating when we saw the army of the League drawn out in long array (10). 9. He commanded them to fix bayonets and cliarg(; (10). 10. We laid him down slowly and sadly (5). 11. The world of God around us is indeed glorious; but the world of God within us is still more glorious (5). 12. They sailed by the sandy shores of Araya, they sailed past the lofty cocoa-nut trees i hat stand over Cumana, they sailed along that beautiful coast, they sailed through the difficult waters of the gloomy Golofo Trieste, tliey sailed past the province of Venezuela, and tliey sailed on to Da- rien (1). 13. And, once again, man asks for light. It is as he sits yonder beside his dead in the chamber (2) that lias grown dark. His heart went out (5) to her in the jocund days (2) of youth, and twined (5) its tendrils round her. Lovely and beautiful (5) \vere they as they grew in wisdom, confidence, and love. But (5) over her the .ruthless blast has swept, she gave up the ghost (5) in the very pride of motherhood : she died while yet a young woman (7, her sun . . . ). And soon he " must bury his dead out of. his sight." Mysterious and ;i'ii IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) •^ 1.0 1.25 — IS^ia I.I l."^ I- ^1^ '# ^>. Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^ \ iV >^ [V ^ ' .^^^ 90 Style — Strength from Variety. dark are the mission and meaning of Death (8. What is . . . . , O Death ?) Perhaps it ends all, or perhaps we pass through it hack again, as rain-drops, into the vast immensity of the all-individuality lost for ever ; or perhaps we shall live again (8. Dost thou, indeed, ....?) It is not sentimental- ism that thus speaks, for (4) the strongest minds have heaved the lead in these mysterious depths, and (4) the mightiest hearts have quaked with strange terror in presence of these problems. He who is Christianity himself replies. In His own person He grappled with, wrested the power (3) from tlie sovereign (3) of terrors, and over his prostrate form marched forth from Death's dominion (3) with the note of triumph on His lip and said (2. Use direct form here) that He was "the resurrection and the life." 14. It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Queen of France, then the Dauphiness, at Versailles ; and surely a more (5) delightful vision never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she had just begun to move in — glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendor, and joy. There has since that (10. Oh, what a .... ) been a great revolution, and I would have (10) a hard heart if I could contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall. When she added titles of veneration to those of enthusiastic, distant love, I little dreamt (10. Give " little " the most emphatic position, and " dreamt" the next) that she would ever be obliged to carry poison (7 ; . . antidote .... disgrace . . . ) with which to save herself from the vengeance of her people ; (Repeat in emphatic posi- tion " little " . . . " dream ") that I should have lived to see such disasters fallen upon in a nation of gallant men (Repeat " in a nation " and expand " gallant"). I thought her courtly attendants (7. . . . swords . . . scabbards . . . ) would in- stantly have avenged the slightest (7 look . . . . ) attempt to offer her insult. But I was very far astray (6), for the days of noble (7. chivalry) and self-sacrificing deeds are past (4), and are succeeded by the reign of sopiiisters, economists, and calculators, and the glory of Europe is for- ever (Make "forever" emphatic) extinguished. 15. Frederick immediately sent relief ; and in an instant ail Saxony was overflowed (11) with armed men. fe_,.<3t, AS;.iJ^-- \-i-i.~,.^,.. .Av,-jfc.-.w;4.^:.,! ;-...\< il^^iIft 4:_',i_.N^v' EXERCISE XXVIII. Miscellaneous exercises on Strength. J . When will the curtain rise up ? i. As I previously remarked before now, I say again. 6. He reduced the pound down to shillings and pence. 4. He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. 5. I went home, full of a great many serious reflections. 6. The sentence is full of the greatest number of mistakes. 7. The whole of it is pervaded by a spirit of judicial calmness. 8. He was a man of fine reputation and enjoyed a high degree of popularity. 9. When such a man is found, his name is in every one's mouth, his praises are sounded by all. 10. The man of virtue and of , honor will be trusted and esteemed and respected and relied upon. 11. It is a principle of our religion that we should not re- venge ourselves on our enemies nor take vengeance on our foes. 12. It is said that the cat has succeeded the pug dog as a fashionable pet at last. 13. The magistrate questioned the prisoner minutely, and examined him at length. 14. We often conjure up grounds of apprehension, and give ourselves unnecessary uneasiness. 15. We rested under the umbrageous shadow of a shady oak, and then again resumed our journey anew. 16. That esculent succulent on which so many poor people depend for their daily sustenance. 17. Cook Teets was last week sentenced to be hanged for poisoning Rosannah his wife about this time last year. 18. The first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward ioy, and spreads delight through all its faculties. 19. The laughers will be for those who have most wit; the serious part of mankind for those who have roost reason on their side. 1 I, :.,v.-, ■■ (/: ■ r;?'''"f,t,^.f,>(- \4 92 Stjf/e — Exercises on Strength. 20. The President holds the executive power of the land, but the Legislative power is vested in Congress. ;< 21. I heard him often reiterate repeatedly, that he would never again, if a safe and secure path was open to him, prefer the perilous road of danger, however alluring and attractive the latter might be. ; 22. Alfred the Groat, of England, was one of t^^^ most remarkable and distinguished men that we read of in vistory. Though his efforts were unable and insufficient entirely to banish the darkness of the age fie lived in, yet he greatly im- proved the condition of his countrymen, and was the means of doing much good to them. 23. It is impossible for us to behold the divine works with coldness or indifference, or to survey so many beauties with- out a secret satisfaction and complacency. 24. Their idleness, and their luxury and pleasure, their criminal deeds, and their immoderate passion, and their timidity and baseness of mind, have dejected them to such a degree that life itself is a burden, and they find no pleasure in it. 25. I know not why you came, without it was to learn how we all are, as a sociable neighbor ought to. 26. The people gave him their support, and he was again re-elected to the same position from whence he had been rejected. 27. On their journey from Toronto to British Columbia, they passed through Detroit, Chicago, anc^ ctoria, returning home again the next year by the same ^ad they passed through the same cities again. 28. It is only in novels, and on .'•omb-stones, that we meet with people who are indulgent to the faults of others, and do not look with mercy on their jwn. 29. We have passed the clause which gives unlimited au- thority over the national wealth, and here is one by which unbounded control is given over the strength of the nati-^n. 30. Those who had regarded their services with disfavor at first had afterwards admitted that they were worth all the money, and a great deal more. 31. Those who are habitually silent by disposition and morose, are less liable and open to the fault of exaggeration i/nan tnose who are habitually fond of talking and of a plea- sant disposition. .^yi •'«'^'^t.-...jc ^.^^.ijii-kaiiiifiii-ii^JiiiKvifc I: ■li' .!;;''.■!''.■ v" ■'^'^i,, Exercises on Strength, 93 32. Consider the flowers how they gradually increase in their size ; they do no manner of work, and yet I declare to you that no king whatever, in his most splendid habit, is dressed up like them. 33. If, then, God in His providence doth so adorn the vegetable productions, which continue but a little time on tlie land, and are afterwards put into the tire, how much more will He provide clothing for you ! 34. Some words shout a charge like trumpets, some breathe memories sweet t^vS flutes, some call like a clarionet, some sound out like drums. 35. I am like an awe-struck votary lying prostrate before the stupendous majesty of the cosmical universe, and the mighty and incomprehensible Ourgos which created all things. 36. "Charity beareth all things and believeth all things and endureth all things." 37. In the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail aloud and in public. 38. I have got a cold together with a fever. 39. On the supposition that one person salutes another person, does the first person lie under an obligation to exclaim in a vehement and plaintive voice ? 40. This is a painful circumtance ; it is a circumstance that I much regret, and he will also much regret the circumstance. 41. There is no government without a magistrate ; no enjoyment of property without government ; no obedience where every one acts as he pleases ; and no .magistrate with- out obedience. 42. What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the animated remonstrances of the unfortunate prisoners 43. This animal is said to have the potcer of living in the air or in water. (In this and the following sentences, substitutt one word for the words in italics.) 44. This writei everywhere exhibits a vain nhow oflearnin(/ which he attempts to display in stiff and pompous phraseology. 45. When we became better acquainted with him we found him to be a nmn fond of Jine dress, and extravagantly nice about his personal appeararice. ^"4 ;ii i i f I I W 94 - Stf/e — [/m'ty. ,*., . I, LESSON XVII. 8. TJlflTY. Every sentence should possess Unity, that is, every part of it should be subservient to one principal affirmation. ; Subsidiary Glauses and Details. — This Unity does not pre- clude the enumeration in a sentence of various details, nor the introduction of several dependent clauses ; but these details must be closely related, and the thoughts of these dependent clauses must be subordinate to one governing idea, or must be a consequence of it, or an inference from it, so that all the parts of the sentence may combine to form a unit, not a collection of units. How attained. — In ,<-'ieking to attain Unity, care must be given to these matters : Change of Subject, Things Unconnected, Parentheses, Supplementary Clauses. Change of Subject. In the course of the same sentence, the subject should V)e changed as little as possible. Example. — "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." Here are four subjects, " we," " they," " I," "who," with as many different verbs. The one principal subject is the narra- tor "I," and the sentence might better have been written : — " After coming to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was welcomed l)y all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness" •it' iliiiviiaLsM: ;^M!:'Mih,£r Change of Subject — Exercises. .:J^^.:^ 95 Things Unconnected. ,. .^ ., ,,, Things that have so little connection in sense that they may just as well be expressed in separate sentences, should not be crowded into one sentence. There should be but one leading thought in a sentence. \ :•. j. ;; VVv*- ;; „i-- c Examples. — "Tillotson was exceedingly beloved by King William and Queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of London, to succeed him." • ' ,.,..,.,, In this sentence there are two thoughts or statements, that have no natural connection, and that should be expressed separately ; thus: — " Tillotson was exceedingly beloved by King William and Queen Mary. Dr. Tennison, Bishop of London, was nominated to succeed him." . .fc ■h EXERCISE XXVIII. Reconstruct these sentences, changing the subject as little as pos- sible. 1. I suppose the narrowness of his early prospects and habits stuck to him ; what we understand by gentlemanlike feelings he knew nothing at all about ; I'll give you a curious instance. 2. By adopting this system the estimator will know that each item is complete, and it will be almost impossible to err in the final re^iult. 3. For who knows not that truth is strong next to the Almighty ; she needs no policies, no stratagems, no licensing to make her victorious, those are the shafts and the defences that error uses against her power, give her but room, and do not bind her when she sleeps. 4. The Spartans were censured by the ancient writers for their inhuman treatment of the Helots, a race long subject tcf the Lacedemonians, who, when the former became too numer- ous, ordered the youth to hunt them down like beasts. 5. The Spanish fleet continued its retreat, but in its passage ar-ound Scotland and Ireland, a terrible storm arose, Eli j» ■- ° K": ....t| '-'"f-;*! 96 Style — Change of Subject. X i i'4 m and the vessels daslied against the rock-bound coasts, and not more than fifty reached Spain, and the greater part of these were worthless. 6. The colonel ordered the regiment forward, and the men Ewlvancing cautiously, discovered a mine which the enemy had made, in order, if possible, to blow them to pieces. 7. The boy left the house with a rake in liis hand, whioh his father bought at Smithville, where Mr. Jones lives, who lost four children by the scarlet fever last winter, when we had that dreadful snow-storm. 8. Previous to this, she was subject to her guardian, who was a stern man, of whom her mother, during her happy married life, used often to say that he was a cruel, cold calcu- lator. 9. I started on my journey West, and was met by some persons at Niagara, in consequence of which a delay occurred, but at last the end of my tour was reached, and my aunt received me with a warm welcome. 10. Horace Greeley advised young men to go West, but we would like to know if it is female magnetism that attracts our young men out that way. 11. When I came to the place they took me into a narrow passage, where was found a small boy, who was sleeping soundly. 12. Instead of the refreshing breezes, the winds diffuse a noxious and even deadly vapor ; the hillocks of sand which they alternately raise and scatter, are compared to the billows of the ocean. 13. They told me, if I would do as you wished, my father, who loves me devotedly, would answer all the questions she asked. 14. If you cannot talk to children, it is not because your ideas cannot be compressed so that juvenile minds can grasp them, but because nothing but clear good sense will interest the child. 15. You may call a boy a stupid fellow, but the denuncia- tion does not clear up the misty medium, and the point is seen no better than before. 'fS 411 Things Unconmcted — Exercises. 97 ^ EXERCISE XXIX. THINGS UNCONNECTED. Divide these sentences that contain unconnected statements, into two or more sentences. 1. At this time the massacre of our troops at Cabool took place, and Akbar Khan had himself placed on the throne at Cabool. 2. The hide of the Nile hippopotamus, tanned and oiled and cut into long strips, forms a whip that, as elastic as gutta percha, is yet much harder than that material ; and it twines lound the body of its vict a with electric effect. 3. 1 was to-day to see Mr. Congreve, who is almost blind ^vith cataracts growing on his eyes ; and his case is, that he must wait two or three years till he is quite blind, and then lie must have them couched ; and besides, he is never rid of the gout ; yet he looks quite young and fresh, and is as cheer- ful as ever. 4. It is to be observed abroad that no race of mortals have so little sense of religion as the English soldiers ; to confirm which, I have been often told by great officers of the army that ill the whole compass of their acquaintance, they could not recollect three of their profession who seemed to Vr'lieve one syllable of the gospel ; and the same at least may Cv' affirmed of the fleet. 5. Mr. Lewis and I dined with a friend of his, and unex- pectedly there dined with us an Irish Knight, one Sir John St. Ledger, who follows the law here, but at a great distance : he was so pert, I was forced to take him down more than once. 6. Dr. Kane described the Arctic silence as sometimes almost dreadful ; and one day at dinner, while Thackeray was (juietly smoking, and Kane was fresh from his travels, he told them a story of a sailor reading Pendennis. 7. To these fools, succeed such as may justly be included under the extensive denomination of incurable knaves ; of which our several inns of court; would constantly afford us abundant supplies. VM rA ■m ■ '■:■!■; Mr WHk; isJi L'^JL-,'-.^' i_,'t_''--::- , l-- .tlii ,'..<<'-' 98 Style — Things Unconnected. 8, When the King was restored, very few of those lords remained who began their education under the reign of James or Charles 1., of which lords the two principal were the Mar- quis of Ormond and the Earl of Soutliampton. 9. Unlike the others she is very fond of water, and if left to her own inclinations, would swim all day, having once saved the life of a child in Missouri, on the banks of the Mis- sissippi River ; she can never go near the water where people are bathing but that she insists upon fetching them out. 10. Fittz is a white and mouse-coloured hound, very savage from the day he was born, and shews a disposition like his mother, to be very treacherous, he is inclined to be cross and unruly at times, and nothing but the most severe discipline, coupled with a certain amount of kindness, ever kept him within bounds. 11. The kangaroo is the largest quadruped yet discovered, in Australia, measuring, when full grown, about five feet from the tip of the nose to the tail, the tail being about three feet, and weighing about 150 pounds. 12. The fire was a magnificent spectacle, as it formed a huge body of fiame rising perpendicularly into the air, and the fall of the big chimney made quite a sensation. 13. Captain Moore was shot through the leg, below the knee, and in trying to get up he broke it ; he crawled to the sleigh and was put in, or he would have been left. 14. In prison Boethius composed his work on the Consola- tions of Philosophy ; and Grotius wrote his Commentary on St. Matthew, with other works ; the detail of his allotment of time to difi*erent studies, during his confinement, is very in- structive. i' ii Parentheses — Supplementary Clauses. 99 LESSON XVIII. PARENTHESES. A Parenthesis may occaionally be introduced ipto a sentence with good effect, as : — " We are all (^and who would not be ?) offended at the treatment we have received." This is more vigorous than : — " We are all offended at the treatment we have received. Who, indeed, would not be offended T As, however, parentheses, by calling off attention from the main subject, tend to make sentences heavy and obscure, the use of them is fraught with danger, and should be avoided by young writers. Example. — "The quicksilver mines of Idria in Austria, (which were discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching some water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance, which turned out to be mercury) yield every year over three hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal." In this, the parenthesis should be made a separate sentence. Supplementary Clauses. An additional clause should not be tacked on after the sentence has been apparently brought to a close. Example. — " We drove ten miles through a blinding snow- storm, and when we reached our friend's house the people were all away ; it was dreadfully cold too." This sentence should end at "away," and the remainder ought either to be formed into a separate sentence, or to be neatly embodied in the main statement. Exceptions. — The rules here laid down for Unity must be construed with considerable liberality. 1. It must not be regarded as a violation of them to add after a semicolon a clause of Consequence, Explanation, Iter- I V %<■ ESfc' lOO Style — Parentheses — Exercises. \\ '; » tttion, Exemplification, or Qualification ; as : — " Surely this ought not to be asserted, unless it can Ije proved ; we should speak with cautious reverence upon such a subject." " Agri- culture is the foundation of manufactures ; the productions of nature are the materials of art. " 2. In Description and Narration, it is often desirable to bring together several distinct facts in the same sentence, as in the following : — " By night, sweet odors, varying with every hour of the watch, were wafted from the shore to the vessel lying near ; | and the forest trees, brought together by the serpent tracery of myriads of strange parasitical plants, might well seem to the fancy like some great design of build- ing, I over which the lofty palms appeared to present a new order of architecture." Here, there are three distinct facts that might have been written in as many separate sen- tences, but as they are closely connected in sense, they have a better effect in one sentence than they would have in three curt and abrupt ones. EXERCISE XXX. PARENTHESES. Reconstruct these sentences, turning the parentheses, where neces- sary, into sentences. 1. "Mind your own business" is an ancient proverb, (indeed all proverbs seem to be ancient) which deserves attention. 2. He built a large stone house on the brow of the hill, (it cost ten thousand dollars), which commanded a tine view of the surrounding country. 3. She said, if she could find some one (even if she should not be old enough and competent to do the work required) for u few weeks, she should be thankful. !:«•■.,?« Parentheses — Exercises, lOl lave 111 ire neces- 4. The opposition iir'Mcod the governor (who exe.cises the j)ower of appointing .judges during tiie rocej?^ of the legislature^ not to make any appointment. 5. If the object of the people assembled at Bethlehem was of a public nature (which it certainly was if they assem- bled with intent to prevent the execution of both the above- mentioned acts of Congress, or either of them), it nmst bo proved that the prisoner incited the insurrection. 6. His Excellency read liis letter (wherein, he says, that notwithstanding his objections to the Constitution, he would adopt it rather than lose the union), and then proceeded to prove the correctness of his opinion. 7. The first order of business shall be receiving the annual report of the trustees (showing the state of the school for the year, the proceedings of the trustees, and giving a detailed account of the receipt and expenditure of all school monc} i) and disposing of the same. 8. She dropped her face on my old nurse's breast, and, ceasing this supplication, which in its agony and grief was half a woman's, half a child's, as all her manner was (being, in that, more natural and better suited to her beauty, as J thought, than any other manner could have been), wept silently, while my old nurse hushed her like an infant. 9. He presented me to Mrs. Micawbor, a thin and faded lady, not at all young, who was sitting in the parlor (the first floor was altogether unfurnished, and the blinds were kept down to delude the neighbors), with a baby at her breiist. 10. Hadyn (who was the son of a poor wheelwright, and is best known to us by a noble oratorio, called " The Creation," which he is said to have composed after a season of solemn prayer for divine assistance), wrote fine pieces of music at ten years. 11. The famous poisoned valley of Java (which, as Mr. Loudon, a recent traveller in that regioit, informs us is twenty miles in length, and is filled with skeletons of men and birds ; and into which it is said the neighbouring tribes are in the habit of driving criminals, as a convenient mode of executing capital punishment) has proved to be the crater of an extinct volcano, in which carbonic acid gas is generated in great quantities, as in the Grotto del (^ane at Naples. .^fl til if.;' •MS lit r ■;^'>'- ,'.-r;:"«-o: v »i-"-5''vr ^. - (f f ' 'y 'li-i ■• '":■ •""^:. ;]■ .f- •-..,■■• ;r/ >■- ,:•;.*>. 1 02 Style— Supplementary Clauses. 12. Strict and careful selection of risks (every examination passing through the hands of a medical referee, as well as the examining physician, and every application receiving the en- dorsation of the council to which the applicant belongs), will be made before acceptance. 13. The functions of the pontiffs w6re (besides administer- ing the ecclesiastical law, prescribing the ceremonies of new kinds of worship, preparing the forms for public prayers, and composing the annals) inaugurating prodigies and punishing persons guilty of violating religious obligations. 14. This separation which contributed to deepen my pro- pensity to gloomy meditation, had for me (partly on that account, but much more through the sudden birth of perfect independence which so unexpectedly it opened) the value of a revolutionary experience. 15. In one ov two instances, I have ventured to scratch out (to show that I am quite of opinion that they would be better omitted) one or two lines together. EXERCISE XXXI. SUPPLEMENTARY CLAUSES. Turn the supplementary clauses into sentences, or embody them neatly in the original sentences. 1. When you send up butter for sauce, be so thrifty as to let it be half water; which is also much wliolesomer. 2. I am convinced that the name " scold " is as offensive to female ears, as the effects of that \ncurable distemper aro to the ears of men ; which, to be surf, is inexpressible. 3. 1 have frequently observed t'aat at the bar and the pulpit, those who have the least learning or sense generally meet with the largest share of promotions and profit ; of which many instances might be produced. 4. Women who are the most loved by men ai-e frequently the least liked by their own sex ; and with good reason gen- erally. Supplementary Clauses — Exercises. 103 5. A Church-of -England man will never be swayed by passion or interest to advance an opinion merely because it is that of the party he approves ; which, on single principle, he looks upon as the root of all our civil animosities. 6. And no wonder it is so, when in order to find out the character of a person, instead of inquiring whether he be a man of virtue, honor, piety, wit, good sense, or learning, the modern question is only whether he be a Whig or a Tory ; inidsr which terms all good and ill qualities are included. 