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Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s A des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 & partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m6thode. trrata to pelure, tn d n 32X 1 2 3 1 E fl THE HIGH SCHOOL English Grammar BASED ON WMtney's Essentials of Engiisli Grammar, BY JOHN SEATH. B.A.. iNsivcTOR OF High Schools Kok Ontasio. TORONTO : CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY (LIMITED.) \ ?E Enterad according to Act of Parliament, in the oflBce of the Minister of AgTicnltare» in the v«ar 1887, by thr C\naoa Publishing Comfanv (Limited). PREFACE. As is Btatod on the title-page, this grammar is based on Whitney's EsfentiaU of English Grammar, the text book now in use in the Normal Schools of Ontario ; but the Essentials has been remodelled and expanded to suit the requirements of High School pupils. The chief features of the work are as follows : — (I) — It has been oonstmcted in accordance with the view, that "while English Grammar is a science which is capable of important practical applications, it has a distinct value as a means of mental training, to which the practical applications are subordinate in a High School course of study." The older and still favoured view that English Grammar is the science that teaches the correct use of English is untenable. It unduly limits the domain of the subject by ignoring the educational importance of the reflective study of language — the first and most nauural field for which is one's mother tongue. And further, it assumes that the mere study of the principles of grammar imparts the ability to speak and to write correctly. This ability, however, comes from fortunate associations nnd from being habituated to the right use of words by con* stant and careful drill. "The application of direct authority is the most efficient corrective. Grammar has its part to contribute, but rather in the higher than the lower steps of the work. One must be a somewhat reflentive user of language to amend a point even here and there by grammatical reasons ; and no man ever changed from being a bad speaker to being a good one by applying the rules of grammar to whit he said." (2)— As English is an analytical language, its grammar is here treated from this point of view. The book, therefore, uifiers in many respects from most other text-books, which are modelled on the grammars of the synthetic languages. As far as possible, however, the terminology in common use has been retained. (3) — The book is upon an historical basis. Only on this basis can the structure of the language be intelligently explained. "Old English," as Mr. Skeat truly says, " is the right key to the understanding of Modem English, and those who will not use this key will never open the lock with all their fumbling. " But, as is proper in an elementary work, only such references are made to earlier stages of the language as are absolutely necessary for the proper explanation of modern forms and constructions. (4) — Principles are established by the inductive method ; and in the treatment of the subject generally, advantage is taken of the fact that English is the mother tongue of those who use the book. (5)— Except in chapters II. -IV., there are no formally stated defini- tions, and even in these chapters what are called definitions are descrip- tions rather than definitions of the time-honoured but mind-benumbing IV. PREFACE. type. As far as possible pupils should be trained to enunciate grammatical principles in their own language. (6) — While difficulties are explained where explanation is possible, the uncertainties of grammatical constructions are duly acknowledged. Those readers who expect to find here everything fixed by rule, will meet with disappointments ; but they will have an opportunity of learn- ing the invaluable lesson, that human speech is dv nature plastic, and. that "the grammarian is simply a recorder ana arranger of the usages of language, and in no degree a lawgiver ; hardly even an arbiter or a critic. " (7)— The lists of Classical and Old English root-words, and prefixes and suffixes, which constitute a leading feature of many grammars, are here omitted. For these the proper place is an etymological dictionary, and their meanings are best and most easily learned where the meanings of the words themselves are learned — in connection with the study of Reading, Literature, and Grammar. Chapter IV., which treats of Deri- vation and Composition, supplies all that is necessary for the intelligent study of this branch of etymology. (8) — The exercises are chiefly of a reflective character, and, thongh more copious than those to be round in most other grammars, will need to be supplemented as occasion may arise. Exercises in false syntax have been omitted — not that these are of little value, but because they would make the book too bulky, and because good collections of such exercises are already in use in the schools. The examination questions appended to most of the chapters are intended to be merely suggestive : tney are by no means exhaustive of the subject. (9) — The text and exercises are each printed in two sizes of type ; the larger containing an elementary course ; and th? smaller, supple- mentary matter of an advanced character, suitable for those who nave completed the elementary course, and to be taken up in connection with the review thereof. The elementary course is intended to supply the wants of first form High School pupils, and the book as a whole covers the work which may be fairly expected from candidates for First-Class Certiflcates and for honour University Matriculation. The amount of the supplementary matter to betaken up by-bccond form pupils, will, of course, depend upon their capabilities and the length of time at their disposal ; but, as a rule, the study of the less important historical por- tions should be reserved for third and fourth form classes. (10) — The book has been prepared for the use of the pupil. This the teacher will soon discover if he attempts to use the text for ordinary catechetical purposes. Many of the examples in the text and many of the exercises are iaken from Maetzner s English Grammar^ and a good many of the historical facts must be credited to Lounsbury's History of the English language. It is not, however, possible to give a complete list of all the authorities that have been consulted in the preparation of the work. The author's thanks are due to a number of scholars who criticized por- idons of the text as it passed through the press, and in particular to Mr. J. W. Connor, B.A., of Berlin, Ont., who not only cnticized the text but also supplied a good deal of material for some of the chapters. i TOBONTO. TABLE OF CONTENTS. The TtftrvMtt are to paragraphs except where othenoiu epeei/led. CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTORY, pp. 1-27. Lansuaos, 1-2; Thi EMeLisu Lakquaoi, 8-18 : its name, origin and relaticnshipb 8-11 ; its composite cliaracter, 12 ; its wide spread, 13 ; its variety in time, 14-18. OUTMNI OP TUB HiSTORT OP En<1ubh, 19-64 ; lan(pia.re of tho Englisli, 19-23 ; in> ilueiice of tlie Celtic, 24 *, influence of the L>atiii of the Koman misaionaries, 25 ; influence of tlie Danisti, 26 ; English at the Norman Conquest, 27 ; Norman French, 28-33 ; influence of Norman French, 34-38 ; on the Krammar, 35 ; on the vocabularv, 36 ; on word-formation, 37 ; on pronunciation, 38 ; the rise of Modern English, 39-40 ; Modem English, 41-63 ; grammar, 41 ; accessions to vocabulary, 42-65 ; from Latin and Oreeic, 43-48 ; from other Romanic languages. 49-51 ; from other Teutonic languages, 52-53 ; Jrom various Roiirces of minor Importance, 64-55 ; changes in sound, 66 ; the purely Englith element, 57-68 ; percentage in vocabulary, 67 ; characteristics, 68 ; varieties, 59<^ ; requisitee of good English, 61-63 ; periods in the growth of English, 64. ENGiiiaH Oramiiar, 65-69 ; tho offlce of grammar, 67-69. EXAMINATIOB QVB8TION8, pp. 27-28. CHAPTER II,— THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS, pp. 29^48. Various Icinds and uses of words, 1-2 ; parts of speech, 3-4 ; the sentence, 6-6 ; Icinds of words in a sentence, 7 ; subject and predic:vte, 8-11 ; the verb, 12-13 ; l>are and complete predicates, 14 ; the noun, 16-lC ; the pronoun, 17-18 ; sub- stantive words, 19 ; the adjective, 21-23 ; predicate noun and adjective, 24 ; the adverb, 25-27 ; the preposition, 28-30 ; the conjunction, 31-32 ; classifl- cation of the parts of speech, 33 ; the interjection, 84-36 ; peculiar words and classes of words, 36-39 ; different grammatical values of the same wonl, 40 ; notional and relational words, 41-44 ; grammatical values of phrases, 46-46 ; grammatical values of clauses, 47-48 ; classes of sentences, 49-&6 ; aoconling to form, 49-51 ; according to composition, 52-50. ExiRciBis AMD Examination Qdistionb, pp. 49-&L CHAPTER III.— INFLECTION, pp. 62-63. Number, 2-3 ; government and agreement, 4 ; person, 6-7 ; tense, 8 ; mood, ; inflection and conjugation, 10-11 ; case, 12-19 ; comparison, 20-22 ; the other inflected parts of speech, 23-24 ; methods of inflection, 25 ; the origin of in- flections, 26-29 ; the source of inflections, 30 ; the stem, or base of inflection, 81. Examination Qukstions, p. 63. CHAPTER IV.— DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION, pp. 64-87. Derivation by suflSx. 2-15 ; origin of sufllxcs, 11-14 ; the sources of sufRxes, 15 ; derivation without change of form, 16-17 ; derivation by prefix. 19-20 ; the origin of prefixes, and the sources of prefixes, 20 ; composition, 22-32 ; hybridism, 83-34 ; root-words, 85-36 ; word-analysis, 37-39 ; chantres in the meaning of words, 40-41 ; changes in the sounds and forms of words, 42-49 ; the Principle of Ease, 43 ; accent, 44 ; indistinct articulation, with or without accent, 45 ; analogy, 46 ; the law of uniformity, 47 ; roots ^nd root-words, 60- 65; general conclusion as to the nature of the significant elements tliat com- pose our words, 66. EXSRCIBU AND EXAMINATION QDIISTIONS, pp. 88-91. CHAPTER v.— NOUNS, pp. 92-121. Drfinition and Uses, 1-2. Classification According to Meaning, S-24 ; abstract and concret and common, 7-11 ; collectives, 12 ; sense constructions, 13 ; gende 20 ; diminutlvea, 21 ; augmentatives, 22 ; patronymics, 28-24. 8-6 : proper nouns, 14* TABLE OP CONTENTS. ! ! CLAMiriCATiON AccoROiNO TO FoRU, 25-30 ; aitnple, 26 ; derivative, 27-20 ; bjT ■uflSx. 27 ; by internal change, 38, ; oy prcflx, 2U ; oumi>ouuil, 80. iNrLBCTioN : Number, 31-48 ; modem mode of (orraation, 33-36 ; modiflcation of the modern mode, 86-87 ; old modes of formation. 88 ; foreign formation!, 89-41 ; other exceptional formationH, 42-47 ; singular forms with plural meanings, 42 ; singular forms only, 43 ; pidral forms only, 4t ; plural forms with singular meanings, 45 ■ plural forms with altered meanings, 46 ; plural forms with diflerent mea*^ing8, 47 ; plurals of compounds, 48. Case, 49-«0 ■ number of fuae— forms anu cases, 49-51 ; the possessive, 52-63 ; thv direct and the indirect objective, ^-66 ; the nominative of address, 66-67 ; examples uf declension, 68-69. Noun Equivalkkts, 70-75. EziROiBis AMD EzAHUiATiON Quisno.NB ; parsing, pp. 121428. CHAPTER VI.— PRONOUNS, pp. 127-152. DRFINITION and UsK8, 1-3. CUANOBS OF FORH, 4. Classipioation, 09; personal pronouns, 6-16; inflections, 8-12 ; uses of the pronoun of the first and tne second person, 13-16 ; demonstrative pronouns of tne third person, 17-29; inflections, 18-22 ; distinction of sex, 23-25; uses of It: com- pound pronouns of the first, second, and third persons — structure and uses, 28-29 ; otherdemonstrative pronouns, .30-33 ; inflection and uses, 80-38 ; interrog- ative pronouns, 34-41 ; influctions, 'it}-3S ; uses, 39-41 ; coniunctive or relative pronouns, 42-65 ; general uses, 44-49 * government of the relative, 60 ; uses of who and Whlcll, 61-52 ; uses of thai, 53-55 ; simple indefinite relatives, 66-57 ; dependent interrogatives, 68-60 ; compound ind^flnite relatives, 61 ; omission of the relative, 62 ; other words used as relatives, 63-65 ; indefinite pronouns, 06-69 ; Bub-clasHes and uses, 66-67 ; reciprocal pronoun pluases, 68 : other wotdt used as indefinite pronouns, 69. EXXRCISBS AND EXAHIKATION QURSTIONS, pp. 153-154. CHAPTER VII.-ADJECTIVES, pp. 155-179. DlPlKITION AMD USKS, 1-3. IkKLBCTIOM, 4-6. CLASflincATiOM AccoRDiNO TO FoRM, 4-10. Simple, 7 ; derivative— by sufllz, 8 ; hy prefix, 9 ; compound, 10. Classification According to Mbanimo, 11-55 ; adjectives of quality, 12-28 ; regular comparison, 12-24 ; degrees of comparison and their uses, 12-14 ; classes of adjectives subject to comparison, 15-17 ; substitutes for comparison, 18-19 ; absolute superlative forms and phrasee, 20 ; construction of the comparative, 21; ori«[in of the comparative and superlative, 22-24 ; irregular comparison, 25-28; pronominal adjectives, 29-41 ; possessive, 30-S3 ; denomstrative, 84 ; interroga- tive, 85; relative, 36; indefinite, 37-41; numerals, 42-47; cardinals, 43-44; ' ordinals, 45 ; f ractionals, 46 ; multiplicatives, 47 ; articles, 48-55 ; uses of an and a ; uses of th6, 54-55. Special usbs op tub Adjrotivb, 56-58 ; Adjeotivr Eqcivalbnts, 59. Ezrrcisrs and EIxahimatiom Qckstions, pp. 129-182. CHAPTER VIII.- VERBS, pp. 183-250. Depimition and Usbs, 1-2. Clasbipication AccoRDiNaTO Mbamins, 3-6 ; transitive and intransitive, 3; substan- tive and adjective, 4 ; special classes : ^usatives, f requentatives, diminutiveo, intensives, inceptives, analytical substitutes for these forms, 6. Clabsipicatign AoooRDiNO TO FoRH, 6-8; simple, 6; derivative,?; compound, 8. Inplectkd Forms, 11-29 ; person, 11-12 ; number, 13-14 ; tense, 15-19 ; present and past, 16-19 ; the values of moods and modal verb-phrases, 20 ; indicative and subjunctive moods, 21 ; peculiarities of the use of the subjunctive, 22-26 ; im- perative mood, 27-28 ; mood inflections, 29. DlRiVBD Forhb, 81-45 ; infinitives, 31-32 ; participles, 33-34 ; peculiarities k4 infini- tives and participles, 35 ; forms of infinitives, 86-39 ; forms of participles, 40-46. Old and New Conjuoatjons, 46-109 ; differences, 46-48 ; paradigm, 49-50 ; principal parts, 61 ; tense inflection, 52 ; Old English verbal forms, 53 ^ the conflict Detween the conjugations, 64 ; classes of conjugations and irregularities, I 65-109 ; Old conjugation, 55-84 ; unclassiflable verbs, 79-83 ; participial forms, 84 ; New conjugation, 85-109 ; peculiarities, 85-87 ; classes and irr^rularities, 88-101 ; irregularities of infiection, 102 ; other irregular verba, lOS-109. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vll. 19; Vjf lofth* , 89-41 ; ,«..«; ns with Indirect ilenalon* Krotioun e third It; com- , Interrog- ,r relative • uBe» oi rW, 66-57 ; omission SronounB, lerword* 28; regulM r classes ut son, 1^\?,» naratlve, 21; ftaon, 26-28; ; Interrogar lAals. 43-44 ; uses of aa 5. 3;Buhstan- dhnlnutives, compound, 8. present and udlcatlve and re, 22-26; im- ticiples, 40-46. i-50;prlncg • the connici irregularltlea, rtlclplal«orms. I Irregularities, OS-109> CoxrouMD Vrrbal Forms: Vsrb Piirasm, 110-16:i ; emphatic verb phrases, lio-lll; progreuive verb-phraaes, 112; future verb-pbraiMs, 113-124; in principal clauaea of anaertive sentencbs ; predictive futures, 114-115 ; proniissive futures, 11(}-117 ; independent clauses, 118-121; independent uses of ihalland will, 122-184 ; conditional verb-phrases, 126-129 ; perfect and pluperfect verb-phrases, 130-lSl ; the nature of future, conditional, perfect, and pluperfect verb-phrases, 1S2-1S& ; potential and obligative modal verb-phrases, 136-137 ; dependent and independent uses of modal auxiliaries, 138-142; other perfect and pluperfect verb-piirsses, 143-144 ; imperative verb-phrases, 145 ; other progresaive and emphatic verb- phrases, 146-147 ; inflniiiveand participle phrases, 148-149 ; tcheine i>f conjuga- tion, 150-151 ; passive verb phrases, 162-166 ; scheme of the passive cunjuga- lion, 167 ; active and paaaive oonjugationa. 168 ; pausive and non-passive uae of phrases, 169-161 ; verbs forming passive verb-phrases, 162-163. Otiibr Conjuqations, 164-172; reflexive, 164-168; redprucal, 169; middle, 170; impersonal, 171-172; Verb E«iuivalrmt8, 173. EXRRCISW AMD EXAMINATION (JUKSTI0N8, pp. 250-254. Alpiiabiticai, List or Ikrkoular Vkrbs, p. 266. CHAPTEa IX.— ADVERBS, pp. 256-265. UkFLVITION AMD USBS : 1-3. Classifioatiom Aocordimo to Mraniko, 4. Classification Accordmo to Form, 6. Comparison, 7-8. Spkcial Usbs op Advbrbs, 9-13 ; the respouaives, 12 13 ; Tub Introductory there, 14 ; Advbrb Ewuivalbnts, 15. EXKRCISBS AMD EXAMINATION QUKSTI0N8, pp. 266-266. CIIABTER X.— PREPOSITIONS, pp. 267-272. DKPI.SITION AND USRS, 1-6. GbASSIFIOATION ACCORDINO TO MBANINQ, 7. Cl now extinct, — English, Dutch, Flemish, and Frisian (spoken between the Scheldt and Jutland, and on the islands near the shore). 8. By comparing the languages of Europe and Asia, scholars have been able to show that all the Teutonic languages, along with nearly all the others in Europe and some of the most important in Asia, form a great body of languages resembling one another, and hence called a family — the Indo-European (or the Aryan) family. 9. The primitive tongue from which the various branches of the Indo-European family o£ languages havs sprung, was spoken by a people, now named by scholars the Aryans, who seem to have inhabited the tablelands of central Asip , and whose descendants have a wide geographical distributio a from India westward to the Atlantic. Although we have no historical records oonceming these Aryans, a oomparison of the grammars and vocabularies of many different Ian* guages has establisheid beyond a doubt the fact thatsuoh a race and suob INTRODUCTORY. a. •- a language once existed ; for it is evident that when two or more languages employ, as do the different dialects of the Indo-European sub-families, the same words to express the most familiar objects and the simplest ideas ; and especially when their numerals, pronouns, pre- positions and inflections are identical ; they must have been originally the same, that is, they are derived from a common parent. 10. Languages may differ in rRONnNCiATioN, vocabulary, and gram- matical STRDCTDRK ; and, according to the differences manifested in these respects, we define their relationship. The best test of kinship is the last ; for pronunciation mny change, and words are often bor- rowed from another language, but a language cannot give up its own grammar and adopt that of another. 11. We sum up, therefore, thus : English is a Teutonic language^ belonging to the Indo- European family. The following diagram shows the position of English in reference to the other divisions of the family : — IHDO-EUBOPEAN. Eiodu, Kedo-Persian, Greek. Bomanic lEUIOHIG. Lettio. SclaTo:.ian. Moeso-aothic. Old Cixon, ENGLISH, Frisian. Datoh. Flemish- Under Hindd are included Sanscrit (dead) and its dcsccndant», Hindi, Hindustant, Bengali, Mahratit ; Cingalese (spoken in Ceylon), and Romany (the basis of the Gipsy dialects) : under Medo- Persian (ur Iranian), Zend (the (»id language of Persia), and Persian : under Greek. Ancient and Modern Greek : under Romanic, Latin, the old Italian dialects, and the Romance dialects which have sprung from Latin : — Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese, Roumansch (spoken in Orisons, a canton of Switzerland), and Wallaohian : under Celtic, Annorioftn (spoken in Brittany), Welsh, Irish, GmUo (or Highl*nd t. 14.] THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Scotch), aad Manx (spoken in the Isle of Man) : under Lettic, old Prussian (dead), Modern Lettish (spoken chiefly in Kurland and Livonia), and Lithuanian (spoken chiefly in Kovno and Vilna) : and under Sulavonian, Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Bulgarian, and lUyrian. II.— Its Composite Character. 12. The language brought by the English into Britain was unmixed, that is, it contained few or no words deri'/ed from a foreign source. Modern English, however, is a mixed or com- posite tongue. The chief foreign element is the Romanic, by which we mean all the words drawn from Latin, the language of the ancient Romans. From this source we have two main classes of words : those that were introduced by the Norman- French when they conquered England, and those of later date, which are little altered in form from the original Latin. The Normans spoke a broken kind of Latin, and many of the words we obtained from them are thus often very much altered. These two elements — the pure English and the Romanic — con- stitute about ninety-five per cent, of our vocabulary. The other elements are words from other members of the Teutonic sub-family — Dutch, German and Danish ; words from the Celtic languages ; words from the Greek, and words from the languages of countries connected with England by trade, colonization, and so on. Ill.-lts IVIde Spread. 13. The English also conquered and settled other countries, the southern part of Scotland, and, a good deal later, most of Ireland ; and they have sent out colonies to all parts of the world, which, of course, carried their English language with them. Some of these colonies have become great nations ; so especi- ally those in North America have grown and increased until, together, they outnumber the English of England. Thus the English language is now used by many more people^ out of England than in itj but it still keeps everywhere its old name. IV.-Its Tartcty la Time. 14. Our English, however, is by no means the same Ipnguage as has always gone by that name. The language first orought from Northern Germany to England was so different from ours that we should not understand it at all if we heard it spoken ; and we cannot learn to read it without as much study as it costs us, for example, to learn to read French or German, INTRODUCTORY. [L 16- liltii r m 15. The reason is that every living language is all the time changing, so that the speech of each generation differs some- what from that of the one before it. Some old words go out of use ; other new words come into use ; some change their mean- ing ; all, or almost all, change their pronunciation ; and the ways in which we put words together to express our thoughts become different by degrees. Such changes are sometimes very slow ; but, so long as a language is spoken by a people, they never cease. A thousand years hence, if it live so long, English will be so far unlike what it now is that we should probably not understand it without a good deal of trouble. 16. We have a very long and complete series of English works written by English authors, and going back as far as the ninth century.* These enable us to find out how English has changed from time to time, and how these changes are con- nected with many important events in the social and political history of England, 17. The oldest English we know anything of, the English of King Alfred's time and thereabouts, we call Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, to distinguish it from that of later times ; and tiie names Early English and Middle English are, for the same reason, applied to the language of times between Alfred's and our own. Modern English, the language we speak, is regarded as dating from the beginning of the sixteenth century, no very important changes having taken place in it since that time, 18. It must not, however, be forgotten that, although differ- ing from the English of Alfred's time in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, the English we speak is its lineal descen- dant ; for what grammar we have, and nearly all our most common and useful words, are purely English. OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH. I. — LANGUAGE OP THE ENGLISH. 19. From about the end of the sixth century, the English were settled in England as if it were their own ; and, though they were broken up into many communities speaking several dialects, their language was really the same. But the name Anglo-Saxon, which is sometimes given to it by modern philologers, is apt to mislead ; for it ♦The works of earlier writers, e.g., Cwdmon, have been sp altered by oopyUti tM their language is viitually that of the ninth century. ,,i ■ I. 23.] THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH. was not used by the people themselves, nor is their language essentially different from ours. 20. Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, differs most strikingly from Modem English in being a Synthetic language, whereas the latter is Analytic. By a synthetic language we mean one which expresses by inflections, that is, by changes in the form of words, the moaifications of meaning they undergo and their relations to one another in the sentence. On the other hand, an analytic language is one that expresses such relations and modifications by means of other words. In an analytic language the arrangement also of the words is of more importance *han in a synthetic one ; as, in the absence of influctions, it enables us to determine the rela- tion of the words. 21. But Modern English is not purely analytic, for we still possess some inflections ; it is, however, analytic m comparison with Old Piiiglish. in which the nouns had several declensions, and at least five cases distinguished by different endings ; the adjectives also were declined ; the pronominal forms were more numerous ; the verbs had a larger number of pergonal endings; and, as a necessary accompani- ment of this fulness of inflection, the syntax was of a complicated nature. Nor, again, is Old English purely synthetic, for besides inflec- tions we find prepositions and auxiliary words. A comparison of the following extracts (in which the inflections are italicized) and their modern English equivalents illustrates many of the statements in this and the preceding paragraph : Old English. Tha ongan lie leomlgan on him selfum hu he Vtv^t rice thani un- rihtwlsan cynlnge aferran mih^e, and on rlhtgeleaffolra and on rihtwlsra anwald gebrlngan. — Alfred's BoetUius. And we beoda^/i that man eard geome clanslan agjmne, and man- Talra dada aghwar geswlce. — Cnut's Lawn. Modern English. Then began he to learn in him- self how he the kingdom from the unrighteous king might remove, and into the power o/ right believ- ing and righteous (men) (might) bring. And we bid that men to cleanse the earth earnestly begin, and/rom sinful deeds everywhere ("aye — where") cease. 22. The tendency to change from a synthetic to an analytic condition is natural to all European languages — French, for instance, is analytic compared with Latin — and the destruction of grammatical forms is hastened by the violent intermixture of two languages (as happened to English after the shock of the Norman Concxuest), such an event being contrary to the order of nature. 23. The other most marked difference between Old English and Modern English is in the character of the vocabulary. From being one of the least mixed of languages, English has come to be one of the most Composite (For other differences, see 1. 16). We will now consider briefly how these and other changes have beei) produced in our language. s i INTRODUCTORY. II. — INFLUENCE OP CELTIC. [L 24- 24. The Celts, or Britons, and the English were very different people. They were unlike in language and religion ; and, as during the period of Roman Supremacy (a d. 43-410), the Celts had acquired some of the civilization of their conquerors, they were also different in manners and customs. A long and bitter warfare, too, contributed to keep the races apart. The influence of Celtic upon English was, therefore, very slight, and did not affect the grammar ; nor do very many of our Celtic words go back to an early date. Most of those, indeed, that we find in the language before comparatively recent times, apparently went first into I^tin or French, and then found their way into English. In the literature of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we meet more frequently with examples of Celtic words ; and a few, as, bannock, bard, clan, claymore, slogan, pony, whiskey, are of still more recent introduction (see also I. 36. 3). a* From the Celts the English adopted some names for natural objects, as mountains, rivers, etc. , just as Canadians have adopted such Indian names as Toronto, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Ottawa. Examples are Mendlp, Malvern, Avon, Thames, Arran, Usk, Exe, Onse, Ben, Dover, Kent, Derwent, Trent, Severn. b. So, too, as Canadians have adopted from the Indians such names as tomahawk, squaw, moccasin, wlgii^un.the Englich adopted, probably from Celtic serfs, some names of common objects. Examples are basket, breeches, clout, crock, dam, griddle, cradle, mattock, pool. c. And further, as, in Canada, such names as Montreal, Quebec, Vaudreull, Lachlne, Portneuf, and so on, ^oint to the French regime, so do a very few names of towns and engineering works adopted from the Celtic show, in their Latin origin, a trace of the Roman Supremacy. Such indirect importations from the Latin constitute the element in our language known as Latin of the Fiust Period. Examples are, From castra, "a camp," Lancaster, Winchester, Leicester. *' strata, "a stone road," street, Stratford, Stratton. " portus, "a harbor," Portsmouth, Porchester. and derivatives from colonia, "a colony," pons, "a bridge," vaUum, •' -i rampart," fossa, *' a ditch," with probably a few other words. lil. — INr^JUENCE OF THE LATIN OP THE ROMAN MISSIONARIES. 26. Dnrii.'g the seventh century Latin civilization again influenced English, but this time directly; for in a.d. 697, Roman missionaries began the work of chtistianizing England. Being few, they produced no effect upon the structure of the language, but they introduced a number of words either of genuine Latin or of Latinized Greek. These soon became completely naturalized. This element constitutes wbi^t i| known as Latxit '>f th8 Sjtcpwp Pjsriop. uiiri^ 24- I. 26. C] THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH. »ple. Aoi ' the inera pthe very Celtic e find went i more objects, I Indian Dover, ch names probably are , pool. Queliec, fh regime, ,pted from ipremacy. sleroent in Lmpics *'^®' liter. 9X1. " vaUunit ^ords. llONABlES. influenced uBBionariea jy produced t.«roduced a Jeek. These lutes "whft** a. At first the new words were chiefly connected with religion. Examples of such words are apostle, Old English apoatol, from lAtinized Greek apoaiolus ; alms, " aelmesae^ ** " eUemotyna; bishop, " biacop, *' *♦ episcoptu; temple, " tempel, from Latin templum; priest, *' predat, " presbyter; saint, " sanct, ** aanctus. b. But, in the course of tima, others were introduced to express natural objects and foreign articles. Examples of such words are pease, Old English, piaa, from the Latin pt«um; mint, " inynet, '* moneta: pepper, " pipor, *' ^piper; turtle, " turtle, *' turtur; pound, " pund, " pondus; candle, '• candel, " candela. IV. — INFLUENCE OF DANISH. 26. The end of the eighth century witnessed a southward migration of the Northmen, or Danes. Starting from Norway, Sweden, and Dnnniark, they invaded the north and east coasts of the British Isleo, and the country which was afterwards called Normandy. In the ninth century they settled in the north and eaat of England, and gradually acquired a good deal of political power. As they spoke Scandinavian dialects of the Teutonic sub-family, and as their habits were much the same as those of the English had been, they readily coalesced with the inhabitants, giving up most of their own language, and adopting English instead. In the course of this process, both the grammar and the vocabulary of English wore affected. a. As there was then in England no written standard of national speech, the intermixture of dialects did much t'^ unsettle the inflections (I. 22) ; BO that in the north and east, where many of the Danes had settled, most of the now lost inflections had disappeared by the end of the thirteenth century. b. From Danish, English has obtained directly a good many geo- I graphical names. Examples are, From by, "a town," Orimsby, Whitby, Derby, Tenby, (also by-law) ; " %, *'a bay," Berwick, Greenwich, Sandwich, Wicklow ; " thorp, " a village," Althorpe, Woolthorpe, Milnethorpe. c. Some words in common use are also attributable to Danish ; but, us this language closely resembles Old English, it is not easy to deter- mine them exactly. Besides, at first Danish affected the spoken mcruage more than it did the written language. The lollowing are examples of words introduced about this time or 3ssihly later ; for Scandinavian words became more common and isily discernible in the writings of the thirteenth and fourteenth enturies : aren, ("are"), till, (prep.), dash, dairy, fog, bUje, swain, raid. li m I 10 1HTR0DUC5T0EY. ,^nL18H AT THE NOBMAN COIJQXJBST. V.-E5GL1SH AT ,„;,. .j^^ ^^d liter p-ai .^f^TTBTT AT THE NOBBlAn ^- v.— ENGLISH AT . literature, » cnl" «. under th. i-flrra'^^^X-W fXCt^^J^ lanstiage even then WM ,fXe tosk ol trandatrng the umu ^i./»ndit *« ^-'J^JJ^rthedajr." ^^ . «•' Celtic and which were the "te««7 " y^ ^^n '"*^" .TX one. • and, thongh " Into it,.». "'Sj^n larger nnmber of l*?^ "i^'ihe north, it. 8c«.din»v"«i wordj^and a 1 B ^ ^^„^_ oepeoaUy m V,._-NORMAN FEF.NCH. ,^„,., «.i«»-'rtxir.Sie?if&^S£\raf^ or Normans ^'^^/^^^^dopted from the «»*^^« P^^J^n which thu8 acain came mto mdireci* -srorman xIe Third Pebiod. coalescence of th« ^ onn iSliStnatSSwa. great. . .^„, „,^. holdinR.all ™„ _ xr^.mo.TiH becami oVi direct inuut;ii**« -— - t influence was great. ^ .^, ^^^uliv^^S 30. The Normals became^mEn^^^^^^^ ^^Ll'ltf attenitecl of trust -tJ^^V^i^^aVage; but, although th^y a ^^P^^^ 30. The Norman8 became^- --..-^j^^ ^^^ \¥ZhXy attempted offices of trust *f *^ Vel^laVage 5 ^^^' ^^^''Jhe l«mgCg« <>« *^^ tnem, of course, c*?^® ^^i^ islMid, it remained **^® ;*"|reSch alono rd^;^ »eir Utjn a.ho™^, _ _ „f ,he ^p.; it .•-«, t^® ^*".^?t their Latin authors. ^f ^^e people, rendered m.o It their i^ ^^^^e of the great «*«« J^j thoStbat 31. English remained the^lM^g g^^ social degradaUon^^^ but it Butfered f rora thejouw j^ rTi^r^h^T^^* T\ ° -: ^ZT^wkB. a Germanic t ibe, X^t^„k8gra.lu out it Buftered from_tne_p|nu^^v-^-^ —Zr^^T'^^- t^« T\ couth barbarians V^v eri,a«ular, .«""» 'i','^ traces of ^heir own. J^" QermftiJ )^ i.a» I. 80.] THE HISTORY OP ENGLISH. 11 a cul- ^gle» , most oUtical sex, Of' ndard-- eloqvient autnora, eltio and i, though north, ito mar . grMfti Northmen, , a hundred 3n that cor- vrhichtbufl aa LATIN OP the T^orman vre have the lev attempted Injuage of the Irench alone taw courts, iu| Vith Latin, iM !:8choohi, hoy si I of the peopj4 Lof those tbail fc^^'uv forgot tluij used it. The most marked effects produced on it bv French did not show themselves fully till the fourteenth century ; but a very early effect was to throw it into confusion. It did not wholly cease to be written, but it ceased to be the language of culture. The West-Saxon dialect fell to the level of the others, and the popular speech ran its course, unchecked by the conservative influence of a national literature. Confined, from generation to generation, to serfs and ploughmen, it underwent rapid grammatical changes. The people, being ignorant, corrupted it ; each district had its own words, its own pronunciation, and its own grammatical forms. English again became dialectic, and each writer used the language of his own locality, uninfluenced by any standard of propriety. 32. The history of our language during the three centuries that followed the Conquest, is the history of the way in which the language of the majority gradually previiiled against that of the minority. The Northmen, who had become Frenchmen in France, became Englishmen in England ; and, just as political events had led to the degradation of English, so did political events mainly lead to its gradual rise in import- ance. The loss of Normandy in 1206, the enactments of Louis IX. and Henry III., prohibiting the subjects of the one from holding lands in tlie dominions of the other ; the rebellion of the barons under Montfort, and the political events in the reign of King John, prevented any further influx of French-speaking foreigners, and led the continental French and the inhabitants of England to look upon each other more and more as different people. Besides, both Norman and Englishman found a common cause in resisting the absolutism of the king ; while the wars of Edward III. produced a strong anti-French feeling among the population, and led to the formation of a national spirit and the coalescence of the races. 33. And as the races coalesced, so did the languattes, Norman French degenerating into a mere provincial dialect, and finally ceasing to be spoken. In 1349 the use of French in the grammar-schools was no longer compulsory, and after 13G2 the proceedings in the law courts were conducted in English — both evidences of the general adoption of the native tongue. Fmally, towards the close of the fifteenth century, the laws enacted by Parliament were for the first time expressed in English, and the triumph of the popular speech was complete. VII. — INFLUENCE OF NORMAN FRENCH. 34. But during the three centuries of struggle between the races, marked changes took place in the English language ; and, when it emerged from " the Babel of dialects " of the fourteenth century, it was J very different from the English of Alfred. (a J On the Grammar. 36. The grammatical structure was somewhat affected ; for the pas- sage from the synthetic to the analytic condition was hastened. French ^tself was already fast losing the inflections it had inherited from the itin ; and, as we have seen (I. 31), the destruction of the standard literary language, combined with the ignorance of the great mass of the 12 KITEODUCTORY. [1.85- Fi people, was rapidly causing phonetic decay (that is, dropping and weak- ening of sounds), on the part of English itself. But, when in the beginning of the fourteenth century, Engliph was inundated by French words, the inflections and vowel endings of both langtiages after being, in most cases, first weakened to e, were finally shed (IV. 45. b and c). Ths English inflections seldom suited the new words, and the French, who learned their English from conversation, not, as wo do a foreign lan- guage, from grammars and exercise books, did not master all the distinc- tions, but confounded them with their own or dropped them altogether. When, however, a form was found common to both languages, as, for instance, s, the sign for the plural of nouns, it was retained. In this way, therefore, by the end of the fourteenth century, English words had become almost as bare of inflections as they now are. The syntax of the language was scarcely, if at all, influenced, if we except the simplification of the order of words in a sentence. This, however, was really a result of the analytic condition ; for, not posses- sing in themselves, the means of showing their relations, words naturally fell into the logical order (XVIII). (h) On the Vocabulary. 36. The vocabulary was largely affected. Soon after the Conquest, Old English ceaseer ; and from the middle of the fourteenth century our vocabulary assumed the composite character, which is one of its most marked features. Its own literary terms being irrevocably gone, English thus repaired its loss, while it compensated for its original imperfections. This vast accession is known as Latin of tiiu Thiru Pkuiod ; and, as the Latin was in- directly introduced, in passing through French it often underwent great changes of form. Examples: From the Latin dotare came dower ; from mstimare came aim ; (3 adaviaa diamond ; caput chief; ■ ^ lurr'is tower ; frtictus fruit; H Vi' "™« S'° ffconrtierB ; and *»>» ^^^'^ tl>e mculiarv Bomewhat to ^^^j. lea are ^\oA\i piano-forte, «ot numerous. Examp ^^'^rj J*S^aS ^^Bt xnlniature, ^»^?.*"!J1 'concert, madrigal, rega*w», °"^ velvet, Dandit, concer , ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^g a f-M , „,a<,eBal.ohavecontnh«teaa«em ^^j S.,i^torn«were.»^- -*■ *»"«• ^^^^ '•*' 11. 4«- 1. 66.] THE HISTORY OB' fiNGLlSH. Id 56. and Lolency* BO have many o* osono« Uy being tendency vhen pos- ed to our B first haat r known in Lendly and r, alliSft^'' guese. Ex- er. an exercised ly upon the 1, and Mary, uthors of the he peculiars U of the fine Uributed also lia Bource are ano-forte, ist gave ua a i"^ s are reveille, corps, US. few. , J political and L; and, as the of trading and] )B are 63. From Modern German we have received but few, chiefly hecause it was late in the field of literature, science, and art. Examples are cobalt, feldspar, waltz, plunder, swindler, meerschaum, quartz. IV.— FROM VARIOUS SOURCES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE. 64. But "every country in the world seems to have brought its verbal manufactures to the intellectual market of Elngland. Travel, commerce, war, literature, science, art, have brought us words, many of which are completely naturalized." The following are examples of words belonging to such miscellaneous elements : Arabic : alchemy, alcohol, algebra, almanack, assassin, sofa. I'ERsuN : curry, chess, hookah. Jackal, caravan, shawl. Hindu ; thug, loot, shampoo, sugar, coolie, toddy, cashmere. Hebrew : amen, cherub, Jubilee, leviathan, sabbath, seraph. Amerioax Lanouauks : guano, condor, hominy, hammock, squaw, wigwam. Chinese : bohea, Junk, tea, congou, nankeen, tsrphoon. Malay : bamboo, bantam, gong, rattan, sago. Turkish : bey, caftan, fez, Janizary, ottoman, shagreen. Polynesian Lanouaoes : boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, paramatta. Russian : czar, drosky, knout, ukase, steppe. Hungarian : hussar, tokay. Tartar : cossack, khan, mammoth. African Languages : assegai, gorilla, kraal, canary, chimpanzee. Some of these and other such words, though naturalized, have retained their original forms ; but a great many have been altered by natu- ralization, or by indirect introduction. 66. And finally English contains words derived a. From the names of persons. Examples are Bacchanal, from Bacchus, god of wine ; dahlia, from DaJil, a botanist ; morphia, " Jiforp/tewj*, " dreams ; quixotic, " Don Quixote ; to boycott " an Irish land-agent ; to macadamize " the inventor. b. From the names of places. Examples are indigo, from India ; florin, from Florence ; bayonet, from Bayonne ; spaniel, " Spain; cherry, " Cerasua; tweed, '* the river. c. From natural sounds. Examples are hiss, buzz, bang, boom, crackle, whizz, whip-poor-will. (cj Changes in Sound. 66. During the Modern English period our modes of pronunciation have gradually become uniform. In the Elizabethan period the Teu- Ltonic mode of accentuation began to become general, so that the tend- [ency now is to throw the accent back from the last syllable. One of the results of the invention of printing was to bring about ^Uniformity of spelling. The result, however, has been gradually feached. By the end of the eighteenth century (Johnson's Dictionary "vas published in 1755), the present orthography was pretty nearly 90 INTRODUCTORY. [1.66- established ; but, as changes in Bpellinsf have not kept pace with the changes in our pronunciation (1. 16) the spoken alphabet is often not the same as the printed one : hence have originated many of the anomalies in modern orthography (XIX). w 13! I ■rail li!ii|i .1 I (d) The Purely English Element. I.— PERCENTAGE IN VOCABULARY. B7. If we examine an English dictionary, we find somewhat less than one-third of the words to be of purely English origin, by far the greater portion of the rest being of classical origin. But there is a wide differ- ence between a language as represented in a dictionary, and the same language as spoken or written. The dictionary contains every word iu the language, common and uncommon, whereas the English we speak and write consists of a small number of words, used over and over again. The best writers use probably less than ten thousand words each, while the language of ordinary cultured conversation contains from three to five tliousand words. Estimating the proportion of the various elements of the language by the frequency of their occurrence, we find that about thirty-two out of every forty words, as tney stand in ^\xr best writers, are of purely English origin. Thus, according to Professor Marsh, iu every forty. Chaucer (2 tales) contains 37 pure New Testament (13 chapters) contains 37 Sir T. More (7 folio pages) " 34 Shakspere (3 acts) " 36 Milton's • L'Allegro ' " 36 '« * Paradise Lost ' " 32 Pope's • Essay on Man ' "32 Macaulay's ' Essay on Bacon ' " 30 Ruskin's 'Painters' " 29 Tennvson's ' In Memoriam ' *' 36 y English words. i. W r!' 11' ■11 When these peculiarities amount to so much that they begin to interfere a little with our understanding the persons who have them, we say that such persons speak a dialect of Eng- lish, rather than English itself. GO. Then there is also the difference between what we call " good English " and " bad English." By good English we mean those words, and those meanings of them, and those ways of putting them together, which are used by the best speakers, the people of best education; every- thing which such people do not use, or which they use in another way, is bad English. Thus bad English is simply that which is not approved and accepted by good and careful speakers. Every one who speaks any language " naturally," as we call it, has really learned it from those whom he heard speak around him as ho was growing up. But he is liable to learn it ill, forming bad and incorrect habits of speech ; or he may learn it frpm those who have themselves learned it ill, and may copy their bad habits. There are, indeed, very few who do not, while they are learning to speak, acquire some wrong ways, which they have to correct afterwards. It is partly in order to help in this process of correcting bad habits, that the good and approved usages of a language are collected and set forth in a book which is called a " grammar." REQUISITES OF GOOD ENGLISH. 61. The usages that are entitled to be called good and approved must possess the following qiialities : a. They must be Reputablr, that is, the usages of writers and speakers of acknowledged standing. b. They must also be National, that is, the usages of the reputable writers and speakers of the nation, not of a few only. c. They must also be Recent, that is, the usages of the reputable writers and speakers of the nation at the present time. The usages, therefore, that are good and approved vary according as the language changes. 62. If, therefore, we wish to write and to speak our language with PURITY, that is, to speak good English, we must attend to the following couditions : a. Our words must be approved English words, suitable for the occasion. This rule is violated by the use of (1) Obsolete expressions : as, bebest, wljienas, wlillom, l^eUolden, bewray, erst, lilgbt ; I. 62. b. 3.J THE HISTORY OF KNGLISU. 23 y begin ins who of Eng- i we call aeanings /hich ave a; every- ,y use in is simply id careful as we call «,k around earn it ill» lay learn it may copy ho do not, rong ways, recting bad Tiguage are k grammar. ind approved writers and I the reputable 1 the reputable according as I language with |o the following dtahle for the (.biglit; (2) Provincial, or slang expreasions : as, skedaddle, dodge, transmogrify, yon bet; and such Americanisms as guess, reckon, calculate, solid. (3) Technical terms in other than scientific speech or writings : as, monad, gaselty, prejudlcate, apperception^ precognition. (4) Unnecessary foreign words or phrases : as, delicatesse, firalchenr, tout-ensemble, opnsculum. (5) Unnecessarily coined words : as, peccant, donate, concatenate, etymon, enthuse, disgustful. Violations of this rule are called Barbarisms. b. Our words must be employed in the sense which good and approved usage has assigned to them. This rule is violated by (1) Neglect of the proper use of particles : as. He is to be preferred before his sister. instead of instead of or, He is to be preferred to his sister; They had no other object but to come, They had no other object than to come, They had no object but to come. (2) Neglect to distinguish between synonyms (that is, words of nearly the same meaning), or betweca words of similar sounds : as, I acquiesce with you that his character is undeniable, instead of I agree with you that his character is unimpeachable ; and He glorlfled in being, not the follower, but the friend, instead of He gloried in being, not the follower, but the friend. (3) Incousistency or absurdity of expression, caused by carelessness or by confusion of ideas : as, I have not wilfully committed a, mistake, instead of 1 have not knowingly committed a mistake. He stood prostrate at my feet, instead of He was (or fell) ri'ostrate at my feet. Violations of this rule are called Improprieties. 24 INTRODUCTORY. [I. 62. 0- If: |i; 0. The words we use must be put together in a sentence in a form ttiat is English. This rule is violated by the use of (1) Wrong grammatical forms, or false syntax. (2) Constructions contrary to English idiom. Thus when we say I ' 'e hunger, instead of I am hungry ; we use a French idiom •, and though it is proper to say Get thee gone, we cannot say Blake thee gone. Violations of this rule are called Solecisms. 63. The violations under a, b, and c are regarded as such, because they are contrary to good and approved usage. Usage may eventually justify a barbarism, or even an impropriety or a solecism. The histo y of our language is, indeed, the history of bar- barisms that have become good English words, of improprieties that have become proper, and of solecisms that have become idiomatic ; but when once the laws of a language have .been established, as those of the English language now are, any change therein must certainly be slow. mi X. — PERIODS IN THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH. 64. The history of the development of the English language has been divided into the following four periods, which, however, are not sharply defined ; the changes have been gradual, and the dates assigned mus^- be regarded as merely approximate. The statement sums up also what we have learned in regard to the growth of our language : a. Old English (a.d. 450-1100). — During this period the language was hvjhly inflectional or synthetic ; it contained almost no foreign elements ; and the spelling and the pronunciation varied in nearly every district. Towards the close of the period, the Wessex, or Southern dialect, beccme the literary standard, and the language began to show signs of becoming vialytic. D. Early English (a.d. 1 100-1250). — Ceasing, on the Norman invaaron, io be ufied by the educated classes, English gradually underwent many changes \n spelling, pronunciation, and grammar. From 1100 to 1150 the changes were chiefly orthographical^ consisting of a general weakening of the endings ofwordit, and thu^ leading to the numerous inflectional changes thai after- ioards took place. From 1150 to 1250 tlie influence of Norman French showed itself markedly in the vocahvlary, c. Middle English (12.50-1485). — During this period the language graduallji became markedly analytic : most of (he older inflections qf nouns and adjertioes disappeared, the inflections of the vrfts xoera much altered. and the New conjugation began to gain ground ant to displace the Old. J a the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, there teas no gett^ally adopted pronunciation of English. Chiefly through the influenr-* of H ;:■ I 67.] ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 Chaucer (13S8-1400), the East-Mvllaml dialect became the standard literary language of England, and spelling and pronunciation showed symptoms of becoming uniform. d. Modern English (1485 to the nresent). — Since the invention of printing and the rise qfa great national uterature, feto changes haoe taken place in English grammar ; but, to expresn our continually increasing stock of ideaSf the vocabidary of the language has received large accesxions from many sources, especiaUy from the Latin. There are a Hill continuing development of the analytic hluge, and a constant tendency towards regularity and uniformity ; so thai forms that seem to be irngular are mode regular or are thrust out of use. Since the sixteenth century great changes have tuk« n place in our modes of pronunciation; but the growth of national culture and the intermingling of people from various parts of the British Empire have tended to produce uniformity ; so that at present educated spenkern of English differ very slijhtly in their mode^ of pronunciation in different localities. Our orthography, however, from being very lax, has become fo rigidly fixed that, in many instances, we no longer attempt to harmonize the spelling with tlie pronunciation. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. been arply U8*i be hat we nva^'yni changes changes endings at after- french langu(t-gf- of nouns altered. {Old. Ill jeiwraUy luen''* oj 65. The English language, as made the subject of a grammar, means the English of the present day, as used l>y good speakers and writers ; and English grammar is a descrip- tion of the usages of the English language in this sense. A description of one of the earlier forms of Englisli (as the Old English, or the Middle English), or or one of the dialects of English (as the Scottish, or the Yorkshire, or the negro Eng- lish), or of one of the forms of bad English (as the thieves' slang), would also be an English grammar, but in a ditferent sense; and we should not call it simply an English grammar, but should give it some different name whic\ would tell pre- cisely what it was. 66. A grammar which gives an outline of, and attempts to account for, the chung>>s that have taken place in English is called an Historical English Grammar. The smaller print of the text of tliis grammar conveys, besides other matter, information of an elementary character in regard to these changes. Such information throws light on many of the anomalies of English grammar, and enables us to under- stand better what our language is and how it camo to have its present form. Tbc Ofllcc of Grammnr. 67. Grammar does not at all make rules and laws for langu^^ ; it only reports the facts of good language in an orderljr wajr, so that they may be easily referred to, or lecvmed« 26 INTRODUCTORY. [I. 67 Nor is the study of the grammar of one's own native lan- guage by any means necessary, in order to correctness of speech. Most persons learn good English in the same way that they learn English at all, — namely, by hearing and reading ; by hearing and imitating good speakers, by studying books written correctly and well, by correcting themselves and being corrected by others, and so on. But attention to the rules of good usage as laid down in grammars, with illustrations and practical exercises, often helps and hastens this process ; and it is especially useful to those who have been unfortunate enough to learn at first a bad kind of English. 68. Then there are many other respects in which the study of grammar is useful. The learning of language is made up of many different parts ; and it is never finished. It begins in infancy, and lasts all our lives. The ablest and most learned are never done with adding to their knowledge, even of their own language, and to their power to use it. At the very beginning of language-learning, we have to learn to understand the words which we hear others use. Then we learn to utter them ourselves, and to put them together cor- rectly — that is, in the same way that others do — in order to express our thoughts and feelings. A little later, we have to learn to understand them as they are put before our eyes, written or printed ; and then to make them in the same way, — that is, to read and spell and write : and this also correctly, or as other people do. But then we v/^ant to use our English not only correctly, but well, so as to please and influence others. Many of us, too, want to learn other languages than English, languages which answer the same purposes as our own, but have other means of doing it. Or, we want to study some of the other forms of English, and to compare them with our own, so as to understand better what it is, and how it came to be what it is. Nor are we content with merely using language ; we want to know something of what language is, and to realize what it is worth to us. The study of language has a great deal to tell us about the history of man, and of what he has done in the world. And as language is the instrument of the mind's operations, and the principal means by which they are disclosed, we cannot study the mind's workings and its nature without a thorough understanding of language. f L 6f.] EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 27 69. For all these purposes, we need to have that sort of knowledge of language to which the study of grammar is the first step, and to which a study of tlie grammar of our own language is the easiest and the surest step. HXAMHTATIOK QTTESTIONS. 1. Give examples of the way in which the study of the Engrlish language can be made to illustrate and corroborate what we learn from English history. 2. Among the changes that have come over English, distinguish those which are due to tendencies inherent in all languages from those which have been brought about by external agencies. 8. What are the causes which hsvo given rise to the greatest changes in English, and what are the causes which have tended most to fix and settle the language? Qlvo illustrations. 4. When, and under what circumstances, did the principal foreign elements which enter into the composition of the English language, take their places in it? 6. Give, with dates, a pedigree of the English language which shall show from what sources it has been successively enriched. 6. Into what periods may the development of the English language be dirided? Indicate the characteribtiu features of each. 7. Mr. Sweet characterizes three cardinal divisions in the development of English as periods of full, of levelled, and of lost inflections. Discuss his statement. 8. Explain clearly what is meant by calliny English a composite language, and by saying that its grammar is neither borrowed nur mixed. 9. Illustrate fully the difference between an analytic and a synthetic language. Discuss tlie following law: "The earlier the stage, the fuller the inflections; and an languages become modem, they lose their inflections.' 10. .Justify the following: "If we were to describe the transition from the state language of the eleventh century to the court EnglLsh of the fourteenth, it comes to this : A French family settled in Emjlanl and edited the English languaQC." 11. Make a statement of the tendencies that arc common to each period in the development of Eugliuh, noting also those that are different. i2. What circumstances most conunonly lead to the introduction of now words into a language? Instance words so imported into English. 13. What do you understand by the imperfect incorporation of words from a foreign language? Give the tests of naturalization, and illustrate by making a list of words (1) that are fully naturalized, (2)that are almost naturalized, and, (3) that as yet show no signs of naturalimtion. 14. To what languages and for what classes of words is English most indebted ? 15. Enumerate, with examples, the parts of speech that are entirely or mostly of purely English origin. 16. Write a sentence which shall contain all the parts of speech, employing only words of purely English origin. 17. Give a list of words in common use derived directly and indirectly from the Celtic, Scandinavian, German. Latin, and Greek. 18. Compute the percentages of the different elements in the first two )>aragraph8 of Chap. I. of this book. 19. Give classical generic names for the following specific things : fatbHT, sua, hones, lags, Mack, whUU)iif , two, ssU. 28 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 20. Give purely English words descriptivo of particular examples of the fullowini; generic terms : ImiirsMdon, MBjatloa, •motion, dlipotltion, impslM, dlrtjtlon, profrowloa, asooBsioB, dsMioat, ragloa, exlsUnca, oxpMialoB, ocoapjr, Iniort, ennro, promla- •nco, paMSffo, Inoqnalltjr. 21. Give a liHt of examples of words radically the sanio, but of different forms, bocauHo onterin^f our lan^fuago throu;j!i diffurcnt chunneU. 22. Trace to their sources the follcnvinjj : pongitar, Ezet«r, Pontofract, intcrcoarM, commoner, Ballyihannon, worsted, Weston, Melrose, gmel, leopard, Whitby, Bermondiey, copse, chivalry, damage, pecance, acqaaint, dlflnie, duck, amphitheatre, surprise, therefore, epllogne, this, pandit, ftlUbttster, sago, kangaroo, mustang, amen, hammock, vanguard, doaqe, epicure, poor, mercy^ soldier, tawdry, click. 23. Re write the followinir passage, substituting words of purely English origin for those of Greek or Latin orii;in : "The old man trusts wholly to slow contrivance and prradual orogrossio >. The youth uxjHicts to force his way by genius, vigor, and precipitance. Tlie old man deifies prudence. The youth eonimits hiniKeif to nmurnaniuiity and chance. Age looks witli anger on the t.nierity of youth, and youth with contempt on the scrupulosity of ago." — Johntion. 24. Account for the Latinizing tendency (1. 43) that showed itself in our speech during the fifteenth century. 25. Show that the Latin of the fourth pcriixl often differs from the I^Atin of the other periods in resiwct to form, inflections, and meaning. 20. What can wo infer from the likeness of the Eng. house, flreo, man, to the Iliflrh German haux, frei, inann t Why cannot we conclude that the Eiiglish words are bor- rowed troin German ? 27. Point out three important respects in which tho English of Alfred's time (as shown in tho extract in i>ar. ai) differs from that of our own time. 28. Give examples of words that 'lavc come into English owing to tho extension of the empire to India, America, and Australia, red)H)ctivcly. 29. What arc tho tests of good English 7 -^. Give a list of tho «'ommonc8t causes of biul English. 31. Discuss tho following definitions : (1) Lanuiiaok means inner life, or thought, taking an outward body. (2) Grammar means the rules which are discovered by common-sense applied to language. " I 32. Explain clearly the following statements : (1) '* When Uwked at from the purely grammatical point of view, the history of our language is little else thicu the history of corruptions. (2) "As a mere instru ■ ent of expresn'o!), there is not the slightest question ns to the immense 8U])eriority of the English oi «lie nineteenth century over that of the ninth." (3) "Other Teutonic languages may mike 'ise of Romanic words ; English nmst make use of them even in denouncing then ." (4) "The fact of English possessing, lo a large extent, a double vocabulary — ono composed of Teutonic, the other of Romanic words— has given a marked character l.^ the literature of various ci>ochs." (5) " As political reasons have liftcd itf purity." U. 1-8.] CHAFrER 11. THI3 SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. to make I — onn Iter l» , so ill VariouH Klntln and Vtw% of WordM. 1. Our language, like every other, is made up of words. Thus, for example, we have sun, moon, stax, which are the names of objects. But such other words as shines, moves, twinkle, are not names; they are words which we put with names like those given above, to state or declare something about the objects to which the names belong ; as when we say The sun shines, The moon moves. The stars twinkle. The word the, again, in tliese sentences, is unlike the others ; it neither names anything nor declares anything ; it is never used except before a name, like SUn, or moon, or stax. We may say, further, The golden sun shines brightly. Here golden and brightly are words of yet other kinds ; each may be used in its own ways, but not in those of the others. And so it is with all our words. Each word has, therefore, its own particular part to play in the expression of our thoughts; its own meanings; and its own ways of being used with other words. 2. But hot every word is different from all the rest in its uses. There are a great many words which we use in the same way as sun, or moon, or golden, or brightly. The words thus used alike w.j put together into classes, and we give each class a name. • Parts of Speech. 3. The classes into which our words are divided according to their uses, are called the parts op speech ; and every word, as having a certain kind of use or function, is called a PART OF SPEECH. M • 30 THB SBNTGKCC AND ITS ELEMENTS. [IL4- Hl 4. Thid name, •* part of speech," given to a word, plainly implies that there is something incomplete about it ; that it is not a wh'^le, but must be joined with other " parts " in order to make a whole, or in order to be speech. This is in fact the case ; and the whole which these parts* make up is the sentence. The ^ntenre. 5. All our speech, as we actually use it in talking or in writing, consists of sentences ; we do not really s&y anything unless we make a sentence. If, for example, we speak the words son, tree^ ink, good- ness, he, we are only mentioning something ; any one who hears us will naturally ask, " Well ; what about it t " So, if we say shines, or is, or writes, or went, the natural question is, " What shines 1 " and so on. So, too, if we say the, with, golden, bristly, away, or taU. But, if we say The sun shines, The tree is tall. He writes with ink, or, They went away ; wo have thought something and said it ; we have made up our mind to some purpose or other and told what it is ; we have (as it is called) formed an opinion or judgment, and expressed it by a sentence. 6. Hence, in the sense thus explained, A sentence is the expression of a jndgmentf tJiat is, tJie statemetd in lang^tagCf of a thought. Strictly speaking, this explanation is true of only one kind of sentence : the assertive sentence, as it is called, or that by which wo assert or declare something to be so and so. There are two other kinds of sentence : one, the i>terroga TivE (interrogative means " question-asking ") by which we ask a question : thus, Does the snn shine? and the other, the imperative (imperative means " command- giving ") by which we give a command : thus, Sbine out brightly,8nn. But the assertive sentence is th' regular and by far the most common one, and the other two will be best treated afterwards as variations of it. H 8 a at ad.] PUfiJBct A^t) l>RfiDrcAtB. di ige, [ind that so. dA I ask ind' lOSt irds Kinds Af word* Ik a Sentence. 7. We cannot produce a sentence by stringing together words of one sort only : thus, sun, man. rain ; shines, falls, went ; good, golden, bright. In order, then, to form a sentence we mtist use words of nore ihan one kind. Nor, agafn, can wo take at haphazard words of different kinds, and make sentences of them : thus. The brightly sun shining over is me. But, properly fitted together, these words do express a thought: thus, The sun is shining brightly over me. For a sentence, there must, therefore, be not only words of more than one kind, but words of certain kinds fitted together in certain ways. Subject and IPredleate. 8. As the sentence is a combination of words by which we assert that something is true about something, there must be in every sentence two parts or member's : one naming the thing {thing here means " whatever we can think about ") about which we make an assertion, and one expressing what we assert of the thing named. Thus, in the sentence The sun shines, the words the sun tell what we make an assertion about, and we assert aV) )ut the sun that it shines : shines expresses what we assert to be truo of the thing expressed by the sun. So, too, in the sentence The sun does not shine, dees not shine expresses what we assert to be true of the thing expressed by the sun. 9. These two necessary parts of the sentence we call the SUBJECT and the predicate (predicate meaning " thing asserted "). We cannot, in the nature of tln'-'^r'a, make a complete sentence without joining together & <. .^iect and a predicates ' I 33 tHfi SfiNT2NCfi AKD ITS ELEMENTS. [11. 9- But a sentence need nou contain more than two words, one for each of the two parts. Thus, Gold glitters ; Horses run ; Paper bums ; Ckorge reads ; are so many complete sentences, the former word in each being its subject, and the latter its predicate. 10. On the other hand, we may use two, or three, or many words in naming and describing the thing about which we are going to make an assertion, and as many more in making tl>e assertion ; and the sentence may still be divided into the same two parts. Thus, in My father's beautiful black horses run every day down the hill to the brook for water, the first five words are the subject, because ull of them together name that about which the assertion is made ; and the other eleven words are the predicate, because all together form the assertion, telling what is done by the horses we have described. 11. We may, therefore, sum up as follows what we have learned about the sentei\ce : A sentence is composed of two parts : (1) the subject^ signify- ing that about which the assertion is made ; and (2) tlie predir , cate^ signifying that which is asserted of the subject.. • t,^»xA«^ *^^" Wo shall now see what kinds of words, that is, what parts of speech, are put together thus to form the simplest sentence^ rlie sentence composed of only two words. 4 \ The Verbii 12. A word that can be used as shines, glitters, run, bums, reads, are used in the sentences givon above (II. 8 and 9), is called a VE/in {cerb means *'word"; this part of speech having been looked upon as the chief word in the sentence). Now, since those Avords are predicates, and since a predicate exj)resses what we assert of the subject (II. 8), a verb in such sentences is a word that asserts. Hence, any word that asserts is a verb. A predicate, however, may consist of more than one word (II. 10). Thus, instead of The mm shines, ! I a a: n: w T 7y U n. 14.3 verb; predicate. dd we raay say The sun is shining, or The sun is brilliant, or The sun sends down rays ; and so on. But in these sentences there can be no assertion without is, or sends ; for a word like shining, brilliant, down, or rays, cannot make an assertion without a word added like is or sends. In such sentences, then, the essential parts of the predicates, that is, the parts by mear s of which we make our assertions about the subjects, are is and sends : is and sends are, therefore, verbs. And so, because the verb forms either the predicate, or the essential part of the predicate, we cannot describe a verb truly except by saying that it is a kind of word which goes with the name of something to assert, or to help to assert, something about it ; that is, to form, or to help to form, the predicate. And, of however many words a predicate may consist — as in run every day down the hill to the brook for water -it must always have in it, as its essential part, a verb, as run, simply because a verb is a woixi without which *ho.re can be no assertion. 13. We may, therefore, express, as follows, in a brief, plain manner, exactly what we mean in Grammar by the term verb; that is, we may give the definition of the verb : A verb is a word by means of which we can rruike an asser- iion, and, hence^ that can stand alone, or with other words, aa the predicate of a sentence. Bare nnd Complete Predicates. M. When a predicate is composed of two or more v/ords, we vail the simple verb in it the bare predicate, and this along with the rest, the complete predicate. We shpjl, also, see hereafter that some verbs, such as be and become, are very rarely used alone as predicate, but are made complete predicates by other words added to them, which are called their complement (that is, " completing part "). I.'hus, in He is wise, and He becomes wise, TyiPP is the complement ; and there could in neither sentence 1»<3 a complete assertion without Wise or some word m:ed like it. Ml k .1 34 THE! SEXTEIKCE! AKD ITS fiLBMENtd. [II. 14- And there are, of course, no verbs that may not take a complement of some kind. The Noun. 15. The other words in the sentences in par. 9 — namely, gold, horses, paper, George — are, each of them, what is called a NOUN (noun means simply "name"). All these nouns are names of objects that we can perceive by the sense of sight. Others, as sound, noise, thunder, odor, are names of things which we can perceive by other senses. Yet others, as mind, life, are names of things which we can only think about. Others, still, as height, round- ness, beauty, courage, are names of the qualities of objects. There are mar liflferent classes of nouns, but they are all alike names, and i . an all be used as subject of a sentence. 16. Thus we have u.e definition : A iwnn is the name of anything, a word that can stand, alone or rvith other words, as subject of a sentetwe. T <* The Pronoun. 17. But while a verb is the only kind of word, or part of speech, that can be used as predicate of a sentence;, a noun is not the only one that can bo used as subjec*^^. In the sentences, I stand, You are wise, They wrote, I, you, and they are subjects; and these are words of so peculiar a kind that they are not called nouris, but are made a class, or part of speech, by themselves, and are called pro- nouns : other words of the class are we, thou, he, she, it, they, it, this, that, who. The word pronoun means "standing for a noun." Such words are, in fact, a kind of additional set of names for objects, which may be used instead of "^heir ordinary names, that is, instead of nouns. They do not precisely name objects ; but they point them out where the circumstances show plainly enough what is referred to. Thus, instead of saying Qeorge reads diligently, we may say He raftds diligently. n. 19] PRONOUN. 85 if we have spoken before of George in a way that makes plain what he means ; as, for instance, when we say Oeorge is a good scholar ; he reads diligently. Or, speaking to George himself and not to any one else, we may say Tou read ; and in this case what you means is evident from the cir- cumstances : and George may say, referring to himself, I read; and in this case also the circumstances show what I means. Again, if George says This is my father, This describes plainly enough the person whom George takes hold of, or towards whom he makes some gesture, or who is the only one near him. We can, in this way, say he, she, it, or this of every single object that wo can speak of by a noun ; to any one that wc can speak to, we may say you ; and any one of them that can speak of itself may call itself I, In all cases, however, our knowledge of what these pronouns mean depends on the cir- cumstances showing plainly what or who is referred to. Thus the pronouns are a sort of universal names, or universal substitutes, under special circumstances, for ordinary names. Accordingly, while there are hundreds and thousands of ordin- ary names, or nouns, there are only a few of these substitutes ; but they are used oftener than any nouns ; for we do not care to repeat frequently nouns in the same sentence or in consecu- tive sentences, when a pronoun will show what we refer to. 18. Thus we have the definition : A pronoun is a word standing for a noun^ and may, like a noun, be used as subject of a sentence, ^ §alMtaaitive Word*. 19. Both nouns and pronouns have other uses besides that of standing as subject; these will be pointed out hereafter. It will also be shown that words which are generally other parts of ppecoh are sometimes used as if they were nouns. Such a word is then said to be used bubstaxtivelt (substantive proDerly means "capable of expressing existence"; when W: 36 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [n. Id- used as a name, the term is applied to the part of speech that represents anything that exists, that is, to the noun). The word noun was formerly much used, and is still sometimes used as a name for both nouns and adjectives, the former being distinguished as NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE, or SUBSTANTIVES, and the latter as nouns ADJECTIVE, Cr ADJECTIVES. ' 20. These three parts of speech — the noun and pronoun on the one hand, and the verb on the other — are the principal, the independent, ones. They do not need to lean on anything else ; they can form sentences without help from other parts of speech. The Adjective. 21. Next we have to consider two other parts of speech which are of a different character; which do not by them- selves, or directly, form either the subject or the predicate of a sentence. The word the in The sun shines, is such a part of speech ; it can be used with a noun only, to limit it.^ .ivpb' ,^tion by distinguishing the particular object for which the noun stands. So also many and eight in Many men were there, Ei/;ht boys are here, are used with the nouns men and boys to limit their applica- tion by telling how umny of each class of objects there are. And again in The golden sun shines, We like ripe apples, golden and ripe are each added to a noun to describe the thing of which the noun is the name, by expressing some quality as belonging to it. A word used like the, many, eight, golden, or ripe, is called an adjective (adjective merely means something " added " — that is, added to a noun by way of limitation or description). 22. When, for instance, we speak of Tall stiff 'alack hats, we first limit the general name hats to that class of hats that are black, then the name black hats to that class that are stiff, and then the name stiff black hats to that class that are tall ; and we might, by putting his and two before the whole, reduce the still numerous class of tall stiff black hats to the two which some particular person owns. 11.24.] PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUIT. 37 B MOUNS Hence an adjective is said to limit the appHcation of a noun, or is called a limiting word. But in His two tall stiff black hats, the adjectives tall, stiff, and black do more than merely limit the application of the noun hats: they add to its meaning by expressing the qualities of tallness, stiffness and blackness as belonging to the hats. Hence, such adjectives are said to qualify, that is, " express a quality of," the meaning of a noun, or are called qualifying words. An adjective, however, may describe the meaning of the noun without limiting its application : it may merely add to its meaning. Thus, when we say The golden sun, we do not distinguish the sun from other objects of the same name : we merely describe the object which the noun sun represents, by expressing a quality as belonging to it. So, too> when we say The mighty ocean. Mortal men. My wise father ; the adjectives mighty, mortal, and vise merely describe the objects represented by the nouns. It is customary for grammarians to say tliat an adjective MODIFIES a noun, that is, " changes somewhat its value " ; for, as the adjective and its noun make but one meaning, the addi- tion of the adjective changes the value of the noun, whether it adds to its meaning or merely limits its application. 23. Thus we have the definition : An adjective is a word used to modrft/ a noun. Predicate Adjective and Noun. 24. No assertion or declaration is made by an adjective, any more than by a noun ; a noun and an adjective joined together will never make a sentence ; thus, Sun golden, stars shining, enemies beaten, man the. But we can make either an adjective or a noun a p.irt of the assertion about a noun or pronoun, if we join the two together by a verb. The verb which we esoecially. use for this purpose is be : thus, for example, The sun is golden. His stiff black hat was tall. We are beaten, We were Roman citizens. 38 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [n. 24- A noun or adjective which, in this way, by help of a verb, is made a part of the predicate or assertion about a subject, is a kind of complement (II. 14) and is called a predicate noun or adjective. Thus used, the adjective merely adds to the meaning of the noun or pronoun about which the assertion is made. An adjective used as predicate modifies a pronoun as freely as it modifies a noun : thus. We are beaten ; You are tall ; He is running. The Adverb. 25. There is also another class of woi^s, used to modify the other member of the simple sentence, the verb. If we say The sun shines brightly, or shines now, or shines above, the words brightly, now, above, tell something about the manner, or time, or place of the action expressed by shines ; they qualify or limit, in one way or another, the shining which we have asserted of the sun. So in Horses run swiftly, George reads sometimes, He stands there, the words swiftly, sometimes, and there, are used in the same way to define the action or condition asserted by the verb. A word thus used is called an adverb, because it is added to a verb in much the same way and for the same purpose as the adjective is added to the noun. But some adverbs are also capable of being used to modify adjectives : thus, A very cold day, A truly faithftil fliend, A possibly false report ; and some even modify another adverb : thus. Very brightly shining, Quite often seen, Exceedingly seldom. 26. We have, then, the definition : An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or sometimes another adverb. 27. The adjective and the adverb are thus the two parts of speech which are added to another word to modify it. The Preposillon. 28. We noticed above only one of the uses of the noun or pronoun, namely, that of serving as subject of a sentence, U. 39.] PREPOSITION. 39 Now we have also to notice that a noun or pronoun may be used like an adjective to modify another noun, or like an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective, if it be connected with the word it is to modify, by a word like of, to, from, in with, by, and so on. Thus, An emigrant from Ireland is the same as An Irish emigrant ; He speaks with distinctness is the s&me as He speaks distinctly : and in Oood for food, Faithftil till death. Tired of walking, the modification of the adjective is of the same kind as would be made by an adverb (See also II. 45). Such connecting words are called prepositions. Preposition means " placed before " ; and these words are, in fact, usually placed before the noun or pronoun which they are to connect to another word (just as they are often placed before a verb — and hence the name preposition — to make another verb, as in withstand, outrun, underlie). 29. Each preposition makes the noun or pronoun which it joins to another word, modify that other in some particular way ; that is, it defines a certain kind of relation as existing between the notions expressed by the two words (notion means " any conception of the mind," as of an object itself, or of what it does, or of what quality it has). Thus, of generally shows possession, or connects the notion of a possessor with that of a thing possessed, as in The palace of the king '. by shows the relation of nearness, as in He sits by me, or, of means, as in He lives by begging ; from shows the relation of removal, as in He went from home ; under and over show relations of place, as in The picture hangs under the ceiling, over the table ; and so on. K'!! ' 40 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [11. 2»- Hi ' In describing, generally, the rltity of the preposition in a sentence, it is usual, fc convenience' sake, to say that it shows the relation between words : what is meant, liowcvcr, is that the notions (II. 29) expressed by the words arc thus connected. 30. Thus wo have the definition : A preposition is a word which joins a noun or pronoun to some other word, and shows tJie relation between the notions they express, thus giving the noun or pronoun the value of an adjective or an adverb. The Conjunction. 31. But not only have we a class of words to join together other words ; we nave also a class of words to join together sentences. Thus, in He went and I came, we join together the thoughts or judgments (II. 6) expressed by He went and I came, by means of and ; that is, we thus join together two sentences. So, also, but connects the sentences in We spoke, but they said nothing. And and but in these sentences are called conjunc- tions (conjunction means something that " conjoins, or joins together ") : they join together different sentences ; and this is the proper and most customary use of conjunctions. Sometimes, like and and but in these sentences, the con- junction does hardly more than add one sentence to another ; sometimes, however, it shows that the second sentence stands in a certain relation to the first : a relation the nature of which is defined, or made clear, by the conjunction. Thus, in She blushed because she was ashamed, and She played while they danced ; because shows her shame to have been the cause of her blushing ; and while shows the dancing to have accompanied her playing ; and so with similar conjunctions (II. 47). But, besides connecting different sentences, some of the most common conjunctions, especially and, are used to connect, in the same sentence, other combinations of words (not containing a subject and a predicate), called PHKA3BS (II. 46), that aCQ II. Si.] CLASSIFICATION ; INTERJECTION; 41 I her lied lost j, in liing used in the same way in the sentence ; also single words that are used in the same way in the sentence : thus, On the hills a n d in the valleys, lies the snow ; A man of bad character b a t of great ability : He a n d I came ; By a n d with their consent ; A great and good man; A proud though childlike form. 32. Thus we have the definition : A conjuiiction is a word used to join together sentences^ or phrases or words tised in tJie same v^fiy in a sentence. Classillcatloii of the Parts of Speech. 33. The seven kinds of words thus described and defined as the parts of speecli, fall among themselves into three well- marked divisions : 1. The three independent parts of speech, the noun, the PRONOUN, and the Verb, capable of forming sentences without the others ; 2. The two modifiers, the adjective and the adverb, always attached to some other word, which they limit or qualify; and 3. The two connectives, the preposition and the conjunc- tion, which join one word, or phrase, or sentence to another. The Interjection. 34. But there is yet another class of words, used in excla- mation, which are usually reckoned as a part of speech. Examples are Oh! Ah! Fie! Pshaw! Fudge! Lo! These words, and words used like them, are called interjec- tions. The name interjection signifies something that is " interjected," that is, "thrown into the midst of" something else ; and this something else is the sentence, as made up of the other parts of speech. Calling them thus, then, implies what is really tiie case, that they are not parts of the sentence itself; they are not put together with other parts to make up sentences. Hence, though it is proper enough, because convenient, to call inter- jections a part of speech, they are not so in the same sense as the others. Each interjection is, in a certain Avay, an undivided sentence, put in the language of feeling rather than in that of reason. 42 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [U.36- 35. We add, then, the definition : An interjection is an exclamationy expressive of feelimj ; it does not combine tmth other words to form a sentence^ and so is not in the sams sense as the rest a part of speech. Peculiar Wordu aad ClasscA of Wordit. 36. Besides the eight classes of words into which wo have divided speech, there are words and even classes of words o* -^ peculiar nature. Thus, in There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin, there, which is generally an adverb meaning " in that place," is used as an almost meaningless introductory word to fill up the place left vacant by the transposed subject ; for it would seem strange to sa,y in ordinary speech, Game to the beach a poor exile of Erin, although this sentence contains all that is really necessary — a subject and predicate. 37. Or, again, in This is the man who came ; who is a pronoun referring to man, while it is also a conjur'^- tive word, joining the sc ntence of which it is the subject tc one going before ; who thus partakes of the natures of parts of speech — the pronoun and the conjunction — and, there- fore, belongs to a group of words called conjunctive pronouns. It will be seen afterwards that there are in our language several other groups of words which are used similarly to who, that is, which partake of the natures of two parts of speech. One of these groups — the pronominal adjectives — partakes of the nature of the pronoun and the adjective ; another — the infintt:v£5 — of the nature of the verb and the noun ; another — the pap.ticiples — of the nature of the verb and the adjective ; and yet another — the pre- NOMINAL ADVERBS (including the CONJONCTIVE adverbs)— of the nature of the pronoun and the adverb. 38. Still further, the word yes, which we use in answer to a question, is itself equivalent to a sentence. Thus in answer to Has he gone ? Yes stands for He has gone ; that is, it is equivalent to a sentence. 39. Thus it will be found that nearly all the words that do not strictly belong to one or another of the eight parts of speech fall into one or another of three classes : u.«o.] WORD-VALUES. 43 1. Words like there, whoso usual force as ordinary parts of speech has been weakened, having each generally a peculiai,' use, and, in some cases, a mere shadow of a meaning. 2. Words like who, which partake of the natures of two parts of speech ; and 3. A few words like yes, which are each equivalent to a complete sentence. , But, as the words bel'»nging to each of these three classes generally resemble, or are connected with, one or more of the eight parts of speech, grammarians have considered it unneces- sary to form separate classes for them. Their nature and uses will, therefore, be taken up fully in connection with those parts of speech which they most closely resemble. DlflTerriit Cinimmallcal TiilueR of the iiaine Word. 40. The continual increase in the number of our ideas main- tains a continual necessity for an enlargement of our vocabulary. We shall see hereafter that, besides introducing into our lan- guage completely new words for new ideas, we modify the meanings of old ones by various changes in their forms (III. 8 ad IV). In the meantime, however, we have to notice another way we have of enlarging our vocabulary. In the sentence I have sold my silver watch for a piece of silver, with which I silver some counterfeit coin. the first silver is an adjective ; the second, a noun ; and the third, a verb. In the following, again. He had all but one, but that was very heavy ; had he had but more time, he could have brought it too, the first but is a preposition ; the second, a conjunction ; and the third, an adverb. And so with very many other words. In these sentences, both silver and but are different parts of speech, according as they are differently used ; although, generally, silver is a noun, and but a conjunction. Hence, 1. A word does not belong exclusively to one class, although it may generally be tised in this way; and 2. To determine to what class a word belongs, we must know how it is used. m\ H I i 44 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMEIITS. [IL41- NotiOBBi and Bclatlonal Words. 41. xn the classification of words, besides the distinction of fnnction, there is a distinction of sionification that calls for attentioo. When we contrast book, nms, great, Justice, sleep, generalisation, remarkably, with by, with, a, for, wben, yet, and, since, under, who, now, nerer, we feel that there is a wide difference between the characters of the two lists. The words in the first list have meanings of their own, ucidependently of other v/orda with which they may be connected in sentences. Such words are called notional, because they represent %oiiotts (II. 29). Each of the words in the second list, however, depends for its intelligi- bility on its relation to some notional word or words in the sentence to which it belongs. Such words are, consequently, known as rkla- TIOMAL. Some of them, the personal pronouns, have a sort of borrowed notional meaning as soon as circumstances show ns what they refer to: others, again, as respect, regard, are nouns which, having become part of relational pJirases, have lost their notional meaning. 42. Almost all nouno ore notional. Pronouns, prepositiona, and con- junctions are relational. Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs include both clasises. Thns, ia God Is love, is is purely relational ; while in God Is, Is, expressing existence, is notional. So, too, will, when a mere sign of futurity is relational ; bat, when a principal veib meaning "to be willing," is is notional; and so with mos J of the other auxiliaries. Adjectives expressing quality, as, good. Intelligent, are notional ; whereas prononiiual adjectives, as, bis, ytrx, ttds, what, some, all, are relational. And, finally, adverbs like foolishly, wrongly, sptteftdly, are notional ; while adverbs like thus, when, whence, accordtiigly, there, are relational. 43. But we mubt not regard this cla3,<>ification as being rigid or absolute. The meanings of words change with the growth of the language (I. 16), and ohe same word may be used in a number of dififercnti censes according as it ma/ suit the couveuience of tiie pecple who Ube it. Even notional words, therefore, are more or '-^as notional, bnd relational M'ords have an infiaitely graduat^d scale of variation. We find, too, that notional words have often a tendency to become relational, and that the process is generally uccompauied by a lighten- ing of emphasis. Thus, we have respect notional in I ha%e much respect for him. :i n. 46.] PHRASE-VALUES. 40 nal, ion. ome ten- and part of a relational phrase in There is doubt with respect to his meaning. Again, Aha31, originally meaning "to owe," and, therefore, notional, is now most frequently used as a mere tense-auxiliary in verb-phrases, and is, therefore, relational. In the following, however, shaU seems to have a seuse that lies between these extremes : If I say 80, who shall dare to deny it? Many relational words, too, have a tendency to become weakened in meaning ; this process niso is generally accompanied by a lightening of emphasis : thus, in The exile of Erin was thetd, thi *'e has a distinct relational force, meaning " in that place " ; whereas in There came to the hsach a poor exile of Erin, it has, as has been shown (II. 36), a mere sh&dow of a meaning. So, too, in The man and the woman were in the house, the has a distinct relational force, indicating a particular man and a particular woman. Contrast with thi^ its weakened force in The moon 11 hid ; the night is still. 44. Grammar deals mainly with the literary forms, functions, and relations of words ; but it will be seen that a knowledge of the pre- ceding distinctions is often helpful to the proper understanding of many of its difficulties. CiraiuiiiAtlcal Values of I'tarases* 45. Thus far we have been dealing with the grammatical values of single words : we shall now see that, in a sentence, a group of words very often has the grammatical value of one word. Thus, instead of He sprang liastily from his grassy couch, we may say, with the same logical value (logical means " accord- ing to the true meaning "), He sprang in haste from his couch of grass. In the latter sentence, in haste and of grass, respectively, have the grammatical values (or, are the grammatical equiva- lents) of the adverb hastily and the adjective grassy. The following contain other examples of groups of words, which, although they cannot be represented as above by single words, are, notwithstanding, similarly used (the grammatical value of each is added) : ii! 'I 46 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEM.llNTS. [n. 46- The house on yonder hill is sold ; adjectival ; The house stands on yonder hill; adverbial ; He wanted to go home; substantive; I shall be going; verbal; He will go by way of Toronto; prepositional; He as well as I will go; conjunctive; Ah me! interjectional. rjroups of words used like those above, with the value of parts o£ speech, are called phrases. 46. "We add, then, the definition : A phrase is a combination of two or ^nore words (not includ- ing a subject and predicate) having in a sentence t value of a single word, or part of speech. Granimallcal Values of I'lonses. 47. Again, instead of The wealthy m^ rose on awaking, we may say, with the same logical value, The man who was wealthy rose when he awoke. In the latter sentence, who was wealthy and when he awoke have the logical and the grammatical values of the adjec- tive wealthy and the adverbial phrase on awaking. The following contain other eximples of sentences which are similarly used, although they cannot in every case be repre- sented, as above, by equivalent words or phrases, (the gramma- tical value of each is added) : Each thought of the woman who loved him best; The place where they lived knows them no more ; They trimmed the lamps as the sun went down; Tet, ere we part, one lesson i can leave you ; ^e little knew how much he Thronged her; That you have wrongod me doth appear in this. Sentences used, like those above, with the value of parts of speech, are called clauses (See also II. 53). adjectival ; <( adverbial ; CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 47 48. A clause is, therefore, like h phrase in being a combina- tion of words that often has the value of a single word or part of speech ; but it differs from it in containing a subject and predicate, and so being really a sentence of itself. Classes of Sentences. (a) ACCORDING TO FORM. 49. As noticed above (II. 6), we use, besides the assertive sentence, two other main kinds, the interrogative and the imperative ; this classification being based on the form of sentence we use in expressing ourselves. 50. By an interrogative sentence, we express a desire to know something. But instead of putting it in the form of a statement, " I desire to know," or, " I wish you to tell me, such and such a thing," we make known our desire by a peculiar form of sentence : usually by putting the subject noun or pro- noun after the verb ; thus. Have you any fish ? Was John there ? Will she go ? • There are also special classes of interrogative words, pro- nouns, or adjectives, or adverbs, which have in themselves a question-asking meaning ; thus, Who was there ? By what way did he go ? Why did he come ? 51. By an imperative sentence we express our will or wish that a thing be so and so ; we give a command to somebody. This is done by using a certain form of the verb, hence called the imperative mood or mode ; thus, Give me the fish. Go away f^om here. (b) ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION. 52. There is another classification of sentences based upon their composition, A sentence which is made up of one sub- ject and of one predicate, is called a simple sentence, however many words either of them may contain : thus, Horses run and My father's beautiful black horses run every day down the hill to the brook for water, are both simple sentences. 