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TORONTO: CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY (LIMITED) /-■ r i1 ) Entered aofor, ing to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the office of the Minister of Agrieu turo, by ThK CaNAI.A PUBLISHIN./COMPANY?LrMITED) £ the yt-ar one thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine. \ ^7^ PRKFACE. pl.iblo«iea. ..e.oa..c„ has nuxHfled t fe.^of Z,"^^"1' f"" meet the existin.- eo, dUiot T '^T'"" '''"* '^ """'"''"l to teaohei. who hav'Cdre mt^ """'"'■ •"" '•'''^*^'-thou'.k niiirof tr a t t:s'!^^d"eo'^T ^"f ""^•" «"'• it is r,ot intended that thev shonM . •^''»^*.™''t'o°« are given, exhibit then.aiu facts il^deveitrTtref' '"""."''^'^ especial consideration • tl,« mZ I \ ^^^ 'anffuage deserve to illustrate stat:™:n;s wLe i.hrothr" '=r ""^^'^ "^^"'^ uudei-stood. In accord",.re wif fr °""'™'«« ^e imperfectly definitions have benllt eVh Iv .^''' P^'lasogieal opinion, definitions in Section ll "! **"' "^'"°" "'^O' The so-eallei tlun, definitions of "he once Crn";' "" '''"•'^^'"- «'>^- It would be impracticabLt n . ' """d-benumbing type. which have been found recLLvtolt" ' T'f *"' ""> '"^«"^- modern scholarship and the ni "*^'"«^ "'« b«ok into line with education. One or tto mav To' '"^"""•""'^"'^ "* ^'''^'"-"Jary t.-eatment of „,„od has beenlim HflT; ^ """''"^ ^"'- ^he -t Whitney, scheme, Zrri:::^^^^^!^ Hi i 6 PREFACE. ia not w(!ll suited for scihoois. In acicordjuKio with the wishes of many teachers, a iartre nuniher of exercises have been pro- vided, as well as lists of the most important prefixes, suffixes, and Latin and Greek root-words. The marginal notes, too, will be found useful not only in studying the text but in referring to the contents. It should be added that the terminology and the classifications of the old edition have been retained almost unchanged, but less prominence has been given to classification according to form. The author returns his hearty thanks to the many High School teachers and other scholars who have helped him in his revision. He is, of course, wholly responsible for all that appears in the book, but he desires to acknowledge his especial indebtedness to Messrs. J. W. Connor, B.A. ; J. E. Dickson, B.A. ; A. Stevenson, B.A., and H. I. Strang, B.A., who not only criticized the proofs of all the text, but favored him with valuable assistance of various kinds. The chief authorities consulted for the edition of 1886 were Maetzner's English Orammar and Lounsbury's English Language. In the preparation of the present edition, the following works have been used: (1). Burt's Elementary Phonetics; (2). Emerson's History of the English Language; (3). Introduction to the Study of the History of Language, by Strong, Logeman, and Wheeler: a work based upon Paul's Principien der Sprach-geschichie ; (4). Kellner's Historical Outlines of English Syntax; (5). Kluge and Lutz's English Etymology; (6). Morris's Historical Outlines of English Accidence: re- vised by Kellner and Bradley ; (7). Skeat's Principles of English Etymology: First and Second series; (8). Sweet's A New English Grammar: Parts I. and IL Toronto. i CONTKXTS. Seotjon. 1. Introduction The English Langmge, English Grammar ' II. The Sentence and its Componpnts Words, Phrases, Clauses. III. Classes of Sentences. According to Composition and Form. ' ' IV. Words and their Components S(mnds, Letters. V. Wori)-For3iation Derivation, Composition, Inflection VI The Syntax op the Parts op Speech VII. Verbs . . ^ VIII. Nouns ...'*** Words, Phrases," Clauses. * ' ' ' IX. Pronouns X. Adjectives Words, Phrases,* Clauses. ' * ' ' XI. Adverbs Words, Phrases, Clauses. - * • ' XII. Prepositions • • , XIII. Conjunctions * ' ' XIV. Interjections . ' ' * * XV. Infinitives, a.^riNDs, Participles Paok. . 9 . 18 . 38 . 50 . 70 . 90 . 113 . 165 . 195 . 222 . 247 . 264 . 271 . 280 . 282 /, 111 CONTEXTS. XVI. lRRr:ouuR CoNSTia'cnox .... Abbreviation, Kinotionul Ek'mcntH. XVII. Historical OriLixE Appciulir XVITI. Pfti,FixEs, Suffixes, Root-words XIX. Exercises i^iivt I. : On the Text .... Part JI.: Extracts for Analysis ^nd Parsinj.^ Part III.: Sentences for Criticism Index Subjects Words and Plirasts Irregular Verb -Forms .... . 301 . 316 . 338 . 353 . 374 . 398 . 409 . 413 . 416 • . 301 • . 316 • . 338 • . 353 iiiij . 374 • . 398 • . 409 • . 413 • . 416 EI^GLISII GRAMMAR. I— INTRODUCTION. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. worl.l, its l,i.stx,ry as Z"T """"■ '""■'« *" "'" wholly t., EMKlm,] )„ /"T.,'" '""'""O'i "'"'ost «».int,-y to,,,, tl, nvl,,, /"■•;*"«""•« came to that of wl.fa i« ,ow , 1 1 ; ! "' *''" r'-tli-western part fifth, and sixth e ;,' ^ i.!:T"2;' Ch.t't^ "'^ *°"^«'' destroyed <,r pushed l)n,.V tJ,! o V. ""''"" "■«• and there before a.,d who sL '' '"''' "^"^ '""' "ved Welsh of the prese .,v T. ""'-'"''ffc ""'eh like three differeni^tribes/k^own t rl'"'%'"^'""«'''J *» Jutes (or J'l^isians) AT "» Angles, Sax(,us, and I'elieve that /h™ wire a i o7th''TTv '^«''« "« ^ race, and that, ^itr^ome sir! d^i"^'" (<"• English) the sa,ne language T^l i^ differences they spoke Snglish; for a.ey al,n!s? r^""^" 'f "«''% <'>lled AVfe, and theirlngi; £:7,;'^ '""'''' ""^"'^^'^o^ fAfefh: foTS '=rdT '^™"^^' -to then hke the other Z~2 o? tt?'"""'/^' ''^'"^ still like those now snnW !i. ">»' country, it is reason, often callecUG^rt^llh':' »"' i^, for this thing, a Teutonic) laugZg" ^'"■' ""''""h is the same diwfii Ssedtou'S?Tes«nri "" *-« ^«' enees: ^ ^^^" resemblances and differ- Tbe origin of the Eniilish languHjro, and of Its U"n«« English, a Teutonic language belonging to the Low 'German division. 10 iNTltODVCTloy. Divisions of the Teutonic cub-family. English, als ) one of the Indo-Euro- I)ean lan- iliiages. (1) Gothic. This division is now extinct. (2) NorsCy ov Scandinavian. This is now repre- sented by Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic. (3) West Germanic. This includes: (a) High German (row k.iown as New High German, the language of modern (iei-iiiau literature) , at first spoken only by that part of the Teutonic family which lived in the central high lands of Europe; and (6) Low German, originally spoken by those who lived along the low lying shores of the Baltic and the North Sea. Here belong Old English (or Anglo- Saxon), the ancestor of Modern English ; Old Saxon, now represented by Low German; Old Frisian, the modern form of which is spoken only in some of the islands off the coast of North Germany; and Old Franeonian, spoken originally by the Franks who lived on the banks of the lower Rhine, and now represented chiefly by Dutch and Flemish. 3. By comparing the languages and literatures of Europe and Asia, scholars have been able to show that all the Teutonic languages, along with nearly all the others in Europe and some of th^ most important in Asia, form a great body of languages resembling one another, and hence called a family. The existence of ibuch resemblances can be accounted for only on the supposition that these are the languages of peoples whose ancestors once spoke the same tongue, and, consequently, must have formed one tribe, or kindred tribes who lived near one another. We have no liistorical records about this ancient race ; but we are reasonably certain that they once existed, more than three thousand years ago ; and that, at some remote periods in the history of the world, migrations took place, and, in this way, their descendants have •become widely distributed from India westward to the Atlantic. These primitive people are now called Arians, the name given them by scholars {Arinn, moa-n\-nrf " Vinnnrnhlp " nv "T1oblft"V Wherfi. hoW" ■>'"••' ■'•"to 7 ■■' • - ' ever, their home was is by no means certain. Many scholars have, of late years, come to believe that it was 5. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 w repre- ielaudic. w High ture),at e family >pe ; aud lose who and the Anglo- a Saxon, dan, the le of the and Old rho lived (resented itures of how that Y all the )rtant in )ling one stence of [y on the peoples •Me, and, • kindred have no it we are ore than e remote ons took its have rd to the tv called {Arinn, )re. bow- .. Mnny lat it was either near the southern shore of the Baltic, or as seems more likely, about the Black Sea in Southern Russia. Many other scholars, however, stUl hold the old view that it was somewhere in the table-lands of Central Asia, between the Caspian and the Hindu- Kush Mountains. The great family to which the Teutonic languages belong IS, therefore, known as the Indo-European (or the Arian) family. 4. Besides the Teutonic sub-family, to which, as we other indo- nave seen, iinglish and German belong, there are a *^'fT'*r number of other divisions of tha Indo-European the itaZ'^nd family. Two of these are represented in our school '^' ^'^^• (purses—the Italic (or Italian) and the Greek (or Hellenic). The Italic division includes Latin, now no longer spoken, but seen in CsBsar or Virgil; and J^rench, t««'""« name. When first brought from Northern Germany ^nXSlff to England, the language was so different from ours ''" ''"'"'^^ that we should not understand it if we heard it spoken - and we must study it just as we do French or German' before we are able to read it. And a thousand years hence, if English live so long, it will probably be so unlike what It now is that we, if we were to come to lite again, should perhaps not understand it without a good deal of trouble . The reason is that every livins: language is continually changing; so that the speech lot each generation differs somewhat from that of the one before it. In the course of time, some old words go out of use ; new words come into use ; some change [their meaning; all, or almost all. o.hano-« f>,a,Vr. Z ■Halation; and tht. ways in which we put" words together to express our thoughts become more or less changed 1^ INTRODUCTION. Three great diflfeienees between Old and Modern English: (1). Old Eng- lish, synthetic ; Mod. English, uniilytic. hy (legi'ees. On the other hand, ahmgnage like Latin or ancient Greek, which is only written or printed and is not now spoken, no longer undergoes any change whatever, and is, consequently, known as a dead language. We have a long series of works written by Englishmen in Old English, and going back as far as King Alfred's time or thereabouts. These enable us to find out how Englisli has changed from time to time and how these changes are connected with many important events in the history of England. 6. The most striking difference between Old English and Modern English, the form of the language we now speak, is that Old English generally (though not so generally as Latin or Greek) expressed both the relations of words to one mother in the sentences and certain modifications in their meanings by changes in the forms of the words themselves ; whereas Modern English generally expresses such modifications and relations by means of separate words. In the follow- ing extracts the parts of the Old English words that have been changed to show differences of meaning or relation are italicized, as are also their Modern English equivalents when there are any: Old English. TM ongan ho leornigan on hi/n self «iw liii he thee< rice thaw unvihtwis«?i cyninge aferiYOi mWxte, and on rihtgel^affulrrt and on rihtwism anwald ge- bringan.— ^Elfred's Boethius. And we h^odath thset man eard georno' eliensiaw agynue, and nianfulm droda seghwror Modern English. Then began he to learn in himself how he the kingdom from the unrighteous king re- move mighi, and into the power ( anwald = ** wielding " ) of right believing and righteous (men) bring. And we bid that men the earth earnestly to cleanse begin, and from sinful deeds everywhere ("aye— where ") cease. geswiec— Cnut's Laws. Acoordino'lv. Old English is called a synthetic language (svnthetic is from sifnthesis, which means ' ' putting together " ) and Modern English, an analytic THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13 ike Latin f printed goes any 3wn as a 'itten by ek as far jse enable m time to dth many d English guage we loiigh not both the sentences ly changes IS Modern ^ tions and he foUow- vords that leaning or •n English 3LISH. to learn in ;he kingdom )us king re- itothe power ding" ) of id righteous at men the to cleanse sinful deeds e — where ' ' ) synthetic lich means n analytic language (analytic is from analysis, which means separating into parts " ) . 7. Another great difference is that Old English was, (2).oi,iEn8:- onthe whole, an unmixed language; that is, with very iinmixe, e use, for instance, shortened forms of words, familinr aYr\vooaiftT»c. n-^A o 1^^^^ arrangement of our sentences, which do not seem fitted for the higher kind of literature. We have in this 16 INTRODUCTION. Divisions of EiiKlish (irummar. Why English Grammar is a valuable study. En Ush^ ^^ standard spoken (or colloquial) ENGLISH GRAMMAR. m,it' f^® ^""^ J^'^f ^^''"^ ^^'^^ ^^^l^s^ has changed much from what it was at first, and that there are varieties of the English spoken even now. When however, we say simply '^English," we mean the discusbion of the good and approved usages of this English forms what we eall English Grammar, The discussion in this book includes: ( 1 ) The description and classification of the different words we use in speaking and writing. This is known as Etymology, The term properly r _, ans ' ' a discus- sion of the true source of a word ; " but, by writers on language Its meaning has been extended to include the classification of words, the consideration of their changes of form, and the history of their growth. (2) An account of the ways in which words are properly combined to express our thoughts and feelings This IS known as Syntax; the term literally means a putting together. " j ^uc (3) Anaccountof theSoH/iisandy^/p/za^j^fof the language— how our spoken words are correctly sounded and how they are represented by letters. Strictly speaking, this subject does not form part of Grammar which as the term is now generally understood, con- sists of Etymology and Syntax ; but, as it is of import- ance m connection with a discussion of the formation ot words, some knowledge of it is necessary. In this Grammar these divisions will not be kept quite separate, but will be taken up in pj^rts when it seems best for the presentation of the subject. 15. English grammar is studied for a variety of purposes, of which correctness of expression is only one, and a secondary one— by no means unimportant, out best attained indirectlv It i.« onnofor^f ™«4.;«« under never-failing watch and correctioiir^haT makes ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 gijod writers and sneakpr^ r'».„, chiefly in the higher ste^' of the worL """V'^ ^"' be supposed, eitlier, that the writer oV . '* """ makes the i-ules and laws for Ian J, x " .S^animar the facts of good lantma^e in T^? ' /'"""'y '^Po^s they m,, bcLu/rS^ to^or letnlfd"""' ^° *"' of English. Nor kr^ wo^!;f ^ '?™ other forms language- we want M v °* '"* '"^''^'y "sing workiDgs and^iterinff: ^^,f ^^^ "^^^^^^^ *h« "kind's study of EnSish S^f ^'^.f ^'"^^^^ *«^^i«^ tl^e step. ^ '^ grammar is the easiest and surest 18 THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS. Two essen- tials of every sentence fully expressed. The Assertive Sentence. Subject and Predicate, not always ex- pressed. n.-THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE The sun shines, or They went away, which we make an nn or jndg- he sentence 1 we assert must be in ? the thing f") about ssing what e sentence, fy day, 3 an asser- ert of the ee we call <| ite means e of only tence, or ing to be ices; but common sr. icate our i subject , "Go Rooms we mean I want 3ms may urnisheS (( speak o/a sentence we mea,Xr:"'T' ^'''"' ^« eontaining both a su^t a^d'a p^Ste""* ^«"*--. We, therefore, define subject and predicate thus CHIEF CUSSES OF WORDS toiLf to fo™ ZelLT^f ^^^' "' ^"'"^ •"•« P»t words. sentence composed of only two inline:!'' "''' "' '""'"' "'»' ^"''^ «™ ^i»g. run o^er Sething but we do not go any one or any thing, and so on Such verbs are called intransitive .'fw" ■• ::"; transitive.") " '• "' ""^ CHIEF CLASSES (jp H'ORDS. 21 Noun. (3), The Pronoun. OoW glitters, Borses ran, Ofwj,« reads Jo„t,, are, each of them what is called a nom Umm menn» simply name"). AH these nouns are the "aZ of objects we can perceive by the sen^ of s?Z Others, as smiml,nmse, thunder, are names of tl fn^s we can perceive by other senses. Othm a J n !f l>etgU, roundness, beauty, cmcrage Z\mnl"' Tt qualities which we think of as havino. ...T" ^ apart from the objects potssing S The'staL' asiuhZ'Ufn ""T' ^^""^ '^'"''^'^ «^«^^ ^'^^it^ other words as subject of a sentence or as object of a verb. ' n.^^: ^"*',^'^^^« a verb is the only kind of word th«f the onlv'''^ ft r^^^^*^ ^^ ^ sentence, a noun is not tlie only one that can be used as miTn'pAf /^ ! or as object of a verb. In the sentences, ' ' "'"*'°"' /stand, Tm are wise, George 'mtettm meaD' ifrf^rrnoTn'^^anTthr *' ^^''""'- posed to be its characteristic u^f) i T "'"'? ^"P" additional means of ^pre^^n ing L J'^^Tyt n^Ji? name them a<5 nmino /i^ i, ,^,,"^"&«- -iiieyaonot Se reads well, r-t:d :fmrn ■?t-.t ™ ^^ .v« c* instance, ' "" '"'" '"^ ^'''"*^' ^^^ say, tor ^^ is a tall man, or She dresses well. Or, speaking to George himself or to some one whose THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS. Differences between Nouns and Pronouns. ,1 I Deflnilion of the Pronoun. Substantive words. Ton read. George also may say, referring to himself, / read ; says, "' *iff*iiu, George This is my father, gesture, or whi is th^^^J^^ ^fi hl™*^^ -""« no.«, no mtter 'how diffe«n ""ZTl '"^^^ «' .^-y -» and, of coiu-se, their n^es-?LZ^ * *''* "''■"'*"« we can speak to we rZv «7v f ""*'. '" *"y «°« them that can soil J u^J'^ > '""' «"y<>ne of Pronouns, the?efo?e dif^r f "*" """^ "?" "««'' -"• attached t^ -STowi^! ^''T """"'• '» "»* b«'ng is nothing whTehmavrnMr'i-''fi'l°''^««^ there «■«, according to ThT cht.^it 'f *"'*"^ ^^ ^' "■• 3«'«' <»• Thus, we have the definition: »<«»& a, »«6>c« ofu .« Joel «f;;.,>, : " '*f ' ""•"•- •' beslLthat oTXdTnt ^"°^^ ■'■'^^ »*^«r «««« will be pointed out herea?L Hf * -^T f ^^?' *''««« that words which are^n^^^r 7?" "''•' *"' ^hown sometimes rsed as nofn, if T^ '" "*''«'• ^"^^ «« t'. be ased SttbstantlvPh^U !"f'' ?■ "^""^ '^ *en said • capable TzT.tZ'}^ [suUtanUve properly means «ubstantive-[s itSTuo|.,rXXk:l4'^ **™ P«MT CIJSSSS or HOJtDS. dicat^ >" some l"""<>;". o„ the ,>„c. hand nLlT"''":^'"' ""'"' ""'l -are the pri.ieipul the in,i„!^^ i""! "*''*' "i the other sentences w'hoSt he n fr l'^!'/?""' °n«''- They form Next we have t» eon«^. ." P'"''" °* «Peeoh whieh do not by tlemseiv;; '7 ""'«■• ''""'« of words ">• the predicate o "±7;.. """ •*'"""■ «'« «"S ,. verb. When, for iLlanTweV/k of" •"'^'"" «'" "'^"- we first limit th ^''''' *''"^' *'''''* ^''*^' hats thatTre blaoAZn^r'''"'^ '^'^^^ *« *hat class of class that are S an h! ''?."' *^^^^ '^«^^ tTtUt ^. to that cla^^thrUe t^^^^^ ^W. hl^l putting ;,,,' and two before fh.!;!, T^ "^^ ^^^^t, by numerous class of tall Itm Tz^l^-J^duce the still which some parfjpnjlt ' '^■^' ^^"^^^ *«^« to the twn and thenoun'^^oXriVr"" ^^'•«- The ad^^ectivTs -ore limited apStTonTh^ t^no^^"'^^^ ^- " A word used lik^ ;i,-, /, ^ / 7 """ ^^^'^^ ^^^i- an adjective {aLcL.'^ ^^^' '^^^^' ^^^'^^^ ^ called «dded; - that is aS7o f "'^^^ . '"^^ns '' someth nf out that for which the n.,^ "?^'^ «"^ ^^ said to S ^^[Pjj^-tion M^^^ '"''^ *^^'^«' *<>^^^^ while ;iVo «„. f ' '"'"^ '«'^' *-^*:^' black hat3, «^^^^^ application of the the adjective, tall, stiff blTkT^ ^ ^^^^^^^ number the qualities of ta Iness ^Z ^"^ '^^^^•- they express be^nging to hats '' '*'^^^««' ^"d blackness as -unT/,. X't Ttol'7,! ^^- -^ to ,«a/.y, the the noun stands for ^'"'^ ^ ^^^^^ of the thin^ Agam, in ■ *^ the adjective nn7^ ^^' ^'^"^"^ '"^' ^^eno7instrnd^st::bTdrL^r^^^^ *^« ^^-^ 23 24 THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS. Definition of the Adjective Different uses of the Qualil^ing Adjective. Definition of Notion of the a^ee«ve wTs v^^Mf t«:i' v"'*-' ""^ f""'=«'"' is " hor^^ri -l y ^"^^ ^^ modifies a noun • thof changes the value of the nomi adjective Thus, we have the definition- XT -"'''- -""-ranrre'x oV«:: If, for example, we say, Quality aeCt' Sld'^by tlJ^^SL^rth" '""'' represents, whiph n,>ai:t,. oDjeet the nonn or known of TtTawTl, '"'•\°"* .^'■'™ "'""^tt "any eonceptionof the mind '' ^, T ^"'l"-"" ""^^^ or of what it doe, n^^ il /^ °t^° •''''3««t itself, presented o us bv the nC-r^n', "?'"/ '* ^^^^ "'"^ different from thtt pSed bv fhr*'^' together is addition, though the ext^n nf fi, ,• " *"'*"'™ the uouu regains unchanged *''' appheation of the But, if we say L'im^SireStsT'ttt"°7tr"^rr • -- " were wanting som»th; ' '/ ''ie.1"ality described tpe- The"a%eS *t^ '^. d;fferent, would be liie noun bv its (]o!*, as the ling (that 3 adjective express a to modify a ity, it is es a less er of tiie word, 'J e simply lid mean ^e adjec- to some le noun thought n means 3t itself, is) thus rether is fore the 1 of the aake since it scribed uld be ion of ! uouu 24. No assertion is made by an adjective any more Predicate tlian by a noun; for, when we say "the good man " Adjective and we take it for granted that the man possesses the °"°' quality of goodnesr, ; the goodness is not asserted But we (?an make an adjective or a noun a part of aii assertion about the thing the subject stands for, if we join the two together by a verb (18) . The verb which we especially use for this purpose is he-, thus, for example, The man is good, The man is a soldier. A noun or an adjective which, in this way, bv help of a verb, is made a part of the predicate, is a"^ kind of comnlement and is called a predicate noun or adjtctive. Thus used, the noan or adjective merely describes what the subject stands for; it does not limit its application (23). An adjective used as predicate modifies a pronoun as freely as it modifies a noun, but an adjective scarcely ever modifies a pronoun placed immediately ate It: thus, we say: "You are tall,'' but not Tall you." 25. There is also another class of words, used to (5). The modify the other member of the simple sentence the ^*^^*'^^- verb. ' If we say The sun shines hrightly, or shines noic, or shines above, the words hrighfh/, now, above, tell something about the mnnner, or time, or place of the action expressed by sJmies; what each of these words tells, expresses a quality or a limitation of the shining we have asserted or the sun. A word thus used is called an adverb, because it is added to a verb in much the same way and for the same purpose as the adjective is added to the noun it modifies. But some adverbs are capable of being used to modify adjectives ; thus, A vcru cold day, A tndy faithful friend, Apossihhj false report; and some modify another adverb: thus, FtTJ/ brightly shining, Quite often seen, Exceedingly seldo^ai. ^ I 'l# 20 I^fflnition of the Adverb. (fy). The Preposition, Wehave, then, the defiuition- ortom:Zl:^ ""^^ "''' *" '"'x'V'J a .en, an aclJecU.e, Of 'w;l''*;]!Lf rdtbTJ?:rf -i','^ »" ^^^ ^inas ones that modify otW „.7 , ^- ^'"o**' the only degree: as .4%« m«.f 1*/""?/^°^^ expressing most freely with acWiyes wh L ?" '"'"'' "''^ ^^^ more or les, freely he whole I?' ^TV"'' ^^^ "Iso the verb takes; beca,?se liK. 'rt™' "l a-i^^rbs which ■° one of its classes X'nt""^'* ' *'"' "''J^^tiye, or condition: thus,' ?o exaZr "7^'^'''^ "^ ^*^*« himself shining brnhZ '' ??„ k ^J." '"° ^^'o^ed verbs expressing degree are l«l ''*^'" ^'""^' ad- Some of the commonest of them „ "'"'' '"'"' ^^''hs- do not go with yerbs directly at .1, '"2 ""? '""' '"""• changed to ven/ mitckflll i ^'li ^^"^ have to be we say, '' """""' '"" '»««* ■■ thus, for example, • or;ji!.S olrr^i^" :i !^t "T of tJ^^ noun or object of a verb Now 11 "*'''f * "^^ " sentence combination of words mal ,Tn n/"'' '" "«"<^« that a and such a word as of W ^ * '\°''"° or Pronoun it with another Tout' o/with "^ *^V^''''* ^""''^''t adverb, may be used likJI ^? !?'"''• "djeetive, or other nonnf or ifke an ll f ''?*""' *° ™«dify this adj-ective, o^ ad;erb Thus ' ' *° '^'"^'^^ »« W arersirr^^^'-^'-''^-------, and in ^"' ^"''■" ""'^™"'" =^ '"^'"'^ ""«"«%,• thei'^SttnTfrsr^T"""-- -U'^^a -?C^^^^^^ hf m^det- -the same way: tAXZ^.ZZt'^^'''^' Who «,„<«, ,„ (o^ ,_^ ,,^ ^^^^^-^ ^^.^^^-^^^ CHIEF CLASSES OF irORDS. 27 Frequently however, in all styles of Enfflisk~in j.ms house 1 will never set my face in rTertain Mn^ ':?''''S *^' '^' *•"« preposition defines '"'"'-■ fhp ;.T^ ' / ''^*^'' ^^^^« possession, or connects the notion of a possessor with that of « f^l!. possessed, as in ^* ^ *^i^^ The palace 0/ the King; and to and from show relations of place, as in He went from Windsor to Montreal. Thus, we have the deanition: ^Ae^/ eoTJrm; thus formina with flTl^ between the notions thePreposi- He wont and T oam'^ elrmed W^'^i'f *f *.'"i^''*^ «■• i^-Jsments (16) expiessed bv ^<, „,,«/ and I came, by means of and; ; « / in THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS. Chief use, to connect sontences. But, with different degrees of closeness. Connects also words and phrases used in tlie same way. that is, we tlnis join t()<,'etlier two hontoriees. So, also, hut connects the sentences in We spoke, hut they said nothing. And and hut in tliese sentences are caUed conjunc- tions. ( ConjunctioH means something? that ' * conjoins or joins together"): they join together different sentences; and this is the commonest use of con- junctions. Sometimes, as in these sentences, the conjunction does little more than loosely bind the sentences together, each sentence remaining a real assertion ; sometimes, however, it binds them closely together and shows that the second sentence stands in a certain close relation to the first ; a relation, the nature of which is defined, or made clear, by the conjunction. Thus, in She blushed because she was ashamed ; She played while they danced; because shows her shame to have been the cause of her blushing; and while shows the dancing to have accompanied her playing; and so with similar con- junctions. In these sentences, agam, she blushed and she played are the only real assertions. But, besides connecting different sentences, some of the most common conjunctions, especially and, are used to connect, in the same sentence, other com- binations of words (not consisting of a subject and a predicate), called phrases, that are used in the same way m the sentence ; also single words that are used in the same way in the sentence: thus. On the hills and in the valleys, lies the snow; A man of bad character, hut of great ability; By and with their consent; A proud, though childlike, form. And, as with iha relations between thoughts, the relations the conjunctions show between notions are of different degrees of closeness : thus, for instance, when we say He and I came, but, in the qualities of we mean He came '' and '* I we refer to one man who came A great and good man, possesses )) CHIEF CLASSES OF WORDS. 29 So, onjunc- onjoins, liffereut of con- unction ntences lertion ; ogether certain ture of nction. ed ause of io have ir con- led and , some nd, are r com- t and a e same •e used )f bad sil- ts, the i are of , when greatness and goodness, not to two men — one great and one good. And the r(4ation is even closer in Two and two make four; A slice of bread and butter. Thus, we have the definition: A conjunction is a vord winch joins sentences; or jdirascs or words, used in tiie same way in a sentence. 29. The seven classes of words, whose uses have l>een described, are called parts of speech^ and each word, as belonging to one or another class, or as having a certain use or function, is also called a part of speech. This name, "part of speech," given to a word, i)lainl.y implies that there is some- thing incomplete about it; that it must be joined with other parts in order to make a whole, or in order to be speech. The seven parts of speech fall among themselves into three divisions : 1. TJie tJiree independent parts of speech, the Noun, the Pronoun, and the Verb, capable of forming sentences icitliout otJters; 2. Tlie two modifiers, the Adjective and the Adverb, ahvays attached to some otiier word, tvliicJi ilicy modify; .9. The tiro connectives, the Preposition and the Conjunc- tion, ivhich join one icord, or phrase, or sentence to another. 30. There is yet another class of words, used in exclamation, Avhich are generally reckoned as a part of speech. Examples are Oh! Ah! Fie! Pshaw! Fudge! Lo! These words, and words used like them, are called interjections. The name inferjection signifies some- thing that is hiferjected, that is, "thrown into the midst of " something else : and this something else is the sentence, as made up of the other parts of speech. Calling them thus, then, implies what is really the ease, that they are not i)arts of the sentence itself; they are not combined with other parts to make up sentences. Hence, they are not parts of speech in the same sense as the others. Ea(;h interjection is, in a certain way, an undivided sentence, put in the language of feeling rather than in that of reason. It is a direct intimation of feeling or of will, made Definition of the Conjuuctioi) m Parts of speech and their classi ficatioa. (8). The Interjection. t An undivided scuteiice ill the language of feeling. ties of -^ 30 Deflnitlon of the Interjec- tion. A means of communica- tJon ; not merely an outburst of feeling. Effects of strong feeling on form of speech. Primary and Secondary Interjections. ^^t^7t Ked'™^'."''^ 'i"'-«°'' of voice ^presses a number SerenJf!;/"'' ''^^P'^ i*-' We add, then, the definition: •4w mteriection does not combine witjTofh^!"'''''*^^ ^^pressive of feeli^n v pome nearer to thSTha^etfr tha'n"/'^''' though they m language. Thev pm ii .?° ''oes anything el«o to44to'oJ^SXrtTr:^otH^^^^^^^ Jatn^^ror-leVS'^^^^^^^^^^ other languages. ^^* different from those of ^SCol °r::;o'ning, oTeTnll.'^^P'-'^^^'"" »* ealm When the speaker is mov!^"^ -If ''°"' of description sentence-fonS of exnrS 7f' ''^"^ feelin|, the Z ''^>"?o°ed, and^onlT he nT°"* *° ^ ™o™ or uttered, with tone and ge,h,r!H,'^r""°''°* ^ords ai-e them. Some of our ot^t *'"'** ^"ffleiently explain ^ -eal parts of speech T'^ ^°'"^^' <^ommonty used exclamatory wa/thf ft'^ey ^hldToff '?"? '?«^<» '" "his and may be so called. Such are """ "terjections WordstdXCfr'"":'""'"''"- nature of interjections. ^' ^^'^ also of the Some words wln'/^ii tious, were once ordinary nrnT^'f ""'^ »« interjcc- «tr- - -h has ^-XtS^dSit zounds ("*hv r«^^> ^-if^j miserable''). I 'J>m * ion of voice, cample, Ah/ ■such as joy, ^ay in which of feeling; it fence; and so il outbursts hough they ythingf else > means of ^ed "parts h we seek such and ts own set ^ those of ^ of calm scription. ^ling:, the more or v^ords are y explain >nly used I in this rjections i^ed and > of the nterjee- it their 8'uised; On the other Tmn/i ^ spontaneous utteTatr ^^0"' V^terjections are grammatical forms : for 'example, '' ^^'ifi^inate in ^ ^' °^' ^^^«^^' pooh, pshaw' heigh-ho ^^\ S^"^\Z :r ^?"'"«^'- others secondary. P'^'^ of speech beiii^ called DIFFERENT VALUES OF THP «*„,,. 32. From what haA ^ ^°^°- ten. aeeordl., to t«^e ut^Hi:- tlf ^C^Z I have sold my silver watch for o • the fct «r • ' *" -"^ '^-'"^ - *"' ''"' and the thirdra'verb.'tlhe'Ut^'^''"''' * »oun, He had all i„t one fc„ t,. 7 following, again, the first biif ,•« „ ™ ''"'"8'" " too, tion, -dle^hV^an 1^^^^^^^^ f-^^ a conjunc manyotherwords ' ^'^'^^'^^- ^^d so with very In these sentences hn^h .n parts of speeeh^Mw'^"'^ !!?^ ^'^^ are different ^sed; although, 'geSlvlv' ^"^ ^« different^ conjunction. ' ^^^^^^^^:^. ^«W is a noun, and but a The words we finr? ,*„ „ j« ^. scribed in it as being eelfn 1'^^^^ ^^ ^^^en de- vh . because they are geZrllwZ^^''^^ ^^ «P«e«li- This is -SoLide a"^:^' ^."^-^' of'th^ sfntenV T"" ^^^^ -' ^ .l^e. are really only names or sio-n. ^ !' however, words the word called a noun m^t be ^h^"" ^^?^^«' for part of our speech anrJ fi. 1 ^ *hen regarded as « 32 Words, not, "ill piirts of speech. . Words, more than one part of speech. • 0). Conjunc tive Pronouns. (2). Pro- iif?minal Ailpoctives. i. A word dors not hrhnw exrJu^ ,ri , ^t may generalh, be so nse ^>^'^ class, although PECULIAR WORDS AND CLASSES OF WORDS 33. Besides the ei^ht narfs nf V WO«DS. ^ave so far eousideml an tf ?-'r'^l ^^^^^ ^^'« been customary but bv nn . '''^"^'^' ^^ ^'^s loup- our words, there are wo ^dsS^"^"^^^^ to divide al! of a peculiar nature ^ ^^^"^ ^^^«««« «f words Thus, in • ■ ft '^"^^ *° *^^ ^each a poor exile of Erin there, which is ffener-illv nn n/i t place,- is used a^ana n;Tt ii;^''^ ^?''^"'"^ ''i» that word to fill up the pk^; lef ^f^""!^?^^«« introductory subject; lor t woukl sm^^^^^ *^" transposed speech. "''^ ^^^^» «trang:e to say in ordinary ^^^^« to the beach a poor exile of Erin, although this sentence contains all ,^. - necessary^a subject and pi"Sea?, *^'* '^^'^ "^«"^ ihere are even pin cent. ^4? i This is the uian ,i-to came, a t.",LCirjohfw'}f *° '"«" -'^'"' it aet. as the subject to e'sSe Lw*r.' "^ '"^''"^ " '« words used like it, "71/!?'^ 7'''*f"=V '"'" and of the nature ot Z Zn^''f'i\t'''' "^^^^'^^^'^ tion, and are, therefore en li-w^ .»'-njunc- iiouns. im— in three PECULIAR WORDS AND CLASSES OF WORDS, 33 aojectives. T/,;.,, ,„,y, ,„„i ,7,,,; j,„j ^ them, as ™.7,, ,./W(.,', «./M,^ Ms, ,7., are ca «) TeuTseT /?/'"^"^"^ ' W.V.7,-an'-7 '"-K 'injunctive also tiies ronjunchve pronominal adjec- Similarly, h'7(c« and «7ie»-<', in I will go tvhcii (or wtiere) you go partake of the nature of the adverb and' the eoniuno- t.on modifying the go of you „o and connecting Z, go with 7 „■,« ff«. They, and words used like them Again, iq To i7n'e is better than to receive; and G4-|;i«^ is better than receiving; to give and fo receive, and giving and receiving express asserTnf *^,^^?*^?P? ^^^^^ the verbs gives and ..cL.. assert of John m John gives (and, receives) a book '' Words so used partake of the nature of the noun and the verb. For reasons to be explained hereafter words like to give are called infinitives, and woi-ds like giving, gerunds. And the person who gives may be described as a ^rn^S' person and what he gives as a ^n-m thing; so that ^m^^gr and jy/i;.^ express as adjectives what the verb asserts. So, too, with loved, running, and going m » :/> ^-^u I am loved, I ^vas running, I saw him goim. Sueh words, therefore, partake of the nature of the I (3). Adverbial conjunctions. (4). Inflnl- tives and Gerunds. (5). Parti, ciplea { ^A' 4.- "■:' ——--"XV., ^aitaji^c ui Liie namre of the adjectiye and the verb, and are called participles {participle means partaking "). ^ Still further, the word yes, which we use in answer to a question, is itself equivalent to a sentence, llius, ill answer to Has he gone? Yes. LK, ,,. ..eutcxx^^. vJtiicr such words are no, yea nav They are especially known as sentence-^Novd^. ' Sentence* words. 34 THE SENTEXCE AND ITS COMPO NENTS. ClHSKiflfiition of such words. Distinction der>oii(Jont on meaning. Words, eitlier Notions) or Relational. t at do not stnctly l„.|o„jj to one or another of 3. Words which are each ciuivalent to a complete sentence. Bnt cliiefly because the words belonsing to each of these three classes generally resemble, or are con nected with, one or more of tlie eight p^Hs of speech them"'Tr '""? ""' ^-J™""! ^^P''™^ claLerfo; tak?n„nf,!i ""'"'■" '"J!^ "^''^ ^'"- therefore, be taken up fully m connection with one of those parts of speech which they resemble. NOTIONAL AND RELATIONAL WORDS. lunctio us of words : it is concerned with their mean- f mct^ '»-/»••-- they bear upon these formrand tunetioi s There is, however, a distinction of mean- ings which IS often important in Grammar h^t^TZ "^^H *"?? ""S?" "* •"' o^J""'- has a meaning belonging to itself; thus, when we use the word }orse, or sun, it at once calls up in the mind an image or notion (23) of the object named. A pro" noun, on the other hand, does not call up animage 01- notion, when considered alone Thus in " ff! what It rcMes, and in " / speak," / has to be con- wesent to thl ''•' T^-^^^""' "'^^''^^ «* words which called notional ; and pronouns and words like them rre"!^llT:)5/";: *"',•• '"telligibility on their r^laS; are called relational. A id, of course, prepositions tt'a) wS.*'°'"' "'"^'' ''^•"•^^^ -'''*--■ -« -'" This classification does not correspond to that of the parts of speech. Most verbs, for instance, a^e yOTWXAL ASD liELATIOXAL noUDS. 35 ...erely asserts (that " ,1, *"' ; '? '"r," "•'""•« " is notional, but, in ' 'lie %' g^. T/t '^;; "« Kivmff go a future meaning. Some ri •„■,„"?'' iiffain, contain more or less of „ LV- ?""' "■""'■''■ tlu.s, for example, we navt«V»"r'?',r'''""^ = expressing simply the fnt'.f^t!/ ^ *'!"" »" «« wHgo" (wheTiyr. w I 'ny gomg, but "I -Witlon, Ihe not' ; "f^thrffiiv o"? ''''"■^^?'"^' "' peudinff on mv will t"tuiity of my going de- COMBINATIONS OF WORDS «^ rpi PHRASES. =Sh5r^ -^'^ "^"Scl^ •Sly'^appld Te'^sh f' "'^^ "* «Peeeh wSe' wofd. Thus Instead of *™"""='*"'«' ^"'"^ <>* one He sprimg hastibj from his ^/rassy oouoh we may say, with the same meaning ' i-esneetivelv f ^«°t«n««. «« ^«s/« and of grass tio^^ftT;;s^'xr.f;«':LT'i^"p^^^^ r^r- ...... 30 THE r)efinition of the Plimse. They love one another; They spoke to each other; \, hin^^elf; (6). Prepositions: He went % .a, o/ Montreal ; He will go in.tca/ me ; roue; ve, witli rases— phrases, all iha , whieli, sntence. Peculiar ited. 'ds (not ence the wmtoric, aiuj ,.,„isists nf ^ ' • ? """"ber of tlio '''•"""•■ "«>■«« ''^'•e lay on the ground. It eouM not Tv V "'"''■'*• The bird one had hit it with a stone iI'ILa II "?? woonded. Some n Ml-TUaC:' '- "-" -" "" X tlntd"t th'^simS :e^£rin"^t^^%*^S T^^^^i "^ S=fu[*^TTeti*f,-£?e^^ the sentences But «,«!„„„ ^^ """'at'ons amongst one writes or tdks u thTwf '"""J* ^'"'^y- No for very young Sen*whoCe"tf .T'"''^'' familiar enough with lanon^„« ti !! T' ^"** S™wn stand longer eLbinationTo?^o^ds 1?or 't^ "''''^'•; people m genpral wp nnf Li,\ T * "'^^^ *^® "se of form by eoUinTug^the" ,hort ,Z?r ^^^^'^^ « better connectives ; bv t^.ir «i^ i? ^^^^^^ces by means of sary repctition'sVtliustlt'L^f^"^ '^'^ "^ — s- aJrTrSe? Ss:;f "^.r^L.'-' -"k, a«* at once ^t nn " "'"« »■'"' aot very ligut"; /^^ ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION. 39 subject however lieed, as )able of But, in within >r even lave to } state- eparate lock. I It was walked es were he bird Some srought ided it. ed by ph is «vords ongst No times rown Qder- se of etter IS of eces- )t up far, oXfntXr^'zz '•;;;.;;;i: ^"^^^'" ^'j ^o"^- ^-^ i walked with the dew7/rriav unni fh^'''''r^"^ ^"^^'^« ^^^''^^ «tin wet ground. It could Jf^fl;^^^^;,^^^^^^^^ '? bird lying on the a stone. I picked it un'mS w/ i^ °."? ^'^'^ wounded it with into a cage and fed ?«.r Ided ? '' i /"-'^ "^? ^""^^' P^^ ^* released iVa»»cZ it flewTway "''^ '^ ^°* ^^"^ ^'*^'^ I COMPOUND SENTENCES onef k^nf f mbination of simple sentences into longer ones IS of two degrees, one closer and the other if ss looIr'kiSl' 7.^^^^^*^^" ^/ «i"iple sentences is of the ooser kmd, they are put side by side and a<. f were loosely tied together, each keeping its o4 value as^an^independent assertion. Thus, for exarpL if I awoke mid I got up at once : The sun is up, hut it is hidden by clouds- ^ . oi speecn IJ7J), though joined to another bv n another again, they are called co-ordinate tttT 41. Again the co-ordination may be of four kin,k each expressed by a different kind of connective so ttat there are also four classes of co-ordwate eoZnctions which are the usual connectives of such elau °es ' (1). In the sentences: Z;^^Z^'^^^&"^^^-^ ^« other comir* •• '^ • -lii^ v-i£iccj iXiV Cih6lVlS6, too hfiniilce moreover, and the phrase as well as. ' ' Looser combination of simple sentences. Definition of the Ciause. Class of clauses. Definition of Compound Sentence. Classes of Co-ordinate clauses and conjunctions. (1). Copnla- tive. B'fi 40 (?) Adversa- tive. CLASSES OF SENTE^^CES. (3). Causal. (j)' Alterna- tlr«. Correlative conjunc- tions. And tiieirar- ranyemeut. (2). luthesuiiteuees- A fool, peaks a« his mind, „„,„,,^ ., , poor have but oife ' '"''^''^^^ ^^^ tile clauses are adver^f> r.^ the co-ordinatioi and ?h ""^^^'"^ "^ thought aud adversative, Th^'lf ^^^ conjunction are ;.fi^ th.i« class ;re t.''^:^' Tr^r^^ ^^^^^ mthstanaing. '''*'^^«^> 2^^^, /w^^^ei^^r, still not (3). In the sentences: The soil is rich /hv +u the second clnnco ^ ^ cannot go; statement in thp a f^^f the cr/?^56 or reason f. .u (4.) In the sentences ; The King must win or fn,^f..'4. i • « an «».«««,. or choice is .Z T ''^' t'on aud conjunction are cmA' '"'^^ *''*' "o-oHina- other commonest cnn,\. ^ ^"'^*^ alternative -r^ or, neitker, C •'""^"nehons of this ela^Tl^temt" £???'? "''*'^' a,T:r:rr:*7»d -^ and oeeul ^enerfe,:C; tl ^^^^ ' "^^^^^^^^ and the former of them k^t"'"^ ^""^ altemativef latter: thus, ^'"" '« "'"'ays followed bythi >^..;«'T ■■■"■*'••■■-*"' ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION. serves IS the sU, and •e called etions of m, not- for the lause is . in the ion are ions of rdina- The 'ither, , and 2tive they ives, ' the ms; not If r u 41 'ompound sentences and of co-ordinate conjunctions. not, *'■'"" ""' ' ■'° "' «- -■" -y brotte.. My tears must <5fnr. r ' <-ombinations of some of fL« . • very common. When th^ ^^onjunctions are also conjunctions of the sLe ^laTs^^.^f "'^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ but, m such expressions as J^.i./fi'^r'^''^^^^^^^'^ 5 the co-ordination may be IS ?^^'^^<^^^' «^^^^ 5^«7/, word, so that there\ « I'^f^^^^^. ^7 the second eo:ordination may be copillivr.^.^^^^^^^' «^' ^^^e being valued as an adverMn thJ ti *^' ^^^^ ^«^d Indeed, in most such comb n!,-^ ^^^^'^ ^^^^ follows, the first word may be vired .^T' ^^'^. ^^P^essions, tbe second as an adverb "'^ conjunction, and 43 Wl. ^^^^^Pi^EX SENTENCES Hfi li+f7^ 1 , "-"^^c, lu bmntionof They trimmed their lam™ L^S^ """"^ '''"' »'«'<'; the only real assertions aTe """ '""°'- -Be imu hnew, Each tliomht nf ,i,„ and, as we have already seen (37) how much lie wronae,! ;,«• • -no io,ea mJsV'z::^^^ "^^-^^ of w.. «^ ^/.e sun went down is an adver'mnH-i^^'"^ ^^'^^«^' When a clause i« ih f ' ""^^^^^^^g ^^^"^w^^^. word in anot^cVusf ^^■!^±*.-.P% the part of a „ , inat other; that is, to be ''nut"iu''r '''^y^^^^naie to o"&,1r« put m an order or rank 42 i Classes of connectives f>' subordin- ate clauses : (1). Con- junctive pronouns. (2). Con- junctive pronominal adjectives. (3). Sub- ordinate conjunc- tions. Definition of the Complex sentence. Variety of composition. CUSSES OF SENm^rcES. belr)w it fjjw] li. - ~ ■ — — /lie connectives nf *i PnncipaJ clauses are: " ^"bordiuate with the -ine branches ivhirh h,. I ^^^ ^re savins- Yo- Wend i. th:ttX/ 'S "«,"■'"' a™ broken. ,2)- The eonjunotive r ''''''''"^™«»- ie came; I will t„ J ^"' *«/'«•<' he eame, I went *. Ami ',ve have already f)^! f "" '^'^"'^ ordinate clauses will be1«T' ^""^ ^^^^^es of snh are:h^--erthetSrthr4.e.ilwh^^^^^^ togetC?'!"'"' ""*<^"- (--~ leaS 'fci ««btS&rr"" """^ -»*-« more than one (11. These subordinatB „i„ •diuate clauses may be of dif»'.-.- , f'laiise ; the 'i^lt!(I (as i,i ' principal subordinate an adverb, witli the oken ; ^ys been. itives, as '« mean; because -he 5 Of the )f sub- hen we nd the of its C. By gether ose of placed 1 one ^ccomim TO coMPosmoif. ^ina«, and not direct,, eonneeted.it„ one another. -me ki/d X°har7h:t:;f '''^ f-- Of the sentence, being joined V<«fn,T "OMtruetion in a junctions: th„f-'<''"^d together by eo-ordinating con* This is the bird that ln„ , .1 " eouid not fl^rs:; ^f*sri?^/*f,-« r^,.- I saw ««. «. Jrztj^ns^^y' " Subordinate clauses as wl. """" '«"^*- ea led co-ordinate whektheTl A, P""^'P«' <>"««. are a hke office; since eo-ordSe 'eL'^'^^'f' ^P-^ ^>«^« the same rank. " ® '"'""^« dimply ' ' having COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES by JoinfngTgTh"e c^o^ij.^^' TZ'f' "-^J "« -^^e sentences, instead of siS onef ?,'' T^ """^Vlex w called <;ompo„„d.cS|/"^|,; S"^ a sentence He teaeies who gives afdht, ^'''"»P'«« a^e And, on the other hand (^. ■ ^ '^'^ '""y- we often p„t a simpt conl ■ *""" ^"''J' «e"ten,.e) ft»<,atthebeginnin7of a~r' '^P''^'""^ ««<^ 'r a paragraph, to shew, in ad' f "tence, or even of to what precedes. Thus thmt f. ""^^'.^^ 'elation twn between the sentence and th'e da„t°'"*« <^««"«- 46 Oc "'''^^n'''' ""^ CONNECTIVES. ' pot^ic^orpTentl-i^rfhr'' "^"T'^- -J -- -especially ««<, wheS'coSlnT""*'^'^ '« ""t used Juuetion ; and the c"n'„n%: ■ •'""'i*'''^ P^^onn or eon- -t two Of a "-be^-ST-Sres'r-Tli I>efinition of the C'ompound- J^omplex Heiiteiife. Connectives. sometimes omitted. 44 n liii Older and modem uses of eoiijunc- tious. M CLASSES OF SENTENCES. doe f /'''i^'"'"':""' ^!^^^ *^»« elmmcter of til Three el.isses of sentences. (1). The Assertive. -etiou f I. feu ;-C;t1^«-J^^ eon. The Lord roi^nethf 1 J^^^-j^^ SZ^r '' ^'^ ' Kich and rare were tlie Jms f ^ ! , «l! '^•^^'*'^ ^ Times of heroism ave ffenor.i^^ Sml .A ^ '^''?' ^ day never shine - ^ ;4 Vm« ^^ . *'''''''' ^'^^ "»« ^«'^^"1 God made the country ami ( = '^buV') men made the town II. ACCORDING TO FORM. 4.8. As has been already stafp/l (ir\ forms of eonnuutiieatioT^^tLn the a«te "T"''^'" In It we assert that sometlm," I trtt S '' '"" '^" o •- II dQ 01 tiie inrng" the > '■ 3 sentciii'jo ; se the con- ire • 3n left ; die; ^joiee ; r© • CA>r) the t work ; it is so ; like him ; ird it. niiectives, 5hort seii- ould only European eople and ry slowly Conjune- than any iries ag-o, log-ic and classics, ; and the length, er of the the con- mguag-e, unctions ei've our e conpl- ^ variety uently") 'U will town. ie other ntenee. iiig the 1 ' ACCORDING TO FORM. S^bftwen^^r'^^^ connection exists between them. But we may desire to know whether this connection exists, or w4 may desh-e tC this connection should ex-stl We hus have two other kinds of sentences-the mf^rroVaLrand th« urLlicatim ^V r""'^ *^^'^ ^^'^ *^^« assertion, or preciication, which is its essential. ^y an interrogative sentence, we express a de^ir^ . to know something. But instearl nf ..^f^f^ •? -')Thein tlifl fr.,.w. ^* X . insieaa or putting it in terrogative. the form of a statement, "l desire to know '' or I wish you to tell me such and such a tVm^ '' w^ r^i^ce^tus^^^-^ ^^^' "^^ 'y ^ PeculfenTf Have you any flsh f Was John there J Could she go f I here are also special classes of inteiiwative words pronomxs, or a.ljeetives, or adverbs, which have hi themselves a question-askiug meaning, thus W,„washef By«.towaydidhego» ffV,;, did he come ? orwirfC/'wi*-''^ sentence we express our will (a). Th. or wish that a thing be so and so ; we give a com- '"■Mwive. maud using a certain form of the' verb.^wfth wMch corioSnglis^rt.^^ omitted-almost always t Give me the fish; Go away from here; Be off. THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. asstrh-v^^ hi«^''''T?f'? """^^^^^^^ ^'^^''^ l^^^«t from the asseitive, has least that is peculiar to itself. Like the Sw^'l/r^'f-'P ."' " ^^^^^^^'* ^-1 - -^^ each J^:t^i::^^i:^'''^'^^ --^-- ^om the (1). If the question is as to the predication itself i.- . • elp': sed bl^Jh'"' ^ eertaiu thing ''whiciiruld 'be ""'™™'' expressed by the sentence in its assertive form— is or meTt tTe^'s^K */'1 '''^'''^' '' ^'™l"y °- of arrange- ?",!"„'; A\^;]'''"'*^.' ^'"\S P"t after the simple verb m^i^^a Oi bciore ii. Tiius, for example, I8*«here» Did *„ arrive yesterday ? Will *« go to town f 46 CLASSES OF SENTENCE. m MM The Alternative Interrogative, Second variety. Colloquial xorm. Secular place of the interrogative word. the adverb not added :1hus ""' ^'"^ "^ >^"hou^ Be IS here; Be did nrrlvo (I yesterday ; He wiii „ot B^'tf t""™"^' •^<' "rived) <>i', for brevity's sake w! 1 ° f-morrow. ' the one i„ pla™ 0^,",?*^" «""'''« ^''^ or «„ (33). "*«rofJhefull„ega?fve ''^'""''"ve sentence, the things thought o™s^^*^J^',,^ZW«h, of two o;'n,'re nought to be known: Tus fo'r exaZl '"''"'^'^ *™« '« D.d he arri™ yesterday „r lo-ZyTX^ . Here the answerls "the '""''' ' *" ' ""' ' other alternativror a tntrjf'r "' """^ ^ «f the of both : thus, """ ''* the remaining one or ;r2p7rei-riirrr^^^^^^ or object stands for in n ^f ''^ thmg the subject the qualities or ciz-cu;" ta,5es TtV '?.'J°»' <"• «« to act or cond-'ion expressed w « '^ thing or of the enquiry is made by meantnf ^ "'? '""-^' then the noun, adjective, or'^ad verb- lust '"*'"''^*'^<' P^o- ^ho is here f When did ),„ ■ ' ™'' example, The natural answer T .t t '"*"''"' P»">P ' responding assertion wUh?he T^^T' ^' « «or- object or other adjunct nll^ ; > ^''^"'^^ snbject or t've word: thus, for :xCp1e" "'""' '^ ""« ^"terrog^f John is here ; He arrived yeste'rdav -He •„ In the 1„ *"* "*»* i''» ' ' ""* "P "' oftenXTff: tTt^-t "^^' - --tion has abbreviated sentence wWh'."^'"''°«f generally of an ofwhatissta^dinr^ttfvS^*^%™^^^ 50 The ^'P-'«™C'4T/^*' wh;tever\S,tii1ret:^4l/^^-ogative word, -o-iixxxxxg ui cue sentence, of ACCORDING TO FOBM, IS usually or without irrived) ow. or wo (33); itence, the e is the or more Hy true is >y rail, or of the ig one or 3 carriage. J subject 3r as to r of the hen the ive pro- want f ut np f a cor- ject or 5rrogfa- 3 at >n has of an tation vord, ence, wtee^thL'e 1 "nTtl' ""'V^'^''- «« - «^« variety unless i^^i^t^^inh^^&XT^dtprir- the simple verb : thus, for example ' ^ *"^'" W.^-. is „<,, WAe.. has your hU^rgouef nrdpr • /^« f I, . X . ' ^^ called the inverted oraer, or the sentence is said to be an inverted n^^ The regular and usual order nf fi^n ;«+ sentence is, however ^on.pf^!I i. ^ interrogative Sometimes ■orHv, o^^ ^^> u^vvever, sometimes changed ffenprallv changed, with with some change of meanine- TVi,,=, „ ^^^^V^" change of "^ the assertivA nnLr, Jl ""^**^^"ff- .J-^us, a sentence in meaning. He IS not gone yet ? He will put up where t ' Which sentences may exprc s surprise, as if Is It possible that he is not gone yet? or may be equivalent to a request for the renetition r.f a statement not understood, as if repetition of Where did you say that he will put up? or something of the kind ioZS^^i'iZ'e^l Itr^*^*- -tenee, the.- THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE requbemeni^^oriL'^LrlrVo??''^''^^^^^ form of theVerbXh't^esttetn,^^"^^ ■*'"!"« ^ »="" modifiers, as one of the ot^r^rMrmstutTnoT " Give it to me; Leave the room; Go home. -But this form of sentence is bv no me'm< ihc ^^i =.«'?..*. ri^trd: =S !i ? 48 CLASSES OF SEXTmCFS. shadow off into wishes, etc. Effects of emotion on regular forms or sentences Sometimes Uui i ~~~ fhll yon kiuihv anh e ■^he imperative ih ''''''' '^"'^^ you nof f ^«'-^ >ve in friend , • ^^amples ^ede or foJW '•f'^ assertive oae) an/^ ^^'"^-"^^ ^^^"e usually avof/fr^'"^ a wish in ordfnn too form^?^ *^^ ^"^Perative tyne of '^F ^P^^^K we exampT"-^'' ^^^"^ "«« the assXf Sm^^ ^ein^' ^ ^e may (or shall) part in . thought i,S;^^,J,^.?;a«e; I trust the f^eniaiids, wishe.'f^^.""''^'' and command r , interrogative and i' '"'^ ^^^P^essed bTtl /'"""^"^^^^ Wished modes'of 1^^'^^^^^^ sentenced t .f^^^tive, of these^-m.. ^^^n^nunieation • W i ^"^^ ^^'^ ^s^ab- -'■--^.^SnS^'llS^Z; gMf "1 a question 5 as to the will f not f "iterrofirative iiV. >erative sen- '''''^ or Jess '"probation • fif'i' forms of poetic style Examples hless thee ; ifit ho ivere X^t perish- iah. lys follows o«id value Either pre- often the )eeeh, we ' as being- ^ii«s, for ;the leludin;^ 'sertive, e estab- tb each v'e and may be t>ation, amples ^ccoRnm, TO rouM. i S"f/i sentences are to b « A ~~ ~ -~ to classify thprn A'.^^ ^^^^ other, if ,•: S...„. — ^* "I'll ten ^7--.%.e.,..,,,,,^^ ^-- thus,, or 49 So that su«h I '"'^ """" 'W- "" ""^"■'"' IMPERATIVE qS^^^^ATIVE AND 54. Like -he SENTENCES. ^^ Perative sentencesta'v h'' '^' ^"^erro^ative « . • clauses being- nJ/i • I "^^errogative ah^ • ^^"»^- of «"i\''''«««« cannot be snbm 7- ^'^''^'^^^tive or an imf ^ l- ^^ssertive one, in the ^^S^^^^^^ 'T^' ^^ C 2!e"uT '^^"«« the descrintivp ,??^*'T^^ ^f a clause wf.1 \f ^^^^^are Addition: tt: ^'^^^^-« (23), arifif^^^-rbles He wm C2:^f- «.«^.««%T *- "- ..«., ..Often, however we fl.^ "" ^'""^ «"l again 50 noiihs AND THEIR COMrosENTS. \i\ li Tlip SiH)kPn Word, tli« real word. How SouikIh are produced Breath and Voice. Vocal Organs. Two classes of sounds : Vowels and Consonants. IV.-WORDS AND THEIR COMPONExNTS. SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 55. So far we Imvo ))oon ('(.nsidcTin^^ f},o diffcivnt k.nd.s and irlations of words, and of ,>hras.s -h n.ea ^^^ stm.en(.vs, whi.h ar. all .M.n.poscH of ;^ras The word IS the smallest part <,f ota- speeeli tli^ has meaninc. ,n the expression of our thoul^hts t the spoken word is, of eonrse, tlu^ only real wor he rt" ":^a;:f f word is merely L .^^ ^.^^^It!;^ «> tilt- <,\o; anil, iis we slmll hiv. fm-fher on it is fi-nm vanous canse., often a very in.perfeet representkuZ l.et xm now eonsl.l,.,- },.v ,vli„t means tlie sounds of our speech are „ro,luee,l. To utter any woT as "so' Sr""- "^^ '- ™">V la.vni,tf C? Z . V *rl,ffft ""■ '""■'■ •'""'' '''"''ly ""'. ^« have clj,>r,l.s are brought t,>«ether so as toTibrate we have If, again, we utter such a word as sUmwq we find that we use tlie larynx, tongue, teeth, lips' Talate and the resouauee chambers of the mouth and ™/ororSr rv *"t*T' ^im the^ra' 56. We will now see how the organs of sneeeh ava used m forming the sounds of our language^ The word foe evidently consists of two sounds- teeth; while, in the sound rlpre^UT by%ruo -ill SOUNDS AND LETTERS. as, '' k 51 CONSONANTS. 67. The next step in onr analysis is M fin.i «, ^ ^Mll, but the ^ sound cannot be continued Pof sonants into stops and tO«« JS'tlfe e tifl aZ; allowed to find its way ont through the «Z' s„.^ sounds as the m sound of mat „. o"i,„ ,„!";";„ *""* tha^^tL r°°"°'''' *'^'' ' «<"""'! of ^r We find that the tongue presses against the hard nalate, ad I^uhU of clftMnifloatlon of aouuds. How the I'rojith is modified to prodiu-e different cousouants. On this basis consonants Hre classed as Stops and Coutinnauts. Sub-t'lasy ;-8: (1). Nasals. (2). Side- consonant^. OKTAfilO GULLEC£ OF EUUUATIOIt ill i 52 k if! i irOBDS AND THEIR COMPONENTS, (3). Trills. (4). Fricatives Where the modiflcation of tlie breath takes place. On tills basis consonants are classed as: (1). Lip. (2). Lip- teeth (3). Tonjfue- teeth. (4). Tongue. (5). Hard- Palatals. (6). Soft- Palatals. (7). Throat. Glottal stop. buzzing sound in /f,ul',r "1"-'" " ""'y «'™"ff sound in "/ From tM« 1 ' "•'"' " '*™"S hissing sounds are ellled frfca«;« """^ "' ^'^^'"^' «"«^ ^^ul^colanLZl^^'Z '""'^^'*, ««"«°>'ants into .(or. this modification tekespC "'"""^ '''™'°'' ""-- they are"^:?! 1 m"" V t"' C"' Hei"%r *''''* called lip eonson^nU,\llabTals For\^"^ ■T'' reason, the /■ soiinH inVr/„ j A ^or a similar called V4rli'"on{"tri*tK^ and sing JisofLalaif ''^ consonants; i„ fog so-called elottal ,t7,r:J ,,\!^^'^^^^'' ^'th the and opeiiif/ofthe 2tt r tw'-^' *?,? '''^'^"' "'"--"'S the vocal chorL Tie Ibtta! ston*' '"^"' """'^""^ English, being heard ?nfvL?L'V '■?™ .''''™'5 »> r^f &g% 2? ?il - - ?-P' " at ccrdiiu'lv, tip of the rebounds t of COlll- :s trilling, vat, of th y stroiifif ? hissing ngr, such to stops nasals, ' classifi- >rced out ae where e heavy see that ^hey are similar vat are Is. So, ^^w are ^'?, do, lilts, or . of the ind the in keg hat, of ith the closing etween and in : of a 3le, at ly and phical SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 53 alternately Vftiuhe^^o^ / sound of fail Co..s.,n...,ts ,h,^^h«»d firmly pressed upL he oH? rV^'^,^'"^ ^^^^ stopping the ears wifV, <-i. i ^ ^* '^"^ head, or without. aware o^f a v b;ati^n or humr'' ^' ''' ^' «"' '"'"^^^• whichisabsentinthe/ wMptr'^'^^^^^^ "^ *h« ^ the same. The sef^tiof w^ fedir^^/ T 1\^^^^«^ vibration of the vocal choTd. wL' l^'^'"'^"'^^^ ^y ^^^ structure of the head to vhIT ''^ ^^"'^" *^^ ^^^y having the vibration are salfr^^ ^^«^- >^onsonants without it to be voLTess '''''''^^^ ^^^ "^^se of cons^otnt^^^T^^^ the different classes being indicated by itaUcs ?n hff '"^^'^^ ^^' ««^^ds "J' Italics m the examples given : 30 > Throat Soft-palate boo^ ^a^ sin^ Hard-palate 00 ^ Aouse I Tongue ^p ^ip »»ip Zi/y yes ear Tongue-teeth Lip-teeth ^^^ i^ad 6ad wad ""The Glottal Stop boloiiffs J.erP +Tv P m Up, and .A, us in slmrpj- and J^^^i .''-^^ V"^^^ "P «*• t, 111 azure. ^' ^"" ®^ »> as in t?i>, and g, as ts^nrp amre sown ^^one /at rat wAere «t'ere PI i|j'' 54 An vowels, voiced. If Clnssi flout ion wised on position of the tongue. (^)- Back. (2). Front. (3). Mixed. ^4). High. ^5). Low. (0). Mid. -_______^™'^ (COMPONENTS. 61. Let VWELS. <^ousonants wffjf ^^ ««inpare more fnjiv c ^ants with «oine of the vowels ^ "^ ""^ "^^ the ^'ibratioV'wm be''lT?"V^'*'> the wo d fo ^T that whn* ' ''^^' and it jZa.t •f?''^ ^^^^ers „ 62. In examining the vow , "^''^ '"^ ^°-'d first the position ot^UieZT"^ '"""-J^' 'et us notine brought forward toward "*«'?' .5'^^ ""« tong -'t and backwards towards thl.u-''*'* to pronounee ef If, now, we nrnn^ ^^tttral, vowels. K«f« ' ^^® ^^^>t of fh(^ f^ ' ^^' ^f we reversft between each sound q- -^ tongue will rise « 5 i^^wered to the fnli 1 ' ^^""^^ requiring ff f ^*' ^ome of the cond sound ' time the >P of the ion wiJI be »'st. :f^ow >^d /o, and So, too, vy letters be found •nants are re voiced. "s notice ter them. ' see and ^ngrue is >unce 66;, unee oo] of /««^^ Vowels >i' their I'equir. vowels, uire no part of 9ls. 00 of ee that were, everse I step. front the e f see, ctent, o be those -SOW'/,^ ^.v^ ^,,„^,^^ them's rie^xrv^^ «"^ «-t 7o' :f,(;/^«'': with nrotm^i^ ! ^^^ open ne- in fi; •^^"'^^^'; and thus Xf , *l" "f, w «*»«?. wVn i^ '*"'• ^'iding ^^J^r *»°-*'^-. the --^^ "r J°S^^^^ former Sn * *^ *" Pronoimec thTZU f^'"" 'hat towels liked fhp-^ *"''"'%; and on f/'.'^ ^iffer- 'ike the « n? }„" " '"" are called cL,? v'? '"•^'*'. ever, f^hf /"'fe «'•« -ailed &.''%i\l}'f'^ ^^ose 55 (<(4.se,i on •'iftioii «)t' "'olips. (1). Rouuded. f2). Narrow. ^3). Wide. i I J^ipJithoiigs <•';»' ''in.-itious or vowels. m Quality an,} W'lantity of VOWfcis. i i6 I .w -a o 9 -^ B a S t? .a>i •HOIH "MOT •NouvAaig aaoNox v'ations in ized ill a tlie space »e letters positions s of the ^otiyns IX coMBmATWN. 67 F *u I^ETTERS. vowefs Z\^e\C1^^iT'^^ "' ,—«"*« and elementarysounds As 1,;°^"^* ''"« over forty really only twenty-three' tZr^'r """- "'Phabet ha^ redundant) manv of ttJ ^"'^ ^''' 9, and i bein» ette^ to reprerntlhem"" tTsI^ '''^^. ""^pS the vowels, which have only five If '"''A''"^ t™e of ofte„TSnth,r^ r'^^^^ Tie "IZri"!^' the em er<<, cease, miC^Zs 1"J^ f^^ «''"'3'' and IS often represented bv rff!!'/?*^ ">« same sound example, the ,h sound In X"' ^•""'''•«; thus, for the etters i„ heavy tle^/'Tcfc'? '•^Presented by nmsion, issue, conscil^e /?*'^"'«. Asia, suaaj ancient, pinch, 7chS' Zt'' ''•*^^'«''' «clZ' heavy type in Aetna ZnL ' ^^ *he letters in teomrd, friena, Z ifl ' t^' '"'""^"'' *«>n irregularities will be «P»„f\ ■ "auses of thew ~r detail, th^ h-^Co^t^ rai^t.'^'^^ ^'X 68 So f ^°™°^ ™ COMBINATION. of the s^eptafo" tu^ntV^f""^ ""e formation inferred from what hsft,,. ""J*' "ot, however be organs of speSi that tt" '^-^ °* *''« ««tion of the between all LZ^S^^J^^ '« « sharp distinction onr words (that is. X!""l*«. "^^^n ^e articulate "v'uuus, uy alternating vrnv^u" "i" •""" 'og«ther the vocal organs are -fng-rn^rusTy^-T,^-- 67 I>iphtliou|fs. The Alpha- bet. defective, rednndant, and irrejfular Consecutive sounds, not always sharply separated. 58 noiWS AM) TllKlR COMPONENTS. m m Glides. Combina- tions in !i word. Clnsaes of Syllables. How printed Breath- groups. Force on a syllable: Word- and Sentence- Stress. really certain transitional sonnds, or glides, l,y which Thns, for example snc^h a sound may be distingnished e ween k and cym key; but not between « a^d i„ nana, and c and t in act. Oombhiations of sounds which consist of a vowel e ther alone, as in «, the first sound of «««c™ or along with one or more consonants; as in mU of repulsed, and which are uttered with one inmnke are called syllables. A syllable may be even who ly consonantal lusouml; for example, the second sjCble svUable' a'"'; ""' "•'f""'" "'"1 *" « fo™« the of sound, i 1."?'"""^ °* °'i? ""•■•'' combination dissvUable- nf!r " "V""'?;"?/''^' o* t^O' '^ oissyuaDle, ot three, a trisyllable; and of more than three, a polysyllable. In printing, however of nt'i:""Il?' T'^" """ f "''Mcs is largfiy a maS altho3h fl. '•• '^•'^'"'™'Pl«. """''^^ is divided at-lack although there is only one ^souud. And further, although we represent each word sdS ''t,'" T°'' T^*^^ ""-^ ""* «° .eparatelln speech. In such a sentence, for instance, as The attack was flerce, bat they repulsed the enemy, what we utter may be represented thus : The-attnek-was-fleice but-they-repulsed-the-enemy; that IS, our words really divide themselves, not into sounds. These groups are called breath-eroms because each is uttered by one continuous eff™t of the vocal organs. In reading or speaking, of course the connection amongst words of a bref h-group1s emphatic it is not pronounced in so close connection thetrno"? Z' '\^"«' /,-.«. . but, notwith^tand ^g^ of the vocl'i ° ""^ " ?^i '^^ "'"PP^g^ of ft« action e" aTittTSSlp"'^"'" '"«"'■- ">'^- P'-« "t the ont^fXh^Z^'/"""'"""', ^ ^"'•'J "* •""'•e than one syllable as, tor examp e, repulsed we note that p„U, one of the syllables,' is pr^noineTd wUh / CHANGES IN SOUND. 59 more force than the others. So, too, when we nro- mn.e a breath-group, as, for example, tLseco I breath-gmup above, the word repulsed hm more fo ve on Its syllable puis than have the other woX of th« CHANGES IN SOUND. 69. Although the sound of a word is thp i-paI word (55), the sound itself is only a representatTon of an Idea, just as the written word is the ZreseZ tiou of the sound. Now, we learn to speakCehUd" hood by unconscious imitation. If we always heard correctly and imitated exactly, our sounds wnnM remain the same from generatioli to generation As however a sligh change in the position of the or^an^ of speech will change a sound, and especially afwe usually do what we have to do in the elsLf „!^ shortest way possible, we often LiteteTne'ct^v m, like the differences between our pronunciation anH he United a •'^^"f-f • lid^Sandror cheek bvW J " .tf'dency to change is kept ndeSd ^^id bv "r'f *^ **"■ ""''^'"^ ourselves .pS':?^^l\^r„td*''uf TowXs-T c"' '""^ our literature also tends to keep T^Cgu^fge'Sd' sounas and those even of the tim*. ^f n Ehzabeth, not to speak of ?he tfrne ot King A& that. If one of Shakespeare's plays were now art^ll with the pronunciation current in his tl^pT ^A be difficult if not impossible,trus^L*SriS^ feince chang( 8 of sound depend upon the t^n present sound to the tendency to pronounce a back Changes of sound con- tinually going on: Causes and restriction. Changes made accord- ing to general laws.modifled by eireum stances. ^' I II m GO ft Ml? The presence of Stress on pitrt of a combination implies less force on the rest. Why its present action escapes notice. Eflfects best seen in the earlier stages of the language. Word-stress, characteristic of English, and now fowards 'jeginning of words. Its effects. fVOUDS AND THEIR COMPONENTS. vowel yvitlioufc opening tin; mouth fully and m to round It; whereas the ^v before the . hx the O E twd has given us the modern two, owing to the 1 in feound. The history of the development of our « :? fs f;«^^^^^rbject and, fn most of "J Thpr! 'n I ''^''"^ *^^ ^^^^« ^^ a «^'ho«l course. There are, however, certain forces that have been powerful agencies in producing changes of sound The most important of these we need to exaiZe if we are to understand, even in a general way, how L* language came to be what it now is. CHANGES DUE TO STRESS. h2h\?^% ""! ^^^ ""?'* important forces is stress- both M^ord-stress and sentence-stress. Its presence of course, implies a less degree of force in the utte": ance of the other souikIs of the word or breath-group affected; so that, while one part of the combination of sounds may be affected by its presence the re^t may be affected by its diminution o> itrabslce. And, first, since our spelling is now practically fixed the present results from stress often escape on; notice; for, when we think of a word, we have hi mind Its printed form, not its sound. Thus for instance, If we say TJie word the is an adjective - ui ' ' wi!^'" *^^ F''^' ^^^^ ^"i<^ different sounds although the printed words are the same ; and we say f«.&6.^r«( although we spell the word cupboard. Hence It is m the eai'her stages of the language that we must look for the most marked effects of this agency. , (1) . First, then, as to word-stress. In English this is so strong as to be characteristic of the language • towards ^fr- ^"^^'"'^ 'i ^^' ''^^'^''y ^'^ed towards the beginning of the word. Accordingly hate X f ""^'f' borrowed from other languages have often changed : thus, we have obtained reason' when we say " I saw him,'' the h is not sounded ; whereas, in " I saw him but i ot^r - it IS sounded. This influence has given us won't^of, through the older wolnot or wonot; thorough,.tion of needs special notife'hen. It'V:"''\''^ wor-l-stress the verb forms, ?w„ ' , "'„ ^"1 '"«*»■'««, we take the framework, so to ^peak k 7""' ""* "^ th"t but that the stressed vo'^els' VnJ'""l '" <""'''.• gradation S" G^^,.. H'S' o'^^"/" ^^ How these forms 0^-0.^0^1 * ^^ off-soumJ-M know for certa™ b",? het i,Tt '""""'• "* """'-^e; lievnig that they are do.„Jv?n't «tfong reason for be- Nothing of pSiy t e ,ame n'i;"* r;''''-^'"'^'- at present: the grom ds ^?™«, "ature feikes place the origin of these forms .,«i \'^ ^-''Planation of Btages of the language Vye' n't''.'"'" '" "'« «"''"'r the effects of word-stress nZ\ "^"T' •"'"'■'"te takes place as the resnUof Zt"„7"T'' ''^ ^»'''»f instance, we .^peat the sentence "T""'*'''"''- ^^' ^r ing a different word each thnc 1 "? 5!"' K"." stress- for ca» ; thus, ""' "'^ S«' different son-,,ls In some wav like fh,'^ • • . ^ 4e"^ o?X iS^e tS' thT" ""-^^ /" ^''^ -'V form tha,i at jwsenf hTv. h " ^f ^^^^ «'fity of meanings; for\irmore enltn^;! "'''^ *'* different specialized do their woTds become " ''""'^'' *^'' '"«« "> other Arlan lan^fna^f TI L^" ™weI-»ou„ds are found Greek the verb-forls Z wSw^'TP'^'^"" ''a™ "' '« played i»fi:uagre ; ^1 words, iction of nl-stress we take see that n each; forming back, «, vowel- urn' '). course, for be- ■stress. 5 place ion of earJier iistrate wluif ff, for stress- iOU'uls such sord- ine: early ■y of Jrent nore :onie )uiid e in 'P~a, any CHANGES IK SOLNh. compounds beffinnmif wifJ. /; . M-o (to ^^'■J'VZ!:i'U:'l^%^- "»> verb 71 TyJ''^''T '"''' ™ ASSOCIATION that is, a sound may !«! b^«I n m" «f'^«" s"""*! i company h, which i fl ds "S, f V'" '"'"",''' "^ th; various ways, both whs,, if „ * ,' '' ^'"'"'s itself in when it acts without it! ^'' "'''"^ ""'^^ «''•««« anS and'''-his.sMe "tnlSi; tlf^T'P^ " "-name '- I if voiced in theZ?%he.!e the r""^ T""^' "«' but voiceless in the seco„I(whe.e the I f ".^o'ced) less). So, too, when snolrln „ > "^,* "'*" '« ^"'ce- group ''^have:togo" TetoTnes •'tT'Jv*'''' *"■•««">■ :i-don't-mind,""I-dom-,S" ^^Mj^S" "- and hssom and ffoss/p from the olh/i. '"""'a'-'y we have In these examples, w"havecomW .*"""' ""'' ^'"'-'«*- and, as is usual n siuTh c^l^ •l'"^ "T™'*' "'O'-ds ; that has become altered ' " " '^« «'•«' word lesf ^SZthe'Sss^r b';^'" ''/'■ ■^"""'J ■■« voice- So too, when TS^ ;^t feit'/ ''^ ■?'"«''' "■ IS the voiceless < with the ftrTuft.^ '""''' ''^ sound the second. Here however a^ i, , ""; IT'^ «■ ^'ith takes , place in the aS' t^ "^"? 1 "■«. "'^ratiou Effects of Association on con- sonants: (1). When we combine separate word., (fr ' (2). When we add an endln>^ *o word. is of less takes place n^he added' -1 "'"^^ *^ «nceasitd^sfo?;trrnta^ seiouslf the\&7eL^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ --- organs of speech and so th^S^^ *^^ Position of the that is^voic'ed^ois^tr/oStS ^""^^^^^ with voiceless. This DroS^fi^V "^^ "^""^ voiceless name of assimilation ''^''" ^^ ^^^ ^P^^ial fo7ac:!^""^^^^^^^^^^^^ A? old form, t^e preceding, t^lttS^r:t^^^^^ Cause of Assimilation. Effects of ttssoeiation on vowels: Canse of Mutation. M T0«/« jyo TU,.:n COMPONENTS. ill Neither xradntion nor mutation "ow i^ctive. Other changfes caused by association. Changes in rorin due to meaning. niustrations from childhood. inmmatUm (9) rfc/"'''?