7. After the Sabbath evening service, this noble man stood upon a chair on a corner of the street and preached in the open air to a large audience who crowded the street, and no policeman, interfered. 8. Six days out of the seven spent on the ocean were among the most pleasant days of my life, and now my diffi- culty is in parting with Mr. and Mrs. Frost, and the many kind friends whom I have met. 9. Mr. Brown was led into an alliance with Sir John in order to carry Confederation, which politically killed him. 10. On arriving at the place of execution the crowd separ- ating to allow the procession to pass, he made as if he would spit at the spectators, who were nearly all Europeans. 11. Zip is so much unlike the other two as almost to be pronounced a stranger to the rest ; but for the size, and in that respect she holds her own, weighing 34|^ pounds. 12. If some men, according to the fashionable metaphor, are square, whi^e others are round, the Right Honorable Robert Lowe must be described as multangular, with whom it is not very easy to live comfortably and at peace. 13. This morning a farmer living in Sable, committed sui- cide by shooting himself in the head with a shotgun, death resulting instantaneously. 14. School girls, you know, eat pickles and slate pencils, under the impression that it will make them pale, drying up the blood. 15. As he moralized on the words of Covvper " Riches have wings, and grandeur is but a dream," they seemed tc soothe tlie sadness of his heart ; which was sometimes subject to palpitation. m i ^:-.l Ili; 104 Style— Exercises on Unity. EXERCISE XXXII. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES ON UNITY. 1. Thus with her few notes does nature ring the changes of the seasons ; which we admire, and endeavouring to imi- tate, find but shadowy success. 2. There is to be a grand wedding next »veek, to which we are all to be invited, or at least so I hear. 3. The next lady to whom I was introduced was the Duchess of Devonshire, who received me with great affability, and, no long time afterward, had her neck broken in conse- quence of being thrown from her carriage. 4. Lord Bacon's maxims are full of philosophy ; but he was a very mean man. 5. Mr. Scott, of this town, met with a painful accident last week ; he is now quite an old man. 6. The king fell from his horse ana died two hours after the fall, which was occasioned by the horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was on his return from re\iewing his troops. 7. We intend to have observations of rainfall and temper- ature taken at the stations, and in this way data will accumu- late to show what varieties from normal seasons take place. 8. It is said that all the Presidents of the United States have had blue eyes, except General Harrison, and he did not live long. 9. Roderick Dhu is too boastful and confident in his own skill and powers ; he shows this in throwing down his targo in the duel between Fitz- James and himself ; which action cost him his life. 10. Their march was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a herd of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and nnsavory, by reason of their continual feeding ipon fish. 11. They asserted not only the future immortality, out the past eternity of the human soul, which they were too apt to consider as a portion of the infinite and self-existing spirit which pervades and sustains the universe. Unity — Exercises. 105 \vm 12.1 was at the Court of Requests to get some lords to be at a committee to-morrow about a friend's bill ; and then the Duke of Beaufort gave me a poem, finely bound in folio, printed in Stamford, and written by a country squire. 13. Mr. Harley continues out of order, yet his affairs force him abroad ; he is subject to a sore • throat, and was cupped last night ; I sent and called two or three times. 14. Here also would properly arise the question, started by Charles Fox (but properly due originally to the conversation of some far subtler friend, such as Edmund Burke), how far the practice of foot-notes (a practice purely modern in its form) is reconcilable with the laws of just composition \ and whether in virtue, though not in form, such foot-notes did not exist for the ancients, by an evasion we could point out. 1 5. Shortly after the accident happened he went for a tour on the continent ; where he saw many wonderful sights, with which he was delighted ; and throughout his whole travels he was treated with every mark of respect ; and returned after an absence of two years. 16. When Alexandria took Sidon he left his generals to appoint a king, so they went to two brothers and asked one of them to be king ; but neither of them would accept, for they said that they were no relation of any former king, and that it would not be right for them to reign, but they told the generals of a man named Abdolonymus, who was ^'elated to their former king, })ut who was so poor that he had to keep a market garden so as to gain a livelihood. 17. This great and good man died on the seventeenth of September, 1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions and a numerous family, of whom three were sons, one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situated, and shortly afterwards elected member for this county, which had for several generations returned this family to serve in parliament. 18. The tourists express themselves delighted with their trip up the lakes, and some of them intend to return next year and spend a few weeks camping among the islands, and they will probably bring home some fine sketches of the most pic- turesque points along the whore. ■1 \ \ 1 06 Sfy/e — Exercises on Unity. 19. An insurrection might take place in New Hampshire, but there is a man in Georgia who has never been out of the State, who is charged with having connection with it (perhaps he is a backwoodsman, going out with his gun a-hunting, or there migb be some assemblage of men, for some innocent or unknown purpose) ; what have the government to do in order to implicate this man with the insurrection ? 20. We next took the cars, which were filled to overflowing, and brought us to a landing, where a boat was in waiting that looked as if it were a century old ; but which, while we were examining its worm-eaten sides, put off at a rate which soon showed us that its sailing qualities were by no means con- temptible, and taught us the practical lesson that it is unsafe to judge of the merits of a thing by its external appearance. 21. We left Italy with a fine wind, which continued three days ; when a violent storm drove us to the coast of Sardinia, which is free from all kinds of poisonous and deadly herbs except one, which resembles parsley, and which, they say, causes those who eat it to die of laughing. 22. When my brother was coming home from Orleans he fell in with a man from Illinois, who had a son that had a broken leg, Avhich was shot through by one of the gang of men who robbed the establishment of Jones & Co., of New York,' which firm has since commenced business in this town. 23. The first gold pens (they have now come into use both in this country and in Europe, and are generally preferred to any other kind,) were made in 1836. 24. Handel's first opera was produced at this time, and met with great success ; it was followed Ity two more, which were received with the same unbounded enthusiasm. 25. In addition, on a slip of paper (and by means of an autograph apparatus, any number of copies of this list can be produced with great rapidity), the instrument records the name of each member and how he voted. Elegance — Melody. 107 i LESSON XIX. 4. ELBaANCE. Elegance constitutes the charm of language. It is that quality that pleases, as distinguished from that which in- structs (Clearness), or that which impresses (Strength). As the professed object of poetry is to please, Elegance is its appropriate excellence ; yet, since beauty always gives effec- tiveness to language, Elegance holds no unimportant place in prose. How ditt&ined. — -In seeking to attain Elegance, which is really the outcome of good taste, the beginner may gain something by giving attention to Melody, Harmony, to the Avoidance of Fine Writing, and to Keeping. Melody. Elegance requires Melody in language, that is, it requires the choice of such words as are agreeable to the ear, the taste, and the imagination. Melody may be promoted by the use of : — (1) Euphonious Words. — Ths sound of some words is much more agreeable to the ear than that of others. The fol- lowing are to be avoided as inharmonious : — (a) Derivatives from long compounds ; as : — unsuccessful- ness, tvrongheadedness. (6) Words that contain a succession of consonants ; as : — phaded'stj pledged'stj disrespect. (c) Words that contain a succession of unaccented sylla- bles ; as : — derogatorily, peremptoriness. (d) Words that contain vowels of the same or nearly th« same sound ; as : — holily. !08 Style — Elegance. • J, I On the other hand, it may be noted that : — (a) A preponderance of vowels and liquids gives ease and softness to the sound ; as : — elimination, moderation. (b) An alternation of vowels and consonants heightens the melody ; as '.—celerity, a lovely hoy. (c) A due alternation of long and short, of accented and unaccented syllables, is an essential condition of melody ; as : — " The pomp and circumstance of glorious war." {d) A difficult and harsh combination of letters may pro- duce an agreeable variety, if made to follow a succession of smooth and liquid sounds. (2 ) Arrangement. — Words may be well-chosen, and may be euphonious in themselves, yet if they are not skilfully ar- ranged, the nmsical flow of the sentence will be broken. {a) Euphonious words sometimes produce an unpleasing effect when placed in an order that causes unpleasant conso- nantal combinations, or a repetition of the same sounds in close succession; as: — "^ ' ^ ''';epin^ The mode of treatment and the style should »»<. suitable to Ww. subject ; the language and the subject should support each otlier; :liscords of all kinds should be avoided; and bold figures should ^>o sparingly used. (1) The difierent Tjarts of a sentence should be commen- surate, as : -"All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital." Here the first part of the sentence is plural and Eltga nee — Keeping. "5 the latter piirt si ngular. Say "Every iippellatiou." "Nothing could Ik) more oiie-sidcfl than th( point of view adopted.' How many ndes has a point '{ (2) The harshness caused by making two verl)^ or preposi- tions govern the same object, should be avoided, as : — " Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often l)e accom- pai ted by, the advantages of fortune." (.U Low or trivial language must not be used in serious composition, as : — " 'Blessed are the meek,' that was one of His observations." (4) The same word should not be used at short intervals in different senses, as : — " If the show of anything is good for anything, sincerity is better." (5) The repetition of the same word at brief intervals even in the same sense, is offensive to the taste as well as to the ear, as : — " The Colonel ordered the subordinate officers to order their troops to come to order." It may be avoided by the use of synonyms, thus : " The Colonel directed the subor- dinate officers to command the troops to come to oider." Exception. — Sometimes, however, the same word may be repeated with a fine effect, as : — " The faults of Herodotus are the fault^j of a simple and imaginative style." Sometinws, also, the repetition is necessary in order to make the sense clear, as : — " Tlie lord cannot refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon the tenant's death ; nor can he remove his present tenant so long as the tenant lives." SimiW \y a succession of clauses of the same kind >)ecomes disagrePThle. (d) Tlir practice of beginning sentence after sentence with "he" or some siiniUr woixi, is an inelegance that young writers are very apt to fall into. \s4 ' :h ■: "M Mil t I" ii6 Style — Keeping, Exercises. (7) A literal statement should not follow immediately after a metaphor, as : — " He was the father of chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Coik." (8) A poetic metaphor should not be used to illustrate a prosaic subject, as : — "Consols soared to 94^." (9) Incongruous statements should not, in serious con»posi- tion, be united in the same sentence, as : — " He was a lovin^ husband, a tender father, and a good shot." m\'' EXERCISE XXXV. KEEPING. Correct the violations of the rules of Keeping. 1. The articles never represent a noun. 2. Andrew Johnson, the last survivor of his honored predecessors. 3. The first project was to shorten discourse by cutting polysyllables into one. 4. We are at peace with all the world, and seek to main- tain our cherished relations of amity with the rest of mankind. 5. In the construction of the Act, '' teacher " shall inclu(l<^ female as well as male teachers. 6. Froshammer wishes to approach the subject from a philosophical stand-point. 7. The brain needs rest as much, if not more, than the rest of the body. 8. He looked very unnatural after he had received that unnatural treatment. 9. He successfully avoided threatening evils, and steered the ship of state into a safe harl)or. 10. After the door was closed a soft female foot slipped into the room, and with her own hand extinguished the taper. 1 1. The chariot ol revolution is rolling onward and gnashing its teeth as it rolls. 12. I was sitting at the table enjoying a cup of coffee, when a gentle voice tapped nje on the shoulder. I looked around and saw my old friend once more. Elegance — Exercises. 117 13. The Ladies' Benefit Association lias distributed twenty pairs of shoes among the poor, wliicli will dry up many a tear, 14. The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of ex- tension, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colors. 15. Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon. 16. He guided the people from the quicksands of protection into the safe harbor of free trade, and saved the country several millions. 17. They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from, the house. 18. I was sailing in a vast ocean, without other lielp than the pole-star of the ancients and the rules of the French stage. 19. The truth is that tiuth and error are blended together in their minds. 20". When entering the twilight of dotage, reader, I mean to have a printing press in my own study. 21. At the news of a Russian war, the price of wheat instantly soared up to a dollar a bushel. 22. He had not sense enough to see that the word was not used in that sense. 23. If the loss of temporal gain be the gain of eternal good, the reverse of fortune is the reverse of misfortune. 24. The farmer gave orders to his son to order the hired man to put the reaper in good order. m I ■'•II EXERCISE XXXVI. Miscellaneous exercises on Elegance. 1. No mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, knows to what use hi:? works, whatever they are, may, some time or othu', be applied. 2. The scene is la.'d on an inland lake. 3. Thou rushedst into the midst of the conflict and swervedst not. 4. He was mortifyingly rebuked for the mischievousness of his behavior. Ilg Sty/r — Exe ises on ElegcDUW 11 hi .li" " '^ 5. Generally speaking, a prudent genei-al will avoid a general engagement unless his forces are equal in bravery and discipline to those of his opponent. 6. Sobermindedness and shamefacedness are by some con- sidered evidences of virtuousness. 7. The essayist could not find a trace of some of those worthies of w^hom the world was not worthy. 8. Everybody knows that that knows anything at all. 9. The fact is, the rules of emphasis came in, in interrup- tion of your supposed general law. 10. Mind and matter comprise the entire universe as ascer- tainable by us. 11. He pulled out his purse to reimburse the unfortunate man. 12.1 confess with deep humility the sterility of my fancy and the debility of my judgment. 13. After describing so interesting a meeting concerning the rival parties contending for supremacy, the speaker paused. 14. They found that at an inroad of the Indians he had been taken prisoner. 15. As we approached the church we met crowds of respect- able people hurrying towards it, as if afraid of being too late to obtain a good seat, or even admittance, etc. 16. She always displays a cheerful temper and pleasant humoi'. 17. Tediousness is the most fatal of all faults. 18. He fell into the barrow and fast asleep simultaneously. 19. Moral faults only, and then only extremely rarely, should be corrected by ridicule. 20. Boys are sensitive, and to ridicule more than anything else, especially where both sexes are taught in the same room. 21. Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune. 22. It is many times as troublesome to make good the pre- tense of good quality as to have it. 23. He refused taking any further notice of it. 24. It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have the power to do this I may law fully do it. 25. They would not have been recalled to our remembrance if uncle had not inadvertently lighted upon the subject, 26. He presents more and more convincing arguments. I Rlegance — Exercises. tI9 27. A man of his sense should have a higher sense of honor. 28. I am acquainted with a certain man who has a certain income obtained from the investment of a certain sum 29. The work dwells upon eminent individuals, inquiring, theorizing, reasoning, confuting, etc. 30. The devouring elements consumed the edifice before its progress could be arrested. 31. The birds were clad in their brightest plumage, and the trees were clad in their brightest verdure. 32. He is the individual who took the initiative in intro- ducing piscine preserves in this locality. 33. He abruptly turned to the left and left the house. 34. I look upon it as my duty, so long as I keep within the bounds of truth and duty, and of decency. 35. Listlessly talking over village gossip, or telling sleepy, endless stories about nothing, they used to sit here in the shade through a long lazy summer's day (Here .... through . . talking .... nothing). 36. Therefore nothing, neither learning nor knowledge of the world, neither forensic acuteness, nor that eloquence which charms political assemblies, was wanting to the defence of Clive. (To the defence assemblies.) 37. The House of Socrates were those who next attempted to popularize Greek prose ; namely, the old gent himself^ the founder of the concern and his two apprentices, Plato and Xenophon. 38. There is, without doubt, some subtle essence permeat- ing the elementary constitution of crime, which so operates that men and women become its involuntary followers by sheer force of attraction, as it were. 39. Among the eminent men who figured in the eventful history of the French Revolution, was Mr. Talleyrand ; and wliether in that scene, or in any portion of modern annals, we sliall in vain look for one who represents a more interesting subject of history. 40. After the appetizing banquet had been done full jus- tice to, the party spent an extended period in pleasantly tripping the light fantastic. 41. She asked him to visit her paternal domicile, when the diurnal luminary sought his nocturnal resting-place behind the occidental horizon. V L I20 Style — Connection of Sentences. LESSON XXII. lN,.t m Y \m ' i f If l# III. CONNECTION OP SENTENCES. Hitherto we have considered only separate words and single sentences. We now come to study the connection of sentences in paragraphs, and of paragraphs in sketches. THE PARAGRAPH. The Paragraph is a larger division of discourse than the sentence, and, like it, should deal with a single topic. It is, in fact, a whole composition and should therefore be complete in itself. It aids the reader by showing him where the develop- ment of a point begins and where it ends. Principles. — The leading principles that govern the form- ation of the Paragraph are : — I. The Topic Sentence. The opening sentence, unless obviously preparatory, should set forth the subject of the paragraph. This sentence is gen- erally most effective when short. Example. — "The government went on, oppressing at home and blundering abroad. (Topic sentence). A war was foolishly undertaken against France, and more foolishly conducted. Buckingham led an expedition against Rh6, and failed igno- miniously. In the meantime soldiers were billeted on the people. Crimes of which ordinary justice should have taken cognizance were punished by martial law. Near eighty gentlemen," etc. The paragraph goes on enumerating other acts of "oppressing" and "blundering." Sometimes the first sentence, or even sentences, are in- tended to connect the paragraph with the one that precedes, or to introduce the topic sentence. Example. — "These were mere follies. (Connective and introductory sentence). But the spirit excited by these writers produced more serious effects. (Topic sentence). The greater part of the crimes which disgraced the revolution," etc. 1^' Connection of Sentences. 121 2. Arrangement. The *. ifferent sentences that compose a paragraph must follow one another in natural and logical order. If they do not, the attention of the reader is distracted and he finds it difficult, if not impossible, to follow the thread of the discourse. Example. — "On the third day after the action the dead were buried in the naval churchyard ; the ceremony was made as public and as solemn as the occasion required. A public monument was erected upon the spot where the slain were gathered together. A subscription was opened on the day of the funeral for the relief of the sufferers, and collections in aid of it throughout all the churches in the kingdom. This appeal to the feelings of the people was made with circumstances which gave it full effect. A monument was raised in the midst of the church ; young maidens, dressed in white, stood round it ; and a suitable oration was delivered from the pulpit." In this paragraph the sentences do not follow the order of events. 3. Explicit Reference. It is not enough that the sentences of a paragraph follow one another in proper order ; the connection of each with tlie preceding context must be made clear and unmistakable. It is of the utmost importance that the sentences should be connected in a clear, smooth, easy, and natural manner, so that the thought may be carried on without interruption from the beginning to the close. How attained. — Explicit Reference is attained in various ways : — 1. By the use of Adverbs, Conjunctions, or connecting phrases ; as : — " One person might have fallen asleep, but two — but three — that was a mere impossibility. And even supposing all three together with the baby locked in sleep, still how unac- countable was this utter silence ! Most naturally at his M m 122 Stj'/e — Connection of Sentence "^ tvi Mli K I' 'li f ml- moment something like hysterical horror overshadowed the poor girl. And now, at last, she rang the bell with violence. This done, she paused. Self-command enough she still re- tained." Th6 connectives used. — Among the most common con- nective words and phrases are : — (a) Those called cumulative ; as : — ^And, also, so, besides, further, moreover, first, secondly. (b) Those expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or the repetition of a subject; as : — Therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, in this way, again, once more, in fact, upon this, in that case, on the other hand, to proceed, to return. (c) Those expressing opposition or negation ; as : — Other- wise, nevertheless, still, however, but, on the contrary, con- versely. (d) Those expressing suspension ; as : — Some .... others; partly .... partly; undoubtedly .... but; indeed .... yet. 2. Connectives are often omitted, and other means em- ployed for joining sentences ; as : — (a) The repetition of some word or words; as : — " ffis canny humor lights up the political and theological controversies of the times with quaint incisive phrases. His reading was extensive ; and he was a voluminous author on subjects which ranged from predestina,rianism to tobacco. But his shrewdness and learning only left him the wisest fool in Christendom." (6) The inversion of the order of the words, or the giving of some word or words a position that enables them to point definitely to what was said in the preceding sentence ; as : — " Entering the gulf, he endeavored to find the river Darien. This river he could not discover." 3. Sometimes the relation of the sentences is such that the connection is evident without the insertion of any joining word or phrase. This is the case — Connection of Sentences. 123 (a) When the thoughts are very closely related ; as : — "He turned his Jiorse towards Thame, where he arrived almost fainting with agony. The surgeon dressed his wounds. But there was no hope." (6) When the sentence explains or repeats the one going before it; as : — " I need not dwell on the illustrious birth of that princess. No rank on earth equals it in lustre." (c) In cumulative statements ; as in 2 (a), p. 1 22. (d) In a statement of consequence ; as : — " Further resist- ance on your part is hopeless. I ask the surrender of your army." 4. Unity. The Paragraph should possess Unity ; that is, every state- ment should be subservient to one principal affirmation, and that principal affirmation should be kept prominent through- out the Paragraph. Every sentence must be part of one whole, and that whole should be the presentation of one view of one point of a subject, or one part in description or narration. Example. — The following paragraph illustrates how every sentence should bear on the Topic Sentence : — "What, then, are the proper encouragements of genius? (Topic sentence). I answer, subsistence and respect ; for these are rewards congenial to nature. Every animal has an ailment suited to its constitution. (General illustration). The heavy ox seeks nourishment from earth ; the light chameleon has been supposed to exist on air. (Particular illustration). A sparer diet than even this satisfies the man of true genius, for he makes a luxurious banquet upon empty applause. (Com- parison). It is this alone which has inspired all that ever was truly great and noble among us. It is, as Cicero finely calls it, the echo of virtue. (Amplification). Avarice is the passion of inferior natures; money the pay of the common herd. (Con- trasting sentences). The author who draws his quill merely to take a purse, no more deserves success than he who presents a pistol." (Conclusion). 