53. But, as we have seen (II. 31), we can, by the use of con- junctive words, put together simple sentences, each having its 48 TBB SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [n. 63-6«. I own subject and predicate, and make of them a longer and more intricate sentence. Thus, for example, if we say I woke and I got up at once ; The snn was up, but it was hidden by clouds ; The bird was ^ot, or some one struck it ; each sentence, or clause (for any sentence which is joined with other sentences to make a larger sentence, is called a clause), though joined to another by a conjunctive word, has the value of a separate assertion in the larger sentence. Such clauses are called independent (or principal ; that is, "of first rank"). With relation to one another, again, they are called co-ordinate ; that is, " of equal order or rank." And a sentence made up, like those above, of two or more independ- ent clauses is called a compound sentence. 54. If, on the other hand, we use the sentences given in par. 47, the combination is of a different kind. In Each thought of the woman who loved him best, the only real assertion is Each thought of the woman ; the clause who loved him best has the value of an adjective qualifying woman. And so with the other sentences in the same paragraph. When a clause is thus made to play the part of a single part of speech in another clause, it is said to be dependent on that other, or to be subordinated to it ; that is, to be " put in an order or rank below it " ; and it is called a dependent (or a subordinate) clause, the other clause being called (as in the case of a compound sentence) the independent or principal clause. And a sentence thus made up of one principal clause and one or more subordinate ones, is called a complex sentence : by this is meant that its parts are more *• woven together " {com- plex means "woven together") than those of the compound sentence {compound means "placed together"). 55. Sometimes, also, a compound sentence may be made by joining together, instead of simple sentences, complex ones, or simple and complex ones. Such a sentence is called compound- complex. 66. Occasionally in complex, compound, and compound-com- plex sentences, the conjunctive word is omitted. The omission does not, however, alter the character of the sentence. Thus, Men may live fools ; (but) fools they cannot die ; Ricli and rare were the gems (that) she wore. EXERCISES. 49 I EXEBOISES. §§ 8-14. I. As a preliminary exercise, the sentences in A l>elow are to be divided into subject and predicate. If either consists of more than one word, the bure subject and predicate should be separated from the com* plements ; if written, the parts may be arranged thus : The golden sun shone brilliantly above our heads. sun Bare subject ; Thegdlden Subject complements ; shone Bare predicate ; brilliantly above our heads Predicate < mylements. In order that the sentences may be properly divided, the words should, if necessary, be rearranged in the more usual order : thus, Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight becomes The glimmering landscape fades now on the sight. §§ 12-40. n. As the pupil masters each definition, he is to classify the words in the sentences in A below as one or another of the eight parts of speech, giving also the definition or reason for it in his own language as well as in that of the book. When he has mastered § 40, the italiced words in B are to be taken up in the same way. 1. Grace was in all her steps. 2. Roused at the scand, from lowly bed a captive feebly raised liis bead. 3. Oh ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. With weeping f .nd with laughter still is the story told. 5. Solt and pale is the moon be: m ; moveless still is the grassy stream. 6. Palo grew thy cheek and cold. 7. What art can waah her guilt away ? 8. Here to the houself>ss child of want my door is open still. 9. Lightly and brightly breaks away the morning from her mantle gray. 10. Around, in sympathetic mirth, its tricks the kitten tries. 11. No more to chiefs and ladies bright the harp of Tara swells. 12. In thy right hand lead with thee the mountain nymph, sweet Liberty. B I. Home they brought her warrior dead. 2. Farthest from him in best. 3. Hard by a spreading lime-tree stood. 4. The ma»y rend thu skies with loud applause. 5. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 6. None but the brave deserves the fair. 7. In Venice btU'a a traitor. 8. TJiank me no tliank'mgs, nor proud me no protids. Grace me no (jracea, nor uncle me no uncles. 9. Past hope I have lived, for my noonday is 4 50 lucfittcises. past. 10. The cardinal is not my 5e<) How do you do ? (6) Now is the accepted time ; (7) Now, Barabbas was a robber ; (8) More men have shown themselves mme truthful. T. Form sentences containing the following words used noticmally and relationally : visa, baoama, mora, wlU, soma, shonld, thing, may, affair. t. In what different senses is the term "part of speech" tued? •. Discuss the question as to whether the italicized part in each of the following sen* tences is a phrase: "I spoke o/ what you are talkinq about." "I asked /rurn what ptaee he canta." 52 TNFJ,ECTION. m. 1" CHAPTER III. nrrLECTioN. 1. We have now to notice certain changes of form which some of the parts of speech undergo, according to differences in their meaning, or differences in the connection in which they are used. Number. 2. Let us take as examples the sentences The man learns, I go, The horse runs. He -was. Now, every one of these words may change its form a little, in order to mean something a little different from what it now means. Thus, if we want to speak not of one man only, but of more than one, we alter the sound of the word (and hence also, the spelling), and say men. If we want to speak of more than one horse, we add an s, thus making another syllable, and say horses. If, instead of myself alone, I speak of a number of persons of whom I am one, I change I to we, and say we go> And in the same way we change he to they. Here, then, is a set of changes in the form of nouns and pro- nouns, made in order to show a difference in the number of objects meant, whether a single one or more than one. Hence we call it a change for number ; and we say that man, horse, I and he are of the singular number {singular means "single"), and that men, horses, we, and they are of the PLURAL number {plural means "more than one"). What is true of these nouns and pronouns is true also of nearly all the rest; we do not use precisely the same word when we mean one and when we mean more than one ; that is to say, our nouns and pronouns in general have two number- forms, one singular and the other plural. \' i ni. 6.] GOVERNMENT AND AGREEMENT. 53 Other examples are beauty, beauties ; ox, oxen ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice ; she or it, they ; this, these ; that, those. 3. But if in the sentences above we use the ])lural forms as subjects intead of the singular, we cannot always use the same forms of the verb as predicates : thus, compare The man learns with The men learn ; The horse runs " The horses run; He was " They were ; although, in the remaining sentence, we say both I go and we go. This change in the verb, when it is made (and it is by r/o means always made), docs not show a difference of meaning in the same sense as the change in the noun ; for we cannot really say that the act of learning or running, or the condition of being, is in itself different according as one person or thing, or more than one, take part in it. The change is, rather, a mere consequence of the change of meaning of the subjects. We say, therefore, that the verb, as well as the noun and pronoun, has sometimes two forms, one for use with a subject that is singular, and the other for use with a subject that is plural ; and these forms we call the singular and plural number-forms of the verb itself. Govrrnnient and Asrcvmcnt. 4. And, as the distinction of the use of these forms depends, not on anything in the meaning of the verb itself, but only on the character of the subject, we speak of the subject, whether noun or pronoun, as directing or governing in the matter : the subject being given, the verb is compelled to agree with it in respect to number. These words, government and agreement, are much used in grammar, and this is their simple meaning. The word government^ however, does not give a correct idea of the conneotion between words : they really fit into each other. In a build- ' ing the shape of the window -frame as much determines the shape of the place it fitf> into, as the place it fitb int<> determines the shape of the window-frame. So with grammatical constructions. PerHon. 5. There is yet another matter in relation to which the terms government and agreement have to be used about the verb and its subject. 64 INFLECTION. [m. 6- If we use as subjects the three pronouns I, thou, he (or she or it), the verb used with each is generally different : thus, I learn, thou learnest, he learns. Here, again, there is nothing changed in the action of learning signified by the verb ; the real change is only in the character of its subject. I is always used by a person speak- ing, to signify himself ; thou, to signify the person to whom he is speaking ; hd (or she or it), to signify any person or thing spoken of. This difference in the pronouns is called a difference of person ; and, in order to distinguish them from one another, we call I the pronoun of the first person, thou (or you) the pronoun of the second person, and he (or she or it) the pronoun of the third person. 6. Hence we say, as before, that the verb has sometimes three person-torms, for use with subjects of the first, second, and third persons respectively ; and these forms we call the first, second, and third persons of the verb itself. And here, again, it is the subject that governs, or deter- mines what the form of the verb" must be, in respect to person as well as number ; the subject being given, the verb is made to agree with it in both person and number. The Romans, many of whose grammauical terms we have adopted, thought it natural when speaking, to think Jirst of themselves, secondly of the person spoken to, and thirdly of the person or thing spoken of. 7. A verb, we may notice here, is of the first or of the second person, only when its subject is a pronoun of the first or of the second person, iuv^ery noun has the verb in the third person : thus, John learns, The dog learns, The tree falls. TenMc. 8. But the verb has also (as well as the noun) changes of form to mark real differences of meaning. The verbs leams, runs, go (in the sentences given as examples above) have to be altered if we wish to say that the actions of learning, running, going took place at some time in the past. In that case, we should say The man learned, The horse ran, I went. Thus we make by a change of form of the verb a distinction of the time of the action, as past or present. This is called a distinction of tense (tense means " time ") ; and leams, runs. m. 10.] TENSE AND MOOD. 5& go are said to be of the present tense, while learned, ran, went are said to be of the past tense. The use of the different tenses of the verb depends, not like, that of the different numbers and persons, on the cliaracter of any other word with which the verb is joined, but only on the difference of the meaning which wo wish to express. Mood. 9. One other difference of meaning is indicated (much les» often, however,) by a change in the form of the verb. We saj He was here, but If he were here, I should be glad ; He is angryt but Though he b e angry, he will not show it ; He learns his lesson, but Whether he learn it or not I do not care. This is called a distinction of mood (mood or mode means manner') ; that is, of the manner of viewing the action expressed by the verb, whether as actual, or as doubtful, questionable, dependent on a condition. And were, be, learu in these sentences are said to be of the subjunctive mood (subjunctive mea.ns 'subjoined,' in the sense of 'dependent'; that is, used in a subordinate or dependent sense), while, as distinguished from them, the forms was, is, learns are said to be of the indicative mood (indioacive means simply ' pointing out ' or stating). The form of the verb used in imperative sentences is also •oalled the imperative mood. we Inflection and Conjugation. 10. This change in the form of any word, either to show changes of its own meaning or to adapt it to be used along with the different forms of other words, is called its inflection (the name means 'bending into a different shjjpe,' adaptation) ; and the word thus varied in form is said to be inflected. We have noticed now all the varieties of meaning and use for which the verb in our language is thus changed in form, or inflected. The inflection of a verb is usually called its con- jugation (the name means only a 'joining together' of the various verb-forms) ; and the verb is said to be conjugated. 56 INFLBCTIOML [m. 11- Mi i \ m 11. We sum this up by saying : 1. Injlectinn is a change in the form of a word, depending on differences of its meaning and use. 2. The verb is inflected to show differences of perso'.', of number, of tense, and of mood; and this injlextion is called its Conjugation. €■««. 12. But number is not tlio only inflection of nouns and pro nouns. If John has or possesses a l)Ook, we call it John's book, adding an *S to the name to mark the person as being the possessor of tlie thing ; and so we speak also of ' ?. man's deeds, men's souls, children's pleasures. This form of a noun, usually made by adding an 's, we are accustomed to call its possessive case, because it most often shows possession. 13. The possessive case of a noun has very nearly the same meaning as the noun has with the preposition of before it ; thus, men's souls, and the souls of men ; children's pleasures, and the pleasures of children ; that is to say, the same relation of one noun to another as is expressed by connecting it with that other by the preposition of (in one of its senses), may also often be expressed by putting the noun itself in the possessive case. And sundry other relations, which we now express only by means of other prepo- sitions, were formerly expressed in our language, and are still expressed in other languages, by other cases, or changed forms of the noun. 14. Pronouns also, like nouns, have what is really a posses- sive case, although it is not formed as in nouns by adding 's: thus, he, his ; it, its ; who, whose ; and the case is sometimes formed still more (^^ " tly : thus, I, my or mine ; she, her ; they, t But most pronouns have another, a third, cabc rm • md this we have next to examine. 15. Both nouns and pronouns are capable of standing in Another relation to a verb than that of its subject. If we say The man reads books, John drives a horse. ni. '.8.] CASE. 57 thus^ we say books and horse are nouns, though neither of them is subject in its sentence. Books, for example, belongs to the predicate of the first sentence, because it is a part of what is asserted about man, the subjf:ct ; the assertion is not that lie reads simply, but that he reads l)ooks. The asserted general action of reading is limited, hat is, is made more dednite, by pointing out on what particular class of things it is exorcised. A word added to a verb in tins way is called the on.iKCT of the verb (object means "something put in the toay"), l^ecause it signifies the person or thing that directly endures, or is the object of, the action expressed by the verb. Some verbs, however, from the nature of their meaning do not usually admit of an object. Examples are walk, stand, rejoice, weep, go, fall. 16. Now most of the pronouns have a different form when used as object of a verb from that which they have as subject. Thus, in I see him and he sees me, We love them and they love us, the pair- of words I and me, Le and him, we and us, they and them, are the corresponding subj(;ct and object forms of the same pro- nouns. This also we call a variation of case; and we call the form that is used as object the objective case. And then the form used as subject we call, to distinguish it from the posse^ssive and objective, the subjective case — or, more usually but less correctly, the nominative, or naming case (nominative means simply 'naming'). 17. When a pronoun is connected with some other word by a preposition. Me always use the objective case of it, just as when it is the object of the verb : for example, I know him and hear from him ; He that is not with us is against us. And because the preposition seems to exert a kind of influ- ence upon the word which it thus attiches to something else, we call that word the object of the preposition. 18. There is no noun in our language which really has an objective (jftse, a form different from the nomi^ative, and used I'l ■ ' li: I 58 INFLECTION. [m. 18- •when the noun is object either of a verb or of a preposition. Thus, we .^ay The father loves the son, and the son loves the father ; The father went with, the son, and the soTk went with the father ; without any change of the words father and son ; and so in all other like cases. Still, partly by analogy with the pronouns, and partly he- cause many other languages related to English, and even English itself in earlier times, do distinguish the object from the subject; in iiounc as well as in pronouns, and partly again because a diiFercnce of name enables us to indicate a differ- ence of relation, we usually speak of nouns aff having an objective case ; but it is one that is always the same in form as the nominativb. And we speak of both verbs and prepositions as governing in the objective thf? word that is their object, because it is compelled to be put in tiiat case after them, and because its relation to them, rather than any difference of meaning which we feel in the word itself, is the reason of its being made ob- jective. 19, These are all the changes that make up the inflection of the noun and the pronoun. As they are of another kind than those of the verb, they go by a different name ; they are called the DECi ENSIGN of the noun or pronoun, which is said to be DECLINED. We sum up by saying : The noun and pronoun av inflected to tJioir differences of case and of number, and this injleco'on is called their declension. The term case is derived from casus^ the transUtiou made at Rome of p'osis, the Ci reek grammatical term. It meant " a falling, " a variation from the primary form in a noun or verb. This form in the noun, now known aa tiie nominative, was represented by a perpendicular line and called the " upright " case, while the others wer«^ called the "slanting " or * ' oblique " cases. A scheme of these cases was known a;9 Declension. Gradually, however, the original meaning of Cask and I»eclexsion was forgotten, and they came to be used as mere grammatical terms. CompnriM»n. 20. The adjective has no such inflection as the nour, In general, whatever the number and whatever the case of the noun it modifies, it remains unchanged. Thus, we say good man and good men ; in. 28.] COMPARISON. 59 and both of them may be used either as subject or as object : and vre say also a good man's reward and good men's deeds, where the modified nouns are in the possessive. But we have tv/o words used as adjectives (they are also pionouns), namely tiis and that, which change their form according as the noun they modify is singular or plural : thus, this man, but these men; that horse, but those horses. In many other languages, and even in the older English, something like this is the general rule; an adjective changes its form, not only according to the number, but also according to the case and gender of the noun it modifies ; thus making the noun govern the adjective, or requiring the adjective to aoree with the noun, in gender, number, and case, just as the verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 21. But adjectives have a variation of form to express a greater degree and a greatest degree of the quality which the adjective expresses, when from the nature of ics meaning this is possible. Thus, a tall man, a taller man, the tallest man ; a bright day, a brighter day, the brightest day. The^ three forms are called the degrees op comparison of the adjective, which is said to be compared. Such forma as greater, brighter are said to be of the comparative degree, and such as greatest, brightest, of the superlative degree ; and then, iu distinction from these, the simple unaltered ad- jective, like great, bright, is said to be of the positive degree. This variation of the form of the adjective, though not, strictly speaking, an inflection, is usually and conveniently discussed along with declension and conjugation. The variation is rather a matter of derivation than of inflection ; for, as has been said above, in Old English, the three degrees of the adjective were inflected to agree with the noun. The comparative and superlative were derived from the positive by the addition of sufiixei, and with these suffixes they formed stems, to which inflections were added. But in modern English there are no adjectival inflectional suffixes. 22. Hence we sum up by saying : The adjective is sometimes varied in form to show differences of degree ; this variation of an adjective is called Comparison. The Other Unlnflcctod Vart% of Speech. 23. Of the remaining parts of speech, the preposition and the conjunction have no variation of form at all, of the kind Jiere called inflection: they are called uninplected parts of 1 ' i III ' : flO INFLECTION. [III. 29- i speech, or particles (particle means a small uninflected part of speech). And so it is for the most part with the adverbs also. A few, however, either adjectives used also as adverbs, or words resembling those, have a comparison like that of the adjective : thus, much, more, most ; ill, worse, worst ; soon, sooner, soonest. 24. We add, then, finally : Adverbs J prepositions, and conjunctions are not iii/lected — but a Jew adverbs have a coinj)arison like tltat of adjectives. III ill V'^i Methods of Inflection. 25. We have thus noticed in a general way all tlie kinds of inflection of which English words are capable. Further on we shall take up each part of speech by itself, and explain its in- flectional changes more fully. But before leaving the general subject, we will observe the methods of the change thus made in the words inflected : a. The inflectional change is most frocjucntly made by adding something on at the end of a word. Thus, from horse come horse's and horses, by an added s ; so from book come book's and books ; from love come lovest and loves and loved, by similar additions. Much the largest part of the inflection of English words is of this kind. And it will be seen hereafter that the other kinds are in origin only the consequences and alterations of this. b. Some words are inflected, not by any additions made to them, but by changes made in them — alterations of the sounds of which they are composed. Thus, from man comes the plural men ; from run comes the past tense ran ; froui lead comes led ; from send counts sent. C. In inflecting some words wo both add something and alter the sound of the original word. Thus, from kneel we form the past tense either by an addition, kneeled, or by a different addition and a change of sound, knelt ; so either brothers or brethren from brothers ; so child- ren from child ; so does and says from do and say ; and many more. m. 27.] ORIGm OF* INFLECTIONS. 61 d. Whore most words have some kind of change in themselves for inflection, a few substitute what seem to be, or r»^ally are, wholly different words. Thus, we have the possessive her and plural th«y from she, and in like manner my and we and us from I ; we have the past tenses was from am, and went (which is really the past of wend, like sent from send) from go. .Of course, this is not real inflection at all, but, as will be seen hereafter, another kind of change, which takes the place of it. e. Finally, where some words are inflected, others of the same class, remain unchanged. Thus, unlike man and horse, sheep is the ^ame in the plural as in the singular ; ho and she form special objective cases, but it is the same in nominative and objective ; unlike love and run, set and put have the same form in the past tense as in the present ; and so on. Such inconsistencies and irregu- larities are found more or less in every language. Tlic Origin of Inflections. 26. By comparing the personal inflections of the verbs in the differ- ent Indo-p]uropean languages ; and by tracing as far back as possible in our own language the different forms these endings assume, scholars have found tliat the inflection -st in the second pers. sing. , as in love-st, ha-st, fiad-e-st, was at one time -t (as is still the case in shal-t, wil-t, ar-t, and was-t) ; and tliat the original form of this -t was -tl, an ending identical in origin with our pronoun thou. In the same way, -th of the third pers. sing., now softened or weakened to -a (as in love-s for love-th), is identical in origin with our the, that, then, there, and so on. Hence, originally lovest was equivalent to love-thou ; and loveth or loves to love-that — if by the modern thou and that wo represent pro- nouns of the second and third persons ; the endings wore tiius signifi- cant relational expressions (II. 41), In time the significance of these endings was lost sight of ; they became mere signs of relation, unmean- ing in themselves ; and, as at present, pronouns were placed before the verbs ; thus, Thou lovest, he loveth, he loves. A change of somewhat the same nature, it will bo seen (IV. 12), has taken place in tlie case of such a word as manly, in which the meaning of like (spelt in O. E. lir), the original form of -ly, has been completely lost sight of. In this case, too, the form of the original has been altered,, and the result -ly has become a mere suffix of quality. 27. But, although most inflectional suffixes have, like -st and -th, originated in relational expressions, some have not. Thus, the -d or -t of the paHt tense of the New conjugation — as, for in- stance, in loved, said, added, and lost — had in old English a longer form i »l j m m i 62 INFLECTIOIf. [III. 27-Sl. •de. This -de represents -dede, which is the same as did, the past of do, our notional and relational verb (II. 42). I loved is, therefore, weakened in meaning and sound for I lOYe-dld ; so also lovedst, for love-didst. From an independent notional expression has thus originated the past suffix -d or -t. 28. It has been found also that a considerable number of other inflectional suffixes are traceable to independent relational or notional expressions, and the conclusion scholars have arrived at is that the origin of all may be thus explained ; for in grammar, as in everything else, we proceed on the reasonable assumption that like efTects are produced by like causes. 29. But not all our inflections are suffixes, or are due to suffixes. Tn the primitive Indo-European, the past tense was formed by reduplica- tion, that is, by doubling the root : thus, if vid meant "seeing," vidvid meant " saw ; and to this were added the personal endings, fiut, owing to phonetic changes, in none of the languages of the family was the typical form retained. Of the Teutonic languages, Gothic alone pre- served the reduplication in about forty verbs. But, even here, only the first letter of the root was repeated with a constant vowel-sound dimoted by al : thus, hlanda, "blend," had for past haihland, "blended;" slipa, "sleep," " saizlip, "slept." And, in the other Teutonic languages, phonetic decay went still further. Not only w^as the last letter of the reduplicated syllable dropped, but also the first letter of. the root syllable with, in some cases, its vowel- sound, thus contracting two syllables into one (IV. 46, d. (2) ). In Old English the result was a monosyllabic past with the diphthong eo, some- times shortened to i in all persons : thus, hlandan, "to blend," had for pres. blande, for past hleSnd; slcepan, "to sleep," " slcepe, " slip. Probably, also, in some cases, the first of the two syllables dropped off, and the vowel-sound of the remaining syllable, was altered to make up for the loss (IV. 44). Nor was this all. This change of vowel, origin- ally the result of reduplication, began to be looked upon as the means of denoting past time. This led to the substitution of vowel-change for the oiiginal mode of formation, new verbs of the Old conjugation being formed on the analogy of those in existence (IV. 46). In these ways, probably, have been produced the original forms of most of our existing strong pasts ; but, as we shall see (VIII. ), several other influences have aided in determining their present forms. Tbe Source of Inflections. 30. All our inflections, properly so called, are purely English ; but, as we have seen (I. 22. 26. a, and 36), they have been m^lified and determined by Norman-French and other influences. T3ie Stem, or Base of Inflection. 31 . In describing the inflection of any word, we take for - starting point that form wliich is usually the simplest and fiXAMllJATlOJf QUfiStlONS. cn briefest, and we treat the others as made from that by various alterations. This simplest form is called the Stem, or Base of Inflection. In nouns and pronouns it is the same as the nominative singular ; and in verbs, as the infinitive. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. Besides being carefully drilled on the subjects proposed in the follow- ing questions, pupils should, for a time, be required to name and give the force of inflections met with elsewhere. They should also be thoroughly drilled in the intelligent application of the necessary technical terms connected therewith. 1 . Explain and illustrate the usual meanings of the following terms, stating the parts of speech to which each ig applicable, and any diflereut meanings it may have when thus applied : — Number, S'mrjular, Plural, Government, Agreement, Person, Tense, Mood, Inflection, Conjutfalion, Case, Ponse-sive, Nominative, Subjec' tive. Objective, Deehnsiou, Comparison, Particle, Stem, 2. Make a list of our inflections, and classify them under the heads mentioned in III. 1. 3. Give ard nam*^ all the inflected forms of the following, stating clearly the etFect of the inflection : abbot, fox, ox, brother, man, fish, great, six, half, I, thou, he, she. It, this, that, who, what, which, other, bring, hate, be, slowly, but, If, hurrah. 4. Name, with explanations, the governing and the agreeing words in the following : I saw him and his father. Thou aeest the boy's books ; she sees his sister's. If this be so, I shall leave. For conscience' sake. 5. Why are there only three persons ? Why are nouns said to have no person ? 6. How many cases and tenaea are there really in English ? What is meant by siying that English nouns have no objective case, and English verbs no future tense ? 7. Classify tlio relations and the meaninjfs that are still expressed by inflections. 8. Name all the inflections for which wo cnn (',1111 analytic substitutes, illustratint; your answer by evaniplcs, and (Icfiniii^r any diflferences that may exist between the two nimles of expression. Name also, with reasons, those inflections with which we mii^ht dispense. 9. What in colloquial speech sliows that in si mo cases inflections have still a tendency to disnp)>ear or to lose their value ? Name the inflections that are now obsolescent even in literary English. VVhat Influences tend to preserve our present inflections ? 10. Which, from the Btand|X)int of Modern English, lias the stronger claim lo ho regarded oa an InttectUm— Gender or Comparison f 11. Explain "All inflections illustrate fundamentally the proces'j of word makint/: by combination." 12. What does Richard Orant Wiutb mean wlicn he describes Modern English M " the i^rammarless tonifue " ? W' 1! -'^ m i l|ii u DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 1- CHAPTER IV. DEEIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 1. We saw in the last chapter that English words are altered in various ways, in order to express differences of meaning, or on account of connection with other words : these changes we called inflectional. It might have been said, properly enough, that these altered forms are derived from what we called the stem or base oj injlection by certain additions or other changes : thus, horses is derived from horse by adding an s-sound; men from man, by giving a difterent sound to the vowel in the middle of it; sent from send, by altering its last sound ; and so on. But there is another set of changes, never called inflectional, to which the name derivation is more usually and properly given : namely, the change by which one stem or base of inflec- tion is made from another : and these are what we have next to look at. Derivation by Sufllx. 2. To the adjective true we may add the sound th, making truth. In this new word, the notion of true is still evident; but the change which we have made has turned the adjective into a noun. In such a case as this, the noun is said to be derived from the adjective ; the process of making it is called derivation, 8>nd it is itself called a derivative, or a derivative noun ; and the word from which it is made is called its primitive (primitive means here "more original predecessor"). And the addition -th that makes the derivative is called a noun-making suffix {suffix means something " fixed or fastened on at the end "). There are many nouns made from adjectives in our language by the same suffix, often along with a change of sound in the adjective itself, to make easier the pronunciation of the deriva- tive : thus, warmth from warm, width from wide, length " long, he»lth " hale, breadth " broad, fllth " foul. IV. 6.] DERIVATION BY SUPPIX. 66 3. Tliis derived noun truth we can then turn again into an adjective, hy adding to it the adjective-making suffix -ful: thus, truthful; tlie word means nearly, though not precisely, the same as true. It is plain enough here that what we call the siiflix -ful is really nothing but the common adjective full, and that truthful is nearly the same as full of truth. The adjectives that are derived from nouns by adding -ful to them are a very large number : thus, faithful, sorrowful, disdainful, tearful, careful, wilful. 4. But this derived adjective truthful we can turn once more into a noun by adding another noun-making suffix, namely -nesp : thus, truthfulness. We might define truthful- ness to mean " the quality of being trulIi/Kl,^' just as truth sometimes means "the quality of being true." The English nouns which are derived from adjectives by adding -ness are still more numerous than the adjectives which are derived from nouns by adding -ful. Examples are calmness, fatness, godliness, heaviness, foolishness, faithfulness, faithlessness, suitableness, disinterestedness. 5. In the same way, taking foul as otir starting-point, wo may form filth, "the quality of being foul," or also "what is foul " ; then, by another suffix than -ful for making adjectives from nouns, filthy, " marked with filth " ; and, again, filthi- ness, " the quality of being filthy." Or, we might have added -ness directly to the primitive adjective foul, forming foulness, "the quality of being foul" ; although wo do not say trueness, any more than we say truthy like filthy, or filthful like truthful. No real reason can be given for such differences ; it is simply the case that the one is customary, or what we are used to, and not the other. 6. Again, both our adjectives true and foul we can turn into adverbs, by adding the adverb-making suffix -ly: thus, truly, foully. And we can treat in the same way the derived adjectives truthful and filthy: thus, truthfully, filthily. In fact, there are not muny adjectives in the language from which we cannot derive adverbs by this adverb-making suffix, and a large part of our adverbs arc made by it. ■iTr m 66 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. fl- But the same sutfix -ly also makes a considerable number of adjectives from nouns ; thus, womanly, manly, brotherly, homely. 7. Verbs are also derived trom nouns and adjectives by verb-making suffixes : thus, freshen is derived from the adjec- tive fresh ; lengthen, from the noun length. Othet examples are whiten, blacken, sweeten, sharpen, heighten, frighten. And, on the other hand, derivatives are made by suffixes from verbs, Thus, from suck comes the noun sucker, meaning "one who sucks"; from hinder comes hindrance, "anything that hinders " ; and so on. And verbs in general form adjectives in -ing and -ed or -en which have the special name of "participles"; thus, the rising sun, the clouded sun, the hidden sun. 8. In all our examples so far, the word derived by adding a suffix has been a different part of speech from the primitive ; and that is in general the way in our language. But it is not always so. Thus, we have nouns derived from nouns; as duckling, "a little duck"; brooklet, "a small brook"; countess, "the wife of a count"; kingdom, "the realm of a king " ; knighthood, " the rank of a knight." Again, we have adjectives derived from adjectives : as, greenish from green — and greener and greenest, as we saw above (III. 21), are really of the same kind. And there are a few cases of verbs derived from verbs (by a change in pronunciation, not by an added suffix): as fell, " cause to fall "; set, " cause to sit " ; lay, " cause to lie." 9. There are also nouns, as well as verbs, derived from verbs by changes of pronunciation, without any suffix : thus stick from stake, speech from speak, breach from break, and so on. In most or all such cases there was formerly a suffix upon the derived word, but it is now lost. This mode of forming new words by merely varying the vowel of the root-syllable (known as vowbl-variation), is common in the Teutonic languages. See also IV. 43. c. (3). 10. And also, because of the loss of suffixes that once existed there are not a few instances in which words of which one is a derivative from the other, or else both alike are derivatives from a third which is IV. la.] ORIGIN OF SUFFIXES. 67' no longer part of the language, are now precisely alike : thus we have lote (0. E. lujian) the verb and love (O. E. lu/u) the noun. Other examples are ttorm from 0. E. noun storm and verb styrman ; rest ^* " ** rceste " " reMnn ; fly «* .« «• jip^f «« «« fledgan; ■ty, ' * a place for sw inc, " from . E. stUjo, and sty, * * a swell- ing, from the O. E. stljend, •* rising," both being from the O. E. atUjan, "to climb." Origin of SufHxeH. 11. Such words as awful and manly illustrate the steps in the development of a suffix. In awfni, our adjective full is easily recognizable : the word is no less a compound than awe-lnsplrlng. On consideration, however, we find that these words are compounds of different characters. Such a word as awftll we cannot translate backdirectly into its component parts, difference of does not without changing its meaning. We can say, without meaning, „.^».,„6, both awe-lnsplrlng and Inspiring awe ; but awful really mean " full of awe." In the same way dutiful and plentiful do not mean "full of duty," etc.: they are equivalents of duteous and plenteous, to which -ous is evidently u mere suffix, as it does not resemble any word we now use. The frequent and familiar use of -fol in the same way in a large number of words in which the first part is the more important element, has caused it to lose its independent character and become a eufhx form- ing adjectives from nouns. Awful is, therefore, a type of a class of words derived from primi- tives by suffixes which are so little changed in form and meaning tiiat they may be recognized as independent words. Such derivatives may be looked upon as lying on the boundary between derivatives and com- pounds. Other examples are witchcraft, mankind, godlike, stedfast, downright, welfare. 12. When a Scotchman says awfu\ the adjective illustrates a further step in the development of a suffix : fu' is unrecognizable as our adjec- tive ftill. Good usage does not sanction awful ; but in many derivatives the origin of the suffixes is still more obscure. Thus, the adjective manly evidently consists of two pai*ts — man, which we recognize as our word man ; and -ly, which suggests no independent word, but seems merely to impress upon m^n a certain modification of meaning. When, however, we trace -ly back to Old English, we find that its early form was, in adjectives. He, our ''like^'; and, in adverbs, lice, the dative of the same adjective ; both of which have, by phonetic decay, become -ly. In Old English, therefore, words ending in lie or lice are as evidently compounds aa our awful or manlike. In Modern English we have still further modified this suffix : we have allowed it to go out of use as an adjective-forming siifBx ; nnd, ignoring its origin, now use it solely to form adverbs from adjectives. 68 bERlVAtlOK AND COMt>OSlTloK. tlV. li- ^:ii Manly is, therefore, a tj'pe of a class of words derived from primitives by sufiixes, which, though themselves originally independent notional words, are now no longer recognizable as such. Other examples are From 0. E. Idc, "gift," wedlock, knowledge; " " «r(>e, " shape, " friendship, landscape ; " *' 7-a(/en, "condition," kindred, hatred; '* " «»m, "like," gamesome, buxom, lissom. 13. Thus far we have traced our suffixes back to independent notional expressions, and this may be done with many ; but there are others which scholars believe to be of a different nature. By a comparison of English suffixes with similar ones in cognate languages, the -th in truth is shown to be of the same origin as the relational words the, that, there, and so on (II. 41).* lu some nouns this suftix appears as -d ; for example, in deed from do , and seed from sow ; in others, as -t or -th, according as it is more easily pronounced ; for example, truth, filth, warmth, flight (for flighth), height (for highth). In adjectives it appears as -d (e being a connecting vowel), as in horned, hoofed, dead (from die), cold (from cool). In participles it appears as -d or -t ; but it shows its original form in uncouth, a derivative from cuth, which is a participle in Old, and even in Middle, Englisli. A good many suffixes may, like -th, be traced to purely rel.ationnl expressions, which also scholars have reason to believe once possessed an independent existence. Otiier examples are -est in harvest, -m in blossom, -ing in clothing, -y in weary. 14 The true nature of suf&xos U by no means capable of being always definitely ascertained ; but, for the same reason as in the case of inflections (III. 28), we conclude that all our suffixes were once independent express ons, which, having gradually lost their original meaning and form, became in the last stage of their growth mero elements in derivatives, impressing upon the principal part thereof some modification of its general meaning. The Sources of SalHxcs. 16. Like our words, our sufhxes have come to us from various sources. a. The most important are of English origin ; for example, -er in doer, -el in shovel, -en in maiden, -ness in kindness. •What we now call a noun was orisrinally a kind of sentence, consisting: of the root and some so-called suffix, which pointed to some thing of which that root wa« pre- dicated.— Max Mullkr'h Uibbert Lecture8(l&78). tlV. 14- primitives it notional )l68 are m. nt notional are others in cognate igin as the )unced ; for ghth). iwel), as in ). inal form in d, and even y relationnl ce possessed wreary. ble of being B in the case s were once leir original rrowth mere part thereof rious sources. le. dness. ting of the root t root ww» pre- IV. 16.] DERIVATION WITHOUT CHANGE OF FORM. 69 b. Others are Romanic. •Some of these are completely naturalized, and are used with words of English origin. Examples are drunkard, tidal, goddess, bereavement. These Romanic suffixes include : (1). Those taken directly from tho Latin, either without change or with an English form ; for examp'e, -tor in executor, -or in minor, -Ive (Lat. -Ivuh) in sportive, -an (Lat. -ani(») in Grecian, -le (Lat. -/Viw) in subtle : (2). Those from Latin vn ith a Norman-French form : for example, -our (Lat, -or) in Uquour, -Ic (Lat. -iquvx) in antic, -egg (Lat. -issa) in countess : (3). Modern French and other R)manic sudixes ; for example, from Modern French, -eur in liqueur, -ique in antique, -eer and -ler (Lat. -arius) in engineer and premier ; from Italian, -one in tromboie, and (with Eng. form) -oon in balloon ; from Spanish, -ado in bravado and (with Eng. form) -ade in renegade. C. A few, again, are Greek, some having come through the Latin, and some being naturalized ; for example, -ism (Lat. -'n^mus, Or. -ismos) in deism, being naturalized in heathenism; -sis in paralysis, becominL' -sy in dropsy (Lat. -sia, Gr. -,si.s), and -se in eclipse and base (note also basis). Deri VHl inn wltlioiit <'Iiaui;e of Form. 16. But wo oftfu take a word which is propt-rly one part of speech and convert it into another, without addin"-; a sullix, or makini^ any other such change of Ibriii as properly belongs to a derivative. Thus, many adjectives are used as nouns ; for example, the good and the wicked, meaning good and wicked persons ; or the good, the beautiful, and the true, meaning thsit which is good, etc. Some adjectives do not add -ly to form adverbs, l)ut are themselves used directly as adverbs ; for example, much, little, fast, long, ill. Other adjectives add -ly, and sometimes are also used as adverbs without it; for example, full, wide, late, hard, deep, sore; as well as fully, widely, lately, hardly, deeply, sorely. 70 DBRIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 16- il '' ! ( Nouns are sometimos used as adjectives, as when we say a gold watch, or a stone wall, and both nouns and adjectives are turned into verbs : thus I head a rebellion ; I finger a pie ; I stomach an affront ; The fruit matures ; I foot a bill; I toe a mark ; I breast the waves ; They bettered their condition ; I hand a paper ; I eye a scene ; I black boots ; The work wearied him This also is a kiivd of derivation. 17. Functional interchange is due mainly to the fact that English wonls ^ften consist of forms that possess neither inflections nor olhcr suffixes : thus head, finger, breast, have no suffix to lix them as a cer- tain part of speech ; they may be different parts of speech according as we assign them different uses. But, in the case of words that have infl ctious or other suffixes, the same freedom does not exist : thus, really, goodness, quarrelsome, love's, are to a large extent fixed by their endings. This power, which is characteristic of so many English words, is a direct result of th6 loss of inflections, and was in the Elizabethan age used even more freely than at present. During that period almost any part of speech coula be used as any other part of speech. Examples from Shakespeare are They askance their eyes ; A seldom pleasure ' The backward and abysm of time. 18. We may sum up as follows what we have learned thus far in regard to derivation : a. Some derivatives are form^A by adding suffixes without any chonge of sound in the primitive. b. Other derivatives are formed by adding suffixes vnth a change of sound in the primitive. c. Generally in English when toe derive by suffix^ the deriva- tive is a different part of speech from the primitive. d. The loss of the suffixes once possessed by certain words has produced derivatives with and without change of pronun- ciation 0. Derivation sometimes consists in transferring a part of speech into another class^ vnthout alteration of its form. The modes of derivation described in d and e are known su^ derivation Improper ; the others are derivation Proper, IV. 20. b. (2).] THE SOURCES OF PREFIXES. n Derivation by Prcllx. 19. Wo havo also derivative words formed by putting somo- thing V)eforo tlui primitive instead of after it. Thus, a host oi words of various kinds may havo un- put before them, making a derivative which is the same part of speech, but of opposite meaning. J'or example, untrue and untruthful are adjectives, the opposite of true and truthful ; and untruly and untruth- fully are adverbs, the opposites of truly and truthfully. We can say also untruth, though there are fewer nouns to which w(; add un- in this way : other examples are unbelief, unrest, And verbs derived with lin-, (which is ditTerent in meaning from the un- before adjectives) like undo and undress, aro sti'l less common. An addition thiis made; at the beginning of a word is called a Trkfix {prefix means something *' fixed or fastened in front"). Prefixes are in English much less common than sutfixes; they do not ordinarily change the part of speech of the word to which they are added ; and no prefix, as we understand th(; word, now exists as a separate word. Other examples are befall, gainsay, recall, dishonest, mischance, coexist. The Oriein of PreHxes. 20. Nearly all our prefixes were originally adverbs, or prepositiona (most of which were themselves originally adverbs, IX. and X. 3), having to some slight extent changed their old form or meaning. The ^nrces of Prefixes. a. As in the case of suffixes (IV. 15), the meet important prefixes are of English origin ; for example, a-, which is a corruption for different older forms in abed, ado, adown, along, arise, aware ; be- in begirt ; for- in forgive ; fore- in foresee ; gain- in gainsay ; mis- in misdeed ; un- in nnable and untie ; with- in withhold. b. Besides these English prefixes, since so many Latin, Greek, and French words have been introduced, a very large number of Latin, Greek, and French prefixes are in use in such words. (1). Many of the prefixes of Latin words that have come through the French have been altered ; for example, contra- has become counter- in counterTeit; tnuM-, tres- in trespass ; minus- , mis- ir> mischance. (•2). But those in words taken directly from the Latin are unaltered ; for example, (U8- in (U9siQil)ar; extrar in 93(^raordlnar7 ; se- in socore, 72 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 20, b. (3.)- m -\ m (3). A few of Latin origin havo become naturalize and are used in words of English ori^'in aldo ; for example, dis- in disarm and distrust; re- in recover and rebuild ; en- or em- (Fr. form of Lat. in-) in embrace, embody. C. Greek prefixes are generally unaltered, as they occur most fre- quently in words of late introduction ; for example, ana- in analogy ; ec- in eccentric ; para- in paraphrase. 21. We again sum up thus : a. Derivatives are sometimes formed by adliiig a jprejix, tisually, however, without changimj tjie part of sj^eech to ichich the primitive belongs. b. Derivation Proper is the form/itiin of xcords by means of prefxes, or of suffixes, or of both. 'jr~' Composition. 22. We sasv above that the suffix -ful, of tmtlifal and other words like it, was really the adjective full addwl to the word truth, -n "Mch a way that the two form but a single word. It would be proper, then, to say that truthful is a word made up of two other independent words, truth and full. Further examples are rainbow, grassplot, gentleman, browbeat, fulfil, highborn. Such a word is called a compound ; the two parts are said to ))e COMPOUNDED ; and the putting together is called com- position (which means simply " putting together "). 23. By many, the formation of new words by adding prefixes is re- garded as composition ; but, when the prefixes are no longer used as separate words, and, consequently, do not retain an independent mean- ing, new words formed by them may with {>ropriety be regarded as derivatives. Thus, for instance, we feel that the force of re- in return, of pre- in prearrange, of snb- in snb-offlcer is less marked than that of back- in backwater, of fore- in forelock, or of under- in undergo. There is, however, no well defined boundary line between derivatives and compounds; the more so, as all derivatives were once compounds. 24. There are great numbers of compound words in English, and we are all the time making new ones. Sometimes the compounded words stand in the compound just as they would in a sentence, and seem simply to have grown together into one. Such are blackberry, broadaze, geiitleman hi^hlamd, iprandfatheri IV. 26.] COMPOSITION. 73 Sometimes also, part of the compound consists of an adjec- tive phrase ; thus, father-in-law, coat-of-arms, will-of-the-wisp, cat-o'-nine-tails, man-of-war, ticket-oMeave. Occasionally we find compounds in which the first part is a possessive case ; thus, monkshood, bridesmaid ; Tuesday, Wednesday (V. SS). Often, however, the connecting consonant is probably only euphonic: thus, huntsman, handsiUkn, oarsman, helmsman. A syllable, usually a vowel, which has apparently been inserted to join the two elements, but which i:^ really an old sufi^x (sometimes phonetically altered) of the first c-kment, is often found in the older forms of all the Teutonic languag a. In Modern English, such an element is seldom found. Vowel examples are black-a-moor, nlght-ln-gale. In handicraft and handiwork the 1 represents the old prefix ge-. 25. But much more often the parts of tlie compound have such a relation to each other that, if we used them separately, we should have to change their order, or insert other words to connect them, or make use of botli these expedients : tlms housetop is " the top of a house," headache is " an ache in the head," heartrending is " rending the heart," blood-red is " red like blood," knee-deep is " deep up to the knee," washtub is a *' tub to wash in" drawbridge is a " bridge madt to draw t*j9," steamboat is a " boat that goes by steam ;" and so on. Other examples are sheep-shearing, walking-stick, horse-soldier, trust- worthy, manlike, foolhardy, law-abiding, moth-eaten, "^■o bi '^kbite, to whitewash, to clear-starch. Then, th^jr^^ are cases in which the relation of the parts is still m ve oec'iliar : thus, a pickpocket is a ^''person who picks- pockets,' a. tell-tale is " one who tells tales," a redcoat is " one who wears a red coat." Other examples are turnkey, cut-throat, lack-brain, godsend, windfall, afternoon. A good many compounds are formed by reduplication, the former element undergoing a vowel change. This is intenc^ d to strengthen the meaning. Examples are chit-chit, sing-song, knick-knack, ding-dong, rl£f-raff, zig'xag. slip-slop. Others again are formed by a kind of rhyming addition. Examples arc hocus-pocus, hurly-burly, hoity-toity, higgledy-piggledy. 74 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 26. m ■ I li 26. A compound is thus, a shortened description of some- thing. Tfie compound word, though really made up of more than one part, comes to seem only one to us, and especially when we pronounce one of its parts more strongly and dis- tinctly tha:.! the rest — or, as it is called, lay an accent on a syllable of one member of the compound. Compare, for example, blackbird with black bird, gentleman with gentle man. 27. In many compounds, the meaning also is different from the meaning of the elements taken separately. A black bird, for instance, is any l>ird that is black, whereas a black- bird is a particular kind of black bird. So, too, a mad house means a household that is mad, whereas a madhouse is a lunatic asylum, So fai', therefore, as concerns the meaning, the uncompounded elements of a compound, in which one part describes the other, are general in thi'ir application, ^^'hereas the compound is specific. The accentuation of one member of the compound suljordinatea one or more elements to one, thus prcduoing a closer unity. This is often increased by the omission of connectives, and the inversion of the natural order of the components. In most compounds it is the first; part that modifies the meaning of the second : thus in blackberry, black tells us the kind of the berry. But, of course, this statement does not apply whei: the first part is ft verl) or a preposition governing the second, as pickpocket, afternoon; nor to such exceptional forms as chit-chat, kocus-pocus. 28. But often, in a compound, the parts are less closely con- nected than in the examples in 27 above. Of such combina- tions, some are only occasionally used or are contined to one author. Examples are prize-ox, gift-horse, air-balloon, star-tuned, sphere-music. Others, again, go into general use, as, for instance, bank-deposit, book-case^ book-cover, knee-degp, folk-lore. Such combinations are called temporary compounds : their parts are connected with a hyphen, and both are equally accented. They form the comi(!cting link between the phrase and the true compound. On the other hand, true compounds, that is, those combina- tions that are permanently welded together, are called per- manent COMPOUNDS : they have no hyphen, and have but one a<;ceiit. [IV. 26. ; some- if more pecially ,nd dis- iT on a ire, for man. ont from bck bird, a black- id house mse is a meaning, one part, , whereas inates one his is often sion of the. le meaning the berry, part is ft afternoon ; osely con- combina- ed to one -music. olk-lore. ISDS : their equally the phra&c e combina- ;3allod PEtt- /e but one IV. 32.] COMPOSITION. 75 re So gradual, indeed, is the transition from the phrase to the temporary compound, from the temporary compound to the permanent compound, and from the permanent compound to the derivative (IV. 22), that it is sometimes difficult to decide in which of these classes to place an expression. 29. A compounded word often changes its pronunciation still further than has been stated in par. 26 : consequently without studying its history, we do not think of what it comes from. So with holiday, which is holy day ; furlong, which is furrow long ; fortnight, which is fourteen night, and so on. So, also, with forehead and breakfast, in which the spelling is retained but the pronunciation altered. 30. In some other compounds which have been in use for a long time, and which often consist of Old English words or forms of words, the form as well as the pronunciation has been greatly altered ; thus, although we retain the unchanged form housewife, it has, in an altered form, given us huzzy. Other examples are " bride's feast " ; *• herb garden "; ' ' nose holes " ; "sty- warden. " bridal, 0. E. hryd-ealo, "bride-ale," that is, orchard, *' ort-(jcard, "ort-yard," " nostrils, " nds-thyrla, " nose-thyrls," " steward, " stl-ward "sty-ward," " 31. A compound may itself enter into other compounds : thus, by adding wine to the compound gooseberry, we have gooseberrywine, Such compouiids are known as decompo- siTKS. Other examples are handicraftsman, topgallantsails, pockethandkerchief, alehousewife. And, further, a compound may also yield derivatives : thus, from barefoot we have barefooted. Such combinations are known as compound derivatives, and are very frequently found especially in poetry. Oth«^r examples are knight-errantry, humblemindedness, broad-shouldered, deepthroated, golden-shafted, subtle-cadenced, pure- eyed, royal-towered, vermeil-tinctured. 32. We add, then : a. Composition is fhe formation o/neAV words hy putting words together^ both of v^hich retain their independent existence. b. Of such condiinations, the chief kinds are Permanent Coni- po7tnds, Temj)(>rarij Compounds^ Decomposites, and Covij)onnd- Derivatives. 76 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 32 0- C. The independent words are sometimes so altered Inform and meaning, that) imthont knoiuing the history of the compound, we cannot tell what the original elements were. 1 i.'it PF' ; M ITybridLsni. 33. The general rule for the use of suffixes is that English snfTixes are to be added to English primitives; Romanic, to Romanic; and (Jreek to Greek. The same rule applies also to derivation hy prefix and to composition. The rule, however, is often and advantageously disre- garded : thus, we say falsehood, although -hood is an English suffix, and false is of Latin origin ; so, too, we say disbelief, although dis- is a Latin prefix, and belief an English word ; and, again, we compound under and value in undervalue, althougli the former is English, and the latter is of Latin origin. Words like falsehood, disbelief, undervalue, consisting of elements from different languages, are called IIybkids (the term means " mongrels ")• Other examples are hlndranca, bondage; immenseness, dukedom, quarrelsome; endear, rekindle; besiege, unstable, unfortunate; overturn, afterpiece. Generally, however, we find that, if a derivative has been formed by a suffix, and another, or, as it is called, a secondary derivative, is to be formed from this — the primary derivative — by means of a prefix, the prefix is of the same origin as the suffix, and viee vprsa : thus, we have undecided, indecisive, ungrateful, ingratitude, unjustly, injustice ; and 80 on. But the rule does not apply to naturalized Latin prefixes or suffixes like dis- or -able ; for we have disbelieving, disarmed; unspeakable, unsaleable, uneatable, unacceptable. 3t. For a long time past there has been a tendency to bring the elements of a word into linguistic harmony. The earlier writers of the Modern English period use hybrids which have been altered or dis- allowed : thus, in Milton and Shakspeare, we find unglorious, undecent, unpossible, perfectness, matchable, speakable, ungainsayable, apostlehood, hiimursome. "Rut, he-e, ae elsewhere, custom draws the line ; for, though we may say dislike, we may not say dislive, and Milton's inchastity, ingrateful, have given way to less consistent forms. Koot-^oods. 35. To all the words in the following list : lovely, lovable, unloving, lovelier, loveless, loves, loved ; one syllable lov is common : it represents tlie f iindumenlal idea, ■which is modified by the additions. Sucli a syllable is called a uooT ; and the simplest word which contains it, as love in II V. 32. 0- •m mid IV. 37. WORD ANALYSTS. 77 [fixes are ,(l (J reek X and to ly disre- u'ffix, and dis- is a ;oinpound \, and the elements Ti means endear, erplece. formed hy itive, is to )f a prefix, us, we have njuBtlce ; tin prefixes table, , bring the 'iters of the red or dis- chaWe, le. ugh we may , ingrateftU, 13, loved ; wcnlal iilea, )le is calUnl as love in this case, is called a root-word. From forms like lov, stems are fancifully represented as growing by the addition of pre fixes and suttixes, just as the stems of plants do from their roots. Other examples are tru in truth, trust, untrue, truthful, truly, untruly, distrust ; grap in grab, gripe, grope, grapple, grasp, grapnel; for often in derivatives, as in the case of grap, the form of the root is altered from various causes. T}iese forcns are often capable of further analysis on comparison with similar forms in the family of languages to which they })elong. They are, therefore, roots only with reference to the language in which they are found ; they are not necessarily roots in human speech. 36. Henc(^, then, the definitions : a. jRoot is the name gioen to the part of a viord trhlch is coinmon to it and other vords vith slmilnr visaning.i, and n hick represents tlte fundamental notion of all those words ; and b. A Eoot-word is the sivijdest word in the langnaije^ thai contains a certain root. ^Vord-analyHiN. 37. The chief practical value of a knowledge of how words have been derived and compounded, is that it enables us to analyze them, that is, to separate them into their elements or significant parts ; and, by assigning each its proper value, to obtain in many ca.sos a clearer idea of the meaning of the whole word. Thus, in the case of derivatives, uu-speak-able means "that cannot l»e spoken"; worth-less-ness " 'the quality of being without value"; dis-possess-ion "■ " the act of taking away what one owns" ; in-securi-ty " '"the condition of being not secure"; re-colon-ize " "to plant a colony anew." In the case of compounds, tho analysis is very easily roadi;, as the elements are independent words : thus, as above, black-berry means "a bt^rry which is black"; saf^-guard " "a guard to give protection"; pick-pockei6 " "one who picks pockets." SPf— i ■ [ 7^ DERIVATION . ^D COMPOSITION. [IV. 37- ! iM % I m I 'ill Such words, however, as son, love, go, run, bear do not admit of analysis, as they are already in their simplest forms. In contrast with derivatives, such words are known as Primitives : and, in contrast with compounds, as Simple words. 38. As we have seen (I. 12) a very large number of our words have come to us from Latin, some from Greek, and a few from other sources. The last are of comparatively little importance ; hut words of Latin and of Greek origin — the former especially— are so numerous, that even the English student should be able to analyze such words as secure and amphibious, or principal and aristocracy, wliich, though primitive so far as concerns English, are derivatives or compounds so far as con- cerns Latin or Greek. To this end he must make himself familiar with the forms and the meanings of the Latin and the Greek root-words, prefixes, and suffixes, that have been most productive of the classical element of our vocabulary. With this knowledge, lie will be able to analyze a largo number of naturalized words of Latin and Greek origin {imturalized here means " regarded and treated as English words ") in the same way as he would analyze English derivatives or com- pounds (IV. 37). Without an accurate knowledge of our own and of many other languages, it would be impossible for even the advanced English student to give a complete analysis of all the derivatives and compounds in the language, or to trace the changes which primitives have undergone. In ordmary word-analysis, especially of words from English roots, it is Butiicient to indicate the radical part by reference to a root-word, and to give the full force of the prefixes and suffixes. The advanced classical student is, however, able to carry the analysis still further. 39. The determination of the true meaning of words by reference to their origin is often rendered difficult by changes which, in accordance with the general law (I. 16), they undergo in their meaning and in their form. Changes in form obscure the original elements of a word. Changes in meaning make it often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to deduce the exact meaning from a knowledge of the meaning of the original or of the elements ; but there are few cases in which this knowledge does not give greater definiteness to our conception of the meaning of a word. We shall now consider the chief causes of the two sets of changes. ClMUiceH i« the Meaning of fVordH. 40. Chanjfes in the meaning of words are due to such a variety of cauua, and the uhaug^s themselves are often so subtle, that an exhaustive [IV. 37- IV. 40. d.3 cnAS'G£s m Tiui MKA.viKa 6V wouns. 70 b admit ns. In ITIVES ; of our c, and a ly little } former student liibious, JO far as as con- himself itin and ve been labulary. I number turalized ') in the or com- my other sh student ids in the gone. In oots, it is word, and d classical erence to iccordance tid in their mpossible, neauing of which this tioii of the hanges. variety of exhaustive classification of the principles that underlie them is impossible. A few general ones may be slated : a. As* a nation advances in civilization, its ideas become more definite, and numerous distinctions have to be made. Hence, additional wordd are needed ; and as the iiumber increases, the meaning of each becomes restricted ; thus furlong (IV. 29), originally vague and unsettled in length, is now a dc6nite measure of distance ; so, too, spice, originally species, "a kind, "is now limited to a particular "kind." This principle is known as contraction or specialization ; it is by far the moat common source cf change in meaning. Other examples are pay, M. E. pn'ipn, from Latin //arare, "to pacify"; corpse, *' corps, " *' cor/)7(.'j, " a body " ; starve, *' steruen, *' O. E. «f \SD ACCEN'T. 83 lich fica- iciiig The (luces ^T llio infre- ,U8, the E time, )ri/ ; stretch- dropped theiiing e a leel- e is the .SSATION. factor in fts owing le f,f both \eiilimdre : iifferently :entiating hcENT. 1st import- This may indistinct [dependent 14). b. They were also important agents in causing the woakei.ing to f. of the O. E. vowel-endings a, o, and u ; and the final loss, in many instanceB, of this weakened ending (I. 30) : thus nnvin became name, the final vowel being retained although not now pronouncod ; and aa was first altered to oxe, and finally to ex. Other examples are widuwe, widow ; bed, bee ; mona, moon ; mlo, ale ; aunu, son. C, To the sanie cause, is due the hastening of the loss or the mutilation of many of our earlier inflections, the vowel-sounds of which were first iv«akened to e (dee V. and VIII) : thus, •an became -en, -urn became -en, ■ena ■ene. •ra •re. •rii became -re, •ath ' ' eth. To the uneducated and to foreigners, the root of the word is the main thing, and, therefore, ti^ey lay the stress on the root syllable ; conse- quently, the consonants of the inflection drop off and the full-toned vowels are weakened to e, which finally disappears or becomes mute. d. Under the same influences, other unaccented syllables have become leeakened, or have dbappeared altogether. (1) Sometimes the loss occurs at the beginning of a word : thus, from Xistory, we have story. This is known as apiierksih. Other examples r,rj van from Fr. avant, bishop from Gr. episcopiis, bus " omnibus, sport ** disport. (2) Sometimes also it occurs in the body of a word, causing con- traction : thus, sacristan has became sexton. Note also the pronuncia- tion of towards. This is known as syncoi'K. Other examples are lord from O. E. hkiford, sprite from spirit, sheriff " 0. E. scirgerifa, brain, '• 0. E. brccgen. So, too, we have rejected the guttural sound of gh in daughter, mighty, sought, wrought, thought, slaughter. Orison, however, Fr. oraison, has merely weakened the vowel-sound. To syncope, probably, is also due the original formation of many of the preterits of the Old conjugation. Others may be due to apheresis, the reduplicated syllable having been dropped, and the radical vowel strengthened for compensation (IV. 44). Others, again, may have been simply the result of analogy (IV. 46). See also III. 29. (3) Sometimes, again, it occurs at the end of a word : thus, wanton- ness is in M. E. loantounesse (final e being pronounced). Note also the pionunciation of plough, high, though, etc. This is known as APocorE. Other examples are anvil, 0. E. anfilte; petty, M. E. and Fr. petit; cab from cabriolet. e. To indistinct articulation, alone, or combined with a desire to strengthen a syllable, is due also the addition of letters to a word. (1) Occasionally the addition occurs at the beginning: thus, newt should be ewt, but the phrase an ewt led to a newt. This h known as PROSTHESIS. Other examples are the nonce for then once (M.E, then ones), a nickname for an ekename. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) :/. :a 1.0 I.I ^^ I— 1112.2 2.0 1^ 1.8 1.25 1.4 J4 '0 6" - ► ^ ^^ ^l /A '-'W '/ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 27 WC1.T MA'M STRMT WEBSTER, N.V. M580 (716) 873-4503 4^ f/^ 84 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 45. 6. (1.)- J' iill'! i: 1) I ■! i Hl-i il The preceding examples are really the resnlts of mistakes ; but the ■- sound in such words as 8-laili, s-plaih, B-quenclL seems to be due to Prosthesis. In French Prosthesis occurred more frequently than in English; hence Modern English has such double forms as ■pedal and especial, strange and estrange, state and estate, spy and espy; the shorter forms being in some cases directly from the Latin, and, in others, by Apocope, from the French. (2) More frequently the addition occurs in the l)ody of a word : thus, tlie O. E. slumerian has become the modern slamber. This is known as EPENTHEsis. Other examples are empty, 0. E. mmtig ; messenger, M. E. niessager ; Impregnable, 0. F. imprenablet nimble, 0. E. nimol ; gender, 0. F. genre; porringer for porridger. (3) Sometimes also it occurs at the end : thus, the obsolete lolkki has become wicked. This is known as epithesis. Other examples are sound, Fr. son; tyraat ior tyran ; whilst, M. E. whiles; compound for compoun. IV. — ANALOGY. 46. Almost all those changes in the sounds and forms of word?, that are not attributable to one or more of the causes we have enumerated, are due to analogy (or resemblance), each having been made on the analogy of those that have preceded it. This has often led us into curious mistakes. a. Sometimes we have changed the form of a whole word in an attempt to liad a meaning in that which has none, and from a fancied resem- blance to the sound of some English word : thus, the Fr. femelle, from the Lat. femella, a dim. oifemina, has been turned into female, although -elle is merely a Fr. fem. termination. Other examples are rhjrme for rime, from a supposed connection with rlijrtlim ; righteous for righlioise (that is, "wise as to what is right"), as •oui is a common adjective suffix ; sovereign for sovran, from a supposed connection with reign shamefaced for Hhamefaat ( " held fast by shame "). b. Our inflections have also beeu influenced in this way. Through our desire for uniformity (I. 64. d. ) all the newly formed ver1>s of the Modem English period are conjugated according to the new conjuj^ation. Some* times, through tnis desire, we have added the charaotenstio inflection of this conjucation to the past tenses of old strong verbs : thus, theO. E. strong post uep from ■Imp has become the monstrouty ■Icpt. L.)- the iah ; id, in thus, (vn as IV. 60.] MISTAKEN ANALOOTi 85 r. jjk^has re IP, that lerated, on the us into attempt i resem- Ue, from Ithough t"). as rough our e Modem n. Some- infteotioa ,theO.E. Other examples of similar mistakes are wept from weep, leapt (pronounced " lept ") from leap ; could from can, owing to the influence of slurald ; pea from pease, pease being itself a singular, (M. E. peae, with plural penen and peses) ; sbeny from sherria ; cherry from cerise. So, too, the vulgar shay and Chinee for chaise and Chinese. C. The same influence has been at work in word formation. Owing to the more general use of the preflx be-, we have the form be- think, althouyh the preHx was originally ye-, which be- has now driven out (I. 37 ( 1 )). Other examples are belief for gelief; dislike for misUhc (mis-, as in misdeed); foreclose for forclose ; forego for forgo (for- as in forbid). The sufliv -head or -hood, O. E. Md, also illustrates our fondness for having son.e meaning in the words we use. head is properly used in the compoi.nd wellhead, and -hood in monkshood ; but neither has its usual meaning in such words as Godhead, childhood. We have been led to makd these forms by a mistaken analogy. 47. Many of the preceding changes in sound and form are due to our dislike for a variety of forms (this dislike is itself due to the Principle of East;), or to our natural desire for uniformity : new forms are thus made on the analogy of preceding ones (Hybridism is largely due to this influence), and old ones are often forced into the established fashions. 48. We may thus sum up what we have learned in regard to changes of sound aud form : a. The great camen of change of sound in Englisfi words are, first, our desire/or Ease of Pronunciation, and, aecondlg, the influence of Accent. b. These two causes act sometimes separately, and very often together; so that the modern form of a imrd that has been long in use is generally the result of the operation of both. C, Almost all ot/ier changes are due to Analogy. 49. In our consideration of the causes of change of form in words, we have dealt solely with the changes that have taken place in the words since they became English. Foreign words also and especially Latin words that have come to us throusch the Norman French, under- went similar changes before being introduced into our language. The consideration of these changes belongs properly to the Etymology of the languages to which the several words belong. It is well, however for the Eoglish student to know that, making allowances for the preferences of other nations, almost all changes in the word-forms of the members of the Indo-European family are due to the causes we have enumerated above. Koolii aad Kool-Werds. ^ 60. When we strip the prefixes, suffixes, and inflections from such a li^t of words as forbearance, provident, faotorlee, proseontloii, rererted ; 86 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. [IV. 50 r -t we have left one part of each word which may be identified with a simple word : thus, bear- suggests bear; vld-, yldeo ("I see*'); fite-, fado ("I make"); sec-, sequor ("I follow ') ; vert-, verto ("I turn"). Bear, video, facio, sequor, verto, are called badical or root words be- cause they c mtain the Roots bar, vld, fac, sac, vart, that is the signiiicaiit syllables which are taken as representing in the simplest and most general way the central or fundamental ideas of " bearing," "seeing," •'making.'' "following," and "turning." It is not asserted that bar, vld, and so on, ever existed as words. Such forms are merely assumed by etymologists as the simplest expressions for the fundamental ideas of words.* 61. Roots like bar, vld, fac, and so on, which express action or quality, that is notions, aie called predicative (the term here means " capable of being used in predication ' ). Such roots correspond to notional words, and like them are very numerous. They illustrate, in form, every variety of syllable from a single vowel, as 1 ("going"), whence ex-l-t, to a vowel preceded nnd fulloued by more than one consonant, asskarp ("cutting") whence sharp. 62. But there are words and elements of words which cannot be traced back to predicative roots. Such also are believed to be derived from simple significant syllables called drmonstkativb roots (for they are regarded as having once been coupled with the act of " pointing out "). Such roots correspond to relational words. They have nothing to di with actions or qualities : they mark them merely in relation to the speaker or to one another ; they distinguish between this and t/iat ; be- tween what is near ant what is remote ; between me here, you there, and that person or thing there. From them come many of our suffixes ; the personal, demonstrative, and relative pronouns ; also adverbs of position and direction. Such roots are very few— not more than a dozen— and probably fewer. Examples are ma, whence comes the first personal pronoun ; ta, whence come the, that, their, these, and so on ; ka (English form of this root, wba), whence come who, when, where, and so on. * Two main theories are held as to the nature of Roots. A'.cordiog to one, the " Indo-European lanRuage with all its fulness and inflective suppleness, is descended from an or^nal monusyllahic tongue ; our ancestors tallied with one another in single svHables. indicative of the ideas of prime importance, but wanting all desiffnation of their relations." Outof these fundamental ideas, by processes nice those by Mrhich words are still formed, have gruwn the various languages of the family. According to the other. Roots are "the phonetic and slTniflcant types discovered bv the analysis of the comparative philologiKt as comiiiou to a group of allied words. They form, as it were, the ultimnte elements of a language, the evident starting-pnint to which we can reach, the reflections of the manifold languages formed by the childhood of our race." " They fluttered before the soul like small imasres continually clothed in the mouth, now with this, now with that, form, and surreudered (o the air to 1)0 diafted off iu hundredfold cases and coothinatlona.'^ v; 60.] FORMATIVE ELEMENTS. 87 58. As we have already seen, besides the roots or radical parts we find in words other elements — prefixes, suffixes, and inflections ; these elements /orm the roots into words by indicating a restriction, applica- tion, or relation of the fundamental idea ; and are, thencA, called FORMATIVE elements. The suffix is, of course, the element which formn the root into a part of speech ; and, by nuuiy, the term Formative is applied to this alone; but we here use it to include prefixes and suffixes, as they also form the roots in the sense just explained. No roots exist alone : each has with it at least one element which forms it into some particular class : thus, the root cap is formed by the suffix turs into capture, and the general meaning of cap is still further restricted when formed into the verb recapture. •4. In English, however, there has been bo much phonetic decay that in very many words the formative suffixes have t-viffered mutilation, and are not distinguishable, or are no longer present. In English, there- fore, a root is sometimes the same or almost tlie same as a stem (which properly consists of a root and a formative suffix) : thus, the root bar differs little from the verb boar : so, too. dig is of the same form as the root dig (or, as it is sometimes spelt, dbigh). 56. With few exceptions, most of which are only apparent, all our words admit of analysis into two parts — a root or radical part and a formative part. The real exceptions to this statement are such words as aie imita- tions of the cries of animals, as cuckoo, peewit ; or, of noises, as buzz, bang, whizz. In a compound, there are, of course, two distinct stems ; and, as we have seen, owing to phonetic decay, some English words have been stripped of their formative suffixes. 66. We sum up thus finally what we have learned in figard to the nature of the significant elements that compose our words : a. With few exceptions, each of our words admits of analysis into a Formative part and a Boot part (IV. 36). b. The Formative part — jrrefixcs, suffixes, and inflections — indicates a restriction^ application, or relation of the fundamental idea, C. Roots are of two kinds — Demonstrative, corresponding to relational words ; and Predicative, corresponding to notional words. d. All words were at one time comjHmnds — that is, formative elements had at one time an independent existence : these elements are consequently all derived from Demonstrative or Predicative roots. And, therefore, e. AU the elements of which our words are composed are derived from Demonstrative or Predicative roots. /- "ivrriTi rwiBiittaia— M 88 DERITATION AND COMPOSITION. 'iCH m i' 1^; ■ i HI EXEBCISE8. Ab has been said (IV. 37), the chief practical value of a knowleilge of Derivation and Composition, is that it generally enables us to obtain a clearer knowledge of the true meaning of words. For junior pupils, only such words should be selected as, on analysis, readily show their true meaning : analysis that requires a more minute knowledge of the history of their changes of form and meaning, should be taken up by seniors. The following exercises are intended to serve as types. Similar ones should be based upon the Reading and the Literature lessons, and the definitions obtained by the process of analysis should in all cases be selected with reference to the meanings of the words in the text. So, too, with the meanings assigned to the prefixes, suffixes, and root- words. In the earlit;r stages of the pupil's progress, the exer- cises should be confined, as in I. — X. below, to words which have an English primitive ; and the teacher is recommended not to carry the analysis further, should these primitives happen to be derivatives from classical sources. As soon, however, as the stud}' of Latin and Greek root- words has been begun, the analysis may be continued, and that of Mords from classical primitives taken up. No attempt should be made by ordinary High-School pupils to memorize Old English root-words ; it is L efficient in the case of a purely English derivative or compound to ret'ei to the simplest Modem English root-word. Exercises in synthesis are also valuable language lessons ; they s.i,ould be used in the same way, and for the same purposes, as those in analysis. Used orally, exercises in analysis are exceedingly valuable ; when written, they should be constructed according to the following schemes : — Irresutible = lr+ resist -f-lble " that can be (-ible) not (Ir-) resi8t«d;" And at a later stage, thus : Irresistible = Ir+re-hsist+ible - "that can be ( ible) not (ii) with (re-) stood (sist-)." After some practice in the preceding schemes, the following will be sufficient : — 1. enable - en + able '^- "to make able 2. oountleBa = count + less = " without count. " 3. translate = trans + late s "to carry across," that is, "to carry thoughts from one language into another. " 4. Impcrvioiu = im-l-per+vl-l-oiu s " having no way through it" EXERCISES. 89 Igeo! ' their of the up by types* erature shouU rorda in juffixes. he exer- havo an wry tlie vea from eck root- of worda made by rds ; it ia to retev iheaia are ,me way, |le ; when following reaiat^d;" |(li-) with ing will be "to carry trough it.'* S§ 2-9. I. Separate each of the following into primitives and suffixes, and show how the suffixes aifecb the meaning : healthiness, drainage, TsntUatlon, bMement, trembling, sailors, artist, ghastly, Eoropean, courteovs, maidenhood, godhead, kindred, responsi- bility, darling, rookery, farthing, wander, nibble, stealth. n. From the following primitives form by suffixes as many derivatives as possible, giving in each case the force of the addition : — law, lie, sweet, gold, brass, saint, Asia, America, Canada, friend, cone'ude, muscle, winter, wator, honor, break, lamb, know, wed, stream, duck, hatr, 3onnt, Jewel, bill, game, eat, rose, black, nun, prior, brag. §16. in. Namo the part of rfpeech to which each of the foUowins words luually belongn, and cniii>t.ruct sentences to show that it may bti trans- ferred to another class v^ithout alteration in form : — warm, motion, post, book, provision, preface, fear, Canadian, place, lore, notice, minister, pain, note, dream. §19. IV. Separate each of the following into primitive and pre6x, and show how the prefix affects the meaning : — discontent, encourage, unmarried. Impotent, retrace, extraordinary, withstand, ^r^^e, gainsay, oppress, undress, unbelief, concaye, mishap, forlorn, forget, prolong, denude. V. From che following primitives form by prefixes as many derivatives ad possible, giving in each case the force of the additions : patience, turn, shore, Md, lay, trust, ever, run, manly, do, hold, bitter, siege, cover, bear, date, worker, ease, danger, human, midst. §§ 22-31. VI. Translate into phrases, ns in IV. 25, the following compounds, writing as temporary compounds tliose which should be so written : — Blieepdog, seacoast, deafinate, merchanttailor, wolfdog, pathway, forget- menot, bedridden, shepherd, ringleader, thunderriven, bloodshed, field- mouse, welfare, lifetime, grasshopper, mainspring, head&tioog, footway, bedroom, woodwork, baktiionse, smellfeast, goby, deadrlpe, hardgotten, darkeyed, seagreen, heartrending, daredevil, foolhardy, bellweather, mayfly, railway, waylay, dofT, crosaquestion, fulfil, handculK Vn. Express by a compound each of the following phrases : — "ss high as one's breast," *' a tree the fruit of which ia theng," "aman who acta as servant," "a woman who begs," " a shaking of the ground," **one who kills a man," "a fish that lives in the aea," "one who |;oes to church," " one who detUs in oils," " the office where objects are insured against fire," " a high estimation of one's self," " a place where one may liave something to eat." "aa dark as coal," "looking like ueatb,^' " tearing the heart," "crowned with snow," "that oan keep out water," " eurrouuded by the — " .'*^^7■ 90 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. h i;i' ■I! ijT'J^ §37-38. Vm. Analyze the following, giving the force of the root- words, pre* fixes., and saffixes : prolonged, confronting. Immeasorably, ruthlessly, grleyousness, longer, belied, dvilixatlon, correspondent, consultation, wintry, northern, for- bearance, brotherhoods, recollection, inestimable, displeasure, refiresh- ment, favorite, representation, visitants, passage, buoyant, continuity, Volcanic, streamlets, invisible, reconverted, warmth, nlntViheraldry, clambered, counteracted, enjoying. '(jy2/J IZ. Form as many words ns possible from each of the following primitives by the addition of prefixes, or of suffixes, or of both ; state itow each addition aflfecta the meauiiig, and name the part of speech thus formed : hot, firesh, absent, real, dear, gentle, dark, high, wild, wise, day, cloud, notice, able, mountain, nature, speak, man, earth, east, beau^, heart, friend, blood, courage, stem, know, sing, give, pursue, seize, war, dare, tell. X. Translate into a derivative, with an English primitive, each of the fullowin${ phrases : — "more thai human," *' to lead in a wrong direction," "not clean," "to give courage to," "to pay no attention to," " between nations," "not proper," " that cannot oe cured," "one who drinks greatly," "a king's realm," "a condition of servitude," "a little girl," "one who writes," "the condition of a child," "to make new again," "the race of man," "the Quality of being wild" "one who bears testimony," " a place where n8hin>; is done, "made of lead," "of the nature of a child," "somewhat green." "not possessing teeth," " to daze often," " to stray often," "to spit often," "to make long," "to tell often," "one who assists," "a little cask," "a little man," "the condition of being equal," "capable of being moved," "inclined to talk," " one who wiitus for the daily papers." XI. Analyze the following, giving in each case the Latin or the Greek root-word and stem, the prefix and the suffix, with the force of each : reflect, prosperous, sensible, recipient, prospective, confidential, confed- erated, secluded, sustenance. Intercourse, accessories, solitude, vitality, suppression, independence,|ac4uirements, educational. Instruction, pro- ceedure, acquisition, conferred, miscalculation, literary, appreciation, exaggerated, mechanical, arcbalsm, apogee, periphrasis, apostrophe, eclectic, epitaph, apatny, diameter. XII. As in IX above, form as many words as possible from the stems of the derivatives in XI. Xni. Translate into a derivative each of the following phrases, using a Latin or a Greek stem : — " that cannot be counted," "to make great," " pertaining to the sunj" '|the act of looking under," " one who work<< by art," "belonging to tKe country," * * the a c t of joining t og ether. " "full oi words," "to throw head first," • ' a seeking mto,"^ belonging to time," "a touching together," "a keeping away from," "want of feeling," "feeling for others," ''given to visions, "the rule of the people," " the rule of tbe rich," " the rule of the best," " the rule of the few," "one's life written by one's self," " one who lives in a place." BXAMIXATION QUESTIONS 91 Ib, pre- longer, m, t«f- refresH- kUnuity, •raldry* bUowing h ; Btate of speech ty, lieart, ilM, wur> 5, each of , a wrong , attention ed." "one lervitude, hiid," ;; to jine wild e,'^"made en." **not Bpit often, ^^ ittle cask, e of being papers." the Greek of each : tlal, confed- de, vitality, ruction, pro- ppreclatlon, apostrophe, I the stems oi rases, using » make great, le who work^ ;ether," "«uU fling to time, t of feeling,;; the people',, , of the few, §35. ZIV. Write the root-words, roots, and stems of the following : draoplac, ituppti, dilp, dribUa, drlTelUng, haek, IumhI*, batch, hMh, bar, baml, banters, barrteada, •■barrsssiit, smbargo, snak«, meak, saail, sop, sap, sip, soap, sappor, oool, ooM, eoMlSh, coMor, coldest, hate, hatrsd, hatlag, hatsst. §§ 1-56. ZT. Discuss the derivation of the following wonls in reference to chan(fe of meaning and change of form : — cballcago, reason, feat, pity, poor, route, gamer, kindred, semptress, blossoms, sultry, boroui^, garden, Idther, cob-web, dig, draw, chant, bigamy, toll, Tiper, dislike, sample, dropsy, Lent, peasant, as^dst, gossip, nhamber, male, debt, blame, aim, chain, plunge, grange, expense,/ advaaeo. acorn, barley-sugar, belfrey, cannibal, case-mate, causeway, counterpane, country- dance, crayflsh, cutlet, dandelion, delight, dormouse, female, toolscap, frontispiece, gooseberry, gllly-lower, hurrleaae, Jerusalem-artichoke, parchment, penthouse, plck-aze, preface, runagate, tosuhawk, wlsencre, umpire, auger, apron, lethal, celling, posthumous, frock, fuel, praise, toast, acre, yard, bowl, circumstance. Impediment, prevaricate, perjurer, Impertinent, cash, clown, sharp, llbel,Whlg, Tory. XVI. Give otner forms of the following, accounting for the differences of form and of meaning : esteem, attach, chance, count, debt, draw, flresh, grave, loyal, mayor,* mood, penance, tract, utter, wince, antic, beech, dose, diamond, fashion, gentle, parson, Iplty, sample, sexton, sever, treason, wake. ZVH. Account etymologically for the different meanings of the following : bat, bMtle, bun, burden, case, date, deflle, gloss, gout, grave, host, lay, lie, mint, peer, refkain, sound, tense, trump, van, vice. t^ When preparing the answers to XIV. -ZVn., refer to an etytnoloffical dictionary. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. .v*^ 1. Give the different meanings of the term Etymology. Distinguish between Gram* matical and Historical Etymology. 9^ Dkscuss the question as to whether bishopric, kingly, kinglike, landscape and friend, ship are coni|>ound8 or derivatives. By what tests would you differentiate compounds and derivatives? 3. Estimate the relative value of the two dements of a comriound. Distinguish between CJomposition and Combination. What is the chief value, in expression, of derivatives and compounds ? 4. Give an outline of the process of reasoning by which we arrive at the conclusion that all the elements of our words are derived from demonstrative or predicative roots. 6. Classify the principal suffixes on the basis of origin and of significance. 6. Show the origin and the meaning of the prefixes and sufllxes in ashore, ancestor, benumb, forgetting, misconception, neglect, ransom, mischief, mischance, outrage, execute, astonish, pilgrim, parsonage, abbreviate, avow, control, demure, essay, scjoura, suddenly, vtseonntess, parish, systematic, portraiture, avaunt, amend, descant, Ignorant, neuuiu, pardon, sedition, surface, trespam, buxom. 7. Explain why a knowledge of Etymology is especially valuable to the student of the Elizabethan writers. 8. Apply your knowledge of Etymology to the explanation of the following : 1. To provoko unto love and to good works. 2. Le* them learn first to show piety at houM. 3. And thou most dreaded impe of highest Jove. 4. She undaunted fiend what this might be admired. 6. Certainly virtue Is like precious odors ; most fragrant when ineensod. 6. The sJa of mawmetile (" idolatry ") is the first that is defended in the ten commandments. 7. Hy thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, shakes so my single sute of man. 8. He crookath them to his own ends, which ara often eccentric to the ends of his master or state. 9. Thry were s ton e d to death as a document unto others. 10. Thy daughter is dead ; why disaassst thou the ataster T 11. For dttty, I find Sir Waltsr Xatolgh's versa most lofty, lasolsat, and pasrt— te, IS. To«slan4wttkiBkiidaafsr, doyvunntf 92 KOUNtK [V.l- ■ili CHAPTER V. NOUNS. 1. Thus far we have been looking chiefly at words, in order to be able to tell to what class each one belongs, or what " part of speech " it is ; to see what are the principal uses of each part of speech in the sentence ; how some parts of speech are inflected ; and how some words are derived from others, or put together to form others. Now we shall take up each part of speech by itself, and examine it more fully in regard to. these matters. DEFINITION AND USES. 2. A NOUN is, as we have seen (XL 15), the name of anything. We have noticed the principal uses of the noun in the sen- tence. Most important of all, it is the subject of the sentence ; thus, The sun shines ; Horses run. It is also the object of a verb : thus, I see the sun ; He drives the horses. It is governed by a preposition : thus, I look at the sun through a glass. It is modified by an adjective, which may be used either before or after it : thus, I look at the sun with weak eyes protected by a glass. There are other uses of the noun, which will be explained later ; but these ara the ones by which we can best try a word, to see whether it is or is not to be called a noun. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING. I.— Abstract and Concrete. 3. A noun is sometimes the name of a separate or individual object that may be seen or touched : thus, a man, a horse, a tree, a house : or of a part of it : thus, huid, cheek, knee, side, firont, back: or of the material of which it is composed : thus, flesh, wood, silT^erj ^rcelaiO} \xw^ cl«7. IV. 1- V. 7] CLA8ft^l£L 93 L order b"part o£ each Bch are lers, or ,ch part •gard to, nything. the sen- lentence : sed either y a glass. explained ry a word, ■ individual se: back: . Again, c^ noun is tlio nimi of en object that i^ perceived by the other senses : thus, noise, thunder, odor, flavor: or of things -whicli we conceive of as existing, though our senses do not show them to us directly : thus, mind, soul, Ood. 5. Nouns are names also of a vast number of qualities and conditions and relations of objects : thus, place, color, height, weight, speech, rectitude, fhiilty, truth, ugliness, motion, nearness, distance, presence, absence, existence. These are called ah8trac;t nouns, because we (tbstract (that is, "draw off, separate") the qualities, and so forth, from the objects to which they belon]i», and think of them by themselves, as if they had a separate existence. 6. In contradistinction to abstract nouns, all other nouns, that is, the names of objects which have a real and separate existence outside of our own minds, are called concretk (the tonn means "formed into one whole," "considered in all their properties together"). II.— Proper nnd Common. 7. A noun is generally the name of each member of a whole class of similar things ; it belongs to a number of diflcrent individuals, and to one of them just as much as to another : for example, city, country, day, month, star, dog, man. But, in some classes, the different individuals are of import- ance enough to have names as individuals, distinguishing them fioni others of the same class. Thus, each country, each city or town of a country, each street of a city, has its own name, by which it may be known from other countries, towns, or streets : for example, Ilngland, Canada, Ottawa, Toronto, Comhill, Broadway. So each day and month, each planet or star : as Wednesday, June, Venus, Jupiter, the Pleiades. So, to its acquaintances, each dog or other animal they may wish to distinguish : as Snap, Floss, Spot, Rover, Dickie, Tom, Jessie. So, especially, each man or woman : as Moses, Oleopatra, William Pitt, Florence Nightingale. 94 N0UM8. [V. T. iMl H I 1 Such a noun is called a proper noun or name (that is, "belonging to soiuething iu particular," *' appropriated to in- dividual use"). A PROPER noun or name, then, is a name given to an indi- vidual of a class, to distinguish it from other individuals of the same doss. And, in contrast to these, all the rest are called common nouns — that is, names owned in common by a number of things of the name kind, their class-name. To distinguish proper nouns, they are written with a capital letter, just as other words are occasionally so written, if special importance is to be attached to the notions they represent. 8. A common noun is a name and something more, for it tells us that the object named [tossesses certain characteristics: thus, lake, besides being the name owned in common by a number of things, tells us that any one of them is a large body of water surrounded by land : the name lake can be applied to such objects only as liave these characteristics. A common noun is, therefore, a name which possesses a cer- tain meaning : it is significant. 