^'''^' '^'"^ "^>t follow t}w r,r„. word in U^a^^Z!^^^;:/^^^ of th. .sanro mutated. Jn Old i] i^ L f '/**^*' '^'^^''^* i« ^^i'l to ),e »>"t the most imiK^tltm^^^^^ vovvol-mutation : ou::sed by the Tm toni / • ' ^^'V"'' *^"^ ^^'^^^^ ones whi(^h were ii«jnnii,r i , '* •^' '-^ P^'- fts ?/ in ,y^„ j finally disappeared, pi-Xw 'irl"!' '"^ '''«■"* known as co«c^a/ed ,;;;;;';tf„7 «'lmt is, therefore, Like ffriidation, mntuHm. L P>-'»eiple; but, as wmu «"„.,,"«' ""«' 1" "'^"ve ■mportant o,.e in the eaHy hTstorrof' H T' " ^«« «» . (2). Besides assimilufionnfj.^ I.''''' '""»•'"««•■ >n associated sounds wW^ wV'!''''r'^'"-«"'»de disagreeable to pronon,!^^ tLm%f 1" •^'•^'<'"'' <»• ally, however, these ehaL-l T« '"f t*"-- Oeeasion- whim, or of errors oTlfZ!" ^1 ^^ "'« result of ™use or othe^ w^re l^l ?"? '^'"«''' f™"' some «Peakei-s in the lame "^n'nnn^f/'P??^"'' ^y n'a,.y innsf look for examples^n M f ''^- ■■ ^'"■<'' ^'so, we language. Exampreste ' ''"■'""' »'"««« «* the 72 Sn f ^"^""T^^ DUE TO ANALOar -der whie^ eln\r h::"^ S';:'-^ *?"' "-'>.. VMt time; and fiii,li, „ h' I ^ '''''-tonus cxpri-ssin.. •."•0..P Im.' mlu;.^ e'V'; tairr/ '"'""*-''"'^ *" ^^'- fxpi'ess u coi-taiii elian^ J?™'" ."'"mge (,f f,„.,„ f„ ".«. same change of mo ni„ ^ f Jo use to express eas.er to form words af ter wh.U " '«: ¥ """-^ '» classes of words, as, for exmn,^,. ^k";' " l"-0'l.«ced "1 •«', but it has .X.t If '' '''''■M'''™^ ending f^tablishod, as fm exam X fn^" /''"^ '''«'•« onot >ns more than one 170 d eS, H "°""^ «'"'«»«- ways of expressing th smeSi.i'f ''/''''* ^''^'^■■al eiiee of the very ftommon f^Z ■^' ^",'' ^^ ''^'^ "'Au- expressing mo.^ t m o e eame'i'n "h' "^'T\ "" "«""« "> tlie same way, onlv 7 W -'"'f '" b« ^orauid oT;:!!^s!trKifist?r^^^^^^^^^^^ example, we have r/w fo^^rV.'""'- '^>"«' *■'^•• connected in the mind with ^i?,f ' ''««ause nwe was older rUtmse (tSis 'v^'lfto' "f f^-^for the because -eoua is a commn^tr"™''^ "£'.''), -o^^m,,, for the .^der r." from il ^ '?'^«<'«-^ word has "O eo,n,ec" ou i„ mfaninr"!"'':''?"*?'' the or,voo,l.- (he modern fo im 7s duftn"' "'*"'• ■■"«'* resemblancie of the sounds " '""=''<' ^""clea Hnw Analogy AnnloRy hftn produced soiiio classes of words and Ims altered otliers. It has rtlso affected the founds and *'>miii of iiJjfle words I ■■ .< >l 66 How it acts amongst the une<-ac»ted. The funda- mental cause Or phonetic and analogical changes. Meaning and form, some- times closely connected. ^S AND TBEIB COMPO.VEATS. being altefed) i„ UfJ^, '^ ^^''''^f (all the wo^' transformed so as to liaw\,L '"" ""derstood is known woi^d or wo,^ri^?«T"T,''?'^'«"«<^ t" a wel ' Popular, Etymology; Z'^LZlu'r'' "^ ^"'^or operation of this fore^ amon^ H 5 *". ^''P'^'M, he many mistakes-mistete™ whiJ ^educated causes conditions (9), usage no lo,Ti,,;,„T'"^ *« "'"d^"' did ,n early times in the ?«L i"*' ""^^t- «« it sovereign, '^"'^ ''ase of wormwood and 72 W V ™^ ™NCIPLE OP EASE ■'a- We have now learned n,of ti wh'i th^?,^\tf,,tf^ «;e -^^^^ - 'orms of words connection with those of f the/' ^'? '"'"^''^'"•cd in classed under analogy. ""' ^'>'"^^- These are the changes, we find timfc f i/p''^''""'"" eanse of ^^ortest way .<::^:'i:'Z^i^ ^^^^ 74, r„ ^''ANGES IN MEANING imj^.ta?t1f y:„tr"r °^ -'^^ - not so Tliey are, however imt ? f'langes in form (\k) of language ":nT'as"C'have":,r 'i'" P"'"* "^ ^'w J2), there is sometimes TinH f^''"'*'^' ^'^"n (35 and the meaning and t^e fo" '^"^<^™!'n''etion between consider the chief infl.ienc;. .w """' "'«-rfore, now f«a'»"g; that is Sies'L^f'F^dnee changes in >"gs or the addition o other one "^ '"^ »««" irt of the tJie word rstood is ^o a well- ' ^olk, or ^eted, the 'd causes modern 'ct, as it ood and iportant f words simply and are icerned : words ered in se are above ise of ffort, or the 5t and ind. ot so (35). view and veen now !S in 3an- inexactly the sou-ds we hear fn^T '''"'r "''^ '™itate words iu saases di creut fmmM "'*' ""'«'• «'« "se 111 both, the differeuop^ hi . '^'^ "^"a' ones; and at least, owinft^" « e.V X'ated '.'"''''f ' ^«" «™e individuals. And even morefW ■"**' ''^ different meaning-change is due t^m. 5i" sound-change ^ome of which are so subtle th^t^'f"™"' influencfs,' make a complete classification T ' '! ""Possible to chief importance : '"''''"'"'• Two, however, are of beiome mZTeflny'i;!?'''' '° civilization, its ideas to be made. S 1^. "r'"-''"^ 'distinctions have "ceded, but, as the „umber°nL?' "1?'*'"'"^' ^o^ds each becomes more 0™™!^ '''^' '>*' "^''aning of for example, furkmrXf^lZf'''"'''r'^- Th»s, a definite measure of disteuce in {'■''"':^*"^' '^ "ow motes "a kind", now usn'JlJ "' ""''"' ""finally kind". This pr ine^pTe Is k J^ '"'""' * Particular or specialization: it fs b- ^ '/> ''" 'contraction, cause of change in mean L ^ oh "'** "°*' ""'"mon pay">«. "ess or wickedness oT what thev^''i"'"r*''«''ff'">«'ve- example, pM„ ^nd on&Lt ^ ''''"°'^- Thus, for a nation. " Sometimes 'l^o ^^ ^^^ "^ '""""'•y by historical inflnences Thus ' ,Sf •''"*"*^'' '* due to serf in the villa, ov farm nt f-'^'Z' ""einnlly "a Required its Present meaSe-L'/"^™"" master," the viUeins". So, too^^th *''" '°^ ™«™lity of churl <0.E ceor? *S +• '> .™eaive The present meinW^ofo''''''5"^''">''Selu^ Zf'i I,""* oP«'-ation of more tir'*' '' "^t*" 'he And further, although in the c.J; /" *""' "^ ^em. going examples, the old meamw\ * T'* »* 'he fore- hy the new one, this is bvri^l'''^«»,«"PPlanted ' ~ -""^ "uat generally h a tLa,T,ge ' «xam;jle, before the >^ pap;yrus ot in use. the inner ^imiiai'Jy e cloth": ' are also • Some- >ffensive- 'hus, for tised for fitory by ' due to ally "a laster, ' ' rality of CBANGES IN MEANINQ. are multitudes of wo^swhXT *"'k'''T' '^'^^ usual and more oriffinal mp«nin ^''*' '"'""'''« tl"^'"- meanings which Zy be describe/ ."""''T t °'''<''- te as occasional/ In%tnd-chi" "^r^rfl'-tiuc tion, aroccasion;" In sonn7ch»' '" '^""tradistiuc- hand, the new word almost «fw^^°f' .°° ""^ ''*^«'' ^'■•— ""--i nna rpi,^ i._n . ^ climOSl always dlSnlnoPG fl.^ ^IJ generally hand, the new word almos?^lw«^''f ' f^ ^^^ ^^^^^ Thenewword one. The follow.'nr^ f ™^^^ always displaces the old ^""f"^'^ «r>>,-li, i lOiiowingf, however, are eximnioo ^/ i supplants the whieh have retained hnfli fj.! examples of words «' ""e. The with, of eoursefrchan^^ofternTng"' '''' "''' ^^^ ''""'" lone, alone-ionMAn OM, How our yocabuJary IS increased. (1). Deriva- ^?n by Suffix. !"th ehanee • Of lunetion. ^eflnitiojjg of Derived, derivation, derivative, Pnmitive. and SuiBx. Hi i :! V . «nee active f/p^^''?". ""^ exS/^^rd 71) that have borrowed wo,v/ *"' ^i^torj of tt I '"P'^' ""d "ations, so thlt '''^ ""s we needed tt, '""^uage, we voeabulkry is of 'f°^- ^^ &'• the a'^H' *<"« othw make new wr.,.,T •' "Ganges in thLr "^^ ^ave next ^^^fferent functions ^^ ^^^^ "^^^"^^"^^ea nflj^f ^^^^^^ DERIVATION. 77. To thf^ ... ^.^^S^Fix. ' sound th .^"Jeetive ^r,«^ /qoT H^hfoi. uP ^' a derivative I:..^^ ^« itself eaJJed a /derivatives trom true. ^^'«h it 5 "ll''<'."^««ve noun ■ If ?f ^''"ed^ a means here ?vL':/«"ed its ^v^l^J« 7>-d from ""« addition -« w 'T' '"«'•« oS/i , r'""''*'* ■'OM-making suff& Tt' *« derivatTvl : ^- , ^"d -f-t..ed f„ ,r^, ^-^5^ means sreX^/f/'^d^^ l^:,-m«eiati^-o?ati.i,,^^^^^^^^^ 'I>I^'R1VATI0N. 7J '^s or ne\v ^ifications f 71) that ^^s, Were >^7,- and uag-e, we 'm other ^ <^f our 'Ve next ^ords to Actions '8's and d the ^ the whiah. iirned be fig" it d a fom Uive Ind d a xed in a er ): -/^?.- thus, W^AA,/f ^t^^tord ^^'"^'^"-^^^^^^-^^ffij . not precisely, the .same as trj TT. T'^\ *^^^"^^ what we call the suffiv A,7 • i, *^ P^ain here that common adjeetfve Ml'.^a l^J^^^^^^ ^"^ ^^^e fme^^fullof truth. And iid^ti f '^'^ "' ^^^^^^ ^^e for believing that all our .'. ffl ' ^^^^^ i« ^ood reason independent wonlwZhfv'r'^'V?^^'^ '^'^^^ ^"«^^ stress (70) have lo^f H. • ■^- ^^^^ ^^^^^n of word- sometimes means "the ou^lL^f u • ' ^""^^ ^« ^^«'^^ rri T ,. ^"® ^nality of bemg true '' derived fro™ ^..t^V^^^^ -- that^^ quality of bein/foiU " or T,o " \ f<»™ //7tt, "^tlie by anotlier suffix than Mf '^'^at'^ ^ul "; then, fjo.n „o„ns,/,-«/,,', 'Varied w?h flufc,?f ''«^- /««Amm, the quality of being filthy - ' '""'• ''S''"^' rf^^^^^^l^S^^L^^^?'^ ^o the of being foul " ; although we do not /nv'. ^^ ''""'"y more^than we say .„.!, likeXrr:^^ US is ^mp^f th:TaseZt'?hf re IZZ'' ^''^~ ^ '* or what we are used to, a^d ;rot1he':?C"^'""'-^' can t;,rt^i:;?o ad"verbs"'bfi.f/''^/"'^ «"'^ >«' ^e suffix -/« .. th„r'!!.,'' Sf ?;W'"ff the adverb-makiuL. the same w^y' 'th;"d<:riv^d*-, r"^*-* '"' "«" ti^eat in filthy: thus, lumM^'J^lJ^''''''''' "•««/«' and Suffixes, originally independent words. Derivatives from foul. No renison assignablf^ foi selection of suffixes. Derivatives by the suffix -ly. 72 Verbs from "onus and adjectives. Perivafives rroni verbs. (2). Deriva- tion by suffix, without change of luiictiou. ^^^I>-FOJiAlATl0.y. , ^» fact, there are imf . •insriiftfire from whi ]? Z "''"•^' '^djoetives in N.p «s are made by it '^''"' ^^"^ '-^ ^^^'^'e part ot our ^"t the same suffix -/v/ o? noun /.«i^r ""^ ''<^^'"'«- /-•*/ ^«!;^A.«-f s ,^: ^nd, on the other han^ a ■ ^affixes from verbs Ti'^ derivatives are mirJe i- oui' language. ' "" ''■"' '^ m genera] the way in way also are formed fhl i ^ ^^ ^^ knig^ht '' Tn h.- "ouns, by the I^ZlfZ ^ tC "I ^^"^-^ ^'"'^^- Again, we h-ive . :/°;'.''''''^<-"'* a<'tress<«o,<^. as green sT^: "djeetives derived from a^- .• varfati'r^f CCi "'/ f" "-' ' ■ o™ ,Sr'"^^ ' :^^Hsaveryeo,„,„ro,^* «t""'''^ "^ adding -Jor th? greatest degree of f^ „ .""'"''^^^'^s a greater Li its mff • ' *''« "djeetive) whe^t / "l*"^^'''''«»'e "s Meaning, such » ,,.vhX ''■, ^""" *^<' natn,.„ „* -■•''n...o„ or decree is possible and DEBtVATtON. n in tile t'l'bs by of our when th^ derivative thus formed is easy to pronounce : tlius, tor exanii '(3, a taU man, a taller man, the tallest man : but not Fremher, Frenehest, or admirabler, admirahlest. A very few adverbs also have derivatives in -er and -est : thus, tor example, sooner, soonest<6-oo«; faster, fastest od and and the ^I'bs, but xainpie, netimes ien we i both IS, ne; nowu may, I the ' the for The are 'tial ode act to for in ay or je of ;-'«A'and :i^^.7tdT^^^^^^^ *«"^ found if. literary EnI^I^'';;rth?'l''' '""""^'- "^^ become established ' '*"'*"'^ ""'y a'so COMPOSITION, Examples are ^ *''"" '"'' "^ ^'"Sle word, blackberry, grass-plot, gentleman, washtub, highborn eal^^co..o4o/fert^^^^^^^ EuS, aTd irare"af tZ tl """"1°"'"' ^^''^ - Sometimes the":om;otded words "ttdInT ""^^■ pound just as they would in a tnf!^ *''.*' "<""- -mply to have gro'wn int one ^rdf sS are' "^^ gentleman, bridesmaid, man-of-war, ticket ofZve Compounds like m.an-of-,oar nf ^h: u ,' orms a part and ou^ Im It If twch VavT inflected, as men-of-war, are cJlLl nhl^^^^ ^ pounds. Ordinary phrases on Ihl Phrase-com- besides not beini? wrift»f , ' ** , ""'«'■ hand, phrase-compoundf in freX „11 ""? "^H"^' ''^ff^ ^om of a mj,:rx^:^i wMr!s*'tiiiun'";^"''i equivalent of what it displaces ThL, '^"""t'onal on my account " into '' oS (^Z' T", """^ '°™ »r into "on n^y ^.0^.° jX^™^ '^**^r^''t''' phrase-compound howpvpr L .i , ^^^ *«'™. include what are reairsentenccst fZ^ '""'^'^ ^ ... i^,^,,^.yy^ ^g would-be (as for Pv«mr.f^"^' •'' a «ww7tZ-6e grammarian"). example, in Definitions of C'ompound, Compounded, and Composition. How com- pounds are formed. Diflference between ordinary pii rases and phrase- compounds. If'" ill it' til n\, f^OIiD-roHMATloy. JJnw In. Plilts (if ft <'«>MijH)ini of a house, " /,«,/, IVi,- """' '""'«'% is "the knee " «.„.v;,-^„r. , „ "T,'"''„ f , deep „p fo the ;« a l>n,l«e made to dn w „, -T '"'' '/'■«../;«>;». that goes by steam • ' ; a Ho '' t''"'""" """ '''»»' ['person who pieks-po eketf ' n "f; ? f'?*^?"*^' i« a tells tales," a redcoJul-t'. , "''"^^ '^ «"e who Other exampira^ "* "'''" ""-''''•« " red-cat " turnkey, „„t-„..., «„-„fflee, ,„a.e„d, .,•„«„„, ,«„no<,„. EflFeots of stress on its form. Effects of composition on its meaning. «Q '" 7» ""'"^«"J, aicernoon. somethh,r'"Tho"i"reallv' ' ''r'*«'"^ '''^■'<<'"P«on of I'«rt, it oomes to eem ol'^oTetn'';'* "'"■? *"■' «»« we lay a strong stress nnnnf ''''' «^P<"'ially when Compare, for example '^ '" P'''-'"'"'«r syllable. . MacBM with .M- ;.,,, „,„„.„„,, „.,, ,„^^ ^^^^_^^ As a result of this word-stress (7n\ often changes its prom'uei Zn ' '^ '"'"™P°""'' Its spelling, still further so tl?t' J?^^' eenenMy, Its history, we do not t L'nk of wh»T' t ""' '*"''*"'^ feo with liolklau* ^om. A'»-efc«<« and 6rertM,«/ i,,J,°- ?,' \, ^°' ''"''" with ^^ but the Pro£tiaMtd""^or- ■! is diSuVm'the' mea^nin'fof '^ ^ """P"™'' separately. A Jtoc^jS^^^f^ ^lfi!">.^"t^ t'"'™ '*fif!^j~S^>* '^* j"' ' Cj) " - ■' COMPOSITION. 77 ■ bird that is black, whori hJackhird . a particular kind of black lird. So, too, a mad house means a household chat i mad, wheit-as a madhouse is a houH(» for mad people— a lunatic asylum. The closeness oi tlie coinbinntion of the ])aits of a compound differs "ii d"^'ree. Sohk) compounds are only occasional!,'^ used or e confined to one author. Ex anples are prize-ox gift-horso, air-balloon, star-tuned, sphere-music. Others, again, go into ureneral use, as, for instance, bank -deposit, book-case, book-cover knee-deep, folk-lore. Such combin.itions are called temporary compounds: tht'ir pa ts are connected w th a hyphen and the first member is stressed m^ > than the rest. They form a connecting link bet\.. -n the phrase and the true compound. On the other hand, true compounds ; Lhat is, those combinations which are permanently welded together, are cilhd permanent compounds: they have no hyphen, and have but one stress. So gradual, in 1 ed, is the transition from the phrase to the temporary compound, from tue temporary compoun to the permanent comi)ound, s id from the perman it com- pound to the derivative, ^hal it is sometimes difficult to decide in which of th. asses to place an expression 90. A compound may itself enter into other com- pounds: thus, by adding ivine to the coi.)p«Hmd goose- herr>f, we have goose in rryiHne. Such compou .ds are known as decomposites. Other eAamples are handicraftsman, toj illantsails, poeketham. ercbief. \nd, further, a compound may also yield deriva- tives ; thus, from harefoot we have barefooted. Such combinations are known as compound deriva Ives, and are very frequently found, especially in poetry. Other examples ar knierht- errantry, hnnihlj-mindednoss, deepthroated, golden- bhafted, subtle-cadenced, royal -towered, pure-eyed. Tlie cloKcnoRg of thf eon- necfi(,n of the piii-ts varies; Tci jiorary ami Per- manent Coiupouuds. Derivatives and com- pounds from compounds. 'A fii .» ! 78 The Root re. PrcHorits the fun«la!!iental Idea. '''"rinative ele«n«nt8 und OtOUlH. ^yORD- FORMATION. "g, lovolier, /ov« Such roots not neces- sarily roots in Human speech. The sources of our forma live elements. «»« syllable lov is ..on.,'. •"' '"""''• '"™"' '"-O-- as formative elements i. ''"inxes, whicfi are known r«0 .-and tU. si,„™S*,„,^";;,^.;' «.vll„We i. ,;,li::," f o-in. by [;:■ atltfonT; '""f ""^ ^'fsttf/I' e"^*:.f""»« of Plants grow ZmTC'"^ ""'"'"'><' J"" examples are, ^ "^'^ "leir roots. Other (l>ap in grab, fn-amZ 1'^'^' """-"I^^. tUH/,.««t ; for often in Ar. - .. ^ ^ ^' ^"^^P, Onijmel : ' roots only with refereneefo fi. < "^ "''<'• t^ei-efore they are found; thev «,t „ J"" '""guage i„ which human speech. So L ! ""* necessariiy roots in are defined as simple lo'fL^'l"?;"^ 'vords v^ich IS eoneerned, are found to h ''" S"«"«'' ''u.guage eompo„„d, when weto „e to knor"^ derivative or however, have gone m t of ^ f?''""'''"•^'^'•'^"m^'"r «^ements,■ although of Im ^fr" "*■« «« formative words of old forfatio ..'"Th;;;"';^ *"* ««» fo'-din '^mi_ fENTS. » loved ; he tniuhi- '» l>y tlio '•e known called H • from '»M as •f^w, just Other '^P, the honetie ' forms -iily of I'efore, which 3ts in which gruage ve or them. t and ation INFLECTION. 79 Such formative elements are (tailed dead, while those s.,.„e <^Kii(llo, mLsileeii, dislike, extra- reffuhir, practrrnnUxral inurden>,<.s, pernomge, niinstrel.vi/, enioynimt. ' nol!;fn^f ^^''^^if' resembled Modern German in its aoif-oxpi,.,,.. elements Man v of 'til^"";""' ''*\'"^^^*""^^ ^"^ ''^ "^^*i^« !-"•'" elements. Manv ot these have, however, })een replaced by words of Romanic origin : thus, for example; deed h6t (doed-bettering), penance; hdc-hus (book-house), library; trc6w.,n,rhte (tree-wright), carpenter; Jlasch mongcre (fleHh-monger), butcher exS'".!^"^"''' '"" "*"'"' ""' "''^"■' ''*'' f°' rock-oil, steam-boat, street-car; but not nearly to the same extent as Old English • for we generally resort to Latin or Greek for the material of our new words : thus, "mitriai telephone, telegrarn, microbe, manufactory, juxtaposition. INFLECTION. wor^: ^1 l^""- ^A ^"""^^ ^l^"" considering how some inflection. woids are derived from others or compounded to form ?*'^«'"«"* others, We have now to notice eertalli o^r a W & ''^^^• tions in form whii..h some words undergo, according to differences in their meaning, or differences in the connection in which they are u..ed. Such altered torms, although, in a way, derived from other forms dves ^'^^^^^^ *'^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^e^' iiever called deriva- NUMBER. 95. In the sentences : The hoy learns, The man thinks so, The horse kneels, each of the nouns, hoy, man, and horse may alter its form to mean something a little different from what it means here. If, in each case, we want to speak of !^?if:JH^^ ?^^' T^ ^1^^^' the sound (and hence ihi^, """"'"'"^' ^"u say ooys, men, horses. i.. ■■■* 1 4 80 Number in Mouns, a fihftnge in meaning and usually in form. WOED-FOBMATION. Number in verbs, a change in form only. Government and Agree- ment. I Merely figur- ative terms. A fee: irthi tr -) r- -"« ^ Hence we call it a '^hms^f^^numC^"^''-, '"''"'■ Mdt boi/, mm, and /w^e ai-e f th .■' ?'"' ^« say Umgular means "single" V,^]l'f f^^"''''' ""'"bel- Ws are plural {p,f„,i , ,,!''<^^ .t.'""' %■', meu, and What is true of tliese nnnLl • . ""'™ ">au „„e ") rest, that is to say om nnV '™' "^ '"^"''ly ,,11 tie number-forms. o,7si^gular "nd ZfT''! ^""'^ t»^« 96. But if m f^ : "'"^ P'""'*'- form« as^LUets'inS:,^ .t^ - use the pinral always use the same forms of th?"'^i'^^^'' ^' «^««ot thus, compare ^ ^* *^^ ^erb a* predicates ; The boy ?ertr?w ^ttj. ^, ^ The man ^/«nfe so '" if® ^^^^ ?^«m; The horse Aviee/^^ ,, i,Je men ^/m«A; so,• Th^«! nlfo«„^- . ® horses A;«eeZ. -d^ U^tXrtt'".,"'^ "''^ -*. -'- " is show a difference of meaS inT^^'' ™*'''<^^' ^oes no? change in the noun • fo, »»!. ." *"'"'' *^"se as the act of learning or thi, S„ro W •''''"^ ^"^ ''''' *e ferent according as oneS, orli°^ '' '° "««'* dif- one, take part in it. The cLn J ""' "^ ">«« than consequence of the change of m"^1'"' ^'^r, a mere We say, therefore, thatihe veH, " *^ ",f "'«' ^"''Jeets. has sometimes tw^ forms one for "'""•*'' ^''^ »<>"". forms dep?;,d: no^ of ^LytLl *"« use of these the verb itself, but onlf/ 1'" *« meaning of subject, we sp^ak of the ? , .-^^ '^^'""'•'""cr of ^1^ ^orernmg i„ the ma ter tl e ""f • "^ '3'"'««n.^ "r the verb is c^Mp^Ct™^' l"^''^"* >«'"'g given, nomber. The use of these 7'"' '* « ''espect to figurative, and the termlTl *^™" ■«■ however, gcueral use among g,Z,ZlT"Ti ^'""J" "'« " correct idea of what tarn ,^?'r% *'°.'f "<" g'^e a expression is as much detern S y T"' ?"™ "^ «'« I word as it is bv tl.« ' H ™ - ''•^ ""* governe,]" ' -„ -.« Aord tuai governs."'' IS made to 3ts meant, "d we say ^r number '>^i^n, and in one"), i-ly ;'II the have two the plural ve cannot ■edieates ; so; hen it is 3oes not ^e as the that the self dif- >re than a mei-e ^ibjeets. e noun, subject subject lar and f these ingr of of the u^*- or !?iven, ect to vever, is in ive a >f the INFLECTION. 9S If • PERSON. *» (o.- she. Tw)' Z Ti;'" 'f 'J^i*^ ^l'*' pronouns 7 he verb; tlie real cht.'e 1" nf "^''T" ''>^'"<^^'i ^y to signify hun.^tfVu,"^^ ^'^ ur'""" *"'™i^"'S person or thing ' JU^ of /\' ^ ''*'^"«V <^"y speaking uses the proZ mi,, /' >'* ."'" l"^'-»ou Pei-sonto whom he is sTe^kinrVl 'T '' "»'"''«^ "'e remains unchanged • tl n« l^' ''*" *"''"' of tlie verb do occasionally .fflrt.r'/,"" Z'"'' '»"' if-as we '*«" for the sUe pn^ose '1' f l""ffuage-we nle also altered: ihn^,/Zfl.!^^,^''Z';.''^,^^'^ verb is the pronouns is called i rKff ' ^'"^ « the pronoun of the tt/rrf person ' ^'"' ''"' *"• *'^ tiu^rtr;e:;e"^'!i;?;*'-;/J<;t«- verb has ^ first, second, and third „ersoi,'tf I '' f ''J''"'« of the w« «>1I the first, secon land aS , ™'^'^ these for. .,s Itself. And here, agai ft th *'''""'' of the verb ?r determines what' the form o?"f''''' I*'''* ^-'overns, Tvir '" *' '"'""' ~ ';:::d\rbe? *° secoXC,ZVS^ «-* or of the the l^j-st or of theseord person ■'pv " '' ^r""''" of has the verb in the thh'd ne> ','„ ^S^ry sub,jcct-nouu ever, we shall see that t ii "V ^"''"'"r O", how- number in the verb am " nh,^';?' *"'•• P*-'-^™' «>Hl tion rather than the rule ^'hiase-forms. is the excep- Person in pronouns, a tiifferenee of nieiiniug, m verbs, of form only. The subject governs ; ' 'le verb iigrees. n TENSE, the verb, us well --in.. We /Cot to"""' 99, But alterations I as the th u noun, has feal differences of forms Z^^6'A7^6-, ^/,/,,/., Tense, a real f the verb s past or nse {tense s are said , thought, tense. depends, ng whicli ■ ve/'o by ay glad ; i not go. or mode, viewing s actual iidition. unctive le sense ly being eptions, ts. As i above • mood ating) ; re and ay not itenees iglish; subject is generally omitted *"' *""'■"'' "'''> "« be used along^ith thl'dXe^tZ^oVothe^P' ".'^ ^--'- thus varied i"„T/;,idtta*r *'''' "»•' an^^sefo? w&CTerb In'' '^"f"^^ ''' '"^-'"^ . altered in form or inflect?^ Ti,"" i''"?"«ge is thus is nsually called t.ctfus^L'''(T'°'' "* "" ^«'-'' only a " joining together ''om», '■ ** ""',"'' ™«'i°« and the verb is^said to be co,^uga"7r '''''■""^'^^ ■- ^.«*, adding an -rtoThe^ameTo mirk «" " '""'"''' "™°'" being the possessor of the ttin^ Ti"'"/*"'''''!,''^ noun, usually made bv mWilJ F' , ''^ ^"^ »' « ton,ed to call its poLm/v^^X m ' ^^ ?'■" '^'^u^- English. it most^ftrZ^s'po'ss'es'ir"' '° ''•''''''•" ~Sit%ni\ni.5r?h™'--^ "-^'/ '■>« — before it; thus m/n'T.H,? ™,">e Preposition 0/ "W™ % the children's phasuZ? JA "if *'" """' "f ««/ ""'""'"■ that is to say the' C^ , f'''"'""!*' "/ ''hMren; another as is .'.xoresse, hv """" ."^ "."" "<>"" to oherbythepreSm^^T eonnectmg.it with that also often be eXe^^ ' t " f^" .f ""^ '<'"^' ^> ™«y the possessive ca^l'^ """'"8 'he noun itself in we now expr:ss"::,V iy.^^^^f^r''"'''''':':^^^ were formerly exm-LZd ,Tt ""' I"'opositions, expi-essed in othe? lai^.„l "'.' '"'pa^e, and are stil or changed form! .f "£'1^?.'. "' !^'' Sl'f other cases, under the prononn Bn^i"*r""i' 1^° *'" "e seen later, other Old Engli' h <-^ ^ "-' *'"''''' "■•« *'™''« "f u p.ngiL,h ca8e-fo«i» ,n Modern English. > 'I. \i i irai kh 84 The posses sive form of some pronouns. WOED-FOM^fj^ TION. The relation shown hythe Objective case governed uy the verb. J^ffinitions of ^^bjeet, and Objective and ■Nominative cases. A Objective eoverned by a preposition. The Common ease. as m noun, bv addir.^v";,'; ""*'"< 'pated "' »->-itin2 fid, as H-o shall seo late, th>,l '.,'/'" ' "'''«. «'''<'*<'7 «''I'jeet (18). If we say ' ^^ ""'^'^ than that of *-^'*' and';ir;elotttr'°''r "^"^ "'™" represent a part of vluthlZlT^^' '^'"'^"se they the subjects staud for The .. '''I-'''"'"* "^e persons act,„n of binding <."le.Z;-TinZf "^^ ^" (that IS js made more defln te) L "^ ".^''' '"""^d what particular class of thiS ^I '"""•""«^ «"* «" A word added to a t™,,??? * exercised. ™lJed the of./ert of thHe-W z^"''^ *" *'« W is thing put in the way") I ^^^"'^ "^ais "some- Person or thing tharXeitlv end?'' '* ''^^'- the Of, the action expressed by tVVe b^'^^'i^ "^^'^^ ^/^'^y see Mm and /^^ see^ // ^ we call tL .fo-Jj^o^l -IVS'^on ^Lt ^and^ ^eStlerTbe tVo '^^^ *"« ^ ^d^^^ to distinguish it from tV oT *"' " P™""""- we cal? «««e-or, more usual vW T"'' ^J"^ ^^ibjective nominative, or nl • •'^ ''"* tess coiTeetiv JJ; «mply "naming'-r"""^ ''''^' ^«««S means when a Dronnn« • word by a p?epSo„ ' ZTT^^ "'"^ «ome other ease of it, j„st as whe'nTt uT^ ,!'•'' *" object?.e And because the nreno^iti ' "'*' °''J«et of the verb influence upon the word 'V-'T? *° ««rt a kind of something else, we cl?l th^^"-* l' *''"« attaches to preposition. '"'" '''^t word the object of the re.' "*!''¥'■« is no noun in „.,_ ... "^v aus xor an objective ca.^; a form dSeTntt;;' V ' INFLECTION. 85 in writing 'Jio, tvJiose; tiJI greater pronouns. 'apable of ill that of 'ause they le persons le general e, limited s: out on s^way is i some- ifies the he oZ>;Vci{ the cor- e same se; and 5 object sed as ^e call, fective V, the means other iective verb, ind of les to ►f the v^hioh from Why we speak of tlie noiniimtive and objective cases of nouus. The govern- ment of verbs and pre- positions. the nominative, and used when the noun is in the object relation. In Modern English, one form (some- times called the common case) is used for both the subject and the object relation. Thus, we say The father loves the son, and the son loves the father; The father went with the son, and the son went with the father; without any change of the words father and smi ; the positions of the words show their relation. Still, partly by analogy with the pronouns, and partly because many other languages .elated to English, and even earlier English, generally, do distinguish the object from the subject in nouns as well as in pronouns, and partly again because a difference of name enables us to indicate a difference of relation, we usually speak of nouns as having a nominative and an objective case. And we speak of both verbs and prepositions as governing in the objective the word that is their o])ject, because it is compelled to be put in that case after them, and because its relation to them, rather than any difference of meaning which we feel in the word itself, is the reason of its being made objective. DECLENSION. 105. These are ail the kinds of changes that make gf'flnitionof up the inflection of the noun and the pronoun. ''*' ^"^'*'''- Being different from those of the verb, they go by a different name ; they are called the declension of the noun or pronoun, which is said to be declined. The term case is derived from casus, the translation Origin of made at Rome of ptosis, the Greek grammatical term. It *''® ^®'*™^ meant "a falling", a variation from the so-called primary dedeuslon. form in a noun. Tliis form in the noun, now known ai' the nominative, was represented by a perpendicular line :md called the " uprigrht" case, while the others were called the "slantin^^," or "oblique," eases. As the so-called nominative in the noun or pronoun does not "fall" from my form, it is, therefore, not really a case in Modern English; it is called so with reference to its relation in the sentence, not to its form. A scheme of these eases was known as Declension. Gradually, however, the original meaning of case and declension was tovgotten and they came to be used as mere grammatical terms. se '^"^^■^omjTioj,^ r>e^flnJtJon of the fjefinition of Composition, s'^ade into <'«e auother. p-^flnition of The Com- Parative g'ltl t)ie superlative derived ' forms. simplest f^i^ie from that Z''''^' «"d we'tUTf')!' ^'^^ "«»a% a new wniT ' Produces whJi • ?^^*«nce; " r« -^ "f ? w, a eiSf'„/" Addition fflalr^"''' "'^ wean relation, or a mealr*' *« «??«.«««' * ^ «ha„g^ word. ««a'"ng so generai L not t^''*™'"«««ai ""f are all uninflectf^ ^""' ^ere eani","- T"«*'«n wever, sJjq liie history nf h ^^^Jetimes ^-tni and Gre;ic,"the^!'' ^'^ ^id i^L^^"-^-, cnu super- INFLECTION. 81 ^s usuaJiy others as ^flection. ^"linative ^ve (buf ^f^). It 'a forms nation is ing-e by ^6 from owever, "etimes be the hard Js, for in the He is Jed as » and ^rson 5 the lean, ing-e tieaJ new ive ion n; f-y [n ?s 'r Q (1). By adding at the end. lahve were derived from the positive by the addition of suffixes, and, to the derivatives thns formed inflections were added to show agreement with tha noun. These inflections disappeared in tlie Middle English period. The comparative and superlative are, therefore, themselves stems, not inflected forms. METHODS OF INFLECTION. 108. We have thus noticed in a general way all the kinds of real inflection which we find in English ; that IS, inflection consisting of a change in the form of a word. Further on we shall take up each part of speech by itself, and explain its inflectional changes more fully. But, before leaving the general subject, we will observe the methods of the change thus made m the words inflected : (1). The inflectional change is most frequently Methods made by adding something on at the end of a word '" " Thus, from liorse come horse's and Jiorses by an added s-sound; so from hook come hook's and hooks: from love come lovest, loves, loveth, loved, by similar additions. Much the largest part of the inflection cf English words is of this kind ; and, as we shall see later, the other kinds of real inflection are in origin only the consequences and alterations of this kind. (2) Some v/<:>rds are inflected without any addition (2).changein made to them but by changes made in them— altera- "'® ^*"'"^- tions of the sounds of which they are composed • thus the plural for man is men, and the past tenses tor lead and send are led, and seMt. (3) Sometiines, again, inflection consists of an (n).change alteration ot the original sound with something added '7VV?' "'"'^ also: thus, A-v^.^Zhas for past tense both kneeled and knelt, and teach has tavght; does and saijs are formed trom (?o and say; children from child; and hrothers and hrethren from brother. EQUIVALENTS OP INFLECTIONS. 109. So far we have been dealing with real inflec- tion . We have now to see what other provision exists ll ""Y"Y^^'^"^ --''"' «""t3 aiiierences of the meaning or the relation of words. ^ t H H .1 ml m 88 '^OKD-POBMATWM. ^2). Words Extension of of terms of inflection. Modern phrase- Forms the result of the (Iisup. pearance of *'^^9-E. in. flections. Phrases used Dorcases. feep is the .same ,,7;:'^",' ''"<^)m"n"d "'«''<='«'), othe« ?« "^Wed tt:objeeHl""'''*-'«°««' thus fl^"'?" '"•«?""? " "«« to the o&tf «« of / hCu^\.y^n,e, „,l fonnatiou of ..h?' ">««««o„s was ^f "if"' ^isapS! represented f 1, J >f' "" "'hid, *i. ""*'»'ed ty thl .. /"^tead'o/t'o" E '"?;^'«<'" "'^'"'-"'•'i Part modern posse Li"^'^-""! Preposife/r^'^nted by POfsession, «'he,^,'\.rA', f^-^'^^t S,/;; a"d the for many „th,,r,;^f?;'n Oife ^vo /}„^j t'lOii ^niiliy '"flections, "It Words • '"•ai, fhey; ^^^•^ ^ing that the verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; or that the subject governs the n^e'd to bHotef '''''''' '''^^ '^^^ ^^^"^ ^^ SUBJECT, repeiL?'"'''"^'"'"' ^^^ ''''*'^'' *^^ '^^•'■''* expresses is (1). Usually to show its importance : thus, Peace, O Virtue, peace is all thy own ; Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control, These three alone lead life to sover ign power. iJi^l' ?.^^^^^o^^a"3' fof Clearness; to recall t^he sub- verb? thus "'^"'''''^ ^* "''"'^ ^'^^''^'''^ ^^^^" ^^^ w^'^^L^f''^""^ ^^""^ i^L^ ^^« really Samuel Weller who was before me, and Sergeant Buzfuz, and Mr Pick- wick and each personage of the story' in suceession- this/edinf/ came over me, etc. / succession— PREDICATE -VERB. * 117. First, as to number: the verb ia «nrof>.,,^;i according to the meaning, not the form'of Us^subjeZ How valued. First rales of syntax: (1). The Bub- Ject, In the nominative. (2). The sub- ject Koverns the verb; the verb agrees. The notion expressed by the SUBJECT repeated: For emphasis. For clearness. I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) V // {/ / 1.0 I.I M 11112.5 J" III t i^ 12.0 iL25 i 1.4 — 6' III (.6 1 nuiugicipiiil. Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 v iV ^ A \ ""%. ' % *> ""1.^:.^ ^"^^ ^' ^r <^ ^ # r<^ 92 Vfl M SmTAX OF THE PASTS OF SPEECH. The NT W HER of the verb: I. With one subject : (1). Phirjil construc- tions. (2). Sininilar construc- tions. ir. With more subjects than one: (1). Plural constmc- tioos. iT'lLipJeT'"^ "'' *" «''i«f application, of this (ij^ThVH" •'"""'yo'"' object- a collective S ', '^tn tf t '""^ ''<^"«« ««'''''l -pa«tei„divMuaJ;o:pti„rthe':ole'!lo„"t^^^^^ ^"^^ P< f ^1, '^'i ui inem are gone. ' subject whef;f L'::'hf "" ^.''l" "«"«'«*« nonn. forming one body: thM, "^ *' '"dividnals a, (3)" tIT VZt- """' ' '?' "-""^ '*'-'»^' '"e street n Whpiifhp!^ ^''^^P^bl^^hed before his death. (b) Whpn fi. ' ''^^''^® «''^ doomed. t>.e4:&^^irexr-P|-ai^^^^^^^^ The s^ard\rtSr/e"S'ot;r ""'r--- ' « <^ded brmeans^'of ft ''^''''' ? ""»" <"• Prououn meaning of the who°e subie.^^'fT""';' «"'*• """^ a" the verb i-ometiCiUt^fJ^,-,,^'"*'' '^ ^'™'' ««/i;ott?tL"'tLtra*™-. or pronoun and the bare verh ?"''*'r*''^ *>»•■« »onn out, when we express more orT- '"''"' *"<' '^"«<1 greater definiteness, in a s.^^ L sSce""''"'"^^ ^'* One ei ™;Zr:r T^-' are aheady known to ml I f"'"^. *°''- They predjeatiou, and what is adln- ' ,°^ ^complete predicate adjective or ncm 18) ' ^'"'^'' '^ t],e I^XT'" "' ^""^ ^^' - '^"^ W is not a ver, l COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 96 (1). The verb he is by far the commonest of the whole class : thus, I am ill; You are a scholar; You were greatly mistaken. This verb, in its various forms and verb-phrases, has Be, the come to be used as a mere connective of assertion «o™"o'»e8t. between a subject and some word or words describing that which the subject stands for; and, when thus used, it has no meaning of its own except that of signifying the assertion. It is notional only when it expresses existence (35). The verb be is, consequently, sometimes described as the The Copula. copula (that is, coupler") because it couples two words so as to make the relation of subject and predicate. In- deed, every verb admits of being analysed logically into some form of this copula be, which expresses the act of assertion, and a predicate noun or adjective (especially the participle), expressing the condition or quality or action predicated. Thus, "T tand" is nearly "I am erect" or still more nearly "I am standing," and "We gave" and ' They beg" are equivalent to "We were givers," or " We were giving," "They are beggars," or "They are begging." (2). The following are examples of the use of the other chief verbs of incomplete predication, I became ill; His face gvew black ; It turned cold; John remained silent; He continues grateful; She seems a goddess; It looks terrible; We feel outraged: It amells sweet ; The door stands opew ; He lay still; My blood runs cold; They sat mute; He went viad; He appeared sorry; He ran foul of me. 1 20. In such constructions as He was made angry by them ; They were called cannibals by him ; a7igry and cannibals are the predicate adjective and noun. The meaning of these sentences may also be expressed thus: , They made him angry | He called them cannibals. As we shall s«^e later, made and called in the latter Active and sentences are said to be of the active conjugation (101 ) f^^V^ ^"^ (active means *' acting"), because the persons the ""' Other verbs of incomplete predlcatiou. Pred. adj.and noun in the Active and Passive Con- structions, on- 96 SYNTAX OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Predicate K'ljective shades off Into an adverb. subjects stand for are rpr>rp«onf«.i made and were called of ^H "^^^ ^^ ackng. w^, We feel ?mm; It is buried rJeep • We feel «;am;?^; It is buried ^ec;,?y • Ee looks well, were we,p.rSZvTrbj";i^^^^^^ T '' "f looking/' But in ^ ^^ ^^^^■ He sits next, next may be understood in either wnv wifv,^ ^ important difference. ^^ without any Again, we say of a fruit, It looks n;,.; It feels ripe; It smells ripe; It tastes ripe; Tudgrft a^Sf f ''-'^^^ "^ ^^^^^ ^^^'i-^« ways we aUoiVL to say ^' "'^' ' '"^ well-established Lage The girl looks prett,,; The rose smells stveet; -^he wine.tastessow; although, in each case, the adverb nrefh-Jv an.i .^ would, in strict theory, be the corrXfotm. """' COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 97 cting. ^yaH ices, are, on the passive or "endur- 'he sentences , of course, the active, t>Jocts; and, s. ? shades off wo are not i from each ' degree to iiodify thp 5elf on the 77 " buried one, that when the s as if he " is gfood- hout any es ripe; ways we ed usage d so on, 1 22. With the verbs of state and motion, especially, the modifying force of the predicate adjective is very often really distributed between the subje(;t and the verb. Thus, in " He stands firm,^' we mean not only that he is firm in his standing, but also that the standing itself is firm. So, also, in The sun shines bright; the messenger comes running; The tone rings clear and full. An adjective thus used may be distinguished as an adverbial predicate adjective. 123. A word in the predicate (except a predicate possessive [143] ) wLich has different forms for subject and object relations, ought, since it describes what the subject stands for, to be in the i^ame case with it ; and this rule is observed in English in those pronouns which distinguish nominative and objective : thusj we say, It is I (ive, thou, she, he, or they). Owing, however, to the modern tendency to disre- gard inflectional differences, careless and inaccurate speakers often use such expressions as "It is them^^; It was ws " ; "It was her ' ' ; and in the case of "It is »we," the practice has become so common that it is even held to be good English by respectable authorities. OBJECT OF THE VERB. 1 24. A very much larger class of verbs than those especially known as verbs of incomplete predica'ion, are incomplete in anothef* way — namely, as they call for the addition of a word to express something on which the action they signify is exerted. Such verbs are called transitive (18) ; and, when we use an inflected pronoun as their object, it is put in the objective case. Indeed, this case is so named as being especially that belonging to the object of the verb. Hence, we may say that a transitive verb governs the objective case (103). Transitive verbs may, almost without exception, be used without any object. Examples are I love ; Seek, fire, kill ; He stopped and then turned ; ■ They fought year after year ; The cakes ate short and crisp ; Drink from the goblet while it fills. Aflverbial Pivdicnte Adjective. Agreement of predicate pronoun. Transitive verbs and their object. Transitive verbs used intransitively. I ll i )' i a 98 rntranaltlvo Verbs. Used transitively. (1). Reflexive object. STJfTA:C OF TUB PASTS OF SPEB Some, however can ll ,. \ ?■"'''? "*'"'• ""''" (18) eases of th?s use Ze: "'"'' fansitively. The chief (2) Cognate object. f 3). Causative verbs. With metaphorical cognate object. -draVfl"ex&',^^: v;-;'""^ ^•"^°"'" P'~ Here will we rest m; They sat them down beoirt. th. „, Go, flee .7« away into the land o? Judal! ""^ '" noiu-form tt" action*"n' ^'' ''^^'^' expressing i„ expressed b/l'^^rUsSf." SSes^U"^ "<^-" You danced 'Zt^^IbiV '^"j'l ">" »"'■• '"<*/ He struck a deS *L • ? hf* "" ""*• They Shouted «,,,Jifjiern'7-f^,. And this object is metephorical in He looked ,k^r,ers at me ; The realm itself yawned ^ Such oWe<,ts are called cognate ■ ZtV7""- l^.n as (",uiied in -eauing^to'^frthe ve^b' i^Ijf "^ ''"^'> (3). men the verb denotes a cnsin, to act: thus ■tie trotted hi« hovQ^ • tt^ ., ""uc, u ui /w,5e^ He ran the eno/we • He marched his mew. ^ ' wmtrniat,*tj^rht:fi^''"-f- ^^ • expt^^his meaning (a« .^^^^^ Sh^r^ -^^Ctee^tS^S^efi-^^^^^^^^^ Ho ra,„ed sHem and red-hot .«,fe^ on the city i COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 09 intransitive thoin (18). The chief fe folio A^ed 1 {yeflexive gr^made to (( passiiia; it myself; !; himself; 1 pronoun 9 stream ; ?ssingr in e action, y smile; ingeons. he same f. t: thus, ■e. As *orm to ave lat/ rb and $as i (4). When the verb denotes i)r()ducing a certain effect by the act it expresses (131) : thus, They yawned tlioir jrt>r.s- out of joint; He walked himself iceary . (f)). When what is construed as the object of the verb may also be brought into relation with it by means of a preposition. Examples are He sat his horse well ; There is not a ship that sails the ocean While thou foughtest the Christian cause; where we may say also "sat on," "sails over," and foughtest for." 1 26. The kinds of object we have thus far considered are known as direct objects, because their relation to the governing" word is so direct and close as not to require a helping word to define it. Some verbs, however, take along with such a direct object, another of a different character, in a relation which we more usually express by to or for; thus, He gave me the book ; They made the man a coat. In the first sentence, me points out to whom the act of giving the book was done; in the second, man shows for whom the act of making the coat was performed. This appears clearly enough when we change the place of the words in question, putting them after the direct object. We ar^^tiPen obliged by custom to use prepositions : thus,^' and ,ts indirect object remans 'ft-^T"' '*« «"l>J«'t, times with, and some imrr,)!!'!'' ""* ^^rb, some! show its relation : thus, ^"'''""t, a preposition to His w„t6s"we..rpafjT '"" f"/ "> «J/ Owing, however to t^^ ••'""" '°'' '° "•" '»'"'''•' ' l>ein/of thlTam-e ft,™ a" ttotr'^ ''?''* "''J-'^t-es Pften attached to the pe1!^on° S."^';'^''''"- -"Portance indirect object is frequeX and ll ''^ "'" "<"• ">« always, made the snbieet 1^'. .?• Z'*'^ ^"''"« ^erbs is. after the verb: t^ius ' ''* "^^""^ remaining and so on. The r,hi..Z Tlf ™ ■"■«''"" "'«'■■/«*/ i« called the reta&lCl':^,]::^^ '"'* ''""^"''^^ take theirTdireefobject alm;/T"'n*"<^ '^"^'^ «««" thus, either, with direcfobjeet' """^ "' "'"''' '^™«t = He paid the ,«.,„,, ,. We forgive the' fe,,;,, n . or, with indirect ' " '""«'" '"«•<''■ Either Object, when thus used alone, is valued as a CO MPLETION OF DARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 101 (lirt'ct one; a.id it Ih only when we come to put them together that we see their ()ri«,nnal rehition. 130. Sonfe ver])s, however, wlii(;h govern a direct objective of tlie p«!rs()n, are also followed by the objec^tive ot the thing affected or produced by the act ', rnus, John struck me a hlmo ; She heard me my lessons; and when one of these objects becf mes the sul) ject of the passive torni t,he other is retained in the objective after the verb. Thus, we say I was struck a blow; A blow was struck me: I was heard my lessons; My /mv>».s were heard we. This construction shades off into one in which second objective should be valued as adver])ial : thus He led me the life of a dog ; She took me a tvalk; for, while we say / was led the life of a dog ; / was taken a walk; we do not say i The life of a dog was led me; A walk was taken me. OBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 131, We have seen above (119) that a predicate adjective or noun is one which, being added to a verb IS through the verb used to modify the subject. Now it is sometimes also the ease that an adjective or a noun is, through the verb, brought into a like Thus''? ''^^^''*' ^^ '^^^^^J'ii^^ that object. He made the stick straight, the adjective straight modifies the object stick, bv be- coming a kind of addition to the verb made, defining safd""^ ^^ ^''*''''' ^""^'■^^^ '''' *^^ ^t^^^' as if he He made -straight the stick. And we do say instead, using a derivative verb, He straightened the stick, Where the adjective is, as it were, taken into the verb and becomes a part of the assertion made bv the verb alone Occasionally, also, as in white- wash, \he adiec- tive forms part of a compound verb. OhJ.'Ptlve of thing ftfftH'ted or produt'HcI. Shades Into an adverb. Factitive objective predicate adjective and uouu. J 02 ^1 thp p/iMdIvo ••oiutructlon. *riVrjA' OF Tup „ , „',< . nn The con- sfruntlon 8li(icJ«»s Into '•nliimry olijootlvo prodipHto '"IJectlve «r UOUQ, ""•^^•^>'"^'it: M,„s ""'"""-^ l"*'''lintt. atljectivo *!' -...liO' ills „h- « ' ^it ;;;'; ■« 'n«,Je by the to "•"de by the verb Tue" Tt""!? '""' "'« »S1;;T with "" '■'■<"' ""' n-aa »««», we see tliot, thong), in w.ti, « dieat.on is in<:o,.M,iet, liH .LT" ?n'<""'es, the pre- ex.,.essed ly the verb „o,- ^'i m " ™'"" «* "'« »" beheved-insane the ,n«'n i ""^ assertion that „ t rt he drove-insane the man r "'" "'"»"•««>" is this eoustruetion are ^"'«'' examples of T;thesetheeor.spo„d;::;:~;:""'^'-"'- f COMri.KTtON OF HARE HUIUKCT AND PREDICATE. lOJ Latm-, wlu'M w,i('('{iv(', as th(^ other predicate adjective or noun (soijie lines v. .Hod subjective^ for distinction's sake) in the noiiiinative (12;]) ; but an instance of sncli ajrreenient for tlie olyec^tive predi(fate cannot oc('ur in Kn^lisli, except in the ease of an infiected pronoun after an infinitive: thus, " I knew it to be /m/i." ADJECTIVE (X)MPLE_MENT8.' 134. We liave thus far ])eeu (ionsiderinpr cases in which a noun inuy come to Ix; modified by an adjec- tive or a noun used predicatively. An adjective also, and niiich oftener, modifies a noun more directly, being simply added to the noun to des(a-ibe it. Thus in "Thisimin is o/^Z " we make the age the quality we assert; ])ut in " This old man " we make the age i)art of the description of t];e man (22). An adjective thus used is called an attribuave adjective, or is said to })e used attributively faftribtitive means simply ' ' ascribed " or " attached " ) • While a predicate adjective modifu^s only the subje(^t or the dire(;t object of a verb, an attributive adjective may modify a noun in any situation what- ever, and is generally put before the noun. 135. A noun is, much less often, used to modify another noun. Thus, in My friend, the hunter, carries his weapon, a rifle, on his shoulder, we nave the objects the nouns friend and weapon stand for, described by the addition of Jmnter and Till nul»J«>rt to (hit iiiHulilvo, Agrpomont In «)l>|«ctlvo pn^llcate (!OIIHtlUCt'.0n. Siilijfctlvo prcdicdto a(IJ<'clivi> uiid uuuu. Attributive adjf.-'tlvf*; dutiuitiou. Nonn nspd attributively. 104 ^I^:^^ZZ!:!i^rs o. s^,,a^. Called Appositive: definition. Jfoun, apposi tive to a senteuce. Appositive atljeetive; ueflnition. ^he natizre of the appositive aajeetive. A noun thus IT ,', " ""'"""^ ""'^'■ .".<'. in ^^/-O^VU' wi h «f '.r^"^'"-"^. or is said to word added ttL^^ ^ ft T''^ "» '"dieS describing the same tMng "' ''"^ -"•"'I'ose of further times"foS"bvT'"'<''-^ "^ ««ntenoes are also to a prediej;:^.tasir t: "-"'^"^^ tr;- H- daughter h.d „„,, -"of yl^?' ''■"'""' >" be piueked , ^36. And an adiee'' "''T'''"^^ "'''•'''' '»=^'-<'- -herethe shade Of """'"""^^'•"""""'"""'^ What it would be i^' '"^""'"^ i« » little ditferent from *'or these at'o?<,erf and secr^/ .. _,^ All ««ac;^^ o t,mY, reasons; ,.^37. We have in ,. ''''' "^^ ^^^^^'- Page. d\«tnict suggestion nf positive adiectivA Yet the attribuLo t^^Z ^"^ '"'''' "" ^"^ -' «'«• •nan wholTd t S -I'T " ">v\et:^X''^^^^'' COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 105 'e tlie two le; e. f* is said to fiJs means n§:side''; *^ closely than the Impendent f further so some- answers )Iueked mislead. 3d to a ich Jike iled an t from more » the e, we etc. into iple, Tins (uite impossible to draw a distinct line between the attributive and the appositive use of the adjective. If we make the description at all complicated by adding: modifiers to the adjective, we may not put the adjective in the usual place of an attribute, close before the noun, but must separate it, like an appositive, from the noun. Thus, we say His rwldy countenance ; The loveliest vale ; but His countenance, ruddy with the hue of youth A vale, loveliest of all vales on earth ; or Ruddy with the hue of youth, his countenance was pleasant to look upon. 1 38. The predicate noun and the predicate adjec- tive, especially the adverbial predicate, shade off into a construction which may be valued as that of an ordinary adjective appositive to the subject or as an appositive predicate adjective, according as we associate its meaning wholly with the subject or with both subject and predicate: thus, for example. He left the court, the victim of the law ; He sat down, dumb with grief ; I had been caught up, a strmo on the tide of life. The factitive objective predicate adjective also shades off into a construction in which it has also an appositive value : thus, for example. He made the stick straight, may mean that he made the stick out of a larger piece of timber, and that, so made, it was straight. So, too, with the ordinary objective predicate adjective : thus, for example. He had his hands dirty; He ate his dinner cold. 139. A pronoun, which almost never takes an attri- butive adjective before it (24), has an appositive adjective or noun added to it just as freely as a noun : thus, We, poor in friends, sought love ; Tired and hungry, he hastened home; You Frenchmen are livelier than we English. And we sometimes, though rarely, find a pronoun put in apposition with a noun : thus I got it from James, him that, etc. No distinct line between attributive and apposi- tive uses of adjective. Appositive construction of (1). Predicate adjective and noun. (2). Objective predicate adjective. Pronoun, used with appositive adjective or noun. Pronoun, appo.sitive to uoun. Attribtitive "86 of the QouQ, ^^^ ^^^TS OF SPEECH. Afirreement of attributive a.'Hl apposi- tive words. Ordinary value of possessive case. Pifirurative values. Possessive iike attribu- tive adjective. . On the other h^uA « ~~~ ■"" "' the manner oft" ttriSve'! ,"T ""•J ",en „se<, My *«„ter Mend- H,.,- „, ? "''•"'''''^e : thus We may properl, :i ";:', "'"''"'■' ^'- "™„,„;:X. nonn. Compound nouns 87^ """"^ '"' ««"/,«<,>. this combination. ^ <*'^ sometimes grow out of and it is onry%p^;f,X"mai^ "4T^"- "See'S Pf^^the appositive ...,^ Xl rVo~r-« P-fertosapC:,\:- -W^ ns, and we -^n of the Possessircalri/r&V^^P"* *« With another fr ^ f ^^P^cially used i r . . ""^J-^^^ bv him \J\^ ^^^'^ his debts • ii. \ " ^ "^an f-fc rnd'ro'-. '■''^ ^-"^ ^eta^ et^ttStr^i^ ^42. In this wav «>,«•' form becomes a modif vi """.".i'?. "« , Possessive cas«. " "° — t'on to another noun. COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. i07 id then used •• thus, •unimcr boy. (Attributive Srow out of reek, which heir nouns ^Ppositive ease, or in pronouns) reement is B exception nipJe"a«5 nes ''these iinflected ; ^ssive case ^ to say, ' ^nd we ay; as, e put the tlius, h nouns '. called mection ^ssor of a book ^; and, ngr to a a man formed are his much as if it were an attributive adjective. Often we can put an adjective in place of the possessive, with little or no difference of meaning : thus, The JTwgf'seiown; The r%'6- doings; ilfan's imperfections ; may also be described as The royal erown; The daily doings; Hxman imperfections. The possessive is said to be dependent on the noun which it describes, or to be governed by it ; that is to say, the modifying noun is, as it were' required or compelled by its relation to the other to take the possessive case-form. 143. The possessive, with the noun on which it is dependent omitted, is also used in the various other constructions of the adjective: thus, as simple predi- cate adjective; The book is John's; That crown is the King's; as objective predicate, I made the book my sister's; as appositive, That crown, the King's, is set with jewels. Also, like an adjective used as a noun: thus, John's book lies by Barry's. Harry's is on the shelf. ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS. 144. As the adjective is the usual modifier of the noun, so the adverb is the usual modifier of the other member of the simple sentence, the verb; and, as we have seen, it modifies also the adjective and sometimes other adverbs. A word which is generally «.n adverb has very often the value of a predicate adjective, usually with some part of the verb be : for example. The sun is dotvn, the moon is up, and the stars are out. And the adverb so (32) is much used as a substitute for adjectives, as well as for other parts of speech to avoid repetition : thus, ' His step was light, for his heart was so. Less often, an adverb (32) is used as an appositive adjective: thus. Ask at the house next aJjove; The wall icithin, and that without. Dependence of the possessive. Used in various other adjective constructions. FunctiotifU conversion of the adverb. As predicate adjective; Especially so. As apposi- tive adjective. P. Ill im \ J 08 As attl•i^»u- tiveutljective. As object of a Prei)ositiou. Objepfive f»se of nouns "sed as uJverb. Why tliis I'elatioii is valued as objective. I>efiiiition of aaverbial objective. Sometimes Tanr? i^ eveu as au ^^rZ^TJ^^;^^-^ adve-b is „«..„ And an adverb m«v K. . ^P^^enee of maimer. tion with the t.xTl^l Z^^' "^ « P-Posi. 145. Jhir*"''^""*"""' ""'"""' ^'"«• special case-fom^rt? ''"^^ ^.'"'"' *»"• nonn hi« o the objective re'istmSf'''/"'- «'«'^-«ven«^ «n. adverb: that is to sav t"^^^ ^i" "■'' manner of adjective or even an Xrb' '?,'"'"''fy a verb or an (1 ) . With verbs : Examples are : They walked a mile- TT^ * -ed eollo,niX^r^; j™-;n «„, , „^^^ (2)-withaSrs:-^'''-"'^- "'"^'■ A 3e™„?tVo'Z.S ^o'^'f ^-r ?'-' (3). wiri:::."--^-^^^^^^ this W, and as ou "noun:.*" 'f«''*«'l Pronouns in « the nominative and oblJf ''^!! '"«''^«°t fon^" now to show that the ease ft,?' ^^T' '« "othing objective Bn<- ihic *^"s used is rpaUxr t-u English andt otoi^r ^™'» *e u agel"^' jnferitf^mthetcTtte^:!/ «"<1 "'^ ™'^'>t ^o *o connect such a noun withXtt":, X?. O^ Wemarbr^;'--^--""^r^'-^^^ we may best call this nso «* ti, ^'th the value of an ^dvi'b."' "''^'•'*'^« «««« "se3 COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 109 147. It is plain enough, for example, in He walked a milcy that mile is an adverbial objective ; the verb being intransitive as usual. And yet, in such a sentence, the noun thus used, sometimes so far assumes the character of an object that we turn it into the subject of a passive phrase (as we sometimes do an indirect object also [128] ) : thus, A mile was walked by him in twelve minutes. r !t?*-P ^® evident, therefore, that tlieve is no hard and fast dividing line between the so-called obieetive case which IS governed " by the verb, and the adverbial objective, w^hich modifies" it. Indeed, although it has long been usual in grammar to make a distinction between tlie objects and the adverbial complements of the verb the objects are really adverbial also : thus, in ' I gave him a book, and I go home, him, look, and home limit the meaning of the verbs in their respective sentences. The general function is the same • the species of function is difPerent, book and him indicating respectively the objects directly and indirectly afPected by the act, and home indicating the limit of the motion. 149. The adverbial objective is used especially to express measure; whether duration of time, or extent of distance or space, or weight, or number, or value, and the like. But it also expresses the time at which anything happened;, and much more rarely manner, as in ' /^i^^^u® ^* ^^"^ *^^" ^'^^y' ^® "W^s bound hand and /oo«; Uld John of Gaunt hath sent jwst-hastc; He came full speed. Now and then, such an adverbial objective is, like the adverb, added to a noun, with an appositive adjective value: thus. My dream last night; His adventures this day. ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. f\^ - 150. Therj -^ yet another way in which a nou/ (6r pronoun) with an appositive adjective or a word or phrase of the same value, is sometimes made to modify some word or phrase in a sentence, without having its relation to what it modifies denoted either Adverhlal objective valued as a direct objective. Objectives " governed ' by verbs, really adverbial modifiers. Adverbial objectives, especially used to express measure. Used as appositive adjective. 110 I s! I'l .■! lit iJil by a ea«e^for„, by a connecting He lay down, his ;,,,,,., ^„.5. H /.. . •>. ."^"^ sorrow .• rvt » "' '^li^OKl in hiinri ...,,1 .. ■ The visor AbMiute The nonn „. 7.1 '*■■ «'™8lite.-ed sire WMiruction noun and the annnt.;f . ■ vHiaed ,."'°' aecompanyins trait nL^'^'^^'''^'' together si^nifv . bjal predicate adlectlve'^ ' 'tZT^f ^" '^•i-' or a conjunction and the va.Va " *"«'* or /"'WW kmd, which might have bein ted T"™^*?""^ ''f h^ He lay down, l^.^^n^l^Zt^^" °'"'"'^ ^ t^us, He lay down, while hT, i,f f"'' '""''y. etc. ; He flies 'witi'ti^^ir i-n'I^n- •'•■^' ■• ■"© flies, and wiiri ♦^ '^"^ "i nis look; And, indeed, ^e o Jn « T' 'V" '* '°°*- expressed in modern En^hshv, f" P'-«Position with '^""h'^SJ ;™'"«?o„,.cou„trv.t!/.^ ^"_ "«.«<1' thus, I^s modern equivalent. Why c.illed With fv, — '"-"^^ ^'^'wsmietion wonU i.^ ^ ^";^iisn, ^» The absolute cnn«fl ?- — ^ ^^ wantiHff --^^^^^ S.S;.:; :;'haparti„arte\:"l*-a% common ■and the pronoun, which i? ,ff """ °'' Pronoun- \tx-ueaoM except with a far LT^ i'^*"" '" this conl )now used is regularly "iCi^^^:;'^ ''"*' '^« "- IpJeSffoS' nectfn; lP^T^'«°»^«^hl°fs"e?W27> . . iiecting word by means of ,„^- I '"^'^ '» be a eon- 's brought into relation wTm'"'' "^ "o™ O'' Proi'o^ i forming with the noun or ^ """'her word, thus "■odities the other word in T™"""" " Phrase 'which preposition. The .11'^. !?">« ^ay defined hv /k. ■""-■"= "'°^ «^P«ssed are most THE PREPOSITION. Ill Thus we say TOW down : rht; tier: re. .signify an hey are used * an adver- or having 'ling of the tted; thus, e.; >te.; i^ion tvith r English, d: thus, to remain; nst it. 'e, is said eonstruc- oose,''so from the i-Sign^of common >ronoun ; fiis eon- the case ' a eon- >ror>oun h thus ivhieh hv flick e most hke^that expressed by the ease- inflection of the noun And some languages have other case-forms to express other relations which we express by prepositions only : for example, hy,from ("ablative" case), in ("loca- tive case) , and ivith ( ' ' instrumental ' ' case) . The noun or pronoun attached to another word by the preposition is called the object of the preposition or IS said to be governed by it, and is put in the objective case. And a preposition is sometimes tollowed by a construction which resembles that of the objective predicate adjective used aopositively (138) • thus, for example, ' ^ v / • He came in with his hands dirty. 152. The preposition and its object form together what IS called a prepositional phrase, to distinguish It from the phrase (as, for example, out of, as regards, instead of J which has the value of a preposition and is called a preposition phrase (36). The special duty of a preposition is to form a prepositional phrase, and we shall, therefore, now consider the general syntax of such a phrase, taking up the more difficult relations hereafter. /63. The prepositional phrase has a value in the sentence resembling that of the adjective and the adverb ; and it is, accordingly, to be estimated as an adjective or adverb phrase. Thus, for example : As adverb : It burned to the ground; He spoke loith anger; He stood in this place; As appositive adjective : A house ofioood; a man of truth; a residence in the suburbs; As predicate adjective : ' This house is oftvood; He seems of good repute; As objective predicate adjective : They danced themselves out of breath; He drove the man out of his wits; As modifiers in the absolute construction : They left the convention, their minds at ease; As adverbial objective : He ran /or a mile; He came at full speed. Relations expressed. Its Kovern- meut. Preposition and Pre- positional phrases. Values of the prepositional phrase. Used in the constructions of the adjective and adverb. III :i J12 ;?i 'l SomepreposI tional adverb- Phrases, stereotyped. Interjections, sometimes Incomplete exclamations. ^r:,TAX OF THE PABTS OF SPMECB. objects of prepositions- ^"^""^''^ <>' verbs or """""«»'« is the best place- Th„ „„, And they may be Z^T, ™" """ "'^'^ '*« »«"'- example, ^ ""^ ^ """^'A^d by adverbs: thus, for It is much to my Jikiniy- TT« .1 ^ 154. Many prlposit.on 7 ""* '^ ""« ''''''• assumed such a EoCeS 'form ^W^^''^''^ have hardly to be taken apart n,?^ ?"* ""* words are for example, ^ " """^ Pa'-sed separately: thu^ in fact, at hand, on the whole fn t- . Sometimes, indeed suT V ' '" ™'°' "' P^^'""*- enanp, due to stress (70 nh'fl'' °'^ '^'th phonetic wh.ch a represents a», the M^fo'^'^', "^rU, Jea^t-t 155 Th. • . /NTERJECTION. not, iu the^oSfSe'^ ^t '"'^^ ^^'■'■(ao) are do not form part"7aTe„tenerV\^?«<*h' «« ^ey m a eerta n way an ,,nT -j . ^'^^ interjection i/ language of feelinrrrher'"?,''' '?"*''"«« P"* n tte Sometimes, howevfr nr^f *'"*"." «'«* of reason complete the eSmVo'n'Tssrl'd ^ ^-l-'-^d "„ then resen.bles an ineom^lersintlte'-'thr''^"''''" Ah «e/ Alas the day, o Ar » .., ' ' Which might be thn= '^^ """'"'■ <""«*/«"«««,• reason: ^^' '" *^"« ^^P^^^^ed in the language of Ipityme: Tmnn^r.*u. J The Nomina- tive of address. reason; - -« wic ianguage i pity me ; I mourn the day • I w.Kh f. . — .;„:.. ^^ ^ Js very often hsp^ ;» .^^. . 156. The r) ,'. " 7 '"""'"^^ «aJ°i» a thankful hea • Vh:To.:^Ki;\i;lt-.n'^ the I- Greek) of f>i« I ^ ^^* calling" ictJKy or tile pronoTin nf fi.^ ^.„_° , nominative ease (the so-canpri"'"^""V'*""^®^«; with the case of Latin or Greek) of tl ^^'^^^^^ "^r^' calling- person and with tl^.'^^rlon^^^^^ *^« ^^n^i .„ wiiu me common case nf fi^ ,""" O <*<«. that bringest good mZ^^- *' """" = *"' Thus uteTtb ""' "*■' ^" --■'^''%'i^'r-' nomin'aZe'Zaares:: ''™"°"'' '« ^-d to be in the djectives or >f verbs or rERBS— CLASSES. us ^er the barn. • thus, for one side. ises have words are ^^iy- thus, t present. ompounds, h phonetic abreast; in (30), are : as they action is, it in the reason. Hired to 3rjection nrt; wage of j1 hea ith the second thus, vens ! VII. VERBS. ihl^^' A^ f**'* ^^ ^'•'^''^' ^'onsidered in a ffonoral w«v the word, phrase, and danse : we will now ?x-uS CLASSES. ACCORDING TO MEANING ft »«7 7. these classes shade into each "the" and It IS not always possible to make this distincHon the thmg the subject stands for; the adjective Zb« being then classified as transitive and inVrans[tive We have already seen (125) that some veZ that are «s t^-r-di^]; ^:^^-^-^ taking into account to whom or to what it is done (mf • "^/^'^i^«^t,« for the examination; that is, -The sun s.^ms fo move itself-; - Clouds .^r.aci Tmnsitive ftiul intransi- tive : shade into each other. Copula and adjective- verbs. Peculiar transitive verbs : (1). Reflexive. 'mpm$fmm» :i.' 114 VERBS. Shade Info Intrmisitivea (2). Rerlpro- cal. Shade into lutransitives. (3). Middle. Causativos. formed : themselve/t over flio uL-^r»» i <>W«r EnXr Z\ I '„rl"" ?,"• ^''^' "'"■'• ™"'» i" (tv<';.<;i., for i„»„L^') ";"'^„„;; ;;;;; ',";"'■->} i-.^.w-.s press,.,!; but tli,) nr,.,. „t t .,„f "■"''■"■'■^ *< •>ft«^» ex- example, "■""'' "'"''<' ''« proper; thus, for When are you goiug to washt verb shades off iilto tlu i, ransitivo ' m' "'' ^.^/^^^^fl^^ive aiid s/m^..^ i„ a hurry," we feel the v.J'' "' ^^ "^^''^''^^^ ;n ''He stopped ^^hor"^ '' Tnd st 1 t >^«'^ '""' "ot evident. ^' *"® reflexive meaning- is cois'truotr:!'' "' "'^ ^««^'''™ ™>* »''ows itself in s„eh Pox-terriers nearly „i„„y, j-^,,, „^,„ ,^^^ ,^_^^^ express belongs to the verb ™V°l, "" "' """^''<^ty they /•«.>«.«/. Ami, as in tTo ^al ^^f «. therefore, called reciprocal meani ,g mav n, ? r»™!- ^^e^'™ verbs, the may be valucl as intransitive: ttos '""''"" ""'^ "'" ^'^ We shall mcci upon the river The cakes ute short and crisp • ' atri":n"'T'],e"a1± ^'"?*°''^ °^ »-^''W>-*' Alls it-. .;e«„itenes.-.rS\;-rbrect^^^^^^^ aeti"ve!^%el':' t'^ 7^ "AS'^-lIy"' ''>" '°™ '» expresse,! a meaning between the 1,,™''^:,''? '* t'><'.V conjugation. This use is ,e.M ! ''T'' '""* ""^ Pa-ssive the reflexive use of Ihi v!v ^ 'J '*•■""" '""' "^teuLn of above as meaning '°fll/s Le™"' '""^ «'« '"'■f.''" t»fe /^fe Jn.ll ^r^.''^'^'.°^ transitive verbs deserve „„„„„.„ *''^" ""«■'" ^'i 'l'^'- ">eaning;-AsweWe CLASSES. ?16 "icJi verbs in im this class er; thus, for reflexive, we (> look upon ,lie reflexive * Ho washed ■stopped for moaning" is self in such >ieet. et, are one n-ocity they 3re, called verbs, the 1 the verb rically the well ; fills it"; mt of it.s id hate.'''' ■ form is if they ' passive nsion of ake fills bite, hait; blink, blench; «an, ken; clink, c/c«c/t/ drink, drench; fall, /c//; fare, ferrif; lie, %; q'mll, 7uc?Z; sit, .vc// swoop, sweep. mutation: thus, ^ '' ^ '"*''"'« «" ''• «>at is, by "■jn^'ijHi^ not subject to mutation. ^^ ^''^ ^"^^ " «'''» ' raise<,.m.a (causa. infln.)<™<,, stem of grad. past of V.I^ ris-a, "to rise." veA!';itY^^rii:lrt[er 1'^^^^^ * V?^ ^^ ir-^f ^ve M.„on. peculiar uses with i^ arsuhi-ppt fl •. ^ """^ ""^^'^^^'^ ^^^^« ''''•''• a notion present to tL S^t"^^^^^ ^-Present some action or process S^oini on ^f ^'^ u'^^'''''" ^^""^ impersonal, and are sai ctnTf i .^"''' ^^''^^ ^^^ «^"«^^- Boot Infill., g ve; past tense, ^ave- nerf nn.f • bite; " ' r;7' P ..P*^^*'' g'vei; ^^^' bitten; fly; << flew; flown. Character- istics of New Conjugjition: Tongiieston pasts. Root Infin., love; past, loved; p. „ wish; " wished; ^oad; " loaded; I »^ed (pv. ft) v.i^hed (pr. /) loaded (pr. ed) Consona.'tal and Vowe: Weak and Strong 2o/ Jugations. a^fae'v^rbf of\hiff ^o-'j'"?"""". because nearly than thosrof the otherTSto^fh "' ^.^*'"' «"^- i-S the past tense the OM^ •*\'^'"''' °* ^o™' ^■•y »ame the w^^i conlu^ ln""''"?*A°" '^ """"^^d is called the .^frn„™t^' ":■:•. "i™- tl?e Old conjugation " =■ "'^" -">= i"*** Ihe weaA; it bein.' U^ CLASSES. 117 '<;« "f iiiflcc- •f expression. ■>e " (that is, 'iHu present lUg. classes, or 'm used to teristios of ied ending ^ n alt of the stem, pasts; the its vowel- ' the past, givei; l>itfen; flown. the verbs Teutonic; ense and the addi- ' tongue- ivhat are p". (^) P'-. t) pr. ed) ' nearly ' origin )f form- > called 3w, the iisration t beiuor Both found in Oothic. fancifully repraseuted that the Old vonjugation v. as help, whereas the New was coo wmk to do so. A difiperenee between tli(> vowels of the nnst nml fTm t n!'p«<»iif M7'n ;„ 4» 1 • "'"'»" "I lilt, pasr and tlie TonKn** stop piesLUt U7,j;, IS found m a few verbs which take the »»"'*•'- ^^'ti. tongrue-stop sutHx : thus, for example, SSi Sell, sold; tell, told; seek, sought; buy, bought. The distinction between the New and tliP Obi n conjugation consists, therefore, in the adding or the '"-'r^r <"'» not adding to the stem of a tongue-stop consonant to S/uiuion. the vowels^"" ' ''""^ '" ^^'^ differentiation of Although one conjugation is called the New both extant Teutonu, languages. Few, however, of the root-verbs belong to the New conjugation, and there are cases in which the root-verb has disappeared and In Old En^in^^ '' ''" ""^ r'^^^^''^' renuxins^ in Old English, too, as m Modern English, a newly formed verb always belongs to the New conjugation A \^^" ^^1^^^^ original Arian, the pasts were formed bv doubling the root, with plionetic changes, due to stre^^ -a process known as reduplication. This was the regular mode m ancent Greek, as, for example, in phengo (I flee), ,.e-pheug.a; tupt-o (I strike), te-tuph-a; and there are traces of it in Latin-in the third, and probably oldest conjugat.on-thus, for example, can-o, clcin-i. In the leutonic languages this mode of formation was grnduallv supplanted by vowel-gradation-to such an extent iS hat, in present English, reduplication has let no undoubted traces of its presence. It was preserved anguage, a few of our verbs are believed to owe their pasts to reduplication, and so are a connecting link between the ImsairarVw^^ ""' ^r^^ huigliges. Gmdeton has also affected the forms produced by reduplication. ., ffi'^'^f ;^^1?*'^''^ ^" *"™' ^^^« PJ^ce to the tongue-stoD An. . suffix of the New Conjugation (-de or -te. wv:h or wifhnn. ? l"n' ^T* connecting vowel and with -e final sounded) As fnfi/J tongrne-stop ongin of this sufc, little is kaown? sle ytr. ag^ '""-■ Arlan Redu- plication; Gave way to gradation; Ai ^^^^^'-^-i-^^^^f, 'i*^ (fit 1 :': 118 VERBS. Origin of the tongue-stop suflix. Paradigms of love and f/if e contrasted. Number of different forms in each. scholars supposed it to be a develonmB^t f our verb do; so that '<'MS OF CONJUGATIONS. reference fn ZtfolK"' Jj^^.T "' ""«5^'' «■"» *«■• verbs, one fromla'^'Ziugidt!"™" "' *"" ••«^»'« NEW CONJUGATION. OLD CONJUGATION. I.-INFLECTED FORMS. INDICATIVE MOOD. Person. Sing. VhZT'^ ^'T' 1- l<>ve ^iZt «P«- Plural. 2- (lovest) Jove f -^ .n ^^^^ 3. loves (loveth) love ^(^iiveth) £;: 1. 