124 Style — Connection of Sentences. W\ ■ i r' \ I t f I . 1^ 5. Due Proportion. As in the sentence, a due proportion must exist between the principal and the subordinate statement. This is a prin- ciple of symmetry that applies to -^very work of art, and the utmost skill and much practice are required to give each part of a paragraph that due bulk and importance which rounds it out a id gives finish and completeness to the whole. EXiimple. — The sentence quoted as an example of Unity may be considered under this head. It will be found symmet- rical and well balanced. 6. Parallel Construction. If the matter of a paragraph is such that several consecu- tive senf^nces repeat, expand, or illustrate the same idea, these sentences should, as far as possible, be formed alike. Example. — " We must not omit to mention that those who were afterwards the most distinguished ornaments of the King's party, supported the bill of attainder. It is almost cer- tain that Hyde voted for it. It is quite certain that Falkland both voted and spoke for it. The opinion of Hampden, as far as can be collected from a very obscure note of one of his speeches, seems to have been that the proceeding by Bill was unnecessary, and that it would be a better course to obtain judgment on the impeachment." Caution. — Parallel constructions should not be followed when they become monotonous or otherwif^ lessen the vigor of discourse. 7. Variety. In the mechanical construction of the Paragraph every device should be taken in order to prevent monotony. The sentences should be of different length ; some sliort, some long; they should be varied in construction, simple, periodic, and so on ; and they should be connected with all possible variety of method. Connection of Paragraphs. — The connection of para graplis requires the same care as the connection of sentences, and is effected by similar methods. Connection cf Sentences — Exercise.-. 125 EXERCISE XXXVII. Study tliese sentences till yon understand them. Then form them into paragraphs that follow the rules laid down in llie preceding Lesson. 1. The Roman Emperor marched over a sandy desert. It lies between Emesa find Palmyia. He was perpetually haras- sed by the Arabs. The Arabs were robbers. They wore active and daring. He could not always defend his army. E ipecially liis baggage. The Arabs came in flying troops. They watched the moment of surprise. They eluded the slow pursuit of the Roman legions. The siege of Palmyra wafj an object more difticult and important. The Emperor pressed the attack in person. With increased vigor. Was himself wounded with a dart. The firmness of Zenobia was supported by hope. Zenobia was queen of Palmyra. She thought that famine would compel the Romans to repass the desert. That the kings of the East would arm themselves in her defence. Par- ticularly the Persian monarch. This was reasonable. The Persian monarch was her most natural ally. The perseverance of the Emperor Aurelian overcame every obstacle. He was aided by fortune. The Persian councils had become distracted. The distraction was caused by the death of Sapor, the Persian general. The Peisians sent inconsiderable succours. They attempted to relieve Pal my ra. The Emperor easily intercepted them. Zenobia resolved to fly. She mounted the fleetest of her dromedaries. She reached the banks of the Euphrates. The Euphrates is sixty miles from Palmyra. The Emperor's light horse pursued. They overtook her. They seized lier. They brought her captive to the feet of the Emperor. Palmyra surrendered. It was treated by the Emperor with unexpected lenity. 2. Still there v^ere not knighthoods enough. In 1783 the king instituted the Order of St. Patrick. Scotland had its most ancient Order of the Thistle. No order of knighthood had, until that time, been appropriated to Ireland. The Han- overian Guelphic Order of Kniglithood had been opened to the ambition of Englishmen ; William IV., during his reign, added to its roll a goodly company of English knights. The dit'r,-^ 126 .J I* t- I • , \ ■ I- '' f>i* ; :--';1i 5/y/(? — Connection of Sentences. Order of the Bath, o/i^iiutlly a military order, was eiihirged in 1815 ; again in 1847, the Queen added a civil division to the order. This was to comprise such persons as by their personal services to the Crown, or by the performance of pub- lie duties, had merited the royal favor. Beside these several titled orders, may bo noticed oHicers enjoying naval and military rank, whoso numbers wei-e extraordinarily aug- mented by the long war with France, and by the extension of the British possession abroad. Men holding high officers in the State, the Church, the Law, the Univeisities, and other great incorporations have associated their powers and influ- ence with those of the nobility. The continual growth and accumulation of property have been a source of increasing strength to the Britisii nobles. Wealth is in itself in> aristo- cracy, and it may desire to rival the nobility of n rountry, even to detract from its glory. In this land of associations, it seeks only to enjoy the smiles and favors of the aristocracy, craves admission to its society, aspires to its connection, is ambitious of its dignities ; the learned professions ancl com- merce and manufactures and public employments have created an enormous body of persons of indepeiident income ; s(jme connected with the landed gentry, others v\ ith the conuiiercial classes: so all three form part of the independent "gentry," They are spread over the fairest parts of the country, NobJo cities have been built for their accomodation. Bath, Chelten- ham, Leamington, Brighton, attest their numbei-s, their o})'i- lence. They form a strong outwork of the peerage, v.itli much social influence and political weight, and uphold its ascendency by moral as well as by political support. Profes- sions lean as a body on the higher ranks of society ; tlu; Church is peculiarly eoiniected with the landed interest ; everywhere the clergy cleave to power ; the vast lay patron- age vested in the proprietors of the soil, draws close the bond between them and tiie Church ; the legal and medical profes- sions, being mainly supported by wealthy patrons, have the same political and social interests. How vast a connnunity of rank and of wealth and of intelligence do these several classes of society constitute ! The House of Lords, in truth, is not only a privileged l)ody, but i\ great representative institution, standing out as t!ie eniliodiuient of the ai"istocratic influence, and sympathies of the countrN'. Connection of Sentences — Exercises. 127 arged on to their if pub- eveial il and aug- siou of ces ill other infhi- :,h and [•easing aristo- ^untry, iations, ocracy, tion, is id coni- creatcd 1 ; sonic inercial [entry," Noble helten- ?ir f)i)M- e, v.ith lold it.H Profos- ty ; th gain a support. 17. The editor has far greater pleasure in speaking of her writings as thoy struck his youthful fancy, than with the cool judgment of more mature years. 18. Owing to an obstacle on the track, and the badness of the weather, the train was delayed, and as John did not reach home in time to attend the funeral, thoy concluded to postpone it. 19. The English hate frogs, but the French love frogs and hate the English, and cut off their hind legs, and consider them a great delicacy. 20. John Brown, his wife, baby, and dog came up to town to see the fair, and passing through the streets, he amused himself by bark- ing at every unprotected female he met. 21. By the time I had taken five bottles, I found myself completely cured, after having been brought so near the gates of death, by means of your invaluable medicine. 22. A diminutive specimen of the feminine gender, rejoicing in the euphonious cognomen of Mary, was possessed of a young animal called, in common parlance, a lamb. The exterior woolly covering of the (juadruped was in colour white as the driven snow ; and to all places and localities whithersover the said Mary in her wanderings did per- ambulate, the aforesaid small quadruped in like manner was just as certain to peregrinate. 23. This author surpassed all those who were living at the same time with him in the forcible manner in which he could address an appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease with which he could draw towards himsiilf the hearts of his readers. 24. The government will present a bill lo the next session of parlia- .-nent to enable the Australian colonies to establish a federal council, which will be authorized to deal with subjects of common interest to the different colonies, apart from questions involved in colonial institutions. 25. Ontario may well feel proud of her excellent system of education established by Dr. Ryerson, and improved upon by his successors when necessary, as it is far above the educational standard of Oregon. 20. This place was at that time the great centre of convict establish- ments, that were carried out under cruel sufferings, at which the uninitiated would shudder and declare too abhorent to read about, let alone witness. 27. Their sufferings were so great that they stood at no crime to rill themselves of the burden of life, preferring death rather than live thus, because their deeds were evil. 28. It is a common thing for girls to have six or seven different pieces of false hair to wear on the forehead, changing the style of their faces to suit their bonnets. k ' /T-s ^ :li 130 Style — M isccllaneoiis Exercises. %'\h\ * • ' if 29. He thinks that he does not feel as well as when he started, biit attributes this result in part to the spirit of unrest, bustle, and hurry so characteristic of America, which he encountered in all the larjje cities. 30. Mr. S. aV. Grindrod has got into financial difficulties which will likely culminate in himself and his business being separated. 31. The Chinese are in all kinds of business, boots and shoes and in fact every branch of trade, and my advice to you, if you love your country, is to do all in your power to keep them out of it. 32. Violations of simplicity, whatever the type, show either that the mind of the writer is tainted with affectation, or else that an effort is making to conceal conscious poverty of sentiment under lofti- ness of expression. 33. He was impatient, in the generosity of his nature, of that praise which sought him out in injustice of those who had really tri- umphed. 34. He was shocked that one who had in every way sought his love by gentle kindness should be deprived of power and liberty by his own nearest kinsman. 35. The king grew prematurely old under the unusual weight of his cares and anxieties, which would naturally depress one who held his crown by an uncertain tenure. 36. Thus Pedro threw away the very friendship, without which he would still have been an exile, and the alienation of which left him exposed without defence to that resistless home party, which still clung to his brother Henry. 37. His presence in company with the new king, gave additional edaf. to the usurpation ; for he was looked upon as innocent of the stain, and his youth and beauty elicited the enthusiasm of the pop- ulace, who were now to regard him as their future monarch. 38 The entente cordiah between Germany and France is tending to rupture, France persisting in her opposition to the neutralization of the Association's territory. 39. Resolved, That this Association expresses the regret with which they have heard of the death of Mr. J. B., Q.C., who added to great ability the virtues of courtesy and kindness to the other members of his profession, cou))led with the highest integrity, and they desire to convey to Mrs. B. and family their heartfelt sympathy in a bereave- ment, that is felt by the profession throughout the province. 40. "Prisoner at the bar." said the learned jtidge, " not only did you ferociously and traitorously transfix the entrails of the unfortunate decea: '>d, a private in the Foot Guards, thus causing his death, but >ou also ran the knife right through the waistband of a pair of breeches, the property of his sacred Majesty the King ; and ye shall swing for it !" 41 "Gentlemen of the jury," said the high functionary, "the prisoner at tlie bar not only violated the law ; he not only wantonly and ferociously attempted to take the life of a fellow creature, but, Formation and Connection of Sentences. I "^I gentlemen, he spread alarm and perturbation throughout the Rue des Martyrs ; and with the second bullet from his revolver he smashed a large square of plate-glass in the window of a highly respectable tradesman next door 1" 42. During the war it was supposed that the Americans might try to invade Upper Canada from the north. A landing effected about C!oldwater, then a few miles across by the trail to Orillia, then a dotilla of boats hastily constructed, and a landing at the Holland River, would bring them into the settled portion of the Province. 43. Why remain in the land of snow, when you can visit New Orleans and return for $31.85, where the magnolia is in bloom. 44. A gentleman once drove up to a hotel, and giving his horse into the caro of the hostler said: — "Extricate this quadruped from the vehicle, stabulate him, supply him with a sufficient quantity of nutri- tious aliment, and when the Aurora of morn shall again dawn, I will amply repay you for your amiable hospitality." The hostler, amazed, hastened in to tell his master that a Dutchman wanted to see him. 45. A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legis- late, cannot govern, and has attained an intluenoe which renders it imperative, if this ministry is to go on, that it should be dispersed. 46. The spirit of liberty and the spirit of nationality were once for all dead ; it might be for a time a pious duty,>but it could not continue always expedient or profitable to mourn for their loss ; yet this is the feeling of the age of Trajan. 47. We may recur to an earlier period, when the crown was devis- able by will in England, or when at least the succession was settled in accordance with the desires of a dying sovereign, for some kind of parallel. 48. The moon is situated about two hundred and forty thousand miles from the earth, and is supposed to be an opaque body shining only by the reflection of the rays passing from the sun, and it in- fluences the waters of the earth in such a way as to produce a tidal wave twice in twenty-four hours. 49. Why, our cook (she's fifty if she's a day) got a bonnet just like mine, (the materials were cheaper but the effect was the same) and had the impertinence (servants have no idea of their place in this country) to wear it before my face. 50. The moon was casting a pale light on numerous graves that were scattered before me, as it peered above the horizon when I opened the little gate of the church-yard. 51. In this uneasy state, both of his public and private life, Cicero was oppressed by a new and cruel affliction, the death of his beloved daughter, Tullia, which happened soon after her divorce from Dola- bella, whose manners and humors were entirely disagreeable to her. 52. The erroneous judgment of parents concerning the conduct of schoolmasters, has crushed the peace of many an ingenious man who is engaged in the care of youth ; and paved the way to the ruin of hopeful boys. 'ir^; (' .:,'' 132 Style — Miscclla7icoiis Exercises. !t \V\ 53. The discontented man (as his spleen irritates and sours his temper, and leads him to discharge its venom on all with whom liP stands connected) is never found without a great share of malignity. 54. There was something so startling in this assertion, that the discoveries of previous investigators were to be treated as though they had never been made, and that one who had not yet attained the age of manhood had superseded the grey-headed philosophers, who for centuries patiently sought after the truth, that it naturally provoked division. 55. He was knovn to his country neighbors during more than forty years as a gentleman of cultivated mind, whose principles were high, with polished address, happy in his family, and actively dis- charging local duties ; and among political men as an honest, indus- trious and sensible member of parliament, without eagerness to display his talents, who was stanch to his party, and attentive to the interests of those whose representative he was. 56. Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere with the duties of state, which he considered to be superior to all other claims and of paramount importance, and kept himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or amusement to run to any excess, yet he took great pleasure in the chase, of which he was excessively fond, and for the purposes of which he created several large parks of considerable magnitude. 57. The commons would not approve the war expressly ; neither did they as yet condemn it expressly; and the king might even liave obtained a supply for continuing hostilities from them, on condition of redressing grievances connected with the administration of affairs at home, among which the Declaration of Indulgence was a very important one. 68. Reports having been published in some newspapers that our men have been insubordinate and have disobeyed their officers, and thus retarded the expedition, I think it only due them to contradict these statements through your widely circulated paper, as they are wholly untrue. 69. It must always be borne in mind that it is not the mere wall, rough carpentry, plastering, and roofing that make the great bulk of the cost of a building, unless one of a very plain description. 60. She was fond, however, of literary society, as is shewn by her friendship for Mrs. Rowe (she was the authoress of the letter signed Cleora in Mrs. R's collection) ; Thomson, whom she kindly patronized (who dedicated to her the first edition of his " Spring" ) ; Dr. Watts, (who dedicated to her his " Miscellaneous Thoughts in Prose and Verse"); and Shenstone, (who addressed to her his "Ode on Rural Elegance"). 61. This well known lady, the widow of a presbyterian clergyman of Inverness-'-liire, Scotland, whose Letters from the Mountains have been so generally and universally admired, published a volume of poems in 1801, which show the same talents that made her descrip- tions of scenery so graphic and delightful. Variety of Expression — Prose. 133 man of s have imo of cscrip- LESSON XXIII. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 1. FBOSE. Explanation. — Thought is expressed by means of language. Every cultivated language affords great diver^ty of choice in the manner of presenting an idea. To be able to select the fittest dress in which to clothe a thought, is an attainment of the highest value. In acquiring this power, the study of the various modes of expression will be found helpful. Variety may be in the arrangement of the words, phrases, or clauses, in the construction, in the words, in the phraseology, in the sentences, and in the entire sketches. What assumed. — It will here be taken for granted that tlie pupil is familiar with the different kinds of grammatical Sentences, Simple, Compound, and Complex, as well as with the variations and modifications that their subjects and predi- cates may undergo. What important. — Whatever variations may be made, the one point of importance to be borne in mind, is that the original meaning is to be retained. Modes. — Variety of expression may be secured by Transpo- sition, by Construction, by Synonyms, and by Phraseology. Transposition. The parts of a sentence may generally l)e arranged in sev- eral ways ; yet there is in every case, a particular order that is more forcible aud beautiful than any other. Example. — " To secure us the blessings of liberty, our fathers end i red a long and bloody war."- Our fathers, to secure us the blessings of liberty, endured a long and bloody war. Or: Our fathers endured a long and bloody war to secure us the blessings of liberty. Or: A long and bloody war our fathers endured, to secure us the blessings of liberty. ii t 1 3 4 Style — Tra nsposition —Exercises. EXERCISE XXXIX. <'>!' Vary the following sentences by transposing the words, clauses, and phrases. 1. T like what you dislike. 2. Our sight is the most perfect of our senses. 3. Where much is given, much will be required. 4. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! 5. The wind came roaring down the mountain gorge. 6. To this audience, gathered on that day from every part of the land, Everett spoke. 7. The rocks crumble ; the trees fall ; the leaves fade ; and the grass withers. 8. The first and great object of education is mental disci- pline. 9. The calm shade shall bring a kindred calm, and the soft breeze shall waft balm, to thy sick heart. 10. The murmurs of the people were loud, as their suffer- ings increased. 11. If beasts could talk, they might often tell a sad story. 12. For man}'^ a returning autumn, a lone Indian was seen standing at the consecrated spot we have mentioned. 13. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 1 4. It is very difficult to lay down rules for the acquire- ment of such a taste as that I am speaking of. 15. Lord Oxford's domestic related, that, in the dreadful winter of forty, she was called from her bed four times in one night, to supply Mr. Pope with paper, lest he should lose a thought. Variety of Expression — Construction. 135 LESSON XXIV. CONSTRUCTION. SUBSTITXrnON.— In the construction of sentences, great lati- tude is afforded in the choice of the form of expression. As Variety in this respect is one of the beauties of goor' compo- sition, pains must be taken to acquire a readiness and tact in substituting one construction for another. How Secured. — Variety of construction may be secured by (1) substituting one kind of phrase or clause for another, (2) by varying the predicate, (3) by combining or exp:-nding sentences, (4) by changing the form. 1. Adjectival Phrases or Clauses may be changed into : — (1) Adjectives ; as : — A man of virtue. — A virtuous man. He assumed a gravity that was ridiculous. — He assumed a ridiculous gravity. (2) Infinitives; as: — He was the lirst that entered. — He was the first to enter. (3) Adverbial Clauses ; as : — A man that does not care for music is to be pitied. — A man, if he does not care for music, is to be pitied. Or : If a man does not care for nmsic, he is to be pitied, (4) Prepositional Phrases ; as : — A man who has little sense, is seldom aware of the fact. — A man, with little sense, is seldom aware of the fact. (5) Particip!:j or Participial Phrases ,as : — Glaciers, which How down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers. — Glaciers, tlowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers. (6) Appositive Nouns; as: — He was appointed cashier, which is a very responsible position. — He was appointed cashier, a very responsible position. ■ ! ' Un' n 136 Sfjy/e — Construction. iilr Iff m n» t 'I 1 Pi I? '\ 2. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses may be changed into : — (1) Participles^ or Phrases containing Participles; as: — She gave it to me when she was dying. — She, dying, gave it to me. (2) Imperative Mood ; as : — If that is granted, the rest is easily proved. — Grant tiiat, and the rest is easily proved. (3) Prepositional Phrases ; as : — My mother, when she does praise me, grieves me.^ — My mother, in praising me, grieves me. (4) Nominative Absolute ; as : — When the cat's away, the mice will play. — The cat being away, the ..lice will play. (5) Other Adverbial Phrasss ; as: — Many people fail be- caust! they neglect their own business. — Many people fail through neglecting their own business. (6) Infinitive Phrases ', as : — We should rejoice when we hear of the prosperity of others. — We should rejoice to hear of the prosperity of others. (7) Adverbs ; as : — As far as we can judge by appearance, she is wealthy. — She is apparently wealthy. 3. Noun Glauses may be changed into : — (1) Infinitives; as: —We know not what we should do. — We know not what to do. (2) Limited Infinitives; as: — It Avas .a lucky thing that Tom was here. — Tom's being here was a lucky thing. (3) Infinitives with Subject ; as : — I believe that he is honest. — I believe him to be honest. (4) Prepositional Phrases ; as : — I cannot accept the no- tion that school life affected him so. — I cannot accept the notion of school-life affecting him so. mm Change of Phrases — Exercises. 137 EXERCISE XL. ido. — that he is In the following sentences, change the adjectival phrases or clauses as illustrated in Lesson XXIV. 1. A sharp criticism, which has a dn^p of witty venom in it, stings a young author ahnost to death. 2. He advanced with a rapidity that was incredible. 3. Count Bismarck soon displayed talents for government that were very extraordinary. 4. We cut our way through this icy region, with toil and suffering that cannot he conceived. 5. Then followed such a scene as cannot he described. 6. Winter is the season of the year which is most desolate. 7. All iL.viverag,es which intoxicate should be avoided. 8. The books which were not yet bound were destroyed by fire. 9. The trees which were not protected were killed in winter. 10. The corn which is not yet planted will not become ripe. 1 1 . The trees which grow along the banks of the river, are truly majestic. 1 2. The money which has been foolishly spent, is generally much needed afterwards. 13. I will send this to your friend, who is an' excellent judge of such matters. 14. They attacked the fort with a force that could not be resisted. 15. The nations that have the most intelligence, are the most prosperous. Change the adjectives, infinitives, adverbial clauses, prepositional phrases, participles, and appositiv nouns, into adjectival phrases or clauses. 