9. The proper name Erie, however, is a name and nothing more. By it we distinguish a particular lake. It tells us nothing about the characteristics of the object : the name Erie might just as well be applied to a river, a city, a horse, or a steamboat. A proper noun is, therefore, a mere name : it is NON-siaNiFi- CANT. 10. Sometimes a proper name belongs to iiioro than one individual : thus, there are hundreds of people called Smith. Although the name Smith is thus used as the common name of a number of individuals, it is still a proper name ; for there is usually nothing common to the individuals called Smith (as there ia to the Miltons [V.43. a.]) to distinguish them from those, for instance, called Brown : the name is still proper ; it is non-significant, and is applied to each individual separately. But, as the intention of proper names is to denote individuals and not classes, such names are supplemented by additions called Christian names, which render them still more proper to individuals (in the same way as does the descriptive noun in a i¥ord compounded of two nouns [V. 30. h.] ) : thus, John Smith, Henry Brown, John Plantagenst Smith, pr. t- ir.u] CLASSES. 05 at IS, to in- i indi- olthe OMMON things capital special nt. • it tells a: thus, number [)£ water to Buch les a cer- l nothing tells us ime Erie orse, or a j-siaNiFi- than one ^ Smitli. 1 name of for there Smith (as hem from )roper; it eparately. idividuals additions proper to noun in a and so on; each addition making the proper noun more markedly proper. Titles have to some extent the same effect, and are generally related in the same way to the proper names to which they are added (sometimes, indeed, the title is a real adjective) : thus, Miss Smith, Miss Jane Smith, John Smith, Esq. ; John Smith, Junr. ; His Excellency John Smith ; The Honorahle John Smith ; John Smith, Earl of Utopia. 11. Many proper nouns are known to have been originally significant. The meaning of the proper noun was at tirat especially connected with a single object. It was then applied to this object alone ; and, as the mere name marked the individual, its signification became uuiinportant, and was, therefore, lost sight of. Thus, Keewatln h with Ud i 'nero name ; originally, however, it was significant, meaning " the land '. the north-west wind." Other more evident examples are Rapid Gity, Whitehead, Land's End, Scotlaud, England, I v; Saolii. III.— Collccllves. 12. Some nouns signify, not any single taing, buL a « 'irtain number or collection of single things : thus, pair, dozen, jury, group, troop, family, trihe, nation, people. Such nouns are called Collectives. We may speak of collectives as if they formed a single thing : thus, The jury was in its room, in which case we make the verb singular ; or we may speak of them individually and separately : thus, The jury are all old men, in which case, thinking of the sense, we make the verb plural. 13. Sense oonstructioks, that is, constructions that regard the seme and not the form of a word, are common in all languages, and espi cially in spoken language. Many of the apparent exceptions in the use of uumber^forms will disappear if this principle be kept in mind. See be- low 42. and 45. Further illustrations in other departments of grammar will be seen hereaftec lY.— Ciender-lfonns. 14. Some nouns mark the thing signified hy them as male or female: thus, man, woman ; son, daughter ; actor, actress ; hero, heroine. Such nouns are called OENDBB-nouns {gender, in older Eng- lish, meant " a kind, class, or sex''). !■ liii Eli : m ■ m'. u Irs jl 4 ill': '.■'■' '! Ill ' u 1 i ■1 ' iiii iii M VOVHtB. tv. li- And those genrler-nouns that s^'gnify male beings are called MASCULINE nouns, or nouns of the masculine gender ^ while those that signify female beings are called feminine nouns, or nouns of the feminine gender. All other nouns — those that are not gender-nouns, or have nothing to do with defining sex — are often called neuter nouns, or nouns of the neuter gender (that is, that represent objects "of neither one sex nor the other"). Either they belong to objects that have no sex, like sun, day, house, leather, stone, hair, virtue ; or they are given indifferently to beings of both sexes : as child, bird, hound, fish, crab, mosquito. 15. As, however, the sex of the object is the basis of the classificatioii of gender-nouns, and as sex concerns only objects which possess it, it is unnecessary to say anything about gender in connection with a noun, unless it be a noun that actually implies a distinction of sex. Gender in Modern English is, therefore, strictly speaking, the distinction of words as masculine or feminine, corresponding to the distinction of living objects as male or female. 16. The digtinction of gender «n English nouns is of practical import- ance only so far as concerns the proper use of the pronouns of the thitd person and their derivatives. 17. A distinction of sex is indicated by nouns in three ways ; a. By the use of different words : as buck, doe ; hart, roc ; boy, girl ; stag, hind ; brother, sister ; monk, nun. b. By masculine gender-nouns, and by feminine gender-nouns derived therefrom by means of suffixes (V. 27. f.). Examples are hero, heroine ; baron, baroness ; abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess. c. By compounding gender-noi'ps vath other nouns and with adjectives (V. 30). Examples are he-goat, she-goat ; cock-sparrow, hen-spaxrow ; pea-cock, pea- hen ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; landlord, landlady. 18. A distinction corresponding to gender in common nouns is also made in the case of Christian names, generally by the use of different names (compare a. above) : thus, John, Thomas, James; Margaret. hovAsa^ Isabella; M4. V.20J OENDKB. 97 EiUed vhile IS, or have ouns, ajects ag to of the )bject.s gender 3tually :iaking, onding import- he third ) ways : a. T-nouns samples liichGSS. nd with ck, pea- ,n nouns y by the an5 ocCafeionflJly S^ tli5 ^J'-t of 7e:iviii3in.5 r": rv'-ativo forms (couv pare 17. b. above) : thus, Paul, Pauline; Oeorge, Oeorgina; Henry, Henrietta; Bobert, Bobina. Such nouns, however, being non-significant, are not always gender-nouns; tliey may be properly applied to any object whatever which we may wish to distinguish, although they are generally used as the names of persons. Sometimes, indeed, the masculine forms are applied to female objects, and feiuiuino forms to male objects. 19. In Modem English, sex has been adopted as the basis ot the classification of genders ; but in most other taiiguages this is not the cate, nor was it so in Old English. In these languages, masculine, or feminine, or neuter gender-nouns do not necessarily represent male, r>r female, or sexless objects. The nouns have certain endings which determine their gender without reference to their meaning. Generally speaking, for instance, in Old English, -a, -hddt -scijye, -ddm are masculine, as in moruf., "moon"; cildhud, ** childhood " ; fredndscipe, ** friendship " ; /reo i6m, * ' freedom " : -nes (from adj.), -u, -ung or -ing (from verbs) are feminine, as in Uithnes^ ** joy" ; lufu, " love " ; leornung or homing, " learning " : -en (diminutive) is neuter, as in q/cen, " chicken"; mcegden, "maiden." The different genders are marked also by a difference of declension. In Old English, a fictitious or conventional sex is, thus, sometimes attributed to inanimate objects, and the gender of the nouns represent- ing living beings does not always correspond to the sex. This distinction, which affects words only, is known as true or qrammatical gender in contradistinction to katcral gender, in which, as in Modern Euglish, the gender of the noun corresponds to the sex of the object. 20. Strictly speaking, a language does not possess true gender unless the declension of the words is affected, and unless sex is atti ibuted to inanimate objects. In the figure Personification, we see in Modern English a fragment of the second element in gender : in the case of the pronouns of the third person, we see also fragmentary specimens of a gender that modifies the declension. With these exceptions, we have discarded the artificial distinctions, and now possess no true gender. Its disappearance is due mainly to the influence of Korman- French, which had but two genders — the masculine and the ftniinine— with charauteristio endings generally different from those of Old English. During the coalescence of the vocabula'-ie;*, confusion and loss of inflec- tions and other suffixes took plai^ (I. 35 and 37 (2) ). A gender which depended on differences of inflections and other suffixes could not exist when these differences had disappeared ; and, in the fourteenth century, the modern system was established, by which we use masculine and feminine suffixes as indications of sex, and have no suffixes to indicate sexless objects. Since then, it is only in the langoagj of feeling that objects without life are spoken of M ii they had it ; and objects with f d6 IJOUNS. tv. ao- lip* If. :.': iii ■i ■!■■ ii 151 'ill life, M if they had none ; nor would this be possible, were it not that the {>ronouns of tho third person have in the singular a separate inflection or distinction of sex. v.— DImlBUtlTM. 21. Some nouns mark the thing they signify as of small size ; or, if a creature, as young, not full-grown. Examples are brooklet, hillock, baby, gosling, lambkin. These are called diminutives (words showing something diminisfied, or made small). Diminutives sometimes express endearment or contempt : as darling, lordling, mannikin, poetaster, versicle. Words like boy, babe, colt, lamb, pup, have a meaning like that of diminutives ; but it is usual to give this name only to words derived from others by suffixes that add the diminutive moaning. VI.— AngmentatlTes. 22. On the other Kand, we have also a small class of words which mark the thing they signify as being of large size, or as possessing a quality in a high degree. Examples are Btancblon, balloon, trombone, tankard, sweetheart (IV. 46. c). Such words are called auomextatives (words showing something augmented or increased). And, as in the case of diminutives, these words often imply con- tempt or blame : as drunkard, braggart, dotard, sluggard (from slug, " to be inactive"). Auffmentatives, however, are often such by derivation only : in the case of many, °.ve do not now feel that they denote an increase of the original meaning. VII.— PatronymleSii 23. A small class of proper nouns consists of the names of persons formed from those of their parents or their ancestors. Examples are Robinson, nacDonald, Fitzgerald, O'Connel, Browning. Such words are called Patronymics (that is, " names derived from tho name of a father*'). 24. As we have seen (V. 5-7), we may classify nouns, on the basis of the extent of their applicability, into Proper and Common; or, on the basis of the mode of existence of the things they represent, into Abstract and Concrete. Owing to the infinite variety of the meanings of common nouns, it is not possible to divide this class, on the basis of meaning, into ex- haustive sub-classes. Thasa^ however, of especial importance ▼.ar b] OtAflSltfl. d9 have already been described, namely, Collectives, Diminutives, Ccndur- nouns, and Abstract nouns; for the last are also Common nouns, when they stand for an instance of the quality, condition, or relation they denote : thus, * a speech, a distance, a virtne, a grace. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 25. We have now to notice the principal classes of nouns according to their form. On this basis, nouns are divided into simple, derivative, and COMPOUND. I.— simple. 26. Simple nouns are such as we cannot take apart into simpler elements in our own language : as sun, man, boy, hope, chair, family, character. It has been already pointed out (I^. 38) that a great many words which are thus defined as simple are found to be really derivative or compound, when we come to know more about them. To recognize the plain and evident derivation and composition of English words is the proper preparation for studying the history of the obscurer ones. The senior student, however, should, when possible, account etymologi- cally not only for the less evident English derivatives and compounds, but for Romanic and Greek formations. II.— Dcriyatlve. 27. Derivative nouns are such as come by additions or other changes of form from other words used in our language. The most important and frequently used classes of derivative nouns are as follows : I. — BY SUFFIX. a. Abstract nouns, from adjectives : as goodness, freedom, fhtilty, falsehood, hardship, justice, absolutism, finery, quietude, truth, height : or from nouns : as Qodhead, knighthood, hatred, kingdom, despotism, friendship, mastery, vassalage: or from verbs : as wedlock, knowledge, endurance, persistence, action, b. Diminutives, from other nouns : as gosling, brooklet, lambkin, hillock, ballot, baby, pickerel (from pike), ▼•rsiole, circlet. 100 KOUNS. [7. 27. C I ? ';:' ■i, .f.i;(i c. Nouns denoting an actor, from verbs : as lover, runner, beggar, sailor. d. Nouns denoting one who deals with or practises any- thing, from other nouns : as jailer, lawyer, glazier, annalist, roadster, engineer, scholar, missionary, grammarian. e. Nouns denoting action or condition, from verbs : as striking, feeling, meaning, being. f. Feminine OENDER-nouns, from masculines. The commonest suffix, and the only one by which fresh feminines are now formed, is -ess. In some words, it is added to the simple mas- culine ; in others, the masculine ending is dropped or shortened before it. Examples are countess, count; goddess, god; governess, governor; abbess, abbot ; actress, actor ; murderess, murderer. We have in Modern English a trace of two Old Etiglish fem. sutlixcs, namely, -en and -ster (1. 37 (2), and IV. 47). The former appears in vixen, that ia fyxen, the fem. of the Mwl. E. fox (IV, 43. c. (3)), of which a dialectic form was vox ( V. 36. a.) ; and the latter, in spinster. In other nouns, however, -ster is now confined to the masculine (see also d. above). These suffixes were driven out by the Norman-French -ess, which had established itself in English by the end of the fourteeuth century. The following words of foreign origin, being incompletely naturalized, retain their original forms : (( i( Lat. testator and testatrix ; administrator and ad- ministratrix ; executor and executrix ; Du. landgravine from land- grave ; " margravine from mar- grave; Fr. belle from beau ; Slav, czarina from czar, with a Tout, suffix. Ital. signora from signor(e) ; Arab, sultana from sultan, with an Ital. suffix. Span, donna from don ; in£tuita " infante; (( Sometimes, r.lso, we find in use French feminines corresponding to English masculines : thus, tragedian, tragedienne; equestrian, equestrienne. Besides the foregeing classes, there are others of derivatives of less frequent ocourrence : for example, V. 80. bj CLASSES. 101 g. Koans denoting the pebson to whom asytuino is dons, from terbs: as tnutee, iwyee, mortgagee, committee. li. Nonns denoting that wincH is made or done, from verbs : as weft (from weave [IV. 43. c (2) and (5)]), drift (from drive), gift, cleft. L AnoMBKTATivES, from nouns, adjectives, and verbs : as balloon, dotard, drunkard, braggart, dastard, j. Patronymics, from other proper nuuns : as Blcbards, Browning, Dickson, O'Connor, Macintosh, Price {ap-reea\ F2tigerald. 2. BY internal change. 28. A few derivative nomis are formed by intotnal change (HT. 9)t thus, tip from top, stick from stake, chick from cook. 3. BY PREFIX. 29. Nouns from other nouns : as • unbelief, unconcern, inexperience, nonsense, disease, disgrace, ex-mayor, ante-room, sub-officer. ite; [ing to >f less in .— Compoand. 30. Compound nouns are such as are made up of two or more words used independently in our language. The principal classes of compound nouns are as follows : a. A noun with a preceding adjective that qualifies or de- scribes it : as ill-will, midday, blindworm, fortnight, Englishman; male-servant, female-servant ; step-son, step-daughter ; Frenchman, Frenchwoman. step is the 0. E. ateop, "orphaned." The meaning being forgotten, step-father and step-mother were formed by analogy (IV. 47). b. A noun with a preceding, or, less frequently, a succeeding noun that describes it : as merchant-tailor, barber-surgeon, north east, oak-tree, lord-lieutenant, earl-marshal, qu^endowager ; men- singers, women-singers; man-servant, maidservant; servant-man, servant-maid ; cock-sparrow, hen sparrow ; he-goat, she-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit 102 KOUNB. V. 30. 0- ^!' i • %. i i c. A noun with a preceding noun that limits it in any other way : as sunrise, seashore, innkeeper, churchyard, rainhow, nest-egg, shellfish, steamboat, railway; landlord, landlady; milkman, milkmaid. This class is by far the largest, and the relation of the limit- ing noun to the other is a very various one. d. A noun with a preceding verb-stem taken in the sense of a verbal noun : as washtub, treadmill, drawbridge, bakehouse : that is, " tub for washing," and so on. e. A descriptive compound, made either of a noun and pre ceding adjective (cla.ss a.), with the idea of possession added : aa redcoat, blue-stocking, graybeard : that is, " one who has or wears a red coat," and so on ; or of a verb with its object or an adverbial expression following it : as pickpocket, turnkey, lie-abed, runaway: that is, "one who picks pockets," and so on. f. A noun with a prefix : as inland, afterthought, overthrow, underbrush, forelock, outpost. It is not easy to draw the line sharply between those words formed with prefixes which are to be regarded as compounds and those which are to be regarded as derivatives (IV. 28). Besides the foregoing, there are other classes of compounds of less frequent occurrence : for example, g. A noun followed by an infinitive in -Ing : as bull-baiting, fox-bunting, wire-pnlling, sigbt-seeing. h. A noun followed by an adjective : as court-martial, princess-royal, knlgbt-errant. Such combinations either are of French origin ; or are formed after the French mode, as is the hybrid knigbt-errant. L A noun preceded by a possessive case : as bridesmaid, monksbood, Tuesday (V. 58). J. Nouns arising from senteoces of va' ;ous kinds, especially imperative sentences, which have grown into a whole : as nmaway, godsend, fiurewtfl, standby, forget-mo-not, go-by. T. M.1>] irUMBBB. lOfS k after erative Other combinatiooa similar to these are illnstrated in the exercisea on this chapter. As we have seen (IV. 30), the elements in some Old English com- pounds are corrupted, or disguised, or are unknown in Modem English. And a similar statement is true of many words naturalized from other languages. INFLECTION. 31. Nouns are inflected, or varied in form, to express differ- ^mces of NUMBER and of case. The inflection of a noun is called its declension: I.— Nnmbcr. 32. The numbers are two : the singular, used when only one thing of the kind denoted by the noun is meant ; and the PLURAL, when more than one are meant. 1. MODERN MODE OF FORMATION. 33. English nouns regularly form their plural by adding -8 or -68 to the singular : thus, hats, hoes, kisses. 34. But) as the examples just given show, the added -s is pronounced sometimes as an s (hats), sometimes as an z (hoes), and sometimes as an additional syllable (kisses) — ;just as we find it easiest ; for we desire to do with as little trouble a'* possiblu whatever we have to do. This principle, which is known as the Principle of Ease, is the chief cause of modiflcations of sound and spelling in our language. In this instance, it is applied as follows : a. If a noun ends with the sound (however spelc) of p, or ti or k, or f, or th pronounced as in thin and truth, the added -8 has the proper B-sound, as in sauce, and does not make an additional syllable : thus, caps, capes, mats, minces, tacks, cakes, chiefs, safes, seraphs, coughs, truths. b. If a noun ends with the sound (however spelt) of any vowel, or of m, n, ng; 1, or r, or of b, d, g as in egg, ▼, or th as in the and lathe, the added -8 makes no additional syllable, but has the sound of z : thus, days, fees, eyes, hoes, pews, brows, boys, hymns, chimes, sins, signs, songs, wails, cars, cares, tubs, tabes, lads, spades, eo^ eaves, lathes. 104 NOUNS. nr. 84. 0- C. If a noun ends in a hissing or sibilant sound — namely, the sound of s, z, sh, and zh, however spelt (hence including the Z, ch, and j-sounds) — the added sign of the plural makes another syllable, es, and is written es, unless the noun ends already with a silent e; and the s (a;^ always after a vowel sound) is pronounced as z : thus, kisses, horses, ices, boxes, buzzes, prizes, matches, fishes, judges. 86. The 0. E. plural infleciioas are -arit -as, -a, and -u (or -o) : thus, tungant ** tongaea" ; dagaa, "days"; sdwela, *' souls"; rkUf "riches." These were first reduced to -ea, -en, or -e (IV. 45. c. ) ; then to -es and -en ; and finally to -ea (later -U8, -ys, -is), as -es was like the -a and -x plural inflections of the Normans (I. 36) ; the usual law, that languages reject all seeming irregularities (IV. 47), causing the disappearance of the other forms, except in the case of a few words still retained in very common use. For a time this ending was pronounced as a separate syllable ; but in and after the fourteenth century it was, when possible, reduced to -8. This result made phonetic changes necessary, as the inflection was thus brought into direct contact with the last sound of the noun stem (IV. 43. b). 2. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE HODEBN MODE. 36. Some nouns are more or less irregular in the way in which the addition of the plural sign is made. Thus, a. Of nouns ending in an f-sound (-f or -fe), the following b • ve -ves in the plural : knife, life, wife, leaf, thief, sheaf, loaf; and nouns in -If, except gulf. Staff has staves in the usual sense, and staffs in compounds (as flag-staffs) and in the sense of bodies of officers ; and wharf, besides the regular plural, has sometimes wharves, the latter of which will probably fall out of use. Usage in the case of the plurals of words ending in an f-sound has been capricious ; for many words that now end in -fa had -ves in older English : thus dwarves, scarves, turves, kerclileves, mastives, cleeves (for olUfs). Besides elves and slialves, we find also e!f8 and shelfs. Words from foreign sources retain a final f-sound unchanged in the plural. Beeves, however, is formed from beef (0. Fr. hcgf, "an ox"). In Old English, /seems to have been sometimes pronounced like v, as it still is in of; and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the spelling was frequently made to accord, when the sound stood between |wo vowal sounds : thus, th« M. B. luf^ ** life," had for plural Uvet, ▼. te. d] NUMBEB. 105 l)ounds ^harf, latter Udbas older IB). in the ilikev, iea the Btween Uve9t Mid the adj. def, " deaf," deve. But the language waa not alwayr oon- siatent in this matter, and in the different dialects / aud v are still often confounded : thus, we have in Dorset, ▼rom, avore, yolk, ylnd, Tloor. b. Many nouns ending in the singular with th, having the thin-sound, change it to the the-sound in the plural, and then, of course, give the -8 the z-sound : thus, path, paths ; oath, oaths ; mouth, mouths ; truth, truths ; cloth, cloths and clothes ('< dress"). This irregularity may bo explained on the same principle as that under a. above : the Old English forms probably ended in a flat tli. c. Die, pea, and penny fomi the plurals, dice, pease (IV. 46. b.), pence (O. E. pern), besides the regular dies, peas, pennies ; the different forms be- ing used in somewhat different senses : thus, dies, " stamps for coining' ; dice, " cubes for gaming." peas, "separate seeds"; pease, collective; pennies "separate coins"; pence, " d. Many nouns in everyday use, ending in after a consonant, and those ending in y after a consonantal sound, add -es instead of -s, changing y to i : thus, cargo, cargoes; pony, ponies; colloquy, colloquies. But we have, with plurals in -s, the following, which may lie regarded as imperfectly naturalized : bravo, canto, embryo, grotto, memento, rondo, stiletto, piano, solo, domino, tyro, virtuoso (also -i [V. 39] ) ; and such words as quarto, octavo. Of a few nouns ending in 0, preceded by a consonant, the spelling is, for the same reason, still unsettled. Examples are calico, innuendo, mosquito, mulatto, portico. The tendency, however, is to spell with -es these and other such words. The rarely occurring final i is treated like y: as alkali, alkalies ; but (being in less frequent use) mufti, muftis. The exceptions under d. are matters of spelling : the final sound in all is the same. The addition of the -es is apparently intended to lengthen the sound of o after a consonant (lest the addition should suggest the pronunciation •oss). After a vowel, p ha9 oaturally a long soui^d ; hence, IntafUo^ tot«(lp:o9. 106 »--J* [y. 86. a- The plaral ol nouns in •y after a consonant was regularly formed from the old singular in -le : thus, ladles ia from ladle, or ladye (y and 1 having been interchangeable from an early period). The final e of the singular, being found unnecessary, was dropped, and final y was preferred to L But, although in older English we find such plurals as qualltyes, this form did not supplant the form in -les, probably because an initial y for the final syllable might suggest mispronunciation (thus, qualit«yes), initial y being now given a consonantal sound. This, also, is a mere matter of spelling. e. Letters, and figures, and a word of any part of speech used as a noun in the sense of " the word so-and-so," usually put an apostrophe (') before tlie -S that forms the plural : thus, Dot your i's and cross your t's ; In 999 there are three 9*8 ; He uses too many I's and me's and msr's. 37. Some of the plurals uuder a. and c. illustrate the law of language (IV. 40. a.), that, when two forms of a word occur, cither they must take different meanings, as staflb and staves ; or one of them must drop out of use, as, we see above, has happened with many old plurals in -ves (see also 40. below). "~" 3 —OLD MODES OF FORMATION. 38. The foregoing are the regular and modern modes of forming the plural ; but a few English nouns in very common use form their plurals in ways that are now obsolete. Thus : a. By a change of sound within, not adding any ending : thus, man, men ; woman, women ; foot, feet ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice : the last two have also a change of spelling from S to C. In Old English these words were sing, man, xcifman, f6t, tdth, gds^ lila, mtis ; plur. men, wl/men, /4t, tith, gis, lya, mye. Our word breeches, the O. E. sing, brdc, plur. brie, has conformed to the general rule, but retains its modified form. As we have seen (IV. 43, c. (3) ), the vowel-variation in these words is only an incidental result of an inflectional suffix, not itself a real inflection. In Old English, this vowel-change was not limited to the plural ; the dative suffix of the singular produced the same resalt : thus, nom. boc, "book"; dat. b£c. b. By adding -en, with or without other changes : thus, 9Xf oxen ; brother, brethren (or brothers) ; child, children ; PQW (in old style) lEi9e, 6. A' Irom kving cular, [toL , this itial y i-yei), , mere I used )ut on V. M] KUMBBB. 107 ingtiage uBttake Irop out -ves (see odes of lOinmon hus: : thus, tormcd to ^ae words 9lf a real to the Lit: thus, ^us, Ldren; The plurals of brother and of cow are now used in diiTerent senses (IV. 40. a.) : thus, brothers, related by blood ; brethren, of the same community ; cows, individual ; kine, collective. Of brethren, the oltlcHt form was brothru : this became in succession brothre (IV. 46. o.), hrether (IV. 43. a.), and hrothren and brethren. The e in brethren comes from the O. E. dat. hrether (IV. 43. o. (3) ), and the ending ren represents two plural suAixes, ru and en, thus making the word a double plural. Before the plural in -s became the commonest, brC'thrUf on the weakening of the form and force of its plural ending, was assimilated to the then common plurals in -en (IV. 47). So, too, with children and klne, of which the successive forms were cildru (sing, cild)^ childre and chikler, and childern and children ; qforky{hy vowel- variation [IV. 43. o. (3)] from sing, cu, "a cow"), and later kyen or kyn, our Une (e being added to lengthen the 1, and so distinguish from Un). In Old English, -an (-en) was the commonest plural sufiSx ; hence it was the last to disappear. Examples in words not long obsolete, or still in use in provincial dialects, are : een (0. E. eagan [IV. 46. d. (2) ] ), " eyes" ; esen (0. E. ^e«en, esen)f " eaves" ; hosen, " hose" ; shoon, ** shoes" ; pesen, " pease" ; toon, "toes." 4. FOREIGN FORMATIONS. 39. A considerable number of words taken unchanged from foreign languages form their plurals according to the rules of those languages. The commonest of these are Lat. formula, formulae ; Lat. appendix, appendices ; " genus, genera ; Or. miasma, miasmata ; " genius, genii ; " analysis, analyses ; " radius, radii ; " phenomenon, phenomena; " stratum, strata; Fr. messieurs ; " datum, data; " madam, mesdames ; « medium, media; " beau, beaux ; " basis, bases ; Ital. virtuoso, virtuosi ; '( axis, axer ; «< bandit, banditti ; " crisis, crises; Heb. seraph, seraphim; " index, indices ; " cherub, cherubim. Of the Lat. series, species, superficies, apparatus, the sin^lar aiid the plural are the same, 108 KOUNS. [V. st- But many of these words, Leing in frequent use, make regular English plurals, as well as foreign ones : thus, for example, formnlas, geniuses, indexes, bandits, virtuosos, seraphu, cherubs. The two forms of plurals, when both established, are used in different senses : thus, genii, " spirits" ; geniuses, '< persons of unusual ability" ; indices, "signs in Algebra"; indexes, " reference tables in a book" ; formulas, " prescribed forms formulae, " scientific expres- of words"; sions." Messieurs (shortened to Messrs.) is the Fr. mca sienra, " my masters" ; but for the singular we use Mr. (an abbreviation for Mister, i.e. Master, an older form), not having adopted the corresponding singular. Monsieur. Madam is the naturalized Fr. Mcuiarne, the Fr. plural having been adopted unchanged. For the singular, Mrs. (i.e., llistress, the fern, of Mr.) is generally used as a title prefixed to a name. 40. Most of such words as those given above have been introduced during the Moilern English period, the technical ones having been used at first by the educated, and with the foreign plurals. As soon, how- ever, as any of them went into general use, they showed a tendency to follow the natural law (IV. 47) and take English plurals. Confusion, of course, followed, resulting, in some cases, in one form's being selected, and, in others, in both forms' being retained with somewhat different meanings, our convenience having decided the question in both cases. But usage has been by no meana uniform. We find that bisons, ideas, ■phinxes, omens, and dogmas have driven out the older bisontes, idem, fiphingcft, omiiia, and dorjmata, while genera, magi, beaux are preferred to genuaes, maguses, beaus; and the inability of the uneducated to feel the force of a foreign plural has caused the formation of such monstrosities as serapbims, cberubims, and the belief that stamina, effluvia, ete. , are singulars (as was the case also with alms, eaves, rlcbes, at an earlier date). 41. But English adopts also from other languages ':^ords that are other parts of speech than nouns, forming their plurals as if they were English nouns : thus, aliases, ignoramuses, items, bonuses, tenets, extras, Te Deums. 5. OTHER EXCEPTIONAL FORMATIONS. (/) Singular Forms with Plural Meanings. 42. Some words use, either generally or in certain senses, their singular form with a plural meaning also, instead of form- ing a proper plural. Thus : V. 49] KtMBBR. t09 IS that ["alsas a. Certain names of animals : as shoep, deer, swine, neat, fish (also fishes, taken separately) ; and sundry kinds of fish : as cod, mackerel, perch, trout, salmon, shad, pike. Most of the words in the first list are neuter in Old English, and have no noni. or ace. plural inflection. These cases, therefore, are of the same form as the corresponding cases of the singular : thus, deer, 0. E. de6r, pi. de6r ; sheep, 0. K. sc.edp, pi. 8cedp ; •wine, 0. E. »win, pi. iwln ; neat, 0. E. nedt (used collectively). b. Certain words, mostly collectives and names of measures, weights, etc., used v •()•. numerals in counting objects or telling their number : thus, couple, brace, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, ton, head, sail. The same peculiarity shows itself in the case of ct • tain nouns compounded with numerals : thus, twelvemonth, fortnight, sennight (that is, *' seven nights") ; and in the same way we have the singular form in such ex- pressions as an eighteen penny book, a three foot rule, an eighty gun ship, a ten horse power engine. The ouoission of the plural inflection in these words is probably due to tlie aasimilative influence of the flectionless plurals in a. al>ove (IV. 46. b.), increased by the circumstance that the numeral indicates pluruUty, and thus renders unnecessary the plural inflection. c. A few other words : as cannon, shot, heathen, folk, people. There are few of these words that do not sometimes, in some uses, form a plural like other nouns : thus, shot, << balls"; shots, "discharges"; cannon, collective ; cannons, "individual guns." lenses, form- {2) Singular Forma only. 43. Some nouns are rarely or never used, except in the singular. These are especially proper names, nouns of material, and abstract nouns (V. 3. 5. and 7). Some of these nouns do, however, take plural forma. 'A no KOUNS. ii [V. 43. i' t'h a. Proper names are capable of forming plurals signifying either more than one individual bearing the same name : as, the Smiths and the Browns ; all the Wednesdays of the month ; or individuals resembling the one to whom the proper name belongs : as, the Miltons and the Shakespeares of our century. The proper noun has in the latter case become common and signiticant (V. 8). The plurals of proper nouns are formed regularly : thus, the Smiths, the Catos, the Beattys, the Joneses. Usage, however, is not uniform on this point ; for proper names in very common use are sometimes (but irregularly) treated as common nouns : thus, the Maries, the Henries ; and some writers form the plural of proper nouns thus : the Smith's, the Percy's, the Gate's. But the latter mode of formation is unjustifiable, as such forms might be confused with the possessives. b. Most nouns of material are also used as names of articles made of that material, or kinds of it, or masses of it, and so on ; and as such have plurals : as, a ship's coppers; the leads of a roof; the clays and gravels of the west. c. And a great many abstract nouns form plurals as signify- ing the quality in separate acts or exhibitions (V. 24) : thus, a good man's charities ; the heats of summer ; the loves of the angels ; the beauties of its form. (8) Plural Forms only. 44. Some nouns, on the other hand, which are the names of masses or collections of single objects, or of objects consisting of several parts, are used only in the plural, and are construed (that is, " combined with other words") as such. Examples are thanks, proceeds, filings, billiards, bowels, victuals, vitals, wages, annals, nuptials, breeches, drawers, tongs, pincers, means. So, too, with some foreign plurals : as, aborigines, antip^des^ literati, minnti«, errata, stamia*, ill' fying as, ►f name \n and us, lames in common V.46] KtJMBfitt. Ill tna might articles and so land signify- thus, Lames ot insisting |)nstrued pies are lals, rers, The following nouns also, which are derived from singular forms, are now construed as if they were plural : alms, riches, pease, eaves. Alms (0. E. cBlmease, alrneMe, almee (from the Greek), with a plural almeases and elmeasen) is still sometimes used as a singular : thus, None was heard to ask an alms. Rlcbes (0. E. richesse [O. Pr. richesse], with a plural richvwM) was sometimes used as a singular in older English : thus, In one hour is so great rlclies come to nanght. For pease and eares (which had once a pi. eveses), see V. 36. c. and 38. b. The plural construction in the case of alms, etc., is due to the com- bined influence of the plural form, and of the circumstance that the words suggest a plural meaning. Summons, M. E. aomouns (O. Fr. aemonse, lem. of aemona^ perf participle of aemondre, "to summon"), on the other hand, which also is plural in form, though etymological ly singular, is still singular, with plural summonses. Molasses, also (Port. melat^o), like summons, is really singular, and should be construed as such. (^) Plural Forma with Singular Meanings. 45. We have seen that some singular nouns are frequently construed as plural (V. 12 and 42). Some plural nouns, on the other hand, are construed as singular, being regarded as one whole. Examples are amends, bellows, gallows, means (sometimes singular), news, odds, pains ('' trouble"), sessions, shambles, tidings, innings. Also names of branches of study ending in ics, when they are the names of collective bodies of doctrine. Examples are ethics, mathematics, physics, optics, politics. Of many words thai are now plurals only, the singular is found in older English in the same scns«i as the modern plurals. Examples of older singular forms are ameud, gallow, m^an, nuptial, pain, tiding, thank, wage. The circumstance that the Greek words are plural, from which are derived our names of sciences in -ics, conjoined to the fact that these sciences treat of various subjects, probably caused us to give the adjective in -ic the plural form, just as we do in the case of eatables, sweets, vitals, and so on. In making logic singular, we follow the Greek usage, which supplies after the adjective the word for " art." (5) Plural F(/rm8 with AUetcd Meanings. 46. And, again, a few nouns seem to have plurals /ith altered meanings. Examples are iron, irons; com, coini; /|Ood, foodr.; uX%, Mlta, 113 NOtJKS. [V.M- yi''":' St Mauy of such nouns, however, have really two meanings in the sin- gular, some taking the plural corresponding to the less common singular meaning. Thus, Iron, being the name of a material, does not take a plural ; and irons is the plural of a new sinsular an iron. Salt, again, has also a less usual plural, meaning one of a class of chemical com- pounds. Such words are, therefore, really rcferrible to 47. below. (6) Plural Forms with Different Meanings. 47. We have also seen that some nouns have different forms for the plurals, with different meanings (V. 36. c, 38. b., 39., 42. c). Some nouns also have one form for the plural, with one meaning corresponding to the singular, and one or more different from it. Examples are pains, (1) " sufferings," (2) letters, (1) of the alphabet, (2) " trouble" ; "literature," (3) "epistles" ; customs, (1) "habits," (2) numbers, (1) in counting, (2) " revenue duties" ; in poetry ; parts, (1) "divisions," (2) "abilities." 6. PLUBA,LS OF COMPOUNDS. 48. Compound nouns add the sign of the plural to the noun ; or to the principal noun (the one described or limited by the other), if the compound consist of two nouns. Examples are blackbirds, merchantmen, housetops, brothers-in-law, steamboats, hangers-on, drawbridges, afterthoughts; also such expressions as master workmen, brother officers, which, though really temporary compounds, are often written without a hyphen. The following are peculiar formations : a. Some words, originally compounds, which would fall under this rule, are no longer felt to be compounds, and are treated as simple words : thus, mouthfUls, handfuls. b. A descriptive compound (V. 30. e.) adds -s to the last word, whether noun or not : as, rclcoats, turnkeys, runaways, forget-me-nots, three-per-cents. C. Compound proper nouns pluralize the last : thus, the John Smiths, the John Henry Smiths. V.M] CASS. 113 f the are litten mder Jeated rord. d. In the plurals of titles, usage varies : we may say the Mr. John Smiths, the Miss Smiths, the Doctor Smiths. as well as the Messrs. John Smith, the Misses Smith, the Doctors Smith. The latter mode is the more correct mode of formation, but it is not so commonly used as the former. When, however, the (which combines the parts) is omitted, we must say, , Messrs. Smith, Messrs. John and Thomas Smith, Misses Smith, Misses Jane and Louisa Smith. When two titles are united, the latter is now generally pluralized, in accordance with the general law : as, major-generals, governor-generals, lieutenant-governors. But a few obsolete expressions occur, in which, after the French iaiom, both parts are pluralized : thus, knigbts-templan, knlghts-errants, lords-JasUces. Note also the modern men-servants, women-servants. II.— Case. 1. NUMBER OF CASE-FORMS AND CASES. 49. English nouns have only two case-forms ; one of them, the Possessive or Genitive, shows possession; the other is used in all other relations. Since, however, some pronouns have one case-form — I, he, they, who, etc. — for use when the word is subject, and another — ^me, him, them, whom, etc. — for use when the word is object of a verb or preposition, it is customary to distinguish these two difterent uses of the noun also, and to speak of the sub- jective or NOMINATIVE caso, and of the objective or accusative case of tho noun ; although, in fact, the two are always the same in form (III. 12-17). 50. Besides these three cases, we find in Old English a dative and, according to some, an instrumental case ; but no noun possesses a dis- tinctive form for each case. The nominative and the accusative of some nouns are alike, as are also the dative and instrumental o-ises of others. After the Conqnest, the dative lost its suffix and became con- founded with the accusative (I. 86. and IV. 45. o.), but the dative plural Bn£Bx still remains in one or two adverbs derived from nouns, as wlillom (0. £. Atri^um. "at times," dat pi. of hwii, "time"). No traces exist lU NOUNS. tV.60* i;, in Modern English of the suffix of the noun-instrUtnetital case, nor of a nominative or an accusative sutiix. Under the pronoun and the adverb, we shall, however, spe other traces of O. £. case-suffixes. 61. All relations marked by case-endings can be more accurately de- fined by prepositions or beparable prefixes ; for case-endingi are generally few, whereas the relations to be expressed may become numerous. The language, therefore, of a progressive people usually throws off its case- endings by degrees, substituting therefor its prepositions, of which there is an abundant supply. This natural tendency was hastened in English, as we have seen, by the influence of the Danish and the Norman French. 2. THE POSSESSIVB. 52. The possessive case in the singular number is made by adding to the noun an -s, before which an apostropha is written : thus, 's. This apostrophe shows that the letter e of -es, the old sign of the possessive, is omitted ; and it prevents one from con- fusing this form with plurals in -8. 63. The sign of the possessive follows the same rules as to pronunciation as the -8 of the plural (V. 34.) ; but it is never written with -68. Thus, in cat's it is pronounced as 8, in dog's as z ; in 8ez'8 and Charles's and church's it makes a syllable and has the z-sound, the e being omitted to prevent confusion with the plural forms. But a noun of more than one syllable ending in an s or z-sound sometimes (like a plural; see below) omits the pos- sessive sign, in order to avoid the disagreeable repetition of hissing letters (V. 34). In such a case, an apostrophe is written alone at the end of the word : thus, the princess' favorite ; for conscience' sake. 54. Plurals not ending in B make their possessive case in the same way as singulars (IV. 47) : thus, men's, children's, mice's, sheep's. Other plurals make no change in pronunciation for their pos- sessive cases ; but an apostrophe is written after the -8 — thus, b' — as sign to the eye, of the possessive use : thus, cats', dogs', ladies', horses', Judges*. 65. As in the case of our plural suffix 8, this possessive suffix is the representative of only one of the 0. £. genitive suffixes. These were, for the singular, -es, -an^ -e, and -a ; and for the plural, -a and -ena : as in smUheitt "smith's"; ateorran, ''stars"; rddti^ ••rood's"; auna, "son's** nnUhat "smiths'"; ateorrena, ••stars'"; r6da, ••roods'"; «tma, "son«"*| -« being limited 'o ovrUin mMouline and tieuter noniui. v.5a] OASl. 116 the pos- thus, is the were, as in In the thirteenth century, these were reduced, in the singular, to -es and -e ; and, in the plural, to -ene (or -en) and -e«, the Tatter often replacing the others. In the fourteenth century, -e« (or -s) became the ordinary suffix for all genders and both numbers. As in the case of the plund (V. 30), this suffix formed in pronunciation a sepirate syllable wherever it occurred ; but, by the beginning of the Modem English period, the present usage obtained, with the natural result of dropping the silent e. 66. The apostrophe began to be used in the singular towards the end of the seventeenth century, and in the plural still later. In the singular, it marks the elision of the vowel of the suffix, and was at first used pro* bably to distinguish the possessive from the plural : the full form ia still seen in Wednesday (0. E. Wodenes doeg, '* Woden's day"), and heard in the sound of the possessive of certain words. In the plural, the apos- trophe has no etymological value, being merely a sign for the eye, added because plurals ending in 8 were thought to be without the case- sign. 67. When the origin of the possessive inflection was forgotten, 's was for a long time supposed to be a corruption of the pronoun Ms. This erroneous belief was, no doubt, strengthened, if not suggested, by the fact that -is (another form of -es) was sometimes written apart from the stem : thus, we find in the Book of Hawking (about the time of Henry VI.): anoynt tlie hawke is erys ("hawk's ears") with oile of olive. Accordingly we find, especially in works of the sixteenth and seven* teenth centuries, such expressions as. For Jesus Christ his sake, Mordecal Ms matterr, Jolin Smith Ms book. This theory, as we have seen, historical grammar has proved to be incorrect ; besides it does not account for the fem. and pi. possessive forms of the pronouns hers, ours, etc., or of nouns that add s, nor for the formation from he, of Ms itself. 68. The following compounds, among others, contain the old genitive suffix -es, or a remnant thereof : Tuesday, 0. E. Tiwe% dceg, " Tiw's day" ; Wednesday, see 56. above ; Thursday O. E. Thunrea day, " the thunderer's day" ; (Saturday, O. E. Sxternea dceg, " Salter's (or Saturn's) day," once contained it) ; and many names of places, as Wansborougb, " Woden's borough" ; also daisy, M. £. dayeny, O. E. dcegea ige, " day's eye." And the following compounds once contained other genitive suffixes : lady-day, M. E. ladie day, "our lady's day" ; Friday, 0. E. Frige dceg, "Friga's day"; Sunday, 0. £. Sunrwa dasg, *' sun's day" ; Monday, 0. E. M6n»n dceg, ** moon's day ; and one remains in WlttnfiffW^S " the meeting (O. £. gemdt) of the wise men (0. E. wUena)," iilli! II f 116 NOUNS. tV. 69- 59. For the possessive case in almost all its uses we can put the objective with of: thus, the cat's head, or the head of the cat ; the king's enemies, or the enemies of the king. And many nouns are rarely or never used in the possessive, the other mode of expression being employed instead. 60. In Modern English, the possessive is used to express possession only, except in a few instances ; as, for example, a father's love, Charles's murder, Ireland's Isle, a year's study. Consequently, it is now used chiefly in reference to living things, which alone, properly speaking, can possess. In poetry and impassioned language, its use is, of course, more general. The Old English genitive had a wide range of use : it expressed, among others, the ideas of "time when," "measure," "value," "age," ' ' quality. ' ' Exam pies are U8SA tida., " in our times" ; j^nces !ang, " an inch long" ; dnea gedrea lamb, " a, lenah o{ one J'aegerea andvAUsM, "of fair year" ; countenance." 61. In compound nouns, the sign of the possessive is added at the end of the whole compound, of whatever kind it may be : thus, his father-in-law's house. 62. The same rule is followed in the case of a combination of two names, of a name preceded by a title, of a noun preceded or followed by descriptive or limiting words, and so on : thus, Mr. John Smith's horse ; the King cf England's crown ; Thomas Rohinson, Esq.'s, residence; his dead master Edward's memory; at my cousin William Thompson's; such a man as Smith's hat ; Mr. What do you call him's house. 63. Even when nouns are connected by and or or, the pos- sessive sign is added only to the last cf tHem, when they form a compound notion : thus, John and Mary's hook, Qod and Nature's hand, a fortnight or three weeks' possession. ^ >> lor English, we find the following constructions : Ms brother's death, the Duke of Clarence. for King Henry's sake, the Sixth. 3. — THE DIRECT AND THE INDIRECT OBJECTIVE. 64. There are certain uses of the noun (or pronoun) which represent another case, one which was formerly distinguished ▼.673 CASE. 117 t" • lim's [e pos- form ! in English, by a difference of form, from the nominative, pos- sessive, and objective, and which is still so distinguished in many languages — the so-called dative case {dative means " giving," this case being the one to use after verbs of " giving"). It expresses the relation usually signified by to or for, as the possessive expresses that signified by of. Thus, instead of saying, I sent a book to my fUend, we may say, I sent my friend a book; instead of He made a coat for the man, we may say. He made the man a coat. Friend and man, in the latter phrases, have really just as good a right to be called "datives" as friend and man after to and for in the former phrases have to be called "objectives." 65. But as there are no words in English, even pronouns, which have for such dative uses a special form, different from the objective, we call a word so used an objective of the indirect object; and distinguish the other, when necessary, as the DIRECT OBJECT. 4.— THE NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS. 66. Nouns have no distinction of person : that is to say, a noun used as subject takes the verb always in the same person, the third, even though used by the speaker about himself, or in addressing another : thus. The subscriber gives notice ; Is your honor well ? But we often address a person o** thing by name : thus, God ! Ye stars I See here, my friend ; What do you mean, you blockhead ? Some languages have for this use a special form, which is called the " vocative" case ; we use the subjective or nominative case ; and we may distinguish it, when thus used, as the voca- tive-nominative or NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS. 67. A nominative of address is never a member of a sentence ; it forms no part of either subject or predicate, but stands by itself, like an interjection. Bat it may have the same wordU^ I ill 118 HOUNS. [V. 6T- or phrases, or even clauses, added to it that the other cases have, by way of limitation or description. Thus, for example : Year Orace of York, set fotv.ard ! great Sciolto t my more than father I Our Father which art in heaven. 5.— KXAMFLES OF DECLENSION. 68. Examples of the complete inflection, or declension, of an English noun, are, then, as follows : Singr. PI. sing. PI. Sin?. PI. ^Tbjec«vT''}cat cats dress dresses man men ^'"sis'sive.^'*";- cat's cats' dress's dresses' man's men's 69. In Old Eagliuh there were two principal declensions — the Vowel declension, mainly limited to stems which originally ended in a, although there were remains of those in t and u ; and the Consonant declension, limited to stems ending in n, only fragments remaining of those in -r, •tid, and some other letters. The following table exhibits the principal forms of Old English declensions with their commonest Early and Middle English representatives. The latter illustrate also the processes of assimilation and phonetic decay by which the Modern forms have been evolved. It must be remembered, however, that between the Conquest and the Modern English period, a great deal of confusion prevailed in inflections themselves as well as in their spelling (See also 30., 60., 01., and 00. above). OldEng. SJ^ii^ Mod.Engr. Old Eng. gSj^ESi^ Mod. En|c. SINGULAR. Nom edge eye eye hora hora hone Gen edgan eye eye's horses horses bone's Dat edgan eye eye horse horse bone Ace edge eye eye hors hora bone PLURAL. Nom tdgan eyen eyes hora hora bones Gen edgena eyene eyes' horsa horae bones' Dat edgura eyen eyes horsum horse borses Ace edgan eyen eyes hora hora bones SINGULAR. Nom .... feU feU field dixd dede deed Gen feldes feldes field's deede dede deed's Dat /elda felde fitfld dcede dede deed Kon.,.../eH /M IMM da^^-t (Udf ' IM' !'■ ▼. 71. C] NOUN-EQUIVALENTS. 119 cculiaritic8 of nunihor in the following :— Ee hM no otJactioM, I wm In hU favon, Z will nqniU your Iotm, Break not your tleepi tot that. §§ 49-69. }sr 19. Name and explain the different noun cases and case-forms in the loUowing : — 1. The servant brought his master a horse. 2. John struck James a blow. 3. The master taught the boys grammar. 4. He asked the man a question. 6. Envy no man his honors. 6. Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice. 7. Happy is the bride the sun shines on. 8. Meat and matins hinder no man's Journey. 9. He did his master's work for righteousness' sake. 10. Reproof never does a wise man harm. 11. So ended the day's sorrows. 12. Look, look, Richard. 20. Write, with explanations thereof, the possessive cases, singular and plural, of mother, man, girl, John, righteousness, woman, Xerxes, sheep, fish, Moses, rose, people, tree, King of Rome, What-do-you-call-hlm. 21. State and illustrate the ordinary differences between the possessive case and the adjective phrase with of. 22. Discuss any case peculiarities in the following : — 1. By the blue lake's silver beach. 2. Of Amanda, our friend Loveless's M'ife, 3. To his dead master Edward's royal memory. 4. Forgiveness of tlie queen, my sister's wrongs. 5. The Psalms are .David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people. 6. In wonder-works of God and Nature's hand. 7. Oliver and Boyd's printing office. 8. After a fortnight or three weeks' possession. 9. For honour's, pride's, religion's, virtue s sake. 10. The sage's and the poet's theme. 23. Give definitions of the following terms as applied to nouns : — Abstract, Concrete, Proper, Common, Collective, Gender, Diminuthe, Augmentative t Simple, Derivative,Compound, Inflection, Number, Singular, Plural^ Case, Nominative, Direct object, Indirect object, Nominaiive er that there are few ditf.jultics connected with the ordinary parsing of an English wcrd except those that concern its kind and its constnictinn. Very often it will be sufilcient to confine the parsing to these two points. In writing out parsing exercises, any intel- ligible abbreviation may be used. In parsing a word it is well to deal with the different particulars in a certain order, but the pupil should, as far as possible, be required to give his explanations in his own language. Generally speaking, a set form of expression on any subject shouUt he avoided ; and, when it is not possible to vary much the expression of a thought, the teacher should, by frequent questioning, make sure that the pupil has a thorough comprehension of the meaning of any technical tcnns used in the explanations or deacriptiops. EXAMPLE OF PARSING NOUN.S. tho >ther it of |roper The Pained In the Iptcrs, By are J)i'i the Liatize Inie to My brother laid the paintings on John's wrltlng-deslc The first thing to be done here, as always, is analyze the sentence (pp. 49 and 50). The bare subject is to be first taken up and parsed, and then its complements ; afterwards the predicate and its complements are to be dealt with in the same order. In general, a word modified by another is to be parsed before that other. This is a rule of higfiest importance. We begin, tnen, with brother : Brother is r. noun, because it is the name of something (namely, the name of a living being) ; a common noun, beccuse it belongs alike to every indi\iduiu of a class; a gender-noun, because it implies a dis> tinction of sex ; masculine, because it denotes only a male being ''the corresponding feminine being sister); it is a simple noun, because it cannot be taken apart into simple >' Englisl* elements ; singular, because rt means only one of its class; li is inflected thus : brother, brother''^., brothers, brothors'; it is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the sentfcuce, the subjcot-ncmfnative of the verb laid. Of my, it is enough to say hete that it is an ad^ctstive m~u < ing brother, showing whose brother i.^ meant. Of laid, again, we need say only that it is a verb, the bare predicate of the sentence, having for its subject the nuiui brother. The noun paintings, again, we parse completely, but in a briefer form : Paintings is a noun, common ; a derivative from the verb paint (as signifying somtthirKj painted) ; of the plural nuinber (because it denotes more than one of the things denoted by painting) ; and in the objective case, the object of the verb laid, being added to the verb to show what was laid. The is an adjective word called an article, modifying p'^'^i'^^ngs. Writing-desk is a common noun; a com pound, r\,Ae p of wrltinff and desk (meaning "a denk for wril^nj oa"); ? thr i^bjective case singular, object of the preposition on, being joiueoi by tho preposition to the verb laid, in order to show where the books were laid. John'a is a simple noun ; proner (because used to di> 'ingaish a certain individual from others of ^us olass) ; masculine ; in thi possessive 126 NOUNS. liiii >> :.'li! m singular ; and it modifies writiog-desk, being added to it to show toJiose writing-desk is meant. Of on, finally, it is enough to say that it is a preposition, joining its object writing-desk to the verb laid. Pupils who have already hod a training in elementary grammar should parse as fully as they can all the other words in each exercise. ' EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN PARSING NOUNS. For practice in parsinfr. pupils may be made to turn back to the exercises already triven under the precedint; chapters ; or they may be directed to the va<-iou8 illustrative sentences in the text ; or to sentences made by the teacher or piipils, and written out upon the board ; or to sentences selected by the teacher and written in tne same way ; or to passagres in the other text-books which llie class is uaing—anything to make variety in the exercisej and rid it of a mechanical character. From 1 to 18 of the followtn)]: examples are (fivcn to illustrate special and exceptional points in the form and the function of the noun ; from 19 to 32, in the form and the function of noun phrases and clauses. 1. The chambers of sickness and distress are mostly peopled with the victims of intemperance and sloth. 2. I have bought five yoke of oxen. 3. I will make thee a great nation. 4. Cool shades and dews are round my way. 6. In this place ran Cassius' dagger throu,((h. 6. Some so-called geniuses have little genius. 7. His brother pirate's hand he wrung. 8. The vile alone are^ain ; the great are proud. 9. Thy songH were made for the pure and free. Ip. O night and darkness ! ye are wondrous strong. 1 1 . He strode haughtily into the thickest of the group. 12. From gold to gray, our wild sweet day of Indian summer fades too soon. 13. A hundred of the foe shall be a banquet for the mountain birds. 14. So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not to those fresh morning drops upon the rose. 15. He giveth his beloved sleep. 16. Jove but laughs at lovers' perjury. 17. 1 hey bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 18. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. 19. He wants to see who is there. 20. He fears being thought foolish. 21. To be thus is nothing. 22. But are you sure that Benedick loves Beatrice io entirely ? 28. From that moment she was aware that I fully ap^yreciated her situation. 24. Mr. P. was desirous that Fanny should continue her journey. 25. Persuasion in me grew that I was heard with favor. 26. That he really was a wonderful child we have evidence. 27. My husban*! has no idea that I have been here. 28. See "vhethor it be well with thy brethren. 29. I wonder if he cautioned her. 30. Look at where the sister of the king of France sits wringing her hands. 31. Have they any sense of why they sing? 32. Father of light and lif j, thou God supreme ; O teach me what is good I teach me thyself ! / Vt4S PfiONOtlfS. 127 its Illy ody bivo out ay : ■ake )iial the ith 3 of SWS te's !J^ ud. iss! tof tner the 1080 :ep. ray ca iara ^ou ent vas me ful jen if ice IS CHAPTER VI. PRONOUNS. DEFINITION AND USES. 1. A pionoun, as w? have seen (II. 17), is :«. kind of substitute for a noun : that is, instead of using a noun to designate an object, we may use a pronoun ; and, consequently, we may (losiar.ato by a pronoun an object for which we have no name. Th* !e is, however, no reason to believe that pronouns were iii ented for this purpose. They are among tlie oldest parts of speech, and have undergone many changes in form. Their antiquity is shown clso by the irregularity of their inflections — a charaf^teristic they possess in common with the oldest verbs and adjectives. 2. Pronouns have, in general, the same uses as nouris have; but pronouns are scarcely ever modified by adjectives placed before them and directly qualifying them. Thus, for example, we can say these xi«en, good men, but not these you, good we. 3. Som-^ t f the words used as pronouns are used also as ad- jectives, !■ ytJify ing H noun that is expressed, instead of standing for one i.^at i:^ omitted : thus, wo say either This MML ici my father, or This is my father. This distinction between the subsstantive and the adjective value of the same word, or betv/een its uses as a pronoun and as a pronominal adjective, should always be clearly and accurately made. CHANGES OP FORM. 4. Pr .. .>uni have also the same inflection as nouns : namely, for numit>* !'ni c -se. And some of them, as has been pointed out abo\ftOKOUNS. 131 So the plural of the second person signifies either a number of persons addressed, or one or more such along with others who are regarded as being in one company with them : thus, Tott [whom I speak to] must listen to me ; Tea [Germans] are a nation of scholars. 14. In certain styles, we, our, ours, us, are used by a single speaker of himself. So, especially by a sovereign : as We, Victoria, Queen of England ; also, by a writer, an editor or contributor to a periodical, who speaks as if he represented the whole body of people coiicorned in editing or contributing to the publication for which he writes. 15. The pronoun of tho second pci-son singular, thou, etc., is no longer used by us (as it was in former times) when ordinarily speaking to one another ; but it is left for certain higher and more solemn or more impassioned uses, especially ii. orayer and in poetry : thus, thou to whom all creatures bow. How mighty is thy name ! The plural form ye (formerly the only nominative case) we use in much the same way : thus, night and darkness, ye are wondrous strong I Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault. And you, formerly objective only, has become the common pronoun of address, both nominative and objective, whether we speak to one person or to more than one. Being properly a plural pronoun, you takes, when subject, the verb in the plural, even though only one person is addressed : thus, you are and you were ; never you is and you was. Thou and ye (or you) are often, like nouns, used in the nominative of address, in calling to persons or things addressed, as in the examples given above. 16. From the end of thtkthirteenth to the seventeenth century, you was the pronoun of respect, the plural beiut; probably regarded as implying that the person addressed was of more importance than a mere individuaL Possibly, also, its use was regarded as a less direct mode of address than the singular, just as in Modem German the third person plural is used where we use the seoond. Darins this period, tbou was used in familiar discourse. Hence it was nsed intne language of affectionate intercourse, of good-humored saperiority towards servants, and of contempt and t II 132 ffiOKOt^Nd. [Vl. 14- anger towards Btrangers who are not the inferiors of the speaker. Naturally, a familiar mode of address adopted towards those with whom we are not on terms that justify it, is itself a proof of anger or contempt. Somewhat in the same way we now use the word fellow to express both contempt and fond familiarity. Further on (Xin.)i it will be seen that in certain constructions me, us, thee, and you are real datives. Li^' 1 II.— The DemonsCratlve Pronoun of the Third Person. 17. The pronoun which is used as the substitute for the name of anything spoken of is often called the Personal Pronoun of the THIRD PERSON. It is, however, strictly speaking, demon' strati ve in function (demonstrative means " pointing out, shoW' ing, directing attention to"), and is best described as the DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN OP THE THIRD PERSON. When We speak of an object as he, we point it out just as when we speak of it as this man, only with less force and explicitness. This pronoun distinguishes not only number and case, but, in the singular, gender also ; that is to say, we use one pronoun when the object referred to is male, another when it is female, and another when it is of no sex, or when we make no account of its sex. The first form is called the masculine, because it stands for a masculine gender-noun ; the second, the feminine, because it stands for a feminine gender-noun; the third, neuter, because it stands for any noun that is " neither'' masculine nor feminine. I. — INFLECTIONS. 18. The complete declension of this pronoun is as follows : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Norn . . he she it Poss . . [his] [her, hers] [its] Obj . . . him her it The same remarks apply to these possessive cases as to those of I and thou (VI. 9). they [their, theirs] them 19. The following table exhibits the development of the modern fomift of this pronoun : — Mas. Fem. Xom. he hed Gen. his hire Dat. Aim hire OLD EXO. EARLY AND MID. ENO. SINQULAR. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut. hit Jie, ha, a heo, he, she hit, it his his hire . his him him, hem hire hine, ine hi, hire HOD. ENO. Mas. Fem. Neut. he she it his her, hers its it Ace. hine hi, hed hit him, hem him her hit. it him her It UIMMWiB^iMiWMIM 16- VI. 22] DEMONSTRATIVES. 133 FLURAL FOR ALL OKNDERS. ■n formft NO. Neut. It ten Its It SI Num. hi hi, he, thai, Ihei they Geu. hira hi, hut, hise their, theirs Dat. him hire, here, heore them Ace. hi hem, heom them 20. Of the 0. E. pronoun, the fern. nom. sing., and all the forms of the plural, have been superseded by the corresponding forms of the demonstrative pronoun se, sed, thait. This change, which began to take glace during the Early E. period, but which was not completed till the fteenth century, is due to the desire to distinguish between the forms of the pronouft, which, by phonetic weakening, had frequently become identical. Thus, for instance, in Earlv E. he represents the Modern he, she, and they ; and him or hem, the Moiiern him, It, and them. The resort to the demonstrative was but natural (VI. 17), and began as early as the end of the twelfth century ; but, as was the case with some of the other personal pronouns, complete differentiation did not take place at once, 1[X)th sets of forms existing for centuries side by side. And, as was also usual in these movements, the Northern dialect led the way. 21. Him, now indifferently dir. or indir. obj., was, in O. E., only a dat. of he or hit, -m being a dat. suffix. It gradually superseded the masc. ace. Jiine during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Modern It (derived from, the ace. of the neuter pronoun) displacing it for the neuter. In our obj. her, the -r (that is, -re) was a fem. dat. sufHx. So, too, -m in them was a dat. suffix. In the literature of the first part of the seventeenth century we find 'hem (probably the original of the modern 'em) as if for them, representing the O. E. hem or heom, which them displaced. It is probable also that the modern vulgarism in such expressions as them books is a relic of the old adjectival use of this pronoun. 22. The possessive adjectives his and her are true genitives, -a and -r being the suffixes of this case. For the forms hers and theirs, see VI. 12. The original genitive of It was his ; but this was also the genitive of he. To get rid of the confusion which, on the loss of grammatical gender, affected these genitives, various expedients were at first resorted to. Sometimes, as iu the authorized version of the Bible, of It and thereof were used ; sometimes the was substituted, as ia That which retalneth the state and virtue ; but frequently It was regarded by the Elizabethan dramatists as in- declinable : thus, It Knighthood shall fight all It fMends. The most usual method, however, was to change the construction of the sentence. This difficulty led to the formation of Its on the analogy of the other pronominal forms. So far as is known, its appeared first in print in 1598. It is not found in the authorized version of the Bible ; it is found but ten times in Shakespeare ; in Jonson it is still more common ; and by the middle of the seventeenth century, it had become thoroughly established ; though the fact that Milton uses it only three times in his poetry, and rarely in his prose, shows that there was even then a prejudice against it 134 PRONOUNS. [VI. 8S- II. — DISTINCTIONS OF SEX. 23. By the use of the first two forms of this pronoun in the singular, we make a distinction of sex : a. In those creatures which have evident sex, or in which the difference of sex is an important matter, and especially in human beings, men and women ; and b. Sometimes in personified objects — that is, in those which, though we know they are not persons, we yet talk about as if they were so, as if they possessed sex. Thus, we speak of the sun as he, and of the moon or the earth or a ship as she. 24. The general principles that govern personification are as follows : (1) Things remarkable for, or associated with the notion of, strength, violence, superiority, majesty, or sublimity, are regarded as male ; for example, Death, War, the Sun, the Ocean, Winter, Anger, Heaven. (2) Tilings which possess gentleness, beauty and grace, or productive- ness, or which are the objects of affection or care, are regarded as female ; for example. Night, Nature, the Earth, Spring, Hope, Virtue, Poetry, Art. (.3) Classical mythology has also influenced our personifications : thus, as in the Classics, Love and Time are masculine; and Justice and Discord, feminine. So, too, the planets Jupiter and Saturn are masculine, and Venue and Vesta, feminina This usage gives English a marked advantage over most other lan- guages, in the poetical or the rhetorical style ; for when objects that are M'lthout life are regarded as male or female, the personification is far more effective than in those languages that possess true gender. 25. On the other hand, even objects that have sex, as the lower animals, are usually or often denoted by it, their sex not being important enough to be noticed. Or, in some cases, we use he and she of them — as he of the dog, and she of the cat — without any particular reference to their sex, but because their qualities in general appear to us to justify the use of these pro- nouns. And it is regularly used as corresponding pronoun to child, baby, and other such words, because they are not gender- nouns, but imply an overlooking of the sex of the beings signified by them. ^.^ HI. — USES OF IT. 26. It has a variety of special uses in which its usual pro- nominal force — its detiniteness of reference — 15 weakened. Tht jnore im|x)rtant of these are f^^ follows : vi:. 26. o] DEMONSTRATIVES. 135 the pro- Th« a. It very often stands as subject of a verb to represent a phrase or a clause which is the real subject, and which is then put after the verb : thus, It is not difficult to die ; It is doubtful whether he will come ; It is to you that I speak ; It was then that he went ; that is, To die is not difficult ; Whether he will come is douhtftil ; That I speak (that is, my speaking) is to you ; That he went (that is. His going) was then. So, too, in interrogative sentences ; When was it that he went ? that is, When was that he went (that is, his going)? And we sometimes find it used in familiar style even in r«ference to a following noun phrase : thus, It is surprising the little money he has. But this construction is not reputable (I. 61), and should be avoided in literary English. In all such sentences, it is called the grammatical or repre- sentative SUBJECT ; and the word, or the phrase, or the clause is called the logical subject ; that is, the subject *' according to the logic or real meaning of the sentence." The effect of this idiom is to emphasize the subject by putting it at the end of the sentence out of its usual position. So, too, in the follow- ing idiom. b. In the same way, it stands as a representative object of a verb : thus, I think it wrong to do so ; that is, So, too, I think to do so wrong. I think it wrong that he has done so ; and I think it wrong for him to do so. c. It stands as impersonal subject of a verb ; that is, it does not signify any real subject, but helps the verb to make an assertion without reference to any actor or jjerson ; thus, It rains ; It was cold ; It grew dark fast ; It will soon strike ten ; Is it far to London? It came to blows between them ; that is, "The apt of raining is b^in^ performed," and so on. 136 PRONOUNS. [VI. S6. 0- |l''^'; m Of the same nature is the use of It in theT>b8oleto expressfoni. It repents, sbames, pities, pains me ; the intention here \mng to express feolings which we do not control. Such impersonal constructions were very common in older Englinh ; 1)Ut most of them liave disappeared, owing to the continual tendency to definiteness shown by Eaglisn and other progressive languages. d. Soinetinies, also, it stands as impeusgnal object of a verb, that is, it does not signify any real object : thus. They footed it through the streets ; He lorded it oyer them ; Oome and trip it as we go ; Foot it featly here and there. 27. If we attempted to represent, by a noun phrase, the it in any of the sentences in c. or d., we should give it a value which it does not possess ; for example, if we substituted Tbe time of the year for It in It will soon be December. So, too, retaining the form of the sentence, we cannot substitute an ec^uivalent expression for it in any of the sentences in a. or b. In these special uses, It is, therefore, a weakened part of speech (II. 39). III.— Compc iin«l Pronor.ns of the First, Second, and TMrd Persons. STBUCTURK AND USES. 28. The words self (sing.) and selves (plur.) are added to my, our, thy, your, him, her, it, and them, forming a class of compound personal pronouns, which have two principal uses : a. To mark emphasis^ either alone or (more usually) along with th<3 si;nple pronoun : thus, I myself or me myself; none but herself. Thus used, they are called emphatic personal pronouns. And these compounds have so assumed the character of emphatic per- sonal pronouns that myself and thyself are occasionally found in the more elevated style, without any preceding I and thou, as subjects of the verb in the nrst and the second person : thus, Myself am Naples ; Thyself art God. But this usage should not be imitated in ordinary literary English. b. As the reflexive object of a verb ; that is, an object denoting the same person or thing as the subject : thus, I dress myself; They saw themselves deceived ; You will hurt yourself, or yourselves. Thus used, they are called reflexive personal pronouns. Oiirself and yourself denote a single person (VI. 14 aud 15) ; ourselves and yourselves, more than one. So, too, the simple pronoun is sometimes used reflexively * thus, Comfort ye, oomfort ye, my people ; So 1«14 Mm OoWBt VL SI] DEMONSTRATIVES. 187 I loiing 15); 29. In Old Engliflh, »i{f waa used eenerally as an adjective, joined to nouns and pronouns, and infleoted regularly : thus, with pronouns, we find Ic ftilfat min ailfes, me ail/um, hitu ail/ne. Between the nom. of the personal pronoun and the word siif, the Htive case of the pronoun was, for a time, inseited : thus, Ic me silf, thu the ailfj he himHff, we tts sil/e, ye edw ail/e, hi him sil/e. Probably when silf, like other adjectives, lost its inflections, it came to be looked upon as u noun. In the course of time, however, while it was used with the objective of pronouns of the third person (thus, himself, herself, itself), in the case of the other personal pronouns it was treated as a noun modified by a possessive atijective (thus, vie self and the self became mi self (th&t is, myself) and thi self (that is, thyself) ). These forms became established during the Mid. E. period, and have since remained unchanged. The modern plurals did not show themselves till towards the beginning of the Mod. E. period. Before then we tind such plurals as hemtie.lf or themnef/. During the first half of the sixtosnth century tlie origin of the compounds of self was forgotten, and they conformed to the general law for the formation of plurals mi -If. The modem confusion of case-forms has made it possible, if we disregard the historical development, to value the her in herself aa a possessive adj., -^r, in objective constructions, as the subject of the appositive self, imilarly with the other ambiguous forms. IV.— Other Demonstrative ProBonas. INFLECTION AND USKS. 30. The markedly demonstrative pronouns in English are, in the singular, this and that, with the corresponding plurals, these and those. All these words are used both as nominative and as objective cases, and they have no possessive. For their adjective value, see VII. We sometimes find described as demonstratives such, same, other, etc. ; but this and that are the words which have a markedly demon- strative pronominal value. All pronouns relate, and so are, in a sense, demonstrative. 31. As the following paradigms show, the O. E. forms of these pro- nouns were very fully innected ; but the modern survivals are but few : SINGULA B. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. the, ae the6, aed thcet Gen. thcea thcere tJtcea Dat. tham thoere tliam Ace. thone thd that Inst %. the PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. A'l genders. Masc. Fem. Neut. All genders. thd thea theda thia tJtda thdra, thaera thiaea thiaae thiaea thiaaa thdm, theem thitum thiaae thiaum thiaum thd thiane thda thia thd$ theo8tthy» 1 iH w y- 138 PRONOUNS. [▼ISl^ Consequently, this waa originally neuter; thus, as late as 1387, we find masc. thes, fern, theos, neuter this, with plur. thAs, tbese (originally thlae) being a later formation derived directly from this. That is the neater of the, the plural beinc; represented by tho (0. E. thi). The modem those is by some regarded as having been formed from tho; by others, from thdA, tho plural of this, thd supplying the modern they. The iinal e in those and these has been tuided merely as an orthographical expedient. 32. This and these are used to mean something nearer ; that and those, something farther otf. Consequently, this is sometimes equivalent to "the latter," and that to *' the former" : thus, . . . reason ralso o'er Instinct an yon can, In this 'tis Ood directs, in that 'tis man. This may refer to something immediately preceding, or to something im.roediately following : tha\i has tho Jattor property, but not often the former. Examples of these uses are This is right ; that is wrong ; He took no care of his life ; he knew this was safe ; He learned this at least, to hear up against misfortune ; To be or not to be— that is the question. That and those are also much used, instead of it and they, as ANTECEDENTS of a relative pronoun : thus, we may say He whom you saw; but we must say That (not it) which you saw. In informal Modern Englibh, however, we prefer, in such constructions, to use, even for he or she or its plural, the man or. the woman, the person, etc. Probably he, she, it, and they are not now felt to have sufficient demonstrative force to serve as antecedents for restrictive relative clauses. So, too, in the following idiom. That and those are used, too, in place of a noun which would have to be repeated .iiong with a phrase describing it : thus, My horse and that (not it) of my neighbor ; Home-made articles and tlnose (not they) £rom abroad. This very convenient idiom we have borrowed from the French : it saves the disagreeable repetition of nunns or noun-phrases. Emphasis, of course, requires the repetition of the word or the phrase. 33. The adver o so i& sometimes used with the value of a demonstratifit pronoun in such sentences as He said so ; He told me so ; in whion 90 points to something said before. . ■.. j«i « iH i > ii i ' VL87] INTEBROGATIVES. 139 Respecting hero and there, used in composition with prepositions in the sense of " this" and •' that" or "it"— a« in herewith, therein, thereof, etc., Md below (IZ.)* v.— Interrogative Pronoaiuu 34. The INTERROGATIVE pronouns are wixo, wha'ti, which, and whether. Their office is to ask a question, or to make an interrogative sentence ; and tlieir usual place is as near as possible to the beginning of the sentence : thus, Who comes here? What does he want? With whose permission did he leave home ? Which of us does he seek ? ions, the lave ;tiv6 mid : it Bis, LtiTt I. — INFLECTIONS. 35. Who is used, without any change of form, both as singidar and as plural : thus, either Who was here? or Who were here? It has, however, like the personal pronouns, three case-forms : nominative, who [possessive, whose] ; objective, whom. The others have no forms of declension, and are used only as nominatives and objectives ; which is either singular or plural ; what and whether are onlv' singular. .The same remarks apply to whose as to the possessives referred to in VI. 9 and 18. Whether is now hardly used at all, being an old-fashioned word for " which one of two": thus, Whether is greatex, the gift or the altar? 36. In Old English the interrogative pronouns were hwd, "who"; hwcet, *' what"; hwilc, "of what sort"; and hwcether, " which of two." Durins the twelfth century, words which had originally begun with hw changed their form to wh (IV. 43. a). Htod was used both as a masc. and a fern., the special feminine which belonged to the primitive Teutonic having disappeared from Old English and the other sister languages, with the exception of the Gothic. Hwoit is, strictly speaking, the neuter of htod {t being a neuter suffix). 87. The following table exhibits the development of the moflem forms of the interrogative pronoun : — I ,;.! m M 111!' |l Iter ■ill ifi i-p' i' is 140 OLD ENGLISH. Hmu Fern. Neut. Nom. hvM hvod hwcet Gen. ^wce« hwaes hwces Dat. hwam hwcem hwam Ace. hwone hwone hwcet PEONOUNS. EABLY ANP MID. EXO. Mas. and Fern. Neut. * hud, huo huet, wat huas, huos, woa hwam, hwo7n, worn hwam, hwan, wan huet, wat [VI. 37- MOD. ENO. M. and F. N. Who wliat whose whom what whom what Instr. hwy hvri/ hvxy The history of this pronoun is like that of the pronoun of the third person. About the beginning of the Mid. E. period hivam supplanted wkone in the masc, aa him did hine ; and, like him, whom came to be used of persons only, and the ace. what was, for a time, alone used when objects without life were mentioned. So, too, as his has been restricted to the masculine (VI. 22), whose has been restricted to persons. 38. Nunlc (whilk, v^hulk, wuch, wich, and which), like such (VI. 66. d), a compound of Zlc ("like"), and the instr. case of hwd, was originally inflected like an adjective. Hvjccther, derived from hwd and the com- parative sulBx -ther (as in neither, neuter), was also declined adjectively. In 0. E. its dual sense began to fail, and even in the authorized version of the Bible we find Whether of them twain did the will of his father? The use of whether as an interrogative died out in the seventeenth century, which taking its place, the distinction (as in the case of the dual number) having been felt to be unnecessary. II. — USES. I 39. Between who and what we make a distinction different from that which we make arywhere else in the language : who (with whose and whom) is used of persons, human beings ; what is us(!d of everything else, whether living creatures or inanimate things. 40. Which differs from both who and what in being selective : that is, it implies a certain known number or body of indivi- duals, from among whom the right one is to be selected; whereas who and what are indefinite. Thus, if we say, Who did it? or What did it? we do not appear to know anything about the actor ; but Which did it? implies that, we know certain persons or things, of which one or another must have been the actor. Which is used of both persons and things. 71.43] RELATIVES. 141 :;tive : 41. Who and its cases are pronouns only ; what and which are also "interrogative adjectives" (VII. 35). For the treat- ment of whose, see VII. 30. Who and what (with other interrogative words) are used also in an exclamatory sense (XVI.) In older English vrhSLt is sometimes used adverbially in the sense of why: thus, Wbat need we wine when we have NIIub to drink of? Sometimes even now in the less formal style we find the same usage : thus. What better will that make it? Where, in composition with prepositions, is often used, especially in antiquated and solemn style, in the sense of what : thus, wherein ? is equivalent to In what ? (IX.) VI.— Conjunctive or Kelatlve Pronouns. 42. The demonstrative pronoun that, and the interrogative pronouns who, what, and which, are also used in a way that is called "relative"; and, when so used, they are known as conjunctive or relative pronouns. 43. Like the other older Aryan languages, the Teutonic sub-family did not possess a relative in the strict sense of the term : complex sentences are not a growth of the early stages of the development of a language. In Old English the duty of the relative was performed by the following : (1) The indeclinable the. (2) The demonstrative «e, serf, thcet. (3) The, joined to the demonstrative, giving, for example, in the nom. : se the, sed the, thont the, or thalte. (4) And occasionally tJie joined to the personal pronouns. jA.fter the Conquest, the was the first to be given up, owing to its employment then as the definite article. All the forms of the demon- stratives remained as relatives till the end of the twelfth century ; but the only one that was much used was ihtpt ("that"), which displaced the as a general iv'.ative, becoming well established by the middle of the thirteenth century. As the language progressed, it began at an early period to resort to the interrogatives for additional relatives. Whioh first came into general use ; sometitnes alone ; sometimes preceded bv the ; and •ometimes followed by tbat or as, to give it a markedly relative value. From the foorteenth to the seventeenth century it was used for Ui PBONOUNS. [VI. 4S* w .;: Pi both persons and thingu ; but, when in the seventeenth century who began to be generally used, which was, aa now, restricted to things, thus superseding what, the proper neuter relative. By differentiation, what in this way acquired its present value. As in the case of which, we find the archaic constructions, that what, what that, what as; after who, too, that was used for a time. By the Elizabethan period, these double forms had almost wholly disappeared, and all relatives were used singly without hesitation. From then till now, a struggle has been going on with varying success between that and who and which. Judging from analogy, the struggle will end in the complete differentiation of these forms (VI. 64). During all periods, whose, representing etymologically the genitive of both who and what, has been applied indifferently to animate and inanimate objects. Whose is sometimes used now as the possessive of which, beins borrowed from the neuter what. The preference manifested by some for of which instead of whose is due to a desire to restrict whose to persons, but it is doubtful whether this differentiation will ultimately prevail (VI. 62). In the case of both interrogatives and relatives — as in the case of the personal pronouns — the noni. and obj. forms were confounded as soon as case-inflections had lost their force, and before differentiation had set in. In the phrase than whom, we have probably a survival of this confusion. I. — GENERAL USES. 44. A relative refers or relates (hence its name) to a noun or another pronoun in the same sentence ; and that other, as it generally stands first, is called the antecedent ("one going before," "predecessor") of the relative. But this "relation" is of a peculiar kind. The relative pronoun introduces a separate clause, and joins that clause adjectively to the antecedent in the way of a limitation or a description of it. 45. In The man who was sick is now well, the assertion is that a certain man is well, and he is distinguished from other men by the adjective clause who was sick, where the relative who is subject, relating to man as antecedent, and was sick is predicate. So, also, in The gift which (or that) you ask shall be bestowed, He in whom you trust will not fail us, The boy whose knife was lost has bought another; gift and he and boy are the antecedents, their application being limited or restricted by the clauses which (or that) you ask, and in whom you trust, and whose knife was lost. This use of the relative is called restrictive. 46. Again, in My father, who was present, resented the imult ; ^""W tt m!!*m.MMmMafASJm VL4§.j ftfiLATlVfiS. 143 the assertion is that my father resented the insult, and he is simply described by the adjective clause who was present, where, as before, who is the subject, relating to father, and was present is predicate. So, also, in The sun, which shines above, is golden ; Man, whose soul is immortal, has a mortal body ; the adjective clauses do not distinguish sun and man from other objects of the same name ; they merely describe them. This use of the relative is called descriptive. 47. For wUch and who in descriptive clauses, and with a personal or a demonstrative pronoun, may often be substituted with the same logical force : thus, instead of I notmed tbe constable, who arrested him at once, we may say X notified the constable, and he arrested him at once. Hence this use of the relative is sometimes called co-ordinatino. 48. But the conjunction to be substituted with the personal or the demonstrative pronoun in a descriptive clause is sometimes subordinate: thus, in He struck me who had done so much for him, the relative clause is logically equivalent to although I had done so much for him : and the restrictive relative may sometimes be represented in the same way : thus, for Soldiers who fight bravely die fearlessly, we may say with nearly the same force Soldiers die fearlessly If they fight bravely. Bat this kind of substitution is not so markedly allowable in restrictive as in descriptive clauses. This distinction of relatives and relative clauses, though an important one, is one of logic, not of grammar. 49. Any word or phrase describing or limiting a noun may be thus turned into an adjective clause by the help of a relative pronoun, having the noun as its antecedent. Thus, My good father is logically the same as My father who is good ; and This modestly blushing girl is logically, the same as This girl thftt Uushes modestly. 144 PROKOUNS. [VI. «• •.|||| m ■:';i^l It *.s because the relative thus acts like a conjunction, by joining a clause to the word which the clause describes or limits, that it is also called a "conjunctive" pronoun; and, as it is in this respect that who, which, what, and that differ from other pronouns (which also "relate" to nouns), the terra "conjunctive" is more truly descriptive of them than " relative." II.— GOVERNMENT OF THE RELATHTE. 60. The relative pronoun, when its antecedent is a pronoun of the first or of the second person, shares, as it were, the person of its antecedent, and, if used as subject, takes the verb in the corresponding person : thus, I, who am your ftiend, tell you so; To thee, who hast thy dwelling here on earth. And in like maimer after a vocative : thus, Dark anthracite, that reddenest on my hearth! li''; III. — ^USES OF WHO AND WHICH. 51. Who, when relative, just as when interrogative, is used only of persons, and is both singular and plural. It has the possessive whose, and the objective whom. For example : The man who was [or the men who were] recently with us, whose character we respected, whom we loved, and with whom we shared joys and sorrows, has [or have] been taken ttom us. 62. When not persons, but other creatures or things, are meant, the corresponding relative is which (not what, as 'n the interrogative use). Thus, We have the letter which he wrote us; Branches which hang from the tree. Whose is often used as the possessive of which, because more convenient and less formal than of which : thus, A tale whose lightest word, etc. ; Brown groves whose shadow, etc. ; but many disapprove of this, and think it proper to say only of which. VI. 64] RBLATIVES. 145 Which is also sometimes used descriptively (VL 46) of the substantive notion contained in the preceding sentence or part of a sentence : thus, in The man was said to be innocent, which he was not ; and We are bound to obey all the Divine commands, which we cannot do without Divine aid ; which is equivalent to and this, the meaning of this being evident from the context. WUcIi, now used only of things, or of persons collectively (V. 12), formerly applied to individual persons also : thus, Onr Father which art In heaven, etc. In older English, and rarely even now, the which is used instead of simple which: for example, in Byron, 'Twas a foolish quest, The which to gain and keep, he sacrificed all rest. IV. — USES OP THAT. 53. That is a very general relative ; it may be used instead of either who or which, referring both to persons and to things, and to one or to more than one. For example : The head that wears a crown ; Wake ! all ye that sleep; Repent the evil that you have done. But that as relative does not follow a preposition. We say only the man of whom, the town from which, and so on ; not of that or from that. Yet, if the relative object of a preposition stands apart from it, before the verb, either that or the other relatives may be used : thus, either The book that I told you of, or The book which I told you of; but only The book of which I told you. 54. Some grammarians hold that who and which are to be used descriptively, and that rcstrictively : thus, This soldier, who was recently wounded ; Olonds, which are bodies of vapor ; but The soldiers that were wonnded were left ; A clond that lay near the horiion ; 10 146 ^ttOKOtJKd. LVl.64- l!}' .i and so on. But the best English usage by no njeans alwayf supports such a distinction. There are, however, certain cases in which that should be used, and not who or which : a. "When there are two or more antecedents expressing both persons and things. Thus, we use that, not whom or which, in I saw the boy and the dog that you pointed out. b. When the use of who or which would leave us in doubt as to whether the relative clause is restrictive or descriptivo : thus, in I gave it to my brother who has left town, we should use that for who, if we wish to define brother by the relative clause. 55. On the other hand, that should not be used if the ante- cedent is already clearly defined ; that is, it should not be used except in restrictive clauses. Hence it should not be used after proper names, and such other nouns or noun-phrases as have already a clearly defined reference : thus, He received it from my father, who went away. In other cases the selection of the relative seems to be at present a question of euphony or of taste rather than of grammar. ^ v.— SIMPLE INDEFINITE RELATIVES. 56. What differs from the other relatives in that it has not an antecedent expressed in the sentence, and, therefore, remains indefinite or undetermined in value, whereas the other relatives are determined by their antecedents. When used relatively, it implies both antecedent and relative ; that is, it is nearly equivalent to that which (that demonstrative, and which relative), and, consequently, always introduces a substantive clause. It is not used of persons. Examples of its use are What is done cannot be undone ; I saw what he was doing r He understands of what {i.e., that of which) you were speaking. Thus used, what is called a simple indefinitb relative. In our earlier writers the use of what with a correlative was comnKOi t thiu, in Shakespeare we find, Tbat what we priie not to th« worth. UB:-ii«»!'l!liijM ▼LM] ItfiLAtlVltS. 147 In poetry, too, and in older prose, its correlative is sometimea expressed if the principal clause follows : thus, Wliat thou would'st higbly, that would'st thoa hollly ; What he hath seen and heard, that he testlfleth. 57. But who and which have an indefinite use (chiefly in objective clauses, or such as are the objects of verbs or preposi- tions), which often eulmits of being regarded as having a similar value ; and, when used in this way, which regains the special selective meaning which belongs to it as an interrogative (VI. 40). For example : We well know who did it, and whose fault it was, and whom people blame for it, and which of them most deserves blame. And in older English we find that used in the same way : thus. We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen. The indefinite use of who in such constructions as Who was the thane yet lives and Who steals my purse steals trash u now obsolete. See also VI. 69. DEPENDENT INTERROOATIVRS. 68. But there is another indefinite use of who, what, and which, which cannot be re»rded as the equivalent of a relative with an omitted antecedent. Thus, when we turn into dependent clauses the principal interrogative sentences, Who said so? What am I to do? Which did the deed? as in He enquired who said so ; I asked what I was to do ; The question is, which did the deed; the who, what, and which, have no antecedent expressed or undeistood to which they relate ; they are simply interrogatives, used in dependent substantive clauses, and are called dependent intgrrooatives, and the clauses are known as indirect or dependent questions. 