2. 3. loved (lovedst) loved Past T 67186. loved gave loved rgavest) loved gave gave gave SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. inn , Present Tense. ^> ^) o. Jove „. give 1 o Q 1 , Past Tense. ^: ^y o, Joved gave 2^ 2 IMPERATIVE MOOD. °^® give II.-DERIVED FORMS. INFINITIVES. love, to love «;,,^ ^„ . give, to give loving „. . ^ giving IMPERFECT PARTICIPLE ^^^^^g giving PERFECT PARTICIPLE. loved given verroflL^NetTo'^Lttn Z''^'^' *^ «^"»- different formsi thu^ "" ^ '*'' *'*"^'y love, lovest, loves (or loveth), loved, I„«d,t •— - H ill PARADIGMS OF COKJUGATtONS. 119 n the root of would be tJie as been g-i eu for certain is hich became -family only. iel, and for two regular UTION. lural. ive ive ive ave av** ive regular actually revenf'ti;;^'"'''''^' "^ ""^ 0'<1 conjugation have give, givert, gives (or giveth), gave, gavest, giving, given. In both conjugations also, the root-infinitive the unpei-ative, and the present tense in the sub miVtive and the plural and first po.-sou shLXr of the indieatiye, are the same as the stem; anfthe imper- till' the\^«J<- w *'«"''^*'''«> J^no«' only the root-infini- tTmSerZ , Z' "'V^ """**' P^'^^Pl^' "' order to unaerstaud the whole conjugation of anv verb Hence these three are called the principal va^' and, m describing any verb ..,ey are to be given ' person'am]°n^!'^r"'^ the jaradigm, the inflections for person and number are -st, -s, and -th. tettn the n«.V ^^^^,*^^lP^»'««n singular is like the nrst m the past ; but in the present, adds -s or -th St and the third person in -th, once in common use are found only in the higher and the solemn style Td f^r the second person singular we ordinarily use the second person plural ; so that -. is the only iXct on Engnr" "' "'"''' '" ^"""^^^ -'' - P~ injs^%f^'f'!;d%*7^^^''^-^^!^ ^* the personal end- ings, St, -s and -th, is sometimes accompanied with various modifications of the sounds for greater Tase pronunciation (71), or of spelling to fndicate the sound to the eye, or of both sounds and spelling sound of'^"^''*^'^ ^^ '^' *h^^^ P^^««^ '^^^^^^ becomes the (rh^\.-7''''''f- '5 ^^^^f'' *h^ hiss-sounds (57) s, z sh (c^=fs/i, and ^=d!^), thus in writing: >' *» ^» sn, hisses, buzzes, rushes, touches, judges. vo!vd;:^husf '^''''*^' other voiced consonants and the dabs, sins, hoes, rows, adds, begs. Principal parts. Inflections of indicative for person and number. ■S, the only inflection in t Jimon us* Changes of sound and spelling. ;T3 .1-1' < i a Iff ?=■ iff 'i M m VERBS. Subjunctive and impera- tive, invar- iable. Origin and decay of person and number inflections. Reference paradigms, contrasting O.E. and Mod. E. verbal inflec- tions. (3). Voicele.ss s, after voiceless consonants: thus, hits, scoffs, mocks, raps. svlTabirSf' ^""^ ''^-««""ds regularly form an additional syhable, with various modifications of the spelling: thus, lov-e5^, Iov-e//i; rn^-n-est, rxm-n-eth: cavv-i-est, carr-i-eth; disahl-est, dlsabl-ew what the subject was when the order of the words in the sentence was not fixed as at present. It began to disappear IZll the language was becoming analytic and the order of the words was comiug into use to show their relations. As the to lowing 0. E. conjugations show, this variation was the hp ' V. f ^"^ V* • *'*'^^'- ^" P^^'^^^^t ^"^li«^^ it has become the exception: it is now a mere survival which we could dispense with, and is a cause of confusion among the uneducated whose language, of course, shows best the natural tendencies. . THE VERB IN OLD ENGLISH. l^^; The following is a paradigm of bindav, an O.E. verb of the Old conjugation. To it are appended those torms of hadan of the New, the inflections or the sutfixes of which are different from those of the corresponding forms of the paradigm of the Old conjugation. These O.E. forms are accompanied by the Early, Middle, and Modern English torms, which will serve to convey a general idea of the difference between the O.E. inflected and the Mod. E uninfleeted system, and of the process by which the e' inflections have been r( ' ' B person and serviceable in row what the the sentence appear while order of the ons. As the tion was the t has become eh we could amon^ the ws best the 3nded those le suffixes of ing- forms of E. forms are ern English idea of the le Mod. E. h the 0. E. THE VERB IN OLD ENGLISH. 121 OLD CONJUGATION. OLD ENGLISH. EARLY AND MIDDLE ENGLISH. I.— INFLECTED FORMS. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. MODERN ENGLISH. Person. !• bind-e 2. 3. h'n\^- est bind-e- ' -1 or-t?on ^el-«-^?^^^-^-^.,and-..^ beared n.-DERIVED FORMS r/,.. 'iV, 'l ^ PER»"ECT PARTICIPLE. f??l'' t^tZZam!^' £:f'Z .'— ' 'he imperative *«««« are the same a" those of It '"'Perfect participle of btndan. * '"°*"' °' "le correspoudinjf form, of NEW CONJUGATION. 123 ODERN ENQLlsr. jeetives.) id, to bind bind iing Id 3d ■ed-st) d d operative i«iple of forms of NEW CONJUGATION. ^nmJ'Jl ^^^ ?i^- ^«;^J"^'ation, the tongue-stop Modifioatious suffix makes an additional syllable only after another «f *«"«««- tongue-stop consonant, when, of com^se the ending ""^""^• In many verbs of this class -t was often written instead of an original -d in early printed literature of Modern English, and some people are beginning to write it again. ^ •In solemn styles of reading and speaking, the -ed is sometimes sounded still as a separate syllable after all stems. Then, of course, the -d has the voiced sound as there IS no association, and, consequently, no need tor assimilation (71) with a preceding voiceless sound. These are the regular methods. But a great many verbs ot this conjugation are more or less irregular some even to such a degree and in such ways, that it might seem doubtful whether they ought not to be classed with verbs of the Old conjugation TTPE VERBS'. IRREGULAR CLASSES. • ^^?V ^})' ^/-^ "'''''® ™'^***^^ '^^ spelling, in some verbs in which the -d IS pronounced like a t, either -ed or -t is U). dress, allowed to be written (especially in the participle) • thus dressea, or ' dre$t; dress, dressed or drest ; bless, blessed or blest; pass passed or past. ' And, as we saw above, this class is being extended beyond what has for some time been usual. (2). Some verbs, after a final w or Z sound in the stem, f^yrv.bumed, .1 5S i"" '^"^ (pronounced as -d), or -t, probably owinsr to ''" *'""''• the ditheulty in pronouncing the voiced consonants together: burn burned or burnt dwell dwelled or dwelt learn learned or learnt pen penned or pent smell smelled or smelt spell spelled or spelt spill spilled or spilt spoil spoiled or spoilt 169. Some verbs, of which thp rnof ortAo i^ ^ ^u* — ? n or r, either add -ed, or simply change the final -d into -t. y 124 VERBS. f t f (2). bevP, tj*>nt, bent; blend, blended, blent. H'i!LlSSfa;''.ltVnt'^ bend bent / ^^f "fled 1 bent blend blended / ^^ennauts come ed or leant ed or leapt at fc ?8Tilarity as the present ?nsonant in il voieele'^s ■ stress a:" = ) dfian) ; also cleft. imes used unfounded ft rightly b. Heave ^el-sound, b to this 5ast and ' or -te. 125 be'cZ: sittetS-"""'"*^'"' '"■''^' "«" *« '<•»« vowels ,„. „.^. bled. bleed breed feed bled bred fed lead led meet met read read speed aped light lit betide betid east cost cut hit hurt knit or knitted put shred quit or quitted shut rid giit ^®t spit shed sDlit down ''"nnrtT r"'T"*"' ""'' '''>'" ('>'• "Hohl) "come pZ"ZL " ""'""<'' "'^""'''^^y '" tl'« P»«t and tliose in par. 170 exoeol fh- H*^" " ""V'f -"^""'^^^ '<> "T'"""'- sl.ort, undergoes no ^SVctn^e :«.;:: ^"^ ""'"^ " spread sweat or sweated thrust wet or wetted whet or whetted Spit had a past spat which is still n«pr1 np „n ^i added7f6;):'Z'„!U'"'' ™'"'^^^ ^'-^°""'l '» "« chinl!" the" vowe"l IZJ'^V'if '?"f »''-''°f ^"^^ ""d al«o (6). T„,^.. verbs^latbeTrenTe fnfTni, ™ endin. and f;""'!^' *"<'^'' -"""--^ which, caused vowe.-n,„tati:nrthu'^^\Te Too ''oVS'is'",! ""^"- (seen m our sa/e) ; so that the O F L// ./ " and what has reiliy chaitdL^ P^et^lZ^tS'pS'"''' catch caught tlaCi t°,"tt >™'* | "'-""S'" bring brought tZk IZngL t or worl^ed buTdSeretf mlaZ!' "° "''^*''' P''''^^"' <" "'^ »'''«'^ f"™ ' tVTni:"tr,::^i""r''''^''^^-''^-^^^^^^ uiinK, and the other thyncean, " to seem " except in the solemn style.- a.for-JStlj'S j^^?* 'w™: 126 VERBS. ))' ) 1 (7). Contract ed: have, make, clothe. Irregtilar inflections; have, need. Decay of the p.E. Old con jugation. Classiflcation of O. E. Old verbs. ..^.ne are shorteiu'rl V,7 " "»«^e verbs /tare, stress) which has produS e ]os^ of 7/"'!^^^'"" ^^^»« ^o of the stem: thus, had, 1:^/^?/^'',^"'^' consonant r^iade O.E. ^'^«cWe; which etlvW' /if ^''' ''''^'''^ «^ ^^"dde; tne UDcontracted form clothed I ^^\t' dad "^"'^'' ^'^"^ 17*; rp, INFLECTIONS. I/O. I he tense-inflection cV fh^ \t alvyays regular (IM). B,t7„° 'i.t^T ^^b '« almost in the present singular Ml,,,, ' ^^ ''«"'™''t'on, ii-regnlar iV«. haVT'thrVrV^ ''""'' '"""' ( = "--)• Present E^Iish pre ;™«Swr."?r"'T'. Tf' »^ «^^<'. -t-,nfin,.lve(„..al,,.ltl,1,:t\^^^^^^^^^ but „..inotJ:i::c""^" ■""«"' He ,«crfs to go; He needs more eoui'am In these constructions needs has •■ «t •! • need. ""«* "as a stronger meaning than 176 I oi , T ^°^''"*^^™'*- hundred simple v^-bf of Vl.^OM """'" ''''?''^' «"'«« speak of numero„ner"*.ive«H '^°"'"«''««n. ""t to only seventv-oio-lit 1, .* tneretroni. Of these Eve";. rSld Eng i h L™"'''"'' "SP''''^'"" ^nglS t' the Old eoniugatior And «ud«.'th7''l "'*'^'' '" analogy, not only did all newl f ^ "iflnenee of to the New eonjugation ., t f "'^ ! '™'''* "'^''''^ belong eight verbs have ^w New fn""''*""" '** '''^ ^«^«»ty eighty-eight of the otIef;:.£'oTthf on ' '*"" '^^'°"' now belong wholly to the New. conjugation intlY-uumbe'S'ttlS dl.e" ^Id eonjngation fall the division are to be seen onffi' «"' *^? ^''""'"'^ "* English, and in some of the n^tl," " "'''"'' ^°""« «f to English, and the limit? of thl'' 'f"8^"T' ''^'^''^^ ver^ much confused ^:^^^,^^'~,:^ have beeu OLD CONJUGATION. d frmight by e verbs have, tion (due to al consonant '/t', or /««r/ is almost n, irrt'g-ular es). •'>' or need, med by the lees): thus, ^ning than •st three 11, not to )f these, Eng-Iish. d ceased made to lenee of i belong 56 veil ty- d about "Ration ion fail nids of rnis of related e been 127 not always the same vowfi as he steJ, n.^ "^^j Pf ^««"-^ J»«<1 pers. sing. Traces of thi. iff ""^ ^^'^ ^''''^ »"^1 third the pi. of uj audi u *^'^^'^^^"^'« ^re still seen in tvere, while.^e.andS W.^f/^^^^^^^^^ T" "f '^^«*^' of the sing, in Old En^hl «1? v^ ^' "! ^'''"^ <^^^^ ^^wel And, in tlfe case of tme tS tl/rf^ 'nl "' '^^^ P^"^^^' tc the use of a or w (178) ' ^ ""^'^^ uncertainty as tear.na break hZCn'JZc7\ '")""' ""i "'"l »"«*» "' contain the vowel of thp n^S °^ ''^ ""'" '""' '»'"'"' «'"<* given way to the past forms kM, satXZ'' """"• '"'™ 4°s^p»«eSe:^irno':™^rX''i:st"r'''°' ^-^r »' in the old forms, slungenrlnT^JuL T^l '""'^^' "« again, it may be rLineror fet off Jl?,°"""' ™?'"'! tendency to discard the endintr-tlmrJf' * ""'*<'<1 and (rod, cAidrfcj and cIM ' ' * "'"' ^"*' "■"*« we''do"not':r;'L"&ilT'-' <" "f «" ™"^''*^--"- ones, and mLe°y g^oTto Jtt^'thf '" ''•T "'« '^^""^ them now, are on^ tL X^^L'^rafe t^iZZT CLASSES. ^ 1 78. Verbs with short -i in the nresenf . .• « • ^ • , m the present ; and a as in dran^ov fa^ In U,l ' /.'' ''"''** Here may also be Dlaoed h,.Jn i" ^"-^"^.^ ^ the past, the vowel-sound ' o the plsf 'enT'n^"^ ' uf ' ^? ^^^^^^^^ of not short -i in the presentf ^•^•' ^^^^^^^^^ they have Chief caiiRds of modern irreirularlties. Classifieation of modern O.E. verbs. (1). drink begin ring shrink sing sink spri])-; swim run (2). cling dig fling drank began rang shrank sang sank sprang swam ran clung dug flung drunk begun rung shrunk sung sunk sprung swum run clung dug flung sling slink spin stick stink sting string swing wir wring hang strike slung slunk spun stuck stung strung swung won wrung hung struck Type-Verbs. (1). (fmifc, drank, druvJc cliiig^ clung, clung. slung slunk spun stuck stunk stung strung swung won wrung hun(j struc]^ 128 (2). Drive, drove, driven; bind, bound bound; bite, bit, bitten. (3). cleave, clove, cloven ; bear, bore, borne; set, got, got. rEHBS. ailjec^tive rf™«X-, jw T.' T .' "™'" "'"fusion with tl,o »«t by the best wrS un.HpSr """ »" '"" P""- '"' Ihe pasts of the verbs \n(\\ l'7r pasts like the r p p i [ ^i^^/ '""' 'r^ ««"^^^times Jn (2) has sometimes .ten/:' nnA " *^''"^^' "■^^^'«'' ^t^nk put of use. X»,v, is also of Vl V ' ''*'' *" ^"^"^^ ''^ m^, is now belonged in Oli t^Z"' tr^:?Z -"J"^-tion/to ;hieh HE "sed as an adjective, generali; ' .f-^^''^'^^^^^^^^ '^«^ composition. /Am^.,J 1,,eans ^- 1"/''! ,^V,^'''^^ ^^^le of = :i^--!-the-:Slen[ verb represents tvvooV"'''T ^^^^cuted ": the 1/y. Verbs with lone- -i ns .'n »; / • . ag-reement in the other parts ' '^'*^' a general (1). abide drive ride (a-) rise ohine shrive smite stride strive thrive abode abode ^.j.^ drove driven ^2) S , ''^'', ^niien rode ridden ^^^^ 'if ''^'"'f I'ouud rose risen f^, ^""?. ^«'"'*1 shone shone ^K ^^"^''^^ fo"^'ht shrove shriven £V, i^ ff''ound ground S'note smitten (3) bit« T.""'' T^""^ strode stridden „i-, ^/^ ''^'tten strove striven J ^if ^^ ' chidden bounden, which is novv i^!^ . " T!, r ' .• *'*^'^ ^^^^^ ^he form and thrive are sometimes con'nw^f'''''^''^^-. ^^'''''^ '^^^ive, 180. Verbs with It r ^^^^^'^'"^ to the New o as in .o/ct^: ^7i^;^^„ 3 - in clove (sometimes with various vo'wels in tlepresent ' ^""'^ ^"'^ ^'P" ^^^ (I), cleave freeze heave reeve shear steal speak weave choose (2). bear tear, clove froze hove rove shore stole spoke wove chose bore tore cloven frozen hoven rove shorn stolen spoken woven chosen borne ' torn swear wear (^). break stave (a-)wake (4). get seethe shoot tread ' swore wore broke stove woke got sod shot trod sworn worn broken stoveu wcke /got gotten sodden shot trodden ■oear has two forms nf \h^ ^ "T" "'; "''^' **** f^afce, i " carried or e uS!?. tdC^t»r.Vl!:t,-4 ''-^^^ s ioirh Si^ i:'''„ OLD coyjvcATioy. ^les, are now Mion with tjie tile p.p., but ve sometimes "sasre; stink ' m>i, \H now >> to which it frike, is now 31" style of tlie modern an. 1 a general written l)onud found t fought i ffround wound bitten chidden , hidden Jshdden 1 slid it has an s the form ine, shrive, > the New. sometimes ' p.p., and sworn worn broken stoven wcke got gotten sodden shot trodden had Old iarcy etc. d pass.), ioirn : also of the Now Heln nmv M "i' "^^ ""^' "'^'^'^ «»'e and p.p. holjlcZ: ^ ' '' ^"^' ^"^^ "" ^^-^'J^^i^' past Ao/^., ^^orn says " iiTwi " ^...iM m i pvece n.^U.«ubj«ct. Tl,ec„,„po„„A%,;:r.i::t,,;'K^ 181. Two sub-clashes of verbs with fJ.^ , blow crow draw «y grow know blew crew drew flew grew knew blown crowed drawn flown grown known throw threw thrown slay- slew ^slain l-i.torsuke forsook forsaken shake shook slmkeu stand stood stood take took taken Crow is also of the New conjugation. ^^^^o'^^^^^^^i::^^^^ the present and participles an ilff h • i ^ '^ '•'^^' varymg which are inyariab^TttlSr yokels -"^ ''""^^"^^ ^^" ^^'^s (l).(for-)bid bade bidden (2). fall fell f,,i,,, come came come §at— ate — eaten give gave given lie lay lain sit sat . sat (be-) hold held held (Jj. beat__beat beate n J>id bid bid pui-st mrrs^ [jurst let (allow) let let see saw seen **,*'^j" (1)' ''tV command" or "invite " -ind huj ,\ /q\ to offer," are from different O W III ^ '" ^'^^^ much confused in their deyelopn?ent ''^' '"^ ^'^" '^^^ Sometimerin cXoiUU ' id"''^^ 'n ^^'^ ^"^^ P-P- of mf. tli^form is alsolS L^iS;^^-^^^;^^^^^^ E"^li^l^. Hoklen and &./*oM.« are archaic p. participL associating i/:ShrySi^;{jir '''"''' '-'-'^ ^^' (4). blow, blew, blown; shake, shook, shaken. (5). bid.bade balden; fall.fell, fallen; bid, bid, bid m . i ]30 VERBS Newfomslu 188. Tho foil PARTICIPLES IN K 'N. iOW Adjective forma: (1). Of the Old. (2). Of the New. Conjugal Ion of be. niK imrticipial torrns in -en belonir to U'W verbs which hnvc flic n.j,nihir lor.ns als<, . (eu-)gmven n,olte,i saw,. sown holpen (arch.) mown (mi8-)shapcn sewn 'i^wn riven ui.... n. hewn laden riven rotten shaven shown swollen wiiHhen (arch.) mu 11 „. v\uxen(arch.) rhe older spellmi? of show wa.s sh„r (O.K. scmwiat, M F the *en,le>icy to spe.ialiy.o tl„. „. «„ „/■ „°r "„, f^ j form .„ .,„ ,, „pt ,„ ,,^ p„.,. .,.„.j ^. t|,J";,, : . '^N the participles n^ to... .h;i',.':ri:i;:i': t'l'ZS w^ *'" The following ure from verbs „t tlie Old eonnwHi,,,, • bo„„den, yVED FORMS. GERUND. being Participles. being, been. -^ilj ^ycLAssirunu: verhs. en beloiifjf to II II ll«n («<r<, wh.n I "^ "!>t appear until the formed o„ the ana o^^y ^t'^ ,m'*; ^''.^''^'IP'*' ^'^^ was also ^'^>Imsforpast.tLa .''"'"''""• rfon.; the pas{ ^Hd O E S/) i?'^'' ■''"^\ ^'' ^^' ^^^>^ and go unddo oated form (1(12) IfL if^ supposed to be a redupli- f»'^ isof J.^;;Chir ovv ,r^'''-^ *''' P^'^* «^ ^^'^^'4as ( 1 (19). ' '^'"^''' "^^^^' ^^« a s(.parate verb, has ..;emLrf P-s.ve meaning, thus, fw'e™„™p": iuk^^:''"""' """ " namely," belongs to iLal n hr!: 1 *''' ^^^'utive #0 z(,»Y, curious example ^oftle^eot of "^^i- '^^■•^•' ^^"^'^^ ^ newiss, - certain," became Lr^L?/ • ''°'' ?^- ^^^^ 0. E. in the sixteentl centrrW^.^warnf /''''' '^^tainly "; and which gave rise to th7 S on That / wTT^" '''''^ ^ ^^'^ ''"• ms a verb, the assumed^sen ot S*^'"r"""H"' ^"^ found m poetry, and, in bI^.^.^X, evL^'^Vowet Went, ** accustomed " the n f ^ an invariable verb with the dnnkP*^* '''''*''^'^' '^^^^^"nerly wont. analogy, and now an adjective ^^^^ '''''''^^ ^«^°^^d by PoeT^'f'hul?'^^"^" ^^- ^- --^^-^ ^^ found only in .onn. ^J , ,., Woe tt'or^/i the day. verbs like onif «* ,,,i,;„i. . . r^ and verbs "ke ft^, which ™p2''soLeL''r^,f''* "''"'«"«■ ""«*• often called defective. """' """er roots, are ,7""' I'flni ONTARIO GOLLFGE OF EDUCATION n i 132 Ca7t, may, shall, xvill, originally Old pasts; Have become presents with New pasts ; VERBS. \^P\ A small class of irreg-ular verbs with infinit ivc. of other verb Had origin- ally notional meanings. Must and ought, originally New pasts, now chiefly presents. are used chiefly .• ■ , ' ''*^'i'^ have neither infinitivou nor participles of their own. They are "mnitivcs can, may, shall, will ; must, ought. The first four, though now valued as presents onlv were ongma ly pasts of the Old conjugation (as is al^" fj and hence, like other pasts, they have the third person Wular «" " "'"'' ^'"'°^^ ^^'^ '^' first. %mTfor 1. can can 2. (canst) can 3. can can May, in the second person singular, lias the regular form mayest{^\n<,h is also used as a subjunctive in a wisiT shal and m//have shall and m7^ (like ar^ and ..Jj but when Having become present in signification, these four verbs t7X'^:X """-'""" '" '""""^^ eo„Ju,ationt? could, might, should, would. These forms are inflected regularly, taking -est or -.9^ in the second person singular. I , older English, they were of en unmflected when used in sentences expressing I Tondition and some grammarians hold that this is now proper The ) in could was inserted in writing (by analogy with ./.^i^zJ and rvould) m couthe, th. M.E. past (our unloJhXmton means unknown," and is Oi lO ixiniuuon or liie old style. DERIVED FORMS. 133 sed chiefly ' intinitives only, were ) wit) ; and 3n siingular Thus, for rular form ish); shall but, when he second tour verbs gation but ■ -St in the vere often condition ; ?r. The I hould and n Milton, [ge-'\cuth). esent tvol, ning and ' * to have in ' 77iain ' *' to be will " or id strong '"few con- ug-h now ng- pasts. ; must is 3 must.'''' Imited to jIu style. Dare, origin* ally past, now present. For the past of must we now use nme nhi^r..^ • i • , must was used in enX mTi TV^.^^"^^ ^^ ^^^^h sense to the pre^e^ • l'^ ^ Modern English Must now refers mp.,n« //™"'^ •/""'> , He w«.s'^ have been there" reallv being ^-adS^ "l^eS S by X 117%:^^" "^''• He sa,d you ou^lujtu.t is, „.M) him a thousand 'pound wl^ L^iitr to" totrserLtiu^^" r,"^''"! ""-^ "'^"^ however still ,<,pH il^! * meaning. Owr,/,; and ,imst are, speaker:' ihui,"'"^ "^ I""*'^ ^"""^ *e report the words of a He told me that I o,u,ht to (or must) do it. cTnUf L^thoTe.a^irnL?r ninri?"i '''"' "« *''" sAa«, sAo»id, mil, and ToS. '^^ ""^ *' ""'«'' *«"'«• DERIVED FORMS. 187. Certain derived forms, made from nearly pverv ww, t verb in the language, are used in such ways that they ^'-S have always been considered with the verb aUh tgh they are not really verbs, as they make no assertion THE INFINITIVE. To say "He gives a book," or "He goes " k to declare that some one is the doer of a certain action on a certain object, or is simply the doer of an ac^Son a^ which may then, like any other nouns expressing aA action, be the subject or the object of a ve?b thfs .0 g^ve '{^^'^;^^Joreeei^;G,v^ng is better than receiving; ±16 liked to go; He hked going; I saw him go. Verbs with botli notional and relational meanings. Ill ?r }M VERBS. Nftture and deflnitiou. •ms to gh uiilimi Three forms (1). Root- iufinitive. (2). Gerund- ial infinitive Three functions: Noun, adjec- tive, adverb. (3). Gerund. or ' ' indcfiniJo " fi " *^™^ '"ean; not SaX ik ZTX^I '" '"; ■• -»- ■« subject and conseouen Iv th^li f""""' *" " ('"rticula.- number nor person ThHtflf-r"™' P?**'*^^^ "ei«i'-'i- of verbal noun t ex~fl?V.''' *"^- '^ ^P'^^e^ wliich the verb ^serts (33) noun-form that a)^'nt''T^' '"'*°"'^^ ''"« three forms- the rooMnfinitiTO (106) '' accordingly called 4.«rfS^„t';lh:'^■t,^Ji^^^^^^^^^^ as the aecount orthi'jtblanr f s^meVT*"' "" those of the Latin gerund ^ "^"^ ^ allys Vf sa^e";?,l|f ''Zl'f' "^«"'«- ^^^ -' fign without any meanL ast'™w ',V' " »»« To firm is pleasaSTbut at othe,- H ^'^V" «"'" real preposition, as i^ "T house fe W '?■ «' '" ^° * *<■«»■," where hereafter. ' ' "'^ ^^^^^ "P fully if retained, it wk n„t soulded "Vfi^V^^PPo'^'-ed, or, expressed by the suffix -e S. the pren to W,, ""'f, -^ and by analo^^was 'in'tL"::^'!? XJ^ --'™««- and (3) simeti ™f ihl'^tW Tnftl Tn^ &^='?r'''"^^^ endr;-.g*™Ssfn™t 1: -^'Tinrthlfot 1^^ or pari sufflx'^^XXhe modpf^f'™''' •°'",*-' ■''«"*'™ of the infinitive in funct ™ o'™ fT " *" '"J'"™'«'t that they ae,SireVtS;L:S ^^^t^^J^^ THE PARTICIPLE. aes?rUL^ aS o^^ .ot^rTonnnd^at h'^ modify nouns whUe tLHxlss w nt^tw"' T" ^""'j "^ t^-'tpiess wiiat the verbs qo and adttive?t?xp;:;t'fn*tr ^-^^^"^^ °* -'"^f which the verb aS (33). ' '*'^''''"*' *°™ «"«* 191. There are two simple participles: ea/le'l- ttn-;^^;.,^,t^;,^X:^- rj'^' ^'''^ '^ iio«»v,,.i^<-^ _„xf_ , i""i^i^ipie, as It exDressp.s an by th;Tou„1t"mS.'''' "' ''^"^ "'"'^'' '^ -P-™*«<1 Uses Of infini- tives partly the same, partly dif- ferent. Origin of (1) the root and gerundial iniiuitive; (2). The geruud. Natnre and definition. Two forms i (1). Imper- fect. fr 1 f 136 (2). Perfect. VERBS. O'E. forms of thepHrtieiple, Constrnc- tions: (1). From the verb. (2). From the iioun and from the adjective. l>!ffer from noun, adjec- tive, and verb. participle '^s exm-e seT; /' i f ""' "'« P^ eci ot that which it^ZuTeprer If ''t '""T ^ ^t«t« the ;7asswe particinle t. •, ^' '* "'«» ealJed transitive verbs^ it feuites Ual i' !?™'^'' *™"> nndergoing or e.iduriug uf.f actt^?, ' "" "^»" °t active for,„ of the verb (120) ''^Pressed by the ended i'n -i, wlii™ beime'^^w *"?-"' ""PJ-ptions (106) Ben Jonson we find -«d: "ms "^;i„„ "", .',". ^"'""^•^ ">" ^ The Old p. part. (ICO) ended i„ "^ "' *'""«"■" tongue-stop suffix -« or /rf- If ' ""J the New in the The O.E^ prefix ^.",,f^ 'IZM^'S T'*-''""' ^■•'«» ^"ffl'- speech, but later to the n na> '',''" '° ■''<'™'-«' Parts of form 100): tlms, ^.C/'-fovea"" f,' ^"'J "' « '»»<«fi«-l sionally, since the sixteenth eenturl ^^f', ^™''-" ^cea- Poery or burlesque; thus TZm 'iV?, "PPeared in OTomtmg pyramid!" It "still dt/'' , ^"•^'"- " «'«■-. Haveyea-vo„nd('foundVthebtM-''*'' "^' '" O"'-^^'- have tietattdiCf-f,-;,-^ the ">fi-«ve mav eome, and they may be fo ,owed by oIW '"l'^'' '""^^ My «/„'^S';r^i;;'--^,;-H?l.y, constractions. The MW n J '"" """^ "* t'"'^"' He -e^' ->»t;^:, *:- '^^^^^^^^^ ; He was about to deimrt fZ 7 ^^ ^^^«''ere(124) ; Particip,S:"'""°''™^^^'--1mf Se is beaten; HeiBbeatmr, (119)- tt«„ He set us all lanahh,a- \ ' ' f*.®^ame77mMini7(122) • , %'»7, she gave it to me (136)' ' pee^diaSo^^f^'-'h"'"^ -ture thiy have certain DERIVED FORMS. ^ -« present moment: There po., ray hatj Now /ate the .glimmering landscape on the sight. *^ PnSWhr ^,^* *^^ present tense-form is generally used to express presenttense. ^^^e^ me^^^^ ; for the name which a tense^orm has its usS Tf "" '*' 'P'"^^^ "«^ ^« applied to it in all lis uses. It expresses : ^ ' «ii (1). A continued or habitual action or state: thus, The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west ; aZ ^•^""J^^«s/«o/; upon Marathon, And Marathon looks on the sea. (2). The possession of some faculty : thus, My wife sings, plays, and dances well. (3). A universal truth : thus, Love is strong as death ; jealousy is erueJ ag the grave. ^ENSE AND MOOD. ferent forms the iiiiniber onns of the of meaning e, we must some time. specially of lent, this *ent tense; thing gone ^ast tense, it is, those form is to ; moment; andscape to express ^form has it ii) alJ hus, St; fhus animated narrative (the historl present): Bfrave. Towards noon Elector Ti.n..- 4. "•ounl^ with bin, to the b1,t '''"'; '■'''""•'"t "> t"" l"ittlement8, etc. or "vidl^'anfeSJJ'f';,;!;^^^ event '' ^"^'^ ""d "ear at hand, ^"^ '0^' '•»"« taek »ext Saturday week 0-.,enthe...e.nee.e,e...„..,ee:„te::-t,„3 belo„^rn/?o%S'ti„t""'"™ -^ "-" to express also, as „., UA An act or state o-nmo. 1 . "'gsofthe M-die going on dur ne- some r.^v.;«^ x, pa«ttenso. «----wU„etUe„taer.rt: , r'-- """^' (2). A,, habitual action or state (see fll k 7 After his return he iorro.e, withnt ^™^= ""■'' ( j;. i he possession of some faenltv C,p» m v > He .-0. better than any o;::^;,fJ^:^;;>-''-. 197 A *^°^°' enee of form, odledmood ^^T^ 'j"*^ ''^ « differ- ""^ speaker views what the verb evn"""'" '" ^^ieh the way in which the action or st«?f "'''"' """ '^' the ^ ihe assertion mav ha » - . the speaker treats'^^^fa'^UX ufTT ?* ^""t — ™ 01 not; thus in vvuecner it actually is a fact ^^"'J the speaker treats a, f„„f Ti '°-»orrow , being able to gtw fa^L^ th» \ ''"^'"^ S»"«. their having been thel-e. ^h.T"!??' I was there, and mv we obligation on John "to'^o"'.;^'*'*,"^ ^'"^ 'here, ° to gro, and the possibility of Mi 1 140 VERBS. Subjunctive Mood. Indicative, without variety, Sul)junctive, variously appiied: (1). Desire., its raining to-morrow ; although tliese may not really be tacts. And in "^ The Aitt^mwMhwPn Oa^fida; The s.ni moves round the earth; the speaker treats as facets the Americans' owning Canada and the sun's moving round the earth although, as everyone knows, neither is a fact. In the above sentences, «mi^, can, says, was, must, s/wMZf?, ow'w, and wiom- are paid to be in the indicative mood; that is, the mood of simple assertion. 1 98. But the assertion may be a statement of what the speaKer treats as a mental conception ; that is as something merely thought of, not as actually existing independently of his thoughts : thus, in If I he; Though I go; Supposing he toere hera ; God be with us • IfCst she forget her duty ; ' the speaker treats my being, my going, his being here, God s being with us,. and her forgetting her duty, as mere thoughts, not as facts, although they may be tacts m the future or even when he thinks of them ««iiin ^^?^^f press ions 6., go, were, 2.nd forget are said to be m the subjunctive mood ; or, as it is some- times called, the thought mood, to distinguish it from the indicative, or fact mood. 199. Since therefore, by the indicative, we assert what we treat as fact, its application has no variety. Ihe subjunctive, however, admits of various appli- cations ; for what IS merely thought of mav be s aped by our mmds m various ways ; thus, (1). A desire. Examples are God be with us ! Heaven rest her soul. Here God's being with us and Heaven's resting her soul are merely thought of as desirable : they are not treated as actual facts. . To show the value of the subjunctive mood in such sentences, we may express theii* meanings thus: ^''^'^^!}'\^r^^^.^ V*'^^*.^*^' "^^ ^« a fact, but as something merely thought of and, therefore, as an uncertainty or possibility) is a thing I desire • Heaven's resting her soul (treated in the same wav^ is a thing I desire. '• TENSE AND MOOD. ly not reall}- nd the earth; ans' owning the earth, faet. , wan, mmi, i indicative m. lent of what ; that is, as illy existing 'd be with ns ; being here, ler dnty, as tiey may be ts of them. 1 forget are 5 it is some- iiish it from !, we assert no variety, ions appli- i be s aped 141 resting her ey are not •od in such thus: something tainty le wftv^ V (2). Purport of desire. (3). Piirposa (4). Con- cession. (2) . The purport of a desire. Examples are Tho A ^- ^- '^'*'*' '^ ^^"'^ y^" ^'^ there ; The decision was that he leave the country My proposal is that he vMt Toronto- Mr R n"Ff.V*"'^ '^^^ •'^^ '^t'^^^' dinner; ' Mr. B. asked that the meeting he adjourned. 'Here, as above, the meanings may be expressed thus l\w\t^l^^ ^if'^ ^*'^''*^^ ^« ^P^^'^smUy) is my wish- His leaving the country (something meiilymlgl\X\ not >et a fact) was the decision ; etc. (3). A purpose. Examples are Take care that all le present , Mark him well lest (that not) ne deceive thee ; Here, also, the meaning may be expressed thus • All being present (treated as a possmUy) is the purpose TT;« ..f ^ «^the command to take care; ^ His not deceiving thee (treated as a poHsiUHtv) i. fh« purpose of the command to maikS welK ^^ (4). A concession. Examples are (5). A condition. Examples are If to-morrow be fair, we will start early; If to-day were fair, we could start now! Here we have the two commonest kinds of sentences r expressmg a condition, that employ the subjunctive '-monest The meanings, as before, may be expressed thus ^-' .To-morrow's being fair (treated as a possibility) is the To aT^ T- *"" 7^'"? *^^P^"d« 0'»- future going • To-day 8 being fair (treated as something not ;eal hut merely thonghf of) is tlie conditfon on ' which depends our ability to start now. xH tiiC- fet of these sentences, the condition has nnf yet been tested by experience akd may ofeourse, be (5). Con- dition; condition. ;■» *iM*»»ralKSWSf-.<*m--(- 142 VERBS. 'M the second, the eondition is ren thought, of, and it is implied that •epre- it Less onmraon uses of tlie Subjunctive. Snhjnnctlre, dependent in thought,- not necessarily in n subordinate clause. Subjunctive forms still found in prose and poetry; But seldom in ordinary use. Its place taken by verb-phrases and the indicative. fulfllled; but, seuted as rnere.^ is contrary to fact! • ^ Is ! "fitT "'^5^"^«. "^y «^«'» '^ hacked ; is It fat this soldier keep his vow? She 11 not tell nie if she love me ; He feels if the axe be s):arp ; I know not whether it be tn.e or not ; The tree will wither before ii fall- It is better he die. ' whferf,:fe?th r r"""«" ¥ ^''■"' ^^ fch wiiicn may either be expressed or implied Thi« iL wi.l""a reetr! oT™ SSn e^ ^^1"^^ or lu the emphatic expression of rpoTsibil^v fv,*; indicative is used instead, even L liCarv Enili^h pnrases. And, in snok^n ^?no.^•c^ • f. , " hardly any special si^SpIe^'suwSvk ^^"J'i'l'! "'-i usea except «.r. to express a-desire-or'ite^pli^p^rt: TENSE AND MOOD. 14S on is repre- alied that it w found in fill surely icked ; ptive in the pendent in is not, of iictive does ', what is 1 have no Jr thought, I This is itences or n the prg- the sub- n and the absence of er) is still fy; for it age; but, itinctions, speaking Kcept in a ► the fact, ility, the English, by verb- articular, i n ^^r\ «-> ^-v ... ' CliC IIUVV purport, <>!• a condition contrarv to thw fnnf rn, example, in each of the IcZnZ. ^^"'' ^^" I do not k„ow\vhS:? '"s'^;'^ '^^^ ^'^«-' When Jie comes, I will speak to him • Though he s%s me, yet will 1 trust in him- If lie ,ra. guilty, he deserved punfshment^ ' the meanings may be expressed thus : His «Iaying me (an actual fact, and so treated) will whereas, if i„ the above sentences, we substituted Though he slay me, If he were guilty • ™n.ta.etJeX cases, we view as coLZions L?«t i"PP°'f'' "»*«. '» ">«»« are now averse to the subtle Tl S n ^'^ ™ *'''"'''''' '^^'^ special subjunctive forms and we li^^f' T" *»™ ^y was formerly treated aTl m^nli ™ *''''?' "^ '««' ""l^t has, therefore, taken n?acerol-^„ eonception. A change verbs, but in the wav wp vt I"'^ '"."■« 'o™' »« »ome :heeont;K'^ak:„rm7antg':?C^''™-''-~'-^^^^ Indicative used In con- trast with 8ub;;unctlve in somecasei, Subtle dis- tinctions of tlie subjunc- tive now seldom made, a to Iff If ^ f 'M: J li 144 VERBS, Indlcntlve HMlI ■ubjunetjve forniH, often tb« BHIUtt. Imperative Mood. Expresses possibility. Hence 8ui)j. sometimes substituted. Dptatlve subjunctive. rtio»«f thoi,t.ct',I(v. ; ""' "''"w;" »» H'at "uifled; so tlmt, when we usotL .'■"™ '«""'"' same forms «» thor o7 tC i^^e, "ve™ if w "?, '1'^ ^c off; ^,/p us in all our undertakings ; Call on U8 • o" '/and tr^ and '?h ^'- '^^^ ^''^ ^^"^-^^^ 2^.^.- thus for example '"^^''''^'' '''''' ^^ *^« "Now^-.«d we a measure " said young Loehinvar; T'a ^v!," ^"endship from your land, And, noble earl, receive my hand. expressions i. usuaiiy^that ''! do? ord^^S? if : more emnhnUp m. r^r^o^f,-,,^ „ ^-V ,, » n^2^ is a " ' " i--'=^''^vc, aBBuriion man "i give or ) r i ( bjunctivo bjunetivt) d we cftii oreneo to M UH tlmt niiuibor, bet'onu* ^tive tho 'ould he for sub- mmand, us; by the le sub- shades press a e third solemn ivaleiit to the some- lat is, ptative 'ly the »y the mple, I do in the ' is a ve or TENSE AND MOOD. lias (;orne to h,!" ^f/'Jf; " '^^^^^n and in negation It i"tendin,. emphar'uiV;'" ''"^'""^- ^^ -y!- wiZnt Suoh fo,.n.. „. - r . *' *" "^*' ^ fi^'^^e not. T45 IiiforrojcHtivp Hnd NeK/iflvH '"niiN. not empJmtle. Suoh fonns «« " r «"■•■« in use i„ older EuXl, ,,'f ""'"■"'■'' f" "'« " poetry and the „|,je_ '/f, „ ' ' '"<' *(! still (i,„i •,, not" 1111,1 ■' r "'>"' Si"''!! ftiriii^ n^. ",'."' J^xamples are ^'"Phasis ivas intended. Revolt our subiects ? T>,« and become relational it st '";> "''"°r' '"««""'^ IS, the Dart that is essent,«i f„ li ""* '*'»' ^erb (that and ffive, the root-inflni«; • •?" P''«di«ation [171) P~P-lv enough' alwi:'7;;.,;f;*«fj-t. We '^Uli simdar one in this manner I „f? '''',''"'«' «'"1 any of substitute for the niBtl' f . *" '»'"•»«« is a kind a".ltherf„is„,edwU,lf h^ fl'?'*' "* «'« verb ^> H>is Phrase. Aecor^n^t «!^ tre';;;"' ''t '" '"«^"'K I''" fve" and "iJn "L" "":'' ""''■■ases as ea .ng them the empha cZll,t T f ""»'''* *^"««»' "sod in asking a qnestL tt^ !f ' 7'**- The forms hose in nejtio^ 7egTtive '''^j'f^'-!-osative; 2a the archa e forms nf ti, ^"•^' «'''en thus used ;inp.lar are .^ m d^LrHi"')' V"'''' P--°^ which are notional. ' ""' ''"^^^ and doeth, 207 We f. ''■"'™'=SS,VE PHRASES. past, ^r •■T'lUC^td'i^' "' ''--* -" !""!..*?_?-?«'>' a^d tlfe p:"t'of 'J'!! ?"'«^.".''y "•- i-.ttciiig- aiOHir with thpm ^1. " " "" ""-^niaries, «. Here theUitTas^TaKlS^t Old foroiR. Orifirin of Kmphatlc form. Auxiliary verbs. Emphatic, Interrogative, and Negative rorms. hi Mi f< M mmm 146 VERBS. P.ti ticiple in Progressive form, ft yred. adjective Simple forms of verb for present and past only. Shall and will origin- ally notional. Weakened! they are future auxiliaries, forming two sets of phrases. I. Shall and will in assertive sentences : (1). When the speaker does not cause the act or state. adjective, modifying the subject of the auxiliary verb ; and, as in "I do give," it is convenient to treat these phrases as if they were simple tenses. And, because in them the action or state is thought of more distinctly as continuing, or being in progress, we call them the continuous^ or progressive^ present and past. FUTURE PHRASES. 208. Our simple verbal forms have a distinction of tense only for the difference of time present and time past. If we wish to speak of anything to be done in the future, we use as auxiliaries the present tenses of the irregular verbs shall and will, putting along with them the infinitive of the verb expressing action or state; thus, "I shall give,'' "He will go.'' This verb-phrase is, therefore, called a future tense. And, in these phrases (as in "I do give"), the infinitive is the object of the auxiliary considered as an independent verb. 209. Shall meant originally (as still sometimes) "to be under an obligation," and ivill meant " to be resolved to" (185). These notional meanings still determine the uses of shall and will in our modern future phrases; but their meanings have become weakened, and shall and will are now used to express not only futurity combined with the notions of com- pulsion and choice respectively, but simple futurity. We have, therefore, two sets of verb-phrases according as the speaker is represented as causing or not causing the act or state : 210. We will first consider the uses of shall and will in assertive sentences : (1). When the speaker is not represented as caus- ing the action or state, we say, for example, 1. I shall go, 2. You will go, 3. He will go; because in "I shall go," the speaker is the person the subject of the verb stan. for, and the going is v4- J-'U^ ^/^oi-iH r^f Vila Tinll . onrl irj ' Vnn -Hrill cro." OP He will go," the speaker and the person the subject ii iary verb ; treat these d, because of more is, we call •esent and tinction of ; and time )e done in ; tenses of ing along sing action will go.^' ure tense, ve"), the Lgidered as I _ TENSE AND MOOD, i47 ometimes) int " to be nings still ur modern v^e become to express IS of com- e futurity. 3 according 11 g or not shall and id as cans- ■^» ill go ; the person le going is ill sro." or the subject I '?;i;^.SV are_different, and the of the will of the latter.' But going is the result mere wish part of the sneaker \in„c f ^ '"'"'* ^'^^^ O" the unmistakably afltUTta SenTtt '"'""'r «» under which he is nlaeed " i ? n '*"''""P"'«i»n originally meant "I am obliged to"', F' ^^''^ idea of will at au. ''''P''^^^'"'' hardly suggests the the^S'prrsoTam/wf/''/"'.r'^ ^« "^« **«« for ae/ol-st^rwfsartraJnir"'^^ —^^ ^'^ l.Iwtllgo, 2. Yon Shall go, 3 Hp .7,^77 hpf»ano/i 4,^ "t Ml " b^) O. tie Shall 00', ^11 ; and in * ' You sh"ui ll '^ » "f '^^^^ T'"'* «* ^is going is eaused bT ttlpSker"' ""' ''^"" ^"^ " ^^"^ the^'sTeaker! w^uTj/tr ?^ TT^ "" *»>« P-"'* of for the second and thild 4^1'* PT'^'i ''"•J**"" called f„t„..s of a«'^f • or^";Ut/''tnh''" phrases, more of the onmnni r.^/ i ^^ *^^se auxiliaries is reta'nedTS • .i,^''''^^^ meaning of the So, too, to exmvs^ V/'' '"^ *^" '™Pl« ^^^^^e (35). sec..d a„^^h^,^'rpLo\sT:^^^^^ ^^ ^^e are called futures of commanj and r-oK (fir^„Tnraf^^e'^fi^pet";;'a 1^^'"'^ l? «-« Pe-on second, and the second thaTtleSf '"If^rtant than the of .hall to express simplefuturity tu / sZ h S "'"^ T"'"*' Rule for Simple futurity (2). When the speaker causes the act or state. Rule for futures of Assent, Promise, Command, and Prophecy. Peculiar uses of shall and, wilL 'f ?!l jimi 148 VERBS. II • u ' Here ihe you involved in such subjects attracts the attention. When, however, we separate the parts of such phrases, we naturally follow the usual construction: thus, Wc shall all be puuished ; We shall Jjoth go. (2). Both nill and shall, when emphatic, are sometimes used to express strong determination. Thus, '*I will do so implies obstinacy; and "I shall do it" certainty as if the speaker's will were controlled by a force outside ot himself ; and they are used in conjunction to express the strongest kind of determination— as if the speaker were asserting his determination from all points of view thus we have both * ' I will and I shall do it ; I ioill and shall do it. 2\2, Will is also used as follows, having different shades of meaning according to the stress upon it: a?"inthe 1^^- ^f *^® ^^^,®^^ ^^^ tl"^>« "«<' °* ''Ml verbs of which ~a^^^^^^^^ '? ?*>'"• «'««««« the time or a time of wh,Vh m "'" ^"*' "' the present E-^mples are: '*' "" l""'^««"t torms a part. (!)• Of simple futures (^J Of futures of assent, promise, etc. I hereby declare that I ivilL etc • 215. When, however, the verb of fh« T'- • , clause expresses whet is n«vf ft.t •. • P'''neipal ordinate clause is eTpressedl^, f; ^^!,'^ '" ">« «»b- Pasts of Ml and J«F Z,s for examn.r """"'^' *''*' I fear I slmll fall; I fe„red f,,,'TK /."'"' ^"^ ^^^ future at the" time 'o/'th^'f "aHnf 5f ' ''^Vr' ''""'y viewed as past from the stfrdp;!fnr;fVe':p::S 149 II. Shall and will in Inter- rogative sentences. Rnle for use. III. Shall and will in subordinate clauses: (l).When verb in prin. clause refers \ to the present, shall and will. (2). When it refers to tl\e past alone, should and would. |i « S;. sS 150 TERES. laUtrlci min Should ftiul would, here indicative. How com posed. Meaning of Present Perfect. ''' W,r"we 1™ lltHf "^^l''^'" "■ "" """belonged I knew It icomW turn out well "«'' <^eMa, Such a verb-phrase is called a future-past. PEEFECT AND PAST PEBEECT PHRASES. 216. By using the verb Jiaoe as an auxiliarv in Jbl lil„ \ f**"' participles given a id «o«e "nd the like, we form two other so-cal ed tenses , amelv I A«« given" and "I Aarf ..! "."* l»V'»«'nt = thus, v^^y'rt^i. asked" expresses the act of ^iv^ ^'™" " ^''^''"^ ''« o( course, eoutiuuiug 1u ,f^ ^'« "? f «"»ipieted (and, aet of his asking. '" "^^"^^^ ^ioK the past those with^fJL' 'fo ™4''2''^'^<'.^. »"ed as compound tense, „ from their ori^i J me*a'S"/"te,"« fft'-.t remo™^ l&V^^ transitive verbs, followed hv f'v"^'""" be made from »K^ 2ifi A ^U^J^^NCTIVE PHRASES. subjuttfv:Ttha\'l/'-hf^-- (202;, the simple mfleetion),isuowa]mos ont ".■'""""T* *«™<"1 by u^e the indicative^ or phrases w th'!; ^"^'f "*> «* '* ^« ««'>i-«™ with shotild and »m«w h . '""* '"><1 "">*< and pi«-»«» with iaries shall and .J/ '^ThelT* ^"'"^ °* *''^^"-''" ^'^^ subjunctives. Like shJltT^ % ""^ "^ pAra^a/ S""""' and still generally fsttiona/sr'/*''^ was originally """• mission" or *'-o--^ -•" -= ^^^^^ expressing ^er. have, howe^ver, disapD^^^^^ If^^^ "otional meanings . ■n. the .„, or' "'iJ^rn^^l^:^!'^::!^^^- I i 152 VERBS. M h '! ill i 't I: Snbjuiiptive phrases, coinpHi-ed with simple forms : (1). Desire. (2). Pni-port of a desire. futures) imrely relational. Subjunctive phrases witl, ml hTM™"" "'•'' "^*'"' ^'"'»' form af 2«\«X ;> pasts, but they serve a different pui-pose. .i^^^i' '''j'^ verb-phrases with may and miaht and Khould and tvoidd may, indeed, often be su bstLted Xe'' 'S t:^""""^", "'*•"• "* course "^e'lame Inllv. 199), ' ""^ ''"""P'''' <««"'P'"'e the sentences ( 1 ) . A desire ; May God be with us I poR God 6. with us ! (2). The purport of a desire: FOR My wish is that you 6e there. My wish is that you should he there, The judge decided that he should leave the country i I (3). Purpose. (3) . A purpose : (4). Conees* sion. Condi- Uavk him well lest he should deceive thee, (4). A concession: Should it he ever so humble, there's no place like home, Whate'er may hetide, we'll turn aside. And see the braes of Yarrow, (5). A condition: If to-morrow should be fair, we will start early. Government tcotdd he im- possible, if the system should (or ivere to) fail. So many thoughts ran to and fro That vain it ivould be her eyes to close. t < <( (( < ( Other subjunctive phrases used r — f^ forms. The judge decided that he leave the country. Mark him weU lest he deceive thee. Se it ever so numble, there's no place like home. Whate'er betide, we'll turn aside. And see the braes of Yarrow. If to-morrow be fair, we will start early. Government ivere impossible if the system failed. So many thoughts ran to and fro That vain it wcri her eyes to close. ftf Bame°wa*v' 'J'^""''*'? verb-phrases are used in Lxitj bame wav: that is tn aat,c,Y.t- ,„i — 4. xi. treats, not as actual fact luFas' m^:;?; thoughrof*- » I 3 plirases with as the future id might and ►e substituted rse, the same the sentences is! at you 6e there. eeided that he country. I lest he deceive tumble, there's ike home. le, we'll turn aesof Yarrow. e fair, we will ?»'e impossible )m failed. hts ran to and >•'? her eyes to ire used in 1- - ■. ii\i speaKei' bought of; ^^^^7UZZi^lrZ^^^&t) live (a rmrt^ose): „ It seemg abaiir<1 f i,.t i ";<""'' ""»* so, ndeed • What have I done that yoSl«i':^'r« "f-* ^° '■ lu all these Rnhl,.„ 5 ""^ '"""' "° ■»»■*• (like *, i^''/do'g?^e .''raOfiir''^^*'^,', *« ''"-"i^'T the subjunctive mood with ,> nnii '^ ?! '^ *" ^«>-b in (for, as we have seen above^ t^ relational meaning the place of the inflection n^ ^^ sometimes taki S'mple subjunctive) and what S> '""'^«'"te i" the phrase (as, for example tin'' M^T^ I" ^^^ "kerb- 's a verb in the infinitive ..^'''y 9<"i *« with ns " ) considered a. an ind^Se^i 4^4 «»'J««t of the nu^l, a^eus^e'dtoTxp^la'^sh' T.T'''^'''"' ™-'-ries, «*««« and*^ wmMave eswciafr"' Tl" P"'^''^"' conditional assertion • that if t^ "*'?'' ^ '"ake a on a condition: thns.'for exaAiX"'""'*''"' '^'^P'^'"!"''* Where my vour „. If •'^ ''' °°"" «"' ""v) i actual fa^t,ZTC'ctSt"o"''*/°"i-«^'«'l «« «" your, or his being aWe to fef l' '^'^Pf "^ent, on my, also be used to efpress tte InTv^' ^"'^ **"«'<' m«y example, P ™ condition itself : thus, for If he Bnould come (you worn ,ee him) whieh^:Sst sr ■i^i.ri'r-*'' """-. clause ; and the principal c^,;i i "u *'''* <:onditionai sntls from, or deSsor .•«„?*• "'''"''' ''^^'"•ts what re- of the conditionf is called the ciX!!,* "" ^ *"'fi"n«'^t *^?««« moans " resulting from "n/^?^"' «>»«« ^«««- Sometimes, however the „^„^"*^ dependent on " ) . wordoraph;ase..S,t:xam^c"iL' """'''"' '" ^ Which are en„;„.,„„* .. ourselves his accomplices; Value of each part of subjuncMve phrases. Uses of (1). may and might. (2). Should and M;oMJd in a conditoinal assertion and in the condition. Conditio) .'1.' and Consequ< -, . Clauses. Condition? (1). Con- cealed.; fHMlMfMM 154 VERBS. \i , N"i!! !f (2). Under- stood. Other uses of should aud would. Mood, not dependent on what is im- plied in whole sentence. Why the future is indicative. How ahciild and would have their subjunctive meanings. Rules for use of should and Again, the condition may be understood: thus, for example, in I should say lie is mistaken ; where we may supply the condition, "if I ventured an opinion. In such constructions, however, we do not think of a condition, and the verb-phrase has come to be used as a softened form of assertion when we feel that the indicative would be too abrupt and positive. In such sentences, however, as There is no need that she shmdcl be present ; He is afraid lest you should fail; no condition is implied, but her being present and your failing are treated, not as facts, but as mere conceptions. The meanings are Her being present (something merely thought of) is not needed : lour tailing (also a mere conception) is the cause of his fear. And, in such sentences as wi * 1. ^® ^^ ^^^^y ^"^ father shoidd have stayed; What have I done that you should be my friend no longer ? while it is actually implied (199 [5]) that his rather stayed and that you are no longer my friend, his father's having stayed and your being my friend no longer are mere mental conceptions ; they are not treated as facts. Hence the mood depends on how we conceive and treat the act or state ; not on what is incidentally implied in the whole sentence. 221. Future phrases are in the indicative mood, because, by them, we assert our present certainty m regard to the future (although what is future is, of course, uncertain). But, in the subjunctive verb- phrases made with should and would, the uncertainty expressed by the future is increased by using the past form ; that is, by adding to the remoteness— by putting it further from us— and thus giving those auxiliaries the uncertainty and doubtfulness the subjunctive is intended to express. As another result of the origin of should and ivould ~ • ^'^^ vixvii Line a,ic MIC Btiiiii; iia iiiose given above for shall and will. Hence should is used in all i • TENSE AND MOOD. 160 exLni;r"' """ -nditional Cause: thus, for If I (or you or he) should do so (I should fail) • uecause my, vour or lii« flr»;,.r. c. • , bility of wl ich deDendM nn n ^- ^ ''" ^" ^^* *^« P^ssi- Vou (or he) should feel sorrv ■ Should would have the notional meanS; of " ought >' 225. r^'rr" ^^ -"" ™™^ -""^^B. addh.g the' ;<^fe 'Z-Si'"? r* "?«»• ^« -"ade, I may (and"jugMrhav'e%r.''' ""^ «'™» ' 999 C -J X, '"'■''■"■"^^ PHRASES. /„ ''^'"*'*"'<' optative subiunctivpC9n';^ „ *•. aT.iLt^r^Z'eh\td];'i^S^^^^ orjnstruetiou in the thirdVet^, lT™et i^^^ £e( me (or us) give; let him (her it - ^^..~^ ■ i.« the messenger J< „ui at once '"' '^"''• eommonZt'rsZslo ut t"'"' ? T«°'«- '^ - missing firS 'a^d "hird pers^nS ^t^" P^'"''' "* *•"« Here Z^-^ is Dlainlv a t^pqI ,. x:__. , ., an infinitive to whlplT^r'- T^""'"'"'*^' ^^^ ^^^ O^'^e noun s^nd^in^hT'l^L!^: -f :S.^. -a s Z^ Future perf . ; Fut. perf. past; phrase subjuuc. perf. Let as an auxiliary. »l i Its real nature. J 156 VERBS. Progressive phrases. tW ! t Phrases formed with do. Limitation of use of emphatic do. (•ombiiiatioiis as " Mahe him ," ''See him give,^^ or " (7ai him to give'' (132); out, in the phrasal imperative, the notional meaning of let has become weakened. OTHER PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC PHRASES. 224. We may make continuous or progressive forms for the entire series of verb-phrases, by puttmg in each case the corresponding tense of he before the imperfect participle : thus, 1 hove been giving , . had been giving ; I shall be giving; I may be giving; I might be giving; I should be giv'iig; and so on with the rest. But the forms with do as auxiliary, are made only from the present and the past, and not from any of the tense- phrases (except the phrasal imperative), whether in assertion, or in question and negation. For example, we are allowed to say eithec I do have or I have; Does he have? or Fas he? They did not have or They had not ; when have is an independent verb : but we say only I have given; Has he given ? They had not given; when it is an auxiliary. And so with all the other auxiliaries except let. An emphatic form of fee, ivill, shall, or may, except in the emphatic phrasal imperative, (as, for example, "Do be still,") is not admitted, even in the independent uses of these verbs. To make such forms emphatic, we lay the stress of the voice upon them when we are speaking, or italicize them in print, underline them in writing, or arrange the context so as to show our intention. NATURE AND RELATIONS OF THE TENSES. 225. We may now see how the different tenses are related to one another. The simple divisions of time are, of v^ourse, the present, the past, and the future ; and the action or state may, in each case, be represented as (1) incomplete or goin^ on (the progressive forms), (2) as complete (the perfect forms), or (3) without regard to its completeness or incompleteiiess ; that is, indefinitely (the present, the past, and the future). IXFINITIFE AND PAUTICIPUL PHRASES. 107 ?? im give," or the phraHal lias become progressive ;, by putting te before the I be giving; t)e giv'rg; ) made only from any of imperative), id negation. 8 he? 3 say only given; II the other I, or may, ve, (as, for ;ed, even in ) make such voice upon 3m in print, context so 5NSES. t tenses are of time are, ire ; and the ented as (1) rms), (2) as regard to its sfinitely (the ^'^' ''o";::;'""*' ™ '"'^";- U- indicative m,.,d = {•'■-. give"- anrJI^h"- ,'""'«• Past gave »,,.. ,1^. • '' '""■" «'"«" and. as the- perfect may e.xp.es! a" act ■"' f '" mid continued into ti.e nies,. t w f ^''•'."" '" "'« P«>»t in.p;™u™m^o.:d°htbrort:ns: """"""••^ °^ »-'>■"«' ^^^^7 ^ Zj^r:^^ -f-, not to the tunc of their possibility A^^^T- , ""^ ''™'"''' ^ut to the tl.«. M.e PO-i^bi,ityt'tatfd''r^t\"f&I rn^-^Z' '"■''"''''•'^ tl.e past It h' "" '""."^' " "'°" "* '-- -^»°" «ny Selt\:t ^eSilfei^, J^^-' ^""- 1 would that I were dead ; If I were he rTh^ . ' I» he mad that he sh^J ^'/ot '" ""' "" '» ' the present perfect th«f ti.,. » '""osor con,pietedatt'l.et!;l''f1he'plSli^;Xs'^ '"'"^'' "^ -^^Jiyiie have done so; Hadst thou less unworthy proved, I hud loved Iht; 2 ™S' T P*«"CimL PHRASES. gerund ako:' "" """* '""^ ""'"^ the Ws'of the InOlcntive mood. PrimHry and Historic tenses. Imperative mood. Subjunctive mood. Simple and Perfe"* Influitiveb Imp. and Perf. act. part. ; — -* —...Jo. VERBS. PiiMn. purt. phraaeii. Sim pi f^ forms in CMpitiiU. Alltheotliorfl, phnuie-furui8. Finally, the perftHft ([)assive) participle, oiven, has its progressive form, hciug (jivni ; and from it is also made a phrasal perfect (i)assive) i)artieiple (without progressive form), having been give a. THE ACTIVE CONJUGATION. ^27. All these tense and modal forms we put into one b'^heme l)eh)w. The original and simple forms of the verl> are in capitals. Only the first person singular of each ttnse is set down ; but, from what has been said as to peison and number forms, and the u^es of shall, will, should, and would, the other persons may be readily supplijd. Stem. GIVE PUINCIPAI. PABT8. GIVE GAVE GIVEN A. MOOD AND TENSE FORMS. Present. Past. Present Perfect Past Perfect. Future. Future Perfect. Future Past. I. INDICATIVE. Empliatie. do give did give Ordinary. GIVE GAVE have given had given shall or will give shall or will have given shouldoT" would give Future Perfect PasK should or would have given | Projtress'vo. am giving was giving have been giving had been giving shall, or will be giving shall or wi II have i)een giving should or would be giving should or would have been giving II. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Past. Ordinary. GIVE Emphatic. Progressive, do give be giving Ordinary, may give -Phrasal- Progressive. maybegiving GAVE did give were giving < { Pres. Pmf. { ^^^;^« j^'^^" Past Perf. had given f (have been \givir<^, arch.) r had been I giving might, should 1"^^^'**' ^i^^ll^ or would give 1 °V .^^^^^^ ^^ *' I giving may have S may have given 1 been giving r might, should f might, should \ or would have -j or would have \ given ( been giving III. IMPERATIVE. Ordinary. OiVD EmpliaticT do give Ordinary. let (me, etc.) give -Phrasal- { Empliatie. do let (nic, ■ tc.) give Progressive ; let (mf be giving c i f,-. \ PASSlriC TMA'SB A,n MOOD .'URASM-rORMS. Progressive. DERIVED FORMS. I. INFINJTIVB. Perf. Root and ^ivji, to p^ive be ffivlnir tn h« «• : ° (. been ti\\\nir Imperfect "' GERUND. Fei-feet. ' GIVING having given Imperfect. Perfect Active. Perfect. ni. PARTICIPLE GIVING having given GIVEN , n ■ ' ■ • 1 been giving having been giving having been giving such veVb.phra.,en:tk;\™rf„th°'"*S ""« >«"--' T"-- and those yet looser anr] hJa i ^" ""^ named above ^'n^t'on. words ent/r in ZuCes t 'XTk '"?!'""", ""° ^^^'^^ -"-"' action in still other wavs «» !^: !> '!"" ""•! deflne an «»"J"«««on Thus, one might prS 'to claT'''' ""'"' ""<' ""Mer? phrases as " I am in the Jt ^tlZ^^"""""'' T^ ^^^b- airiKOingtoKive"; " I am aho„?r "^ ' T.fs futures "I point of giving,., ^d to for^'Tirief :?'/ ' """ "" ">« combmations: thus, '"^ <"' '<'''»e and modal I was (have been, shall be, mav he et„ 1 • .1. „ . giving (or BO "7to give) ■•* '" "" '^' <" tioipLirs'ehre: oTtrvTb" "^ '"^™ -<"> --fina. Phrases":h?ehte"„nh: wMrthTVo^.T^'"^'-'"'"'' ">»«« w.,„„. most regular; those in v\ZhtLrlT JTP"''^ ''"'' ">« «Sd. distmctly the character of a„"vi|'l''''t" '°™ '«« '«<>»* Anally, those which most rearlv f7 """ '"'''P*''' ""'y ' »nd, and tenses of the verbs 0I tr^SrCju^e"''' """"'" PASSIVE TENSE AND MOOD PHRASE-FORMS ■s^a. There is one more «et «f , i, , ""*"*• responding to the tri^e verba (or "'f'"?'''-'^''*'' «*»- k '" 1 « i -t Eittphntic form for Phrjisal Im- i)erative only. A continuous aet or state, in the passive, present and past. Forms in good use . I'ff By using the passive, instead of the other conjuga- tion, we are able to give greater variety to our language, to emphasize the object of the act rather than the agent, and to represent the enduring of an act without mentioning the agent. For none of the passive- tenses, except the phrasal imperative, is there an emphatic phrase made by do; since the auxiliary of the passive he never makes an emphatic tense-phrase (224), we say only "I am struck" ; "Am I struck? '' "I am not struck" ; and so on ; not Do I be struck ? " etc. 230. The passive verb-phrases in ''The master is esteemed," The pupils are loved," express the enduring of an act which is continuous; but in "The house is painted," 'The Indian is scalped," the verb-phrases express an act completed, not continuous. To express a continuous act, in cases like the latter, the active conjuga- tion, or some circumlocution, was at first used instead. Another method was to form a phrase out of he and the gerund in -ing governed by in or on; thus, "The house is m, or ow, building, ^^ and from this, by the absence of stress • on the^ preposition, or by the omission of the preposition, came The house is a-building ' ' and ' ' The house is building. ' ' But, as the form of the latter phrase is the same as that of the active progressive, it was found to be unsuitable when the subject possessed life: thus in "The boy is a-striking" or "The boy is striking," the verb-phrase could not readily be regarded as passive. This difficulty led to the formation of phrases made with the progressive instead of the simpi^ form of the perfect, or passive, participle: thus, for example, in The house was being built ; The book was being printed. These are the corresponding passives to the active pro- gressive expressions in : They are building the house ; They were printing the book. Sach progressive forms as is building in "The house is building " have never come into general use, on account of their Lability to be confounded with the active forms, and such progressive forms as is being built and was being printed are still regarded by some as bad English, and care- fully avoided; but phrases like the latter are also freely used even by writers of the first class, especially in Eng- land, and are, consequently, to be considered good usage. ty to our act rather 'iiig of an tie phrasal -de by do ; makes an y 1 am ck " ; and master is e enduring 3 liouse is 3rb-phrases ► express a e eonjuga- ?d instead. he and the he liouse is ?e of stress )reposition, 5 building.^ ^ ime as that unsuitable 'he boy is erb-phrase s difficulty progressive )r passive, printed, ictive pro- the book. e house is account of 'orras, and was being , and care- ilso freely ly in Eng- •d usage. 161 A. MOOD AND TENSE FORMS. I. INDICATIVE Ordinaiy. am ]oved was loved have been loved had been loved Present. Past. Pres. Perfect. Past Perfect. Future. Progressive: am being loved was being loved Present. Past. II. SUBJUNCTIVE Ordinary, be loved , Phrasal. ^ may be loved Present Perfect. / (have been ^ Pa.t P.. .• .* ^''''^^' ^'*^^-^ "^""^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ioved ni. BfPERATIVE ^ ''''^'^^'^- ^ ^^;^r7 ^'''^'^'- — . beloved. |^®* ("^e* you, etc.) be (a ^"P^atic. 1 loved •" ' ^'^ ^^ | "•-'o, , ■Pe;/ecf. r.OVPn Progressive. p, 1.0VED being loved ^ • ''"*' Imperfect. Perfect. Ml, iWii 162 VERBS. ,.l Active and passive conjugations. Active and passive voices. Nature of passive phrases. Two uses of pred. perf. participle in phrases. Equivalents of passive phrases. Peculiar passive com- binations. r fj ( ll,:hi-: 'il Tn distinction from the passive conjugation, the other and simpler one is called the active; and in languages which have real inflected forms for both uses, the two sets are styled respectively the active voice and the passive voice of the verb. PASSIVE AND NON-PASSIVE PHRASE-FORMS. 232. The forms of the auxiliary he, that make the passive tenses, are the same as make the progressive active tenses; but they have with them the passive participle, as given or loved, which marks a thing as acted on ; instead of the active, as giving or loving, which marks a thing as itself acting. In both cases alike, the participle has originally the real value of a predicate adjective, modifying the subject. But by no means every case where a perfect participle is combined with the verb he is to be regarded as a passive verb-phrase. Often the participle has the value of a predicate adjective merely, and is to be treated like any other adjective. Thus in "He is fatigued"; " He was fatigued in consequence of over-exertion" ; fatigued has as pure an adjective use as weary in " He is weary," and it is to be so parsed; but, if we say " He was fatigued by his exertions," was fatigued is a passive verb-phrase, because the sentence is the same as "His exertions fatigued hiia " cast into a passive form. Hence the combinations of the perfect participle passive with he ai 3 or are not passive verb-phrases according as the participle denotes actual endiiimg of action, or condition as the result of action. Phrases of nearly the same meaning as the ordinary passive ones are made also \rith the verbs become and get: thus. He became frightened ; He has got beaten ; but it is not usual, althougn correct, to reckon them as passive; nor has the latter phrase the sanction of the best usage. VERBS. FORMING PASSIVE PHRASE-FORMS. 233. As a passive verb-phrase is one by which the object of the verb in the active conjugation is turned into the sub- ject of the sentence, passives are regularly made only from those verbs that take a direct object. But this rule is not strictly observed in English. Objects of prepositions and w Cfi tion, the ; and in lor both he active KM8. make the jive active :ticiple, as instead of ig as itself finally the subject. irticiple is i a passive I predicate adjective, nsequence ive use as d; but, if fatigued is le same as 5ive form, le passive iing as the >nditiou as ordinary \e and get: I them as )n of the MS. the object 3 the sub- only from ule is not itions and — — __^^ ^-ti. indirect objects of verh. - , ~~" ~ -; e subjects of correTpt dtVpLivTot--' ^^ ^^^o^^, (0. We often separ-tto . Vhv^^e^.. ^^' /his kind of nassivo ; ^ ^^"^- «th the agent oSe™. '' ^"'^ -^O""""". usually, however, (-/ Even when a vo k • P-ive Phrase "V„r.fc:„1r "^ '-^--ttdit^ ™-.e„aaepr;:rr::;:;''^^-- <-'^- ^^-'. in such phras!:;; ^' ""^^ "" "^ "»• ^hey gave this rain f« 163 _, It becomes her- tt« The h„„,e adjoin, he'clmrer'S'"''^ '"'^ '■■'«"''''''<'« being that any one of them k ' T'^'"^ ,<>* things, tells u? rounded by land. The nametf ^^ "^ water su™ thing that possesses this cwilf "^^^ ^'^ "PP'^^d to any «l?e. Common nouns are thlf''' '"'*' *" -^"thi^ wzth a certain uniform me'aS^f'"'^' «'S"ifle«nt wo.df ia^^^ Which is distinUh^d'b^* tSfntnlVrS; pi' to,"r '•';;"^ ? proper noun (that is particular)'. It is aTameX'o .*"'" ^«'"«'hhig J class to distinguish ittl^H ^ «" 'ndividual of a Bame class, Tfe'i, ^^j^'' "?<'ri<'uals oflC « -. -~fact.'appaerai^or,~,','^so^^^^ •-« a city and a county in the Chief Classes: (1). Common nouns, phuracter- istics. Definition. (2). Proper louag. A>eflnition. Proper and eoiumon nouns con- trasted. li 166 ^OUNS. Proper nouns. Used as common. Specialized: (1). By t!hr?stian names. (2). By titles. meaning. ^"^ ^''"'' ''«« a certain uniform .nindf al? the Xraeteri,H.f ' f '';. 'r'r^^"'« '" ««'• Accordingly, the common nn ?^' ^"'"^ "^ ^a'^r. i"^ (.omm^oS'to allThTi'diviZals ^f tlr^f " '"'^'',"- parts of the material • whil» f ^ *" "'"^^ """ "i*- connected in our m nd's wif fh " f 'T^ "''»"' ^'>'^>' is highly specialLw hLT " ""'■'?<'' *' represents, the oneLdTvMual o^ly ^ " """"""^ ''«'«"g"'S to in ».-^herrv?Si;rp;"'e„^rP^';^ ■""^ "e u.ed tims, for exaiLle wt ' if^t.'l^f more tlian one individual: other human befngs not "oTamed "it T*? '""^ ""'""" proper; for it does not impr that thi ' ''"T™""' *"" «"«•« possess common charSriJtf, .l^ff ""."^i* '"""'^'l possessed by people nnmoT » different from those But, if, on tKher hZtfiZ"' '"' '^"""' ''"' "^"'■"P'"- Milton, the noun is herewIL f™" P°.<"'* ^y "■« "ame unifori meaning; for trepreSr"^ B.gniflcant with a ing in common the literarvT !■,""?" ^""^^ P^^^ox^- (254 [1]). ^ ''""'"y °f tl'e poet Milton vidtlLrnd'nJfJa'st lerf "^"^^ ',? '» -J^ote indi- called CW^t'-'r^e^;''..-;^^--'^^^^^^^^^^^^ proper" to individuaL (\n ihL ^ **^"^ ™<^^e descriptive noun in r word eoLoun.n%T^ ^' ^^"« *^^ for example, in .«e7o4oTfr"r^^^^^^^^^^ ^«--- -' John Smith, Henry Brown, John Plantagenet Smith ma'CdirTO' '''^*^^" "^^^°^ ^^- I'-P- noun more .eSy';^^^^^^^^^ effect, and are which they are added ^fon.PfLl • ^^ 5'*''^^^ ^^"^^s to real adjective): thus, ^'^°^^^'«^««- ^«deed, the title is a The Hor.orabl« Ahn hSl^''?^}^'^.:^ ^<>^ «'nith ; ..raun, ^uuu oiui^ii, Eurl of Utopia. I the noun n uniform and it as its to our of water. 5 a mean- ass or the »un, when ^presents, mghig to Ly be used Qdividual : lith. The >m certain ever, still e named fom those example, the name at with a possess- 't Milton lote indi- additions ill more 3oes the uns: as, ith, m more md are ames to tie is a >pia. only one objec, wi.ich k H? •."*•* """"'s ''epi-esent r""' of what miffht I eeo no nv i """'"''•>' '^P'^sentative r"'"""- thns, we misht speak V-^I ^n reiu'esented, as a elasJ: &"- nouns would be common nouns aT"- ''"^^ "'«'«« s««, «wo«, an.] so on are Ai^.^^ ordinarily used, nouns. Nor are they moneV i"^^^"''?' ""' «<"nmon nseu onb as the uumos of oL, „f '"i H' ^^"y ««" be eharactenstios. Thev mav L"" n' 7 "S'^ ''a^e certain to distinguish thenrfromcommo^i'f'''''^"''' •'«'»»« 2S X The meani,,. of U '"''"^'' "°""^- especialiy connecter! with • Pr°Per noun was at flr^t ,> annlio.1 t„ ""•"'<-}ea witll a sinifle ohiVcf u , Pfopetnomn, appied to thi.v„bjc,.t alone • anrl ,„*i'' " "'»■'* "ie« ?'S';'' the individual, its signiflA'ti^n L^^ '" """'" """>'" marked '"'""''''«l- was therefore lo.t sS of So thTn' ""'"'Portant, and Ser'Spri''---'™-^^^^^^^^^^^^^ of !o°ns!^7t' if t^'^J^^^^SZ^^ the meanings c... which need notice hereT "' "^ 'P^'^'*'' importance; (1). Some nouns are names nf a 4. qualities and conditions and rlti J*"' r'"''^'' "* "'■ *"*«* which have no ••ooi „ • I lelatious of obieets that possess them f 'thus ""' ""'"■' ^'•<"" tie obS Sncrnr""""' '""""'' '""'^' ''^''™-^' -^-t"-- qtli^Krio Z Zr^t^^ -- of'X towhichtheybeUg;! idtMik ofr' 1* ""^ <"'j*'«t« as If they had a separate elisteuce '" ^^ themselves In contradistinction to ah»f..,^f ,, objects which have a real" 'flmV'"""''' *'''' "^mes of Ooncret. outside of our own miuVrri c^Z^^.S^^S: IGS IfOUSS. whole," "considered li ! (2). Col. lectives. (3). Gender nouns. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter, Definition of gender. all Gender shown by (1). Different words. means formed into o tlieir properties togethe army, flock, »ohool-board, legislature, seaate. man, woman, so., daughter, actor, altress; hero, heroine >^rt^leaZasfulfZT""' *'''" '^'^'"'y ™«Ie beings gender; wMe w th.'f ' ?"■ "".""r* ^^^ "^^^culine called femMne 2L} r. ^'" ^ '^^"'^''' ''''"'S'* are gender ""**' ""^ """"« »* the feminine n«J^.r nouns, o^- ^o.t o7 thet'«;;VVS''aira1'?'' «ex, like «„t1^,„ S o^^fl" ob,iocts that have no entl. to heings o^f hofeS . t^,,- f-^indiffe. ^^^.t tire t^^-^oii^t;-/ ^'-'^ =:sZi:rt;3e"^!;:S^^^^^^^^ 's of practical importance only so fa -I'""' '""^t"'' proper use of the pronouns of th;.-/""''**™^ *« their derivatives anrt tl^l" • *" '"■•' P^''^"" and about gende. 'mless Z "^^ "'"^ *" ^"^ «»y""»g distinetiou of sJx. "°"" '"''"'""y ^P'ies a in fhtee wV^f ""*''"' "' '"" '^ "*'"^*«'' by common nouns (1). By the use t different words. Examples are buck, doe; hart, roe: , . ~!,.i . -x. .. , brother, sister, io^ ;„'"«■ '"■^'J! - CLASSm. I'ed in all hing, but e things. and des- ;e. signified heroine in older J beings isculine ings are 'minine '-nouns, e called (that is, • of the have no ndiffer- mnd. strictly line or living •wever, ms the )n and ything )lies a I nouns J^A'ampJes are *'*''' *emn„nes are now formed) j>«., Iand^ntvil*5J:X^ . Slav e^arina songster s neuter been voiced to .««7|1| f^^-^^'^-m; while fy^^Ztl nouns •is^'alS'rat rX'"''''^ '« ^-der i„ common g— .b.the.et.'dyte7aUUS2.r^ -^^ and oe:t:";:te7i rr '."'^' '-^^"- (compare 241 r21 > . f C "''^ ""^ femmme derivative 9 Paul, Paulme; George, Geore^V,., • ti S ' ^eorgena; Henry, Henri./^a. 109 f-i S:*r' lit ^■i m hVI m ^H/i| 1 ^nf i III fi HM i 1 Hi! [lit K ; ill. ^^iff ■M lii'^ Gender In other Iftnjfimges. Oniiniimtical Hntl Naturnl. Declension. Number and Case. Plural and Possessive. (1). How formed in speech. we n„y M-i,\ toX «' ' |E,?;J«" -'""«".? which y* •! - fh, names „f „,. 'son, ^^ ','•"'*' '"? S''"">-nll.V form, t;„.t, „ro usually a' "iTne. Z'"T' ■"'''«■''' "'" ots:""- '"« '•--"■■•' nif ;l jfy rntt%„'ri: and in most other lanffnairf^--„« V ■' "I ' '' '^•■*^''»'' Greek, and German-wl X^ n„„"t' '' '.