1. The thoughts conveyed should be of the highest order. 2. He feels a thirst for excellence not to be corrupted by the moth. 3. Everything created by God is capable of serving man. m. i^f^ 138 Style — Change of Phrases, ff(' 4. Even here you need something to be found in older lands. 5. These leaves have a thick vein running down the middle. 6. Our house, with its little yard in front, stood on that street. 7. A heavy wagon, raising clouds of dust, was lumbering along. 8. I saw a tigure walking from the west toward me. 9. She wore a simple print gown of blue and white. 10. The dog with the long ears was killed. 11. In the late war between France and Russia, the former country sufi'ered great reverses. 12. He regularly paid his house tax. 13. This long and uninteresting speech was brought to a hurried close. 14. His conduct is not admirable. 15. She practised also another form of charity, that of forgiving injuries. ra 1 4 ! "'*' Si")^ m 4 ( ( V, m WM\ m^: EXERCISE XLI. In the following sentences, change the adverbial phrases and clauses as illustrated in Lesson XXIV. 1. A shrug of the shoulders would lose much if it were translated into words. 2. If we keep to the goHeu mean in everything, wg shall at least avoid danger. 3. Trains should be run that travellers may be accommo- dated. 4. The true Christian lives as the New Testament directs. 5. Milton was eight years old wlien Shakespeare was born. 6. Some minute animals feed, though they have no mouths or stomachs. 7. Though we care for our bodies, we cannot always keep them in health. 8. Good Americans, when tliey die, go to Paris. 9. Error dies of lockjaw if she scratches her finger. Change of Phrases — Exercises. 139 10. When Johnson wrote for publication, he did Ids seii- t(Mices out of English into Johnsonese. 11. A general often ' ..ves his camp-tires burning, that he may conceal his retreat. 12. Modern failures an^ of such magnitude, that Jiey appal the imagination 13. The Son of Man had no place where he might lay His head. 14. When I had eaten my dinnei-, I returned to tlui store. 15. When I was young I thought otherwise. Change the participial, prepoGitional, inlinitive, and absolute phrases, the imperatives, and adverbs, into adverbial phrases or clauses. 1. Few care to dive beneath the surface. 'Z. Thoughts nmst be seen distinctly. 3. Oh, I am so glad to be at home. 4. The Imsiness being over, the crowd dispersed. 5. Having finished his work, the man returned home 6. The trains run very fast on that road. 7. He labors diligently for wealth. 8. At hearing of the sad changes in his home, his heart sank within him. 9. With our friends absent, we cannot come to a decision. 10. But, coming back to England in November, he found himself sunk in debt. 11. They determined to postpone the attack until the arri- val of the fleet. 12. Learn to govern yourself, and you will be able to govern others. 1 3. After postin;:; sentries round the walls, the garrison re- tired to rest. 14. He left the field of battle with a broken arm. 15. Though Elizal)eth was buried in foreign intrigues, she was above all an English sovereign. I40 Style — Change of Clauses, m B B ,; ' In EXERCISE XLII. In the following sentences change the noun clauses as indicated in Lesson XXIV. 1. It is impossible tliat I slioukl accompany you. 2. It is expected that you should preach to-morrow. 3. I supposed that he was my friend. 4. I cannot see where I oujn;lit to go. 5. That we make the most of golden opportunities, is a privilege as well as a duty. 6. The influence of school prizes is, that they lead pupils to study for the sake of them. 7. It is not enough tiiat truth be visible in a clear a "r. 8. I cannot conceive it possible that an idle man can be a saint. 9. I should like to tell the whole truth before I pass awuy. 10. They found that the place was inhabited by heathen tribes. 11. He denied that he had used that expression. 12. We are not certain that mind and matter are distinct existences. 1 3. It seemed to him that he had become a new boy again. 14. Tom was sorely puzzled when they took other ground. 15. They did not feel that they were doing anything out of the common way. Change the various infinitives to noun clauses, to participles, to nouns, or to other infinitives. 1. It was impossible for us to do justice in that case. 2. The end of writing is to instruct. 3. I was yesterday much surprised to hear my old friend call out to John Matthews not to disturb tlie congregation. 4. At this time the weather is subject to cliange fre quently. 5. I believe him to be a student. 6. The chief's being absent was an unfortunate thing. 7. To be united, is to be strong. 8. He is not a man to act dishonestly. Variety of Hxpression — The Predicate. 141 9. A physician was entreated l>y a patient to give a name to an unknown complaint. 10. Raleigli imagined it possible to corrupt such corruptors. 11. He once struck himself with such violence against a pillar in the gallery as to remove all doubt of his malady. 12. They Ijave concluded among them that it is expedient for a man to die, 13. I dreamt not now to claim its aid. 14. The interjection may be said to be the mother-tongue of passion. 15. You are always certain to detect a sham in such showy things. LESSON XXV. THE PKEDICATE. Sentences may be varied by changing the predicate. 1. The verb he and an adjective may be substituted for the predicate verb; as : — That suffices for me. — That is sufficient for me. 2. ^'"^metimes the verb he and an attributive noun may be substituted for the predicate verb ; as : — He invents. — He is an inventor. 3. The \ erb Aave, and an object, may be substituted for the predicate verb ; as : — He is not discreet. — He has no discretion. 4. The voice of the verb may be changed ; as : — They searched for you. — You were searched for. 5. The chief part of the predicate may be changed to an adjective ; as : — Her disease cannot be cured. — Her disease is incurable. G. Instead of an affirmative statement, we may use a denial of the opposite ; as : — He is learned. — He is not un- educated. 142 S/y/r —Rxcrcises — Sentences. tu ;^'p' W '< 'It I'ti Mi h W Mil' M ,' >!> • li ir ' 5) H 'j II.-.' EXERCISE XLIII. Vary the sentences by chaiigiu)^ the predicate as indicated above. My impression ditters froin yours. This statement applies only to certain districts. He is fanatical. 4. Your words indicated doubt. He was friendly to us. 6. Caterpillars injure trees. Suspicion destroys love and friendship. Our interference did not produce much good. I do not sympathize with them. She does not love him. 11. You are not merciful. He is not polite. 13. He is not skilful. f The -soldiers burned down the town. The childrf'n gathered the apples. The things which I brought home, I gave to my brother. The mystei'v was soon solved. The ob.stacl<*s cannot be surmounted. He is worthy of contempt. At this point the mountain may be seen. His speaking could not be heard. It is probable. 23. 1 am mindful of you. Your argument was logical, but it was out of place. What the man earned during the day, was squandered 1. 2. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. 12. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 24. 25. in the evening. LESSON XXVI. SENTENCES. *?. The construction may be varied by combining, contracting and expanding sentences. Simple Sentences. — 1. Two or more simple sentences may be combined by changing one of them into : — (1) An Appositive Phrase ; as : — The keeper was a man of great strength. He killed a lion. — The keeper, a man of great strengti. killed a lion. t. "' Sentences — Chatti^e of Construction. M3 (2) A Participial Phraite : as : — Tlie trpes are growing along the rivei'. They are very hu'ge. — The tfoes, growing along the river, are very huge. {'.]) An Infinif've P/irnsfi ; as : — I have come. I shall assist you. — I have come to assist you. (4) A Prepodtional Phrase, ; as : — There is a path through the woods. It is shady and cool. — Tho path througli the woods is shady and cool. 2. Two or more simple sentences may be combined into a complex sentence by making one the independent clause, and turning the others into dependent clauses : — (1) Into an Ailjectival Clause; as: — The tree is dead at the top. The tree was struck by lightning, — The tree which was dead at the top, was struck by lightning. (2) Into an Adverbial Clause ; as : — I have come. I shall assist you. — I have come that I may assist you. (3) Into a Noun Clause ; as : — Plato's enemies had spoken ill of him. He was told this. — Plato was told that his enemies had spoken ill of him. 3. Two or more simple sentences may be combined into a compound sentence, by uniting the sul)jects, or by uniting the predicates ; as : — Life is work. Life is warfare. — Life is work and warfare. The men are diligent. The boys are dili- gent. — The men and the boys are diligent. He is a wise ::ian. He is a good num. He is a patriotic man. — He is a wise, good, iuid patriotic man. He speaks prudently. He acts prudently. — He speaks and acts prudently. 4. Simple sentonces may bo expanded into compound or into complex sentences. Example. — On approaching the house, we saw the enemy ictieating. — As we were approaching the liouse, we saw the cMen)y retreating. Or : We appi'oached the house and saw the enemy retreating. 144 Style — Direct Discourse for Indirect. hiW'^A I " f t ' I'- Compound and Complex Sentences may be contracted into Simple Sentences. Example. — It grieves one dog when he sees another dog go into the kitchen. — It grieves one dog to see another dog go into the kitchen. Compound Sentences may be changed into Complex, and Complex into Compound. Example. — I was too far from home to think of returning, and so I determined to go forward. — As I was too far from home to think of ..eturning, I determined to go forward. Direct Discourse for Indirect. Direct discourse introduces the speakers themselves, while indirect merely tells what they said or did^ It is often con- venient or desirable to change the one into the other. This is done chiefly by changing the first and second person to the third, and the present tense to the past. Example. — Direct : " Paint me as I am," said Cromwell, " witli all my scars, wrinkles, and warts, or I will not pay you a shilling." Indirect : Cromwell said that the painter was to paint him as he was, with all his scars, warts, and wrinkles, or he would not pay him a shilling for the picture. EXERCISE XLIV. Combine the Simple Sentences into Compound or Complex, as illustrated in the preceding lesson. 1. There is a curious bird in Australia. It has a note like the tinkling of a bell. 2. The man has a habit of rising late. It will bring him to poverty. 3. Let us strive to please our conscience lirst ; and lot us strive to please the world next. -y,;.,.,, ..,.»._.,....; ■ Expansion of Sentences — Exercises. H5 4. The next morning the battle began in terrible earnest. The next morning was the 24th of June. The battle began at break of day. 5. The young stranger made his appearance at Niagara. This was about fifteen years ago. It was in the glow of early summer. The stranger was of pleasing countenance. 6. The sails hung ready. The ship lay in t!ie stream. Busy little boats darted about her. Puffing little steamers daited about her. They clung to her sides. They paddled away from her. They led the way to the sea. In this manner dolphins might pilot a whale. 7. My grandfather Titbottom called me into his presence. I was a mer'e child. He said lie should soon bo cone. He wanted to leave with me some memento of his love. These spectacles are valuable. He knew of nothing more valual)le, 8. The tea was poured into the cups. The napkins were fringed with gold. Tea was presented to the ladies by slaves. Slaves were Turks. They presented it on their knees. Ladies sat on cushions. They sat on the ground. 9. The goddess of Falsehood was of gigantic stature. She advanced before the front of her army some paces. Light l)egan to dawn upon her. It came from Truth. It was dazzling. Falsehood began insensibly to fade. She looked like a huge phantom. She did not look like a real substance. The goddess of Truth approached. Falsehood fell away entirely. EXERCISE XLV. Expand the Simple Sentences into Compound or Complex. 1. Night came on, closing the petals of the flowers. 2. The frost having appeared, the yellow fever is still loth to leave. 3. We are sorry to see the days growing shortei- and the nights growing longer. 4. He admitted having taken the money. r>. The pillars supporting the roof gave way. fi. A gentleman of my acquaintance informed me. 7. Not hearing from him, they became unea.sy. ■:tr^^S » • •jr'7;.'-..^-.:-f '-•»- • n'J.'WJJJl'St 146 Style — Constniction of Sentences. 8, AVithout his help you would not have succeeded. 9. I had been ft work among my roses, fastening up tho sprays. 10. They came ou in three divisions, firing heavily as soon as they came within range. il. The petition of the people, demanding a redress of their grievances, was just. 12. The habit of drinking will bring that man to disgrace. 13. In the morning, a jolly red-nosed sailor «jame on board. 14. He met a man going to town with a load of hay. 15. They now left the main road, striking into a green track leading over the common. 16. Probably our poet had an intention of marrying his maid. 17. All the anxieties of a poetical life were early experi- enced by Shenstone. 18. He returned to the country from the chase of fame, wearied without having started it. 19. Byron, the distinguished poet, died in Greece. 20. He was elected president at the age of fifty-five. EXERCISE XLVI. Contract the Compound and Complex Sentences into Simple. 1. The queen came that she might beliold the glory of Solomon with her own eyes. 2. It would be better if the question were made more definite. 3. No one who loves nature and studies it, can ever feel alone or unloved in the world. 4. Watch the water that flows in deep quiet streams, oi- forms the vast ocean. 5. We do not expect that the teacher will fully master the art of drawing. 6. No one will be admitted unless he has a ticket. 7. I bhuned her becau.se she did not tell me sooner. 8. It is impossible that such a result should happen. Change of Sentences — Exercises. 147 9. As he was an entire stranger, he did not know where he ought to go for it. 10. That man's farm is valuable, because it is near the town. 11. One cannot say that he wanted wit, but rather that he was frugal of it. 12. He has shewn great fairness towards Russia, and has recoiled from the idea of war with tliat empire. 13. Our imagination is highest when our stomach is not overloaded. 14. The Italians are a fanciful people, who have often mixed a grain or two of pleasantry with their wisdom, 15. The examinations are just coming on, and it would not be advisable to break up the school. I|i l!l EXERCISE XLVII. Change the Compound Sentences into Complex, and the Complex into Compound. 1. Give us the luxuries of life and we will dispense with its necessaries. 2. Many men who can conquer their anger cannot conquer their pride. 3. There is surely an eclipse, it is growing dark, 4. The prodigal son had the best of reasons for staying at home, yet he wandered away from it. 5. Pearls are worn by queens, and yet they are found in- side oyster-shells. . 6. Though books may teach you many things, yet they cannot teach you everything. 7. If you would not cut yourself off from the kind offices or others, you must shew yourself kind. 8. The small stock of provisions which we took with us was soon exhausted. 9. Seventy miles below, the canyon begins, and continues for a similar distance. m (Ef^r- t m n m 1 1 1 h^r:ij ! i< Ti m m$^^^ 148 S/f/e — Change of Forni—vExercises. 10. When young people gather round tho iii-o en a r/intor's night, they are fond of puzzling one another with riddles. 11. His eyes closed with the torpor of approaching death, and tho' round sustain(>d his fainting form. 12. V n the light infantry joined the niain body, tho army r( ated into the town. !3. The hill that you see in the distance, commands a fine prospect. 14. The government is a limited monarchy, and is founded upon that of Britain, 15. Hazledown measured some three miles round, and in the neighborhood were several woods full of birds and butter- flies. EXERCISE XLVIII. In the following sentences change the direct form to the indirect, ttnd the indirect to the direct. 1. " I did not rise," said he, "with the expectation that I should convince the honorable gentlemen that they are wrong and that I am right." 2. Wallace told the priests of Hexham to remain with him, as he could not protect them from his soldiers when out of his presence. 3. The crabbed old schoolmaster used to ask, when thev brought him a new pupil, "But are you sure he is not a dunce T 4. " I intended that work to l)e - ly best," said Thackeray, " but I have failed. Nobody reads it." 5. " My conscience," said he, " tells me that I have labored honestly to destroy that which is evil and build up that which is good." 6. Di". Johnson is i-eported to have said : " If a boy says he loooked out of this window when he looked out of that one, whip him." 7. Lord Chatham said that if he were an American, as he was an Englishman, while foreign troops were landed in his country he would ]iever lay dowi his arms. Synonyms — Phraseology. 149 8. Dean Swift averred that he never knew a man come to eminence who lay in bed of a morning. 9. " Dost thou see that beautiful uee X" said he, " and dost thou look upon it with pleasure ?" " Yes," replied the officer, " I look with pleasure upon that beautiful tree." "I have no longer pleasure in looking upon it," said the unhappy Indian. 10. Wallace replied that it was true he had killed very many Englishmen, but it was because they had come to sub- due his native country of Scotland. LESSON XXVII. SYNONYMS. Variety of expression may generally be secured by putting in the place of the nouns, adjectives verbs, and adverbs, some of their synonyms. As no two words convey exactly the same sense, there is always one that is the most fitting to be used, while there may be several that are admissible. Example. — Many good, brave, and moderate men, who dis- liked his former conduct, and who entertained doubts touching his present sincerity, espoused his cause unwillingly and with many painful misgivings, because, though they dreaded his tyranny much, they dreaded democratic violence more.- "With Synon3rms. — A large number of noble, fearless, and reasonable persons, who disapproved of his previous course of action, and who had their suspicions concerning his present honesty of purpose, supported his interests reluctantly and with much distressing hesitation, because, though they feared his iron rule much, they feared popular outrage more. Phraseology. 1. Variety of expression may be secured by recasting a sentence so fis to express the thought in entirely different phraseology. ♦ "I '1 mm I ■ ! ISO S/j'/e — Phraseology. Example.— She died. — God released her of her pain. She passed away. She was no more. She fel asleep fo.jver. She slept the sleep tliat knows nr. waking. Her dissolution took place. She breathed lier last. She departed this life. She sank into the grave. She closed her eyes for ever. Sho terminated \ ^- earthly existence. She dropped off. Her de- mise occurre- 2. Variet;v ^f phraseology may extend to entire sketches. ~ In this exercise, do not merely substitute one word for another, nor even one sentence for another. Study the pas- sage to be transposed till you have thoroughly mastered it in detail and as a whole. If it is too long to be easily retained in the memory, make a brief list of the leading heads or parts, ynd arrange them in the order in which you intend to write them out. Then lay aside the passage and express freely in your own language the several thoughts, facts, or statements it contains. Example. — Damon and Pythias were intimate friends. Damon, being condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius, asked liberty to go home for the purpose of setting his affairs in order ; and his friend offered to be his surety, and to sub- mit to death if Damon should not return. Every Oiie thought he knew what the end of the affair would be, and began to condemn Pythias for so rash an act ; but he, confident of the integrity of his friend, awaited the appointed time with cheer- fulness. Damon, strict to his engagement, ret'jrned at the time fixed. Dionysius so much admired their mutual fidelity that he pardoned Damon, and asked to be admitted into the friendship of two such worthy men. Recast. — Damon and Pythias were very dear friends, and thought a great deal of each other, as the following instance shows. Damon, having in some way or other transgressed the law of Dionysius, was put into prison and condemned to death. Being very desirous of going home to bid his friends good-bye, and to put his affairs in order before his death, he begged Dionysius to allow him to go, promising to return on the day of execution. But Dionysius, fearing that it was a plot to get Damon out of his hands, promised to let him go Change of WorditK^ — Exercises. 151 on condition that lie would get some one to act as surety for him. With this Damon's heart sank, for he never thought that any one would be willing to risk his life for him. But iJamon had at least one true friend, who did not desert him in this time of trouble. This friend was Pythias. He freely offered to go security, staying that, if Damon did not return, he woulc cheerfully die in his stead. So Damon went to his home, and Pythias went to prison. As the day of execution drew near, the people began to ridicule Pythias for running such a risk ; they said they knew very well that Damon would not return. However, Pj'^thias said that he could trust his friend's integrity ; and he was not deceived ; for, true to his promise, on the day appointed, Damon did return. This so pleased the king that he freely forgave Damon, and asked to be a sharer in their friendship, a friendship which made them stand by each other in such a time of trial. EXERCISE XLIX. In the following sentences, change the wording b; putting in place of the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, one of their synonyms that will express as nearly as may be the same meaning. 1. Indolence is the cause of many evils. 2. Wealth which is desired by all is accompanied by many' troubles. 3. In establishing his government he had to feel his way, to sound men's dispositions, and to conciliate different interests. 4. The Protectorate, with all its glories, was not the con- ception of a lowly intellect, but the revolutionary energy of a mighty nation concentrated in a single chief. 5. Attempts have often been made, and very recently have been renewed with much affirmation of success, to prove tiiut such low forms of life may originate spontaneously from their materials in the water. 6. Great gates of brass, richly and delicately wrought, turn heavily upon their hinges, as if proudly reluctant to ad- mit the feet of common mortals into this most gorgeous of sepulchres. 1^' ft .1 in -■-,1 .-f 152 v'f^i: Sty/e — Different P/iraseohg} 7. The moro, however, James pressed for the consumma- tion of his projects, the more Spain lield back ; but so bent was the king on its realization that, after fruitless negotia tions, the prince quitted England in disguise, and appeared with Buckingham at Madrid, to claim his promised l)ride. 8. Human fat is fuel laid away for use. It constitutes a hoard of coml)Ustible niaterial upon which the owner may draw whenever his ordinary supplies are intercepted. 9. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is gone. That of sophis- ters, economists, and calculators li s succeeded ; and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever. 10. It may well be doubted if any one of the great poets who have arisen during the last half century, has so closely touched the popular heart as Longfellow has. l\ f f^ M^ ' EXERCISE L. Express in different phraseology as illustrated in (1) of tlio last lesson. 1. He gives his parents no anxiety. 2. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 3. Cradles rock us nearer to the tomb. 4. He hides his own offences, and strips others' bare. 5. The gale had siidied itself to rest. 6. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 7. Ho who would search for pearls must dive below. 8. The evil that men do lives after them. 0. They never pardon who have done the wrong. 10. That life is long which answers life's great end. 11. Mammon wins his way where seraphs might despair. 12. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 13. It is more blessed to give than to receive, 1 4. They all with one consent began to make excuse. 1 5. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 16. How \ery much happier we should all be if people attended to their own business, and let their neighbors attend to theirs. \i. Different Phraseology — Exercises. . 153 17. The Court of Elizabeth was as iimnoral as that of lior successor, but its innnorality was slirouded by a veil of (jrace and cliivalry. 18. A fool spoaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something for liereafter. 19. Ho was a most sevoj-e judge of himself as well as of others. 20. There is scarcely a man living who is not actuated by ambition. EXERCISE LI. Render the following in different phraseology ad illustrated in (2; of the last lesson. 1. Whatever I have tried to do in life, I have tried with all my heart to do well ; whatever I have devoted myself to, I have devoted myself to completely. In great aims and in small, I have always been thoroughly in earnest. 2. It was a mystery to many people why Governor Briggs, of Massachusetts, wore a cravat but no collar. Some people thought it was an absurd eccentricity. This was the secret : Many years before he was talking with an inebriate and telling him that his h.abit was unnecessary, and the inebriate retorted upon him and said : " We do a great many things that are not necessary. It is not necessary for you to wear that collar." " Well," said the governor, " I will never wear a collar again if you won't drink," " Agreed," said the inebri- ate. Gnvernor Briggs never wore a colla? . They both kept their bargain for twenty years. They kept it to the death. That is the reason Governor Briggs did not wear a collar. 