69. Sometimes, however, as in 67 above, the character of the dependent clause is ambiguous. Thus in I know what I am to do, the what may be a simple indefinite relative or a dependent interrogative ; that is, the meaning may be ** I know that which I am to do," or "I know the answer to the question. What am I to do ?" This idiom shows how closely relatives and interrogatives are connected, and how the interrogatives became relatives. 60. Of English clauses containing such ambiguous forms, those only must of necessity be treated as indirect questions which are associated with some verb or noun of enquiry, or which are, as it were, the echo of another speaker's enquiry. Of ooune, the interrogative form is not ■] 148 PRONOUNS. [VI. 80- 1 4 i ! I m llVi.: ambiguous when it does not admit of loeical resolution into a relative and antecedent : hence the pronoun wiieiber, as used in older English, is always interrogative (VI. 38). VI.— COMPOUND INDEFINITE RELATIVES. 61. When the implied antecedent is of a more indefinite character, meaning "any one," "any thing," "any one of them," wo use the compounds whoever, whatever, whichever, whosoever, etc. ; and, in old style, whoso ; -ever, -soever, and -so having a generalizing effect : thus. Whoever did it ought to be ashamed ; He will give you T^hichever you want ; They overthrow whatever opposes them. These words are called compound indefinite relatives. . The forms in -so and -soever are nearly obsolete. They occur fre- quently in older English and in the authorized version of the Bible : thus, Whoso dlggeth a pit shall fall therein; Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted. The addition of so to any other form than who is rare ; but we find in Chaucer, Let him say to me what so him list. VII. — OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE. 62. The simple relative that, when object of a verb, or of a preposition following a verb, or when predicate nominative, is very often omitted, the dependent clause being thus left with- out any introducing word : thus. The man we saw here is gone ; The horse he rode on was lame ; He is not the man he was ; instead of The man that (or whom) we saw. The horse that (or which) he rode on, etc. Often also both preposition and relative are omitted : thus, The time we met you and This is the way he did it, are used instead of The time at which and The way in which. In older English, and sometimes still in antiquated or solemn style and in poetry, that as a relative subject is also omitted : thus, I have a grief admits no cure ; 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. In colloquial Enslish the same idiom obtains ; but the modern tendency is to limit the omission to the less formal style, when the relative, if ■applied, would be restrictive and objective, or a predicate nominative. VI 66] INDEFINITES. 149 IX.— OTHER WORDS USFD AS RELATIVES. 63. The adverbs when, where, whence, why, whither, how, related by derivation to who and what (IX.), are used in a relative sense, almost as if they were cases of these words, or equivalent to what and which with prepositions ; and they have the same double value, as definite and as indefinite relatives — except how, which is OiJy indefinite : thus, You see the place where (=in which) he stands; You see where (=the place in which, or in what place) he stands. And the same statement is true of the compounds of where with prepositions : thus, wherewith, whereby, wherein, and so on (IX.). 64. The conjunction as (XL) is sometimes used after same, and especially after such, with the value of a relative pronoun : thus, This is the same as he has ; I love such as love me ; Same as is a contraction for same as that is which ; and such as, for such persons as those are who. As is also used aa a co-ordinating relative, shading off into an adverb (IX. ) : thus, In tbis country the Prime Minister rules, as (that is, and tbis) is not the case in many other countries ; He sat down, as is customary in such cases. 65. By a yet more remarkable contraction, hut (XI. ) is occasionally iified after a negative verb as a kind of negative relative, equivalent to that not : thus, There is not a man here hut knows it means "There is not a man that does not know it," and is a contraction for There is not a man hut he knows it. In older English we find such constructions as I found no man but he was true to me. Vn.— Indefinite Prononns. - 66. Tt is usual to put into a class together, under the name of indefinite pronouns, certain words which, either by their derivation or by the way in which they are used, have a like- ness to pronouns. Most of these are used as adjectives also ; and they, in fact, occupy a kind of intermediate position between the real pronouns on the one hand, and nouns and Adjectives on the other. When used pronominally, they ' > not indicate a particular individual : thus, any means " one of ii' 150 PRONOUNS. [TIM- ( I ! 11; u a number," but which one is not indicated ; the reference of the pronoun is left indefinite or undetermined. I.— SUB-CLASSES AMD VSB& To this class belong a. The distributives each, either, and neither. These pro- nouns refer to objects, not as a whole, but as taken separately. Each distributes two or more than two, but though applt cable to two, it does not imply that there are two only. Eaoh is from the 0. E. cef , ^avias lost the I, aa which and inch have, and containing like them \,^f, word ^ic ("like"). Orisinally, ale was equivalent to our every, everyhody being represented by cacman, and everything, by celcthing. Either and neither distribute two, and imply that there are two only. Sometimes, however, either is equivalent to *'each" or "both": thus, in Miltou jvo find. On either side is level fen. But the usage is not to be imitated, as we already have a word to express this meaning. Either was so used in Old English : thus, On cegthre healfe^ " on either half," that is, " on both sides." Neither is etymologically ne, "not," and hwcether, ** whether." Older pronunciations were nowther, nawther, and tiauther. The word should, therefore, be nather, but the influence of either (IV. 46) has produced its present form. b. The words of number and quantity, some, any, many, few, all, both, one and none, aught and naught. Some originally meant " certain" — a meaning which still remains in the compounds somebody, something, sometimes. Any, in Old English cenig, is the indefinite form of the numeral tin, "one." One (formerly pronounced as on in only) iS derived from the O. E. numeral dn, "one," of which it is a weakened value. light is the 0. E. dwight (that is, dn, "one," and toiht, "a wight,'^ or "person"). Derivative n-anght. c. The compounds of some, any, every, and no, with one, thing, and body. Every is distributive, referring; to more than two and including all, and being thus equivalent to "each and alL'' Bvery grew out of the habit of strengthening cdc by prefixins ctfre, "ever," the older form being aiuer-oek (variously spelt), which in Chaucer's time had become tverich. ) iMH AMii 10.60] BBCIPROCAL PRONOUN-PU RASES. 151 or ) No is a weakened form of none. In Mid. E. none waa generally used beforjh (of them t'le) other, oach being in apposition with they. 152 PRONOUNS. [VI. 68. But, in such constructions as They spoke to each other (or one another), each and other, and one and another, are so closely associated that they must be rejjarded shnply as anomalous pronoun- phraseo. In older English we find each to other and one to another, and so on. In Modern English, each other is, by many, used only with reference to two; and one another with reference to more than two. Tliin usage, however, though reputable and recent, is by no means national. Probably the differentiation will eventually prevail. III. — OTHEa WORDS USED AS INDI'.FINITK PRONOUNS. 69. Besides the words enumerated above as indefinite pronouns, a good many others are often used in the eamo way with a weakened value : thus, a man, wlio (in older Euglish), you, people, they, body, fellow, etc., as in the following : — From whence can a m a n saUsty these with bread here in the wilderness ? She whirled them on to me as who should say (that is, as if one) ; You cannot always succeed (that is, "no one can"); They {i.e., people) say Wolseley will be recalled; People are alwcy? cowards when in the way ; Will it eat a body (or a fellow)? I tell you what. And, according to many authorities, enough, much, more, most, several, etc., and, m older English, else, sundry, certain, are to be included owing to their relational characber ; and, as these words are unintelligible dn^il we know to what they refer, there is force in the couuentiori so far is concerns some of their uses. (See also VI. 2.) It is, however, usu^l to confine the list to those which are now markedly pro- nouiinai in character, and whose special function is the pronominal one. I'M i EXERCISES. 153 EXEBCISES AND QITESTIOirS. 1. DiBOUSS the merits of the following:: a. Pronouns are words which designate persons or things hy their relation to other pereons and things. b. The term pronoun is based upon the wider signification of the term noun as including both the noun substantive and the noun adjective. (See p. 86.) C Avoidance of repeUtion is only one of the purposes served even by demon- strative pronouns, and is never a function of the Personal Pronouns. d. Some pronouns play the part of adjectives ; but they always inip*y the presence of nouns. e. In the universality of their application as dependent upon relative situations merely, and in the consequent capacity of each of them to designate any obJi$ct whicli has its own specific name besides, and so, in a manner, to stand fur and represent that othe<* name, lies the essential character of the Pronoun. f. Pronouns are symboU, names, or highly generalized marlcs, applied to objects to signify, not any inherent attribute, but merely their relations to the act of speaking. §5. 3. DiscuBB the merits of the following classifications : a. Four classes : Personal, Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Relative (Indefinites taken up under the Adjective). \>. Two classes ; Substantive and Adjective. These are further classified thus : Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative and Relative, Indefinite, Distributive, Possessive, aiid Reflective. THE PARSING OF PRONOUNS. In the example. These are Khe men, some of whom yisited us yesterday; we first analyze, as on pp. 50 and 125, thus : , A complex assertive sentence containing two clauses : 1. These are the men, Principal, assertive. whom Conjunctive (or Connective) of 1 and 2. 2. some of whom visited us yesterday. Subordinate to 1, adjective to men. The analysis of each clause may then be contip'icd, as on p. 49. In parsing we take up the words in the same order as hitherto : These is a demonstr. pron,, in the pi. (sing, this, pi. these), and nom., being the subj. of the sentence, or subj. nom. of are. The rest of the words of this clause are then to be taken up. Some is an indef. pron. (of number or quantity) ; uninflected, but it has here the value of a plural, and is of the nom., because, etc. Whom is a rel. pron., having for its antecedent men, and joining to men the clause oom3 of whom, etc., to show what men are meant ; third pers. and pi., because men is so ; and ki the obj. case, because, etc., being joined by of to some, to show wlutt the persons signified by iwme are part of. Of should be ne\t described ; then vtsited and then hb and yesterday. r ■ 154 EXERCISES. rvL I ' V m ■ m -■ •if m If we have a rel. pron. belonging to the pred., we must rearrange the clause so aato put the reL in the usual place of such a member of the sentence : thus, in tbe man whom we saw ; tbe book whlcb he was talUng of; the relative clauses become we saw whom ; he was talking of which. An indef. reL may be represented by its logical equivalents (VL 66)> and parsed accordingly ; but the dependent clause which contains It is best analyzed (and parsed accordingly) as in XIV. 16, e., no ellipsis being reoognised« and simply the use of the pronoun bemg described. EXERCISES. For additional practice in parsing or describing the pronouns, the other exercises in the boolc may je resorted to. The examples in the smaller print below are to illustrate exceptional (chiefly Sholtesiieariaii) uses. These should be explained, and modernized when necessary. 1. Jura answers, through her misty shroud, back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud. 2. It was told the king of Egypt that the people fled. 3. To him it mattered little which of the two parties triumphed. 4. These are propositions of whose truth no one knows. 5. Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? 6. I that speak to thee am he. 7. His praise is lost who waits till all commend. 8. The that that that man used should have been which. 9. What does it matter what he did, or whose it is ? 10. Certain were there who swore to the truth of this. 11.^^ He b the same as he has ever been. 12. Few shall part where many meet. 13. By others' faults wise men correct their own. 14. Some are happy while others are miserable. 15. They took hold of one another's hands. 16. The many rend the skies with loud applause. 17. None but the brave deserves the fair. 18. Neither has anything he calls his own. 19. In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man. 20. There is no vice so simple but assumes some mark of virtue in its outward parts. 21. 'T is Providence alone secures in every change both mine and yours. 22. Whatever you do, don't do that : what is done cannot be undone. 23. I still had hopes, my latest hours to crown, amidst these humble bowers to lay me down. 24. Where yet my bovs are and that fatal she, their mother. 25. O, then, how blind to all that truth requires, who think it freedom when apart aspires I 26. It is time to go. 27. It had rained all month. 28. Folly that both makes friends and keeps them so. 29. We speak that we do know. 30. He knew not which was which. 31. It is all one to me. 32. Whoe'er I woo, myself would be his wife. 1. Here's none but thee and I. 2. Run thee to the parlor. 3. To beg of thee it ia my more dishonor than thou of them. 4. Desire his Jewels, and this other's house. 6. The lady protests too much, methinks. 6. He presently, as greatness knows itself, steps me a little higher than his vow. 7- But, if you mouth it as many of your players do, etc. 8. Lord Angelo dukes it well. 9. Deign it, Goddess, from my hand to receive whatever this land from her fertile womb doth send. 10. The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long, that it had it bead bit off by it young. 11. His form had not yet lost all of his original brightness. 12. Me rather had my heart might feel your love. 13. Woe, woe are we, sir. 14. Come, wilt thou see me ride? and when I am o' horsebaoli, I will swear I love thee infinitely— But hark you Kate : I must not have you henceforth question me. 16. I do beseech ye, if you bear me hard. 16. I'tlie name of truth, are ye fantastical ? My noble partner you greet with present grace. 17. For the nobility, though they continued loyal to him, yet did they not coKiperate with liim. 18. Who when he lived, his breath and beauty set gloss on the rose, and smell on the violet. 19. Whom we raise we will make fast. 20. What need we any spur htit our own cause? 21. He dotli nothing but frown, as whoshould say, "If you will not have me choose." 22. The present businew which now 's upon us ; without the which this story w«r« most impertinent. vn.1] ADJECTIVES. 155 CHAPTER VII. ADJECTIVES. DEFINITION AND USES. v/ 1. An adjective is, as we have seen (II. 22), a word used to modify a noun, that is, either merely to limit its application, or to express a quality of the thing it represents : for example, the man, eight men, golden sun, good man. 2. The adjective added to a noun does not directly assert anything to belong to what the noun expresses. That can be done by means of a verb only : thus, The sun is golden ; The man is good. In golden sun, good man, the adjective merely mentions the quality, either implying that the quality might be asserted, or limiting the application of the noun to those objects of which the quality might be asserted, 3. But the adjective modifies its noun in various ways. In the man and eight men, the and eight merely limit or restrict the application of their nouns, the by pointing out a particular man, and eight by indicating the number. When, again, the adjective expresses quality, it is sometimes a more important and sometimes a less important addition to the noun and member of the sentence. If, for example, we say The brave soldier was wounded with a sharp sword, and his red blood flowed from the deep cut, the adjectives brave, sharp, red, and deep are simply pictorial or descriptive, and the sentence would mean essentially the same, if they were omitted. The adjective thus used increas«^s the meaning of the noun as presented to us; but it does not limit its application : this remains as before. It simply gives prominence to some quality actually possessed by the object the noun represents, which quality we may not have thought or known of. The value of the notion tliuj^ prcsf-ntefl to us by the noun and adjective together is different from that presented 156 ADJECTIVES. IVIf. S- p- t by the noun before the addition, though the extent of the application of the noun remains unchanged. But, if we say Brave soldiers do not run away, Sharp swords make deep cuts, Only vertebrates have red blood ; the same adjectives are of much more consequence ; since it is implied in each case that, if the quality described were wanting, something quite different would be true. The adjective here, as in the case of the and eight above, limits or restricts the application of the noun. This difference in the value of adjectives corresponds to the difference in the value of relative clauses (VI. 45 — 49); and, like them, the adjective is called descriptive on the one hand, and RESTRICTIVE on the other. The predicate adjective is descriptive : it increases the mean-^ iug of the noun without limiting its application : thus, in Wise statesmen are desirable, desirable does not limit the application of wise statesmen : it merely adds to what we know of wise statesmen, the fact that they are desirable. INFLECTIONS. 4. Adjectives have not in English (as they have in many other languages) any inflection or variation of form, to express differences of number, or case, or gender. The only exceptions are this and that, which with a plural noun are changed to tx!3se and those. This is a relic of the inflection of adjectives in Old English, which was of the same sort as the inflection of nouns. 6. During the Old English period, the adjective was distinguished by the following characteristics: two declensions, grammatical gender, two numbers, and five cases ; but even then it was poorer in infections than the Gothic, the earliest of the Teutonic languages. When the noun was made definite by having joined to it the definite article, or a demonstrative or a possessive adjective, the declension of the adjective added to it was (as in Modern Qerman) different from that of the adjective added under any otlier circumstances. In the first case, the adjective itself is regarded as indefinite ; and, in the second, as definite : hence the terms dkfinitk and indefinite a])plied to the declensions. Odd, "good," is declined as follows, the table showing also the processes of & l\ 8. Derivative adjectives are such as come by adding suffixes or prefixes from other words that are in use in our language. Some of the commonest and most important classes of derivative adjectives are as follows : 1.— BY SUFFIX. a. Adjectives derived from nouns by a great variety of suffixes,, and with a great variety of meaning : they signify resembling, pertaining to, possessing, characterized by, made of, free from, etc., etc., that which is signified by the noun : thus, fatherly, homely, daily; truthful, grateful, useful ; odorous, mischievous, murderous ; brutal, fatal, notional ; despotic, telegraphic, cubic ; marriageable, peaceable, fashionable; winged, aged, moneyed ; fiery, juicy, sugary. b. Adjectives derived from other adjectives, by suffixes denoting especially a difference of degree (including suffixes of comparison [VII. 22] ) : thus, with -er, smaller, longer, prettier ; " -est, tallest, strongest, ugliest ; -ish, roundish, youngish, bluish; -ly, weakly, cleanly, deadly ; -some, wholesome, gladsome, wearisome. c. Adjectives derived from verbs. These are especially the "participles" (VIII.) : the imperfect participle in -ing, as loving, giving, putting; the perfect participle in -ed, or -en, or without any added suffix, as loved, varied, petted ; given, bitten, slain ; sung, wound, fought ; with -ly, -ful. -ous. -al, -ic. -able. -ed. -y, <( «( (t vn 10. d] CLASSIFICATION. 169 and tho verbal adjectives in -able and -ive, as lovable, disputable ; active, oppressive. 2 —BY PKEFIX. 9. Tlie most commoix classes of derivatives by prefix are with -VLii, nntrue, untruthful, unwholesome, unloving, unloved, unsung, unlovable ; *' -in, inactive, incapable, impure, insufficient. Others less numerous and regular are international, extraordinary, antenuptial, postdiluvial, preternatural, superabundant, coetemal, malcontent, subacid, aweary, begirt, misspelt. ,^ IH.—Compoiind. 10. Compound adjectives are made by putting together two (rarely more) words that are used independently in our language. The most important classes of compound adjectives are as follows : a. A combination of two adjectives, the former having usually the value of an adverb modifying the other : as new-bom {i.e., "newly born"), fuU-fed, hard-gotten, fresh-looking. b. A combination of an adjective with a prec«ding noun that limits it in a variety of ways : thus, life-like, milk-white, knee-deep, home-sick, home-made, soul-stirring, purse-proud, water-tight, moth-eaten, sea-sick. c. A combination of a noun with a preceding adjective (or noun used adjectively) that modifies it, and with -ed added as an adjective bufiix : as four-footed, seven-hilled, red-headed, old-fashioned, dark-eyed, low-toned, lion-hearted, hare-lipped, eagle- eyed. This class, called compound-derivatives, is an immense one, and is continually growing by new formations (IV, 31). d. A combination of an adjective with a preceding adverb: as everlasting, never-dsring, ever-bold, underbred, fore-ordained. 160 ADJECTIVES. [Vn. 11- CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING. 11. From the whole body of adjectives, which, like nouns and verbs, are innumerable, we have to separate and treat by them- selves certain special and limited classes : namely, pronominal adjectives, or adjectives related to pronouns; numerals, or adjectives of number; and the articles. Apart from these special classes, the general mass of adjectives may be called adjectives of quality. I S' ■! Mi i I.— AdJectlTeH of Quality) Comparison. 1. — REOULAK COMPAKISON. (IJ Degrees of Comparison and their uses. 12. Although adjectives have no inflections in Modem Eng- lish, many adjectives have, as we have seen (III. 21), a variation of form. Thus, to say a long string, simply implies the quality of length as belonging to the string spoken of ; a longer string implies that, of two strings compared, the one referred to exceeds the other in length ; the longest string implies that, among any number (more than two) compared, the one so called exceeds all the rest in length. The word longer is said to be of the comparativb degree ; and, by means of this degree, we show that one thing exceeds another thing in the degree in which it possesses a certain quality. The word longest is said to be of the superlative degree {superlative means "surpassing" or "exceeding"); and, by means of this degree, we show that, among any number of things (more than two) compared, one exceeds any of the rest in the degree in which it possesses a certain quality. The word long is said to be of the positive degree (positive means " stating simply, without modification"), which is, thus, the adjective in its simplest form. And the variation of the adjective in this way is called its comparison (because of the comparing of one thing with others which it implies). Comparison is, therefore, the change of form vn. IB] COMPARISON. 161 which many adjectives undergo to mark the degree of the quality as possessed by the object they describe, when compared with other objects possessing the same quality. 13. The comparative degree strictly implies a comparison between two objects, the superlative among more than two. Yet we sometimes say, for example, longer than all the others, though longer than either or than any of the others would be better, ^nd, on the other hand, both in ordinary talk and in literature, it is very common to speak of one of two things as being the longest, although to say the longer is more accurate and more approved. This irregularity is due to the common tendency to drop a distinction when, as here, the meaning would be evident without it. 14. We use the comparative •when we compare one thing with one other, or with a group of several others ; or when we compare one group with another group or with a single otiier thing ; or again, when we compare a thing with itself under other circumstances : for example, Bound thus, the book looks larger. But, in all these cases, there are only two objects of thought. When, again, we say TIi^<^ grammar Is larger than all the other books on the shelf, we express the same relation as to size between the grammar and the other books as if we said. This grammar Is the largest book on the shelf; but, in the first sentence, we consider the grammar and the other books on the shelf as separate objects of thought, whereas in the second the grammar is considered as one of the group of books compared with one another. This difference in use between the comparative and the super- lative is sometimes indicated by describing the comparative as exclusive, and the superlative as inclusive. Such constructions as the following are, therefore, incorrect : — Gladstone is a greater statesman than any Englishman ; Gladstone is the greatest of all other English statesmen ; The fairest of her daughters, Eve. (3) Classes of Adjectives subject to comparison, 15. What adjectives shall be compared depends partly on their meaning, since some qualities or conditions hardly admit of a difference of degree : as each, two, first, round, brass, yearly, Gregorian, Canadian, Almighty. m ADJECTlveS. [VIL 15- ll?' ! The adjectives which, owing to their meaning, do not admit of com* pariaon, belong to the following classe^i : a. The pronominal adjectives. b. The definite numeral adjectives. c. Adjectives formed from the names of 6gures, materials, times, persons, places. d. Adjectives expressing an extreme limit. When, however, adjectives included in c. and d. are used in a weak- ened sense, we may express various degrees of the quality : thus, The statement is more or less certain ; The chiefest among ten thousand. 16. But tlie comparison depends much more upon the form than upon the meaning. Most adjectives of one syllable may be compared : thus, short, shorter, shortest ; fit, fitter, fittest ; dry, drier, driest; coy, coyer, coyest; but comparatively few of two syllables. Examples are sincere, sincerer, sincerest ; ahle, abler, ablest ; guilty, guiltier, guiltiest ; common, commoner, commonest ; tender, tenderer, tenderest ; polite, politer, politest ; and of three syllables almost none. 17. The adjectives of two syllables that are usually compared are those ending in -y, -er, or -ble ; those accented on the labt syllable ; and a tew others, when the derivative thus formed has not a disagreeable sound. But among the older writers especially, there is, in this matter, a good deal of irregularity. (3 J Substitutes for Comparison. 18. Adjectives that are not compared have their variations of degree expressed by adverbs. And, especially, the addition of more and most makes a kind of compound forms, or adjective- phrases, which have the same meaning as the comparative and the superlative degrees, and are substitutes therefor : thus, famous, more famous, most famous ; distant, more distant, most distant. Even adjectives which admit of comparison often form phrases of this kind instead : thus, fit, more fit, most fit ; able, more able, most able ; common, more common, most common. vn. ai. b] COMPAltlSOir. 16d And where an object is said to have more of one quality than of another, the plirase with more is alone used : thus, The news was more true than pleasant (not truer than pleasant). Generally speaking, adverbs are used in expressing the variations of degree of adjectives of other than purely English origin. But euphony should be our guide in selecting the mode of expression. 19. By means of other modifying words, other degrees of a quality may be indicated. Thus, with less and least, we have comparative and superlative adjective-phrases of infkiuouity, those with more and most being known as comparative and superlative adjective-phrases of superiority ; with as and not so (which good writers and speakers prefer to not as) we have com- parative adjective-phrases of equality and inequality : thus, He is as tall as I am ; He is not so tall as I am. (4) Absolute Superlative Forms and Phrases. 20. In my dearest father and a man of highest renown, there is no comparison implied, although the forms are those of superlatives. The superlatives here, and similar adjective- phrases containing most, very, extremely, supremely, and so on, are called absolute, ordinary superlatives being, of course, relative. Such forms also as bluish, greenish, express au absolute diminution of quality. In older English we find also absolute comparatives : thus, in Spenser, Help thy weaker novice, meaning, "thy too weak novice." Modern English, however, does not allow such forms. (5) Construction of the Comparntive. 21. The comparative is usually construed with than, which is, therefore, called its sign. There are, however, in English a few words which, though comparatives in meaning, are not comparatives in construction. These are a. Words of Latin origin which are comparatives in that language, but which, not having the English comparative suflix, are not comparatives in construction : thus, senior, junior, inferior, superior, ulterior. b. A few words of purely English origin which usage has thus restricted : as, elder, former, hinder, upper, under, inner. 164 ADJECTIVE& ^Vn. 22- (G) Origin of the Comparntlvn and the Superlative. 22. As the examples already given show, the comparative and superlative degrees are derived from the simple adjective, or the positive degree, by adding respectively -er and -est, the suffix usually making an additional syllable in pronunciation (not, however, in abler, ablest, and the like). 23. The addition of the suffixes of comparison (as in the case of the plural suffixes of nouns [V. 34] ) causes certain modifi- cations in spelling. These arc as follows : a. Adjectives ending in -e drop this vowel : thus, able, abler, ablest ; handsome, handsomer, handsomest. b. Adjectives ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, change y into i ; but, if a vowel precedes, no change takes place : thus, happy, happier, happiest ; gay, gayer, gayest. c. A final consonant preceded by a short accented vowel is doubled to maintain the quantity ; final -1 preceded by an un- accented vowel is also sometimes doubled : thus, . red, redder, reddest ; cruel, crueller, cruellest. 24. The suffixes almost universally employed in the Teutonic lan- guages to form the comparative were -is and ds ; to these was added -ta to form the superlative. Except in Gothic, the s of the comparative was changed to r (IV. 43. b), remaining, however, unchanged in the superlative, and surviving till now in the irregular comparatives less and worse. The forms employed in comparison were, therefore, -ir and •or, and iata and osta. In Old English, moreover, the i and the o of the comparative suffix were dropped ; but, in many words, the vowel assimilation (IV. 43. (c) 3) that had been produced by the suffix, lasted till the fourteenth century, and even later. Thus, lanj, "long," had for comp. lengra (for lengira), the i of the ira causing an assimilation of the a. Of this, we have a survival in old, elder, eldest. Again, as adjectives in this degree were invariably inflected according to the definite declension (VII. 10), the termination of the nom. was always -ra or -re. The superlative, on the other hand, dropped the final o, and weakened the i to c. Thus, in Old English, adjectives were com- pared as follows : Pos. ftZmf? ("blind"), Comp. ftZtW-r-a, Superl. 5?mf it as "a certain kind of English atticism, imitating the manner uf the most ancientest and finest Grecians." The latter statement, however, id incorrect, as the other Teutonic languages nianifest the same inclina- tion. The desire to intensify by repetition is natural 'o all men. The naturalized Latin superlatives extreme and supren::?, A^hen used in a weakened sense, form the new superlatives extreme^t ?ud supremest. — II.— Pronominal Adjccllves. 29. Pronrmiiial adjectives are in part derivatives from the words already described as pronouns ; but in greater part they are identical with them, the same word being used eitli(!r adjective'y, accompanying a noun which it modifies, or sub stantively, as a pronoun standing for a nour>. Pronominal adjectives are partly adjectival, and partly pronominal, in func- tion (II. 37), and are divided into classes corresjwnding to those of the pronouns. Not all the classes of these pronouns possess the same amount of pronominal value. In the possessive adjectives, this value ia clearly marked : thus, in James lost his hat, his evidently refers to the same r>bject as James. Bnt in others the pronominal value shows itself in the fact that, altliough a noun is added, as in this man, "what man? eveiy citizen of the town. a knowledge of the atte-ida^ti or other circumstances is nec^^ssary to enable us to detyormine the i:-. .ct reference of the phrase ; for we regard as having a pronominal valu: all words which, instead of naming or describing an object, enable us to distinguish it by some relations. I. — POS.SES.SIVE. 30. The first class is that of possessive adjectives. Most of ihese correspond to the personal pronouns, and have already bnen given and described as possessive cases. They are istp. my, mine; oui-, ours; 2d p. thy, thine ; your, yours ; m. his ; I 3d p. • f. their, theirs. her, hers; . ( n. its ; ) To these is to be added whose, the possessive of who, both as interrogative and as relative. I 168 ADJECTIVES. [vn. 30- I ■ real noun, for it may be modified by an adjective j whereas, few aeemB I. 38- bives. cdenl being i)you , of a hus, Led so on, 1 a like > or two JOMINAL ner and resera- lan, like and no. as simple d by the thus, jrb very. moniij) and aultitude." and noun, obliterated eeina to be few aeema va 40] INDEFINITE. 171 to be an adjective used as a noun, for it may be modified'by an adverb only. In Shakespeare, and, indeed, in other writers of his period, we find undoubted examples of this substantive use of many : thus, A many of our bodies ; the rank-ijcented many ; in many's looks ; O thou fond many ; The many rend the skies. The omission of the of in the examples first above given is probably due to their frequent use : we shorten, as much as is consistent with clearness, what we have to say often and clearly. Probably, too, the omission of the of leads us to construe these phrases according to the sense, that is, as adjectival to the following noun. But, although we now say A great many (and a few) wise acts ; and A great many (and a few) men's acts, that is, "the acts of a great many men," or **a great many of men's acts"; we must say, A great many (and a few) of my (and our, the, man's, and John's) acts, just as we must say, Two (and so on) of ray (and our, the, man's, and John's) acts. Probably the insertion of the of in t lis case is due to the greater definiteness and less common form of the constructions. 39. The following constructions are to be explained in the saiiio manner as the various constructions with a great many and a few : a dozen men (but a score of men, score being less usual than dozen), a hundred men, half the land (but a quarter, etc., of the land), all the men, all the man's farm, more food (but more of the food), a little food (but a little of the food), hoth the men (also both of the men, but two of the men). 40. By a very peculiar construction, many (which is otherwise used with plural nouns only) seems, when joined with a or an, to modify a singular noun : thus, full many a gem, many an opportunity. In Old English, the construction was man'uj maun, that is, "many man," an idiom which is found in some cognate languages. In Early English we find the first traces of the modem idiom : thus, moni anes cunnes (" of many a race"). From the fact that in this expression the moni is not inflected, whereas tlie lui^s is declineil like an adjective, there is strong reason for believing that, whatever may have been the origin of the idiom, the moni was a III. — FRACTIONALS. 46. The same words, except first and second, are used sub- stantively to denote one of a corresponding number of equal parts into which anything is supposed to be divided : thus, a third (or third part) of an apple ; six hundredths of the amount. In this sense, they are called fractionals. The fractional corresponding to two is half instead of second; and instead of fourth we more oiUm say quarter. Pi. m M IV.— MDLTIPLICATIVES. 47. In order to show how many times anything is taken, or by what it is multiplied, the cardinal numeral is .formed into a compound adjective with the English word fold, which remains singular : thus, twofold, tenfold, hundred-fold. These words are called multiplicatives. Of the same value are simple, double, triple, quadruple, and a few others in the Eoniance pie (or -ble), much less often used. The numeral adverbs (IX.), once, twice, thrice, have a similar multiplicative sense. We use also multiplicative adverbial phrases, as three times, four times, and so on. IV.— Articles. 48. The articles, an or a and the, are two words of somewhat peculiar character and office. {Article means " a little joint," these words having been at one time fancifully regarded as "joints" of the sentence.) The is a weakened derivative both in form and in meaning from the demonstrative adjective that, as an or a is from the numeral one. In Old English, tlie. was rarely used as the nom. sing. masc. of the article (VI. 31), se being used instead. In the twelfth century, se died out, and the took its place, the and that being for centuries thereafter used indifferently with nouns of any gender. But, in the course of time, the use of tbat as a demonstrative, as a relative, and as a conjunction, led to the differentiation of tbe, which alone thereafter had the force of the article. Vn. 62] ARTICLES. 175 49. The the which we often use before a comparative (adjective or adverb) in such phrases as Tbe more, the merrier ; The more he looked at her, the less he liked her ; Are they the worse to me because you hate them 7 is an adverb, being etjmnoiogically thy or thi, the Instrumental case of thoet (VI. 31), whicli case was in Old J'^nglish also used with comparatives. "one," had sometimes, even in Old English, the The numeral 4w, force of an indefinite article. After the Norman Conrjuest, the form an became conHned to tliis function, and in Early English arose the modern distinction between an and a. I. — USES OF AN AND A. 50. An is used before a vowel-sound ; a before a consonant. But, if a word beginning with a pronounced h has the accent on its second syllable, many (or most) persons use an, as the h in such words is not fully s unded : thus, an hotel ; an historical novel ; an hsrpothesis. Before the sound of y or w, however written, only a is proper An modern use : thus, such a one ; a union ; a European ; just as we should say a wonder, a youth. 61. In phrases like A shilling a pound, Three shillings a yard, the an or a is not precisely the article, but a weakened form of one in another sense, that of "each one, each, every." In others, however, afliu I fast twice a week, 0. E. Ic fceste tmoa on wiican ; the a or an seems to have been originally the preposition on, followed by a dative without the article. And in He Is gone a hunting, They set it a going, and the like (which are often, and better, written a-huntlng, a-going), the a has nothing to do with either the article or the numeral, but is also a phonetically reduced on. 52. An or a indicates that we are speaking of some one or of any one of the objects of which the noun is the common name: thus, A man called on me to-day ; An officer should be sent to him; A horse, a horse, my kinf;dom for a horse I A man should bear himself gravely in adversity. lT6 ADJECTIVES. [Vn. 66, b- W' i I From this use it is called the indefinite article. 03. These examples illustrate the chief uses of the indefinito article, tlie exceptional ones being due to the weakening of its original force. In the first, it is nearly equivalent to "a certain," thus indicating an individual of the class, but not specifying which one, although it may be possible to do so ; in the second, it is more indefinite, and is nearly equivalent to "some or other"; in the third, the indefiniteness is still greater, and a horse is nearly equivalent to "any whatever"; and in the fourth, the effect of its use is to generalize the statement, a man being nearly equivalent to "any man you may mention,'' and, therefore, to "all men." II. — USES OF THE. 54. The usually marks off the noun to which it is joined as the name of something which botli speaker and hearer can in their minds separate from others of the same class : thus, The boy we want is not here ; Thou art the man ; The duke is dead. From this use it is calkd the definite article. Occasionally, it puts the individual for the class : thus, The lion is a carnivorous animal. 66. The has a weaker % O^ It WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 87a-4S03 m: 4:0 «•?, €^A ^ 178 ADJECTIVES. [Vn 69. d- ADJECTIVE EQUIVALENTS. As in the case of nouns, words not properly adjectives, also phrases and clauses, are sometimes used in sentences with the value of adjectives. 59. a. Nouns, especially those denoting material, are very often used ob atljectives, without any change of form : thus, a gold watch, a rail fence, a bible text, noonday dreams, country customs. * Such phrases are of the same nature as the first stage in the formation of compounds and derivatives (IV. 28). This mode ofadjection (that is, of expressing the adjt^ctive notion) is peculiarly English : it is a direct result of tlie loss of inflections. The possessive case of nouns is, as has been shown (VII. 33), adjectival in function, and an adjective may somtti^ncs be substituted therefor : thus, a father's care, and paternal care, or fatherly care. b. Adverbs may also be used occasionally as adjectives : thus, the then ruler, my sometime friend. This usage is still more common with words which may be used indifferently as adverbs or as prepositions : thus, the up tvain, the after part, the above remarks. An adverb used in the predicate to modify the subject is also adjectival in function : thus, The man was there; The stars are out; His step was light, for his heart «ras so. c. A phrase : thus, in The war between Prussia and Austria, the preposition with its objects is adjectival, and in this case may be represented by an adjective : thus. The Austro-Prussian war. So, too, in Having gone, he bettered his fortune, the combniatjon having gone, which is called a participial phrase (VIII.), is adjectival, like the simple participle; and Buch phrases may be modified in various ways : thus, Having gone away, or Having struck th<; man. d. A clause, which, like an adjective, may be restrictive or ilescriptive (VII. 3) : thus, for (1) a wise father, and (2) my wise fitbther, vn B9. d- Vn. 69 dl EXERCISES. 179 tives, also i with the are very : thus, tie formation tion (that is, it ia a direct 3), adjectival ted therefor: ire. tives: thus, I. liich may be aus, remarks. le subject is a, d in this case e, PARTICIPIAL irticiple; and ihus, iho man. restrictive or .ther, we may say (1) a father that is wise, and (2) my father who is wise, wise and the subordinate clause being restrictive in (1), and descriptive in (2). See also VI. 48 and XIV. 14. EZEBCISES AKD QUESTIONS. §§ 1-3. 1. Discuss the merits of the followingr definitions : An adjective is a word expressing^ the quality of a noun ; (2) Joined to a noun to kirait its application ; (3) united to a class noun to narrow its range and incre&se its meanini^; or (4) that may limit the application of a noun to that wi.ich has the quality, quantity, or the relation, which the adjective denotes. 2. Discuss: a. In highly inflected languages, where adjectives hod their own inflections, it was natural to elevate them to the rank of a Part of S|>eech, In Modem English it is inconvenient to do so ; because, flr«t, we have defined a noun as the name of a thing, and "white" is as much a name as "whiteness"; and, secondly, "white" is clearly used as a noun after the verb " is " and many others ; as " Snow is white "; that it " Snow is a white thing." 1}. Both verbs and adjectives express notions of the actions and attributes of things ; but they do so in different ways, and hence they are ranked as different parts of speech. 3. By what tests would you distinguish between an adjective, and a noun used as an adjective ; and a noun, and an adjective used as a noun ? 4. Why are king's, walking, and orator in the following not valued in grammar as adjectives : the king's crown; waUdng-stick ; Cicero, tbe orator. §§ 7-10. 6. Analyze each of the following, giving the force of each of the parts, and classifying the form : tlOklish, low-bred, predestined, wooden, evil-spoken, evil- doing, strong-voiced, leistired, tempest-tost, learned, purblind, steelly, flaxen-haired, darksome, bed-ridden, Imperfect, hand- some, subacute, buxom, woe-begone, thankless, colorable. 6. Explaining the processes, convert the following adjectives into noun.s: sweet, hnmUe, wise, broad, pure, perfect ; and the following nouns into adjectives : anow, brass, brother, sense, fool, wood. §§ 11-60. 7. Discuss the merits of the following classifications : a. Qualitative Adjectives ; Quantitative Adjectives ; Demonstrative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Relation. b. Pronominal Adjectives, including Demonstratives, Relatives, Interrogatives, and Possessives ; Adjectives of Quantity, including those of Mass or Bulk, and those of Number, which latter are Definite or Indefinite ; Adjectives of Quality ; th9 Artidee. K i W B aiiiMwt ni- ii -nyr b -j M ! ■■ 180 BXfiRCISRS. tvn. 8. Classify the following adjectives according to meaning : both, large, stricken, English, industrious, thirty, thirty- second, threefold, any, same, whatever, either, sun-burnt, pleasing, red, almighty, year, mine, which, few, more, flfUeth, one, an, very, deareat 9. Give the other possible deffrees of comparison of the following adjectives, commenting upon the forms of these degrees : old, white, gay, happy, sad, earnest, minor, next, better, empty, full, true, polite, learned, pleasant, more, further. 10. Express in as many ways as you can, different degrees of the quality of the adjectives mad, pleasant, and imdemonstratlve. 11. Comment upon the structure of the following : cuimlngest, wonderftillest, startleder, lesser, littlest, intimat- est, furthermost, other, most unldndest, self-same, farther, ftirther, near. 12. Define the values of the in the following: : 1. The wolf behowla the moon. 2. I saw the man on the platform. S. I was bom in the year 1032, in the city of Yorlc. 4. God created the heaven and the earth. 6. In the name of the Most Hi|fh God. 6. In the painted oriel cf the west. 7. Now 'tis the Spring. 8. The Christmas preceding his loss. 8. On the Thursday we went to see the Pope. 9. So much the rather Thou, Celestial Light, shine inward. 10. See, what a rent the envious Casca made. 11. Tliountt the Mars of malcontents. 12. The Whigs did not utter a ^lurmur. 13. One of the vensels, named the Pinta. 14. I speak the truth. 15. The brave, 'tis true, do never fear the light. THE PARSING OF ADJECTIVES. To parse an adjective, we have to tell first whether it is an ordinary adjective ("adjective of quality "), or whether it is a pronominal ad- jective, a numeral, or an article. If a pronominal adjective, its class must be told ; and if possessive, from the personal pronoun of what person and number it comes. If a numeral, whether it is used with the value of an adjective or of a noun, and whether cardinal, ordinal, or fractional. If an article, whether the definite article or the indefinite ; if the latter, why an and not a, or the contrary. The character of the word as simple or derivative or compound may be given, and, if not simple, its derivation or composition explained. If the adjective is comparative or superlative, the fact is to be men> tioned, and the three degrees of comparison are to be given. An adjective has but one general construction, that of modifying a noun. But it does this in three different ways, which are more fully distinguished and defined in Chapter XIII : they are called, I. attrib- utive : as, eminent men ; 2. appositivb : as, men eminent for tbelr services ; 3. predicative : as. Men are eminent according to their services. After analyzing, as on p. 49, such a sentence as This studious boy is the best scholar among all my hundred pupils ; we first parse boy, the bare subject, and then go on to take up as above and in the following order, the adjectives modifying it : studious, This. In the predicate of the sentence, we take up first (after the verb) the predicate noun scholar, and its modifiers in the following order : best, tli6 ; next we parse pupils, and then its modifiers in the following order : huadrtd, my, alL Amonff should be next described. \ytL m.] EXERCISES. 181 tiilrty- ■bumt, ametb, he following better, rther. igreea of the ive. Intlmat- farther, 1. 8. I was born the earth. 6. In 7. Now 'tis the e went to see the See, what a rent 2. The Whigs did I speak the truth. is an ordinary >ronoininal ad- ctive, its class inoun of what I used with the lal, ordinal, or the indefinite ; compound may 1 explained. :t is to be men- en. of modifymg a are more fully led, 1. ATTRIB- dnent for their rding to their tdredpupUs; ,ke up as above studious, Thli. after the verb) tUowing order : the following bed. If we have a clause containinfir a relative pronominal adjective, we are ol llged, in order to arrange it in its projicr relation to the other clause of the seutence, to taluipare p. 1&3. EXERCISES. 1. The gentle rain refreshed the thirsty flowers. 2. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 8. He was a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, a most contemptible sovereign. 4.^ Her mother seemed the younger of the two. 5. I promise thee the fairest wife in Greece. 6. Stains of vice disgrace the fairest honors of the noblest race. 7. Beneath those rugged eims, that yew tree's shade, the rude fore-fathers of the hamlet sleep. 8. The gorgeous East, with richest hand, showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold. 9. Very few people are good economists of their fortune. 10. Many a carol, old and saintly, sang the minstrels. 11. God in the nature of each being founds its proper blitis. 12. Such a man will win any woman. 13. Any girl, however inexperienced, knows how to accept an oflFer. 14. A hundred winters snowed u^mju his Itreast. 15. Every third word is a lie. 16. These young men were wild and unsteady. 17. By that sin fell the angels. 18. Thebes did his rude unknowing youth engage ; he chooses Athena in his riper age. 19. Ayr, gurgling, kissed his pebbled shore, oVrhung with wild woods, thickening, green ; the fragrant birch and faAwthorn hoar twined amorous round the raptured scene. 20. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 21. Great is truth, and mighty above all things. 22. Unto the pure all things are pure. 23. A thousand flowers enchant the gale with perfume sweet as love's first kiss. 24. With lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it. 25. In him the emotive was subjected to the intellectual man. 26. They expiate less with greater crimes. 27. My father gave me honor, yours gave land. 28. The lady is dead upon mine and my master's false accusation. 29. There will a worse come in his place. 30. In every art pertaining to her home afiairs appeared the careless stillnesa of a thinking mind self-occupied. 1. Ye meaner fowl give place, I am all splendor, dignity, and (Trace. 2. Some- times the flood prevails and then the wind ; now one the better then another best. 3. This, my hand, will rather the multituduous sea incarnadine, making the green one red. 4. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this banlt ! fi. Yet, for the foulest of the foul, he dies most Joyed, for the redeemed from deepest guilt, 6. The better part of valor is discretion. In the which better i»art, etc. 7. O, thou fond many ! with what loud applause didst thou beat heaven with blesHing Uoliogbroke. 8. From his birth . . . to his death-stroke on the field of Jena ; what a seventy-one years ! 9. Let them know of what a monarchy you are the head. 10. J have sat invisible beside you many and many a day. 11. Letter nor line know I never a one. 12. He nmy one day or another resist you. 13. He remained after ha1f-{>a8t nine o'clock in the morning. 14. You are worth double what I give. 15. Pray, who was ho, that fellow yonder? 10. I have maintained that salamander of yours every time this two and thirty years. 17. A young man, one Tittlebat Titmouse. 18. I would detain you here some month or :.wo. 10. Some say he is with the Emperor of Russia; some others, he is in Rome. 20. It seemed some six years ago or more. 21. Every twenty paces gives you the prospect of some villa. 22. Truth lies open to all : it is no man's several. 23. I would have been much more a fresher man. 24. What in me was purchased falls upon thee in a more fairer sort. 26. Changed to a worser shape than thou canst be. 26. He is an all but perfect man. 27. This is more than ridiculous : it is immoral. 28. Send me these mors copies. 80. There are many unheard-oE things. SBHBI GENERAL QUESTIONS. (;^£H£&AL QUESTIONS. The General Qm«$tioms throughout the book have been taken chiefiy from UniwrtUy examinatwn papers. Thone suitable Jot junior pupil$ should be $eleetid therefrom. L Show, with mostrationa, how the abaonce of caae-endings is supplied in Eng^lisb, and what effect Uus a>j«eiice Yias on the general structure of sentences. 2. Redooe the parts of speech to the smallest possible number. 3. Explain to in to-morroiT, all-to break Ids head, early to bed and early to iIm, go to now. sucli a to do, and wbat went ye out for to see 7 3. Aoooant for the use of the italicized letters 'in the followini; : imponlble, nnm&er, tentts for or against including the article among the parts of speech. 10. Give and illastrate the rules of Syntax that concern the use of pronouns. IL IMstingnWi etyraologically between sensitive and sensible, ye and yOQ. confess and proftH, verity and veracity, tense and time, ingenious and Ingenuous, swear aud forswear, seem and beseem. 12. P<»nt oat anything faulty or objectionable in the composition of wtttldsm, streamlet, height, unreverend, huntress, he-goat, fertilize, anti-state church, pureness. 13. Aoooant for the change of cat into kitten when en is added. 14. Discuss the question as to whether English adjectives have auxiliaries. 15. Show what purpose each of the parts of speech serves in the expression of our thoughts. 16. Dtacrimlmte and illustrate the different values of the sufflx ing. 17. Aoooant for our present methods of representing number and case in nouns. 18. DiMnas the etymology and syntax of who. What, WhiCh, and Whether. 19. Oire a pedj^ree of the English Language which shall show from what sources it lias been saooewireiy recruited. SO. What does the apostrophe represent in each of the following : Jesus', men's, ftiends', man's ? SL What s i gniflcan ce lies in the italicized letters in him, she, U, and Ottri f 9L Indkate ttacca in Modem English of comparison by vowel change. TEBBS. 183 m Univentty i he $eU«it9d led in Engliab, to lied and rtoseef «, d«M, inflam- dtlon applies to tlon? Which Is art,teU-tale. isrulty between L, VlBlOlii stennined by the ingStTMB, selfsame. •tsot speech. pronouns. le, ye »»»* y I change. CHAPTER VIII. VEEBS. DEFINITION AND USES. 1. A VERB, as we have seen (II. 13), is a word by means of which we can make an assertion : it implies predication. Hence, as a sentence is the assertion of something, every sentence must have a verb in it : the verb forms, with or without other words, the predicate of a sentence : thus, in Troy was, He sleeps. They went. The boy was beaten, there is an assertion, in each particular case, of existence, or a state, or an action, or the enduring of an action, on the part of that which is expressed by the subject of the verb. 2. The chief action of the mind is judgment (II. 5), and the verb is the chief word by which the mind's judgments find expression. Out of this function and its necesbities, has arisen the verb's power of combining within itself the ideas of mood, tense, number, and person. The essence, therefore, of the verb is its power of predication ; its other qualities are merely results thereof. Consequently, every word to which we can assign this power becomes a verb : thus, for example, run, leap, stand, cry, order, time, number, are nouns with a or an, but verbs with I, before them. Owing to the indispensability of the verb in every sentence, it possesses a greater tenacity of form than any other part of speech. Hence, in it are to be found the most remarkable relics of the synthetic stage of our language, and the proofs of its relationship to the other members of the Teutonic sub-family. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING. 3. Verbs are as numerous, and as varied in meaning, in a language, as nouns and adjectives, and it is impossible to classify them exhaustively by their meanings. But there is a certain diflference of use which separates them into two classes. I.— TnmsitiTc and IntraBslllTc. Some verbs are usually, and almost necessarily, followed by an OBJECT ; that is, by a noun, or its equivalent, in the objective 184 VERBS. [vin.8- case, signifying that at which the action of the verb is directed (m. 15). Thus, I await, I cr38s, I persuade, seem by themselves incomplete, and we look for some word expressing the person or thing that is awaited, or persuaded, or crossed : thus, I await the arrival of the mail ; I cross the road to meet him ; I persuade my firiend to go with me. Other verbs, again, do not take, or are hardly able to take, any such object; if they express an action, they express it completely, without an added object : for example, I walk, stand, rejoice, weep, become, seem, and so on. A verb of the former class is said to be a transitive verb, or to be used transitively {transitive means "going over": that is, the action of the verb is fancifully said to " go over" from the subject to the object) ; one of the latter class is called INTRANSITIVE (that is, "not transitive"). But this distinction is not an absolute one; many verbs are freely used in both ways, and there is hardly a transitive verb in our language that may not also be used intransitively. The peculiar uses of transitive and intransitive verbs will be taken up when we come to consider in detail the relations of the words in a sentence (see also VIII. 164 and 166). II.— SnbHtaiatlve and Adjective. 4. Occasionally verbs are divided into two classes, according as they assert quality, or mere being or existence : thus, iu He runs and Qod is great, runs asserts quality, and is existence. Verbs like runs (that is, almost all verbs) arc called adjective ; and those like is, substantive. ■I It III.— Special Classes. 6. But, although, owing to the great variety of the meanings of verbs, it is impossible to form an exhaustive and minute classification on the basis of meaning, there are a few classes, chiefly of derivatives, that are especially noticeable. a. Some verbs denote the action or condition as being caused in an object. Examples are Mt^ raise, ensUve, whiten, enliven, cleanse, bumlsli, flocllitate, terrify, tranqnUlse. Such verbs are distinguished as oausativks. See also Vm. 7. c. and d. 8 directed lome word persuaded, vni. T] CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 185 ble to take, express it id SO on. siTivE verb, ;oing over": [) " go over" lass is called is distinction ised in both )ur language verbs will be relations of wding as they [that is, ahnoBt INTIVE. lings of verbs, Cification on the [ativos, that are ig earned in an [, facUltate, l.7.c.aod*» b. Others express the repetition or the/reqtiency of an act. Examples are wander from wend, sparkle *' spark ; patter from pat, clamber from clam-p, grapple " grab, straddle " ttrlde, and some verbs ending in -k, as hark, lurk, stalk, walk ; also verbs of Latin origin ending in -Itate, with some in -le : thus, agitate, hesitate, palpitate ; scribble, trouble, tremble. Such verbs are distinguished as frequentative^. c. With the notion of repetition is often associated that of diminufion, as in the case of some of the examples already given. Others possessing this character more markedly are glimmer from gleam, twinkle from tweak, dribble from drip. Such verbs are also called diminutives. The following, however, are diminutives merely : — chip from chop, click from clack, drip from drop. d. Naturally, tho frecjiientative sometimes intensifies or strengthens the meaning of the primitive : thus, sputter from spit, flutter from fly, glitter from gli(n)t, bluster " blast, drawl " draw, dazzle " daze. Such verbs are distinguished as intensive^. e. A small class of verbs ending in -esce, of Latin origin, express the inception or commencement of an act, or a change of state. Examples are effervesce, deliquesce, coalesce, eflloresce. Such verbs are distinguished as inceptives. f. Modem English, however, usually expresses the inceptive, and sometimes the frequentative and the causative meaning, by verb-phrases; that is^ by analytic forms : thus, to grow warm, to shoot up to manhood, to run to wood, to be about to go, to keep saying, to go on sajring, to make clean, and so on. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 6. According to tlieir form, verbs are simple, or derivative, or COMPOUND (Compare V. 25 and VII. 6). I. -simple. Simple verbs are such as be, go, sit, see, give, write, alter, admonish. II.— Derivative. 7. The most inlportant classes of derivative verbs are as follows : — ' ▼BRII8. [vm. T- I • (( <( « (( (i be- for- mis- un- dis- re- ft (C <( a. Verbs derived by suffixes, from adjectives, and (much more rarely) from nouns. The only common suffix is -en : thus, broaden, harden, fasten, sicken, lengthen, firighten. A few words have -ize : thus, solemnize, humanize, sermonize, tjrrannize. Less common derivatives from nouns end in -1 and -le : thns, kneel, mnffle, qnlbble (quip), sparkle, throttle (throat) ; and, from adjectives, in -er and -se : thus, hinder, lowar, cleanse. b. Verbs derived by prefixes. These come especially from other verbs : thus, with a- in awake, arise, arouse ; " befall, belie, bespeak, bethink, beflatter; forget, forgive, forswear; mistake, misbehave, miscall ; unbind, undo, unfasten ; disqualify, disown, dislike; recapture, recover, repay. But verbs are also derived by prefixes, from nouns and adjectives : thus, with be- in benight, behead, befriend, belittle, besiege ; " en- " enthrone, endanger, embody, endear; ** re- " renew, refresh. And a few take the suffix -en along with a prefix : thus, embolden, enlighten. Note that the prefix in the case of these derivatives from nouns and adjectives changes the part of speech (IV. 19). c. Verbs derived from other verbs, by internal change, by an alteration of the vowel-sound, sometimes along with other changes : thus, fell from fall, set from sit, lay from lie, raise from rise, drench from drink. These are called causatives, because they generally signify the causing of an act or a condition : thus, lay means "cause to lie." From the parallel forms of these verbs in Icelandic (I. 7. c), wc have reason to believe that these forms are due to lost suflixes. This view is strenffthened by the fact that the simple verbs are of the Old conjugation, and tne causal, of the New — a sign that the former are older tlmn the la'tten pan. T- ▼m 11] INFLBCTBD FORMS. 187 luch more thus, bten. B. IlttSt Bcially from )eflatteT; m nouns ana e, besiege ; deax ; 3fix: thus, rivatives from (IV. 19). .1 change, by an ^ng with other from lie, J.llBht generally signify fy means " cause c{I.7.c),wc^*Y8 \xe8 This view w le Old conjugation- ■ are older than the d. A very large number of nouns and adjectives are turned directly into verbs, without addition of suffix or prefix, or any other alteration— except sometimes the change of accent or of a final consonant or the sound thereof. Examples are to witness a will, to round an angle, to accent a syllable, to use caution, to halve an apple, to practise music. III.— Campoaad. 8. Compound verbs are made almost solely with prefixes, having the value of adverbs, but adverbs which are also pre- positions, and are more usually called such. Examples are foresee, forebode, undermine, understand, overspread, overturn, uplift, uproot, outwit, outnumber, ^thstand, withhold. A very few compound verbs have aa their first element a noun, or an adjective, or an adverb : for example, partake (that is, part-take), t>ackbite, browbeat, wUtewasli, rongb-hew, fblfil, dry-nurse, cross-question. INFLECTED FORMS. 9. Verbs, like nouns and pronouns, have their inflection, or changes of form, in order to express certain changes of application or of meaning; and this inflection is called their CONJUGATION. I.— Person and Nnnbcr. 10. Verbs are varied, to a certain extent, not because of any change in their own individual meaning, but in consequence of dillerenoes in the number or in the person of their subject. This is called the inflection of the verb for person and number. I. — PERSON. 11. For example, with the personal pronouns of the three persons, we use difierent forms of the verb in I love. Thou lovest. He loves (or loveth); but only one is different from the others in I loved. Thou lovedst. He loved ; and in I can. Thou canst, He can. Of these forms, the third person ending in -th and the second person in -st are now used only in the higher and the solemn 18H VERBS. [▼in. 11- 1 ,1 ' I flfif!^ style. For the second person singular, we ordinarily use the second person plural (VI. 15). No English verb has diflerent forms to put with the plurals of the personal pronouns : thus, We love, loved, and can ; Tou love, loved, and can ; They love, loved, and can. 12. The addition to the verb-stem of the personal suffixes -Bt and -s, or -th, is sometimes accompanied with various modifications of the spelling, as in the cose of the plurals of nouns, and the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives (V. 34 and VII. 23): thus, lov-e-st, run-n-est, carr-i-est, teach-e-st ; and the verbal suffix -s is subject to the same euphonic changes as -s, the plural and possessive suffix of nouns : thus. He bat-s (s-sound); He sin-s (zsound); He fish-es, or judge-8 (another syllabb). 11. — NUMBER. 13. As regards number, the forms of the verb that go with thou and with you are generally different : thus, Thou lovest, lovedst, and canst ; You love, loved, and can ; and the forms that go with singular and plural subjects of the third person are sometimes difl'erent, as He loves (or loveth); They loved; and sometimes the same, as He loved, and can ; They love'l. and can. But the forms with I and with we are always the same: thus, I love, loved, and can ; We love, loved, and can ; except, however, in one irregular verb be, which has a special form for its three plural persons, different from any of those of the singular : thus, I am. Thou art, He is ; We, Ton, and They are ; I was. Thou wast. He was; " " were. 14. Of the Teutonic laognagea, bo far as we know from written records, the Gothic was the only one that retained the dual numlier of the verb ; and, even in Gothic, it was confined to the first and the second i^erson, the plural being used for the tliird. No trace of the 4ual apjpears even in the earliest extant speciluv^s of Old Euslish. [Vin. u- y use tho tie plurids lean; ^al suffixes th various I plurals of tives (V. 34 ,nic changes I, or judge-8 that go with ed, and can ; bjecta of the vm. 16] INFLICTED FORMS. 189 can. ys the same: nd can; has a special ny of those of They are ; were. J from vrritten dual numlwr of ixe first and the [No trace of the id EusliBh. Tho BufTix of the first person sinjiriilar was orij^iiuiUy -m, now loht, except in am, tho final -^ of the O. K. first |H:rMon l>uing the Hurvivin^ cunnccting vowul ; that of the sec-ond Dcriton was -t, and that of thu third, W/t, which, as early as the eleventh century, waa in tho Northern dialect softened to -a (III. 26). This ending niude its way into tho language of literature, and after the middle of the sixteenth century became more and more common. In the Northern dialect •« is %lso the Buflix of the first and second persons. The modern vulgarisms Says I and Thinks I to myself are probaldy sarvivala of this usage : it is found occasionally in Elizabethan writers also : thus, in Jonson, My iharpneu thou no leu disjoints. In Old English (see VIIL 53) the plural of the present indicative ended in 'tli, originally the suffix of the second person The subjunctive present and past, and the indicative past, ended throiii;hoiit in -n, originally the suffix of the third person plural. In th'; thu^ \\\\ ami fourteenth centuries, the Southern dialect had -th lur trie pUin I -f tiie present indicative ; the Northern had -n in the second and thi.il ])er- hons, or dropped all endings; and the Midland had -vn, a nnliix which was in use in English till the middle of the sixteenth cent i y : thus, in Shakespeare, we find, And then tbi whole quire hold their hips and laugh, And waxbn in their mirth. Plurals in - 'vhich are now only vulgarisms, are common in Elii!.abethan literature : thus, in Shakespeare, His tears runs down hla beard, like winter-drops. Tlio plural of the imperative ended in -ih, retained in Middle Engli'th in the Southern and Midland dialects, bat changed to -s in the Northern. II.— Tease aad Mood. 15. Again, verbs are varied in two respects to signify real differences of meaning l»elonging to thein.selves. When we assert of a subject an .action or a state, we must represent this ajction or state as existing in some time and vmnner. These differences we must express in some way ; TENsK-iiifiection and MOOD-inflection are some of our ways of doing so. Further on we shall see that we use verb-phrases to express tho other differences of the mode of assertion, and of tho time and the completeness or incompleteness of the action or the state. I. — PRESE.VT AXD PA.ST TENSES. 16. I love or I strike is used especially of what is going on now, at the present moment, and is, therefore, said to be of the PRESENT tense ; while I loved is u.sed of soriething gone by or in the past, and is, therefore, called the past tense. And we have in like manner, as corresponding present and past, I wait and I waited, I give and I gave, I seek and I soucht, I hold and I held. 190 VBRBS. [vm. le- These two are the only tenses distinguis^^od by real inflection in our verb. 17. English resembles all the other Teutonic languages in having but two tenses, about which as centres have been developed verb-phrases to express the meanings and the relations which other languages express synthetically, and which the progress of thought and the study of Latin rendered necessary' in English. The use of these tenses is far more restricted in Modem than in Old English, in which the present form expressed the ideas for which we use future and future-perfect verb- phrases ; and the past, those for which we use progressive, perfect, and pluperfect verb-phrases. 18. But the present tense-form has stiil a variety of meanings besides the normal one of an action or a state at the present time, regarded as lingle or one whole— a meaning, however, which, from its nature, is teldom found, and which the following illustrate : I tell you that which you yourselves do know ; Now fades the glimmering laudsoape on the sight. It expresses also a. The past in animated narrative (the historic present) : thus. Towards noon Elector Tnurlot gains admittance; finds De Launay Indisposed for surrender. . . . Thurlot mounts with him to the battlements, etc. t. The future, when the event is fixed and near at hand, or vividly &t>ticipated : thus, The hoys come back next Saturday week. Or when the reference is clear from the context : thus, . . . When lam forgotten, as I shall be, And sleep In dull, cold marble, where, etc. 0. A universal truth : thus, Love Is strong as death ; Jealousy 1 s cruel as the grave. d. A continued or habitual action or state : thus, And In this state she gallops night by night Through lovers' brains, and tnen tney dream of love. Let the gods so speed me, as I love The name of honor more than I fear death. The mountains look upon Blarathon, And Marathon looks on the sea. e. The possession of some faculty : thus, My wife sings, plays, and danoes weU. 19. The past tense-form also has a variety of meanings besides its Qsual one of an action or a state in past time, regarded as single or one whole, which the following illutsrate : I found her in her chamber reading Flato; He slept sresterdej. It expresses also, as belonging to past time, vm. M] INFLECTED FORMS. 191 a. A continual or habitual action or state ; enus, A garden Oir Aed It ronnd with a belt of luxuriant bloisoms ; After Ills return lie borrowed without scmple, and was almost constantly In debt. b. The possession of some faculty : thus, He wrote better than any of those he employed. II. — THE VALUES OF MOODS A\D MODAL VERB-PHKA3E8. 20. The grammatical moods and modal verb-phrases serve to indicate the speaker 8 manner of viewing the action or the state expressed by the verb. This action or state may be viewed as an artual fact, or as a poanhility^ or as a necessity. In the scheme adopted in this grammar, the indicative mood is the mood of fact ; the subjunctive mood and the conditional and the potential modal verb-phrases are the mood of pos- sibility ; and the obligative mood is the mood of necessity. The other grammatical mood, the imperative, is really included in the mood of possibility. III.— INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOODS. 21. Again, the assertion may be a simple statement of what the speaker treats as fact : thus, in John went, They struck him, He said that I was there, the verbs went, struck, said, and was are said to be in the INDICATIVE mood : the speaker here treats as facts John's going, their striking him, his saying that I was there, and my being there ; although these may not really bo facts. But the assertion may bo a statement of what the speaker treats as existing in his thought only: thus, in If I be ; Though I go ; Supposing he were here ; Except Qod be with him ; Lest she forget her duty; the verbs be, go, were, and forget are said to be in the sub- JUNC3T1VE mood : the speaker here treats my being, my going, his being, God's being, and her forgetting as mere conceptions, and, therefore, as possibilities, not as facts ; although they may be facts in the future, or even when he is thinking of them. rv.— PECULIARITIES OF THE USB OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. S2. As, therefore, by the indicative we express what we view as actual fact, its application has no variety. The subjunctive, however, admits of various applications : bjr it wo express merely our conceptions, and these the mind may shape in a variety of w^ys, as, for instance, m-ntiT-oi I i "Twn i 192 VERBS. [Vm. 22- I Jtii i i^ |l 1:1 '..'I wishes, suppositions, conditions, or uncertainties arising from circum- stances or the ignorance of the speaker : thus, in I wish that God were with ns, or, its equivalent, God be with tu, Grod's being with us is a mere conception of the mind, and, therefore, not a fact, but a possibility. So, too, with his doing so, in If he were to do so, I should despise him. 23. What is stated of anything in thought merely can have no mean- ing except when taken in connection with some other statement. The subjunctive, therefore, is always dependent (hence the name [III. 9]); and the possibility it expresses is always in the logical subject of an equivalent categorical (that is, "unconditioned") sentence: thus, the thoughts in the sentences in 22 above may be expressed aa follows : — God's being with us (conceived as a possibility) is a thinerthat I wish ; His doing so (conceived as a possibility) is a condition that would determine me to despise him. Hence, generally, When the action or the state expressed by a verb is conceived as possible^ the possihiUty may be expressed in t/te logical subject of an equivalent categorical sentence. 24. In English, however, owing to the natural tendency of all lan- guages to drop unnecessary distinctions, we often use the indicative where the subjunctive or one of its equivalent verb-phrases of the con- ditional and potential moods might still be a proper form, provided either the context shows the possibility, or it is unnecessary to show it : thus, we say If he is there, I shall speak to him ; the possibility being, in this case, infased into the clause by the if; and be, the special verb-form expressive of possibility, being, therefore, unnecessary. So, too, with I do not know whether it is so ; He will stay till he sees me ; I will see that he does so ; When he comes, I will speak to you ; I asked him who was there. Generally, indeed, except in purely imaginary cases (see 22 above), or where the possibility is to be strongly marked, we need not indicate the possibility oy a special form of the verb. 26. But, in some cases, the indicative is especially suitable : thus, in If he was guilty, he deserved punishment; Though he slays me, yet will I trust in him; the meaning is His being guilty (conceived for argument's sake as Skfact) is the condition, etc. ; His slaying me (an actual fact) will not prevent my trusting him ; whereas the use of the subjunctives were and slay would represent mere possibility. 36. In Old English, the use of the subjunctive was more extended than at present. It was used 1. In principal olansea to express a wish or a oonunand ; (yin. sa- il circum- IthtiB, refore, not e no mean- nent. The le [in. 9]); bject of an : thuB, the >llows : — atlwlBb; xat would I as possihhf m equivalent y of all Ian- ae indicative B of the con- rm, provided y to show it : le by the if; ig, therefore. gees me; to you; 22 above), or [t indicate the i,ble : thuB, in ice) IB the Btlng blm; jrepresent mere lore extended ▼m. 29. b] INFLECTED FORMS. 193 2. In dependent clauses : a. To express the opinions of another (indirect narration) ; b. After verbs of thinking and desiring ; c. To express result ; d. In putting a general case ; e. In conditional clauses ; f. In concessive clauses ; and in many other kinds of subordinate clauses. V. — IMPERATIVE MOOD. 27. The IMPERATIVE is the mood of command or entreaty : thus, Qo away ! Be silent ! Leave us ; See him. The imperative is used only in tlie second i»erson ; but the subjunctive is occasionally used for it in the poetic and the more solemn style, in the first person plural and the third person of both numbers : thus, "Now tread we a measure," said young Lochinvar; G we to the king ; Thy will b e done ; The Lord be with you. Those forma are sometimes described as optative subjunc-- tivos ; that is, subjunctives used in the expression of a wish (optative means "expressing a wish"). 28. In Old English, the imperative is found only in the second person, hut with distinct inflections for the singular uild the plural, which, after a period of confusion, disappeared in the fifteenth century (see VIII. S3). In the first and the third person, the subjunctive, followed by the personal pronouns, was widely employed, a usage (illustrated above) of Modern English also. The first person plural was also expressed by an infinitive preceded by utan {uton or titun), which itself properly means "Let us go": thus, Utan wircan mannan, " Let us make man." But the introduction of the modern verb-phrase with let drove this form out of use after the fourteenth century. VI. — MOOU-INFLECTIONS. 29. a. The indicative is the mood of ordinary use, and has the greatest variety of inflections for person and number. b. No verb except be has a past subjunctive different from the indicative : thus, I was, I were; and, even in the present tense, a difference, except in the same verb be, is found only in the seoond and third persons singular : thus, IITDICATITI. BUBJlTKCTiyS. thou lovest, thou love; he loves, he love ; I am, etc., we, or you, or they be; but I love, and I love. U f 1 1= Im.i ' lU' ld4 VBRSS. tvm.M.iK Hence the suKjunctive, as a separate mood, is almost lost in our language. To express what it once expressed in English, and what it still expresses in many other languages, we use either the indicative, or compound forms made with auxiliaries — verb-phrases — which will he described further on. c. The imperative has but a single form, which is the same as that of the present subjunctive, and, like it, is used indifferently as singular and as plural. Its subject thou, or yon, or ye, may be expressed, coming after the verb ; but it is more usually omitted : thus, go or go thou, go or go yon or ye. In the first person of the optative subjunctive, the subject follows the verb, and is always expressed ; while in the third person it sometimes goes before and sometimes follows, being also always expressed : thus. The Lord make His face shine npon thee I Blessed be the peacemakers I The imperative also is often expressed by verb-phrases. DERIVED FORMS. 30. The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms that have been described above are all the forms of inflection which the verb has in English. But there are certain derived words, made from almost every verb in the language, which are so important, and so much used, and used in such ways, that they are always given along with the inflected forms, as part of the conjugation of the verb, although they are not really verbs, as they make no assertion. I.— InAnltiTcs* 31. To say He gives a book, or He goes, is to declare that some one is the doer of a certain action on a certain object, or is simply the doer of an action, at the present time : the action is itself expressed by giving or to give, or going or to go, which may then, like any other nouns expressing an action, be made the subject or the object of a verb : thus, To give is better than to receive ; Giving is better than receiving ; He liked to go ; He likad going. tt.at.tK vm. ss] ofimvfiD roRiid. Id5 lost in luglisb, we use itiliaries same as Eferently ye, may usually 3 subject the third ws, being ases. lorms that ion which ved words, lich are so I, that they )art of the y verbs, as action on a the present u go, action, be 8 better d going. In a great many cases also (but usually when in an objective construction) the to may be omitted : thus, He can (or dare, or had better, or cannot but, or saw him) give (or go). The forms giving, to give, or give, and going, to go, cr go, as used above, are called infinitives (the term means "unlimited," or "indefinite"; the general idea of action or state is not limited, as in the ordinary forms, to a particular subject, and consequently these forms possess neither peison nor number). The infinitive is, thus, a species of verbal noun, a part of speech which expresses in the noun-form that which the verb asserts. 32. The to which sometimes forms part of the infinitive is the preposition, but it has not always the same force. It is used a. Sometimes, as a mere sign, without any moaning : as in He likes (or wishes, or intends, or tells me) to go. b. But sometimes also with the prepositional meaning which it had in Old English, as in He came to see me ; Afraid to go (that is, of going) ; Ready to run (that is, for running) ; Sorry to hear (that is, for hearing) ; A work to do (that is, for doing) ; Season to go (that is, for going). Consequently, used thus, the infinitive with to, like any other phrase beginning with a preposition, has the force of an adverb or an adjective. II.— Participles. 33. The person who gives, or who goes, is described as a giving or a going person ; what he gives is described as a given thing; and we say joys gone forever. Here giving, going, given, and gone modify the nouns with which they are con nected, while they express also that which is asserted by the verb. Given and gone, and giving and going, as thus used, are called participles. (The term means "participating," "sharing"; such words, while really adjectives, sharing also the nature of verbs.) The participle is, thus, a species of verbal adjective, a part of speech which expresses in the adjective-form that which the verb asserts. a 196 VERBS. [Vni. 8S- f • ;m !! iM f! And the infinitive and the ])artici[)le both belong to that peculiar class of words, each raenilur of which partakes of the natures of two parts of speech (II. 39. 2). 34. It follows from the description of the infinitivo that it also is a "participle" in the etymological sense of the term; and from that of the participle that it also is, in the same sense, an "infinitive." Grammarians, however, have restricted the use of these terms as above. m.— rec«llaiitles of Inflnitivcs and Partlciplf s. 35. Infinitives and participles are not the only noun-forras and adjective-forms derived from verbs. The giving person may also be descritfod as a giver, and the given thing as a gift. These worda are likewise derivatives from give, and words like giver are made from a very large part of the verbs of our language. But infinitives and participles differ from other derivatives from verbs : 1. They are formed from every verb in the language almost without exception for certain n-gular and definable uses. 2. They have also uses which are peculiar : a. The infinitive is an abstract noun, but without the inflections of the noun ; the participle is an adjective, but without the capability of coiuparison ; and each resembles the verb, but is without its inflections or its powf r of predication. Each expres.«es merely the condition of that which the verb predicates: the participle expresses it as incomplete (giving, going), or as complete (given, gone); and the infinitive expresses it as one whole, without reference to the incompleteness or the completeness, and so, indefinitely (to give, give, or giving). b. Both imply time, but the idea of definite time, which seems to belong to them, is only infused into them by the main verb with which they are associated : thus, in I like (or liked, or shall like) to give (or giving), the condition of the act expressed by the infinitives to give or giving, is present, or past, or future, according as the main verb is present, or past, or future. So, too, with go in I see (or saw, or shall see) him go ; and wifii the participles failing or fallen, in I lae (or saw, or shall see) him falling (or fallen). ni. 88- VXn 86. a] DERIVED FORMS. 197 that of the i also is om that initive." la above. informs r person IS a gift' ords like s of ouv ,in other ve almost »es. bhout the ctive, but irables the •edication. the verb ;e (giving, expresses less or the ^ving). |me, which the main ting), Ito give or the main Len). c. By virtue of their verbal nature, both the participle and the infinitive may have the same adjuncts that the verbs from which they come take, and they may be followed by objects, direct and indirect : thus, wo say I give him my forgiveness vrillingly (where him is the indirect and forgiveness the direct object of give, and willingly is its adverbial modifier) ; so we say also, using the infinitive, to give (or giving) him my forgiveness willingly ; or, using the participle, John found me giving him my forgiveness willingly, and My forgiveness was given willingly ; . whereas, if we used an ordinary noun, like giver or gift, we should have to say, for example, A gift to him with willingness of my forgiveness. d. By virtue of their noun power, the infinitive with to and the infinitive in -ing may also be modified by a predicative adjective : thus. To play (or playing) is pleasant ; and the infinitive in -ing may also be modified by a noun or a pronoun in the possessive : thus, John's (or His) going is unexpected. IV.— FornH of Inflnllives. 36. There are two infinitives : a. One is of the same form as the simplest verbal form, the stem or roo<- word of the verbal forms (III. 31 and IV. 36) : as go, see, walk, deny, familiarize. As we have seen, it often has the preposition to put before it • thus, to go, to see, to walk, to deny, to familiarize. This infinitive, with or without to, is called the ROOT-infinitive. The form with to is, however, sometimes distinguished as the OERUNDiAL infinitive, in reference to its bavins; been connected with the dative case of the Old EngliKh gerund, which was so named on account of the resemblance of some of its uses to those of the Latin gerund. If i: I 198 ▼EBBS. (VnL 88. b- b. The other infinitive ends in -ing, as going, seeing, walking, denying, familiarizing. This infinitive is known simply as the infinitive in -ing, or as the GERUND {gerund means "carrying on," the reference being to the continuous action or state which the Latin gerund was regarded as expressing). The root-infinitive and the gerund, with the infinitive phrases that belong to them (VIII. 148), have in part the same uses and in part different uses, being in some cases interchangeable, and in others not. These uses, and the rules as to the presence or absence of to, will be taken up hereafter when we come to consider the way in which words are put together to form sentences (XV.). 37. The Old English infinitive was treated as a nonn ; it ended in the nom. and aca in -n added to the verbal stem with a connective vowel a: thus, ridan, "to ride"; sendauy "to send"; standan, "to stand"; lufian, "to love." After the Conquest^ -an became weakened to -en (IV. 45. c), but the nsage as to the retention of final -n was unsettled, infinitives without -n being for several centuries as common as those with -n. In the four- teenth century, the tendency to drop the -n became more general ; in the fifteenth, it became universal ; and in the sixteenth, the infinitive suffix was used for poetic effect only. The -e thus left ceased to be sounded, being finally retained in some cases and dropped in others : thus, ride, send, stand, love. 88. The infinitive had also a dative (the so-called "gerundial infinitive"), invariably preceded by to and ending at first in -anne, an inflection formed by adding to the nom. form the dative ending -e and doubling the n. The commonest distinction of function may be seen in the following : — Hu moeg this hisjlcesc us syllan td etanne F " How may this (man) his fle&h us give to eat?" Oi/hwd earan hcebbe td gehyranne. "If any one ears have to hear." This dative suffix then weakened to -enne and -ene, becoming finally -«n, the same form as the nom. and ace. infinitive, but preceded by td. The efiect of this unification of form was that, in Early English, confusion took place, ending in the root-infinitive's almost alwaj's toking before it td, which ^radualw came to be regarded as part of the infinitive itself. To the end of the fourteenth century, the gerundial infinitive occasionally retained a distinct form, -ende or -infje, being confounded with the imperfect participle ; but, by the beginning of the Modem Enslish period, it had wholly disappeared, its form undergoing the same fin^ chanse as the root-infinitiv.ei and some of its functions surviving iti the adjectival and the adverbial uses of tlie modern root-infinitive : thu8« ▲ Iionse to l«t I Ctood to eat; A sower Wtnt out to sow. I a8.v VZXL 41] DERIVED FORMS. 199 -ing, or -ference gerund phrases ises and ble, and sence or come to to form led in the 9 vowel o: and"; s.), but the without -n n the four- general ; in e infinitive lased to be in others: **gerundial n -anne, an ing -e and be seen in i)hiBfleBb lOW. 89. The true orisin of the infinitive in -log is doubtful, owing to the confusion that resulted from the fact that the modern suffix represents ill Old English -ung in verbal nouns, as enduntj, "ending," "end"; (2) -etulie) or -ind{e) in imperfect ^rticiples, as He is cumende^ "He is coming"; (3) ana the gemndial infinitive in -enne (seldom the root- infinitive in -en, or the perf. participle in -en). It seems nrobable, however, that, on the unification of their forma, the verbal noun acquired from the participle its power of expressing state, or action, and of forming comiwund verb phrases ; thus becoming the modjrn gerund, or infinitive in -ing. The historical explanation of the con- struction Running races is a flayorite game, is, therefore, that it was represented in Old English by the equivalent of Running of races Is a favorite game, in which the O. E. for running would be a mere verbal noun in 'Uvg ; and that when both verbal noun and imperfect participle assumed the form in -Ing, the former became verbal in force, dropping the of in cases where it had taken it. v.— Forms ot Participles. 40. There are two participles : a. One ends in -ing, as going, seeing, walking, loving, giving. This form is called the imperfect participle, as it expresses an incomplete action or state of the noun which it modifies. b. The other participle has a variety of endings, -d, or -t, or *n, or none at all : as in walked, loved, taught, given, gone, seen, run. This form is called the perfect participle, as it expresses a completed action or state of the noun it modifies. It is also called the passive participle, as, when formed from transitive verbs, it denotes state as the result of suffering or enduring {passive means "enduring") the action expressed by the verb : thus, anything seen or loved, or taught, or given lias had the act cf seeing, or loving, or teaching, or giving performed upon it, and its state is the result of " suffering" or "enduring" this act. 41. As a form in -ing in English may discharge the function ot an adjective, an imperfect participle, an infinitive in -ing (or gerund), or a verbal noun (that is, a noun derived from a verb), it is necessary to distinguish carefully these parts of speech. The following examples illustrate their differences : N I : I !•■'■! III. 4 200 VERBS. This very amusinR book, A father amusing his child well, The amusing of his child is commendable, A father's amusing his child well. So, too, The trotting horse, A horse trotting quickly down the street, The trotting of the horse, A horse's trotting quickly down the street, [vni. 41. adjective ; participle ; verbal noun; gerund. adjective ; participle ; verbal noun J gerund ; 42. In both conjugations, the imperfect participle was formed in the Midland dialect by adding -ende to the stem, as in sing-ende, " singing." During the Early English period, this suffix often showed itself as -ind{e) {/finginde) in the language of the South, and -and{e) (aingande) in that of the North. In the former, it was as early as the twelfth century con- founded with the gerundial infinitive in -enne, and the verbal noun in 'Ung. As one result of the confusion of these forms, -Ing, now the established ending of the gerund, was adopted, about the close of the Middle English period, by the Midland dialect, from the Southern as the ending of the imperfect participle. For a time, however, thereafter we find occasionally in literature) even in Spenser and Bon Jonson) the Northern forms in -and : thus, pleasand thmga, twa irilland brooks, glitterand, trenchand. 43. The distinctive ending of the Old English perfect participle of the Old conjugation was -en, except in a few cases in which the e was syncopated. After the Conquest, this ending was frequently dropped, especially in the South. The unsettled usage in this matter has produced a good deal of variety in the modern forms : a. Some verbs have dropped the -en : thus, hegunnen, aungen, rungen have become begun, sung, nug. b. Others have retained it, some of these, however, syncopating the e ; thus, we have fallen, given, sliaken, torn, known. c. A third class had two forms, one with -n, the other without it: thus, beaten, beat; drunken, drunk ; bidden, bid ; bitten, bit ; chosen, chose. In Modern English, the longer of such double forms is generally preferred for the participle, except in the case of certain forms, as bounden, bound ; drunken, drunk ; shrunken, shrunk ; in which the longer form is used as an adjective. Bat usage is not fixed as to many of these forms. d. In some verbs, again, the past tense has driven out the regular perfect participle : thus, we have sat for sitlcn, stood for slanden, held for Mden, shone for ahitten. Tn.4i. vm. «6] CONJUGATIONS. 201 ive; iple ; Lnoun; id. tive; ciple ; dnoun; ad; ed in the singing." as ■ind{e) in that of itury con- l noun in now the jse of the authern as thereafter onson) the nd. trticiple of the e was dropped, produced Lting the e : irithout it: pn, chose. generally IS, as Ik; bs not fixed (ihe regular ahinen. This movement, now arrested, was very general during the Elizabethan age, when inflections were being discarded and usnge was unsettled: thus, in Shakespeare, we find arose for arisen, /roze for froien, miatook for mistaken, wrote for written. There is a tendency at present vi-ith some writers to substitute drank for drunk ; but the substitution has not the sanction of the bvst usage. 44. The diatincti e ending of the Old English perfect participle of the New conjugation was -d (the older Teutonic -th [as still in uncouth], •t, or -d [IV. 13j ), suffixed to the stem by a connecting vowel o or e, as in luf-o-d, "loved"; or iUm-e-d ; -d often becoming t by assimilation when the connective was not used. Finally, e became the only connecting vowel. The dropping of the final -e of the past tense suffix -de (III. 37) unified the forms of the perfect participle and the past tense ; so that the changes that affected the latter affected the former also. During the Middle English period, however, some verbs ending in -te, -t, or -d, did not add -ed to form this participle — a usage whicTi seems to have been dictated by a regard for euphony, and of which we find examples in Early English also. Shakespeare, for instance, uses as participles, acquU, contrant, enshield, hoist, heat, wed, addict. The same usage is found to have prevailed in the case of many words derived from Latin participles which, however, M'ere themselves felt to Eossess an adjectival value, Liatin words when first introduced having ad some of their original force : thus, miscreate, create, consummate, pollute. The legal term situate for situated is a survival for this usage. 