•'"^"™' I^"'". females are penemlly nmClino a f,'"''' •'"'*■' '""'"^ ""«» tliose denotin.r obieots wlfE i? *"","""« ■•'spectively, line, feminine", or t^^uTer °^ llT """'''" "" '""^^- way, the gender depen^Con thruffiv^','"" ™, '":^"™>^ had. ThiB distinction, whih aff^ts w„ i *","' ""finally «a,:^:?',eLerrwtr'a«4^> ™^^^ r INFLECTED FORMS. 245. As we have already seen (95 'inH mo^ nouns are inflected, or varied^ n fom to I'vf """ aifferences of nimihpi. nr./i «i / !?,' ^^ express is called decXS (105) ''"'"'"• ™'« '"««««<'■> P/«ra7%5f, and twrete'f*' *(^^«''"' ""O *e representinff both thrn^ml^T"^' ** comn;jn ,ne inflection. ''<'«««»'e (102), which is formed by variously modified. "'"'«« "y adding an .s-sciind inttrre^^^,re:,l!.tw iiH^= ""T-"?V be diyided additional syllab™ in the fl^fr •■*'"''■■ ^. *» ^' «" iiBcnt..!. „nj._ii--' . ,'" n"^'! a» n,e voiced « ir, tl,„ . , -na a» uiu- voiceless s in the third. ' '" ""' •eal ircmlor. tevcr which 3 grtmemUy "'-soiind divided le hiss- voiced oiceless flection «>, an in the INFLECTED fORMa. Class If. hoe dog hO€R (iogS hofc 8 dog's hoes' dogs' Class HI eat oats cat's eats' Stan stall es 8t4n-c Stan car-w ear-e ear-e car-e Stan -OS st&n-a . In u'litin^, tl)e forms ofth«r~T~~ ' ~ ^ in Modern En^Hinh : ^^ "'"^" «'««««« ^re thns represented Smg. Com. . ^''^«« f- Plur. «' J<^'«e lass 'W'."f^ '"'.•■eed not no t "ff,' 7J^!\»'"-'». «« written care ; A,.rs '* a horse "• «^v. '< ■ • ' " ^tone "; c«rM ^"^ ef. -an eye."'Vs d?s' the th^ '' ^"«' "-»«"';' ^.E. the nominative, g-en v. *^''^'' ^^^^^^ (''ailed in "H-e. and, ^^o^^^n^V^Zl] ^^^^^^^l. ^^ """^ » SINGULArt. hoi-s scip hoi-^-es seip-cs " ^-e sefp-c " ^ scip PLURAL. ^ors seip-tt hoi-s-« seip-a hors-Mw geip-t«« Hoi's Rnin a. ^^fi^—iivi ,^^^e endings became ^duaiJv 7 '""'^ "^^"'^ P'unl became -un «n.j n .^ reduced: first f . ^ ^ where became . and 1 ^'''" ^^^ ^^din^s « o ^ ' ^*^- With these ehan^jes ^.h'"!' ^" -«»* a^d .«^ b'ec^l ;^^^>^- -d the influet^"^o/"an: r 7 ''^T'^-« dtppe^rlS* reducing all to the type of f^ ^ ,:,^i"Pieted the woi-k ,?J possessives in -es. ^^" ^^ "*^""« ^^ *^^'^ with plZt and NUMBER. 24fi 4o 1. "0»^ INFORMS. The.l.endl'r^wSV'''''''"™'''''''^'^'- separate syllable, hut b'v Sf r°?''"?<«'d for a time a » period, it e,,ised t,. K ™ wgmninff „t thn mL d," i/1 (2). How Mhown in writing. Reference trtbleof o.E tlecicgiona. ^yom. Oen. Dai. Ace. JS/.om. Oen. Dat. Ace. car -a V aar-cna 8tan-wm car -um 8tan-a,s ear-« ox -a ox-an ox-an ox-an ox-a'i ox-ena ox -urn ox-an e&g-e ^g an e&g-an e&g-e e&g-an ^g-etia o&g-um PI- and POS8. ending, ea: Origin. "eeriilarl iriously Mcxi. mode of formiuir plurals. OriKln of Mod. D) ide. I: f !te . 172 HOUNS. I 111 Other f Iwinups on MtlUitlon of -s But, (1). Nonns in /sound: general rule. regular pi u nil the Of English origin. Of Romanic origin. Bxplunntion of exceptions. sometimes the addition of tli knife life, wife, leaf, thief, sheuf, loaf: and nouns in -If, except gulf. i'yome undorlyins principle, we «ZtL ' ' " "" '""'^ a p^;iledl;t„;' voTeiloS'" ™f 'T "' TZ-T"" -«« «e«: thus, regularly out! m the voiced leaf, leave, knife, knives; thief, thieves; calf, ealves- except roofi, hoofs, beliefs, dwarfs, scarfs, wharfs. cliffs, puffs, muffs, ruffs, turfs, mischiefs. br,ef, briefs; chief, chiefs; fife, fifes; strife, strifes HOW in'":^l!; S'e& P T\«''''«.™l'y voiced, as even inttr '"'" ""* " """^^ ^tandLd' Eull^t ht ^;tht; vrom, avore, volk, vind, vloor. •^ In foreign words, the original voiceless -f remains in iha plural, and, in some pure English words the nlZl/Zn Zrl/as'sr^ ^7'^''^ *^ different 'ti^C n S Hilar plurul igos besides or -fe), the / and Htaff, ormation of , if we look -sound with I the voiced , calves; 8 when the / staff \\^9. ; the com- Sometimes B, are now s voiceless «, except ;rifes. 3, as even Blling was dialects, s/: thus, ins in the lis in -ves :s in the , also, as INFLECTED FORMS. m t iwr example, with voiced t^»rth, death, hearth. w^J**" J , '*'^' ™«th, truth, youth; and the following have the voiced -M. only: CJnfh ( ^'**^' P"*^'' '^'^^h, mouth. ^loth (compare staff) has dnth^ «Mw* and e^,,.*.., "dro.s^^X,f/tf^ bc'^'^otd"'' "' "'"'«■•" >8 to use the voiced -ths after am, jv ''P?'""«:. the tendency ^ter a »aort vowel. '^^^ZTi^^^ t^ye^^tZeXmZntZ''^'} "^"""'^^ P'""' besides (3, ^ different sense» • thus' *""" ^"'"S "^^d in somewha? S'Ar (■l;. Nouns in evervrlflv „.,^ i- sonant, add -« insteaZT^ Xnl'i-f;," t"„T/thu'r " "«"- cargo, cargoes; po„,, p„„ies , eono" ! J^"''. The following, which m»„ v. """oq.ues. naturalized, ha?^ pCl Tnl: ""^'^'"^ *' imperfectly bravo, canto, embryo srrottr, ™ p.ano, solo, aomiuo, tyrf ' rta"?';';'''' ''?"''°' "i'-""- and such ^ords"af ;rI:'::S"°^' f^=»" ' the .^J^^r^^ofz ''i^rr::'"' "'■? ~-'. Examples are """o reason, still unsettled. The raretl' """"''°' "'"''■"°' "■■"''"°' '-^i-- naturahzed. '^"*' ^« ^he word is imperfectly -•"v^t.cxs 01 speliinir: tho eniiv>.i . ~\"''^'^"« -cfi, are mere ^^ip^fnerpi P«>bahly the ^"^ ^^ ^ZC^Ti^^^^l^i ^'^'"^' (4). Nouns In o. y, and ;. •«- i m-wn iii! 174 iiJ IfOUNS. Origin of plurals in -iea. (1). Plurals of letters, etc. Plurals: (1). By mutation. (2). By adding -en. Their origin. «ary was dropped, and find rwas p^etrfdtf """^^^- before the -.thrttr:rt5^^;;;jri^^^ ^'^ ^^«'^^^^P^- Dot your Ps and cross your t's; In 999 there are three 9- He uses too many Fs and me's and my 'a ' This also is, of course, a mere matter of spelling. OLD FORMS. 249. The foregoing are the modern modes of forming the plural; but a few English nouns in very common use have their plurals foLed in ways thit are now oosolete: - ' ^^^ (1). By mutation, without any ending; thus, man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; tooth, teeth • goose, geese ; louse, liee ; mouse, mice • ' the last t^yo have also a change of spelling from s to c. In UJd English these words were Sing., man, wifman, fot, toth, g6s, lus, mus ; Plur., men, wifmen, f^t, t^th, g^s, ly's, mys. BreechesKthe E. plur. brec, sing. In'6c, has conformed to the general rule, but retains the mutated vowel. ox, oxen ; brother, brethren (or, brothers) ; child, children • cow, (in old style) kine. ' The plurals of brother and coiv are now used in different senses: thus, brothers, related by blood ; brethren, of the same community • coivs, individual ; kine, collective. ' folWsf^''^^''^'"^''* ""^ ^'*^'''''' '^'■^^''^' ^"^ ^'''' ^^« ^s hvethpn* genera, ,m!ii, 6m«,l"e pre S ,„ ""' '""' *"'"""''• *'»'« The iuabihty of 'the^^X^^.'.* "^"f^"'. TO"r^ *«««. foreign plural has led to the tor- ti„„ „f i j" f"?™** "' » as serapkuns, e/,«,WM, a^" t. the beh: ' tf'?'"'"' c#wma, etc., are siiiirulars (v^h\oh « f, *"^* stamina, wofi'-tKt ofhef oat f " "l^'^'l '-^'««- using them ar^oims and ?nt '• "m!"'' *"" °''"°«- they were Eng^^.^^^iT^ "'"" "'""'^ "^ '* aliases, ignoramuses, items, bcuules, extras, Te Deums =^™-™NAL USES or MODERN POEMS. also instead of fo^rir;:;Cplu^af tts"^''"'"^ U;. Certain names of animals : as sheep, deer, swine, neat, fish (also fishes; taken separately) • and sundry kinds of fish : as Parately; , cod mackerel, perch, trout, salmon, shad, pike EnS^Lthlvt^CatptrLn^^.^ "^"^^^ - ^^^ and ace. (see hors, 247 are of t.?. ^^^?'^^ ^" *^^ "«°»- lar. The other words ai^ used is if t "'™ ''' ^^^ ''"^^' miSurS,' we^hTs'tt'e "uSi!? t^^^^ "-d names of objects or' tellinT^ernurer, Sc! : thuT'^ " ^^^^'^^^ brace, pair, yoke, dn^pp ^««-.„ x__ ' , ■ ■ ' -*-—'-; &'•-==, luii, cead, sail. S( in do cha or I the T] regu Qamt :0 Iiave been mical ones d with the lem came e English ?, in some ;s, in both ings, our th cases. i find that riven out ta; while €s, beaus. >rce of a le plurals stamina, of alms, ve some- iural for le plural nouns, Is as if urns. certain eaning INFLECTED FOMMS. tely) ; in Old nom. sing-u- les of inting The same peculiarity show^ M.cA^- T noun, compounded wifl/nZ^nll^^^'thus'^' ^"^^ ^^ ^^^^-^ twelvemo,.^/,, fort,«^/,,, sen./^/,, (tj^^t is - Biirl ,'« +1 ^i^'iatii,, seven niffhts"). and m th<^ same way we h«v« fi • '^ ' expressions as ^ ^^ ^'^"^^ ^^^ smguiar form in such an eighteen ^en;,7/ book n fi stance that the mmforal St?.' f 'i^''^ '» the drcum! instance, "a o„ e«.( stamo ' ?!■ ' '' '"'""' »« ""y, for two wnt stamp. " "P' " seems sufficient to say "I (3). A few other words : as, The '"""''"' '"'°'' '""*""'■ P^°P'«- -mo u-rfor:rat,:s",i];:':'tiji':'„t ri.r^"'"^^- - sAo/!, "balls"' p/ / << ' «.«»o»"eolleetive"'; emmm,, '^i^'"™?^^"; p.oi.te. "diffeSTati„SS",f^-.-" in thr JSr'^C ri- -- ..ed, except osed to be a plural sign. So, too, in vulgar J^nghsh, we have Chinee and Portuaee formed Prom \^ninese ana Fortugcse. " i INFLECTED FORMS. Summons (0 Ft. „^, . i;7 ~^ --'- -aa'Ko «=£""« frequently oL.^^TL 'ptl? o/'/'^^'f -"""s are nouns, on the other hand areVow^' i^""'" P""™! -m. regarded as representf^^ o'^'^Xfe "tkir ""■' Of "uuuie ), sessn,as, shambles Binsuir,"''Cn1'„*';fji7« »7the plural form only the amend, gallow, mean „„„ti„, '"'"' "" Names of branches „ 1' '""' ''"'' "■"'' ™^- are the names ^^ofetrve SsT/T /" -'^•'' ""'™ ttey strued as singular. Examples are '"^ '""' "^'^ «<»»- ethics, mathematieei nJrcrc- Th. • ' P^y^^^S' optics, polities wSrsro^j^Lts"^^^^^^^ p'-'. from form, just as we doin ,1 *" adjective in -ic tlie X. !i and so on. I„ makhg 4 ' ZZ,f """"I"' ««^fe' «wl -«e^wMch^s„pp,ies!fte?raCtiv:^^^^^^^^^^^ t ^^ with''al-te^2';«:S^^.'lC,"X:-n to have pl.u-al. i" the 'in,ulaT,\„re''SldS'-' ,t7 ^""^ '- ">-"-«« less common singular meanfnJ fc' <;»'-"-sP"ndi„g to the Dlur I ^; "'■""' <'°«-'' not talS a iVr"' ''f'"* ""^ "ame tt;;n:i,i-;^--j:^ r -■^> '= i--'": forms 'foT^th^Ifi J!?"" 3^* «^_m« nouns havp f.„. 1^3 and .0)7 So™ noZ rCe"orSl! IV. Plural iorms with siiiianxlar ineauiugs. Their s'lifinilar also m older English. Why some are plural. V. Plural forms with altered meanings. Vr. Plnral forms with different meanings. J 1 R( ■ I'J 180 NOUNS. (*'. the plm-al, with one moaninjf eon-esporidinff to th(i singula,-, and one or more different from it: thus, Vir.Pluralsof compounds: general rule. (1). Valued as simple. (2). Descrip- tive. (3). Proper. (4). Titles: Of one part. letfn-. .,f 'f' (1), V'\^^''"'^''" (-) "trouble"; lettos, (1 ot the ulphuhet, (L>) literature, (:3) "epistles"- Cii.stoo.s (1) 'habits," (2) 'S-evem^e duties"; ' numUrs {]) meoimtm^, (2) in poetry ; parts, (1) "divisions," (-J) "abilities.'' COMPOUNDS. 259. Oompoimd nouns add the sign of the plurai to t le noun part; or to tlie princioal noun (the oup modified by tl,e other), if the conipound cons st "t two nouns. Examples are blackbirds iiierehantmen, housetops, brothers-in-law steamboats, hangers-on, drawbridges, afterthoughts, also such expressions as master workmen, brother officers, which, though really temporary compounds (89), are often written without a hyphen. The following formations need to be noticed : foii^^'P^'Tu^T'^^' »ri^i»'^lly compounds, which would fall under the above rale, but which are no longerfelt to be compounds, are treated as simple words : thu?, mouthfuls, handfuls. (2). A descriptive compound adds -s to the last word, whether noun or not : as ' redcoats, turnkeys, runaways, forget-me-nots, three-per-cents castaways, good-bys (good-byes from good-bye). ' (3). Compound proper nouns pluralize the last: thus, the John Smiths, the John Henry Smiths. (4). In the plurals of titles, usage varies; we may say the Mr. John Smiths, the Miss Smiths, the Doctor Smiths, as well as the Messrs. John Smith, the Misses Smith, the Doctors Smith. behit%!^*\!fK'p^'^ more correct mode <,f formation; but. TnT/ ^« be formal It is not so common as the former. i-yAnf^^^'^^'^^'^^^^ T'^^' ^''^'^''■"' ^^«" ^^ ^ften evade the vfx^i-culLj oy sciymg, the ^mith brothers, etc. ^ INFLECTED FOliMS. 181 When, however, the is omitted, we must say u.ajo,.-,e„era,s, gove„,„,..ge„e..a„, lieutenant-governo.: kn,ghts-templa,.s, knigUts-erranfa, loris-justiees. ■Note also the modern men-servants, women-servants. CASE. th^ef;o-t:ii::,t::rTh^'no/"' v^"^'''*'' "«""« have objective, wi h ho;ever o LlTtr'/ff''*''!'^; ^''^ one for the poLes/ve ",'„ "he^otheil^r"* *°™^' case-form) for all other fuuet^oLlud rllatio^r""" THE POSSESSIVE. 261. As we have also »„r I i J-'' "^ *'"■ "i«* "lost common of all in a day's jouiney ; three days' grace ; a stone's throw • fi, 1 ^^^J'f^ ^^^''^dth ; a pound's weiffht • ' the law's delays ; the earth's axis ; heTen' s will • and, for shortness, in certain familiar expressions: for mercy's sake ; at his wits' end ^ ^' nodee.*^''' ^'" ^^"^ "' ^^'''' ^*^^^' "«^« ^hich call for tioL^ and^ fM«"'''^''^K^ ""^"^ "'^'^^^^^ ^'^^^"e action or condi- noun ?n .1 '^'' ^^ expressed by a verb of which the oXd n ^^2-P,«««^^««^ve becomes the swft/ec^ the cp^-^ - called a subjective possessive. Thus, in _ _ A mother's lovo ; Troy's fall ; the'bugle's sound ; the mother loves ; Troy has fallen ; the bugle sounds (2). Of nouns joined by and or or. General function of possessive. Examples of looser meaning. case is Special uses. (1). Sub- jective*. i • 1. ( ' ' 1 i I .1 i r t U '-1 If' a I 184 (-•). Objective J^OUNS. (•'"• Apposi tive. Phrase- equivalent of tlie possessive. Falsely partitive possessive. Its valae in expression. tlmn tho'^^Si^v:"""'™ '" "'""'' '"- -"""on in English ease ,s ,..a,l..,| a« a^^o./^J^^olS^f • 'u.uT ''"'''"'•■''' ""^ Britain's i«,e ,• Nu,„idi„-.s »paci;„., ki,;,„„„ adjective pU..a«„ witE „/ f„ suV^o^r^fH™,*:;/'''""^"'™ the e,t, „, London ; the continent of A,neriea. trli^::' f '■■ "*" '^^-^ ^o™« »«.« different """^'•■''^ day ; the day of the Lord. Xzf r":c z^ z "^^''" "^^<' - ^he employed instead. * expi-ession being • -Xra^el?„etto*'^J'lhor"-^'r"<'^' "^ P^- certain), consisting nfti,'' "^^ .^^ ""' know for a servant of John's, a poem of Kiplin.'s • thnt „-f . James's ; that faee of my ?*ther's "' """ "" ■tiy It we secure of ^ posseSr'Ts' Se;VaT''!'n"'^ ' '""''S' '""> "^o"- -.ant ./^.;.,,''Ta;^^f. -. e.n^^atie, in ''a cet^tdn easerthus'wrsat"":'"'''' '« "^"'^^^^^'^ i" and "thnf fa""^"^. ^i' t'*^''''^''"' '^^<^«'««'s'' -- hce of ,nu Mher's," not '"a John's INFLECTED FOIiAfS uses m f servant" jil„ would chuajje , awkward (3). A mv thus "a pi 'tun ,j to John, whereas liken of John. ^Imt n,i, fathvr\H face-; thr for ... "K'anniff, and the latter is felt to .e '':1m s means a picture belongiuff a picture of Mn^' means a I ^y tak/n' Jmea'^%L''oV?^^^^^^^^ '^ '^"^"'«" '"^^ be Partuivein case serraufs'L th ob^cf of ^ ^^^^^^^^ '" "^'^'h S;.-- sense fpnrtitivf rneanl ''L, ''•^.^'«^<^ ^n a /^«r^^7«V« '•thatfLofn Ser's ' /r^^^^^^^^^ ^"^^"^ ' but struetion due h. m„i!. \ ^ ^" extension of the eon my fath r's Le ' teVff/ ""' '''''''■ "^^at one of in forn., but ^fot in l^'l'v^'^^'T '' "^'''^^^^ -.^th«ti- THE DIRECT AND THE INDIRECT OBJECTIVE of form (247) iiul ivi,;.)/ • ^ ,? ' "•>^ a ditferenee many lan^uagk, 'ireweLd h^ ''f '■"^•"«'«'<1 '" expressed in Modern Eng I by /o or If""' T"^^^^ sessive expresses that sonified hy of ' "^ ^' ""'■ nouns*; wh&vTC ^'^Vl-'^''^''^''' "<" ^ven pro- differenr? o n he oWeZe t^t'^''„"«''«a spe-ial form m^rert ob "ctive ..u TV^ eal U word so used an necessary, 7X%r7c' oteetfvT' *'" "'"'''' "''''" as, for example, in seld-on,^ru] ^'^'^'^ " present Eng-lish; o.E.dHtivel. nouns in wlic" fina^ "t llri 'dl^'lllf^/r ^/ "\^"^ retained to show th^ lo„cr ,'Sd f - dat ending) is thus, for example stone (Owtf ^"^ P»'^<^'*^J'"I? vowel: stone "[247]) ^ ^^' '^'^''-'^ ^^t. from stAn/' s, v' ^ai ^ ^?^ .0^. ^^^^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // .k^ :/. &?,- 1.0 I.I 1.25 U IIM 11125 ill 12.2 12.0 1.4 1.6 ^ <^ /; / c / ^m o's. "^ m u/^. M Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 87^-4503 # ■-G^^ \ A \ ^9) .V m ..^ W^ .J%. 6^ % '^ 4^* f' m.. /i^ p w^ 186 1^0 UNS. I OHglnal dfttives with out the sigii. 271 Dat. and obj.. absolute No Inflection for person. Nom. of address, like interjection. He was near falling ; She sits near me • A man like few others ; He drives likeTehu ; and m the following archaic expressions : Woe ism./ Woe me! Woe ike day ! Woe the wUilef Woe worth (184) the chase, woe worth the day. n4n ^- .t'^ f^^""^-''^'' the dative was the absolute case ourtinth' ctn rv^'^I" '^''•"' ^'^^^ ^^^ middle'ofX luuiteenm century the nom. oegan to disnlacH if r« Milton we find a few examples of the o"ii Xohl in J case of pronouns (probably^n imitat!Si7ihtlatin) :"h!f^^ him destroyed, us dispossessed, me overthrown. THE NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS. 272. Nouns have no distinction of person • that is <> say, a noun used as subject takes the ;erb always m the same person, the third, even though used Cthe speaker about himself, or in addressing another thus! The subscriber gives notice ; Is your honor well ? But we often address an object by name • thus ^ ^wv,- . J^ '*'''' •' ^^^ ^ere, mv friend : ' ' What do you mean, you blockhead ? Some languages have for this use a special form which IS called the vocative case: we useTe comTn case ;^ and we distinguish it, when thus used '^ the nominative of address (156): ' a sentence; it forms no part of either subiect or predicace, but stands by itself, like an inteSon But It may have the same words or phrases, or even clauses added to it as the other cases have by way of limitation or description. Thus, for example : Your Grace of York, set forward ! O great Sciolto ! O my more than father ! Our Father whifh art in heaven. OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS. WORDS. bina^tL^^f"^' *^^ ^'' ''l^ "'"^"*^ ^«"°«' also com- binations of words, even phrases and clauses, are used in sentences with the value of nouns i -i|. OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS. 187 has been id unlike Mle! uto case le of the if. In e in the i): thus, that is always I by the : thus, ? •s, . form, )mmou as the iber of ect or action. ' even y way ' • I ven. com- used Jk l -1 . A.«ectiyes are especially often used in this way: u;. borne adjectives are used in the singular with rj:!^%:!-?orrrers,'"-"'- ""^*"^ Avoid the wrong and choose the right. (2). Almost any adjective may be used as a nlnrpi noun signifying fhe persons in general that hav«Thi quality denoted by the adjective T thus *^' Give to the poor ; The virtuous alone Lre happy timL uiedlffthr^ ^^^^/'^' T^ adjectives were some- .imes used in the singular : thus, in Shakespeare, For ever will I walk upon my knees, And never see day that the happy sees. (3) Many adjectives are used as nouns either in the singular or in the plural, to sigi^fy Arsons or a noble, the nobles, a brave (''Indian warrior"). « .^pvfnln^^'^'^"/' ^"^ adjective thut means belonging t» a certain country, or race, or sect, or party: thus an American the Americans, a Greek, a Lutheran a Sto'io the Asiatics, Medes and Persians ' '*'' An adjective denoting country or race also denotes the language of that country or race : thus, English is our mother-tongue ; He reads Chinese io *^p:utdrlxt;rtht: ^"^'^ «^-'-'sz the English, an Englishman ; the Dutch, the Dutchmen: Unldce classes (1) and (2), which are examnles of partial conversion (85), those under (3) (excepting the snb-class ending in a hiss-sound) Cing beef fully converted, often form plurals like ordin^y nouns of nouns'^ a«t "' """'"""'' "'"^ '^^ '^'^ ""^^^ the ups and downs, since then, from abroad. I. Adjectives. (1). Abstract nouns. (2). Plural nouns. (3). Sing, or pl. nouns. Kxceptions for euphony. II. Adverbs. 11 188 ^OUNS: ril.Infinitives and sorunds. 276. Ai IV. Any ex- pression used as sucli. with its meanint^. V. Various phrases. VT. Various noun-clauses. (1). Subject. (2). ObJ. olverb. (8). Subj. or compl. of infln. to be. He wants to leave ; He dared not Jeave ' th.^r'L'** i''*^""" ^?*^ «2«res and so on are like T.es^Lrrr«:/-.4'^&t*.r4e„... . ^' PHRASES. 278. Phrases may also be used as nouns : thus . To have attempted this would have been folly • After havtug gone so far, why stop ? ' ^; ;«.. o#ceis the best place to see him; ' ihe cat jumped from under the sofa. CLAUSES. 279. A clause, used with the value of a noun ,•« rtpldTrdT ^^^ ''' con^tl'tior^eo - respond to those of the noun. It may be used : U;. As subject of a verb: WhJ!^^^ *^®^ ^""^ '^ ""^^ *o *he point ; Whether you go or stay is of little account ; Ihat he IS already gone disappoints us. (2; . As object of a verb : I l^^^^J^ot what I shall do ; They saw that she was ill : We considered whether it would answer • 1 was taught that sueh conduct wa« dishonest. genLlt^^'f tU^ complement of an infinitive Do you believe what he says to be untrue? I^mTI ^ ^ T?^ *^ ^« *h^* you should go ; I intend what I am giving to satisfy you ; I expect It to prove what is needed. a ai ac aE (9 art J sid( ifinitive I verbs, :plaine(l noun, ith the fe like in the IS, un, IS 5 cor- tive OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS, 1«J9 (4). As predicate noun: The trouble is that he is too rash • Our hope is that he will yield to Necessity. (5) . In apposition : He derued the statemeni that he had failed ' (4). Pred. noun. (5). In apposition. relation to the dirtt nh^ f ^ ^^^?^^ ^"^J^^^^ thereto, in a thus, in iXs^.'^tiJzTc^^:' ^"^^ Consider the lilies ot the iield, liow they „,„». I see your father's face, that «'is not tS me: and m Shakespeare, T\\AJ 4. ^x. Conceal me what T am • D,d.st thou not mark the king, ,hat ^ords he spakef Where the meaning is Consider how the lilies of the field grow and so on. ' Consider the lilies in respect to their growth • (9? b^C: '" "^^^^ '''' *h« construction would fill under (6) . As object of a preposition : He traded with what capital he had ; i^ou err m that you think so ; . ^i*s. ^e any notion of why I did so ? She IS doing well except that she cannot sleep • He says nothing but what is true ^ ' ^^Noun-cIausesafter...presentsomediffieulties. Examples WeW, T , after but. wTZJi^^^^""^ ^f *^''^* y«" ^ere there ; vve would have done so ha that our means failed. ''without,''^A.Tf.tv^^^^^^^^ (6). Obj. of preposition. 190 yoUNS. M i (7). ObJ. of Interjection. (8). Nom. absolute. (9). Adj. or adv. with or without preposition. Analogous to the adverbial objective. equivalent to ^'""'' ">« o^amplea given are We would have done Z'Sina ou, ?"? ""h'f ?/ "'' «°»i"8: (or) the fkilure oVou/m^ei^" " ""' ""'"' ^uamU ''"' '"""""^'^ "'''''' ^' "" interjection (53 that he were here • (8). Occasionally, as a nominative absolute- That he did 80 being eoncedid "^ ^°" ^^^"^ *« ^^ ? conceded, are you any better off? (y;. As an adjective or an adverb- of that, is ofteuadirmrecHvwSf.t"'','''"''?'*''^ adverb or adjective, to a verb 'oraSiectivI "' "* "" where a noun would ro,^„il adjective or nonn, a« connective:™" exT;;^," ^"■'P''^'"''" '« Reused They insisted that he should stav • We cherish the hope that he willret.lrn • There IS no needthat she should be present • We are quite sorry that it is so^- ' ' He was afraid 'est he should fall ; while we should say neifof Z ^'' '^''^^"^ ' h«P« «f his return • need of her presence ; sorry for its being so • and so on with the rest. noZjt.::f:C'^t.^^*^'> '^on.trnetion "^ the iao..eir„roti^^1:-td^?rwferh:^^^^^ adSiaTobSilTfiVnis^'^"''''^""^ *"»''»'<'* 'he to some othTworf withot,'^ "' """" ?""'« ""^junct between them b^ng exptsd '' ''^" "^ *''* '"''''"<'» ^ OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS ts in this riven are there ; i coming; '< been ion (53 cient : .? off? rarely, nssion of an noun, e used the the unet tion Mr a ok:xsu. lu SUCH a sentence as constructions la whatever state I am, I am always content. The complete expression is Whatever state I am in, I am always content witU • or representing wAa^eyer sto^c by its eauiv«'«nf « -fu junctive pronoun, equivalent with a con- I am always content with any state in which I am thJ^So^i^f 1^, r Sr ^ ^^^"- ^ ^~ to suit In whatever state I am, I am always content with it ; form'arC^lTedr' *'' ^^-•^■P^-e .itk it gives the In like manner, ^ Whirevt r^ '*'".^^^t' ^^ «^"°°t «««ape; Wherever he may be, he will be happv ^ Whoever may say it, I shall not believe it • are equivalent to ' ^llTw'iUhThT *^ ''^^ """"y ^'^ "^'"■''^ h« may struggle • I Shan not b«l£P^ -rr^ ^^'^'^ ^'^ ^''^■^'^ he may bf . ' Shall not believe it from any person who may say it • with the connectives hy, in, and from expressed. forltSVprU'sitt^^^^^^^^ -Wch were a p.... that have now com*, f.. k1 i^ noun-clauses introduced by ^^'om-^ a as eon^rnrc?;r„r;sLnrsr?^^^^^^^^^^ ir'-»' «/<«-b,ehadgone, «<« he shall arrive; ^.j,* he coata it • while we may also say, ' after that he had gone, etc There is no one hut believes it : that is ' There is no one who does not believe it, J 1*2 J^OUNS. t (1). Direct narration. Construction uuchanged. (2). Indirect narration. Construction "iliacsed. DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION ASSBUTIVJS BKNTfiNCES ten'eVnay t'rjS'''''""^'' '" '^" "^-^ive sen- mi , 1AW18U , bhe has gone," he replied called rf/r^cf '" ""^ *^^ narration is also speeeh-are CobjS oT "vtb'of '^dt^^n"* '^ or eominaiiding (48) • bein^ n«„H ?i *r?""ff' asking, in par. 277, in the ^nT!f"tV '" ?^P'-««^i<">« -, with the meaniuS belo„'iL%n''^""" ^« """l differs, aK^h V"lhe t^^ir'^'T'r ^ »<^' "-erefore. to be the »»e : tr'/ taC X haf'stia'lo^.r. ^'""" She IS going," may be reported thus- ' '"^'a"™' He sa,s " 8he is going ■> , a„d He says she is going. as-i. Aud, further, as the sentences I go if I wish ; Shs has gone j become, when expressed indirectly He says (has said, or will say) that h. goes if he wishes • n„ -J / , "■"* «■»« has gone : vnsnes , He said (or had said) that hS went if he wished : these examples .show * """ ^'""' ' tilt' Wollootaf E^Xt^v "" "'""'"y '"foduced by generally omhtodl '''"''' ^'""''"'' ^^'> """.iuncfon is ^•'"'•'"•'es. questions c„„„„..,„„ or coramaiids may be expressed as eomiiiff indii-petlv efnemiiy IhlL ^""^'^'^ ^ different construction, except when there is an interrogative word and the order i^ the same as in the assertive sentence: thus, What do you say? Has he gone? Who has cone? Make him go ; Thou shall ^ ; God bless /ou? become, when expressed indirectly He commanded, etc., that you (should) make him go or vou He ^^^Zi^^J^Ztoi't^/^?^^ He prayed that God might bless'you, or God toCyou. These examples show (1). That indirect questions are introduced bvw/jei/i^r nr « Kin tTt"at"indtT^^'"^ "T^ "^ ^^- dirTct cfn' tC "^^^'' lion, ana that indirect commands, when expressed in the ^^''^^^o^^- 194 NOUNS. JM IfAi ' Eiceptional •ongtructions. General ruJes followed. Usafe of direct, somotUiies retained. Cases of ambitruity. How avoided. n, o for ir« . '^^'^' '1 *''^ .subordinate clauMes follow the rwlo for the «ef,nence of tenses already mven for as JwJv! Hentencea m indirect naiTation assertive would she ever forget it? When the re^ar forms would be, in direct narration, _ Do you hear them?" "Will you ever forget it f" or, m indirect, Paul asked Florence, in a whisoer, :<• „>,, heard them, and if she would ever'fo;.get il! '^' USES OF SHALL AND WLLL 284. When the subject of shall or ivill in the nvf^o^ form IS changed in the indirect, the genera iTles W the use of these auxiliaries are followed 2l( and 213^ lb retained ; thus, for example, we may say ^H« w^-/"*" **1^ ^^ 5 He says I will go ; lie asked Tom if he should be at home to-morrow 4 It the reported speaker said « ^ Tom ZLn'''' "'f ^ ^? [ ' *'*«" b« absent ; lom, «/m/^ you be at home to-morrow? fj J ?"^® ^'^ "'^^^^«t i^ either wav would somP times produce ambiguity; as, for instancrin " (1). You say you will go ; He writes me that I shall (o\ V, -J "® appointed ; (2) . You said you teauM go ; He wrote me that I should be appointed ; although emphasis in speaking or italic. n^V.f f'fiO^OUNS-CLASSKS. 195 IX. PRONOUNS. CLASSES. ACCORDING TO MEANING ^oijkv^/; (^'''^^^^^^^^^ .... use?aJ: To 7JZrZr "' ^n'; •"«^^' «'«i '^^ir them all-as Ts uot ihll ** Tv."*'"" "'"J describe speech. *■ ""^ *'^'' «'■'!' ""y other paa of PERSONAL PKONOUNS. thf/espI!|dl7'Z.k iff""""' T '" """^d because are quite diffe : ft ToX re'. m"Th?" *' ' ',''" "'"^'^ have no real possessive ,",«L I \ • ■'"''»''"'a'^ ; they is Quite a '»«) took H long wHik together. ne (Curuu ntns) livo i„ the WostenMIemisXe ; '^c CyoM uud /; 866 each other. ' In certain styles, w, ^^9, and the pronominal mlipo tives ..er .«.. are used by a single s peakrof hims d?" bo, especially by a soverei^ni ; as ""nstii. We, Victoria, Queen of Eugland ; also, by a writer, an editor, or a contributor to n periodical, who speaks as if he representc he ,• hc>le >ody of people concerned in editiuL' ov^Mnthu^t the publicatiou for which ho writes. '^''""*^"^"^^' ^" e O F^' ""^^ :«^' « dative, from another 8to.n, ,v place, down, and, as in Shakespea^rtheylrroTen ^Z^ Knock me at this gate a..d rnp me well ;" ' See how this river comes me cranking in' And cuts me, from the best of all my land A huge half-moon. ^ " In the Elizabethan period this ethical dative was o.^Pn « mere expletive, Hs value having become weakened! . 290. The singular of the second person, thou (hep s now confined to certain higher and more solemn «; poXy :X:;""' ""^' "^^^^^"^ "^ prayeT and Z O '-^""' "'«'"•- ouo c«,..,„':„j. With' 0,™,"';';,,,"''' '■'"••""■•"'" *" *'«'"« '" i" the „|„ al, eve 'tl o„M, "'V"''"'" '""'J'*'. «'«^ verb Like ^ """ '""'""" '** "ddi-essed. AiiH 'o «,« ij ''l'«^«io, ethical dative. Aud a would «...n«,e ^,„ H, piece a,., aud come ,„„ '", ana come you out. the'^S^r if'a^^^^^^^^^^^^ 1^^',|.^^« r-«' -ed in ..o.,.,,, things addresHed: thus! fo^' eL^^^^^^^^ '" ^^^^'«^"« «'' i^^-^' Othou to vvhom all creatures bow How mighty is thy name I ' ^ou, James, come here f wh,ch .., „,ai„tai.ed in the authttreS^Tf t'S : -" - " I do beseech y., if you bear aie hard ^^'^''^^tZ^^^ttX^^^'^^^^ and Oh. however, remained " moaTt e ' ^'^'^'■*'''- ^"^ '''"K"'*'". used to some extent amono^ti"" "^"^^O' ""^ ™s 'iends, by super ors to ?„t!>r or. """7 "'"'^"^ 'o™''''' anger towards strangers iTJ.' n "** '," contempt or among friends, and flnallv w ',"'• /'*"■"' ™'* "sed singular, havjng become arcl^^'' ""^T"''^' ""d "«' poets. Probably this ^'^'^Z' ^Z^^^^;'^^ ( 198 PRONOUNS. iii Explai)fttion of siliuular reference of you : And of its displaca- meut of ye. (3). Demon- sti'ative use of . ersonal prouoans. General char acteristies. Declension. men.'inXkZ'^'Irr'' T ".' "'"'•« ™POrtanee than a direct ™S:- add^e^tht T '^''' /'" '" ''«'"«>'» Modern Gcrma., the f ht,l -''e singular ; just as, in use the seZd .md i IT'™ .p'"™' ''^ "'"<' where we third person s used fo" bo h he'T T'!? ?^ '""tation, the ^9«o\ 4^u e ^^i'^u hpeecn. As lias been nointpd mif Ws^musVr^aLZ'teT T' '''■""-'^ --'o-dedf but' inflectional distin"S^sanTa°ndt„*tr™' T'""'''™'' "' whi,.h, after inflectZs "d ^Te„ di^LTtj ",' "™"^ form for both nominative and oblectiv^'^'^ ' ^°^ "" '»"" tJ^o?;i^o=t^a=;'Tnsrs::^i;V:r^^^^ Nor you, »« pipud (adj. as uouu) impLte, ete ' rurrcet? iwzUiv-rtt p"= - THE DEMONSTEATIVE OP THE THIRD PEKSON. ,, Jd^^f^v^''*' pronouns he, she, it and iliey, which are nsed for anything spoken of, are, stricti; soeakinr What is fte at the gate ? TAey of France ; also, at present, in formal statements : thus, ' He who is not for me is against me. foUows:^^' ''''"^^'*' declension of the pronoun i« as Masc. ^^Fem^^" Neuter. Plubau Norn. he she it ♦v. OV- Wm her !t' '^ ^ As m the case of my, mine, etc., the forms his her l>ers. Us, their, and theirs are here vaS 1' tZl uomiiiai aUgeetives. --• f'"- CLASSES. 36 than a be a less st as, in where we ation, the nd. The assimila- ace-stress inted out ded; but ience of of nouns :he same esembles 3, in o fail ; ng: the ms. ON. ich are mkingr, point- rative ure of loderri 1 la as , her, he, she. obj^f ts^a'n V^'Z^^i:^ ^"- both dir. and inUin Hi.o.on.. her. The t in it, .£ hit ]\vf \^1: ■''''' !^^ *''^ "le obj. "he.u.et.. the Latin d in qrod%ua 1-) '" '''*''' '''"^ ^''«^' ^"'i ^7.. is from ^^the fe m of thJ i' ^^\«"«« ^"euter ending. . fern. ..0, neut; /L ; Id repfa "n'/'V'" 'V^' ?^^««- ^^' the fem. of he, (thus masl t } i^'''' '"^' ^^^^^ ^^^ from which /..rha^ been formed rt''' ^?S'"''^ ^"^ once the plural of the OP T P^^ ^^^ ^^'^'^ were early part of hfsxteentfV.T''"'*^^^^^^^ ^^^^- ^^ ^he probably, the mod. W as if fnrn'^ T .^"^ ''^"^ ^^^"^e, ing the O.E. /Jor Lr wW^^^^^ displaced. ' ^^^^ ^he demonstrative ^Aew persons may^'incM; h' setr'^Bv ^h""'^'' 1 in whicMh^mffZ.t''nf^''''''' evidently have sex, or and especi?u/lf i~lrg" t-'P-'^^"* "atter, ' those wiirZLi' rr'^'f? «l'J''«t«-that is, in sTea\^';£^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ofalhip,* t X. " '"• "'"^ ''^ '""^ '»-'. - «'e earth! are\? Jotf "'"' '•"""'P'"^ "«" «^™r„ personiac'ation ph„,.,„„ are regarded as male; for example' ''•""''y' " sublimity, death, war, the sun, the ocean, Jinter, anger, heaven. or^L'n'ii^-jr^rXTafelte^^^^ care, are regarded as female, for exa^Te °' n«h. nature, the earth, spring, hope, virt'ue, poetry, art. cat\oL?ihi:: rt'Te' d.r'"" "'"r"""^ »" p---"- re^arded ar,;.l„ . ", ":*:...,?'"^"'r'U. ^^^? and Time are of Personi- fication. 200 ■jrf ill PEoyouys. U, use-- definite ot lor T-'t^."'' *"T ™^ not^e^ene'etX^nurer of»,e"T„tti!l„ J ni-st this may have been "a book ofxThe' a^llo^Tf'^^af 'Z-tmrr''*''"-^''^' "".'"""' and (2) tLt ?hf ^^! ^f O.E. and the French possessive, expiaunJnp- ana \^) tnat the double possessive is apnositivP^2«Pi T'^lT COMPOUND PRONOUNS OP THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS. oif^A* "^^^ "^'"'^^ ^"^^f ^«i"^) and selves (plur ) are added omy,..er, tJ^y , your, Mm, her, it, and^Am, W ing a class of compound pronouns of the first, second and tJiird person,, .inch have two principal us^sT' Vi;. 10 mark empMsts, usually along with a noun ohi.f or another pronoun : thus, ^ ?^!t'''^^' I rr^svij or me mystlf; none but herself- ^^*"*'' ^e (or, James) was /iwweZ/ present. ' III i |1 i 204 PRONOUNS. (2). Reflexive ¥ i Simple pronoun used reflexively. History of compounds of self. f: %m Emphatic and reliexive phrases with own. T s used, they are eullod emphatic i^^vmimX pronouns Aiid tiiese compouiuLs have so far nss uned he character of eniphatic personal pronouns tlmt 1 } and ///y.v.7/ are occasionally found in the more elected ot the veib in the hi-st and the second person ; thus Myself am Naples ; TJiysclf art God. (158) ; tut '''•^^'^''' ''^•'''^ ^^ ^ ^'"^ ^^ ^ preposition I dress myself; You will hurt yourself (or ymirselve^) • He IS anxxous about l^nself; He is on goo^d termCSS W. Thus used they are calk d reflexive personal pronouns 0^.r.,,?/and 2^o.ir.d/ denote a single person -^^^S", and yourselves, more than one. own9e^t;es So too the simple pronoun is somr-^'mes usprl reflexively in old-style literature (125 [l]) ; thus T rin ,.^^^® went and sat her down over against him • ' I do repent me; He laid Mm down; Stan^d thee.^^, then. r. 7^ 'J^.^^;^V*'^-^("«^'f") was an adjective- thus aL I (py)«e]f "; min selfes, - of me (mvSf 5' Ito .' le m4 self, th self, h6 him self, w6 ti^ selfe. ye eow selfe, hi /mw selfe. In the course of time, while se7/ was used with the dative of pronouns of the third person (thus, MmseJfXr^elfUeW m the case of the other personal pronouns it wTs trel ed as a noun modified by a possessive adjective tims? J.e / and tL7if) anH' "^"'^ ""^ ^'^' '''^^ thatis':;.:/:"d l^y'^W, and, by analogy y^s seZ/andf'ow self, became 0^^//" when^"?;t ""T" ^ ''' ^^^* ^^^^^ ?^ *h^ Sixteenth ceS/ wnen self was valued as a noun (thus for Pvnmr.in ' man's better self^) and the origin nfi. example, a foro-offPTi fi.« J / ciua ine origin ot its compounds was lorgotten, the plurals conformed to the e-eneral vhIp fnt.+iV^ formation of noun-plurals in -If (248 [l]^. 304. Besides the forms under par. 302, (1) and (2) we find 0..^. (which is etymologically d^, the p P of the O.E. dgan, "to possess" [185]), in the emnhnt?p iise, or in a use which is both e^hatic LTreT^^^^^^^^^ He came unto his own and his own received him not. • CLASSED 2«5 ronouiis. iiied the it myadf elevated subjects : thus, position himself. onoiins. urselves is used lUS, then. ^ : thus, '," etc.; tnetimes n, gave ative of itself), iated as ielf and 'If and our self ientury )le, "a ids was for the ad(2) ).p. of phatic ctive : And Bometimes selfm added for greater emphasis: I w,ll do it my own self, Who his own self bare our sin,. •THB« DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS Sing, this and that; pi. these and those • M« were originally neuter In M 'l^f 'i. '".-"r* '*"' »»<• another pi., (liw and /*!. tl^ fl?'^''' EnglKsh, tAis had Mod.pl.?«J wWletheni ^^t'"' »' ^H'"*; S,»™ "»« the pi. of ««;owin^o colln witr.ir'''''"'' "' "^'' to Z!; liLlT^*" contrasted, <«« and these are nned ti«., I7« is right ; au,, is wrong ; Take Ikis and give me mi; anTaTX'^H '' ""f," equivalent to "the latter" ana t/iat CO the former": thus Reason raise o'er instinct as you can In th^s, 'tis God directs ; in tC, 'tis man wfth %felt- ^ in" th^'^^'.f *'^ ^^*^ '^' ''^'^ a^d even by some gesture ; thus, ^ distinguished J7.^. book IS well bound, but this one needs rebinding He tool. ""^ "'^^7^" ' ^^'«^ ^« ^e C grod'sLr^'^' ' He took n^o care of his life ; he knew tins TovtMffL l.« .„f. . W^ 1 ^" T Y^ ^^^ '^*^ "^^ l~that is the question •" ' ' He learned tins at least, to bear up agaS'Sortune. I 1 ^1^^ 206 ^3). For the aemonstrji- tlve of the third i>er8on PRONOUNS. (i). With » phrase or a clause, for a noun. ^y ^ .«c worn^ fr^ 1 • V, , instead of «V •onoun relates. Thus we ?nnT ^^''' , conjunctive ^xevated style, ^ '"""^ ^^^' ^^ the foi-mal or -^^ whom you saw; Dut we must say in all styles, ^ T/m< (not /O which you saw, the person, ^tcjThellT^LTl^''\^^' ^^'«^««^' are not now felt to h«vf ' . ^^.^^^^^^ the pronouns force for such uses. ^ sufficient demonstrative nout^or^tun-pVat'wh^^^ '^ P^«- of a be repeated along with a IrlT^"^ ''^}''^''' ^^^« *« It: thus. ^ "^^ ^ P^^^«« or clause describing (5). For an emphatic subject. Natur© and uses of so and such. My horse (or, my horse and buggy) and thnf ( . -.. W. . neighbor • ^' ^°°* '^>> «* ^y ^^ (5). Sometime, these is ''"^•™'™'l'«rePet'tion. the no«on expressed Zl 'tKl^rS' f^^ttl' ^ He said *o; He told me .so- s «o ^vS^*'' ^"'"^ -'-^ •'^^-• the nominative aud ob "etivf ,\ ''«T".^*™«-« *» ■neinded among the indefin7ti w ""f "^ • " '« ""en Examples of itfnse as a pron^unar? '" '*' "^'''^'°^- «««» as you cannot ,„ecoed; I cannot »„* ,„ . '"» octvre as ae. CLASSES. m stead of it onjunctive foi-mal or 'e prefer, e woman , pronouns 'ustrative ace of a have to ascribing of my •ad (or, rse and le repe- etition. atieally thus, tese 'evh, is icfes as efore. ve in often ning. le. i^^aZlZf}': ^^^f./^-j;- •'"•^'^^' Goth, s^va-hiksj 18 equivalent to so-hke, thus aeeounting for the tendency to form the compound meh-like t was originally followed by whichr which means ''who like- or what-hke" [3091), and we find this cortnietL m older English: thus, in Shakespeare! '"""'^'""^'^^ There rooted between them such an affection lohich cannot choose but branch now ; but present usage has established as. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. wmcn Iheir office is to ask a question, or to mark an interrogative sentence; and their usual place Ts as n^ear as possible to the beginning of the'^Sencef Wh^.i. f^'^ comes here? W'Aaf does he want? Which of us does he seek ? Whom are you looking for f Whether once an interrogative pronoun is not ofTwo "'o^f ^* f- T T^^^^« ^"r -i^ich 01^' thus ' ^ ' ^^^ reference is to two: RTi. F'^^^/!'> ^'■eater, the gift or the altar? Whether of them twain did the will of his father? 309. \Vho is used, without any change of form both as singular and as plural. ' Ithas, however, three case-forms: nom., tvho: poss tvhose; obj., tvhom. * ^ ' Which and what are uninfleeted, and are used onlv or nlZr*'?'.^-''^ objectives ; ivhich is either singular or plural ; tvhat is only singular. -wr5w?f;'tw1^r'5r^^/^^^^-)' «« that it means who-like or what-hke." It once related to persons and has displaced the old-fashioned whether, ' suffi^tllnV^'^'"''""^ *^'' '''^*'' ^^ ''^''^ ^' ^^^"^ *h« °«^t«r Tr/.ose-f a'«^ in thet::se''o7!S • th„^ ^""^"""^^ "--^ ""-rbi'ally W-;,a< need we wine when'we have Nilus to drink off fr;r?ri~plru;.^r^7:;;r:' >««'^^^^ *»» n,ake itr With anyeM'ta°r4rCl/u2^ H^?""^"' CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS and -i/o^S&ttSr''^^' '"^^ '*• «'*«^ way that is called ^'co.Hnn?H, I'! T ? "" "^^-l « a and, when so used tW ^ ^°'" relative"): CUSSES. I ^Jie nnalofry le -m in whom I <«istincrion «l«e ill the is used of everything ate thiiifrs; ?s. WMch selective : or body of )iie is to })e te. Thus, tr* we do ifc'ent; but w certain must have tvhat and H7i^. ,i hence they are called definite conmnctiveT)^^^^^^ ^ or another pronoun in the samHenSe fchT as 1 generally stands first, is called t^e'a/jfec^^^^^^^ and its antecede^L'S tl 'be'lV'.^r^^l^? this relation is of a peculiar kiml ''^^\f'^"^f- But introduces a separate d^se Lnd io^ns TiZ''''' adjectively to the antecedent in the wlvo? .^^ -f I'''' or description (23) with a v r Pf v 5 ? • '"i'''^*'^" which we will take Cwhen we d^^'il T'^^^ clause. Examples are '"' *^'^ adjective The man that was sick is now well • T r.r.r^A.f'^'' "'^'*'''* ^h'^es above is golden - I notified the constable, who arrested^h m at once • He struck me icho had done so much Sr him ' cJjtT ''Y ^^^* ^'""^'^y ^5« fearlessly . Can I believe kis love will in«f;»^ ,..„.! ^ ' ^Ho has no reverence for the God^Hovel^OOCl]). The modem KtniKgle between thatt niul who and which. Definitions of conjunctive, wntecedent, correlative i I 210 "Conjmif. RelttHve." PRONOUNS. ConJunctlcu wforo the conjunctive. '•'rif?r«'f ™";- ^y .ifHcnptiv,. of ti,;:,;r ti,;„ may be de^J^Z'^'MZlP"'^ '•^■'''""""' ^'"•"«. Ski A, K n i.'i Conjunctive wpeated. Conjunctive Sroverns the person of the verb. Uses of conjunctives: V>ho. HI i WW ' III B ! word ; ccmj'Ill,-:^^^^ .i^" \ " *"""«•''">^' example, ^'' '"^^ ^^ «»« o^' to more than one The ho <1 //,a/ wears fl,e crown • ur , . "•"" W^W o"Jr''-f;r' *'- "<" folio. « ,„.,,,„. , Yet, if the eonj„„,ti' " / ' "■■ ^''"'" *'"'(■ stands apart from iJ J./ ".iJ*"" of a prenositio,, one of the otherdefimte Z"'' T*' ^"iierS „" thus, either '''*' <^0Bju,ictives may be used but only •^' '^''° '«""' «•*«'' I toM you „/,. SIS C!„ '^'■^ ''°°* "/""»« I told you eZv "'^" '^^ -"^^ Srihtr t If „ ""'"1^'^%^^:--"^^ were, eft; , But although the dkZT """"'■ ■ be^t English Ssage bf„'o'''Z ^T'" "« "«eful, the "i^aT^h"'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ "^'""•*^ ^*' -liiere are, however oerffli,. .«beused audnJtSTS/" ^'''«'> *' ^-i>'- When there ova f. expressing both persons an dfi,"'' ""^^ antecedents <*«<, not «,*„ or ImT in "^- '^^''^' "'e use . (2). me:xTsror/;^""'^™^°'"*^-- •n doubt whether :%;';* «;;«*>A wonld leave „s Merely descriptive .- tlms 1" "'" *' ""''""^ ^ -.houid':;?;::^^*''-' -?'"-'«" tow., ""«*€»■ by the eonjuncU;eXse ""' "''^ *" '^"^'^ CLASSES. 213 ■ ; it may bo 'ing: both to ■e than one. hat sleep ; « preposi. the town from that. 'I'epositiou 3r ^/i«i! or be used; d you of; honid be hiis, foi fwl, the orts it, 'edents ve use ive us ingror lefine of in adt'etrv:^ht' "'"' ^"^'^^ superlative degree This is all (or all the money) that I can give you; It was the only thing that I could do : ' Who -'''«* tne antecedent is already clearly dtined- that is it should not f^M not r' T^.V^ H.4ngclau;es''^V:;ce "^^^^• It shou.d not be used after proper names, and such other nouns or noun-phrases as have already a clearly defined reference : thus, ^ ^ ^icuuy He received it from my father, ivho went away. seelto^hpn?''' *\' ''^''*^^^ ^^ *^^ conjunctive rXr th.n of ^''''"* ^ n"'*^^^^ ^* ^"P^^^^y «r taste Tennysonf ' '" "' ^ descriptive clause : thus, in When I that knew h'm iierce and turbulent. Ketused her to him. CONDENSED CONJUNCTIVES. that It has not .isually an antecedent expressed -™5-»- in the sentence and, therefore, lacks their definite^ss "'°'"""'™ of reference. In its ordinary use it imnlie* wt antecedent and conjunctive ,\hat' is i7 ne^^y equiyalent to that i^Mch (that demonstra ive a d whwh conjunctive), and, consequently, it a'lwa .. J ? . Jit 1.< '4 .a 'I 214 What, with a correlative. PRONOUNS. TTiat and wlio, as condensed conjunctives. o^n^^%^?^T •"'"V« '"*<" is often „„ A der EnD-],-c.i. „.„ ^ , "txaein. '^o. which, what, as Indefinite 'conjunctives and Subor- tlmate Inter- rogatives. mmm' i . In older Englisi, we fl ^ *''"^'"'- ™ . thus, for example ' ""ndensed con- We speak t)Mt we do knnw'„ a . ^"0 ako is . condensed r ' '*"' "" ""^ -»• '-'-ast,etj:e;::,:!r.T:rr™^''"""^'™<='- ">•'. - this use, it is arehai; o c iT,!"^'';'^'''^'™*' 320. But thet^ ill ^™°«'"«*™ ™tekroo^,„,, ,<^-fly in obiect^e",:.r •' l"','"'!^". «nd -C regarded as tJ.e equiva^t'f /''"''? ^^^^' cannot be antecedent. For exam l„ **. eonjnnetive with an sentences as '"'"'P'*'' ^^ do not feel that such We well know who dirt it ..j , people blamed, an^.^ro? £7^^/^!^ ^^^^ -'-- -e equivalent fo ^^°^'^^' '''''' ^^ -Stf ^^^ »^^-e; We well know ^/..^,,,,,,,,^ J*f has the se "^^ On which tive), are known as simvTfnJ^}^%^^ ^'^ interroga This use resembles thlf V .^^^^^^^^ conjunetivf s ".^direct questions (283) ''solh?^ '"^^^ Pronouns Tn ^distinguish the uses rhv r^ ^^- '^ '^ ^^<^en difficult Jo iiiterrogatives in sulmr.J!! . ^ ,"^^^' ^^^ valued as example, in "" s«l>ordinate clauses): thus for We weil know who did it, etc., CLASSES. 215 "sed as an ' ^^ the other » ae ative of an acipal clause holily; leth. demonstra- liensed con- ive seen. -lections as ^als trash ; ^ OGATIVES. innot be with an fiat such d ?<;7/ow lame ; 1 which erroga- letives. nns in cult to netion led as 3, for I be valued as the the subordinate clauses should indirect form of the question : fFho did it, and whose fault was it, and whom did people blame, and which of them most deserved blame ? if we know that a question has been asked. For distinction's sake, the pronoun in the indirect question is called a subordinate interrogative. 321. In indirect questions the interrogative pro- nouns are necessarily indefinite, but not all subordinate clauses containing simple indefinite conjunctives are necessarily indirect questions. This indefinite use of who, tvhich, and ivhat is the direct result of their interrogative origin, and causes their resemblance to the pronouns of the same form in indirect questions. Only those clauses should, of necessity, be treated as indirect questions which are associated with some verb, or noun, of inquiry, and which are, as it were, the echo of an inquiry : thus, for example, He asked me who did it, whose fault it was, etc. COMPOUND INDEFINITE CONJUNCTIVES. 322, When the reference of ivho, ivJiich, ivhat, is to be of still more indefinite character than in the simple or the condensed indefinite conjunctives, we use the compounds whoever, tvhafever, whichever, who- soever, etc.; and, in old style, tvhoso; the meaning of the conjunctive being generalized by -ever, -soever, and so: thus, Whoever did it ought to be ashamed ; He will give you whichever you want ; They overthrow whatever opposes them. These words are called compound indefinite con- junctives. Sometimes, in older English (as with ivhat [2191), a correlative is expressed : thus, Whoever so doeth, he erreth in the belief. The forms in -so and -soever are nearly obsolete. They occur frequently in older English and in the Bible: thus, Whoso Ulggeth a pit shall fall therein ; Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted. Siibordlnate iuterrogativea. Origin of iudeiiniteuse. Indirect questior . Forms in -ever. Forms in -soever, -ao. Pi * If '.^ i-fi'i im. h^' '\ \ ' kVKKM 1 ^l^^^^l v'j&^^l 2i6 fi! VA ■f ' I If il C'onJunctlvea not used. Preposition or preposition and conjunc- tive not used. Conjunctive siiljject not used. Historical expIanatioD. PRONOUNS. The addition oF o * ~ — — l"" we fl«d in Spea™ ,'" ""^ ""'«■• form ,!,«„ „„,„ ,, ,^^. ^/V, ,^ . ^ ^''''^^' ™ responsible. «;;d i« a eo„Ct"m fo™'T,,f "•''"''^ '"" know it " 827. The ,f ""'"'"' ""'"™"°™- derivation to ,rt» and »*„ ^'^ '«**••. a™ related if^ eQn";S7' n'* ''e;te;e"LroV;r '^""^•»-«- tW t ^* *^ ^''^'^^^ and which Zti ^^^^^ ^ords, or You see the place ,rWW-.u. ,. ^ You see whe,., (UaeY^?^''' ^'^'^ ^^ stands - -^nd the same ^ff,i^rr. ^ r'"^^^-) he standi. ''^' ''■ '''^^ «^« adverbial conjfinrtiot ""'"'"'^"^'^'y' «- ,-a J^ 'It'tJ^J'^^: ^'^^^ ^''^^'h-. under between the rei pronm nso,? ./"^*'™«*«te PosS and a^ectives on the o£ m ""'' '""'d and nouns *'" '^^ - '"^ieate a VISKf.ST.f -y.-«---s=^ CLASSES. 219 mean 'and sible. 8'ative verb ient to that know it ^* laii hut he ' find such ^c^, why, 'elated by njnnetive ^^ords, or ^ns; and 'lite and is only tands J >unds of f^ hereby, by the are the 3tively ; under words ^ay in louns. ■ they, >sition nouns nally, any means "one of a number," but which is not indicated; the reference of the pronoun is lef "m' ThP^'^^ii^'-^^'^f-"^^^- T^ this'^class belong ' (1). The distributives each, either, and ufither fn n, These pronouns refer to objects, not as a colleo on *^^-^^'-. but as taken separately. The v are tLrpfntr » strued, with the singular: tliusf *^^^^^«^«' ««^- Each (Either, or Neither) of the men (or women^ expects that he (or she) can succeed. ' ^^Peets Each distributes two or mnvt^ fVio« + i, ^ (2). The mdefinites of number and auantitv «,,.., «««^A«. These words are construed with the siiKrnlar ""'''""■"'"'■ or the plural according to their meaning some bein^ smguar only; some plurals only; and' others both 47y |u^tlt^f<'a;^^n„=^;T^^ ^ early Modern English, it is often singuTar : thus ' If my of you lack wisdom, let him ask God ' mZ'tr^ ^^""^ "' '"^-^ "°'»-^' "-^has two the^rp=lTro= ^itSflts^^i^^rr :J clearness of reference : thus, directness, or One may just hesitate to believe your statement. Consequently, using one in the same sense, we say On. may just state that one (not he) doesn% etc • COnJLctS'T^f f^^ *^ *^^^^ P^^*«^- i^ all Con^rnc- ouiih II actions, thus, for example, tionsofo«« On. of them (or t.., or you) always Zm.e. /,i. books on the table ; but, in the case of some, which is plural when it refers 220 lif ^i( II if ;|t ! i nont. (3). Com- pound indefinites. (4). The comparative 'Other. (5). Recipro- cal pronoun phrases. PRONODM. to number according Som always leave their He to]d scne oT ff LT"" °" '"^ '"W'"; "■°" '" ""''' :nTr''"a„tr;''^i::^,^nf:j^-. «o.e. ^« <„, ^t in the .e„.e'o. '''Llfe"'l IhuTin'SlVlr "^ '^""^ ""« '"e brave dese^esth; fair °' i^^l^sSKtll:^^^^^^^^^ "not an.,.a„, but singular when useaotZZtif- TifuT'' '"'"•'"'^' Perhaps n«« „, „„, Governle 1 , '^ *''"'' something, somebody, "to ' ^ *'"'^-' *°^'. ««»««»^, incfS,tr"^^- «^-i„, ,, ,„re than two and o/| ^SZ^t^i^^^'^^er Onaceonnt scholars (307). ^' ^^^ ^® Placed here by some betn ^Jfr SS "''" ""^ « --™'. - « still n..y t-^^proca^or " m ituaP ' Z, «'"''*^'-. „^Weh have a pronoun phrases, and are n?eH « ™* '■""'' ''^'^OCa/ really »„^ fond of another''. 1 a ",;,/*"' e'tample, »'**'•" -s " They love *„/,.?i..^hey love each "'■■ """"' "■"«/ os/*«r," each CLASSES. ml (117)^ (or our, heir (or 'O leave '^w •■ inflection, n," a of ««■* (305). '""■"' '« «t>'"ologieally the pCu During" the Oh] P i- i the other indefinite. Before !.?"•' ^"^ ^^^"^^0 and the haT'di ^'"^"^' however ;, 't^T^ "*' ^^'^ ^^'^-n 5^1 '^'-'^^PP^ared, except fl ""^ adjective inflection Siiakespeare, Iiov^ever has ll '''!;'^ ^^^ ''^^'^'^ 'injrl MosT used as au mdeflnite pronoun ' '"" *''"■ »'' »« ««- here CLASSES. 332 P ^'^°°''^'N« TO MEAOTNa. ■ lite no„nrTnd*'';err,''te"'°''^ "* "^'^''^^^-S which separate and treat by 'them elvr"'''^''?' ^^ ''"vfo Inmted classes; muih pZnnJT^?"' '^P""'"' and adjectijes related to pvonZn^ J/"" «d,,ectives, or tives of number; and toeart/^'.o""'"/''^'*' O'' adjee- speeial classes, the general ma^i f.P'-"'' from there conveniently call ad ective? „f * ad,,ectives we may mder the term not o r - •-?""''^3'' in«l«din^ express a^jcctivefs that CLASSES. 223 'griish (as reek, for renoe of xceptioiis t which, 'I'oin 01(1 >», not ii »e plural 3re fuJjjr 1 ^render, an," for tat gfood Modern and the Modern » flection 1 t?iose. ST in the (dder is ^i, here V'hieh, ve to 1 and 's, or idjee- these may iding press as itnLh ^' ^"'^7.' ^^'^ortous hnt proper adjectives, nuant ?v ; W^ ^'^ ^"^, ^^IJ^'^tives that express ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY. REGULAR COMPARISON. ?af^n\lfT^ a(ljectives of quality have a variation of for whieh IS sometimes valued as an infleetion, but which IS really a matter of derivation (107); for in olmL^"^ ' ''!'*' *?'''"^ ''''''' ^^'^'I'^'^^^l with full gender, case, and number inflections (331) ^ The word larger in "a larger book,'" and in of r rnmn^.'Jf- ^""i^ l^^ks larger," is 'said to he of the comparative degree ; and, by means of this degree we show that a thing exceeds another thiml. or itse f under other cii-cumstances, in the degree Tn which It possesses a certain quality The word largest in the phrase "the largest book " IS said to be of the superlative degree (superlative means surpassing" or "exceeding") and v means of this degree, we show that, amcmg a v number of things (more than two) confp red o o exceeds any of the rest in the degree in which it pos- sesses a certain quality. ^^^ said^tnTI"^ f'T' "' ^l". J'^"^'^' *^ J^^-ff^ book," is said to be of the positive degree (positive means stating simply, without modification' ) , whidiT thus, the adjective in its simplest form ' And this change of form, by the addition of the undetl7 ^"^'fi: ""f'^ ^''^"^ ^^]^^ti^.. of qual ty iTv.. \- •T * ^^'^^ describe, when compared with other objects possessing the same quality, is called suffix comparison. ^' ^^ 334. Many adjectives which denote qualities having diffei^nces in degree, but which are not compared by the suffixes er and est, have these differences expressed by adverbs. And, especially, the addufon ... „,.,„, „„^.„ makes adjective plirases which have the same meanings as the comparative and the Pompftr' - a tiiutier o^ derivatioo (1). Com- parative. (2). Super- lative. (3). Positive. Suffix comparison. Phrasal coiuparison with more aud moat. 1 I 234 ^liJLcrnEs. A' pnriisHl couipurisoD. 'f History ^>)- Of suffix comparison. 336 Bv ,?"'"""""' ''^"'■'•"""'■"'''■'-t. and speakers prefe, to fy Hiifflxes ' of an fher". nd, as s -ma ♦I .^,37. Phrasal comparison did not show itsc^lf nntil the h.rt..entlM.,.nlury, and is probably due to the extension '.f i\w ISO ot more ani«h comparative, are not eonstr, ^ """"^ ^<''* to be Examples are constuud as comparatives. (2) aT"' '""'T' '"'""'""' """'"'■ "«-'»- ««age-has th^s reswfa^ ^"^^^^ ""««' ^hich 342 m V°7"' '"""' "P"*'' ""o-' ■•■»-. partly -onthdrmS','^'" ^' ""'"P^^d "lepends ditions hardly adTit o/'aSrere^o?"!""*'^ ^ -"" compared: thus, ' ^''^ ^^^y "lay then be *^^ ^'^^^^^ among ten thousand. .^;.t'; m'v^''"^::'^^^ superlatives ..,^,,. „„. CLASSES. 227 de^fl'l^n^VJ ^Vyf'^i ^^"^P^^i^o" «hall be used .««. aepenus chiefly upon the form. Most adiectives of ^""'P«rison. one syllable admit of suffix comparison: thus ' "''"^• short shorter shortebt fit fiff^^ L. ^ dry drier driest e^ Z^r e'oyetj but comparatively few of two syllables (generally those in very frequent use) . Examples are ^^""^"^^'^^ sincere smcerer sincerest clever nl^vov^^ i and of three syllables almost none mo?orvIh!i?«n.V"^'r'^' ^^ purely English origin, Qeneralrule. monosyllables and easily pronounced dissyllables add -er and -est; bivt there is no inflexible rui[e and much depends upon pleasantness of sound and the desire for vai lety of expression or some rhetorical effect Thus for example, we find: ' the imviensest quantity of thrashing; the wonderfuUest liftlA shoes; more odd, strange, and yet fami] ar -Saokfr^^^^^ eS''t'e;fchi:'n-''^^' --"^"^'^-^^ ^Peeraclesftherarp': est, huest chiselling, and patientest fusing.— Ruskin. addltfon1)f tt%nffi"'^^'? ^^''^^^'. ^'^''^ «h«^' the Changes 1„ aadition ot the suffixes of comparison usually makes T'""^' t'ime'. t^'""^ syllable The addition is also some- ^^^^^ ^mes accompanied with modifications in spelling These modifications are as follows : *P«umg. (1). Final e mute is dropped: thus, abler, ablest ; handsomer, handsomest. inflfl- ^w^-l'' P'^^^^^^,^ ^y a consonant, is changed pkce!'thus, "" ^''''^''' "^ ^^^^^^^ t^^es happier, harpiest ; but, shy, shyer ; gayer, gayest. vowPl^•«^J^n'5T''^''^?''^''^^'^ ^^ ^ ^h^^-t stressed vowel IS doubled to maintain the quantity, and final aZZd iL"" """"'"'"''^ "^"'^ '' also'^^ometimes red, redder, reddest ; cruel, crueller, cruellest. IRREGULAR COMPAKlSOI-f. « ^**' ^J^"^ a«JJectives are irregularly compared Some of them »ero .o in Old Knglishf and Xrs % 228 ADJECTIVES. If iiii List of jcljectives inegiilarly conipaz-ed. better, best. less, least. worser, lesser, more. elder, eldest ; older, oldest. l>etter ^^^^ worse (rarely, worser) worst less (sometimes, lesser) least lite?]!^^' oldest, eldest later, latter latest, last latter, last; later, latest. near. mL:'""" '^'"'""' '"'■ '^■'^y ""'y be classified as (1). good bad, or ill little much, many old ^ late nigh „ ,, , , ^ ~ "»«uesL, next Xe.ss and least<0. E. fessa and hesest • 7.;./ ^7n r n \ i • mutation forms from thp ^f^m /lo u- , -^ . ^1]); bein^ that of Uttle<0 T iZ Thl ' ""'^''^^ ■' ^^^^^^"^ ^^oni ?/«/..^ occasio^ia ly appet fo^ rl^T^^T'^r^ ^'"^^^' ^"^ owin. to the mistaLnSni^JhlJlS ^^l^l ^^^^^^ riie forms tvwser and ?mer we owe to thp f..f fi and Zess, not beino- pnnir.«v.of,- T , ^ *'^^^ *^^^t ivwse by analogy, been mTde to ?n f '^^" T"^^ ^^P^' ^^^^^^^ English S.uHIl rSedV r^e^i '''thf E '^ f '• in this use. *^ ' ' ^ne U.E. positive ™f ;r;"S-a''dj::f?:'e[yt\,i?: 5'';7\""'/^^<0- E. adv. -&Wer and eldest (formed by mutntion .- h. ■ • ■ „ preceded the suffix thus OF .^S' ^•^^^»^, originally are the old formr They a;e ^sed of'r^' ^^^^«<^«?^-^>«^ not now used with ^I^^i^^^^^n?lost^"^'o?1i;' -"^^ ^^^ parative force; older and r./XT^ i. .i '^^, ^^^'^ <^oni- and construction : thus ^^"^^ **'^ ""^"^^^ "^^^^"ng " my eldest son ; My son is older tMn you (or his sister) . Latter and 1nst<0. E. 7a#os/ r7n r^^^ express position in a tpr/il ; . '^ '1 ^""^ "^^ "^^d to time: thus, ^^' ^^^''' ^"^ ^«^^^^' to express This is the ?«f.., news j for it is on the last page. oriS'ctp r^IoTtaVS^^"-^^^^^ ^^ ->'^'- - tliat the first an adverb n Mod S )*"?'' ''''^'' ^^'^^'^ ^^'^^ ^^^ iV^^«m>^ now denotes snaoP^nv 7f^ ''''''''' ''^''^^ ^^«''^«'^- position: thus, ^^ """^ distance; ,^,^^, order in My house is next his, but his is nearest the road. CLASS£:S. 229 issified as at )rst fist iest, eldest ;est, last ?liest, next ion forms ike good,'''' ' to 600^ " U); being- 'rent from ittler and probably Hitive. liat tvoi'se pe, have, In Mid. !• positive >. E. adv. 1^. in tlie )rig-inally mld-i-ra) , and are eir corn- meaning iter) . used to express e. tliat the near (at nearest, >rder in (2). A certain number of comparatives and superlatives Superlatives nave an adverb for their primitive; and the superlatives iJi-'«08«. have usually the ending most, which, moreover, is some- times added to what is apparently the comparative degree. Examples are, from in out up inner outer upper inmost, or innermost outmost, or outermost upmost (rare) , or uppermost Forms from /ore. FoiTUS from /ar. Forms dis- tinguished. Titter and utmost, or utternwst, are originally the same as utter, utnwst outer, etc. Fore (sometimes itself used as an adjective) makes /omer- (O. E. for-ma, M. E. for-me; -er being added to the super- lative ending [336]) and foremost, or first, its true super- lative, which, however, became specialized and detached from the series. From fore (0. E. fore) we have also further, and furthest or furthermost. Far<0. E. feorr, makes farther and farthest (the 0. E. forms were fierra and fierrest) on a mistaken analogy with further and furthest, assisted by the greater ease of pronunciation produced by the insertion of th. By many, the use of further and furthest is restricted to expressions that involve the notion of something additional, farther and farthest being used for others : thus, New York is farther from Toronto than from Boston ; He can go no further to-day ; A further reason exists. (3). A kind of superlative is also sometimes formed with -most from words which do not distinguish any positive and comparative. Examples are midmost, undermost, hitherraost, nethermost, hindermost, southmost, northernmost. The most (O.E. mest) in such words as utmost, midmost Origin (in L^J and [3J), is a double superlative suffix, consisting of (1). Of -most; the Arian superlative suffix ma (336) and the O.E. suffix -est, the -ma having become weakened, when -est became generally adopted. The of the modern form is due to confusion with the adverb most. Of the superlatives which consist of this -most added to a comparative, the oldest forms did not contain the r, which seems to be due partly to analogy with comparatives and partly to its making the pronunciation easier. Other super- latives in -moat. t '0 IM 230 f2). Of. mer informer. Jiouble pom- pai'fttives nnd superlatives. ^^'JECTIFES. Pronominal value varies ^^^^l^VelnmTl''^^^^^^ to for (fore) ., Uu «„i: «:"■"•»■• »^»<'-» English, we often fl„d such "■"'' *'"■ ^^'"■Ple, in Shakespeare -<''-hea.hoH.e.vei':::r^r.'"""' This doT "" "'"'' '"■'""*' '^'=' °' °»' ^^"Sion b«^an to die out) it'^l^ t/ST"'" ««»/"ry "whr it as an elegancy of s„e„„i, i ;'"'V' '" ™&ue, being regarde,! desire for emphasis'^^rLJU'™ ""S ?*"'y *» the TS^^^ the mixing of the Frem-hSi, ""i'" Hsinally) part "?„ comparison. I„ M^d'rnP .•'■.""'' '^e Old English snfflv t.ves and superlatitt"ad^"ettC,:f-r ^ ^^^ by far the larger („, ;„-„,, ° ^''rases : thus, and so on. 'TS a^™'^ ""«««. '"e lowest S4fi P ''^°^°*"«AI' ADJECTIVES. aad pargTot^^^^^^^^ P-fe adjectivai divided into classes corre"nod?„l^ ^?v "^^^^^ ""^ «'-e "^ot ^T tn&ie'p "^^ - ^^e pro. marked, thus, •„ "'■ *'"* ^■•''"^'"inal value is eUly J . . , , '"mes lost to hat, «»» evidently refer^i tn ih^ il other pro„omS:i °ad -eetTves ttf "* "^ '''"»^*- ^ut shows itself in the f«i fw *T Prouominal vatae added, as in ' ***' *'""' "'though a nonn is *:"*"■ *'»-'-'-^ citizen Of the t„^. l- a.t'.\j ,,.1 . ., ' „ .7 """ ' ^^'^'^ citizen of thfi tnv^ . -W or tue context or of the attendant or ^ CLASSES. 231 *re), m (the >; the O.E. ^Hative ma find such ndest, le; ^urteenth 'when it •egardetl natural tartly to ^h suffix ^mpara- owest 3etival id are e pro- assess 1 the learly But ^alue n is fc or other circumstances is necessary to enable us to deter- mine the exact reference of the phrase (20 and 35). POSSESSIVE. ^ 347. Most of the possessive adjectives correspond to the personal pronouns. They are Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural- ist pers. my, mine; our, ours; Srd f?;^^^, | their, Sndpers. thy, thine; your,yours; 2>ers. U-^j^s.^^^^ I theirs. The distinction of person, gender, and number in these words is, of course, a distinction belonging to the persons or things possessing, and not to the persons or things possessed, or to the words modified by the possessives. 348. The possessive pronominal adjectives were origin- ally O.E. genitives, which became — some more, some less — adjectival. Those which became most so were the genitives of the first and second personal pronouns. In Old English these were fully declined like adjectives, and his, a late formation, showed the same tendency. Except in a few expressions we have lost the use of these words as posses- sive cases (300). The forms mine and thine (in O.E. min and thin, e being used in modern spelling to show the long i sound) were the original genitives. In early Modern English, these began to drop the n before words beginning with a consonant, thus producing the two additional forms, tmj and thi/. By the fourteenth century, s had become the general poss. ending of nouns, and it was that of his. Accordingly, -s was added to the other single forms, giving our and ours, your and yours, her and Jiers, and later their and theirs. And there were besides (as still in dialectical English) forms with the genitive ending n (made, probably, on the analogy of mine and thine); thus, ouren, youren, etc. The original genitive of it (O.E. Jiit) was hie; but, as this was also the genitive of he, its was made about the end of the sixteenth century and became gradually established about the middle of the seventeenth. For a time it was used as a possessive also : thus, Go to it grandam, child. The n in mine and thine, the r in our, your, her, and their, and the s in his and its are genitive endings. Accordingly, the forms ours, yours, hers and theirs have two endings expressing possession. 1 Relation of forms. History of: his; mine, thine; my, thy. The value of-s. its. The Values of -n and -r. m I'll 111 ii) 232 « ADJECTIVES. I'll ffr our, your mu\ thH 'r.^^ follows; -naMs^aii:^:'^^^^^ - »o/n ^y book and ,.«,.,.,,,,,/ ' "'"'' The book is t / ^ Of • •''''^ ^""'^ "'•■'^'^Z .^nt 111 older Ene-Iis;. • . »m^^ and ame are freouer. i "\oi^^-«t.vle English %, especially beforr^Towel .'^^ "^^^^^^^ ^^ -^ and Compared Rnf >. « i • i • "' ^<^W thy voipp with posses- Otil adjectives on rl r.^ . ^ >oice. 2»- """J'f^ "oius, SwteC "Sire ," r^ ^« "-" *o These re::::r'''-/^^^''°-'--wv. •livide h^tZTiC:^, ""'"• "'^ -'d '«»«, and so on, ^^(\ VI. 1 ^DEMONSTRATIVE. , The first two pars are' Zj' "' ^""''• dimionstrative ProlZLTl,^ '^''"T ^r*" '^ ">e differences of meaning "" ""'''' witii the same .en^™,,5LT^fi->^rt''*- point to a remoter object use _ r«„ belongs t?oldernteat;.^'™.'f '" ^^^'^ ^"S'lsh, where it is fm„.!j *"'"*' '« dialectical Examples from Shakcspea^ are '' " P''°"«"° "'^o J'"'"?.;*- is still n T , '™''* "■'"" ""' polo- gone /onder ' ' "''"' '^'^^'^''''i''^ ako; as in "He has ><^o mav be volno/i such sentences as ""' ^ demonstrative adjective in He was tired and so wa- r • TM Ti-ou f„„.d'st -"e Po„'/a'„:rfe;p^t'**r.r "" yon, yonder. ao. l CLASSES. tr 233 asth'sJ aS givr '''^^' '"' ^^"^^^ demonstrative , jS^ecA also may be valued as a demonstrative adjec- .«.;. tive when It refers to something which has iusthPPn mentioned or is going to be mentioned : thus He is not truthful ; I dislike such a man ; Such men as Milton live for all time. INTERROGATIVE. 351. The interrogative words ivho and whether are // ,V^^ .^ ^"^ "x?^^' ^'^^ ^1'^' therefore, interrosa- Tt^tllTll, T"" ^'i^^"^ "PP^^ *« ^^^her persons seleoHvP^ ' T? '^'^ differ only in that which is selective. Thus, in general. What book have you ? " • but, if two or more are had distinctly in mind and the ^'""wl-Ti^' i"\^^ ^^' P^^^i«"^^^^- «»« among them mich book have you? " TFA«^ may also be us?d as an exclamatory adjective ; thus, exclamatory. What a piece of work is man ! CONJUNCTIVE. I know what book (that is, the book in general, which) you mean ; Let him make what efforts he pleases ; I know which book (that is, the book in partindar, of a certain known set), which you mean; I asked him tvhich (or, what) book he had • What time ( = "At the time at which," arch.)' I am. afraid, I will trust in thee. ^ But tvhich is sometimes used like a definite con- junctive: thus, He was gone a year, during which time he travelled all over Europe. l''l I w ' h 234 ADJECTIVES. Compound fOTOls. (1). Dis- tributives. (2). Com- paratives: such. other. (3). Quan- titatives : one. many, few. Many, a noua. l..onouns, and a \C\n",L^^" ''''' "" ^''^^ "« "f ""^^f'^^^'s^raC^-te-- !"eani„g ('^so-li'ke''), SifST' *^r"'*f '« >'« indefinite. It is Dure v flff f "^einonstrative and He came ,o see 1 „„ '^, /^'"** '" '''"«'' "^ ««""«"<'« «« and I .a;;\- »:^-3 S/ar:Z:/?L^.;„te-') answer or Other") ^ °^® general: thusf ' ''""^ «'""I»'rative adjectives in '*'« *™<"" other worlds than oara. Other has a markedly indeflnite use in '*fj'°"'«'«'' came home the ott«.aay.- I saw him one day ( = "a dnv r,nf .- "^"^ence as >r ^ T "^y ^ot mentioned 'M loot «,,s i One Jones came to see me ^^^ ' In such uses Of m«^y and /mas in ^ ^^"^* «^^°y "^en, a very few men, /^'^ an adjective nsed «^ /. ^"^f ^^'"^^ ^^^^^^ and anadverb/andsobeinLnl^lT'n^''"^ "^^^^^^d by , u fc,o Demg only partially converted (85 ) By earlier Modern English writers a^H ^ J poets, many is used as a^nounrtS, by'SespTar^ """"^^"""^^trri^^^rs;-™'^^-"^. ' ^ •<7 J / CLASSES. 235 itpver, and ^'^11 as of pronouns, 'd also as 3 are three mh either ch iniply- i"fi: to its 'ative and ■utenee as other") lome t^e (336), 3tives in ?