3. When Syracuse was taken, Archimedes was describing mathematical figures upon the earth, and when one of the enemy came upon him, and asked liis name, he was so en- grossed with the desire of preserving the figures entire, that he answered only by an earnest request to the soldier to keep off, and not break in upon his circle. The soldier, thinking himself scorned, ran Archimedes through the body, and the purple stream of blood soon obscured all traces of the problem 154 Style — Exercises. on which he had been so intent. Thus fell this illustrious man by the mere neglect to tell his name, for the general, Alarcellus, had given orders to respect the life and person of the philosopher. 4. Sir Cloudesley Shovel, whose melancholy shipwreck on the rocks of Scilly is well known, was, when a boy, on board a ship commanded by Sir John Narborough, who, during an action, expressed a very earnest wish to have some orders of consequence conveyed to a ship at a considerable distance. Shovel, hearing this, immediately undertook to convey it ; Hnd this he actually performed, swimming through the enemy's line of fire with the despatches in his mouth. b\ ni-a wm\ EXERCISE LII. Expand each of the following 'into a paragraph of two or more sentences. 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. Brevity is the soul of wit. 3. Wisdom is justified of her children. 4. It is glorious to die for one's country. 5. War is a great evil. 6. There is strength in unity. 7. The amiable gain many friends. 8. Party is the madness of many for the gain of a fev . 9. Procrastination is the thief of time. 10. There's nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. 11. We know what we are, but know not what we may be. 12. There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. 1 3. Every one can master a grief but he that has it. 14. The employment moulds the character. 15. The great clock at Strasburg is a wonderful piece of mechanism. Condense the substance of the following paragraphs into one or two sentences. 1. I was not, like His Grace of Bedford, swaddled and rocked and dandled into a legislator. " jyitor in adversuni " is the motto for a man like me. I possessed not one of the Condensation — Exercises. 155 iistrious general, jrson of reck on >n board iring an rders of iistance. ' it ; iand enemy's » or more a f ev . Ing makes re may be. jparrow. I it. II piece of one or two iddled and adversuni " one of the qualities, nor cultivated one of the arts, that recommend men to the favor and protection of the great. I was not made for a minion or a tool. 2. Malevolence to the clergy is seldom at a great distance from irreverence of religion, and Dryden afibrds no exception to this observance. His writings exhibit many passages, which, with all the allowance that can be made for character and occasions, are such as piety would not have admitted, and such as may vitiate light and unprincipled minds. But there is no reason for supposing that he disbelieved the religion which he disobeyed. He forgot his duty rather than disowned it. His tendency to profaneness is the effect of levity, negligence and light convt'rsation, with a desire of accommodating himself to tlie conception of his times by venturing to be wicked as far as he durst. 3. "I'll tell you a story, gentlemen, which is as true as that this pipe is made of clay. When I was delivered of my first book, I owed my tailor for a suit of clothes ; but that is noth- ing new, you know, and may be any man's case as well as mine. Well, owing him for a suit of clothes, and hearing that my book took very well, he sent for his money and in- sisted on being paid immediately. Though I was at the time rich in fame, for my book ran like wild-fire, yet I was very short in money, and being unable to satisfy his demand, prudently resolved to keep my chamber, preferring a prison of my own choosing at home to one of my tailor's choosing abroad. In vain the bailiffs used all their arts to decoy me from my citadel ; in vain they sent to let me know that a gentleman wanted to speak to me at the next tavern ; in vain they came with an urgent message from my aunt in the country ; in vain was I told that a particular friend was at the point of de ith and desired to take his last farewell. I was deaf, insensible, rock, adamant ; the bailiffs could make no impression on my hard heart, for I effectually kept my liberty by never stirring out of my room." 4. Write a paragraph on *' Our Sight," taking the following as principal and subordinate subjects : — A general statement about "Our Sight" — The pleasure it affords — Contrast these pleasures with those received through "the sense of feeling" — The ideas it furnishes the imagination, and their nature — How much we should value " Sight." 156 Style — Variety of Expression. '? ■ ■ I'll \ \\ 5. Writo a para<^raph describing " A Meadow suitable for a Tournament." Take tbe following as heads : — An introduc- tory sentence— The location - -Surface— Kind of enclosure — The size— The fonn — The entrance and how guarded. 6. "Write a paragraph on " Successive Steps to Prohibition." Heads : — No sale to minors —No sale to drunkards— No sale of adulterated liquors- High license— Prohibition. LESSON XXVIII. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. II. FOETBY TO FBOSE. Two Forms. — All thought may be expressed either in the form of poetry or in that of prose. Sometimes theso two forms approach very closely, at others they stand very widely apart, but they never coincide. Moreover, the efl'ect pio- duced on the mind by a thought when dressed in the most artistic garb of poetry is very different from the effect pro- duced by the same thought when clad in the commonplace habiliments of ordinary prose ; and even when clothed in the huml>lest poetic attire, thought carries with it a charm that it does not possess when couched in the highest form of prose. The learner should trv to distinguish between the effect of the naked thought itself and that of the language which gives it expression. In this he will be aided by the exercise of trans position. Methods. — Poetry may be transposed into prose, either by a change of phraseology, or by merely eliminating what is poetic. First Method. The first method consists in writing out in good prose the g(Mi- eral meaning of the poetry under consideration. This, if prop, erly carried out, is a profitable exercise for beginners in Transposition of Poetry into Prosf. 157 composition, as it trains them in examining closely the mean- ing of terse and compact language, and in expressing thoughts with care and exactness. This exorcise scarcely differs from that in the last lesson, where prose is transposed into other prose l»y changing the phraseology. The ohject in both is to reproduce the same thought in dilFerent language. How Transposed. — To transpose according to this method it is necessary to read and re-read the passage of poetry until it is perfectly understood, and then to write ou,t the meaning in the plain language of prosa. The same \/ords and nhrase- ology should not be used. The prose must contain the same thoughts as the poetry, and must, as far aa oossibl •, convey the very same shade of meaning as the original. Poetry ,"; usually more suggestive than prose, so that some things ' n.^-t arc only implied in the former, may bo fully cxprc .• /! in the latter. After the piece has boon written out, re iew, criti- cise, and correct. Example. — "Not enjoyment, and notsorrov/-. Is our destined end or way ; But to act that each to-morrow Finds us further than to-day. Art is long, and time is fleeting. And our hearts though tough and brave, Still, like muffled drums, are beating Funeral marches to t! ; - rave." Transposed. — We are not placed in this world merely for the purpose of enjoying ourselves, or 01 dragging out our lives in sorrow, but we are sent here to improve tlio time in devel- oping the capabilities that aro given us. For this, ample opportunity is afforded in the vast fields of knowledge, re- search, and toil that lie spread out before us. Though the full investigation of these might employ ages, yet but a few short years are granted us. At times, indeed, we feel as if we might live forever, but we need not presume on life, for every throb of our hearts reminds us that we are rapidly drawing nearer the close of our allotted time. i il •i '.\' 158 Style — Transposition of Poetry. LESSON XXI X^. 11 5 i hi f 'M ;ii I'lii SECOND METHOD. The second method of transposing poetry into prose, consists in making only such changes as are necessary to change the one form of expression into the other. Where to begin. — The pupil must first of all acquire a defi- nite idea of the distinction between the form of poetry and that of prose. He must not fall into the error of supposing that form is spirit, that measure and arrangement are poetry. It is not difficult to tell where the mechanical structure of verse ends and that of prose begins ; but apart from this, poetry and prose exist in so great variety, and are so gradually shaded into each other, that the most expert critic is befogged when lie attempts to discern the line between them. The truth is, we have much poetical prose, as well as an abundance of prosaic poetry. What is to be done. — ^What poetry is in its essence, wr; need not attempt to determine. If we could decide, we should not be materially assisted in the ungracious ta: k before us — the task of destroying an intrinsic beauty w^e can neither create nor define, but one that we can all enjoy and admire. In transposing poetry into prose, that is, into the prose form, we need not in every case drive out the living and pervading poetic spirit. Our task is simply to change the form from the poetic to the prose. In order to do this, we shall proceed to examine the diflferences between these two forms. Differences. — The points of difference to bo noticed are in- cluded under the heoJs of Rhyme, Measure, and Diction. Diction comprises Arrangement, Expedients for Brevity, Words, Concrete and Particular Terms, and Figurative Language, Rhyme — Measure. IS9 RHTME. — As Rhyme cannot in any case enter into prose, it presents no difficulty. In transposing it is simply eliminated by substituting for one of the rhyming words some suitable synonym. MEASUBE. — Of all the characteristics in which poetry differs from prose, there is but one that is peculia£' to poetry. That one is metre. Composition that isr written in metre is poetry, in form, at least, while that which is not is prose. Some poetry seems to be distinguished from pro-se only by the pos- session of metre. How transposed. — In poetry that is expressed in this plain and simple style, all that is necessary to convert it into prose is merely to remove the metre by inserting or omitting words, as in the example following. Example . — " Fi'ay, do not mock me, I am a very foolish, fond old man, Four-score and upwards ; and, to deal plainly, I fear I am not in my perfect mind. Methinks I should know you, and know this man ; Yet I am doubtful ; for I am mainly ignorant What place this is, and all the skill I have Remembers not these garments ; nor I know not Where 1 did lodge last night. — Do not laugh at me, For, as I am a man, I think this lady To be mv child Cordelia !" In this there is not a word, not a phrase, not an expression, that might not be used in the plainest and simplest prose, yet no person, whose ear is attuned to the music of verse, can fail to discover in it that something we cannot describe, but which we call poetry. Now, let us make a change the least possible, but still sufficient to throw out the metre, and we shall find that the imprisoned spirit has fled, that the poetry luiiS be- come prose. -■■!| ■'■.■•> i6o Sityle — 7^1'ansposition of Poetry. ' JiS 5'ii.(3 H ' ia • Transposed . — I pray you do not mock nie, 1 am, indeed, a very foolish, fond old man of four-score years and upwards ; and, to deal plainly with you, I fear I am not in my perfect mind. I think I should know you, and this man, also, but yet I am doubtful ; for I am quite ignorant what place this is, and all the skill I have does not remember these garments, nor do I know where I lodged last night. — Do iiot laugh at me, for as surely as I am a man, I think this lady is my child Cordelia. EXERCISE LIII. Transpose by removing the measure ; also, by the First Method. 1. " I met a little cottage girl ; She was eight years old, she said ; Her hair was thick with many a curl That clustered round her head." 2. " They got into a hackney coach, And trotted down the street. I saw them go ; one horse was blind, The tails of both hung down behind. Their shoes v/ere on their feet. 3. " True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, As those move easiest who have learned to dance." 6. " The sound must be an echo of the sense. Soft is t'o strain when Zephyr gently V)lows, And the smooth stream in sujoother numbers flows ; But when loud surges lash the sounding shore. The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar. 5. "The creeping vermin, loathsome to the sight. And charged, perhaps, with venom, that intrudes, A vistor unwelcome, into scenes Sacred to neatness and repose, the alcove, The chamber, or refectory, may die — A necessary act incurs no blame." 6. 7. Poetic Diction — Arrangement. (< u Defencf me therefore, Common Sense, say I, From reveries so airy, from the toil Of dropping buckets into empty wells, And growing old in drawing nothing up." O yet we trust that somehow good Will be the final goal of ill, That nothing walks with aimless feet, That not one life shall be destroyed. Or cast as rubbish to the void. When God hath made the pile complete. " i6i ;'Ml P - w LESSON XXX. POETIC DICTION. Poetic Diction is a term employcid to denote the style of expression peculiar to poetry. It has already been stated that only in a modified sense can it be asserted that poetry has a diction of its own. There are comparatively few words or forms of expression used in poetry that may not also be cnnployed in some of the higher forms of prose, especially in Oratory. But we must not suppose that in narrative, descrip- tive, or expository prose, it is befitting to avail oneself of the delicacy of wording and stiucture that is quite in place in poetry, and that is one of its chief ornaments. In poetry, us in prose, there is great variety of diction. Sometimes, as we have just seen, the language is as plain and simple and unadorned as in the humblest prose ; from this it rises through all possil)le gradations of elaboration, till it reaches the highest itoiiit of polished splendor. Arrangement. One of the features of poetic diction is the use of less usual and more inverted constructions than are commonly found in SI 1 62 Style — Transposition of Poetry. prose. We must nev?^r lose sight of the fact that the object of poetry is, primarily, to please. This it seeks to do by many arts. As agreeable sounds, both those that are actively and those that are pas' ively so, are a source of pleasure, the poet arranges his line ?o as to secure the highest degree of harmony. Again, m u .usual and unexpected order of words may give rise to an agreeable surprise. If, therefore, the harmony can be increased and a pleasing surprise effected by the same deviation, a double pleasure is afforded. The attain- ment of these objects, along with the requirements of measure, accounts for the invented constructions of poetry. In prose, on the other hand, as the object is to inform the understand- ing, everything is made subservient to clearness, directness, and force of expression. Not that the prose writer has no ear for liarmony or no eye for beauty. He does not disdain to seek to embody as much of these and of all the other beauties of composition as is consistent with the nature of the subject he is treating, but with him beauty is a secondary object. fh," ■1 ..ti.^ ■'«( How transposed. — Poetry which, apart from measure, is distinguished from prose chiefly by inversion or unusual ar- rangement, is transposed by wiiting it out in the natural order. This will remove the metre also. Example. — " It is the hour when from the boughs The nightingale's high note is heard ; It is the hour when lovers" vows Seem sweet in every whispered word ; And gentle winds and waters near Make nmsic to the lonely ear." Transposed. — " It is the hour when the nightingale's high note is heard from the boughs ; it is the hour when lover's vows in every whispered word seem sweet ; and gentle wind^ and near waters make music to the lonely ear." ' '^''vs''^^^'i'*r.-f!'f--'- Poetic Diction — Expedients for Brevity 163 easure, is Expedients for Brevity. Many words darken speecli. Poitry seeks to present clear and distinct images to the mind — its diction is picturesque. Long sentences and involved constructions which convey the thought in such a manner that it cannot be grasped without an effort, require a labor that destroys the pleasure poetry is intended to impart ; hence it makes use of the briefest forms of expression consistent with clearness. Many, if not all, of the expedients employed to attain brevity in poetry, are also used in prose, but poetry, as will be seen, makes a still bolder use of them. Among the means adopted to render the language of poetry brief and picturesque, may be mentioned: — (1) The Omission of Connectives ; as: — " The dew was falling fast ; the stars began to blink ; I heard a voice ; it cried : Drink, pretty creature, drink. On the other hand, the connectives are sometimes repeated in poetry where they would be omitted in prose. (2) Absolute Gonstinctions ; as : — *' The, hour concealed, and so retnote the fear, Death still draws np^irer, never seeming near." (3) Adjectives instead of Clauses. The adjective takes the place of a variety of Kinds of clauses that would ordinarily be expressed at length in prose ; as : — *' Lely on animated canvass stole The sleepy eye which spoke the melting soul." i.e. The canvass which assumed life under his pencil. (4) Participial Constructions; as: — ^^ ^igh foundered, on he fares, Treadiny the crude consistence, half on foot, ha.\ijlying." " My sudden hand Prevented, spares to tell thee yet by deeds what it intends." ■\Ml I--W 164 Slyic — Poetic Grammar. r ""> (5) Ellipses that would not be permissible in prose, are frequently found in poetry ; as ; — (a) Of the article ; as ; — "The why is plain as way to parish chur •h.' [h\ Of 'pronoxiaii ; as :- "It was a tall young g«!ntleiuan lived by the ri'> rside." (6') Of the verb ; as : — "Sweet the pleasure, rich the tn^ asure /' (6 ) Poetic Grammar. For the sake of an agreeable su j}- "'se, and lor tho ?^ake of brevity, liberties are taken with die rules of grammar, und <]<. viatious from them made, under the name of Poetic Lieer.?'^ (a) Adjective:)' for adverbs ; as; — *' So sweet she sung:" for "sweetly." {b) Conjujictions ; as : — " Nor day nor night my heart has rest :" for " Neither day nor night my heart has rest." (c) One case for another ; as: — " So you must ride on horseback after we.^^ (d) One part of the verb for another ; as : — " But saw her not Before his weary pilgrimage begunT {e) Otic pronoun f(yr another ; as: — "I will paint me with black." (y*) Pleonastic pronouns ; as : — " My banks they are furnished with bees." (7) Epithets. — As poetry combines with the object of graphically presenting ideas and images, the still higher one of giving pleasure, it makes use of language at once instruc- tive and pleasing. In this way, we find poetry coining new words, or combining other words into epithets in an original se, are de." he rulf^s le name bher day Exercises — Transposition. 165 and delightful manner. These epithets often convey, in brief, a fulness of meaning that could be expressed only by a whole clause or sentence in the conmion prosaic style. Examples.— " Grieving, if aught inanimate e'er grieves. O'er the unreturiiiny brave ." i. e., " The brave who are destined never to return." " A station like the herald Mercury New-ii(jhted on a heaven-kiHsing hill,'' i. e., "A hill that reaches up to and kisses the heavens." Epithet for Name. — The poet often goes further and puts the epithet for the name of the thing, with a boldness that would not be allowable in prose. Examples. — " Below the chestnut when their buds Were glistening to the breezy bhie.^' i. e., " The sky." " The dead vast of night." — i. e., " waste." ■| 3 bject of 11 gher one instruc- ning new I original EXERCISE LIV. Transpose by removing the measure and the poetic arrangement ; also, by the First Method. 1. " For contemplation he, and valor, formed ; For softness she, and sweet attractive grace." His step than the red-deer's was freer and lighter ; His eye than the eagle's was keener and brighter." Here rests his head upon the lap of earth A youth to fortune and to fame unknown." When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, The line too labors, and the words move slow." (( 1 66 Style — Exercises — Transposition. mm 5. " The power of music all our hearts allow, And what Tiinotheus was is Dryden now." 6. " How sleep the brave that sink to resti, By all their country's wishes hlest !" 7. " On Fame's eternal camping-ground Their silent tents are spread ; And Glory guards, with solemn round, The bivouac of the dead." 8. " I saw from tho beach when the morning was shining, A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on : I came, when the sun o'er that beach was declining — The bark was still there, but the waters were gone." 9. " 'Mid scenes of confusion and creature complaints, How sweet to the soul is communion with Saints ; To find at the banquet of mercy there's room, And feel in the presence of Jesus at home !" I EXERCISE LV. Transpose by removing the rhyme, measure, and poetic diction ; also, by the First Method. 1. *' Six frozen winters spent, Return with welcome home from banishment." 2. " The cock is crowing : the stream is flowing ; The small birds twitter : the lake doth glitter ; The green fields sleep in the sun." 3. " Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime ; And, drrpai'ting, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time." Exercises — Words. \6y 4. " And as a hare, whom hounds and horns pursue, Pants to the place from whence at first she flew, I still had hopes, my long vexations past. Here to return — and die at home at last." T). " The crawling glaciers pierce me with the spears Of their moon-freezing crystals, the bright chains Eat with their burning cold into my bones." ' 6. " Know ye not me, The Titan ? He who made his agony Tho barrier to your else all-conquering foe ? Oh, rock-embosoaied lawns, and snow-fed streams. Now seen athwart f rore vapors, deep below. Through whose o'ershadowing woods I wandered onc^ With Asia, drinking life from her loved eyes." 7. " Thus ended he, and both Sat silent : for the maid was very loth To answer ; feeling well that breathed words Would all be lost, unheard, and vain as swords Against the encased crocodile, or leaps Of grasshoppers against the sun." LESSON XXXI. WORDS. Certain words and word-forms are peculiar to poetry, (1) Poetic Words. — Poetry, especially poetry or the elevated style, makes use of many words that may be called poetic as they are seldom, if ever, admissible in prose of any kind. They are such as, stilly, vasty, bewept, welkin, wend, meed, wilding, quoth. 1 68 Styk — Words peculiar to Poetry. Closely allied to these is another class, used in the higher kinds of prose, and also in poetry. They are such as, islo, mount, betwixt, vale, nigh, ire, yore. Again, words are often used in poetry in an unusuiil or im- proper sense ; as : — "Chill penury repressed their noble ray a consideration of what will give J/O Style — Fi^nratwe Languafi^e. •ll ■■^'■ 9.-V 1 ii ■111! pleasure. Now, it ia evident that if the Hame subject is treated in pers. 8. His strong mind reeled under the blow. 0. The compressed passion of a countiy exploded in the French Revolution. 1 78 Style — ExpansiGH of Metaphors into Similes. It, ' f 10. Dwell I but in the suburV) of your good pleasure ? 11. Death is a debt which all are bound to pay. 12. He intended to clothe himself with this power when he became a man. 13. That deep and flowing sympathy comes from the foun- tains of personal suffering. 14. He has sometimes smothered the child-like simplicity of Chaucer under the feather-beds of verbiage. 15. If you blow your neighbor's fire, don't complain if the sparks fly in your face. 1 6. Ignorance is the curse of God, knowledge the wing where- Avith we fly to heaven. 17. But let the curtains of the future hang, 18. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, H,nd some few to be chewed and digested. 19. l^^Hng. '0. This event threw a cloud over the bright hou r of gayety We stood together beside the narrow house 1 lade for all 'mm V\ \\ ' :^\ EXERCISE LX. Expand the m iaphors into similes. 1. He is a wolf. 2. I bridle in my struggling nmse. 3. Her disdain stung hijn to the heart. 4. They have passed happily through the storms of life. .5. He is sul)ject to ebullitions of anger. 6. They reaped a g< !den harvest. 7. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me i vstical lore, 8. He can scarcely keep the wolf from the door. 9. It was snaitten at a white heat. 10. Lord Burleigh was a willow and not an oak. 11. Otcjht has deserted the service of the verb ov^e. 12. Sir James Mackintosh's mind was a vast magazine of knowledge. 13. The fame of the elder Pitt has been overshadowed by that of the son, ILir irises — Change of Figures. 179 14. Niijlit (li-oppod her salile curtain down and piinied it with a star. 15. So the poor cliiJd, in her soul's hunger, began to nih- hle at tlie thick-rinded fi-uit of the tree of knowledge, 16. The moon threw Ikm- silver mantle over the darkness. 17. We loose our dogs of war against our own countrymen in America. 18. The poet should live in the country where he can liear the heai't of nature beat. 19. The English people expelled James IT. for attempting to trample on their liberties. 