45. The O. E. prefix ge-^ was added, in the earliest period of the language, to nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs, as well as to verbs. After the Conquest it was weakened to y- or i-, and, from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, it was generally restricted to the perfect'participle : thus, gelu/od, "loved"; ymaked, "maked"; ygo, "gone"; idral, "dreaded." Occasionally, since the sixteenth century, it has appeared in the language of poetry or of burlesque : thus, in Milton, Goddess . . . ycleapedEuplirosyne; undera Star-ypointingFsrramld; and in the provincial dialects of England, many words retain the prefix which has undergone still greater phonetic change : thus, in Dorset, Have ye a-yound (*.e. found) the book? OLD AND NEW CONJUGATIONS. I.— DUrercBccs. 46. If we start from the simplest form of the verb, the stem or root-infinitive, there are in English (as in the other languages most nearly related to English) two principal ways of making from it the past tfnse and the perfect participle. And, according as they follow the on« or the other of thest 202 VERBS. [vm. 4t- :i ■■I If ways, English verbs are divided into two grrat classes (which are called conjuoations), because unlike each other in their mode of inflection or conjugation. 47. The one class or conjugation regularly forms its past tense by a mere change in the vowel of the stem, and its perfect participle by adding -n or -en ; and the vowel of the participle is the same as that of the stem, or the same as that of the past, or else different from both : thus, root-in fin,, give; past tense, gave ; perfect part., given; bite; " bit; " bitten; •' fly; •• flew; ** flown. This is called the old (or primary) conjugation, because the verbs belonging to it are primitive verbs of the Teutonic verb- family. The other class regularly forms its past tense and its perfect participle, bo(h alike, by the addition of -ed or -d to the stem or root-infinitive': root-intin., love; past tense, loved; perfect part., loved; " wish; " wished; " wished. This is called the new (or secondary) conjugation, because all the verbs of this conjugation are of later origin than those of the other, having been derived therefrom or borrowed from other languages. Sometimes, also, the Old conjugation is called the strong conjugation, and the New, the weak ; it having been fancifully represented that the Old conjugation was strong enough to form its past tense from its own i esources without outside help ; whereas the New was too weak to do so, and had to get the aid of an additional syllable. The origin of these pasts has been already explained in III. 27 and 29, and IV. 46. d. (2) ; all of their history that is of i*nportanc6 is given under 53 and 87 below, and in the subsequent details of the irregularities of the conjugations. 48. A modification of the vowel of the stem (due, however, to a different cause from that of the Old conjugation) is found in a few verbs which take also an additional syllable, and are, therefore, of the New conjugation : as tell, told. The distinction between the conjugations consists, therefore, in the adding or the not adding to the stem, of a syllable to form the past tense, not in the varying or the not varying of the vowel n. vm. Ml OONJUOATIONS. 203 which their s pa»t perfect •ticiple le past, Yen; itten ; own. ftuse the uc verb- 8 perfect the stem loved ; wished. 1, because lian those iwed from le STRONG fancifully jnough to ;8ide help ; ret the aid 27 and 29, ice is given ^regularities ., however, ligation) is il syllable, bold, therefore, syllable to varying of ML—TmrmtiMm» 49. Below are given, by way of model, all the forms of two regular verbs, one from each conjugation : I. — IXFLKCTED FORMS. ISDICATIVI MOOD. Prttent Tente. Mew C«Bj«gailoB. Pen. Sing. 1. I love 2. Thou lovest 3. He loves (loveth) •M r«Biagall«B. 1. I give 2. Thou givest 3. He gives (greth) Pa»t Tttut. Mew C«BjBcatl«B. 1. I loved 2. Thou lovedst 3. He loved •M r*«Jasall«B. 1. I gave 2. Thou gavest 3. He gave PI. We love You (Ye) love They love We give You (Ye) give They give We loved You (Ye) loved They loved New €onJaK«ti«B. ■nUrXCTITB MOOD. Pre*ent Tente. We gave You (Ye) gave They gave Old Conjosallon. Sinv. and PI. Singr. Md PI. 1, 2, 3. (If) I, thou, he, etc., love (If) I, thou, he, etc., give P€ut Tense. 1, 2, 3. (If) I, thou, he, etc., loved (If) I, thou, he, etc., gave IHrSBATITI MOOD. 2. love give II. DERIVED FORMS. BxwT-tsnxrnvc. love or to love give or to give OKRCKD, OR mruiiivi 15 -nio. loving giving loving giving pKKncT PAsnaPLS. iQved given 204 VERBS. Lvm. 60- ill \m i|:IS ' m. 'Jul ii 50. It will be noticed that the regular verbs of the New conjugation thus have only six actually different forms: namely, love, lovest, loves (or loveth), loved, lovedst, loving ; while the regular verbs of the Old conjugation have seven: namely, give, givest, gives (or giveth), gave, gavest, giving, given. Ill.-Principal Parts. 51. In both conjugations, the root-infinitive, the imperative, and the present tense (in the subjunctive, and thtj plural and first singular of the imlicative) are the same as that simplest form of the verb which we call the stem. And the imperfect participle and the gerund differ from them only by adding -ing. We need, therefore, to know only the root-infinitive, the past tense, and the perfect participle, in order to understand the whole inflection of any verb. Hence these three are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS of the verb, and, in describing any verb, they are given. Thus, love, loved, loved ; teach, taught, taught ; go, went, gone ; give, gave, given; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been. IV.— Tcttsc Inflection. 52. As regards the inflection of the tenses, the subjunctive tenses have but one form for all persons and both numbers. In the indicative, the second person singular adds st or est in both tenses ; and the addition generally makes another syllable — always, if the first person has only one syllable, or ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (V. 34. c.) : thus, loved, lovedst, confessest, cherished. The third person singular is like the first in the past tense, but in the present adds s or es, which does not make another syllable except after a sibilant sound. Thus, loves, gives, bids, picks, hopes ; but confesses, fixes, chooses, cherishes, pitches, judges. The added 8 is pronounced hs s or as z, according to the same rules which were given above (V. 34) for the 8 of the plural of nouns. Vm. 68] CONJUGATIONS. 205 The third person singular present has in the higher and the solemn style a second form, made by the ending -th or -eth, almost always making an additional syllable. Thus, loveth, giveth, goeth, hopeth, flxeth ; but disableth. v.— Old English Verbal ForniH. 63. The following is a model paradigm of the verbal forms of 5/m/an, an O. E. verb of the Old conjugation. To it are appended those forms of hcelan of the New conjugation, the inflections or the suffixes of which are diiTerent from those of the corresponding forms of the paradigm of the Old coujugation. These O. E. forms are accompanied by the Early, Middle, and Modern English forms, which will serve to convey a general idea of the process by which the O. E. inflections have been reduced. These forms should be studied in connection with 14, 37-39, and 42-46 above. Old Conjugation. OLD ENGLISH. EARLY AND MIDDLE ENOLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. I. — INFLECTED FORMS. Pars. 1. 2. 8. binde bind- est birut'Cth 1, 2, and 3. bindath 1, band 2, hunde 8. band 1 2 and 3 /*«'»^"'». 1, 2, and 3. bind-e INDICATIVB MOOD. Pres'nt Tense. Sing^ular. bind-e bind-est (and -m, -is, and -ys, in Northern dialects) bind-eth or bint (and -ca, ■18, and -ya in Northern dialects) Plural. bind-eth or binde (and -es, ■is, and -ys in Northern dialects ; -en in Midland) Past Tense. Singular. band {bond) bonde band (bond) Plural. bond-en, bond-e, bond, and bound aUBJUNCTIVR MOOD. Present Tenue. Singular. bind-e Plural. bind-en, and •« I bind Thou bind-est He blnd->( or bind-eth We, You, and They bind I bound Tliou bound-eot Ho. bound We, You, and They bound I, Thou, and He bind We, You, and They bind 0\ m if*: I hr-' oke. way ! constant in many [: thus, ;hid. Jijugation» leir forms crow, crew or crowed, crowed ; shear, shore or sheared, shorn or sheared. And not a few have been transferred to the New altogether : thus, brew, brewed, brewed ; slip, slipped, slipped ; dive, dived, dived; sprout, sprouted, sprouted. 60. Hence, in classifying the verbs of the Old conjugation, we do not try to distinguish the irregular from the regular ones, and merely group together those which, as we use them now, are on the whole most alike in their inflection. 1. — Classes and Irregularities. 61. A class of verbs form their present, past, and perfect participle thus : sing, sang, sung; begin, began, begun. Such are ring, sling, spring, swim, and stink ; further, drink, shrink, sink, which have for participles also drunken, shrunken, sunken, though these are now used chiefly us adjectives. All these verbs, however, sometimes form their past nke the participle, as sung, swum, sunk. Of spin, the old past span instead of spun is now out of use, and we say only spin, spun, spun. So, too, with cling, fling, sting, string, swing, wring, slink, and win (won). In run, ran, run, the present is of the same form as the participle. 62. The verbs bind, And, grind, wind are conjugated thus : bind, bound, bound ; find, found, found. With them nearly agrees fight, fought, fought. 63. In Old English, the plural of the past tense differed from the singular by adding -on with a change of vowel (IV. 43. c. 3) : thus, root-infin. ringan, to ring ; pa&t, sing, rang, pi. rungon; p.p. rtmgen; " ^nei^aTi, to And ; " fand, "fundon; " funden. After the Conquest, the -on became in succession -en, -e pronounced, and -e mute, which finally disappeared. In this way there were for a time in many verbs two forms for the past tense, one being the sime as the perfect participle, which also had lost its suffix. The pasts, therefore, in 61 and 62 above, which have a, come from the singular ; the others in u and -ou, from the plural. In one form, ivon, and in elomb, an Old past of climb (now Kew), the plural u hM bwomt a U M m i^rii IM 210 VERBS. [VIII. 6S> Such doab!e forms wore very common in Middle English, but the tendency of Modem English is to reduce their number, and to prefer the plund form on account of its being the same as the participle (IV. 47). Ran, however, has been selected apparently to prevent confusion with the present mn (in the Scotch dialect, still rln), into which n has intruded, the O. £. root-infinitive having been rinnan. Fling and string are not O. EL verba. 64. The principal parts of speak are speak, spoke (anciently spake), spoken. And, like it, are conjugated break, bear, swear, wear, tear, all of them having an Old past with the vowel a now out of use. Bear has two forms of the participle, borne and bom, which are now, though not originally, of somewhat different meaning. Cleave, "split," is like these, or of the New conjugation. Nearly like these are steal, weave, tread, but with a past in only : thus, steal, stole, stolen. Heave and shear, which are usually of the New conjugation, have also, the one an Old past, hove; the other an Old participle, shom.'^ Get (with beget and forget) has got (anciently gat) and gotten or got. 65. A few verbs follow, quite irregularly, the model of give. Those most like it are bidt bade (sometimes bid), bidden ; eat, ate (or eat, pr. et), eaten ; see, saw, seen. More irregular are lie, lay, lain; sit, sat, sat. 66. Of the verbs in 64 and 66 above, the following owe the o-sound of the past to assimilation to the perfect participle (IV. 46. b) : speak, break, bear, tear, steal, sbear ; and by analogy with these verbs, get, tread, and weave, which should regularly have an e-sound in the p.p. (the O. E. forms were geten, treden, vejfen), have taken an o-sound, which has found its way into the past tense also. Indeed, in Old English, speak and break* had p.p. of both forms: thus, tpectn and spocen, and breccn and brocen. IIoT0 and swore are the regular pasts of heave and swear, the O. E. .'OMn? having been ii:oti^in6n. h^.bban ; past, sing. A(5/i pi. A tware, now ,sWear, originally a New verb : thus, root-infin. werian ; past werede and wered ; p. p. loered and werede ; developed, on the same analogy, the pasta ware and wore and the ii.p. worn, on entering the Old conjugation about the Mid. E. perioil. In clove from cleave, "to split," the o is due to the vowel either of the past plural or of the participle : thus, root-infin. cleofan; past, sing. cltuj\ pi. chifon; p.p. clef en. Bid has mixed its forms with those of bide : thus, root-infin. buldan; past, sing. h(£d (baAe), pi. bcedon ; p.p. hoden ; root-infin. hidan ; past, sing, bad, pi. bklun (bid) ; p.p. bidvn (bidden) ; bade being thus from the proper singular, bid from the past pi. of bidan, " to bide," and bidden Irom the p.p. of tlie same verb. In Old English, eat was conjugated thus : root-infin. etan; past, sing, cet, pi. t^ton (ate); p.p. eten. The long e-sound of the Mod. E. pres. eat and the p. p. eaten was thus short in Old English, and the short e-sound of the past eat is irregular. Sat, the past of sit, has displaced the older p.p. sitten and sit : thus, root-infin. sUtan; past, sing, scet, pi. sceton; p.p. aeten (later sUten). Saw is from the plural of the past : thus, root-infin. seohan or se6n; past, sing, sedh, pi. sdwon; p.p. aigen or s^n. The other verbs of the paragraphs are regular. 67. In the same manner as take, took, taken, are conjugated shake and forsake. And draw, drew, drawn ; slay, slew, slain ; have a right to be put in the same class with them ; also stand, though it now forms its participle like its past, stood. Wake and awoke either follow the New conjugation through- out, or make the pasts woke and awoke. Stave, in like manner, sometimes forma the past stove ; and of wax, the participle waxen, instead of waxed, is sometimes met with. 68. In taL«, shake, forsake, stand, wake, and awake, the vowel sound for both numbers of the past was o : thus, for instance, root-infin. tacan ; past, sing, toe, pi. tdcon; p. p. tacen; and consequently their pasts are regular ; but the past stood has driven out the older p.p. stondeti (O. £. atanden), and wake and awake have dropped the old p.p. toacm. 212 VERBS. [vm. 9C- Draw and slay, which in Old English had pasts like those above : thus, root-in6n. dragan.; past, sing, drag, •-'. dragon; p.p. dragen ; •♦ sla/uin or sledn ; " sloh, slogan; " slagen; have formed their modern pasts by analogy with blew, flew, etc. Stave seems to be a modern derivative from stave or staff, and belongs to both conjugations. Its New forms were more common ^jefore the present century. Wax. originallv a verb of the Old conjugation : thus, iu Middle English, root-infin. waxen or wexen ; past wox or wex ; p.p. woxen, waxen, wexen; has gone over partially to the New conjugation. 69. In the same manner as ride, rode, ridden ; rise, rose, risen ; are conjugated also stride, smite, write, drive, strive, shrive, and thrive ; but the last two are also of the New conjugation. Shine and ahide, which should belong to the same class, now form the participle like the past : namely, shone and abode ; and shine is sometimes of the New conjugation. 70. The verbs chide, bite, hide (formerly of the New con- jugation\ slide are conjugated thus : bite, bit, bitten or bit. 71. In ride, rise, stride, smite, write, drive, thrive, shine, abide, bite, chide, slide, the pasts, as in ride, root-infin. ridan; past, sing, rdd, pi. ridon; p.p. riden; derive their o from the past sing. , and those in i from the past plural ; but in abide and shine, the paats have taken the place of the Old perfect participles abiden and icinen. All these verbs, except the last three, have derived their pasts from the singular. This is probably due to the fact that their Old participles either became obsolete, or were retained in full with their suffix -en; so that there was not a constant resemblance between the participle and the past, to lead to unification of form. In bite, chide, and slide, the pasts see; . to have been determined (as in the case of many of the verbs in 64 and 65) by the participles, common short forms of wtiich were, and are, bit, chid, and slid. Strive is a Romanic word from the 0. F. estriver (itself, however, from a Teutonic noun), and, from its first introduction into the language, was inflected according to both conjugations. Hide is sometimes regarded as having contracted forms belonging to the New conjugation. But from the Mid. E. period it has taken the form hidden also as its p.p., and most closely resembles chide, slide, etc 72. The verb choose, chose, chosen, is a specimen of a class that has become almost extinct vni. re] OLD CONJUGATION. 213 With it we may put freeze, froze, frozen; seethe, sc^ sodden; but seethe is of rare use, and more usually follows the New conjugation. Shoot, shot,* shot (older shotten), originally belonged to this class. 73. In these verbs, the vowel of the piast may be i-egarded as coming from the vowel either of the past plural or of the participle : thus, root-infin. ceoa an; past, sing, ceds, pi. curon; p.p. coren ("chosen"). As this verb shows, the O. E. had s for r (IV. 43. b) (a common inter- change in the Teutonic languages, known as hhotacism) ; and freeze has still, in poetry, Arore and (less usually) froren, relics of its older form : thus, root-iu&n. fredsan ; past, sing, /reds, pi. fruron • i^.i^. froren. 74. The verbs blow, grow, know; throw are conjugated thus : grow, grew, grown. And we may class with them fly, flew, flown. Strow or strew, show (originally New), and sow are through- out of the New conjugation, or may make the participles strown or strewn, shown, and sown. Crow is of the New conjugation, or may make the past crew. 75. The three verbs fall, fell, fallen, and hold, held, holden (rare) or held, and beat, beat, beaten, really form one class together, however unlike they may seem. 76. Except strew, show, and fly (originally of the same class as the verbs in 72), the verbs in 74 and 76 had, iu Old English, for both numbers of the past i or e6 : thus, for example, root-infin. bldwan; past, aing. bleow, pi. bfedwon ; p.p. hldvien ; *• feallan; •* feoU; '* feoUon ; *' feallen. In some, as we have seen. Old forms have been driven out by New ones. Strew and show, originally New, have by analogy with blow, grow, etc. , developed Old participles. So far as concerns its present form, beat might be placed in 60. 77. We may class together dig, dug, dug (or by the New conjugation); stick, stuck, stuck; 214 VERBS. [vm. 77- strike, struck, struck (or stricken); hang, hung, hung (also hanged, hanged in a technical sense). 78. Dig was originally New, having past digged, with p.p. digged. The Old form dug appeared about the fourteenth century, but did not become common till the eighteenth. Stick, too, waa originally New, the Old forma appearing in the sixteenth century. strike has followed the analogy of the u-pasts in 61 (having even an Old form strucken), but was originally conjugated thus : root-infin. strican; past, sing, strdc, pi. alricon; p.p. stricen. Hang had for a time a past heng, which in the sixteenth century gave way to hung, formed on tne same analogy as stmck. It was thus con- jugated in Old English : root-infin. kangan or hon; past, sing. lUng, pi. hingon; pp. hangen. The New verb comes from the 0. E. derivative, conjugated thus : root-infin. hajigian ; past hangode ; pp. hangod. a? •Unclassijiable Verbs. 79. We have finally to note a few unclassifiable verbs : namely, come, came, come ; go, went, gone ; do, did, done. Went is properly the past of wend (as sent is of send), which now, as a separate verb, has wended. Did, of all our pasts, preserves the plainest relics of the reduplication (that is, the doubl ing of the root [III. 29] ), which formerly made all our Old pasts. Wit, with its present wot and past wist (it has no participle), is now nearly out of use. The infinitive to wit, "namely," belongs to legal phraseology. Quoth is a relic (first and third persons singular past) of a verb formerly much used, but now nearly obsolete. 80. Come resembles the a-pastu iti 64-6S, having been thus conjugated : root-iiifin. cuman • past, aiiig. cam, pi. cdmon; pp. cumen. Oo has always suppUt»d its past from another stem, having in Old English for this tense gedng, or, more commonly, code, which in Early and Middle English became yode. This form was given up in the fifteenth century for toende, the modern went. Do, as conjugated in Old English, differs but slightly from the modern verb. At first a notional verb, it is now both notional aad relational. Wit, which is really of the same conjugation as the o-past verbs in 69-70, had the following forms : PRESENT. Sing. 1, wdt, "wot" J 2, w^t; 3, wdt ; pi, J, 2, 3, tcUon, Vm. 82] OLD CONJUGATION. 215 Sing. 1, unstCt "wuf; 2, wistest; 3, wiate; pi. 1, 2, 3, tviston. Wist affords a curious example of the effect of mistaken analogy (IV. 46. a). The 0. E. gewia, " certain, became in Early and Middle English ytvis and itvis, "certainly"; and in the sixteenth century itvis was often written Itoia, a form which gave rise to the notion that /was the pronoun, and vris a verb, the assumed present of iviste. I wis is stiil found in poetry : thus, in Coleridge, Nor do I know how long It Is (For I have lain entranced, I wis). To the same class as the verbs in 64 and 66 above, quoth is referrible. By the fourteenth century only its past was in use, the singular form quoth and the plural quod being used indifferently. The compound bequeath has gone over to the New conjugation. 81. Bo is made up of parts coming from several different roots, and is so irregular as to require to be inflected here in full : PRINCIPAL PARTS. be, was, been. I. — INFLECTED FORMS. INDICATITS. Present. 8UBJUNCTIVB. 1. am are be be 2. art are be (beest) be 3. is are Past. be be 1. was were were were 2. wast (wert.) were wert, were were 3. was were IMPERATIVE. were were be II. DERIVED FORMS. INFtNITIVES. PAaTICIPLBH. be or to be, being being, been Ycrbs like quoth, of which some of the parts are wanting, and verbs like be, which supply some from other roots, are often called defective. 82. The oldest forms of be are : IMDICATIVB. Present. Sing. 1. eom bedm (bed) " 2. eart hist *• 3. is bUh PI. 1, 2, 3. sind, sindon be^th suBJUNcnnt. H bed H bed 9i bed 9in bedn 216 VBBU. [vm. 89. PaH. .*l! m tifiil! Sing. 1. •• 2. •• 3. PI. 1,2,3. VKU woere wats wceron wart ware ware Wivren Of the present forms, the only modem representatives are am {eom), art {eart). Is ; our plural, which is of Scandinavian origin, was introduced from the Northunu>rian dialect (I. 26. c), but did not become establisht-d us the only form till towards the end of the Middle English period. Be, too, was used as an indicative singular and plural till the sixteentli century, when the present differentiation set in. The pas'i is from an obsolete Did verb wenan, **to dwell" or "to exist." Was is t!ie only modern verb in common use that shows rhotacisin (VIII. 7.?,). and is further remarkable in showing vowel-variation (VI. 43. c. 3) in t;he plural. Properly speaking, ivere should be the second person singular, and we do find this form in poetry, where also is fount! were, a form made, about the sixteenth century, on the analogy of Shalt and wilt. Wast did not show itself before the Early English period. In older English a good deal of confusion exists, is and was being uued indifferently as singular or plural forms for all persons. 83. The forms of the Old conjugation, as given above, are those which the best present use approves. But in all the three respects mentioned in 57-59 above — namely, dropping or retain- ing the -en of the participle ; making the vowels of the past and participle like each other ; and mixing forms of the New and the Old conjugations — there has been much irregularity, especially among the older writers of the language ; and some of this remains, particularly in poetic use. S. — Participial Forms. 84. Where a double form of the participle is in use, one ending with -en and the other without, the former (with -en) is apt to be preferred when the participle hai. the value of an orilinary adjective : thus, a drunken man ; a sunken ship ; a hidden spring ; a stricken heart ; cloven hoofs ; forgotten promises. Some, like drunken, are almost limited nowadays to this adjective use. And there are a number of words in -en, now used only as adjectives, as the verbs of which they are really the participles form their participles at present in another manner. Such are moiten, shapen, graven, shaven, laden, riven, rotten, swollen, hewn, mown, sawn, boundenu Vin. 87] HEW CONJUGATION. 217 one kises. this I, now really Inother n. — !»EW CONJUGATION. i. — Peculiarities. 85. The regular verbs of the New conjugation, as wo havo Keen, form their past tense and their perfect participle alike by adding -6d or -d to the stem or root-iutinitivc : thus, looked, begged, hoped, robbed, raised, wished, waited, united, loaded, degraded. As these examples show, the added ending makes an additional syllable only wIhmi the stem ends with a t-soinid or a d-sound, after which the -d of the ending could not otherwise bo distinctly heard (IV. 43). Moreover, the addetl d is sounded like a t, if the stem ends in the sounds of k, p, th (as in thinV f, s, (including z), and sh (including eh) (IV. 43. c. (2) ) : thus, baked, piqued, hoped, betrothed, fifed, paragraphed, laughed, chased, raced, vexed, wished, hatched. In many words of this class, -t was often written instead of -d in the early printed literature of Modern English, and some people are beginning to write it again. In solemn styles of reading and speaking, the -ed is some- times sounded as a separate syllable after all stems; and then, of course, the -d has its proper d-sound. 86. These are the regular methods. But a great many verbs of this conjugation are more or le.vs irregular, some (94 below) even to such a degree, and in such ways, that it might seem doubtful whether they ought not to bo classed with verbs of the Old conjugation. 87. In Old English there were two forms of the past tense of the New conjugation, one adding -de (UL 27), with e as a connecting vowel (douictimcs omitted), or with o : thns, root-infin. eaig, therefore, the dissyllable -ede. Fina -e then became mute, disappearing by the beginning of the Modern EngHsh period, and thus making past and perfect participle of the same form. 'I'hen also the connecting e began to be dropped in Eronunciation with the phoneti** changes and irregularities detailed Blow. These changes, aa we ahaH aee, vometimes in turn i^ected Use form of the past stem. ■r I 218 VERBS. [Vni. 88- ^. — Classes and Irregularities. 88. In some verbs in which the d is pronounced like a t, eitlier -ed or -t is allowed (especially in the participle) to be written : thus, dress, dressed or drest ; bless, blessed or blest ; pass, pasred or past. As we saw above (85), some are extending this class beyond what has for some time been usual. 89. In some verbs, after a final n or 1-sound in the stem, either a regular form in -ed (pronounced as d) or an irregular in -t is allowed : thus, learn, learned or learnt ; spoil, spoiled or spoilt. And in like manner from bum, pen ("to confine"), smell, dwell, spell, spill. 90. In some verbs, of which the root ends in d after 1 or n or r, either the regular form with -ed added, or nn irregular contracted form, with the final -d simply c^^angecl to t, \» allowed : thu 3, build, builded or built ; rend, rended or rent ; gird, girded or girt. And the same is the case with gild, bend. But lend, send, spend have the irregular form only : thus, send, sent. The t in these words stands for -d + de, which became -de, then -te, and finally -t. 91. In a yet larger number, the vowei of the stem is shortened in pronunciation, and t is added as ending : thus, feel, felt ; mean, meant ; keep, kept. This metliod is followed also by deal, creep, sleep, sweep, weep. And kneel, leap, lean, dream iiave either the regular cr the irregular form : thus, kneel, kneeled or knelt ; dream, dreamed or dreamt. 92. A few which liave the same irre<»ulnrity change also a final V or z-sound of the root to f or s, respectively: thus, leave, left ; lose, lost. So also with cleave, " split" (64), reave (almost oljsolete), »nd bereave ; but the last has either bereaved or berefb. Vm. 97] NEW CONJUGATION. 219 Cleave, meaning "to adhere" (and really belonging to the same class as the verbs in 69 and 70 above), is regular, but clave is sometimes found used as its past. 93. A few show a similar change of a final vowel, adding the sign d ' thus, flee, fled; say, said; shoe, shod. Heard from hear is a case by itself, but has most likeness to these last classes. 94. A number of verbs ending in -t or -d after a long vowel shorten the vowel in the past and the participle, but take no added anding : thus, feed, fed ; shoot, shot ; lead, led. So also with bleed, breed, speed, read, meet; light forms lighted or lit. 95. The shortening of the stem vowel in 91-94 is not found in Old English ; it is a development of the Early and Middle English periods. It is probably due to the assimilative influence of those Old verbs that had a short vowel in the past plural (VIII. 70). The final t of the verbs in 91 and 92 is due to the same phonetic influences as in the case of those verbs in t which do not change the stem vowel. Leave, cleave, and (be-) reave had in Old English an/ in the infinitive, the change of which may be due to the same cause as that of f in the case of the plural of nouns (V. 36. a) : thus, root-infinitives Icefan, red/ean; pasts hv/de^ red/ode. The origin of the forms in 94 will be seen from the following Old English conjugations : root-infinitives /^f/iw, kedan; pasts /Mde^ Iccdde. 96» And a good many ending in -t or -d, generally afi,er a short vowel, make no cliange at all, but form the past and the participle like the presont : they are burst hit ptit shed spit th.sfst cast hurt quit shred split wet cost knit rid shut spread whet cut let set slit sweat A few of these, however, allow also the regular form in -ed : namely, knit, quit, sweat, wet, whet. And spit formerly had sometimes the past spat. 97. The following O. E, conjueations show that *\«5 orms in 96 have been produced by the 'dropping of the 'inal -ti ol Ine ). .A : root-infin. sprmlan, to Bpr«'Ml; past iq.:':'^ide ; p.p. sproeded; •* eetian, to Mtt ; •• sett ; *' aetted and set. H if- if li '■ i 220 VEBBS. [VTI. 97- Whether the full or the contracted forms shall be used whci-e there is a choice, is a matter of usage which has varied at di£ferent times : thus, in earlier English, we find such forms as bursted, casted, hurted; and, on the other hand, lift for lifted, reste for rested, wette for wetted, sqfkle for sMelded. 98. A certain class, ending formerly in a k or a g-sound, have, instead of the vowel and final consonants, the sound aught: thus, beseech, besought ; buy, bought ; bring, brought. So, also, seek, catch, teach, think : work bus either worked or wrought. Sell and tell, which are really of the same class as seek, etc., have sold and told. With these is to be classed also fraught, now used only as an adjective. 99. Apparently beseech, bring, seek, teach, think, sell, and tell change the vowel of the present to fonn the past. But what has really changed is the vowel of the present : originally these verbs had, between the infinidve ending and the stem, an /, which caused assimilation (IV. 43. c. (4) ) of the long a or o-sound of the root. Thus, the root of sell is sal (seen still in sale); so that the O. E. sellan was originally salian, the Gothic saljan (the loss of the i causing the doubling of the I). The pasts of these verbs, however, contain merely the old vowel-sounds. In Old I'higlish buy, work, and teach were thus conjugated : root-iufin. bycgan (M. E. biiffyen); past bohte; p. p. bohl; wyrcan; tcechan; (( (( worhte; " worht (IV. 43. a.); ivehte; tceht. The present buy is, therefore, derived from the M. E. form, y repre- senting g; wtjrmn and present wyrce, having lost their suffixes, have changeas by analogy developed the past taught. Cat^h, again, which did not appear till after the Conquest, has in the same way termed its past. Reach, reck, latch, and stretch had, in Middle English, as pasts raught, rowjht, lautjhf. and strdiKjht. And, on the other iiand, caicli, teach, tell, and beseech had at various times in older Englis.* catched, tcachm, telkd, and benceched. 100. The three verbs, have, make, and clothe, are shortened by the loss of the final consonant of the stem : thus, had, made, clad (or clothed). Dare is either regular, or fo>-ms the irregular post (not participle) durst. vm. 104] NEW CONJUGATION. ^21 The distinction sometimes made between dared ana durst, that the former means " challenged" and the latter " ventured," is not generally observed ; the verb shows a disposition to go over to the New conjugation in both of its senses, dared being often used for durst, but not che latter for the former. 101. In Old English, had was htyfde; made, macode; and clad, dathode. Since the period of Early Engliah, the v^ontracted forms from clotlie have been used as well as the fuller forms. Dare, with past durst, is really an Old verb of the same class as the verbs in 62 above : thus, rooi-infin. durran; pres. sing, dear; past sing, dorste, pi. dorston. The present is in origin a past, and should, therefore, like may, can, shall, and will, have no inflection in the third person singular. 3. — Irregularities of Inflection. 102. The principal parts beiag as above stated, the tense- inflection is almost always regular. But have is irregular in the present singular, forming I have, thou hast (=havest), he has (= haves). Need has, in the third person singular present, either needs or need ; and its irregular past durst does not take -St in the second person singular. There has been, and still is, a good deal of irregularity in the use of need and needs. Modern English seems to prefer the uninflected form when the verb is followed by the infinitive without to (usually, however, with not) ; thus. He need not go ; He need go ; but ' . iniir :tct! form in other cases : thus, , He needs to go ; He needs more courage ; the meuniv:^:; of rieed, used thus, being weaker than that of needs. Dare, mea.tug "to challenge," takes -s, but it is uninflected when it meant "to venture": thus. He darr;8 me to the fight ; He dare not fight. III. — OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS. 103. T^iere is a small class of irregular verba, mostly used aio'^g wi^Ji infinitives of other verbs to form verb-phrases or 'S:i : ipound tenses," and having neither inuaitives nor parti- cipivo >/ ohcr own. They are can, may, shall, and will; must and ought. 104. The first four, though now having the value of presents only, are originally jrasts of the Old conjugaticn ; and hence. Ill 222 VERBS. [VIII. 104- like other pasts, they have the third person singular (as well as the plural persons) like the first. Thus, for example, We can You (ye) can They can in the second person 1. 2. 3. I can Thou canst He can May has the regular torm mayest singular ; but shall and will have shalt and wilt (like art and wert) In many other languages we find instances of the assumption by a past of the meaning of a present. The vulgarisms I have got to do It m the sense of I must do It and I haye got it in the sense of I have It, Are familiar examples in ]Vi r*'^ ^'nglish of similar irregularities. 105. These verbs have ^ s, made according to the New conjugation, but irregular : namely, could, might, should, and would. They are inflected regularly, taking -est or -st in the second person singular. In older English, these forms were often uninfircted when used con* diticnally ; and some grammarians maintain that this is even now proper. 106. The following are the 0. E. forms of these verbs : a. cunnaHt '* to know. " Sing. Present. Past. can, can ctUhe, could cunne, canst ctUhest can cuthe cunnon cuthon 1. 2. 3. Plural 1, 2, 3. In Early and Middle English, we find couthe and coude, the latter becoming the Modern English form, which in the sixteenth century inserted an 1 on a false analogy with would and should (IV. 46. b). Our adjective and noun conning are derivatives from the imperfect part, of the M. E. ctinnen, "to know," which itself survives in the modern to con ; and the O. E. perfect part, {(je) cuthe has given our adjective uncouth, which in older English meant "unkuown," "ignorant." b mdgan, " to have strength or power.' Sing^. Present. 1. rmeg, may 2. meahi, miht 3. mmj Plural 1, 2, 3. mdgon Past. meahifi, mtAfe, might meafUest, mihteat meahte, mihte meafuon^ mihton Not until the fifteenth century did mayeit supersede miht in the second person singular. 11.104- Vm. 108 b] OTBER IRREGULAR VERBS. [is well 1 C. sculan, " to owe," or " to be under obligation. Sing. Present. Past. 1. aceal, shall aceolde, slioiad 2. aceaU sceohlest 3. sceal aceolde -^. Plural 1, 2, 3. sculon aceoldon person art and d. wUktn, " to will," or " to choose." Sing. Present. 1. wille, Will Post tvoldfi, would ion by a b to do it [ have It, 2. 3. Plural 1, 2, 3. wilt wille willath woldest woldf v^olilon 223 38. he New e second used con* »w proper. the latter century b). Our :t part, of |e modern adjective It." L mlgbt itest iton [iht in the This verb is originally a past subjunctive which substituted for some of its proper forms those of the indicative. Besides the forms in i, we find forms in o in Early and Middle English until the fifteenth century, the modern wont being thus a contraction for wol not, which, indeed, was sometimes written wonot. 107. Must and ought are originally pasts of the New con- jugation (ought from owe), though now used chiefly as presents ; they have no corresponding pasts. Ought forms oughtest in the second person singular ; must is invariable : we say both thou must and he must. The Old present of must, namely, mote, is limited to a few phrases, or to imitation of the old style : 108. The following are the O. E. forms of these verba : a. mdtan, "to be allowed." Sing. Present. Past. 1. m6t, mote mdste, must 2. mdnt mdsteit 3. mdt mdste Plural 1, 2, 3. mdton mdaton In Modem English, as is stated above, the present mote has practically gone out of use, the New past must being used instead. For the past uf must in its strong sense (VIII. 137), we now use was obliged. b. dgan^ "to own." Sing. Present. Past. 1. dh, own (or owe) dhte, ought 2. dU, dhst dhtest 3. dh dhte Plural 1, 2, 3. difon dhton In ^arly English, the present forms of ought were in use, being gradually superseded by the past. From dgan comes our infinitive ovre, which had at first ought as a past : thus, in Shakespeare, we find, Be Mild you ooght (t.«. " owed") Um » tlioiiMmd ponndi. If ■ f \r' I >' 224 VERBS. [vm. 108- After a time owe developed t-he New past oved, ought obtaining by differentiatioa iu preaent meaning. Oni^t and must are now used as pasts in indirect narration only : thus, He told me that I ought to (or must) do it. 109. As we have seen, the auxiliaries can, may, shall, will, must, and ought, had each at one time so definite a notional meaning that their complementary infinitives were evidently direct objects, except in the case of majf which was probably followed by an adverbial case : thus, I may go would originally be equivalent to I am able at going. il!.: '\ COMPOUND VERBAL FORMS : VERB PHRASES. I.— Emphatic Verb'Phrases. 110. There are other ways of expressing nearly the same dif- ference of time as that expressed by the present I love or I give, and the past I loved .icd I gave. Instead, for example, of I give and I gave, we may say I do give and I did give. The difference between the two expressions is usually that I do give, for example, is a more emphatic or positive assertion than I give. But, in asking a question, it has come to be usual in our language to say, without intending emphasis, Do I give? and Did I give? instead of Give I? and And we rarely say nowadays I give not, and but rather I do not give, and Such forms as Give I? and I give not were in use in older English, and are still found in poetry and the higher style. In such phrases as I do give, the give is (as older English and the other related languages show) the infinitive with- out to. The do and the did, which are the present and the past of do, are the real verbs in the phrases I do give and I did give ; and the infinitive give is their object : I do give, for example, strictly means "I do or perform an act of giving"; but this meaning ha.s become so weakened that we do not now feel it We might properly enough always analyze and parse the phras^ and any similar one, in this manner. But the Gave I? I gave not ; I did not give. vm. 112J VERB-PnnASES. 225 phrase is, as we have seen, a kind of substitute for the present tense of the verb give, and the do is used along with the infinitive of the verb to help in making it; and such substi- tutes are formed from all the verl)s in the language, and are used in making sentences just as siniple verbal tenses are used. Accordingly, we find it convenient not to analyze them, but to treat them as simple tenses. We call the phrases I do give and I did give the EMPHATIC present and past of the verb give. And the verb do, which is put along with the infinitive give' to help in making the emphatic tenses, we call an auxiliary or " helping" verb. 111. In Early English, do generally meant " to cause," or " to make,*' being followed in this sense by an infinitive : thus, They have done her understonde (t.e. "made her understand"). Even in Old English, we find instances of the auxiliary use ; but this, though more common in the thirteenth centiiry, did not become estab- lished till the beginning of the fifteenth. In the si: teenth century, do, as an auxiliary, was often used in declarative sentences, even when no emphasis was intended : thus, The serpent begtdled me, and I did eat ; and in Elizabethan literature we often find such sentences as I not doubt ; It not appears to me ; Revolt our subjects 7 Gives not the hawthorn bush a sweeter shade? During the seventeenth century, the modern idiom became firmly established. n.— Progresalve Yerb-Phras«s* 112. We form yet another kind of present and past, namely, I am giving and I was giving, by using the present and the past of be as auxiliaries, and putting along with them the imperfect participle giving. Here the participle has the value of a predicate adj< ctive, modifying the subject of the auxiliary verb, just as the adjectives generoui and liberal modify I in I am generous and I am liberal. We might always analyze the phrases in this ^vay in describing the sentence; but, as in I do give, it is convenient to treat them as if they were simple tenses. And, because in them the action or state is thought of more distinctly as continuing or being in progress, we call tlinse compound tenser the CONTINUOUS or PBoaRESsiVK present and past. 226 VERBS. III.— Fntnre Yerb-Phrases* [vm. US' 113. Our simple verbal forms have a distinction of tense only for the difference of time present and time past. If we wish to speak of anything to be done in time to come, we use as auxiliaries the present tenses of the irregular verbs shall and will, putting along with them the infinitives of the verb expressing action : thus, I shall give. He will go. This, then, as it signifies future action or state, we call a future tense. Inr these phrases, again (as in I do give), the infinitive is the object of the auxiliary considered as an independent verb. Shall means originally "owe, be under obligation," and will means "wish, resolve, determine." (VIII. 106. c. and d.) The phrases, then, originally mean I purpose, intend, or am determined on, giving ; and I owe, am bound, or am obligated to, giving. Hence, shall implies some constraint affecting its subject, whereas will implies freedom from constraint, the subject being free to act. Out of this difference in the original meaning of these auxiliaries have grown well marked differences in their present use. I. — IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES OP ASSERTIVE SENTENCES. (1) Predictive Futures. 114. As I shall give means originally " I am obliged to give," and as a man is supposed to do what he sees he must do, the expression, when weakened, came to mean simply ** I am about giving" — a mere announcement of the future action. So, too, as you shall give means originally " You are obliged to give," shall is unsuitable in speaking of the future act, unless we intend to impose an obligation on the person we are speaking to : we, therefore, use will in a weakened sense : thus. You will give ; politely implying that it is the will of the person to act thus. Hence, to predict, that is, to express simple futurity, in principal clauses of assertive sentences, we use shall for the first person, and will for the second and third. Examples are I shall not go ; 7ou will be too late for school ; Loiterers will certainly suffer. Such verb-phrases are known as pbbdictivb futures. Vlll. 116] VEHB-PtltlASfiS. 227 116. In principal clauses of assertive sentences, will is also used : a. In the second and third persons, to express a softened conimar. ''. or direction given to another : it is courteously assumed that the person spoken to or of is willing to do as he is directed. Examples are The teaclieni will see that no one leaves the room; Yoa will kindly remain for a minute or so. b. In the third person, to express (1) A habit, the notion of inclination in will being dropped, and the attention being directed to the habit to which the inclination leads : thus. He will spend hours together in their company ; and, by a sort of personification, we say Accidents will happen. (2) A persistent course of conduct on the part of the subject, the notion of both inclination and its resulting habit being retained : thus, He will go there in spite of my warnings. Sometimes in such sentences will is emphatic, and refers to one instance only, thus retaining its original sense of exercising the will, without reference to habit. (3) A general statement which is really the predicted result of an experiment : thus. Any port will answer in a storm (if you make the trial). (4) A conclusion to which the mind has been coming as an inference from facts : thus, This will be the son of Anchinlech. (2) Promissive Futures. 116. In principal clauses of assertive sentences, to use will in the first person implies the speaker's assent or promise : thus, I will see that he does so ; I will go, never fear ; or, when emphatic, his determination (see 122 below) : thus, I will go ! (whatever may oppose). To use shall in the second and third persons implies the speaker's promise : thus, Tou shall have it ; He shall go : rely on me for that ; or. when emphatic (see 122 below), his determination, Thou shalt not kill ; No candidate shall be allowed to copy at an examination. Hence, to express the speaker's promise or determination, we must use will for the first person, and shall for the second and the third. w 228 VBRBS. [Vm. 118- I To distinguish these phrases, they are called promissive futures ; and, in them, more of the original force of the auxili- aries is discernible than in the predictive futures. 117. In prophecies and proverbs, sball is frequently used in the second and third persons to express the certainty of an event's happen- ing, there being, of course, no reference to the will of the subject : thus, Thou Shalt arise and have mercy on Zion ; He shall be blessed in all that belongs to him ; A false witness shall not be unpunished, and he that speaketh lies shall perish. Under this head may be placed such examples as the following (found in our older writers only) : There is not a girl in town, but let her have her will in going to mask, and she shall dress like a shepherdess.— Addison. II. — IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 118. For the use of shall and will in dependent clauses, the general rules are the same as for principal clauses in assertive sentences. Thus, a. The predictive future : I fear that we shall be late; I hope that you will succead; We are confident that he will like them. b. The promissive future : I hereby declare that I will perform, etc.; We are willing that you shall have it ; He has decided that the race shall be rowed again. 119. In dependent clauses, shall is sometimes used to express possi bility in the future : thus. Any candidate who shall be detected copying, etc. ; If any change shall occur, let me know ; You may use it whenever it shall seem necessary to do so ; I will finish it though it shall take, etc. ; Beware lest you shall fail; I will wait until you shall think it proper to go. As, however, in such cases, futurity is expressed or implied in the principal clause, the modern idiom is to express in the dependent clause the possibility alone, using the present subjunctive, or, its equivalent, the present indicative, conditional, or potential. 120. In reporting the statement or opinion of another, shall may be used in the second and third persons to express mere futurity : thus, we say, Tou say you shall go ; He writes me that he shall be unable to attend ; if we imply that the persons referred to said Iihallgo; X shall be unable to attend. vni. las] VERB- PHRASES. 229 I to attend; Here again, however, the modern tendency is to change to the speaker's point of view, and use will instead of shall : thus, Ton say you will go ; He writes me that he will be unable to attend. And, of course, the future phrase with will is the one to use if that was the auxiliary used in the direct narration. III. — IN INTBRROOATIVK SENTENCES. 121. In interrogative sentences, we use shall or will, in the second and third persons, according as the one or the other is to be used in reply. Thus, we say, Shall you (or he) go ? Shall the motion pass ? if we expect the reply I (or He) shall ^or shall not) go, and so on; but Will you go? Will he go? Will there be room for me ? if we expect the reply to contain will as the verb-auxiliary. Only shall, however, can be used in the first person, for we do not ask others about our own will ; and this shall may be answered by shall or will, according as we ask about the mere futurity of an act or state or its futurity dependent on the con- straint of the subject (see 114 above) : thus. Shall I see you if I go ? Tou shall (or will) see me, etc. IV.— INDEPENDENT USES OF SHALL AND WILL. 122. Not aU the combinations of shall and will with an infinitive are properly to be regarded as verb-phrases. When will emphatically expresses " determination," and shall, " obli- gation," they have as independent a meaning and character as other verbs which have an infinitive dependent upon them. In such uses, the notion of determination or obligation may^ be represented in the logical predicate, and that of the following infinitive in the logical subject, of an equivalent sentence : thus, will and shall are independent in I will go and Tou shall go, if the meanings are Going is determined on by me and Going is an obligation on you. There are, however, various shades of meaning between the purely auxiliary, and the purely independent, uses of these verbs. 123. Strictly speaking, we can have only a present certainty that an event will take place. This certainty synthetic languages conveniently express by an inflectional change ; others, as English, more correctly express it by the use of words which oricioally implied present conviction in reference to the future. Thus, in English sUall originally expresaes 230 VERBS. m ^'\ [Yin. 123- the speaker's present conviction of obligation, and will expresses his present conviction of the will employed, both obligation and will affect- ing the future. These words, at first strongly notional, now fluctuate between a stronger notional sense and the more relational expression of futurity (11. 43 and 43). 124. Even ir the synthetic stage of our language, there was no inflected future, the present, as now also sometimes (VIII. 18. b), being used instead : thus, lie eow/ullath, "He shall baptize (lit. baptizeth) you." But, even iu Old English, the necessity was felt for greater precision than was thus aflbrded, and sceal, ** I am obliged," and wille, "I have a mind to," were joined to inflnitives to express the future, with, however, a stronger notional meaning than they now generally possess. In the Northumbrian dialect, aceat and wille often expressed simple futurity ; in Early and Middle English, this became common, the mind gradually dwelling more and more on the futurity implied, and less on the notional meaning also conveyed ; and, in the seventeenth century, the modern diutinctJon between shall and will was firmly established in England. In the lillizabethan period, however, the distinction was not strictly observed : thus, in Shakespeare, we find shall for will in K. Henry — Commend me to the princv ^ In the tower; Glos.—We BhaJ, my llege. In Canada, owing to the admixture of races, and in Scotland and Ireland, this distinction is not in general use, even amongst the educated classes. It has, however, the sanction of the best usage, and increases our power of definite expression. lY.-Cenaillonal Verb-Phrases. 125. Should and would, the pasts of shall and will, form, witli the infinitive, phrases which are especially used to express a conditional assertion; that is, one that depends on a condition: thus, V I should go (if I could get away) ; He would give (if he had the means). These, therefore, are called conditional forms. Often, also, they are used to express tlie condition itself : thus, If he should come, you would see him. 126. Should is used in expressinsr an opinion, although no uncertait.:ty may be intended ; the indicative being felt to be too abrupt and positive : thus, I should say that he is mistaken. 'i'he assertion is, however, really a dependent one ; for some such con- dition as if I might venture an opinion is evidently implied. See also JUV. and XVII. [Vin. 188- nn. 130] TKRB-PRRASES. 231 presses his will affect- w fluctuate cpression of ere was no L8. to), being 3U." ter precision e, •♦ I have a th, however, Bess. In the pie futurity ; nd gradually I the notional , the modern L in England. I not strictly irer; d and Ireland, ticated classes. 368 our power 1 will, form, jd to expresR a condition: Often, also, im. no iincertaiuty )t and positive : Bome such con- plied. See also 127. The difference between should and would is in general the same as that between shall and will ; and the rules for the use of these verbs apply to should and would also in both principal and dependent clauses. In the expression of a condition, should is used with all persons, as it expresses a possibility independent of the will of its subject : thus, If I (or he) should (or thou shouldst) come, you would see him. 128. Should has sometimes its stronger meaning of "ought," and would that of "be determined": thus, He should go, by all means : but he will not ; He would go, I could not stop him. And, in this case also, the notion of "obligation" may oe represented as being in the logical predicate, that of the follow- ing infinitive being in the logical subject (compaio VIII. 122). Sometimes, also, in dependent clauses in narrative, should and would are mere past forms of shall and will, and imply no condition : thus, referring to the statement I shall (or will) go as past, we say I said that I should (or would) go. In the same way, It is known that I shall (or he will) be there bftromes, when regarded as past, It was known that I should (or he would) be there. 129. Unless the meaning is clear from the context, the use of shonld and would in narrative as pasts of shall and will is liable to be con- founded with the other uses of these words : thus, in I said tliat I should go, should may mean " ought," ve. 134. When it is desirable to impart to a statement a much more imaginary character than arises from the expression of present certainty in regard to the future, we use the past auxiliary forms, removing, as it were, the conception further from us, and giving the imagination more room to play : thus, I shall go expresses ihc speaker's present certainty in regard to a future act ; If it prove (pres. subjunct. ; or shall prove, fut.) so, I shall go, expresses a supposed case, which, however, the use of the future indica- tive shall go implies, is likely to take place ; but If It proved (past subjunct., or should prove, cond.) so, I should go. expresses a purely imaginary case, and implies no judgment as to the chances of its happeuiiu'. The effect of the past is the same in the case oi other modal verb-phrases : thus, He will (would) do so, if he wishes (wished); You can (could) do so, if you wish (wished); I may (might) do so, if I wish (wished). Vn.— Potential and Obiigatlvc Modal Verb-Plirases. 135. Other modal verb phrases are made with the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, and ought. Thus, the phrases I may give, I can give, as they express especially the possibility of the action, are called POTENTIAL verb-'phrases {potential means "having jiower"), and I might give, I could give, which are a kind of conditional, of a different value from the I 234 TEBBS. [vntiss- F- T I other (Vm. 134), are called potential pasts, being formed with the past instead of the present tense of the same auxiliaries. With must and ought (to), we make phrases which may be called OBLiOATiVE {obligative meo-ns implying "obligation"): thus, I must give, I ought to give. 136. In meaning, these auxiliaries differ as follows : Tn I may give, may expresses possibility in the most general way ; whereas, in I can give, can expresses a particular f "i of possibility, that conceived as d'pending on the exercise i the power of the subject. In I must give, must expresses necessity — obligation which the subject is forced to fulfil ; whereas, in I ought to give, ought expresses duty — obligation which the subject may or may not fulfil. 137. These auxiliaries are used with various shades of the original meaning : thus, I may go may mean that I am permitted to go, or that there is a possibility of my going ; I can go means that I am able to go ; but, in You can take It or leave It, the meaning uf can is weakened, approaching nearly to that of may ; and Yon must go to prison means that' you are obliged to go; You must be mistaken, that there is no doubt that you are mistaken ; and You must not come, that you are not allowed to come. VIII. -Dependent and Independent Vses of Modal Anxlllaries. 138. But not all the combinations of may, can, must, and ought with an infinitive are properly to be regarded as modal verb-phrases. Sometimes these verbs, like shall and will and should and \^ould, have as independent a meaning and character as other verbs which have an infinitive dependent upon them. If the sentences in which they are used may be taken simply as the answers to the questions : Is so and so a possibility or an obligation? they are used independently. In all other cases they are modal auxiliaries. 139. May, in any sense, expresses possibility, but it may do so in two quite different ways : thus, a. In It may rain to-morrow, the meaning may simply be that the falling of lain to-morrow is a possihility, in which case the falling of rain is thought of independently of anything else : the sentencj merely answers the question : Is raining to-morrow a possibility 7 [VIIL136- VXn.l40.b] VERB-PHRAS£S. 235 raed with iarics. Ii may be Lgation"): ist general ar f ^ of jisfc i the 5 necessity irhereaa, in which the the original g«), or that 1 able to go ; 8 weakened, trlson means ; there is no ; you are not Klllarles. must, and i as modal and will eaning and dependent ken simply n? s they are do 80 in two morrow is & depeudently So, toO} with the stronger meaning of may : thus, I may (i.e. "am at liberty to") go home; in which case the meaning is that going home is permitted to me. It is thus evident that the notion of possibility in these sentences may be represented in the logical predicate of an equivalent categorical sentence, that of the foUowmg infinitive being in the logical subject (compare 122 and 128 above) : thus, Balnlng tc-morrow Is a possibility ; Qolng home is permitted to me. Used thus, may has its independent meaning. b. But in I am come that ye may have life, may expresses the possibility of my having life, not, as in the case of the independent use of may, as the solution of a doubt whether my having life is possible, but as the result contemplated in my coming. In this case, the notion of possibility may be represented in the logical subject of an equivalent categorical sentence : thus, Tour haTlng life (conceived as a possibility) is the purpose of my coming. Used thus, may has its dependent, modifying meaning, forming a modal verb-phrase with the infinitive that follows it. Other examples of the modal use of may are If he come, I may go ; May you be happy ! which are equivalent to My going (conceived as a possibility) depends on his coming ; Your being happy (conceived as a possibility) is a thing that I wish. 140. In the same manner, can, must, and ought have two distinct uses. Thus, a. When I can go, I must go, I ought to go, are logically equivalent to Going is in my power, or is a necessity or duty for me, we have, as in 13S. a. above, the independent use of these auxiliaries. b. When, however, we say Tou can take it if you like ; Tou must work in order to avoid starvation ; If you want to avoid trouble, you ought to pay your debts ; there is still, as in the case of may, 139. b. , an assertion that somethinit is in my power, or is a necessity or a dnty incumbent upon me ; but it is sriewed in its dependence on something else. And, as in 139. b. above, the possibility or the necessity may be represent '^ in the logical subject of an equivalent categorical sentence : thus, Your taking it (conceived as a pomibility ) depends on your wish ; four working (conceived as a necessity) is the condition on >7hich depends your avoiding starvation ; 236 VERBS. [Vm. 140- if I m Tour pasrlng your debts (conceived as a duty) is tbe oondltton on wbich depends the gratification of your desire to avoid trouble. This ia the dependent or modal use of these auxiliaries. Other examples of the modal use of can, must, and ought, are No one knows what can have caused it ; Ton are growing thin : you must (or ought to) eat more ; which are equivalent to What caused it (conceived as a possibility) is known by no one; Your eating more (conceived as a necessity or a duty) is called for owing to the fact that you are growing thin. In such a sentence as I must lay claim to this book, the independence or dependence of must depends on whether the sentence is to be regarded as the answer (VIII. 138) to Must I lay claim to this book? or What must I lay claim to? And, ini such a sentence as The man who may (can, must, or ought to) do this, is here, the possibility or necessity is, of course, already in the logical subject. 141. The same principle holds good in the case of the conditional mood also : thus, since we have modal verb-phrases in both clauses, If he should come, you would see him, is equivalent to His coming (conceived as a possibility) is the condition on which depends your seeing him ; and Your seeing him (conceived as a possibility) depends upon his coming. See also VIIL 24. 142. Hence, generally, a. When the action or the state expressed by the infinitive /ollomng BhotQd, would, may, can, must, or ought, beinrj conceived apart from modality, ia the logical subject, these verbs are rtsed indejtendenthj. b. When the possibility or the necessity expressed by tliese verbs ia sub- stantially in the logical subject, they are used dependently, that is, cw modal auxiliaries. IX.— Other Perfect and Plnperfect Verb-Phrases. 143. As with the present and past of have, we made, adding the perfect participle of the verb, a perfect and a pluperfect tense, so, with the future, the conditional, and so on, of have, we form a future perfect, a conditional perfect, and so on, through the whole series of verb-phrases : thus, I shall or will have given ; I should or would have given ; I may or can have given, and so on. Vm. 146] VERB-PHRASES. 237 144. Of tha tense verb-phrases, the future perfect was the last to be formed. It did not become established till the Modern English period, and even now the notion it expresses may be variously represented. Thus, of the following (all of which convey practically the same thought): Before the cock crow twice, thou deniest me thrice ; Before the cock crow twice, thou shalt deny me thrice ; Before the cock has crowed twice, thou shalt deny me thrice ; Before the cock shall crow twice, thou shalt deny xse thrice ; Before the cock has crowed twice, thou shalt havo denied me thrice ; Before the cock shall have crowed twice, thou shalt 'aave denied me thrice ; « the first is the only one used in Old English (VIII. 17) ; the second and the third are usod in Early English ; the fourth and the fifth, in Middle English ; the last, in Modern English, which, however, may use all the others. X.— Imperative Verb-Phrases. 145. Besides the optative subjunctive (VIII. 27), another mode of expression, made with a kind of imperative auxiliary, let, is much used in order to intimate a wish or direction in the third person, and even in the first : thus, Let me (or us) give ; Let him (her, it, or them) give ; Let the messenger set out at once. This combination of let with an infinitive is so common that it seems to us to supply the place of the missing first and third persons of the imperative mood; and it is properly to be regarded and described as an imperative verb-piirase. Here let is plainly a real imperative, and the give an infini- tive, to which the intervening noun or pronoun stands in the relation of subject, just as in such combinations as Make him go, See him give, and the like. Let him give literally means "Allow him to give," or "Cause him to give"; but, in the imperative verb-phrase, the original meaning of the let has become weakened. XI.— other Progressive and Emphatic Verb^Phrases. 146. Once more, we may make continuous or progressive forms for the entire series of verb-phrases, by putting in each case the corresponding tense of be before the imperfect parti- ciple : thus, I have been giving; I had been giving; I shall be giving; I might be giving; I must or ought to have been giving ; and so on with the rest rr 238 YEBBS. [ym. 147- : nu'ifegaa 1 ^91 'IkB ' '''I'll i 147. But the emphatic forms, with do as auxiliary, are made only from the present and the past, and not from any of the compound tenses (except the phrasal imperative), whether in assertion, or in question and negation. For example, we are allowed to say either I do have or I have, Does he have? or Has he? They did not have or Tney had not, when have is an independent verb ; but we say only I have given, Has he given? They had not given, whSn it is an auxiliary. And so with all the other auxiliaries except let, of which, however, there are other possible, but unused, combinations besides those in the scheme (VIII. 150). The emphatic form of be (except in the emphatic imperative- phrase, €. g. Do be still [XVI.] ), will, shall, may, can, must, and ought, is not admitted, even in the independent uses of these verbs. To make such forms emphatic, we lay the stress of the voice upon them when we are speaking, or italicize them in print, underline them in writing, or arrange the con- text so as to show our intention. Xn.— Inllaitlve and Participial Phrases. 148. The infinitives and the participles bear their share in this expansion of the simple forms of the verb into a scheme of verb-phrases. Thus, besides the simple infinitive give or to give, we have the perfect infinitive, have given or to have given; and both of these have their progressive forms : namely, be giving or to be giving; have been giving or to have been giving. Besides the imperfect participle, giving, we have the perfect ACTIVE PABTICIPLE, having given, with its corresponding progressive form, having been giving; and, as elsewhere, the same forms serve the uses of the gerund also. Finally, the perfect participle, given, has its progressive form, being given; vm. 160] ACTlVfi CONJUGATION. 239 and from it is also made a perfect passive participle ^without progressive form), having been given, which is a part, however, of the passive conjugation (VIII. 157). 149. The perfect infinitive appeared first towards the end of the Early English period, and was frequently used during the Middle English, and the first part of the Modern English, period. Such an expression as I hoped to .have seen him yesterday is not now considered good English ; but in the Elizabethan age, and even earlier, the perfect infinitive was used more freely than at present, especially after verbs of hoping, intending, or verbs signifying that something ought to have been done, but was not — an idiom, however, which we retain in a concealed form : thus, I would (that is, wished to) have done it ; I ought (that is, owed) to have done it. In Modem English, the use of the perfect infinitive is confined to the expression of a completed action or state. The compound participial forms are all of late formation. Such forms as being going, though legitimate, are very rare ; but phrases like being loved, which came into use at the beginning of the sixteenth century, are now firmly established. About the close of the sixteenth century, the perfect active participle became current ; later came the perfect passive participle, and still later the even now uncommon pro- gressive form of the perfect active participle. XIII.— Scheme of Conjugatioii. 150. If we put all these forms together into one scheme, it will be as below. The original and simple forms of the verb are here put in small capitals, to distinguish them from the phrasal forms. For brevity's sake, the subjunctive of the first four tenses (formed for perfect and pluperfect with the sub- junctive of the auxiliary have : for example, (if) he have given) is omitted. Only the first person singular of each tense is set down. STRJH. GIVE. 1 PRINCIPAL PARTS. GIVE, GAVE, GIVEN. « Present. Simple. Emphatic. Progrressive. OIVB do give Pa$t am giving QAVK did give was giving | 1 ti ^ 240 Simple. have given had given bhall or will give VERBS. Perfect. \ym. laa Progressive. have been giving Pluperfect. had been giving Future. shall or will be giving Future Perfect. shall or will have given shall or will have been giving Conditimial. should or would give should or would be giving Conditional Perfect. /should or would have given should or would have been giving Potential. may or can give may or can be giving Potentiul Past. might or could give might or could be giving Potential Perfect. may or can have given may or can have been giving Potential Pluperfect. might or could have given might; or could have been giving Oblijjative. must or ought to give must or ought to be giving Obligative Perfect. must or ought to have given must or ought to have been giving Imperative. Simple. Emphatic. Pro,'ressive. GIVE do give be giving Phrasal Imperative. let (me, etc.) give do let (me, etc.) give let (me, etc.) be giving Infinitive. (to) GIVE (to> be giving Infinitive Perfect. (to) have given (to) have been giving Imperfect Participle and Gerund. OIVINa VXn. 162] PASSIVE VEBB-PHRASES. 241 Simple. having given GIVEN Perfect Active Participle and Gerund. Perfect Participle, Progressive. having been giving being given 161. It is impossible to draw any absolute line between such verb- phrases as have been set forth and named above and those yet looser and more accidental combinations into which words enter in sentences, in order to limit and define an action in still other ways, as regards time and manner. Thus, one might prefer to class as presents such verb- phrases as I am In the act of giving ; or, 9J3 futures, I am going to give ; I am about to give ; I am on the point of giving ; and to form a series of tense and modal combinations thus : I was (have been, shall be, may be, etc.) in the act of giving (or going to give), and so on ; and some grammarians do place such combinations in their schemes of the verb. There is often no very marked difference between I may or can give, and I am allowed to give ; I am able to give ; It is in my power to give. Nor, again, between &nd I must or ought to give, I am to give ; I am compelled to give ; I have to give ; It is my duty to give. But we select, to make up a kind of complete scheme of conjugation, those phrases which are on the whole the most frequent and the most regular ; those in which the real verbal form has most distinctly tiie character of an auxiliary or helper only ; and, finally, those which most nearly correspond to the real modes and tenses of the verbs of tlie synthetic languages. The pupil must be careful not to confound thent with the true verbal forms : they are, after all, nothing but phrases, composed of a real verbal form (the "auxiliary") and its limiting adjuncts ; combinations of independent words, each of which can be parsed separately, as a member of the sentence. It is only as a matter of practical convenience, to save time and needless repetition, that we treat them as compound forms of the verb, and name and parse them in the same way as tne simple forms. XIV.— PasslTe Verb-Phrases^ 152. There is one more set of verb-phrases, corresponding to the true verbal forms of many other languages, yext remaining to be described. 16 242 VfiRBd. tvm. isd- 1 1 :h :w 1 "passive" We called above the perfect participle also the participle, because it usually marks the thing described by it as "suffering," or "enduring," or being the object of, the action defined by the verb. Thus, a beaten dog is one that some one has been beating ; a loved person is one regarded with love ; a lamp is lighted if some one has lighted it ; and so on. 153. Now, by putting this passive participle along with all the various forms, simple and compound, of the verb be, we make a set of verb-phrases which are usually called the passive CONJUGATION of the verb, because by means of them we take what is the object of any verbal form in the ordinary conjuga- tion, and turn it into a subject, representing it as enduring or suffering the action expressed by that verbal form. Thus, to The dog bit him, the corresponding passive is He was bitten by the dog, the object him being turned into the subject he ; to I shall see them, the passive is They will be seen by me; to You might have give, mo the book, the passive is The book might have been given me by you; and so on. By using the passive, instead of the other, conjugation, we are able to give greater variety to our language, and to repre- sent the enduring of an act without mentioning the agent. 154. For none of the passive tenses, except the phrasal imperative, is there an emphatic phrase made with do ; since (as we pointed out above, 146) the auxiliary of the passive, be never makes an emphatic tense-phrase : we say only I am struck; Am I struck? I am not struck; and so on : not Do I be struck? etc. ' But in recent English (probably since the latter part of the last century), there have been coming into common use pro- gressive phrases for the two simplest tenses, present and pasi^: ; mmi rm. 181- vm. iM] PASSIVE VERB-l>atlAdEfi. 243 )assiv^e ed by it e action ome one love; a with all b be, we 5 PASSIVE we take conjuga- luring or Thus, to ou; ration, we to repre- agent. e phrasal do; since )assive, be bruck ; Mirt of the , use pro- and past ; phrases made with the progressive instead of the simple form of the perfect or passive parti'^iple. Examples are The house is being built ; The book was being printed; The dinner was being eaten. These are the corresponding passives to the progressive expressions They are building the house ; They were printing the book ; They were eating the dinner; just as The house is built, The book was printed, The dinner was eaten, correspond to They build the house ; They printed the book ; They ate the dinner. These progressive forms are still regarded by some as bad English, and carefully avoided ; but they are also freely used even by writers of the first class, especially in England. 166. Old English had no special inflection for the passive. Like Modern English, it used verb-phrases, consisting of the perfect participle and the substantive verbs weorthan, wesan, and bedn, "to be": thus, Jc eom, or weorde, lu/od, ** I am loved"; Ic wcett, or wearth, lufod, **I was loved"; Ic eom lufod worden, "I have been loved"; and so on. After a time weorthan dropped out of use as an auxiliary, leaving the modem tie and was. 166. In the expression of the present enduring of an act, the passive verb-phrases in the following present no difficulty, because the feeling expressed is continuous : The master is esteemed ; The pupils are loved ; but in The house Is painted ; The Indian is scalped ; the verbal phrases express something completed, not something continu- ous. To express the present in cases like the latter, the active conjuga- tion, or some circumlocution, was at first used instead. Another metliod was to form a phrase out of he and the gerund in -ing governed by in or on: thus. The house Is in, or on, hnilding ; * from which, by the phonetic reduction, or by the omission, of the pre- poaition, came The hooM Is a*1nilldinff , or The house is hnildlnf . 244 VERBS. [Vni. 166- iJ't ? Ill :^1 The form of the latter phrase, however, being the same as the active progressive present, was found to be unsuitable when the subject pos- sessed life : thus, in The boy is a-strlklng, or Tlie boy U striking, the verb-phrase could not be regarded as passive, unless this sense might be gathered from the context. This difficulty led to the formation of the new passive verb-phrases described above. To these phrases, it has been objected that, when analyzed, the combination is incongruous and meaningless : thus, taking the original sense of is. is equivalent to The house is being built T!:« house exists existing built. But, as is is here, no«. notional, but relational, the objection does not fairly apply ; and, even if it aid, usage (I. 63) would justify the phrase, no matter what might be the original meaning of each of its parts. XV.— Scbenic of the PaHHive Conjasatlon. 157. The synopsis of tlie passive conjugation is as follows (omitting the names of the tensest : am loved am being loved was loved was being loved have been loved had been loved shall or will be loved shall oi will have been loved should or would be loved should or would have been loved may or can be loved may or can have been loved might or could be loved might or could have been loved must or ought to be loved must or ought to have been loved be loved let (me, etc.) be loved do let (me, etc.) be loved (to) be loved (to) have been loved LOVED being loved * having been loved. The perf. participle, as being in itself passive, is the one simple form in the whole passive conjugation ; and, not having be with it as passive auxiliary, is able to take it as progressive i.i; iffei t:M vm. 161] PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 245 sign. And heing loved and having been loved nre not only participles, but passive infinitive anil gerund phrases. XVI.— ActlTC aad rMslve Conjagatlonii. 158. In distinction from the passive conjugation, the other and simpler one ia often called the activk ; and in languages which have real verbal forms for both uses, the two sots are styled respectively the active voice and the passive voice of the verb. XTII.— PemItc asd 5ran«PasslTe Vnc of Phrasrs. 159. The series of forms of the auxiliary be, it will be noticed, that make the passive tenses, are the same as make the pro- gressive active tenses; but they have with them the passive participle, given or loved, which marks a thing as acted on, instead of the active, giving or loving, which marks a thing as itself acting. In both cases alike, the participle has the real value of a predicate adjective, describing or modifying the subject. 160. But by no means every case where a perfect participle is com- bined with the verb be is to lie r^arded as a passive verb-phrase. Often the participle has the value of a predicate adjective merely, and is to be treated like any other adjective. Thus, in He is fatigued, fatigued has as piire an adjective use as weary in He is weary; also in He was fatigued In coiuequence of over-exerUon. But if we say He was fiitigned by bis exertions, was fatigued is passive, because the sentence is the same as His exertions fatigued bim, . ast into a passive form. So in Tbey were invited, and came, the phrase were invited is passive, because it signifies the receiving of the invitation, the enduring of the action of inviting ; but in Tbey came, for tbey were invited, it is not pa.' ive, because invited signifies rather the condition resulting from previous action ; in the active form it would be For we bad invited tbem. And in like manner in other cases. According as the participle denotes ar'^nal enduring of action, or condition as the result of action, its oombin..cions with be are, or are not, passive phrases. MT'uwvavw* 246 YEBBS. [VIII. lei- I IHl. Phrases of nearly the same meaning aa the ordinary passive ones ari: made al8o with the verbs become and get : thus, He became frightened ; He has got beaten ; but it is not usual, although correct, to reckon them as passive ; nor has the latter the sanction of the best usage. XVIIB.— Verbs Fcrmlvg Passive Verb-Phrases. 162. As a passive verb-phrase is one by which the object t»f an action expressed by a verb id turned into a subject, passives are regularly n>.ade only from transitive verbs, or those that take a direct object. l>ut this rule is not strictly observed in English. Objects of prepositions and indirect objects of verbs are also sometimes made into subjects of corresponding passive phrases. 163. Wo often separate a noun or a pronoun that is really governed by a preposition from that preposition, leaving the latter after the verb, as if it were rather an aro.«:e by a reflexive pronoun : thus. He boasted himself; You fretted yourself; I delight myself; He possessed himself of; and often in poetry, by a simple personal pronoun used in a reflexive sense : thus, Here will we rest us; They sat them down beside tho stream; Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. Such combinations are very common in older English : thus, in Chaucer, This Knave goth him up full ::turdlly. 166. Some transitive verbs, on tlie other hand, are used in a reflexive sense without the objects being expressed : thus. The sun seems to move (itself); Clouds spread (themselves) over the sky. And the modern tendency is to extend this class of verbs, and discard the reflexive pronoun, even when its use would be unobjectionable : thus, we often say Where are you going to wash? when we might say Where are you going to wash yourself? ! • J m y i 'Si 248 VERBS. [Vin. 167- 167. But, in older English, reflexive verbs were very common : thus, in the authorized version of the Bible, They shall bethink themselves in the land ; Charity doth not behave itself unseemly; daughter of thy people, wallow thyself in ashes. And we find also a large number of combinations in which the meaning is reflexive but the form impersonal, and which may be called IMPERSONAL REFLEXIVE : thus. It me forthynketh (i.e. "repentcth"); Me htmgreth; Methursteth; Us ought. Of this idiom we still And, in the poetic and the solemn style, survivals in It irks me ; It lists him ; Melisteth ; Meseems ; X rethought ; the me in the last two being the indirect object of the /erb, and thought being the past of the 0. E. thyncan, "to seem," a diflerent verb from thencan, "to think." 168. We have, however, in English, two verbs of Scandinavian origin, bask, and busk (now used in poetry only), which are reflexive by forma- tion. In these the suffix sk is fur sik, "oneself": thus, busk is hlask, "to make oneself ready," as in Busk ye, busk ye, my bonnie, bonnle bride ; and bask is bathask, " to bathe oneself." II.— Keclprocal. 169. Sometimes, also, such combinations as They help each other (or one another), are called the reciprocal conjugation, but to them the same remarks apply as to the so-called reflexive conjugation (see VI. 68). m.-niiddic. 170. Some transitive verbs, again, have a use different from any of those hitherto described : thus, when we say Honey tastes sweet ; The message reads well ; That which we call a rose. By any other name would smell as sweet ; we use the verbs in a sense which is neither active nor passive, but which resemVjles each of these conjugations, the meaning of the first of these sentences being, " Honey produces the etFect of sweetness when it is tasted." Verbs used in this way are Kometinics said to bo of the middle conjugation, it being represented that tlie meaning lies betioeen those of the active and the passive conjugation. These, however, only make up one of the classes of verbs that may be based on meaning (VIII. 3-5). [Vni. 167- imon: thus, ». a which the iiay be called thursteth; !, survivals in [^etbougbt; 1, and thougHt ent verb from navian origin, live by forma- buBk is hxMsky Vin. 173] VERB-EQUIVALENTS. IV.- 249f lem the same luxation (see lifferent from Iwell ; iet; nor passive, lie meaning of Icos the etFect this way are |ion, it being of the active Lnly make up on meaning -Imperaonal. 171. Verbs used with the subject it, when it does not repre- sent a notion present to the mind, but only helps to express that some action or process is going on, are called impersonal verbs, or are said to be used impersonally, or to be of the IMPERSONAL conjugation. Examples are It rains ; It is fine weather ; It grew dark fast ; It will fare ill with him. 172. Only those verbs arc impersonal in the narrowest sense which occur in sentences without an imaginable subject, as in It rains, when the meaning simply is that raining is taking place. Such sentences, however, shade off into others in which the subjects, though almost definable, are for the moment wholly undefined to the speaker's mind : thus. It is very dark ; It is growing dark ; Is it come to this 7 From such uses of it, must be distinguished its use as a representative subject (VI. 26. a and b). See also 167 a^ove. VERB-EQUIVALENTS. 173. Any expression to which is assignable the power of predication (VIII. 2) may become a verb : thus, a. Other parts of speech : He ages fast; If, thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss ; The fire dries the room ; Hence, home, ye idle creatures. b. Phrases. Under this head are included the vai ious active and passive tense and modal combinations, though in these it is the real verbal form that possesses the poAver of predication : thuH, in He must have been suffering, must is the word essential to predication. Such combinations also as are given in 162 and 163 above are to be classed as phrasal verbs. With these may be included the phrases in He falls in with my ideas; The vessel heaves to; in which the modifying element is loosely suffixed, instead of being prefixed, as in compounds (which they resemble). (In don, that is, do on, we have a real compound formed in this way.) As, however, in I found him out, an object sometimes 1^1 ■^BlfxT) ir,|ii 1 1 ; ' ' j, it ■ >': ( 250 TERB8. [VIIL 178. intervenes between the modifying part and the rest of the verb-phrase. So, too, we find as noun phrases lookers OU and goings out as well as onlookers and outgoings. c. Occasionally, as in the case of nouns and adjectives (V. 75 and VII. 59. e)> we find combinations with more than, as much as, etc: thus, He more than spoke his mind : he voted ; He has more than spoken his mind: he has voted; more than speak being used as a verb. EXEBOISES AND QUESTIONS. §§ 1-2. 1. Discuss the merits of the following : a. A verb i» a word which signifies to be, to do, or to »niter. b. A verb tells what anything does, or what is done to it, or what state it is in. C A verb is a word that affirms something of its nominative. d. A verb is a word which discribes the state or condition of a noun or pronoun in <«Iation to time. §§ 3-8. 2. Discuss the following classifications : a. On the basis of meaning, two : Transitive and Intransitive ; on the basis of form, three : Regular, Irregular, and Defective. b. On the basis of meaning, four : Active-transitive, Active-intran> sitive. Passive, and Neuter ; on the basis of form, four : Regular, Irregular, Defective, and Redundant. 0. Three classes : Active, Passive, and Neuter. d. Two classes : Notional and Auxiliary. 3. Criticize the following : a. A verb does not cease to be transitive because the object ofthe act is too vagu* to be expressed. b. When verbs are deficient in meaning, they require complements ; when thev suggest or imply more than they themselves express, they require objects of various kinds. 4. Classify the following verbs according to form, and analyze the derivatives and the compounds : adulterate, civilize, premeditate, disparage, disconnect, over- eat, reorganize, produce, underestimate, fell, forgive, under- stand, retransform, overboil, encourage, benumb, strengtben. §§ 9-29. 6. Write out and classify the inflections of bate, be, run, bleed, and explain the value of each inflection. 6. Define the following terms as applied to verbs : PeraoHf Number, Tense, Mood, Voice, Conjugation, Indicaiive, Svb' junetive, and Imperative. 7. Explain the reason for considering loves an inflected form and Sovlny ft derived form, vin.] EXERCISES. 251 ;t is too vagfu* 8. Criticize the statement that there are two classes of forms of the verb: (1) fimitb, that is, those limited by number and person as well as tense ; and (2) infinite, that is, those that have no limitation of number or person. 9. Discuss the merits of the following ; a. Mood denotes those forms which the verb assumes in order to express the relation of reality or existence as conceived by the spealcer. b. As moods represent the conceptions of the mind, they might be as varied and extended as these conceptions. C The Indicative mood is that form which is used in making unconditional aunertions, in asking questions, and in making even conditional statements, if the condition be considered as really existent. d. The Subjunctive mood expresses contingency, futurity, and generally depends upon some previous verb. 6i The tenses are forms of the verb which enable lis to indicate the state of an action in either a hvpothetical or a categorical sentence, and the time of an action in a categorical sentence. §§ 30-45. 10. Classify and explain the nature of the derived verbal forms in the following : 1. I did it upon pain of losing my life. 2. He contemplated marry- ing Mary. 3. Seeing is believing. 4. We do not talk for tiJkinff's sake. 5. The dreaded hour has come. 6. The gray-eyed mom smiles on the frowning night. 7. To reign is worth ambition, though in Hell ; better to reign m Hell than serve in Heaven. 8. I have much work to do. 9. Be swift to hear and slow to speak. 10. Youth and pleasure meet to chase the glowing hours with flying feet. 11. Another mom shall find all eyes disposed to watch and understand my work. 12. Repeating one's statements does not prove them to be true. 11. Discuss the que&tion as to whether the Infinitive and the Participle are to be considered moods of the verb. §§ 46-109. 12. Criticize the following : a. There are four principal parts : the present, the past, the imper- fect participle, and the perfect participle. b. English verbs have two voices, the Active and the Passive. 0. The conjugation of a verb is the formation of all the inflections and combinations used to indicate Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. 13. Under what general headn may the causes of irregularities of English verbs be arranged? Arrange under these the irregularities in the following : moBt, have, can, shall, spell, go, lose. § § 110-163. 14. Classify vhe simple and the compound tense-forms of love as a. i. FSBSENT ; ii. past ; and iii. future. b. Expressing the action : i. incomplete ; ii. complete ; iii. ini/E- nNiTi. 0. L Pbimart, or principal, that is, expressing the action as about uO occur or as occuring in the present or in a time of which the present iormsa part; ii. secondabt, or historical, that is, occurring in past time. _^ 252 EXERCISES. [vm. 15. DiKOM the following : a. Exevpt in the possession of both a primary and an historical form, the so called teotes of the subjective moc^ds have (at all events in the direct construction) no con- nection w-itli the time of the predicated action ; they merely call attention to an act or a state, Mfimple, as completed, as progressing, or as inceptive; and, in this respect, they are identical vith the tenses of the Infinitive and the Participle. 16. Explain the values of the verbal forma and phrases in : 1. Princes and lords may flourish or may fade : a breath unmakes them as a breath hath made. 2. If he cannot conquer, he may properly retreat. 3. Let me die the death of the righteous. 4. Milton I thou should'stbe living at this hour. 5. You have done that you should be sorry for. 6. Having obeyed, you may now retire. 7. She was as fair aa fair might be. 8. Thou shalt do no murder. 9. You must go in any event. 10. If it so happened that he might be there, you should never- theless have been in your place. 11. He should be there to-night, judging by what I hear. 12. If he were damned and utterly reprobate, she stiU would love him. 13. Perhaps I did act foolishly then after all, though it did not seem so at the time. 1 4. I cannot do this when you Took on.f 15. He must be suffering very much, because he has broken hij leg.t 16. I said I should go.+ 17. When pcesible, convert the following sentences, as in VIII., 139*141 1 TLit it shoald have come to this 1* 2. I will speak, whoever he may be. 8. This is wlui I mm* l<»k after. 4. Wiiat must I do to be rich ? 6. If you had known the virtue of U»e riiwr, you would not then have parted with the ring. 6. If you did Icnow to whom 1 gare the ring, you would abate the strength of your displeasure. 7. Thou art hiip^,tf(f>r though) she is absent. 8. To think that he must go 1 9. He asked who «-]i»Vt the d))or. 10. If the word had been fulHlied, as might have been, then, thought of joy ! France would have had her present Boast, and we our own Rob Roy! 11. The KitTttaide were welcome that should call into the compass of distinct regard the toils ajjd Mn^jries of thy infancy. 12. Would that thou hadst been here ! 13. Nor should Ilia ve made mention of this dell, but for an object which you might pass by. 14. I'd fUxp another hundred years, O love, for such another kiss. 15. The nightin- ftle auvf is used in asking questions, as »l M when, where, whence, how, why, wherefore, ^U"e called interrogative, and are themselves classed as inter- rogative adverbs of time, place, manner, and so on. The modal adverts oftenest come to be used as conjunctions. The same adverb may be of one and another class, in different meanings and connections. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 5. Adverbs, like the other parts of speech, are simple, derivative, or compound. I.— simple. Examples of simple adverbs, or of such as cannot be traced to simpler forms without going outside of English, are . SO, now, ill, much, quite, often. If. -Derivative. The principal classes of derivative adverbs are as follows : — a. Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the suffix -ly. Examples are truly, wholly, hastily, fiilly, gaily, ponderously, disinterestedly. This is by far the largest class of our adverbs : most adjec- tives of quality, and some of other kinds, take the suffix -ly to make a corresponding adverb. The above list shows that the addition of -ly to the adjective causes, in some cases, changes in spelling (cp. V. 34). More marked cases are adjectives in -ble, which shorten -blely into -bly: thus, ably, terribly, respectably; and those in -ic which change the -ic into -ical before -ly : thus,^ firantically, rustically, authentically. Modem adverbs in -ly represent O. E. adverbs in -Hce from adjectives in -lie. But, even in Old English, there are adverbs in lice without corresponding adjectives in -lie See also IV. 12. nt. 6. el CLASSt^ICATtOK. m as INTER- b. A few adverbs are formed from adjectives and nouns by the suffix -wise : thus, likewise, otherwise, crosswise, lengthwise. These might almost more properly be called compound, sinco wise has not gone absolutely out of use as an independent word (IV. 32. a). C. Adverbs of direction are formed from other adverbs (rarely from adjectives and nouns^, by tlie sutiix -ward or -wards (-8 being the possessive inflection): thus, toward or towards, upward or upwards, forward. d. The adverb suffix -line is obsolete, except in the oKl-style poelio darkling (now sometimes used in poetry as au adjective): thus, in Shakespeare, Oil! wilt thou darkling leave me? It was used with nouns also : thus, keadUng, sideling; which have become (IV. 46. c) keadlong, sidelong. e. Not a few adjectives are used as adverbs without any change of form : thus, much, more;^ little, all, HI, fast, far. Some such adjectives take also the ending ly, there being fcome diflference generally in regard to meaning between the form with -ly and the one without it : thus, even and evenly ; most and mostly ; wide and widely ; hard and hardly ; late and lately ; sore and sorely. The identity of form of many adjectives and adverbs is duo to the loss of the O. E. adverbial suffix -«; thus, kard, the adj. and adv., is the O. E. adj. heard and adv. hearde. In Shakespeare's time, by a false analogy, adjectives were freely used AS adverbs : thus, Wklck tke false man does easy ; Raged more fierce ; Tkoa didst it excellent. Sometimes two form.H are found side by side : thus, Ske was new lodged, and newly deified. A few adverbs arc modified case-forms of adjectives. Examples are From genitives : nnaware-s, el-se, on-ce, twi-ce, tkri-ce (M. E. dies, ones, ttoyes, thrj/ei*)', from datives: little, seldom (O. E. lytlumf seldum) ; from ace.: enongk (O. E. genoh). m 260 ADVEhBS. [IX. 6. «- In poetry, especially, the use of an adjective as adverb ised before comparatives), why and its doublet how, and probably thus, are instrumental cases (VI. 31 and 37). The where series, when used relatively, are conjunctions rather than adverbs: see XT. 8. b. The is used both relatively and demonstratively : thus. The ("By how much"— rel.) sooner the ("by so much"— dem.) better. • h. A number of adverbs come from nouns and adjectives by the prefix a (usually for the earlier on): thus, aback, ahead, aside, afoot, athirst, alive (on life), aright, anew, along, abroad, afar. And the be- of betimes, beside, beyond, between, before, and 80 on, is, in like manner, from the preposition by. the, thus; why, how. -n is accusative. DC. 7] CLASSIFICATION. 261 her come III.— Compounds. 