/?, hoth, nee as week ; iny is a ]t; and ified by 1(85). now by speare, " I J^ a lid by Tennyson (who has reproduced many old Bngiisli expressions) : They have not shed a many tears, Dear eyes, since first I knew them well. In modern prose, the word great usually precedes many ; and, in some phrases with both many and few, the of is expressed : thus, a great many (and a few) of my (and our, the man's, pnd John's) acts. After definite numerals the of is sometimes omitted and sometimes expressed : thus, a dozen sheep, a hundred sheep, three score years and ten, a score of sheep. 353, The genitive was used after numerals in Old English, so that when case-endings were dropped, tlie modern form resulted ; but why in some phrases the of is now inserted, and, in others, omitted, we do not know. We know simply 1;liat such forms have become established. The origin of many in such phrases as ''full many a gem," many an opportunity," lias not been ascertained. It seems to have the force of a multiplicative numeral adverb, meaning "many times one gem"; and so on. The O.E.moni "many' which is found in this construction as far back as the thirteenth century, was used as an adverb. In such phrases as what a piece, such a Roman, so excellent a print, as queer a man ; and 80 on, the usual order is inverted. In older English the inversion does not take place, and, sometimes, in Modern English, the usual order is followed thus: a so excellent fruit, a man as queer. Such illogical phrases as both of us, all of us, the whole of the world, have evidently been formed on the analogy of the partitive in such phrases as "five of us"; and the of ue, etc., is consequently falsely partitive (268). NUMERALS. 854. The quantitatives are often called indefinite numerals^ from their use in describing number. But Of, after defluite numerals. many a. Adjective similarly placed. Indefinite numerals. « li' » ^ #,'l 2:iG IM! Uses: lower numbers. Archaic possessives. Higher numbers. Other forms. ^DJECTIFES. CARDINALS. a. u«ed here. "pn^.ipaC^'!:^:^;:^!!';'" '"«""-. mJteTidl't'^:i,Tdi''T' 'T' ^'"''' -'I ^o o"; l'"t also as ."ouns wh™ ,M "^■' "">,Jt „f ' *'^'^"^' «*«•! a>i I m u n 238 fjtt:. Komanlc totmt. Numeral adverbs. Origin. Sim'ivals of old forms. Uses, when not articles. «*•» or a. B! i ADJECTIFICS. twofold, tenfold, hundred-fold These word., are ealle,l multipUcativl Wf the some value are tive adverbial phrZs Zfi. ,^ '"* "''° "lultiplica. so on. '^ ^'''' "« ""■''' times, four fimei, and 360 Th • ™^^"™l.ES. of ^omewhat"''petaai!"'Z «• «"1 ^'«. «•* two words means "a littl,. j-oi„r'4t t"" r' '''««« ^«'-«* o-ie time faneif df Warded ^r''' '"''.^'"^ ^een at sentence). An nri 11 .^,, 1* Joints" of the tbe demrnKstr^^ive "^SJ :[?,'ef '^«/^"r^'^' «•>" '*' peculiar meanings and uses th^t ?.?* *''^ ''"^e so «P separately. *** """ '^ey must be taken derivatives, both in' form ami i^ "^^'^P^^'^^^ely weakened numeral ^„ (Mod. E„ron.l • d%'''''"f.: ^^«™ ^^« ^.E. strative adjective ,e ,^n /?//'.. ^^^"^ ^^^ 0. E. demon ytd a weak'ened nJ^L^^'atfi^o'fd F'S^'f ' ^^^^^ S" J ;e on. and M. other were form er?J/;?^^^'^^- ^^' '»«dern the latter surviving- in fhl^T ^JJ'"* "*'"' ««'' *hf^t other vivmg in the Scotch V^ "^^1] tt T/'T' "^^ ^«^^ ^^r' I" phrases like ' '''^^''' ^«' '^■'f*«^>' • the«.,or;i?ir"'°^';^^^^«"-«po-d; fonn of S nu^taTor^!^ ^tt^ele; it is a weakened one, each, every." '° another sense, that of ''each In other eases, however, as in *),„ , . , ^ ^^^^ twice a week : thresh the absence o^f selSe'-ZZ' r70%\"'-'" '''-'^^' He i» gone a hunting; They ,etVt;;„i;;f ^^ r/^ and the ing, a-goi The ti (atljectiv the inor( is an ad of the d junctive TJie 862. coiisona pronoun persons sounded Befor only a ii just as ^ 363. some or noun is A The From These article, tl the ori^i *'a certai not speci so; in t equivalei ness is s "any hoi is to gen< CLASSES. 239 J.. i 1 y and the like (which are often, and better, written a-hunt- ing, a-going). The the whicii we often find before a comparative ths. (ailjective or adverb) in .such expreHHions as the more, the merriar ; The more ho vvvrked, the less he did ; is an adverb, being, etyn-ologically, the inatnuuental ease of the demonstrative. In this construction, it is both con- junctive and demonstrative : thus, 37te more ( -"by how much"— oonj,), /fte( = "by80 much" — dem.) merrier. 862. A71 is used before a vowel-sound ; a before a Th« hhi^:* consonant-sound. But, if a word beginning with a when used. pronounced h is stressed on tlie second syllable, most persons use an, as the h in such words is not fully sounded: thus, an Aotel ; an /tistorical novel ; an hypothesis. Before the sound of y or w, whether written or not, only a is proper in present English ; thus, such a one ; a wnion ; a ^Jiropean ; just as we should say a ivonder, a youth. 363, An or a indicates that we are speaking of why called some one or of any one of the objects of which the ^"'^'^^^^^^ noun is the common name. Examples are: A man called on me to-day ; An officer should be sent to him ; A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse ! A man should bear himself bravely in adversity ; The simple perception of natural forms is a delight; All men are at last of a size. From this use it is called the indefinite article. These examples illustrate the chief uses of the indefinite Explanation article, the exceptional ones being due to the weakening of "f "ses. the original force. In the first, it is nearly equivalent to "a certain," thus indicating an individual of the class, but not specifying which one, although it may be possible to do so; in the second, it is more indefinite, and is nearly equivalent to " some or other" ; in the third, the indefinite- ness is still greater, and a horse is nearly equivalent to ''any horse whatever; " in the fourth, the effect of its use is to generalize the statement, a man being nearly equivalent ^.4 \ I .s-a ADJECTIVES. The article the: Why nailed I>eflnite. Explanation of uses. Repetition of article. or e.a.p- generally expressed WTde^tZ^Jir'™^'''°«« i« two main uses ■ Merstood with it. It has (1). In tCirZ «""■ "^ ""™ ""■""■ *« ™» ""0 was there. S^:u Ittttn f r ""'- - -''--^. and to th!:i ^^3^nnpi^^^K^:^,^..e^^^^ **e points out a particular obi::ror:!a.s'"f 1^^ '"^'' K^h In such expressions as "ojects. ,,^ :^^^-^^'^^'^'^^^.^^,. ^^^^^^^l^^^^^, -e is no ad^ect,eSff -:«^ tirnri ^^ t-™' th^t t"?4t-''Lr J:^S^^^^^^^ ^' ^« clear andit'^r"^ ~eXcL"St' "'^" ^''^ ^^^~ - to two «^ red and the white flag , « red and u white Sag; SPECIAL USES OF THE ADJECTIVE. . ■\ ' >/■ V 241 36V "'" "^ '"0 "Wto flag, a red and white flag. names or nidtenals, the noiniimt ve of addi-ess nrnno.. "'""ici. "Th'^r„H'"if™'r.'' ''""•to™, Queen of England' They made him king ; He was elected emptor ' A^d no article is found in many phrases in common *" "™nto2i\'rSer:n?.e*^„r.rtS:'-„'n°hti -- Germanic: ^'""' '''""' "^'''^ "" '"•""^'^^ "' the parent SPECIAL USES OF THE ADJECTIVE He owns a white horse, and I a Mack (horse) • X riis horse is white, but mine (my hori) in black • I will give you my book, but I wilf take /i (hi! btok) • She waL bvf!;ffl"'r^'r^"S""^' '" ^^"erous man ; ^ ' fehe was by far the hvehest (girl) of the three girls. (2). And a comparative or a superlative is sotyip- times used alone where, with a positive we should have to use one, or a noun, or the like: thur She was the loveliest among the three : Vt the pair she was the lovelier; while we should say She was the lovely one of the family. uses i JW? ADJECTIVES. How to ^ emperor, favored the scheme the «i, train, the after part, the ahme remarks. The man was "?^^ ^^^ «^^"ed adverbial limiting, oi condition, etc. As is shown by the last example if (1) above, the co^text will indicate wh^f fi.^ «^«..;*:„„ • ■ >} IS. LOGICAL VALUES Of ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 245 fy (4).Co- ordinntf descriptive. (3). Adjective clauses in which there is no distinct (3).0r(Unftiy suggestion of co-ordination, and which simply desnibe descriptive, without limiting : thus, The sun, which shines on high, is golden. Such clauses are called ordinary descriptive. (4). Descriptive adjective clauses in which there is a suggestion of an addition, and which are, therefore, logically equivalent to copulative or illative co-ordinate clauses : thus, He spoke to you, wlw ( = " and you ") then left the room ; I gave him some bread, which ( = "and it," or "and this ") he ate; He passed it to the stranger, loho ( - " and he ") drank heartily; She carried it to the closet, ichere ( = " and there ") she hid it ; His father, who ( = " for he ") was close by, came over at onee ; My dog, lohich ( - '" for it ") had come with me, began to growl. Such adjective clauses are distinguished as co-ordinate descriptive^ copulative or illative, as the case may be. In this use ichich and as (316 and 325) may have their antecedent implied in the preceding context : thus, He did not come, which I greatly regret ; He has been long dead, as is well known ; the antecedents being " his not coming" and "his being dead," which are implied in the sentences. But, as we have already seen (325), this construction shades off into one in which it is proper to value the as-clause as adverbial. (5). Descriptive adjective clauses which are logically (5). Adverbial equivalent to an adyert-clause : thus, descriptive. When I that{ = '* because I ") knew him fierce and turbulent, refused her to him ; He deceived his master, who ( = " although he") had been Lis friiiid. Such adjective clauses are called adverbial aescriptive, of cause, etc. WORDS AND PHRASES. 373. Words and phrases have the same logical values as adjective clauses and may generally be replaced thereby. The following are examples ; but, m I i ! 2m ft - 24C ADJJCCTIVES. (I). Ordinary iimitintf (2).A(lverbiftl liiniting. (3). Ordinary descriptive. (4), Co- ordinate descriptive. (5). Adverbial descriptive. Smith, the orator, is dead • He has a WacA hat on his head • ■^^---methlug^o6.,.„,./,;:^^,,,. U;. Adverbial limiting: She forgave him, the^m.7or ( = " although he was a Q, ^ „ , traitor"); ^ "« was a She forgave him, her brother (J '' beeansfi h. ^ u brother"). ^^^^"^^ he was her A brave man would trv it ( - "\v i. The pot-h„„te. shot the'il4-.<4tj.?«,.t*rh''r'„V /Q X ^ ,. ^ "^ ^~ ^^ he were wealthy") U.; Ordinary descriptive : ^'^ tSI^I;*?' ^""■''''''^^''^'•' '^^ed of poison. 1 he g^Men sun sent forth his r^ys ; 1 he fireman had a helmet of bZss; ine man came running (122). (4). Co-ordinate descriptive : He worshipped God, the Creator ( = - for [or and! He AndTH 7 . was the Creator"); ""^ '-^'' ^"^J ^e I shall leave to-mor^w for PortTth^'^^^'f "^ ' Heeame,2:-r;^:-^J>-^--'')- (j). Adverbial descriptive: He respected hi., unele, Ms guardian ( = "because for Mute at ^« MttS it «'"•««-")' ^ • to hold on the electors"), hettiU ftom ^oimcs?'' AD yJi^UBS— CLASSES. 24?' other lauses ; a er » iLi. XI. ADVERBS. CLASSES. ACCORDING TO MEANING. 374. Adverbs in English are inhimierable, and' of ciassiflcaHon, the most various meaning. We may divide them »''«"«*^«°® roughly into the following classes, but the same word may be an adverb of one or another class, in different meanings and connections. (1). Of place and motion: as, here, yonder, thither, up. (2). Of time and Succession: as, now, formerly, next, first. (3). Of manner SLud^uality: as, so, somehow, ill, foolishhj. (4). Of measure and degree: as, little, more, scarcehj, enough, hut ( = " only ") . (5) . Of modality y or modal adverbs : such as show the mode in which the thought is conceived by the speaker, the relation of one thought to another, and so on : thus, (1). Affirmative : SiB, surety, certainly, indeed. (2). Negative: as, not, notvays. (3). Potential: as, perhaps, possibly, probably^ (4). Causal: as, hence, therefore, accordingly^ 375. Adverbs used in asking questions; as, when, interrogative where, whence, how, why, wherefore, are called inter- «<^v®''^8- rogativCy and are themselves classed as interrogative adverbs of time, place, manner, and so on. Like the interrogative pronouns, these adverbs are Exciama- used in exclamatory sentences, especially how: thus, ^^'•y"'^- How kind of you to take this trouble ! Hmv often have I warned you to be careful ! fr /cue. \-^ji\j; ID aiDU USCU III tXJU SUIIIC Way What a brave fellow your brother is ! thus. \ I if 248 ^t)rEnn$. I, ! s I t •Adverbs shade into prepositions and fon- JunctioDs Suffix comparisoa rather. these parts of speech ".^ve/'.m h' "'''<' «» '»<> ot oldest and simplest p.lS^V r*' . ^''"^ the «P, to, were originallv advp •)! ' ?*''' "'* "'- "«. "//, still used as such, thus ^*"'"' ^""^ w^t of them are He came in; Thev mn n^- • t* + and .i„ee is adverb „, . '" ""'• '"'"' '" ""^>°'- He7„::«;,r To ""■""" -'i"netio„, i„ . , We came 5?wce I Jeft ^ ' the^vf;btrrs"e,:^!;:^,;« ?*' ^<^^^y^-^ ^'^w weaniug) the who ie se.tC^e ?,? ' ^"^"'"^^y <">«' i«. >» and showing its relaHon tn t' .?""'^ " ""« «» adverb it has the vflue of a eoni m^t'So ''";,.''^"'**'''« -"■ word^ are adverbs in «onj"netion ; thus, then and wkeu ''''t*™ win™"' ""<""«'-»' away. hnf „„ • . . '" ^"" '■'"'"■n to work J ' but eonjuuetions in "7«.y?'' finished f r;,«, go awav • I will see you ,c*«, you ,5tum y ' 377 COMPARISON. adverbs without^t';;ge:l^t^th"'"' "■•*•"''•''' «« -perlafve are general, used" dV^^M:«7a":"Thu\'" ««, better, best ;*„.,„,,y,„„,.3^_^^^^^ hav^^pf^* t^^ij;^: -'* that are always adverbs example, ™ their own: thus, for soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftene,, oftenest o J„;th?iv^!°Trvt "'/'""' '^ corresponding positive oM words, has th.^Z'r^^^'^^-bo has nfed" „r; And M-I/'""" "" ™''' ''»"-«^«»*«'i wi'th the thought pr?iofe'.'^ "^*^^ «"« ""-'ete adjective in ''"' ratHe COMPARISON. 249 Modern surviviils. The archaic erst is a superlative from the 0. E. adverb erst. icr, our couj unction and proposition ere. (3). Phrasal comparison is used for iuFcny adverbs Phrasri of quality as for adjectives of the same kind: thus, ««">»'' '•'«°'^- for example, truly, more truly^ most truly ; less truly ; as truly. 878. In Old English, the adverbial suffixes of comparison o. E. suffixes. were or and oat (now er and est). These were added to adverbs in -e or -lice (our -ly). In modern poetry, we sometimes find adverbs in -ly fol- lowing the O.E. mode of comparison : thus, I should /reeZicr rejoice in that absence.— Shakespeare ; To show what coast thy shiggish erare Might earliest harbor in.— Milton ; Its strings holdlier swept. — Coleridge ; Then must she keep it safelier. — Tennyson. FORMATION. 379. A few adverbs are primitive in our language, as, so, noiv, quite; but many are either shortened forms of words and phrases, or they are survivals of cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Owing to these peculiarities, we notice in some detail the formation of adverbs. New adverbs are almost invariably formed from Usual adjectives, with the suffix ly (O.E. lice, "like," ^''^'■^y- which became ly, just as ic and ich became IJ. Adverbs formed in this way are by far the largest class. The addition of -ly causes in some cases changes in the sound or the spelling of the primitive, or in both : thus, for example, true, truly ; hasty, hastily ; ga?/, gaily ; frantic, franticaHy. A few adverbs have been formed from adjectives and -wise. nouns by the suffix tvise (O. E. ivis, " manner"), as, likewise, lengthwise; but, as tvi.^e is still an inde- pendent word, such adverbs may be regarded as compounds. wtiinr suiuxes are icavd, or wards (s being a, genitive -wara, suf&x); and ling, which became lony, by analogy, as in •^'*''***- Jifl 2:0 ■ling. ^r>rmiiis. r. AfJJeftivps UH Hdverlis. •Some in •ly alHo. Poetioftl usage. <^ '•!«:}» of ulentify of forms. II. Adverbs, ease-forms: Adjectives. "" "^'^^ *^'y Uangeious wuy.- Scott mael., most, „ll, m, f^t, ,,„3_ ^^^ ^ehr«:oS,:fif :!.r ^ «. sum. ,,, ,<..,. tte two forms: thus *"""*"* '"eanii.g between BTn """'"■""' '"'" — --y Mate, ,ate,y. to spf-ak loud, rp^, .^ . . , to serve a man riqht - t • ^^"* ^''"^'y ' to live close to me : ' " \l 'C^f ^'' conclude righily; ' to I'e f^ose/// confined . lue birds sane* dm-' ■ ti,« i- 4. "^"^i^io, word may be valued as a" rdjeelive *•"'' "'' '"".'^''^'"^ a' Modern present English and ZmetiJ^tiT^^ ?'""""' ">"" i" -^.ae by sule : thus, for e^anl^^J^rin'shrsp're! '^^ '""'"» 009 . , ' '"" '"<'e<"J aoo »««''* deified, tivfs: th„t'^" '"J™'"^ «« ""odifled case-forms of adjec- ^^'■^^^'^-^^ - - - cr-"--"i i i. ^fc- '^Ss FORMATION. 2A{ il \ A f(;w are also adverbially used caaos ol nouns, thus, Nonnn. needs; M\i\ -ways, -days, ■ times, in oonipound adverbH, ant Kenitives; the obsolete u'hUom and the suffix meal (in 1^necemeal)<0.¥j. dat. pi. hivilum, "at times," ai\d mealiim, by portions"; ever and never<0. E. dat. sing, rt/re and nafre; and home, back, and half were originally accusatives. The noun part of a large number of adverbial phrases and- compounds was originally accusative : thus, for example, sometime, alway, straightway, no way, likewise, yesterday, meanwhile, the while. And many such compoundi* have other forms which are due to analogy : thus, sometimes, always, straight J<7ise, otherways (and -wise), noicays (and -wise). 383. Three series of adverbs corresponding to one iii. Pro- j/^ another come from pronominal roots (tlie whers- ad^S series being adverbial conjunctions when not used interrogatively) ; they are here, hither, hence ; there, thither, thence, then, the, thus; where, whither, whence, when, why, how. The ending re marks place ; tfier is comparative ; n is accusative, then being a differentiated form of than; nee is a compound suffix, ce being genitive; the (before the com- paratives [361]), :rhy and its doublet hoiv, and probably thus, are instrumental cases. 384. A number of adverbs come from nouns and iv Deriva- adjectives by the prefix a (usually for earlier on [154] • t'^^^^^jth both forms being sometimes still used) : thus, " aback, ahead, aside, aright, anew, along; alive (on life [70]), afire (on fire), afoot (on foot), ashore (on shore), asleep (on sleep. Acts, xiii, 6) . And the be- of betimes, beside, beyond, betwfen^ before, and so on, is, in like manner, from the preposition by. 386. Compound adverbs are mostly phrases of two compcuu^s. (rarely more) words, which have, as it were, grown together into one. Examples are sideways, headforemost, knee-deep, meanwhile, always. vff ' II !'• rj'2 ADVERBS. AU'erlm with aUverbB. O. £. idiom. PecnUar uses of adverbs: With lire- positions and con- junctious. With nouns. w»!il^''''"^''"''^'""' "^ ". l^^^'VoshUm with the wonl whK^h It govoniH are especially coimrioii : thus, indeed, erewhile, overhead, forever, forsooth. Th(. adverbs hfre, there, and whre, are eoin})ined with many words whiel, are now usnal ly prepoii .s forming compounds which are equivalent to 7 .v' uiat, ivhich, or tvhai, along with the preposition : thus,' T ^fr"l ^" r ^" *'*•« ") "«« t^e difficulty ; in the day thou eatest the}'cof ( = " of it " ) • The .nenns whereby ( = "by which") I live': WhercHUth r = «' With what ") shall I save Israel • In whatever state I a.^. f Herewith {J' with that ' ') to be c;ortent. In Modern En^rlish we say "James sat in there/^ where jn IS an adverb nmdifled by there, both forming a sm- o? temporary compound. The O. E. equivalent of this co - struciion was 'James sat there in Avhere the J „ od fies ltV7"'u'' *'-^*'/." f^^rein, thereof, etc., we have reailv two adverbs united into a compound. ^ PECULIAR WORDS. 386. Adverbs sometimes seem to modify preposi- tions or conjunctions : thus, He jumped clear over the wall : He came long after I had gone ; but, as clear and long modify the adverbs 'ot^.r and after in He jumped clear over ; . He e.ime long after ; they may be taken as modifying the adverbial notions m the preposition over and the conjunction after Frepositions, indeed, may be described as transitive adverbs, especially as they aro adverbs in origin ±Jut, as in such constructions, the adverbs logically modify the whole phrase, they may be so described properly enough. ' 887. Sometimes, also, adverbs seem to modify K'^uns; but when the adverbs have not h^^^me converted into adjectives, they really express a modi- ncation of the verbal notion either of action or of PECULIAR nORDS. 2J3 <^ yi. Pec;.liftr words: Evev, i\n stat«5 or exiatenee, whi(;h many nouns snggpst ; thus, for example, After my re'urn (action) home yosterdny; We recall our misfortunes (state) hereto/ore; He ca;nfc during my residence here; or of the ^nimmatieal value which the noun possesses from its fuuetiou in the sentence : thus, 80 Rweet that joy is almost pain Cpred. nom.) ; Gladstone, formcrbj premier of England (api)os.) Henee the adverb in this use is oftener predicative or appositive (137) than attributive (144). 888. A few words, ordinarily adverbs, are pecu- liarly used. Even, for example, may be used in ^,.^^„ ^,j connection with a word or a phrase to emphasize the juIvJh.^rI identity: thus, for example, partkJe. It is even she I mean ; It was even her brother that did it ; Sweet thoughts do cvfu- refresh my labors ; He is even great and terrible in his wrath ; or it may intimate that the sentence expresses an extreme case of a general proposition ; being, in this use, placed before or after the word, phrase, or (tlause, on which the extreme character of the tLhitement or supposition depends : thus, for example, Eoen this stupid man is more useful than I am ; He was in debt to no man, not even to his tailor ; He (The man, or, Men) evcyi would not do so ; I would not do so even if you were to threaten me ; The gain is even more remarkable than the loss. Thus used, even is not one of the so-called parts of speech ; for, although it resembles the adjective and especially the adverb, it is, as the above examples show, more general in its application. It seems to change, somewhat as does stress, the value of the expression with which it is connected. Accordingly, it may, from its origin, be described as an adverbial particle modifying the expression to which it is attached (the name particle is applied to any of the particles, minor adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, or inter- jections, that have peculiar uses) . And, in the ease of even and words of similar value, the name intensifying may be added. I ■'•,«a 254 Words like even. ^T) VERBS. There, expletive. Origin of the idiom. Other uses of there. Sentence adverbs: perhaps, probably. ways that resemble thotn/'/ fmeinnes used h o„h, fK 1 • ^ w«*^ . uius, for example iou aiei«5< the man : Emctl ttt ' ^^ ^'^ "«* speak ; JustJauxe, (or James ^^n ^f orT ""^^ ^^^«" ^'"^ ? tliem ; no one else ' ""' ^'"^^^^^^ ^^a Siieh constructions sharlo ^«^ • ^ ., ^ome^f these .o.-ds ™tf betafi ^^/^l^-l'^eU transposition of the fX^t^'^CltrexT^fe '" *"' ^/iere is no money here • TA^v. ^ * usedthr/""""''"'''^'™^^^^^^^ particle ui^lJZ Z^^XZ^XZl 'f''''' Vsf(Z' at:;1t"17in?£l,-r^ ".-. t'.is'p.aee.'. has been expanded without Iim1^^ ! I^''!^.'""' '"wnin? remotely that of " i e "itten;'' ,f '£"' '* "PProache. IS usually a eopula, means "evkV " ^*'"'*.' *"• ^^ich are taken togethe,' : so that ' ' Th>**" '^ ""'^ ">^re means "No money is in «.vt ," '^ "» money," ^'V^r. is used withi U. sueh iff ' ^"^ *'^'^*^> • " And to express '' existence ''.'"'•''*'"«« '''e following felt to possess i;fsrheo";:tnS;"/ '' '^^'^ ^ "«' imply existence. " ""^^^^ ^^^^^ themselves aufmVr;rdt„t;tXet;rs^ -'enees. ", ■ .1.- ha« ^one ; Probably he is here. a. PECULIAR WORDS. 2j5 as mihj^ ' used ill they are sample, > so; speak ; I him • eif) has n whieli itives or ■fills up r to the e, fc; ^erbial )hiee." eaiiinsr oache,-;. which 1 there iiey," And wing, s not '-re IS elves aces, But the fact that, in the first example, the same mean- ing may be expressed by a change in the predicate ; tlius, He mmj have gone," shows that such adverbs belong especially to the verb. They modify primarily the copula, which expresses the act of assertion (119 LIJ ; : they thus characterize the reliability of the whole assertion-whether it is certain, probable, or doubtful bo, too, with phrases : thus. Without doubt he has gone ; To the best of my belief, he has gone. .fr.!^.!? r' ""* ^^1 ^?"^P«»^"ts of the sentence is Position. stressed, these modal adverbs are often placed near it and seem to belong to it; but they are still sentence adverbs: thus, Probably ^le rode home (or, he rode home : or, he rode home) • He probably rode home ; He rode home, probably! ' 391. Again as is shown by the sentence "Maybe Modal he has gone " (m which the phrasal compound rnxn/be ''TT' IS shortened for " It may be"), son/e senten es '''''"" independent in form (apply par. 47) and often parenthetical are logically modal : thus, He has gone, 7/mr; He has gone. / have no doubt; He IS, I think, mistaken. • Phrases and clauses like those italicized in the fol- lowing sentences, are of similar construction : Proper!!, speaking, there is no such thing as chance ; Ihat IS he yonder, if I am not mistaken. Such constructions shade off into others in which Des.np- the adverbial expression adds to the meaning (as do ^''"'^'^ other adverbs ordinarily) without, however, limiting It (as do other adverbs) : thus, ^ Unfortunately he has gone ; Happily for us, he has gore • To my great disappointment, he has gone. ' Here there i.:; no limitation of the assertion that he has gone. The meaning is He has ^oan, and this has happened unfortunately, etc. ; --"viTv^^irii cAi;Ie»^lon IS co-oraiuaie descrii)tive resembling: m function the descriptive ad^jective/ < ( I'' ttses I 256 ADVERBS. Interjep- tiouai use Not, modifying (1). A sen- tence. (2). A clause, we are saying, and X^h rese nh i''-"';"'-'^'"'^ *'"' ^''"^ they merely intimZo^'^Zt^! TPT''''^ '^ *•"" for example, belong here '''"'^- 0»"'s. where the meaning is modifier th:rb^.^t f;itr;: •'"'^- "°' *-• -^ He did it, ,„( for i„ere but for love • the ««^ modifies the phrase /«,• lucre; and in I^ he „„, penitent ( = ..i„pe„ito„t..„ He Jo" •, . It modifies the word pemlent ■ hJl '"" ' adverb in '««-«c, but it is a sentence qq? TJ ^ H« «»'' penitent. respon•ding^oTte's«on""inT•."'''* «- "- inay be made to .signify differenee othe in the speaker's state of mind used aceording to the tone yen, iio , yea, nai/. r uses of the statement He is mad," we may say, Tes (acquiescent) meaning " He is mad " ; re9 deliberate) - "He may be mad " ; iVo incredu ous) - - You don't say so '' • iV^o (contradictory) - " He is not mad '' ; ' r^lf ""?• ^'^''^ '{'' ^"^ *'^ ^^« a commentary on a in the iniT* ? ''^ •'''. ^"^'^^' ^'^^ ^^""^h* «^ feeling 11 the speaker's mind may be added in a way that resembles apposition : thus, Tes; he is mad ; Yes; he may be mad ; -A^o; you don't say so! In sentences like the last example, the responsive being exclamatory, closely resembles the interjection In older English, yea and nay are used as sentence adverbs m the sense of "truly," "indeed" W for example, ' * '^^"^' Tea, hath God said, " Ye shall not eat of every tree in the <, «™„;, (verb) LiL the han-d they «peed • hplash, splash, iieross the sea ' use. and .o,„eti,„„. even ir^^;^""'"^:^::^ that higli, this far, that much, this much. PHRASES by stealth, of yore, at random, in lieu • in vain, of old, at all, on high, ere long, for good mfhn^7f^-^ ^''f ^'''''''^y^ ^^ ^^^es a happy life • we got to sea, the admiral being tvith us A al ta cc sa m 09 th( thi OTUEll FUllAlS OF ADVERBS. 259 varieties. lue oiner value ot the nominative absolute. CLAUSES. in the way of definh g a desr^ Tl * IT^C ''T''^'^ it has the sauie\?;ietTflUi,^'C"ht:l?"^,:;;:I '"" ^ to the simple adverh Thp «ioooi« ^- whk n oeionj? is not abiolul^rt tl^e' dr^^^t^TXd^ vaiiety ot uses, a^ the examples given partly show. Ihus we have adverb clauses: (1) . Of place : for example, He lay whore he fell : lou can go where ( = " vvliifhpi. "i ,.«.. i Whither I ,„, ,„ ,.„.<„, eo;'e!"r',o toe' iTaie. (2). Of ^im^ ; for example, When I awoke, it was one o'clock • He smdes when ( = ''whenever ") one speaks to him; Come down ere my child die. He does as he hkes ; I was as ti, d as ever man was tired) • Th. w^^^ ^'^ ^^"'^'' *^^^» w« li'Hl expected^ ^ * a1>ire;iS"^ ^^^^^•' ^^'- -^ --^--s are usually modifying adve'rb):^ht:t'Srpt!h/'^ "^^' ^"' ^^^ I am a. (^-to the degree") tired as (:=-in which degree") any man was; "' ''^^''^^ «5 and the a.-clause together modify tired. So, too, m . 7^ ^'^her you go, the more difficult is the ascent, the higher you go modifies more, which is itself mnrUfin^ u the demonstrative th^ (^a^\. ,•.'.":!.''' ^^^^^^ modihed by * (1). Place. (2). Time. (3). Manner and degree. I will (361); just as in give j-ou this book which I have -- •■"■^.. » llrtVC III 111 this and the etVi/c/i-clause together modify hook in my hand, 200 (4). Cause. (5). Result aud effect. (6). End or purpose. Seqiience of tenses (7). Con- dition ;ind aoncessiou. Three classes. ADVERIiS. (4) . Of cause : for cxamph Since you say so, we l)elieve it: As yoii are hove. I will 1 he hnelin- fleetli, because he is a hirelintr • I "^"^^^"ovv; not that 1 want to ,.o, but that [munt; A„H f . ! th'^'.^^^^^t him a hero tliat he did so : • And, for that wine is dear, we will be furnished with our own. (5). Of result and effect: for example, Tj. . , .^^ was so weak that he fell : His Ideas are^.n such confusion that he is unintelligible • He shouted till the woods ranff ; Is he an oracle that we should look up to him ? Am if ."^Tr.y^" ^O'"^' that you were late ? Am I a child that you should speak thus to me ? wl^kXt'^llW^^^^^ T'r ^f ^"^^ '' *«^^^her modify weoK Kio^utcxWy the adverb clause modifies so wfali- and m he second, the adverb clause modifies tt// "itutir^' -odify logically.. ,reat if we rade'rhis'^^uC: for exainple,'''^ ""' ^^ ^"'^^'^ ^ ' ' ^""^ ^^^^^ " ^ '• t^"«' He died that we might live ; Ye shall not touch it, lest ye die ; He comes (or, came) to school, lest he should fail. The rules for the sequence of tenses (282) apply here when the subordinate clause is introduced by S ^ W fuV\: '!"' T'l ""'^^^^^-^ '^ "- - « 'wl^S is past in form but mdefinite as to time [2211) wliatpvpr ht tl tense in the principal clause. ^^' ''^'^^^'^'^ ^e the rsf ind^29oT'^'r''''rf ^ co/icm/o/i (219 [4] and Le3j and 220). Conditional and concessive clauses are opposite in force ; tnas, for example, If you are strong, you will succeed ; 1 hough he was strong, he did not succeed,- are equivalent to Be strong and yoii will succeed ; He was strong hiii did not succeed. 399. The realization of the consequence in con- ditional and concessive sentences (that is, complex concessTv; ''"" -^ '''' subordinate clause conditional or CO cef V^^ V'"'''''^'"''''^"^^ ""' ''"' ^'^"ditional or the concesoive clause represents what i^= f-e"^-^ a- « S( C( a] di OTUER FORMr OF AD FEE US. 261 question, or as an imaginary case (pure supposition), or as impossible : thus, for example, (^0. Open: If yon are stiwug, you are self-reliant: Unless you are strong, you are not self-reliant: It never rains, but ( " if not") it pours; Though you are strong, you are not self-reliant': If that l>e (or, is) so, I shall go; If you go, shall I see you? If thou ho the son of God, oomniand, etc. ; I hough that be so, I shall not go. (b). Imaginaiv: n« ,,.f f ^^ \ '''""''^ *"" become nuid, I might do so ; Do not forget lum, even ,f you should never see him again; You would not succeed, though you should do so (c). ImiM)ssible: If thou hadst l.-on here, my brother had not died ; Though thou hadst been here, my brother would have died 400. Such sentences as the following are also con- onodanse mtional, although die (condition is concealed or omitted ''"""^^i^ «^ in some (220), and the consequence is omitted in the '' last: It would be folly to do so { = '' if one did so ") ; Life piled on life {-='' \f. it were, etc. ) Were all too little ; This kiss woul'l wake the dend (if it were given) • rrv, ?A i ^?,'"^ ^ '^^^^ f^^" thee (if I tried) ; Thy elder brother would I be (if it were possible) ; If I were covetous (I should be rich), how am I so poor? And, as we shall see later, an ellipsis of the con- sequence IS common with such phrases of conditional comparison as as if, than if: thus, ^ He looks as (he would look) if he were rich ; He 18 now richer than (he would be rich) if he had gone to the Klondyke. «v.1?J' ^"^ ^^^Z ^""^^'^^^ ^^'^ "^ P^^^^y we find Archaic aichaic conjunctions or conjunction phrases of con- Tn'f''T'^ dition : thus, for example, conjunctions Yet what is death, so it be glorious? Catch me an (:=" if " ) thou canst ; So as men live in peace, they die free from strife ; The chronicle were welcome that ( = "if it") should call Into the compass of distinct regard The toil and struggles of thy infancy. I !! r i p^H 202 ADVERBS. m CoTidklonal inversion. How produced: Interrogative still used. whether . . or. 402. So far we have dealt introduced by eonjuu.iions. TI, ever, often expressed by tlie in with conditional elanses e eo of the subject ai I'dition is, ho inveivsion of (Ik; (),•(] V\' grown out of the int( 'u predicate. This const ler niction has thus, for Imperative in a condition. examnlo w. — «i"ogative senten txampie, we can say ^W u m^2 ^^'" ^"'•^' h^ h^d not died ; iusteadof ^"''™^^''°""^^^--'-'' ,Jf'^''ou luid'st been here : If (or though) thou crio«t never so loud. . This is called conditional invpr^inn 4.u ..said to ,e a„ inveneU^fol^'^ZTaTZ^LT''''''^ l>.d you see him, you would know this ' bucfi sentences as Should ,^u see Mm, y„„ would find him changed, ' J3e It a tride, it should be done well • owe the ortor of the saborilinate clause m'h,„ • • , interrogative construetioii -iiJ tL j . tae origina! conditional eonstruction """"' '° '^^ '"'^r for thf etS^tiot^S::;,""' '"'"-"^^"™ "'™ '« -^'i" -od W.aste,.a'litZo»u'i'&nt"S^^^^^^^^ ^/tc^Aer you go or «cay, all will be well • ^^'^r^^::^?^: -^^ -^ordinate *V conditional T.Wrw/th..r^ ^'^^If ' ^'^^" ^^^•>^-" ../i«^...r,ete.,seerr 279 9,(6). '^^^^^"^ conjunctives, is tfrn^thn^"" ^^"^ interrogative, the imperative sentence IS sometimes used to express a condition : thus Fling but a stone, the giant dies ; Let earth unbalaneod from her orbit fly - -meco «.x^ aunts ruii jawie«s through the skv . LOGICAL VALUES OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 2f?3 ■ And the imperatives HnppoHP, admit, ffrant, and satt (some ot which, in their weakened sense, may be vahied as conjunetions) are used to introduce condi- tional clauses: thus, Suppose Ijo fail, whnt matter dops it make f Say 1 be eutertaiued, what tbeu shall follow f So, too, some participles in the absolute construc- tion, by the omission of that: thus, You shall have it provided it pleases you ; where the full construction would be that it pleases you heiug provided. 406. The conjunction introducing a clause often has a correlative adverb of kindred meaning, in the clause to which the clause so introduced, is sub- ordinate, answering toward it much the same purpose as the antecedent to the conjunctive pronoun: thus, Where the bee sucks, there suck I ; JVhen the heart beats no more, then the life perishes • // 1 speak false, (hen may my father perish : ' Though he slay me, yet will I trust him; As I entered, so will I retire. And adverbs of manner and degree are apt to be followed by corrective conjunctions; as so by that; so and as by as; a comparative adverb— w;Y>r^ less* and the like— by than; the by the (361). Out of this usage grow a number of conjunction phrases, as so as so that, so far as, according as, and so on. ' LOGICAL VALUES OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 407. Adverbial modifiers are usually limiting ; but, as in the case of adjectives (but less frequently) adverbial words, phrases, and clauses are used merely to describe. This use in the case of words and phrases has already been noticed in par. 391. It is especially common with clauses introduced by an adverbial con- conjunction of the tvhere series (less frequentlv in as-clauses [325] and [372] ) : thus, T site mv dinner loh^n ( r= "oTirl t^^n 'M v>« a — j i x_ i TT "i- 'i"^ — -., .1..-.. ^ ^ ...!., I,. .a ; nc ucBircu uiu lu leave : He lives at Pans— ?{;/tere is it possible you have never been ? (50) • He wiJl be here to-rr^i-row — when please call again (51). ' Rome Itnpern tivo ftiid piirtiplplftl coujuuctioua. Correlntlveg. Conjunctive phrases. Usually limiting; sometimes purely descriptive. ifi 1 t i- ^ I* t.' PREPOSITIOys. Jt wi: '» i' Iff' Or'flrlnftlly ajjveros. Origin of relations. Not classified Connection witli words. XIT. PREPOSITIONS. frofteu uted k „ ^ l-ave seen (;i7fi), t!,,, smne word to st«y/,-„„ „,„,,„„g till eve,,!,,/; ,„ eo„mA„,„ fear- to happen /tow no fault of mine. ' t.„m rZd'd' {'" P'-<'''"^''T^ ''^ eo„.iderably ]es. wotdf;|fonowi L"'''T r *™'" "^"Se, particular ^aftsolve from, conversant tnVA, mvolve m, comply with 11..^''^' ""f \"' '"■' "^'"^ ^^*^' particular preposition^ ^^horrent to, averse ^o, alien , con.; v. a<. FOBMATIO^. .. 205 Olhc/s arc followed bv inoro fl.nn ^. each ex....e.iu« a m.Ja Sll VJ^CS '/.i:' to get «< facts : to Pnfmof * • ^""'Pit, to entrust i t»iin]? /o one ; one with a thini. • to look (^fur the house : to get «< facts ; 1'^ oi^er a fever ; on oith u person • OM<«/Uebt; <« a journey's euu , take afler one's father ; ,^ one /or a thief ; ^^ ff. anything ; 7/0H oneself; "^ a person r thing; iito » matter ; /«/• wJiat Is loHt ; ' ai account , hrotujh an account ; out of fi windov- Jvlu'tiou; thiViir simple!'""' "'• """"'' "" *"""^' to txp»ot o/(„,.yi.„,„j „„; ^.„^ to die ,,/• f/,.„,„, ^it„) ,,„„g^,. ■'-' y»" . and speaker. ; 'to. t.™L a.^;;; tn'^f J"'^- FORMATION. compounds, or d iraL .^ "I"' ^''^ derivatives, 01' words used rXtio afh . Ti^Tl''^. f independent origin: tons, fT xalnpi; ^^^ ^"^'^^^^ and Romanic priced ^fo^^l;;^^^^^^ (<^r, nominative) ex- ''''":" ^';:.s::iLj^!> ii;:t""ni^ ^-'-^"^ ^- "^-^-r'); i>fl.i the 1 ice; that L' f..! '. "".^ '""' ^'^^thstandinq ; ^ ' ' PmL./the event . t^at^rfh^'"' "'^^ '^^''^^ /^^^-^?/ all e.ce,i the boy ;7hat Isfl ' he' l^^bSf V'^' . a year «,o; that is', a yeaM^iLW "''^' Dimnsr the Middle and Earlv M. . I . tongue-stoi. suffix (11^ \v^,1, Tmf^/i"^' P^^^«^«' ^^e participles of Latin ori^ . U^J^t ahnt'\ '\"^f"^. ^'^^^• been recently ii^roduee>-, comp. connected yvithup aud ore iu "above." (3) . Compound and otlier derived prepositions : (a) . From other prepositional or adverbial elements: unto, upon, anderneath, before, beliind. above toward(8), within, throughout.' ' (b). From nouns and adjectives: among(st), across, beside (s), amid, between, around, aslant, along. (4) There are besides many phrases, combinations ot independent words, used relationallv, which may be valued as preposition phrases (152). ^Examples are ''''* fn' //.T ?"k' ^' *^' .^^ ^^••' «" *'"« s'^ie, alongside, in front of, by way of, because of, for the sake of. ' instead of, in lieu of, according to, in respect (or, regard) to ; and many others An expression like as regards, which IS shortened for so far as it regards, may also be Vi^Iued as a preposition phrase, meaning "concern- ing," or in regard to." PECULIAR WORDS. 412. As we have already seen (408), the preposi- tion was originally connected closely with the verb -_ ...... i vf^u^ lO aiiaen itacu especially to a verba] Phrases. PECULIAR trORDS. 267 word, with, liowever, differ^'ut logical values- thus for example, in vmues. mus, a --"- on^. ,ookecW«.j, ; a place fo. pitlhin, .^." 'l„t in; iins chair has been Hiit upon by stiidouts ; on, with, into, in, and upon are each nart of u Ml.vnan pare the ,-,. ati..n of H,e prelix i„ u .l,.rivative) I k ■ """'"'"■ «< v,M-l« these words nrndify the v,.rl.a[ wonl „■ h jvneh they are «o,uu«te.l, u.ul, althoii^.h li^v .. , whi':his^hrp'aU:e"oT"""""^ '" ""' ""' --""p'^- students have sat upon this chair; phraie.''^'"^ ^'''"' '""^ ''^''' ^^^'^^« ^ transitive verb- The words upon, in, ivith, etc., thus used, are partlv ^IdvlrMJ^^^^ «"^' may !>; desS as aaverbial prepositional partieles modifvine thp expressions to which they are attached. ''""''^"'^ ^'^^ Two intermediate st.-c. of this conversion of the ordinary preposition are seen in such sentences as John is the name (wliieh) he answers to- . ties all ties above; travels the whole woi'd o^er; in which to above, and over are still preposition^ hnf " less markedly so than in the regular cCructio,;. ' 413. In such constructions, again, as Foi' me to die is great gain, for also has only part of the grammatical value of the ordinary preposition, but this value is different from that of .,., upon, etc., above. Whereas the prenor tion, 111 the usual construction, has two terms ^ the latter being in the objective), on, upon eZ Ihovt (412), have only the first term, While /.rhksonlv the second. For, thus used, may, theref^e be called an introductorv nr/'nncff/r.«..i J.,„^: , "^^' "® ^^^^^^ :i For, an liitroduct.ory prepositionitl particle. — ..^^„„vc. ^„,, Luiis useu, 1 an introductorv nrpnnvi+ir,r, t*t piirticie. im PBE POSITIONS. In such const Oriaiii of the idiom. Nom. after save, but. Nigh, and its derivatives. 'ritrf •tions as the following, for has of course, its full preposition value : The wind sits fair /or news to go to Ireland • The night is too dark /or us to see. ' t^ui* '^^''x'"^,''^'^'^^"''^ prepositional particle for is probably due to the influence of the archaic fw to a pre- position piirase introduced when the io of the OF gerundial infinitive began to lose its preposition value" thus, tor example, What went ye out for to see f If ye will not suffer my children /or to pass, etc. ; conjoined to the fact that the construction without the ^r Uound, for example, in Chaucer and other Middle English writers) in such a sentence as " . No wonder is a lewed man to rust ( = "No \\cnder it is for a common man to rust") ; doe.^ not mark precisely the relation of the infinitive and its subject to the rest of the sentence. %^' ^^1^ nominative case is sometimes found after .wve iOFv.sauf, safe '0 and hut, both in Elizabethan Ji^nglish and in present poetry : for example, No man hath seen the Father save he which is of God • Nor never none (395) ' Shall be mistress of it save / alone.— Shakespeare • Where nothing save the waves and / Shall hear our mutual murmurs sweep.— Byron • What stays have I but : / . CONJUNCTIONS-FORMA TIOX. 271 XIII. CONJUNCTIONS. FORMATION. 420. A« we have already seen (47), conjunctions Mostly from are of comparatively late growth. They have been C&eT" tormed in various ways, mostly from other parts of speech : thus, for example, from pronouns: fliat, hence, whether, both; adjectives : provided, except; adverbs: consequentlii, lastly, now, namely; prepositions : hut, for, since, before; verbs : say, siqypose, to wit, videlicet (viz.) As we have also seen (376), many words can be used both as conjunctions, and as adverbs or prepositions or both ; only a few words, indeed, are used solely as conjunctions, as and, nor. Manv words also, ordinarily prepositions, and some words ordinarily That omitted, participles or imperatives (405), are now used as coii- .lunctions, especially by the omission of that, which once followed them. In Modern English, this use of that has disappeared except in a few conjunction phrases, as in that, save that, but that. On the other hand, in old style English, that (owing r^at inserted. m its derived conjunctive value [312]) was often inserted after words which were originally inter- rogatives, in order to give them a conjunctive force: thus, for example, in Shakespeare, When that the poor have cried, Caesar hp.th wept; and it may still ])e used, for the same purpose after some adverbs : thus, for example, (Mce (or, Now) that he is here, I may go. ' By an: Jogy, that was aino n^A in old style English even after words that had a c«^ijjunctive value: thus tor example, in Shak^^p-are, ' Lorenzo and Saierio, .velcome hither, If that the youth of my new interest here to uitj you srt^icome. 272 COSJUNCTIONS. while. M>. ■ Origin of that. Adverbial, Ordinary. meaning •'«„«.' fi^^fLi'i^ was originally a nonn :nnet:.ns owing to the accident o^rtrSTegLrg I do not think that (namely) he is here • I came after that (namely/ he had S CLASSES. aiiu, m aetail, the different fla^epc «# ..^ .: '» adjectives or pronomCadv^bsVp,''™"'''"'"''' relation^ tlT'''^^^^ '""^^^* ^^^"«^« and ^show h h- relations ; thus, for example, in I stay and he goes ; I stay ^/he goes ; «W(? and if are ordinary conjunctions ; but,' in I stay; therefore he goes ; I stay lohen he goes • therefore and when are adverbial conjunctions.' Other examples are: Ordinary co-ordinate: for, but, either, or, both, and, neither, nor. Adverbial co-ordinate : theiefore, so (colloquial), hence, still, consequentlr accordingly; yet, nevertheless ;' furthi.rrmSver^' CLASSjES. 273 '-)rdinar,y subordinate : Adverbial subordinate • example, we say ""I'hatic word : thus, for I Stay ; rsvertheless he eoes Co.. j,o .7 , or i.JL^ ^ ' ^® ^nevertheless troes • or, iie goes, nevertheless). ^ ' The connection made bv th^ r...rv eonjunetions is also ,1a ^ elo'er H anTh,T"°''t''j''' «""°'"- the adverbal eo-ordinatn f^r,,,^.. *■ 'hat made by often find the ela.LTco Lee ed bv'?h ' f ^" "">' ^« separated by a comma or w"X, wYtl.i Z™™*'''' •^'"""• mark, while those eo.mectebvT^i'?",*,'' ••""«'"««<>" separated by a sem mlnn ^ ® '""*"' '"* "«»ally showing a longer pZe " P»"etnation mark Again, while the adverbial eo-or,Un,,f^ . ,. never refer back to a par ion h, eonjunetions Adverbial. ' clause, the subordinat^ adve 1 ,? "' V? "'« «>•«' do: thus, for example in ««»Jn"etions often U It;\iti&^\";,",^,-" ^'»-. r connects tvhere is an adverb in its own !^'f " ''^"^'' ^'^'-''-ea* as a whole with the first el nil If "', ""'' "onn^ets it adjeeti;u t,> ihe Z^7o,m ' "" '"''^'•^"'^'''"'^e being -ftL';e74ri::S'i)"es'':,^ T^ -pound eonjuncticns that are n^P.{ ft ^^^ co-ordinate we,^<»nshlered i^aTene::? Irtrt.!'.--'.-^ -v/iijuuc Lions exijjvsfcj TT'iiri.. „ " ' ' • -^i.~ liiuae expiesb. Having also examined under :? 1 274 CONJUNCTIONS. IS ' ,1^ Sboniinate ^'''^^s ^eads the difforoiit varieties of su^ordiiinre conjunctious. chiuses, we may now classify, on the basis of meanii;^ the eoiijimctions tliat are used to eonneet these chiiises • remembering, however, that the same conjunction has otten a great variety of uses and meanings. TJie subordinate conjunctions may be classified as : (1) . Of place and time : thus, where, wheu, whenever, as, while (whilst), unjtil, before. ^ By some English speakers and writers, directly aiui immediately arc now used for as soon as : for example. Directly (or, hnmcdiatelij) he got in, the train started ; but this usage is neither reputable nor national, and sliould not be imitated. (2) . Of cause : thus, because, since, whereas, for that (archaic). (3). Of condition and concession : thus, if, unless (=- if - not") except, provided, though, although, notwithstanding, albeit (arch.), without (colloquial). (4) . Of end or purpose : thus, that, so that, lest ( = "that—not, so that— not"— colloquial) in order that. ' (5). Of manner and degree (including com- parison) : thus, as, than. (6). Of result or effect: thus, that, till, (7). Substantive; that is, those introducing noun clauses : that, whether, if, why, how. 424. We have now to add a few particulars in regard to the uses and meanings of some conjunctions. As we have already seen (45), some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as and, or, nor, but, for, are often formally (not logically) detached from the preceihng context, and stand at the beginning of a sentence or a paragraph; so that the relation they show is looser and more com* r-"- hensive than when they formally connect clauses. Oiwot Special comments: a7id, or, vor^ ptc. CLASSES. 275 il>i 1 1 these conjunctions, for exanipl(3, may even sliow the logical connection between two paragraphs. 425. As we liave also seen (41), the relations between (Wr,i iv« clauses are sometimes shown by correlative conjunctions : '^""'' '^*«- thus, for example, Both lie and I will go ; Either he o>- I will go. These correlatives are more emphatic than the single conjunctions. The first in a pair leads us to expect the second, and is as it were, an outside prop to strengthen the relation. Other correlatives are not only— but (or, but also), neither— nor, though (or, although)— yet (or, still), if— then, whether — or. When not onhj—btit (or, but also) is used the second statement IS more important than the hrst; both— and, however, simply emphasizes the co-ordination. Ovving to the fact that neWm^nor (n- neg.) is the Neither ana negative of either— or, the following are equivalent in "''^• meaning: I knew neither the iimn nor the woman • I did not know either the man or the woman • I did not know the man, and I did«o< know the woman ; for, T^en we deny alternatives separately, we logically deny the affirmative s atements. Hence, nor is used for ail noi, and we have such mixed copulative and alternative co-ordi- nation as IS seen in the following examples : John was not Ibere ; nor was James ; neither wiia ,] amen; ■ and neither was James ; and James was 7iot either. 426. Some conjunctions and conjunction phrases express Condition condition along witli other relations : thus, for example, 'vuTXr Come in ; otherw^e (or, colloquial) you will get wet : ' // (or, men if I went wrong, I have a good excuse He will fail ichcther he does it or not • He acts as if (or, thowjh) he were the king • He IS richer than if he had gone to the Klondyke. Here, besides condition, otherwise signifies that the second clause IS the result of the non-observance of the command in the first, its meaning being ''for, if you do not come in"- 1/ expresses concession; ivhether—or, an alternative- and au" .-.■:-■-' y v<-onjanetion phreises by sentence abbreviation), comparison, ^ n i I < ( relations. m If . r 1 «ps 5 ft" «,1 f ' 11 1 276 coxjuxcTioys. for, because. 427. For, hernu whether, or. Whether in subordinate questions. or. hut. t\w 1 fir. TIk! co-Old inuto for properly states ojrical jrroniKl lor a preceding' statement, and the connection it uuikvs is soniclinu's so loose that the /or-ehiuse seems an aft('rthou.i.lu. The si.hordinate because introdnees a cJause vvhieli expresses the canse of what is predicated of the subject in Its principal clause; so that it is a causal adverb clause. Soineti.nes, however, for and because are mterchanjred, especially wiien, so far as the sense is con- cerned, it is immaterial whether we take the /or-clause a^ co-ordinate or subordinate. But there are cases in which for only siiould be used. Examples of the uses of these words are : «^'ic»r The soil is rich ; for (not, because) the vegetation is rank • Ihe vegetation is rank ; because {or, for) the soil is rieli ;' Wc came home because the doors were closed; for such were the master's orders ; My brother came to my i oseue ; for he happened to be i M 'ent. 4f28, Whether— m\ These correlatives are ordinar\ conjunctions when they connect principal interrogative clauses; but subordinate, in alternative conditional clauses: ^/ of Northumberlande, An, to God made he.— Percy's Reliques. It (lies ana ij ( -=*' even if ") it had a thousand lives. I Modern Englisli, and has a use that resembles thiri: thus, for example, And art thou cold and lowly laid t This and, however, may be now taken as connecting its modem an expressed thought with one preceding and not expressed ] he speaker or some one else, although probably it is, in origin, the intensifying particle. We find a somewhat similar use of and in such sentences as That the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head, And we far away on the billow (150) ; where it is unnecessary as a connective but where it emphasizes the expression that follows. So, too, in such sentences as God help her, and that right early ; Chaucer often hits the mark, ayid that by means the least expected ; He rode several races for Sir Thomas, anS this with such expertness, etc., where that (rarely this) represents the preceding sen- tence repeated, with an emphatic addition. Analogous expressions are I heard a humming, and that a strange one too ; With short intervals of sleep, and those ntirely filled with dreams ; She had one foe, and that one foe the world. m' •I > . li» IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^.r 1.0 !SiM llllIM I.I 11-25 i 1.4 M 2.0 1.8 1.6 -^ e. % c^J p*.. =^-v /r?^ '''^ osr* / > "^ ^ ^^^y. ^^# rnoujgiepmc Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 € Jv '^ ^ ^1\ ^\ '^_% u % ^^L o "'* «- few particulars. Some inferiwH^ ^"^ """' '"1<1 a f>s! simply show om- emotC'^k''^ '"'•'- /"«'•'. '«/, ?<»<•/, ;,„,,/,/ have pait V H« ^ ' '"^'''"' "' t.ves, being used to influe' fcc^ther^ p" "' '"'P"™- asseveration also, as imlJd' T/i ^f "^^sions of up to the strongest oatl rar;'of the n^^:- ' ^,*'''"'-^-'. tons; being, some of them lo'evl ""''"* '"'«''J^^^ than words like ?«/, and les^ so rt I. ' '""'*, """tional And, as wr have se^nTs'^r n v "'■*"''''' '"'*^ «''«•'• interrogati.'e sentences nnd ""''•"•*'^«' ""Perative, and partake of the , atm^''o?''lr;;'' '^"boi'dinate clinses are used in exclamation !f '" '^'■■"^'^t'"". when they ■ the interjection is som«f '"""" "''^o ^^en (155) with othei e^ors"- ' "xtlaml' rl '^>"'-«-"y way also approaching the viltr" f '^' P""? ^"^^ = "' this especially often rcsem^blgti:'v,.b t^T, "^ ''^''^' A- me,; Alas the day!; ho,™ o I "''''""'"'' O that U JXe (obj'w ." ■""" 'P°".- Alas, that he has done so (adv')t OthouthatruIesttheheavensI,.O.i,,tyC;sar; ' CLASSES. ACCORDING TO MEANINO. clatf:fied^on the't^S'or''^"^^^^^"^^^^'''"^^^^^^^ are list; some, ho w ;^ 1^^%^ ^^ ^^"---^ according to tliP tona ;,..^V - ^'^^'[^^^ emotions "" ^ ""^^ ^^ Utcerm^ them. But, as e d a u (^ J [. ar CLASSES. 281 s - V we have seen above, there are many interjectional elements which, owing to their peculiarities, it would be difficult to include in a classification : such expressions are best described in accordance with their exceptional uses and meanings : (1). Of joy, glad surprise, pleasant emotion: oh !, ah !, ha !, hey !, hurrah !, huzza !. (2). Of painful feeling or suffering; oh!, ah!, alas!, well-a-day!, dea. me!, heigh-ho!. (3), Of disapproval or contempt : poh !, fie !, faugh !, fudge !, whew !, oh ! oh !. (4) . Of calling attention r ho !, hullo !, halloo !, hem !, lo ! . (5). Of quieting or repressing: hist !, hush !, tut !, mum !. (6) . Of approval or assent : bravo!, hear! hear!, amen. (7) Words made in imitation of natural sounds are a kind of interjection : thus, pop!, bang!, bow-wow!, ding-dong!, rub-a-dub L I f 'A 282 IS'FIXITIVES ANL PARTICIPLES. XV. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES «ome of their simpfe«t cofs Cet on (iTo-m") ' T INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS. USE AND OMISSION OF THE SIGN especially an adverb, is plaeeHrtween fl i , '* ZZ^' rest of the infinitive: thus! "'"' ^'"^ J^^rX&TJeTeS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ »- -^ -e Tliere are very many eases in which the root inflni tive IS used, not the geruudial infinitive: (1). After tlie Old verbs enu and mnit a.xl «w„ ;to, ««?/, ste^Z, and will, both as aux S;«t „ f mdepeudent verbs. Ouok is ai::;s foUowe" b^l "' I sent for you to come speak with me. -Shakespeare. Root lufinitive. Infinitive, with or witliout to. k1 I INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS. 283 CES. ife of the 'iple, and •4) . We fegard to nfinitive nsidered er word, and the ties ; id more t-inflni' d after and as t>y to. onally, nnn^n, fi corn- certain I with .1 ^. (3). In certain peculiar or elliptical constructions: Rootinflniuve (a). After had Mloy^^ed hy as lief (or lievej, bettrr, TJiStSo^nL best, rather, etc. : thus, for example, I bad as lief be none ; You had better cease. (fr^ In comparative phrases like As well yield at once as struggle vainly ; He resolved, rather than yield, to die with honor. When, however, the infinitive in the first clause has to, the same form is often maintained in the second : thus, for example, It is as well to yield at once as to struggle vainly • He resolved to die with honor rather than to yield, (c). After the preposition &w^ (and, in some construc- tions, except J following a negative ; thus, for example, I cannot but be sad ; They did nothing bnt (or, except) idle about. id). When, owing to the emotion of the speaker It IS used absolutely in exclamations (that is, without any governing word) ; thus, for example, "How ! not know the friend that served you ' " Lewis marry Blanche ! O boy, then where art thou ? (4). After certain verbs, when preceded by a word having the relation of object to these verbs, but also the logical value of a subject to the infinitive (447). The most ccmmon of this class of verbs are see hear, feel, let, make, hid, have (in the sense of "make'' or eause''), knotv,find. Examples are I saw him do it : He will have you question me. After some of these to is allowed, or is even more infinitive usual ; and, on the other hand, there are other verbs ^*^*^ '"• after which the to is occasionally omitted, especially "'"""' m the archaic style : thus, Do but speak what thou'lt have me to do: To bid me not to love is to forbid my pulse to move ; Command the grave restore her taken prey (archaic) : Come, I charge you both go with me (archaic). And when the preceding verb is made passive, to is regularly used: thus. He was seen to do it ; hnt he was let go. 284 tNFlKiriVES AND PAHTICIPLES. Root iiiHnitive. Effect of omitting to. Elizabethan usage. Either gerund or geruudiall infinitive. (5). Oocasionally when it is a logical snbiect- but this usage IS somewhat archaic: thus '' ' • Better .Uccll in the midst of alarms than reiffu in this ' wniH 1 horrible place ; tet^ntT';;"'"/ . ^' ^^'"^ ^««^ "«t hww myself? Me lists not tell what words were said (289) ^^^" or ine lutinitive and produces a formal effer.f Tn fi.? to the following idiomatic constructions^ Go a»jr; see him ; Come and tell me thp^nJ'"^. /^^ Elizabethan period, and even later the use of to was unsettled. Examples are ' You ought -otjalk; Suffer him speak no more ; Who heard me to deny it ? T v,n 1 *i •'^'V^*' ^y lord, ^0 ?w(7er she is honP«it • I had rather be a doorkeeper in the ho'i e o? my God than lo dwell m the tents of wickedness ' CONSTRUCTIONS COMxMON TO INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS which are common to all ^ousriuctions noun with a verb; and. when subject or o^ieerthev o";,1^e!'%"99lK 'U " -™"^«- '^Sef :^ Xrbe?!;rti'™:sc?.is-'^^^ He hkes tojoimmi (or, journeying) rapidly • ThPv.«= f^/r*^ ^^ "''"•' («'•' ^'«'W to morrow-' They resented hav^ng heen insulted (not, to haveleln 'insulted) f.itf Tv,^^^^ ^l^^^^y s^en (206), the infinitives that follow the auxiliaries are direct objects '^ ' INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS. 28S iect; but 1 this myself? >f to is meaning In the y, along has led ti later, 1, than :s initive, in part uctions HP ire edicate t, they ject or nndial t; but he one Ited). 3 that ^' ^jir i 441. The gerundiiil infinitive is used nowadays as object of a preposition, almost wholly with abont, in the peculiar sense of " concerned with," *' being about," and so " on the point of"; and occasionally either the root or the gerundial infinitive is found after hut and except. Examples are He is about to depart (or, about departing) • He could do nothing except go; He cannot choose but hear; No coui-se IS open to him but (or, except) to leave. In Modern English, the use of for before the gerundial infinitive (413) has disappeared except in vulgar English and when the infinitive has n subiect (447) : thus, It is improper /or «s to act thas. It is frequently to be met with in the literature of older English, usually expressing purpose: thus. And all countries came into E^ypt to Joseph for to buy corn ; Therefore 'tis good and meet for to he wise ; Shame unto thy stock That dar'st presume thy sovereign /or to mock. The root-infinitive is also to be met with in Middle English after the preposition at, a usage which is due to the Northern dialect. To this idiom the modern ado (that is, "at do") owes its origin. 442. On the other hand, the gerund is very common after a great variety of prepositions: thus. He is tired of wasting his time on trifles ; I know nothing about her having done it. The horse is worn with having been ridden so hard ; On becoming king he reversed the policy of his father ; His dread of being thought stingy makes him liberal. The omission of the preposition produces the follow- ing construction in which the gerunds are adverbial objectives (361) : He was busy {at) ploughing ; T am tired (of) speaking to you. PECULIARITIES OF THE GERUND CONSTRUCTION. 443. The constructions of the gerund are especially peculiar in this: that it very often has before it a noun in the possessive, or a possessive adjective, signifying that to which the action expressed by the A'tei- nhr^ut, bill, except. After /or. Rooc infinitive after at. Genind, common after prepositions. .1 Gerund adverbial m *-A \ ^1 With a subjective possessive. ] i^l 280 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. Witli an objective possessive. Gerund and abstract noun Modern English poiistructions. thus; for exampL ^''''*'^' P^«««««^^« (265 [ij); Tcm^s being here was a lucky thing- They „,s,8ted on his foUo^vJg them •' He knew of my having been left ou^ .' are equivalent to ' It was a lucky thing that Tom was here • the deep damnation of his taking off- the object turned intf a twi™ ''•'/• "'y^' <"•• ^'th to draw a line shar-nW v^^f, -1 /® "^^ possible aud as the oth^^t^X^- ^IT^^ "^ ''^^ -« We read of Caesar's p«,,s.-,,^ the Rubicon passing is unmistakably a gerund h^opnc. '•. * , direct object Ruhicon. * Buf in ' ^^'^ '^ *^^^« ^ Caesar's i^asm^' of the Rubicon, and yet more in the passing of the Rubicon by C«sar passing has simply the value of a noun a. if if the passage of the Uuhimn. AgainTn ' '^^''^ ■ Neither blessing nor c«m»r7 could change him • i^^^:^'^.f rt^-|^-^Mo say ;hether Ut the following: constructions : (1) for the passing the Rubicon • Co\ 4!^„ Pubicon , (3, ",„,. .,,«17 the'i; rr"/) %of' We/iasansro/theBubicon; ' W lor INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS. s almost 565 [IJ): 11 objec- bjeetive >r, with is being -coming' ) those )os.sible he one akes a t were lether aims ; 3le. he 287 Modern English sanctions only (8) nnrl il\ fr. • In older English we find, however, as a resnlt of . confusion, many examnlo^ r»f (^\ '^'''' "Z"^^*^ ^^fiit ot Archaic Shakespeare ^^»'"P^^^^ ^Ml) and (2): thus in ^onstructious. We altered mueh upon the hearing it ; So find we profit by losing of our p/ayers. PECULIARITIES OF THE GERUNDIAL INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION. advct-b ImfT^^t^lZ (the adjective and the w,.■,^.„ lU^e the de,cnpt.ve adverb (407). Examples are • U;. Adjective: A work ^0 do (or to be done); a path to guide our feet • He was not a man to call upon his friends ' This IS to Ue done at once ; He is to rfe/at um'ise Adjectivi Adverb. (2). Adverb: How came you ^ogro? He proceeded to count the ballots • H« n. r "^'^ *'^ "*^"^^ '^' '^^ ^/">-^'-»' premier? ' He came to secure the position ; He left liim to ftsh ■ too r.. ,^ r '^^''^y ^''^'"'^ ^'«"lt and hard to W- too many to he sacrificed {^m [o]) ; strong enough o conauer • Hpf.n ^^«^e you too much /o /e< you go • '" '^"'/*^^^' He fell, never to use again (407) ; He ca^e hfme, only to die. the ni;3^ construction of the gerundial infinitive in ' kind, a different preposition would be necessary : thug^ hI ?5i ? / f ^ ^™ '■ ^ •'^"^ '-^shamed /o heg He failed ^o Zmrn it ; He resolved to entef- What were you thinking of, to trust himsofar? /Q fmr turn talk, one would think him master if if 286 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. Ih '. ill I II [ 11 •II I t U * Resultfnjf constructions After a verb and its object Infinitive, an object. Inflaitive, an adverb. Objective subject of the iuflmtive. where we might say: resolved on entering; in trusHno \nm so fur • on hearing him talk. ' OTHER ROOT AND GERUNDIAL INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. liktt?; I^r ^"^"1*!^'^'. With or without to, is used nS9) «?L '^'^ t''''*^:" P^'^^i^^t^ ^djectiv; or mnm They saw he..^^«rj; Nobody imagined him to he listenina- ^ hey declared h.m to have been killed • ^'*"'^' He prevailed on them to no- ' He waited for them to leave (233' [1]) I told him to go; Tliey forbade us to enter • the dhlnl^'T '' r^"^ *^' "^"^ gerundial infinitive in the d rect objective, and the pronoun is the iiXee? objective. In other cases, like indirect I forced him to go; They induced us to remain; It t^^'^'''^ '^ *^^ ^^^^^'b gerundial infinitive and But here again (as in 446) the construction has been earned much beyond its natural limits, as the object nupk'ion); ); ^• : resemble that, or voi'd with I <'l llOllll malo^'-ous 145-147). as noun )r adverb VE is used, or noun adjunct ; is con- Uening; ion has IS itive in ndirect ve and ositioix^l IS been object INFmiTlVES AND GERUyuS objeeHv^ubj:::^;'^;!;^^^^!- subie<.t (the He believed his friend IT I ' ^'"" ''''^"^^^^^*' 1.. tl.o firs, i,,,,„,„,,. ,, "V". '° '"'™' '"'«""<»i!^<»(. for as w„ hav.. »(.(.„ abov . Ti P'" '«•«'« ailji'ftivB (122) a«tive, a kind ,,f af an adjective verb I, ^m?! ^ ""* '"flnitive ■He telt it /o /j/? <7r hr,.,r... /, . ^ '' ''^ 268 PftHStv* ''onstruc. tion witn ft'lverblal infinitive. Subject ftfter /or. Infinitive* o» the eopuii^ with an adjective or noun. — xc-xt jt fo oe ar hnnn^- n— ■• '--' " ' ^'^ " source)^ I esteemed it a« /.o,.o. '(less oJLr."""vf'l.''r''^^^ ft' Id c an lUen of inflnitive After: (1). aeem (2). eet here ►^ornetnnes also tJii* i subjea, vvLieh is usua ly i^'ICIlf '^ 'l'"'""^" '"»« a «'«-*n,yp„.do„, poorw„„„, ' 7"""^'^" ««««: thus. /f '■» '««'Ty Blmml,™ o ' n ''"1*'"' ■"> my heart • And he to („,.„ „„,„t^,. i„ " ' °y. "'en whwe n-t thou ! '' She and /;« pfp i,, i, described as th'e subje-Loftfl? v'*™^*'''"^' '"''v be Ai'd such eximple predicate (119). He is (or ias been) .«,«„,, h.-^^ („^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^3(2). Ordmary adverbial predicate (122 and 373 u-^r,;;sa;&^crLn..t ^^(3). Appositive adverbial predicate (138 aud 373 In sueh colloquial constructions, however, as ' HelostUsfS/"rS.-^tfgSr^' an tJvlS'^^Kr-ilf --'»•«. ""^^ -P-- Bi„p,y objective, which is due < an onTittl"^"'"* '' t*^"»«' '" "•« U) l?„„*-i- , omitted preposition. and 132) f"" """^ "'"'^'"'"•y objective predicate (131 As ordirijiry ad.iectlve8. Compounds with -eA, As nouns. In the con- struftions of the predicate adjective. Adverbial forms in -inflr. I wiJ] have a ^nt^kr^y, o^„* ii-_ -^^ H» kept uv««;^7 '^y - iir^,S;"«--/.«,. 294 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. As ordinary appositives. Being, having been, auxiliaries. Appositive adjectives: logical values. How specialized. (5). Appositive objective predicate (138) : We own the book bound in morocco ; He eame in, having his hands covered with paint. 455. The participles are used with the utmost free- dom as ordinary appositives (136) : thus, for example, She, dtjinff, gave it to me ; The enemy, beateti, fled to the camp ; Not having an overcoat, he caught a severe cold • Sleeping or waking, I must still prevail. ' And often, instead of an adjective or a perfect participle by itself, as directly appositive, we insert being, haimiff been, the participles of the copula (as we do to be and to have been [449], in parallel infinitive constructions) as a kind of verbal auxiliary to the adjective expression, which thus comes to be com- plementary to it ; the phrase thus formed ( orrespond- ing to the participle of an adjective verb: thus for example, ' John, being weary, has returned home ; John, being tired with the day's work has gone to bed- The enemy having been beaten retired to his camp. ' And, as in the case of the auxiliary infinitive, the use of the being is sometimes optional and sometimes necessary. 