20. The intoxicfition of his success is the omen of iiis fall. EXERCISE LXI. In these r lixed metaphors, clian<,'e one of the lij^ures so as to make it correspond with the other. 1. To take arms against a sea of trouliles. 2. Be thou a rock to them that are afar upon the sea. 3. He is fairly launched upon the road to preferment. 4. The strong pillar of the Clmrch hath fled. 0. The chariot of day peers over the mountain tops. 6. These a.ssertions arc rockets that glance upon the ear. 7. His bosom was swollen with the Hame rf patriotism. IS. A varnish of morality makes his actions palatable. 9. He stooped to such lengths of meanne.ss. 10 There is a time when factions, bv the vehemence of their own fermentation, stun and disable one another. 1 i. A torrent of superstition consumed the land. 12. His speech conveyed a deep impression to the mind. 13. They labored hard to unravel tho.se obscurities. 14. Their knowledge was based on these sources of inform- ation. 15 The colonies are not yet ripe to bid adieu to British connection. 16. Christ is the anchor of our liope, which reaches beyond the vale of death. p:i^ i8o Style — Exercises on the Metaphor. im' I' m «r*itf- ^li :l 17. There is not ca view of human nature that is not suf- ficient to extin<;uish the seeds of pride. 18. When the mustang is caught in a lasso, all his struggles serve only to rivet his chains. 1 9. I bridle in my struggling muse in vain, that longs to launch into a bolder strain. 20. I smell a rat; I see it brewing in the distance; and I shall nip it in the bud. EXERCISE LXII. Explain the allusions in the figures, and re-write the sentences in plain langu^ .;e. 1. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed by a kiss. 2. They follow their chief for the loaves and fishes. 3. Let them go from Dan to Beer-sheba in pursuit. 4. He falls like Lucifer, never to hope again, 5. The sword of Damocles hangs over his head. 6. Milton's prose writings are like a perfect field of cloth of gold. 7. He smote the rock of public credit, and streams of revenue gushed forth. 8. Has the ghr>st of the murdered coalition come back like the ghost of Banquo ? 9. When a man is prosperous and popular, people climb up into sycamore trees to see him. 10. Befoi'e this paper reaches its readers, Gladstone may have crossed the E/ul)icon. 11. They will not do more in the present contest than simply throw a tub to the vhale. 12. He followed the profession of law, but at a great dis- tance. EXERCISE LXIII. Recast these sentences, using at least one metaphor in each. 1. He was out of money. 2. He is exceedingly foolish. 3. One is injured by evil companions. Figures of Speech — Metonymy. l8l 4. Marshal Ney was brave, 5. He has committed himself to that policy. 6. They have started a new project. 7. He has failed in business. 8. He is now enjoying the result of his toil. 9. Our body is so formed that it is easily put out of order. 10. Her brow was wrinkled. 11. Suspicion is a source of great unhappiness. 12. The sanguine man sometimes finds that he is sadly dis- appointed (dreams). 13. Guilt and misery are inseparably joined (wed). 14. The career of many a conqueror has ber u narked by cruelty (path, .stained, .blood). 15. They nobly gave up everything for the sake of their country (altar). 16. They have begun a new business (embark), 17. After a few days illness, he unexpectedly died. 18. I shall not attempt to estimate the oppos'aon that \i\ (force, .arrayed) ajgainst the ministry. 19. Providence has wisely ordained that we shall not know the future (sealed). 20. Calumnious reports are often circulated about those whose lives are pure (aim . . arrows^. LESSON XXXIV. METONYMY, ,rWA The figures thus far considered, ai"e based upon the likeness or unlikeness that things bear to one another in quality or function. We now come to two figures that arise from some natural law or relation by which things are connected with one another. These are Metonymy and Synecdoche. Meton3rmy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is put for some other, tlie two being so related that the mention of the one naturally suggests the other. I'.t' 13; l82 ^tylf — Kiiiiis of Metonymy 'B'l ' *iiii .j]l| % -'it : Kinds. — ()\vin■ auiiful) shall be laid in the dust. ). Progenitor and posterity ; as : — Hear, O Israel (descen- dants of Israel). 10. Name of an object and the object that inspires it ; as : — That is njy delight (the cause of my delight). Rhetorical value. — Metonymy presents an object, not by naming it, but by suggesting it through some relation, and thus adds vividness, variety, a id beauty to stylo. EXERCISE LXIV. Classify the metonymies ; recast the sentences in plain lanj^uage, and note the loss of vigor and beauty. 1. We drank but one bottle. 2. He addressed the chair. 3. All Switzerland is in the field. Exercises on tJic Metoiytny. 183 4. Strike iv.\ youru-ltura and your tires. 5. He was the sij^h of her secret soul. 6. The turhaii yields to tlie tartan. 7. Such is life from the cradle to the grave. 8. Maggie was still panting for liappiness. 9. Lift your thoughts from (sarth to heaven. 10. Mammon wins his way where seraphs must despair. 11. He saved the fort at the nse of much blood and treasure. 1 2. Then her brain would bv; ' wild schemes of flight. 13. Iron hailed and lead rained ^pon the enemy. 14. The board at the little inn was excellent. 15. The pen is usurping the office of the sword. 16. The crescent in Europe is waning before the cross. 17. His flashes of wit were wont to set the table on a roar. 18. The sword and the purse are deemed necessary to gov- ernment. 1 9. Do you favor the red rose or the white ? 20. Tlu> farmer left his plow, the merchant left his counter, to shouldei the umsket in defence of liberty. •'if. EXERCISE LXV. Eecast the following sentences so as to introduce one or more metonymies. 1. 2. tains. 3. 4. 5. G. 7. 8. 9. 10. failed 11. Why should mortal man be proud ? The sun is beginning to adorn the tops of the moun- The hedges are white with the flowers of spring. He was emperor when Rome was most powerful. He has dishonored the judgeship. Old people seldom form very ardent friendships. All the witty people in the city were present. The wealtliy and the great are not free from care. The horsemen plied the whip and sword. We are trying to do what the people of Holland have to accomplish. He has read the works of Josephus through and through. ^, A^ ^ ^->.^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I IhII^s u ^ 1 m |M |i6 « 6" — ^ ► p /, /I Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 > 4' 4^ ai:*'^^ ■' ■>,-'- , , V - i ".a V--i^''-'--Mf''-~-\ "••*: ;■■#>' ■.*! , .d with ad- jectives, and consists in ascribing the qualities or living beings to inanimate objects ; as : — "The ragin?^ storm," "the angry sea," "the hungry shore," "the smiling land." 2. The next higher form of Personification is produced with verbs, and consists in makiiig inanimate objects perform the actions of living beings ; as : — " The very walls will cry out against it." 3. The highest form consists in ascribing to the objects, human feelings and purposes, and with distinction of gender ; as: — " Earth felt the wound." This form of Personification is sometimes combined with Apostrophe ; as : — " Put on thy beautiful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy city." Metaphors — Personification and Apostrophe. 187 All Metaphors. — All forms of Personification are meta- phors, but they ai-e called Personifications because objects are raised to or towards persons. "'"- ■' Bhetorical value. — The rhetorical value of the figure lies in this, that inanimate things are invested with a greater inter- est as they rise in dignity and become more or less endowed with personal qualities that lead us to have a fellow -ileeling with them. Apostrophe. Apostrophe is a figure of speech by which the absent are addressed as if present, and the inanimate as if intelligent and present. " O Liberty, dear Liberty ! Who that looks on the proudest pages the Muse of history ever penned, will gainsay thy power?" Personification and Apostrophe. — When inanimate objects are addressed, they are, of course, personified ; but the difFer- ence between these two figures consists in the address. Ob- jects personified are carried up towards, or to the rank of persons, but they are not addressed ; objects apostrophized, whether persons or personified things, are addressed. Rhetorical value. — The rhetorical value of the figure con- sists in giving variety and animation to the style, and impor- tance to the object addi-essed. .;• Ill EXERCISE LXVIII. PEBSONIFICATION. Point out the personifications, name the form to which they belong; recast the sentences in plain language, and noto the loss of expres- sivene.ss and beauty. 1. The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice and clap their hands. i^^:: •f .«;-^S-. 1 88 Sty/e — A ntithesis. 2. Every flower enjoys the air it broathes. -^ '■- 3. And Freedom shrieked when Kosciusko fell. 4. The mountains saw Thee, O Lord, and trembled. 5. The mountains looked on Marathon, and Marathon looked on the sea. 6. The depoh saith, It is not in me : and the sea saith. It is not in me. 7. Grim-visaged war hath smoothed his wrinkled front. 8. The winds with wonder whisht, smoothly the waters kissed. 9. Necessity is the mother of invention. 10. And the very stones of Rome will rise and mutiny. 11. The sun pillows his chin upon the orient wav^e. 12. Flattery spits her poison at the mightiest peers. 13. Tongue was the lawyer and argued the cause. 14. The breeze came whispering to our ear. 15. Herein fortune shows herself more kind than is her custom. 16. The ship flew over the angry waves. The conscious water sav/ its Lord and blushed. The aspen heard 'hem, and she trembled. They were swallowti up by the hungry sea. 17. 18. 19. 20. jects personified : A ship. The sun. Spring. 21. Make or find Write a senterce containing each of the following ob- Youth. Sleep. Morning. Earth. A horse. A tree. sentences in each of which one of the following subjects is apostrophized : — Home, sleep, money, moon, night, flowers, spring, stars, morning, sun, avarice, wine. LESSON XXXVII. ANTITHESIS. Antithesis consists in putting two unlike things in juxta- position, so that each will appear more striking by the contrast A ntithesis — Exercises. \ 189 'A It I Rhetorical value. — The effect of this figure arises from the fact that ail object is most clearly seen when it stands side by side with its opposite. White appears whiter when bordered with black ; sound seems louder when followed by perfect silence. If, therefore, we wish to give a thought special em- phasis, we can employ no more effective method than to place it in contrast with its opposite. Examples. — " To l)e a blessing, and not a curse." " The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself." » Rule. — In Antithesis the contrasted ideas should be ex- pressed by similar verbal constructions ; nouns should bo contrasted with nouns, adjectives with adjectives, verbs with v^u-bs, and so on ; and the arrangement of the words in the contrasted clauses should be as twarly alike as possible ; as \■^— " Flattery brings friends ; truth brings foes." " Enemies in war ; in peace, friends." " Forewarned, forearmed." " Fit the same intellect to a man, and it is a bow-string ; to a woman, and it is a harp-string." EXERCISE LXIX. Point out the words that denote the objects, actions, qualities, or circumstances contrasted; and recast the sentences without using tho Antitheses. 1. Sink or swim, live or die, I give my heart and hand to this vote. 2. At his touch, crowns crumbled and beggars reigned. 3. He hath cooled my friends and heated mine enemies. 4. As when a husband or a lap-dog dies. 5. Every man would live long but no man would be old. C. If you regulate your desires according to the standard of nature, you v/ill never be poor; if, according to the standard of opinion, you will never be rich. 7. The peasant complains aloud; the peasant repines in secret. '? 5,-.}: V: \ ■ ;(■■' \ ^*t,:"j \ 190 Style — Antithesis — Epigram. 8. The ignorant, through ill-grounded hope, are disap- pointed ; the knowing, through knowledge, despond. 9. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself turned into a king. 10. The French and Germans have named their vowels; the English have nick-named theirs. Point out any violations of the rule given for Antithesis, and re- write the uentences so as to make the figure as directed. 11. Better reign* m Hell, than' be in the condition of a ser- vant in heaven. 12. Fools rush in wliere angels would be afraid to venture. 13. The mountains give their lost children berries and water ; those last in them may die of thirst. 14. In the world, a man lives in his own age; in solitude he can imagine himself the man of any age, past or present. 15. The Athenians understand what is good, but the Lace- demonians are found to be active in it. 16. Truth will get well if she is run over by a locomotive, while Error dies of lockjaw from a scratch of the linger. 17. Kings will be tyrants from policy when those who are under them are rebellious from principle. 18. If you wish to make a man rich, study not to. increase his stores, but that his desires may be diminished. 1 9. If in the morn of life you remember God, you will not be forgotten ))y Him in your latter days. 20. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is ; for the former seeth no man, and the latter is not seen by anyone. LESSON XXXVIII. EPIGEAM. The Epigram is a (igure of speech in which the mind is » rousdd by a conflict or contradiction between the literal mean- ing of the words and the meaning really intended. Thus : "The child is father of the man." Its Relation. — The Epigram is akin to the Antitliesis on th(! one band and to the Pun oa tlio otlior, The oloment of Epigram — Euphemism — Hyperbole — Irony. 1 9 1 iisap- irnecl 5; the nd re- a ser- inturc. ;s and ude he it. 3 Lace- tnotive, r. ivho arc ncrease will not tnan is ', seen by mind is il niean- "The Ls: ;hesis on ,^mcnt of contrariety in the Epigram, however, differs from that in the Antithesis. In tlie former, it exists between the real and the apparent meaning o£ the words, wliile in the latter, it is between the things that are brought together. Epigram often consists mainly in taking words in different senses; in this respect it resembles the Pun, which turns entirely upon using words in a double meaning. Thus, Home Tooke said of the poor puets : "Wo may well be called a republic of letters for there is not a fjovereign among us." Euphcinism. Euphemism is a soften ^d way of saying what would be disagreeable or offensive 11 told in plain, language. It is usually based on some other figure, as Synecdoche, Metonymy, or Metaphor. Thus, "He fell asleep," may be used for "He died." Hyperbole. Hyperbole is exaggeration. It represents things as greater or less, better or worse, than they leally are. Thus, " The waves ran mountains high." Irony. Irony is language that taken literally expresses the contrary of what is meant. The real drift of the speaker is seen in his tone or manner. Thus, Elijah said to the prophets of Baal : — "Cry aloud, for he is a god." lilictorical value. — These figures, by stating not what is meant, but something else which suggests it, produce a much li\elier impression tlian does the plain statement. Moreover, the surprise, arising from finding that words may convey a meaning so different from that which they literally bear, or one so skilfully interwoven with it, interests and delights the reader; lr"l'i| 192 Style — Ilxenises — Figures of Speech. EXERCISE LXX. Name the figures, re-writo the sentences in plain language, and note the effect. ' < 1. It was conspicuous l)y its absence. 2. Beauty, when unadorned, is adorned the most. 3. When you have nothing to say, say it. 4. Summer has set in with its usual severity. 5. Words were given to hide our thoughts. 6. He is a disciple of Bacchus. 7. That merchant prince has stopped payment. 8. You are laboring under a mistake. 9. He does not always keep very exAct accounts. 10. He appropriated tlie money to liis own use. 11. Voltaire said that the English gained two hours a day by clipping words. 12. You are musty chaff; and you are smelt above the moon. 13. On the battle-iield were rivers of blood and hills of slain. 14. The man is so tall he doesn't know when his feet are cold. 15. He owned a piece of land, not larger than a Lacede- monian letter. 16. Cicero called Verres, who was notorious for his rapacity, "The upright and honest prwtor of Sicily." EXERCISE LXXI GENERAL EXERCISES ON FIGURES. Name the figure or figures in each of the following sentences, and then express the meaning in plain language. Also point out and cor- rect any errors in the use or form of the figures. 1. Death loves a shining mai'k. 2. She was the little lamb of the teacher's flock. 3. The Lord is my rock and my fortress. 4. Roses without thorns are the growth of paradise alone. 5. She gave her heart as well as her hand. Figures of Speech — Exercises. 193 and 6. He drank the fatal cup. 7. The pulse of freedom throbs through every vein of our own country. 8. Men of genius constantly need the sunshine of public favor to make them flower into full glory. 9. The offended law draws the sword from its scabbard, in vengeance against the murderei-. 10. Talent has many a compliment from the bench, but tact touches fees from attorneys and clients. 11. Blow, blow, thou winter wind, thou art not so unkind as man's ingratitude. 12. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff. 13. Laughter and tears are meant to turn the wheels of the same machinery of sensibility ; the one is wind power, the other is water power. 1 4. When you are an anvil, hold you still ; when you are a hammer, strike your till. 15. Tennyson's earliest poems are festoons of verbal beauty. 16. The barge she sat on, like a burnished throne, burned on the water. 17. Wellington did not, at Waterloo, expose his bosom to the steel. 1 8. Bees will not work except in darkness ; thought will not work except in silence. 19. The bench should be incorruptiljle. 20. There is a tide in the affairs of men, which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune. 21. A friend cannot be kj>own in prosperity, and an enemy cannot be hidden in adversity. 11. To spend too much" time in studies is sloth ; to use ■,hdm too much for ornament, is affectation. 23. 'Twould scald my tongue to spit out your hated name. 24. 1 do not rise for the purpose of assuming the gauntlet so proudly thrown down by the Goliath of the adverse party. 25. Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and heart to this vote. 26. Thei'e is a great gulf between the men of principle whom office wants, and the men of no principle who want office. '^7. I shail watch your pen to see if it is consecrated to tie State. ir I' 194 Styk — Prose CoutpositioH. I'.'i' . 28. The lojL((MKlary a. '*?''^ ^b"". «" Letters — Specimens. 20 1 Messrs. Cox & Purdy, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, Gentlemen, — Cookstown, Ontario, May 9th, 1885. We remain, Your obedient servants, Cattlin & Co. 300 Yonge St., Toronto, Ont., J. C. Selover, Esq., June 8th, 1885. 75 New St., New York, Dear Sir, — I am. Yours truly, C. P. Thomas. Collingwood, May 5th, 1885. Messrs. Jones 3 t-.-n superiority , accompanied by a mean opinion of every other person, will be a source of such constant annoyance to us as to embitter life and make us unhappy. II. Discussion. — Jieasons. — A proud man esteems himself too highly, and is not satisfied unless other people treat him with a reverence equal to his own conceit ; but as none will do this, except from inter- ested motives, he must feel annoyed by every one with whom he comes into contact. He thinks too meanly of every person but hini- ::(r: M 2o8 Invention — Tluines. self, and iH not willinj^ to pay othorH tho rcHpt'ct which thoy doaervo. In conHcvjuonco of this, tlioy hoou commence retaliation. Tl»cy will endeavor to withhold from him even tho respect, favor and honor which arc duo to him ; and, as ho Ib apt to be unuHually senHitivo, ho must feel tmusually mortified when thoy expowo hiH foibles, and try to make the most of them. Ho will HutTer, not only from real inaultH, but often from imaf{inary 8li<{htB; and as the wants and hopeB of pride aro almost bonudleas, his hourt will bo harassed by an excessive multitude of disappointments. His pride is a barrier to improve- ment, and he soon loses tho sympathy of everybody, while his enemies are constantly iiicrcasiny. SimileH. — When tho peacock spreads his porgeous tail in the swelling of his pride, tho other birds instantly cry out against his ugly logs and voice. The rill is sweet and clear, but the proud torrent is muddy and turbulent. Tho modest violet is Bweet-scented and long- lived ; but the proud tulip blooms for a few days only, and is without perfume. The proud oak is riven by the thunder-bolt, while the humble bush lives uaharmed through tho storm. Historical lUnstrafions. — The pride of Alexander the Great mado him believe himself a god ; and this folly led him into every kind of extravagance, even to drink more wine *han any other man, to prove his superior nature ; but this absurd pride threw him into a fever, of which ho died in the prime of his life. Haman, though placed in the court of Ahasuerus above all the princes of the realm, was wretched because Mordecai, a poor Jew, would not bow down to him. This o /erweening pride led Haman into a murderous plot against the whole race of Israel ; but the plot was d'ccovered, and Ilaman was hanged on the gallows he had caused to bo erected for Mordecai. Qvotatiovs. — This view is further supported by the opinion of tlie greatest and wisest men tho world ha . seen. Bacon sa^'i : " .^ proud man, while he despises otiiers, neglects himself." In '.'" '"l .^. ;.;o of Franklin, " Prido dines on vanity, and sups with contempt;" and Solomon pli.\inly declares that " A man's pride shall bring him low." III. Con^ii^on. — Since, then, pride is so injurious to happiness, let us watch oui oon ' ict carefully, and divest ourselves of all excess of pride. Let ua be nodof*:. yet without sacrificing courage and self-respect lu li Ii til r jjfl Themes in Narration. 209 leBcrve. oy will • I honor tivo, ho and try InBultH, lopen of xcessive mprovc- hile hiB Bwellinj^ ngly lo«8 ^rrent is md lon«- \ without ivhile the iat mado y kind of to prove L fever, of jQ all the poor Jew, Hannin the plot ad caused lion of the " A proud .V. ,.,oof apt;" and him low." happiness, all excess nrage and LESSON XL I. TIIEMEH IN NAUIUTION. Narration pivscnta a succession of ov V I'iter should he to make the reader an oyo-witness, as it '\ »n' \ ' the events narrated, Principles. — In forming th(! plan of a narration, there are coruiin principles that siiould he ohserved. 1. The order of events must bo followed ; that is, events should bo pliicod before the reader aa he would have seen them had he been present. 2. Every fact or event should be made to grow out of something previous. 3. The entire narration ohould centre in one principal action or event. Where this is not possible for the whole, as in history, then each distinct part should be formed on this principle. 4. Where there are simultaneous trains of action, there should, f,'enerally, be a principal one, and such subordinate ones as are natu- rally connected with it as causes, consequences, or circumstr nces. 5. When there are several etreams of events of nearly equal impor- tance, the ordinary method is to carry one up to a certain point, and then return to brini; up the others, one by one, to the same date. This must be repeated to the end of the whole. 6. The scene anci the actors should be changed as seldom as pos- sible ; and a clear intimation should be given of any change of scene, or of the introduction or disappearance of an important agent. 7. The nansktor should not attempt to relate everything. He should give the salient points, and leave the rest to the reader to supply. Style. — The topics of narration are so varied that no abso- lute rules 0. 1' laid down as to the language to he employed. It must, hi ;> ever, always be suited to the subject in hand. In general^ it should be plain, simple, and perspicuous. When the subject! will allow ^lie style may rise to the graceful, the i 1 m' 210 Invention — Exercises on Themes. Hit : if.'* flowing, or even to the elegant, hut should never be pompous or stilted, or in any way adapted to draw off the attention from the subject to itself. Theme : — The Fate of Ginevra. Framework. I. Intkoddction:- •1. 2. 3. 4. Time, Long ago. Pertion, Ginevra. Place, A Palace near Reggio Gate. Event, The fate of Ginevra. II. DiscDssioN : — A . The Occasion ; — a. About to be married to Francesco Doria. b. The preparations for tlie wedding. B. The Mystery:— a. She hides and cannot be found. h. Consternation of the guests. c. Despair of Francesco. d. He goes to the Turkisli war and is slain. e. His shadowed life and sad death. G. The Explane tion :— a. A party of visitors fifty years after, ft. They discover an old chest. c. They open it with glee. d. Are struck with horror. e. They find in it the pearl, the emerald, and the gold clasp inscribed " Ginevra." III. Conclusion: trivial acts. -We cannot always divine the consequences of EXERCISE LXXII. Construct a framework of a theraa on each of the following topics , then write out each theme in full. 1. First Week al High School. G 2. How we spent Dominion Day. 7. 3. Our Experience of Camping out. 8. 4. A Fishing Excursion. 9. 5. The Crossing of the Red Sea. 10. Our Visit to a Printing Office. History of Confederation. History of St. Paul. The Story of a Shilling. A Sail down the St. Lawrence, Themes in Description. 211 ving topics LESSON XLII. THEMES IN DESCRIPTION. Description. — The aim of the descriptive writer is to pre- sent his subject to the mind of the reader as distinctly as the artist would present it to the eye by means of painting or sculpture. ^ Principles. — In forming the framework of a description, the following principles should be observed. 1. The most imporrant point is to include in the enumeration of the parts, a comprehensive statement, or general plan of the whole. (1) The idea of the general plan may be furnished by stating the Form, or by giving the Outline and Magnitude. Thus we may de- scribe a field as square ; a city as round, long, or straggling. (2) Again, the general plan may be shewn by arranging the parts, as branches from a Main Trunk. 2. Descriptions should be made from a favorable point of view. (1) Sometimes the whole object or scene may be described from one standpoint, as the painter draws his picture. (2) Sometimes the traveller's point of view may be adopted, and the scene pre: tented in a succession of aspects. 3. After having formed as simple a plan as possible, shew it to the reader. " The battle of Waterloo," says Victor Hugo, " was fought on a piece of ground resembling a capital A. The English were at the apex, the French at the feet, and the battle was decided about the centre." Such an outline gives the reader a clear idea of the whole, and presents a picture that is easily filled in. 4. Next, take up the subject part by part. Try to form a clear conception of each ; do not attempt to enumerate every particular, but select the most striking and interesting features ; sketch these as distinctly and vividly as possible. Style. — As description forms a large part of all composi- tion, and embraces so great a diver-sity of subjects, it admits of almost every variety of language and style, and allows the widest scope for ornament and beauty. If the object treated is humble, the language may be familiar ; if it is grand, the language may be elevated ; if it is characterized by great beau- ty, then the language may assume its richest appearance. The style must be adapted to the nature of the object described. \ M i t% m 1^ i^' It* 212 Invention — Theme" in Exposition. Theme : — The Coliseum. I. Inthoduction : — 1. The greatness of ancient Rome. 2. The Coliseum as one of the evidences. II. Discussion : — A . Properties : — a. Now in a state of ruin. h. Form and size— Elliptical, 5£4 ft. long. c. Purposes for which used. B. Parts:— a. Eighty rows of marble seate. b. Magnificent carving. c. Stately windows. (/. Triumphal arches, e. Gorgeous designs. III. CoNciiUsioN : — Vestiges of by-gone glory. ffi!' 'i EXERCISE LXXIII. Construct the framework of a theme on each of the following topics, and then write out each theme in full. 1. The Falls of Niagara. 2. A Snow-storm. 3. The Thousand Islands. 4. Your School-house. 6. The Character of Warren Hastings. 6. A Modern Newspaper. 7. The Railway System of On- tario. 8. The Province of Ontario. 9. The City of Toronto. 10. The Alhambra. 11. Autumn Days in the Country. 12. An Evening Sunset. LESSON XLIII. THEMES IN EXPOSITION. Exposition consists in setting forth the attributes of any Bu}>ject, in presenting doctrines, principles, or views, for the instruction of others. It may be divided into two kind.s, scientific and moral. Scientihc Exposition simply expounds truth without reference to right or wrong; Moral Exposition deals w-'tli human actions and duties. Themes in Exposition. 213 I'll ing topics, sm of On- itario. to. le Country, kt. bes of any ^s, for the iwo kinds, expounds Exposition The Thoughts. — In Narration and Description, tho materials are obtained chiefly through the five senses, but in Exposition they are the product of the reasoning faculty. Hence, in forming the frame- work for a composition of this class, the chief difficulty with beginners is to find the thoughts. In seeking for and arranging them, the means indicated in the lesson on Invention are to be pursued. Variety cf Method. — As the subjectu of Exposition are very varied, great diversity of method is admissible. In Scientific Exposition, the writer proceeds directly through the discussion, stop by step, unfolding the subject, illustrating what is difficult, clearly and concisely stating the facts in natural order. In Moral Exposition any plan may be adopted that is suitable to the development of the subject. The Parta. — In the Introduction is placed the formal statement of the principles or views to be unfolded ; the Discussion, or body of the composition, contains the methodical development of the proposi- tion ; and the Conclusion, a summary of the whole. Style. — As clearness is the chief object to be attained, the hmguage should be plain and the style neat and concise. Each point should, when practicable, be illustrated by examples, und strengthened by quotations. Theme : — Popular Prejudices against Iliyher Education. I. Intuodction : — 1. Progress of Education in general, 2. Higher Education most strongly opposed. II. Discussion : — A. Prejudice of those who object to taxing all to educate a few. /?. Prejudice of the rich : — a. Who do not wish to be taxed. b. Who prefer class education. 6'. Prejudice of those who think higher education injures the pupil. 1). Prejudice of the poorer and more ignorant. E. Prejudice arising from faults in the system. F. Prejudice of men of reputation. III. Conclusion :— The need of Higher Education. m pi pill lli!:- i' I ^5! i: !.; 2 14 Invention — Themes in Arguntentafive Composition. EXERCISE LXXIV. Construct the framework of a theme on each of the following topics, and then write out the theme in full. 1. Hope, 2. Anger. 3. Candor. 4. Taste. 6. Modesty. G. Freedom. 7. Courage. 8. Idleness. 9. Humility. 10. Contemplation. 11. Passion for Dress. 12. Evils of War. 13. Blessings of Liberty. 14. Decision of Character. 15. Advantages of llailroads. LESSON XLIV. THEMES IN ARGUMENTATIVE COMPOSITION. Argumentative Composition is that in v^hich the aim is to modify or induce belief by means of Argument. The body of a composition of this class consists of two parts, the Proposi- tion, or that which is to be proved, and the Arguments, or Proof. Two Methods.— Two methods may be employed in Argumentative Composition, the Deductive and the Inductive. In the first, the line of thought proceeds from the subject to the predicate of the proposi- tion to be proved, and in the second, from the predicate to tho subject. Parts. — When the proposition is stated at the outset, it should bo stated in the clearest and briefest manner possible. After tho Intro- duction follow the Arguments. They should be so arranged that the weakest come in the middle and the strongest last. The connection between the arguments and the conclusion must be made clear in each case. The Conclusion consists of a re-statement of the proposition as enforced by the combined strength of all the arguments. Style. — Clearness and force are here the chief requisites; little or no ornament is required ; the style should be neat, but sufficiently diffuse to make the points easily seen. Every argument should have illustrations, examples, or instances, to make its force and meaning perfectly clear. Themes in Persuasion. 215 Theme: — Cremation should snpersfidn Burial. I. Intiioduction : — Modes of disposing of the dead. II. Discussion : — A. Cremation assists nature. B. It has no unhealthful effects. C. Desecrction is impossible. D. Evils of premature cremation comparatively 8li<^ht. ^. If generally adopted it might be inexpensive. F. It is agreeable to sentiment. < O. Parts of the cremated body may be preserved. III. Conclusion : — Cremation should be adopted. EXERCISE LXXV. Construct the framework of a theme on each of the following topics, and then write out the theme in full. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. Whatever is, is right. Honesty is the Best Policy. Should Judges be Elected. Our Antagonist is our Helper. Knowledge is Power. G. Is Labor a Blessing ? 7. Life is a School. 8. Wisdom Leads to Happiness. 10 9. Does Contrivance prove De- sign ? Is Manhood Suffrage desi- rable ? Is it expedient to wear Mourning Ajfparel ? 12. Is Compulsory Education a benefit to the State ? 11. |ii i III IN N sli ;i ■■ I' LESSON XLV. THEMES IN PERSUASION. Persuasion is that kind of composition whose object is to move the will by presenting motives for action. Farts. — The parts of a theme in Persuasion are variously reckoned as six, four, or three. For our purpose it will ba sufficient to reckon them at the last number. In the Introduction come, first, the state- ments that prepare for the subject, then the views the speaker wishes to enforce, and, lastly, the explanation of the manner in which he intends to discuss them. In the body of the discourse are placed the motives for action. These may be based on Narration, Description, Exposition, or Argumentation ; they may appeal to the intellect by argument, to the feelings by sympathy, or to the emotions and pas- •f'l ! m 1 m ^ «/ 2l6 Invention — T 11-11125 in Persuasion, sions by exhortation. The Conclusion should be pithy and graceful. Sometimes it should contain all the motives gathered together in a few impressive periods ; sometimes it should consist in an electrify- ing appeal. Style. — In Persuasion, the style should be forcible and ele- vated. Here all the beauties of prose composition ai-e in place, and nothing ol a low or trivial character should b« admitted. Illustrations should be freely introduced to relieve and please the mind. Theme : — The IwipoHrw^ of Metitd Discipline. I. Introduction : — 1. Describe the untrained mind. 2. Discipline improves it. 3, Raiison to ba given to shew th3 benefits. II. Discussion : — A, Mental Disciplino develops the powers of the mind. li. Enables it to acquire and grasp knowledge. C. Knowledge is power. D. Power enables its possessor to attain inflnonco. E. Influence brings honor, emolument, and fame. III. Conclusion :— Seek the Discipline which can give an immortal name. EXERCISE LXXVI. Construct the framework of a theme on each of the following topics, and then write out the theme in full. The Dress is not the Man. Influence of Good Manners. The Baseness of Ingratitude. Poverty develops tlie Charac- ter better than Riches. He is Rich who desires No- thing. A Good Conscience is better than Wealth. 1. Silent Influence. 10, 2. The Habit of Reading. 11. 3. The Value of Character. 12. 4. The Power of Kindness. 16. r>. The Power of Habit. G. No Place like Home. 14. 7. The Vanity of Riches. 8. Do not despise Poverty. 15. 9. Live within your Means. Ill Punctuation. 2 \y LESSON XLVI. :tal topics, PUNCTUATION. Punctuation i,; a Kupplemental ar^, employed to indicate to the eye the coustru<;tion of a sfintence. Hence, tl'c grand rule by which we shoukl he guided in punctuating is : Under- stand tlie construction, and then punctuate so as to indicate it. Marks used. — The eiglit principal niaiks used in punctu- ation may be elassilied as follows : — (1) Those tliat indicate r>yntax, viz. : The Period (.), the Colon (:), the Semi-colon (;), the Comma (,) ; (2) those that, in addition, characterize thought, or indicate feeling, viz.: The Interrogation Point (?), the Ex- clamation Point (!), the Dash ( — ), the Curves [( )]. The Period is used : — 1. After every complete sentence that is not interrogative or exclamatory. 2. After abbreviations, Roman numerals, headings of chap- ters and sections, and signatures in a list of names ; as : — K.C.B. for Knight Counnander of the hath, Charles XII. of Sweden. See the titles and headings in this book The Colon is used :— 1. As a point intermediate between the Period and the Semi-colon. 2. Before a sentence added as an explanation of a word or sentence; as: — "English Grammar: ar Exposition of the Principles and Usages of the English Language." 3. Befoi'e a direct (piotation ; as : — Pope makers this re- mark : " There never was any party in which the most ignorant were not the most violent." When the quotation is short, a Connna is used instead of a Colon. ;i I'l k! ii I % I r, Mil '' Iff I i I m 218 Punctuation. The Semi-colon is used ^j^^;^ 1. As a point intermediate between the colon and tlie comma ; as : — " Keep thy heart with all diligence ; for out of it are tlie issues of life." 2. To separate parts that already have the comma ; as : — " Yes, Yes ; i\ is so, it is so." 3. To separate the parts of a loose series, especially when stress is laid on the particulars ; as : — " Touch not ;. taste not ; handle no^." 4. When a stntence, complete in itself, is followed by a clause of inference, explanation, consequence, iteration, or enumeration ; as : — "Of wliat consequence are all the qualities of a doctrine, if that doctrine is not communicated ; and com- municated it is not, if it be not understood." The Comma is used : — 1. To isolate the nominative absolute, the name or designa- tion of the person addressed, words used in apposition, the relative clause when not restrictive. Thus : " That finished, our duty is done." " Peace, O Virtue, peace is all thine own." "The greatest Roman orator, Cicero, was patriotic." "We next went to London, which is the largest city in the world." 2. Between each pair of words or phrases that follow in pairs ; as : — " The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, the young and the old, have one common Father." 4. When a word is omitted ; as : — " To err is human ; to forgive, divine." "Alfred was a brave, pious, patriotic prince." In cases like the second example the comma is inserted before the bst of a series even when the conjunction is not omitted ; as : — " Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince." The same practice is followed \vith a series of nouns or verbs ; as : — " His ambition was for honor, wealth, and fame." "Th(5 Puritans worked, prayed, and fought with equal energy." 5. To separate phrases and single words, used parentheti- cally, from the rest of the sentence. Some of the words and Punctuation. 219 to ice." ^fore |ted ; The as : Th(^ leti- and phrases that require to be separated l)y commas are :— then, therefore, however, too, indeed, perhaps, surely, finally, namely, in short, in fact, in brief, no doubt, as it were, to i»fl sure, of course, after all, to be brief. It is only when these words and phrases are used connect! vely that they are thus set off; when they are used with an adverbial force only, they are not separated; as: — "However much he may promise, he performs nothing." 6. To separate dependent clauses and intermediate expres- sions from the context ; as : — '* If you would succeed in business, be honest and industrious." "The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a small portion of the universe." "Truth, like gold, shines brighter by collision." When the grammatical connection is very close, the depen- dent clause is not separated by a comma ; as : — " You may go when you please." 7. To separate the parts of a compound sentence, if they are simple in construction ; as : — " Modern engineering spans whole continents, tunnels alike mountains and rivers, and dykes out old ocean himself." If the parts are brief and closely connected in sense, nc comma is needed. 8. To .set off inverted phrases and clauses standing at the beginning of a sentence ; as : — " To obtain an education, he was willing to make sacrifices." Other Uses. — The comma stands between a word and its repetition ; as: — " Sweet, sweet home ;" between the parts of a transposed name ; as : — Thompson, Henry S. ; before the explanatory or ; as : — " The skull, or cranium ;" between words and phrases expressing contrast ; as : — " Though deep, yet clear ;" also between figures, to divide them into groups^ as :— " 7,840,532." -■nf!:.!^-'. 2 20 Punctuation. m\ The Interrogation Point is pluccd aftor every siMiteuoe tliiit coutaiiis .1 direct question ; as : — " How uau 1 tell 1" ''Where is the boat?" exclaimed the eaptain. In tlie indirect form of discourse it is not used; as: — " Tlie "enthMuan asked tlie groom wluM'e the horse was." The Exclamation Point is used at'tei* inteijections, j'fter sentences or chiuses that express sufklen or vioh'nt emotion, and after invocations ; as : " Pshaw !" " O blissful days !" "Hail, holy light! ofispring of lieaven, iirst-horn !" "What is more amiable than virtue !" The Dash is used : — 1. To indicito a p luse m ido for rhetoriisal elleut ; as : — " 1 have nothing in the world." 2. To show emphasis or suppi-essed feeli'i,;-, or an unex- pected turn in the sentiment; as: — " He had no malice in liis mind — no ruffles on his shirt." 3. Instead of commas or the usual signs of parenthesis, to enclose parenthetical clauses. 4. With other stops, to indicate a longer pause or a new paragraph ; as ; — " What? — A traitor ! — Yes. — A villain." 5. To denote an omission ; as : — " He was born at the vil- lage of IT , in the vear ." The Curves are used to enclose some incidental remark that does not affect the sti-ucture of the sentence ; as : — " I told liim (and who would not?) just what I thought of him." Other Marks. -The Hyphen [ -] is used to join the con- stituent parts of a compound word, and to divide words at the end of a line ; as : — " He weai-s a bi-oad-brinnned hat." Com- pare, i>lso, the words con^iitmnit and comimre in this paragraph. The Apostrophe is used t^ mark the omission of a letter or ligure, to distinguish the possessive Ciise, and to form some plurals; as :- -That is o'er. The rebellion of '12. The fox's tail. Cross the ts. Pu nc hi at ion — Exercises. 221 The Marks of Quotation aro usc^l to cucIoho wonU that are takoii as tho exact language of solium othor person. When a quotation contains another quotation, douhlo marks aro used ; as : — "This friend of hum inity says : * When I consider their lives, I seem to see the "golden aw " heyrinniiiir ajjain.'" EXERCISE LXXVII. Study these sentences till you understand their construction, und then punctuate them in accordance with tlie rules given in tho pre- ceding lesson. 1. Deut XX 21, 2 Sam xix 2, A D 1885. 2. Bought, 9 mos credit 1 yds 3 qrs at 12 cts a yd. 3. I'he fundamental characteristic of man is spiritual hunger tho universe of thought and matter is spiritual food, 4. Be our plain answer thio The throne we honor ia the people's choice. 5. In every work of genius wo recognize our own injected thoughts they come back to us with a sort of alienated majesty. C. There are three genders the masculine the fcmin'no and tho neuter. 7. The value of a maxim depends on four things the correctness of the principles it embodies the subject to whicli it relates the extent of its application and the ease with which it may be practically carried out. 8. Greece indeed fell but how did she fall did she fall like Babylon did she fall like Lucifer never to rise again. 9. That man virtuous you might as well preaqh to me of the virtues of Judas Iscariot. 10. The essence of all poetry may be said to consist of three things invention expression inspiration. 11. What shall become of the poor the increasing standing army of the poor. 12. Hollo ho the whole world's asleep bring out the horses grease the wheek tie on the mail. 13. All day he kept on walking or thinking al>out Ijis misfortunes. 14. The book greiitly to my disappointment was ncJt to be found. 15. His voice which was so pleasing in private was too weak for public speaking. 10. It will I am sure it will more and more as time goes on Ixs found good for this. 17. On the other hand there is great danger in delay. 18. Feudalism is in fact the emlxxliment of pride. 19. Good deeds though forgotten are not in every case lost. 222 Punctuation — Exercises. 20. One object for HLU(l>iiii.' rhutorio is that we may compose better. 21. UuIeBH you bridle your ton^jne you will iiHHuredly bo shut out from good society. 22. Classical studieH regarded merely as a means of culture arc de- serving of general attention. 23. Charity on whatever side wo contemplate it is one of the highest Christian graces. 24. Nature through all hor works delights in variety. 25. The eye which sees all things is itself unseen. 20. The man of letters who has cotistantly before him examples of excellence ought himself to bo a pattern of excellence. 27. CsDsar was dead the soldiers were dispersed all Home was in confusion. 28. Did God create for the poor a cbarser earth a thinner air a paler sky. 29. The sun the moon the planets and stars are all in iiotion. 30. Eating or drinking laboring or sleeping let us all do good in moderation. 31. The word poet mianmg a maker is derived from the Greek. 32. Virgil the chief poet among the Romans was fond of rural life. 33. Strergth energy .b what you want. 34. A. man of prodigious energy ho was a pattern of modesty. 85. I beg sir to acknowledge tlie receipt of your favor. 2'>. His father being dead the prince ascended the throne, ?7. Of all our sense.! sight is the most important. 38. A good rule in education is "Learn to be slow in forming your opinions." 89. Good temper is like a sunny day it sheds a brightness over everything. 40. Everything that happens is both a cause and an effect bcmj? the eCfect of what goes before and the cause of wluit follows. 41. Go go my good fellows and do not let the poor man drown. 42. Well to be sure how much I iiave fagged through. 43. A great general who died on the field of victory said before his death I hope my country will be satisfied. 44. The English dove or cushat is noted for its cooing. 45. Doing to others as we wish them to do to us constitutes the fun damcntal principles of Christian duty. 46. Julius Ca3sar wrote a clear natural correct and flowing style. 47. In onr epistolatory correspondence we may advise exhort or discuss. '. 8. The circle of vices like shadows towards the evening of life appears enormous to a thinking person. 49. His manners are affable and for the most part pleasing. 50. However fairly a bad man may appear to act we are afraid to trust him. Qualities of Style. 221 of life "Ifraid to LESSON XLVI. THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. The properties of Style studied in preceding lessons are called the Elements of Style, because they belong to Words, Sentences, and Paragraphs, which constitute the elements of language. Besides these. Style possesses other subtler pro- perties known as the Qualities of Style. These qualities arise from the nature of the thoughts, from the character of the mind of the writer, and from his command over language. They may therefore be classified as Intellectual, Emotional, and -Esthetic. 1. Intellectual Qualities. — The Intellectual Qualities of Style include Simplicity and Clearness. (a) Simplicity means the quality of being easily under- stood. It applies to the nature of the thoughts and to the manner in which they are expressed. If the thoughts are abstruse, the terms technical, or the sentences of involved structure, discourse lacks Simplicity. (6) Oldamess applies to the general manner of expression — to the way in which the thoughts are presented. Either simple or abstruse thoughts may be clearly placed before the reader; yet abstruse thoughts may not be easily comprehended, although clearly expressed, and simple thoughts may be ex- pressed so as to appear confused, ambiguous, or uncertain. The mechanical means of clear expression, which every one may learn to use, have been explained in previous lessons, but the Clearness of which we now speak implies a clear con- ception of the subject by the writer, a definite outline, a systematic arrangement, as well as a mastery of the means before treated of under Minute Clearness. 4 224 Qualities of Style. t 2. Emotional Qualities. — Under the head of Emotional Qualities are embraced Force, Pathos, and the Ludicrous. Force is the power by which anything, written or spoken, makes an impression on the mind by rousing it to excitement and action. This quality of Style is known b;^ many other names, such as Strength, Energy, Vigor, Animation, Vivacity, Fervor, Brilliancy, Loftiness, and Sublimity. The chief sources of B'orce are originality in matter or form, and the capacity of the writer to feel strongly ; but, as we have shown in previous lessons, much may be done mechani- cally to add to the force of expression. Pathos is that quality of Style which rouses the mind to pleasurable excitement by awakening the tender emotions, such as love, pity, sympathy, benevolence. In prose, even stronger feelings may be appealed to, and the pathos may be such as to call forth feelings of pain or horror, or of the most distressing pity or disgust. Like other qualities of Style, Pathos is applied both to the thought and to the diction. Two persons may relate the same incident, one with the most touching effect, the other without even arousing interest. The Ludicrous, or the Laughable, is a term that signifies that quality of Style which promotes mirthful feeling and laughter. It may be divided into three kinds, under the heads of Wit, Humor, and Satire. (a) Wit is the discovery of such an unexpected relation between objects (or ideas) as excites our surprise and thereby anmses us. (6) Humor is that tone which, running through a composi- tion, provokes in the reader a ^ood-natured feeling that breaks out into a smile, sometimes into laughter. It arises from the to Qualities of Style. 225 bional 3. )oken, ement J, such Pervor, iter or but, as echani- oind to actions, e, even may be le most : Style, diction, le most ist. signifies ing and ider the relation thereby composi- it breaks trom the joining of things that are incongruous, and from presenting ideas or objects in an odd and unusual light. This incongruity must be suitable to the person ridiculed, and must be kindly in its nature. (c) Satire is the antithesis of Humor. It consists in hold- ing a person or object up to scorn by making him or it the subject of remarks that are true, but that make the person or object appear ridiculous. 3. JESTHETIC QuAUTIEB. — The Esthetic Qualities of Style are those that tend to make discourse gratifying to our sense of the beautiful. They embrace Melody, Harmony, and Taste. (1) Melody, as we have already seen, consists in using those devices that make language pleasing to the ear. When spoken of a whole composition, it includes, in addition to the Melody of which we have spoken in Lesson XIX., a considera- tion of the general effect of minute melody on the writing taken as a whole. The melody of the several sentences must blend harmoniously, and must be of a character adapted to the subject. (2) Harmony has a variety of applications, all of which are important in Composition. (a) It means, as previously stated, the adaptation of sound to sense. (6) Harmony requires that all the parts of a composition should correspond with one another. The language sliould be suitable to the subject, and be expressive of the feelings of the speaker. The scene should correspond with the actions that take place in it \ the tone of feeling should be suited to the thoughts expressed ; the different parts of a picture should correspond with one another. It will not do to have a frozen river running through a harvest-field. (3) Taste in rhetoric means cultivated judgment, a refined sensibility to the eflfects of all the expedients of Composition. Iji'l iiii'L 'Am ;!;a iii!' Ill ii' 111 226 Rhetorical Analysis. A writer who possesses Taste will avoid whatever is harsh or incongruous. He will have everything chaste and in keeping. His productions will not have excrescences on the one hand, nor gaps on the other. Symmetry will be one of his first ex- cellences. Figures of speech, the adornment of language, will be used sparingly and gracefully; no tawdry finery will be worked in, no straining after effect will be indulged. LESSON XLVII. RHETORICAL ANALYSIS. Analysis means an examination of a writing or composi- tion, for the purpose of inquiring whether the author has observed the principles laid down (1) for the choice and use of words, (2) for the formation of sentences, (3) for the construc- tion and connection of paragraphs, (4) for the use of figures of speech, and (5) with the object of ascertaining which of the qualities of Style it possesses and which it lacks. This Lesson shows how this is carried on. As there is great variety in Style, and as different styles are adapted to different subjects, no absolute rules can be laid down for the guidance of be- ginners. The exercise is largely one of judgment, and is on that account especially valuable. Example 1. — " The first snow came. How beautiful it was, falling so silently all day long, all night long, on the moun- tains, on the meadows, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead ! All white save the river, that marked its course by a winding black line across the landscape ; and the leafless trees, that against the leaden sky now revealed more fully the wonderful beauty and intricacy of their branches. What silence, too, came with the snow, and what seclusion ! K/ery sound was muffled, every noise changed to something soft and musical. No more tramping hoofs, no more rattling wheels! Only the chiming sleigh-bells, beating as swift and merrily as the hearts of children. |vt!itil!r Rhetorical Analysis. 227 3h or sping. hand, st ex- ;uage, y will imposi- or has use of nstruc- figures of the jcsson iety in ajects, of be- dis on "All day long, all night long, the snow fell on the village and on the churchyard, on the happy home of Cecilia Vaughan, on the lonely grave of Alice Archer. Yes, for, before winter came, she had gone to that land where winter never comes. Her long domestic tragedy was ended. She was dead, and with her had died her secret sorrow and her secret love. Kavanagh never knew what wealth of affection for him faded from the world when slie departed; Cecilia never knew what fidelity of friendship, what delicate regard, what gentle magnanimity, what angelic patience, had gone with her into the grave; Mr, Churchill never knew that, while he was exploring the past for records of obscure and unknown martyrs, in his own village, near his own door, before his own eyes, one of that silent sisterhood had passed away into oblivion, unnoticed and unknown." The foregoing paragraphs will now be considered under the various heads mentioned above. I. Choice and Use of Words. The words of these paragraphs are all chosen in strict accordance with the requirements of Purity, Propriety, and Precision. The most careful investigation cannot discover one word that is not purely English, one that is not used in its proper and ordinary signification, or one that does not express exactly the idea intended. 2. Formation of Sentences. («) Clearness. — Under this head nothing is left to be desired. The words are familiar, and, therefore, expressive. The arrangement is simple and natural. There are no inver- sions or contortions of order, to render the meaning in the slightest degree obscure or even difficult to understand ; all is simple, plain, and direct. The pronouns all refer definitely to their nouns. The emphatic words are so placed as to make the meaning clear. (6) Strength. — In studying the means employed in these paragraphs to secure Strength, we are at once struck with the ',2S Rhetorical Analysis. il class of words used. They are largely native English words, and those of foreign origin are mostly such as have by fre- quent use become as familiar as our own Saxon. In the number of words used the author has been judicious and care- ful. No Word can be pointed out that has not its value in giving completeness to the sense, nor is there any one omitted that should have been expressed. In the first paragraph tht repetition of "every" and of "what" adds emphasis; the same is true of "on" and "what" in the second. In the third sentence, and in the last two sentences of the first para- graph, vividness is gained by the omission of the verb; and in the second sentence by the omission of the connectives, by repetition of the words in " all day long, all night long," and in "she was dead," "died," "secret sorrow," "secret love." Much force and beauty also are secured in the last sentence by repeating three times the words "never knew." The arrangement of the phrases " in his . . . own eyes," in the order of climax, adds to the beauty as well as to the striking effect of the thought, while the two adjectives " unnoticed " and " unknown " form a pleasing and effective close. Lastly, it may be noted that energy is gained by the variety of expression found in every line ; by variety in length and form of the sentences, as well as by the variety of manner in which the scene is presented. (c) Unity.— Strictly the last sentence of the second paragraph violates the second law of Unity ; but as has been pointed out (Lesson XVII.), when statements are very closely connected in sense, they may sometimes be elegantly put into one sen- tence, although they are about different things. Here the statements about Kavanagh, Cecilia, and Mr. Churchill, though distinct facts, are made about one common source of goodness that manifested itself differently towards these three different persons. On the same principle, the last two sen- tences of the first paragraph might have been made into one. Rhetoricak Analysis. 229 vords, 11 the 1 care- ilue in mitted ph tht s; the In the t para- b; and jctives, > long," •' secret ihe last knew." ' in the triking ticed " Lastly, |iety of d form which hagrapli Ited out mected Ine sen- jre the lurchill, irce of le three Ivo sen- lo one. {d) Elegance. — No person of any taste or refinement of feeling can read these paragraphs without being struck with their beauty. Now, what are the mechanical means used to give Elegance to the form of expression ? In the first place, thfere is in the language a charming richness of melody. This IS attained by avoiding harsh-sounding words and by choosing euphonious words. Further, the arrangement of the words and clauses is such as to increase thfe melody. There is a pleasing alternation of long and short syllables and of long and short words. All harsh combinations are avoided, except in " near his own door, before." In most of the sentences there is a pleasing cadence at the close, especially in "branches," "seclusion," "musical," "children," and most of all, in "un- noticed" and "unknown." In the last sentence there is a sort of climax of sound as well as of sense. Once or twice the sound is made an echo of the sense, e.g, : " rattling," "tramping." The use of "and" before "what seclusion," and its omission before " every noise," is both melodious and vigorous. The same is true of several other omissions; as those in the second line of the second paragraph. 3. Construction of Parag^raphs. (a) Topic Sentence. — The first sentence of the first para- graph contains the topic, " The coming of the snow." Clear- ness is given by making this sentence short, so that the reader gets at the outset, and without any efibrt, a definite idea of what the paragraph is to describe. In the second paragraph the first sentence is both connective and introductory. It connects "The coming of the snow" with "The death of Alice Archer." (6) Arrangement. — The sentences that compose these paragraphs are consecutively arranged. In the first para- graph, which is descriptive, the attention is first called to that part of the scene which is near at hand, then to the 230 Rhetorical %A nalysis. parts more remote, and lastly to the sky. In the second, which is narrative, the natural order of events is followed : first the death, then the results. (c) Explicit Reference. — The principle of Explicit Refer- ence, which is one of the greatest importance in the construc- tion of the paragraph, is here aptly and unobtrusively followed. The connection of the second sentence with the first is clearly shown by the pronoun " it." As the third sentence states the result of the action recorded in the second, it is more neatly added without the use of any connecting word. The fourth sentence is explicitly joined to the third by the use of the conjunctive word "too." As the last three sentences are amplifications of the fourth, and as the first words of each of them — " Every sound was mufiled," "No more," "Only the,'' — clearly show this, elegance and force are gained by the omission of the connective words. In the first three sentences of the second paragraph the reference is ^.lade explicit by the use of the words "Yes," "Her," and "She." The last sen- tence is an amplification of the one that precedes it. (c?) Unity. — Every sentence in each of these paragraphs is an amplification of its topic sentence. In the first, "The coming of the snow " is presented in two ways : its effects are made visible to the eye, as well as perceptible to the ear. These two parts join somewhat in the same way as the two parts of a balanced sentence, to make one elegant whole. In the second, all the sentences except the introductory one state results of the death of Alice Archer. Hence these two para- graphs possess Unity. (e) Due Prof Ortion. — Our sight is the keenest of our senses, therefo' e in the first paragraph more prominence is given to the effects of the snow as seen than as heard. In the second, space is purposely given to the enume-ation of particulars, because they make effective the touching features of the nari*ation. Rhetorical Analysis, 231 (/) Parallel Construction.— The first paragraph consists, as pointed out in (rf), of two parts. A careful examination will show that these two parts are constfruoted with due attention to the principle of Parallel Construction. The first sentence of each part is in the exclamatory form, and the second is in the declarative form. In the last sentence, also, of the second paragraph this principle is followed with fine efiect. These clauses might, of course, have been written in separate sentences. ig) Variety. — In these paragraphs there is an exquisite variety, and at the same time a variety that produces har- mony of musical effect and harmony of image and expression. Here are sentences varied in length, short and long ; in form, the assertive and the exclamatory; in construction, simple, compound, complex, the loose, the compromise, all in free and unstudied ease. Plain language is mingled with figurative; the natural order with the inverted ; and the fuller explana- tion with the briefer statement. 4. Figfures of Speech. As the figures of speech are used for three distinct pur- poses — clearness, force, and ornament — much skill and taste is required to handle them with propriety. If they are too many, or too bold, they produce weakness instead of strength, disgust instead of pleasure. In these paragraphs the figures, as becomes the subject, are few and modest, yet so delicate, appropriate, and skilfully wrought in, as to give life, light, and beauty. If any one will take the pains to put plain langur we in the place of the figures, he will feel how sensibly the effect is lessened. The metony- mies, "roofs," "hoofs," "wheels"; the antitheses, "home," "grave"; the euphemisms, " She had gone," etc.. " Her long," etc., "departed"; the climax, "gone," "was ended," "dead," and "village," "door," "eyes"; and the metaphor, "domestic V: . I i • _ 232 Rhetorical Analysis. tragedy," as well as others of minor importance, all tend to the heightening of the delightful effect of the whole. 5. Qualities of Style. 1. Intellectual Qualities.— («) Simplicity.— These para- graphs deal with concrete and familiar topics, and the thoughts are couched in easy language, therefore they possess Simpli- city. There is nothing abstruse or technical in them. (6) Clearness. — Here we have two kinds of composition, description and narration. In the first part we find the writer has seized upon the salient points, and given us a definite outline, so filled in as to present to the n)ind a clear and distinct picture. There is no ambiguity in the language, nor confusion in the sense. In the second part the events are clearly and tersely stated in their natural order, so that the mind forms a vivid conception of them. 2. Emotional Qualities.— (a) Force.— We judge of the force of a writing by the efiect it produces on the mind. When applied to a composition as a whole, Force o!" Strength is a term that is used with greater fitness to some kinds of discourse than to others. The passages under consideration possess that sort of Force which is adapted to quiet scenes and to the narration of such events as afiect the lives of persons in humble circumstances. This kind of Force difiers greatly from that which is found in the description of vast and imposing objects, or of great actions; stiU there is in the thoughts, and in the manner in which they are presented, a vigor and impressiveness that strongly affects the mind. As the writer is deeply touched with the fate of his character, he is able to throw these emotions into his language, and thereby awaken like feelings in others. This effect he still further increases by the beauty, the propriety, and the force of his diction, by delicacy and point in his use of figures of speech. Rhetorical Analysis. 233 and by his plan of present' j the scene to two of the senses, the sight and the hearing. (ft) Pathos. — These paragraphs contain a felicitous exam- ple of true Pathos. There is placed before us a beautiful scene that moves and softens the finer feelings of our nature. Then, while we are enraptured with the beauty of this silent landscape, the curtain is drawn, and we behold the lonely grave of Alice Archer. As we stand and gaze, the writer pours out a flood of tenderness and admiring sympathy from a hv^art moved with the thought that silent, and forever, that breast, so full of unseen and unrecognized devotion, love, and friendship, lies buried beneath the whitening snows. Such a sight cannot fail to call forth our pity and sorrow. (c) The Ludicrous. — In a solemn, quiet, and touching scene, such as the one before us, the Ludicrous has no place. 3. iEsTHETic Qualities. — («) Melody.— We have already studied the means that are employed to give Melody to the words and sentences of these paragraphs, and have noted the degree of success that has been attained. We have now to notice that these sentences when combined into paragraphs are still melodious, and that the whole possesses a rich, sweet, and melancholy music, well suited to gratify our tender emotions and to deepen the impression made by the words. The flowing cadence sweeps the mind along and fills it with the music and the story. (&) Harmony. — Under this head we find the requirements very fully met — more so, indeed, than is frequently the case in much of what passes for poetry. The language, being plain and simple, is fitted for the presentation of so tranquil a scene; the difierent parts of the picture agree with one another, and the sad feelings that pervade the narration are neither exaggerated nor strained, but are such as the nature of the story justifies. 234 Rhetorical Analysis. n\ ,' (c) Taste. — The Taste exhibited in picturing the scene and in relating the events is of the purest and most elevated char- acter. It has not allowed the author to indulge in diction or in figures that are displeasing or incongruous. The language, the imagery, the tone of feeling, are in keeping with the occasion. In short, these paragraphs are types of artistic beauty. Example 2. — " His example, the presents of Clotilda and the bishops, and perhaps the attractiveness of novelty, even<>- uated in the conversion of a number of Frank warriors — as many as three thousand, indeed, according to the historians. The baptismal ceremony was celebrated at Rheims; and all the splendor which could still be furnished by the arts of the Romans, which were soon to perish in the hands of the bar- barians in Gaul, was displayed in profusion to adorn this triumph of the Catholic faith. The vestibule of the Cathedral was embellished and decorated with tapestry and garlands j veils of diversified colors mollified the glare of day; the most gorgeous perfumes blazed abundantly in precious vases of gold and silver. Advancing in pontifical robes to the bap- tistery, leading by the hand Clovis, who was about to become his spiritual son, ' Father,' said he, marvelling at such pomp, *is not this that Kingdom of Heaven which you promised mer "Messengers con\eyed the intelligence of his baptism to the Pope of Rome speedily, whereupon letters of congratu- lation and of friendship were addressed to Clovis, who thus acknowledged his sway; and he sent rich presents as tokens of filial submission in return to the blessed apostle Peter, the protector of the new Rome." 1. Choice and Use of Words. — The laws of Purity forbid the use of " eventuate," a newly-coined word that has not yet attained more than newspaper standing in the language. The words required by Precision are not ' ' attractiveness," " cert - mony," "celebrated," "embellished," "diversified," "molli- fied," " most gorgeous," "blazed," "abundantly," "precious '; but "attraction" ("novelty" alone is better), "rite of bap- Rhetorical Analysis. 235 tisni," "performed," "adorned," "divers" or "various," "soft- ened," "exhaled from," "in profusion," "costly." 2. Formation of Sentences.— The reference of " His " is not clear ; the noun or some synonym should be used. "Of" should be inserted before "the bishops." "As many .... historians " should be made into a new sentence. The con- struction of this first sentence is misleading. Taken literally, it means that "his example, the presents, and the bishops eventuated," etc., or it means that "perhaps the attractive- ness eventuated," etc. ; while it is evident that the author meant to say that the first three things led to the conversion of the soldiers, and that perhaps the "attractiveness of novelty " assisted in producing this result. " The baptismal .... celebrated": besides the evident attempt at fine writing, " ceremon/ celebrated " is an uncouth jingle. " Rheims" : the sentence should stop here; "and" should be omitted, and the next sentence might begin with "To adorn this," etc. " Which were," etc. : better "arts soon to perish," etc. " Em- bellished .... garlands": read "decorated with tapestry and adorned \*ith garlands." " Advancing," etc. : there is no noun to which "advancing" and "leading" can refer. For "Clovis" some synonym, such as "Frankish King" or "royal con- vert, " might ' >e used. His son " : " his " refers to the noun that should be made the leading subject of this sentence; "he" is ambiguous. This entire sentence is incurably bad. " The intelligence of his baptism," not "messengers," is the principal subject of this sentence, and it should have a more prominent position. " Speedily " ought to be near " con- veyed." Instead of " his," the noun or some of its synonyms should be used. "Speedily": this sentence should stop here, and the next should begin with " His Holiness immediately addressed letters," etc. As " Rome " has just been used, " the eternal city " might be elegantly substituted. So also with " Clovis," in the same line. " Who .... sway " is of 2^6 Rhetorical Analysis. sufficient importance to form m\ independent sentence along with "he sent," etc. "Thus" is ambiguous and absurd ; "in return " is not needed, and " and " following so close produces harshness. 3. Construction of Paragraphs.— The laws of the Para- graph are fairly realized. After the introductory sentence the topic, "the baptismal ceremony," is prominently stated. As the paragraph adheres strictly to this subject throughout, the law of Unity is satisfied. The requirements of Explicit Reference and Due Proportion, however, are not so fully met. The second sentence is abruptly introduced. It should have some connective phrase, such as, "On the public profes- sion of their belief in Chrstianity, these new converts were," etc. ^he third sentence, being an explanation of the preced- ing, needs no explicit connection ; but the fourth should cer- tainly be clearly joined to the third. Since the " King " is a prominent figure in the ceremony, his name should be specially mentioned as one of the converts. If this were done, the paragraph would be better proportioned. As it now stands, a large part of it is devoted to a subject not named, but merely implied. 4. Qualities of Style. — There is no abstruseness in the thoughts here presented, but some of the words and construc- tions are such as to prevent the mind from easily grasping the idea. To some of these attention has been directed (in 2). We have now to mention another cause of obscurity. The writer does not open the description with a comprehensive outline, nor does he arrange the particulars in that systematic order which is conducive to picturesqueness and distinctness. Only the "vestibule" of the church is mentioned, yet the baptism takes place inside, where are the perfumes, the vases, and the baptistery. If the description had been so framed as to present to view the '^ody of the Cathedral all prepared Rhetorical Analysis. 237 for this magnificent ceremony, the scene would be more vivid and impressive. The portraying of so imposing a cere- Hjony is no unfitting place for a display of vigor, animation, and vividness. These the writer might have attained more fully by the use in some parts of simpler and more familiar language, in others by more appropriate figures, and in others by a better arrangement of the clauses. For example, more suitable metaphors should have been found than " mollified," "blazed," and " who ... sway." "The vestibule," etc.: this enumeration adds muci to the force of the description. The language has not in all parts the dignity and loftiness that become such a theme. In the flow of the sentences there is in two or three places an abruptness that amounts to hai-sh- ness, e.g.^ "as many .... historians." Here and there a musical line occurs, but only to be followed by something that breaks the rhythm. For example, "all the splendor. . . . Romans " is euphonious, but the flow is abruptly stopped by the phrase " which .... Gaul." In one or two places, also, the diction is stiff and stilted, and leaves the impression that the writer is laboring to be grand. Both in the language and in the tone there is a lack of that simple dignity which good taste regards as one of the essentials of narration and description. EXERCISE LXXVIII. Make a literaiy analysis of the following paragraphs, then re-write them, making ail the changes required under the diflferent heads of the last Lesson. 1. The Franks filled the north of Gaul with terror and devastation ; strangers to their arts and manners, they ravaged with indifference and with a sort of pleasure the Roman cities and colonies. Being pagans, no religious sympathy tempered the ferocity of war. They spared neitlier sex nor age, say 238 Rhetorical Analysis. the ancient historians ; they destroyed as readily churches as private houses, they advanced towards the south gradually, invading the wliole extent of Gaul, while the Goths and Burgundians essayed to make progress in the opposite direc- tion, impelled by a similar ambition but with less barbarous manners. 2. Tom Folio is a broker in learning, employed to get together good editions, and stock the libraries of great men. There is not a sale of books begins till Tom Folio is seen at the door. There is not an auction where his name is not heard, and that too in the very nick of time, in the critical moment, before the last decisive stroke of the hammer. There is not a subscription goes forward, in which Tom is not privy to the first rough draught of the proposals ; nor a catalogue printed, that doth not come to him wet from the press. He is an universal scholar, so far as the title-page of all authors, knows the manuscripts in which they were discovered, the editions through which they have passed, with the praises or censures which they have received from the several members of the learned world. He has a greater esteem for Aldus and Elzevir, than for Virgil and Horace. If you talk of Herodo- tus, he breaks out into a panegyric upon Harry Stephens. He thinks he gives you an account of an author, when he tells the subject he treats of, the name of the editor, and the year in which it was printed. Or if you draw him into further particulars, he cries up the goodness of the paper, extols the diligence of the corrector, and is transported with the beauty of the letter. This he looks upon to be sound learning and substantial criticism. As for those who talk of the fineness of style, and the justness of thought, or describe the brightness of any particular passages ; nay, though they write themselves in the genius and spirit of the author they admire, Tom looks upon them as men of superficial learning and flashy parts. THE END.