6. Compound adverbs are mostly little phrases of two (rarely more) words, which have, as it were, grown together into one. Examples are sideways, headforemost, knee-deep, meanwLlle, always, already, almost, sometimes, heretofore, henceforward, somehow, to-night. Such combinations of a preposition with the word which it governs are especially common : thus, inf^eed, erewhile, overhead, forever, forsooth, hitherto, beforehand, whereupon, thereafter. In to-day, to-morro'W, to-night, the to is the preposition, the phrases being originally equivalent to " for the day," and so on. The adverbs here, there, and where, are combined with many prepositions, forming compound adverbs which are equivalent to it, this, or that, and which or what, along with iho preposition : thus, Herein (" In this") lies the difficulty; In the day thou eatest thereof ("of it"): The means whereby ("by which") I live; Wherewith ("With what") shall I save Israel? In whatsoever state I am, therewith ("with that") to be content. COMPARISON. 7. Many adverbs oi qi ility, like adjectives of the same kind, are capable of he\ux;cording to their differences, the phrase composed of a pre- position and its object — a prepositional phrase — is known as an adverb-phrase or an adjective-phrase. 5. But a preposition not unfrequently takes for its object a word which is usually an adverb of place or time (V. 72) : thus, from above, firom behind, since then, before then, till now, to here, at once, between now and then, for ever ; and hence also, naturally enough, a prepositional adverb-phrase is used in the same way : thus, From under the house ; Since over two weeks ; Till within three weeks of his death. It has already been pointed out (IX. 15. b.) that, in certain adverbial phrases, a preposition is used before an adjective (really used as a noun). 6. A preposition, especially in poetry, is sometimes made to follow instead of preceding the word it governs : thus, To wander earth around; Ties all other ties above; The fields among; Look the whole world over. But very frequently, in all styles of English, the object of a preposition is placed before the verb in the sentence, while the preposition comes after it : for example, What did you come for? John is the name that he answers to ; Your objections we make no account of; This house I never again show my face in. Then, if the relative word is omitted, as often happens (VI. 62), the preposition still remains in its place after the verb : thus, John is the name he answers to. And in other constructions, in which there is no expressed object of the preposition, it remains with the verb, or with [X. 4. 4- X. 8. o] CLASSIFICATION. 269 t; :. 15. b.), of a pre- )wn as an J object a J2): thus, Lllnow, ver; jrb-phrase reeks; in certain ^ adjective ;s made to s, bove; ,d over. object of a while the n happens after the expressed b, or with an infinitive or participle, having the value of an adverbial adjunct: thus, A greater blockhead than I took you for ; Your case shall be attended r»o ; A good horse to ride on ; A place for pitching one's tent in ; People worth speaking with ; A matter often inquired into, but never disposed of. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEiNJflNG. 7. The prepositions do not form a very large class of words ; in English the number is considerably less than a hundred; but they express a great variety of meanings, as the same preposition is often used of diflerent, though kindred, relations : thus, for, originally merning "before," or "in front of," and used of " place," is now sed as follows : — It was meant for a joke ; She is small for her age; He acted for me ; He has spoken for the first time ; He left for fear of attack ; He died for his countiT ; He sold it for a cent ; For my part, I despise him ; He left for Toronto, where he stayed for a year; For all his wealth, he was despised ; aud so on. From their nature, or from usage, prepositions have such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, that their proper use is of great importance ; but the discussion of such uses is a part of English Composition, not of English Grammar. 8. On the basis of meaning, we may divide prepositions roughly into the following classes ; but, even to a greater degiee than in the case of adverbs (IX. 4), the same preposition may be of one or another class in different relations : — a. Prepositions expressing relations of place : as, from, at, before, behind, beside, under, on, round, near, amid, towards, along. b. Prepositions expressing relations of time : as, since, till, ere, after, on, about, near, between, through. C. Prepositions expressing relations of cause : as, flrom, of, for, to. 270 PREPOSITIONS ex. 8 i.' -\l d. Prepositions expressing relations of manner : as, after, through, by, with, without, notwithstanding, besides, about. 9. Prepositions, at first, expressed relations of rest or motion in space : thus, of meant "motion from"; by and with, "nearness." They were then extended to relations of " time" as well as of " space": thus, before and after express both. Finally, they were extended to relations of "cause" and "manner." Sometimes, also, a preposition assumed different forms for different relations : thus, of and o£f. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 10. As in the case of other parts of speech, prepositions are SIMPLE, DERIVATIVE, or COMPOUND : I.— Simple. The simple prepositions are at, after, against, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, of, off, over, on (a*), since, through, till, to, under, up, with. II.— Derivative and Compound. Derivative and compound prepositions are made : a. From adverbial or other prepositional elements : thus, into, unto, toward, before, behind, beyond, underneath, upon, above, about, until, within, without, throughout. b. From nouns and adjectives : thus, among or amongst, beside or besides, amid or amidst, across, along, athwart, aslant, around, below, despite, between or betwixt. The adverbial adjectives nigh, near, neiit, like, in some of their uses come, by the omission of to, very near to a preposi- tional value : thus, She sat near the lake ; Quit yourselves like men. For the formation of araong-s-t and amid-s-t, see IX. 0. e. and IV. 46. e. (3). c. From participles : thus, saving (or save, from Fr. adj. sauf), touching, pending, during, notwithstanding, concerning, respecting, except or excepting (and older excepted), past. Participles are still used absolutely : thus, Considering his youth, he is excusable.* tx. « t- ling, t in apace : rhey were ms, before jlations of , assumed X.12] SPECIAL USES. 271 itions are in, of, ), with. thus, rneath, jughout. lamidst, ^espite, In some of a preposi- |e men. liv.46.e.(3). lending, I, except and we may thus account for the prepositional use of saving, touching, concerning, respecting, excepting. The others in the above list originally modified the noun or pronoun that follows in the nominative absolute. In this way we may, perhaps, account for the Shakespearian save thou and its analogue but he. it must be remembered, however, that in the Elizabethan period the present differentiation of pronoun forms was not always observed (VI. 11). Ago (f r earlier agone [IV. 46. d. (3)]), that is, "gone by," may also be regarded as a preposition following its object (cp. 6. above) : thus, He left an hour ago ; or, better, as an adverb of time, modified by the adverbial phrase an hour, as in an hour sooner, an hour hence, and so on. SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 11. a. We have already seen (IZ. 3) that a word which would be a preposition when followed by an objective case, is an adverb when used alone. In this way is explained the use of besides in No one was there besides ; and of phrases like in addition in He gave me this in addition, which becomes prepositional in He gave me this in addition to that. b. In the construction, For me to die is gain, for has not retained its full prepositional value, but has become a mere introductory word (II. 39. 1), still, however, retaining its power of government. This idiom is probably due to the older use of for to with the root- infinitive in all its relations : thus, If he will not suffer my people for to pass ; What went ye out for to see ? conjoined to the fact that the construction in No wonder is a lowed man to ruste, which we find in Chaucer and other early writers, does not mark clearly the relations of the different parts of the sentence. This construction shades off into one in which the for is to be regarded as retaining its full prepositional value : thus. The wind sits fair for news to go to Ireland ; The night is too dark for us to ses. PREPOSITION-EQUIVALENTS. 12. There are many phrases, combinations of independent words, which are used in a way so like that in which prepo- ^>. A^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 mm gift ffil2 M 2.2 li£ '""^ I4£ 2.0 1.8 1-4 IIIIII.6 V] '^ c*. ^ <9m # ^;. .d nor, and (in old style) whether and or, are called correlativb (that is, "haring a mutual relation"), because they occur generally together, introducing the two alternatives, and the former of them is always followed by the latter : thus, Either he must leave, or I shall go ; Neither this man sinned, nor his parents. There are also correlative copulative conjunctions: thus, both . . . and ; at once (or alike) . . . and ; not only . . . but also; as well ... as; what . . . what. c. But usually implies something opposed or adverse to .what has been said, and hence is called adversative : thus, Ton thought him honest, but he is not. Others like it are yet, however, still, only, nevertheless, notwithstanding. d. For points out a reason or cause, and is called causal; and with it may be put therefore, then, hence, which connect an inference or conclusion with the reason for it. 5. Combinations of some of the above conjunctions are very common: thus, but then, but yet, and moreover, and also, and yet. When the combination consists of conjunctions of the same class, as and moreover, but yet, greater emphasis is given to the expression ; but when, as in and therefore, but then, the combination consists of conjunctions of different classes, wo have two different kinds of co-ordination, and we must classify such a combination according as the general meaning of the passage determines which kind predominates. n.— SabordlaatlBK ConJanctloBs. 6. Subordinating conjunctions are those which join a sub- ordinate or dependent clause to that on which it depends (II. 54). Some of the commonest conjunctions and conjunction-phrases of this class are : a. Oonj unctions of plaob and TIME : thus, where, whence, when, as, while (or whilst), until, ere, before, since, after, as soon as, as long a% S. 7. bj SPECIAL USES. 277 b. Conjunctions of cause and condition : thus, because, s^nce, whereas, for that; unless, if, except, provided; though, although, albeit, notwithstanding. C. Conjunctions of end or purpose : thus, that, so that, in order that, lest. d. Conjunctions of comparison : thus, as, than. After the comparative conjunctions, the clause is especially often shortened, sometimes to a single word : for example, He is a better man than I [am]; Thou shalt love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself. And with the relative who, than is treated as if it were a preposition, requiring an objective case (VI. 43) : thus. Than whom there is none better. SPECIAL USES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 7. A few conjunctions have peculiar uses : a. That (apart from its use in the sense of "in order that": tKus, He died that we might live) has a peculiar value in introducing a clause used with the value of a noun : for example, as subject noun. That he was here is not true ; as object noun, I did not say that he was here ; as object of a preposition, I should try, except that I fear to fail. We may best call it, then, the substantive conjunction. This peculiarity in the use of the conjunction that is due to its origin. Used as above, it was at first the demonstrative pronoun with the tollowing sentence in apposition thereto : thus, That (namely) he was here Is not true; I did not say that (namely) he was here. b. In its normal use, the conjunction connects two thoughts, both of which are expressed in the same sentence. But it is used also at the beginning of a sentence, to show the relation of the thought it expresses to one involved or expressed in what precedes. Generally, tus is a 9.75 CONJUNCTIONS. pa. T.0< '*>■ m mere matter of panotaation. Occasionally, however, owing to some emotion, the preceding thought is not expreased : thus, And do you really think loT 0. Again, when we say He ai w«ll a> I was there, we have a conjunction-phrase used with its full connective force ; but in He was there as well, the force is weakened, only tho second term of the relation being expressed. Conjunctions of similar force are also, too, likewise: thus. He was there also (too, likewise). And of the same nature is the use of either in He was not there either. Just as prepositions have been described' as transitive adverbs, so conjunctions have been described as relative adverbs. Hence some grammarians, with a good deal of reason, describe also, too, and likewise as adverbs. Compare Z. 11. a. WORDS USED AS CONJUNCTIONS. 8. a. Only a few simple words are used solely as conjunctions : such are and, or, nor, lest, than. b. Many conjunctions are also adverbs ; and it often is not possible to draw a distinct line between the use of a word as adverb and as conjunction. As above pointed out, the same word is an adverb when it distinctly modifies the verb in a clause, and a conjunction when it modifies rather the whole clause, determining its relation to another. For example, we have adverbial uses in He finished his work, and then went away ; He might have stayed, but he chose otherwise; When we left, he was yet living. And we may value as conjunctional the uses in Have you finished? then go away; He was angry, otherwise he would have stayed; He is very ill, yet he may live a week. The words when, where, whither, whence, why, how, which are adverbs when used interrogatively, are conjunctions when used relatively, since their relative force (VI. 44-49) directly joins on the clause which contains them to an ante- cedent wocd or clause, So, tgo^ with their compounds. ZI.8.0] WORDS U8BD AS CONJUNCTIONS. 279 0. Many prepositions are also used as conjunctions : especially by the omission of the substtotive conjunction that which formerly followed them (and is sometimes still used) : thus, He had left before I arriyed ; or He had left before that I azriired. Othmr prepositions used in the same way are after, ere, since, till, until, for, bnt. d. By the omiiision of tbat, imperatives like say, snppoae ; and parti-^ oiples like provided, used in what was originally the absolute construe tion ; approach the value of conjunctions : thus, for example, in Suppose be fall, what then 7 I will go, provided yon do. See also ZIV. 26, and XVI. 16. 9. That as conjunction, as well as that as relative pronoun (VI. 62), is often omitted without, however, changing the char- acter of the clause : thus. When is it mothers learn their love? On the other hand, in old style English, that was inserted as a sort of auxiliary after conjunctions which were originally interrogatives, to give them a relative meaning, before their connective use was firmly established (cp. VL 43) ; and, by a false analogy, that was then also inserted after other conjunctions : for example, When that the poor have cried ; If that my hubaad now were but retnmed! EXEBGISES AND QUESTIONS. 1. DiBCUu the merits of the following defltiitions : a. A conjunction is a word (1) which connects sentences, parts of sentences, and words ; (2) which connects, but which has neither a pronominal nor an adveibial mean- ing ; (3) which shows the relation of one thought to another (the conjunction and belnff the only exception) ; (4) which Joins sentences or words toffether ; (5) which is itself void of signification, but is so formed as to help signification by making two or more significant sentences to be one significant sentence. 2. Discuss the following: a. Cfonjunctions are of comparatively late growth, and either are of pronominal origin or are abbreviated forms of expression. b. Such words as therefore, yet, likewise, hence, thence, are not conjunc- tions ; they are only simple adverbs. All demonstratives imply reference and so cause a connection in thought between two ideas ; but they are not connecting words. 0. Cionjunctions differ from other connecting words thus: from prepositions. In never governing a case ; from relative pronouns, in Joining independent clauses, and forming no part of either ; from adverbs in this, that while adverbs may be moved to other puts of the sentence to which they belong, conjunctions cannot be moved without destroying the sense. d. The govemmcut of mood is the only form of government of which conjunctions are capable. e. The relative pronoun is always a part of the second clause ; a oonJunoUon b: no pwtol either. 280 WORDS USED AS CONJUNCTIONS. to. S. DIkom the etymology of the following oonjunotione : albeit, that, whenaa. beoanae. If. leat. nnlaaa, Imt, wlilla. thongli. 4. Explain the uee of the conjunctions in the following : Two Mid two m»ke four ; Jo^n and Jane are a handaome ooaple ; All men are black or white ; He lat between you and me ; He must be suffering since he has been wounded : He must be stdfering. since be has been wounded ; He will not do it because you bade him. THE PAB8IN0 OF OON JUNOTIONB. Besides naming a oonjanotion or oonjunotive-phrase aa saoh, we need only to point ont whether it is coordinating or subordinating, and what are the words, plirases, or sentences it connects. iSf OEHERAL QUESTIOHS. 1. Discuss and illustrate the following statement : The various notions of which the mind is capable may be divided into two great classes : — I. Notions of all the things, mental or material, real or imaginary, of which we can form any conception. II. Notions of all the states, actions, or qualities, which we can In any way attribute to them. Hence there are two principal classes of words corresponding to these classes of notions : — (1) Names of things, i.e. substantives ^ and (2) names of aotiooa, jtates, or qualities, ».e. attributives. We need, however, not only to express notions, but to indicate cer- tain relations as existing among them. These must be either relations which exist between one notion and another, or relations which exist be* twee Ji one afdrmation and another. The only part of speech left is the interjection, which does not stand in any grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. 3. Explain fully the nature of those words in the following, (1) which are not used to express our thoughts, and (2) which partake of the na- ture of more than one of the eight parts of speech : No, alas 1 Ah me I there is no one whose speakins is likely to prove harassing to us in the arranging of the diflSoulty, when the uteresting youth, b^ displaying himself on his prancinit char(;;er, as the defender of the fatth, will secure the victory for all thbse friends of his. [». XXLU INTEBJECnoNB. 281 iniclL All men wn be hM been ioitbecMiM }b, we need ;, »ndwhat be divided Daguuury,of L we can In Bponding to of actioDB, Ddicate oer- ler relationB lich exist be- les not stand ag, (1) which e of the na- ely to prove e interesting the defender lis. CHAPTER XII. INTEBJECnONS. DEFINITION AND USES. 1. As we saw in 11. 34 and 35, an interjection is not in the proper sense a "part of speech," since it is "thrown in amongst," and does not combine with, other "parts" to form that whole which wo call a sentence. It is a direct intimation of feeling or of will, made expressive chiefly by the tone, the inflection of voice, with which it is uttered. Thus, for example, ah! expresses a number of different feelings — such as joy, pain, surprise, disgust — according to the way in which it is uttered. 2. The interjections are not real natural outbursts of feeling, like a scream, a groan, a sigh, though they come nearer to this (jliaracter than does anything else in language. They are, like all our other words, means of communication ; they are utterances l>y which we seek to signify to others that we are moved by such and such feelings. Hence, each language has its own set of interjections, more or less different from those of other languages. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING. 3. Some of the ordiiary English interject >ons are : a. Of joy, glad surprise, pleasant emotion : oh I ah I ha ! hey ! hurrah ! huzza ! h. Of painful feeling or suffering : oh! ah I alas! well-a-dayl dear me I heigh-ho! c. Of disapproval or contempt : poh ! fie I faugh ! fbdge ! whew ! d. Of calling attention : ho ! hola ! hollo ! hem I lo ! e. Of quieting or repressing : hist I hush ! tut ! mom 1 ;l ! 283 INTERJEOTIONS. [xn. t.f> f. Words made in imitation of natural sounds are a kfnd of interjection: thus, pop I bang I bow-wow 1 ding-dong I rnb-a-dnb 1 WORDS USED AS INTERJECTIONS. 4. The sentence is the means of expression of calm assertion, of reasoning, of explanation, of description. When the speaker is moved with strong feeling, the sentence-form of expression is wont to be more or less abandoned, and only the prominent words to be uttered, with tone and gesture that sufficiently explain them. Some of our ordinary words, real parts of speech, are so much used in this exclamatory way that they are almost to be called interjections. Such are why, what, well, indeed, hail, behold. Words and phrases of asseveration, from indeed and I declare up to the strongest oaths, are of the nature of interjections. 5. Some words, which now appear only as interjections, were once ordinary parts of speech ; but their character as such has become corrupted and disguised : thus, zounds ("by God's wounds"); dear {0 dieu, "0 God"); egad (" by God"); alas (ah lasso, " O [me] miserable"). On the other hand, our commonest interjections are spon- taneous utterances, and do not originate in grammatical forms : for example, 0, oh, alack, pooh, pshaw, heigh-ho. Hence, interjections may be classed according to origin, as PRIMARY and SECONDARY. SPECIAL USES OF INTERJECTIONS. 6. The interjections are sometimes combined with other wmrds in exdlamatory phrases, and, thus used, more nearly approach the character of a part of speech, often resembling the verb (II. 39. 2), and governing a case : thus. All me! Alas the day! horror! What hoi for ft calm, a thankful heart ! that it were sol a kind of >! I assertion, ihe speaker expression prominent sufficiently cch, are so klmost to be nd I declare rjections. Bctions, were as such has O God"); iserable"). ns are spon- atical forms : zn. 7.] SPECIAL USES. 283 The used with the nominative of address the interjoctional case of the noun, is very common : for example, then that bringest good tidings I Give ear, ye heavens ! Justice, royal duke I To your tents, Israel. 7. The interjection resembles the verb more than it does any of the other parts of speech. This is owing to the fact that the vero is the central representative of the predicative force (II. 2), which, in tha interjection, it held in abeyance by emotion. QUESTIOHS. L DiMUM and illustnte the following : a. Interjeotiona tall into tlireo well-marked classes : (1> Emotional, { .' • '^mitutive, and (3) Abbreviated. Thev may also be classifled as, (I) Interjections «.< lature, or primitive interjections, and (2) aKiflcial, or historical interjections. b. When we speak of grammar as the handmaid of losr'c> the 'nterJecMon must stsnd aside. 0. An interjection implies a meaning which itwonld require a wholegrimnjaijoal sentence tp expound, an ' it may be rei ars to its context the sauio sortof relation as a pictorial illuvtration dues. d. The interjection is or all tliat is printed the most difficult thing tc . -^ well aloud. e. In proportion to the march of culture is the decline of interJe«'.tional speech. 2. Criticize: As to sense, imparts merely a vocative elfect, while Oil I conveys some particular sentiment, as of appeal, entreaty, etc ; as to sound, is enclitic, that is, as ft were reclines upon the following word and has no accent of its own, while ohl is one of the fullest of monosyllables. THE PAKSraa OF IMTBRJEGTIGNS. An interjection needs only to be defined as such, along with a statement of the purpose for which it is used — the feeling which it expresnes, the natural sound it imitates, and so on. to origin, as 1 other words trly approach ing the verb What hoi reresol 284 THB SIMPLE SUNTfiNCE. [xm. 1- h: ill CHAPTER XIII. SYNTAX: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. H 1. In the preceding chapters we have been dealing chiefly with words, in order to be able to see what part of speech each of them is, what are the principal uses of each part of speech in the sentence, how some parts of speech are inflected, and how some words are derived from others or put together to form others. This branch of grammar is known as etymology. 2. Properly speaking, etymology includes only that part of grammar (III. and IV.) which investigates the origin of words and the principles according to which they have their present form and meaning (the term literally means "a discussion of the true source of a word"). But, by writers on grammar, it has been extended to include the inflections and classification, as well as the history of the growth of separate words. Sometimes, also, it includes the consideration of the connection that exists among words of different languages of the same family ; but this branch of the subject is also called comparative philology. 3. We shall now consider how words are put together for use in the expression of our thoughts, that is, the branch of grammar which is known as syntax (the term literally means " a putting together," or "arranging"). In dealing with etymology, we found it necessary to state and illustrate not a few of the leading principles of syntax : we have here to take these up in a connected and systematic way, adding others that ere new. KINDS OP SENTENCES. 4. The combinations of words which we make in expressing our thoughts are called sentences ; and these sentences are of three kinds, according to their form (II. 49-51) : 1. Assertive ; 2. Interrooative ; and 3. Imperative. 6. The usual sentence is the assertion, or statement; or, as we have called it (II. 6), tho ashkrtivk HKNXBNqs;, zm. 12] rSSBNTIAL ELEMENTS. 285 This is the regular form of our expression ; it is the model, as it were, of which the other two are variations. We shall, therefore, for the present, consider it alone, afterwards (XVI.) taking up the two other kinds, and also (XVII.) the incom- plete or abbreviated sentence, in which one or another part usually expressed is wanting. THE NATURE AND THE RELATION OF THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCR I.— CSeneral Principles* 6. No sentence can be made except by means of a verb, since the verb is the only part of speech that asserts, or predicates. 7. All that is absolutely necessary besides a verb to make a complete assertion, or full sentence, is the name of some thing about which the assertion is made. For details, see V. 70-75. 8. As this name is the subject of the assertion, or that about which the assertion is made, it is called in grammar the SUBJECT of the sentence ; and the verb is called the predicate, that is, " what is stated or asserted" (II. 8 and 9). 9. As the verb is the essential part of every sentence, or the part that makes the assertion, the subject of the sentence is also called the subject (or subject-nominative) of the verb. And every verb, since it implies an assertion, must have along with it its subject, or the word showing what the assertion is about. 10. As we shall see more plainly hereafter, however long a sentence may become, it can still be divided into the same two parts : the subject being the full definition, or description, of the thing about which the assertion is made, and the predicate being the complete assertion made about it (compare II. 12). 11. As we have seen (II. 52), a sentence which is made up of one subject and one predicate, however many words either of them may contain, is called a simple sentence. This we shall now consider, taking up afterwards (XIV.) the other kinds of sentences that are formed of simple sentences bound more or less complet^)ly into one whole. 12. A senCmce is also valued as simple even when any of its less essential members, any adjunct or modification of the subject or of the predicate verb, is compound ; or, in general, if iii I' I (i. >i 286 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. pan. IS- the subject itself is compound ; or even if the predicate- verb is compound, provided the sentence is brief and not complicated. Thus, Friends and foes rnshed together; They were lovely and pleasant in theii;. lives ; He was seen both before and after the battle: He was seen before but not after the battle ; He and I went ; The color went and came ; may be properly valued as simple sentences with compound members. (XVII.) 13. In all those words — namely, most of the pronouns — which have, besides the possessive, two case-forms (III. 16), the nominative is alone used as the subject of a statement : thus, I (not Me) give, Thou (not Thee) givest. In practice, however, this principle is seldom violated unless the sub" jeot, being a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is separated by an* other clause from the rest of its own clause : thus, The minister who (not whom) he would prove had, ftc. ; Who (not whom) do you think that I am ? or unless the sentence containing a pronoun ia abbreviated; thus, James Is greater than I (not me). 14. Again, so far as the verb has different forms of person and number, the form used is of the same person and number as the subject — being, therefore, always of the third person if its subject is a noun (V. 66) : thus, I give (not gives). Thou goest (not go or goes). 15. This relation of subject and verb is also expressed by saying that the verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; or that the subject governs the verb in number and person (III. 4). 16. We have, then, these first rules of syntax, which apply to all sent'Onces, but which are the only ones that apply to a BARB sentence, a sentence composed of a verb and its subject and nothing more : I. A SENTENCE ts composed of SUBJECT and predicate ; tfte ntbjecty a noun (or a word or tcords having the value of a noun) names that of which something is asserted; the predicate^ which is a verbf or the essential part of which is a verbj expresses that which is asserted of the subject. n. The subject of t?M sentence (also called the subjeot-nomiiiiar live qf the verb) is in the nominative ease. pan. 19^ be-verb is ipHcatod. >: »; »; lompound onouns — 1. 16), the nt: thus, 8t. SB the sub- ted by an* ihas, of person d number person if :oes). iresscd by imber and tmber and lich apply ipply to a its subject gate; t/ie fa noun) ate, which reages that Xm. 19] AGREEMENT OF VEHB AMD SUBJECT. 287 III. The vnvh agrees in person and number with its suhject. These are the general principles, but there are special cases that need to be taken up here. n.— Special Catci. I.— THB SUBJECT. (I) Impersonal and Personal Forms. 17. A verb scm<»timps has for its subject the pronoun it (VI. 26. c. and VIII. 167 and 171), not as standing for any real subject, but as helping to signify that a certain state or action is going on : thus. It rains, It is dark, It stiikes seven, It rer anted me. It was Monday night. Such subjects are called impersonal, ^nd, in contrast with these, other subjects are called personal. ('2) Repetition of the Subject, 18. Sometimes the notion which the subject represeAts is repeated : a. Usually to show its importance to the speaker : tnus, Peace, Virtue, peace is all tby own ; And tbey crossed themselves for fear. All tbe knights at Oamelot ; Self-reyerence, self-knowledge, self-contrOl, These three alone lead life to sovereign power. b. Occasionally, for clearness, to recall it to memory when At some distance from the verb : thus. The feeling that this was really Samuel Weller who was before me, and Sergeant Buzfni, and Mr. Pickwick, and each personage of the story in succession— this feeling came over me with a thrill of delight, onoh as the best reading of the greatrst actor could not have given me. Such constructions shade off into those in which the word represent- ing the repeated notion is a real appositive. (S) The Anacoluthic Suhject. 10. Occasionally, when the speaker's attention is attracted by some notion, he begins a sentence with this notion as subject, but finishes the sentence with another subject, thus changing the construction in the same sentence. For example : My noble father, three times to-day I help him to his hone; Bat he, the chieftain of them all, His sword hangs rosting on the wall. This is known as the anaoolutuio subject (the term means " lacking ■eqaenoe or oonneotion"). 288 THE SIMPLE fiUNTEVOB. [zm. 10- The use of It as a representative subject has already been fully dealt with {VI. 26. a). The omission of the subject will be taken up in connection with the abbreviated and incomplete sentence (XVllI. ). II. — THE FREDICATB. 20. In deciding the number of the verb, we must consider the meaning, not the form, of the subject : a verb is regularly construed according to the meaning of the subject (V. 13), whatever be its form. The following applications of this principle require to be noticed : (1) When the Reference is to one Suhject, a. The verb is plural when used with a collective noun in the singular (V. 12), when we have in mind the separate indi- viduals composing the collection : thus, A half of them are gone ; The nobility of Rome are his ; The happy pair go hand in hand; The crowd throng the street. b. The verb is singular when, although the form of the subject is plural, the meaning is singular : thus. Two-thirds of this is mine by right ; With Thee a thousand years is as one day ; Johnson's "Lives" was published before his death. See also V. 42, 44, and 45. (2) When the Reference is to more them one Svbject. a. First, as to number : (a) The verb is plural when the subjects, even if singular, are felt to be combined into one : thus, His father and brothers were long dead ; Horror and doubt distract his troubled mind. So, tpQO, when the conjunction is omitted : thus. Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed ; and wiien, though there are really more than one subject, the singular subject is expressed but once : thus, My quarrel and the English Queen's bre one ; The Second and the Third Epistle of John contain each a single chapter. mtm [xin. i«- lily dealt with the consider •egularly (V. 13), of this mi.20. (2)a.(b)] AQBEEMBKT OP VERB AND SUBJECT. 289 noun in rate indi- te his; le subject lath. ject. gular, are Id; jject, the each a When, to a singular eubject, another notion is added by means of the preposition witli, and the meaning is markedly plural, some authori- ties make the verb plural : thus, The king with the lorda and commons oonstltnte the government. But, though this may be defended as a " sense construction " (V. 18), the more approved usage is to substitute and for with in such sentences. (b) But the verb is singular when (1) The singular subjects represent but one notion (compare 20. (1) b. above) : thus,' Brandy and water is his favorite beverage; < Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ; The saint, the father, and the husband prays. (2) The logical subject is distributed : thus, Every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace. So, too, when the subjects are taken alternately, the verb is singular if the subjects are singular ; otherwise it is plural, and, to avoid awkwardness, the plural subject, if there is one, is put next the verb : thus, Neither the one nor the other appears to have understood; Never has my heart or ear hung on so sweet, so pure a strain ; The king or his soldiers have done the deed. And the co-ordination is, in effect, of the same nature in To spread suspicion, to Invent calumnies, requires no courage; No part of their substance, and no one of their properties, Is the same; Not enjoyment and not sorrow Is our destined end or way, (3) The attention is attracted first or specially to the singular subject, which is next the verb: thus, Her knights, her dames, her court is there ; Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro, ^nd gathering tears and tremblings of distress, etc.; Oare only wakes and moping pensiveness. (4) The attention is attracted to tho leading subject, which ia singular : thus, Asia, as well as Europe, was dazzled by his power; The (ddest, as well as the newest, wine begins to stir itself; His brother, as well as his father a^d mother, looks on with pity; Somewhat, and in some cases a great deal, is laid npon us ; 19 m m. 2dO TBB SIMPLE SfiNTBKOfi. Czm.M.(2)b- m ii .. -I 11 ■ ii The king, but not his councillors, was present ; Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, foims our true honor. In these examples we have a more distinct suggestion of an emitted predicate. The construction in (3) above is especially known as ArnuonoK. b. Secondly, as to person : When two or more subjects are of different persons, the verb agrees with the most important (the one which most attracts the attention), that is, with the first in preference to the others, and with the second in preference to the third. Since, how- ever, there are no plural inflections for person, the verbal form can show this agreement in the singular only. Examples are Either he or I am right ; Neither he nor thou art right. Sometimes, also, the verb refers to the subject next it : thus, Neither you nor he is right. But, as both of these constructions are felt to be awkward, modern usage prefers in such cases to express the predicate with each subject : thus. Either he is right or I am ; and Neither are you right nor is he. In Old English, and even in Chancer, we find the verb referred to the predicate pronoun, and not to the subject : thus. It am I. ^^ 21. The preceding rules for the agreement of the predicate with the subject are those approved by modem usage ; but, in older and, to some extent, in modern English, a variety of usage prevails. COMPLEMENTS OF THE BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 22. We have next to consider how the simple and necessary frame-work of the sentence — the bare noun or pronoun, and the bare verb — is extended and filled out, so as to let us express more, or express ourselves with greater definiteness, in a single sontonce. L— laeoBipIete Predicates. 23. Many verbs are not in them:^elves complete as predicates ; we almost never put then-, alone with a subject ; when so put, they do not make a sentence that seems to have a full meaning ; we wait for something more to be added. t. 40.(2) b- Xm M. e] VB&BB OF lKCOM]>LBtB f^RfeDlCATlOK. 291 onr trae an emitted moN. , the verb it attracts ;he others, ince, how- jrbal form pies are b: thus, awkward, I predicate b nor is he. referred to I predicate je ; but, in variety of LEDICATE. 1 necessary >noun, and us express in a single predicates ; len so put, 1 meanini; ; I. — PBKDICATK MOUN AKD ADJKCTTVK. 24. One class of these words is made up of such as call for something mo re to be added relating to the subject and further describing it (VII. 3) : thus, I am ... ; We were . . . ; They seem . . . ; The man looked .... We may complete such statements by adding a noun or an adjective: thus, I am poor; We were brothers; They seem hungry; The man looked tired. 25. A word thus used is called a predicate noun or a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE ; or, the noun or the adjective is said to be used predicatively. This is because it, in a manner, completes the predication or assertion made by the verb ; it describes the subject, being made part of the assertion respecting the latter ; it does so by the help of the verb, which brings it into connection with the subject. 26. The number of verbs thus taking a predicate adjective or noun is not a very large one. They are sometimes called VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION. Such are : a. The verb be : thus, I am ill; Ton are a scholar; They will be tired; He was angry; She was the heroine; They have been soldiers. This is by far the commonest of the whole class. The verb be, in its various forms and verb-phrases, has come to be used almost entirely as a mere connective of assertion between a sub- ject and some word or words describing that subject ; and, when thus used, to have no meaning of its own except that of signi- fying the assertion. The verb be is sometimes distinguished as the copula (that is '* coupler"), because it couples together two words in the relation of subject and predicate; but this distinction, though of importance in Logic, is of little importance in Grammar. b. Become, with its near equivalents grow, get, turn and the like : thus, I became ill; His face grew black; It turned cold. 0. Remain, continue, stay, and the like : thas, John remained silent: He continues grmteftil. 292 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [Zin. 26. d* tr,* f fh d. Seem, appear, look, and the like : thus, She seems a goddess : It looks terrible. e. Sound, smeU, feel, and the like : thus, We feel outraged; It smells sweet. f. Verbs of state and motion, like stand, sit, go, move, and so on : thus, The door stands open; My blood runs cold; They sat mute; He will go mad; He ran foul of me. g. The passives of verbs which take an objective predicate (see below, 49.) : thus, He was made angry; They are called cannibals. 27. The predicate use of the adjective shades off into an adverbial construction, and the two are- not always to be readily or clearly dis- tingnished from each other. Their distinction depends on the degree to which the added word is intended to quaHfy the subject on the one hand, or the action of the verb itself on the other. Thus, Ave may say We feel warm, It Is burled deep, when we mean " feel ourselves to be warm," "buried so as to be deep"; or we may say We feel warmly, It is buried deeply, when we mean that the feeling is a warm one, that the burying was a deep one. And in He looks well, we understand well to be predicate adjective when the sense is " he looks in good health, he appears as if he were well''; but adverb if the sense is " he is good-looking." But in He sits next, next may be understood in either way without any important difference. Again, we say of a fruit. It looks ripe. It feels ripe, It smells ripe, It tastes ripe ; because the meaning is that in these various ways we judge it actually to bo ripe. Other examples are The girl looks pretty ; The rose smells sweet ; The wine tastes sour. 28. With the verbs of state and motion (26. f. above), especially, the qualifying force of the predicate adjective is very often really distributed between the subject and the verb. Thus, in He stands firm, we mean not only that he is firm in his standing, but also that the standing itself is firm. So, also, in The sun shines bright; The messenger comes running; The tone rings dear and ftdl. JUL 83] PBBDICATB NOUN AND ADJEGTIVB. 293 'ying was a Astes sour. An adjective thus used may be distinguished as an adverbial PREDICATE adjective. Thti predicate adjective, e8i)ecially the adverbial predicate, shades off into a construction in which its value resembles that of an appositive adjective: thus, He went home no wiser ; The Airrow followed firee. So, too, with the predicate noun : thus, Socrates lived a philosopher, and died a hero. 29. An inflected word in the predicate (except a predicate possessive, XIII. 67) ought, since it describes the subject, to be in the same case with it ; and this rule is generally observed in English — that is to say, in the pronouns, the only words which distinguish nominative and objective. Thus, we say It is I; It was we: If it were she: and so on. Careless and inaccurate speakers, however, often use such expressions as It is them; It was us; If it were her: and, in the case of It is me, the practice has become so common that it is even regarded as good English by respectable autlioritics^(VI. 11). 30. The expressir/ns It is I, It is he, and so on, are not found in literature before the fifteenth century. Until then the idiom was the Old English one : thus, /c eom hit (i.e. " I am it"), and so on. Since the Elizabethaft period, the irregular constructions given in 29 above have been used even by the best writers. 31. We have then the definition : IV. A predicate adjective or noun is one which is brought by a verb into relation with its subject, as modifying that subject ; and the rule : V. A predicate pronoun regularly agrees in case with the subject it describes. II. — OBJECT OF THE VERB. (1) Direct. 32. A very much larger class of verbs than those spoken of above are incomplete in another way — namely, as they call for 294 THE SIMPLE SENTEHOB. [niLSS- r'i^TTr' ' '": the addition of a word to express some thing on which the action they signify is exerted. Thus, for example, I fold . . . ; She tells . . . ; The man wrote . . . : where we expect an addition telling what is folded, or told, or written ; and the sense is made complete in some such way as this: I fold the paper; She tells a story ; The man wrote a letter. Such an added word is always a name of something, a noun (or else a pronoun or other equivalent of a noun); and it is called the object of the verb, because it signifies that at which the action of the verb is directed. The verb that takes such an object to complete its meaning is called transitive, because its action, instead of being merely asserted of the subject, ''passes over," and affects the object. ^3. When we use a pronoun in this way — thus, I strike him: They saw us— the case in wliich the object is put is the objective: indeed, this case is so named as being especially that belonging to the object of the verb. Hence, as we have already seen (III. 15), we say that a transitive verb governs the objective case ; that is, its object is compelled to be of that case. 34. Verbs, which are ordinarily called transitive, may in Eng- lish, almost without exception, be used without any expressed object, that is intransitively : thus, a. When they signify simply the doiqg of an act, without taking into account whom or what it is done to : thus, I love: You speak: Seek, fire, kill. A special case is that in which the object, if expressed, would repre- sent the same notion as the subject, the verb thus ftcquiring a reflexive meaning: thus, He stopped and then turned ; Meanwhile lie prepared for an atUOk. b. When the subject of the verb really names the object of the act : thus. The cakes at tea ate short and crisp; Drink from the goblet while it fills; ▲ great experiment was making. See also VIII. 170 4nd 1^. Jan. 87. o] OBJECT or THE YBIia 295 36. On the other hand, there aro verbs which do not properly take after them such an object : thus, for example, Sit, fall, run, lie. We may sit on something, fall from something, run over some one, and so on ; but we do not usually sit anyone or any- thing. Such verbs are called intransitives. They are also Bometimes called neuter ; but this term belongs to tlio 'livuion into active, passive, and neuter ; and in English we have no passive verbs, but only passive verb-phrases : all our verbs are " active," ant I, therefore, no one of them needs to be defined as such. 37. But even some intransitive verbs take an object in cer- tain peculiar constructions. Thus : a. An object expressing in noun-form the action, or a variety of the action, expressed by the verb itself : as, He has lived a long life : I slept a deep sleep ; They ran their race ; You will dance a jig ; Let me die the death of the righteous ; Death grinned horrible a ghastly smile ; From them I go this uncouth errand. So, too, in such constructions as Orace me no grace nor uncle me no uncle. Here the result of the act is made the object of the verb. This is called a cognate object: that is, one *' allied" or "related" in meaning to the verb itself. In such sentences as He looked daggers at me; Tbe realm itself yawns dniigeons at every step ; the objects are also cognate, being nouns used in & metaphorical sense. Such objects, especially the last, are very near our ordinary conception of adverbial modifiers of the verb. See 47 below. Akin to the cognate object is the peculiar construction in Z bave been many voyages. b. An indefinite or impersonal object it (VI. 26. d) in such phrases as They frolic it along ; Slie coquettes it with every fellow she sees. This construction is allied to the preceding one. The result of the act is intimated, though in the impersonal form. c. An objec"^. with a verb that is taken in the sense of pro- ducing a certain effect by the act which it expresses : thus, He trotted his horse ; He walked his horse ; He ran t he engine ; He marched hi^ men. Compare VJLU. 5. a. H 296 THB SIMPLE 8ENTBN0E. [ZIILM.e- II tk i Of the same nature are the following constmctions : He rained shells and red hot hullets on the city: At the base of Pompey's statue, which all the while ran blood. d. Occasionally, a reflexive (VIII. 166) object : ai, She went and tat ber down over against blm ; Stand the* oloae, tlaan. This constrnction is really of the same nature as the preceding one. e. Occasionally an objent whinh, though only mediately affected by the act, is apparently a direct objective : thus, Be sat bis borse well ; There Is not a ship tbat sails tbe ocean, Wbile tbou fougbtest tbe Obrlstlan cause. Such constmctions shade off into others in which the objective is more marliedly adverbial. See below, 73 and 76. 37. The kind of object we have thus far considered is also called a dibect object, because its relation to the "governing" verb is so close and immediate as not to admit of an auxiliary word, as a preposition, to define it. (2 J Double ; Direct and Indirect. 38. Some verbs, however, take along with such a direct object, another of a different character, in a relation which we more usually express by to or for : thus, He gave me the bopk; They made the man a coat. In the first sentence, me points out to whom the p.ct of giving the book was done ; in the second, man shows for whom the act of making the coat was performed. This appears clearly enough when we change the place of the words in question, putting them after the direct object. We are then obliged to use prepositions : thus, He gave the book to me ; They made a coat for the man. Other examples are He means us no good ; We forgive our friends their fanlts : He paid the man his wages; You answered me the qnestion; He taught his sister music Here belongs also the ethical dative, so called because the matter spoken of is regarded with interest (the Or. root word ethoit, in this connection, means "interest") by the person concerned : thus. Knock me at this gate, and rap me well ; A terrible dragon of a woman claps you an Iron cap on ber bead. In older English, even from the earliest times, this construction mnch used iu the language of common life : it is now almost obsolete. in.M.e- y; ,n blood. >0,tlaaiL Dgone. Fected by Bean, tjective is 1 is also veming" auxiliary a direct Mrhich we coat. of giving krhotn the rs clearly question, »bliged to leman. ir faults: inestion: ;he matter w, in this rliead. Letion tbaolete. zm.4a] DIRBCT AND INDIBICT OBJICT. 297 39. Such a second object, then, is called an indiriot objeow, because it represents what is less directly affected by the action of the verb, and because the same relation may be, and often iH, expressod by prepositions — namely, by to or, more rarely, by for. But, although we may use to and for in expressing the relation of the indirect object, we must not make the mistake of supposing that a to or for is left out, and to be " understood" as expressed along with the object itself, any more than that of is left out with John's, because, instead of it, we may say of John. The case is not, indeed, like the possessive, now distinguished by an ending of its own ; but it was so formerly. 40. An original dative in an obscured form has been preserved in the case of nigh, near, near, f, next, like and nnllke, both in adjective and adverbial use : thus, He was near flailing y A man like few others ; She sits next me ; He drives like Jehn. Another relic of this case is still sometimes fonnd with the interjection woe, used as a substantive : thus, Woe me I Woe the day I Woe the while t Woe Is me i Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, That cost thy life, my gallant grey I So, too, with wSll, in the archaic well Is thee I 41. The indirect object, like the direct, is put in the objective case. But the objective in this use is to be called th^ indirect OBJECTIVE. It is regularly put, in the sentence, between the verb and the direct object, the case of which is in turn called the DIRECT OBJECTIVE. 42. When a verb, which in the active conjugation takes both a direct and an indirect object, becomes passive, its direct object regularly becomes its subject, and its indirect object remains after the verb, sometimes with, and sometimes without, a preposition to show its relation : thus, A book was given me (or to me); His wages were paid the man (or to the man). Owing, however, to the indirect and direct objectives being of the same form, and to the greater importance usually attached to the person a^ected by the act, the indireot object is very T7" mm^^m^wfm 31 m -• i ifi-^ 11 I ■I m THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. LZIIL 42< often, and with some verbs is always, made the subject, the direct object remaining after the verb : thus, I was given a book: The man was paid his wages; I was taught music ; Our friends are forgiven their faults : and so on. See also VIII. 162 and 163. (SJ Peculiar Siiigle Objective Constructions. 43. Some verbs, like pay, forgive, and teach, often take their indirect object alone, as well as their direct : thus, either, with direct object. He paid the wages: We forgive the faults: He taught music ; or, with indirect. He paid the man: We forgive our fHends: He taught his sister. Either object, when thus used alone, is apt to seem to us a direct one ; and it is only when we come to put them together that we see their true relation. For this reason and on the analogy of Latin and Greek (in which the verb meauiuK "teach" ie followed by two accusatives), the verb teach is by some grammarians classed under 4S below ; but it is properly placed here, for in old English it takes a dative and an accusative, and even now the object of the person (compare 46 below) sometimes takes to : thus, He taught geography to bis brother. 44. And nob a few verbs which were formerly intransitive, taking a dative, or a genitive, or a prepusitional phrase, are now reckoned by us as only transitive. Examples are earn, heed, follow, trust ; applaud, renounce, resist, pardon, obey. For examples of impersonal verbs similarly used, see VII. 167. (4) Peculiar Double Objective Constructions. 45. Some verbs, however, which govern a direct object of the person^ are also followed by the object of the thing affected or produced by the act : thus, John struck me a blow; She heard me my lessonB; He led him the life of a dog: Jane took her a walk. And when one of these objects becomes the subject of the passive form, the other remains in the objective after the verb, Thus, we say I was hesTd my lessons and My lessons were heard me* Zm. 49] PECULIAR DOUBLE OBJECTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 299 Such a sentence as We banisli you our terrttorles, shows that this construction shades ofif into one in which the object of the thing ia clearly adverbial. 46. Owing to the absence of case inflections, one of the two direct objects sometimes admits of being valued as indirect : thus, in I asked him bis name, bim, which, like name, is properly a direct object, may be valued as indirect in a relation expressed by of ; for, though we say we usually say I asked him his name, I asked a favor of hlnu In older English we find a like construction, with other verbs expressing the notion of asking. Examples are Demand me nothing ; Let me request thee this; She prayed me oft forbearance. III. — THE TRUE NATURE OV VERB-OBJECTS. 4T. Although grammarians make a distinction between the objects and the adverbial complements of the verb, the former are really adverbial also : thus, in I gave him a book and I go home, blm, book, and home limit the meaning of the verbs in their respective sentences. The general function is the same ; the species is different, book and him indicating irespectively the objects directly and indirectly affected by the act, and home indicating the limit of the motion. 48. We have, then, the following : VI. A TRANSITIVE verh takes a direct object, expressing that which ia immediately affected by the act expressed by the verb; and sometimes also an indirect objett, usually expressing that TO or FOR which the act is performedm Vn. The object of a verb, whether direct or indirect, is in the OBJECTIVb case, the direct being called a direct objective, and the indirect an indirect objective. IV. — OBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 49. We have seen above thai r predicate adjective or noun is one which, being added to a verb, forms part o^ the predication or assertion about the subject of th>: verb ; one that is made^ through the verb, to modify the subject. |r!;i IJ-^ I;-;,! ;;• h:, i'ii) IP 11 i' mm m lli:!'!! 300 THB SIMPLE 8£NTENCE. [zm.4»- Now it is sometimes also the case that an adjective or a noun is, through the verb, brought into a like relation to the direct object, as modifying that object. Thus, in He made the stick straight, the adjective straight qualifies the object stick, by becoming a kind of addition to the verb made, defining the nature of the action exerted on stick, as if we said He made-straight the stick. And we do say instead, using a derivative verb, He straightened the stick. where the adjective is, as it were, taken into the verb, and becomes a part of the assertion made by the verb alone. (Occa- sionally, also, as in white-wash, the adjective forms part of a compound verb.) Then, if we turn the construction into a passive one, making the former object stick the subject, straight becomes an ordinary predicate adjective qualifying it : thus, The stick was made straight. So, too, in She wrings the clothes dry, the meaning is ■' makes-dry-by-wringing the clothes," the adjec- tive, again, being, as it were, taken into the verb, and becoming part of the assertion made by the verb. Then, as before, if we turn the construction into a passive one, making the former object clothes the subject, dry becomes an ordinary predicate adjective qualifying it. Other examples of this construction are I sang my throat hoarse: The lightning struck him dead; He held the reins tight: They planed the board smooth; They chose her queen: She carries her head high. And a verb ib especially often used thus when it is also used reflexively: thus, They sang themselves hoarse: He wept himself blind; She washed herself clean ; He rubbed himself dry. Since, in these sentences, the straightness of the stick, the dry- ness of the clothes, the hoarseness of my throat, and so on, are the results of the acts expressed by made, sing, and so on; these verbs are said to be used in a /actUiv$ sense ; that is, in zm.49- nn. 61] 6fijrfiC¥tVd ^RfifiiCAte. m a noun e direct oming a e of the 3rb, and (Occa- part of a I, making omes an ihe adjec- becoming a passive becomes im dead; smooth: gh. also used blind: >lf dry. , the dry- ,o on, are so on; hat is, in the sense of " making " or causing or bringing about something by means of the act which the verb signifies. And the adjective or the noun thus made by the verb to qualify the object, is called a faciitive objectivb predicate adjective or noun. 50. This construction, however, shades off into one in which an adjective or a noun is made by the verb to modify its object without, however, expressing the result of the act, or entering into the asbBrtion made by the verb alone. Thus, if we compare He drove the man insane with He believed the man insane, we see that, though, in both these sentences, the predication is incomplete without the adjective insane; in the latter, the insanity is not the result of the act expressed by the verb, nor is the assertion that he belie^'ed insane the man ; whereas, in the former, the insanity is the result of this act, and the assertion is that he drove insane the man. Other examples are I beheld him a captive; I kold it true: He found the man honest : He imagined me his enemy ; I consider him liberal: He pronounced me guilty. To these, as in 49 above, the corresponding passives are The man was believed insane ; He was beheld a captive : The man was found hcnest; It is held true; and so on. As is shown by such sentences as He saw the man ronnlng ; He ate his dinner Ov'ild ; this construction, in turn, shades off into one in which the avijective or the noun approaches the value of an appositive ; and in He came in with his hands dirty, the appositive adjective dirty is related to hands in the same way aa the objective predicate adjective is related to the direct object. 61. In both the preceding constructions, a prepositional phrase is sometimes fouud instead of the objective predicate : thus, Know thou me for thy liege lord ; I designed thee for Richelieu's mnrderer ; We have Abraham to our father ; I have a king here to my flatterer. Sometimes, also, the objective predicate takes as for a connective : thu% Rome held him and his traitors as rebels ; Be was left as mler ; He was appointed as king ; bat in many such examples the as is %7aM>lly pleonastic. See also ZVIL ~,Vl 302 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. (xin.62 OS. In languages which distinguish the objective case throughout from the nominative by a different form, the predicate adjective or noun wonld, of course, be in the objective, as the other predicate adjective or noun (sometimes called su jjkctive, for distinction^ sake) ia in the nominative ; but an instance of such agreement cannot occur in English, except in the case of a personal pronoun after an infinitive : thus, I knew it to be klm. 53. We may sum up thus : Vm. An adjective or a voun i& called objective predicate when it is brought by the verb into relation toith the direct object^ as mod^ying that object; and it is especially known as facti- tive Vihen it comes afier ajactitive verb. n.— Adjective ComplemeMto. I.— AmUBUnVX and APPOSITIVR AUJECTIVK and APFOSinVS NOUN. 54. We have thus far seen that a noun may come to be modified by an adjective or a noun used predicatively : that is, ill the way of an assertion that a quality or state or char- acter or office, or the like, belongs to it — a relation which needs a word of assertion, a verb, to bring it about. 55. But an adjective also, and much oftener, modifies a noun more directly, being dimply added to the noun to describe it; the quality and so on is not asserted, but only mentioned, as belonging to that which the noun expresses. Thus, in This man is old, we make the age the thing which we assert ; but in This old man, we mnke it part of the description of the person, about whom we may then go on to make an assertion : as, This old man has white liair ; where we use another adjective to describe also the object hair. 56. An adjective thus used to describe a noun without being part of the assertion or predication made about it is called an attribute, or an attributive adjective, or is said to bo used attributively (attributive means simply "ascribed" or "attached"). Wh^^ a predicative adjective modifies only the subject or the direct object of a verb, an attributive acyective may modify tttl. M] APPOSlTlVa AWECTlVfi aKD NOUN. 303 a noun in any situation whatever and is genemlly put before the noun. For the logical (not grammatica!) distinction between the purely descriptive and the restrictive or limiting use of the attributive adjective, see VII. 1-3 and 5b. d. 57. A noun is, much less often, used to d»'scribe another noun in a way somewhat similar to this. Thus, in My friend the hunter carries his weapon, a rifle, on his shoulder, we have the nouns friend and weapon limited or described by the addition of hnnter and rifle. There are implied in the sentence the two assertions that My fHend is a hunter, and His weapon ia a rifle; but they are only implied, not actually made. A noun thus used is called appositivb, or is said to be in APPOSITION with the other noun. This means "in position by the side of," or *?set alongside"; because the appositive noun seems less closely connected with the noun which it describes, less dependent on it, than the attributive adje<;^^~^e ; it is, rather, an independent word, added to the other for the purpose of further describing the same thing. SeDtenoes and members of sentences are Bometimee followed by an appositive noun, which answers to a predicate nominative : thus, Te are not content with your estate, a fkncy to be plncked ont of yoa; His dangbter had mucli talent, a circumstance liable to mislead. 58. But an adjective is also often joined to a noun in a looser and more indirect way, so much like that of the appositive noun that it is also to be called an appositive adjective. Examples are Per these reasons, avowed and secret ; All poetry, ancient or modern ; Toong, handsome, and clever, the page was the darling of the house ; where the shade of meaning is a little different from what it would be in For these avowed and secret reaMms; All ancient or modem poetry; Tha yonng, handsome, and elav«r 9H^ m li^il p i* i I! x^ U? i 304 fHE SIMPLE 8&KTBKC8. [xm.6« hi We have, namely, in the appositive adjective a more distinct sngges- tion of an added clause, of which the adjective would be the predicate — as if, for example, we said Since he was young, handsome, and cleyer, the page was, etc Yet, as we have seen already (VI. 49), the attributive adjective also may always be turned into the predicate of a descriptive clause. And it is quite impossible to draw a distinct lin« between the attributive and the appositive use of the adjective. If we make the description at all complicated by adding modifiers to the adjective, we may not put the adjective in the usual place of an attribute, close before the noun, but must separate it, like an appositive, from the noun. Thus, we say Hl8 ruddy countenance ; Tbe loyellost vale ; but Hl8 countenance, ruddy with the hue of youth ; A vale, loveliest of all vales on earth ; or Ruddy with the hue of youth, his countenance was pleasant to look upon ; and so on. Hence, as the participles have modifiers added to them much more freely than ord.aary adjectives, the participles are especially used in appositive construction. See XV. A pronoun, which almost never takes an attributive adjective before it, like a noun, has an appositive adjective or noun added to it just as freely as a noun : thus, We, poor in friends, sought love; They ran off laughing; Tired and hungry, he hastened home; Yon Frenchmen are livelier than we English. And we sometimes, though rarely, find a pronoun put in ap- position with a noun : thus I got it firom James, him that, etc. 59. On the oi/her hand, a noun is now and then used in the manner of an attributive adjective : thus. My hunter friend: Her soldier cousin ; The drummer boy. We may properly call such a noun attributive ; or we may ■ay that it is used with the value of an attributive adjective. liL'ompound nouns (V. 30. b.) sometimes grow out of this com- V; natron. 60. We have, then, the definitions : IX. An adjective modifyvng a noun directly {^i through a ver6) w caUed attributivk — or, \f more loosely oormeoted with ths noun, it it eaUed APPOSiTiyE. XHl. M, a] po^Rssive CAse. 305 look upon; X. A noun added to anotlier noun, by ivay of further descrip- tion of the same object, is said to be IN apposition vnth that noun. That an appositive adjective or noun also modifies a pronoun has been explained above. 61. In languaKes which inflect their adjectives, and inflect their nouns more fully, attributive and appositive words are regularly made to agree in case, or in number and case, with the nouns (or pronouns) which they modify. But no such agreement is possible with the English adjective, because it is wholly uninflected (with the exception of this and these, that and those : see III. 20) ; and it is only imperfectly made in the possessive case of the appositive noun. We are allowed to say, indeed, The rifle Is my Mend's, the hnntefs ; but the expression seems awkward to us, and we prefer to say the same thing in some other way : as. It belongs to my friend, the hunter. Or, we put the sign of the possessive case only on the last noun (see y. 62): thus, My Mend the hunter's rifle. As, also, the appositive pronoun (58, above) is very rarely used, it is, therefore, useless to add any general rule about agreement. II. — FOSSESSrVB CASE OP NOUNS. 62. We have seen (TEL 12-14) that English nouns aiid pro- nouns have an inflectional form which is usually called pos- sessive, because it is especially used, in connection witl^ another noun, to point out the possessor of whatever that noun signifies. For example, if a book has John for its owner, we call it John's book ; a crown belonging to the king is the king's crown ; and, in a more figurative way, the doings that belong to a certain day are called that day's doings. If a man has debts, we call them his debts ; the act performed by him is his act; the faults he has committed are his faults; and so on. 6S. The possessive use of this case, its use as a genitive of possession or appurtenance (taking these words in a somewhat wide and loone sense), is by far the most common of all in English ; but there are two or three others which call for notice. a. If the modified noun signifies some action or condition of which, if it were expressed by a verb, the noun in the possessive would be the subject, the case is called a subjective possessive. Thus, in A mother's love; Troy's flail; The bugle's sound; Oasar's passage of the Rubloon: is implied that The mother loves ; Troy has fUlen; The bugle louBdi; CMsar passed the BuMoon. m ft!£ SlMPLfi SEl^fiKCfi. [xm. 6», b. b. If, on the other hand, the possessive would be the oftject of the action expressed by the other noun in verb-for we call it au objectivk poBsessivc. Thus, in Earth's creator; Sin's rebuke; His mnrder; it is implied that some one Created earth; Rebuked sin; Murdered blm. The objective possessive is much less common in English than the subjective. c. Once more, if the relation of the two nouns is logically that of apposition, and might also be so expressed, the case is called an APPOSi- TIVE possessive : thus, Britain's Isle ; Nmnldla's spadons kingdom. The appositive possessive is now almost obsolete, but it occurs some- times in poetry. It is analogous to appositive adjective phrases with of in such constructions as The city of London , The continent of America. 64. In this way, a noun in its possessive case-form becomes a modifying addition to another noun, much as if it were an attributive adjective. Often we can put an adjective in pl»ic his heart was so. nappositive adjective: thus, raU within, and that without; ill be short ; -e of the adverb shades off int" allied in the noun. See also I^- an adverb is used even as an en ruler ; aost impudence of manner. «,ith the value of a noun, as an adjexHve, or amtJier adverb. ]ed with the value of an adjective, smnetvrnes, also, icith the value CIVK CASE OF NOUNS. ir noun has a special case form, or as modifying a noun, it is ■iecial case-form, in the manner modify a verb or an adjective ire He sat an hour ; It fell along distance; )th ways. He is ten years oia, than another. off; His house is a great deal better built ; It will be all the same a hundred years hence. In all night long, however, it is proper also, on historical grounds, to Yftlue long aa an adjective modifying night. In such constructions as He will go this day week ; ibis day corresponds to hence in the last example above, the meaning being He will go In a week from this day. 74. As we do not use the pronouns in this way, and as our nouns never have different forms in the nominative and objec- tive, there is nothing in our present language to show that the case thus used is really the objective. But this appears from the usage in older English and in other languages ; and we might also infer it from the fact that we often use a preposition to connect such a noun with the word which it qualifies : thus, He sat for an hour ; It faces in both directions ; larger by three acres. We may best call this use of the noun, therefore, an ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE value of an adverb. that is, an objective case used with the 76. It is plain enough that, for example, in He walked a mile, the noan mile is in r;u proper sense the object of the verb walked, and that the verb is intransitive, as usual. Yet, in such sentences, the adverbial object sometimes so far assumes the character of an object that we turn it into the subject of a passive phrase (as we sometimes do an indirect object also : see VIII. 163) : thus, The mile was walked by him in twelve minutes. We may distinguish a word thus used by calling it an adverbial OBJECT. 78. The modern adverbial objective represents different O. E. case- forms : thus. The heaven was shut three years and six months, is in Old English Seo heo/on wees belocen thrio gir (ace.) and syx m&nat7ias (ace.) ; and Sixpence worth, an inch long, three hands higher, bonnd hand and foot, are Sexpeniga (gen.) toyrthe, dues ynces (gen.) lang, thrum (or thrym) handum (instr.) hyrraf gebund handum and/otum (instr.). 310 TUB SIMPLE SENTENCE. [ZULH- 77. The adverbial objective is used especially to express measure; whether duration of time, or extent of distance or space, or weight, or number, or age, or value, and the like. But it also expresses the time at which anything happened ; and much more rarely, manner, as in Have it your own way ; He was bound hand and foot ; Old John of Oaunt hath sent post-haste ; He came full speed. Now and then, such an objective is added to a noun» with an adjective value : thus, my dream last night ; Ills adreiitiirss this day. Compare the adjective use of the adverb, 71 above. 78. We have then the rule : XIV. A noun expressing measure, time, or manner m gome- tvme» used in the objective case with an adverbial valu^e^ or to modify a verb or an adjective or an adverb. TO. — NOUNS USED ABSOLUTKLT. 79. There is yet another way in which a noun (or pronoun) is sometimes made to describe or modify something in a sentence, without having its relation to what it modifies denoted either by a case-form or by a connecting word. Thus we say He lay down, his heart heavy with sorrow ; He flies, wild terror in his look ; They charged, sword in hand and visor down ; The mountain rose, height above height ; They sit side by side. A word thus used always has added to it iKn appositive adjec- tive or a word or a phras(; of some kind (an adverb, a preposi- tional phrase, etc.) having the same value. And the two together answer the purpose of an accompanying trait or circumstance ndded to the sentence (generally in the manner of an adverbial predicate : see 28 above). It is as if with or having, or a conjunction and the verb be, or something of the kind, which might have been used, were omitted : thus, He lay down, having a heart heavy, etc.; or He lay down, while his heart was heavy, etc.; He flies with wild terror in his look ; or He flies, and wild terror is in his look. 80. Such a word is said to be used absolutely, or to be in ABSOLUTE construction, because it appears to stand as if "cut XULTf- Zm. 86] PRBPOSITIOMAL PRRASB8. 311 express ance or e. But »d; and b; 1 speed. adjeoiiTe ' %$ tome- luBt or to ronoun) is sentence, bed either •y live adjeo- a preposi- the two trait or le manner if with or ing of the US, [)r to be in Mil "«»* loose " from the sentence to which it belongs, the usual sign of relation to the words it modifies being wanting. The absolute construction i? especially common with a parti ciple modifjring the noun or pronoun ; and the conHtraction of the pronoun, which is very rare except with a participle, shows that the case now used is regularly the nominative. *:;ee XV. 81. Thus we have the rule : XV. A noun or pronoun^ along ivith an apposttive adjective or its equivalent f is somftimes used in the tiominative case ab80- LUTKLY, in the manner of an adverb, to express some accom- panying circumstance or condition of the action, lY.— Prepnsltlonal Adjective rnd Adverb Phnues. 82. A preposition we have seen (X. 1-6) to be a connecting word by means of which a noun or a pronoun is attached to another word, and made to modify it in some way which the preposition defines. And the noun or the pronoun thus at- tached to another word by the preposition is called the object of the preposition, or is said to be ooverned by or dependent ON it, and is put in the objective case. 83. The relations expressed by the prepositions are most like those expressed by the cases of the noun : thus, the relation of the indirect-objective may almost always be expressed by the prepositions to or for; and that of the possessive, by of. And some languages have other case-forms to express other relations, which we express by prepositions only : for example, by firom ("ablative" case), and in ("locative" case), and with ("instru- mental " case). 84. The preposition and the word which it governs form to- gether what is called a prepositional phrase. Such a phraso has a value in the sentence resembling that of the two modify- ing parts of speech, the adjective and the adverb \ and it is to be estimated and named according to this value. 85. If the word to which the noun or the pronoun is attached by the governing preposition is a noun, then the prepositional phrase has the value of an adjective, limiting or describing that noun. Often it may be (like the possessive case : XIH, 64) replaced by an adjective. Thus, for m I' i:' Li 1.; 312 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. [XIZL 88- a house of wood, a man of truth, a li emigrant from Ireland, a residence in the suburbs, an animal with two feet, we may say a wooden house, a truthful man, an Irish emigrant, a suburban residence, a biped animal, and so on. The prepositional phrase, when it thus does the duty of an adjective in modifying a noun, is called a prepositional adjbc- TIVE-PHRASE. Such a phrase may be used in all the various constructions in which an adjective is used : thus, as predicate, simple or objective : His house is in the city ; He seemed out of humor ; They danced themselyes out of breath ; with a noun used absolutely : Their minds at ease, they departed. 86. On the other hand, if the word to which the noun or pronoun is attached by the preposition is a verb or an adjec- tive or an adverb, the value of a phrase is that of an adverb, and it is called a prepositional adverb-phrase. Here, also, we may often substitute for the adverb-phrase a simple adverb. Thus, for It burned to the ground, It mounted in the air, He spoke with anger, we may say It burned down^ It mounted aloft, He sp'>ke angrily. In fact, we may readily substitute for almost any adverb an adverbial phrase, made up of a preposition and a noun, often with an adjective modifying the noun : thus, there is in that place ; now is at this time ; hastily is with haste, or in a hasty manner ; and so on. Many prepositional adverb-phrases h«»ve assumed such a stereotyped form that the words are hardly to be taken apart and parsed separately : thus, for example, Qtt board, on fire, at hand, out of dooxti, on the whole, for the present ; m. 86- XIII. 90J SUMMARY OP SYNTACTICAL COMBINATIONS. 313 rbs, ^ of an ADJBC- •uctions mple or lor; noun or n adjec- adverb, phrase a I air, civerb an an, often snch a cen apart whole, and we saw above (DC 18. b) that such phrases are sometimes uiade of a preposition and adjective : as, in vain, for long, at present ; and also (DC. 6. II, h), that many adverbs are formed by fusing together the words of such phrases : as, abreast, aiire, anew, abroad, besides, below, ontdocrs, beforehand, to-day, overboari. 87- We have already seen (X. 5) that an ad verb- phrase, like an adverb, sometimes takes the place of a noun as object of a preposition : for example, He went £rom here. He came from beyond the sea. 88. We have, then, the following rules as to the use of pre- jiosiiions : XVI. A preposition forms with its object either an adjective- PiittASE, modij'yiny a 7ioun, or an adverb phrase, modijyiify -i verb or an adjective or an adverb. XVII. TJie olject of a preposition (if a noun or a jrronoun) is in the objective case. SUMMARY OF COMBINATIONS FORMING THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 89. We have now considered the parts of speech wliich com- bine with one another to form simple sentences, and have noticed the ways in which their combinations are nitulc. In these woys, the necessary elements of the sentence, the bare subject and predicate, iU'e extended and tilled up so as to express a thouglit in a more complt;te and detailed manner. 90. We may sum up the processes of combination as • allows (in these statements, for brc vity'f sake, we treat the pr« n>. n as included along with the noui<) : a. The orijinal elements of the senttnce are the snhject-noun ami tlis verb. b TJie meaning of the verb may be jllled out by an object^ noun ; afso^ by a predicate adjective or noun (modifying either the subject or the object) ; or it may be modijied by mi adverb. c. A noun in any construction in the sentence r «? be modified by an adjective; an udjective^ by o^ adverb i' «/» adwrby 6y anotfisr odverh e, assigning reasons for the agreement : 1. Eithei John or James. 2. Either you or I. 8. John or yon. 4. &e, s swell as you. 5. You, and roii he. 6. More than a little. 7 More than five. 8. Nothing but ease and comfort. 9. Not you, but* Mary. 10. John or James or their sisters. 11. More than he. 12. The hue and cry. 13. Fifty cents. 14. "Thompson's Seasons." 16. The horse and baggy. 16. Bread and water. 17. Twice two. 18. Six and five. 19. It is I who. 20. It is I, the king, who. §§ 23-31. ' Hope f Tarings eternal in the human breaet. 2. All looks yellow t[> tv< . , ..r.ndiv.3d eye. 3. Man became a living soul. 4. The time turns toi^n.nu, when folly turns man's head. 6. With him lay dead both hope and pri^.e. 6. How came you thus estranged. 7. This act shows terrible and grave. 8. As you are hero^ you ma^ sit ^uiet here. 316 EXERCISES. [zm. I 'I' 9. The nail stuck fast. 10. A French King was brought prisoner to London. 11. Now is the winter of our discontent, made glorious summer by this sun of York. 12. She would make s good heroine. 13. The fiend lies stretched out, huge in length. 14. She stood silent. 15. The fog came pouring in. 16. My silence will sit drooping. 17. My wedding bell rings merry in my ear. 18. He came running to meet me. 19. He feels well. 20. It froze hard last night. § § 32-53. The objective predicate word may be described as modifying (or, if a noun aa relating to and describing) such and such a noun or a pronoun, being brought into connection with it by such and such a verb, of which it (the noun or the pronoun) is the direct object. As an additional exercise rrhange, when possible, the active into the passive conjugation, and via •> -■■"' 1. I'll leave my son my viifc" xeeds behind. 2. Now call me the (jhief of the harem guard. 3. iS.. wrought th" castle much annoy. 4. [ mean you no harm. 5. He givey his parents no tremulous anxiety. 6. An inauspicious office is enjoined thee. 7. We could raise you five hundred soldiers. 8. Ask me no questions, and I'll tell you no fibs. 9. Grant me still a friend in my retreat, whom I may whisper, " Solitude is sweet " I . 10. Merry elves, their morrice pacing, trip it deft and merrily. 11. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. 12. W e can walk it well ; we want no coach. 13. The gale had sighed itself to rest. 14. He prayed a prayer that it would last him a year. 15. He has had his hat on. 16. Cradles rock us nearer to the tomb. 17. Perseverance keeps honor'bright. 18. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 19. He hides his own offences, and stri^^ others' bare. 20. A man's best things lie close about his feet. 21. The shower has left the myrtles and the violet bank so fresh. 22. Sooner shall they drink the ocean dry. 23. I must not see thee Osman's bride. 24. He thought best not to speak of it. 25. He ran the gauntlet and the streets ran rivers of blood. 26. The favors of Herod had left many persons in possession of estates. 27. She was picked up dead. 28. It rained blessings upon his head. 29. He was thought loolish. 30. He was seen with his feet on the stove. § § 64-61. We may describe the appositive noun as in apposition with such and such a noun (or pronoun), being added to it in order further to designate the same thing; and the appositive adjective in a similar manner. 1. History is philosophy teaching by exa.aples. 2. Without the assistance of these works, indeed, a revolution could have taken place — a r'^volution productive of much good and much evil; tremendous but short-lived evil; dearly purchased but durable good. 3. Learning, that cobweb of the brain. 4. Ardent and intrepid on the field of battle, Monmouth was everywhere else effeminate and irresolute. 5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. 6. On him, their second Providence, they hun^. 7. Sister Livy is married to farmer Williams. 8. They sang Danus, good and great, by too severe a fate fallen from his high estate, and weltering in his blood. 9. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. !■ \i xm.] KSfiRCtSfiS. M 10. That is so, the world over. 11, Amazed, confused, he found his power expired. 12. The Niobe of nations, there she stands. 13. He has got rid of his troubles and will remain for the time being. 14. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, conies dancing from the East. 15. They all, with one consent, began to make excuse. 16. Enthusiast- ically attached to the name of liberty, these historians troubled them- selves little about its definition. 17. And earthly power doth then show likest God's, when, etc. 18. Raw in fields, the rude militia swarms; mouths without hands, maintained at vast expense, iu peace a charge, in war a weak defence ; stout, once a month they march, a blustering band, and ever, but in times of need, at hand. § § 62-68. 1. Thou art freedom's now, and fame's. 2. That is madam Lucy, my master's mistress's maid. 3. The lieutenant's last day's march is over. 4. The power which brought you here hath made you mine. 5. Five times outlawed had he been, by England's king and Scotland's queen. 6. 1 knew myself only as his, his daughter, his the mighty. 7. My life is my foe's debt. 8. Winter's rude tempests are gathering now. 9. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? 10. His beard was of several day's growth. 11. Do not name Silvia thine. 12. The blind old man of Scio's rocky isle. 13. I was taken to a new toy of his and the squire's, which he termed the falconry. 14. Letters came last night to a dear friend of the good duke of York's. 15. This toil of ours should be a work of thine. n. Express, where possible, the meaning of the following by using the possessive case, assigning reasons iu each case, and giving tne value of the possessive when used : 1. This crown belongs to the Queen of England. 2. This farm belongs to John, Peter, and Richard. 3. The overcoats of the working men were stolen. 4. I have had an intercourse of six years with him. 6. The day of judgment. 6. The power of truth. 7. The estates of John, Peter, and Richard are for sale. 8. We admire the genius of Scot, the novelist. 9. The son of the sister of the wife of Silas. 10. Reilly sells shoes for misses and ladies. 11. For the sake of righteous- ness. 12. A reward of ten dollars is offered. 13. I had the worth of my money. 14. Li spite of the opposition of such a man as Jones. 15. The day of the Lord. 16. The isle of Iceland. 17. The bent of his mind. 18. The theft by my son. 19. The loss of my son. 20. The events of the morning. 21. A picture belonging to my son. 22. A picture of my son. § § 69-81. The ordinary constructions of the adverb have been abundantly exemplified in the evprcLses already given. The following sentence will fwrnish examples ol parsing the adverbial objective and the nominative abcclute: He waited an hour staff in liand. 318 EXERCISES. [xm. lu this sentenoe, the nouns bour and staff are to be described as hitherto, in regard to kiTid and form ; and their construction is to be defined in some such way as this : hour is an adverbial objective, added to the verb waited to point out Jiow hng the waiting was ; ataff is in the nominative absolute, being used along with its adjunct In hand to express a circumstance accompanying the act of waiting — as if it were *' He waited tvith a staff in his hand." 1. The mighty wreck lay right athwart the stream. 2. Here was the chair of state, having directly over it a rich canopy. 3. He is above, sir, changing his dress. 4. His father left him well off. 5. My son is either mnrri^, or going to be so. 6. Use a little wine for thine often infirmities. 7. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 8. His hoary head, conspicuous many a league. 9. Thus have I been twenty years in thy house. 10. The bird of dawning singeth all nightlong. 11. Tenderly her blue eyes glistened long time ago. 12. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. 13. Seamen, with the self-same gale, will several different courses sail. 14. I was bom not three hours' tra\rel from this very place. 15. From mom tiJl noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve, a summer's day. 16. The last impossible, he fears the iir.it. 17. The rest must perish, their great leader slain. 18. He left my side, a summer bloom on his fair cheeks, a smile parting his iunoce/t lips. 19. Each in his narrow cell forever laid, the rude forefathers o^ the namlet sleep. 20. The foe and the stranger will tread o'er his head, and we far away on the billow. §§ 82-88. How to parse the preposition and its object as separate words has been already abundantly illustrated in previous exercises. The defi- nition of the two together as a phrase has now to be added ; and the construction of the phrase is to be sUted, in the same manner aa that of the simple part of speech to which the phrase is equivalent. A few examples for practice are given here. As an additional exercise, state and give the values of the other phrases in each of the following sentences : 1. And every shepherd tells his tale under the hawthorn in the dale. 2. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, leaps the live thunder. 3. Why to frenzy fly for refuge from the blessings we possess ? 4. All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice and power, in every country and in every age, have been the triumphs of Athens. 5. By an exclusive attention to one class of phenomena, by an exclusive taste for one species of excellence, the human intellect was stunted. 6. We take no note of time, but from its loss. 7. We ne'er can reach the inward man, or inward woman, from without. 8. The time 'twixt six and now must by us both be spent most preciously. 9. Shriller shrieks now mingling come from within the plundered dome. 10. Till then, in blood, by noble Percy lie. 11. Other ways exist besides through me. 12. She shall be our messenger to this paltry knight. §§ 1-88. 1. The horse has broken loose. 2. O'er our heads the weeping willow streamed its branches, arching like a fountain shower. 3. Under the cool shade of a sycamore, I thought to close mine eyes some half aa Jdtt.] fe^fi&OldfiS. 510 hour, 4. He wished me well. 5. What with one thing and what with Another, I am almost driven mad. 6. He leaves this day month. 7. I for one, am inclined to think so. 8. You played me false. 9. I cannot away with them. 10. The murderer made away with his victim. 11. He refused me point blank. 12. Thou'lt take cold shortly. 13. I am good friends with him. 14. I cry you mercy. 15. The maiden breathed er last. 16. I would fain live. 17. He drank a glass too much. 18. He played fast and loose. 19. For hours now wind and rain have ceased. 20. I met him the day before. 21. What a dauce you have led him ! 22. No veil she needed, virtue proof. 23. He came five minutes or so before the time. 24. It is all over with us. 25. Make haste back. 26. She led him a sorry life of it. 27. They were hand and glove together. 28. It is twenty years now, gone Christmas dny. 29. The prisoner pleaded guilty. 80. He ate his father out of house and home. 31. It will last my time. 32. He fell flat on the floor. 33. He fell full length on the floor. 34. The children sat the play out. 35. And the imperial vot'ress passed on, in maiden meditation, fancy free. 36. They marched out five and five. 37. He limped shoeless across the street. 38. Given health, he meant to do his duty. 39. He is all heart and soul. 40. She became mora and more attached to him. 41. He went out raving. 42. He got rid of his troubles. 43. He walked his best. 44. Give me some more pudding. 45. Have done saying so. 46. 1 talked about shooting and what not. 47. Her face flushed crimson. 48. He wr's picked up alive. 49. His voice sounded cracked. ^0. He took his soup hot. 51. Nothing else will please him. 52. Here a> 3 two more copies. 53. He measured the it.eight merely. 54. The hat doesn't become you, although you have become its owner. 55. James proved his statement ; so yours proved a mistake. 56. The method may be made use of. 57. How vile an idol proves this god ! 58. He was soon reputed one of the best sports in the country. 1. Discuss the foUowinpT statements: a. The verb need not, and generally dees not, agree with its nominative case in number and person. b. Active verbs and prepositions do not govern the objective crse or any other case. C. One verb does not govern another in the infinitive ; nor is the infinitive a mood, nor is it governed by substantives, adjectives, or participles. d. Conjunctions need not connect the same moods and tenses of verbs. 2. Give the clause-equivalents of the absolute phrases in the following : 1. The wind being favorable, we set sail. 2. The object being a good one, wo shall support it. 8. He out of the way, we should have no difficulty. 4. The sun having risen, we left. 5. Away he went, I vainly trying to keep up with him. 6. Next Anger rushed, his eye on fire. 3. By means of the preceding exercises, show which is the more definite means of expression, the attributive word, phrase, or clause. 1 320 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX ftfiNTENCES. [XIV. 1- •"( CHAPTER XIV. OOMFOUND AND OOMPLEX SENTENCES. COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. 1. As we do not like to make a simple sentence too long and intricate (XIII. 92), so, on the other liand, we do not like to make our simple sentences too bare, or to limit ourselves to simple sentences. To say They spoke : we listened, miglit, with the help of circumstances, be understood to mean They spoke and wa listened ; or, They spoke but we listened ; They spoke while we listened ; or, They spoke, therefore we listened ; the mmd inferring each time what the relation was between the two acts. But we join the sentences together with connectives, partly in order to make the relation more plainly and surely understood, partly because a succession of bare sentences would sound to us jerky and ungraceful. See also XI. 2. 2. "VVe could, if we chose, put all we have to say on any subject, into little separate sentences ; thus, for example : I awoke one day. It was last week. It was six o'clock. I got up at once. I dressed myself. The sun was up. It was hidden by clouds. The morning was not very light. I walked into the garden. The grass was still wet. The bushes were still wet. The dew lay upon them. I saw a bird. The bird lay on the ground. It could not fly. It was wounded. Some one had hit it with a stone. I picked the bird up. I brought it into the house. I put it into a cage. I fed it. I tended it. It got well. I released it. It flew away. The connection of all this is clear enough, though there are no connecting words to point it out. But it sounds jerky and ungraceful. No one writes or talks in that way — unless some- times for very young children, who have not yet grown familiar [XIV. 1- XIV. «.J COMPOUND SEKtEVCES. 321 ang and like to 3lves to ■jO mean itened ; fore we (reen the lectives, d surely es would on any le: ;lock. I It was walked les were !he bird Some brought nded it. here are rky and 5SS some- familiar enough with language to make or to understand longer combin- ations of words. For the use of people in general, we work it into better form by combining the little sentences with con- nectives; by their aid, also, getting rid of unnecessary repeti- tions ; thus, for example : I awoke at siz o'clock one day last week, and at once got up and dressed myself. The morning was not very light; for, though the sun was up, it was hidden by clouds. As I walked out into the garden, where the grass and bushes were still wet with the dew that lay upon them, I saw a bird lying on the ground. It could not fly, because some one had wounded it with a stone. I picked the bird up and brought it into the house, put it into a cage, and fed and tended it until it got well ; when I released it, and it flew away. 3. The connecting words which bind sentences together into one are the conjunctions, and the relative pronouns and relative pronominal adjectives, which are also called conjunctive, because they do the duty of conjunctions (VI. 42 ; VII. 36 ; and XI. 4 and 6). The combination of clauses into sentences is of two degrees, one closer and the other less close. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 4. In the latter case, the clauses are put side by side and, as it were, loosely tied together, each keeping its own value as an independent assertion. Such clauses are called independent or PRINCIPAL. With relation to one another, again, they are called CO-ORDINATE. See II. 53. 5. The conjunctions which join clauses in this way, leaving to each its original character, not making either dependent on the other, are called the co-ordinating conjunctions. 6. A sentence which is made up of two or more independent clauses is called a compound sentence. But two or more independent clauses may be so connected in sense as to be regarded as parts of one sentence, even though they are not joined by conjunctions (II. 56). And on the other hand (XI.7,b), we often put a simple connective, especially and or but, at the beginning of a separate sentence, or even of a paragraph, to point out in a general way its relation to what precedes. Thus there is no absolute distinction between the sentence and the clause. an 322 COMPOUND AUD COMPLEX SENTENCKS. tXlV. 1' COMPLKX AND COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES. 7. When, liowever, a clause is made to play the part of a word, a sin;:^le part of speech, in another clause (11.54; V. 74; VII. 59, d; and IX. c), it is said to be dependent on that other, or to be subordinate to it ; and it is called a dependent, or SUBORDINATE clause. And, according to the part it plays, a de- ])eii(l(njt clause is called a substantive-clause, an adjective- clause, or an adveub-clause. Tliui we have all the principal parts of speech (not the connectives) represented by clauses, except the verb — and, of course, the pronoun, which is itself only a substitute for a noun. There can be no such thing as a verb-clause, because a verb has no other office than that of making a clause or a sentence. A phrase like as regards, which is abbreviated from so far as it regards, may even be said to have the value of a preposition, or preposition- phrase — " concerning," or " in respect to." 8. A sentence which contains as one of its members a depen- dent clause is called a complex sentence. A complex sentence may also contain more than one de- pendent clause : • a. These may be of different kinds, and unconnected with one another : thus, What lay there was, if I saw aright, a bird which could not fly. b. Or, a dependent clause may have another clause dependent on it, and this again another, and so on : for example, I went into the garden where the grass was wet with the dew that lay upon it ; This is the maiden all forlorn, that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. c. Or, two or more dependent clauses of the same kind may have the same construction in a sentence, being joined together by co-ordinating conjunctions : thus, A bird that lay on the ground and that could not fiyi tXlV. 7- XIV. 11.] SUMMARV. 