456. The appositive adjective, as we have seen (137), especially implies the suggestion of an added clause of which it is itself the predicate. The participles and participle phrases used appositively, have very often the value of such clauses. They are,' in a manner, a substitute for them, which, by securing brevity, adds force to what we have to say. Thus, in place of some of the examples given in par. 4,53 we may say: ' She gave it to me when she died; The enemy, when he had been beaten, fled to the camp ; Whether I sleep or wake, I must still prevail. Since, however, the participle phrases in such a sentence as '' Sleeping orwaMng , I must still prevail," may be the equivalent of different subordinate clauses; in Modern English ambiguity is avoided without a PARTICIPLES. 29S> liut. nost free- example, )ld; a perfect WQ insert la (as we infinitive y to the be com- •respond- thus, for 5 bed; mp. , the use ►metimes ive seen n added >. The isitively, hey are, securing Thus, in 4e53, we amp ; such a re vail,"- clauses ; without to principal clauses -Sus ""' "* ^"bordinate 27 'a, T' °^^"'""""' '^'»-) Sleeping or wak:.g. etc «euteucesas ""'Pare 673 [4J) occurs in such Ta^;"^ S'idlor is' hr ^^ ^^T^ ^-^^^ and colloquial English. Our spoken 2'"^"'' '?^1«"^ ^^^^^ i« respects, more analyt c £ " , "/^^^^^^^ is. in all former follows the n/odernaLv^^^^ language. The latter has been greatly i^Leneedbv?'-"''^ ^ > ^' ^'^^'^' '^" ot the sentences in Latin ami Pv t^rl^ complex structure nowthan in Elizabethan Engt^^^^ th«»^li less Modern English, we often fin;] :^T'^i^^^?%' i" written ordmate sentences of spoken eLS'^^ ^^ *?" ^^^ ^•«- m which the verb of one of H^' ^ "'""P^^ sentence turned into a Participial phrase li'us"?''"'^^ ^^f ^^^ spoken form of the above sentence would be' '''"^^''' '^^ He leaped from his horse nvA ^fi, ^ he Greeks and Roman.,) wfare no l-.v f f''''' ""».' ^""'"'^ ture, always to mark cleaX ?„?""'' •'™;' '" ''f«™- sequenee of events. In te abo " - T"*'? , '''"' '"^'-^al for example, tl,e then, which wonW """"fl"'^! 'sentences, ■s generally omitted. ""'"^ """''^ "'« sequence, Again in sucii a sentence as we Inve InT '""' "' '""''' ''"'"^'"'0 >"' '"o country,. of bursting and devasta ing c?nte " r""' '" "'t^ "'« *'='^ precedes; so that A<.«.(„"f '""efc Tl^^r",', "'" ""."•««"« to and then devastated," etc '"^'"""y equivalent Partt1ple"™o,3ifriIr ™^<'^. "'« •"'"^'■•"elion with a objective pred ca e o1. .s\nn„l'"v'"r" <"''««'"• "« that of «„;„«. :t.' ."? ajipositive) is eonivnlent t„ ^ ..fiu.uvo witii „, objective subject u'i?)" Idiomatic nse of imperfect participle. Origin of the construction. Eqnivalents of participle with objec- tive uoun. I 290 MIH Interchange' able con- structions. fii '; M Concrete, originally preferred. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. J li J 'll! ii Isaw him get down from his horse • ^ I saw him getting down from his ho'rse • 1 saw /«s getting down from his horse. ' i^f'an'^d'lf T "f "'■^ equivalent expressions, the that "he ,otdown™r hTtor .Z^HLT'^ veZl'^o '"LfjiT "','"' '•''''"•''• ^"^-^ in wh"h" i,e ■•\, „, I, ! ' . ''■"'*'''™« are made to plav a nart oSeXer-^' '"-^ "'«' "^ -' -•'-'" -b- of ^StX'Zs, '" ''"^^ '"''"■'^■- P'"^-^ ''•^ P"t I saw him struck down by the assassin. 459. Hence, both after a verb and after a crenosi tion, the two eonstrn-tions, of an obTertive ea,e modified by an imperfect participle, ^ and of a possessive modifying a gerund, are to a eeitaiu extent interchangeable, and the question somet me" arise, wh«: loll' mtt d'f "fr^"- ^''-•"«™ ' - even amo, g gTod wrif^^fa^^^^^ttT""^' ^^P"'^ """^ less ones),"th"e one'is'o^on 1 - riuid^wS Zll exCpTe """"■ """•^ P^''^'''- "'^ «thei-.. thus ?or Would you mind mt asking a few questions? , . rai-don Me bluslimn; The certamty of the old mm inlerrnpti„n him • The hope of society is in «.„ carirg for better things. y^iK my Hushing, my asking, the o?fi man's ,-«/.r- «7''''''\"^^ ^ ^^"«- ^ venters, it is not commonly 297 1 'J ^ m INFtKlTIFES AND PARTICIPLES. Being, having been, auxiliaries. ^ Logical value of absolute construction. I, 1 Impersonal coustruction. used: by many, indeed, it is avoided as being uiiidiomatic. Exanii)les are The teacher abseniing himself, there was no school ; One of them luiving fallen, the rest ran away ; This said, he sat down ; Dinner finished, he went away. And, as in the case of the infinitive and the participle, instead of a simple passive participle, or another adjective word or phrase, being taken directly with the noun or pronoun in absolute construction, the auxiliary being or having hmi is often introduced: thus, for example, _ This being (or, having been) said, he sat down ; Dinner being (or, having been) finished, he went away; He sat down, his heart being heavy with sorrow In this construction, being said and being finished are not the progressive forms of the perfect participles. 8a:d and finished are simply complementary participles to the participle being; but the forms with having been may be valued as phrasal perft ct participles, for the meaning is then the same as when we value said and finished as complementary participles (226) 462. Like the absolute construction already described (150), the noun and the participle in the absolute con- struction express some accompanying circumstance or condition of the action and are generally the equiva- lents of adverbial clauses : thus, the sentences above are equivalent to As the teacher absented himself, there was no school. When he had said this, he sat down ; and so on with the others. And, as in the case of adverbial clauses (407), the absolute construction is sometimes descriptive co-ordinating: thus, He left for the Continent, all his family accompanying him. Occasionally, the quasi-subject part of this con- struction is omitted as in, I! ^^^' or One) Assuming this to be true, what will follow? \Sru i- ^«^^*"«.'7 of failures, I heard of one to-day ; Mhe fox terrier is, generally speaking, a faithful companion. This is called the impersonal absolute construction. And, as we have seen (411 fll). snob nr.p^/^cjfi«r.c ir I i Participles. as being chool;" ay; it away. participle, 1" another 'eetly with iction, the itrodueed : wn ; t away ; ■row nished are )articiples. participles aving been s, for the e said and I described solute con- nstance or he eqniva- ces above ehool. le case of ruction is ying him. this eon- [ follow? mpanion. struetion . Infinitive \n absolute construction. "> this way eitherdi,:ecti;'n"7; ".IT!-^.""" P™<'''«ey refetitie'riT^^^ritted' thus"" "'"" consider. ^ con^n'ec\tes":f'"e,a~r ' otr^h "'''^•'' ""■•<' °"«'-"^ very large seale Z„eS,''of alT''^ ^ ^' "" " and phrases which are eo ordina e i a'^intllr"""' 468. As we eaJl a se„*„„„: '.'!". l"!"^^ "'""««• .?! > ^ 468 A« wp noli : "^^"^'ue m a single clause. 'Koo. AS we call a sentence compound ivh^n ,> • > of two or more CO-OrdinX nl '*^ '^ Compound .J X. ,, iiiwic I.U Oiainate Clansps nunulU, members. nnected together bvcnnT ''''.'■""''' '''""^<*' "■''"«lly member of a senfi ?^""''''?"'' ^^ "'^ ""H any mmfte^oreleme„tJ,.rf •''*'"? "^ ^ompounrf more co-ordinatrwnvl "„'^ ™ade up of two or conjunctions (114) ^' "'"^"^ ^'"''^ '"K'^ther by ele^eltV: Je'l^'ce "tZ "IJ "''ll"' "^'' ^--^^'i^' there are as ma y "entencc f'T^^" ^ hold that verbs in anythh'g^^ve sa^ ^ ''""'"'^ "* ''^"^''^ «'•« offtn!; t?I '^T,'":?'™*?, «<>ninncf.V,n «„rf is used far thus compou'udi;; the"£enrof ^ '"^'''r '" a..tinctly do we feel i^T^^l'T^ri- .^■"> ^ And. in co-n- poundinj; binds together into one m 802 II. In Rubor- dinatiou. l> > I ' I if ' h Conjunctive word left. mREO ULAR CONSTR UCTWN. tprJ.T^l"'^" r^»"P«si»gr f compound element tliat the Zraf as"^!?^: %'/"^''f '? -'"P-"^^«d is made piiiral as if it had a phiral subject (117 [III) Indeed, there are combinations which cannot be taken apart mto single clauses : for example, We thought Tom and Dick and Harry I noisy trio • He confounds ri^ht and wrong: Ihree and eighteen make one-and-twenty • He sat between his sister and his brother. Such combinations with any other conjunction are only rare and irregular. 470. But even the subordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to join a mere word or phrase which represents an abbreviated subordinate clause to tlial on which the clause would depend ; thus, Are you mad ? If not, speak to me : Though often forbidden he kept coming; He fell while bravely defending the flag- It can be done, though not without trouble : Did you go t If not, you may remain now ; ^llwh "'* ^? '''*'."?* *^"^'" "though he was often trouble '^etc ""* '" ^"^^ '* ''"'' ''''* ^' "'"''" '^'^^''"^ In all such cases if we are to parse the words or clauses, we must supply what has been omitted Most commonly this form of ellipsis is found in the ease Z t W nT;ri^ ^r^^^t ^^^^"^ 7^^. ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^"^^^ ^^ t^^ same as that ot the other clause. And, in all such cases, ihe fact of an omission of what might be and generally is expressed I. much more distinctly present to our minds than when we abbreviate by means of and or w or hut and the like. 471. By a like desire to avoid unnecessary repeti- tion, we sometimes let a conjunctive word or a subordinate interrogative represent alone the whole clause which it would hav3 introduced: thus, He has been gone all day, no one knows lohere; I cannot come, and I will tell you ichy • One of you must give way, I do not care which; that is, "where he has gene;" " why I cannot come ; " aim M> on. ilere itis, of course, proper to give ivhere, etc., the values of the clauses which they represent -^^f >^; ABIiREVUTION FOR ECONOMY. 303 fc that the i is made 7 [II.J). ^ be taken trio ; ction are tions are ise whi(;h e to that as often ? without vords or 3d. I the case the same he fact of xpressed, an when le Hke. ' repeti- d or a e whole >> some; ) ivhere, esent He IS older than ycu think (that he is old) ; r „« 1^ S® *^ ^^^^'^ *han I (am tall) : I would rather go than (I would soon [377]) stay; -She 18 as good as he (is good) • ae put It off a« Jong as putting it off was) nossihlfl • We thy neighbor as (thou lovestT Tl yseT '' ' I regard it as (I regard a thing) possrble ' phrases as ' *^^^' ^^ ^""^^^SY, we make such He gained great fame as an orator : Mis fame as orator was great ; He did this as a precaution ; He did his duty as chairman ; where it would be by no means easv to fill nnf fK^ ^ir • • such a way as should give as its Zper meanii^i n i?fif '" - may be described as an aaveVti^Uo'lljSe partt/e'"^' Often, before a conditional clause, a whole clause of comparison, involving a repetition, is omTtted after T ^?l ^°?^^ ^^ (^® ^ould look) if he were tii-Prl • I would thank her as (I saould thaik he:)Tflhe^had gone- clau; Auf ' " '"' ''''' ""''''' ^^^^^ ^^'-^^ '-f Nor w«Vh'* ^' T "' ^^"" "''" ^'^^•^ ^^^" y°» ^re in health ; Defied Z^T -T ^^^^'? ^'*h "«'««« than (one's ear is pealed little witH poises when Bellona storms or less than (one's ear would be, etc/ifthJ^'f.lanie ' ot Heaven were falling. Even the clause immediately following the tf.?.ol«ii«a may be abbreviated m«Vi^« for i™ 5 a^-clause He looks as if tired ; Stooping as if to drink • Vou are just as gay as token in health. ' In rompari- sou: than, at. adverbial conjumtive particle. Conditional and otlier clauses after as. 804 IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION. V a$ though. Origin of inturchiinge. At with subjunctive -a« if. So as to. Poor as they are, etc. In con< ji.onal clatisos this kind of ahbreviutiou is so jy And further, we frequently form sentences like these : My friends, poor as they arc, are above being bought • ' All unarmed as he may he, he will disdain to tlj- • ' where the MdiVctiyes poor and unarmed are in npnositive construciion mod f'-^ne- the «nKno«fu ^p /i • VPP"'^^'^^ clauses, fn^n^.. 5 ^fi^^ "Td ""^^l^^^ independent thev reA . . '^ n€,~-as if it were 'being as poor as tncy recuh , ve ;wor," and so on. Indeed, the adverb «* appears occasionally in present English ^« f hi «i. of thi'««c. +1,,,.. t> ■ ' t''^'^^"^ riiignsn, as the correlative or tnis as,^ thus, tor instance, we find in Carlyle, For Nature, as green as she looks, rests everywhere on dread foundations. r) V ' tl an eoi abl sen eon exp two Thii .^-^ fttiou is so compound ion ill coin- tho ellipsis mm sen so ; •uld Imrdly duo to tho r the other the case in , poured ful, you o find con- • hich no ij ating the \ ION. iial, owing: bation of b\ M'-!, these : ight ; ppositive ependent J poor as dverb as )rrelative lere '118. more phmses or elmises t e,™,f;''™''" f" fwoor Too much « undertaken /,„ , P"^""**^ *'"' -"'ee.- thus, in Written, »o,.e',?:;'„3;t;:-™bed „,s, „,. ^-^ that is, ^ "" '" '■P"'"'"- '«"y«»i,.., etc. ; Too much is undertaken I . /;. . , than the rest "''' ^"^* ^« greater and. so on "^wi nf ' Man never is bnt .. f ,'"J"*'^^^^We; Hbbreviatioi' abbreviate - , at iT^W ■;"'''' ="'" '"^^i""-'' ki"d of iv i Be„tenee which are s^ Li,'"""^. ""' P»''t« of the '-■ "5""- connection that it wo ,ld t fere'lf 7'""<^ *™"' " « ''°""'- express them-that in qnostio , .„r "'' '-^'^tiyo" to «f o„?^;^- " »'--X:^:^s oTi'ir aoj I h * 'ii m i\ I. Hi:, 306 IBBEG ULAR CONSTR UCTION. Abbreviated question, added to statement. Tea, yes; nay, no. V. Use of substitutes" pronouns, so. do. I |:^ Verb auxiliaries. it is quite enough to reply JacJc, without rei)eating the whole stdry of whit Jack did. Or, if one says You need not expect to see me at school to-morrow, the return-question Why? and the answer Because I (tin going out of town, both imply repetitions of the first statement ; but these need only be implied, and not actually made. So, also, we very often repeat, in the form of an abbreviated question, a statement just made, in the way of asking for assurance as to the truth of the statement (49) : thus, So tliey are off already, are they ? You do not believe it, do youf "We may oe sure, may we not, that he will betray us? The responsives yea or yes, nay or no were originally adverbs, the one meaning "certainly" or "to be sure" (which we ,often use instead), the other meaning "not," and each now stands by abbreviation for a sentence in which it had the office of an adverb (393 and 394). 475. To save the burdensome repetition of nouns, we have the pronouns as brief and much used sub- stitutes. In a similar way, the pronominal adverb so is a very frequent substitute for a word (oftenest an adjective) or phrase or clause used as complement of a verb: thus, for example. He is an Englishman and so are you ; He irf either married or going to be so; I thought that he could be trusted but I think so no longer • If he is not already tired of waiting for us, this last delay will make him so. And do is an almost equally frequent substitute for a form of a preceding verb, which would otherwise need to be used : thus, Sleep seldom visits sorrow; when it doth, it is a comforter; Embrace me as I do tliee ; I love her better than he does; He spoke louder than he might have done. 476. The infinitive, or the participle of a repeated verb-phrase, is very often omitted, and the auxiliary left alone to represent the phrase : thus, for example. He has never seen it, but I have; I will join them If you ivill; Do you promise me? I do. )eating; the iays lorrow, Because. I )ns of the plied, and :orm of O" ide, in the ith of the ay us ? i originally ) be sure" ng "not," lentence in ). of nouns, used sub- adverb so Ptenest an )lement of longer ; aet delay tute for a wise need )mforter ; he does; 1 repeated auxiliar3' example. ^""'"^'^^'O-^ "on ECOXOilT. . In easy colloc/iiitil sopppI, „ "^ '« represented by it. s^^f/j aTo'e" '''■""""'^ "'«'"*'vo bu; this nsacp n>„ •'^ ''"^ " yu warn /„,. "ot aliov;i:ri,:'eaU^r''' ^^ -' -■"•'^•'ie and i. II. OTHER ABBREVIATIONS a r r ^. avoidable repetition of somlll ■ "'"i«~-.sarv and by, but also where tl,e eoZ.- ^^ """""'^ ^""'^ ^''""^ ^»«'> f , to show plahdy e Zl^T! '• ' '"P^^'-'h are o«en take the libe.'ty of^o^t" "^ J^ .^ .'iU"-"*. - yl)- We may have -i «,.k ^? ""'""^"^"igr. sentence omitted, a.7n '"^^^'^^'"^^ member of the He is fifteen (vears n]<^\ 1 shall leave on thl!^ ' . ^''^'^^ed St. Pete •'« ^«k . . tJ :e.?XVrHS'%'''''^"''-'>ieetor where, as in " r «,„ i ^°'"°™J the twi„w! ' ■supplied; orwher. a^t '':''A''"/''e subject may be definite subject can be s, p,;,^,"' Tlf , ?/ f^"°«' " '^ s the ac'rve e(]uival,.,,f Jli. ■"" ';'*tei- expression be eont.,,unded," in wWd/t so?'''' ^uy th'efeC Also in diary style : a.' " "^"^ '=* "'dieat^d Went to church vestei-,1.,,. . In the second pers„, 'i ' ■"""" '° ^" ^^^'^ «''"'^»y- Go; Hast heard f Whatsnv'ct , , In concessive clauses lite ' "' ^''^ "»«' »'«- - ' 307 .^'K» of the inliuitive. Omission of. I- A sulmrdi- nate member. II. An essen- tial member. 0); In diary style. (2). Siipplieti '>y circum- stances. I>o what we will. hard for Do..«"(thatis, -^ accomplish „othi4^^^ "^^3^> we yet '"g: "« do"), and so on (40.- ^•0. In concessive ciauses. •f II 308 IRBEG ULAR CONSTR UCTION. (4). In foinpiiViitive phrases. (5). With impersonal verbs (6). Copula omitted. (7). Verb, in commands. III. Both essential members omitted. In comparative phrases, an indefiuite subject after us or than (compare 472 above) : thus, I will come as oarl^ as is possi])le ; The day was fairer thau loas usual at that season. With impersonal verbs the subject is sometimes omitted iu poetic and antique style : thus, in Milton, Pure, and in mind prepared, if so befall, For death. Of this u.sage, which was common in older English, vieseems, methinks, etc., might seem to be survivals; but the clauses that follow these verbs are their real subjects (289) : thus, for example, Methought (that) I by the brook of Cherith stood. Again, the copula is sometimes omitted— of tenest before a predicate noun or adjective, and in a question : thus, Why all this noise here ? You a soldier? Hence these tears ; The higher the mountain, the greater the cold. A verb of motion is often omitted in commands, being made unnecessary by an adverbial adjunct, which, indeed, may even be regarded as converted into a verb (85) : thus, ' Up and aicaif! Off with you ! Back to thy punishment, false fugitive ; and after the auxiliaries and some Old verbs (here, of course, the asserting word still remains) : thus. Farewell: Vll hence; I must after him to tell the news; And now let us down to breakfast. (3). Both subject and copula, or both subject and predicate verb may be omitted, only a subordinate member remaining : thus, for example, Where (am I) to begin? How (am I) to excuse myself? But how (am I) to gain admission? (I wish you a) Good morning, ladies 1 (I drink to) Your health, sir ; (I am) Here, master; (I give you) Many thanks for your kindness ; Waiter, (hand me) a clean plate; (It is) Agreed! (Give me) Your hand upon it, boatswain ! My daughter is married to I know not who (he is) ; (Go we) A little further, and we shall be at our journey's end ; 1 know not wliat (I am) to do ; I will tell you when (you are) to begin. after as or ason. les omitted r English, avals; but al subjects tood. — oftenest question : ese tears ; )Id. ")mniaiKls, adJTiiK^t, erted into (here, of us, 3 news ; bject and bordinate myself ? ister ; s; eed! ' is) ; ley's end ; EMOTIONAL ABBREVIATION. 309 the auxmary Vein, -J, on.itteT^frri'nee^r"''" ""^ feo not in such sentences as iVbUhat I was ever afraid of him • Compare the abbreviation with hvt nnf,-n a • A7Q m , ' "ot^ced in par. 326. I was .„ glad to see y„„ ; „ „,3 ,„ ^^^^^,^, . member; a s. Cdi,nte S- °"^' °i '"'"'"'' *<^ ""'^r is left uuexpressed ' ""••odueed by as or '^'« attained we throw aside' om , «n., '.^'u""'' ^"""^ "* fueling, expression bTassertion iL l^"™**' "'"''<' "f <=«lm part of thA^ r'^<^'"<"i. and brine fortl, onlv ti--^ part of the .euteuee which most strongly affects om. In the absolute coustriictioiu With what if, etc. With not. IV. Use of »6 so far from, that. Effects of feeling on granimatioa'i structure. I 310 IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION. Interjection, with words or piirases. '{ ! i Interjection ;l omitted. i '1 1 Prepositioc, ; after inter- i jection, ' ' '! i ,: , i 1 1 i Interjectional words. , , i III Exclamatory subordinate cluuaes. mind, or which we wish to have most strongly affect the mind of another. Hence all emotional expresrnon tends strongly (o grammatical incompleteness (4fi5) ; the exclamatoiy sentence is apt to be a defective one. And any admixture of feeling adds to the readiness with which we resort to the various modes of abbreviation. Examples are, What ! that to me ! ; You, my long lost brother ! ; I, a liar ! ; So young and so unfortunate I : Speak ! I couldn't have uttered a word. For the exclamatory infinitive, see par. 450 (7). 481. Along with an interjection we often put a word or a phrase pointing out more distinctly the kind of emotion we feel, or the occasion of it : thus, O horrible ! And oh, the difference to me ! Alas, my unhappy country ! Lo, the poor Indian ! Ah, the pity of it ! Fie, the lazy fellow ! Pish, nonsense ! Pshaw, how absurd ! But quite as often we make an exclamation of the occasion of the feeling, without any interjection added, the tone and gesture showing plainly enough what the feeling is. Thus, the interjection may be omitted with any of the a-bove examples. Occasionally, as if the interjection were an assertion instead of a mere sign of the feeling intended to be intimated, a preposition is used to combine it with the added explanation (see 436) : thus, Fie on you ! Alas for Troy ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! which may be taken as equivalent to I cry shame on you ; I grieve for Troy; etc. 482. A number of our ordinary words are so commonly used in incomplete exclamatory expression that they have almost won the character of interjec- tions: thus, for example, why, how, what, well, indeed, hark, behold, hail, help, silence, quick, away, out, back, to arms. 483. Subordinate clauses are often used in an exclamatorv wav. with omissinn nf fhe r^ain nlo""'-- +^ THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS. 311 gly affeel xprestjioii 5s (465) ; :;tive one. readiness nodes of 7). m put a tictly the : thus, f m! n of the >n added, what the tted with assertion ed to be with the are so pression interjec- lil, I in an H.d we but known Of it in time !^ ' WJmt a pleasant day it has been ! That a king should be so conveyed ! Oh ' Mr V ,'''' "^ ^^' ^'''^^y «f «"cli meanness . Oh Mk Simple. . you only knew how I loved that girlf as if the construction were : Ti .. I ^?^^^^^ *^^^* lie were with us • Such may be called exclamatory subordinate clauses THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS. . 484. As has been already stated fS' on,! ^t^ «, imperative and optative modes of exmCln .i.«^' exelamatrf ";• ff ^" ^"^ "eari/^eS d" t:' the' x^Tef aiiirstt:: '^.Varn s-r/c^- f ' viewed as the one or the otheV^i-n«f 'l^^'P*^'^^^ ^^ best word of dire,.t inLation o f f din^ 'Th?fif' ?" "? three variously accord in theifp'rtdc'Ks' '"' *^ what might seem' rposiHvfor bI„rT;T "^f"™'"^ purposes, we are apt in famihar eolllZ d st* t°, "■, '""'' mto our sentences little sentenee" an 1 h ^ , • ? ""''Vect no grammatical connect™ iwH ™,'.l''"fes winch stand in are also like interjecC " „ t te ZirS™' """^ "•'"'"' mfmate onr states o( feeling. Exllmples^^e ^^"^ '" *" you know ; you see ; I tell yo„ ; I declare or fancy • „, '" be sure ; by your leave. ^ ' sen^fne""'' ""' "'""'' """'' '"'^^f^^'ional phrases and Imperative aud optative. Relation of nom. of address, imperative, and inter- jection. Interjectional phrases aud sentences. I $12 irhegvlah construction. I' ! iii. Shade into niodai adverbs. Assevera- tious. A m I I Such phrases and sentences, we liave already seen (391) shade ott into modal adverbs, which are more or less closely connected with the sentences where they are found, and winch show the way in which the thought is conceived by the speaker. *^ Asseverations and oaths are of the nature of interiectional phrases. Thus, for example, "By Jove" strictly means 1 swear by Jove," and would be, if used seriously, the invocation of a divinity to attest the truth of what we are saying-. And the same impulse to make our expression more forcible by putting into it a strong word or two something that seems to imply feeling or passion, leads occasionally to the insertion of absurd bits of phrases, which It would be in vain to try to build up into sentences: tnus, tor example, Who tlie mischief efin have done this? What in thunder are you here for ? GRAMMATICAL VALUES CHANGED BY ABBREVIATION. 486. Abbreviation often changes -the grammatical value ot words: thus, for example, the sentences, He kept himself quiet ; He got himself appointed ; where the verbs are transitive, and the adjectives are objec- tive predicate, have been shortened, in familiar style, into Ht lept quiet ; He got appointed ; where the verbs are intransitive, and the adjectives are subjective predicate. positions Rnd Again, o/ow^T, originally an adverb phrase, on long, like conjunctions. ^^ '**5'«> ^^ vain, came early, like many other adverbs, to be used as a preposition also: thus, ''along the side of"'; and this, by a further abbreviation, has given us along side of, and along side : thus, The ship lay along (the) side (of) ours. In like manner, hecanse oui-miiKls wit), olhor coi, ),i> f; '7"''" '» "s^ciatpd turns aro made after a ™ ta n tvof' f ''!" ""* ™"'''"'"- Extension 0»' 7 ""^ r*"".' "' gframniatical analysis {UG,'&fTtoT fluence of both. Example- o'? ^^"-^ ^l^^' ^"^ '^"^^''^ t^e "°°' /^ol 'l*"* friends with him; J; • Fare thee well ; . . " "'^ '-*^" "lain classes: .nflueuee of both. E^pllst: the ^ninTet ^''"^'•■^ """ (!)• I ana fri«nrla i.rUU I.' „ ; • 5: yd: z It' rei'r.z *i °-'^ r-"- p---' = (4) . Climbiog the tree, he fell ^ "'""«"■ P''^'""' " While he was climbing the tree, he fell either\'™"r„i"a'ZXn"''';='' "7!^"-^ - '>'^- form (of form are confused S?^*™™^ u-'t" " 'r\f»«.P«'^ «' o.5f distinguished as contZiZZn l^JTn-''' '" ^^tnotimes •ndeed, may be --.arderafa^rfetTof ^tSjrol'""^' questioned I ' ^' •^s^mmmmmm K i » i lt ii ^«<. i ■•'II I I i' I 3t6 HISTORICAL OUTLINE. XVII. HISTORICAL OUTLINE. RELATIONSHIP OF ENGLISH. 492. In tho introduction to this grammar, are given the leadinpT facts iti the liistory of our language. We now adtl .some further details. The relationship of English to the other members of the Teutonic sub-family, and of the Teutonic sub-family to the other members of the Indo-European family of languages is shov/n roughly in the above diagrams, from Emerson's History of the English Language. . RELATIONSHIP OF ENGLISH. 317 3 given the Ve now add 3ers of the mily to the languages Emerson's the small circle,, I e p" set "n ' ^'f "" ''™'-'"PP"'(f "( together the minrn- gto^vT ""'"'' '"™'* ''""«■'(? IWUU - IRANIAN (two groiins) — n\ t i- Ved.c, the UMoient language omeVeda^ or R?"/"' '"^'"^in^ writings , Sanskrit (the lite mrv InnJ ' ^'"I"""^ '^'^^'"^^^ Prakrit (the colloquia iansM of ITF'T ""{ ^"^'''^^5 ""^ CfiSre'liri,;",'."'"' "■" '^.'".'"■''"' ""'' O'"^"" dialects. France. In its eadv wS«n f *^^. ^^^noan of Northwest its inflectional system. "''"' ^^^^'"^ resembles Latin in (3)''wes'tT'minM:efp^ ^^*^^«' (2) Norse, and (l)Xtl'! i'ncltli^VS SZi^ ^^^^^ sian and Polish. Prussian. (2) Slavic, including Rus- lr^ttt^^J''CZ,':::f^trZ' ^ f.- the other example-ia many partfeularr Th„fJ '^ fl ."^ ^?'"'' 'o' belti".t£teTh^\"eT„^i: tTt^T ''F^^^^ mg as .t was or was not preceded by a demo„sTS;e(33lt v>„r„n u""" ?K "'®'" ''*™ * 'utui-e formed by suffix (nn\ wlXt^ (TiV^^ ^^'^ ^' '^^"^"^ ^^^' ^-'- - In tL!^ *>^.,I?do-E«ropean, word-stress was at first free In Teutonic it became fixed, originally resting and to « f,'reat extent still resting, on the root'^ylLblef^'exeept that n nouns and adjectives and the verbs derived from them it was on thp fircf qxrijoU]^ „.u_i^i. . "Y^.V""^ tnem, . -J — sj..., .s^iicDic, vvaviuur a root-syiiabie or not. Menilwrs of th« hido- KuropeaQ family. 1 I Differences between the Teutonic and the others: Inflections. Adjectives. Verbs. Word-stress, I 818 HISTORICAL OUTLINE, (4). Aw is seen by oomparirif? tlu' following? : l.Aim.— ;>odcs firenus colii« ynui f/oraare /res. CoiuonHutt. the Tontonic Inn^nui^^.s have "shifted," as it is called the original voieecl to voiceless stops and their voiceless HtopH to fru'atives. We must, however, bear in mind that the other leutonic lanjruaf^es a^^ree, or oikm^ ai?reed, with hiiK'lixh as to the uiifml consonant while all the other Indo- hiiropean lanjruages are in this renpect like Latin. ri'^1* '^'**' ^^'* branches of the West Germanic group ditter from each other chiefly in two respects: (1). High German underwent a second consonant shift which did not aft'ect Low Gtu-tnan: thus, compare, H. GLKMAN.-oier iykd schu./ J'ag Zuiifro />i„jj joc/,! (2). Hifrh German has held fast more inflections than Low German, which has lost most of them. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 495. The Jutes settled Kent, the Isle of Wight, and ^^r'^l'^''^"*'"^ P*""** ''^ Hampshire; the Saxons, the banks ot the Ihames, aiul the rest of Englajid to the south ; the Angles, the rest of England, and the Lowlands of Scotland. The Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria was the first to come to the front in literary and political importance. The first Bretwaldawas an Anglian king; and Bede, our first historian, and Crodmon, our first riiristian poet, wrote in the Anglian tongue. The name English, accordingly, was early applied to the languages of all the Teutonic tribes of Britain, m contrast with Latin, or Laeden, the language of the learned; the whole island was itself called Angla-land Antrio-Saxon. «!* England, and the people, Englisc, or English. The term Anglo-Saxon should be applied only to West Saxon (490), in which nearly all the early literature of England has been preserved. Old English, on the other hand, is the name given by modern scholars to all the dialects spoken bv the leutonic tribes till about the period of the Norman Conquest. OLD ENGLISH PERIOD. 496. Throughout the Old English period (11) there were four chief dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the Humber to the Forth ; Mercian, bet wee. he Humber and the Thames; pnd West Saxon, south of the Thames except \n Kent (and, perhaps, Surrey), where was spoken Kentish, Differences between H :;;k1 L. (lerinnn: CunRonant8 InHectiouB. Where the Teutonic tribes settled. Iniportnnpeof Nortliumbrin. Tlie names: English Old English. 500-1200 Four cliief didlects. Where spoken. I le //*ree aare tres. it is callod, ir voicch'ss » mind that ittTt't'd, with otlior Indo- n. lanic group onant shift ■e, iiifj Jocli. 2tions than Viffht, and , the banks south ; the f Scotland. he first to mee. The ?, our first a-ote in the iiigly? was ic tribes of lUfiruag-e of ngfhi-laiid, The term n (49(5), in has been the name cen by the Conquest. here were th of the mber and es except I Kentish, OLD ENGLISH PKltlOD. tile cJii4,f. t), Jed wrote work n E, ward, the (;o„fi,,.,„r T L f ■'""' '*» »"P''™m( v aiih,» court were Nonnmi in , .''"■,> '?'"*-'• '"'"' lie Ensfhsh restoration wa» f « "i ' IT' J*''«"li«. tliis brief m eve„t of ^reat iu.port, I ", ' ,^l -'T ^"".""" <'""q"e,s; E.^.hsh penod. E„^,,,„ was, 'u;,.„^,',re ii.IS."' "- '"-' unsettled condition of the ^J^!''^?'^:']^'''^ '"^^^ ^I'e the incursions of the Dan e^ N wV ''' "-^ *^"^''^"<^ '^urin^. been preserved to us almost wlm '"",';'''"' literature has [^nd very httle Jms renmh.ed of ^ ^'?. ^^ ^\^'^ ^^^-^'"» versio ''»I>"i"'s,or Nor^erae '^''tr'^.^'^l'"''- ^^ W' 'Ud east of Eue-Iand .„^ '■ .'^"'*"'.V, settled iu the north ;'- beginning of Z ' ^nlh^: "^f Pf clon.inanr It U,nfessor. As we shall slef:./^ ^'"^'"^^^ •' ""^^^r the ^ '^^'^t H,,rease in onvl^^^^:"^. "^''1 to these only a ■^bnost unmixed. No effect w-^' "''" ^^'^^ ^*^f«re been ;:-' unless, perhaps, tl e ^^ .t. . Jic?'/""^^ "?-^ ^^^ ^^^ -'I already be^^un, was hSS bv n.'r-'?''-^^^;^^^*^"' '^^^^^ ^1<1 English syntax was i, ^^.^^'"^''^'^ influence, of the words in ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ , the order .. .>! (uar ui. iuodern Ge .Saxon. KukHhIi, w.ia fl t'lUS of the nation. The language of literature. Chaucer's intluence. Staiu'.ard in Hcotlaud. In it, too, were written the beginnings of Modern English literature. In it, Chaucer wrote his Canterbury Tales, and into it Wyclif translated the Bible. It has sometimes been claimed for Chaucer that to his genius we owe the fact that the Midland dialect became pre-eminent. But modern research has shown that his influence, in this respect, has been greatly over-estimated. According to Prof. Emerson, "we now know that Chaucer wrote, as did Wyclif, Lang- land, Barbour, in the dialect most familiar to him, the dialect of the place of his birth. But it was Chaucer's good fortune to write also in the language of the chief city of a realm, now thoroughly united, in the language that was inevitably to become the standard of after ages, so that his works have been more easily read and appreciated in the centuries since his death. Chaucer may have chosen to write in English rather than in Latin or French, as Gower has done, but he was, in no wise, the creator of the language he used, and it would not be safe to assert that he exerted any particular or lasting influence on his native speech." The Midland dialect, however, did not at once become the literary language of the whole nation. From the time of Chaucer until th3 union of England and Scotland under King James, there were really two standards in the island : the English of Edinburgh for the Scotch, and the English of London for the English. 499. But, in view of the far-reaching character of the Norman invasion, one naturally asks how it was that one of the English dialects became the common speech of both Normans and Englishmen. When the Normans settled in England, French became one of its languages^ The J^^'y^°]J^^ conquerors spoke at first their own tongue, while English not French. remained that of the conquered. For a long time, indeed, the languages kept apart: the English of 1200 is almost as • free from French words as that at the Conquest. But the number of Normans who settled in England was really small, and they made no attempt to supersede English as the spoken language. William's policy, we know, was to conciliate iks new subjects. He even tried to learn their language. Henry I. is said to have been taught English. Henry II. understood it, and many of his courtiers spoke it. Edward I. used it in receiving the Turkish ambassadors, position oi and he charges the French king with proposing "to destroy ^^f^f^^^ the English language wholly from the earth." Edward III. Normans. r»r"^r'"r' ?%ri-Mi;r>.Tr,r>v.f /'I'ClfiO^ -^'Ul^ n c.»-vo/irtVi iri "Rna-lish. and, •on pet'lion jfirouj tljie conjmoos in the same year, he enacted C. ; 4| I .322 HISTORICAL OUTLINE. M H : 'i r Eaglish, always a literary language. Bixt dialectic until Chaucer. English influence increased by political and social events that law pleadings should be in English. Henry V. was represented at the French court by ambassadors who could not speak French, a proof thai French was no longer spoken at court. For a time, it is true, schoolboys trans- lated their Latin into French, and students at Oriel College were required to speak Latin or French. We know little about the schools of the early Norman period, but it seems probable that thi.^ prominence was due, partly, at any rate, tc the celebrity of the University of Paris, which many English students attended. However this may be, it is abundantly evident that English had been continually gaining ground, and tliat, in the middle of the fifteenth century, French ceased to be used in the courts and the schools, and English became the common tongue of the new nation. 500. Besides, English had never ceased to be a literary language ; nor had the Conqueror deposed it from the place which it had held in public documents, and which, for a part of this period, it shared with Latin and occasionally with French. The earlier years of Norman influence were, as we might expect, comparatively barren. Latin continued in England as elsewhere to be the universal language of scholars, and there was also, for a time, an Anglo-French literature; but, from lloO, literary works in P]nglish became more numerous. Until Chaucer, however, each English writer wrote in the dialect he spoke ; for the Con- quest prevented, for a time, what would otherwise have happened sooner — the establishment of a standard literary language. 501, Political and social events also helped to lessen the importance of French influence and increase that of English. Both William Rufus and Henry I. appealed to Englishmen for help against the Norman barons, and it was to Englishmen they owed their English crowns. Henry married Matilda, the descendant of Ethelred H. ; and, not so long after the Conquest, many other intermarriages took place between the Normans and the English. After Henry's reign, indeed, the distinction between the two races was obliterated. The loss of Normandy in 12C(>, the enactments of Louis IX. and Henry HI., prohibiting the subjects of the one from holding lands in the dominions of the other; the rebellion of the barons under Montfort, and the political events in the reign of King John prevented any further influx of French-speaking foreigners, and led the continental French and the inhabitants of England to MIDDLE EsausB PERIOD. OU4. Sometimes 71 on ;c, ning: of the Middle Eno^lll! f^'^'Vl ^^'^ date of the beHn regrarded as a period .ff P'^'"- ^^' ^^«»' ^100 to Ao bii ci.angcd to 4, 'i;,j'';^' ^' ,f f "^J to « ; o H„d *. were ,„rs" ? Early (or. Transition) period. 11001200. Charac- toristics. at^r-'V'''^^^^ began to bo in « .?/'"''' *'"•' S^itive^n t hif .•'""■"^Ple.beim in -cs and -en were often u^L ■ T ".""' K>^neral ; nlu,.al„ endingof the genmdial fnfi -t^ '"'''"iniinately <'Un\ nt iarp numbers, and the S N ?./'• \ ^^^^, were used 1n tlieir moderrr fnvm. !,' "^ Pronouns bee-an f./ 1 ' -d past in5fead™V;i„"rnd'ed?'-^ "' verbf!:;', : p^S adverbial en.lings T^,!, 1 •/''•"'! "''J'^'^tivs, as wjll^^ dropped or to beS„,e^ „r otSjr",-- '-«»"t':!' bt J 200- 1350. C'ham teristics. 1350-1500. tJharac- teristics. Causes of eraniniutipftl siiuplifleatiou. I fii HISTORICAL OUTLINE. ^oup where there was little or no foreign influence. But, from about the middle of the twelfth century, inflectional changes were certainly accelerated. The English of the period, both spoken and written, was dia- lectic; so that the levelling went on in many localities, being also unchecked by a literary standard. And, under the circumstances, as this process could not have been a uniform one, comparatively few inflections had survived when a common speech came into use. The Normans themselves may have confused or discarded the endings, when using English words ; but this influence, if felt at all, could have been but slight. The Con(iuest, however, did affect our grammar by delaying the establishment of a standard language. The decay of inflections gavp greater importance to relational words and th'' ^••der ot tlie elements of the sentence. Under Frencn iufliunce, i.ro?\',u',,', tlie Modern order became establisb'.'*i (s^iV^-^'^^ft, verb, o5>i.?rl'" -^nd, as might be expected, the s>.- i\ fir^i »\;'«i.; ev: ; ^o stiffness. Influences in early period. 506. Old English had rivalled moU ' :: (jterhu i in »i.e power of forming self-explaining compouu'^' V.'hns. fo example, it had hundreds of words like " treow-wyrhta (treo-wright), flesh-monger (flesh-monger), boc-hus (book -house), leorning-cniht (learning-knight); our carpenter, butcher, library, pupil. During the fourteenth century many of these compounds were replaced, as we see from the above list, by equivalent, but, to the English, unmeaning, words taken from the French. This, however, did not take place until many foreign words had been intro- duced. The decay of O.E. prefixes and suffixes also began now, but Latin and Greek formative elements did not become dominant till the Modern period. MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD. 507. The Modern English period began about 1500 or a little later; for, from 1460 to 1520, there was a general dearth of literary productions, owing largely to political dis- turbances. During this period, however, two events took place which had a direct influence upon English, especially upon its vocabulai-y : the introduction of the art of printing by Caxton in 1477 and the Renascence, or Pevival of Learning, in the fifteenth century, which, in England, gave prominence to Latin and Greek models, especially to Latin. I influence, th century, ated. The m, was dia- ilities, being , under tlie sn a uniform ved when a s themselves when using , could have d affect our a standard iportance to ents of the the Modern ri'" -ind, as Uitir evcit to rhu- I in »r.e *,nnis^ U" i-monger), r-knight) ; le fourteenth 3d, as we see the English, lis, however, d been intro- !S also began 3nts did not out 1500 or a as a general political dis- events took sh, especially [)f printing by of Learning, e prominence (U^eJi'^m !■""'' '""^ "^ ^"Mivided into- Of Latin and Greek an^L^'" ^^"^^ ^"^o use and tlie sfv^' -f speech could be^?e;u\:rot^^^^'^'' ^^-ost ty pS the use of the inflectio s hTrel •'' T^ «^ «Peec], (86) retained which we have reiecfp^ ! i *''*^"'' ««me bein^ which we have revived • nl i ^""^ ^^'"^ being reiectef grammatical inaccTr^ TlrtZ "^^^^^^ of JZrent specialization of words'^ had not ^i'^' ' T^ ^^ °«>^ern Teutonic mode of accentuation ^^^^.^^^eloped. The general; so that the prevanrnL . ''J''' ^^^^^ ^o become the stress upon the firT svilfbir^S?^^ ^«^ i« to ?Cw t^iese statements have alre?dv k^'- ""^ i"»«trations ol with i..ections and construSns ^'^'" ^^^^" dealing (2). The Ene-lish nf fi,^ the death of ofyden" f yM™"*!'!^?"" T'''^' <>'"i'-^ witl. bya arge..-„fl„^„f Modern Vre^'^ woX™", '^ ■"»'*''" -«■• (.^48). With Charles rr . i P"«sessive adjective everything French came inti, ?" 1'^**"=''"' P'-'^fercnce for important one, for by"700th. "","•• ^''« Period is an ha4 econae ^n,ost as^sitrd'^rit^n^'ir °' ""^ '-^"^e ceitiS- ^"-"^^ »' the eighteenth and nineteenth two'tS /!^^[^rttrL^l^ h"^^' '™ -"i '-e .ast Sweet puts it, that "the former ;*."'' P''™'^ ™s, as Prof :So7.-. ^"« '^- "^"a^s\rsesr5 Standard. '""^"^^ now recognizes but one . ,^^9- Modern Ene-h-sh ,'. on-h-f • i paeed, than any other En rni^r,'' '" ^^^ "i^in, more so .n«ections areU^;fare«Thni7.^; ^XJ Three sub- Periods ; (1). Elizft. bethan. (2). Age of Dryden. (3). Late Modern English. First and seeoiKl halves contrasted. Character- istics of Modem English. One standard langiiage. Inflections. I HiilMIHI a-a HISTORICAL OCTLIKE. I Ir, Syntax. Vowel - souuds. Orthography. The spoken language. Influenpe of dictionaries. )iC IS eitlier disappeared or is Middle P^nj^lish, was sy retained merely to show in writing a long preceding? vowel. The ehief characteristic of Modern syntax is the perfection of its form. No doubt, the language would itself have developed this quality ; but the unity and proportion which now distinguish our sentenee-struc*"- : 'la^'e been due, in a large measure, to the influence of : nd Greek models. 511. The Old English system ^l vowel sounds was replaced by a new one in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; for example, according to Prof. Skeat, the following O. E. and Mod. ^>. words correspond (the pro- nunciation of the O.E. wr- ' represented phonetically): hdt (bant), boat; bete (Ivtltv, , '><•*■! . '^>tan (beetan), bite: hot (boat), boot; nhn^an (abbooi '.■ .\ about. 512. Modern EngiK,. .•■In;.j.^ruphy i.< -. .. i a. -> of anoma- lies. Old English orthogiapbv was psin-ly plv-iru ji', and remained so, in the main, until ". :; inventifa of priistiugr. The Anglo-French scribes had resp.lt the Utijiiiage. i'siug French forms ^ Latin letters; but, ae» t'j.-fp w<»to many resemblances between French and Enghsx. sovtnd.;: atid letters, not much harm was done. Real harm, i ■ w \ resulted from an attempt in the sixteenth century to :i' re- duce etymological spelling, or what writers (in some cases, poor scholars) thought to be so. Thus, for example, at the time of the Renascence, many took to writing debt, doubt ioY the then current dette, doute; because the Latin primitives had b. Similarly, the M.E. parfit has become the modern perfect, and we owe these in scythe (<0.E. sithe) and scent (ttnd.:. and 'y to ii'''7-... ome cases, iple, at the iting debt, I the Latin jeeome the 3.E. sithe) logy of the bas, in the i supposed 'eet mainly th century Johnson's I language s and later :s. It has ;ion being ; thus, we ieous, the ont (wuut) MODEm ENGLISH PERIOD the ;;^x^eieitiiih::^::^Lvr'^r"^^- «»^^ 514 A '"''^^^^^'^rJ^ ""iformity. Middle EniirpS;;;:^^,^^"/^^^)^ we lost in the compounds. Many of tl e O^ Fn rT'"^ '^^'If-explaining appeared towards he cIosp J? \^ ^"? '"'^^^ Prefixes, too dis ot the Modern, Englsh period • oH ^"i^^"' "^ '^^ beg'nn t. ,w^th other prefixes: thus for ^'''' ^'"^f ^^^^» confounded >ecomeJ>.^/„>,^, ^nd ti.e £nnic /^T^^'i Oethincan has the O.E. mis-: w/./;e/L?i"f T '^'*" ^'^^ ^^™ost driven on^ have suffered in thl^tm vv^;. Xr^o""*^^^'^^^' «"«" we have masc. -er, fem. J^l' an,l '• ^^'^'^'"^P^*^' "^ O.E. fern, -e.., and masc. -stre Tm if' '" ^'.''"^^^' »'««e. -.r was confounded with the'o E* iT''- 7^^ French -stre appear that of a masc. noun and o^t'' ""^^'"^ ^^'^ ending in -6«'''f\ ""^'"^t,^ fr. ri "iV 7."^^" '"or sources M.,f fV ' ^^'e rest beinir Copioiisuess. Sources. 328 First Period, Secoid Period. it ^IIIM^ loan-wordA, HISTORICAL OUTLINE. )g VOifl ^^%a ' >.E. ceostet < LaL. m»in' treated of, science and philosophy using a far greater per- centage of words of classical origin. 516. We shall now consider how and when the almost nnmixed English of the Teutonic settlers developed into the highly composite English of modern times. THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN THE VOCABULARY. LATIN. 517. Latin loan-words were the first adopted. (1). Some of them had, no doubt, been incorporated before the English invaded Britain ; for we know that there had been a good deal " intercourse between the Teutonic tribes and the Latin ^ • ^ '^xamples are chalk, kettle, min^ ■ • 'ough), fuller (cloth). (2). A few Lf u wi.Mu.^ a.is«> ■ 1 .ic t law) rrh Celtic — the result of the Roman lt'\;r-"'*<>r> '■ ^ itro {a). Geographical namt>. (colony) ; Chester, caster, or cestet (camp). Examples are Lincoln, Lancaster, Winchester, Worcv' " . (&). And the following other words : lake, mount, port, mile, street, wall, wick, wine. Latin words, introduced before the coming of the Roman missionaries in A.D. 597, are known as the Latin of the First Period. 518. To the Roman missionaries (497) we owe some words which are either pure Latin, or Latinized Greek or Hebrew — about two hundred in all. (1). At first, naturally, the new words were connected with religion. Examples are altar, bishop, candle, chalice, creed, deacon, devil, font. (2). In the course of time, other words were introduced to express natural objects and articles from abroad. Examples are lily, plant, doe, trout, butter, cook, copper, fork, kiln, pillow, shambles, silk, sock, tippet. Latin words, introduced between 597 and the Norman Conquest, are known as Latin of the Second Period. The Latin loan-words of the first two periods are said to number one hundred and eight. Others were also borrowed, eater per- he almost id into the JULARY. lorporated that there Teutonic (cloth), 'eltic — the ... '.■.■■'?;?? »!a La.1. castm ine. g of the the Latin owe some Greek or connected il, font. ntroduced 1 abroad. :, kiln, 3 Norman eriod. ire said to borrowed, 519. During- the Midfllp n t the learned professions. uSS^n'^^nf *^' ^''^"^"^^^ «f '^^^^^ their lectures in Latin ; and it wJ! ^ P^'ofessors delivered P«'-'"e TJ. a'tention was given to writers thot""". 1"^' '»>• """ch classica models, influenced ever tk,t^."^'- ""^^'^ "Pon *'■« an«;fnt classics. TbetlZi„°fJ^r'^<"'f"gnormtoe and Philosophy, and, untif relenUv T'^r"" "^ Science study of classics in the Grammar '4 u ^""'" ««lusiv8 helped also to swell the classS nt ) "^"^^^ «' England ^^ trVeTh-^B ?! ~^^^^^^^^ Si S^t^,'tf^-Ss -t-stSd i«n; - by French. Milto^ Cromwe l'^"'^r ""9 ™P«"-Beded wrote h,s official cor^sponZt In La«n""''' '"' ^^""P'^- At first, under the influ«-„^ ^f ., " ^ influx was so great that it 'threateneH 'f? ^'^«°ascenee, the First effect, element. This tendency was! w;^^^ of^lZ^^L. vvever, soon checked by the 329 i a fWrfJ' ^.• ! i- i I I! 330 Niituntli- Number of loiiu-words. At first indirt'ctly introduced. Since 1480, botli dir- ectly Jiiid indirectly. HISTORICAL OUTLINE. Ri'fornuition, itself a popular and Toutoiiic movement, which led also to the rejection of certain loan-words, some of which had been introdiice'd even before this period : for example, fucinorous, hidilmiulness, mulierosity, immorigiiious, stultiloquy, stramiiieous. Latin words, introduced at and since the Renascence, constitute the Latin of the Fourth Period. The naturalization of such words has generally affected the suffix oidy, and the verbs have been formed from the stem of the infinitive or of the perfect participle. Examples are annala<^ auual-es; Uuweewco caif- in ; nudacious tnetrat-um. timated at /e liave an mdred and it has Vieen wordtj. nbors than les. Until ied in the ouf^h Latin ords of tlie Greek ; so example, 3emosune; , but others or throngfii llowing are riginal, (2) ology ; usy. te different , and man- a war of [Celtic loan- chiefly of ^rs: UK. Usk; 'lr:' ■•"'"l V were used early in the 3! !' ^"''■* »•<"•<'«. no dont,f about 12M«rir.te"r,'ihat''^he; ,;S«' f."' '' was ,t"ti i 500 words in all are believf^ 'W'l^ed in literature. About source. Norse words 1 ul « / V''^ '^"^« *« "-^ from th^ tion, that is, the chan^ o ftc, cvf^r S/^^^^^ P^^'nlaHt arly took place in genuine English ^z-*^ ''^^' ^^^^'^''' regu- ^y, *^;^, for example, are, acShtlv '"'"'' ^'^ ^'^ff^ 4^, while Engli,)! words like V^/ h- tp?^^' ^'egarded as Nors^; same influence. , Our proifoun also i""'"'^!.^'^' ^ ""^^^ th^ Norse they, their, ^A..^ dispCedthe oT;"^?^''^-' *'«^- ^^e (295 . Examples of other loan word," f;/"'' '"^^" ^"^^ ''^'- EnyiLd^rrX'^ttlS^ 'r-;? ^?^^«^ -^ Northern made themselves moJtf "it Th. "*'^"^.' ^^'^^^ ^'^e Danes Norse words: W- (brook) IIu'^TT.^^''' '^^^^Ctll Mce, or Mv (waterfall^ it^ IZ^; ^"M/nle), y^/7 (hiu" jwo verbs ending in .r^'xTveT wft^t'^' ^^"^' ^^^ -^^ lEng. -in^;; as, ^'""^^^ ^^^h .patronymics in -son skin, bask, busk, dreirs kilf .«• ' ^ ' ^'^*' ^^^««' «waiD, Anderson 524 P u FRENCH. vocabufa./at1!j;^^Th^^^^^^^^^ ^oan-words in our ^rom the time of thp r I standing- next, mandy in lon^ p" i if <-onfessor until tie los«5 nf \r test ~|. 2= iiss:,,;- ~ -^ Akin to Anglian. Character- isticf:. Oeographical and other name«. First Period: Normun Frenph. I West, origfn- alJy Latin ^i) m m HISTORICAL OUTLINE. Frt'iK'h Hyl.rMs. Loan-words Hlowly Introduced. Chnraoter- istics. Some replaced O.E. words. Prodtxction of synouynis. Bilingualism. they had become srroatly altered before bein^ introdiUMMl itJto Knjfli.sh (7). Moreover, the latiKim|?e of the Norman settk'rs in En^'Ijuul, J)einj>: intlueneed by En^Hish lunl un- inHuencM'd by the French of the continent, developed by the time of Edward III. many ditferetices from the hinj,niaKe them .spoken in France. From this AnKlo-Freiicli diah-ct, as it has been called, we ^radnally ad()i)ted words which became part of the texture of English speech, being, most of them, of equal value and use with words of native origin. Such hybrids (that is, words formed from more lan^iages than one) as (irmulfather , grandmother, show the close nitmiucy of the connection. How slowly, however, this element came in, appears from the fact that Prof. Skeat has found only 3,400 French words in thirty-one books written before 1400. Even Chaucer has less than thirteen per cent, of foreign words in his Prologue. Generally speaking, most of the loan-words relate to the- Church, government, war, and knighthood, or to new things, introduced by the Normans : but it is impossible to classify them exhaustively. It should be noted, however, that the Normans introduced the Romance fa.shion of hereditary names, or surnames. Before this an Englishman had but one name. Examples of words from cliis source are duke, mayor, aid, battle, attorney, ..,, irjiir. tonsure, lesson, venison, chase, 1 . >\\l<^ salmon, cherry, aunt, cousi ... .\ Some words had the same meaning i some. Eujcii.-sh word';, and eitherdrove out the English equi' -i' ••t- , ;'. f^-. ,.^..,. j,, has been the case with the first of each of the following pai s :' ikcnncd, conceived ; vondinge, temptation; sfeih, ascended; yelderes, trespassers ; ariste, resurrection ; or both English and Norman words were retained with a difference of meaning, thus helping to enrich our vocabulary with .synonyms. Examples are (the first of each pair is of French origin) deliver, free ; dame, lady ; gain, win ; terror, dread ; purchase, buy ; route, road ; humility, lowliness ; county, shire ; strange, uncouth ; sage, wise. Indeed, during the period in which both Norman French and English were spoken in England, there came into use ^ duplicate system of words, known as bilingualism. To be intelligible to both the upper and the lower classes, it was felt to be needful at times to use the speech of both. Examples of such pairs, some of which are even now retained, are asseuiblu, meet ; acknowledge, confess ; use, wont ; testament, will ; dissemble, cloak. f intr<>o laiijfuagc 'iich (lialcot, lords which boiiig, most ativeoriijin. a lan^iaj^es ' the close iwpver, this L Skeat has K)ks written en per cent. •elate to the newthingfs, e to classify er, that the hereditary an had but ! nrp s, iriur, ^ii.-sh word' , tving-pai s: iscended ; ned with a vocabulary h pair is of dread ; ness ; 36. an French le into use sm. To be , it was felt xamples of , are vont ; ^;^^fo^^^u^y_^SNT m TUB vocAnvLAnr. 333 fcixamples are "onian Province of Qaul barber, braruliei. f..:,.i. ^ . Sonip, origin, ally tVltic" Teutonic; Sopond Period: Parisian *'rench. 'nflneiiceof ^'ourtiers; The xJZ2 TT' '■■■'.^«'"-"•. iony. 526' °;^^™^' °f "- ^'"'XoT ''■""™ - ^or-an the sf,md^ria;/u™S. Tf" ptnee^r *=''• f'"^''' ''»<' become the end of (he Ihirteenth „,■/,„ k' -'"^ *" '•""•" i" K'wnrd, «ent«ry. Some of tTe fil 1 f ""l" '*-' "^ ""^ f"urteemh French, but it does nof sSm t<, h?*"'''.'^^f" ■"P"'"' ""» degree, the geneml „»e of Si' ''T <^'»P''«'«1. h, „„y by this tiv: ,;,, , „ „ J . "'fi"'"' Norman Freni'li li,..i • 'f K-n. .; .;.•.':■■'":." et'^rSmnt"" ™-'""»" »nd we ""• hft. :■ ™;^ ."" hterary Freneh. Durinu- Some of the ln«n °"''''^' demure, encourage. duets i»;^tX";r:f\^i^i^T.:. "r '^""- »^ -»- ""' "^- -^r pet?.' '^e^tZce, „ This element is ealled pS„ T' u Second Period. ''"nsmn French, or French of the beetmtomXtlirt'uTSd't''^'''' ^^""^ ™"'^^™ tin.es of pronunciation/ Conin.'„; ''^ I'omer,,,,™^,- and LTTf' (*"■ ""mple. rage with tlVe?- ^^ '-,which'aiThetm;r;dtZtr'i'-'''^'''"'''^'^^^^^ ^ The last class of French 7''°'^"'^ » *"^™nd time, from 1500. Even beforl . '""""Words may be dated writers drewmnci'ont?.:,^^., |:-.»f Eli.ab'eth, Xl iW oorrowed manv word« f^.^ ^^''n''""^ i'lench, Ene-lish ""--ee increased^l^^oS, fcnt*^ J-^iJ:;^^^ ^-^ Commerce. NaturalizaHon, Third Period: Modern Freufli. .'if 9 fl 1 '■ 334 HISTORICAL OUTLINE. >i( !. Literature prefers genuine Eng- lish words. Naturali- zatiou. Dutcli settlers and saiIor&, Spanish. Henrietta Maria of France, and rose to its height after the /i7^^T^*^^°' ^*^^^"""fe' ^"^out the time of the death of Pope ^ ;.• J^^tfaoug^ Dryden protested against the excessive use ot French words, he followed, to some extent, the fashion of the court, and in his vocabulary we find French words that are now no longer current. Examples of words introduced during this period are chagrin, repartee, debut, dejeuner, elite, caress, reveille .corps, tirailleur, personnel, precis. ' As Paris has long been the criterion of fashion and social taste, French influence still exists, but it hardly appears in the vocabulary of pure literature. The best English writers now show a preference for genuine English words, as being simpler and more forcible— a tendency which lennyson has done much to foster. Words borrowed since the seventeenth century are used mainly in scientific works, or to represent French ideas, as emeute, plebiscite, xyrestige. vVhen first introduced Modern French words retain their pronunciation. Some, however, gradually become natural- ized, but some retain t^^-^ir pronunciation wholly or in part, and the pronunciation of others is unsettled. Examples of these classes are brilliant, corset, deference ; prestige, glacis ] ballet, bureau, depot, clique, douceur. The French loan-words, introduced since 1500, are known as Modern Frenchy or French of the Third Period. DUTCH. 627. In the reign of Edward III., Dutch weavers were induced to settle in some parts of England, and, under Elizabeth, English soldiers, who aided the Dutch against the Duke of Parma, brought home some loan-words with them. Still later, after the fall of Antwerp, in 1385, many of its inhabitants settled near the Thames. Dutch sailors also gave us some nautical names; and we have a few from South Africa. Examples are deck, dollar, hogshead, boor, sutler, waggon, easel. FROM OTHER LANGUAGES. 628. During the latter half of the sixteenth, and the first half of the seventeenth century, the Spanis" language was widely known in England, owing mainly to the many points of contact, friendly and hostile, between the two countries. Examples of words from this source are AvrriQ/la fni'/iSi^'^ -fl/^+illo »»jtT«^*Jl!^ ^«_~^ _•„„_ _ii._-^j ; (.!;«!!«:,..; .,.!in!ti, i^UIiuiutu, v;aigu, i;igar, uiiigaior, don, duenna, liegro. rnEn>UEia.y slemmmt ny the vocABULAin: 33d rht after the ath f*f Pope le excessive extent, the Snd French les of words , reveille, a and social ily appears 3st English flish words, incy which rowed since tific works, e, prestige. retain their ne natural- or in part, Ixamples of ballet, are known avers were md, under against the with them, lany of its sailors also few from easel. , and the 1 language the many n the two are alligator, Afe guese. w words havi Portuguese. EWptes are " ■"""" '"'educed from the P„r( the reigns of Henry Ylll ElizIhpH?^ i courtiers during English authors of ^he thne, w "o tl '"^"^ ''^- copied some of the peculiarities nf V. '^'''^.^^ Italian works, of Italian architecture and ^^^^ T''^^'^' ^he stud; tion of Italian nutnu W ures contit!!.''! ^"^ 'Y ''^^-'''^- of our vocabulary. But the ac .p«^^l f '" ^? ^^^^ '"^'^•^^^^ .•a.hio„s Italian influe^ ■■aSXrd^eteW.i-S^^rr miniature, balustrade. »n„t„ cartoon v. ■ „ brought ifstrbTiXuLTo t iir,:;^ n"» '" '"'- "-» England. Travel, eommerce «", - lif """'' '""■"" "'' ™"™''- l.«ve brought us w;rds.."^''T;a,:pies'o?rh'a'rr.'""''' "'' Hebrew : amen ehetr'-"? ■,''''«"/' '="<'"«' ""'Jy- America.^ CTain h^ •• ^"'',''''''' '«'!n H o d d a> gn O d O e^ w en « d ^^-^ a *^ " d5 c8 ^ O) w jfl d'O +j o © o ^ -d t>» a, o ^ •= ©-2-M 03 -d d »^ ® OU XI W 4J gj S ■** 5 .. . -iS "S ,- *; g) o g -d .-"H ,3 ® 03 00 05.60 ^-^ d aw >'d d 0) so 05 OQ d « «d^ ® 2*: >d a> ■^ ® jg Oh-*' rt P« ^ o .s ® ® ■S d 2 C5 +S ^ dn3 93 ■o a p5 -5 a. d o d a> d - © g d 1 (D dr^ -d^ d o 'd 00 d d ►o— ' o 3 >> '^ Si?® - sals ?J-' 11:^ §li^s-5-id" d ® ^ d o«1 _, » ® © "9 (D > fc +j *-_s d >: P, © O '-' - ■!-> =^ a 2 © -d o © ^ 5iO i d ''^ d - o © ©•- a a bcfe ® O o ,d^'S'=*'S do^5 ^•2a©a*'Sa)x"5P 3^ I— H 1-4 «« ©« ®fl-^ § © oW^ S2 © c 2r d -M rQ :S feT? «3 o $ fl H g_© OJ SJ.2 APPENDIX. M CO H O J3 a.--x: GQ CO CG ^ cd CS alfl -a 2 ^ C4 d -M p. ""I rd Jd 00 » rt o3 U1 CO -fJ -< 00 w © © © a ® v:3 93 a jj •c o Q ® d M M 03 as h » » OP * <) ^ cn 3"- as > •■n tL « CO ir. i u ei O > -o < O ^ — ' ? d b£ j:J • 14 M H w M 99 •» '^ d ^ m ©•w ■■n -a o 00 ( 0} I S3 t- *j a ©• « ^ * gS^ ■M d "d'^gS" a ^ d 00 m CO © © V© ^a:s 93 I o P f to §)d e3 N »^ 3 ® 00 eS.M M 'P-* CO 3 "J CD 03 IM © © © sa^ C5-; bo 'S's! d (4 00 CO (» © © © d © d H .-; o OO go » ? 2 S,® N 9 g ® d fe N •t-»^ CQ H o C9 atj O c3 © © 00 O 1 ©"d a5 o OD d ® e8 ® d p > > tiCO M a !3 cd © 6c o 1^ oa ■ 08.2 d © o C '=> o ^ .?? 03 3 w ,0 »; © 93 O a u an ^ >r1 I ^ as APPENDIX. c8 F.,a I Li s OS > 00 i; S u CO 1 «fl 3 SO agro- zugo BO I o U 3 a> .4 a % U ri o •■a a 'o o S * -is 13 «a 5c^ ^ ^ a a a ® 2 ® ^ 03 u -a 3 OS 53 « Q 13 « -o :c ^ 5,^ ^ aa§ •r-H ••■H ^ ® a> e; a OS 03 60 3 O a N U I OS 08 a ^ cS CI f4 cS eS U cS (4 I o 03 08 3 a^ -§1 CO I CO a a O '"J a >-) O ^ 08 OS ^? •'^ r^ ^0 fi^ *? -* -a G §)^ c2 aa.§ a 08 o S: i: •1 O •^-d 6C ^ «8 60 n3 a 08 25 c8 ® 9 =* OS O 3 1 1L4 « *i-i 4^ » -o a g a »4 a 0) -„ 0) d) -c-a a§ a 0) o o J5 bo o o a 08 o o a 13 so I •"H 09 (D a a OS a 09 09 08 60 :© a 09 > O « 09 3 O a£ "W 13 3 ®'5 S* O) 09 a 0) a o a 09 . 60 a a. 09 c3 u c3 fl a^^ -Q-a 60 a O o as •i-i ^ c3 O O 13 S- 5 ® :2 vS «M '5 ^o -o 1 13 !3 o 0) -O^ 60 a g -a 13 5 *^ a o Oi ■^ 3 a *- ©^ a ^ ^ a Js'Sig C9 o o o- -a 5 ® o * 0) o t^ -a ^3^^-^,^3 1111 ® s s o o e; (4 OS 01 o o 0> fi ^9' I ); PREFIXES, SUFFIXES, AND ROOT- WORDS. XVIII. PREFIXES, SUFFIXES, AND ROOT-WORDS. PREFIXES. NATIVE. If" • I I. LIVING. By-, Je- ( about, thoroughly ; forming transitives) : begirdle, befoul. Mis- (wrong, not) : misdeed, miscall (sometimes Fr., as in mischief). Un- (not; with verbs, the reverse 'I : un-English, untruth, undo. After, fore, in, of, on, out, over, th(o)r- ough, and up, which are still separate words, are used like prefixes, and are sometimes called SEPARABLE prefixes, t II. DEAD. A- (on) : a live «on life [384]). ROMANIC I. LIVING. Ante- (before): antedate, anticipate. Anti- Gr. (against) : antipope. Bis- hi- (two, twice) : biped, bi monthly. Com-, CO- (together, strongly): co- heir, commingle, concur, collect, correct, countenance. Contra-, Fr. counter (against) : contra- dict, controvert, counterbalance. De- (down, from, the reverse, thoroughly) : depress, depart, de- odorize, desiccate. Demi- (half) : demigod. Dis-, Fr. des-, de- (asunder, the reverse) : dissever, dislike, diffuse, diverge, descant, defy. Ex-, e- (out, out and out): ex-presi- dent, evolve, effect. Gr. exodus, ec-gtasy. In-, Fr. en-, em- (in, on): incrust, impassioned, illuminate, irradiate, engrave, embolden. In- (not) incautious, imperfect, illiberal, irregular. Inter-, Fr. enter- (within, among): interchange, introspection, enter- prise. A- (of) : adown, afresh, akin. A- (intensive): ashamed, athirst. A- (out) : abide, arise, arouse, accurse, affright. A-, an- (against): along, answer, acknowledge. A-, e- (meaningless): afford, aware, e-nough. At-: ado (441), twit, «wit "tc note"). For-: forbear, forbid, forego. Ne-, n- (not) : never. With- (against) : withhold. AND GREEK. Nan- (not) : non-denominational. Post- (after) : postdate. Pre- (before) : prearrange. Red-, re- (back, again): readmit, redintegrate. Retro- (backward) : retroactive. Semi- (half) : semipolitical. Suh- (under, upwards) : sub-examiner, succumb, suffix, suggest, summon, suppress, surreptitious, suspend. Super-, Fr. sur- (over) : supercargo, surpass. Trans-, Fr. tres- (across) ; tranship, traverse, trespass. Ultra- (beyond) : ultra-radical. Vice-{\n place of) : vice-consul. II. DEAD. A-, ab- (off, from) : avert, abnormal, ab-s- tract. Ad-, Fr. a- (to) : adjudge, abbre- viate^ abridge, accompany, affix, aggrieve, allocate, ammunition, annul, applaud, arrange, assign, attune, achieve. Ambi-, am- (both, on both sides); ambidextrous, amputate. Jmpki-, Gr. (on both sides) : amphi theatre. SUFFIXES. rt, abnormal, ^Po-, Gr rfrnLT ^* 'Analysis. C«.a.Gr.(dow„).e..ast.ophe,„„.he. ellipsis, endogen. ^yper; g;. (over) . hT'^P'^^^'^- When. ^"""^^"^-^^^Pophosphite, SUFFIXES. 06- rin f "^^'«o"^ent. oe'eurfotrrVp'elr'^'""'™-". Para-, Gr rvLc-T ' ^^^pa^d^^.-pLtt',.™"'™-^ '»)•• wronglv?;'" il''™",«''- "wroufjhly -S/zn- c\ u > • subterfuge. I. LIVING. ""'/^r^.;r%«'.'' •■belong. NATIVE. "• DEAD. ?a&™« '™''' ''•"'«) Z Carting, •'"•'• «"ucnrui. -kin Cliff lo^". i i., . "'"'dwiSf:^ »"^ -»"): heaHn.. .,„.!'^'''-« Ti-lln':: •'""'-P"'''') ^ . in Godhead). •^ng (part, and noun), i, • dwelling "'' • hearing, .,7?,.'"'""»"t) : fadeless. -'// (like; a so adv ) • m.Lt „ , -««<' (the being) :-4|<'J™'y. M™ly. _-6'»„«(,ike):b?;de^s„me • -.,-.«/(l!ke"bel™yi„7trt?/^ I- uvma. (forming Ferbn.) - — ■ - ^.k.) : aeepen, fatten. ., („„,„;■/ j^^^- ■^&:uil:^'^- 'p«t-- duckling, hireling! -™-7 • bladder ^""^ ^^'^^) •• daughter, ■'t'dge!^^^^^*^*-)^ wedlock, know- -.T^ /ii",^^) •• hillock. T/f i */^*.^^ • hatred. daughter. ^°°' ^^^^ •' brother, ^ ■ f -4 ^j^f f 1 ill ^1 SUFFIX i':s. ROMANIC AND GREEK. (Forming Nouns and Adjectives.) I. LIVING. -able (that can be) : reliable. -ade (state, eolleetion) : blockade, colonnade. -age (act, state, product, collection, place) : bondage, postage, village, hermitage. -al (act of, belonging to) : with- drawal, tidal. -an, -ian (belonging to, one who) : pagan, publican, Canadian. -ard (one who) : dynamitard. -ee (one that is): payee, (=-y, in jury, attorney), -er, -eer, -ier, -ar (one who) : archer, engineer, brigadier, vicar. ■y (place, state) : tannery, villainy, -e-ry (state, product, collection) : slavery, roguery, poetry, rookery. -cy (state) : bankruptcy, tenancy. -ess (one who : fem.) : governess. ■ -ese (belonging to) : Chinese, Cai-lyl- ese, courteous (by analogy). -et, -let (little) : floweret, circlet, -ic (belonging to, like): athletic, domestic. •ical ( = ic + al): angelical, 'ive, -ory (inclined to): plaintive, determinative, advisory. 'ism, Gr. (the being, what is, doe- trine of) : Anglicism, mannerism, Puseyism, witticism (by analogy) . ~ine, -in (like) : adamantine. -ist, Gr. (one who habitually) : copyist, anti- revisionist (cf. gym- nast, enthusiast). -ite (belonging to, adherent of): Israelite, Parnellite. -merit (act of, means, result) : judgment, pavement. -ose, -ons (full of): grandiose, furious. II. DEAD. -ant, -ent (= -ing): observant, con- sistent. -ance, -ence, -ancy, -eney (the being from -ant, -ent): observance, con^ sistence = consistency. -ar (like) : angular. ■ary (belonging to): tributary.. -ate (office) : consulate. -esqiie (like) : picturesque. -iee, -ise, -ess (quality, the being) justice, riches (255), franchise. -il (belonging to) : civil. -iff (inclined to) : plaintiff. -men, -me: regimen, regime. -mony (state of) : sanctimony. -nd, (that is to be) : dividend. -one, -oon (great) : trombone, balloon -or (one who, quality, act) : governoi ardor, behavior. -t, -te( = -ed): elect, favorite, licenti ate, postulate. -t,-ot, (one who, an enthusiast for) prophet, patriot. -ion, -tion, -ation (act or state of)' rebellion, solution, salvation. -tor, -trix (the doer): competitor. -trum, -tre (object or means): spectrum, spectre. -tude (the being): fortitude. -ty (the being): cruelty, fragility. -ule, -cnle, -de (little): globule, animalcule, particle. -ure, -ture (act of), departure, im- posture. (Forming Verbs.) DEAD. -ate (originally Lat. part, suffix) : assassinate, vaccinate. -fy, Pr.( to make) : fructify, beautify. isn Fr. (become, make, treat as) : nourish, cherish. ize, Gr., or -ise (to make) : pauperize. 'ans, result) : It. ) : grandiose, (bservant, con- yieij (the being (servanee, con« jy. 'ibutdry. e. que, y, the being) ), franchise. il. itiff. egime. timony. vidend. ibone, balloon 3t) : governor ^'orite, licenti ithusiast for) : or state of) . lalvation. 20mpetitor. or means) : tude. r, fragility. le) : globule, sparture, im- :e^ treat as) ; : pauperize. ^^Tm Rooi.iroMDs. ROOT-WORDS. The folio • "^^'A-WUKUS, given in thTfoms'\\«7"K'"''? *^^ important Latin and P... ^. iniquity eonSo ^ " ' '"'<")oate, Andm mil: """'e™'", oriole. ^esuZ, ''^SZll''^Z:^^\J . atLieror/avafcT"^^^ ''^"^"^• t™7&^ ^ -™i. longi;;ity. -8"'T. inaiguS::"' '"''^'«'°''^' ^»"' ««"'» (dTX^erSrt? • ^r,"""""' (^"«'=) •• bacillus binary. bien„i;i K?'?/ (twice); Argentum (silver) ■ ' « ' ^Z^^"- clear), amis ' "'^"'' ^"^ke Armn(^L- ^^^^"t'ferous, argue. Tul't"?!' --«) : ariorfal, arm,. - ^;-s rlvn ^. '^'■"''^^''^' alarm ^^;^er (iou *hi .^^t^^^e articulate. ^uaaxi^t^l. SL?^' f,^a«l>erate. a,n.ln«-!!::r L.^"'^f'«« (boldness) : hiSe^L'^ri^^^^^ eadenc; ""T^^''^^^^ deciduous, de- cerulean {.\.J Unt'''^'' ^'^'-^S, Calxmlc-isiUrne) ■ caLlus (pebble) • r.j^^^"*'^;' chalk, calculable ^ ' (fire) • PnnS' ' ^""^"^ ' ^''cendi'un ^ ine"idi:.^;tcenr ^'^^^' ^^^^^^' ^«««5 (dog) : canine. * tive, canorous, cant, chant Ca;..o, ca/,r,„„ (take) : cantivP r..«- (frrlo, cardm-is (hinge)- eirdJnni Caro, mm-is fflpsh) . „ <^ardinal. vorous.earnaSl'hSA'"^"^- atiuii,cuainei, carrion. tummmm n 842 LATIN ROOT- irORDS. \ if!'', Cartis (dear) : charity, cherish. 0(stus (pure) : castigate, chastise. Cautns {niiv'^axl) • causa (cause): in- cautious, causal, excuse, roeusant. Cavus (hollow) : cavern, cave, cage. Cedo {go, give way); cesso (leave oil) : cede, decease, accede, cease, Celer (swift) : celerity, accelerate. Censeo (judge) : censor, census. Centum (hundred) : cent, centurion, centesimal, centenary, centuple. ' Cerno, crctum ^sift) : discern, discreet concern, secretion, discriminate. ' Cereus (God) : deity, deify, deist. Dictum (said); dicatum (assigned): n/.oM f^.^'f'?.^''^' '"*^'«*' dedicate. /^«e5day);dial,diary,diurnal = journal. Digitus (finger, toe) : digit, doit. Dignus (worthy) : dignify, condign, deign, disdain. ^ ' Do, datutn (give, put) ; donnm (gift) • date, dative, donate, add, render. Doceo,docium (teach) : docile, doctor. Doleoigneve) ; f?o/or (grief) : condole, dolorous, indolence, doleful. Donmius (lord) : dominate, domain, dominical, danger, dungeon. Domus (house) : domestic, domicile, ^om^o (sleep) : dormant, dormitory. Dubms (douUm) : dubious, doubt. Duco ductum (lead) ; dux (leader) • ediicatum (brought up) : adduce! reduce conduit, duke, educate. Duo (two) : dual, duel, double. Duro (endure) ; durus (hard) : during durable, duress, endure, indurate. Edo.esum (eat) ; esca (food) : edible, obese, esculent, ^mt., ^wp^Mw (take, buy) ; exemplum (exam-)e): exempt, exemplify, sample, rec^^mption = ransom. i:guus (horse) ; eait-^o (ride) : equita- tion, equitant, equec<^^rian. ^rro (go wrong) : errant erratic. aberrant, aberration, erroneo-s £sse (to be); futurus (about tobe"«'. eswHf.^e, ^icaeni, entity, luturi^V Experior,expertum (try) : experiment exDerienee, expert. ^^TIN ItOOT-HORDs, o) : decrepit, •crevasse. cruciferous, crucify. neeure, pro- ithout care) . cur, current, •r. iebt, deben- i^eimate. ee) : decent, ent. I deist, (assigned) : ', dedicate. al = journal, t, doit. 7, condign, mum (gift) : dd, render, eile, doctor. f) : condole, )leful. ;e, domain, igeon. domicile, dormitory. s, doubt. "' (leader) ; i : adduce, educate, ible. i) : during, , indurate. i) : edible, exemplum sxemplify, ["ansom. ) : equita- -n. erratic, ■oneo:'«. lit to be^ '. , futur'K" perimeo* Fairer (workman): fubricnfo f Fades (face)- fn^/ini ^'®' ^^^S^. Fallo (dec9ivp\ . f , 1 ^'^^'''^y* faculty ; i^a^mm (temple) f^^^^^ '^'^^- Fatum spoken )/•!; ^^^f""^^ fanatic. .(speU'hWte,^Sb^';i'f''''^ infant, infantrv ;^f ' ^^'^"lous, ^:"t'i^S'(^l5?.^^fi;^«^«f^ fence. Fcro, litum bear ■ l?rf' /f °«'*y- defer, efferent h//^'^**^^^''*"^) • Filius (son)- fii/n "^,9i^"cifix. florist, florid effloii"''""" •' fluid, inflU Je,' iSe„/ °™' ' fluence, flux finih T f I '"""- folio, tSl' ''"«"' »^'<"»te. frugivorous,^ructifyfSi[S.^^^ = I'y>, fugitum (floe) : fugitive fehrS rulgency, eiruJt?«nf <.,;, V""'ng; : ^'""'"s (smoke f^.«' ^^"^'°ate. ;"tne,^rk„t^;";:!;,/,7;5'^-'-, »« (nation) ;ZihJ% ^'"l^' ingemum (gpnius) ^1 ^^°'''^' Smierate, congenei" IZT^' ^'■ genital, ingenC;' X ^'^^- Cfero, gestum (carry) ' «!^,, /u ^ gerund, belligerent S ^^?P^ • gesture; exagSe'. '""^^«*' ^^^ i^lans, gland-is (acorn). ,i ^ ate, glut nou^ ^i V^!'- «°"gJonier- Gradus ntZ / ^Sglutinate, glue Oralus (grateful)^ »m/L ',f!™«f- gratitude, gratifv ■ <'"<"■): hereditary herif»T'- u '"?'•««»?, ;.,.».. ™?"'' '"'OMnus rhnm.u). - -^1 iiJ iriiH If! 844 LATIN ROOT- frOEDS. Hostis (enemy) ; hospcs, hospU- - (host) : host, hostile, hospital, hole.. Ignis (fire): igneous, ignite. Imitatum (imitated) ; imago (image) : inimitable, imagliiary. //«/;e/-o (command;; imperium (rule): imperative, imperial, empire. Insula (island) : insular, peninsula, isle {not island [512]}, isolate. Integer (whole) : integral, integrity, redintegrate, entire. Intelligo, intellectum (understand) : intelligent, intellectual. Ira (anger) : irate, irascible. Itum{(ro) ;inj7tMw( beginning) ; itinera (journeys) : adit, circuit, sedition, ambient, initiate, itinerant, com- mence, exit, issue, perish. Jactum (thrown) ; Jaceo (lie) : abject, trajectory, adjective, conjecture, adjacent, jet, jetsam, jetty, jut. Jungojunctum (join) ; jugtim (yoke) : juncture, conjunction, jugular, conjugal, joint, junto. . Jus, fur-is (right, law) -Judex, jndic -is (judge); Justus (just): jurist, jurisdiction, juridical, judicial, judicious, juror, jury, injury. Juvenis (young) : juvenile, rejuvenate. Juto (help) : adjutant, aid. Labor (work) : laborious, elaborate. Lapso (slip) : lapse, elapse, collapse. Lac, lact-is (milk) : lacteal, lettuce. Lacrima (tear): lachrymal. Laedo, laesum (dash, hurt) : elide lesion, collision. ' Lapis, lapid-is (stone) : lapidary. Latera (sides) : lateral, collateral. Latus (broad) : latitude. Laudo, laudatum (praise) : laudable Lavo (wash) ; lavanda (things to be washed) : lavatory, alluvial, laven- der, laundry, diluvial, deluge. Laxus (loose) : laxative, laxity, relej- 9. Lego, legatum (appoint); lex, leg -is (law) ; collega (colleague) : legate, legacy, legal = loyal, privilege, legitimate, college. Lego, tectum (pick, isad) ; hgio (legion) : legible, collect, lecture, lection = lesson, legionicry. Lenis (gentle) : lenity, leniet , Levis (light): levity, levant, levef, alleviate, elevator, relief. Uber (book): library, libel. Liber (free) : liberate, liberal, liberty, libertine, deliver, livery. lAhra, libella (balance) : libration, equilibrium, deliberate, level. Licet (it is allowed); linquo, lietum (leave) : license; illicit, relinquish, relic, rer^t, leisure {O.Fr. leisir). Ligo, ligatu.u (tie): ligature, liga- ment, religion, league, liable. Liqueo (be moist): liquid, liquor, liquefy, liquidate, deliquesce. Littera (letter): literary, literature, literal, illiterate, obliterate. Locus (place) •,locatus (placed) : local, locate, dislocate, allow (permit). Longus (long): longitude, elongate, prolong = purloin, lunge. Loquor, locutum (speak) : eloquent, loquacious, colloquy, locution. Luc^o {shine) ; lumen, lumin-is{Ught) ; lu,m (moon) : elucidate, luminifer- ou«, illuminate, lunatic. Machina (engine) : machination. Magnus (great) ; niagister (master. I.e., "a greater"); maximus (greatest) : magnanimous, major- ity, majesty, magistrate, maxim. Mains (bad); male (ill): malice, malevolent, malignant, malady. Maneo,mnnsum (remain) : permanent, mansion, manor, remnant. ilfa»ms (hand) ;/wanr7« f (.servant) : minority, d imTn siV Mi.oTr'T\ "^^°>«t^'^' nn-nsTreT. '' Mi^or (wonder): miracle, admirablfi M^sceo mixtnm (mix) : p'rom^cuous' medley, miscellany, meddle ment, immolate, ^olhs (soft) : mollify, emollient (rwa:r^';" ^^^^-Tm7Lu>n (a warning) : monition, admonish MoZTlT' "^'T'^^' demonstrnte! (death) !.^^l']' ^'"'•*' ^^'-^-^-^ jaeath): morbid, mortal. mordanr"'" ^""'"'^ '' mordacity, moidant, remorse Mores (manners) : morals, moralist Moveo motum (move) : im>veme;t Multus (many) : multitude, multinlv (^ift)'^T''^ /'^?;^^i ' ^'-'-^ Igittj; murus (wal : munition remunerate, munificent muS -f(VmteT^'tiirmS^^^ immutable, mutual. ^^^'""^^te. Nascor mtum (be born, originallv v>., / i.."^'"'*®' cognate. iVaw (ship) ; ,ja«^a (g^ilor) : naval navigation, nautical, navy, navVv ^^?r, r?«- ^"\^^^ = negative, deny. iVeu'W5 (sinew) : nerve. PnPvLfo ivoeeo (hurt); «oxa (harmiV innocu- ous, innocent, noxious, nuisance 145 XS;«fT"" ("^"'e) ;--older, notion nn?V"^'«' "«tice, notify' notion, notation, notorious d ^ovus (new); ,r,o/<«/,. (news): novel innovate, novice, announce. ' iN^o^,««c/-/.. (night): nocturnal eaul nox, equinoctial. "»", equi- fudus (naked) : nude, denudation ^"-...(number) : enumerate " ^utno (nourish) : nutriment, nutri tious, nurture, nurse. '' ""^" Oculus (eye) : oculist, ocular. Odium (hatred): odious, annoy - ennui, noisome. «uuoy _ Si /lonii^ °'^'''' °™^ipotent. i^a,m,« (spread) ; passus (a pace) : patenf pass expanse, pan, pail ^ *' P«^.r (father) ; ;,aMj (fatherland) • paternal, patrimony, patron natri cian, expatmte, repair (go)^ Patwrpassum (suflfer) : patifn pas- sion compassion, passive. Pauper {poov) • pauci (few): nnu^^r ism, poverty, poor, paucity. '" Pectus, pecior-is (breast) : pectoral expectorate, parapet : rpprimand, nprint, print. iH, appreciate, ize. ner); princeps, me, primrose, acipal, prince. >o (bereave) ; deprive. 15 (nearest) ; I : propitious, , approach. •xer) : pugna- list, poniard. ) : pungent = , punctual, purge) ; puto irify, purga- uto= count, trid, putrefy. sk) : query, st, exquisite. uantus (how ititative. tuor (four) ; -rt, quadrant, arar.tine. m, (shaken) : ssion. ulous, queri- • , quintuple. radiate. Ileal, radicle, rapid, rap- »us, ravish, ity. io, ration -is atify, ration n. ight, right) ; (rule) ; rex, len, regent, aant, reign, ie, republic. cule, risible, gor. i?»i;«* (brook) : rival, rivnlvt, derive But nvcr cn^o, scrtptim (write): scribe describe, script, conscript, sh ke' VttcT^r^^ •■ -^-'t' -gm^nt: iDut sect <;L, (follow) ; ......?., (fo owing ; soeins (companion): «ri ''•. o^r^"ies, consecutive, SeZ 'J^i ' "/'^^' ?^^^"»^' sociable. Seio, sertnm (set in a row, join). ^ series, sermon, exert «r.n..^''.* ' ' ■^■vm (slave) ; senno (serve) : servile ^^n, sergeant, deserve But m-?' servf t^ser'^o reave). ^ 347 'W.m (stars) : sidereal, con.sidor •^'WMsign):signal, assign Heal ^i;;nJ:;'dk;::;:;;^?«""'"'^*«'-- '""'""^y'-'l^i ;n>lf ) ; .vo/r/«/^ (one bv one) . simplicity, simplify, ii,,^,,,^"^^ • ,;^^;;;;;;);^so;:--;s^^^ -- ■■;"'"•' (iiloiii-) : 8oIr, solitude snln solvent, resolve, dissolute, soluble 'noir";r^ ^'^"^^P^ ^ -porific sot: So» ' y Homnia, somnambulist e son-1^ '""^••"V'^' consonant, person -parson, un son, sonnet 5p«n7o, ./>«..v,o« (scatter : spaJse asperse, disperse. sparse, '>'/«■«/;. (space): spacious, expatiate Spcao, spectim (look); sneezes U^' sptcious, despise, respect, sniee SZ ^ ;? ^'V' ^"T"''-' Jesper'ate^ bVe: h'i "''• (^''^^the); .p,n7„, (bie.ith : spiracle, aspire, expira- ^n/. 7' ?''".'t"«'' sprite, sprghlv fle>ideo {^\nn^) , splendor st^endid N>ohum (spoil); spoliation despoi ' Tof'one'r""'^ ^P'"'"'«^) '• ^' ^^i- (ot one s own accord) : respond sponsor spontaneous, spouse' Stela (s ar) : stellar, oonstellatTon Sterno, stratum (throw down, spreTd) • ,,. f°"«t^'',"'ition, street, stnitify. ^ ' (goad) : distinguish, extinguish instinct, stimulate. "'^"»8'»» ''i/Z'.^ t''!*^^ ' ^Z"^"*- (a standing) ; statiio (set up : station, stable ^ad^, , establish, eontrast.ob^^^^^ distant extant, substance, exist state, statue, statute, armistice ' Stnu^,o, striclum (g.az'e, tighten)' stringent, strain, strict = strait -S^r^o, .7n„..a,>« (ouiid): construe s ructure, instrument destroy ' Suadco, sHasnm (induce) r .L,.,, vswee;.) : persuade, suasion, suave Sal ^'^'^V '' 'r^^' sudorifi; ^'^"• nen^^r'"''' ^^^^^^ ' ^^'^/^'^'^^ (ex- pense) : assume, sumptuous. imu m. 348 LATIN ROOT- WORDS. vm .!» '* ' If Snpcrus (upper) ; supremus or summus (uppermost) : insuperable, supre- macy, summit, sum, consummate. Surgo, siirrecium (rise): insurgent, resurrection, source = surge. Taciturn (silent) : tacit, taciturn. Tango, tactum (touch) : tangent, tangible, contingent, contagion, contiguous, tact, taste. Tego, tcchim (cover) : integument, de- tect, protect, toga, tile. Tempus, tempor-is (time) : tempest, temporal, extempore, tense. Tempero, trmperatum (moderate) : tem- per^ tamper, intemperate, tem- perature, temperament, distemper. Tempto, temptatum (try): tempt = taunt, attempt. Teneo, tentum (hold) : tendo, tcntum, or tensum (stretch): tenant, per- tain, tf^ndeney, extent, tenor. Ter (thrice) ; iri-a (three) : ternary, trinity, triangle. Termimis (end): term, terminate, exterminate, determine. Tero, tritum (rub, wear away) : trite, try, detriment, contrite. Terra (land): terrestrial, terrace, terrier, inter, tureen = terrene. Terreo (frighten) : terrible, deter. Testis (witness) : testify, detest. Textum (woven) : text, texture, tissue. Torniis (lathe) : turn, tornado. Torquco, tor turn (twist) : torture, tor- ment, contoit, torsion, torch. Torreo, h.-tiim (parch, boil): torrent, torrefy, torrid, toast. Totus (whole) : total, surtout. Traho, traction (draw, drag) : tract, retract --^retreat, trait, train, trail. Tuber (swelling) ; tumco (swell) : tuberous, tubercle, protuberance, tumid, tumefy, tumulus. Tueor, tuitum, (behold, guard) : in- tuition, tutor. Turbaicvowd) : turbid, disturb, trouble. Ult.j (beyond) ; niiimus (last) : ulterior, penult, ultimate, outrage. Unguo, iinciHin (anoint) : inio-uent unction, unctuous, anoint. Undo (flow) ; ^tw, , (wo.ve) : undulate, inundate, aljund, redundant. Unus (one) : unit, unite, unison. Utor,ustis (use); titilis (useful): utility, utensil, abuse, usurer. Vacoihe unoccupied) ; vactms (empty) : vacant, vacation, evacuate. Vagor, vagaturu (wander) : vagabond, vague, vagary, vagrant. Valeo (be strong) : valid, convalesce, prevail, valedictory {vale, fare- well). Vamis (empty) : vain, vanish, vaunt. Veho, vectim (carry) : vehicle, vehe- ment (carried out of one's mind), inveigh, invective, convex. Vulsxim (torn) : convulse. Velum (veil) : revelation, unveil. Venio, ventum (come) : convene, advent, venture, event, venue, covenant. Venter (belly) : ventral, ventricle. Verbum (word): verbal, verbatim. Verto, versum (turn) ; vertex, vertic-is (top), advert, versatile, obverse, verse, adversary, divorce. Verus (true) ; verax (truthful) : very, aver, verify, veracity. Vestis (garment) : vest, vestry. Via (v,'ay) : devious, convey= convoy. Video, visum (see) : evident, visage, provident, prudent, invidious = envious, vision, visual, visor. Vilis (cheap) ; vile, vilify. Vinco, vietu (conquer) : convince, invincible, vanquish. Vir (man) ; virtus (valor) : virile, virago (manlike woman) virtue. Vitium (fault) : vice, vitiate. Vitrum (glass): vitreous, vitriol. Vivo, victim (live) ; vita (life) : vivid, vivacity, revive, victuals, vital. Voco, vocatnm (call); vox, voe-is (voice), vocation, invoke, vocal. Volo (will): voluntary, vol'Kif- er, volition, benevolent, malevolent. Volo, volatum (fly) : volatile. Volvo, volutum (roll) ; volumcn (a roll); voluble, revolve, evolution. Voro (eat) : devour, voracious -vorous. Voveo, votim (vow) : vote, devote, devout. Vulgus (the commons) : vulgar, di- vulge, vulgate. Vulnero (wound) : invulnerable. GREEK ROOT- WORDS. e, unison. 'Mis (useful) : se, usurer. acmis (empty) ; aeuate. ?r) : vagabond, rant. id, convalesce, y {vale, fare- vanish, vaunt. vehicle, vehe- \ one's mind), convex. 3e. n, unveil. ) : convene, 3vent, venue, , ventricle. , verbatim. crtex, vcrtic-is itile, obverse, /oree. ithful) : very, y- vestry. ivey= convoy, ident, visage, invidious = al, visor. fy. f) : convince, alor) : virile, aan) virtue. tiiite. s, vitiiol. (life) : vivid, tuaJs, vital. vox, voc-is voke, vocal. r, vol'Kif' er, malevolent, atile. I'olumcn (a i^e, evolution, ious -vorous. .'ote, devote, vulgar, di- lerable. The folio • V GREEK. The Greek u, ai, and oi have WoZ resMjtil.1 '?;'""' «"'»'. "'oi^o^rbSi, htSchorr^"-^ enallage, parallax. :id"f"^^"^^^^^-^-^ynous, jnmo.(wind) :anemone,anemometer "SgS=(^rsr^hr^:i fiaJ|ro„ (stick): bacterium, bacteri- ^''^j!l)tj^ro^y); hole (a throwing). diabolns accuser): belemniti' Vperbole, metabolism symbol' emblem, diabolical, devil ' Ta:tfc^--^^^P«^^-^'epiblast; i^^«2>';j;-;(«peak m) : blaspheme, •«>o?«05 (stench) : bromine. hrn,„^_ W^. (vvindpipe) : bronchial ^bron- song, originally chorus, choral. Chows (dance and dancing place): choir. S,Zi'^"T-^ •■ ^^''''^' chrism. Uuoma chromat-os (color): aehro ism ivn'^h^ = '^^'^"^«^^' anachron- ism, synchronism. ^ISUtfA'o^^'^-^''^'''^ 2)«»«on (heathen deity) : demonia,. demonology "tjmoniac, /> Y;J_tvvice) ; dickain two: di-, matism, orthodox (orthos rurun notos(gWen); dosis (givifgY ^nee dote, antidote, dose ^^ ' ''^' />morr?o) drama: drastic /ro».os (running): dromedary '"'^Zf (?;-!= ^y-,dynam\,dy- Chaos^ cJiasma } Ghabva (yawning, gulf) : cha- .^ (sight, form ; e/r?otou fimaee) 350 ' , I GREEK ROOT- WORDS. Eikon (image) : icon, iconoclast. Etron (a dissembler; : irony. Endon (within) ; entera (entrails) : endocarp (carpos, fruit), endo- enteric, enteritis. ' Ergon (work) : energy, metallurgy Eremos (desert) : eremite = hermit Eruthros (red) ; erythroblast {bS^^s, germ): erysipelas (pella, skin) • erythr-, erythro-. ' ' ^''ethnir^'""^ ' '*^^^"' ethnology, Etumos (real) : etymology Eurus (wide) : aneurism. Mo (sound) : echo, eatechist. Eos (dawn): eo- (beginning). Ethos (custom, moral nature) : ethics. ^Tm""^ J""""''^^^^^ •■ bigamist, poly- S<^^y, gamo-. '^ ^ Gaster (stomach) : gastric, gastritis Ge- (earth) : geology, geodesy. Glossa (tongue) : glossary, glottis. Glukus (sweet): glucose, glycerine G^MMp (engrave) : glypticf hierogly- phie (Ineros, sacred) . Gnosis (knowledge) : gnostic, diag- nose, prognostic. ' ^ Gm/>/ (inquirer) : history, story. Bolos (whole) : holocaust, holo-, hol- Bomos (same) ; homoios (like) : homo- ^oiiucus (genos, kind), homily (i^e crowd), homo-, homoeo-. i^om (season, hour) : horoscope. Borti^o (define) : horizon, aorist. Budor (water): hydrogen, hydro-, dropsy, anhydride. ' Ichthiis (fish) : ichthyology. Mws (peculiar) : idiom, idiot, idiosyn- erasy (cmsw, mixture), /on (violet) : iodine, iodide. Isos (equal); isosceles (sA;eto5, 2eg). Si''°^.i"f7^ •■ c^enozoie, encffinia. Eakos (bad) ; cachexy (/jear/s, state) • cacography, caco-. ^rt/os (fair) : calisthenics, cali-. Ealnpto krupto (hide): apocalypse. ^^,^"«a^yPt«8» crypt, cryptogam. ' Katharos (pure) : cathartic. Eaustos (burnt) : caustic, ink. Kentron (centre) : eccentric. Kephaleihe^A) : cephalic, cephalopod. ^«»eo (move) ; Mnema (movement) : Kinetics, kinematics. Khno kUma, (slope) : synclinal, cli- mate, climax (lit. ladder). Eoinos (common): cenobite (bios, life), epicene. ' KoncM (shell) : conch, conchology. Kosmos ornament, world) : cosmetic cosmic, eosmo-. ' ^o/«os (festivity) : comic, comedy (ode, song). ^ Ronos (cone) : conical, conifer. Www (skull): cranium, megrim ^r«^o. (strength, power)! au?ocmt, aristocracy (aristos, best), -cracy ^nm (judgment); krites judge)-' critic, criterion. ^ ^ ' Krnos (frost) ; krustallos (ice) : cryo- scope, crystal. ^ -ff«anos(dark-blue) : cyanogen, hydro- cyanic, eyanoraeter. Kuklos (wheel) : cycle, cyclic. Jxulindo (roll) : cylinder Euma (wave) : cyme, kymograph. Kmi-os (dog's) : cynic, ^t^o (contain); t«,,i, (bag); kutos (cell): cyst, eyto-. Lego (choose, say) ; ?ea7s (speech) ; logos (discourse, reason) : eclectic lexicon, dialect, logic, -logy ' " «^noKi A",". ^P"*^Psy» eataleptc, syllable (taking together) Leipo (leave) : ellipsis, eclips'e, lipo- Leucos (white): leucite, leuco-. on, aorist. ogen, hydro-, 3logy. , idiot, idiosyn- re). dide. (skelos, leg). ie, enesenia. (hexis, state) ; ies, eali-. : apocalypse, ryptogam. rtic. c, ink. itric. ;, eephalopod. (movement) : y^nelinal, eli- ider) . nobite (bios, onehology. i) : cosmetic, nie> comedy conifer, ti, megrim. ) : autocrat, est), -craey. '^s (judge): (ice) : eryo- )gen, hydro- ^elie. lograph, sag); kutos (speech) ; i) : eclectic, -logy. cataleptic, iv). ipse, lipo-. !UC0-. GREEK ROOT- WORDS. Luo (break) : analyze, dialysis. *£f "'^^-' -XT: "''^- 361 ^losos (disease) ; nosology t„„„t;rt4,°*f (inhabit): organic, organo .^ *' organize, S^S^S^^^^f^/orjuthology. C^mUe^ writing) irfhn*^^^;^P^^y word), irThi ^^' orthoepy (epos, Osteon (bone) : osteology osteitis Oxus (sharp) : oxygen, ^J^y'^^el' Palmos (ancient) : paleontology (ont p being), paleozoic. '""^^ont-, all) ' P^°to-» diapason (through rmtStS (a Stoppiiiffl • nn.ioi -pose. '•''"•SI- pause, pose, S 'fi'^"??') ■ pirate, empirical ^awetes (wanderer) : p/anef apoplexy, hemiplegia ^ ' '^'"«"*' dunes) .nno P. "*^ '■ P^^umon Pons, podos rfonn ' P'^T' P^^:^- r^/S many) ^^an,?'''-^"^' P^^^P Poleo (sell) . Z ' ^",*'P?^^^' Podo-. ^«''/p5 (proeesS?'^^' ^^^""P«^^- /^m4;' (S);^'ATP'PrP«"f- _ practice, pra . hV^if ^''^^^^ '' ^^•esiMs (old)- nrA«K f ' ^'^glli^tiy. /'/•o^os (first) •* P'*'f'^^*ei"= priest. Pi-e^r/S /fof ^^^P®' Protozoon. ' isoui; . pbyehical, psychology. I :rj li 352 GREEK ROOT- WORDS. I ' k:i' 1 1 ■ nvlfi \^^'\ Py"*^«' pyrometer, pyrotechnics (techne, art). shall bear) hippophagy. Phaino (show); p/w«to^o (display). ^Jrr' If ^^^"^^^ ' ^^'«^^^ (appear- ance): phenomenon, phantasm = phantom fantasy = fancy, phane- rogam, phase, emphasis. ptZr^u"" ^^^'"^)' pharmacy. PAero (bear); p/^om (a carrying)- r^^fnghtt^'^'-^^^^'P^-^P^-- P^eme- (speech) ; p7i5„e (sound)- • pJ^^rT'^"^' P^«"i«. phonograph tanfi^-^'' friend) :' philanthropy (anthropos, man), philosopher rsojo/wa, wisdom). P^^^^^opner P;.o^5^oMfear): hydrophobia, Ang^ physics, physiology. ^^ ^ ' rS, «^ ?^ f^*^'^^^' rheostat U^atos standing), rheo-; rheum ^, rheumatism, rhythm. ' Rhetor (orator) : rhetoric. h^;tT;?hLT"^'"'^^°^^^-^^--' ^'^twee?'!^^'^^''"^''"^°"«^^^^"^«^, ^^'l^-^? (of flesh) ; sarcasm, sarcopha- ^awm (lizard) .- saurian, sauro- Schema (form); scJiole (leisure)- scheme school, scholastic? ^^ ' -^cto (split -sehism, schedule (or <;jjat. scindo, split) ^^^05 (food) : parasite, sitology "'itlidir^^^^^ ^^-^'' -- ^'tceni^r '^^^— )= -ene, ^*tf**^,^ (reflective) ; skope (look) • sceptical, scope, -scope Pp.Wp^r ^^'f"?^-^ V^"'^'^^?'^*' overseer)' ' 2/(dtrwf ^ •* '"P^"^*' Philosopher «/>at. (draw) ; spasm, spasmodic ^'^:pT;adr"^"^^^-P--'3pore, '^'^'vapor) ^'^"^ ' atmosphere (atmos, Sphu^oithroh) : asphyxia, sphygmo- -S^a o. (made stand) ; ms4 (stanS) .' ecttasv^''«r.^'^^ '''"^^"^^ ^P««tafe; ecstasy, system, asthenia, calls- ^^o«. .^0^0, (what is sent, equipment), stole, apostle, epistle, apostolic f LT' ^?«"'r^ 5 stenogi-aohy • 'Stereo* (firm ; stereotype, stereo ^^ scope rsA-oi>.o, look).^^ ' ^'^''" ^'t4lnin^j'^^^^^^'--«««^«^^^^^ ^Si fc""^-^ ^ ^'*^■''^^^^' stratagem. £ l.T"r^\-* '^^^Phic, apoltro- pae, catastrophe. ?nTii^7"^^?*^''*^5 ^«^^0* (ar- TofJ^« telegraph, telephone, tele-. -torn (a cutting); ^o^„o5 (section)' anatomy, dichotomy, tome atom" entomology (en.tomon,S^l^cT) ' Tnlinr^f -f ^^^"^^ •• t«-e tune, WoWnlS*''^^"^' peritonitis. ' Tfnr.-P /^^ • t^Pie^ topography, Utopia (^r^Z ^^^^'; -Z^^we (leaven) : zymotic. I) ? sperm, spore, losphere (atmos, ^yxia, sphygmo-. stasis (standing) ; statics, apostate, asthenia, ealis- (kistos, web). ?nt, equipment), stle, apostolio. loo^raohy eotype, stereo- k). 'uth) ; stomachos itomaeh, stoma, acrostic (akros, ?gy, stratagem, ophic, apostro- ph, cenotaph. ; taktos (ar- taxy, tactical, slephone, tele-, 'nos (section) : % tome, atom, on, insect). ': tonic, tune, peritonitis. < topography, nowhere"). , intoxicate. type, typify, tmibre. nt, tyrannous. (spectator) : dolite. ?ology. peuties. eter, isotherm h therm D-. i (something 5ase, chest): apothecary, reasure) . jealous. ^ zonaw ', zoophyte, iia'^, (cocUoii, EXERCISES XIX. EXERCISES. PART I. rt ON THE TEXT ^ooS^^tltA^'^'T' ""'^ '' t-o kinds- analv.' fn and then divLw "^1^,:^' '"^"^'^^^is consists ir^Tiv "f',>^T'"-"' «^ ^^m- showing.- their f..ff ""'T ^"^^ ^^s essential an .^^ . '"^" '*'' «^'^">^^S (1). The kind, or c/a '^ convenient fo ,10.^1 ■,? . ""-V '»" "sed. I„ „7,.> ' • *""", "xercises, any o.-ing to «,*; tt: ;; ' ', T '*'■'■"" P-'i' >aS'if. a ce';^ • ""f '« '' « sion would ofie L ;, ''^■^■»■"•■■"■"«al relations -f^ff?" °"''"'' ''"t, e«epti„„al to™ ooonf'^f ''?''''^- Wbe.-e 'e, in ?^ f"-;™ of expves- language. "---^ '' .s,.o„,a bo ^^^'>^>^.SSSr^^^ n. TH. ..TO^eE Am ITS COMPo^^s. T ^, .^ CLASSES OF WORDS. §3 IG-'H capti fv ':"'e ;. «;;■ ™c:z:;;?;''i;!i:;i '-..5!"- sill in,^!':;:,;-';"^'.;? .oi;.! liiy cheek and cold.' ' 7 niovuless stiJl What art e: IS t|j( ^•^/y told. 5. Soft grassy stream. 6. j tn wash her guijt away? file and grew \l 1 ^r^ 8. Here, to the 354 EXERCISES. \ \.\ I i houseless child of want, my door is open still. 9. Lightly and brightly breaks away the niorning from her mantle gray. 10. Around, in sympathetic mirth, Its tucks the kitten tries 11. No more to chiefs and ladies bright, the harp of Tara swells. 12. In thy right hand lead with thee the mountain nymph, sweet Liberty. ^ *^ ' DIFFERENT VALUES OF THE SAME WORD. § 32. II. Classify the italicised tvords in the following: 1 Home they brought her warrior dead. 2. Farthest from him is best. 3. Hard bji a spreading lime -tree stood. 4. The many rend the skies with loud applause. 5. The paths of glory lead hut to the grave. 6. None but the brave deserves the fair. 7. In Venice bnCs a traitor. 8. Thank me no thankings, and proud me no prouds. 9. Past hope I have lived, for my noon- day is past. 10. The cardinal is not my better in the field. 11. If thou thou St him some thrice, it shall net be amiss. 12. Certain were there who swore the truth of this.^ 13. // me no ifs and but me no buVs. 14. Heavens < ^ovf^ unlike their Belgie sires of yore! 15. Mark you his absolute shall f 16. No! no/" says aye, and "Twice aimy,'' says stay. U. Him is the objective case of he. 18. lUjures the land, to hastening i^^s a prey. PECULIAR WORDS, NOTIONAL AND RELATIONAL WORDS, PHRASES AND CLAUSES. U 33-37. III. Classify the phrases'- and select the noun, adjective, and adverb clauses, in the following: Make a list of ten relational and ten notional words, and classify the italicized words : ^ jy ^ «wJ,;l^'Tli^^^^'''?lu^^®'''*^> ^''"'^ natures, wj/mc;^ leads them to sport with awful and hallowed things. 2. To expect men, holding such opinions, to have consideration for the prejudices of others is to expect the impossible 3 1 endeavored to form some arrangement in my mind of the objects I had been of New York. 5. He is a good-for-nothing, and always begins triflirig as not'low 7'S'^?h '%r' "^ ''f^'- r^.«^ ^^*«^ «^«^^^«*h the wind slall not sow. l.ffhcn the fit was on him, I did mark hoiv he did shake. 8. We ihTJ'l^TT^ "^^ "'u ^^^^^ ^^ grammar makes the smallest difference in the speech of people who have always lived in good society. 9. You all did did thdceTefusl ^^''' ' ^ ^^"'' Presented him a kingl/crown, whth he what uouslT^ fnr''^hdn*i!."lK' '?*'•'' f" /^pression as the italicized ^irt of " He is guilty of III. CLASSES OF SENTENCES. MODEL OF SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. th JhI!^!'''.'' f' ^a'^*^^"'? f^"««'^«'-^ tliat he is obliged to ea!) the attention of ott ff allbounds -"^ ^ ^'■'"' *' '"' ' ^"' ^' """^^^^^'^ '^ '' «^««««i^« ^"^^ An assertive compouna-complex seutence, containing ihre^ dauses. brightly breaks patifietie mirth, right, the harp untain nymph, tn him is best, the skies with ). 6. None but . Thank me no i, for my noon - i. 11. If thou fere there who 14. Heavens! ibsolute shall? 17. Him is the El prey. i AND CLAUSES. e, and adverb d classify the n to sport with )inions, to have *ipossible. 3. 1 ets I had been fo there by way !?ins trifling as the wind shall shake. 8. We t difference in 9. You all did )wn, which he f " He is giiilty of B, the phrase does le attention of excessive and ree clauses. EXERCISES. Prin „ . oeaioid conceives ^"n. assert.; incomplete.' «""-<'• tod); noun, object of e„ • "'""«»- '<"'i» (=»• -»o,) ,e consider^ i. , ""'""'• """• ">« -nneetive. ' , Prin assert. ; in .,„,,/' T"'" '""' °"' "' «" ""-Us Sd" "hS ir^» o- ■^y"t',''ih„\''r « left forCve? alot' 1" T'."^'' '"y thoua-h hft of„„ : "® first entero/i u " three fiffure/ ,..,^ i "" -^^ ^ suceeer^ i o ""m® *« recover h;« / ^® ^^emed ffre«flv ' ^^^^ ^^^'^ed in "1 ThJ , ^^ our 0VVI2, and in t\'^, tiHm% of H,« ri™ *"'^* formed it- we ^^^ll'^y- "^ the 'dr.;".!!'.!., ," ' ."f destiny „'^^.*!<' ''e we weave " ' ^® waters under the '¥ m H ! i: J m 356 EXERCISES. heaven he gatli.'red together. 20. The bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to niet't him. 2G. To solenni feast I will i. 'ite liim-where be thou present. 27. Green be the tuif above thee ! 28. How happy he looks ! Wr-PruPtifo ill cliissifyiiiK tl>o sounds of tlio ImignaKo may bo found in any of the other exercises At first, lir)vvev'>i<^*'t , 128) h becomes tli. su*>jective colii^^Lr^/l^ ife^S^'lSif " "^ ''^' ^- yachts the lie Jike swans. . . water) With folded ving- j drramiug ^.^|es 1. B.'i ' Subject. ni. Verb. IV. Adverbial Modifiers, V. Subjective Complement. H( ' V ' I I "^""jctuve L^omplement tei»g»„cC.," TomJwHtuhT'''''''' ''^'""<"''«' ■■'»'' "positive not . CAUTIONS. above) and sometimes (a« i„ MoL m /■ *^'?"y <"■'' i» M„,l,.| if. attaoM to it a complement X h a i, ' n r/'''?,'""''' ''<•«*' imni'd .tely th; ch.ef relationship in eae c ,se t; ,'","' *''« ■'"'''■i''<-t ^ogi. ilv- «-. .nd especially V .hrposiT;:: „',''i;* ;'^™:««<1 ">' the ge„e4i an|; s'"""if SI T:''s^t.::t'Tr ^'"•'t'™-- •>« -'»p"'" f-r Y-t^-tieal pe,-,di„rities th"t "eed te^fJ'T''' ""!' "'"'' «>•« n-ny that co«pfe,, trbaveTubiletTtL^^rn '^?P^"T' '" ■'" "'^ • H'- v.Tb); l,„t, . , verbs of incomplete p, edKatlm' '" "'" '^^P'-««--*i»>>« "hat complete waetl,ersWnbyar^-^r^'lX^^--fr(-9e; ..Mi u p n vmi 1 1 I \\ 3G0 EXERCISES. [h.w to nj.uly/.. a si-nU'twe into its cluuscs, ,m,l the two schemes eo,,,- blued Will jr.ve a complete auulysis. See also .scheme on pp. 374-^75 (4). An interj..ction. i.Ki.t. 11. he tramp ot horses, the blast of a trumpet were lu^-ird ^: i^r m-u^ s zj^i^tl:: ;rit!o;.t.srrL C t ;s natural to the English. la. My purse, in^ :^^ " n l.^el " J^E' 10. So doth the prince of hell and his adherents. 17. Peace fd estecn s .li that ase can hope for. 18. Why is dust a.ul ashes roud ? ' None o t le nunates ,s m the house. 20. There are a great number of inhabita"rts JLnTnflf''^^f^''^''^^^^ ^''' /o?/o.t'm^, using the present or the past teniae o/ be, and assigning reasons for the agreement: 1 . Either John or .lames. 2. Either you or I. 3. John or vou 4 He as I'i "« Th- ''•,^""' '"^"^ "^^ ''^- «• More than a little.'^ 7.' Mo'rehan five 8. Notlnng hut ease and comfort. 9. Not you, but Mary 10 oh or James or their sisters. 11. More than he. 12. Th^ h,[e a id civ IJ. Fifty cents. 14. "Thompson's Seasons." 1.5. The lors and buc^v' 16. Bread and water. 17. Twice two. 18. Six and five. ^^^^' PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. §§ 119-123. man^" \' T.11 h°^' yellow to the jarndiced eye. 2. A dress' suit becomes a man d ihe tiinc turns torment, wfien folly turns man's head 4 With London 8 Nov^'Llr^ •''f ' I' ^ ^i?"''' ^'"^ ^«^ '^'"^"^^t prisoner to tln-s sun of' VnX *i^%^'«t«'' f ^"r discontent, made glorious summer by 11 Thl fn, • ^' ^^^ >''''''''' ^ ^^^"^ hevou^e. 10. She stood silent, weddhir. ^^iT-""' ^''"''"^- '"• ^^- ^^^ '"^"^^ ^"^ «it drooping. 13. My OBJECTIVES OF THE VERB. §§ 124-133. 17' ^' -^u" '®^^® ™y ^'^^ ™y virtuous deeds behind. 2. He wrought the castle much annoy. 3. I mean you no harm. 4. He gives his mSs no tremulous anxiety 5. Ask me no questions, and I'll tell ySuno fibs sweet'M T ?he 11^.^^"- TV^'/"?.''.^^^^"^ ^ "^^^ ^^'^^^^P-"' ''Soli bide s bweec ! <. lue jrale had siffhed itsfilf to rest 8 TTp r;-T-^^ . 4.1 i. 11.- -11 tu ittM. ,>s. j^e pra^eu u prayer that * • - ■^''•-'•^>im(0m^:. I'^^mcisKs. ht'MU'S COHl- p. 374-:i75 20, but it is 1 oxpivssion ice u'ith the The nrmy of re niy gjiiii. 'V Tibcp, was , l»('llol(l, I Imt II Hole of •dsof tlu!^ is were luvard. 11(1 eonu'dy, 1 ill religion 'If is tliiiie. ?steem is nil Sfone of the 'itaiits. csent or the 4. He, as More than . 10. John ) and ery. iiid buggy. becomes a I. 4. Witli y sit quiet prisoner to summer by ood silent. ?. 13. My ) meet me. •ought the )arents no >u no fibs. Solitude is irayer that 301 it would last hin, a yoar o TT« i ^7"! ~ ' ~ ' near"'- to tlie tomb Vl \> "*'' '"^'^ '"'« '"^t on 10 Prn.ii.. vr. 1. witi,„„t Z"'""!'' '""'■'•''»"=^-^«- 2§ 134- 140. eo„e, u»„e.,,« JX. ^.^-^'h 'l^.^-S'l' --..i.* 1^1:^/^^^ VII 1 Th P«S«K«SIVE CASK. 22141-143 ime nsf „;.,..* ^_ ''" '^'"'a old man of ft»;«>c .._ ., : r^ under one man » uwe? y. n iiot call Silvia Alexander's Q TiT« "v7- !^' ^f^^^iiii days' growth «'"n" Ihe possessive when used: " """ '" '«'* '™<^. «»<' ffio.V^j, the LluTof 1. This crown belono-c fn fh„ /-i .iudgment fi tL ""' intercourse of six years w H, ^''''^"f ,"^6" were 1^- u , "• ^^^ power of trTifii ,, tA,-'^*'"^'^ with him. 5. Thp i^qv ^u l^iehard are for sale « w J . '^^ ^^^ estates of John p * ^ °^ isle of Iceland 17 rn^ T ^^ '^^"^«- J5. The dav nf n t 1" ^f''*«' of 19 T,„ 'r"?-.r,™« ,^"',0/ ^is „i„a. ;,8n,l' te/rt ^l-ll? -luug,„g i„ ,„y ,„„. „, A ,,iet«,.c „ft/,'„^"" ""»■■">'«• 21.- A i;ictu"e l^e will find me here. 27 Fain Z; H. ^'t\^'i\^ 'P^^^'^ ^^*h y^^^^r pair- 28. Even if he was n fault, they said he had been punished too much! 29. If chance will have me king chance may crown me. 30. Ah, that thou could'st know tlyoy ere a hawk of iSlwn ''^o n?/" ^hey talked of the time when each shJuM^^hav: fho J!.\ . X- 1^"- ^\'® ^''^*''^ ^'a'"^ t« ^^^^'^ as she was setting out for the park where sheknewshe should meet her friend.^ 33. The tone! swelled to such harmonies, that though I was wide awake. I might have b'lieved I had gone to heaven. 34. I knew she would not reveal my secret « 35 How can you wonder that he should be impatient? 3G. O my king God save mv king, whatever me befall ; I would not be without his cJe, fof houses lanS^ of the'^SeakeA!ire™"°*^ "^ '^' verb-forms in such a sentence, see first what the actual words ^ 215. 3 What would be the subordhiate clause if k,iew were turned into know? III. Explain the values of shall, will, should and would in the following: He. I shall go to town to-morrow. Of course you will ? Sir. No thanks. I shall wait for better weather, if that will ever come When shall we have three f.-iir dnv^. fn44 "- ^^aerheSofstj, s.r :;aer- »-> NUMBER. §§248-259 Pyl'hTgo?:^ cupoTa"' ap"stShe?Jimu;"%',i.r''''"'"'-''' «'""'»'?"n' ! ' 366 EXERCISES. CA&E. g§ 260-273 6. Envy no mnn his honors fi H„,l,', • .?* ?^'!'"^ *""> """l » question. 7 Meat and matins hinde, no man" Eney'", H^'.-fl'""' ^"'"'^ ""• for righteousness' sake. 9. Reoroof r»vl^ L ■ ''"' '"^ master's worli ended '.he day'„ sorrows. uTook, CrEtahU."'''' """' '"'™- "' «° plZalZf"' '"'"' "' "'"''""■°"'' *'"""'^' "'' t«>ssessive case,, singular and '^'^A i;rS.TK— ;h2^r^„-^,-' Moses. yi Discuss any case peculiarities in the following : ^^r^^r^'^^^^^^^^ of the and prophet of the Jewish people ^iTJZ ^^'''^^' "]« king, the priest, hand 5. After a fortnighfor thret weeW . ''^'^' °^ ^^^ ^^^ ^a^^ure's pride's, religion's, virtue's sake 7 Vh^^n P^^^ession. 6. For honour's, this a poem of Kipling's or Is it Moo J's ? ^ ^""^ *^' P'"*'' '^«^«- «• I« NOUNS AND NOUN-PHRASES. §§ 274-278 yil P«..e tt Sd"1o I 'am '' f'"- '• ' ^^^« ^^-^ much-deeried children have been dunces il Hn 'J '"^ '^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ are a prince. 12. It is to youTood «eo 'ip J^A^r * ^^^^ a jot whether you It might anger thee. 14. B?d hfr be?X l1^^^1-A'£"«^- .^^- ^ ^^^red lest .. u„ je ju.,s^ rriictaur xsassaniu had not once a EXERCISES. 3G7 ''orms in the ames a blow. I a question. . shines on. aster's work rm. 10. Ho ngular and h, Moses, m. less of tlie the priest, ad Nature's r honour's, Bme. 8. Is sat nation, d geniuses Thy songs 3 wondrous imer fades •esh morn- y. 11. Ho le evening ing out so 8: it isn't come the ipens lift » 4. That e heard if srstitious. . 8. You ive sinned that these lether you >ared lest ot once a mT' le'i arsc'r^tTatem "T ,""?' "^^ """ »-"«""> w„» faith to could be stricken deadf "" """" """i 8i™ the alarm before h? and then <,e,„t.o .e„raSr.^ .?JA1LS Sj^r-rsSf"^^^^ IX 7« «* 77' *"" """'''" "^"""'OK. 52 281-284. woLnr^; thaUhefmX notX,d iJlf • '"^ """"-P"" ' " ' -"« the man should live in peace H,J1 « "l'^ ™y' '»■• I have heard that a allowed them to remafnT i s^a" be Zn?,".' 8°™'. S"«'y you have not are gone, are they f I should nte t! * ^ ''""""^ " y" hwe. Oh ' thev then, in full detail. You oujht .1 ""J/"""'""- Let me have them rate, whether you will or not '? ° ^'""'^ "">• ^o" "hall do solat an^ whiiIadSec:roffis''°rr«o'"%t"" ^?^^'^ '"«' "^-e Ws ship was and pened-how h. had gTven «p his ves's°el' iitr?/^' ""? ■="" ^vhat^«d l«p* Jfth. •«!"■' '""''' "'"h him and make S!; ?, ^^ ''?.'""' ''"nseuted to father „ he was satisfied and wov,Idtfve'tLm"h,"'SessPng."'^" "^''^'^ "- K. PKONOUNS. ^§ 286-330. I. Parse the pronouns in the following ■ ea,/-^XrTuT '\yrt,t' ^fZCr^dl'VV'^ i"^"- Alps who triumphed. 3. These are propositionrnf Ji^ ® T^'""^ °^ ^^'^ two parties that speak to thee am he. 5.The that th«AhT *'"*^ ^^ «"« ^«°w« 4. I which. 6. What does it matter what he did ort^'^'' "sed should have been there who swore to the truth of this « h. Pir^^""^^ '^ is ? 7, Certain were 9 Few shall part where many meet l6 bV o Sf "''^/ f ^^ ^^« ^^^^ been their own. 11. Some are haoDv whiu r>fV^ ^^'^'''' ^^"'^^ wise men correct hold of oae another'-. aa?f^ n Th« ''' ^'^ miserable. 12. They took applause. 14. None but che hit. ^ '''''"^ '^"^ ^^^ «kies with loud anything he calls secure, le. ^n Ihis CGod*^- '?"' • ''' Neither hs 17. There is no vice so simple but assumes «L? ^V^%^^' ^" ^^''-^t 'tis man. IT- 19 'Vl". P--ide-e secJ^rs^n'eve Teb.Te S ^IV^^'^ ^"^^^^ 90 VoJm; ,^5lteveryoi do, don't do that • wh f/^^V '"^'*^'^ «"^ >'«"''- 20 I still nad hopes, my latest hours to crown «,>• w'^l''''""''^ ^'^ ""*^""^- to lay me down. 21. Whern v«f Jt!t ciown, amiast these humble >k)vvpvq 22. O, then, how b1 nd to a,i thatZtrc'"-""^ '^'^^ ^he, their nio her' a^part aspires ! 03. It is til tf.o '"^i'^VI'i.^^.f '__^h« "^il'k it freedon. .;"« .ua. Doin m«J.e8 ttiendsandkeepslhem so:"" 1? We's Jat't^f ' f " ^'^">^ ^u. vve speak that we do know. fm 5/ '■■;■ ,^ V 368 EXERCISES. * i 1 i 27. He knew not which was which '>« Tf Jo n woo, rayself would be his wife. 30 It dawL' f- nT ^° ''''^' ^^' Whoe'er I raarch in person to the war 32 it was «f t 'i "^^^" ^« ^^^^ ^ 31. We 33. Now call me thechief of heharL Tuard -Tt""' ^V^ ^* ^^« ^^^t^^. pacing, trip it deft and merrily 3T TW • '^^^ ?^"^ ^^^^^ ^^eir morrice power which you brought here Las made volfr'"' *^,' ^^^^'^ °^«^- ^6. The was taken to a new toy of hL nnd Thy •'"'f^'^ ^^'^ *^^ ^^^^'s- 37. I married or going to be si 39 VhtwitLn^^^^^^^^^^ 38 My son is either I am nearly mad. 40. His suit wore hTm a yea'^°^ ""^^^ ""^^^ ^°"*^^^' X. ADJECTIVES. parte ot speech, the kind of mo iifio.Hn^ Parsmpr, however, both of these modifier limits, or de^r be^ ortriits ,'o|'Lf'''''^,r"hetI.er the vahie, when tiie adjecti-e or the „,w ■ '"i'-^'*). with its logical (372-373, 407) . '■""'" *"<* "dverb is not simply a limiting one AD.BCT,V.S ANB ^D.ECT.VE PHBASKS, ?| 332-370. I. Parse Me arfjeo^i^es in the J^Uowing sentences: able i^rxA^^thrr.-,?.^ 't^';::!^^'\^^^f- w.., the .ost ..it- 3. Beneath those ruggPd elrns '} nF? T , ^"^^ ^^^^^st wlfnJn Greece of the hamlet sleep.^^4 Th^go gtus ESr'^'f^'-'l.'^^ ^"^^ fore-fSrs her kings barbaric pearl and Si ^ vlt^ '^^ "^^^"^ h^"^' ^'^^owers on . mis . of their fortune. 6. M»nya carll ol/'' T"^^"^ T ^^« ^^^^ «<^«^^- strels. 7. God, in the nature of eLb beW fi ''^»<1. saintly, sang the min- a man will win any woman I.Thu^fd^d ^^ '^' ^'''^'' ^^''- «' »^-h 10. Every third word is a lie. U Avr ;,l3 " " i '"^7\^ "^'^^ ''^'^ breast. o'erhung with wild woods, thicken:!^' S?^.'",^' ^V^^^'^ ^is pebbled shore, Wiornhoar twined amorous round\he'r?Snv. 1 "^ ^'''^TJ ^'''"^ ^^^ ^^w^ f a dangerous thing. L3. Unto fhp n ,^.o n f."^''^' ^^- ^ '^ttle learning lower, second, and third stodes si aU thou n!* L'-f^^l.^^ ^'''''- ^^- With honour, yours^ gave land. 16. The adv?s d.-H^ ^^- ^^^ ^^ther gave me false accusation. 17. Th^re will a wJS com- n'!^^" /"'"« ""^^ my master's ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. gf 371.373 pnJhi:^liS^^1,:;:f f ;^^^^ 2. Iknowab.nkwhere^ 18 a very pretty reason. 4. HLs praise i^ fosAt . ''"^T' '^"^f ^^-o only seven 5. For those that fly ma- li^ht nSnfn u- zl^^^'^' «Kvs til] all ooriimend 0. Whai hand but wouM a iSand oiii fn. r^ ^'/''^^^ ''''''' ^'^ that's ^Sn next time that Mr. ThornhiH camp t V / "" '^^''' ""''^ «^ beuutiful ? 7 The the way, 8. My own ^^m^Zu^Sl^l^ir'^-^f^re to be onf of that life sho(„I(] live foi 29. Whoe'er I 9 day? 31. We it was winter. 38 their morriee over. 36. The ?• king's. 37. I son is either t with another, 'b, the general , both of these — whetlier tlie h its logical limiting one ^he most suit- IfeJn Greece. 'Q fore -fathers d, showers on le best eeonn- ang the min- Hss. 8. 8uoh on his breast, ebbled shore, '•ch auQ haw- little learning i-e. 14. With tther gave me 1 my master's ■ lie returned t full length, '■ RimiJfirly, in «-•.»," mil is an bsnk where- e only seven I i^ommend. that's slain, f'»'-? 7. The to be out of )iM live foi" J^^ERCISES. 309 f^vermore o wj, ' ^-- — -^ ^* the lowp«<- ^.^' ^ "^evor wakes in 7;^ -, ~ — •— — _ ai V themorn T. T"? ^^'-^^d^' about 7?- f'^^'^^^ shrill sal^^^^'^'d there. as to be .3X^i^!lf^'«m whence ^1 T.^. '^''/'^"^'e 'tw ..f. te," , ^^^^?n i was Jous good 20.'Tho.«'^" Y^*"^ whenf^'uTf'"'''^'' ^v'^enl\;/''^^""^'- "* ' '^ was toTe'«P*^^^'^>«f^'omwheiee*r' .*'^" ^''''-^^e ' J^%^r - -^^- ;:rt^^^^ ^^^ ^•cShe^^^^r;^ j-f td :: i? A n,.T, ^"f Uient, IS HOC to 398-407. ''j'-^aled ajrain L/^ ^^ tliroi,;.), n,p ,/• *^^'arce h.-.d he mn„. f \ '^ ^""^ "o St praeti ha v. «e. If). If iJurted with th yo" iiad kn ^oiild Jiayp OM^a the virt to iiiiu " ^'"'fe'- IG. Though I'f^ Of the i''"'d"ots,..,..} ' ^^''.v, I had Bi nuir rnam ^vood be no( you would not coiuo to i\ rri ( f'^'M m ■! '• i q I li 1 ' . I M ■ I III i 1- l-i •;i| I 1 i ^1 VTO MXEIiClSES. Dunsinnne, yet I will try the last. 17. K he were lionester, he were mueh- goodlier. IH. Thoiijj^h men may Idckcr with the tliiiif^s they love, they would not make them laughable. 19. Though all things foul would weai- the brows of grace, yet grace must still look so. 20. If you did know to whom I gave the ring, j'ou would abate the strength of your displeasure. 21. Were he here, yes, standing before me, 1 would hear him. 22. I do not think, where'er thou art, tiuit thou hadst forgotten me. 23. Angela gives promise she will do whatever he shall wish, betide her weal or woe. 24. I will go provided you renuiin where you are. 25. I will do it, war or no. 26. A time there was, ere England's griefs began, when every rood of ground sustained its man. 27. I love not man the less, but Nature more, from these our interviews, in which I steal from all I may be, or have been before. 28. 1 don't like to trouble you, only I know you'll forgive me. 29. I cannot run the risk of being the only one, as once happened before. 30. As it was, he missed the mark. 31. The king is mad, as is well-known to the Count. GENERAL EXERCISES. 1. Analyze the following sentences: I. If the people of Canada were disposed to agiee with Mr. Dingley after his own fashion, he would speedily discover, that while we buy largely from the U. S. because it is convenient and profitable, a very small tariff obstruc- tion would turn the trade into other channels. 2. In all the place there was not a groan, a word of com])laiiit, save now and then an ejaculation of impatience lest the fighting should be over before they should have a chance, 3. Paul was very anxious. In a few days his ease would be called ; and should the verdict be against him, he knew he must submit. To ap))eal to a higher court would mean the selling of the farm, and what could he then do for his family?^ 4. I determined to keep him with us, that we might both be saved, as might please God. 5. If you are asking me if you may rely on my regarding anything you maj' say to me as strictly private and confidential, my answer is that you may. 6. I know not what happened after, save that I found myself upon my own bed, with my purse clasped in both my hands. I had been mortally afraid some one would snatch it from me, 7. We shall be sorry to 1 "se you; but, if it should come about, I could give you some letters that might be useful to you. They could do you no harm. 8. On the few occasions when the family had gone to London, it was to stay with my aunt, who was an unmarried sister of my mother's. 1 215. II. Distinguish the meanings of the folloiving: 1. It is time he went ; It is time he was going ; It is time he were going. It is time he should go. 2.1 will go if he comes ; I shall go if he come ; i should go if he came ; I would go if he came ; I should go if he were to come. 3. I said he would go ; I said he should go ; T said he might go. 4. I am surprised that he was there ; I am surprised that he should be there. 5. Should you think it likely? Would you think it likely? 6. He acts as T shall ; He acts as I will ; He acts as I should ; He acts as I would. 7, Did I think so. I should speak ; Were I to think so, I should speak ; If I thought so, 1 would spctik ; Had I thought so, I would speak ; Had I thought so, I would have spoken. 8. She wondered what it all meant. She wondered what it l»,m»f' were inueh- , they would d wesii- the id know to displeasure. 22. I do not ugela gives woe. 24. I war or no. ery rood of ature more, i- have been forgive nie. ned before, well-known 'ingley after argely from riff obstruc- ?e there was iculation of ve a chance, called ; and ) ap))eal to a 1 he then do ight both be y rely on my confidential, , save that I iiy hands. I We shall be some letters On the few th my aunt, were going. he come ; i reve to come. ?o. 4. I am Id be there. He acts as T Id. 7. Did 1 thought so, 1 t so, I would iered what it J^^ERCISES. _^ QTJ '^'I might mean o rr ~ — — f'>m act v„ f/t„ ; "",""' - "■■•on^'i !';," ki^r vt' ■""!;" '"™"" 'o h,8 g„„, „,,„ „. J J. J-- «%yoK. 1„ l,i, „„,,;,?,° IIJ:""«- ''I'i" one should be tnie ! 4 n, fj, '''■, ' <>»■ °n doing so. is a monster . Two army iiary person 15-496. liscuss any I I beaten ? Shall I tell I of thought ,^011 at least i what if I iiiiig voice, li'eally, he the author, re are more iiidiau view hiui usually and there's ^. lU. The xo. 14. He :liiit licfore. hat he has lini or not. are but six Much as I ully as to a ^^ill you be as good as tn, but that lot whither, ly, all dead, ink that he could swal- eak to him, i, you have 34. Talking methodieai KXEliCrsES. 873 not knou whatcoursu to ,. :J"'"*'^ '^"^ then a^ZS^ ^"""Tu '''^\ i" bids m, that r iro 4(, u ■"""•^^'^ "".eh put out '{o rl ; •^'1\^'« ^^'J years ago-ns trim „ L * ^*'^^' -^'O" taken cokW 4 i, • ^^ is not because l»e in gtod Te .V ^^7^^''' f ''*^« ever ta k^n pine ' 'i'^^V'" ^"'"^ you driv- .gat , -J^ "^ ^'''^ ^iJden lilmself th« .?;; , V" ?}'■ ""'"'^ ^oid? 4!' Ho ' ."' ' ,^-*- ^^''"'^ ^re ^ 274 (2) ' '"'''''"^ ^* *'"^^ «I^««d. "^ ^''^^' Tlie horse J. „ ^ . GENERAL EXERCISE. 11. J^xplam, where p< hie th. folloivtng; and, where t„. InJ.LT''''^^^'' irregulaHti-^s in ihe I- -Lose kind Of apple, cl„„7 V ' "" ""'•'<^*i<^: s^^e=±- /;'™-"^,™:=5nf i?;-!:^_^ "" i"„rr ar( man, 13. Verso a nd'^lr' "^ '" "'"'M l""t I ',™""* l""!'»l', but sl,e I will like I dT V, ' M v7" """' """""Otter I ke lial land '5*"T "''" taportant. will he do tht ,?.;? a. -''i'-rv;,: "rr "?■■" -i" « « "':■; , 'le^L";-,"- ..ever have nor „ever will taJet it "',0 ^»^'"»'»M tl,e hogshef.d la'^f ehori8ter.r'-.o"Hi!n '""""•"' *''«' «<•"■•«» had bS,^ ^d " '"■'"'<' "^ «% look freshed men- iV 33'"^?) •' ^V!*'^ ^hou acqutt ulee 32 G '', ;?;; ^''"'^^ whom there is none greater' 3V Tr'" '^'? ^^'"^^^ ^ avoided Lee ' 34 ^'ff"' iias good ancestors 3fi \k. ' ^^^ ^^"th, howe'er distiosi .^^^ ' "^^^^ the learned BeNnv/n ^ i,' ;\''*^'esueh as thou mave^f firu . • '^' '^Pl'^ars he «-i^t.f;rL^- £f ?^^..?h']^ -- i^t -f er^:i;--: Which I see ..ot-so^'eX^Z-'ea'^'Tarhelrr/ fT^^^'S^^Z M S.T. ^. '^V, \SU "^^^> ^^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) y A :/. '% 1.0 I.I 1.25 • 50 '™'^" S 1^ ||||20 25 2.2 1.4 — 6' 18 1.6 V] <^ //. -1 ■^^^ / '^ ;> V^ ^ C/l ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation «v V ^'^ ^ % 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-^ j03 6^ ) .?" ^'^/^ '''''^^" ^^<^J^J"d therampans.shiniiifr' on the snow-covered -oots of tho town »)eneath, where, on a cold December eveuini;, a friar with niH .h,rk rope-sirdled gown wrapped-' closely ronnd him. climbed the'steep trozen caiineway l^t^'ading up the shoulder of the rock to the castle gate.« nr,f Vifjn/f". 'JJ'"'*'' *^® new key-note, when he took the broad ground that the one thug that was necessary was the power to look after their own interests-^ s";es y;:^:r^orriif"'^ ''^*' ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ '^ *"'^^^^ *« ^---p^^^ t^-- 1279 (h). 9. When I first entered upon the world of waters, and lost sight of land I looked round about me with pleasing terror, and, thi;iking' my soul enSd by tne boundless prospects, imagined that I could gize round wiSt wh^n^r irh '"i" ""'^ ^' ■"'^' \ ^'T ''■^^'■>' «^ ^<^«king on barren uniformity, when I could only see again what I had already seen; ^ 373 (5). n JV"" ^^""''^ ^'Tf}' ''•"? ^l '"''" practised in public address, that hearers are never so much fatigued as' by the endeavour to follow a speaker wno fn!f Ln """i • V^ }? ^? purpose, I will take the slight mask off at once, and tell you plainly that I want to speak to you about books; and about the way we read them, and could, or should read them 1 477 (3). 11. On the fifteenth of October, 1894, a captain in the French army was arrested charged ' \yith the crime of betraying military secrets. Had he been guilty, the affair would never have aroused much comment, and Dreyfus would have died on Devil's Island, forgotten'^ by the world. From the day. however when his arrest came upon him like a bolt out of a clear sky through the long five years, he has shown not only that he is an innocent man, but that his courage and determination are almost unparalleled. _ 12. His Honor is not to receive to-day, being advised' that, though^ greatly improved and continuing to improve, he has not yet recovered so completely that It would be safe for him to endure the fatigue to which a public function might expose him.-"' J 373 (5). 2 477 (;j) 3 ^j^,^^ ^^^^ ^^^ actual words of the advice ? 13. Only a sense of one's self-importance prompts one to keep silence when opportunity presents itself for saying pleasant things; for silence in such cases means simply this-it would make you conceited to know' my real opinion of yourself, your acts, or your belongings, and so^ for your sake I shall keep it to myself. = o ' j 1400. 2 42. 14. I am ahyays very well pleased with a country Sunday, and think, if keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it would be the best method that could have been thought of for the polishing and civilizing of mankind. 1 232. 15. Untilal'terthe circus had arrived, itwas the intention of the manager to camp near the Exhibition Grounds at the corner of Dufferin and King Streets and the show had_ been advertised accordingly. But when the advance- guard of the organization arrived on the ground, they found that they could F^XERCrsES. 16 ' '^ wf^''^ ••ii'ebiteets of Fate Working in these walls'nf rn. ^or the strueturR fh •• Nothing useless is, or low • '^^^^^'^ ''"■^'' "''--'- - strengthen, and support^Je rert. A>.ethe.,;eT/„'irSl''e" 1 ™ly shape and fashion these - ^ *»iii remain unseen. 17 rnv ^'^ *^'" remain unseen 17. The man who will r,n ?»f great water-wheel fh. I ^ "*^ ^ <^otton mill an^l «« . steam engine shonMH ^'T *^^ ^''st movement r.i'*^:?,?^^*^ ^'^ ^^om the of the ma^ehTne J' ai^* f: ^'J^^^ -oving povl^e' j\,t til nh™'^^ ^'" ^ ^^e hydraulic press wM whiehT?"' P^^^^^sses of he fabli tmT'^^ ^^'^ P^'^^ by which it is sent fn n^ 1 V^ '''^^« '"^o a ball Vrfn f^ " ^e reaches the department of scfenee I?ff^'^' "^^^^^ «"^1 every br^"i*^t; ^'"^"^l or railroad other, likethe woof 'J r: ^^''"•'^■^^^'' intertwined inf?. *''^'' ^"^^ ^^^ry and the warp of the article mrnifactuTer" ^''"^ ^^^^>^ ''• ''c:nS:?Se'"^'^*'^f' ^"* '-^ few :»rss?^--.-w J^s sehoolboys, tindinJ^ fW • ^'^^^ ^^ain ; Draw a wJt spoZe^l'Z ^f ''' '?' ''''' That year in Kv accusing slate. , Without "le'^Erh's ''^•^"*-- --e The wonder of the f-ilif "' T^^^'^'^ ^«ok, ^ The illumined pa.^'of1,;*"^^^^ A^^e, A few lost leaves bfushpd 1 •''^^^-Day book. And drowned themSvi T^'^" • ^^^^ their shame W^iile the wild wind ™t ^o.T'''^^' '" '^' ^^'o^K' Lamenting^ the denH 7i;-7^ ""^ everywhere ^ ^^otioual. . 160. 29^3? ^'nf ^^; ^^ ^he aif. ''"' ^^. If we could^ know when softt r ^ '"' " '''' ''' ^'' And smiling ijns oL ! ^ott repi,eg Hide hea?ts fh;.tTreS"e'^L\.nr" . ^ As silently they irripv» o 'i x,™^' ^^^ ache, Beneath their mZ if nf ^"? ^'^a'^' We might nit Sn tS^l''^?' But spare?^f^rS?*' '"'^^^^ "«^^ "^^ke, Our frioni K.ii "'^^^^' sorrow's sak«. ' t 378 EXERCISES. if •; If we could know, how in the mines Of tenderness the pure gold shines, We might not feel the smarting stings ^ The longed-for message often brings, From heart that round our own entwines ; We'd read, between the formal lines Aiid careless words, unerring signs Of love that onward, upward springs To meet its own on steadfast wings, And commune hold on sacred shrines. 20. Thesavage tone in which this was whispered, perhaps completed the ecu - fusion of the Marquis's nerves, for he stumbled as he made to horse ; and, though he recovered his feet, sprang to the saddle with his usual agility, and displayed his address in horsemanship as he assumed his position opposite to the challenger's, yet the accident did not escape those who were on the watch for omens which might predict the fate of the day. 21. As had beenarranged between us,^ my ship let go her anchor in the harbor between the island and the bridge by which the city is entered on that side, while the other galleys stood out some distance in the bay. Sending^ a messenger ashore, I made known the errand on which we had come, and after waiting a long time, received answer that the Lord Deputy was not yet come» to Perth, but Sir W. would see* his Grace and would give a safe conduct to her and her guard. 1 407. 457 3 217 * 215. 22. What may follow your course of obstinacy, if persisted in, I cannot take upon me to predict, nor do I wish to conjecture; but this I know full well, that, as sure as man is mortal, and to err is human, justice deferred enhances the price at which you must expect safety and peace ; nor can you expect to gather in another crop than they did' wlio went before you, if you persevere in their utterly abominable husbandry of sowing injustice and reaping rebellion. 1 475. 23. There is no flock, however watched • d tended, But' one dead lamb is there! There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But- has one vacant chair. The air is full of farewells to the dying. And mournings for the dead ; The heart of Rachel, for her children crying, Will not be comforted? Let us be patient ! These severe afflictions Not" from the ground arise. But* oftentimes celestial benedictions Assume this dark disguise. We see but* dimiy through the mists and vapors; Amid these earthly damps. What seem to us but sad funereal tapers May be heaven's distant lamps. », ^, ♦, 5. Contrast these buVs. ° 392, EXERCISES. mpletedthecou- )rse; and, though ty, and displayed opposite to the iVQ on the watch jhor in the harbor red on tlnit side, ay. Sending- a } had come, and pnty was not yet ould give a safe ;ed in, I cannot •ut this I know justice deferred ee ; nor can you ifore you, if you ig injustice and d, )rs: 379 24. My life given o'er n ^ k ''''y^^'^^^' "Ac, r.e ^^*^" ^ Pr to ambuscade? I seek, gJod S ° 'r ':°;',^"'?>'''^- Free hadst thou Ln to '5""'"' '""'<'■- }n peace ; bir^'Lt' ?\7n,t'^:C «"" ' Icomewth bqnno,. I '-"'"•^ again. As leader ;eerr,S '."JSC"''' Perceiving all fSseZiiftSfd!""'^ '='"""''"'. Yes and the heart dntl,„ *s«>"se thee. More ove, dead roie tT . " °"* '''ee Which Ju ia weaJa »(■' ^ '" "'y ''»»''» boM Lie still upon thif'.^r'^'?'"'"8 «M •— ■ Cf. JS *" ^'""* "'"'I' •"■eais below thee ' Bearing SiflTunW .?; '' ''.^/'"•Ker sprang Inhis glided S'l^Sf'den k"i«ht, It seemed the dark cL ?!? "° •"''eW Those shaft' the fierce' u„f,d*^f."r"^ »" In hi, siege of three hnml™/ *"' °'">" "« wall And, binding them « • "^ summers long, Had cast them foSl, ,„" T """'"S ■"■«»'. .tn^iS/.-Tnoo^stS"*"""^'™"^' foseeEirarllS'eS'tt'^or.t:",-". 25 •^ 472. 7 302 (2; li 1 380 EXERCISES. I" ■ n '^ 11 1 2/. One (li.y wIhmi thrsnnw was drivinj,' so thjit thn sled nlumd eould not be seon lom was s.-ated in the reindeer sle.l of tin, train. Huddenly his sled struck a stump 0.1 the road, whieli broi<(i the traee. He whoiiteil as loud as be cM.uld, but ail to no avail;' no one eould see him, and the man ahead did not knc.w what had happened. Ho, alter waiting,' for someone to come bacK Tom concluded that they would^ not notice he was left until the train stopped' —which i)roved to be the case -and crawled into his sh^eping baL' which fortunately' he had with him. Had ho tried to run after the train he would probably have lost the trail and wandered about all night; but deer will follow a trail when a man eould not see. 1 40. ■•i 215. 3 31)1. 28, When the procession had passed, the young Emperor sat looking after it, -bonnet still in hand, * with an abstracted expression on his face. And'' well might he gaze long at the iron arch-bishop; for lie had come on a weary journey to see that potentate, and judge for himself, what manner of man he might be who was reported to have remarked to his brother arch- bishop of Cologne, when he cast the vote that helped to make William an Emperor that the young man was said to be a romantic fool who would be the more easily led by their lordsliips of Treves and Cologne, than any older and more seasoned noble. Therefore had it been given out that the new Emperor was gone to smite the Saracen, whereas he had merely journeyed from Frankfort to Treves in disguise, to look upon a man who might prove more formidable to his peace than the present Saracen roaming the plains of the East 1 461. 2 424. 29. Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting :» The soul that rises with us, our life's star, Hath had elsinvhere its setting, And Cometh from afar; Not' in entire forget fulness. And not in utter nakedness, But trailing clouds of glory, do we come From God, who is our home. Heaven lies about us in our infancy ! Shades of the prison-house begin to close Upon the growing boy, But he beholds the light, and whence it flows- He sees it in his joy ; The youth, who daily further from the east Must travel, still is Nature's priest, And by the vision splendid Is on his way attended ; At length the man perceives it die away, And fade into the light of common day. 1 46. 2 392. 30. Upon the afternoon of which 1 now speak, in the midsummer of the year 1621, as I sat upon my saddle-bags, my long pipe between ray teeth, and my eyes upon the pallid stream below, my thoughts were busy with these matters— so busy that I did not see a horse and rider emerge from the dimness of the forest into the cleared space before my palisade, nor know, until his voice came up the bank, that my good friend was without and would speak to me. EXERCISES. 381 atl eould not be (Idciily his sled itetl lis loud as iiian uhead did to come bacK, le train 8top{)e(i ing bag which train he would but deer will ooking after it, 26. And'' well ne on a weary aner of man he arch- bishop of 1 an Emperor, d be the more )lder and more V Emperor was Tom Frankfort ore formidable ae East. summer of the I my teeth, and usy with these erge from the ide, nor know, out and would And l,«.,lle™, f , '- "I ",'." '""'■I- lifis w]n,.i^ .,,:;:^,r,,i;' ---j'tii^ ^>;;[i'->vo.;ici, VVe pass uuco^ s, ,„. • '*"'^' *^ t''^* "^''t Th. nK,uK. a "\ V .'u IP' >' -'""•l-- ^'.idgo. Which cruml,l,r« il ""! ,"."^^^^" ''<'iHls, And marvelling kolllye 4o n?^^ '"^"■"^'"' Content ourseltes to call th I.^Y^'■^^■^^ «t^"'<3»' S"^- O for' the cominrrnf f) * 34. Aman'rdop'sif.inri.. I i- . j^ "^uiues; his head boi Jen his naw. h-^''"'^"''*^" ^^'"' "le noble doo- be to"„i^''^^?^^ faithful and true^v'n Tdk^^/^/^'- ^^^ '^"t open in alert 'tvaSuin^r 1^8. ^A^ote the subjective eo,np,e,„ents. ^5. Time ghVles away and we grow old TIT » V '""'='''' "1^ ine siipnt vpnr« More fa n. the busy hand, to^fo d' More quiet rvhen a tale is told. When death appears It is not that the feet would shrink As one grows old, ' 382 EXERCISES. it i» pa»»il,le tl,.y only il\l,Zri:\^l:J\ll''l^^^^^^ extruva;/!inco n dress nrociM'ds from « Jii • "^'^/""I'l« P^an, since every than nature made usT and thsLsoZ Vf coming more beautiful* but approve it ; a de^irro ^e m'^J^'^te eut'EoH^' ' •"' only pardon, makes usso;'^ and us thousandsZd n liv?iaf ^ • "■*"''^? '^ '^*"^^ actually none but the ignorant inTelg^:^,^,^ ^ society by such appetites^ > 464. a 475. would be" bnf ?f'«r^' ??'^''* *^!^* *^^ "^^'^ *h^y subscribed the safer they 39. If it be reasonable to estimate thedifficultyof any enterprise bv^'reouent miscarriages it may justly be concluded that' it is Lt easy for a man ?o know himself; for v^heresoevor we turn our view, we sh 11 find a WaU mor^T^""' Z '""^"T. '" "^^^^'l^ ^^ '° -i"^^^^ «^ th^ir sentiment, tidu ging more favorable conceptions of their own virtue than they have been able to impress upon others, and congratulating themselves upon Te^rees of exce - lence. which their^fondest admirers cannot allow them to have attained 40. I' Now, in good sooth, *" LordMarmion cried, Were I in warlike wise to ride, A better guard I would not lack, Than your stout foragers at my back; But, as in form of peace I go, A friendly messenger,'^ to know Why through all Scotland, near and far, Theirking is mustering troops for war. The sight of plundering Border spears Might justify suspicious fears, And deadly feud, or thirst of spoil, Break out in some unseemly broil." 1 485. 2 138. 41. After due pause, they bade him tell Why he, who touched the harp so well, * Should thus, with ill -rewarded toil, Wander a poor and thankless soil,"'* ' TiV. -a. poetic eoiisti'uctioii. ^XERCIShS, I departing from their character ; an, since every more beautiful* lot only pardon, iH what actually such appetites, panies shall put ains out of the the beneficent rehouses of the are reckoning iph of the cotn- it most surely iblic ownership 3' the intention I the safer they ng in such an oer would have three hundred men of various rise by frequent ' for a man to find almost all jnts, indulging i^e been able to »rees of excel - ) attained. wou;;,*;;;!,r;;!;;/^;''y-- «'>uth,.rn 1..,., ■Liked not to I'^'T' r-' ^^•'»'•' 42 Ah \ whot b„t of. , ' ^" ^^^'^^ «<> ^l«'ar. that constitute '^t^*',;-^^ ^-^ ^-m my Ln. ' ^J.^^'«'Tbody ; and pretty intimately. He «^rl''' '"""" "^' «^^'''»ff' .1 lufo v " u'L'"*'-^' «"^ was scouring milk cnn« , T"."'"^ ^""'^ Pay ^rt n : ' "" ^^'^ P^'ople Christian ab^o.^ L ^u lilt ^" ^?'''"'^^''«''^''^'' e~w,*^ 7' ^^''f ^ the work ^ 462. . 391. :^^ ^'^^'t «o'"ehovv didn't «eem to fit^wll.^'lJ^Ji'jy thing well by the officers it '"'"". '^'""^■'^ ««-^'''»l7^'rs and ^'fvl" '"^'f"''^ ^^ ^^''^^^ ? deer to be taken 'if '' ^'^^^mely doubtful if he wonH P' ^^^" ^^'^^ted finally let them go . Lff ""^ ^thout many n'sgivln 'M''^^^^ ^^"^^'^^^ i^'« of his family anS'thot^ l^Zl^J ^'^T'^ber'^d th^;;'e"f;e's S ''""' '" deiay m obtaining the dZ, f ""'' ^™- He w/s Xnfd i ^^'^ support natives would laufh^lT ht" '"" ^^^^^ - ^he s;>ri,t ^nd ^th^l S^l.^^ in answer otlii!^ f'^ *^ ^^"^P ^'^to ran^ o f.f •*'''"^'^* ^«'' the British 384 JCXKIiClSES. HI 4(i. If with rcmlM.r f-nr tlioii hordosf whiit tl)o Ttnviml Teacher sailh L.Hten.nK w.th H willing s.-.irit nn.l ,t chil.l-Iik.. laith wi;!!l r"7i'' Jn ^'\ -''r' ""' ^''^''"•' ^^*'"' ''i"'«^''»' ^>"' frail and weak VVouhl at least the lui,'heHt vvelfni-M of another seek • And h.H Kift, thou^rh p,H„. imd losvly it n.av seen, to other eres Yet may prove aa unge.. holy in a pilK'rinr;. giuHo. ' 47. FuIIen chonO), to be weak Ih niiserahle JJoing or Hutrerinj,';' but of this he Hure, lo do aught good never will be our task, But ever to do ill our sole deligiit, As Ix'ing the contrary to lus higii ViH Whom we resist. If then his »)roviden('e Out of our evil seek to bring forth good, Our labor must be to prevent that end, And out of good still to find means of evil, Which ofttinies may succeed, so as perhaps Shall grieve him, if I fail not and disturb ills inmost counsels f -om their destined aim. 1 Adv., by aljbroviation. 48. If tJiat high world which lies beyond Our own, surviving love endears, If there the cherished lieart be fond, The eye the same except in tears—' How welcome those untrodden spheres Iiow sweet this very hour to die, To soar from earth and fiiul all fears Lost in thy light— Eternity. It must be so: 'tis not for :self That we so tremble o?'. the brink- And striving to o'erleap the gulf, ' Yet cling to Being's severing link. Oh, in that future let us think To hold each heart the heart that shares. With them the immortal waters drink, And, soul in soul, grow deathless, theirs. 49 That time of year thou mayst in me behold When yellow leaves, or none or few do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruin'd choirs, where late the sweet birds sang. In me thou see'st the twilight of such day, As after «un-set fadeth in the west, Which by and by black night doth take away, Death's second self, that seals up all in rest. In me thou seest the glowing of such tire. That on the ashes of his youth doth lie, As- the death-bad whereon it must expire, Consumed with that which it was nourished by. This thou perceiv'st, which makes thy love more strong To love that well which thou must leave ere lon^ ■bt by IT sallh, ail and weak, or tres, og. roug, F^XEItClSES. 380 50. I fho,ip:l,t of Thoo, ,„3 • rfiu' For backward, J) .1 r^i.T "'"^^''''fmtJiiegl J' see whnr, whs , , i ; "^f '">' ^^es, Still glides ho st're ' T" ''"' ''^''^'^^'^ The ele.e\\t;''^.-CS:\:^{r ^^««^ ' inuny soldiers Hailor.s and 9 «ailor.sand her ih nl. '' "'•^"' ^''" «''»"J'J n./u-nta f u r V • ""-^''^^^^ 9-em/s will whtH i ? "'^".' "^ "'"^ <''*^y wo.Jd 1 v«v« I ''".f'' ""^ ^^^^ To be sure slu r. M T? '" ^''« ^^"^t^n, eo ^ s of f. ''i '""^"^^^ ^« ^« <^'e to receive due con 'i "V^"" '"'^^ "« ^''^ was r? de'd^ ^'iw'''",^' «•' ^^^ «cothi„d. ^ Uuecon.derat. wheu Ler petitio^ltilho^Sll^l.^^-' A3 bc.,„, eo,.eious .hat u'eirti,?: iS t^r^' °' ^'«'<'ows „», 2 ^^ wu£ ^^a'^:- --'Si^-; a;e^pa,„te., eve. o„e , A Witness of .-,,, .o^TS ',tL7S&"^ "^ ^""^ '"rth «». •-•w"M-s'^%s:irwi;^S^'i 386 EXERCISES. I h 54. Sure ho that made us with such large discourse, Jjookiiig V)efoio and after, },ave us not 'i'hiit capability and god- like reason To fust in us unused. Now, whether it be ' Bestial ol)livion, or some cvaveu scruple Of thinking too precisely < n the event, — A thought which quartered hath but one part wisdom And, ever, three parts coward,— I do not know Why yet I live to say, " This thing's to do." r)5. As I stood looking at the great wall of empty hogsheads in front of me, wondering if it would not be better to give up searching any more on this vessel which evidently had not been laden with valuables ; and make some sort of plan for fastening lines to those treasure boxes so that they might be hauled up on board the brig, I began to feel a sort of trouble with my breath as if I were in a very close room where I might suffocate if I did not get out soon. 56. '-.M'obleKingof England," hesaid, " wenowpart, never to meet again. That your league is dissolved, no more to be reunited, and that your native forces are far too few to enable you to prosecute your enterprise, is as well known to me as to yourself. 1 may not yield you up that Jerusalem which you so much desire to hold. It is to us, as to you, a Holy City. But what- ever other terms Richard demands of Saladin, shall be as willingly yielded as yonder fountain yields its waters. Ay, and the same should be as frankly afforded by baladin, if liichard stood in the desert with but two archers in his train ! " 57. I was like enough to have paid for ray rashness with my life ; for, as I emerged upon Ihe deck of the poop, the point of a sword flashed off my body armour, and I received so violent a buffet upon my shoulder from a battle axe, that I nearly lost my footing, ana, as it was, would have done so but for the press of men behind me. 58. Firmly as he believed' that a time of trial was inevitable, he believed no less firmly that it might be passed at public schools sooner than under other circumstances ; and, in proportion as'^ he disliked toe assumption of a false manliness in boys, was his desire to cultivate in them true manliness, as the only step to Homething higher, and to dwell on earnest principle and moral thoughttulness, as the great and distinguishing mark between good and evil. Hence his wish that as much as possible should be done by the boys, and nothing for them ;=' hence arose his practice, in which his own delicacy of feeling and uprightness of purpose powerfully assisted him, of treating the boys as gentlemen and reasonable beings, of making them respect them- selves by the mere respect he showed to them ; of showing that he appealed and trusted to their own common sense and couscience. 1 472, 2 Criticize, o Orilicize. 59. And yet, dear heart, remembering thee, Aiu I not richer than of old ? Safe in thy immortality. What change cuu reach the wealth I hold T EXERCISES. idom in front of me, y more on this md make some b they might be pvith ray breath did not get out r to meet again, lat your native rise, is as well jrusalem which ty. But what- illingly yielded 3 be as frankly two archers in r life ; for, as I flashed off my loulder from a d have done so , he believed no an under other )tiou of a false uiliness, as the iple and moral good and evil. r the boys, and iwn delicacy of of treating the respect them- at he appealed 60 And wh.le ,n life's lute afternoon, 7 ^^^^" Shape and shadow overflow I cannot feei that thou art far ' bince near at need the angels are • Sh^l""!" «»nf t gates unbar, ' AnnM '""^ ""^^ *''«« waiting stand Like one that draws hi' dra Iv ^f i^ ^"'''\ About M., and He. d^tvn^To'XtLTdSi' The peril is.beside'us^Sky b"d y"" " "" "'^'^ ' The book will close upon ns in,.',,, i Just a. we lift curseh'-es to soa,-'.w^y '^ L pon the summer ai.N R„f •, ^ , The closing boo^ n^^y^^tof ;:^";i ' A.^, ^tj. ^ Yet leave no lustre on the page of death! ^^' ^"' ^ Jf'"".^ ■ ^^^"^ knowest a lenient hand to Inv Lu Wfn "'T^'' ^°""^' and slowly thence l^ulhrig to sad repose the weary sense ' The fa.nt pang stealest unperceiv"d awav • £|nl»ri,i7d^,t>'2,,Z:e. ings Forgetful I sunbea though m Wh,-?? I ^""^ i»'"^Ii"'U".st that poc Which hopes from thee, and thee of the tran^ lent shower i'HifS -AVC^ «.,-.« «^J,„ ..1 ., vvet the while; poor heart endure. alone a cure. 888 EXERCISES. 63. " There never yet was flower fair in vain, Let classic jtoets rhyme it* as they will : The seasons toil that it may blow again, And summer's heart doth feel its every ill; ^ Nor is a true soul ever born for naught; Wherever any such hath lived and died, There hath been something for true freedom wrought, Some bulwark levelled on the evil side : Toil on, then. Greatness ! thou art in the right, However narrow souls may 'jail thee wrong ; Be as thou would'st be in thine own clear sight, And so thou wilt in all the world's ere long; For worldlings cannot, struggle as they may,'' From man's great soul one great thought hide away. 1 299 (4). 2 472. 64. The stars are glittering in the frosty sky. Frequent^ as pebbles on a broad sea coast ; And o'er the vault the cloud-like galaxy Has marshalled its innumerable host. Alive all heaven seems ! with wondrous glow Tenfold refulgent every stai appears, As if some wide celestial gale did blow, And thrice illume the ever-kindled spheres. Orbs, with glad orbs rejoicing, burning beam, Kay-crown 'd, with lambent lustre in their zones, Till, o'er the blue bespangled spaces, seem Angels and n:reat archangels on their thrones ; A host divine, whose eyes are sparkling gems. And forms more bright than diamond diadems. 1 138. 490. 65. Let me quote once more from opinions expressed three years ago : — "Let us in discussing the future that lies before us, consider what future measure of authority in particular we should possess, and what further responsibilities we should, in decency and fairness to the parent state, be prepared to assume ; because I take it that the moment we enter the field of external relation as one with which we have to do, and as one which politically con- cerns us, we cannot stand toward the mother country, in reference to questions of defence, as we stood before. The're has been on the part of the English Government, ever since Parliamentary Government for domestic purposes readied luatuvity, a determination to throw upon the colonies the mainten- ance of peace within their own borders." 66. " Charlotte, my dear, how is it that I find you weeping ? Have vou had bad news from your husband ? " " Oh, worse than that ! ]\Iy Arthur writes me from Carlsbad that he would die with ardent longings for me, were it not that he could ga^e affectionately at my picture, and cover it with a thousand kisses every day." " That is really very nice of him. And, pray, is it that you are crying for? I would give anything to have such a poetic and tenderly-lovii'.g husband as you have." "Ah, yes, my Arthur is very poetical ; but let me tell you that, just to try him, I slipped mother's photo iuto his truveillug bag instead of my own before he started." £:xEncis^S. 389 :ht, iaffo :— "Let •e measure of sponsibilities prepared to I of external litieally con- to questions the English itie purposes ;he mainten- lave you had Lrthur writes ), were it not h a thousand •ay, is it that poetic and thur is very )ther's photo tal^aIu^:;t?^S:^^^i„^he wc^, a^ ot a monastic life ; and, indeed "!j^''"^ '"^''' ^^'^^ions to the severities ail regard to another est'a e be lot exlim!^ " ^"'^'^^ ""^*^^'^^» ^^ busine i though, perhaps, not the resolutio,, of ?"',',''^'^' '""'^'^ ^'^''^ the conviction neglect disgracefully, L evei-v L« J^^"'^' f^*^^ ^^^^ children whom^oj more respect for the mother ofVvL^^'' ^"* "^^ <=^" y«" thil' 1 have you can read if you like thL f "^ ««» ^^ expressed in this letter wlXh grandfath^t Wm^'yo^f " S i^,f *. ^'^'*' ^^^ "'"^ «" I'^^est man like vonr this child that your foriune?. LI '? ^^" ^'^"'^^ "^^^r havrcome to . 'n whether this is the case or not I 1-?^^"^' ^"^ >'""^' ^itle her title^ though opinion of your own looks/which as I fill" ' ^^'^' ^'^'^ ^'''^^^ too^good .n nothing compared to my own at your n J ^""^ ""'^ ^°^ ^^^ ^-'^^t time a"e your grandmother. ^ ^^ ^°''\ ""^e, or even to those of my daughter 388, 70. As once iu aiboon.ISS: "rfc^ An agency divineria", „ toS"""^ " '?» 71. As when upon a tranced summer-ni-ht x\n • , '" "ne gvauual solitarv fust So caniA fiioc , '^'"t one wave ; Just whevB l,„. f.n .,r,'5f..'°r''!"'»'' to the Kronnd. Asor^a„d3nken-.;;arfo;'s;S,''?er''^™'' ' yuo EXERCISES. I. if 72. As we wax oldei on this eartJi, Till many a toy that charmed ns seems hinptied of beauty, stripped of worth, And mean as dust and vain as dreams— I" or gauds that perished, shows that passed, borne recompense the Fates have sent: iliriee lovelier shine things that last, Ihe things that are more excellent. Tired of the Senate's barren brawl. An hour with silence we prefer, While statelier rise the woods than all Ion towers of talk at Westminster, i.et this man prate and that man plot, On fame or place or title bent : The votes of veering crowds are not The things that are more excellent. 73. I deny not but that' it is of greatest concernment in the church and a^ m™"^"nd' lie : irto\T«"^' •^^^'.°" "^^^^ demean\hems:i:e",'atrn as ma^efac tors 1, b^^^^^^^ imprison, and do sharpest justice on them 1491. ^oZ^'f^''"'?/'^'^"'®.*"'^^ '''''''* ''•''"'^'^ ^ ^e^ days since by the rumour which came from Washington sources to the eft'ect that some new difficulty had Trisen to delay proceedings in connection with the Behring Sea arb tra on tSs now good reason to hope that either the rumour was unfounded or that the difficulty has been overcome, whatever may have been its nature There seems however, to be a good deal of delay in completing the arrani^ements^ f the T . ted States authorities should become a little restive, since it must be to tluMr interest to have their rights defined before the openingof anoTr cel^n terHtn ' J^'M' '"''"^^•^?^ '}'''' '^^^ "^^^ reasonably expect to have ceitain territorial rights recognized, and to be enabled thereby to mount guard over a certain area more effectively than was done last seUon^nder the joint arrangement. Whether they have any good ground to exnect s^ich I cotK^ession is another question. Be that as it may, eveiyol cSerned wiU feel a sense of relief when it is announced that the arbitrators have been finX chosen, and a day fixed for the commencement of their deliberltions con?oVStv wifr'^tr;?'''"'/'' 7^d^^y./e^eived or long retained, but for some a^ainrke^e^n^ * • ''""^ ""^^'I'^V '^ ''^"'^' ^^ confessed, that this caution against keeping our view too intent upon remote advantages, is not without evit^'TlL'' "'f "^•';f 'V '^^.I'.f %^^ have been recild with too muTh vehemenL nf T •'^ "^'^ i^"'' ^'"^^ distinction; for, not to speak of that jehemence of desire which presses through right and wrong to its gratifica- tion, or that anxious ino-rat tud^ wh?"h i^ i,,ofi,. -.i,„^~„^m'' _,.. ,rV "r". Heaven, subjects too solemn for my present purpose; it frequently happens m Exji:iicm':s. ke church and selves, as well stiee on them ; do contain a progeny they extraction of mmour which Ity had arisen ion. There is d, or that the iture. There rrangements ; be surprising since it must ngof another cpect to have sby to mount season under expect such a oncerned will e been finally Ltions. but for some this caution 3 not without ith too much peak of that its gratifica- ih distrust of ntly happens 391 7(). God 18 master of fhp «« ^"pped awry. ou earth as it is in hi *" "' '^ ''''" ^"^ we who p Av t •'. f -""^T^ "''^y'"^' " ^^ commanded h«L ^T''^''^ ™"«* remember thut n,7„ .^"^"^^ ^''^ Redone , My toil by day and onr>n ^k"'<' *'""«^«/ (Light heart, l^^lU foof h'S ^/ "/^^^ ' These lights shall jgi^'f^^o old' '"1 ^'"""^'^^^- ^^g^*' ^hile monarchs xvhnt i ,,? °^^ ^^^ ^ gate, Heavy wilL fe;;^ Jh h'^^^^^^J^' dreams^ffn-jji.t Whilst here I wTndel n i' ^"/f "1 ^""^•"ons wSt :') Weighing in thon?, .V ^ '^^^"^ ^'^ ^« ^^^ne, '^ I cannot ch^or tu t i^a^it' ' m"^ '"^P^^^^' TiS-i^:^^!-^i--ti;d;j^s if mat<,he"aty h tL " p '° "'" -"'"'''^t^ o Nature Zv't ''>'" "■*"' "'"• intricacy rarherfSnf!- ',", '™. '^°"««ie„ce-cbuded " ,S''°'""? """"« 'he t^?/.9?^°^' yesterday to dine wither old .-r- • . of ir'heV'nM'"^" family very much deT;eted ''' 7^*'"''?'.^ ^«^ the misfortune 392 EXERCISES. to thoir children. At lior eominj? into the room, I ol.servo.l a settled rnfilancholy in her eountonanco, whioh I should have been trou))led for h-id 1 not heard from whence-' it proceeded. We were no sooner s;it down, but •' after having looked ur.on me a little while, "My dear," said she, turninL' to her husband, you may now see the stranger that was in the candle last night. boon atter this, as they began to talk of family affairs, a little boy at the lower end of the table told her that ho was to go into long-hand on Thursday. " Tlmrsday!" says she; "No, child; if it please God, you shall not begin upon Childermas-day; tell your writing-master that Friday will be soon enough." "^ 1 457. 2 Value of -ce not felt. 3 Criticize. 80. Whether it was the result of religiousdivisions or physical convulsions or civil tends— whether it wus due to the gradual dissolution or the suddeA dismemberment of tribal relations— \vhether it was simply caused by the natural growth of population, or by the restless spirit of enterprise— all this is buried in eternal oblivion; but the main fact is certain, that ' Westward the course of empires took its way,' and the con.-hisions on which we are about to dwell may be regarded as established in their broad outlines if not in their more minute details. 81. While justice, candour, equanimity, a zeal for the good of your country and the most persuasive eloquence in bringing others over to it, are valuable distinctions, you are not to expect that the public will so far comply with your inclinations, as to forbear -elebrating such extraordinary qualities. It 18 in vain that you have endeavoured to conceal your share of merit in the many national services which you have affected. Do what you will, the present age will be talking of your virtues, though posterity alone will do them justice. 82. ''There are many things from which I might hav3 derived good, by which I have not profited, I dare say, ' ' returned the nephew, ' ' Christmas among the rest. But I am sure I have always thought of Christmas time, when it has come round— apart from the veneration due to its sacred name and origin, if anything belonging to it can be apart from that— as a good time • a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time; the only time I know of, in the long calendar of the year, when men and women seem by one consent to open their shut-up hearts freely, and to think of people below them as if they were fellow -passengers to the grave, and not another race of creatures bound on other journeys. And, therefore, uncle, though it has never put a scrap of gold or silver in my pocket, I believe it has done me good, and will do me good; and 1 say, ' God bless it.' " 83. Let a clear, apprehensive mind, such as every man knows among his friends, converse with the most commanding poetic genius, I think it would appear that there was no inequality such as men fancy between them ; that a perfect understanding, a like receiving, a like perceiving, abolished differences ; and the poet would confess that his creature imagination gave him no deep advantage, but only the superficial one, that he could express himself, and the other could not ; that his advantage was a knack which might impose on indolent men, but could not impose on lovers of truth; for they know the tax of talent, or what a price of greatness the power of expression too often pays, i believe it is the conviction of the purest men, that the net amount of man and man does not much vary. 84 EXERCISj!.S. if true there be another, better lnn,l 3d:j No more T ^ri ? . "' ^i"e«n wor (1. No mm Let me not hear that dread command. i'otSlL^;'p"^,tea'uTv%r^^^ That w».«T, 1.^ V "®^"ty from the world bSL wa"ted KT,: "^k"'" '" "-^ •""»<" Of vapo,. tLt di:ifee'^;,^?lr4,^;^L""»'^ It all the year were playhiL- hoIidiiv« 2°utttnThet^e^ir^^'°"^''''°™ bhall show more eoodiv nVui of* %. ' ^ Kedeemiug ti^e when men Xl'lLt I will. oebatt,ir|s^?»^ed°:iL'":,rai^:sL^''«^ o.weT„'i?„rp*,Xt:^i'°yriaro?7 "» io wonder, fallen such a pernicious height *'• Of" fote^l'ii'^^'eTllnS.r""' *'«'» ' "- 3M EXEIiCISKS. • ; Or do Ilia ermruls in tlic Kl<»oiny dnep ? What cjiii it then avail, thougli yot we feel Strength undiininiHliM, or eternal V)eintj To undergo eternal imnishinont. 88. myriads of immortal spirits, Powers Matchless, but with the Almighty ; and that strife Was notingloiioiis, though tif event was diro, As this place testifies, and this dire change, Hateful to utter ; but what jiower of mind, Foreseeing or presaging, from the depth Of knowledge past or present, could have feared. How such united force of gods, how such As stood like these, could ever know rei)ulse 1 For who can yet believe, thougli after loss, That all the puissant legions, whoso exile Hath emptied Heav'n, sliall fail to reascend Self-raised and repossess their native seat? 89. The colonel, as soon as ho could bo removed from the English hospital was exchanged for an English prisoner of equal rank ; and as he and younff Downy hai)pened to be despatched invalided tx) St. Petersburg by the same conveyance, it was only natural that they should make friends by the way As a matter of fact, the young hu//,ar was greatly attracted by his brother otticer, and, though the colonel cordially reciprocated his advances, he could not help feehng that Downy 's tone toward him partook somewhat of de haut en bay, as though the huzzar was well aware that in fraternizing with a lines- man ho was makmg a concession. Possibly the colonel in the zealous dienitv of the mfantry ofhcer, imagined more than really existed of the affectation on the part of Downy, who would have been extremely surprised if any one had suggested to him that he had adopted such an attitude towards his fellow- travellers, much as he might be supposed to think of his position. 90. It is when the sentimentalist turns preacher of morals that we investi- gate his character, and are justified in so doing. He may express as many and as delicate shades of feeling as he likes,— for this the sensibility of his organism perfectly fits him, no other person could do it so well,— but the moment he undertakes to establish his feelings as a rule of conduct, we ask at once how far are his own life and deed in accordance with wl .; he preaches? for every man feels instinctively that all the beautiful sentiments m the world weigh less than a single lovely action ; and that, while tenderness of feelings and susceptibility to generous emotions are accidents of tempera- ment, goodness is an achievement of the will and a quality of the life Fine words, says our homely old proverb, butter no parsnips ; and if the question be how to make those vegetables palatable, an ounce of butter would be worth more than all the orations of Cicero. 91. Even as a bird, 'mid the beloved leaves, Quiet upon the nest of her sweet brood Throughout the night that hideth all things from us, Who, that she may behold their longed-for looks. And find the nourislnnent wherewith to feed them In which, to her, grave labors, grateful are, t!XERClsE$, 3DS igHsh hospital he and young I by the same ^ by the way. )y his brother iices, he could tiat of de hmit J with a lines- ealous dignity affectation on F any one had [Is his fellow- 1. at we investi- •ress as many sibility of his i^ell, — but the id not, we ask v'ith wl o he 111 sentiments ile tenderness 8 of tempera- of the life. 3 ; and if the ce of butter IS, Anticipafes tlie time on open snrav And with ardent longi.V^ wait, fhp « And vy? L! i. «t^;' ^a ■ .„p- it 18 hut honest to tHI yon that, ir, cast, of vHo.y 4,^.0 f-fl "•"' yon a,.., hnt two, an.l (i.nnans at that, there is litJt tot pi^c^eS'Vr;^^''^^^^ utnl k.HK.ks or, g.von a pro{.erdistanee, a well placed shaft, which yo^wou Id ud hardM- to d.^es ban anything you have taken inwardly this some time past. I say this Imt .n the way of fair dealing a« between man and man^o prevent alter d.sai)po.ntment, and not as prejudicing a fair encouD ir Thou d your inclination tend in that direction. «ucoum«i, bUould 90. Self-love, which, never rightly understood, Makes poets still conclude their plays are good. And malice in all critics reigns so high That for small errors they whole plays decry : bo that to see this fondness and that spite, You'd think that none but madmen judge or w^e Therefore our poet, as he thinks not fit To impose upon you what he writes for wit, bo hopes, that, leaving you your censures free. You equal judges of the whole will be • They judge but half, who only faults will see. -Poets, like lovers, should be bold and dare, Ihey spoil thei" business with an over-care- And he, who servilely creeps after sense, ' Is safe, but ne'er shall reach an excellence. Hence, 'tis our poet, in his conjuring. Allowed his fancy the full scope and swing. But when a tyrant for his theme he had, He loosed the reins, and bid his muse run mad ; And though he stumbles in a full career, Yet rashness is a better fault than fear. 97. Those heaped affronts that haughty subjects brini Are burdens for a camel, not a king. Kings are the public pillars of the State, Born to sustain and prop the nation's weight: If my young Sampson will pretend a call To shake the column, let him share the fall : But, oh, that yet he would repent and live I How easy 'tis for parents to forgive ! With how few tears a pardon might be won From nature, pleading for a darling son ! Poor pitied youth, by my paternal care Raised up to all the height his frame could bear ! Had God ordained his fate for empire born. He would have given his soul another turn'; Gulled with a patriot's name, whose modern sense Is one that would by law supplant his prince ; I he peoples' slaVe, the politicians' tool; Never was patriot yet but was a fool. ■ There is a bondage worse, far worse, to bear Than hisi who breathes, by roof and floor, and walJ i eni, in, a tyrant's solitary tlirull: » 371. EXERCISES. oh. -d ■ .lyfarors, ! dou. .ful, seeirif? ked from me, but which you would ly this some time mau and man, to mcouDtyr, should 'He. ^^ 397 . 98 pine. 1S9 fi'S his who walks nhonf :„ i.i And rash, beCh, r I ,',„ V'"' f lf-m than perhaps our elder sister? oxlips and the > have sucecGded iial character, I Phey were much 11 one language. is dream in one . 5. Sorrow not country, but I gone, than he 1 will see him. a as every other tnew of the man ou act different, uch sense to me ed. 14. He can questioning all, amber of candi- 17. No laws are uman legislator seated himself 'ery sober man, 3. Polities was too Strnno. f.. X' us forever fi Tf «f ^'^^ ' ^° ^'^all God be onvrlT ^h'""^ ^^ ^'^^ sun in QueenrE^gLu uTXr'^fh^^'""''^" ^o have arranged iJ"'^ ^'"^ ""''''^^ ^'t^ variety of cSour Tn f . ^^^.P^rts of speech 7 fvi^^" "^^^ ^^^'sion of the value you more hi^hiw/'^^^^^'' ^^ are led to lonL^ T *^^ ^^^^tiful ■D?^vid, who buil^ fho f^ , '° vhoever you like lo t- "^^^^- H. You oarriag; rides f,sv™ 2n 'T!"""*^ '^^^ "bo", se dl'lr^'^d '"'"''Wy but vvno IS the man said to hav3 I .ill 402 EZEECISES. been? 6. Ah two is to foar, so is four to ^^iv 7 t ^i, mined in a year. 8. The Dutt ni off. r^^' h^"^'' ^^'''' ^ million tons are called spellinf.'. 9. A butclKr bouJhf- h ^'''^^';' '" '''' ^° ^^''"^ ^vords is them lor sale. The t^^^^^^^^^^ '^•ous from two men who offered animals, and then to(^ tl o ido n '"'"'^'1''^^^"'^ slaughtered one of the that this took place the owner tradi'trH/;? !'f 'i'"'' ^^ "^« ^^"^^ ^y was not clever in business, nor was he cl -er a Jn ' -^'"^^^^^i^"- l^' «« performs acts quite unworthy of 1 ,n n.^ 7- u ^^^''"•"g- H- He often 12. And you may gather Srhndst'hPro ' "n ''' '^""'^* ^^^ condemn. 13. WemusthavealnfereLeinresnP.r;.?."^ f-^'' ^ ^""™«^ ^"^^n- hat I often feared he wouhl lave Ted ^ ^^^^ject. 14. He is si sick 16. Bunyan compares the life of Ch7istia^w•ifh^^V^^^^^ °^ ^ «"^ *« S"- remember to have n.et witirhim one Lw f 't^^ "^^ ^ "'^'^ rules of art nor of my own feelings to writ Jin .i'^" I* ,'''°"''^ "«* ^uit the was planted between each apple Jr^ee Vo nJ *^V' -^-T'"- ^^- ^ P^^r tree of the earth revolving on its axis ^ ''''^ '"^^^^ ^'^ ^ consequence XT fo^ Je^yti^.j^^^lir^^ i\"s:i;i;;r '':nr''i ^^^ ^^^ "^*--^ove mental music'appear on every p S ramL 3 T*^:. '' X^'"^ ^"^^ ^"«*^"- 4. The words are as follows 5 If I hnTn ?h ! "" Z'''''^' ^^^ ^s follow, of walked, I would have got there time eno,^.h ''Vl^ ^'"VT ^^''^' ^"^^ead in he office, making theLelves comforHb ? 7 '...""Jf ?f ^ ^P^"* ^""^^'^7 as intense as to-day," which I hope i mav f l; .1.;.^ '"^m/J' '""^^ ^""^'""^ victim was a youni man who it .•<= n' i skating will be good. 8. The death by ndin|hinfdorn\; ;n^LlerlTnt nceT '^l^^^^^-^ *« ever before seen such a high tower" 10 T,nf- ^^ ^'T'°'- ^' Have you done more towards elucidating tie d ffic Jl ies of '"' f '^''' scholar l/ave other writer on the subject. 11 I W7 s nrespn? ,f °"' language than any early. 12. Neither he nor you are meant 34 Vt"^' "^"'^^ ^ ^^^ *^ ^^'^''^ house save we two 14 Thrn<,f fhi i , ?^'^^'^ ^^'^''^ "« stranger in the 15. Two spoonfuls of w^tl to one of'?hI ^'''^' • "^^t^^« ^^ts of^he hoy. 16. I have no other saint than thou to ifn !'''".- ''n.'^^^''^^^^''^ enough, teachers for the kind reception a coded nvii"-- ^'\ ^^nking my fellow mitted with the hopes that it maTmec^ wiH, Pre^ous books, this one is sub- as well as his pupils were prS A „f'n"' f' ^^^^ ^^' ^'^^ ^'^^^'^ when he thinks he will be wVcome. 2o' ^ could not h/"'/r ^^'7' ^^^^P* him. • '^^' ^ couia not have beheved it to be 1. This was surely tec slender i flimari +^ + j. , . to. 2. Had I bMt served m^ God S^^^^^^ h "'^ a busi^.g^ ,f ^hat weight would not in mine age h Jve lef nl , 1 '/'^^ ? '"'^^^ "^^ ^^"g, he instructions, not from tiie De^Ltment mu t not Ip T'. T^''- ^^ ^" not less anxious to destroy his enemies l^n T- ^].^^'*^f"ded to. 4. He was correctly, because more convenient ,'nllli- ." ?''"'^'- •'■ Comparison is purse when he was from home " i eat mv' li'"""" '^ ^' ^'""^ ^««^ ^is eaten my dinner. 8 The darkni<,\-« . ^ '"' ^' "°"" ^''"'^ ^ have just trip was now over. 9 WheHl ef t thTl"/ °"V V* ^^ ^'''"''''^ ^^^^J o"^ meeting him. 10 The des!S"oJ i^aV^cares^'iif to" ..TlJo'V^-'^t"- ^' .nd ..e d..:gns of the evil one are thus furthered: ll.'scott's wir^s'S a million tons aro 'o form words is men who offered 'red one of the On the same day ^session. 10. He r. 11. He often ot but condemn. summer queen, U. He is so sick or I am to p;o. irney. 17. I only Jl'l not suit the 19. A pear tree I'e a consequence his intense love •eal and instru- are as follow, w yards instead y spent Sunday e cold continue e good. 8. The i frightened to r. 9. Have you lis scholar have uage than any I had to leave stranger in the ts of the boy. idered enough, ing my fellow his one is sub- 8. The teacher there except lieved it to be of that weight i my king, he mies. 3. 411 0. 4. He was Comparison is had lost his (1 I have just ing cold; our he chance of temptation, 's works were EXERCISES. Jt- lSS£°£'°'!''«'''S"lSri'''^!,°/ /" '"-"'^d Europe, is you thus charge *lT n""""'J ^"'""^ «y mistake S^"" , ""> ^•"'.i«t ;?• Not returS-hou;f°T-' ''^ ?'*""'"« '^t I most tevi?" ''°°.«' 5"°" " hisabsenee. 17 Sht rt!^^ J"," '""^ «"PPer, his Silv h "'* '° Heaven, tat that he i, Lu.^ent^T'firh"''"''^ '-"'"" 5? TTere'?™^ "' 10. Theso^oys see,, to do uothL'g e'tThrSfhr tr;:l£S-? Jgsl»^^ - He IS none other h.,f fh^ • ' ^°"^ opin on is verv nrZ ^"*oth;' ^hair. 6. I enjoying themselve 5 'h^S^'^ 'T' ^^ He oped evefvl^',^1^' ^"^^ conduct, have troubled hp ^ ^f ^^uct, and what is Lrl 7- "^"^ ^'^^ ^^«n each prayed for he of ^ ^'^.f ^^- ^6- Each thought of h '"^y"j»«tifiable difficulties were gi; Um„'''"-'^' *>''^'^' *«'' the Stes if t'^^"' ^^''^^ ' greater than ais in everv nH ""'"^ '" ^^^«t'on to his own n, ^ '•'' general's bank. 19 Vpt„i ^^^'^ ^^lier respect, is q^w. .' ^'^^^'^tions : mine room, hnt\ui^^,ZTV t^V'^^^ol-nill' dawn ^ndTl-^r^ ^^^^'e^ see if he was up yet ^%7^"5''^"^^f '^t vanishes 20 She n^lf l?''^^ ^"^^^ ^^i^ her firm belief Vat all ""^''^^^ •''"'"^ rendered thei^vpt^-1.^^ ^^ ^« and that the coldness LvL^r'^'P^-^ marriages dated on v Jr^ 'V -' ^^ ^as faculty in woZ^ . " ""f ^^^ independence nnri T ^^'^ ^^^e ; and 23. Heaven forbid thatT^y'^'',."^^'^ «^"«^« ^f ma trin^'oS,"!,-''^^ ''^'^^'-'"^ ^j.„ ootain Its removal. as his who kent th^ hTj ^"°"' "<" "li"- 3 For hov= ^•l?"f ' 2- He left in such a mTbl^tS ZTlt- *■ ''""■" i"° .X a Wnd oT''^ »^''°"1 P ayed for imfniri o ^"to this earth, .^i Tf ,•„ -^ Kind of saeredness players Yna^lme off-' ^'^^7 "^^« ^"d w^man of n. f ™' ^^'^^^ ^^^^ been "&!mT££t-r^^^ man nor boy, nor all fLf • 1 "either listlessness no J^^ S ^^P^^^^^nre of looks like Js m'herllf .;t.^l.^"^!*-Y.-ith Joy, c'n "^ZZ't^.l^'^-oy, nor He would be burned. 16 The v^T ''"''' ^''^^ ^'^ ^^thev 'li't^^'- '*: ^e "jet-ii. 17. A seconcl 404 EXERCISES. V J8. Trusting that you will remLber us 3 w -^ "'' T""^ ^^ ^'« ^"^mies time, and with best Jove (in which we' a h^'lA ^'''•^^" ^' ^^^ ^'^^ ^P^^e ever, etc. 19. There are man/Cs whose fX^ •'^l."'^ remember me as they were infants. 20. Of all^mTrash advln^n ^"*^ "'^^^"''^ ^''^^ ^'^en must prove the ]ast. ^ ^^^ adventures past, this frantic feat 1 V ^ XV. lake, ^nti/SToeiytfe ^MS ^a^^d^^m^Vlhe-'^t^^ -^"^ «^ ^^- 2. Four times five is twenty. ^3 Th^re^s S i^. '.I '^^"°P °^ *^e beach, take that much trouble. 4 I am onHf fj,i l^^ ^^'''" another man would 6. All that is seen— the world the P,lh]l\hlVt t"^ ""^^^^ ^^^y ^ose him. types 7. There is no fear o7 JoL fa^L^ « ?/'' ' '^^•'"'" l^imself-are his father died so soon. 9. The Italian unW«t-r ""^^ ""^^^ *« ^^« «0"duct heir professors from France and SpaTn Vn."' """'" ^^'"'^"^ *« ^^^^ ^^r honest. 11. There wasn't a man of them hn.^i ' 'i'''^P^'}y i« fairer than company. 12. How old might you be? 1? Whf ^ ^""u ""^'^^ "''"""^^ ^^^ now 18 he, who, when he snnkp iu^u- \^. ^^^11 we say since silent me next Saturday rf\or ut able o'^lsT L"^'> ""'' ''"^^y «« "-" strong.'^ 16. Never was boy so harassed or IS ^^^^r?.^^ '^^^ ^^^d and done to-day. 17. I had no idea it was so coin iT'^^^'^^^-i''" ^^^^ ^ have 18. She looks as though she was much Sfi.i l""^ T '^^^ ^* ^« «« ^old. charms should a man or woman Sdtre^tet^^^^^^ Z^",^^* °° «"^™d a horse or mare has lost its shoe Pretensions to please. 20. Either ^ « The irregvzlarities here are probably due to the analytic tendency. XVI. l-X^^^^ 2. Xenophon's 3.Aquarter's notice is requirerprevL^^^^^^ ^^'* ^^.^ Spartan king. hearing ear and the seeing eye thrLoJdhH ^^^^^^^^ 4. The 5. It was thought to be him that did it fi t5 f wl ^"^^^ ^^^^ ^^ them. fair. 7. One of them, who was the e s;id ."' ^"«* ^^t ^^^^^ ^^«^^^«« the seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof L?;« ^' ^^T. ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^ich to my life which you did not prolon< the wo^d h-l""^' ^^-''^^' ^' ^"'"^ song 10. Even failure at an eSnationT. if .^''^ "^^ny an idle dictate and allow themselves to be dTctated to hn. hi ^^^"^ !^ '^P^' ^^- To and his cabinet. 12. 1 would detain vnntl ^®^'''^® "^^^^^^ *« the king when he lived, his heaTh and b^aurset ^loT "^T.*"^' "' *^°- l^' ^ho^ violet. 14. I have not from your eves tS t ^^ ^"^ *^^ ^^'^' «^«" ^n the 15. The objection is freauentlv mn^l f gentleness as I was wont to have are read i^ an indlffere'nt! mLhanicar ?at\"/ ''f fiWe, that the lessons had better not be read ; but let th^ nnl'J ?^'' .'t^^®' ^"<^ therefore they character be free to do its work ifi wf '°"' 1"?^°"" ^^ ^^e teacher's special peculiarity that in the case of each of'^th. h ?."*'®* '"^^ ^'^^ the has the exclusive right to say what nrp ?n hf fi /^^®' l^'^^ Professions it this profession.any fay asTjJ^lToir tt'lVrn^l t"J*^--- Has Pf .....u^u^unnj. IT. Keproach and everlasting shlmeTsittorou^'^ire:: EXERCISES. )rivedof his estate; set of his enemies, in as you can spare ) remember me as nothers died when t, this frantic feat tiing mirror of the Hop on the beaeli. mother man would go when I am not itil they lose him. man himself— are ing to his conduct forced to send for any is fairer than ■vhat shunned his ^e say since silent 14. Try and see^ ^ my tea good and :_ the pain I have idea it is so cold. Not on outward lease. 20. Either ? 2. Xenophon's a Spartan king, f a pupil. 4. The •n both of them, •aye deserves the J is a way which death. 9. Friend ed many an idle to copy. 11. To tural to the king rtwo. 13. Who, 36, smell on the ras wont to have, that the lessons 1 therefore they 3f the teacher's et met with the e professions it Imittance. Has ian any member on our plumes. ^^'nSfl^''"'^' her lands ore her goes th- call fair, if what I was I be 405 ^ff^SSl--^! ^^.ir j?H^^--^^ ^i^'fi"^^^^^ -- disappointed Of the belTeves it 'and Ti' '^^ ''^"'^ ^^^ ^ he mayXrit'^l directly you get guished scieSs who'\'"" '" ^^^^«^«- ^^ He "s one^'o'f T '^^^^ ^« ^« 7. It seems tha to wa i ''' V^'^ ^'^^^- «• He ^Le n, ""? "^""^^ distin- wav «w ^^y^''^^^ and to murder th« 1^ ^ ™® only two books Sing'on'lrnobTe /"^' '^'^ ^-'^t'^e'' T\t^^^^^^^ things^have happtitd '"il '1 "^ ^^ ^^^^n a^ked me whatTdo'^^ ^ ^"^ that thinks so S go if he wanT.'"" ^'^ ^'^^ like I dV V'a!" ^"^^ bridge over the 0-nJfK/ wants to. 13. This nian t \ ^' ^^y one between aJl clasfpl ^1*7^4° "^« workingman ar d his.^^f ^^"^ ^"^h to 19. He de^veVed thrte!;,:r"'L?'',"'''<"' "l'»«e ey°°™;f .• ""'l "« counties too'igno'rar ro brhumWe"* S T P ^-° ^ong gone 2 So gress. 3. The natinn? .' ^^Jhout which there is nn X! -i-; ^°°^® men are 4. I have not went ?h7« "/l'° ^^^«* ^« ^hee must in thP.V ^'^'^^ ^^^ ^^ P^o- has heard from h'ome ft ^^K; ^' ^' i« no4 nore^^^^^^^^^ *^^'^^>^ ^^^i- these devour onWfi. ^ •/* ^'"^ better to fall amnn^\ u ° ^ y^*^*' since he voice of th^eh™. ^ ' *^^''' *^« living 7" Vo"^*T' *^^^ flatterers; amazement at seeing v^ f"^,^ °"* «^e to another ^n^S.?K''^. '^''®" ^^^^ »!' what shelf dTd von IT; • J^- "« thought tlatnni ^^^^wa^ not my mistaken ?q S^ " ^^^^ ^^'^ book is? 19 Vn„M, ^°® ^^''^ iost. H On J|imS'wHh"tLe".r„n^« 'o^^- h'^ >°v Sn'tt 'L^'^' "' ' ™ because the nolic. ,,il' i*' ^'' maintained ♦.hat h. L^ f",'^*' P«sented 16. Both m£i'Z:T.:^l\J't- . "• I «■•" t?y fo se"e voTfo''™"""'^ visaares do Pi.on»v, „^ came to the door 17 tv.^ ^*^^^ to-morrow. AngfLs is Saps "he"m°o"'^ '"">" ^'"nding 'plSr ",'« %f '' ?■' ""^ """^^ other spot in r,??f„ • ™°^' e«"'a' and the hp«t .', •. ?' /''* <^i™i te of Los that, in'^Jow Sim, Li?v'\ ^- 1 ''"'<' i™ (or he 3™'^ •'?■ '"'"'''^- °' av l-Still, itwasonthp^.i^o''^-.. ,^^^- ^ good enough for any book that m t:XERClSES. prevented him doing so. 9 Thou hn./ilV ? f"''''^^ ""^ *'>« eatastroohe - you ? ]0. The chief ruler is styled ^rlLTn'r:;."*^ "' ^'^^ ^'^"'^" ^« ^^t honoi father's, the town councillorT l'> fam J^'if "^''^^\ ^^' He lives at his proud yet ? Ay, that I am not thee"" 14 IV^Uh T,'' ""u^ ^''°"- ^'^- ^'^ t^ou are remarkable for their good looks i?w«^ tlie brother nor the sister prudence. 16. More than ofe boy felt nrm^d n v.-' ^'"^ *^^^ ^'^^^ ^^"^d scarcely a publication which issues froS^a ^'' success. 17. There is same defect as I object to here Tg W« Un P^f «'. ^^^t does not show the us t^ the work. 19? Severalpeople spike to us on ^V^'^.f^" «^«* «^"«d me that ye might have life. ^ ^" ^^' ^^ ^^^^ "«* come unto XX 2. uir^efj r,tTuJ ™ r isTtht" r ' ^i- ?r ^-^ -'-— woman was the wife of a olv^^T^^ themselves into the work. 3. Yonder had long dwelt in Amsterdam 4 He'mn Jr".' ^''^^^'' ^^ °^^«' ^ut who his debts. 5. The gold and ;ilv;; « if ^''F^ somehow or another to pay deposit banks. 6 T^e atrociou crime iftt- "' "^" ^^"« ^'^ ««»* *« the attempt to palliate nor deny 7 He if w"f "" y^.""? ^^^^' ^ «hall neither 8. He arrived at, and quicSy entered the door q' T ^'?' "'^ ^^ ^'^«'"«««- get ready for business. 10. W^ savv thprnhn ^•. ^^^S; days was needed to another. 11, Lady, you are tlm ..nli' . ^ hanging by myriads, one to graces to the gravJ'a^d'leaTe the' Zmt f:j''\% %r "^". l'^^ ^^^^ least understood, who all my sense coX?/^; 1 ^^^u great first or i^.^, art good, and that myself S^ bTimi Ti^' ^"^ ^"?^.b"t this that T. , give for it. 14. You wHl n^ fin -f £ ^wo pounds is as much as I ,J ought to act so. 16. iTa or?orpeace. w'wi ^T^ ^^'r^' ^^^ «« hadn't they make them ready to battle ? 7 ^r^l^^"" ^ ^^^V^^^ *^^'^ thereof , yesterday any man "ilmt had lold me 1 1 8 t?^' ^ S"^^ ^^^« «^id Ermlja's arms ; Emilia fairer than aUeSe bui thnn ?i^®P' ^llen, folded in btkrit\^^cj:ien^^..^h%r^ir£ love and a dast.rd in^r ^^LTr/r^: ^ ^n^S^on^,;^:^ ^ XXI 2. k n: "a^ra^eTh^w^^l^ritt^^to"^!:" "^ ^T ^ ^^^^ - three volumes. 3. So I were out SpT[ on an/kC sheen' ^.^ *h^P«f ^o^ of the word r J' oug. 4. Him I accuse, the city ports Sv^lshnlh*^ ^' ^'."'^ ^« ^^^ ^ay is justice to tell me what I have a title tn hi Jt -^ entered. 5. Do me the certain to know more truly fiomvou thnn ft'^^^l^*"*^ ""'^^^ ^°d which I am listened patiently to his heart Teats bnrnnirf u^.l''; v^" ^^^^ ^^d not yet violently. 7. I have made no Srm;^ .1 ^^^* ^^""^ ^^' ^^^ ^as beating had as yet exhibited he structure of ?he^/*' """V^"" ^ ^^^^- «• ^o onf only examined them in dogs 9 if wn^ h^^ ^'^''^^i' ^^«^""« ^^^i^^g was killed. 10. And hesnilnnfo/- his hoj.se and not himself who saddled him the as 11 He sa d he b«r«' 7/.^?^ ^^ ^^^ ^^«-" ^o tley the >^-'>t ro'i-" ■"" '"' • • , h® believed that honestv wpc ,•« +i,„f. -„„"1 -. ...t poa.,, ... ,„3 .s he, my master said, despisedtteto Senta EXERCISES. 407 >y an innings and ppening? 6. Hq kiing the hostile, the catastrophe lall we not honoi I. He lives at his »u. 13. Art thou er nor the sister that hath found 3S. 17. There is oes not show the who first called 11 not come unto ?ood references. 3rk. 3. Yonder name, but who another to pay re sent to the 1, 1 shall neither or in business, s was needed to lyriads, one to will lead these reat first cr --^j this that 1 u much as I vn 15. Ho hadn't )them thereof, luld have said len, folded in art fairer than does not buy . A laggard in Lochinvar, ;hree volumes, the word only. ' as the day is 5. Do me the id which I am 3 had not yet a was beating r. 8. No one salius having himself who s." So they a \r\ +Unf — „„-, fair Athenian parliament were ill favornf Hw^K-n ^^j^'**'"'^ sonous results 14 ti,«. fi thee of what firce tlu ^l^^l^Sf^f/J '^««oi^^^ attempting to extract the ba 1 the niiir> '''^"'"^^' ^«^« "' ^^e 16 On r'ate^bv h '^"."7 '^^^' ^^ ^-^ " Ere^with'^^VV/"'• ''' «« - ''ver? ness that^^ h"; '"1° ^^'^^ ^^^^ ^^d rSil ty weZ-e no; fT ''^ ''''".'. ^° character ness that it did not seem to his viifid,^.^Iu7,\- ""^^ thrown with such vivid- twenty men appeared at the doo ■ ' r *'^!"^ actually done. 19 Some wages have been found to go together " "^"'^ '''''''' ^ ''^'^ ^^ rents and 7n XXII wS"-"^'«°"n»™» «»."• '■ N°- <" them was intention of returning to E W-ind V Vi'^^'^^' ^^^^t have resumed M^ S-t '^^^L i -^-- '"irs ,^r:tror iSr onedoubted that heker/s'hJs w r^o'^l'diS'nft^'^ ^" "^^ eor^er^nX' deal of 7^ J"""^ ^^^ ^^^^'"^d to like n^thini i"f ^T^/^^^^'-^'-^y as I wished? aeal of talk was going on about ml ,^r g "»* what you do. 14. A £?ood arrived at the vahie of half a plum as th; -r ^'' ^^ «°"^« strange ma.^e 18 Thon I; ^P/"^ ^^^^ ^^'^"i the tablehe St n.r,?- '°^ ^'^"' ^^^^^ «ame ■i». Ihou lovest, but ne'er knew lovA'ac, ?' 5 struck him a sounding blow XXIIl wh^hTs^LTr's^oV^^^^^^^^^^ be performed. 2. And makes as many mistakes, if not tndl 'h '^^ ^^^^'<= minstrel sung. 3 He 4. He walks like me but he ac?s as bkln'^^^u'^^''^ mistakes, than you have mercy and not sacrifice 6 And mn?'^'" ^,' ^^""'^y^ ^oni 5. I wiH that teach the rustic moralist to die 7 fl7 ^ ^^^^^ text around she straws - — . XXIV 408 F.XERC1SES. sq^bbr 'wS have" reded ""'rif fe '' "'« 'r\?^^^-^,..^, of all the troops for a moment .L'^tt L oonflc T^ *^" \'''.f''^' ^"^ *^^^"«'» my man. 7. Now I would have thought fhn; fi, ''"" *•'''' ^^^ ^*'^« "^"'^l'' would have been the most wellome 8 T n ^'f^^^.^^'-e J"«t the people who afterwards trying to pacify rhebaron« ^ul i^'l i ""* .^'f.'" ^^^^ *^^° ^>« is not a man to tamely submi to t'ie thr«nt nf r'^ ^'^"1 *^^'' *^"- 10. He was taken with him. ]2. I hope vou wil «v!n ^'«'"'««'!'- !!• Much pains not doubt that he is ill. if i do n^ dnnhfl";^,"^'"'".^ ^'^'^' 13 I do doubt but that he is ill. 16 Of aH me^ else h„v« T^'" m 'i'' ^^- ^ ^^ "«* no orator, as Brutus is ; but as you Wv m« ^u "r^^^l*''^^- 17. I am love my friend. 18. While wSilTin't " ?' "" P^'""' blunt man, that occurred to me. 19. What shr/d fis in/^'^T ' "^ '^J ^"^•^^"'J^ much for charity. ^ "^^""^ '^O- 'Ivvere good you do so 1. rhey set him free without his ransom nniri o ti those gifts should have, and I to live and ;^F«^^' ?' ^^^""^^ ^ould that she I had a friend that loved }ler^ should w/'^'^^ ^' ^^^ '^^^« «^^ ^^ 4. So please him come into this place 5 hZ •'"" ^"""^ *^ *^" "'^ «t«ry. o'er. 6. When a superlative is used fho^ -"'k^. ""^'^ ^« *«^^«"« »« g« parison is made and wWch L Lrodueod hv . / ^^^j^" ^hieh the corn- thing compared : as, -Gl^ii^ne^Vs relre/^^^^^ o}" f.H ^f .^"^'^"^^/^^ ''Gladstone is the greatest English statesSian ' ' 7 rnu^ -^ statesmen,'' or be used for a full infinitive unlesrthe verh fn H, * ^\^ ''^" ^^ ^''^^^d not from the preceding part of the L„ten?e L - v''™^ ^'''" ^^" ^^ «"PPl'«^ ought to 'is wron/sinoT if ;« ?1 : T' ^"".V never wrote me >cu 8. The perfect TSWTfs used wr'^^^^^^^^^^ '" " '^'^• pleted fc.fore the time expressed bv thp t ^^^^'' ""^ \' regarded v. corn- have gone t>3fore the meeting ''9 wfcoul7mS ^^'^ ' f ' " ^ ^^P«d to and we could act. jo f.ruer stfltem!nf ?h i?'^*.®w''?™ °^ b®**^^ -""^hority total abstainers" is weii knLn to i 1! " ^^^^ "' the superior vitality ot than a steward. ll.Thy cunTsh snfH? „"'^ ?^P^'*' ^^ Art any more human slaughter, even fr'^S^ thf gXws dldTslS ^'\^'.^^ ^^""^^'^ '^' fore they thought it good you were at d1 a v Ah '*'" ^,^.^*- ^^- ^here- hands, no venom'd lord dares blister thL L ^ ^^'^^-^ "P^^^^ ^^ey 14. Well, sit we down and Ifif n« il iJ ' ,"*' ^''"^^ ^^^i^ dare creep, him of m'yselfrwhtcTwas as much «. t.'j. '''"^',^^'F^^^^ ^^ ^his. 15. I toM hours I spent to write Tt over 17 Thon hln '^''''^^r P'''^^^"- l^- Eleven 18. That thou Shalt see the differeule of n.^ "''"? ^"««"d for more money, before thou ask it. J9 I saw hfm w ?L 'P'"^'' ^ P^''^^"' ^^^^ thy life he. 20. Judges and Senator! We beeL rouS"^ifh"Jo.' f' I'' ' '"^^ '''' were never to be sold. ^ougnt with gold ; esteem and love INDEX. 40d lified, of all the ish and French ^ou this much, the people who 3 good than his mtall. 10. He 11. Much pains lere. 13. I do 15. I do not hee. 17. I am uiit man, that idea suddenly ood you do so ivould that she ihe bade me if tell my story, tedious as go lich the com- ics include the tatesmen," or to should not m be supplied I'ote me 'cu it to vv «)te. ' irded %-, com- . '* I hoped to )tter f'uthority ■ior vitality ot '^rt any more o hanged for . 12. There- ' spread they dare creep. 8. 15. I told . 16. Eleven more money, thee thy life }t I know 'tis Jem and love INDEX. I. SUBJECTS. The numhers refer to the panes. Full dpfiih nf th^ „ ».• . ■rgiml notes. ^ ^"* "^-^ '^*^ subjects are given in the A. Abbreviation of exjpresslon. ellipsis- 18- c Huses : adjeetlve, 243 , adverb. 'Umi ; co- Clauses, dUO-dOl-subordinat on, 302-;i05- snlit due, use of substitutes : pronouns, 3()6,aux- ^'355^^4<.-^^^7hW' '""''^'^'^ sentence-. a>l- «», .358-309, 374-375; word-, 356. Anglo-Saxon, 318; An^lo- iiiaries, .306; sign of infinitive, ; numerals (cardinas, ordinals frac- *ion«l?. multiplicatives) 236-238 .-articfes sofnt«"';J"^f '"'^^ ^^^■•^"' special uses (ab t&) 24TS'";f"*%''^ subjectless infini- lives; 18: Composition of words: compoiindsj classes- phrase ..ompoun.ls. frnporary. p^rnu menf" te'isriHo'ir ""•' ^^••'^^'^'-^•^•^^' "^•^iTHnco^^lrtiJl^^lS^r ^'•'^^^^^•''^' ^- Conditional; elanses, 153; aentonces 2fin. eliisses: open, ima«inary. impoMsil.kV m'- .^"'':' ,•'•"'■'' ;.">'""'<" ««'nte we, 2«2; e. p hnti •' ^2-JW; ,..,,„Htiu« with otherrelations. J75 27(5' 'Si;Si:%:1^«;Si.^od^^s;r'\i^^ New, l^S-l^Ji: Old 127-lW .t: Vvt ' '^''*^^'' = Conjunctions : nature, 27-20. 2J8,. phrases 'VS W-m. ^'^""»«"t«' ^74-277; peculiar wo/dV. Conjunctive: pronouns; classes: definite con- densed indefinite, simple i.Hleflnito ' sCh- ordniate. interrogative, compounnk>fi,'t' omission of definite, 21(J-217; ohe w -s litS'^f 5-?;^^ ^>«-?18 ; pronominal S^^ ^aDfiaS^itW?^:''" «^ conjunctives. %T^«!uf^'.*'"'?;;'i'V,'iM".'l= ^^^ at'JPftives, 272. 211-212 '■• ^^^'^^^^ ^^'^"^^ conjunctives. Consequont clauses: nature, 153, 260-202 Consonants: nature, 51, 318; classes, 51-53. Construction: definition, 90; direct 102- in- spm '-r'.^' "''''''"'^' ^''''- "•'■^euiar mlml, SeVil e rvfvJf ■7"'^''",''*'^°"' ''^^' ^ee also miiiei nie parts of speech. Contamination: word-formation, 6,5-60; syntax. l).scriptive, limith.fl-. qualifying: nature. 23-24 niiilects: nature, 1,"); Norf humlii-l„n -{IH m ;i'i^""'^';= "'-iKin, 9-10; composition •M5 iii^?*?'''"'''?' ^^'^' Middle and Moder"; io, d' b id S; ^J'7«ties: dialects, standard .Vi i-317 '^'iV : m \^^\'^Xf^'^r■;■ Teutonic, 10, dialec ir. •< 1 V :• ' ^^''-^l^; name, 318; UMiectic, 31f), position under the Normans HuAda^.^:"32^:' '" «-^^'^»^. 3^1: "'oden; Etliical dative; 196, 197. Etr,„olo8y: „„,„„, lo;' folk, or popular, ee. a ^^o'lis-rsTfi, iiiiiV: ^iS!'-- F. ^ifouns'iof ?,?>.*'>;? predicate adjectives and 103?usooJve;bs,"l(l2!'''^" construction. 102- French: influence 13 319 321 S22 • v. "Tt. ^S' '■■"»'"™ -"- .*.,„ or isiKsissnJsiSii Functional conversion: nature, 73, 75; 107-325 orT^mi^'r\'47"H^"''''P'"'''^'^^^= "^ «^««"t ii7 1?^ l^ J ^^'' "^ command or prophecv 117 loo; tuture-past, 149-150; indicative IM^-' in indirect narration, 149-150 jyf *'^"^«' ^•^• noun! 289-290". *^27V27«''^'= .adverhs, 2^3; conjunctions. 40 £lo-n{i: conjunctives, 209. ' D. ^EtgHs'lTn'l't^r- f • ^^"•- """"«■ 171; in Old r^ngiisn, inilS; of pronouns: personal 195- demonstrative. 198; interrogative. 207. Derivation: nature. 70-75, 86; by s„ffi^ 70.73. by vowel-mutation, 73; by prefix 73^ ,viH.n,; Change of form. 73; shadfn^utocompoiS G. Gender: modern, 168-170- in nouns ifiO i7n • pn.nouns. 1!)5,' 19.9-200 ;' Z 01 "LgS {(«)! 1/0; grammatical and natural. 170. ' INDEX. 411 ved forms from verbs • L'ruiid8, niKl K.-rmicliu! lifyliiR: luiturp, 23-24. Hiuinbi-ift,,, ;{!«; Mcr- i-O; Koiitish, ;ii8-;n!). Sontlieni, ;i20j Mid- e, 172. 320 J Anglo- 5; i*PPliontions, paS' •?».48-4J); imperative loii of iioiii. of ad- iuterjeflioii, 311; ^i-i. See ulso under .311. See also nnder ns, 16 ; value, 16-17. 9-10; composition, Middle and Modern, dialects, standard, terary, spoken (or. ;isliip: Teutonic, 10, 1<>-317; name, 318; nder the Normans, land, 321; modern k. or popular, 66. ti^'e. interrogative, '^inll^i' M'fl'iitives, JUJ-jil ; jnterroga- 233, 217, 310. ite adjectives and construction, 102- I 78; dead and liv- '21-322; in vocabu- , 13, 331-33:^; second third period (Mod- re, 73, 75 ; 107 ; 325. )hrases: of assent land or prophecy, 0; indicative, 15i; )0, VJi. nouns, 168-170; lu Old English, \m- i-al. 170. West, l;'. 318; Higi, „,Kl Low, 10,;U8; Hi,,!, in vocabulary, Xii. ' "'•'"■ "rjllnT^iWw*' •^'■.^•''»F'! "instructions. I»5-1J7, 28J-.fli2; origin, l.V).- 28^1-287 • gerunc Jud'iSK,;'?^"-"'^^''^^^^ -'-« »'--•« Gerundial infinitives: classes: noun adiec- Gothic, sub-family, 10, 316. Jurtivt' 210. '''■*• '' P°««e««ive,107: con- ^ne-ns."' ""^ture, 62 63 ; gradation pasts; Grammatical: subject, 201; values changed bv al>breviation 212^-213 ; 8lmpliflcatio.,?3lir S Sio, gender, 170. Infjirrogative sentence: 45 47, 49; alternative 46; inverted. 47; invorte.l condition 2ffi?; interrogative foruM of verbs, 145; In Indirect narration, 103-lW. • 'uunc^,j, Inlransitlve verbs: 20, !»8, 113. !W; u.sed transitively, Italic, or Italian : sub-family 11, 316, 317 ; iu vo- cabulary, 335. » " »w- J. ^ .nge In •17. ""cltey^il! m= '"'""'"""' "• ^'' ''' ' H. Hybrids: nature, 331. Idioms: two meanings, 164, 201. '"^1iSSS.,f„'.*&!f„S°"'""-"'»- '"lllie''^' •'Object and object, 201, 202: verbs. Incomplete predication: verbs, 94-95. Indicative mood: 82, 157; s'mple, 1.39 140; indica- Imh)-European family: 10 11; sub-families, 316- tnfinltives, 33: simple, classes: root, gerundial tnoun, adjective, adverb', gerund 133 1.34- ^o'^lKr^' B^f'.^^^A' 2i» the .sfgn to ^8^-284; split-inflnitive. 282; sign used 8 one, 307; subject of, 103, 288-289, Wl- SSe'mut m "'*' ^^'^"^^ '^'- «"^J-* - ''tf^^n,'rts^'^^|r;^ftffl"ff'^?^ equivalents of 87-89 ; extension of meaning', 88, of verbs, 116-120; New coniugation 126- Old conjugation, 127; nouns, hS?' pro- nouns. 195, 197-198, 205,207, 211, 221; adTec- tives, 2p; history of, 320, 323, 325-326 See also under the parts of speech. Interjection: nature. 29-31, 280; classes: accord- ing to origin, primary, secondary. 31 280* m°2^'"fin? T''"i"g.'-^80 281; cnsti-uction STO qn 'qio-' P^'i^'^f s and sentences, 36, 256. 610, iJll-312, related to nom. of address and jiupcraiive, oil. Judgment: nature, 18-19. L. I-iariguages : living, 11; dead. 12, 323-324 J25-32b ; synthetic, 12-13, 89. „, Latin : 13, 318; influence of, 319; direct and in- direct introduction, 13, 327-32!> ; in vocabular ■ r^f ^''Si.o^v^'^^; second period, 327; third period, 328; fourth period, 328 329. vo- Letters of alphabet: classes: 50 56. H^'i'^'J/ry^*'*' ^",V ^''.'l"esof: conjunctives, -ii^j modifiers: adjective, participle, and ad- ^M^il. '^"''*js. phrases, and clauses, 244-246, 263 ^M, absolute constructions. 109-110; 2!)8 299.' M. Meaning: changes in, 66-6!); effects of com- position on, 7b-79; contraction, 67; degrada- tion, 68; extension, 67 ; figurative uses, 67 ; correspond to changes in object. 68 ; improve- ment, «)8; influences on, 68-69. Middle English: period, 14, .320-324 ; transition or Early, period, 323; syntax, 323324; fom"' passim, under the parts of speech. '^'32&'l '''"'^''*' ^^^-^^'^- Eastern and Western. Modern English : period, 12-15; .324-328- sub- periods: Elizabethan (or, Tudor), age of .J'lfV^"' ^P^'■.^?!^'^,'■"• ^^••^25; Modern Eng: ish, from East Midland, 320-321; characte^ istics of, 12, 14, 89, 325-328 ; also, passini ^^?.u^!^!i \^S'''«1 values of words, phrases, f .mses (ordinary limiting, adverbial limiting oulinary descriptive, co-ordii.ate descriptive adverbial descriptive) 244-246, 363. ^tTvp' sT S^^'l-^nirl^y*'' «."'^J"""tive, impera- tive, 82 83, 139-140, 154 ; simple forms, 141-144 mood '^140*""^' ^^^'^^^'' t'lought mood, fact- Mutation : nature. 63-64; consonant (or. consonant-assimilation), 63; vowel, (M ; con- cealed, 64, 115, 125; in plurals, 174; in comparatives, 228. ' N. Naturalization: 172-173, 175, 329, 333-335. Narriition, direct and indirect (or, oblioue)- assertive sentences, 192-193 ; interrogativ^ »»J| 'J-'^Pei-ative sentences. 193-194; shall and verbs 145 "*" ' "'^*^*"^'® fotm^ of 412 INDEX. I i Nomlimtiv.. f.r oiil.jmu'tlvp. p,isp: imturo 84- ;r';:;,v„!;?:Aii'; ■" "•-• "^. '»»■ •'^^ NoMo: Hilt. .UvlHion, 10; i,, vocjiJiulai-y,. 330, .3.12. ^SJ/"""'"''""* '*'"«''"'" «"»• tlinlecf, 318.3l!», Notion: imture. 24; iiotiotml words, 34 .^5. 1.32. Nouns: nntiiro, 21; sutmtantivp, 22; .•Ihsh.'h: common iiroiHT, Individiml, ,ib«friu-t, .-on- cret«, follecMve, gender nouns, !i2, KfcVlTO; Inflectod forms: number nnd case, 17(tl71; words i'^'S »«: Plirases, 188; dauHes. con- struetionH 188 1!U; specialized by CliriHtlan names and title«, 1«0 175. Number: nature 79-80; origin of. 120; verbs Il». nouns: Modern forms 171 174- fVi, ;«••"?«. V^"*^*^= *'orel«n fon^i^/iy ?0;^xl ceptlonal uses of Modern forms m\m mxTmr^' 17' 178; con,pounl: 1S18T 21& P"*"""""". 1!^1«8. m, 205. 207. Object and objective: nature, 84; verbs. 20 »7- 1)1; adverbial objective. 10^. lOiJ; representa- tive. 201 impersonal, 202; after verb mul preposition 8^ IJiMSo'; reflexive li8;Xme^ r;'"^rot>jeSiirsh;rd;;i!;tc;'L iT ^-«- nHtureanduse.73; 78.89. ^£5|^6^;'SSSiSn:!^ '"'"""'""• "" """^ ""'^ Objective predicate Parts of sjiPoHi: nature, 29; classes; Indopen lle,.tV.d,"N;. ""'■''• ''»""«'^«*-«". '»••-'» ^ ..nin ''rrnrH^'';Vl'R'"'^''il' 1^7-15«: noun. 188; .Vl? .?.'-"• ^^^^■^^i adject ve, 22;j-224 228 2:M) Portuguese: in vocabulary, 331 Posisessive case: nature. R3-84. ISMP.^; bistory 2«U:Ha.s.ses: subjective, objective, appositive 18.3- IHl ; phrase-eouivalents. 181j fHlselv partitive: noun, 184-185; pronoun. 20.3 3 ^^u"?fr' ""tare, 18; bare and complete. 20. «Vt oi \= ^^*''.'' «ffr<"<'"ient with subject ;.!eiM.t:.%""*'^^' «^-^''^-- Pr-»lcatlv?tS: omission. 270; preposition phVase. SO^YlT- J..vpositional phrase: adjective and adverb; ' V/.^" adjectives, nouns nnd pronouns 102; agreement in. 103; objective subject of infinitive. 288 289 oojecnve Old English: 12^14; name, 318; periods .318- ^'""^'''^6 words : 70. i%;Tn'5^ag.a ioSf ^12te^«^ ^?--P-l^cl'-es. nature, 39; parts of verb. 119. form;.174Sr--^^^-^^-^-^^^ -n- 'ZS-^ltJ^:^^^s,^^Om^. classes: ru^vo^,...] Kis.mo , ' "^^y ^^n, m. forms. 174-175 Omisslonof : connectives. 43-44; preposition in ;ronoun"2r6 217''f '= ,*?««'.^^^« eSncuie pronoun, ^lbJ17, in adject ve causes 243: conjunction 7AaM91,.>271 ; definite co:Junc- ^InAKfr- ^^ '*^'?': ^««"'^<^ numerals,^235; SI^^H,?' • * PJ'^'PSS]*'"" witli words, 270; in flnitlve sign Jo, 284: interjection, 310. See also under abbreviation. Orthography (or, spelling): history of. 320; difference between Modern and Old English 14; plurals, 173 174; comparison 227 cla^s: V;V;on;u;mi98! d^^tSvfJ^ the third person, 198 2f/2 ; possessives of first second, and third persons, m203;pom™d persona : emphatic, refiexive, mafWi^'^ther demonstratives. 205-207; interrogative. 207- tive) teoQ- '''\^^' .''«"J""'-ti^e.or!'rSa- co;l.,T Jd'^Adefln ?"'Sl2/ '^"'•^^' ,^^^ flnitA ntiH\, V. 1- ' r*"' '*'*• Simple inde- nnite and subordinate nterroeative 214-215- compound indefinite, 215 210; other definite 2lSri-'l?^' 217-218: indefinite 'pronouns qSS'v ^''^'^^^ <1 stributives. number and quantity, compound, comparative, recinrocal o^her words used as indefinite pronouBs 219- Parsing : 313, 353. 368. Particles W^78?V«'r-' j"'V ""*"^^""i' prepositional ^«"ascence (or, Revival of Leftrnin^V ii wa 277-278; introductory conjunctive, 278; intrr 328, 329. "«vivai or i^eaining). 13, 234, ductory prepositional, 267 ; intensifvinir 2t^1 p^.^ • «, 279. intensltying, 2o.i. R^gonsives : affirmative and negative, 33, 256 ^Reduplication, Arian: nature. 117-118, i: expletive adverbial. 2,54; adverbial l^^'^tion^l words: 34 35; also i>a««i7ra.' cuve, jsit, adverbial prepositiona' Renascence (or. Revival of LeRimin^v ; introductory conjunctive. 278: intrr 328. 329. ' "*"'*^'*i °^ l^eaining). f. 28; cliiAHes; Indopen inectiveH, 1».\!>J: uiiiu- "«e Mid mood plirnse- Kin of conjugation, IHI; lv«' phrase-formH, 1«2: rtlciple. IJm, 102. k'erbH. 81,119; origin of. Joiiilication, lOtt-JJUO. ••• ,^?rh' '^^16*: inttnl- 157-158 J noun. 188 ; •^5Ji. 256. 25e. 25>7-2!i8 "JunctlonH, ;«), 277; In- iJ-jKJsition lyid prepoHl- •xH, ry. 334 83-84. 181-185,. history. -i('7i of pronouns. 2(ri- ', objective, appositive, j-ulents. 181 j falsely w; pronoun. 2rx3. 231- mrtitive. 203 ; archaic, «re and complete, 20, . 25. W.H7. 189, subjec- ' -"|e»t with subject. fJl; pr dleative com- J; 78-89. j7. 264-265 ; constntc- \ 2fJ{J-270. 310; forn.a- !ir words. 266-270; ion phrase. 36. Ill ; idjective and adverb, 39; parts of verb. 119. phiases. 220 221; in- g, 204, 205. 207, 221 ; «; demonstrative of s, 202-203; compound exive, 20.3-205; other interrogative, 207- •onjunctive'or. rela- te, definite, 209 213; 3214; simple inde- iterrogiitive, 214-215; •216; other definite ^definite pronouns, itives, number and parative, reciprocal, finite pronouns. 219-. i, 105, 110. 196. 209- ire. 117-118. 80 passim. Learning): 13, 234, 1(1 negative, 33, 256- INDEX. 413 Roman: mUslonari^g. 1.1. 328; Romanic: !«„- giiHges. 11; plurals, 172, multlpllcaiivt>M,23,S. Roots, root-words, ridicals: nature, 78. S. ^prCnounrXw.'"*''"'''''"^^ "^"^ conjunctive Sentences: nature, 18-19, classes: nccordinff to coinposition, simple. :W-:«»; compoun.l VcMl" HU-Ml ; compound member of, ;«tl ; complex' noun adjective, adverb, 37. Jl-i;{; compound^ complex 43, acc.rdinfl.to form: assertive. I748 "in • "!'*"''.''*'• ^^''^ *•*• i"'perativc 9«**'« \*''"'^»"'»tory forms. 48-49; modal taflni -vSr' ''"'■'"' ^' .idverb8.'254-257; ^1'^?""; ^Vi -^.^"^ Producod, 50; classes: con- fv '^n"' ^7*^^ ^"r'''- ^*^5 •" combinatio . syllables, 57-58 ;change« in. .59-(J6, 119, 226 in inflections. 119-120, 170-171. *• . ^-". Spanish: in vocabulary, 334. ^^7*" 325 '*"''"' °^ '=°»*f'»«"on of meaning: 62, ^ v"bs° 86*!*"® *"' inflection. 86, 78; or root in ^^qT^^'o.}^'""'^"''*''*''''' ("••• af^Pent; 59. 60-61. 76 6144 sentence-stress (or, emphasis;, 09] Subject: npture, 18; government of, 91; re- Kol'- Lr^'T."*'?"^^ <"'■• KrammaticHl) 21; W^f"^"'' ^^^J impersonal, 201; indefi- nite, f'-J. bare and comnlete, 94; objective subject of infinitive, 28»-289; clause, 188 ^"i1.l"4-/. ''?'• '^^Pen^'e"*) ; subordination : ?«^"o%H'/.'^"'l^^®8: noun, 188 191, 367; adjec- tive, 243, 244. 247 ; adverb! 259-263: Subjunctive mood: nature, 82, 157; simple 140 144. con rasted with indicative, 14M43; op- tative, 144 ; phrasal, 151-155. * ^ Suffix : nature and use, 70. 71, 78-79. Superlatives: nature. 86-87; absolute 226- relative, 226; double. 230. """'"^e, ^m. Synonyms : production of, 332. ^^i.^^ English. 319-320; Middle English S?a, f s n";^^'" ^V^^^«^' ^^«- See also undir me pai'ts of speech. Syllables: nature, 58; classes, 58. T. Tenses: nature, 81. 82; simple forms, 138-139 • remtion of tenses, 156-1.57 ; sequence of 193 260 , primary and historic, 157. ' '^^"1,""''"; «"'>-fin'llyHnd (livisionH, 9-10. 316 .H«. tribes, where settled m Knirlund 318 • in vocabulary, 9, 13,332; inHections, sV * Thing: definition, 18. Tongue stop pasts: nature. 116-117; origin of tensesufflx. 118; modifications. l;2" with ;:erri>,!;?;^ffi'ig:2fi^-'«--^«p -«- of ''obj:cC97:ii3:= ""''""• ^o. 97; without U. Understood : definition, 300, 99-100. V. l-litglish, 88-89, 120 122; principal parts, 119; classes: copula, adjective. refi«xive. recipro- enl, middle, causative, impersonal. 98 113- 116; eonjugations. 116 119; paradigms- sim- ple. 118; OM English. 121-122; i/.iaK can i:«- simple and phrasal: active paradigm, 158^1.59* passive panidigm. 161; tense and mood tonus: simple. 138-144; phrasal, ;i6, 89 144- JC'i!*.li'«'ivedfovms: simple. 133-1.37; phrasal l.,7-1..8| undassittable verbs. 130-133; adjec- tive. 113 ; defective 131 ; of incomplete predi- V/v*u^i'.^"\-^-"^= forming passive phrases lb2-lf)4 ; other verb-forms, 164 : uuxiliarv an. notional. 145. 3(>3-3(>4, ""Jtumry and ^ImiS 'TirifJO-"':- ^^^' '^'''''"- emphatic. tense and mood Phra'^es ISitl^iif^iri^^ nou-passive phrases, 162, pasnv.. luid Vocabulary: composition of, 13; how i.> ^••«'^«'.70: foreign elemen : chef source" 327-3JO, minor sources, 334-335 »o"rce3, oj, piuiais, 173, voice, or conjugation, 162. Vocal organs, or, organs of speech: 50. Vowels: nature. 51, classes .'M.W • «i,„„^ < vowel RmiTir'i !>o«. """",'"'• ««-0' . change of vowej soanc3. dJt>; vowel-mutution fiTiHI '7i- vowel-gradation, 61-62. ""^""^O'*' »* M, 7J, W. West-Saxon dialect: 318, 319 320 ^'3f.^n£-^=«Ji^-^lues |«^270; conjun";lront 2Sf9V SuToTa II. WORDS AND PHRASES. a, 238-242 a-, 112, 261 abbreviate, abridge, liDOut, *y^ a-building, 160 adjoin. 163 admit, 263 after, 266 ago, 265-266 almost, 254 alms, 178, 329 along, 312 alone, 69 ftUo, 277 a man, 221 an, 201 and, 278-279, .SOI.302 and, or, etc., 274 and that, 2'S annexation, 58 any, 219 apricot, H as, 217. -278, 290, 303, 31)4,308 as if, 261, 275, 304 askance. 75 assemble, meet, 332 as lief, 28;i as-much-as-say, IM as regards, 266 l'' M!*! S f l> i I 'I! 414 as thouah, 275, 30i at, 285 ay, 256 B. back, 251 backward, 75 bad, 2vJ8 bait, 115 baize, 68 balcony, 60 ballot, 6S bare looted, 77 be, 251 because, 276, 312 beck, 830 become, 163 beet, 326 begin, 62 being built, 160 "^^J^iK. having been 29 besides, 277 bethink, 327 bid, 12U bind, 120.] 23 birth, 61 bite, 115, 320 blackbird, 76 blame, 329 blench, 115 blink. 115 blood-red, 76 boat, 326 body, 221 bonfire, 61 book, 6H boor, 68 boot, 326 born, 12^ borne, 128 both-and, 275 bounden, 130 breakfast, 61, 76 breeches, i74 bridegroom, 169 brother, 174 bugle, 68 but. 189-190, 191, 218 ^ 2d8, 269, 276, 2& ' butcher, 79 -by, 330 byJove, etc., 312 C. can, 116 car, caer, 330 carpenter, 79 caster, cester, cheater, certain, 221 chance, 163 chandler, 333 chiefest, 226 child, 174 children, 65 _i I J • ?hurl. 68 clench, 115 clink, 116 clomb, 123 cloth, 173 clothe, 126 -coin, 327 company, 67 conceived, 331 concerning, 29.) considering, i;66 corpse, 67 courteous, 323 cow, 174 D. -d, 123, 136 daisy, 61 -dal, 330 -days, 251 -de, 117 debt, 326 deliver, free, 332 dice, 173 '«. diiuiering, 75 directly, 2/4, 313 disbelieve, 3ia7 distraught, 125 ditch, 69 do, 118, 145, 306 doff, 161 -dom, 72 don, 164 doubt, 326 down, 69 drawbridge, 76 drench, 115 drink, 115 drunken, 130 dune, 69 during, 265 dyke, 69 E. each, 219 each other, 220-221 eat, 114, 129 eaves, 178 -ed 72. either, 319, 221, 224 either-or, 275 el.se, 250 -en 72, 127, 130 English, 63 enough, 250 |r^^^^3. 223. 248.249 erst, 249 -ess, 72 ■es^^J2. 73.223, 240. dven, 263 ever. 261 ex, axe, ux, SCO cjfse^)*, 265 fall, Ho falls in with. 164 fare, 115 farther (est), 229 feast. 333 feet. 318 fell, 115 -fell. 330 IXDES. fellow, 221 ferry, 115 few, 231 tiglit, 114 fill. 114 fi at two, etc., 237 foot, i7i for, 267-208, 270, 276 285,289,312 ' force, foss, 330 fore-, 229 forehead, 7G forget-me-not, 75 fortnight, 61, 76. 177 fraught, J25 friends with him, 315 I riday, 182 front, 2(J4 frore(n), 129 -ful. 71 furlong, 67. 76 furrow, 64 O. ge-. 122. 136 gender, 64 generous. 68 get, 330 gin. 282 give. 118 Gloucester. 61 good, 228 goose, 65, 174 gooseberry wine, 77 gosling, 61 gotten, 129 grant, 263 graven, 130 guest, 330 H. half, 251 hanged, 128 have, 126, 151 he, 138-200 headache. 7C heal. 120-122 heartrending, 76 heaves to, 164 her, 182 here, hither, etc., 251 herein. 252 hewn. 130 hill, 318 his, 182, 231 holiday, 61, 76 holm, 330 holp, 129 hoi pen, 129, 130 home. 251 -hood. 72 how, 251 housetop, 76 I. I, ixiO-im i-. 122 if, 275 immediately, 274, 313 lmmorig{nous.S29 » addition. 277 iv'h, 330 -ii"C, 72. 136 IS building, 160 -ish. 72 island. 326 it, 115, 198-202, 221 It is I that, etc., 314 »t likes me, 116 Its, 231 jet, 69 just, 254 jut. 69 ken, 115 kill, 330 kin, 318 kirk, 330 kitten, 61 knave, 68 knee, 318 knee-deep. 76 laden, 130 lark, (il late, 228 lave, penetratft 329 lay, iJ5 legion, 67 -let, 72 levee, 69 levy, 69 library. 79 lie, 115 like, 186, 269 likewise, 277 -ling. 72, 250 little, 228, 250 lone, 61 69 love, 118 loved, 61 louse, 174 lurch, C9 lurk, 69 -ly. 71, 249-260. M. madame, 175 madhouse. 76 make, 126 man, 174 man's, 61 man-of-war, 75 many, 234-235 many a, 256 may, 151-153 me, 196 -meal, 251 meet, 114 men, 65 melists, 196 '* -msr 2Sfl merely. 254 meseems. 196, 308 messieurs, 175 methinks, 125, 196 3u minister, 68 molten. 130 INDEX. 415 iTu.h, 330 -iiie, 72, 136 18 building, 160 -ish, 72 island, 326 it, 115, 198-202, 221 It is I that, etc., 314 't likes me, 116 its, 2dl jet, 69 just, 25i jut, 69 K. ken, 115 kill, -.im kill, 318 kii k, 330 kitten, 61 knave, 68 knee, 318 knee-deep, 76 L. laden, 130 lark, til late, 228 lave, penetratft 329 lay, iJ5 legion, G7 -let, 72 levee, 69 levy, 69 library, 79 lie, 115 like, 186, 269 likewise, 277 -linff. 72, 2r)0 little, 228, 250 lone, 61 69 love, 118 loved, 61 louse, 174 lurch, 69 lurk, 69 iy. 71, 249.?60, M. nadame, 175 nadhouse, 76 nake, 126 nan, 174 nan's, 61 aan-of-wrar, 75 nany, 234-235 nany a, 256 flay, 151-153 le, 196 neal, 251 leet, 114 len, 65 lelists, 196 ■' ner 2Hfl lere'ly, 254 leseems, 196, 308 lessienrs, 175 lethinks, 125, 196 30 linister, 68 lolten. 130 more larger, etc , 230 more, mosi, 223. 225 249 • . . more-than-t.peak, 164 more than father. 188 -most, vi29. most straightest, 230 mouse, 174 move, 113 mown, 130 Mr., Mrs., 175 much, 228 much as I love, etc.. murder, 64 "Mi"i'i?/'*'*''-^°2-^03' raee, 333 myself, etc., 203-203 ^'"■^^' ^'-^ perhaps, 254 person, 6i) pickpocket, 76 plain, 68 pomp, 67 poor as they are, 305 prepare, 113 probably, 254 304- quail, 115 Quell, 115 Q. R. N. -n, 127, 251 nay, 266-257, 306 naught, 69 -nee, 251 near. 186, 228, 268 nearly, 254 needs, 251 •-either, 219 neither-nor, 275 -ness, 71 never, 251 nigh, IfcB, 268 no, i!50.257, 303 none, 220 nostril, 76 not. 69, 256 not but that, 309 not only-but, 275 not that, 3 9 notwithstanding, 265 now, 277 O. of, 172, 235 off, 61 of mine, etc., 203 old, ii2H once, 250 one, 219, 234 one another, 220-221 one by one, 385 only, 254 or, 276 ordinary, 68 or ever, 266 other, 520, 221, 234 otherwise. 275 over, 266 own, 204-205 ox, 65, 174 P. parson, 69 past, 265 pay, 67 peu(so), r/3, 178 penance, 79 pence, 173 pending, 265 people, 221 perfect, 326 rascal, 08 rathe, 248 rather, 248 ■re, 251 reads, 114 reason, 60 redcoat, 76 regarding, 263 resemble, 163 rhyme, 65 riches, 60, 178 righteous, 65 rise, 115 riven, 130 rockoil, 79 rotten, 130 S. •s, 119 same. 217 save. 268 saving. 299 sawn, 130 say, 263 scar, 3:J0 scent. 326 scythe. 326 seldom. 75. 185, 250 self, 203-205 sell, 114, 125 set, 115 sew, 130 sewer, 326 sewn, 130 shall, 146-149, 194 sham, 69 shame, 69 shapen, 130 shaven, 130 she, 198-200 sheriff, 61 shew, 130 shorn. 130 shotten, 129 shouRH9-l-0.i5l, shown, 130 •" -rrti, Iju Sit, 115 situate, 265 sk-, -sk. -son, 330 so 200. 209, 232-2;!3. 261, 306, 3C9 SO as, 261 so as to. 304 (so) far from that 303 some, 209, 219 songster, 169 sovereign. 65 sown, l;dO spice, 67 spinster. 169 spread, 113 ■St, 119 staff, 172 starve, 67 steamboat. 76. 79 -ster, -stress, 327 stop. 113 strath, 330 streetcar, 79 stricken. 130 twelvemonth. 177 twice, 2.50 twopence, 61 uu- 73 U. V. van. 61 villain, 68 vixen, 169 volume, 68 W. -ward(s), 249 wash, 114 washen, 130 wash-tub, 76 wast, 64 such 200-207. 217, 233, ^axe'n, 130 ways, 251 summering, 75 f^unday, 1«2 sundry, 221 sunken, 130 suppose, 2ii3 survive. 163 Sutton. 61 sweep, 115 swollen. 130 swoop, 115 •t 123. 136 take, 163 taken notice of, 161 tame, 318 tastes, 114 •te, 117 tell-tale, 76 •th, 70, 119 than, 27S, S03, .308 than if, -261, 'J75 than whom, 278 that, 191, 205-206, 208- 1^09, 222, 232, 243-244 2il, 263, 271-272 278* the, 238-242, 251 ' then, than, 251 ■ther, 251 there, 32, 254 there, thither, etc., 251 tlierefore, 273 therewith, 252 they, 198-200, 221 they, their, them, 330 this. 205, 222, 232 throttle, 61 thorough, 61 thorp, toft, 330 thou, 196-198 though, 277 thought of, 163 three, 318 thus, 251 -times, 2.51 to, 69, 282-284, 307 too, 61, 69, 277 tooth, 174 touching. 29S Tuesday, 182 turn, 113 Wednesday. 61 well, 277 what, 213-215 whatever, 191, 234 what if, :^09 when, where, etc., 218 where, 273 where, whither, etc. 251 ' whereby, 252 wherewith, 252 whether, 275 whether -or, 262, 276 which, what, 233 while. 272 whilom. 185, 251 whilst. 64 who, 221 whoe%'er, etc.. 215-216 },n^ what, which, '-07- who which, that 209 215, 216- .17, who, whether, 233 why, 251 widow (er), 169 width. 61 will, 146-149, 194 wisdom, 61 -wise, 249 woe, 186 woman, 174 wont, 326-327 won't, 61 wormwood, 65 worship, 68 worth, 180 would, 149 150, 151-165 194 would-be, 75 y. y-, 122 -y. 71 yarn, 64 yawn, 232 ye, 196-198. 221 yea, 256-257, 300 yes, 266-257, 30S^ you, 190-198, 221 you k^ow, etc., 311 m I I 41t) ' :.i HI INDEX. jil I abide - l^S awake • 128 be • ■ 130 bear . 128 beat • 129 begin - 127 behold - 129 bend - 124 bereave • 124 beseech • 125 betide - 126 bid • 129 bind - 128 bite - 128 bleed • 125 blend - 124 blow ■ 129 break - 1'28 breed - 125 bring ■ 125 build - 124 burn • 123 burst • 12S buy - • 125 can - • - 139 cast • • - 121 catch - 125 chide - 128 choose - 128 cleave - 128 climb - 128 cling • 127 clothe - 126 come - 129 cost • - 125 creep ■ 124 crow - 129 cut • - 125 dare • i;33 deal • 124 dig • - 127 do • ■ 131 draw - 129 dream • 124 drink . 127 drive - 128 dwell • 123 eat - r29 engrave - . 130 fall • - 129 feed - - 125 t»el • • 124 light find . flee . fling fly - forbid forsake freeze freight get - gild . gird • give • go • grind grow hang have hear hew - heave h?Ip hide light hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lead • lean leap learn leave lend let • lie • light lose - make may mean melt meet methinks mote mow must need ought • 128 • 128 - 124 • 127 • 129 - 129 • 129 • 128 . 125 - 128 • 124 • 124 - 129 • 131 • 128 - 129 • 127 - 126 • 124 • 130 • 12i ■ 129 • 128 ■ 181 . 125 • 129 - 125 • 124 • 124 • 125 ■ 129 • 125 - 124 124 123 12t 124 129 129 125 124 126 132 124 130 125 125 182 130 132 126 132 R VERB-FORMS. pen - • 123 put • • 125 quit - 125 quoth • 129 read • 125 reave - 124 reeve • 128 rend • 121 rid • 125 ride • 128 ring - 127 rise • 128 rive • 130 run • 127 say • 124 saw • 130 see - 129 seek - 125 seethe • 128 sell ■ 125 send • - 121 set - 126 sew ■ 130 shake - 129 shall - 132 shave • 130 shear - 128 shed • 125 shine • 128 shoe - 124 shoot - 128 show - 730 shred - 125 shrink • - 127 shrive • 128 shut . 125 sing • 127 sink • 127 sit • 129 slay - 129 sleep - 124 slide - 128 sling - 127 slink ■ 127 slit • 125 smell • 123 smite • 128 sow • 130 speak • 128 speed • 125* spell - 123 spend • 124 spill • . 123 spin - 127 spit • 125,129 split - 125 spoil - 123 spread ■ • 125 spring - 127 stand • 139 stave • 128 steal • 128 stick - 127 sting ■ 127 stink - 127 stride • 128 strike - 127 string - KZ strive • 128 swear • 128 sweat - 125 swell • 130 sweep - . 124 swim • - 127 swing ■ 127 take • 12& teach • 1 5 tear • 128 tell - 125 think • 125 thrive • 128 throw - 129 thrust • 125 tread ■ 128 wake - 128 wash - 130 wax • 130 wear - 128 weave • 128 weep ■ 124 wend - 124 wet • 125 whet • 125 will • 132 win • 127 wind . 128 wis ■ 131 wit • 131 wont . 131 work • 126 worth - 131 wring • 127 1 write • 128 1 spill • - 123 spin • 127 spit • 125,129 split - 125 spoil - 123 spread ■ • 125 spring - 127 stand • 139 stave • 128 steal • 128 stick - 127 sting ■ 127 stink - 127 stride • 128 strike - 127 string - KZ strive ' 128 swear • 128 sweat • 125 swell - 130 sweep - . 124 swim • - 127 swing ■ 127 take • 12I& teach • 1 5 tear • 128 tell - 125 think • 125 thrive • 128 throw - 129 thrust • 125 tread - 138 wake - 128 wash - 130 wax • 130 wear - 128 weave • 128 weep ■ 124 wend - 124 wet - 125 whet • 125 will • 132 win - 127 wind . 128 wis - 131 wit • 131 wont . 131 work • 126 worth - 131 wring • 127 1 write • 128 1 I