323 irt of a l;V.74; \t other, [)ENT, or lys, a de- iJECTlVE- onectives) pronoun, }rb hM no reposition* I a depen- one de- cted with Ld not fly. ependent with the with the cat that ouse that kind may 1 together Lot flyi It could not fly because it had been* shot or it had been hit with a stone ; I saw that the bird was wounded and that it could not fly. Dependent clauses, as well as independent ones, are called co-ordinate when tiiey are thus joined, and have a like office ; fiince co-ordiimte simply means * having the same rank.' 9. A compound sentence, moreover, may be made by joining together instead of simple sentences, complex ones, oi* simple and complex. Such a sentence is called compound-complex. 10. In these ways, sentences of very great length and com- plexity are sometimes made. In theory there is no limit to the extent to which a sentence may be compounded and made complex by the combination of clauses. But in practice (just as in the case of the simple sentence : XIII. 92), a limit is set by the fear of becoming burdensome or unintelligible. In different styles of writing, and in the practice of different authors, the variety as regards the general simplicity or com- plexity of the structure of sentences is very great. Generally speaking, the English of the present day prefers the short, un- complicated type of sentence. SUMMARY. 11. We may sum up what has been said of sentences other than simple ones in the following definitions and rules : XVIII. A clause is either independent or dependent ; inde- pendent, if it forms an assertion by itself; dependent, if it enters into some other clause, with the value of a part of speech : namely f of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. XIX. Clauses are co-ordinate if they are of the same rank • either as being alike independent, or as being alike dependent, with the same construction. XX. A sentence is compound, if made up of independent clauses ; Complex, if it contains a dependent clause, or more than one; compound-complex, if one or more of its indepen- dent clauses are complex. XXI. Co-ordinate clauses, whether independent or dependent, a/re usually joined together by eo-ordinating conjunctions. pi "?i-J^''i 324 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX 8ENTENCR6. fnv. 11. i:. ' ? XXII. A dipendent clause ia joined to the clause (indepen- dent or depentJentJf on which it deperiday or of which it /otvm a party by a aubordinating conjunction, ar by a relative pronoun or adjective. XXm. A aependent clause is named from its ojfflce in the sentefice of which it forms a part : it ia a substantive, or an, adjective, or an adverb clause. XXIV. A SUBSTANTIVE-CLAUSE is one which performs the office of a iioun : being the subject or the object of a verb, tfie object of a preposition, and so on. XXV. An ADJECTIVE-CLAUSE is one which performs ttie offce of an adjective, by modifying a noun. XXVL An ADVERB-CLAUSE is One that performs the office ^f an adverb, by modifying a verb, or an adjective, or an adverb. A few more detailed statements as to the three different kinds of dependent clauses need to be added liere. DEPENDENT CLAUSES. I.— Adjecllvc^la««cs. 12. Of the dependent clauses, the adjective-clause is the simplest in construction. It is always the equivalent of an atti^ibutive or an appositive adjective, and regularly and usually follows the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. 13. The adjective-clause is introduced either by k relative pronoun, or else by such a conjunction as may also be called a relative adverb (IX. 5, g) : thus, whence, where, why, when. Each, of these last is equivalent to a relative pronoun with a preposition governing it : thus, The country whence (=from which) he came; the city where ( = in which) he lived ; the reason why (-for whicli) he is here; the time when (=at. which) he went* I. — CLASSIFICATION ACCORDINO TO LOQICAL VALITX. 14. On the basis of their logical value, adjective-clauses may be classed as follows (compare VI. 48 and VIL 69, d) : fXIV. 11. XIV. 14.] AD.IKCT1VK-CLAU8KS. (indepen- it foTVM a e pronoun fflce in the ■tivey or an vrforms the a verbf tJie ns the offce the office V \n adverb. ee different luse is the alent of an and usually Y k relative be called a noun with a city where I when (=at. me. clauses may 1 »)= a. TIh>setry, but is not Banctioned in prose. In the last example, which em- phasizes the you of You say so, the meaning and proper construction are It that says sols you; but as this order would emphasize the it, the above construction has 1>e- oome idiomatic, the verb undergoing attraction (XIII. 20, (2) a). So, too, with It Is I that say so; and It Is they that say so. b. Tiiose adjective-clpuses which do not limit or define the meaning of tlieir antecedents but indirectly modify a verljal word in the clause to which the antecedent belongs (VI. 48) : thus, When I that (= because I) knew him fierce and turbulent, refhsed her to him : He deceived his master who ( = although he) had been his fiiend; Such clauses may be distinguished as descriptive subordin- ating. Glauses under a. above with indefinite antecedents may be replaced by conditional clauses : thus, An old maid that (=if she) has the Tapors, produces inflnlte dis- turbances; but M they limit their antecedents they are properly classifiable there* 32G CO»i»»OUND AXD COMPLEX SENTENCES. rXlV. 14- c. Those adjective- clauses which attach something additional to a sentence, having nearly the value of a co-ordinating con- junction, usually and, \"^ith a personal pronoun, or a demon strative pronoun or adverb : thus, He spoke to you, who ( = and you) then left the room ; I gave him some bread, which (=and it or this) he ate ; He passed it to the stranger, who (^^and he) drank hnartilj ; She carried it to ihe closet, where (=aiid there) she hid it; His father, who ( = i:'or he) was close by, came over at once ; My dog, which ( = for it) had come with me, began to growl. Such clauses may be distinguished as descriptive co-ordin- ating ; and, although adjective in value, they are, of course, logically mdependent. In this use which and a.s (VI. 64.) have their antecedent im- plied in the preceding context : thus, He did not come, which (=and this) I greatly regret ; He has been long dead, as (=and this) is well known ; the antecedents being his not coining and his being dead. Other examples of this use of as are So you are here again as (is) usual ; As you have been often told, you have no chance ; If, as is quite likely, you find him at home, etc. ; The King, as I verUy believe, was responsible for the rebellion. But as the last example shows, this construction shades off into one in which it is proper enough to value the as-clause as adverbial. 8ee 23 below. II. — LOGICAL VALUES OF ATTRIBUTIVE WORDS AND PHRASES. 16. Thu logical values of afributivo words and phrases correspond to those of adjective clauses, as may hn seen on representing the former by equivalent Qdjoctiveclauses : thus, a. Restrictive: Brown, th3 grocer, baa failed; The best man wins; The then mayor presided ; b. Descriptive subordinating : She mArrl«^l him, the servant ; Oyeronme by mlefortone, the hero wepG ; Ke yn^ mel^tcd at the sifht of his wife Iq tear*, mv. 14- ,dditional ,ting con- a demon room; ate; i^artilj ; le hid it ; at once ; to growl. OO-ORDIN- of course, 3edent im- egret ; nown; lead. XIV. 16.] 8 U BSTANTI VE-CLAUSES. 32; rebellion. es off into -clause as lASES. Tespond to B former by ; The then brtune, tlie e. Descbiptive co-ordinating : He worsMpped God, the Creator; The golden sun nhines on high; He attained peace with honor. II. — 8abstantlTe->tiaa8«H. 16. The substantive-clause has a great voxiety of construe t'ons, corresponding to those of the noun to which it is equiva- lent : I. — CONSTRUCTJONS. Th«» substantive clause may be used : a. As subject of a verb : for example, What they say is not to the point ; Whether you go or stay is of little account ; That he is already gone disappoints us. The frequent substitution of it, a representative subject, for a substantive-clause, has been noticed above (VI. 26, a). b. As object of a verb : for example, I know not what I shall do ; They saw that she was ill ; We considered whether it would answer ; He showed me where he had put it ; He asked me if he was right. The use of it as representative object of a verb has also been noticed above (VI. 26, b). c. As predicate noun : for example, He is precisely what he seems ; My home is wherever I am happy- d. In apposition : for example, The fact that it was done by him is apparent ; His letter is to the purport that he will soon arrive. In older English the subject of a dependent substantive-clauso is HOtnetimes nntiuipated by a noun or a pronoun, standing as the direct object of the verb, the dependeut clause thus becomiag a restrictive appositive thereto : thus ia the Authorized Version of the Bible, Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; I see your father's face, that it is not toward me ; and in Shakespeare, Conceal me what I am ; pid'Bt thou not mark the king what words he spake ? 528 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [XIV. 16- i-$. . t e. As object of a preposition : for example, He traded with what capital he had ; You err in that you think so ; Has he any notion of why I did so ? She is doing well except that she cannot sleep ; He says nothing but what is true. Substantive ciaures after bat preseufc some difficulties. Examples are I cannot believe but that you were there; We did not know but that he would come ; We would have done so but that our "^ 'isma failed. But (that is by-out; o. e. bi "close to," and Man "outside ") o. .m- ally meant "close to the outside of," "without," "except," "leaving out," "to the contrary of," one of which meanings or one akin thereto it has in its different constructions : thus the above examples are equi valent to I cannot believe to the contrary of srour having been there ; We did not know to the contrary of the possibility of his coming ; We would have dono so, leaving out (». e. , had it not been for) the failure of our means. f. A substantive-clause introduced by that (or, rarely, lest) is often added directly to a verb or adjective or noun, where a noun would require a preposition to be used as connecti^ e : for example, They insisted that we should stay; We cherish the hope that he will return ; There is no need that she be present ; We are quite sorry that it is so : I have no di^ubt that he took it ; It is time that we were starting ; He was afraid lest he should fall ; which we should say Insisted on his stasring; Need of her presence ; and so on with the rest. Hope of his return ; Sorry for its being so; Of the same nature is the construction of the substantive- clauses in the following : I am undecided whether I shouxd go or stay ; I don't QM9 who did it ; why he did it ; when ho did it; etc [XIV. 16- 3CIV. 16 bU DSTANTIVE-CLAUSES. 329 sleep : Katnplea are lied. le ") o. ,m- ," " leaving akin thereto (les are equi bbere ; Us coming; )eeii for) the arely, lest) m, where a Lectin e : for n; ■gso; abstantivQ- Ud it; etc This construction is most analogous to that of the adveriual OBJECTIVE (XIII. 73, etc.), or noun made adjunct to some other word without any sign of the relation between them being ex- pressed. Another similar case, of a substantive -clause used adverbially witli- «ut a preposition, is seen in such sentences as In whatever state I am, I am always content; Whoe/er may say It, I shall not believe it. The complete expression, namely, is Whatever state I am in, I am always content with ; or, analyzing the compound indefinite relative into antecedent and relative, Content with any state in which I am. Then, putting, in the independent clause, a pronoun correlative to the dependent clause, we have, In whatever state I am, I am always content with it ; and the omission of the adverb-phrase with it gives tlio form as first stated. In like manner. However he may struggle, he cannot escape ; Wherever he may bo, he will be happy ; are equivalent to He cannot escape by any way in which he may- struggle ; He will be happy in any place in wMch he may be ; with the connectives by and in unexpressed. On the other hand, not a few words which were formerly prepositions governing substantive clauses introduced by that have now come to be U8e<^l, generally or always, directly a<« conjunctions (compare XI; 8, c.), by the omission of that : for example, After he had gone ; Until he shall arrive ; Except he confess it; while we may also say, After that he had gone. But, aho, originally a preposition (16. e. above) has a variety of con- etructions, in some being a preposition followed by tbat, and in others by its omission becoming a co-ordinating conjunction or the equivalent of a relative pronoun with a negative (VI. 66). g. Occasionally a substantive-clause is used with the value of a nominative absolute : for example, We bought some more, what we had not proving sufficient ; Granted that he did so ; that he did so being conceded ; etc. And in Tou shall have it, provided it pleases you, m 330 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTKNOES. [XIV. le. Te have the participle of an absolute construction used with the valKf of a conjunction owing to the omission of that. II. — INTRODUCTORY WORDS. which introduce a substantive-clause are 17. The words especially these : a. The indefinite relative pronouns and pronominal adjectives, with their corresponding adverbs : namely, who (whose, whom), what, which ; when, where, whence, whi^ther, why, how ; whoever, whosoever, whenever, etc. When used with a simple relative meaning, these words intro- duce adjective or adverb-clauses ; but, by including also the "antecedent" of their relative part, they become equivalent to the person who ; the thing which ; the place in or from or to which : the time at which ; the reason for whieh ; and so on ; that is, they imply a substantive word along with an adjective or adverbial adjective : for example, I heard what he said ; I know why he said it ; are the same as I heard the thing which he said ; I know the reason for which he said it. b. The dependent iuterrogatives who, what, and which, and their corresponding adverbs : thus, I asked him who (or what or which) it was ; He enquired of me when (why, how, etc) I had gone. c. The conjunction whether, expressing a doubt or alterna- tive. If is sometimes, but less properly, used instead of it : thus I know not if it be so. d. The conjunction that is (as the examples given above abundantly show) very common indeed as introducing substan- tive-clauses, in many different constructions (XI. 7, a). Lest, which has nearly the value of its negative, that not, is much less frequent. III. — DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION. 18. A thought may be expressed a. As coming directly from the speaker : tlius, I f if I wish ; She has gone : the construction being known as direct, and the form of ex- pression as DIRECT NARRATION. See also XVI. [XIV. 1ft- the vale* aiuse are djectives, XIV. 20.] DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION. 331 ards intro- T also the livalent to in or from along with said it ; which, and Ihad gone. or alterna- ofit: thus Igiven al>ove king substan- [7, a). Lest, Inot, is much le form of ex- b. As coming indirectly from the speaker: thus, He says that he goes if he wishes ; He says that she has gone ; the construction of the substantive-clause being known as in- direct, or oblique, and the form of expression as indirect, or OBLIQUE, narration. The thought may al^o be expressed thus : He says "I go if I wish"; He says " She has gone"; but, although each of the sentences in inverted commas is the object of its verb (v. 75), its construction is still direct : the sentence is merely QUOTED. 19. The direct and indirect constructions are, thus, essentially different, although, by the omission of that, they occasionally seem to be the same. And further as the direct constructions I go if I wish; She has gone; become, when expressed indirectly. He says (has said, or will say) that he goes if he wishes : that she has gone ; He said (or had said) that he went if he wished; that she had gone; these examples show a. That indirect assertions are usually introduced by that; b. That the tense of the verb in the dependent clause in in- direct narration sometimes appears to be affected by the tense of the verb on which this clause depends ; changing from a primary to an historic tense, if the tense of the verb in the governing clause is historic ; but remaining unchanged if th 3 verb in the governing clause is primary. This principle is sometimes known as the sequence of tenses. The change in the tense is really due to the fact that in English we look at both the statement in the principal clause and that in the depen- dent clause, from the same standpoint of time. 20. The construction of all independent clauses is direct. Sometimes, also, contrary to the rule for the sequence of tenses, the tense of the direct construction is retained in the dependent clause, a. When greater vividness is aimed at : thus. He answered that the people are fled ; b. When the dependent clause states something that is al- ways true : tlxus, Galileo maintained that the earth is round. 332 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [XIV. 21. 'Ill i III.— AdTerb^ClauRes. 21. An adverb clause usually modifies a verb: much less often, an adjective ; and (as is also the case with the simple adverb : IX. 2) an adverb rarely, except in the way of defining a degree. I. — CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING. The adverb clause is introduced by a great variety of con- junctions, and it has the same variety of meanings which belong to simple adverbs (IX. 4). Thus, we have adverb-clauses : a. Of PLACE : for example, He lay where he fell ; I go whence I shall not return ; Whither I go, ye cannot come ; You can go where ( = whither) you wish. b. Of TIME : for example, When I awoke, it was six o'clock : Con^e down ere my child die ; He can smile when (-whenever) one speaks to him; As we pause, let us look around. c. Of MANNER and DEGREE : for example. He does as he likes ; I am as tired as ever a man was ; They are better than we had expected ; The higher you go, the colder it becomes (IX. 5. g) ; Than and as clauses usually suffer abbreviation. See XVII. In compiex sentences in which the principal clause contains an adverb, and the subordinate clause a correlative conjunction (for example, as-as), the adverb and the subordinate clause are, of course, co-ordinate. d. Of CAUSE : for example, As you are here, I will go ; Since you say it, we believe it ; The hireling fleeth, because he is an hireling ; And, for that wine is dear, we will be furnished with our own ; I must go now, not that I wan j to go but that I must ; Thou thinkest him a hero that he did so ; e. Of RESULT or EFFECT : for example, He was so weak that he fell ; They shouted till the woods rang; His ideas are in such conflision that it is hard to understand him ; Is he an oracle that we should look up to him 7 What were you doing that you were not in time 7 Am I a child that you should speak thus to me 7 [XIV. 21. XIV. 23.] ADVERB-CLAUSES. 333 ss often, adverb : I degree. f of con- jh belong ses : return ; = whither) ere my him; lan was ; 5. g): See XVII. as an adverb, mple, as-aa), inate. believe it ; ng; th our own ; I must ; o; I till the ard to him? time? ,Q me? f. Of END or PURPOSE ("final cause") : for example, He died that we might live ; Te shall not touch it, lest ye die ; g. Of CONDITION and concession ; for example, If you are honest, you will be respected ; Unless I am mistaken, it was he ; He could not do it though he tried hard ; Except ye S3e signs and wonders, ye will not believe ; Beshrew my soul, but ( =if not) I do love thee : It never rains but ( = if not) it pours ; You may go now so that you are back by five ; For other forms of conditional clauses, see under imperative and interrogative sentences (XVI.). In older English wo find also Tet wliat is death, bo It be but glorious 7 Catch me an ( = if) thou canst ; So as men live In peace, they die free from strife. In CONDITIONAL or hypothetical sentences, that is those tha^ make an assertion dependent upon a condition or a concession, the dependent clause is called conditional or concessive, and tlie principal clause, which expresses the consequence, is called consequent. Such sentences also as the following are called conditional : (1) When the conditional clause is implied in some word or phrase in the sentence : thus, It would be folly to do so (=if we did so). (2) When one of the clauses is not expressed but implied : thus, Thy kiss would wake the dead (if it were given them) ; If I were covetous ( I should be rich) ; how am I so poor? Ellipses of the consequence are very common with conjunction phrases of comparison, as as though, as if, than if (XVII). Conditional sentences have been variously classified ; but such classi- fications have Uttle practical value. See the exercises on this paragraph. 22. The classification given above of adverb-clauses is not absolute : the different classes shade into one another : the same conjunction has a variety of offices ; and a clause which literally means one thing is applied to quite another purpose, as the examples given above in part illustrate. 11. — logical values. 23. As in the case of adjective clauses (13. c. above), some ad verb clauses introduced by a relative adverb (XI. 8. b.) of the when seri<)s may be used desfriotively as well as restrictively : thus, 334 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. [XIV. 25. .1 I' ] I I ate my dinner, when (=and then) he desired me t3 leave. So, too, as may be regarded as introducing a descriptive adverb-clause in The noun, as (—and thus) we have seen, is the name of anything ; He said, as was quite likely he should, etc. But in most of such as-clauses it is quite proper to value the as as equivalent to and this. See 14. c. above. III.— COREELATIVR ADVERBS. 24. The conjunction introducing a clause often has a correla- tive adverb, of kindred meaning, in the clause on which this is dependent, answering toward it much the same purpose as the antecedent to the relative : thus, Where the bee sucks, there suck I ; When the heart beats no more, then the life perishes ; If I speak false, then may my father perish ; Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ; As I entered, so will I retire. And adverbs of manner and degree are apt to be followed by correlative conjunctives ; as so by that ; so and as by as; a com- parative adverb — more, less, and the like — by than ; the by the (IX. 5. g). Out of this usage grow a number of conjunction phrases, as SO as, 80 that, so far as, no sooner than, according as, and so on. IV.— Omisglon of That. 25. In clauses of all kinds, the connective that, whether rela- tive pronoun or conjunction, is very often omitted : thus, It is strange they do not come home ; We saw he was there : Here is the book you were looking for ; I am sure it is so ; That is the reason I do not like him : He came the moment he heard it ; As we have seen above (16. f.) by the omission of that, words formerly prepositions have taken on the character of conjunctions ; the same thing is sometimes true of other parts of speech i for example, Now lie Is bere, the rest will soon follow ; Once a beginning Is made, the work is half done ; Ton shall have it, provided it pleases you ; In case we are beaten, we shall retire. See also XL 8. a [XIV. 26. 13 leave, icriptive leof iralue tlie CORRELA- hich this urpose as ishes ; oUowed by as; acom- the by the onjunction cording as, lether rela- thus, was there ; e it is so; irds formerly s ; the same >le, XIV.] BXERCISBS. 335 EXEBCISES AND QITESTIOirS. §§i-a Classes should be pnciised in taking apart compound and complex senteneos into the separate simple statements of which they are made up, and in puttinsr tofcether simple statements into combined forms — and this, not with any reference to defining the grammatical character of the sentences ; but simply to show the different shapes which may be given in expression to what is substantially the same thing, and to im|)art a sense of variety of style in composition. Material for such practice may be found abundantly in the Reader ; or it may be made up by pupils or teacher. An example is added here : Separate statement : A frog had seen an ox. She wanted to make herself as big as he. She attempted it. She burst asunder. Th<)8e sentences may be combined in varioos ways, of which the following are some : 1. A frog had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big as he ; but when she attempted it, she burst asunder. 2. A frog that had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big as he, burst asunder when she attempted it. 3. When this frog burst asunder, she was wishing and attempting to make herself as big as an ox which she had seen. 4. Because a frog, when she had seen an ox^ wanted to make herself as big as he, and attempted it, she burst asunder. 6. It is said that a frog, having seen an ox, wanted to make herself as big as he, and burst asunder in the attempt. The general exercises on pix 337 and 338, aa well as the exercises throughout, the boolc, may be used as exercises on § § 3-10. Here and in the exercises on subsequent chapters, only short sentences are given, i^U8tn^tive of special points in Syntax. The Reader should be used for practice in longer and more involved sentences. Any syntactical peculiarities cf the words and phrases in the following exercises should also be pointed out. §§ 12-18. 1. He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune. 2. I tell you that which you yourselves do Know. 3. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 4. It is the hour when lovors' vows seem sweet in every whispered word. 6. The reason why ihe seven stars are no more than seven is a pretty reason. 6. A histoi-y in which every particular incident may be true may on the whole be false. 7. His praise is lost who stays till all commend. 8. For those that fly may fight again, which he can never do that's slain. § § 16-20. 1. What reason weaves, by passion is undone. 2. Who cheapens life abates the fear of death. 3. The triumph of my soul is that I am. 4. That there should have been such a likeness is not strange. 6. You have heard if I fought bravely. 6. I never was what is popularly called superstitious. 7. They made a bargain that they would nevir forsake 836 EXERCISES. pciv. t/'i each other. 8. Yon said nothing of how I might bo dungeoned for a mad man. 0. I have sinned in tmtt I have betrayed the innocent blood. 10. I am not so certain that these much-decried children have been dunces. 11. I don't care a jot whether you are a prince. 12. It is to you, good people, that I speak. 13. I feared lest it might anger thee. 14. Bid her be judge whether Bassanio had not once a love. 15. Howe'er deserved her doom might be, her treachery was faith to me. Practice in changrint; direct into indirect narration and vice versa is valuable. The grramraatical effects of such changes should be pointed out. For such exercises, suitable material may be found in the Reader. § § 21-20. 1. Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together. 2. When I was young, I thought of nothing else but pleasures. 3. Tis full two months smce 1 did see him last. 4. Now that their distress was over, they for(;ot that he had returned to them. 6. In Britain, the conquered race be«ame as barbarous as the conquerors were. 6. There is no sreside, howsoe'er defended, but has one vacant chair. 7. His misery was such that none of the bystanders could refrain from weeping. 8 Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were strangers in the land of Egypt. 9. That is strange, considering he is your next neighbour. 10. The pains are no sooner over than they are forgotten. 11. So Mahomet and the mountain meet, it is no matter which moves to the other. 12. Scarce had he mounted, ere the Fappenheimers broke through the lines. 13. Although the wound soon healed a^ain, yet, as he ran, he yelled for pain. 14. Tears, such as angels weep, ourst forth. 15. The earlier you rise, the better will your nerves bear study. 16. I would not spare him even if he should scorn me. 17. If fortune serve me, I'll requite this kindness. 18. If I could have found a way, I had not started practice. 19. If you had known the virtue of the nng, you would not then have parted with the rinr 20. Though Bimam woo I will go if he comes ; I shall go if he come ; I should go if he came ; I woald go if he came ; I should go if he were to come. (3) I said he would go ; I said he should go ; I said he might go. (4) I am surprised that he was there ; 1 am surprised that he should be there. (5) Should you think it likely ? Would you think it likely ? (6) He acts as I shall ; He acts as I will ; He acts as I should ; He acts as I would. (7) He saw mo home ; He saw me at home. (8) The son, full of rage, rushed on him ; Full o.' rage, the son rushed on him. (9) Did I think so, T should speak ; Were I to think so, I should speak ; If I thought so, I would speak ; Had I thought so, I would speak ; Had I thought so, I wc ild have r>poken. (10) She wondered what it all meant ; She wondered what it ail mig^t mean. (II) He has a dollar more than I ; He has a dollar, more than I. , (12) He is a better orator than logician ; He is a better orator than a logician. (13) Such an action is wrong ; To act so is wrong ; That one should act so is wr- »» (14) He spoke to his son who was there ; He spoke to his son, who was there- (15) How odd that it is true ! How odd that it should be true ! (16) James and John were not there ; Neither James nor John was tboe. (17) Cato, the wise, was present ; The wiso C:ito, was present. (18) Now I think you will go ; Now ! think you will go. (19) The British Cabinet dis»«roti ; The British Cabinet disagrees. (20) My morning work « !3y morning's work. (81) He thought little; about it ; He thought a little about it m) He is gouic at a great rate ; He is going it at a great rate. tesS Whaa «3»l U tbfte ? What a fool is there 1 tzvi xn.] fiXfiROIfiSS. m i. 26. He M I have I was not ir b.d bat to mn the ire fear in bance. 34. . ne'er have whichever yon home, of the trpe 40. I will leath ia an better far. 1. 44. For reedom.bnt of Heaven i. 46. He en to one if I lodge him, ne bedtime. e, body and 9 all needed nu8 hia hat. xmstmctions: go. une; I woold lie there. I M I would. 1 on him. ; If I thonttfat I wc lid h»ve logidan. taois wv^" ■ there. ere. 3. Aooount for tho itallclflotl lettera in the followlngr : iutm«, thes«, seldom wettest, oltt'es, potatoes, our, tomb. 8. Diacuu the history of the followios^ doublets : anolent, ensign ; benlson, benediction ; compute, count ; coy, quiet, quit, quite ; flame, phlegm ; Ul, evil ; parson, person ; praise, price; prolong, purloin; 4ward, regard; scandal, slander; soprano, sovereign ; thatch, deck ; wain, wagon. 4. Give the different meanings assignable to each of the following, commenting upon the history : art, base, compact, don, entrance, fell, graze, host, kind, lustre, mine, own, pale, rake, story, temporal, vault, well, srard. B. To express futurity simply, we say I shall go and TOU Will go; why, to express futurity simply, do we say Tou and I shall gO and not Tou and I Will go? 6. Classify according to their logical values the attributive words and phrases in the exercises on } S 23-31, p. 315, aud on ( 9 M-dl, p. 816. 7. Discuss and illustrate the following : a. The tendencies in English are summed up as follows : (1) Of two ways to the same end, it prefers the shorter and easier to the longer and harder. (2) Of two forms which serve the same object, it prefers that which best corre- sponds to that object. b. As language progresEes, there !s a tendency to pass from the co-ordinate to the correlative form. 0. The phrase, in Modem English, is of great importance as it continually replaces Bcme word of the older language. d. A change of vowels or consonants is either stnahij or proRrrrc. Tho former gives an altered force or meaning to the word; the second arises iVcui an instinctive disposition to lessen the expenditure of muscular energy in producing sound. We cannot always tell what changes were originally of the one kind or of vhe other, becaiii'e an original dynamic change has very generally been followed by phonetic ones, and because a change originally phonetic may afterwards be taken advantage of to mark changes of meaning, and so appear to be purely dynamic. 6. Owing to its analytical nature Modem English has great flexibility and an almost boundless power of manufacturing verb-phrases. 8. Criticize : Adverbs, as such, are incapable of comparison ; more fully is really the adverbial form of more fUll : more is not an adverb modifying folly. 9. Discuss the irregularities in the following: 1. Did he not fear the Lord and besought the Lord, and the Lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced against him ? 2. It touched him not. 8. They at her coming sprung, and, touched by her fair tendance, gladlier grew. 4. The things highliest important to the growing age. 6. Bringthe rathe primrose that forsaken dies. 6. Whiles I threat, he lives ; words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives. 7. He hadn't ought to do it. 8. These news are everywhere ; every tongue speaks them. d. Behold the people is one, and they have all one langua^. 10. Where is this mnnkimi now who lives to asre fit to be made Methusaleh his page? 11. If thou bring tliy gift to the altar and there rememberebt that thy brother hath aught against thee, etc. 12. Seemed iu heart some hidden care she had. 13. Dying or ere they sicken. 14. If ^6 should do so, he leaves his back unguarded. 15. Whether this is so or no, I know lot. 16. Ye will not come unto me that ye mitrht have life. 17. I had fainted unless I had seen him. 18. How much more older art thou than thy looks ! 19. The fairest of her daughters. Eve. 20. Except — the which I see not — some way of escape may be found, etc. 21. He trusted to have equalled the Most High. 22. You know my father hath no child but I. 28. Says I to myself, " Here goes." 10. Com ent on the tense>value of ought in "He said he ought to go." IL Discuss the question as to whether man is abstract or eoncrete in " Man is mortaL" 12. Why can we say " He gave it me," but not " He gave the book dm"! ■. .:v'. *'^^| 340 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLB. [ZV. u Bsliii:^! •'^^■^\ ^^!. CHAFTER XV. fljinnrivE aito participle coNSTRUCTioirs. CHARACTER AND USK 1. The infinitives and participles are, as we have seen (Fin. 31-34), verbal nouns and adjectives: that is to say, words which, while keeping in general their character and use in the sentence as nouns and adjectives, take at the same time the adjuncts or modifiers which are taken by the verb to which they belong — such as objects, predicate nouns and adjective?, and adverbs. Thus, for example, in the " progressive present tense " I am reading, the participle reading takes all the modifiers which go witli the simple verbal form read in I read ; and therefore I am reading can be treated as if it were also a simple tense. And the same is true of the infinitive read in the " future tense " I shall read. On account of this double character, the infinitives and parti- ciples have some peculiar constructions, to which it is necessary to give special attention. INFINITIVES. I*— simple and Compound Forms* 2. As has been already pointed out (VIII. 36), every verb has two simple infinitives : thus, (to) give, giving ; (to) love, loving ; (to) be, being ; (to) have having. One of those which has always the same form as the stem, or root-word, of the verb, is called the root-infinitive, the form yfnih to being, however, sometimes distinguished as the gerund- lAL INFINITIVE. The Other, which always ends in ing, is known as the INFINITIYB IN -ing, or as the gerund. XV. 4] 8ION OF THE INFINITIVE. 341 In addition to these, every verb forms, by adding its imper- fect and perfect participles to the infinitives of the auxiliaries have and be, certain infinitive-phrases, which, with the names by which they are called, may be repeated here from VIIL Thus, to the root-infinitive : PASSIVE. (to) be given ; (to) have been given; SIMPLE. PROGRESSIVE. (to) GIVE, (to) be giving, Perfect (to) have given, (to) have been giving, and to the infinitive in -ing. GIVING, (being giving,) Perfect having given having been giving. The progressive form being giving, though not forbidden, is so uncommon that it can hardly be said to be in use. being given ; having been given. Il.-Vse and OmiSBlon of Ihe **81gn.'* 3. The root-infinitive usually has before it the preposition to, which is called its sign, and is to be considered and described as part of it. In the oldest English, this preposition was used with the infinitive, only when it had a real prepositional value : for example, in such phrases as It is good to eat : There is much to say ; that is, "good unto eating or for eating"; "much for saying." But we add ih now to the infinitive in a mechanical way, as if it were a mere grammatical device for pointing out that the following word is an infinitive. 4. But the to is also not used in a great many cases : a. After the verbs generally used as auxiliaries, both in tho formation of verb-phrases and in their more independent use. These auxiliaries are do, will, shall, ma:; , can, and must. Ought requires to. b. After a few verbs, either usually or optionally. Such are dare, help, need, 'gin (poetic for begin) ; and please and go in certain uses : for example. He dared net leave the place ; or He did not dare to leave it ; Go find your master ; but He went to find him. In older English the same construction is found with oome : thas, io Shakespeare, X lent for 70U to come speak with me. Ml ■L -; 342 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLB. [XV. 4. C- C In certain peculiar or elKptical constructions. Thus, (1) After had followed by as lief (or lieve), better, best, rauier, etc.: for example, I had as lief be none as one ; Yon had better cease your folly; You had best have an eye on hun. (2) In comparative phrases, like As well yield at once as straggle vainly ; He resolved, rather than yield, to die with honor. When, however, the infinitive in the first clause has to, the same construction is usually maintained in the second : thus. It in as well to 3rleld at once as to struggle vainly ; He resolved to die with bonor ratlier than to jrield. (3) After but (and in some constructions, except) following a negative : thus, I cannot but be sad ; They did nothing but (or except) idle about. (4) When, owing to the emotion of the speaker, the infinitive is used absolutely in exclamations, " How ! not know the friend that served you ! " Lewis marry Blanche I boy, then where art thou ? d. After certain verbs, when preceded by a word having the relation of object to those verbs, but also the logical value (see below 14) of a subject to the infinitive. The most common of this class of verbs are see, hear, feel, let, wake, bid, help, have (in the sense of "make" or " cause "), know, fiid. Examples are I saw him do it ; I must not have you question me. After some of these, to is allowed, or is even more usual ; and on the other hand, there are other verbs after which the to is occasionally omitted, especially in antique and poetic styles : thus. Do but speak what thou'lt have me to do ; To bid me not to love is to forbid my pulse to move ; Command the grave restore her taken prey ; Gome, I charge you both go with me. When the preceding verb is made passive, to is regularly used : thus, Pe was seen to do it ; but He was let go. XV. n INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 343 e. OcoMionally when it ia the subject of a verb, though this usage it Bomewhat archaic : thus, Better AweHl in the midst of alamu than reign In this horrlUe place ; Wlll't please you hear mef He lists not tell what words were said ; It were best not know mysAllL 8. When, in Modem English, the oihission of to is optional, its retention emphasizes the meaninff of the infinitive and produces a formal efifect. In the case of go and come, a dislike for tliis formality has led to the following idiomatic constructions : Oo and see him : Come and tell me. When the infinitive without to is used, we have simply the old^r form (V2II. 37 and 38), which has been retained in the above mentioned cases (4 a-e) owing to our desire to avoid this formality, to the close connection between the infinitive and its governing word (the auxiliary), or to the frequent use of certain expressions. During the Elizabethan period, and even later, before the modern usage was settled, to w>><« sometimes not used where it is now used, and sometimes used where i^ is now not used. Examples are Ton ought not walk ; Suffer him speak no more ; Who heard me to deny iv. ? I durst, my lord, to wager she is honest I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness. III.— ConHtrnctlons* 6. The two infinitives, with the infinitive phrases that belong to them, have in part the same, and in part different, uses. In noticing the infinitive constructions, we will take up first those in which both agree. 7. The infinitives are used as subject of a verb, or as predicate noun with a verb. Examples are For him, to hear is to obey ; All we want is to be let alone ; Seeing is believing ; His having been absent is a great pity ; Giving one's money away liberally is far better than keeping everything to one's self. We have already noticed the frequent anticipation of a subject infinitive (VI. 26, a) by an it standing a^ guammati<;al or REPRESENTATIVE SUBJECT before tlie verb, wliile the infinitive, the LOGICAL SUBJECT, follows the verb : thus, for example. It is good to be here ; It will not suit us to go with yon. 344 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [XV. »- ' { H i " 8. The infinitives are used as object of a verb. There are many cases under this head in which either infini- tive may be used : thus, He likes to journey (or journeying) rapidly : I intend to start (or starting) to-morrow. But there are others in which usage allows only the one or the other of them : tlius, We used to live hore, not living here ; They resented having been insulted, not to have been insulted. The use of infinitives with auxiliaries comes under this head. (VIII. 109.) Like the subject infinitive the object infinitive is sometimes anticipated by an it standing as representative object after the verb (VI. 26. b.): thus, H^ thought it foolish to take this course. 9. The infinitives are used as object of a preposition. But the root-infinitive is thus used nowadays almost wholly with the preposition about : thus, He was about to depart (or about departing), in the peculiar sense of "concerned with," "busy about"; and so " on the point of " departing. Occasionally, however, the root-infinitive with and without to is found after but and except : thus. He could do nothing except go; He cannot choose but hear ; No course was open to him except to leave ; He has nothing to do except to go. The preposition for is also found early prefixed to this infinitive in all grammatical relations. In Modern English its use has disappeared except in the language of the vulgar aud when the infinitive may be regarded as having a subject (see 14 below) : thus, It Is Improper for us to act thus. But it is still to be met with in the literature of older English, usually expressing purpose (see X. 11. b. ) : thus, And all countries came Into Egsrpt to Joseph for to buy corn ; Therefore 'tis good and meet for to be wise ; Shame unto thy stork That dar'st presume thy sovereign for to mock. The root-infinitive is also to be met with in Middle or archaio English after the preposition at, a usage which is due to Danish influence. To this iilijm the modern ado (that is, at do) owes its origin. [XV. »- er infini- XV. 9] INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 345 le or the insulted. his head. ometimes ject after in. st wholly i"; and so i without t hear ; itive in all isappeared '6 may be English, corn ; or archaic 1 influence. On the other hand, tho infinitive in -ing is very common after a great variety of prepositions : thus, He is tired of wasting his time on trifles ; I know nothing about her having done it ; The horse is worn with having been ridden so hard ; On becoming king he reversed the policy of his father ; His dread of being thought stingy makes him liberal. The omission of the preposition produces the foUowing construction in which the infinitives are adverbial objectives (see X1II,73, and com- pare 12 below) : He was busy (at) plongbing ; I am tired (of) speaMng to yon. IV.— Peenliaritlcs of the Construction off the InflnltiTe In -Ing* 10. These are all the constructions of the infinitive in-ing. They are especially peculiar in this : that the infinitive very often has before it a noun or a pronoun in the possessive, signifying that to which this action expressed by the infinitive belongs, that which is most concerned in it. And this posses- sive has almost always the value of a subjective possessive (XIII. 63. a), or one which points out the subject of the verbal action— one which, if this infinitive phrase were turned into a substantive-clause (as it always may be), would be the sub- ject of that clause : thus, Tom's being here was a lucky thing ; They insisted on his following them ; He knew of my having been left out ; are equivalent to It was a lucky thing that Tom was here ; They insisted that he should follow them ; He knew that I had been left out. But the possessive may also have the value of an objectivb possessive (XIII. 63. b), pointing out the object or recipient of the verbal action : thus, The deep damnation of his talcing off; where the equivalent expression with the subjective possessive would be of their taking Mm off; or, with the object turned into a passive subject, of his being taken off. This construction is, however, obso- kscent. 11. The uses of the infinitive in -ing shade oflf into those of an ordinary abstract noun, and it is not possible to draw a line sharply between its values as the one and as the other. Thus, in W9 reftd of Osesar's passinf^ the Bubicon, 346 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [XV. 11- f«' II , II, !i passing is unmist^akably an infinitive, because it takes a direct object Bubicon. But, in C»sar's passing of the Bnbicon, angl yet more in the passing of the Rubicon by Caesar, passing has so entirely the construction of a noun, as if it were the passage of the Bubicon, that we cannot call the word any- thing but a noun. Again, in Neither blessing nor cursing could change him, it is impossible, as the sentence stands, to say whether blessing and cursing are infinitives or nouns ; the meaning belonging to either would be suitable. If they can take an object (as above) or an adverbial modifier, they are infinitives ; if a plural inflection or an adjective of quality, they are nouns. Compare VIII. 41. But the double value of the forms in -ing has given rise to cases of disputed propriety of usage. For examples, see the exercises on this paragraph. Of the following coDstructions : (1 ) tvT the passing the Rubicon ; (2) for passing of the Rubicon ; (3) for passing the Rubicon ; (4) for the passing of the Rubicon ; Modern English sanctions only (3) an I (4), as in these the grammatical values of the forms in -Ing are unmistakable (Compare IV. 40. d). In older English we find, however, as a result of confusion, many examples of (1) and (2) : thus, in Shakespeare, He altered much upon the hearing It ; So find we profit by losing of our prayers. khi v.— Pecnllaritlcg of the Constrnction «f the Inflnitlve with ** to." 12. The root-infinitive accompanied by its sign to, is used with many verbs and adjectives and nouns, and even adverbs, to point out interest, purpose, object, consequence, reason, and the like. We have come to hear you ; He fell, never to rise again : What were you thinking of, to do this ; He proceeded to count the ballots ; He induced them to make the attempt ; The man is become as one of us, to know good and evil ; My hair doth stand on end, to hear her curses ; Sow came you to be left behind ; [XV. n- a, direct Z7.U] INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. 347 I it were ord any- blessing elonging bject (as a plural Compare n rise to . see the Lblcon ; e Rubicon ; ammatical 10. d). In examples h "to.** is used adverbs, ason, and le again; ndevil: To hear him talk, yon wonld suppose he was master ; They are ready to find fault and hard to please ; He is undecided whether to go or stay ; He was the first to come ; A well-to-do man ; I have a work to do : It was a path to guide their feet ; He was not a man to call upon his friends. The common use of an infinitive after be, to express some- thing expected or required, is of this character : thus, This is to be done at once ; He is to die at sunrise : that is, This is a thing for being done ; and so on (compare 3 above). Any adjective or adverb modified by too or enough may be followed by such an infinitive : thus, They are too many to be sacrificed, but not strong enough to conquer ; I love you too much to let you go. This very common construction is the one in which the sign of the infinitive, the preposition to, retains most of its original and proper value, as meaning "unto, in order to, for the pur- pose of," and the like. E'lt the construction has quite outgrown its natural limits, and the infinitive with to (like the substantive clause, XIV. 16. f.) is now used in numerous cases where with the infinitive in -icg, or with a noun of any kind, a different pro- position would be necessary : thus, He failed to appear ; I have reason to suspect ; He was glad to be there : where we should say failed of appearing, or of appearance ; reason for suspecting, or for suspicion; glad at being there, or of his presence. Other examples are We grieve to hear (but at hearing) ; A fool to think so (but for thinking) ; w^ proposal to send (but of sending) ; Ashamed to beg (but of begging) ; I laughed to see him (but at seeing hhn). This (like the similar use of the substantive clause, XIV. 16) may be called the construction of the infinitive as an adverbial OBJECTIVE (Xn. 73), its use as an adjunct to another word without any sign of connection between the two. 348 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [XV. 18- Wli i I Ui 13. The value of the infinitive as an adverbial modifier is of the same nature as that of the adverbial clause (ZIV. 23) ; thus, in He came to see me its use corresponds to that of the restrictive adverbial clause ; but in He came home, only to die — to find himself mistaken, etc., its use corresponds to that of the descriptive co-ordinating clause. 14. The root-infinitive, with or without to, is used after a verb and its object, as a kind of adjunct to the latter, signifying an action in which it is concerned. Thus, They saw her depart ; Nobody imagined him to be listening: They declared him to have been killed : He prevailed on them to go ; He wailed for ohem to leave (VIII. 163). This important and widely used construction has more than one starting point. In such cases as I told him to go ; They forbade us to enter ; the infinitive is really the direct object, and the pronoun the indirect object of the verb, just as in the sentences I told him a story ; They forbade us entrance. In other cases, like I forced him to go ; They counselled us to remain ; the to has nearly its proper value of a preposition governing a a noun, as in I forced him to the wall ; They counselled us to this action. But here again (as in the case described in 12 above), tlio construction has been carried much beyond its natural limits, as the object of the verb has come to be a kind of subject to THE INFINITIVE J since, for example. He believed his friend to have been wronged ; I ordered the boy to be off : are equivalent to He believed that his friend had been wronged ; I ordered that the boy should be oA In any such case, the object can be turned into the subject of a passive verb-phrase, the infinitive (with to) remaining as an adverbial adjunct to the latter : thus, She was seen to depart ; The boy was ordered to be off; His friend was believed by him to have been wronged- [XV. 18- i of the at in ■>•* le. after a rnifying belling ; ore than XV. 18. e] INFIKITIV^ COystRUCTIOM. S4d loun the in; '^erning a action. ove), the al limits, fBJECT TO le subject ling as an )eoff: iged- The subject of the infinitive is also expressed after for : thus, For him to act thus is improper; It is impossible for such ». result to happen. The above construotion is probably the result of inversion, having been originally To act thus Is improper for him ; and so on. For another explanation, see X. 11. b. 15. The root;-infinitive is sometimes used in other more anomalous cases : a. After seem and the like : thus, They seemed to tremble ; Even the dogs appeared to know him. This conptruction is most like that of the predicate adjective. b. After as, preceded by so, such, and the like : thus, . It was so used as to be worn out ; He is such a fool as to believe the story. This is most like the use of an infinitive after an adjective or adverb with too or enough. See XVII. c. After a relative or a dependent interrogative, in such phrases as He knows not when to go, or where to stay ; Make up your mind which to take. This may be explained as an ellipsis for when he is to go, and so on ; and there may be a similar ellipsis in The wrath to come : A generation yet unborn ; thus, the wrath which is to come, and so on. d. After have in the sense of " be obliged, " : thus, We have to leave in an hour. This is doubtless by an extension of such constructions as We have to perform a duty ; and this is itself only a transformation of We have a duty to perform : that is a duty for performing. See 12 above. e. After had followed by a word of comparison, especially as lief, rather, better, in such phrases as Tou had bettor be careful ; I had rather go than stay. Here the infinitive is really the direct object of had, whicli is past subjunctive, and the comparative adjective (see IX. 7) M N i.A I! h ] 350 INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. [XV. 16. I< is an objective predicate modifying it: the meaning is " T should regard going a better thing than staying ; "and so on. f. Absolutely — and generally pareathetically — to express the reflec- tion or intention of the speaker in regard to a statement, declaration, reminder, and so on, addressed to the re^er or listener, and occasionally to the speaker himself ; thus, Mot to keep you in suspense, he's in prison ; To tell the trutb, I am mistaken ; To be sure, he Is learned not wise ; Will you help me ? To fce sure, I will ; People are divided into two sorts, to wit, high people and low people ; But, to return, my tears flowed fast ; 80 much for the supper: and now to see that our beds are aired. g. Absolutely, in exclamations, when the emotion of the speaker pre- vents the full expression of his meaning ; thus. Speak of Mortimer I Zounds, I will speak of him ; fiow ! not know the friends that served you I To talk to me of such stuff !— The man's an Idiot ; Well, Basil, only to think that we three should meet here prisoners I Sometimes also the exclamatory infinitive has a subject, which is usually in the nominative case : thus. She ask my pardon, poor woman t I ask hers with all my heart ; Lewis marry Blanche I boy, then where art thou 7 And be to turn monster of ingratitude and strike his lawful host I A silly girl to play the prude with me I This use of the nominative is absolute, and is of the same nature as that of the nominative in the absolute construction descril>ed in XIII. 79 and 80, and 28 below, the infinitive referring to the nominative as the subject of the act or the state expressed by the verb. 16. A word (pronoun) in the predicate after an infinitive having a subject which is in the objective case, is also put in the objective, to agree with the word to which it relates (see XIII. 62) : thus. He supposed the offender to be me ; For the offender to be him is an impossibility. When the subject of the infinitive is omitted or is represented by a subjective possessive, there is nothing to decide the case of the infini- tive complement ; but the infinitive complement is here also to be val- ued as objective, for the subject of the infinitive, if expressed in the usual way, would be in the objective, and this is the regular construc- tion in languages that are markedly inflectional : thus, To be (or being) me is desirable ; There Is no doubt of its being him ; The hope of being elected President ; A desire to become the owner. [XV. 16. f- " I should the reflec- leclaration, occasionally I not wise; 3W people : re aired, ipeaker pre- prisoners I ct, which is ly heart; on? fal host I ne nature as id in XIII. 79 ative as the ive having a objective, to XV. W] PARTICIPLE COV8TRUCT10K8. 351 ssented by a of the innni- so to be val- ressed in the construc- beinghim; he owner. PARTICIPLES. I.— Simple and Componnil Fornm. 17. As we have already seen (VIII. 40), there are two simple participles belonging to an English verb : thus, giving, given: loving, loved : being, been : having, had, One of these, ending always in ing, we called the impkkpect participle ; the other, formed in a variety of ways, we called the PERFECT or the passive participle. Participle-phrases, having constructions akin to those of the simple participles, are, for the imperfect participle, a perfeci' active and a PRoaRESSiVE perfect active : as, for example, having given and having been giving : and for the perfect participle in its passive use, a ppooressivk passive and a perfect passive : as for example, being given and having been given. II.— Constroctlong. 18. The constructions of the participles differ less from those of ordinary adjectives than the constructions of the infinitive? from those of ordinary nouns, since adverbial modifiers are taken in general by adjectives as well as by verbs, and only the imperfect participle (with its phrases) takes an object, or is followed by a predicate noun or adjective (except in verb- phrases with the auxiliary have). 19. In the progressive and passive verb-phrases, with the auxiliary be, the imperfect and passive participles have the same modifiers as they take in their more independent uses ; and in the perfect verhnphrases, with the auxiliary have, the passive participle loses its peculiar character ; and becomes like the imperfect, having the same constructions. Thus, we say seeming happy ; giving a book ; just as we say He was seeming happy ; I am giving a book ; but, though we say He has seemed happy ; He had given a book : we cannot say seemed happy ; given a book. This is because (as explained in VIII. 131) the participle with have was originally an objective predicate, modifying the direct object of the auxiliary ; while the combination has now become 352 iNPmiTlVB AMD PARTICIt^LlI. [TV. Id. :!i m 1:::; ' '! , ' I * merely mechanical one, a device for signifying certain varieties of past tense, and it can no longer be taken opart and parsed word for word (compare II. 42). Thus I have loved and I had struck show varieties of the tense of loving and Striking, and no trace of their original passive meaning is left to the participles loved and stmck; their uses are parallel with those of loving and striking in I am loving, I was striking. 20. Both the simple participles (not the participle-phrases also) are freely used as attributive adjectives, with only such modifiers as may be taken by all adjectives. When thus used, the participial form expresses merely the quality of the object, without reference to action or state as existing in time (com- pare VIII. 35). Examples are a charming face ; a very loving heart ; his brightly shining arms ; singing birds ; a charmed snake ; a warmly loved fUend ; brightly polished arms ; well sung songs. A perfect participle, when thus used attributively, or in the manner of an ordinary adjective, sometimes has a fuller form than in its participial use (see IV. 40. a) : thus in a learned man, a blessed right, we regularly pronounce the words with two syllables ; while in He learned his lessons, They blessed the day, the same are spoken with only one. And we saw above (VIll. 84) that the old form of a perfect participle in -en is in many cases preserved in adjective use : thus, A drunken man ; A swollen face ; but He has drunk the draught ; His face has swelled. Not a few words which are participles in form are so con- stantly used as ordinary adjectives that they hardly seem to us to be participles at all — sometimes, indeed, there is no verb in present use to which they belong : thus, • charming, interesting, trifling, cunning ; beloved, forlorn, civilized, antiquated, past. And we have seen (VII. 10. c) that a great many compound words take the participial ending ed to make them adjectives; thus, barefooted, one-armed, chicken-hearted. 2L The simple participles (hardly ever the participle-phrases [TV. Id. 1 varieties nd parsed and I had strikiiig, eft to the (^ith those le-phrases only such thus used, he object, Ime (com- Dd; or in the iller form ; while in )ve (vm. . in many led. re so con- f seem to s no verb XV. 22j '^'^rxmvfi eo.v,tnt;cT;ov,. jompound djectives; le-phrases ^'«^) are usod in fh " ^5:} "St. , '"- -"-» "' • «». ^vl.ich are used m^!/^ ""^f ^*' »« '» beaten I w,U have a doctor sent for »?' ''f™'""^ "« «« vm. i«.„e. *». i,o„„ „. ^^J^*^!"^ aoae „,,« • „ He, them esDvfi^*'**^"* tome; "juiiary I- HI \ A, 354 iN^lNlTlV'a ANt> t>ARTIClPLfi. tXV. 42- of appositive construction, the acljoetive or perfect participle (very rarely an imperfect participle) then coming to be predic- ative after it. Thus John, being weary, has retired ; The enemy, having been beaten, fled. 23. We have seen (XIII. 58) that the appositive adjectir*; especially implies the suggestion of an added clause of w'aich it is itself tlie predicate : and the participles and participle phrases used appositively, have very often the value of fiuch clauses, being, in a manner, a substitute for them, whici by securing brevity adds force to what we have to s-ay. Thus, in place of some of the examples given in the preceding paragraph, we may say : She gave it to me when she died; As soon as he espied them, he gan himself prepare ; In which effort, as he was not a man of strong imagination, he failed ; Whethe; I sleep or wake, must I still prevail. 24. Since, however, the participle-phrases in such a sentence may be the equivalent of different subordinate clauses : thus Sleeping or waking must I still prevail, may be the equivalent of When (or while or although, etc.) I am sleeping or waking, etc.; in Modern English, ambiguity is avoided without sacrificing brevity, by using also the conjunctions that express the gram- matical relations of dependent to principal clauses : thus When (or while, or although, etc.,) sleeping or waking, etc. See also XVII. 25. In not a few cases, the construction with a pr.rticiple modifying an object*noun (whether as objective predicate or as appositive) is equivalent to that of an infinitive with its objective subject (14 above), or of an infinitive in -Ing with its subjective possessive (10 above). Thus, (1)1 saw him get down from his horse ; (2) I suw his getting down from his horse ; (3) I saw him getting down trom his horse. In all these three nearly equivalent expressions, the pronouns him and his are logically (that is, according to the real sense) subject of the action expressed by the infinitive or the participle : the meaning is that " he got down from his horae, and I sav; it." They are three different but related ways in which these verbal nonr.s and adjectives are made to play a part like that of real verbs in dependent clauses. txv. fta- XV. 26. b] tAftttClPLti CONSTRUCTIONS. 35& articiple 3 predic- adjectirti of w lich participle ) of fjuch whici by Thus, ill aragraph, are; ;ination, a. a sentence 38 : thus ing, etc.; sacrificing the gram- Ithus king, etc. modifying )po8itive) is ft (14 above), We). ThuB, Luns him and [of the action lis that " he liflferent but are made to These sentences differ in meaning as follows : in (1) neither auiornor action attracts special attention, and there is no reference to the duration of the act : in (2) the action and in (3) the actor attract special atten- tion, there being a reference in both to the duration of the act. The passive participle in like manner plays the part of a passive verb ; thus, I saw him struck down by the assassin is equivalent to I saw how he was struck down, etc., or, in active phrase, I saw the assassin strike {or striking) him down. 26. Hence (both after a verb and after r p-eposition) the two constructions, of an objective case modilied by an imperfect participle and of a possessive modifying an infinitive in-ing, are to a certain extent interchangeable ; and the question somo- times arises as to which should be preferred. There are cases where both may be defended as equally proper ; but even among good writers (and yet more among careless ones), tiie one is occasionally found where more approved usage would favor tlie other : thus, Pardon me blushing ; The certainty of the old man interrupting him ; The hope of society is in men caring for better things; where my blushing, the old man's interrupting him, and men's caring would doubtless be better. As a general rule the best modern writers prefer to use the possessive when what the attentic n rests on ia the action or the state expressed by the form in -ing and uov on itn siibject, and when it is possible or proper to form a possessive case Hence the possessive i^ularly used in the case of the inflected pronotmsand of nouns 'hat ordinarily form possessive cases (see V. 60): thus, On account of my (your, his, everyone's, etc.) injuring John's brother ; There is no fear of the dog's biting him. And it is not used : a. In the case of the uninflected pronouns : thus. On account of this being so — of each (either, all, etc.) having done so; b. In the case of nouns that have not ordinarily possessive forms; thus. He failed owing to ill health having spoiled his plans ; There is no fear of injustice being done to his relations. As, however, the modern tendency (see 1. 41) is to use the possessive form of the noun, usage is variable in thia cooatruution, and v^nen the r 55G iNFlNltlVK AND ^AfttlClPLte. [XV. 26. b- possessive is not used we generally regard the noun and the participle aa being more closely connected in meaning than those in e. below ; thus, Tbere is no fear of injustlce-being-done to Ms relations, jiut as in I wish hlm-to go, and I saw hlm-go, we take the infinitive and the pronoun together (14 above), forgetting their true construction. c. In such a sentence as He insisted on the rule that no one should leave, being strictly observed; ow mg to the separation of the noun and the form in -ing and to the impossibility of using the case-sign after the appositive subordinate- sentence. It would, however, be correct to say, Ec Insisted on the rule's bolng observed ; He Insisted on Mr. What-do-you-call-hlm's leaving the room, as Mr. What-do-you-call-hlm is distinctly felt to represent one notion. d. When, by the use of the Introductory there, there is an inversion of the logical order : thus. There Is no fear of there being a boy kept In. e. And, of course, in such sentences as He yields place to you (or John) speaking ; He saw me (or John) running home ; for in both of these what the attention rests on is the actor, the participial form merely expressing its condition. Indeed, the preferable construc- tion for the former of these sentences is He yields place to you when (you are) speaking, etc. 27. The participles and participle-phrases are used mucli of teller and much more freely than any other kind of apposi- tional adjunct in making an absolute construction (XIII. 79) with either noun or pronoun. Thus, • The teacher absenting himself, there was no school ; One of them having fallen, the rest ran away ; It being very cold, we made a fire ; or, with the passive participle, This said, he sat down ; The signal being given, they started ; The ceremony having been completed, we dispersed. Instead of a simple passive participle, or an adjective or other word or phrase, being taken directly with the noun or the pronoun in absolute construction, an auxiliary being or having been is very often introduced, the other then becoming a predicate [XV. 46. b- XV. 31] PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTIONS. 357 I participle e. below ; , forgetting ly observed; g and to the subordinate- i room, tne notion. an inversion he participial ible construc- etc. used mucli of apposi- )n (XIII. 79) « school ; ay; )ersed. Live or other the pronoun ving been is a predicate after it (just as in the ordinary appositive construction : see 22 above): for example, This having been said, he sat down ; His heart being heavy with sorrow, etc. ; and so in other like cases. 28. Like the absolute construction already described (XIII. 79), the noun and the participle in the adjective construction express some accompanying circumstance or condition of tlie action and are generally the equivalents of adverbial clauses : thus, the sentences in 27 above are equivalent to As the teacher absented himself, there was no school ; When he had said this, he sat down ; and so on with the others. And, as in the case of adverbial clauses (XIV. 23), the absolute con- Btructio" is sometimes descriptive co-ordinating : thus, He left for the Continent, all his family accompanying him. 29. Occasionally when the participle is an appositional adjunct of a personal pronoun, or of the indefinite one, the pronoun is omitted : (We or One) Assuming this to be true, what will follow? a construction to which, as we have already seen (X. 10. c), we probably owe the prepositional use of such forms as saving, touching, concerning, respecting, etc. 30. The absolute phrases in We sitting, as I said, the cock crew loud ; I having hold of both, they whirl asunder; How can we be happy, thou being absent ? show that, in the absolute construction, the noun or the pronoun is now regularly in the nominative case. But instances of the objective also are sometimes found in good English writers, especially of an earlier time : thus, in Milton, This inaccessible high strength, the seat Of Deity supreme, us dispossessed, He trusted to have seized. And in Old English, as in all the other Aryan languages, the case of the noun in the absolute construction is invariably adverbial. When, however, English nouns lost their inflections, the adverbial character of this construction which had been marked by the ending was forgotten and the nominative of the personal pronoun came into use. See I. 63. 31. It may be added, finally, that the simple participles are in the same manner as ordinary adjectives used substantively (V, 71. b.) or as nouns. Thus, The living and the dead ; The poor and suffering ; The lost, buriedi and forgotten. wmmm IF It* ! h 358 EXERCISES. pnr„ '^'■M& ''!'; I ^11 " EXEBGISES. The parsing of infinitives and participlea calls for no special explan* ations. Each is to be defined as being this or that infinitive or participle, or infinitive or participle phrase, belonging to such and such a verb, of such a conjugation, etc., as in the case of a verb ; and the construction is then to be stated, in accordance with the principles laid down in this chapter. §§ 1-16. 1. Oh, it is excellent to have a giant's strength ; but it is tyrannons to use it like a giant. 2. To look at thee unlocks a warmer clime. 3. The toil of dropping buckets into empty wells and grow ing old in drawing nothing up. 4. He hopes to merit heaven by making earth a hell. 5. I can see that Mrs. Grant is anxious for her not finding Mans- field dull as winter comes on. 6. Some people never will distinguish between predicting an rclipse and conspirinc; to brine it on. 7. No matter who was there, go he would. 8. I don't wonder at people's giving him to me as a lover. 9. The brazen throat of war had ceased to roar. 10. Leaves have their time to fall, and flowers to wither at the north-wind's blast. 11. None knew her but to love her, 12. The king's persisting in such designs was the height of folly. 13- Freedom has a thousand charms to show. 14. He lies, with not a friend to close his eyes. 15. He used to read ; he is not accustomed to speak. 16. We often had the stranger visit us to taste our gooseberry wine. 17. I might command you to be slain. 18. The Lord God had not caused it to rain on the earth. 19. He is anxious for us to remain. 20. There's no greater luxury in the world than being read to sleep. 21 . He is wrong to think so. 22. He went on to tell his wrongs. 23. I am surprised to hear him say so. 24. He is not the man I took him to be, to act thus. 25. Where were your wits, to make this mistake ? 26. He is much pleased to meet you. 27. He grieves to see you in dis- tress. 28. I have a joke to tell you. 29. To look at him, you would not think so. 30. He failed to see the joke. §§ 1-81. 1. The neighbors, hearing^ what was going forward, came flocking about us. 2. The melting Phoebe stood wringing her hands. 3. I found her straying in the park. 4. In other hands I have known it triumphed in and boasted of with reason. 6. I'll have thee hanged to feed the crow. 6. To seek philosophy in Scripture is to seek the dead among the living. 7. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 8. They set him tree without his ransom paid. 9. There the wicked cease from troubling. 10. With my minstrel brethren fled, my jealousy o^ song is dead. 11. Finding myself suddenly deprived of the pleasures 01 the town, I grew dispirited. 12. Her voice is truth, told by music ; there are jingling instruments of falsehood. 13. Things are lost in the glare of day, which I can make the sleeping see. 14. He could not have been impressed with her, to have fc gotten her so soon. 15. Our cradle is the starting place ; life is the running of the race. 16. The French, having been dispersed in a gale, had put back to Toulon. 17. That {ir09e from the fear of my cousin bearing thes« matter*. 19, Granted PCVL XV.] EXERCISES. 35* al explan- liiiitive or 1 and such > ; and the iciplea laid I tyrannou* mer clime. R ing old in ing earth R iding ManB- diatinguish on. 7. No at people's id ceased to rither at the r, 12. The 13. Freedom Lend to cloae d to speak, iberry wine. Jod had not , to remain, lad to sleep, rongs. 23. I ; took him to his mistake t te you in dis- a, you would ame flocking hands. 3. I ave known it lee hanged to leek the dead i to receive. I the wicked ,,my Jealousy the pleasureB (Id by music ; ire lost in the [ould not have 15. Our cradle The French, ,n. 17. That 18. Grattted that men continuing as they are, there must be war ; what then ? 19. It is too soon for the news to have reached him. 20. The hour concealed, and so remote the fear, death still draws nearer, never seeming ucar. 21. They gave him knowledgeof his wife's being there. 22. She loves to sit up late, either reading or being read to. 23. I dare thee but to breathe upon my love. 24. A great many thoughts came crowding into my mind. 25. Their being neighbors only made it more embarrassing. 26. Don't stay wasting my time. 27. He is too long winded to be eflfoctive. 28. He began cutting bread and butter, and went on doing so. 29. He came home, to find the doors locked. 30. He took advan- tage of my absence to lock the doors. 31. He was seen lying where the fallen trees may be found. 32. To fly from need not be to hate man- kind. 33. Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, as, to be hated, needs but to be seen. 34. I would I were to die 1 35. He was the last to appear. 1. Whether it is won h knowing is another matter. 2. I had rather die than do it. 3. Beware of haaty gathering of riches. 4. The sea begins, and there is no jiiore jumping ashore. 5. The dropping her hands ruined us. 6. Returning were as tedious as go o'er. 7. The church was three years building. 8. Morn in the white wake of the niomiiig star came furrowing all the orient into gold. 9. I see men as trees walking. 10. Why stay we thus, prolonging of their lives? 11. My lord of Cromwell is a-comin<; over. 12. His heart stopped beating. 13. He broke out crying. 14. He kept looking on. 15. For not to have dipped in Lethe lake could save the son of Thetis from to die. 16. Will't please you pass along. 17. Have is have. 18. Truth's in a well ; best leave that well alone. 19. You need not to have pricked me. 20. You had as good make a lK)int of first giving away yourself. 21. Had you rather that Cmsar were livmg, and die all slaves, than that Caisar were dead and, etc. 22. To be weak is miserable, doing or suffering. 23. How ! how ! we steal a cup ! take heed of what you say. 24. Yet why comph4n! 25 ^'hat! be a King and dare not ! 26. All the yachts now building are to be opponents of The Thistle. 27. O fool 1 to think God hates the worthy mind, 28 O to forget her I 29. Pshaw ! this fellow here to interrupt us. 30. To spr >k exactly, he is utterly mistaken. 31. He is, so to speak, a fool for his pains. 32. Hf i mistaken, not to say prejudiced. 33. The company were about to leave, being tben paying their reckoning. 34. Worse tlaan that, he fell sick. 35. Shame to say, men better than he do this. 36. Fool that I was, to put trust in a R3man. 37. She is like tomakeamatch of it with the parson. 38. For a wonder, he was picked up alive, 39. He objected to there beiug an appetd. 40. No sooner said than done. GEHIIRAL QUESTIONS. 1. Discuss: a. All notions eJtpressed by language are notions of activity, or notions of existence. The notion of activity is expressed by a verb when the activity is contemplated as bearing on the relations to the speaker, of person, tense, and modo. It is expressed by an adjective when it is not thus related to the speaker. The notion of existence w expressed by a substantive. b. Of Grammar, the essential parts, if not the whole, are Etymologj- and Svntax ; for Orthography relates to the mere arrangement of letters for the arbitrary representation of certain sounds, and Prosody to the sosthetic use of language. 2. Explain the peculiarities in the meanings of the verbs in the following : 1. James reads well. 2. The book reads well. 3 The waves break on the sea- shore. 4. The box breaks open. 5. He breaks silence. t>. He breaks breail. 7. Faro thee well. 8. He over-slept himself. 9. The bread ate tough. 10. The fxperinient was making. 11. This lodging likes me well. 12. The shoe gives. 13. This uoctrina obtained last year. 14. He went mad. 3. Explain Addison's remark: "The single letter a on manr occasions doestbt office of a whole word, and represents the his and her 'f our fortfrtthers." 4. Discuss the etymology ami syntax "f two, twain, both, ten, eleven, first. l!unest, lelonged to lement into the present g words are host, row; foul. ,andc.; and , and for the LCt. ind probably bymology h»3 as it were, i by another inge within a lonsonants ta rce had been entered. 4. . lertain vessel _ kill a good io begin. 8. 10. Of all This youth, thou mayest Btrous beast, And it came Hi. 19. For, 21. Anger is He lived — jrth the day iietb at Boaz CHAPTER XVI. INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES, CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 1. The only kind of sentence of which we liave thus far treated is that by which something is asserted or declared, and which is, therefore, called the assertive or declarative sen- tence. But (as has been already more than once pointed out) this is not the only kind of sentence that we use. Instead of making a matter the subject of assertion, we sometimes make it the subject of inquiry. If we want to know about anything, we do not need to (though we always may) make a statement of our want : saying, for example, I desire to know ivom you whether John is here ; we say instead, Is John here ? Again, we express a command or a request without putting it in the form of an assertion. Instead of saying I wish (or command) that you come here, we may say simply Come here I These are fundamentally difierent forms of sentence, because they lack the assertion or predication which is the essential of an ordinary sentence. Information, inquiry, command — these are the three established uses of communication between man and man, each having its own form of expression. I.— The Interrogative Sentence. 2. The INTERROOATIVE sentence, that by which enquiry is made, differs least from the assertive, has least that is peculiar to itself. Like the assertive, it is made up of a subject-nomina- tive and a predicate verb, each admitting all the adjuncts or modifiers that are to be found in the ordinary sentence, and tlie verb having the same variety of forms and phrases as these. 362 IMPERATIV E AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. ptVl. 2- The variation of the interrogative sentence from the asser- tive is of two kinds. I. KINDS OP QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS. 3. First : if the question is as to the predication itself, or whether a certain thing which would be expressed by the sen- tence in its sertive forms, is oris not true, then the change is simply one of arrangement, tho subject being put after the verb instead of before it. Thus, for example, Is he h3re ? Did he arrive yesterday ? Will he go to town to-morrow 7 4. To such questions, the natural answer is the very same sentence in assertive form, with or without the adverb not added : thus. He is here ; He did arrive yesterday ; He will not go to town to-morrow. Or, for brevity's sake, we use the simple responsives (IX. 12 and 13), yes or no, the one in place of the full affirmative reply, the other of the negative. 5. A variation of this kind of sentence is the alternative interrogative, by which, of two or more things thought of as possible, the one actually true is sought to be known : thus, for example. Did he arrive yesterday, or to-day ? Will he go by rail, or in his carriage ? Here the answer is the assertion of one or of the other alternative, or the denial of the remaining one or of both; thus, He arrived yesterday : He will go, not by rail, but in his carriage. 6. Second : if the question is as to the subject of a given predication, or as to its object, or any other of the adjuncts or moditiers either of the subject-nominative or of the predicate verb, then the enquiry is made by means of some form of the interrogative pronoun, or of the interrogative adjective, or by an interrogative adverb. Thus, for example, ■ Who is here ? When did he arrive ? Where is he going to-morrow ? At what inn will he put up ? What does he want ? 7. The natural answer to such questions is a corresponding n.2' isser- If , or 3 sen- nge is 3 verb XVI. 10.] INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE& 36S r same rb not BS (IX. mative LNATIVB It of as : thus, other both : iage. given ^ncts or radicate of the or by lut up 7 jonding assertion, with the desired subject or object or other adjunct put in place of the interrogative word : thus, John is here ; He arrived yesterday : He will put up at the best inn ; and so on. 8. In the language of every day life, an assertion has often added to it a question, consisting generally of an abbreviated sentence which expresses the expectation of what is stated in the assertive sentence : thus, This man is comeliest, is he not? A shocking thing hanger is, isnt it? Why ! you won't fight him, will you Bob ? 'Tia right, old hoy, ia it? II. ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS : CONDITIONAL INVERSION. 9. As the examples show, the regular place of the interroga- tive word, of whatever kind, is at the beginning of the sentence, or as near it as possible. And then, as in the other kind of interrogative sentence, the subject, unless it be itself the interrogative word, is r»ut after the verb. 10. This order of arrangement, as it inverts the usual position of the two essential elements of the sentence, the subject-nomina- tive and the verb, is called the inverted order ; or the sentence is said to be an inverted one. Its special use !S in interroga- tion, but it is also found elsewhere. Thus (by a usage which has grown out of the interrogative one), it is sometimes employed in stating a condition, or in giving that meaning which we usually express by if : for example, Had'st thou been here, he had not died ; Were the King dead, his son would succeed ; None will listen, criest thou never so loud; instead of if thou had'st been here ; if the King were dead ; if (or though) thou criest never so loud. This is called a case of conditional inversion, or the sentence is said to be an inverted conditional sentence. The change of construction from Did you see him 7 Then you would know this ; first to Did you see him ? Tou would know this ; and then to Did yott 3ee him, you would know this ; ■I 364 INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. [XVI. 10- p. m W'' Ij ■I'l 'M 1;;^ M I.,' -N^ KV.Svifl is one easily made. In older English, indeed, this usage was more com* mon than at present : thus. Have ye good ti/dynges, mayder ? than we he glad. In Modern English, however, the question is felt to be such, only when the tense is present indicative, and then the mark of interrogation is used : thus Is any aflUcted ? Let him pray. Is my young master a little out of order ? The first qaestion is, etc. Such sentences as Should you BOvs him. yon would find him changed ; Be it a trifle, It should be well done ; owe the order of the subordinate clausn to the original interrogative construction, and the mood to the later conditional construction. On the supposition of an original question, we may also explain the use of whether — or in such sentences as Whether you go or stay, all will he well, whether being originally interrogative and the subordinate clause being now equivalent to "if you either go or stay." ' 11. The regular and usual order of the interrogative sentence is sometimes changed, generally with some change of meaning. Thus, a sentence in the assertive order is often made inter- rogative simply by the tone in which it is uttered : for example, He is not gone yet ? He will put up where ? which may express surprise, as if Is it possible that he is not gone yet ? or may request the repetition of a statement not understood, as if Where did you say that he will put up? or something of the kind. III. — CLASSES. 12. The interrogative sentence, like the assertive, may be compound, or complex, or compound-complex, interrogative clauses being used instead of the independent assertive clauses of such sentences. But an interrogative clause cannot be dependent — except, indeed, in the case (a very rare one) of a dependent clause of addition (XIV. 14. c) : thus, He lives at Paris— where is it possible that you have never been ? 13. Often, however, we find the interrof?fttive word in an objeclive sub- stantive clause, the order of the words in the principal clause being that of an interrogative sentence ; thus, Who do yoi^ say that he is ? WU^re do you sa^ he has ^one ? XVI. 10- frecom* ch, only rogation LB, etc. rrogatWe n. plain the Luse beicg sentence meaning. ide inter- example, iood, as if ZVI.16] IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 365 may be rrogative [e clauses Lnnot be |ne) of a i^erbeen? Active sub- Deiiig that bne? In Modern, and more frequently still in older English, this form of expression has led to confusion in the construction of the interrogative : thus, And he axed them, and seide, whom 8«ien the people that I am .?— Wycliffb. And ... be said, whom think ye that I am?— Auth. Yebs.Bibls. II.— The Imperative Sentence. 14. The IMPERATIVE sentence, expressing a command, re- quirement, or request, has for its characteristic a special form of the verb, namely the imperative mood, which takes the same adjuncts or modifiers as one of tlie other verbal forms. The imperative is not in our present English marked by a distinct inflection or other sign : it is always the same as the simple infinitive, or the stem of the verb, thus, give, love, be, go, do, have. For the imperative, as for the other moods, are made emphatic, progressive, and passive verb-phrases : thus, love ; do love, \q loving, be loved ; go ; do go, ie going, be gone ; An imperative verb-phrase is made even from be : thus, Do be still ; Do not be gone long. And with let, as has been already shown (VIII. 145), an imperative verb-phrase is formed to intimate a wish or direction in the third person, and even in the first, for both the active and the passive conjugation ; thus, Let us (or, sometimes, me) give; Let him (or her, etc.) give ; Let the drums be beaten ; Let the witnesses be summoned. • I. CLASSES. 15. The imperative sentence (like the interrogative), may have the same variety of construction as the assertive, being compound, complex, or compound-complex. But an imperative clause can be dependent only when it is simply additive (compare 12 above): thus, He will be here to-morrow, when please call again : It is at the tenth page, which see. 16. Like the interrogative, the imperative sentence is sometimes substituted for a conditional clause ; thus. Fling but a stone, the giant dies ; Let earth unbalanced from her orbit fly, Planets and suns run lawless through the sky- ^> ^/\*, 9u ^-^-t^^S IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) h MA A t/j 1.0 I.I 11.25 ■» |2.8 ,50 ™*« IB u Hi 1 *^ l^ 1.8 U. il.6 ^ % /: / '/ /A Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) a73-4S03 C/u 366 IMPERATIVE AND INTERftOGATIVE SENTENCES. pCVLM- Aod the imperatives anppose, admit, grant, and aaj, (some of which approximate in value to conjunctions), are used to introduce conditional clauses : thus, Suppose lie fail, what matter does it make 7 Bay I be entertained, what then shall follow 7 In snch sentences, again, as Say (you) what you will, yon will fidl, the Mj may be valued either as imperative or as subjunctive. 17. But the proper imperative is by no means the only form of expression by which a speaker signifies a command or a demand, or seeks to control or to influence the action of another. The same meaning can be conveyed by assertive expressions like Thou Shalt go i You must give : which are in themselves simple statements that there exists a necessity for such and such action on the part of the person addressed ; and, of course, the same statement, with something of the Etame imperative meaning, may be made in the third person, or even in the first (see VIII. 116 and 122). And, as has been already shown (VIII. 115. a), will may also be used in the principal clause of an assertive sentence t6 express a softened command or direction given to another, it being courteously assumed that the person spoken to or of is willing to do as he is directed, and the meaning of the speaker being determined by the tone in which he speaks : thus, No one will speak till I return ; Tou will all be sure to be present to-morrow. Sometimes, indeed, will may be used in a question which is really a request, for we enquire as to the will of the person addressed : thus, Will yon kindly do it for me ? Tou will be sure not to forget it? and in Ton will be sure to be there, will yon not 7 we have an assertion with a question added, the expression forming what is really a request. The imperative and the interrogative sentence, therefore, shade into each other. 18. The direct command of the imperative, moreover, shades off into expressions of more or less forcible or imperative wish, or desire, or imprecation. pcvLie- XVI. 20] INtSnROOAtlVe dEKTGNCeS. 867 I of which only form land or a action of xpressions re exists a the person something n the third U may also lentence t6 another, it or of is he speaker hus. th is really » 3d : thus, Lion forming Live sentenoe. [ver, shades pative wish, In these senses the present subjunctive is much used, especially in antique and poetic style and in certain estab- lished phrases: thus, Part we in fidendship firom your land ; Be we bold and make despatch ; Some heavenly power guide us hence : Thy will be done ; The Lord tless thee ; Well, then, so be it ; Perish the thought. This, as we have already seen (VIII. 27), is the optative use ai the subjunctive. It is limitod to the first person plural and the third person of both numbers — unless, indeed (which would be correct enough), we regard the proper imperative, when it has its subject expressed, as being rather an optative subjunc- tive. As the examples show, the subject always follows the verb in the first person, and may eitlier precede or follow (more oioen the latter) in the tliird. The past aubjanctive has also sometimes an optative sense, but only in incomplete expression (compare Vin. 134, and see ZVIL) : thus, that be were with lu I 19. In ordinary speech, instead of the optative subjunctive we generally use the verb may as optative auxiliary, always putting the subject after it : thus, for example. May I retain your friendship ! May we part in peace I May there be no ill-will between us ! May the thought perish I May some heavenly power guide us home ! With such phrases, the imperative verb-phrase with let is generally equivalent in meaning and interchangeable. In reference to the propriv ty of the interchanee of the subjunctive, the potential, and the imperative, in the expression of a wish, see Vin. 20 and 139. b. m.— The Bxelamatory Interrocatlve SeMtence* 20. The interrogative pronouns and adjectives who and what (not which, nor whether), and the interrogative adverbs (especially how), are often used in an exclamatory sense — that is, to make an exclamation^ expressing some strong feeling, such as surprise, admiration, disapprobation : thus, for example, What a sad sight was this I How are the mighty fallen ! Such are to be called exclamatory sentences in the interrog»' tJve form. 368 IMPERATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. PWl «> As the interrogative sentence shades into the imperative (see 17 above), so also the interrogative and the exclamatory shade into each other. The normal question expects an answer, and the normal exclam- ation expresses merely the speaker's emotion. The rhktobical question assumes an answer in accordance with the speaker's judgment, and ita value is perceived from the context : thus, Wlio is here that would not be a Roman? and in such sentences as Who eonld ever have bAUored it I it is a matter of doubt whether we should use a note of interrogation or of exclamation. The form may also be that of a dependent clause : thus, What a sad sight this was I How the mighty are fUlen I But this is an instance of incomplete expression : as if it were See what a sad sight this was ! It is strange, how the mighty are fkUen t Its co nsideration, therefore, like that af the optative past, belongs tozvn. nr.— The Imtcrrogatlve aad the Iinperatlve Sentence in Indlred Narration. 21. As in the case of assertive sentences (XIV. 18-20), questions or commands may be expressed as coming indirectly from the speaker thereof, and, when thus expressed, they exiiibit a different construction : thus, What do you say ? Has he gone 7 Let him go ; Thou shalt go ; become, when expressed indirectly, He asks (has asked, or will ask) what yon say ; whether (or if) he has gone ; He asked (or had asked) what yon said; whether (or if) he had gone : He commands, etc., that you let him go, or you to let him go; that thou shalt go, or thee to go : He commanded, etc., that you (should) let him go, or yon to let him go : that thou shouldst go, or thee to go. These examples show a. That indirect questions are introduced by whether, or if, if there is no interrogative word in the direct construction ; and that indirect commands, when expressed in the form of a dependent clause, are introduced by that, and that they mav also be expressed by an infinitive phrase with its subject. [XVLfl» ZVL 21. b] BXBHC18BS. 369 ve (see 17 e into each nal exclam* !AL question ent, and ita rrogation or b. That the verbs in the dependent clauses follow the rule for the sequence of tenses already given (XIV. 19. b.) for assert- ive sentences in indirect narration. But in questions the indireot construction is sometimes used for the direct : thus, Fam whispered to Florence, aa she wrai>ped him up before the door waa openM, Did she hear them 7 Would ahe ever fori et it 7 when the regular forms would be the quoted sentences : "Doyotthearth«m7" "Will you erer forget It 7" lent re yarefUlenI ast, belongs Indirect ), questions y from the exhibit a ther (or if) r (or if) ethimgo; yoa tolet ither, or if, astruction ; form of A ; they mo.v bject. EXERCISES. After defining a sentence as interrogative or imperative, we may |>rooeed to analyze it and describe its members according to the methods which have been followed hitherto. An interrogative sentence may be re-arranged in the assertive order, and divided into subject and predi- cate. But an imperative sentence without an expressed subject cannot be so treated. If we have, for example, the sentence, Qlva me that book ; we must say that it is an imperative sentence, composed of the imperative verb give (with its complements), used without a subject, for the purpose of giving a command to the person or persons addressed. Ah inverted conditioniu and an inverted optative clause should be defined as such. The Talues of the modal forms and phnies in the followlnfir, ss well as any ayntactical peeuUaritioa of words or phrases, should also be dih'iuased : §§ 1-21. 1. So Heaven decrees ; with Heaven who can contest? 2. Peace! what can tears avail ? 3. Lives there who loves his pain ? 4 Shall I go, or will you ! 6. What fear we then 7 what doubt we to increase his utmost ire ? 6. I asic you : are you innocent or guilty ? 7. Shall th mistake. 34. This deserves mention if only for its incongruity with the ^t of his life. 35. If for no other reason, he should be hurled from office because he has caused a war of races. 36. Alive, he stood fire ; and he died game. 1. What if this curled hand were thicker than itaelt with brother's blood ; is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens to wash it white as snow? 2. It mi^ht be the pate of a politician, mi^ht it not ? 3. If it be so, Laertes,— as how should it be so? how otherwise?— will you be ruled by me? 4. Is not thy master with him? who, were't so, would ba^'e informed for pre|>aration. 6. Wake Duncan with thy knocking I I would thou couldst. 6. Oo not my horse the better, I must become a borrowpf of the night 7. Thou shalt not live, that I may tell pcle-hearted fear it lies, and sleep in spite of thunder. 8. Pray Ood it be. 9. Dost thou think, if I would stand against thee, would theroposal of any trust, virtue, or worth in thee make thy words faithed? 10. O heavens! that this treason were not! 11. What might Import my sister's letter to him ? 12. What should it know of death? 13. What sin would be upon her head if she should suffer thus ? 14. Wretched man that I am, who shall deliver me ? GENEBAL QUESTIOKS. 1. Account for the irregrularities in the following sentenoee ; 1. Those kind of apples don't suit me. 2. Neither precept nor principle are so forcible as habit. 8. She is older thau me. 4. I am a plain, blunt man, that love my friend. 5. This measure gained the king as well as the people's approbation. 6. James is the strongest of the two buyu. 7. Let thou and I the latter try. 8. He has not done nothing wrong to-day. 9. Every one must Judge of their own feelings. 10. He I must punish, but she I will forgive. 11. No one was to blame but I. 12. Classicsare impor- tant. 18. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. 14. He walks like I do. 15. Didyou expect to have heard such a speech ? 16. Neither will he do this nor that. 17. llie water has bur»ted the hoKshead. 18. I never have nor never will forget it 19. Bertrand is— I dare not name it 1 20. This book is youm or hisn, I cant say vhich. 21. And he charged him to tell no man ; but go thy way. 22. But now my Hngerincr feet revenge denies. 23. He is a fool of a fellow. S4. What sort of a man ii he ? 96. The iron and wooden bridge are both impassable. 2. Criticize the toUowing : a. The plural W6 does not denote several Ts, but I and some one else. b. In tbn comest in 2. Time bo ly's election istake. 34. fest of hid from office ire ; and he lood ; is there I iniirht be the )uld it be so? th him T who, u think, if I in thee Rmke What might 13. What Bin lat I am, who iciple are to that love my n. 6. James has not done Ho I must are irapor- He walks will he do ^e nor never m or hisn, I ty. 22. But hat sort of a I). csi )r equality of se it makes persons, at manner In •neaUed e. When a partldple forms with a noon (or pronoun), a clanso grammatically detached from the rest of the sentence, it is said to be in the nominative absolute. t, Completeness and incompleteness of action or atate are the only relations thai oan he expressed by the tenses of the infinitive and participle. g. Infinitives are used as Mljectives when they limit a noun or pronoun, as " a knUeto out with." h. WbMI, while, where, etc, stand in the same relation to other adverbs as the relative pronoun does to the noun. L A verbal noun takes after it the same case as the verb from which it is derived : as, " On beinic elected king, he was satisfied." Here "Idng" i; pred. nom. because the passive form "to be elected" may take a pred. nom. after it J. If one of the nouns (or pronouiu) Is plural it is put last and the pronoun is plunl : as, " Neither Spain nor the United States were wanting in their efforts to preserve peace." k. To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed near Its antecedent : as, "The soldier was tried for the offence, who disobeyed his officer "should be " The soldier who, etc" L Place the adjective as near as possible to the noun it modifies : as, "a good glass of mUk " should be " a glass of good milk." m. When the Immediate nominative of a verb Is a relative pronoun, which may refer equally to two antecedents of different numbers, the verb takes the person and number of the antecedent nearest the relative : as, " He was one of the boys that struck the tramp." IL Alone when used adverbially should be placed immediately after the verb It modifies : as, " He was sitting alone (that is, " by himself") in the room." O. Verbs cf doubt, deny, fear, should not be followed by but, but that, bnt Wliat, for that. Lest after a verb of fear stands for that not. p. Do ought to be used as a substitute for other verbs, only when the ellipsis of the preceding verb can be supplied. Consequently, in "I did not say as some have done," ^' done " should be " said.^ 8. Illustrate the following statement by means of a series of typical examples : The exceptions of grammar are not infractions of laws, but instances of laws that, in aocordanoe with higher laws, are becoming, or have become obsolete. 4. Select tjrplcal senten^ses, other than those given in the text as examples, to UlustR^ the various kinds of subject and predicate comp.ements. 6. "Lofi^o deals with the meaning of langruge, Oramraa'- with its forms and con* structions, and Rhetoric with its persuasiveness." Explain this statement by reference to the sentences : "Great is Diana of the Ephesians"; and "Diana of the lilpherians is great" 6. ExpUdn the statement that the prefix a has at least thirteen different values in Snglisl;, of which the following are examples : adown, afoot, along, arise, aoUeve, avert, amend, alas, absrss, ado, aware, apace, avaet. 7. Justify Ben Jonson's statement: "Z Is a letter often heard among us, but ^^^■1 m •II ,i IRREGULAR EXPRESSION. [mt, 1- CHAPTER XVIL IBBEQULAA EXFSESSIOH. ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION. 1. So far we have been dealing mainly with the regular forma taken by the complete sentence : we have now to consider some of the chief irregularities and their causes. 2. A sentence or a clause is complete when it has its own subject and its own predicate, both given in full. But we often express ourselves by sentences which are not complete, but lack more or less of the regular structure of a sentence. 3. Sentences are rendered incomplete chiefly by abbreviation — that is to say, they are made shorter or briefer (hence the name) by omitting parts which it seems to us unnecessary to express, because, either through t'le connection or in some other way, the meaning is well enough understood without them, A part of a sentence which is thus omitted, because the mind understands it to be there, or understands the sentence as if it were there, without needing to express it, is said to be under- stood. And the omission is often called an ellipsis (that is "a leaving out"). 4. The abbreviation of sentences, in one way or another, is made in all styles of speaking and >« riting, and in sentences of every kind. But it is especially common : a. In familiar colloquial speech and in conversation, because there the mutual understanding of speaker and hearer, and the aid of tone and gesture, do much to fill out the expression ; in t^h way we economize our utterance. T>. In lively and picturesque, and especially in impassioned or emotional speech, because there it is sought to impress the mind more strongly by putting before it only the emphatic or most important ideas. Exceptional abbreviations are met with in the lan^faaee of every-day life, which is especially economical, and in poetry, which u eipeciiJly tine lanfoage of feeling. [ZVU. 1. :oN. liar forma sider some IS its own t we often 3, but lack REVIATION (hence the cessary to [ome other hem, the mind e as if it )e UNDER- s (that is nother, is tences of L, because ', and the ssion; in sioned or the mind or most very-day Ksially the ZVn. 7] ABBREVIATION FOR BCONOMT. 373 1.— AbbrevlaCloB for Eeoa«mjr. I. — ^TO AVOID REPETITION. /. — In Crdinate Clauses, 5. The simplest and commonest kind of abbre\ lation, which is used in almost every sentence we make, is that by which, when two or more co-ordinate clauses following one another would be • made up in part by repeating the same words, these words are omitted in all but one, and left to be understood, or supplied from the connection, in the others. Thus, for example, in the following sentences we should usually leave out the words which are put in brackets : He is present, she (is) absent ; He is present, she (is) not (present) ; The boy despises the infant ; the man (despises) the boy: the philosopher (despises) both : I have something to sing, (I have) something to say ; These are dark (woods, these are) gloomy (woods, these are) unfrequented woods. But, of courae, such an abbreviation as the following is inad< missible : The matter was hushed up, the servants (were) forbidden to speak. 6. Then, as we more often connect the clauses together by means of conjunctions when they are fully expressed, so we also make great use of conjunctions in connecting the fragments of them that remain when the unnecessary repetitions are omitted ; thus, for example : I am not sick, but well ; He is good, and handsome, and clever ; or He is good, handsome, and clever ; Read not to contradict nor to believe, but to weigh and consider. By this means, conjunctions, which are originally connectives of clauses only, have come to be, on a very large scale, connec- tives of words and phrases which are co-ordinate — that is to say, which have the same office or construction — in a single clause. And we have seen (XL L b) that words of all the parts of speech, and in oonstractions of every kind— aubjects, predicate verbs, objects, modifying words, prepositions, and so on — are thus bound to£;«)tKer by conjunctions within the limits of one clause. 7. As we call a sentence compound when it is made up ot two or more co-ordinate clauses, usually connected together by con- junctions, so we call any member of a sentence or a clause a 37 1 IRBSaULAR EXPRESSION. [xvn. 7- COMPOUND MEMBER OF element when it is made up of two or more co-ordinate words (usually Iwund together by conjunctions). Thus we have a compound subject in Friends and foes rushed through together ; a compound predicate bJjective in They were lovely imd pleasant in their lives ; a compound prepositional connective in < He was seen both before and after the battle; a compound adverb-phrase in He was seen before the battle bnt not after it ; and so on. We should never think of calling the sentence itself compound be* cause any of its less essential members, any adjunct or modiner either of the subject or of the predicate verb, is oomponud ; nor, in general, if the subject itself is compound ; nor even If the predicate verb is com- pound, provided the sentence is brief and not complicated, as in Ee (went) and I went ; I went and (I) came ; He (went) and I went, and (he came and I) came; (Here the words in brackete show what would be added to make the expression complete). But in I arose, after a long and refirestalng sleep, at six o'clock this morning, while the dew was shining on the grass, and having made my toilet and despatched a hasty breakfost, went out Into my orchard to see what damage yesterday's gale might have done to my firult trees ; it would doubtless be practically better to regard the omitted subject I aa understood before went, and to describe the sentence as compound. The verbi the word of assertion, is, above all others, the essentutl ele- ment of a sentence ; and it is perfectly proper to hold that there are as many sentences (or clauses) as there are verbs in anything we say. 8. The co-ordinating conjunction and is used far oftener than all the other conjunctions together in thus compounding the elements of sentences. And so distinctly do we feel that it binds together into one the words composing a compound element that, as has been seen above (XIII. 20. (2) a), the verb belonging to a subject so compounded is made plural, as if it had a plural subject. There are also other combinations which cannot be taken apart into single clauses : for example, We thought Tom and Dick and Harry a noisy trio ; He confounds right and wrong ; Three and eighteen make one-andtwenty ; He sat between his sister and his brother. Such combinations with any other conjunction are only rare and irregular. ixvn. T- ►£ two or inctions). zvn. 11] ABBREVIATION FOH ECONOMY. //. — In Dependent Clauses. 375 It; npound be- liner either general, if srb iBoom- lin una; o make the la morning, rtoUatand aeewbat anbject I oompound. lential ele- ere are as say. ener than tiding the 1 that it lompound the verb 1, as if it be taken 10 : >nly rare 9. But even the subordinating conjunctions are sometimes used to join a mere word or phrase which represents an abbre- viated dependent clause to that on which the clause would depend: thus, Are yon mad? If not, speak to me; Though often forbidden, he kept coming; He fell while bravely defending the flag; It can be done, though not without trouble ; Did yon go? If not, yon may remain now; that is, if yon are not mad, though he was forbidden, etc. ; though it cannot be done without trouble, etc. In all such cases if we are to parse the words or clauses, we must supply the ellipsis. Most commonly 'his form of ellipsis is found in the case of the verb be, the simple copula between a subject and a predicate word (Zm. 26. a;, ^ions with a subject which is the same as thtk'i of the other clause. An< I, in aU Buoh oases, the fact of an omission of what might bo and mnnt often is expressed, is much more distinctly present to onr minds tium when we aboreviate by means of and or or or but and the Uke. 10. By a like desire to avoid unnecessary repetition, we some- times let a relative word or a dependent interrogative represent alone the whole clause which it would ] ave introduced : thus, He has been gone all day, no one knows where; I cannot come, and I will tell you wh y ; One of yon must give way, I do not care which: That is, where he has gone ; why I cannot come : and so on. We have noticed under Adjectives (VIL 56) the frequent and familiar omission of the noun modified by an adjective, when it is readily to be supplied from the connection. 11. It is because comparison naturally involves parallelism or repetition of expression that the conjunctions of comparison, than and as, and especially as, have come to be followed very frequently by abbreviated and incomplete expression (as already pointed out, XL 6. d) : thus, for example (adding in brackets the words which may be supplied as understood). He is taller than I (am tall) ; He is older than you think (that he is old); I would rather go than (I would soon [IX. 7]) stay ; She is as good as he (is good); She was as gay as (she) ever (was gay); 376 IRREGULAR EXPRESSION. XVILIS* He put it off as long as ^putting it off was) possible ; Love thy neighbor as (thou lovest) thyself; I regard it as (I regard a thing) possible ; Starting with luoh abbreviated coDatmotions as tb^* last two, u has oome to be used as a kind of appositivb coNNBOTi^E (11. 86 and 89 (1)) and even to take on the meaning of "in the light of," " in the character of " ; so that, by analogy, we nuke such phrases as He gained great fame as aa orator r His flune as orator was great; He did tbis as a precaution ; He did his dnty as olulrman ; where it would be by no means easy to fill out the ellipsis in such a way as should give as its proper meaning. Often, before a conditional clause, a whole clause of compari- son, involving a repetition, is omitted after as: thus, He looks as (he would look) if he were tired ; I would thank her as (I should thank her) if she had gone; and the same kind of ellipsis is found with as and than before other kinds of clauses : thus, You are Just as gay as (you are gay) when you are in health; Nor was his ear less pealed with noises than (one's ear is pealed little with noises) when Bellona storms . . . or less than (one's ear would be, etc.) if this frame of Heaven were falling. Even the conditional clause itself may be abbreviated (see 9 above), making, for example. He looks as if tired ; Stooping as if to drink ; so, too, Tou are as gay as when in health. In conditional clauses this kind of abbreviation is so common, that as If has come to seem to us a compound conjunction or conjunction- phrase of comparison, and we are quite unconscious of the ellipsis really implied in it. As though is used in the same sense ; while, if the ellipsis were filled out, though could h^<^y ever begin the conditional clause. The interchange of though and If is probably due to the fact that in Old English the one is often used for the other even in ordinary con- structions, as is sometimes the cass in Modem English also : thus, A well armed, If (or though) undisciplined army, poured forth, etc. ; If (or though) your exterior be never so beautiful, you must possess a beautlfta interior also. In older and in recent English, we find constructions equal in value to tho'^e with as If in which no If is used, the subjunctive form after as indicating the possibility : thus. To throw away the dearest thing he used As t were a careless trifle. — Suakespkabe. And half I felt aa they were oome To t9sr me ITpm a second bpnft— Bybon. ZVILIS- Lble; two, u has and 89 (1)) le character «• great; man; Buoh a way if compari- I; ladgone; tian before n health: ar is pealed han (one's falling. ated (see 9 XfB,12] AnSREVIATlON FOR ECONOMT.< 377 ^mmon, that >n junction- the ellipaia rhile, if the conditional fact that in fdinary oon> thus, th, etc ; poBsesB a jial in value Irm after aa led But even in Modem Enfflish poetry the omission of the if is nnoaiuu, owing to the loss of force on the part of the sabjunotivo form. By an abbreviation Icindred to as if, we change Ton must so act as one acts in order to win approbation into Ton most act so as to win approbation ; and this has becoiuc, ilBuri^inbciiigunthou^htof by us, one of tho com- mon oonstrnotioim of tho intinitive (XV. 16 b). Once more, we f ruquenlly form sontunccs like these : Xy friends, poor as they are, are above being bought; All nnanned as he may be, he will disdain to fly; where the adjectives poor and unarmed are in appositive mnatruction, modifying the subjects of the independent clauses, friends and he — as if it were being as poor as they really are poor r ud no on. Indeed, tlie moilal adverb as still appears occasioiiially, as itc ' a did in Old Eoglisb, as the correlative of this as ; thus, for instance, v u find in Carlyle, For Nature, as green aa she looks, rests e /ery where on dread foundations. But such a clause comes to appear to useq '. • alent to b'>-vii ever poor they are, or though they are poor ; and then, by aniloky ' rhich involve marked abbieviatiuns : thus, for example. Poor as they are^ you cannot buy them ; Valiantly as he may fight, they will be?.t him ; where an absolute construolion is implied : thus they being as poor as they are ; he fighting as valiantly, etc. ; or, again. Much as Z lore you, I loye honor more ; where the appositive adjective is omitted : thus, I, loving you as much as I love you, love honor mora, JII, — In the Split Conatruction 12. In written, more frequently than in spoken, languag;), there is found a form of sentence-abbreviation, called the split coNSTRUcrriON, in which the part common to two or more phrases or clauses is expressed but once : thus, for example, Too much is undertaken by, and expected firom, the teacha: • Some are, and must be, greater than the rest ; He is older than, but not so tall as, his brother ; It has become, and may be described as, an appositive ; In written, more fireauently than in spoken, language, etc. : that is, Too much is undertaken by the teacher and expected fh>m the teacher; 3ome are greater than the rest are great, {md some must be, et^ 378 IRREGULAR FXPRESSIOX. [zvu. la- But, of course, such abbreviations as the following are inad- missible : Man never is, bnt (is) always to be, blest; Many have (sat), and others must, sit here. IV, — In Question and Answer, 13. It is by the same simple and obvious kind of abbreviation — namely, by leaving out parts of the sentence which are so clearly Ujiderstood from the connection that it would be mere wasteful repetition to express them — that in question and answer a word or two often stand for a whole sentence, short or long. Thus, if one asks Who broke in through the window, and did all this mischief in the room? it is quite enough to reply Jack, without repeating the whole story of what Jack did. Or, if one says You need not expect to see me at school to-morrow, the return-question Why? and the answer Because I am going out of town, both imply repetitions of the first statement ; but these need only be implied, and not actually made. So also we very often repeat, in the form of an abbreviated question, a statement just made, in the way of asking for assurance as to the trutli of the statement (XVI. 8) : thus. So they are off already, are they ? Tou do not believe it, do you ? We may be sure, may we not, that he will betray us ? The expreasioDS (IX. 12 and 13) yea or yes nay or no were originally adverbs, the one meaning ** certainly *' or " to be sure" (which we often use instead), the other meaniog "not," and each stands by abbreviation fur a sentence in which it had the office of an adverb ; but they are now complete answers by themselves, and no longer imply an ellipsis, because we have come to use them only in this way, and never combine them with other words to make complete sentences. v.— By mhatitution for repeated parts qf speech, 14. To save the burdensome repetition of nouns, we have the pronouns as brief and much used substitutes. In a similar way, the pronominal adverb SO is a very frequent substitute Tra. 17. b] ABBREVIATION FOR ECONOHT. 379 for a word (oftenest an adjec+ive) or phrase or clause used as complement of a verb : thus, for example, He is an Engliskman and so are yon ; He is either married or going to be so I thought that he could he trusted but I think so no longer ; If he is not already tired of waiting for us, this last delay will make him so. And do is an almost equally frequent substitute for a verb that needs to be repeated : thus, Sleep seldom visits sorrow ; when it doth, it is a comforter : Embrace me as I do thee ; I love her better than he does. 15. The infinitive, a participle of a repeated verb-phrase, is very often omitted, and the auxiliary left alone to represent the phrase : thus, for example. He has never seen it, but I have ; I will join them if you will ; Do you promise me ? I do. In easy colloquial speech, even a repeated infinitive is represented by its sign to alone, He would not go, tbough I told him to ; Ton may stay If yon want to ; but this usage, though recent and much used, i" i^:t ^ttputable (L 61) and is not allowed in careful style. II.— Abbreviation when tbe Sense Is Clear. 16. Not only, however, where the completion of the expres- sion would involve an unnecessary and unavoidable repetition of something actually said close by, but also where the common usages of speech are such as to show plainly enough what is meant, we often take the liberty of omitting something. 17. a. "We may have a subordinate member of the sentence omitted, as in He is fifteen (years old), and tall of his age : This is the man (that) I saw ; It is a quarter after six (o'clock) ; Stop at the baker's (shop) ; We visited St. Peter's (church); Tours (your letter) of yesterday is received ; I shfillleave on the twenty-third (day of the month) ; Don't do more than you can (not) help. b. One of the more essential parts, the subject or the verb, may be omitted. Thus, the subject is omitted in certain current phrases in the first or third persons : as Thank you I Prithee (that is, I pray thee) ; Would that he were herj I Blesg^oul Oonfoond the fellow I 380 IRREGULAR EXPRESSION. [ZVn. 17. b- Also in diary style : as Went to church yesterday ; mean to go next Snx^day. In the second person in the imperative, and in the second person singular in poetic and antique style the pronoun is omitted : as, Oo; East heard? What say 'st, my lady 7 Why dost stare so 7 In concessive chiuses like Do what we will, yaor'k as hard as we may, we yet aocompUsh nothing ; for Do we (that is, Let us do [XVL 16]), and so on. In comparative phrases, an indefinite subject after as or than (conipare 11. above) : thus I will come as early as is possible ; The day was fairer than was usual at that season. With impersonal verbs the subject is sometimes omitted in poetic and antique style : thus, in Milton, Pure, and in mind prepared, if bo hefUl, For death. Of this usage, which was common in older English, meseems, me- thinks, etc. (VII. 167), are apparently survivals ; but the clauses that are connected in sense with these verbs are their logical subjects : thus, for example, Methonght (that) I by the brook of Cberlth stood. Again, the verb be, the copula, is sometimes omitted — oftenest before a predicate noun or adjective, and in a question : thus, Why all this noise here 7 Tou a soldier ? Hence these tears ; The higher the mountain, the greater the cold. A verb of motion is often omitted in commands, being made unnecessary by an adverbial adjunct : thus. Up and away I Off with you I Back to thy punishment, false fugitive t and after the auxiliaries (here, of course, the asserting word still remains) : thus, Farewell : ni hence : I must after him to tell the news : And now let us down to breakfast. c. Examples of the omissioix of both subject and predicate verb, only a subordinate member remaining, are (I wish you a) Oood morning, ladies ; (I drink to) Your health, sir ; (I give you) Many thanks for your kindnesi ; Waiter, (hand me) a clean plate : (It is) Agreed f (Give me) Tour hand upon it; Boatswain I (I am) Here, master; My daughter is married to I know not who (he is) ; (Go we) A Uttl« ftirther, and wt ihalX be at our Joumey'a •nd; 1. 17. b- xm.2o] ABBftEVlATIOK ton feCOlJOMY. ddl I person I 80? .otlilng; or than L oetio and iema, me- 8 that are thus, for roftenest II : thus, (6 tears: ig made ag word ews: edicate I it; r'l tiid: I know not what (I am) to do ; I will tell you when (you are) to begin. And in tfie absolute oonstruction of the pronoun, both it and the auxiliary being are left out in such sentences as It is provoking, (you being) so tired cm you are too. 18. What and now, followed by if and though (see 11 above), sometimes represent whole clauses : thus, What though she be a slave ! How if the sky were to fall ? That is, What matter is it, How would it be, or the like. So not in such sentences as Mot that I was ever afiraid of bim ; is the remnant of a clause, something like I would not say, or It Is not the case. So too with not (XIV. 14. a) in Did yon see blm 7 Not that I recollect. And the related expression Not but that I might have gone If 1 had chosen, we should in order to parse it, have to fi.l up in some such form as I would not say auything but that I, etc. Compare the somewhat similar abbreviation with butt noticed in VL66. 19. The so which is used so liberally, especially in mawkish and afiected speech, in sentences like I was so glad to see you ; It was so dreadftil ; makes the expression really incomplete, because it distinctly implies a comparison, of which the other member, a dependent clause introduced by as or that, is left unexpressed. Well-established usage authorizes such expressions as He says I have wronged him; but so far from that, I have done him all the good in my power, when the meaning is but I am so far firom that, that I have, etc. ; but the form without so, namely, but, far from that, I have, etc., is both more logical and tees cumbrous. 30. In Modern as well as in older English, an emphatic addition expressive of manner is made to a statement, sometimes by means of and that and rarely by means of and this : thus, Ood shaU help her, and that right early ; * Ohanoer often hits the mark, uid that by means the least expected ; He role several races for Jlr Thomas, and this with suchexpertness, etc, where the fall forms would be and CkKl shall do that right early, and OhawMr does tbat^ etc., and so on. Here also, by ellipsis, the pronooas 382 IBREOULAR EXPRESSION. [ZVIL20- seem to represent part of a aentence which has just been osed. Ana- logous with these constructions are the following : I heard a bnnuning, and that a strange one too ; She had one foe, and that one foe the world ; With short Intervals of sleep, and those entirely filled with dream. U.— Abbreviation for Impresslveness* 21. It was noticed above (4) that not economy alone but often impressiveness also, is sought to be attained by abbreviation. In the haste and heat of feeling, we throw aside our usual elaborate mode of calm expression, by assertion or statement, by putting together a subject and a predicate, and bring fortii only that part of the sentence which most strongly affects our mind, or which we wish to have most strongly affect the mind of another. Hence all emotional expression tends strongly to incom- pleteness ; the exclamatory sentence is apt to be a defective one. And any admixture of feeling adds to the readiness with which we resort to the various modes of abbreviation. I. — WORDS OR PHRASES. 22. Along with an interjection we often put a word or a phrase pointing out more distinctly the kind of emotion we feel, or the occasion of it : thus, horrible I And oh, tlie difference to me I Alas, my unhappy country I Lo, the poor Indian ! Ah, the pity of it ! Fie, the lazy fellow I Pish, nonsense I Pshaw, how absurd i But quite as often the occasion of the feeling is itself made an exclamation of, without any interjection added, the tone and gesture showing plainly enough what the feeling is. Thus the interjection may be omitted with any of the above examples. Other forms less oommonly used &re, Speak 7 I conldn't have uttered a word ; To think that he shonld have done so I He to desert me I (XV. 16. g) Simpleton I To dream that he could sudbeed without effltirt. Occasionally, as if the interjection were an assertion instead of a more sign of the feeling intended to be intimated, a pre- position is used to combine it with the added explanation (see XII. 6) : thus Fie on you I AlaaforTroyl * for a lodge in some vast wilderness I as if it were 1 grieve for Troy ; I cry shame upon you ; I long for a lodg*^ -^ tm.iA] Afi&ntlVtATlOH ^OA IMt>Rt:sSlVEKE8lS. 383 made |>ne and I the )les. L6. g) stead pre- m (see 23. A number of otir ordinary words are so commonly used in incomplete exclamatory expression that they have almost won the character of interjections. Such are the interrogative words why, how, what, with many others, of which the following are examples : well, indeed, hark, behold, hail, help, silence, quick, away, ont, back, to anns. 24. Occasionally, as the result of emotion, we find the essential ele> ments of a sentence omitted in a question (compare 17. o above) : thus. Where to begin 7 How excuse myself 7 But how to gain adanlulon 7 in each of which am I may be supplied. II. — DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 25. Dependent clauses are often used in an exclamatory way, with omission of the main clause on which they should depend — this being sometimes replaced by an interjection. Thus, for example, that he were with us t Had we bnt known of it in time I What a pleasant day it has been ! How clear and balmy the air is I If you had only seen her in her glory ! As if I could be guilty of such meanness I Alas that he should have proved so false I That a king should be so conveyed 1 Oh ! Mr. .Simple, if you only knew how I loved that girl I as if the construction were I would that he were with us ; It were well if you had only seen her in her glory ; Observe how clear and balmy the air is ; and so on with the rest. Such may be called exclamatory clauses in the dependent FORM. III. — the relations op the vocative, the imperative, and THE interjection — INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES. 96. As has been already stated (XVI. 18 and 19), the imperative and optative modes of expression shade into each other, and are both nearly related to the exclamatory ; and hence the question mav often arise whether a given sentence or part of a sentence is best viewed as the one or the other — ^juat as it may sometimes be questioned whether a ■entenoe ia more ioterrogative or exolamatoiy. m iRtlfidtLAU &XP&efiSlO)^. [XVll. M- There vt a certain relationship between the vocativk or nomina tive of addreu in the noun, the imperative or mode of direct com mand in the verb, and the intebjeotion or word of direct intimatiof of feeling. The &nt and last stand equally outside the structure of the sentence, and the imperative usually rejects a subject ; and the three variously accord in their practical uses. 27. For the sake of stimulating attention, or of giving force and im- pressiveness to what we siy, or of softening what might seem too poritive or blunt, or for other such purposes, we are apt in familiar colloquial style to throw in or interject into our sentences little phrases whicbfform no real part of what we are saying, and stand in no grammatical connec- tion with it, and which are also like interjections in that their chief pur- pose is to intimate our states of feeling. Sometimes these are complete indep.ndent clauses : as, you know ; yon see ; Z ttil you ; I declare or fiemoy ; and sometimes they are incomplete, or mere fragments of sentences: as, - to be sure ; as It were ; so to speak ; by your leave ; if I may say so ; We may call them, then, interjectional phrases. The whole catalogue of asseverations and oaths are of this character. Thus, for example, by Jove strictly means "I swear ty Jupiter," and would be, if used seriously, the invocation of a divinity to attest the truth of what we are saying. And the same impulse to make our expression more forcible by putting into it a strong word or two, something that seems to imply feeling or passion, leads occasionally to the insertion of absurd bits of phrases, which it would be in vain to try to build up into sentences : tJius, for example. Who the mlBOlilef can have done this? What in thunder are you here for? ' It is not easy to avoid slang and inelegance with even the most moderate use of the most innocent inter jectional phrases ; and they shade rapidly ofif into what is coarse or profane. in.— Change in Cluinicter of Word^ and Phrases, prodneed by Abbreviation. 28. It is a common oonsequence of abbreviation that words change their grammatical character, and come to bo of a different class from what they were before. Thus, for example, in He kept himself quiet. He got himself appointed, . Keep and get are transitive verbs, and quiet and appointed objective preaicates. But now in familiar style we have shortened the expres- sioiwito He kept quiet ; He got appointed ; and so have made the verbs intransitive, equivalents of oontlnned and became— which last, lik^ otheid of our verbs originally transitive or reflexive, has nndeigon , a like change of construction* ivn.iA" nominft •ect com' [itimatiot ire of the the three e and im- > pofitive colloquial iiiclMorm i\ oonnec- zhief pur- moes: as, >haraoter. Beriously, •e saying, y putting eeling or phrues, ihoa, for ^he moet ^ey shade by change from |bjeotive expres- and itive or XVII. 39] ttfiSULTd dP ABBtieVlATIOM. S85 Again, along (f«r on long) is originally an adverb-phrase, like on high and In yain, made iuto an adverb — like abroad and afkr, which have always remained adverbs only. But, like above and among, and many other like adverbs, along came early to be lised as a preposition also ; and it WAd used in such phraoes a4 along the side of anything. Then a further abbreviation and change made over the adverb-nhrase along the side into a compound, as in His ship lay along side of onra ; and this, finally, by omission of the following of, became vhat we have to cidl a preposition. Because, in like manner, is for by canae — ^that is " bv reason " — as beside is for by the side. We have not, indeed, turnea because, like beside (for example, in beside himself), into a preposition, but always use a connective bet we. n it and the following noun, as in We stayed in because of the storm ; just as we should say by reason of the storm. But between it and a following clause we have learned to leave out, bv abbreviation, the words of oonneotion, and so have turned it into a conjunction : thus, We stayed in, because it was gtonDy ; where the complete expression would be because of the fact that it was stormy. So the conjunction for is originally the same wofd as fore ; and the clause, for example, for it was stormy, is by abbreviation from before (that is, " in front or in view of ") the fact that it was stormy. We have already noticed this mode of conversion of adverbs and prepositions, and even other parts of speech, into conjunctions (XI. 8). This process is still going on ; for, within a short time, British speakers and authors have begun to use words like dlreeUy and immediately aa conjunctions of time : saying, for example, Directly (that is, as soon as) he got In, the train started. But this usage, though recent, is neither national nor reputable, 'I, 61). Abbreviation promices phrases a^so which are used with the value of parts of speech and inflected like them : thus, in He more than convinced me ; he altered my oondnet, more-than-convinoed is construed as a verb (VIII. 173. o) the regular form being he did more than couTinoe me. 0>^hcr examples are He never-so-muoh-as-oonvlnced me ; He all-bnt-fiBlnted. 29. These are onl^ some (including the more usual and regulhr, ox tl^o ways in which English expression is abbreviated, with the result in part to give a new character to words, in part to mnke incomplete or ellip- tical sentenoes, which have to be filled up in order to be oesoribed «-nd parsed. It may ofton fairly be maSe a question whether we shall supply an ellipsis, declaring a certain word or certain words to be understood, or whether we shall take the sentence jast as it stands, regarding the mode of expression as so usual that the mind, oven on reflection, is unconscious the absence of anything that shnnld be there. Thus it would be quito of absurd -to fill out a phrsse in which for was used as conjunction to ths m iRRfioULAH £XPRl£dSlOy. [xvii. aft. form (as explained above) out of which its use as oonjunotion grew ; but we may either treat as tf as a conjunction-phraae or fill in the clauaa which the as really represents (see 11 above). OTHER CHANGES OP THE CHARADTER OF WORDS AND PHRASES: IDIOMS. 80. But our words also change sometimes, more or less, their gram- matical character, simply by our comine to apprehend in a new way the expressions in which they are used. Thus, we have observed already the formation of the reciprocal pronoun -phrases one another and eacb other by our losing sight of the original difference of construction be- tween the two pronouns composing them (VI. 68) ; also the great shift of meaning of tne passive participle when used with the auxiliary have to make "jporfect tenses ; and other like cases. So, further, the us3 of both and either or neitber and whether as conjunctions correlative to a following and and or or nor, is by derivation from their value as pronouns, by a changed understanding of such sen- tences as these : I saw both — (namely) John and William ; Either (one of ns)— lie or I— must give way ; He knows whether (t.e. whi^h of the two)— this or that— is true. So, also, than is only then, with a changed office ; This is better than that meant originally either This is better, then («.e. next after it) that (is good) ; because the O.E. thanne or thone was originally demonstrative (see VI. 31) ; or This is better when that (is good), because the O.E. form came to be used as a conjunction with the force of when (compare VL 43). \Vhich explanation is the correct one depends upon the period at which the construction came into use ; but on this point we have no certain knowledge at present. 31. In part by abbreviation, in part by other changes of construction and of the value of words, every language has many modes of expression which are exceptional, unlike its ordinary combinations — phrases and sentences which if taken literally would not mean what we use them to mean, or which puzzle us when we attempt to analyze and explain them. Such irregular expressions are called idioms (from a Greek word meaning " peculiarity "). Their production is a part of that constant change of language (1. 15) which is often called the **growth." In order really to account tor them, we need especially a knowledge of the history of our language. The present usages of any tongue we cannot fuUv understand without knovnng something of its past usages, out of which these have grown ; and often a great dt al of study and a comparison of other languages is required for settling difficult points. Some of the commonest of these have been taken up in the smaller print of this grammar. THE PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING IRREGULARITIES OF CONSTRUCTION : GENERAL CONCLUSION. 82. In chapter IV., we saw that the great causes of change of sound and form in Enff'i^h words, were, first our desire for ease of pronuncia- tion, and, secondly, the influence of accent ; that these two causes act sometimes separately and very often together ; and that almost all other cnanges are due to analogy. From what we have seen in this chapter, as txvii. ad. jpcew ; but the clause »S AND lieir gram< V way the id already and each action be- l^eat shift liary have whether as derivation such sen- stme. etterthaa er it) that onstrative the O.E. L (compare ihe period ) have no istmction xpresaion rases and them to lin them. sek word constant In order e history ot fully of which nparison le of the of this OF ft sound munoia- isesact ^1 other tm. 31] BXfiftCISKS. 387 well as elsewhere in thb book, in regard to irreffularities of the coustruc- tion of the elements of the sentence, we conclude that, to a large extent, the same principles prevail ; that AbbrevUUion — iJie moat /ruil/ul cause of irregularity of construction — M produced by our desire for ecwe of expression, only those parts of the sentence being retained that are needed for clearness ; or by our emotions causing the emphatic enunciation of certain parts of sentences, the rest being omitted, as is the ejfect of accent upon the less important parts of a uH>rd ; that these two causes act sometimes separately and very often to- gether ; and thai most other irreguilarilies of construction are due to the influence of analogy, the original value of an expression having Imen forgotten and the construction being valued on the analogy of some other construction which it has come to resemble. EXEBOISES AND QUESTIONS. An incomplete sentence should be defined as such, and those words should be added which are necessary in order to enable us to analyze and parse it. Any syntatioal peculiarities ot words or phrases in the following should also be talcen up : 1. Favors to none, to all she smiles extends | oft she rejects, but never once offends. 2. We have no slaves at home, then why abroad ? 3. Not simple conquest, triumph is hit* aim. 4. Ruin from man is most concealed when near. 5. Take the terms the lady made ere conscious of the advancing aid. 6. Why am I beaten ? — Dost thou not know ? — Nothing, sir, but that I am beaten. — Shall I tell you why ? — Ay, sir, and wherefore. 7. They loved him not as king, but as a party leader. 8. He looked as though the speed of thought were in his limbs. 9. Oh ! but it is a romantic spot. 10. Worse than that, he fell sick. 11. He did not wish to impugn her conduct, least of all in the servant's presence. 12. The Ultramontanes, whatever else they may be, would not thank us for describing them as Liberals. 13. The book, greatly to my disap- pointment, was not to be found. 14. Come what mav, he will not go. 15. Gome, you at least were twenty when yon married ; that makes you forty. 16. How dost? and how hast been these eighteen months. 17. Sure of that ? — Very sure, 18. And what if I call my servants and give thee in charge ? 19. Great God ! that such a father should be mine. 20. O for that warning voice, which he who saw the Apocalypse heard cry in Heaven aloud I 21. Say where greatness lies. Where but among the heroes and the wise ? 22. What a cold-blooded rascal it is ! If the malignant eye of her father had but seen them at the moment 1 23. Up, Guards ! and at them ! 24. Strange to say, he was picked up alive. 25. Beally, he did it more because he values the criticism than because he values the author. 26. No matter who went, he would go day after day. 27. There are more reasons than the mere interpretation of the treaty why the Canadian view should be insisted on. 28. It helped to throw him into a more than usually excited state. 29. It wouldn't do to leave out the furze bush ; and there's nothing prettier to my thinking, when it's yellow with flowers. 30. The blest to-dav is as completely to as who bemn a thousand years ago. 31. I cannot lend you so much as a dollar. 32. He is more proud than sensible. 33. He is better off than you woold imagine. 34. 1 had rather go to see him than have you come 38d fiXKBOlSBd. tzvn. here. 35. He wonld have sone but for his lameness. 36. Were he here, yes, standing beside me, I woald beard him. 37. Don't imagine but that he has done his best. 38. One hardly knows whether to speak to him or not 39. Bless me, Mr. Corks, anything happened T 1. And vet here, a* long snd m broad m they sre, theae glaciers arerbat six streams in six hundred. 2. Work as he may, he will fail. 8. Much aa I should lilte to go, 1 will stay here. 4. My guide, as a matter of course, did not know the way. fi. As for me, I defer to Tully as to a learned man. 0. No one, so far as I am aware, said so. 7. They would contest tverv seat as an answer to the Loyalists. 8. Scott, as a poet, is inferior. 9. As regards this matter, I can but say that he has played fast and loose with what has as vet been done. 10. Will yuu be so good as to take the will for the doed ? You know it is as good as done. It. The reign of Science has been announced as begun. 12. Not that they thought me worth a ransom, but they were not safe when I was there. 13. He has gone I know not whither. 14. There i* more than a possible danger. 15. They ure, sad to say, all dead. 16. Another word and you die. 17. To my astonishment, he is moie than satisfied. 18. He all but fainted. 10. Creation's heir, the world, the world is mine. 29. To think that he should have been so unfortunate I 21. Oo, let thy less than woman's hand assume the distaff. 22. Have you seen him ? Not that I recollect. 23. Distraction ! if the earth could swallow me I 24. As sure aa can be, here he comes. 26. So far from thinking well of him, I despise hiok 26. I must help you some how or other. 27. I must speak to him, and that as soon, as possible. 88. What with one thing and what with another, I am becpining more and more forgetful. 29. For all that you tried so bird, you have failed. SO. Surely, he is no other than my long ex|)ected mend. 8L Planned merely, 't is a common felony ; accomplished, on immortal undertaking. 23. Talking of ghosts, I expect to see my grandmother's to-night. 83. Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew the Juice nectarious and the balmy dew. 34. Only the exigency of the rhyme (if that) can excuse it. 36. A name among the most genial, not to say enthusiastic, of poet8. 36. He is as methodical as man can be, says the chaplain, adding that his eye is as good as when he commenced his career nearly half a century ago, and that he works more hours than any other man in the prison. 37. They came, a f tw at a time. SS. More than $600 war found in his room. 39. Sooner than allow yourself to be killed, teke this sword and defend yourself. 40. As good dissemble that thou revermeant'st, as first mean truth and then dissemble it. 41. The swan on still St. Mary's lake floate double, swan and shadow. 42. He did not know what course to take ; he was so much put out. 43. Do what we would, they continued to blame us. 44. Heaven doth with us as we with torches do, not light them for themselves. 45. They met with little, or rather with no opposition at all. 46. You wont fight him, Bob? Egad, but I will, Jack. 47. It is not because he bids me that I go. 48. He promises to make an able statesman. 49. Have you teken cold ? 60. Out upon such hypocrisy ! 61. The news bids fair, doubtless, to pass current. 62. He married her some years ago— as true a love mateb as has ever taicen place. OENEfiAL QIJESTIOHS. 1. Give the other forms of the following, and comment thereon : antlo, attltnde, avow, bleach, chivalry, chisel, close, ooncb, costom, coy, diamond, fuhion, fealty, flour, gentle, muster, manure, pity, pattern, sample, sexton, sever, tamper, tidcet, treason, wan, wait. 2. Account for the differences in the spelling of the latter parte of the words in each of the following groups : b«lieve, deceive; succeed, concede; actor, colour, player; insuperable, audible, indefinable ; litigant, regent; dependent, dependant; advise, advice. 8. Aocount for the italicised letters in the following : hMmfive, beanUflil, piMog, dnmesi. paid, piteoni, servicsable, ihodng, dyeing, bopping, revdUIng (but unparalleled). (fvn. era he here, magine but Br to ipeak it at aix itreuns d like to go, I &y. 5. As for e, uid so. 7. , as » poet, is (utand loose he win tor the len announced not safe when lan a possible le. 17. To my tion's heir, the unfortunate ! ou seen him ? H. As sure as « him. 26. I lat as soon, as dn(( more and Surely, he is mmon felony ; «ctto see my lew the Juice lat) can excuse . 36. He is as lod as when he are hours than Acre than $500 ake this sword L as first mean I double, swan iuch put out. with us as we ttle, or rather ■. Jack. 47. statesman. Bws bids fair, a love match xvn.] EXERCISES. 389 aster, Idcet, rordsineach lyer; dent, rable, 4. Discusa the constructions of the infinitives in the following ^ 1. He commanded him to go. 2. He commanded the bridcn to bo lowered. 8. Let us all go visit him. 4. Did the capUing look to it ? 6. We havo not long to live. 6. That speechless page was seen to glide. 7. Twenty were orderwi to l>e tied up. 8. I woukl I were to die with Halisbuiv. 0. is he about to show us any play? 10. And it came to pass that, etc. 11. If 1 live to bo a man, my father's death revenged nhall be. 12. She prepared to get into the coach. 13.' I could not but smile to hear her talk. 14. He is a man to thrive in the world. 15. Mine shall l>e the first voice to swell the battle cry of freedom. 16. Am 1 foolish enough to believe this talc? 17. You're a saucy fellow to talk thus to mo. 18. I crossed the sea on purpose to see you. 10. To b^n with, my mind was a blank. 20. To look at him, he seems half-witted. 6. Prove the existence of several successive races of conquerors in the British Isles by the tracel of their language which remain at the present day in the names of persons and places. 6. Give the words of O. E. origin that most nearly answer to the following : extend, expand, penetrate, peryade, denote, depart, spiritual, mnltitnde, Intrusion, Invasion, incursion, elevation, attitude. 7« Discuss the forms in the following which differ from those of Modem English : Bifor the feeste dai of pask Jhesus witynge that his our is comun, that he passe fro this world to the fadir, whanne he hadde loued hise that weren in the world, in to the ende he louede hem. And whanne the souper was maad, whanne the dcuci hadde put than in to the herte. thut Judas of Symount Scarioth schulde bitraye hj-m, ho witynge that the fadir gaf alle thingis to hym in to hise hoondis, and that he wente out fro God, and goith to God, he risith fro the souper, and doith of hise clothis ; and whanne he hadde takun a lynim cloth, he girde hym.— Wycliffe'a Trantlation of Jobh's GosPBL, chap. XIII. vv. 1-4. ^ aBAMMATIGAL EXEBOISES. For oral and written practice in Grammatical Exercises other than those based on special subjects, the following course and order are recommended : L In the case of simple sentences : (1) Clasaifieation nnd description ; (2) Supplying of ellipaea with a definition ^ the causes thereof ; (3) Analysis and parsing as recommended on pp. t^ and SIS; only such etymoloifical and syntactical difficulties to be taken up as are suitable for the class, too easy and too difficult points bein;/ both omitted. Even with junior classes, the reasons /or the order of the words eu detailed in chapter XVIII. may be taken up incidentally uiith much advantage. To prevent mechanical work and to secure interest, the character of the exercises should be frequently chawjed. n. In the case of other classes of sentences : (1) CUissifieation and description; (2) Division into clauses, ellipses being sup- plied and explained; (3) Classification of clausei, with the definition of their co-ordination or subordination, and the separation and dencHptwH of connectintj elements aiiA interjectional words and phrases; (4) Analysis as recommended on pp. 4B, 60, and 315, and parsing as in the case of simple sentences. The questions and exercises at the end of each chapter arc intended to suggest «flMr cUsiv''' n# "'•^erolaeB, many of which may, however, be iQcorpon><'«d with the above. 390 0BD2B OF W0HD8. ^xym. 1- CHAPTER XVIII. OSDES OF WOKDS. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 1. Svntax, as we have seen (Xm. 2), treats of the combinations of words for use in the expression of our thoughts. So far we have con- sidered how the elements in a sentence are related to one another ; we have now to consider what principles determine their arrangement in the different kinds of sentences. 3. The assertive sentence He restored me, in which the parts are arranged in the usual prose order, may also be arranged thus : Me lie restored ; and Me restored he. If, however, for he and me in these three sentence we put the king uid the butler respectively, we have The king restored the bntler ; The butler the king restored ; The butler restored the king ; of which the meaning of the second is ambiguous, and the meaning of the third is different from that of the first. It is plain, too, that the reason why we cannot transpose The king restored the bntler, without affecting its meaning, is that king and bntler, being nouns, can distin< guish their subjective and objective uses by position only, whereas he and me can do so by inflection also. So, too, He only lent me ten dollars differs in meaning from Only he lent me ten dollars ; He lent only me ten dollars ; He lent me only ten dollars ; and it is evidently absurd to put the duke's poor officer for the poor duke's officer. But not all sentences in English are like those given above. In others, some of the elements, from their nature, admit of transposition without a change of meaning : for example, in He restored me unto mine office the adverbial phrase may also begin the sentence or immediately precede the verb : thus, Unto mine office he restored me ; He unto mine office restored me. So. too, with ^0 transposed f onw of He restored m«. ^zvm. 1- liinationa of e have oon- nother ; we LDgement in nay alio be le Idngftnd stored; meaning of K), that the ]er, without can di8tin« |y, whereas ^bove. In ispoaition ply precede ZVZII.8. c] GENERAL PltlNCIPLES. 391 We conclude, therefore, that Owing to the Jtronesa of its inJkctiorUf English has in a very great measurj to indicate the relationa of wordn by their order, 8. Ab we ehonld expect, the order of the words in the sentence as well as their forms is determined mainly by the Priuoiple of Ease (IV. 43) : we select as far as possible that oroer which conveys our meaning with the greatest clearness and the least effort. As a matter of theory, therefore, a. The adjective adjunct should precede its nonn, as, under ordinary oiroumstances, the adjective does in English: thus, for example, black in a black sheep. If the nonn sheep were given first, the notion formed might be a wrong one : as white sheep are most common, it would probably be that of a white sheep. When, therefore, the adjective black is added : thus sheep black, we might have to remodel our notion. If, however, we begin with black, the utterance of the word arouses those vague associ- ations w V'l which the word is habitually connected, and, on the addition of the woid sheep, the proper notion is dnarly formed. So, too, with the aaverbial adjunct and the expression it modifies : thus, for example, highly distingnlshed, very quickly, much to my surprise. But, as the result of the uninflected condition of the language (see 3 above), and the greater closeness of the relation of the subject and the predicat«>, the object regularly follows a transitive verb : thus, for example, We gained the victory. SimilarW under ordinary circumstances, an adverb follows the verb it modifies, and the object of this verb if it be transitive : thus. She dances well ; We gained the victory quickly. bw By the same reasoning, the predicate should precede the subject, as it deUrmines the aspect under which the subject is to be conceived : thus, for example, Great is Diana of the Bphesians. In English, however, the subject ordinarily precedes the predicate, as is shotwn by the examples already given. This order is probably due, in a measure at least, to the uninflectMl condition of the language. And, although, as the above example shows, we sometimcti use with marked effect the order which is theoretically the better one, the tendency to uniformity has e"tablished the present idiom. Compare L 41 and XV. 47. a As is the case in English, prepositions and conjunctions should go between the words they connect : they thus precede the expressions they bring into the relation : for example. He and I came, but the captain of the ship renudned at Fljrmontb. We conclude, therefore, that I. A8 a nuitter oj theory, that which affects the meaning of an expression shotdd precede that expression. II. The idiomatic order in the assertive sentence is subject, verb, comple- ment ; adjectival and adverbial adjuncts precede the expressions they modify ; and jrrepositions and conjunctions are placed between the expre^- nn m )r it, a more oreemphasU iteri.ce are the ual position, )ns that are laced in un- h a short or ibsolute deso- l;ed between forming lallest) Lable in the Ifer and less bment may the exprea- Similarly the so-called "Split Construction" (XVIL 12)— thus, for example, I liave often spoken to you upon matters kindred to, or, at any rate, not distinctly connected with, my subject for Easter, is objectionable, because by suspending the sense it throws emphasis upon imemphatic words — in this example upon to and with. 8. In the examples given in paragraph 6, the vigor of the expression is due to the fact that we have no idea of the proper meaning of the sentence till we come to the end. Other more marked examples are Until you understand a writer's Ignorance, presume yourself ignorant of Us understanding ; On a sudden, open fly With Impetuous recoil and jarring sound, Th' Infernal doors ; Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste Brought death Into the world and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the bllssflil seat. Sing, Heavenly Muse. Such sentences are called periodic ; and, as we are by this arrangement kept in suspense as to the meaning, the principle is, by some, called the PRINCIPLE OF SUSPENSE. 9. The desire to give due emphasis to words leads us sometimes to set over against each other contrasted or opposed ideas. This also affects the order of the words, producing what is called the balanced sentence, in which both force and clearness are secured by similarity of form in successive clauses : thus, in In the civil department, he did little but revise all that his brother had done ; in the military, his attention was oonflned to Insignificant details ; the adverbial phrase, by beginning the first clause, secures clearness, while the adverbial phrase, by begmning the second, secures clearness and, by contrast, prominence also Doth for itself and for the first phrase. The desire to emphasize words, phrases, or clauses, produces other effects upon the order in the sentence, but the discussion of these belongs to the domain of Ulietoric rather than to that of Grammar. 10. Thirdly, as to euphony : Although, in such a sentence as He called a meeting of the principal shareholders at his office secretly, that evening, at the suggestion of the secretary, to consider the matter ; the meaning is clear enough and the order of the elements is the usual one, the coUection of adverbial adjuncts at the end and the use in close succession, of the sibilant words, shareholders, secretly, suggestion, secretary, and consider, produce an unpleasant effect. Arranged thus, it is more harmonious : At the suggestion of the secretary, he, that evening, called ■eeretly a meeting of the principal shareholders at his offloe, to ooBSlder the matttr. 396 ORDER OP WORDS. [xvni. 10- P*4 M^n Again in Tbat senfllblUty of principle; tbat clutBtity of honor wUeli felt a stain like a wound, is gone ; the weight of the subject is disproportionate to that of the predicate, and the effect of the arrangement is an unpleasant one (see also 7 above). We must cither increase the weight of the predicate, thus, for example, is gone, to retnm no more foreyer ; or, as Burke wrote the sentence, begin with the introductory it (which is, however, the grammatical subject) and put the real subject last : thus It is gone, that sensibility of principle, etc. Once more, in For magnificence, for pathos, for vehement exhortation, for subtle disquisition, for every purpose of the poet, the orator, and the divine, his homely dialect was amply sufficient; and in As the vine which has long twined its graceftil folip.ge abont the oak, and been lifted up by it into simshlne. rriil, when Ue hardy plant Is rifted by the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caressing tendrils and bind up its shattered boughs ; so is it beautifully ordained by Providence that woman, who is the mere dependant and ornament of man in his happier hours, should be his stay and solace when smitten with sudden calam- ity, winding herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, tenderly supporting the drooping head, and binding up the broken heart ; we have good examples of proper cadence ; the most important ideas, the lon^st members, and the most sonorous words, iu each case come last, thus producing an agreeable climax of sound as well as of sense. While, m the matter of euphony, much depends upou the taste of the writer and the requirements of the subject, and while these princi- ples are evidently less general in their operation than those of clearness and emphasis, and are likely to weigh chiefly M'ith people of taste and education; we may conclude generally that, unless forbidden by the laws of clearness and emphasis, VI. The successive use of unmelodious sounds should be avoided. VII. Connected vjordsy phrctses, and clauses, should be arranged in the order of their weight. VIII. Du£ proportion should be maintained among the different mx,mbera of a sentence. II.— fiffccls upon the Order of the Elements of the Sonteacc. We will now coneider connectedly how the order of the different elements in the sentence is affected by the principles stated in paraj^raphs 6-10 above. I.— The Essential Elements. 11. As a general rule, we have seen (3. above), the subject should precede the verb : thus, for example, in God loveth the cheerful giver ; Who said so 7 Which of them was spoken to ? [xvm. 10- xvm 13] INCOMPLETE PREDICATES. 397 dcbfdlt le predicate, Ibo 7 above). For example, ry It (which ubject last : Ion, for I orator, Lent; bontthe hen V.ue I it with 18 ; so is in the r hours, acalam- 1 nature, ^ up the ortant ideas, :h case come of sense, the taste of hese priiici- of clearness f taste and den by the fided. ranged in the [ent members Intence* lements in the precede the The Lord bless thee I Peace be unto thee ! He asks what he said ; What a sad sight this was I (ZVn. 2S) But, a. The verb itself may be the first word in the sentence : thus, for example, for clearness, in Comest thou from Athol ? Are you ready ? Is he gone 7 May the Lord bless thee I Praise ye the Lord I and, for emphasis, in Telled on the view the opening pack ; the subject in each coming next the verb in accordance with the Law of Proximity. For conditional inversion, see XVL 10. b. The verb often precedes the subject when the sentence begins with an expression which is closely connected with the predicate (6. IL) ; thus, for example, in A mighty man was he ; Sweet is the breath of vernal showers ; He was not present, nor (=and not) was I ; Then shook the hills, with thunder riven ; In my father's house are many mansions ; Not as the world giveth, give I unto thee ; Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have give I unto you ; " The Queen was present," said he, " accompanied by her courtiers " ; What is he ? Where has he gone ? What a sad sight was this I There is a reaper whose name is Death; It is gone, that sensibility of principle, that chastity of honor which felt a stain like a wound ; I am even as unconcerned as was that honest Hibernian who, etc. hut in many of the above examples, there would be no loss of clearness or euphony, if the usual order were followed : there would, however, be a change of emphasis : thus, A mighty man he was ; Then the hills shook, riven with thunder ; and so on. 12. From the examples given in the preceding paragraph, we conclude that, in direct narration, the order usual in the assertive sentenre is inverted in the interroga- tive and the exclamatory sentence, unless in the former the subject is an interrogative (tronoun, and then the sense is clear without mversion ; and in the imperative arid the optative sentence, unless in the Intter the form of the verb shows the meaning clearly. IL— Complements of the Subject and the Predicate. 1. — INCOMPLETE PREDICATES. 13. The subjective complement usually follows the verb, the Law of Proximity bringing the verb next the subject. Examples are Han became a living soul ; Hope springs eternal in the human breast ; He is of great assistance to me ; This is what he needs. But this order is sometimes inverted : thus, for emphasis, in A mighty man was he ; Sweet was the breath of mom ; for clearness and emphasis in the latter of the following connected sentences : He said that he had gone. Such was the fiaot ; and, for clearness, emphasis, and euphony, in Of great importance to our project Is a man who will prove blmself able both to initiate, and to carry out his undertaklngi. 398 ORDER OF WORDS. 13- -:*■ Soe XVIL 11, for sentences containing such apparent inversions as Poor as they are, you cannot buy them ; 14. As a general rule (2 above), the object follows the verb upon whicta Mm|)endR. But this order is sometimes inverted : thu8, for example, for clearness, in This is the letter that he wrote ; What does the tOlvw wask? for emphasis, in SUyer and gold have I none, but such as I have give I unto tlMe ; Venture down into the cabin I dare not ; "The Queen was present," said he, "accompanied by her coortiars " ; and for clearness and emphasis in the latter of the following connected senteDoes ; He insisted on my asking pardon. This proposal I would not aooept. The inversion of the object is more frequently met with in poetry than in pw e , as, iri prose, the need of clearness generally forbids this order and the meaning ihould be evident at once. Such arrangements as the following, for instance, are not adinissible in ordinary prose : The birds their notes renew ; And all the air a solemn stillneis Holds. When, however, the governing word is an imperative ; or when either the labject or the object or both are inflected pronouns or nouns of different numbers ; tbe object is sometimes inverted in prose as well as in poetry, for emphasis or euphony, because in such coses the forms of the words prevent ambiguity : thus, for exampls. Him serve with mirth, his praise forthtell ; Me he restored imto mine office, and him he hanged ; Some pious drops the closing eye requires. 16. When a verb is followed by two objects, the indirect object precedes, being gen- erally the more important (6. 1 ; and compare XII. 42) ; thus. He gave me long odds ; He paid the man wages ; but, when this order is inverted for clearness, emphasis, or euphony, a preposition must be inserted for clearness before the indirect object, otherwise we should follow the usual idiom and value the first object as indirect : thus, for example. He gave long odds to me ; He paid wages to the man ; He gave long odds to me who had been, and \(ho was still willing to be, his friend and supporter. 16. Clearness (6. 1) requires the objective predicate complement to follow the direct object : thus. He made the stick straight ; It held him a captive. But, In the case of factitive verbs, owing to the closeness of connection in meaning between the verb and the objective predicate, the latter sometimes precedes i'or em^asls: thus, for example. He made straight the stick ; or tor clearness, emphasis, and euphony ; thus, for example. He made plain the meaning which he wished to convey and about the real nature of which there had been some speculation. In poetry, again, the desire for emphasis sometimes produces such inversions as Bat light Z held the prophecy ; I might behold addrest the king. .18- xvm. 19] t^antpenda. Ht? xtun": ttencea; bMOept prose, as, ir. i ■twuld be I afdmiBBible 888 Holds. a rabject or ; the object jny, because h I, being gen- prepoeition follow tho UllnK follow the n meaning recedes ;!or about Ion. ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 2.— ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 399 17. As we have seen (3. a. above), the adjectival adjunct, when possible, precedes Its noun : thus, for example, in the case of the attributive word, man's estate ; bis place ; two mea ; tbls man ; loving fatber. But inversion takes place in the appositi ve construction : a. When the modified word is a pronoun : thus, we two ; you four ;— and less frequently— tbey three ; tbese six. As we do not often use this arrangement with the demonstrative of tho third person (which is comparatively unemphatic) preferring, by analogy, the partitive construction : thus, tbree of tbem, four of tbem— which construction is also to be used with the oilier pronouns when the modifier is emphatic ; thus tWO Of US, four of you, etc.- it would seem that the appositive order is here due to the eiaphatiu nuiure of tlte pronoun. b. When we wish to indicate the looser connection expressed by tlie appositive order (XIIL 67), or to emphasize the word modified : thus, Cicero, tbe orator ; George tbe Fourtb ; tbe Lord most Hlgb ; a price so beavy ; a wind sharp and keen ; James bavlng returned. In such expressions, the adjunct may precede, in some cases becoming attributive, or, hi others, remaining appositive and thus acquiring emphasis : thus, tbe fourtb George ; tbe most Hlgb God ; tbe orator Cicero. Having returned, James attended to tbe matter. C. When a desire for euphony, or, owing to the nature of the expression, the need of clearness, prevents the usual order : thus, a fatber loving bis children ; tbe demons found In middle air. d. When, in poetry, variety (a form of euphony) or emphasis is desired : thus, sea-cave dim ; tbe primrose pale and violet blue ; fresb woods and pastures new ; free speech and fearless. e. In a few expressions of French origin (in French, the aujective usually follows the noun) thus. Prince Regent ; heir apparent ; Governor General ; court-martial. 18. Both euphony and clearness usually require that the adjective )>hra8e and the adjective clause shall follow the expression they modify, fiut this order is inverted sometimes in the case of the phrase : thus, for example, for emphasis, in of all thy sons tbe weal or woe ; Of human Ills tbe last extreme beware ; for clearness, in borne on tbe air of which I am the prince ; or, for both emphasis and clearness, in the latter of the following : He bad two sons. Of tbese one bad died and tbe other, etc. : and occasionally in the case of the clause : thus, for example, for enaphasis, in Wbo murders time, be crushes In tbe birtb a power ethereal ; but here the subordinate clause is really substantive in value. 19. As an adjective preceding a noun modified by another adjective modifies the complex notion thus presented, clearness requires, that, if two or more adjectives pre* cede a noun, that most closely c(«nnected with it in sense should b^ placed next it, and BO on (5, 1 and II above) : thus, for example, we say, tbe wise man ; a wide blue mantle ; two large men ; and not wise the man ; a blue wide mantle ; large two men. 400 ORDER OP WORDS. [zvm. i»- In such arrangemonts as What a piece ! How large a letter t •lid BO on (VIL 41)i W6 have au inversion, fur clearncBs (5. l), to begin with the oxclamatory word. Again, in such a Roma oo excellent a guest ; the inversion is probably due to a desire for emphacis. For many a and analogous arrangements, see VII. 38 and 39. So, too, the first five men ; the last two chapters ; four other children ; differ in meaning from the five first men ; the two last chapters ; other four children ; but, as in most sucli expressions the difference of meaning is not m.-irlced, these arranifo- nients are often used interchangeably, with a preference, on the part of good writers and spcalcers, for the arrangement first above given. 20. When, again, there are many adjuncts of different kinds and lengths, euphony and clearness require either some to precede and others to follow : thus, for example. Bom to inherit the most illustrious monarchy in the world, and early united to the object of her choice, the amiable princess, happy in herself, and Joyful in her prospects, little anticipated the fate that was soon to overtake her ; or the repetition of the noun, or use of its equivalent, with the added adjunct ; thus, for example. The spirit of Francis Bacon was abroad; a spirit (or one) admirably compounded of audacity and sobriety. 3. — ADVERB COMPLEMENTS. 21. As we have seen above (3. II.), the adverbial adjunct regularly precedes the adjective or the adverb which it modifies: thus, in the case of the adverb, an almost fatal blow ; very quickly ; not a drum was heard ; much to my surprise ; only because you spoke. Occasionally, however, inversion takes place for emphasis: thus, finding in the lowest depths a deeper still : and in A'odern (not always in older) English the adverb enough, being unemphatic, follows the expression it modifies : thus, good enough ; quickly enough. The pre|)ositionaI phrase, when expressive of deirree, prefers to follow the general rule, unless this order is inverted for emphasis or euphony : thus, in the highest degree fatal ; to a large extent misunderstood : in other cases, the preiMsition asserts its for "■ (3. II. above) : thus, remarkable for his learning ; known to everyone. Euphony and clearness generally require the adverbial clause to follow tho adjective or the adverb : thus, known when he speaks ; known as soon as he speaks. 22. On account of the ^'reater closeness of the verb and its subject, the adverbial adjunct follows iti verb when intransitive : thus. He went home — to his home — to see his father — when I retvimed ; and on account of the greater closeness of the object, it follows the latter when the rerb is transitive : thus, I sent him often— home— to his home ; «to. ZVm. 34] ADVERB COMPLEMENTS. 401 n with the But in both cases inversion takes place for emphasis, clearness, or euphony : thus, Often — Home — To his home, etc., be went ; He often went; To Him th> woes, tby wishes bring ; The Queen was carried to Sterling. There she waa safe ; When I returned, he went home. When the predicate verb is phrasal, the aGing here meaningless, is a mere sign and therefore more closely connrcted with the significant part of the phrase than are the words that precede the adverbs in the examples given above. 23. Where a verb has several adjuncts with meanings belonging to different classes, grammarians, gAncrally spealcing, hold that time comes first, place next, and man ner last ; but to this rule there are many exceptions : considerations of clearness, emphasis, or euphony are the main determinants. Examples are. Once again we sleep soundly ; The moon shone very brightly then ; We sometimes find it when we least expect it ; and the following sentence from Burke shows that much skill is often needed in the arrangement of the adverbial adjuncts : On the morning of the 6th of October, 1789, the King and Queen of France, after a day of confosion, alarm, dismay, and slaughter, lay down under the pledged security of the public faith, to in- dulge nature in a few hours of respite. 24. Certain words, as only, at least, are very likely to cause ambiguity uoless properly placed : thus, for example, in accordance with the general rule, only precedes the word it modifies, in He only lent me a dollar ; He lent me only a dollar. 40^ oudkh op \yoRi)&. kvm. 24- *iji Soiuelimes, however, it follows the expremion it modiflos : thus, fur example, in He lent me a dollar only ; in which cose emphasis is gained ; and in The heavens are open to the falthftd at Intervals only ; or The heavens are open at intervals to the fedthfol only ; by which arrangements we avoid the " squinting construction " produced in The heavens are open at Intervals only to the foithroL Tn arrangements lilce the last, ambiguity might be avoided by proper punctuation ; but, as u general rule, clearness should be, as far as possible, independent of punctua- tion. III.— Connecting Elements. 26. Regularly the preposition is placed between the words it relates (3. 11.) ; but inversion takes place for clearness or emphasis, esixicially in colloquial speech aud in the cuHy style of writing : thus, Pedantry, he is well known to be free from ; Whom are you speaking to ? The man from whom I received it ; From humlng suns where living deaths descend. This inversion is most used when the object of a preposition is a relative or an interrogative, and the preposition thus becomes knclitic, that is, it is uneniphatic, and, as it were, leans upon the preceding word, becoming an unattached suffix. Further, as this inversion makes style less stiff and formal, it may btj regarded as euphonic also. 26. Like the preposition, the conjunction is regularly placed between the expressions it connects ; but here also inversion takes place : Frequently when a subordinating conjunction introduces a substantive or an adverbial clause : thus, That he is lost my fears too truly teU ; When you return I will leave ; Toung though he was, he gained the prize ; but, as clearness always retqiures the insertion of the noun antecedent of an adjective clause, the Law of Proximity forbids the inversion of this kind of clause. In the case of certain coordinating conjunctions, when they are not emphatic. Examples are however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, therefore, moreover ; thus, My fHend, however, refused to answer him ; Clearness also requires that correlative conjunctions should precede expressions having the same grammatical relations in the sentence : thas. He is accused not only (both, either, etc.) of theft but also (and, or, etc.) of murder ; and not, He is not only accused of theft but also of murder ; which latter would lead us to expect some such ending as but also convicted. IV. — Interjectional Words and Phrases. 27. From their nature, interjectional words and phrases may have various positions in the sentence, depending upon the nature of the speaker's emotion : tlm!<, for example, The king, alas t has fallen; Alas ! the king has fallen ; To your tents, Israel ; James, come here. When the interjectional word is not wholly separate from the construction of a sen- tence (XII. 6), the usual rules of order arc followed : thus, for a calm, a thankful heart 1 that it were so { EXERCISES. One of the most useful exercises is *' Parsing f-r Order ; " that is, explaining the effect of the order of the words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. For this purpose the sentences in any of the preceding exercises may be used, as well as the text of the Grammar and Literature lessotu. *.! CLASSES 07 SOUKDS. m CHAPTER XIX. iin$ir the purpose ct of the FHONETIOB. 1. Thui far words have been ooniidered mainly aa elements of the sentenne. It ii tnie that in Chapter IV. the analysis of words haa bcun dealt with, but only of sich words as are really the representatives of older phrases. After anal.vzini; these fthrases into their elements— as, for instance, bearer into bear and er, or refer ato re and fer— we have had to stop, because it is impossible to brcuk up any of these syllables into parts each of which shall have a meaning. If, however, we now analyze the sound of the syllable bear, we see that it coiimsts of three parts, b-eh-r; so, too, fer consists of three, f-e-r; though none of these simple sounds conveys any meaning. That part of lanpruagestudy which deals with the nature and varieties of sounds la called piionrtics ; and, ulthoui;h the subject forms a branch of study distinct from Grammar, we will now take up the elements of Eniflish Phonetics, on account of the value of a knowledge tbentof to the student of English Grammar. CLASSES OF SOUNDS. 5. As a preliminary, we should notice that the number of sounds in a spoken word is often quite different from the number of letters used in writing that word : thus, for example, eight, as spoken, has onlv two sounds, e-t (the e beini; pronounced as in our eb), though five letters are used in writing it : while eighth contains one sound not indicated by its spelling, that is, a t before the th, the last two letters representing a simple soiud. Awe, again, has but one sound, that of a in all , 8. In order to understand the nature of these and other simple sounds, let us mark carefully what we do in pronouncing a few words. Take, for example, the words pea, tea, key, fee, see; and mark, first, how we make the first sound of eacli. In sounding pea, we begin by dosing the lips, thus completely stopping the breath ; the sound which we write p being produced by the sudden breaking out of the breath . In sounding tea, we also stop the breath, but this time b^ putting the tip of the tongue against the hard part of the palate ; and, in soundmg key, we again stop the breath, but by putting the back part of the tongue against the soft part of the palace. On the other hand, in sounding fee, we do not close the lips, but bring the lower lip to the eds;e of the upper teeth, leaving room enough for the breath to pass between, the sound being a rustle caused by tlie breath rubbing against the lips and teeth as it parses throucrh the narrow silt. Vigain, in sounding gee, the tip of the tongue does not (|uite touch the ptilate, and *hc aim is caused by the breath rubbing against the tongue as it passes. Hence we see that some sounds are made by stopping the breath before allowing it to burst forth, and that othe>^ sounds are made by causing the breath to nib through narrow slits left between the tongue and the palate or the other organs of speech. The former of these may very appropriately be called stops, and the latter, fricativkh. In English grammars, however, the Fricatives are generally called spirants, or breathing sounds. 4. But, in uttering the last sounds of the examples in the preceding paragraph, we neither stop the breath nor make it pivss through so narrow a chink as to cause any rustling or rubbing against the organs of speech. This is true also of such soundn as ah, eh, oh, the last sound of coo, the first sounds of at, ask, OX, or, US, ell. It, and the middle sound of put. How, then, are these sounds made? A little observation will show that these are musical sounds, those before described being mere noises. Now, physiologists tell us that Just as the breath leaves the windpipe, it passes between two thin membranes, called the "vocal chords," which, when stretched and brousrht near each other, are set vibrating, and, like the strings of a harp or a violin, give rise to the various musical sounds. Further, it has been found that the differences among these sounds depend partly on the pitch of the sound, but mainly on the shape of the mouth at the time of uttering them. Thus, if the lips are rounded a little, we get the last sound of rue ; if a little more, the sound of oh ; if the front part of the tongue is raised, that of ee. Such sounds are called vowel6. 6. And, as it has been found that all the sounds we use in speaking are formed in one or another of the three ways sxplained in paragraphs 8 and 4 ab«>we, we classify as foUo«l the sounds of our language : 404 PHONETICS. [zn. 8. 1. Srorff, or sounds produced by itopping the breath by the lips or torifpte and th«B allowing it to escape. 2. SririAKTs (or, better, FRiCATirBs), or sounds pnxluood by forcing the breath to pass through a narrow opening between the tongue, teeth, lips, eta 8. VowKLS, or musical sounds produced bj* the breath vibrating the vocal chords, unobstructed in its passage but mooifled by the phape of the mouth. The stops and the spirants are collectively called consonants from tho notion that thev can be sounded only by the aid of a voweL That this ia a mistake is, however, plain from the pronunciation of prism {prizm, not prizum), rhjrtluil {ridhm, not rtack part of the tongue, we sound, rcB|)cctively, t and K. But we find that with just the same positions of the lips and Umffue, we utter the sounds of b, d, and g (as in gay). The difference i« that the breath is held in while making these latter sounds, which causes the voca! chords to vibrate a little, tliough not enough to produce a vowel sound. The latter are, therefore, said to be voicrd (or flat), the former being voicrlkhh or whi we observe what is done in pro- nouncing successively the vowel sounds ot see, say, and sell, and pocil, go, and aU. In the former case the front, and in the latter the back, of the tongue have succeaslveX a high, a medium, and a low position in the mouth ; hence th-. distinction of front ana BACK, and of iiioii, mid, and Low, vowels. Further, as the second series rerre|ii |ej.mier Bell, laxy, 9. Wc have yet a class of vowel sounds to note, each of which scorns to possess the qualities of more than one vowel sound : thus, for example, the sound of ey6 seems to unite the sound of a inaak and of 1 in pit ; Ol, that of o in Odd and of the same L In reality, however, the second sound is not a vowel, but a sound intennediate between i and y, while in nOW we have one ))etwecn 00 and w. To this cIuhs sonic uutliorittes add the sound of you ; but, to be consistent, they should include abu tlie suwids of ya, ye, and so on. These sounds have been called olidrs on the supposition that they arc formed when the mouth is changing from one vowel position to another. They are alHo more commonly called diputhonos, as if producetl hv '*two vowel efforts." Only the initial element, however, is a vowel ; the second is, as we have seen, a transitional sound or plide ; and the two in combination form but a siiitcle syllable. Accunliii;< to some authorities the sound of 6 in tbey and of a in CUHO is a diphthong alau, the last sound being that which ends eye. We may also notice that the sound of oh in cbnrch and of J, which some retrard &% simple, are really glides from the t and d to the sh and xh positiuns, us nmy bu been by prolonging: the souuds, the results being t-Bll-Bll*8h-urch ; d-zh-zh-zll-oke. 10. We now summarize our results in the following table which presents a view of the sounds of the English language : I. CONSONANTS. STOPS. SPIRANTS. VOICKLRSS. YOICBD. NABAIi. V0ICELS88. VOICKO. TRILLS. Gutturals k g ng Palatals ih y, zh Linguals t d n • I l,r I'^fore DenUls & dSl avowcL Labio-dentals. . . i y Labials p b m Wh W IL VOWEUS. NARROW. WIDE. BACK. FRONT. BACK. FRONT. High ee-l 1-11 Mid np a-ie arsk Low e-11 a-h a-n High p-OO-1 good ) Hid t(-0 /ROUND. Low all 0-n } Diphthongs, or Glides, as in eye, aye, boy, OWi ; also vowels followed by r. 11. From the preceding table we see that our language lias about forty elementary sounds. As our alphabet has really only twenty-three characters (C, q, and x being redundant), many sounds have no special representatives. This is ebiMsciully true of vowels, which have onl> five letters, a. e> 1. O, U, to represent them. Tliese deficiencies of our alphabet are made up by using : a. DioRAPUB, or combinations of two letters, to represent one sound: thus, for example, tb, Sb, Wb, ee, al (in air), ao (in gaO^\ and the diphthongs ou, el, and so on. But such combinations are not always consistently used, for the same sound may be represented by different combinations, and differen*; sounds may be represented by the same combinations. b. The same letter to represent more than one sound : thus, for example, a represents different sounds in fatber, all, ale, at, ask, wbat, many; c II II 11 cat, ceaae, tenacious ; and so on. C. What are called onrnooRAPHiCAL exprdibntb, as, for example, the e mute in fame, meantime ; the doubling of consonants— compare striping and stripping. THE DEFECTIVENESS AND UNSTEADINESS OP OUR ALPHABET. 12. The causes of the wide gap between the sounds of ouv- language and the letters of our alphabet are to be sought iu the changes which these sounds have undergone. 406 PHONETICS. [ZDL13. Old English used mainly the Latin alphabet but made some additions to It, viz: as. which Aeems to have represented tbe sound of a in hat ; while the two sounds now represented by th, and the sound of w were represented by three characters, now otMolete. Besides ttiese it used combinations of vowels to represent diphthonKS, as ea and eu, the sounds of which are now matters of dispute. From these Additions and from the fact that the spellin{f of the same word varied in different parts of the country, we may safely infer that the spelling answered tolerably well to the pronunciation . The Buunds of the vowc's were almost certainly : a, as in fittber ; e, as in ere ; i, as in mien ; o, as in oh ; and u, as in 00 : ftnle still wrote as th^.y spoke. This state of matters lasted till the iiitroduction of printing, an event whioih led to a gradual divergence of spelling and pronuncL^lon, as printers came to have a fixed way of speliing a word, no matter how it might he spelled in the copy ; and as the diffusion of printed boolcs led to the spelling used in them being generally adopted. Hence, while the sounds of the language have changed very much since the fifteenth centurj^, the changes in spelling have Tagged far behind, so that now the spelling of a word is no guide to its pronunciation. The periods during which changes in sound were most rapid are from the Norman Conquest to the writing of the Canterbury Tales, and, in a less degree, the periods of the Wars of the Roses and of the Civil War, times of great change and unsettlement of men's minds and of much mingling of men from different parts of the country with the consequent obliteration of local peculiarities. During the time of the Wars of the Roses, there was, moreover, a general neglect of literature, a condition of matters which always tends to changes in a language. It has been already seen that (I. 31 and 36) that the de«r example, O. E. cyrice became chUTdh, the Northern kirk', the combinations hi\ hi dropped the A, and hui became wh; ee was also weakened to eh. but in the North it held its ground. As these chansres were most rapid in the South, they maj' have been hastened by the fact that the Normans left off speaking French and natxvally carried some of their peculiarities of pronunciation into their speaking of English. Moreover, they continueti to use many French words, and so introduced into our language such sounds as J, and the Fr. u, which has in modern times been altered to yu. The sound of zh was iirobably introduced later when French had weakened its J to that sound. It is, however, incorrect to suppose that kn, gh, were at once simplified, as knight was pro- nounced k-n-i-n-t as late as 1567 and knoWn with a k in 1(321. These last changes belong to tbe time of the Civil War or even later. The changes of these latter periods are illustrated by the following examples from Ellis's Early English Pronunciation, a being pronounced as in fiithei:,«cial signs for rhort sounds, these, when accented, are usually indicated by doubling the sign of the follow- ing consonant, as in gabble, whioh we, therefore, syllable gab-ble, as if the sound of IB.] SYLLABICATION. 407 b were heard twice, >hioh, however, is not the case. Tltis practice has given riaj to the notion that a short vowel lias mure to do with the folluwiiitr consonant tlian has a long one, a mistake which leads to such divisions as ca))-ill, Cbap-dl for ca-bin, Cba- pel ; 98 if a 811011 vowel could not end a syllable, though we know it can end a word, as in Aiuexlca> happy. The fact is t'liat a short vowel is affected as much as a long otic by the following consonant, and no more. Of course, if moro consonants than one con>e between two vowels and cannot all be sounded by one effort, the first must be taken xith the first vowel, just as in the case of a consonant ending a word, the slight vowel- ike sounds caused by openin^r the organs, being disregarded, ^urther, it is reasonable lo take notica of the significant elements of which compound words are made upi lence we may deviate from the natural phonetic division of words and write in-Bub-or-dl-nate, In-ad-e-quate, writ-er, ynSk-er. Generally speaking, however, the syllabication of words is empirical and determined xif the systems of particular printers. THE PRINCIPLE OP EASE IN PHONETICS. 14. We have seen (IV. 43) that one great cause of changes in the sounds of a language ia the wish to avoid trouble, and that this often takes the form of indistinct articulation, the result being the substitution of easier for more difficult sounds. From what has already been said of the principles of phonetics, we can now see what are easy and what are difficult sounds, and why the^' are so : a. Spirants, as they do not require perfect contact of the organs of speech, arc evidently easier sounds than stops. Hence the change of the sound of c (— k) to 8 before e, 1> and y, and of -tlon to •«Aun ; and also such substitutionn as V for b in baye, live, heave (O. E. hahbaii, Ubban, hebhan) ; sh for se iu shield, shoot (o. E. scyid, «ceot-an)— compurc shabby and scabby ; th for d or t in father, hither, lath (O. E. feeder, hider, latta). b. Sounds produced far l)ack in the mouth are apt to be changed into more forward sounds, the true place of contact being missed. Thua careless apeakers say roiUlill' for runnliur, it being easier to raise the tip than vhe back of the tongue. So, too, in passing mim the k to the t position, we get the souiid of ch in child, ditch, Cheap (o. E. did, dician [cp. dike], ceap). Hence also for gh (O. E. h) we pronounce / in rough, tOllgh, laugh, thus substituting a labial for a guttural spirant. C. Vowels undergo like changes. Thus, what we now pronounce a and ee were once ah and eh, and the vowel sound which once was a in father is changed into moro forward vowels in pronouncing tale, at< all ; a is changed in spelling also in froiu, load, burst, pebble (O. E. fram. ladar bcwut, papol) ; and in hurricane, stands for a of the Spanish huracan. In like manner, sea and ^^een were o>ce say (as still in Irelind, where it is a survival), sayn ; while blood was at, first bl6d {o=6%), then blood (00 as in food). In all these cases we have a change either fn na a vowel sounded in the back part, to one sounded in the front part of the mouth, or from a vowel sounded with greater to one with less opening of the mouth. We have also seeu (TV. 43) that sounds coming in immediate succession tend to grow luorb like each oti;er. Assimilation as this has been c.illed, has been illustrated chiefly as it affects ficoiius of consonants. But vowels sometimes affect neighboring consonants, and are alFo affected by them. Thus the a sound' . m loaf, leaf, thlet Here also belongs the pronunciation of s like zh or z in pleasures. gbimm's law. XBk Thus far we have considered changes in >ounr* >n the same langiiage. We have now to notice some important factb respuctiisg tiu correspondence of sounds in languages of the same family. It will readily be understood that illalec once- differing but little from each other, M, (or example, Dorset wh.ch puts Z Mid y t'or a »n 1 f uf etanda4'd Snglith, and Yorlt* IjSr — - 408 gbimm's law. [: 16 shire, mny in timo become so nnlilwe m to be classed as Bcpar-.it« languages. Yet it would be found that when one of such lanj^iag^es had a certain souad, the other bad the same sound, or one nearly like it, and that wliat differences there were would be re^nilar, not capricious. Now all who study German notice tliat, while some words are almost the same as those in English : thai Qer. Haus, Maua, Mann ; Eug. h0U86, mousei man ; others differ slightly, as Ger. denn, drei, Dinfi. Eng. tbln, tbree, thing ; w zu, zunge, zwei, Wasser; » tO, tongae. two, water. This difference distinguishes High German from English (and other Teutcnio languages), while its regularity proves a common origin for both. But we find a sinillar relation between the sounds of English and other Teutonic languages, and Latin, Greek, Celtic, etc. Thus to and correspond Latin, trea, tenuis, Greek, trein, tanyt, En<;ii8h. tliree, tl:ln. dtntis, duo, fendo, fons% (hdont-os, dyo, theino, thyra, tooth's, two, dint. door. So, too, with gutturals and labials : thus, for example. Consequently, Latin. eaput cord-is Greek. Jrepliale kardia-a English. bea4 heart's Latin. pater ped-ia Greek, pater pod-os English, father foot's gentia aenos jbn >hy-o ager horttia agroa chortos acre yard (O. E. geard) fer-o /rater fer-o phrater hear brother. ^o Lat or Gr. e(,k) p t answer the English h f th ; i» i» h.cK) /{ph),J{th) n g b d ; » r. g d n K(C) t. This important fact ie known, from the name of its discoverer, as Orihh's Lkyr, It may be easily remsmliered and applied by means of the following mnemonic words : a r P e T Hu FPo TH O a r B 1 « D K n o T. To find the sound In English corresponding to a givon Latin sound, look for the given Latin sound in these words and the required English sound will be found immediately below. Thus, the c of cania is found in GarPeT, and under it is found the corresponding' letter h of hOUnd. So the g of gnoaco is found in GarBleD, and under it the k of ^OW. Conversely, by taking the word that contains a given English sound, as d of dust, M-e And the corresponding Or. as th of thy-og, " incense," while the sound F of IIuKFeTII, gives the Lat. fot/umua, "smoke," Lutin using / instead of initial th. The lot lowing table presents additional illustrationo : 0, P, T. Lat. conitt Gr. ker-aa H, r, TH. Eng. horn n, r, TH. Lat. fv-tis Gr. chy-ma clii-o ple-nus kly-o pie-res 10Ud(O.E.AZud)lUll pre-hendo fa-ma chand-ano get gulu flxe ta-hes torq*t«-o. te-ko trep-o. thaw throw. o/-fend-o thein-o tharao. dare. (p)jov.is. Di-oa. Tues-day. Jlo-a pho-ne vhlo-oa a, B, D. £:ig. gii-sh get Dan hloom dln-t Q, D. Lat. gran-urif* gelu viv-o(=gvi^v-o) guat-o dom-o Gr. bio-a {=gvw-a) geu-o dama-o G, T. Eng. com cold quick J choose tame I kiss This relation, it should, liowevcr, be remembered, holds good for those words that form a part of tlie ori^'inal stock of each la: