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>3
^«
THE HIGH SCHOOL
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I
(;
THE
High School
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
John's EATH, b.a.,
IKSPECTOK or H,OH Scuoo^s FOE OSTiR.o.
AnTHORIZED FOB USE IN THE HIGH SrHOO.B .„„
COLLEGIATE INSTITUTES OF OOTaZ BY
THE DEPAKTMENT OF EDUCATION.
TORONTO:
CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY (LIMITED)
/-■
r
i1 )
Entered aofor, ing to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the office of the Minister of
Agrieu turo, by ThK CaNAI.A PUBLISHIN./COMPANY?LrMITED) £
the yt-ar one thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine.
\ ^7^
PRKFACE.
pl.iblo«iea. ..e.oa..c„ has nuxHfled t fe.^of Z,"^^"1' f""
meet the existin.- eo, dUiot T '^T'"" '''"* '^ """'"''"l to
teaohei. who hav'Cdre mt^ """'"'■ •"" '•'''^*^'-<l f^™
anc'wS'^w S\:!i^^ 1:'?^^" --'™«t^'' - accord-
edition, also tli o i ! 1 "'\''.f"'.^' "'■J"- Like the first
basis can tlie s ™ctu e of tl . '"T^ '"^''- ^^"'^ «" t^is
;;oiaEi,.,ish,"rr/£Ts;rs:s''S^^^
a>thou'.k niiirof tr a t t:s'!^^d"eo'^T ^"f ""^•" «"'•
it is r,ot intended that thev shonM . •^''»^*.™''t'o°« are given,
exhibit then.aiu facts il^deveitrTtref' '"""."''^'^
especial consideration • tl,« mZ I \ ^^^ 'anffuage deserve
to illustrate stat:™:n;s wLe i.hrothr" '=r ""^^'^ "^^"'^
uudei-stood. In accord",.re wif fr °""'™'«« ^e imperfectly
definitions have benllt eVh Iv .^''' P^'lasogieal opinion,
definitions in Section ll "! **"' "^'"°" "'^O' The so-eallei
tlun, definitions of "he once Crn";' "" '''"•'^^'"- «'>^-
It would be impracticabLt n . ' """d-benumbing type.
which have been found recLLvtolt" ' T'f *"' ""> '"^«"^-
modern scholarship and the ni "*^'"«^ "'« b«ok into line with
education. One or tto mav To' '"^"""•""'^"'^ "* ^'''^'"-"Jary
t.-eatment of „,„od has beenlim HflT; ^ """''"^ ^"'- ^he
-t Whitney, scheme, Zrri:::^^^^^!^
Hi
i
6
PREFACE.
ia not w(!ll suited for scihoois. In acicordjuKio with the wishes
of many teachers, a iartre nuniher of exercises have been pro-
vided, as well as lists of the most important prefixes, suffixes, and
Latin and Greek root-words. The marginal notes, too, will be
found useful not only in studying the text but in referring to
the contents. It should be added that the terminology and the
classifications of the old edition have been retained almost
unchanged, but less prominence has been given to classification
according to form.
The author returns his hearty thanks to the many High School
teachers and other scholars who have helped him in his revision.
He is, of course, wholly responsible for all that appears in the
book, but he desires to acknowledge his especial indebtedness to
Messrs. J. W. Connor, B.A. ; J. E. Dickson, B.A. ; A. Stevenson,
B.A., and H. I. Strang, B.A., who not only criticized the proofs
of all the text, but favored him with valuable assistance of
various kinds.
The chief authorities consulted for the edition of 1886 were
Maetzner's English Orammar and Lounsbury's English Language.
In the preparation of the present edition, the following works have
been used:
(1). Burt's Elementary Phonetics;
(2). Emerson's History of the English Language;
(3). Introduction to the Study of the History of Language, by
Strong, Logeman, and Wheeler: a work based upon Paul's
Principien der Sprach-geschichie ;
(4). Kellner's Historical Outlines of English Syntax;
(5). Kluge and Lutz's English Etymology;
(6). Morris's Historical Outlines of English Accidence: re-
vised by Kellner and Bradley ;
(7). Skeat's Principles of English Etymology: First and
Second series;
(8). Sweet's A New English Grammar: Parts I. and IL
Toronto.
i
CONTKXTS.
Seotjon.
1. Introduction
The English Langmge, English Grammar '
II. The Sentence and its Componpnts
Words, Phrases, Clauses.
III. Classes of Sentences.
According to Composition and Form. ' '
IV. Words and their Components
S(mnds, Letters.
V. Wori)-For3iation
Derivation, Composition, Inflection
VI The Syntax op the Parts op Speech
VII. Verbs . . ^
VIII. Nouns ...'***
Words, Phrases," Clauses. * ' ' '
IX. Pronouns
X. Adjectives
Words, Phrases,* Clauses. ' * ' '
XI. Adverbs
Words, Phrases, Clauses. - * • '
XII. Prepositions
• • ,
XIII. Conjunctions * ' '
XIV. Interjections . ' ' * *
XV. Infinitives, a.^riNDs, Participles
Paok.
. 9
. 18
. 38
. 50
. 70
. 90
. 113
. 165
. 195
. 222
. 247
. 264
. 271
. 280
. 282
/,
111
CONTEXTS.
XVI. lRRr:ouuR CoNSTia'cnox ....
Abbreviation, Kinotionul Ek'mcntH.
XVII. Historical OriLixE
Appciulir
XVITI. Pfti,FixEs, Suffixes, Root-words
XIX. Exercises
i^iivt I. : On the Text ....
Part JI.: Extracts for Analysis ^nd Parsinj.^
Part III.: Sentences for Criticism
Index
Subjects
Words and Plirasts
Irregular Verb -Forms ....
. 301
. 316
. 338
. 353
. 374
. 398
. 409
. 413
. 416
•
. 301
•
. 316
•
. 338
•
. 353
iiiij
. 374
•
. 398
•
. 409
•
. 413
•
. 416
EI^GLISII GRAMMAR.
I— INTRODUCTION.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
worl.l, its l,i.stx,ry as Z"T """"■ '""■'« *" "'"
wholly t., EMKlm,] )„ /"T.,'" '""'""O'i "'"'ost
«».int,-y to,,,, tl, nvl,,, /"■•;*"«""•« came to that
of wl.fa i« ,ow , 1 1 ; ! "' *''" r'-tli-western part
fifth, and sixth e ;,' ^ i.!:T"2;' Ch.t't^ "'^ *°"^«''
destroyed <,r pushed l)n,.V tJ,! o V. ""''"" "■«• and
there before a.,d who sL '' '"''' "^"^ '""' "ved
Welsh of the prese .,v T. ""'-'"''ffc ""'eh like
three differeni^tribes/k^own t rl'"'%'"^'""«'''J *»
Jutes (or J'l^isians) AT "» Angles, Sax(,us, and
I'elieve that /h™ wire a i o7th''TTv '^«''« "« ^
race, and that, ^itr^ome sir! d^i"^'" (<"• English)
the sa,ne language T^l i^ differences they spoke
Snglish; for a.ey al,n!s? r^""^" 'f "«''% <'>lled
AVfe, and theirlngi; £:7,;'^ '""'''' ""^"'^^'^o^
fAfefh: foTS '=rdT '^™"^^' -to
then hke the other Z~2 o? tt?'"""'/^' ''^'"^
still like those now snnW !i. ">»' country, it is
reason, often callecUG^rt^llh':' »"' i^, for this
thing, a Teutonic) laugZg" ^'"■' ""''""h is the same
diwfii Ssedtou'S?Tes«nri "" *-« ^«'
enees: ^ ^^^" resemblances and differ-
Tbe origin of
the Eniilish
languHjro, and
of Its U"n««
English, a
Teutonic
language
belonging to
the Low
'German
division.
10
iNTltODVCTloy.
Divisions of
the Teutonic
cub-family.
English, als )
one of the
Indo-Euro-
I)ean lan-
iliiages.
(1) Gothic. This division is now extinct.
(2) NorsCy ov Scandinavian. This is now repre-
sented by Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic.
(3) West Germanic. This includes:
(a) High German (row k.iown as New High
German, the language of modern (iei-iiiau literature) , at
first spoken only by that part of the Teutonic family
which lived in the central high lands of Europe; and
(6) Low German, originally spoken by those who
lived along the low lying shores of the Baltic and the
North Sea. Here belong Old English (or Anglo-
Saxon), the ancestor of Modern English ; Old Saxon,
now represented by Low German; Old Frisian, the
modern form of which is spoken only in some of the
islands off the coast of North Germany; and Old
Franeonian, spoken originally by the Franks who lived
on the banks of the lower Rhine, and now represented
chiefly by Dutch and Flemish.
3. By comparing the languages and literatures of
Europe and Asia, scholars have been able to show that
all the Teutonic languages, along with nearly all the
others in Europe and some of th^ most important in
Asia, form a great body of languages resembling one
another, and hence called a family. The existence of
ibuch resemblances can be accounted for only on the
supposition that these are the languages of peoples
whose ancestors once spoke the same tongue, and,
consequently, must have formed one tribe, or kindred
tribes who lived near one another. We have no
liistorical records about this ancient race ; but we are
reasonably certain that they once existed, more than
three thousand years ago ; and that, at some remote
periods in the history of the world, migrations took
place, and, in this way, their descendants have
•become widely distributed from India westward to the
Atlantic. These primitive people are now called
Arians, the name given them by scholars {Arinn,
moa-n\-nrf " Vinnnrnhlp " nv "T1oblft"V Wherfi. hoW"
■>'"••' ■'•"to 7 ■■' • - '
ever, their home was is by no means certain. Many
scholars have, of late years, come to believe that it was
5.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
11
w repre-
ielaudic.
w High
ture),at
e family
>pe ; aud
lose who
and the
Anglo-
a Saxon,
dan, the
le of the
and Old
rho lived
(resented
itures of
how that
Y all the
)rtant in
)ling one
stence of
[y on the
peoples
•Me, and,
• kindred
have no
it we are
ore than
e remote
ons took
its have
rd to the
tv called
{Arinn,
)re. bow-
.. Mnny
lat it was
either near the southern shore of the Baltic, or as
seems more likely, about the Black Sea in Southern
Russia. Many other scholars, however, stUl hold the
old view that it was somewhere in the table-lands of
Central Asia, between the Caspian and the Hindu-
Kush Mountains.
The great family to which the Teutonic languages
belong IS, therefore, known as the Indo-European
(or the Arian) family.
4. Besides the Teutonic sub-family, to which, as we other indo-
nave seen, iinglish and German belong, there are a *^'fT'*r
number of other divisions of tha Indo-European the itaZ'^nd
family. Two of these are represented in our school '^' ^'^^•
(purses—the Italic (or Italian) and the Greek (or
Hellenic). The Italic division includes Latin, now
no longer spoken, but seen in CsBsar or Virgil; and
J^rench, t<? which (as also to Italian, Spanish, Portu-
guese, and one or two others) the name Romanic is
given, as it is the descendant of the ancient Roman
tongue The Greek division includes modern and
ancient GrecK, the latter being now seen in Xenophon
or Homer. ^
mL.l^t^''^^'^\^^ "P^""^ ^^ *^^ P^^«^^^* ^^y' i^^ by no English, not
means the same language as formerly went by that ?»>««'""«
name. When first brought from Northern Germany ^nXSlff
to England, the language was so different from ours ''" ''"'"'^^
that we should not understand it if we heard it spoken -
and we must study it just as we do French or German'
before we are able to read it. And a thousand years
hence, if English live so long, it will probably be so
unlike what It now is that we, if we were to come to
lite again, should perhaps not understand it without a
good deal of trouble . The reason is that every livins:
language is continually changing; so that the speech
lot each generation differs somewhat from that of the
one before it. In the course of time, some old words
go out of use ; new words come into use ; some change
[their meaning; all, or almost all. o.hano-« f>,a,Vr. Z
■Halation; and tht. ways in which we put" words together
to express our thoughts become more or less changed
1^
INTRODUCTION.
Three great
diflfeienees
between Old
and Modern
English:
(1). Old Eng-
lish,
synthetic ;
Mod. English,
uniilytic.
hy (legi'ees. On the other hand, ahmgnage like Latin
or ancient Greek, which is only written or printed
and is not now spoken, no longer undergoes any
change whatever, and is, consequently, known as a
dead language.
We have a long series of works written by
Englishmen in Old English, and going back as far
as King Alfred's time or thereabouts. These enable
us to find out how Englisli has changed from time to
time and how these changes are connected with many
important events in the history of England.
6. The most striking difference between Old English
and Modern English, the form of the language we
now speak, is that Old English generally (though not
so generally as Latin or Greek) expressed both the
relations of words to one mother in the sentences
and certain modifications in their meanings by changes
in the forms of the words themselves ; whereas Modern
English generally expresses such modifications and
relations by means of separate words. In the follow-
ing extracts the parts of the Old English words that
have been changed to show differences of meaning or
relation are italicized, as are also their Modern English
equivalents when there are any:
Old English.
TM ongan ho leornigan on
hi/n self «iw liii he thee< rice thaw
unvihtwis«?i cyninge aferiYOi
mWxte, and on rihtgel^affulrrt
and on rihtwism anwald ge-
bringan.— ^Elfred's Boethius.
And we h^odath thset man
eard georno' eliensiaw agynue,
and nianfulm droda seghwror
Modern English.
Then began he to learn in
himself how he the kingdom
from the unrighteous king re-
move mighi, and into the power
( anwald = ** wielding " ) of
right believing and righteous
(men) bring.
And we bid that men the
earth earnestly to cleanse
begin, and from sinful deeds
everywhere ("aye— where ")
cease.
geswiec— Cnut's Laws.
Acoordino'lv. Old English is called a synthetic
language (svnthetic is from sifnthesis, which means
' ' putting together " ) and Modern English, an analytic
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
13
ike Latin
f printed
goes any
3wn as a
'itten by
ek as far
jse enable
m time to
dth many
d English
guage we
loiigh not
both the
sentences
ly changes
IS Modern ^
tions and
he foUow-
vords that
leaning or
•n English
3LISH.
to learn in
;he kingdom
)us king re-
itothe power
ding" ) of
id righteous
at men the
to cleanse
sinful deeds
e — where ' ' )
synthetic
lich means
n analytic
language (analytic is from analysis, which means
separating into parts " ) .
7. Another great difference is that Old English was, (2).oi,iEn8:-
onthe whole, an unmixed language; that is, with very iinmixe<i;
few exceptions, all its words were English; whereas JJ^.'/jhI^hI;
Modern English is one of the most mixed (or compo-
site) languages in the world. The chief foreign element
is the Italic. From this source we have two main
classes of words — those that were introduced in vast
numbers by the Normans, a French speaking people
who conquered the English speaking people of England
in the eleventh century ; and those introduced directly
from the Latin, since the Revival of Learning in the
sixteenth century. The French of the Normans was
a broken language, the descendant of the Latin
brought into Gaul by the Romans when they ruled
that country; so that most of our words, thus in-
directly introduced from the Latin, are very much
altered from the original. Thus, for example,
dower<rZotore, Si\m<Ca€Stimare, tower<Cturris, sn,{e<salvus,
chief<capM^, ivnit<ifructus, gross<Ccrassus, vais'm<j-acemus.
The Latin words introduced since the Revival of
Learning are, on the contrary, but slightly altered; so
little, indeed, that one who knows Latin has no trouble
in recognizing them. Thus, for example,
Rm\als<Can'nales, innocence <j7inoc€ntia, a,ndi\c'io\is<^ancfax,
I alaerity<aiamtos, •penetvsite<j)cnetratus, eelehTa,te<icelcbratus.
8. These two elements— the pure Fnglish and the Percentage
[Italic— constitute about niaety-five per cent, of our «? Modlm"
Ivocabulary. English contains also a few other English.
rords from the Latin, introduced into Old English by
the early Roman invaders, the Roman missionaries,
ind writers of Old English who translated Latin works
pnto their own language; words from other membex-s
3f the Teutonic sub-family; a few words from the
"Celtic languages; words from the Greek, especially
soientifio. teririg introduced in modern tiiiies; and
rards from the languages of countries connected
nth England by trade, colonization, and so on.
14
INTRODUCTION.
(3). Great
differences
between the
spelling and
pronuncia-
tion of Old
and of Modem
English.
Middle Eng-
lish, the pro-
duct of Old
English and
Norman
French.
Limits of the
three chief
periods of
growth.
9. Besides the great differences in the <iharacter o?
the words and in the ways of expressing their relations
and changes of meaning, there is also a marked differ-
ence between the spelling and pronunciation of Old
and of Modern English. For a long time, indeed,
every one in England tried to write his words as he pro-
nounced them; sometimes, indeed, with different spell-
ings of the same word in the same sentence. And,
judging from the varieties of spelling there must have
been great variety in the pronunciation. Since the
close of the fifteenth century, however, although
many changes have taken place, the growth of national
culture and the intermingling of people from various
parts of the British Empire, have tended to make the
pronunciation uniform ; so that now, educated speakers
of English, all over the world, differ only slightly in
their modes of pronunciation. Our spelling, also,
chiefly owing to the use of dictionaries and the influ-
ence of our printed literature, has become almost
rigidly fixed and very often does not correspond to the
pronunciation.
10. For a century or so after the Normans settled in
England, two languages were spoken side by side-
French, by the Normans, and English, by the English.
Gradually, however, the two peoples drew together
and the two languages became fused into one. The
highly important period during which the new language
was being formed and was first spoken, is now known
as that of Middle English, one of the best examples
of which is seen in the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer,
who wrote in the fourteenth century.
11. All the changes during the three periods of the
history of our language have taken place gradually;
so that no hard and fast lines of division can be drawn.
As a matter of convenience it is, however, usual to
limit the periods as follows : Old English from the
settlement of England in the fifth century till 1200.
Middle English till 1500, and Modern English there-
after. As will be seen later, these periods are often
again sub-divided; but in the meantime, we need
notice only the sub-division of Modern English into
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
15
aaracter o*
ir relations
fked differ-
Lon of Old
le, indeed,
3 as he pro-
erent spell-
lee. And,
must have
Since the
although
)f national
)m various
) make the
d speakers
slightly in
ling, also,
. the influ-
ne almost
ondto the
I settled in
by side—
e English.
V together
one. The
J language
ow known
examples
Chaucer,
ods of the
gradually;
be drawn.
, usual to
from the
till 1200.
iish there-
are often
we need
glish into
Early Modern (or Elizabethan) English (about
1500-1600) and Later Modern English; the English
of the present day, being especially known as Present
English.
But, notwithstanding these changes and names, it
must always be kept in mind that the language we
now speak and write is the direct descendant of the
English spoken in the time of King Alfred a thousand
years ago ; for the structure of our sentences and by
far the larger number of our most common and
needful words are purely English.
12. Besides the differences at different periods, Vurietiesof
there are considerable differences in the language of English
English speakers even at the present day. Thus, every
region has some peculiarities in the way in which its
speakers use their English. There are, for example,
the peculiarities of the English of Ireland and of
Scotland, noticed by us in the Irish and the Scotch
immigrants. And, in general, an Englishman can
tell an American, and an American an Englishman by
the way he talks. When these peculiarities amount to
so much that they begin to interfere with our under-
standing the persons who have them, we say that such
persons speak a dialect of English, rather than
English itself, which in contradistinction is known as
Standard English.
13. There is also the difference between what we Good English
call good English and bad (or vulgar) English. By "rellTl^i'
good English we mean those words and those meanings iia""«"i-
of them and those ways of putting them together,
that are used generally by the best educated people
of the present day; and bad English is, therefore,
simply that which is not approved and accepted by
good and careful speakers and writers. Then, again,
we find that good English, when spoken, differs
slightly from the lang'iiage of well written books. In
ordinary- conversation >, e use, for instance, shortened
forms of words, familinr aYr\vooaiftT»c. n-^A o 1^^^^
arrangement of our sentences, which do not seem fitted
for the higher kind of literature. We have in this
16
INTRODUCTION.
Divisions of
EiiKlish
(irummar.
Why English
Grammar is a
valuable
study.
En Ush^ ^^ standard spoken (or colloquial)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
m,it' f^® ^""^ J^'^f ^^''"^ ^^'^^ ^^^l^s^ has changed
much from what it was at first, and that there are
varieties of the English spoken even now. When
however, we say simply '^English," we mean the
discusbion of the good and approved usages of this
English forms what we eall English Grammar, The
discussion in this book includes:
( 1 ) The description and classification of the different
words we use in speaking and writing. This is known
as Etymology, The term properly r _, ans ' ' a discus-
sion of the true source of a word ; " but, by writers on
language Its meaning has been extended to include
the classification of words, the consideration of their
changes of form, and the history of their growth.
(2) An account of the ways in which words are
properly combined to express our thoughts and feelings
This IS known as Syntax; the term literally means
a putting together. " j ^uc
(3) Anaccountof theSoH/iisandy^/p/za^j^fof the
language— how our spoken words are correctly sounded
and how they are represented by letters. Strictly
speaking, this subject does not form part of Grammar
which as the term is now generally understood, con-
sists of Etymology and Syntax ; but, as it is of import-
ance m connection with a discussion of the formation
ot words, some knowledge of it is necessary.
In this Grammar these divisions will not be kept
quite separate, but will be taken up in pj^rts when it
seems best for the presentation of the subject.
15. English grammar is studied for a variety of
purposes, of which correctness of expression is only
one, and a secondary one— by no means unimportant,
out best attained indirectlv It i.« onnofor^f ™«4.;««
under never-failing watch and correctioiir^haT makes
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
17
gijod writers and sneakpr^ r'».„,
chiefly in the higher ste^' of the worL """V'^ ^"'
be supposed, eitlier, that the writer oV . '* """
makes the i-ules and laws for Ian J, x " .S^animar
the facts of good lantma^e in T^? ' /'"""'y '^Po^s
they m,, bcLu/rS^ to^or letnlfd"""' ^° *"'
of English. Nor kr^ wo^!;f ^ '?™ other forms
language- we want M v °* '"* '"^''^'y "sing
workiDgs and^iterinff: ^^,f ^^^ "^^^^^^^ *h« "kind's
study of EnSish S^f ^'^.f ^'"^^^^ *«^^i«^ tl^e
step. ^ '^ grammar is the easiest and surest
18
THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS.
Two essen-
tials of every
sentence fully
expressed.
The Assertive
Sentence.
Subject and
Predicate, not
always ex-
pressed.
n.-THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
The sun shines, or They went away,
which we make an n<s<!<.rti«., Lj °'- ' *''<^'it
we assprt 'iX.tu •;''"'' °"^ expressing what
The bnlhant sun shines brightly over me every day '
thing the first three stand for *' ^' ''^•'"•' »* *he
thing asserted '') ^•«'"f'»'« (pr«d,Mfe means '
the assertive st'tenrefb^X'^themlTr' ''"*
one and the othe.. will be tL^t.-Xeate"'''""'""
"I am snrpriLd ^h t tf T":*^ "t° '^? "^''?
water," "Go vou homp " *• Tr, h? V ^^ ^ ^*^*
be furnished - ^nd '' T----- ^ ^'' '^'^''^ ^^^^^ ^^y
-- i-u, „iia iu uii« liouse mere are furnishea
CHIEF CLASSES OF WORDS.
19
PONENTS.
king or in
Thus, when
>n or jndg-
he sentence
1 we assert
must be in
? the thing
f") about
ssing what
e sentence,
fy day,
3 an asser-
ert of the
ee we call <|
ite means
e of only
tence, or
ing to be
ices; but
common
sr.
icate our
i subject
, "Go
Rooms
we mean
I want
3ms may
urnisheS
((
speak o/a sentence we mea,Xr:"'T' ^'''"' ^«
eontaining both a su^t a^d'a p^Ste""* ^«"*--.
We, therefore, define subject and predicate thus
CHIEF CUSSES OF WORDS
toiLf to fo™ ZelLT^f ^^^' "' ^"'"^ •"•« P»t
words. sentence composed of only two
inline:!'' "''' "' '""'"' "'»' ^"''^ «™ <aT.,v„..
is called „''°"'f'f'' ?""'«""'. George r«,*,
w called a verb {verb means "word " thi. u- j „
Stntr).'"'^" '"•'■'^'^ »P- - t'; cS w^'or^ Sf
subject stands for, a verb Tn^nlh / *''* *'''"e t^"*
by means of which wr^ser" ««°t«°««s, is a word
A predicate, however, mav con<!!<!t nf ^„ ^i.
word: thus, for PYnmr.ll • ! , ■"<'^? ^an one
ine sun « shmmg, os The sun fe brilliant o»
B„t • ... ^'^ «™ '^"^ down rays. ' "^
means' of^wWcT •''"t.Tsh/''' ''^^*'"«'" P-^^ts by
sending down rays, are i^ andT'J'' ^"ianey, or
are, therefore, the verb™. *•' '* «°^ *««*
as follows 7 ^ °* "•' predicate ; and we define it
aJ T^J\^ "<«' *» -"saw of which w, »„i,
20
THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS.
Predicate
Completion.
Verbs of
Incomplt^to
Predlctttioa.
Verbs.
Transitive
And
latransitive.
18. When a pmlirate is coniposiMl of two or nunv
words we call the verb in it the! bare r»re(lieate n 1
th.s ah,n^. w,th th(^ rest we eall tlie COmp/^^ j p iio "
We shall see, herc-after, that some verbs, such ! he
t^:'l:.^:irr'v'^''.'''''l ^^^^^^ ^^^ pmlieates but
torni eomple e precheates when otlier words are added
to them whieli ai-e ealled their complement 'Zl
i^,coN^plefh,oimvt: thus, in f^^^^meni , that
He is icise, and He becomes wise,
iLnV''"'"'"'', "^'^^ ^^"^^ *^« ^^^-^ predicates, and
sentence' ^.H^^"^^"* ' /^^ there coild, in neither
sentence, be a complete assertion without wise or
some other word used like it.
A very much larger number of verbs are incom-
plete m another way~-namely, as they caU for the
addition ot a word to express something on which the
action they signify is exerted; thus, fo? example,
^^^^^ ; She tells ; The man wrote .. . •
They saw ; * '
T.^rn^lZ^r"*' ''" ''*^''"'''" **""S what is folded, or
told, or written, or seen; and the. sense is comnleted
m some such way as this : " I fold the paper "^' She
tells a story " The man wrote a letter,"^'The.v saw
me." Such an added word is always the name oT
somethmg, as paper, story, letter, or a word iZme
by which we know what thing is meant, and it is
af whi^h aft?* '^' "^'^ "^T"" " ^'^ifi«« tha
at which the a«tion is directed. The verb which
/r^n'cvjf "■Jol-J^"* to complete its meaning is Td ed
transitive, because the action, instead of beW
merely asserted of the thing the subject stands foi?
stiLTw^'onM ""i? 't'"'*J *!:« *^'°s t''" Ob -t
stands tor. On the other hand, there are verbs which
do not properly take alter them such an obieet
thus for example, go, Ml, run. We may go o»
SwI^^f^"'" «<»"«t>^i»g. run o^er Sething
but we do not go any one or any thing, and so on
Such verbs are called intransitive .'fw" ■• ::";
transitive.") " '• "' ""^
CHIEF CLASSES (jp H'ORDS.
21
Noun.
(3), The
Pronoun.
OoW glitters, Borses ran, Ofwj,« reads Jo„t,,
are, each of them what is called a nom Umm menn»
simply name"). AH these nouns are the "aZ
of objects we can perceive by the sen^ of s?Z
Others, as smiml,nmse, thunder, are names of tl fn^s
we can perceive by other senses. Othm a J n !f
l>etgU, roundness, beauty, cmcrage Z\mnl"' Tt
qualities which we think of as havino. ...T" ^
apart from the objects potssing S The'staL'
asiuhZ'Ufn ""T' ^^""^ '^'"''^'^ «^«^^ ^'^^it^ other words
as subject of a sentence or as object of a verb. '
n.^^: ^"*',^'^^^« a verb is the only kind of word th«f
the onlv'''^ ft r^^^^*^ ^^ ^ sentence, a noun is not
tlie only one that can be used as miTn'pAf /^ !
or as object of a verb. In the sentences, ' ' "'"*'°"'
/stand, Tm are wise, George 'mtettm
meaD' ifrf^rrnoTn'^^anTthr *' ^^''""'-
posed to be its characteristic u^f) i T "'"'? ^"P"
additional means of ^pre^^n ing L J'^^Tyt n^Ji?
name them a<5 nmino /i^ i, ,^,,"^"&«- -iiieyaonot
Se reads well,
r-t:d :fmrn ■?t-.t ™ ^^ .v« c*
instance, ' "" '"'" '"^ ^'''"*^' ^^^ say, tor
^^ is a tall man, or She dresses well.
Or, speaking to George himself or to some one whose
THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS.
Differences
between
Nouns and
Pronouns.
,1 I
Deflnilion of
the Pronoun.
Substantive
words.
Ton read.
George also may say, referring to himself,
/ read ;
says, "' *iff*iiu, George
This is my father,
gesture, or whi is th^^^J^^ ^fi hl™*^^ -""«
no.«, no mtter 'how diffe«n ""ZTl '"^^^ «' .^-y -»
and, of coiu-se, their n^es-?LZ^ * *''* "''■"'*"«
we can speak to we rZv «7v f ""*'. '" *"y «°«
them that can soil J u^J'^ > '""' «"y<>ne of
Pronouns, the?efo?e dif^r f "*" """^ "?" "««'' -"•
attached t^ -STowi^! ^''T """"'• '» "»* b«'ng
is nothing whTehmavrnMr'i-''fi'l°''^««^ there
«■«, according to ThT cht.^it 'f *"'*"^ ^^ ^' "■• 3«'«' <»•
Thus, we have the definition:
»<«»& a, »«6>c« ofu .« Joel «f;;.,>, : " '*f ' ""•"•- •'
beslLthat oTXdTnt ^"°^^ ■'■'^^ »*^«r ««««
will be pointed out herea?L Hf * -^T f ^^?' *''«««
that words which are^n^^^r 7?" "''•' *"' ^hown
sometimes rsed as nofn, if T^ '" "*''«'• ^"^^ ««
t'. be ased SttbstantlvPh^U !"f'' ?■ "^""^ '^ *en said
• capable TzT.tZ'}^ [suUtanUve properly means
«ubstantive-[s itSTuo|.,rXXk:l4'^ **™
P«MT CIJSSSS or HOJtDS.
dicat^ >" some
l"""<>;". o„ the ,>„c. hand nLlT"''":^'"' ""'"' ""'l
-are the pri.ieipul the in,i„!^^ i""! "*''*' "i the other
sentences w'hoSt he n fr l'^!'/?""' °n«''- They form
Next we have t» eon«^. ." P'"''" °* «Peeoh
whieh do not by tlemseiv;; '7 ""'«■• ''""'« of words
">• the predicate o "±7;.. """ •*'"""■ «'« «"S ,.
verb. When, for iLlanTweV/k of" •"'^'"" «'" "'^"-
we first limit th ^''''' *''"^' *'''''* ^''*^'
hats thatTre blaoAZn^r'''"'^ '^'^^^ *« *hat class of
class that are S an h! ''?."' *^^^^ '^«^^ tTtUt
^. to that cla^^thrUe t^^^^^ ^W. hl^l
putting ;,,,' and two before fh.!;!, T^ "^^ ^^^^t, by
numerous class of tall Itm Tz^l^-J^duce the still
which some parfjpnjlt ' '^■^' ^^"^^^ *«^« to the twn
and thenoun'^^oXriVr"" ^^'•«- The ad^^ectivTs
-ore limited apStTonTh^ t^no^^"'^^^ ^- "
A word used lik^ ;i,-, /, ^ / 7 """ ^^^'^^ ^^^i-
an adjective {aLcL.'^ ^^^' '^^^^' ^^^'^^^ ^ called
«dded; - that is aS7o f "'^^^ . '"^^ns '' someth nf
out that for which the n.,^ "?^'^ «"^ ^^ said to S
^^[Pjj^-tion M^^^ '"''^ *^^'^«' *<>^^^^
while ;iVo «„. f ' '"'"^ '«'^' *-^*:^' black hat3,
«^^^^^ application of the
the adjective, tall, stiff blTkT^ ^ ^^^^^^^ number
the qualities of ta Iness ^Z ^"^ '^^^^•- they express
be^nging to hats '' '*'^^^««' ^"d blackness as
-unT/,. X't Ttol'7,! ^^- -^ to ,«a/.y, the
the noun stands for ^'"'^ ^ ^^^^^ of the thin^
Agam, in ■ *^
the adjective nn7^ ^^' ^'^"^"^ '"^'
^^eno7instrnd^st::bTdrL^r^^^^ *^« ^^-^
23
24
THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS.
Definition of
the Adjective
Different
uses of the
Qualil^ing
Adjective.
Definition
of Notion
of the a^ee«ve wTs v^^Mf t«:i' v"'*-' ""^ f""'=«'"'
is " hor^^ri -l y ^"^^ ^^ modifies a noun • thof
changes the value of the nomi adjective
Thus, we have the definition-
XT -"'''- -""-ranrre'x oV«::
If, for example, we say,
Quality aeCt' Sld'^by tlJ^^SL^rth" '""''
represents, whiph n,>ai:t,. oDjeet the nonn
or known of TtTawTl, '"'•\°"* .^'■'™ "'""^tt
"any eonceptionof the mind '' ^, T ^"'l"-"" ""^^^
or of what it doe, n^^ il /^ °t^° •''''3««t itself,
presented o us bv the nC-r^n', "?'"/ '* ^^^^ "'"^
different from thtt pSed bv fhr*'^' together is
addition, though the ext^n nf fi, ,• " *"'*"'™ the
uouu regains unchanged *''' appheation of the
But, if we say
L'im^SireStsT'ttt"°7tr"^rr • -- "
were wanting som»th; ' '/ ''ie.1"ality described
tpe- The"a%eS *t^ '^. d;fferent, would be
liie noun bv its (]o<o-,^r.li^ i !i "", "PPHcation of
names. ^^^t^nption of the object the noun
CHIEF CLASSES OF WORDS.
25
nd express
le fuuction
loun: that
>!*, as the
ling (that
3 adjective
express a
to modify a
ity, it is
es a less
er of tiie
word,
'J
e simply
lid mean
^e adjec-
to some
le noun
thought
n means
3t itself,
is) thus
rether is
fore the
1 of the
aake
since it
scribed
uld be
ion of
! uouu
24. No assertion is made by an adjective any more Predicate
tlian by a noun; for, when we say "the good man " Adjective and
we take it for granted that the man possesses the °"°'
quality of goodnesr, ; the goodness is not asserted
But we (?an make an adjective or a noun a part of aii
assertion about the thing the subject stands for, if we
join the two together by a verb (18) . The verb which
we especially use for this purpose is he-, thus, for
example,
The man is good, The man is a soldier.
A noun or an adjective which, in this way, bv help
of a verb, is made a part of the predicate, is a"^ kind
of comnlement and is called a predicate noun or
adjtctive. Thus used, the noan or adjective merely
describes what the subject stands for; it does not
limit its application (23).
An adjective used as predicate modifies a pronoun
as freely as it modifies a noun, but an adjective
scarcely ever modifies a pronoun placed immediately
ate It: thus, we say: "You are tall,'' but not
Tall you."
25. There is also another class of words, used to (5). The
modify the other member of the simple sentence the ^*^^*'^^-
verb. '
If we say
The sun shines hrightly, or shines noic, or shines above,
the words hrighfh/, now, above, tell something about
the mnnner, or time, or place of the action expressed
by sJmies; what each of these words tells, expresses a
quality or a limitation of the shining we have asserted
or the sun.
A word thus used is called an adverb, because it is
added to a verb in much the same way and for the
same purpose as the adjective is added to the noun it
modifies.
But some adverbs are capable of being used to
modify adjectives ; thus,
A vcru cold day, A tndy faithful friend, Apossihhj false report;
and some modify another adverb: thus,
FtTJ/ brightly shining, Quite often seen, Exceedingly seldo^ai.
^ I
'l#
20
I^fflnition of
the Adverb.
(fy). The
Preposition,
Wehave, then, the defiuition-
ortom:Zl:^ ""^^ "''' *" '"'x'V'J a .en, an aclJecU.e,
Of 'w;l''*;]!Lf rdtbTJ?:rf -i','^ »" ^^^ ^inas
ones that modify otW „.7 , ^- ^'"o**' the only
degree: as .4%« m«.f 1*/""?/^°^^ expressing
most freely with acWiyes wh L ?" '"'"'' "''^ ^^^
more or les, freely he whole I?' ^TV"'' ^^^ "Iso
the verb takes; beca,?se liK. 'rt™' "l a-i^^rbs which
■° one of its classes X'nt""^'* ' *'"' "''J^^tiye,
or condition: thus,' ?o exaZr "7^'^'''^ "^ ^*^*«
himself shining brnhZ '' ??„ k ^J." '"° ^^'o^ed
verbs expressing degree are l«l ''*^'" ^'""^' ad-
Some of the commonest of them „ "'"'' '"'"' ^^''hs-
do not go with yerbs directly at .1, '"2 ""? '""' '"""•
changed to ven/ mitckflll i ^'li ^^"^ have to be
we say, '' """""' '"" '»««* ■■ thus, for example,
• or;ji!.S olrr^i^" :i !^t "T of tJ^^ noun
or object of a verb Now 11 "*'''f * "^^ " sentence
combination of words mal ,Tn n/"'' '" "«"<^« that a
and such a word as of W ^ * '\°''"° or Pronoun
it with another Tout' o/with "^ *^V^''''* ^""''^''t
adverb, may be used likJI ^? !?'"''• "djeetive, or
other nonnf or ifke an ll f ''?*""' *° ™«dify this
adj-ective, o^ ad;erb Thus ' ' *° '^'"^'^^ »« W
arersirr^^^'-^'-''^-------,
and in ^"' ^"''■" ""'^™"'" =^ '"^'"'^ ""«"«%,•
thei'^SttnTfrsr^T"""--
-U'^^a -?C^^^^^^ hf m^det-
-the same way: tAXZ^.ZZt'^^'''^'
Who «,„<«, ,„ (o^ ,_^ ,,^ ^^^^^-^ ^^.^^^-^^^
CHIEF CLASSES OF irORDS.
27
Frequently however, in all styles of Enfflisk~in
j.ms house 1 will never set my face in
rTertain Mn^ ':?''''S *^' '^' *•"« preposition defines '"'"'-■
fhp ;.T^ ' / ''^*^'' ^^^^« possession, or connects
the notion of a possessor with that of « f^l!.
possessed, as in ^* ^ *^i^^
The palace 0/ the King;
and to and from show relations of place, as in
He went from Windsor to Montreal.
Thus, we have the deanition:
^Ae^/ eoTJrm; thus formina with flTl^ between the notions thePreposi-
He wont and T oam'^
elrmed W^'^i'f *f *.'"i^''*^ «■• i^-Jsments (16)
expiessed bv ^<, „,,«/ and I came, by means of and;
; «
/
in
THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS.
Chief use, to
connect
sontences.
But, with
different
degrees of
closeness.
Connects also
words and
phrases used
in tlie same
way.
that is, we tlnis join t()<,'etlier two hontoriees. So,
also, hut connects the sentences in
We spoke, hut they said nothing.
And and hut in tliese sentences are caUed conjunc-
tions. ( ConjunctioH means something? that ' * conjoins
or joins together"): they join together different
sentences; and this is the commonest use of con-
junctions.
Sometimes, as in these sentences, the conjunction
does little more than loosely bind the sentences
together, each sentence remaining a real assertion ;
sometimes, however, it binds them closely together
and shows that the second sentence stands in a certain
close relation to the first ; a relation, the nature of
which is defined, or made clear, by the conjunction.
Thus, in
She blushed because she was ashamed ; She played
while they danced;
because shows her shame to have been the cause of
her blushing; and while shows the dancing to have
accompanied her playing; and so with similar con-
junctions. In these sentences, agam, she blushed and
she played are the only real assertions.
But, besides connecting different sentences, some
of the most common conjunctions, especially and, are
used to connect, in the same sentence, other com-
binations of words (not consisting of a subject and a
predicate), called phrases, that are used in the same
way m the sentence ; also single words that are used
in the same way in the sentence: thus.
On the hills and in the valleys, lies the snow; A man of bad
character, hut of great ability; By and with their
consent; A proud, though childlike, form.
And, as with iha relations between thoughts, the
relations the conjunctions show between notions are of
different degrees of closeness : thus, for instance, when
we say
He and I came,
but, in
the qualities of
we mean He came '' and '* I
we refer to one man who
came
A great and good man,
possesses
))
CHIEF CLASSES OF WORDS.
29
So,
onjunc-
onjoins,
liffereut
of con-
unction
ntences
lertion ;
ogether
certain
ture of
nction.
ed
ause of
io have
ir con-
led and
, some
nd, are
r com-
t and a
e same
•e used
)f bad
sil-
ts, the
i are of
, when
greatness and goodness, not to two men — one great
and one good. And the r(4ation is even closer in
Two and two make four; A slice of bread and butter.
Thus, we have the definition:
A conjunction is a vord winch joins sentences; or jdirascs
or words, used in tiie same way in a sentence.
29. The seven classes of words, whose uses have
l>een described, are called parts of speech^ and each
word, as belonging to one or another class, or
as having a certain use or function, is also called
a part of speech. This name, "part of speech,"
given to a word, i)lainl.y implies that there is some-
thing incomplete about it; that it must be joined
with other parts in order to make a whole, or in order
to be speech. The seven parts of speech fall among
themselves into three divisions :
1. TJie tJiree independent parts of speech, the Noun, the
Pronoun, and the Verb, capable of forming sentences icitliout
otJters;
2. Tlie two modifiers, the Adjective and the Adverb, ahvays
attached to some otiier word, tvliicJi ilicy modify;
.9. The tiro connectives, the Preposition and the Conjunc-
tion, ivhich join one icord, or phrase, or sentence to another.
30. There is yet another class of words, used in
exclamation, Avhich are generally reckoned as a part
of speech. Examples are
Oh! Ah! Fie! Pshaw! Fudge! Lo!
These words, and words used like them, are called
interjections. The name inferjection signifies some-
thing that is hiferjected, that is, "thrown into the
midst of " something else : and this something else is
the sentence, as made up of the other parts of speech.
Calling them thus, then, implies what is really the
ease, that they are not i)arts of the sentence itself;
they are not combined with other parts to make
up sentences. Hence, they are not parts of speech in
the same sense as the others. Ea(;h interjection is, in
a certain way, an undivided sentence, put in the
language of feeling rather than in that of reason. It
is a direct intimation of feeling or of will, made
Definition
of the
Conjuuctioi)
m
Parts of
speech and
their classi
ficatioa.
(8). The
Interjection.
t
An undivided
scuteiice ill
the language
of feeling.
ties of
-^
30
Deflnitlon of
the Interjec-
tion.
A means of
communica-
tJon ; not
merely an
outburst of
feeling.
Effects of
strong feeling
on form of
speech.
Primary and
Secondary
Interjections.
^^t^7t Ked'™^'."''^ 'i"'-«°'' of voice
^presses a number SerenJf!;/"'' ''^^P'^ i*-'
We add, then, the definition:
•4w mteriection
does not combine witjTofh^!"'''''*^^ ^^pressive of feeli^n v
pome nearer to thSTha^etfr tha'n"/'^''' though they
m language. Thev pm ii .?° ''oes anything el«o
to44to'oJ^SXrtTr:^otH^^^^^^^
Jatn^^ror-leVS'^^^^^^^^^^
other languages. ^^* different from those of
^SCol °r::;o'ning, oTeTnll.'^^P'-'^^^'"" »* ealm
When the speaker is mov!^"^ -If ''°"' of description
sentence-fonS of exnrS 7f' ''^"^ feelin|, the
Z ''^>"?o°ed, and^onlT he nT°"* *° ^ ™o™ or
uttered, with tone and ge,h,r!H,'^r""°''°* ^ords ai-e
them. Some of our ot^t *'"'** ^"ffleiently explain
^ -eal parts of speech T'^ ^°'"^^' <^ommonty used
exclamatory wa/thf ft'^ey ^hldToff '?"? '?«^<» '" "his
and may be so called. Such are """ "terjections
WordstdXCfr'"":'""'"''"-
nature of interjections. ^' ^^'^ also of the
Some words wln'/^ii
tious, were once ordinary nrnT^'f ""'^ »« interjcc-
«tr- - -h has ^-XtS^dSit
zounds ("*hv r«^^>
^-if^j miserable'').
I
'J>m *
ion of voice,
cample, Ah/
■such as joy,
^ay in which
of feeling; it
fence; and so
il outbursts
hough they
ythingf else
> means of
^ed "parts
h we seek
such and
ts own set
^ those of
^ of calm
scription.
^ling:, the
more or
v^ords are
y explain
>nly used
I in this
rjections
i^ed and
> of the
nterjee-
it their
8'uised;
On the other Tmn/i ^
spontaneous utteTatr ^^0"' V^terjections are
grammatical forms : for 'example, '' ^^'ifi^inate in
^ ^' °^' ^^^«^^' pooh, pshaw' heigh-ho
^^\ S^"^\Z :r ^?"'"«^'- others
secondary. P'^'^ of speech beiii^ called
DIFFERENT VALUES OF THP «*„,,.
32. From what haA ^ ^°^°-
ten. aeeordl., to t«^e ut^Hi:- tlf ^C^Z
I have sold my silver watch for o •
the fct «r • ' *" -"^ '^-'"^ - *"' ''"'
and the thirdra'verb.'tlhe'Ut^'^''"''' * »oun,
He had all i„t one fc„ t,. 7 following, again,
the first biif ,•« „ ™ ''"'"8'" " too,
tion, -dle^hV^an 1^^^^^^^^ f-^^ a conjunc
manyotherwords ' ^'^'^^'^^- ^^d so with very
In these sentences hn^h .n
parts of speeeh^Mw'^"'^ !!?^ ^'^^ are different
^sed; although, 'geSlvlv' ^"^ ^« different^
conjunction. ' ^^^^^^^^:^. ^«W is a noun, and but a
The words we finr? ,*„ „ j« ^.
scribed in it as being eelfn 1'^^^^ ^^ ^^^en de- vh .
because they are geZrllwZ^^''^^ ^^ «P«e«li- This is -SoLide
a"^:^' ^."^-^' of'th^ sfntenV T"" ^^^^ -' ^ .l^e.
are really only names or sio-n. ^ !' however, words
the word called a noun m^t be ^h^"" ^^?^^«' for
part of our speech anrJ fi. 1 ^ *hen regarded as «
32
Words, not,
"ill piirts of
speech.
. Words, more
than one part
of speech. •
0). Conjunc
tive
Pronouns.
(2). Pro-
iif?minal
Ailpoctives.
i. A word dors not hrhnw exrJu^ ,ri ,
^t may generalh, be so nse<h "''''"^"^^•'^ ''> ^>^'^ class, although
PECULIAR WORDS AND CLASSES OF WORDS
33. Besides the ei^ht narfs nf V WO«DS.
^ave so far eousideml an tf ?-'r'^l ^^^^^ ^^'«
been customary but bv nn . '''^"^'^' ^^ ^'^s loup-
our words, there are wo ^dsS^"^"^^^^ to divide al!
of a peculiar nature ^ ^^^"^ ^^^«««« «f words
Thus, in • ■
ft '^"^^ *° *^^ ^each a poor exile of Erin
there, which is ffener-illv nn n/i t
place,- is used a^ana n;Tt ii;^''^ ^?''^"'"^ ''i» that
word to fill up the pk^; lef ^f^""!^?^^«« introductory
subject; lor t woukl sm^^^^^ *^" transposed
speech. "''^ ^^^^» «trang:e to say in ordinary
^^^^« to the beach a poor exile of Erin,
although this sentence contains all ,^. -
necessary^a subject and pi"Sea?, *^'* '^^'^ "^«"^
ihere are even pin cent. ^4? i
This is the uian ,i-to came,
a t.",LCirjohfw'}f *° '"«" -'^'"' it aet. as
the subject to e'sSe Lw*r.' "^ '"^''"^ " '«
words used like it, "71/!?'^ 7'''*f"=V '"'" and
of the nature ot Z Zn^''f'i\t'''' "^^^^'^^^'^
tion, and are, therefore en li-w^ .»'-<! the eonjunc-
^n«t, inde;d,~Se'''"e^if°f^^"^''''« Pronouns,
sueh u sentence as •'o^^Jiuctive pronouu-in
Tiij is iii7a< I want,
"uu:?C""'"^ '' """ «•'-*/ «»- performing three
Again, in
This man f s „„/ father, I know that man
I know ichich book he mfinr,. °'
,
ffx, (I I though
' must kttow
WORDS.
whioh wo
lias loilfr
divide all
of words
( <
in that
odiictory
ansposed
ordinary
s really
rtake of
['bus, in
aots as
'h it is
ho and
Partake
>njunc-
iiouns.
im— in
three
PECULIAR WORDS AND CLASSES OF WORDS,
33
aojectives. T/,;.,, ,„,y, ,„„i ,7,,,; j,„j ^
them, as ™.7,, ,./W(.,', «./M,^ Ms, ,7., are ca «)
TeuTseT /?/'"^"^"^ ' W.V.7,-an<l'Xj a'nd W tf
Tnd s TlL , n T'"" ^™>'-7 '"-K 'injunctive also
tiies ronjunchve pronominal adjec-
Similarly, h'7(c« and «7ie»-<', in
I will go tvhcii (or wtiere) you go
partake of the nature of the adverb and' the eoniuno-
t.on modifying the go of you „o and connecting Z,
go with 7 „■,« ff«. They, and words used like them
Again, iq
To i7n'e is better than to receive; and G4-|;i«^ is better
than receiving;
to give and fo receive, and giving and receiving express
asserTnf *^,^^?*^?P? ^^^^^ the verbs gives and ..cL..
assert of John m John gives (and, receives) a book ''
Words so used partake of the nature of the noun and
the verb. For reasons to be explained hereafter
words like to give are called infinitives, and woi-ds
like giving, gerunds.
And the person who gives may be described as a
^rn^S' person and what he gives as a ^n-m thing; so
that ^m^^gr and jy/i;.^ express as adjectives what the
verb asserts. So, too, with loved, running, and
going m » :/> ^-^u
I am loved, I ^vas running, I saw him goim.
Sueh words, therefore, partake of the nature of the
I
(3). Adverbial
conjunctions.
(4). Inflnl-
tives and
Gerunds.
(5). Parti,
ciplea
{
^A' 4.- "■:' ——--"XV., ^aitaji^c ui Liie namre of the
adjectiye and the verb, and are called participles
{participle means partaking "). ^
Still further, the word yes, which we use in answer
to a question, is itself equivalent to a sentence,
llius, ill answer to
Has he gone? Yes.
LK, ,,. ..eutcxx^^. vJtiicr such words are no, yea nav
They are especially known as sentence-^Novd^. '
Sentence*
words.
34
THE SENTEXCE AND ITS COMPO
NENTS.
ClHSKiflfiition
of such words.
Distinction
der>oii(Jont on
meaning.
Words, eitlier
Notions) or
Relational.
t at do not stnctly l„.|o„jj to one or another of
3. Words which are each ciuivalent to a complete sentence.
Bnt cliiefly because the words belonsing to each of
these three classes generally resemble, or are con
nected with, one or more of tlie eight p^Hs of speech
them"'Tr '""? ""' ^-J™""! ^^P''™^ claLerfo;
tak?n„nf,!i ""'"'■" '"J!^ "^''^ ^'"- therefore, be
taken up fully m connection with one of those parts
of speech which they resemble.
NOTIONAL AND RELATIONAL WORDS.
lunctio us of words : it is concerned with their mean-
f mct^ '»-/»••-- they bear upon these formrand
tunetioi s There is, however, a distinction of mean-
ings which IS often important in Grammar
h^t^TZ "^^H *"?? ""S?" "* •"' o^J""'- has a meaning
belonging to itself; thus, when we use the word
}orse, or sun, it at once calls up in the mind an
image or notion (23) of the object named. A pro"
noun, on the other hand, does not call up animage
01- notion, when considered alone Thus in " ff!
what It rcMes, and in " / speak," / has to be con-
wesent to thl ''•' T^-^^^""' "'^^''^^ «* words which
called notional ; and pronouns and words like them
rre"!^llT:)5/";: *"',•• '"telligibility on their r^laS;
are called relational. A id, of course, prepositions
tt'a) wS.*'°'"' "'"^'' ''^•"•^^^ -'''*--■ -« -'"
This classification does not correspond to that of
the parts of speech. Most verbs, for instance, a^e
yOTWXAL ASD liELATIOXAL noUDS.
35
...erely asserts (that " ,1, *"' ; '? '"r," "•'""•« "
is notional, but, in ' 'lie %' g^. T/t '^;; "«
Kivmff go a future meaning. Some ri •„■,„"?''
iiffain, contain more or less of „ LV- ?""' "■""'■''■
tlu.s, for example, we navt«V»"r'?',r'''""^ =
expressing simply the fnt'.f^t!/ ^ *'!"" »" ««
wHgo" (wheTiyr. w I 'ny gomg, but "I
-Witlon, Ihe not' ; "f^thrffiiv o"? ''''"■^^?'"^' "'
peudinff on mv will t"tuiity of my going de-
COMBINATIONS OF WORDS
«^ rpi PHRASES.
=Sh5r^ -^'^ "^"Scl^
•Sly'^appld Te'^sh f' "'^^ "* «Peeeh wSe'
wofd. Thus Instead of *™"""='*"'«' ^"'"^ <>* one
He sprimg hastibj from his ^/rassy oouoh
we may say, with the same meaning '
i-esneetivelv f ^«°t«n««. «« ^«s/« and of grass
tio^^ftT;;s^'xr.f;«':LT'i^"p^^^^ r^r- ......
30
THE
r)efinition of
the Plimse.
They love one another; They spoke to each other;
\<i). A(lj('(!tives :
T.e „o„. „„ ,„„„„ ,^ j_^ ^^,_ ^^^__.__ ___^^^ ^^_^
(4). Vcrhs;
I -s/.,// /.. going, I /,«,, ^,„,, ^,^,,,^ ^^^, ,^ ^
(r^). Adverbs: '
The house stood on yonder hill, lU did it />, hin^^elf;
(6). Prepositions:
He went % .a, o/ Montreal ; He will go in.tca<l of me:
\i). C/onjuuctious :
He as n-ell as I went, He went «. soon as I had goue,
{o). luterjections :
• To le sure, For slu,me! Ah me, Alas the ,lay <
And, as will he «ppti lof ""'^'"" "i tne sentence.
classes of C-ds (33) n. f^kn'r' ^^ *^^^^ P^^'""^^
Tir 1, , -^ ^ ^^ ^^ i-epresented.
We add, then, the definition :
^'"/.e oy « single dord or^ir/l/%^i^/:"''^^ ''^ " '''''''''' '^''
CLAUSES.
37. Again, instead of
The wealthy man arose on waking,
we may say with the same meaning
The man who was weaLn, arose when he awoke.
H too .slow;
(her;
n and the
py;
Hsclf;
>/ me ;
roue;
ve, witli
rases—
phrases,
all iha
, whieli,
sntence.
Peculiar
ited.
'ds (not
ence the
wmtoric, aiuj ,.,„isists nf ^ ' • ? """"ber of tlio '''•"""•■
"<lv,.,-l, i,l,,,,se „„ „,, j;^' "''j'-t've .m,W,j, „„,i t,„;
(1). Noun;
(2) . Adjective • '"*' *""^ ""'' "»"'^
(3). Adverb;
5nit\!!:ri^';:i^^^^^^^^^ -« ''^-b to t;e ve^s
stantive) clauses, adiectivp ^i? "" (^^' "S«^- of speech
clauses. ' ""^^^"^^ clauses, and arf^^^r^; n"otfC'™'*^
rp] Clauses.
noun ; and the connectives tlfj^ substitute for a
CO" unctiou) cannot of course L'^?''°''*'2° ^""^ ^^^
While, therefore, anv of X 'o.f ^^''^ themselves,
represented by ^h^^'es o,dy7he%?LT*'''^ ""^^ b«
and noun can be represented by clauses '^"'' '"^^''■''•
n
38
CLASSm OF SENTlNCES.
Definition of
the Simple
Sentence.
38.
Combination
of simple
sentences.
III.— CLASSES OF SENTENCES.
I.-ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
many words eithpi- of tt. Simple sentence, however
a matter ^ Seorv the !" T^ T*^'"" ^^d^^d, as
being made a whole pa^eZi" T*?"? '^ '^^^^^^ «*
practice, the Wh T „ ^' f"' '°«?a"«e. But, in
bounds by the w „f \ sentence is kept within
unintellijble wT ^l^^^^^ ' ''T^^'^'i "^ «ven
say into a series of w!„ " F"' ^^""^ ^« J»ave to
ments. We Sd « if -.r'""""'' ^-^P™'-^ ^t^te-
sentences. Thuffor exlpfe'^f"' "'' ''^"'^ ^'^P'^'^t^
still wet. The dew lay^Z ti,em tT ' ^S? >«>■«« ''^'•e
lay on the ground. It eouM not Tv V "'"''■'*• The bird
one had hit it with a stone iI'ILa II "?? woonded. Some
n Ml-TUaC:' '- "-" -" "" X tlntd"t
th'^simS :e^£rin"^t^^%*^S T^^^^i "^
S=fu[*^TTeti*f,-£?e^^
the sentences But «,«!„„„ ^^ """'at'ons amongst
one writes or tdks u thTwf '"""J* ^'"'^y- No
for very young Sen*whoCe"tf .T'"''^''
familiar enough with lanon^„« ti !! T' ^"** S™wn
stand longer eLbinationTo?^o^ds 1?or 't^ "''''^'•;
people m genpral wp nnf Li,\ T * "'^^^ *^® "se of
form by eoUinTug^the" ,hort ,Z?r ^^^^'^^ « better
connectives ; bv t^.ir «i^ i? ^^^^^^ces by means of
sary repctition'sVtliustlt'L^f^"^ '^'^ "^ — s-
aJrTrSe? Ss:;f "^.r^L.'-' -"k, a«* at once ^t nn
" "'"« »■'"' aot very ligut"; /^^
ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION.
39
subject
however
lieed, as
)able of
But, in
within
>r even
lave to
} state-
eparate
lock. I
It was
walked
es were
he bird
Some
srought
ided it.
ed by
ph is
«vords
ongst
No
times
rown
Qder-
se of
etter
IS of
eces-
)t up
far,
oXfntXr^'zz '•;;;.;;;i: ^"^^^'" ^'j ^o"^- ^-^ i walked
with the dew7/rriav unni fh^'''''r^"^ ^"^^'^« ^^^''^^ «tin wet
ground. It could Jf^fl;^^^^;,^^^^^^^^ '? bird lying on the
a stone. I picked it un'mS w/ i^ °."? ^'^'^ wounded it with
into a cage and fed ?«.r Ided ? '' i /"-'^ "^? ^""^^' P^^ ^*
released iVa»»cZ it flewTway "''^ '^ ^°* ^^"^ ^'*^'^ I
COMPOUND SENTENCES
onef k^nf f mbination of simple sentences into longer
ones IS of two degrees, one closer and the other if ss
looIr'kiSl' 7.^^^^^*^^" ^/ «i"iple sentences is of the
ooser kmd, they are put side by side and a<. f
were loosely tied together, each keeping its o4 value
as^an^independent assertion. Thus, for exarpL if
I awoke mid I got up at once :
The sun is up, hut it is hidden by clouds-
^ . oi speecn IJ7J), though joined to another bv n
another again, they are called co-ordinate tttT
41. Again the co-ordination may be of four kin,k
each expressed by a different kind of connective so ttat
there are also four classes of co-ordwate eoZnctions
which are the usual connectives of such elau °es '
(1). In the sentences:
Z;^^Z^'^^^&"^^^-^ ^« other comir*
•• '^ • -lii^ v-i£iccj iXiV Cih6lVlS6, too hfiniilce
moreover, and the phrase as well as. ' '
Looser
combination
of simple
sentences.
Definition of
the Ciause.
Class of
clauses.
Definition of
Compound
Sentence.
Classes of
Co-ordinate
clauses and
conjunctions.
(1). Copnla-
tive.
B'fi
40
(?) Adversa-
tive.
CLASSES OF SENTE^^CES.
(3). Causal.
(j)' Alterna-
tlr«.
Correlative
conjunc-
tions.
And tiieirar-
ranyemeut.
(2). luthesuiiteuees-
A fool, peaks a« his mind, „„,„,,^
., , poor have but oife ' '"''^''^^^ ^^^
tile clauses are adver^f> r.^
the co-ordinatioi and ?h ""^^^'"^ "^ thought aud
adversative, Th^'lf ^^^ conjunction are ;.fi^
th.i« class ;re t.''^:^' Tr^r^^ ^^^^^
mthstanaing. '''*'^^«^> 2^^^, /w^^^ei^^r, still not
(3). In the sentences:
The soil is rich /hv +u
the second clnnco ^ ^ cannot go;
statement in thp a f^^f the cr/?^56 or reason f. .u
(4.) In the sentences ;
The King must win or fn,^f..'4. i • «
an «».«««,. or choice is .Z T ''^'
t'on aud conjunction are cmA' '"'^^ *''*' "o-oHina-
other commonest cnn,\. ^ ^"'^*^ alternative -r^
or, neitker, C •'""^"nehons of this ela^Tl^temt"
£???'? "''*'^' a,T:r:rr:*7»d -^ and
oeeul ^enerfe,:C; tl ^^^^ ' "^^^^^^^^
and the former of them k^t"'"^ ^""^ altemativef
latter: thus, ^'"" '« "'"'ays followed bythi
>^..;«'T ■■■"■*'••■■-*"'
ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION.
serves
IS the
sU, and
•e called
etions of
m, not-
for the
lause is
. in the
ion are
ions of
rdina-
The
'ither,
, and
2tive
they
ives,
' the
ms;
not
If r u
41
'ompound
sentences
and of
co-ordinate
conjunctions.
not, *'■'"" ""' ' ■'° "' «- -■" -y brotte..
My tears must <5fnr. r '
<-ombinations of some of fL« . •
very common. When th^ ^^onjunctions are also
conjunctions of the sLe ^laTs^^.^f "'^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^
but, m such expressions as J^.i./fi'^r'^''^^^^^^^'^ 5
the co-ordination may be IS ?^^'^^<^^^' «^^^^ 5^«7/,
word, so that there\ « I'^f^^^^^. ^7 the second
eo:ordination may be copillivr.^.^^^^^^^' «^' ^^^e
being valued as an adverMn thJ ti *^' ^^^^ ^«^d
Indeed, in most such comb n!,-^ ^^^^'^ ^^^^ follows,
the first word may be vired .^T' ^^'^. ^^P^essions,
tbe second as an adverb "'^ conjunction, and
43 Wl. ^^^^^Pi^EX SENTENCES
Hfi li+f7^ 1 , "-"^^c, lu bmntionof
They trimmed their lam™ L^S^ """"^ '''"' »'«'<';
the only real assertions aTe """ '""°'-
-Be imu hnew, Each tliomht nf ,i,„
and, as we have already seen (37)
how much lie wronae,! ;,«• •
-no io,ea mJsV'z::^^^ "^^-^^ of w..
«^ ^/.e sun went down is an adver'mnH-i^^'"^ ^^'^^«^'
When a clause i« ih f ' ""^^^^^^^g ^^^"^w^^^.
word in anot^cVusf ^^■!^±*.-.P% the part of a „ ,
inat other; that is, to be ''nut"iu''r '''^y^^^^naie to o"&,1r«
put m an order or rank
42
i
Classes of
connectives
f>' subordin-
ate clauses :
(1). Con-
junctive
pronouns.
(2). Con-
junctive
pronominal
adjectives.
(3). Sub-
ordinate
conjunc-
tions.
Definition of
the Complex
sentence.
Variety of
composition.
CUSSES OF SENm^rcES.
belr)w it fjjw] li. - ~ ■ — —
/lie connectives nf *i
PnncipaJ clauses are: " ^"bordiuate with the
-ine branches ivhirh h,. I ^^^ ^re savins-
Yo- Wend i. th:ttX/ 'S "«,"■'"' a™ broken.
,2)- The eonjunotive r ''''''''"^™«»-
ie came; I will t„ J ^"' *«/'«•<' he eame, I went *.
Ami ',ve have already f)^! f "" '^'^"'^
ordinate clauses will be1«T' ^""^ ^^^^^es of snh
are:h^--erthetSrthr4.e.ilwh^^^^^^
togetC?'!"'"' ""*<^"- (--~ leaS 'fci
««btS&rr"" """^ -»*-« more than one
(11. These subordinatB „i„
•diuate clauses may be of dif»'.-.-
, f'laiise ; the
'i^lt!(I (as i,i
' principal
subordinate
an adverb,
witli the
oken ;
^ys been.
itives, as
'« mean;
because
-he
5 Of the
)f sub-
hen we
nd the
of its
C. By
gether
ose of
placed
1 one
^ccomim TO coMPosmoif.
^ina«, and not direct,, eonneeted.it„ one another.
-me ki/d X°har7h:t:;f '''^ f-- Of the
sentence, being joined V<«fn,T "OMtruetion in a
junctions: th„f-'<''"^d together by eo-ordinating con*
This is the bird that ln„ , .1
" eouid not fl^rs:; ^f*sri?^/*f,-« r^,.-
I saw ««. «. Jrztj^ns^^y' "
Subordinate clauses as wl. """" '«"^*-
ea led co-ordinate whektheTl A, P""^'P«' <>"««. are
a hke office; since eo-ordSe 'eL'^'^^'f' ^P-^ ^>«^«
the same rank. " ® '"'""^« dimply ' ' having
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES
by JoinfngTgTh"e c^o^ij.^^' TZ'f' "-^J "« -^^e
sentences, instead of siS onef ?,'' T^ """^Vlex
w called <;ompo„„d.cS|/"^|,; S"^ a sentence
He teaeies who gives afdht, ^'''"»P'«« a^e
And, on the other hand (^. ■ ^ '^'^ '""y-
we often p„t a simpt conl ■ *""" ^"''J' «e"ten,.e)
ft»<,atthebeginnin7of a~r' '^P''^'""^ ««<^ 'r
a paragraph, to shew, in ad' f "tence, or even of
to what precedes. Thus thmt f. ""^^'.^^ 'elation
twn between the sentence and th'e da„t°'"*« <^««"«-
46 Oc "'''^^n'''' ""^ CONNECTIVES. '
pot^ic^orpTentl-i^rfhr'' "^"T'^- -J --
-especially ««<, wheS'coSlnT""*'^'^ '« ""t used
Juuetion ; and the c"n'„n%: ■ •'""'i*'''^ P^^onn or eon-
-t two Of a "-be^-ST-Sres'r-Tli
I>efinition
of the
C'ompound-
J^omplex
Heiiteiife.
Connectives.
sometimes
omitted.
44
n liii
Older and
modem uses
of eoiijunc-
tious.
M
CLASSES OF SENTENCES.
doe
f /'''i^'"'"':""' ^!^^^ *^»« elmmcter of
til
Three el.isses
of sentences.
(1). The
Assertive.
-etiou f I. feu ;-C;t1^«-J^^ eon.
The Lord roi^nethf 1 J^^^-j^^ SZ^r '' ^'^ '
Kich and rare were tlie Jms f ^ ! , «l! '^•^^'*'^ ^
Times of heroism ave ffenor.i^^ Sml .A ^ '^''?' ^
day never shine - ^ ;4 Vm« ^^ . *'''''''' ^'^^ "»«
<n^H^XZu^l:^^!P' ^-'t^"* conneJtives.
tenees whose reHHnt * ""'?'''''■ °* ^''''"•t sen-
infer. ThrwaitreonVtlouTtt T"^ ""'^
speech at firet and <,H I i.^? ? Indo-European
raees, and of vovmL/o I, „ * uncultured people and
to n,ake e"n,poCdtnd'eSle "'enters "7 ^'""''^
tions are more a develonmTt f ?.'*"«?«• Conjune-
other part of speecl" U HI « "' f"^™*"™ than any
tw^s^tT •"•"''"'^^' *'' ti;rLVuS oftef
cneir use was more e-eneral fl.'m of v. ^\ ^^^J^^ics,
sentences were enmlTerrome in.? ^f ^'■^'!''* ?"^ ^^'^
Now, largely owinL to tl^ nvo • i ^Z'^''*"^ ^^^S^^^'
a^e,,ever^ disprsable wo dTS^^^^^^^^^ *^«
nection of the thou o-Lf^ ?^ • ,/^!^ ^"^^ and the con-
is inferred from t^^^^^^^^^ 1-^-ge,
-chiefly and if forhlTh: ^^^^f^w conjunctions
purposes ; mldi^Z^^fTl ^^^^ f.«^-serve our
ing of th; thongL^sf S Jse^^^^ * ^ f ^^'« ««"Pl-
of relations: tlms, '''''"^ "'^^ ^^ ^^^i^ate a variety
She gained the door, applied the key and C-"n.
n,„. , the door yielded !^^~ consequently-)
Bo tins ami you will succeed ( = - If Von do fV
Codn 1 n succeed -)'^^'^^"*^'«'>^«'^^"1
God made the country ami ( = '^buV') men made the town
II. ACCORDING TO FORM.
4.8. As has been already stafp/l (ir\
forms of eonnuutiieatioT^^tLn the a«te "T"''^'"
In It we assert that sometlm," I trtt S '' '"" '^"
o •- II dQ 01 tiie inrng" the
> '■
3 sentciii'jo ;
se the con-
ire
•
3n left ;
die;
^joiee ;
r© •
CA>r) the
t work ;
it is so ;
like him ;
ird it.
niiectives,
5hort seii-
ould only
European
eople and
ry slowly
Conjune-
than any
iries ag-o,
log-ic and
classics,
; and the
length,
er of the
the con-
mguag-e,
unctions
ei've our
e conpl-
^ variety
uently")
'U will
town.
ie other
ntenee.
iiig the
1 '
ACCORDING TO FORM.
S^bftwen^^r'^^^ connection
exists between them. But we may desire to know
whether this connection exists, or w4 may desh-e tC
this connection should ex-stl We hus have two
other kinds of sentences-the mf^rroVaLrand th«
urLlicatim ^V r""'^ *^^'^ ^^'^ *^^« assertion, or
preciication, which is its essential.
^y an interrogative sentence, we express a de^ir^ .
to know something. But instearl nf ..^f^f^ •? -')Thein
tlifl fr.,.w. ^* X . insieaa or putting it in terrogative.
the form of a statement, "l desire to know '' or
I wish you to tell me such and such a tVm^ '' w^
r^i^ce^tus^^^-^ ^^^' "^^ 'y ^ PeculfenTf
Have you any flsh f Was John there J Could she go f
I here are also special classes of inteiiwative words
pronomxs, or a.ljeetives, or adverbs, which have hi
themselves a question-askiug meaning, thus
W,„washef By«.towaydidhego» ffV,;, did he come ?
orwirfC/'wi*-''^ sentence we express our will (a). Th.
or wish that a thing be so and so ; we give a com- '"■Mwive.
maud using a certain form of the' verb.^wfth wMch
corioSnglis^rt.^^ omitted-almost always t
Give me the fish; Go away from here; Be off.
THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE.
asstrh-v^^ hi«^''''T?f'? """^^^^^^^ ^'^^''^ l^^^«t from the
asseitive, has least that is peculiar to itself. Like the
Sw^'l/r^'f-'P ."' " ^^^^^^^'* ^-1 - -^^ each
J^:t^i::^^i:^'''^'^^ --^-- ^om the
(1). If the question is as to the predication itself i.- . •
elp': sed bl^Jh'"' ^ eertaiu thing ''whiciiruld 'be ""'™™''
expressed by the sentence in its assertive form— is or
meTt tTe^'s^K */'1 '''^'''^' '' ^'™l"y °- of arrange-
?",!"„'; A\^;]'''"'*^.' ^'"\S P"t after the simple verb
m^i^^a Oi bciore ii. Tiius, for example,
I8*«here» Did *„ arrive yesterday ? Will *« go to town f
46
CLASSES OF SENTENCE.
m
MM
The
Alternative
Interrogative,
Second
variety.
Colloquial
xorm.
Secular
place of the
interrogative
word.
the adverb not added :1hus ""' ^'"^ "^ >^"hou^
Be IS here; Be did nrrlvo (I
yesterday ; He wiii „ot B^'tf t""™"^' •^<' "rived)
<>i', for brevity's sake w! 1 ° f-morrow. '
the one i„ pla™ 0^,",?*^" «""'''« ^''^ or «„ (33).
"*«rofJhefull„ega?fve ''^'""''"ve sentence, the
things thought o™s^^*^J^',,^ZW«h, of two o;'n,'re
nought to be known: Tus fo'r exaZl '"''"'^'^ *™« '«
D.d he arri™ yesterday „r lo-ZyTX^ .
Here the answerls "the '""''' ' *" ' ""' '
other alternativror a tntrjf'r "' """^ ^ «f the
of both : thus, """ ''* the remaining one or
;r2p7rei-riirrr^^^^^^
or object stands for in n ^f ''^ thmg the subject
the qualities or ciz-cu;" ta,5es TtV '?.'J°»' <"• «« to
act or cond-'ion expressed w « '^ thing or of the
enquiry is made by meantnf ^ "'? '""-^' then the
noun, adjective, or'^ad verb- lust '"*'"''^*'^<' P^o-
^ho is here f When did ),„ ■ ' ™'' example,
The natural answer T .t t '"*"''"' P»">P '
responding assertion wUh?he T^^T' ^' « «or-
object or other adjunct nll^ ; > ^''^"'^^ snbject or
t've word: thus, for :xCp1e" "'""' '^ ""« ^"terrog^f
John is here ; He arrived yeste'rdav -He •„
In the 1„ *"* "*»* i''» ' ' ""* "P "'
oftenXTff: tTt^-t "^^' - --tion has
abbreviated sentence wWh'."^'"''°«f generally of an
ofwhatissta^dinr^ttfvS^*^%™^^^
50 The ^'P-'«™C'4T/^*'
wh;tever\S,tii1ret:^4l/^^-ogative word,
-o-iixxxxxg ui cue sentence,
of
ACCORDING TO FOBM,
IS usually
or without
irrived)
ow.
or wo (33);
itence, the
e is the
or more
Hy true is
>y rail,
or of the
ig one or
3 carriage.
J subject
3r as to
r of the
hen the
ive pro-
want f
ut np f
a cor-
ject or
5rrogfa-
3 at
>n has
of an
tation
vord,
ence,
wtee^thL'e 1 "nTtl' ""'V^'^''- «« - «^« variety
unless i^^i^t^^inh^^&XT^dtprir-
the simple verb : thus, for example ' ^ *"^'"
W.^-. is „<,, WAe.. has your hU^rgouef
nrdpr • /^« f I, . X . ' ^^ called the inverted
oraer, or the sentence is said to be an inverted n^^
The regular and usual order nf fi^n ;«+
sentence is, however ^on.pf^!I i. ^ interrogative Sometimes
■orHv, o^^ ^^> u^vvever, sometimes changed ffenprallv changed, with
with some change of meanine- TVi,,=, „ ^^^^V^" change of "^
the assertivA nnLr, Jl ""^**^^"ff- .J-^us, a sentence in meaning.
He IS not gone yet ? He will put up where t '
Which sentences may exprc s surprise, as if
Is It possible that he is not gone yet?
or may be equivalent to a request for the renetition r.f
a statement not understood, as if repetition of
Where did you say that he will put up?
or something of the kind
ioZS^^i'iZ'e^l Itr^*^*- -tenee, the.-
THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
requbemeni^^oriL'^LrlrVo??''^''^^^^^
form of theVerbXh't^esttetn,^^"^^ ■*'"!"« ^ »=""
modifiers, as one of the ot^r^rMrmstutTnoT "
Give it to me; Leave the room; Go home.
-But this form of sentence is bv no me'm< ihc ^^i
=.«'?..*. ri^trd: =S
!i ?
48
CLASSES OF SEXTmCFS.
shadow off
into
wishes, etc.
Effects of
emotion on
regular forms
or sentences
Sometimes Uui i ~~~
fhll yon kiuihv anh e
■^he imperative ih ''''''' '^"'^^ you nof f
^«'-^ >ve in friend , • ^^amples
^ede or foJW '•f'^ assertive oae) an/^ ^^'"^-"^^ ^^^"e
usually avof/fr^'"^ a wish in ordfnn
too form^?^ *^^ ^"^Perative tyne of '^F ^P^^^K we
exampT"-^'' ^^^"^ "«« the assXf Sm^^ ^ein^'
^ ^e may (or shall) part in .
thought i,S;^^,J,^.?;a«e; I trust the
f^eniaiids, wishe.'f^^.""''^'' and command r ,
interrogative and i' '"'^ ^^^P^essed bTtl /'"""^"^^^^
Wished modes'of 1^^'^^^^^^ sentenced t .f^^^tive,
of these^-m.. ^^^n^nunieation • W i ^"^^ ^^'^ ^s^ab-
-'■--^.^SnS^'llS^Z;
gMf
"1 a question
5 as to the will
f
not f
"iterrofirative
iiV.
>erative sen-
'''''^ or Jess
'"probation •
fif'i' forms of
poetic style
Examples
hless thee ;
ifit ho ivere
X^t perish-
iah.
lys follows
o«id value
Either pre-
often the
)eeeh, we
' as being-
^ii«s, for
;the
leludin;^
'sertive,
e estab-
tb each
v'e and
may be
t>ation,
amples
^ccoRnm, TO rouM.
i
S"f/i sentences are to b « A ~~ ~ -~
to classify thprn A'.^^ ^^^^ other, if ,•: S...„.
— ^* "I'll ten
^7--.%.e.,..,,,,,^^ ^-- thus,, or
49
So that su«h I '"'^ """" 'W- "" ""^"■'"'
IMPERATIVE qS^^^^ATIVE AND
54. Like -he SENTENCES. ^^
Perative sentencesta'v h'' '^' ^"^erro^ative « . •
clauses being- nJ/i • I "^^errogative ah^ • ^^"»^- of «"i\''''««««
cannot be snbm 7- ^'^''^'^^^tive or an imf ^ l- ^^ssertive
one, in the ^^S^^^^^^ 'T^' ^^ C 2!e"uT '^^"««
the descrintivp ,??^*'T^^ ^f a clause wf.1 \f ^^^^^are
Addition: tt: ^'^^^^-« (23), arifif^^^-rbles
He wm C2:^f- «.«^.««%T *- "- ..«.,
..Often, however we fl.^ "" ^'""^ «"l again
50
noiihs AND THEIR COMrosENTS.
\i\ li
Tlip SiH)kPn
Word, tli«
real word.
How SouikIh
are produced
Breath and
Voice.
Vocal
Organs.
Two classes
of sounds :
Vowels and
Consonants.
IV.-WORDS AND THEIR COMPONExNTS.
SOUNDS AND LETTERS.
55. So far we Imvo ))oon ('(.nsidcTin^^ f},o diffcivnt
k.nd.s and irlations of words, and of ,>hras.s -h n.ea
^^^ stm.en(.vs, whi.h ar. all .M.n.poscH of ;^ras
The word IS the smallest part <,f ota- speeeli tli^ has
meaninc. ,n the expression of our thoul^hts t the
spoken word is, of eonrse, tlu^ only real wor he
rt" ":^a;:f f word is merely L .^^ ^.^^^It!;^
«> tilt- <,\o; anil, iis we slmll hiv. fm-fher on it is fi-nm
vanous canse., often a very in.perfeet representkuZ
l.et xm now eonsl.l,.,- },.v ,vli„t means tlie sounds
of our speech are „ro,luee,l. To utter any woT as
"so' Sr""- "^^ '- ™">V la.vni,tf C?
Z . V *rl,ffft ""■ '""■'■ •'""'' '''"''ly ""'. ^« have
clj,>r,l.s are brought t,>«ether so as toTibrate we have
If, again, we utter such a word as sUmwq we find
that we use tlie larynx, tongue, teeth, lips' Talate
and the resouauee chambers of the mouth and
™/ororSr rv *"t*T' ^im the^ra'
56. We will now see how the organs of sneeeh ava
used m forming the sounds of our language^
The word foe evidently consists of two sounds-
teeth; while, in the sound rlpre^UT by%ruo
-ill
SOUNDS AND LETTERS.
as,
''
k
51
CONSONANTS.
67. The next step in onr analysis is M fin.i «, ^
^Mll, but the ^ sound cannot be continued Pof
sonants into stops and tO«« JS'tlfe e tifl aZ;
allowed to find its way ont through the «Z' s„.^
sounds as the m sound of mat „. o"i,„ ,„!";";„ *""*
tha^^tL r°°"°'''' *'^'' ' «<"""'! of ^r We find
that the tongue presses against the hard nalate, ad
I^uhU of
clftMnifloatlon
of aouuds.
How the
I'rojith is
modified to
prodiu-e
different
cousouants.
On this basis
consonants
Hre classed as
Stops and
Coutinnauts.
Sub-t'lasy ;-8:
(1). Nasals.
(2). Side-
consonant^.
OKTAfilO GULLEC£ OF EUUUATIOIt
ill i
52
k if! i
irOBDS AND THEIR COMPONENTS,
(3). Trills.
(4). Fricatives
Where the
modiflcation
of tlie breath
takes place.
On tills basis
consonants
are classed
as:
(1). Lip.
(2). Lip- teeth
(3). Tonjfue-
teeth.
(4). Tongue.
(5). Hard-
Palatals.
(6). Soft-
Palatals.
(7). Throat.
Glottal stop.
buzzing sound in /f,ul',r "1"-'" " ""'y «'™"ff
sound in "/ From tM« 1 ' "•'"' " '*™"S hissing
sounds are ellled frfca«;« """^ "' ^'^^'"^' «"«^
^^ul^colanLZl^^'Z '""'^^'*, ««"«°>'ants into .(or.
this modification tekespC "'"""^ '''™'°'' ""--
they are"^:?! 1 m"" V t"' C"' Hei"%r *''''*
called lip eonson^nU,\llabTals For\^"^ ■T''
reason, the /■ soiinH inVr/„ j A ^or a similar
called V4rli'"on{"tri*tK^
and sing JisofLalaif ''^ consonants; i„ fog
so-called elottal ,t7,r:J ,,\!^^'^^^^'' ^'th the
and opeiiif/ofthe 2tt r tw'-^' *?,? '''^'^"' "'"--"'S
the vocal chorL Tie Ibtta! ston*' '"^"' """'^""^
English, being heard ?nfvL?L'V '■?™ .''''™'5 »>
r^f &g% 2? ?il - - ?-P' " at
ccrdiiu'lv,
tip of the
rebounds
t of COlll-
:s trilling,
vat, of th
y stroiifif
? hissing
ngr, such
to stops
nasals,
' classifi-
>rced out
ae where
e heavy
see that
^hey are
similar
vat are
Is. So,
^^w are
^'?, do,
lilts, or .
of the
ind the
in keg
hat, of
ith the
closing
etween
and in
: of a
3le, at
ly and
phical
SOUNDS AND LETTERS.
53
alternately Vftiuhe^^o^ / sound of fail Co..s.,n...,ts
,h,^^h«»d firmly pressed upL he oH? rV^'^,^'"^ ^^^^
stopping the ears wifV, <-i. i ^ ^* '^"^ head, or without.
aware o^f a v b;ati^n or humr'' ^' ''' ^' «"' '"'"^^^•
whichisabsentinthe/ wMptr'^'^^^^^^ "^ *h« ^
the same. The sef^tiof w^ fedir^^/ T 1\^^^^«^
vibration of the vocal choTd. wL' l^'^'"'^"'^^^ ^y ^^^
structure of the head to vhIT ''^ ^^"'^" *^^ ^^^y
having the vibration are salfr^^ ^^«^- >^onsonants
without it to be voLTess '''''''^^^ ^^^ "^^se
of cons^otnt^^^T^^^ the different classes
being indicated by itaUcs ?n hff '"^^'^^ ^^' ««^^ds
"J' Italics m the examples given :
30
>
Throat
Soft-palate boo^ ^a^ sin^
Hard-palate
00
^
Aouse
I
Tongue ^p ^ip
»»ip Zi/y
yes
ear
Tongue-teeth
Lip-teeth
^^^ i^ad 6ad wad
""The Glottal Stop boloiiffs J.erP +Tv
P m Up, and .A, us in slmrpj- and J^^^i .''-^^ V"^^^ "P «*• t,
111 azure. ^' ^"" ®^ »> as in t?i>, and g, as
ts^nrp amre
sown ^^one
/at rat
wAere «t'ere
PI
i|j''
54
An vowels,
voiced.
If
Clnssi flout ion
wised on
position of
the tongue.
(^)- Back.
(2). Front.
(3). Mixed.
^4). High.
^5). Low.
(0). Mid.
-_______^™'^ (COMPONENTS.
61. Let VWELS.
<^ousonants wffjf ^^ ««inpare more fnjiv c
^ants with «oine of the vowels ^ "^ ""^ "^^
the ^'ibratioV'wm be''lT?"V^'*'> the wo d fo ^T
that whn* ' ''^^' and it jZa.t •f?''^ ^^^^ers
„ 62. In examining the vow , "^''^ '"^ ^°-'d
first the position ot^UieZT"^ '"""-J^' 'et us notine
brought forward toward "*«'?' .5'^^ ""« tong -'t
and backwards towards thl.u-''*'* to pronounee ef
If, now, we nrnn^ ^^tttral, vowels.
K«f« ' ^^® ^^^>t of fh(^ f^ ' ^^' ^f we reversft
between each sound q- -^ tongue will rise « 5
i^^wered to the fnli 1 ' ^^""^^ requiring ff f ^*'
^ome of the
cond sound
' time the
>P of the
ion wiJI be
»'st. :f^ow
>^d /o, and
So, too,
vy letters
be found
•nants are
re voiced.
"s notice
ter them.
' see and
^ngrue is
>unce 66;,
unee oo]
of /««^^
Vowels
>i' their
I'equir.
vowels,
uire no
part of
9ls.
00 of
ee that
were,
everse
I step.
front
the e
f see,
ctent,
o be
those
-SOW'/,^ ^.v^ ^,,„^,^^
them's rie^xrv^^ «"^ «-t 7o' :f,(;/^«'':
with nrotm^i^ ! ^^^ open ne- in fi; •^^"'^^^'; and
thus Xf , *l" "f, w «*»«?. wVn i^ '*"'• ^'iding
^^J^r *»°-*'^-. the --^^ "r J°S^^^^
former Sn * *^ *" Pronoimec thTZU f^'"" 'hat
towels liked fhp-^ *"''"'%; and on f/'.'^ ^iffer-
'ike the « n? }„" " '"" are called cL,? v'? '"•^'*'.
ever, f^hf /"'fe «'•« -ailed &.''%i\l}'f'^ ^^ose
55
(<(4.se,i on
•'iftioii «)t'
"'olips.
(1). Rouuded.
f2). Narrow.
^3). Wide.
i I
J^ipJithoiigs
<•';»' ''in.-itious
or vowels.
m
Quality an,}
W'lantity of
VOWfcis.
i
i6
I
.w
-a
o
9
-^
B
a
S
t?
.a>i
•HOIH
"MOT
•NouvAaig aaoNox
v'ations in
ized ill a
tlie space
»e letters
positions
s of the
^otiyns IX coMBmATWN.
67 F *u I^ETTERS.
vowefs Z\^e\C1^^iT'^^ "' ,—«"*« and
elementarysounds As 1,;°^"^* ''"« over forty
really only twenty-three' tZr^'r """- "'Phabet ha^
redundant) manv of ttJ ^"'^ ^''' 9, and i bein»
ette^ to reprerntlhem"" tTsI^ '''^^. ""^pS
the vowels, which have only five If '"''A''"^ t™e of
ofte„TSnth,r^ r'^^^^ Tie "IZri"!^'
the em er<<, cease, miC^Zs 1"J^ f^^ «''"'3'' and
IS often represented bv rff!!'/?*^ ">« same sound
example, the ,h sound In X"' ^•""'''•«; thus, for
the etters i„ heavy tle^/'Tcfc'? '•^Presented by
nmsion, issue, conscil^e /?*'^"'«. Asia, suaaj
ancient, pinch, 7chS' Zt'' ''•*^^'«''' «clZ'
heavy type in Aetna ZnL ' ^^ *he letters in
teomrd, friena, Z ifl ' t^' '"'""^"'' *«>n
irregularities will be «P»„f\ ■ "auses of thew
~r detail, th^ h-^Co^t^ rai^t.'^'^^ ^'X
68 So f ^°™°^ ™ COMBINATION.
of the s^eptafo" tu^ntV^f""^ ""e formation
inferred from what hsft,,. ""J*' "ot, however be
organs of speSi that tt" '^-^ °* *''« ««tion of the
between all LZ^S^^J^^ '« « sharp distinction
onr words (that is. X!""l*«. "^^^n ^e articulate
"v'uuus, uy alternating vrnv^u" "i" •""" 'og«ther the
vocal organs are -fng-rn^rusTy^-T,^--
67
I>iphtliou|fs.
The Alpha-
bet. defective,
rednndant,
and irrejfular
Consecutive
sounds, not
always
sharply
separated.
58
noiWS AM) TllKlR COMPONENTS.
m
m
Glides.
Combina-
tions in !i
word.
Clnsaes of
Syllables.
How printed
Breath-
groups.
Force on a
syllable:
Word- and
Sentence-
Stress.
really certain transitional sonnds, or glides, l,y which
Thns, for example snc^h a sound may be distingnished
e ween k and cym key; but not between « a^d i„
nana, and c and t in act.
Oombhiations of sounds which consist of a vowel
e ther alone, as in «, the first sound of «««c™ or
along with one or more consonants; as in mU of
repulsed, and which are uttered with one inmnke
are called syllables. A syllable may be even who ly
consonantal lusouml; for example, the second sjCble
svUable' a'"'; ""' "•'f""'" "'"1 *" « fo™« the
of sound, i 1."?'"""^ °* °'i? ""•■•'' combination
dissvUable- nf!r " "V""'?;"?/''^' o* t^O' '^
oissyuaDle, ot three, a trisyllable; and of more
than three, a polysyllable. In printing, however
of nt'i:""Il?' T'^" """ f "''Mcs is largfiy a maS
altho3h fl. '•• '^•'^'"'™'Pl«. """''^^ is divided at-lack
although there is only one ^souud.
And further, although we represent each word
sdS ''t,'" T°'' T^*^^ ""-^ ""* «° .eparatelln
speech. In such a sentence, for instance, as
The attack was flerce, bat they repulsed the enemy,
what we utter may be represented thus :
The-attnek-was-fleice but-they-repulsed-the-enemy;
that IS, our words really divide themselves, not into
sounds. These groups are called breath-eroms
because each is uttered by one continuous eff™t of
the vocal organs. In reading or speaking, of course
the connection amongst words of a bref h-group1s
emphatic it is not pronounced in so close connection
thetrno"? Z' '\^"«' /,-.«. . but, notwith^tand ^g^
of the vocl'i ° ""^ " ?^i '^^ "'"PP^g^ of ft« action
e" aTittTSSlp"'^"'" '"«"'■- ">'^- P'-« "t the
ont^fXh^Z^'/"""'"""', ^ ^"'•'J "* •""'•e than
one syllable as, tor examp e, repulsed we note
that p„U, one of the syllables,' is pr^noineTd wUh
/
CHANGES IN SOUND.
59
more force than the others. So, too, when we nro-
mn.e a breath-group, as, for example, tLseco I
breath-gmup above, the word repulsed hm more fo ve
on Its syllable puis than have the other woX of th«
CHANGES IN SOUND.
69. Although the sound of a word is thp i-paI
word (55), the sound itself is only a representatTon
of an Idea, just as the written word is the ZreseZ
tiou of the sound. Now, we learn to speakCehUd"
hood by unconscious imitation. If we always heard
correctly and imitated exactly, our sounds wnnM
remain the same from generatioli to generation As
however a sligh change in the position of the or^an^
of speech will change a sound, and especially afwe
usually do what we have to do in the elsLf „!^
shortest way possible, we often LiteteTne'ct^v
m, like the differences between our pronunciation anH
he United a •'^^"f-f • lid^Sandror
cheek bvW J " .tf'dency to change is kept
ndeSd ^^id bv "r'f *^ **"■ ""''^'"^ ourselves
.pS':?^^l\^r„td*''uf TowXs-T c"' '""^
our literature also tends to keep T^Cgu^fge'Sd'
sounas and those even of the tim*. ^f n
Ehzabeth, not to speak of ?he tfrne ot King A&
that. If one of Shakespeare's plays were now art^ll
with the pronunciation current in his tl^pT ^A
be difficult if not impossible,trus^L*SriS^
feince chang( 8 of sound depend upon the t^n
present sound to the tendency to pronounce a back
Changes of
sound con-
tinually
going on:
Causes and
restriction.
Changes
made accord-
ing to general
laws.modifled
by eireum
stances.
^'
I II
m
GO
ft
Ml?
The presence
of Stress on
pitrt of a
combination
implies less
force on
the rest.
Why its
present
action escapes
notice.
Eflfects best
seen in the
earlier stages
of the
language.
Word-stress,
characteristic
of English,
and now
fowards
'jeginning of
words.
Its effects.
fVOUDS AND THEIR COMPONENTS.
vowel yvitlioufc opening tin; mouth fully and m to
round It; whereas the ^v before the . hx the O E
twd has given us the modern two, owing to the 1 in
feound. The history of the development of our
« :? fs f;«^^^^^rbject and, fn most of "J
Thpr! 'n I ''^''"^ *^^ ^^^^« ^^ a «^'ho«l course.
There are, however, certain forces that have been
powerful agencies in producing changes of sound
The most important of these we need to exaiZe if
we are to understand, even in a general way, how L*
language came to be what it now is.
CHANGES DUE TO STRESS.
h2h\?^% ""! ^^^ ""?'* important forces is stress-
both M^ord-stress and sentence-stress. Its presence
of course, implies a less degree of force in the utte":
ance of the other souikIs of the word or breath-group
affected; so that, while one part of the combination
of sounds may be affected by its presence the re^t
may be affected by its diminution o> itrabslce.
And, first, since our spelling is now practically fixed
the present results from stress often escape on;
notice; for, when we think of a word, we have hi
mind Its printed form, not its sound. Thus for
instance, If we say TJie word the is an adjective -
ui ' ' wi!^'" *^^ F''^' ^^^^ ^"i<^ different sounds
although the printed words are the same ; and we say
f«.&6.^r«( although we spell the word cupboard. Hence
It is m the eai'her stages of the language that we must
look for the most marked effects of this agency.
, (1) . First, then, as to word-stress. In English this
is so strong as to be characteristic of the language •
towards ^fr- ^"^^'"'^ 'i ^^' ''^^'^''y ^'^ed
towards the beginning of the word. Accordingly
hate X f ""^'f' borrowed from other languages
have often changed : thus, we have obtained
reason<M.E. resoun<O.Fr. raisun, viches<M.E. and Fr. richesse,
balcony<the older halc'ony<lt. balcone.
And, when the length of the word is increased, an
., :
li
/I
CHANGES IN SOUND,
61
[1 80 to
e O. E.
the llp-
•llowiiig
of our
of its
., ;
k
A
w]i^!.''?nn^''^ ^T''^ '^ ^^* *^ ^^"^^»« ^^«r*' especially
when followed by several consonants. Examples are
thromo<t1iroat-le; honfive<bonc-fire; honday^holu-dav
twopence j^r. tuppence; breakfast pr. b'rekfast.
Weakness or the absence of word-stress pro-
duces changes not less important; for the eifect of
?abmtr^f' r^' ^\E"^li«h has been to lessen the
flfW ill f ^Ji«^"»«t^essed part, whether before or
after the stressed part, by causing the sounds to be
articulated indistinctly or to disappear.
A long sound is often shortened : thus,
'^'^^^^<^^Jf-'^!''^' Sntton<South.town; da\Hy<da,fs eve-
BheviE<shire.reevc; kitteu<M.E. kiton, ovSun.
A vowel or syllable may disappear: thus,
van<Fr. amn^; \m^<0.^. lawerce; ioTtmght<fourteen.nia}if
Gloucester and Wednesday pr. Gloste'r and WeZay.
(2) .Secondly, as to sentence-stress. This depends
upon the importance of the idea, and so moves
freely from one word to another as may be req~
Thus, for example, according as we place the sfr^t
^J^}^^^^'- ^ow^^^^^ and "How-du-./«^.
TJ ^^' *o<^>' when we say " I saw him,'' the h is
not sounded ; whereas, in " I saw him but i ot^r - it
IS sounded. This influence has given us
won't<m7? >^of, through the older wolnot or wonot;
thorough<M. E. thtimh<O.E. thurh; '
too<to; oir<o/; then«/taw.
Weakness or the absence of sentence- stress akn
produces important changes. If, for fnstence as
above, we utter the two b?eath-groups : '' T/iword
Ae-is-an-adjective,- the unstressed iJie is pronorced
thii, and the stressed one thee. Sounds mavevp,
t? r' ^f^^'^f'"'^ ^'^ '^' instrce whe^n we
say havenU for have not Fd for I umdl I'll tor I
mu ho, too, an ordinary pronunciation of the
Effects of
weakness or
alt.senceof
word-stress
,t-'i
Sentence-
stress moves
freely: its
effects.
Effects of
weakness oi
absence of
sentence-
stress.
ill
I''
63
VowplKni,!,,
tloil (Iiu< to
Wonl-Btitjsg.
fOBnS AND TUMIR COlfPONmTS.
Different
forms led to
aifferences of
meaning.
Vowel-grada-
tion in other
Arian
languages.
the fr...er i„ the de Im , f ;"' "'* T"" ''''''^''''S*' i
«n<l th,, latter i„ the mo, h f- '■«''"'<"«al words
O. E. woi-d-eudingl 5Le ^Z """" T <l'«tn>,.tion of
needs special notife'hen. It'V:"''\''^ wor-l-stress
the verb forms, ?w„ ' , "'„ ^"1 '"«*»■'««, we take
the framework, so to ^peak k 7""' ""* "^ th"t
but that the stressed vo'^els' VnJ'""l '" <""'''.•
gradation S" G^^,.. H'S' o'^^"/" ^^
How these forms 0^-0.^0^1 * ^^ off-soumJ-M
know for certa™ b",? het i,Tt '""""'• "* """'-^e;
lievnig that they are do.„Jv?n't «tfong reason for be-
Nothing of pSiy t e ,ame n'i;"* r;''''-^'"'^'-
at present: the grom ds ^?™«, "ature feikes place
the origin of these forms .,«i \'^ ^-''Planation of
Btages of the language Vye' n't''.'"'" '" "'« «"''"'r
the effects of word-stress nZ\ "^"T' •"'"'■'"te
takes place as the resnUof Zt"„7"T'' ''^ ^»'''»f
instance, we .^peat the sentence "T""'*'''"''- ^^' ^r
ing a different word each thnc 1 "? 5!"' K"." stress-
for ca» ; thus, ""' "'^ S«' different son-,,ls
In some wav like fh,'^ • • . ^
4e"^ o?X iS^e tS' thT" ""-^^ /" ^''^ -'V
form tha,i at jwsenf hTv. h " ^f ^^^^ «'fity of
meanings; for\irmore enltn^;! "'''^ *'* different
specialized do their woTds become " ''""'^'' *^'' '"««
"> other Arlan lan^fna^f TI L^" ™weI-»ou„ds are found
Greek the verb-forls Z wSw^'TP'^'^"" ''a™ "'
'« played
i»fi:uagre ;
^1 words,
iction of
nl-stress
we take
see that
n each;
forming
back, «,
vowel-
urn' ').
course,
for be-
■stress.
5 place
ion of
earJier
iistrate
wluif
ff, for
stress-
iOU'uls
such
sord-
ine:
early
■y of
Jrent
nore
:onie
)uiid
e in
'P~a,
any
CHANGES IK SOLNh.
compounds beffinnmif wifJ. /; .
M-o (to ^^'■J'VZ!:i'U:'l^%^- "»> verb
71 TyJ''^''T '"''' ™ ASSOCIATION
that is, a sound may !«! b^«I n m" «f'^«" s"""*! i
company h, which i fl ds "S, f V'" '"'"",''' "^ th;
various ways, both whs,, if „ * ,' '' ^'"'"'s itself in
when it acts without it! ^'' "'''"^ ""'^^ «''•««« anS
and'''-his.sMe "tnlSi; tlf^T'P^ " "-name '-
I if voiced in theZ?%he.!e the r""^ T""^' "«'
but voiceless in the seco„I(whe.e the I f ".^o'ced)
less). So, too, when snolrln „ > "^,* "'*" '« ^"'ce-
group ''^have:togo" TetoTnes •'tT'Jv*'''' *"■•««">■
:i-don't-mind,""I-dom-,S" ^^Mj^S" "- and
hssom and ffoss/p from the olh/i. '"""'a'-'y we have
In these examples, w"havecomW .*"""' ""'' ^'"'-'«*-
and, as is usual n siuTh c^l^ •l'"^ "T™'*' "'O'-ds ;
that has become altered ' " " '^« «'•«' word
lesf ^SZthe'Sss^r b';^'" ''/'■ ■^"""'J ■■« voice-
So too, when TS^ ;^t feit'/ ''^ ■?'"«''' "■
IS the voiceless < with the ftrTuft.^ '""''' ''^ sound
the second. Here however a^ i, , ""; IT'^ «■ ^'ith
takes , place in the aS' t^ "^"? 1 "■«. "'^ratiou
Effects of
Association
on con-
sonants:
(1). When we
combine
separate
word.,
(fr '
(2). When we
add an endln>^
*o word.
is of less
takes place n^he added' -1 "'"^^ *^
«nceasitd^sfo?;trrnta^
seiouslf the\&7eL^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ---
organs of speech and so th^S^^ *^^ Position of the
that is^voic'ed^ois^tr/oStS ^""^^^^^
with voiceless. This DroS^fi^V "^^ "^""^ voiceless
name of assimilation ''^''" ^^ ^^^ ^P^^ial
fo7ac:!^""^^^^^^^^^^^^ A? old form,
t^e preceding, t^lttS^r:t^^^^^
Cause of
Assimilation.
Effects of
ttssoeiation
on vowels:
Canse of
Mutation.
M
T0«/« jyo TU,.:n COMPONENTS.
ill
Neither
xradntion nor
mutation
"ow i^ctive.
Other
changfes
caused by
association.
Changes in
rorin due to
meaning.
niustrations
from
childhood.
inmmatUm (9) rfc/"'''?^'''^' '^'"^ "^>t follow t}w r,r„.
word in U^a^^Z!^^^;:/^^^ of th. .sanro
mutated. Jn Old i] i^ L f '/**^*' '^'^^''^* i« ^^i'l to ),e
»>"t the most imiK^tltm^^^^^ vovvol-mutation :
ou::sed by the Tm toni / • ' ^^'V"'' *^"^ ^^'^^^^ ones
whi(^h were ii«jnnii,r i , '* •^' '-^ P^'- fts ?/ in ,y^„ j
finally disappeared, pi-Xw 'irl"!' '"^ '''«■"*
known as co«c^a/ed ,;;;;;';tf„7 «'lmt is, therefore,
Like ffriidation, mntuHm. L
P>-'»eiple; but, as wmu «"„.,,"«' ""«' 1" "'^"ve
■mportant o,.e in the eaHy hTstorrof' H T' " ^«« «»
. (2). Besides assimilufionnfj.^ I.''''' '""»•'"««•■
>n associated sounds wW^ wV'!''''r'^'"-«"'»de
disagreeable to pronon,!^^ tLm%f 1" •^'•^'<'"'' <»•
ally, however, these ehaL-l T« '"f t*"-- Oeeasion-
whim, or of errors oTlfZ!" ^1 ^^ "'« result of
™use or othe^ w^re l^l ?"? '^'"«''' f™"' some
«Peakei-s in the lame "^n'nnn^f/'P??^"'' ^y n'a,.y
innsf look for examples^n M f ''^- ■■ ^'"■<'' ^'so, we
language. Exampreste ' ''"■'""' »'"««« «* the
72 Sn f ^"^""T^^ DUE TO ANALOar
-der whie^ eln\r h::"^ S';:'-^ *?"' "-<!'«"-
sounds Such chatges deal ^mnL^^Xt II' "'dividual
Moh. The form of a word mZ^l ""* **' ^<""'<Js as
when we take notice ofTt^S t^^J,- '"'^f «=•- be affected
tendency is well seen wi en a i,M^" ,°^ *"? ''J^'^- This
f:'l^"'£ "'«' the -mm:"e:tt^"«J-™-^_to speak.
Finding that the comm^neltwat'or"""^ ^ ""P"^^-
sound of „ to Im/XT'":;"."^ 'that
action is by using wor(i« Pito ;,.. j" , -«--~»<....g iias(
w., by adding the^sZnd of '^/^'?f,/'7^''. "'^''feldhat
past the actiins o/ givTn^" rl''""*' *" «P'-'^ss as
fe'ving, running, and striking.
►w t]w pro-
'<<*<I V()U'(^I
^ tho .same
» umlaut,
«ui(l to ))e
and even
nutation :
•ont ones,
thoy had
vwrA was
'f the -«.vA
herefore,
'1 aeti\'e
was an
ua^'e."
»'e made
milt or
«easion-
BSlllt of
n some
^ many
Iso, we
of the
fl'earn ;
litions
Wdiial
rids as
fected
This
peak.
past
(that
says
!5S as
.ing:.
CllAyOES IX SOUND.
«'• i» ..so, «„, for insta n™ H "1, "1. ■""""'"• '" f">'>..
VMt time; and fiii,li, „ h' I ^ '''''-tonus cxpri-ssin..
•."•0..P Im.' mlu;.^ e'V'; tairr/ '"'""*-''"'^ *" ^^'-
fxpi'ess u coi-taiii elian^ J?™'" ."'"mge (,f f,„.,„ f„
".«. same change of mo ni„ ^ f Jo use to express
eas.er to form words af ter wh.U " '«: ¥ """-^ '»
classes of words, as, for exmn,^,. ^k";' " l"-0'l.«ced
"1 •«', but it has .X.t If '' '''''■M'''™^ ending
f^tablishod, as fm exam X fn^" /''"^ '''«'•« onot
>ns more than one 170 d eS, H "°""^ «'"'«»«-
ways of expressing th smeSi.i'f ''/''''* ^''^'^■■al
eiiee of the very ftommon f^Z ■^' ^",'' ^^ ''^'^ "'Au-
expressing mo.^ t m o e eame'i'n "h' "^'T\ "" "«""«
"> tlie same way, onlv 7 W -'"'f '" b« ^orauid
oT;:!!^s!trKifist?r^^^^^^^^^^^
example, we have r/w fo^^rV.'""'- '^>"«' *■'^••
connected in the mind with ^i?,f ' ''««ause nwe was
older rUtmse (tSis 'v^'lfto' "f f^-^for the
because -eoua is a commn^tr"™''^ "£'.''),
-o^^m,,, for the .^der r." from il ^ '?'^«<'«-^
word has "O eo,n,ec" ou i„ mfaninr"!"'':''?"*?'' the
or,voo,l.- (he modern fo im 7s duftn"' "'*"'• ■■"«'*
resemblancie of the sounds " '""=''<' ^""clea
Hnw Analogy
AnnloRy hftn
produced
soiiio classes
of words and
Ims altered
otliers.
It has rtlso
affected the
founds and
*'>miii of
iiJjfle words
I ■■
.< >l
66
How it acts
amongst the
une<-ac»ted.
The funda-
mental cause
Or phonetic
and
analogical
changes.
Meaning and
form, some-
times closely
connected.
^S AND TBEIB COMPO.VEATS.
being altefed) i„ UfJ^, '^ ^^''''^f (all the wo^'
transformed so as to liaw\,L '"" ""derstood is
known woi^d or wo,^ri^?«T"T,''?'^'«"«<^ t" a wel '
Popular, Etymology; Z'^LZlu'r'' "^ ^"'^or
operation of this fore^ amon^ H 5 *". ^''P'^'M, he
many mistakes-mistete™ whiJ ^educated causes
conditions (9), usage no lo,Ti,,;,„T'"^ *« "'"d^"'
did ,n early times in the ?«L i"*' ""^^t- «« it
sovereign, '^"'^ ''ase of wormwood and
72 W V ™^ ™NCIPLE OP EASE
■'a- We have now learned n,of ti
wh'i th^?,^\tf,,tf^ «;e -^^^^ - 'orms of words
connection with those of f the/' ^'? '"'"^''^'"•cd in
classed under analogy. ""' ^'>'"^^- These are
the changes, we find timfc f i/p''^''""'"" eanse of
^^ortest way .<::^:'i:'Z^i^ ^^^^
74, r„ ^''ANGES IN MEANING
imj^.ta?t1f y:„tr"r °^ -'^^ - not so
Tliey are, however imt ? f'langes in form (\k)
of language ":nT'as"C'have":,r 'i'" P"'"* "^ ^'w
J2), there is sometimes TinH f^''"'*'^' ^'^"n (35 and
the meaning and t^e fo" '^"^<^™!'n''etion between
consider the chief infl.ienc;. .w """' "'«-rfore, now
f«a'»"g; that is Sies'L^f'F^dnee changes in
>"gs or the addition o other one "^ '"^ »««"
irt of the
tJie word
rstood is
^o a well-
' ^olk, or
^eted, the
'd causes
modern
'ct, as it
ood and
iportant
f words
simply
and are
icerned
: words
ered in
se are
above
ise of
ffort,
or the
5t and
ind.
ot so
(35).
view
and
veen
now
!S in
3an-
inexactly the sou-ds we hear fn^T '''"'r "''^ '™itate
words iu saases di creut fmmM "'*' ""'«'• «'« "se
111 both, the differeuop^ hi . '^'^ "^"a' ones; and
at least, owinft^" « e.V X'ated '.'"''''f ' ^«" «™e
individuals. And even morefW ■"**' ''^ different
meaning-change is due t^m. 5i" sound-change
^ome of which are so subtle th^t^'f"™"' influencfs,'
make a complete classification T ' '! ""Possible to
chief importance : '"''''"'"'• Two, however, are of
beiome mZTeflny'i;!?'''' '° civilization, its ideas
to be made. S 1^. "r'"-''"^ 'distinctions have
"ceded, but, as the „umber°nL?' "1?'*'"'"^' ^o^ds
each becomes more 0™™!^ '''^' '>*' "^''aning of
for example, furkmrXf^lZf'''"'''r'^- Th»s,
a definite measure of disteuce in {'■''"':^*"^' '^ "ow
motes "a kind", now usn'JlJ "' ""''"' ""finally
kind". This pr ine^pTe Is k J^ '"'""' * Particular
or specialization: it fs b- ^ '/> ''" 'contraction,
cause of change in mean L ^ oh "'** "°*' ""'"mon
pay<jrE„ !^ Other examples are
(2) But we t,<°-^- '■"""/««. "to die."
become more J.^^^'' ^.^ ""."^ ^ords that have
?n!*j^. original; meant "?',"''''"?«»"• Thus
individual"; and decim^! "? ''"T ™'ating to an
tenth man for punishmenT'' A'ih''^-' ''^' '«' cve?y
i-""*, " bread "TSorS'lv""'^ "together," and
To tho *„ • ""S'oally a mess-fellow."
following: "''"""'"^ "'«'«^"««« may be added the
(1). Words are used !,. «
Ho Ims a fine ,„1 ^ ,i, ' . ^"'■**'™ «'^"^''«' thus,
a man of /....«;1,l'';it"'t::;.- ^nty sp,n. him on :
Next to contraction j ~ " t" "' " °"""«'«s8 llie.
important inflt„t ""^ '''''''''"'''' '^s is the most
Change in
meaning, a
jaw of a living
language.
Two chief
influences:
(1). Con-
traction.
(2). Ex-
tension.
Other
influence,? -.
(1). Figura-
tive uses.
I:!
|2). Change
in inenniiig
ftccoin panics
cJiaiige in
the object.
<3). Degrad-
ation.
f4). Improve-
ment.
Moro than
one influence
oftou jit
work.
m
^OMDS AND Turn nn^^.rr.
_______ ^^Ji^IE COMPONENTS.
age of prmtmg, the long writT^n 1 ^"J' ^'^<"-«' the
and hke material were rolled nn wh""' ''^ P*PJ™«
po, too, hook<:o E 7.^^ '" 1, P. ^•''"i "ot in usp
•^-k and beech, labs ting nsedt,*"'^'" "'^ -"-
I'-gle, " the LomTthe Sri"'''' ?«"« <"»th " !
iaveae^uired their present :::n:;;r"°^'"
iim«nT "' ""'^ '^^ Po'iW-l parties are also
timeithrtte'roZfer ",''"'--^- «<>">«.
"ess or wickedness oT what thev^''i"'"r*''«''ff'">«'ve-
example, pM„ ^nd on&Lt ^ ''''"°'^- Thus, for
a nation. " Sometimes 'l^o ^^ ^^^ "^ '""""'•y by
historical inflnences Thus ' ,Sf •''"*"*^'' '* due to
serf in the villa, ov farm nt f-'^'Z' ""einnlly "a
Required its Present meaSe-L'/"^™"" master,"
the viUeins". So, too^^th *''" '°^ ™«™lity of
churl <0.E ceor? *S +• '>
.™eai<M.E:(<o"R.'?rll".°^J:<S';;*<'«-. "a farmer";
Thlfs!-fo'';?xam^° Cw1T"T '^' '"^a-ing
reproach used b^theSl^Tfrtio^h^-^t 'T'I '^
' "^^-rsnai, a horse -servanf n '
have acquired their present meanings.
examples! "orall^hr ptrijr*' ''' ''^'^ ^-egoing
«>ve The present meinW^ofo''''''5"^''">''Selu^
Zf'i I,""* oP«'-ation of more tir'*' '' "^t*" 'he
And further, although in the c.J; /" *""' "^ ^em.
going examples, the old meamw\ * T'* »* 'he fore-
hy the new one, this is bvri^l'''^«»,«"PPlanted
' ~ -""^ "uat generally
h a tLa,T,ge
' «xam;jle,
before the
>^ pap;yrus
ot in use.
the inner
^imiiai'Jy
e cloth":
' are also
• Some-
>ffensive-
'hus, for
tised for
fitory by
' due to
ally "a
laster, ' '
rality of
CBANGES IN MEANINQ.
are multitudes of wo^swhXT *"'k'''T' '^'^^
usual and more oriffinal mp«nin ^''*' '"'""'''« tl"^'"-
meanings which Zy be describe/ ."""''T t °'''<''-
te as occasional/ In%tnd-chi" "^r^rfl'-tiuc
tion, aroccasion;" In sonn7ch»' '" '^""tradistiuc-
hand, the new word almost «fw^^°f' .°° ""^ ''*^«'' ^'■•— ""--i
nna rpi,^ i._n . ^ climOSl always dlSnlnoPG fl.^ ^IJ generally
hand, the new word almos?^lw«^''f ' f^ ^^^ ^^^^^ Thenewword
one. The follow.'nr^ f ™^^^ always displaces the old ^""f"^'^
«r>>,-li, i lOiiowingf, however, are eximnioo ^/ i supplants the
whieh have retained hnfli fj.! examples of words «' ""e. The
with, of eoursefrchan^^ofternTng"' '''' "''' ^^^ ''""'"
lone, alone<ME' at„ri.'7t' ^'y<P'- '«><?«,•
person, parson<M.E Si"*,' '■"■«t<M.E. ;„k,,
sham (Northern), sham^^oii: St'
IS generally
retained with
the new.
rmer'*:
waning:,
erin of
:larly
ant";
t,"
3xclu-
n the
them.
fore-
inted
irally
ii
70
^o^i>-ionMAn
OM,
How our
yocabuJary
IS increased.
(1). Deriva-
^?n by Suffix.
!"th ehanee •
Of lunetion.
^eflnitiojjg of
Derived,
derivation,
derivative,
Pnmitive.
and SuiBx.
Hi
i :!
V
. «nee active f/p^^''?". ""^ exS/^^rd 71) that
have borrowed wo,v/ *"' ^i^torj of tt I '"P'^' ""d
"ations, so thlt '''^ ""s we needed tt, '""^uage, we
voeabulkry is of 'f°^- ^^ &'• the a'^H' *<"« othw
make new wr.,.,T •' "Ganges in thLr "^^ ^ave next
^^^fferent functions ^^ ^^^^ "^^^"^^"^^ea nflj^f ^^^^^^
DERIVATION.
77. To thf^ ... ^.^^S^Fix. '
sound th .^"Jeetive ^r,«^ /qoT
H^hfoi. uP ^' a derivative I:..^^ ^« itself eaJJed a
/derivatives
trom true.
^^'«h it 5 "ll''<'."^««ve noun ■ If ?f ^''"ed^ a
means here ?vL':/«"ed its ^v^l^J« 7>-d from
""« addition -« w 'T' '"«'•« oS/i , r'""''*'*
■'OM-making suff& Tt' *« derivatTvl : ^- , ^"d
-f-t..ed f„ ,r^, ^-^5^ means sreX^/f/'^d^^
l^:,-m«eiati^-o?ati.i,,^^^^^^^^^
'I>I^'R1VATI0N.
7J
'^s or ne\v
^ifications
f 71) that
^^s, Were
>^7,- and
uag-e, we
'm other
^ <^f our
'Ve next
^ords to
Actions
'8's and
d the
^ the
whiah.
iirned
be
fig" it
d a
fom
Uive
Ind
d a
xed
in
a
er
):
-/^?.- thus, W^AA,/f ^t^^tord ^^'"^'^"-^^^^^^-^^ffij
. not precisely, the .same as trj TT. T'^\ *^^^"^^
what we call the suffiv A,7 • i, *^ P^ain here that
common adjeetfve Ml'.^a l^J^^^^^^ ^"^ ^^^e
fme^^fullof truth. And iid^ti f '^'^ "' ^^^^^^ ^^e
for believing that all our .'. ffl ' ^^^^^ i« ^ood reason
independent wonlwZhfv'r'^'V?^^'^ '^'^^^ ^"«^^
stress (70) have lo^f H. • ■^- ^^^^ ^^^^^n of word-
sometimes means "the ou^lL^f u • ' ^""^^ ^« ^^«'^^
rri T ,. ^"® ^nality of bemg true ''
derived fro™ ^..t^V^^^^ -- that^^
quality of bein/foiU " or T,o " \ f<»™ //7tt, "^tlie
by anotlier suffix than Mf '^'^at'^ ^ul "; then,
fjo.n „o„ns,/,-«/,,', 'Varied w?h flufc,?f ''«^-
/««Amm, the quality of being filthy - ' '""'• ''S''"^'
rf^^^^^^l^S^^L^^^?'^ ^o the
of being foul " ; although we do not /nv'. ^^ ''""'"y
more^than we say .„.!, likeXrr:^^ US
is ^mp^f th:TaseZt'?hf re IZZ'' ^''^~ ^ '*
or what we are used to, a^d ;rot1he':?C"^'""'-^'
can t;,rt^i:;?o ad"verbs"'bfi.f/''^/"'^ «"'^ >«' ^e
suffix -/« .. th„r'!!.,'' Sf ?;W'"ff the adverb-makiuL.
the same w^y' 'th;"d<:riv^d*-, r"^*-* '"' "«" ti^eat in
filthy: thus, lumM^'J^lJ^''''''''' "•««/«' and
Suffixes,
originally
independent
words.
Derivatives
from foul.
No renison
assignablf^ foi
selection
of suffixes.
Derivatives
by the
suffix -ly.
72
Verbs from
"onus and
adjectives.
Perivafives
rroni verbs.
(2). Deriva-
tion by suffix,
without
change of
luiictiou.
^^^I>-FOJiAlATl0.y.
, ^» fact, there are imf .
•insriiftfire from whi ]? Z "''"•^' '^djoetives in N.p
«s are made by it '^''"' ^^"^ '-^ ^^^'^'e part ot our
^"t the same suffix -/v/ o?
noun /.«i^r ""^ ''<^^'"'«- /-•*/ ^«!;^A.«-f s ,^:
^nd, on the other han^ a ■
^affixes from verbs Ti'^ derivatives are mirJe i-
oui' language. ' "" ''■"' '^ m genera] the way in
way also are formed fhl i ^ ^^ ^^ knig^ht '' Tn h.-
"ouns, by the I^ZlfZ ^ tC "I ^^"^-^ ^'"'^^-
Again, we h-ive . :/°;'.''''''^<-"'* a<'tress<«o,<^.
as green sT^: "djeetives derived from a^- .•
varfati'r^f CCi "'/ f" "-' ' ■ o™ ,Sr'"^^ '
:^^Hsaveryeo,„,„ro,^* «t""'''^ "^ adding -Jor
th? greatest degree of f^ „ .""'"''^^^'^s a greater Li
its mff • ' *''« "djeetive) whe^t / "l*"^^'''''«»'e
"s Meaning, such » ,,.vhX ''■, ^""" *^<' natn,.„ „*
-■•''n...o„ or decree is possible and
DEBtVATtON.
n
in tile
t'l'bs by
of our
when th^ derivative thus formed is easy to pronounce :
tlius, tor exanii '(3,
a taU man, a taller man, the tallest man :
but not
Fremher, Frenehest, or admirabler, admirahlest.
A very few adverbs also have derivatives in -er and
-est : thus, tor example,
sooner, soonest<6-oo«; faster, fastest </as^.
83. Vowel-mutation, generally concealed has also
given ri a number of derivatives. Tl e 'foUowW
examples show the successive steps of their foCtTonf
length<O.E. long, Ihrough lang-i-tha; gild<0. E. gold,
through gj,Jr^.an (gold-i-an); hr,t<0. E. fyrst, through
for-^st; thimble<O.E. %;,,«/, through thum-i-la.
BY PREFIX.
84. We have also derivative words formed bv
af'ter'lf "tT'""'! YT *^« ^''^'''^^ -^'^^ of
after it. Thus a host of words of various kinds mav
have ^.z.- put before them, making a derivative wS
IS the same part of speech, but of opposite meaning
For example untrue and untruthful are adjec vef '
irimiiUy. We can also say untruth, though there
are fewer nouns to which we add un- in this way
And verbs derived with un- (which is different fn
fastened m front-). Prefixes are in Engfish much
less common than suffixes; they do not ordinarilv
«h^^f the part of speech of the word to wS thev
are added; and no prefix, as we understand the word
now exists as a separate word. Other examplesire
heifxW, gainsay, recall, dishonest, mischance, coexist,
WITHOUT CHANGE OP FORM.
-^ ^. But we often take a word which is generally used
le part of speech and convert it into another
How derivR.
tives are
formed by
vowel-
mutatiou.
Derivation
by Prefix,
usually with-
out changre
of function.
Definition of
Prefix.
as
Functional
Conversion.
li
III
/
74
^^'OMD.FORMdTlO^y,
1 '•
a. we,, as ' "'"• '"^' ''-^' ^-p, ^t,
'""'■ "'"^'y' '»telv, hardly, deep,. ,„ ,
«r« sometimes „«»^ „„ . '^^^' ''"''^'
May be whole
or partial.
4
Why common
in Modern
■English.
I
Nouns ar ;;'J"'^'-''' ''''''''^' ''-P'^-o^e,,
^''y "a -/oM wathT'or'^ ''' »<«e«tives, as^vhen
-- and adjee^ts ar^^u^f rtoT'V »" '^o"
I fe«d a rebellion; I 4,,„,, ,, '"'" ^^'bs .• tllus,
This also '''\'^*'-^'' '^<""S„Sr "'""
W, &e.) areb^eliZ-'.'tMl ^'^ "««4 or' J^JJ
'ITT '" ^^ "' ' "" "^-'^ "-rS
show that w"^""'^ ««'<Jom have ,nf • *," /'"' ^et
eMmp,ra]frn*r"'''«'" parts of ,1??' {?""« *»
be a noun «f ^ " "^ -^ endings ft ** J"""ed in
°f the M.E. period '.44' - '"'^''-<"'' after ^"^ ,L?5
th„ immediate result of the
4^,
'-^^Mjgj^^^gfe..
COMPOSITION.
W
'^ler such
I'l'ivative.
lUlS; fV)l'
?^>od and
and the
^I'bs, but
xainpie,
netimes
ien we
i both
IS,
ne;
nowu
may,
I the
' the
for
The
are
'tial
ode
act
to
for
in
ay
or
je
of ;-'«A'and :i^^.7tdT^^^^^^^ *«"^
found if. literary EnI^I^'';;rth?'l''' '""""^'- "^^
become established ' '*"'*"'^ ""'y a'so
COMPOSITION,
Examples are ^ *''"" '"'' "^ ^'"Sle word,
blackberry, grass-plot, gentleman, washtub, highborn
eal^^co..o4o/fert^^^^^^^
EuS, aTd irare"af tZ tl """"1°"'"' ^^''^ -
Sometimes the":om;otded words "ttdInT ""^^■
pound just as they would in a tnf!^ *''.*' "<""-
-mply to have gro'wn int one ^rdf sS are' "^^
gentleman, bridesmaid, man-of-war, ticket ofZve
Compounds like m.an-of-,oar nf ^h: u ,'
orms a part and ou^ Im It If twch VavT
inflected, as men-of-war, are cJlLl nhl^^^^ ^
pounds. Ordinary phrases on Ihl Phrase-com-
besides not beini? wrift»f , ' ** , ""'«'■ hand,
phrase-compoundf in freX „11 ""? "^H"^' ''^ff^ ^om
of a mj,:rx^:^i wMr!s*'tiiiun'";^"''i
equivalent of what it displaces ThL, '^"""t'onal
on my account " into '' oS (^Z' T", """^ '°™
»r into "on n^y ^.0^.° jX^™^ '^**^r^''t'''
phrase-compound howpvpr L .i , ^^^ *«'™.
include what are reairsentenccst fZ^ '""'^'^ ^
... i^,^,,^.yy^ ^g would-be (as for Pv«mr.f^"^' •''
a «ww7tZ-6e grammarian"). example, in
Definitions of
C'ompound,
Compounded,
and
Composition.
How com-
pounds are
formed.
Diflference
between
ordinary
pii rases and
phrase-
compounds.
If'"
ill
it'
til
n\,
f^OIiD-roHMATloy.
JJnw In.
Plilts (if ft
<'«>MijH)ini<l
"fti llSll;i!|y
rfltttwi.
WOl'tls to
The nature of
a compound.
u«e „f ooth these ex, e ,',, . "T""f *''"". <"' "mke
f"r> of a house, " /,«,/, IVi,- """' '""'«'% is "the
knee " «.„.v;,-^„r. , „ "T,'"''„ f , deep „p fo the
;« a l>n,l«e made to dn w „, -T '"'' '/'■«../;«>;».
that goes by steam • ' ; a Ho '' t''"'""" """ '''»»'
['person who pieks-po eketf ' n "f; ? f'?*^?"*^' i« a
tells tales," a redcoJul-t'. , "''"^^ '^ «"e who
Other exampira^ "* "'''" ""-''''•« " red-cat "
turnkey, „„t-„..., «„-„fflee, ,„a.e„d, .,•„«„„, ,«„no<,„.
EflFeots of
stress on
its form.
Effects of
composition
on its
meaning.
«Q '" 7» ""'"^«"J, aicernoon.
somethh,r'"Tho"i"reallv' ' ''r'*«'"^ '''^■'<<'"P«on of
I'«rt, it oomes to eem ol'^oTetn'';'* "'"■? *"■' «»«
we lay a strong stress nnnnf ''''' «^P<"'ially when
Compare, for example '^ '" P'''-'"'"'«r syllable.
. MacBM with .M- ;.,,, „,„„.„„,, „.,, ,„^^ ^^^^_^^
As a result of this word-stress (7n\
often changes its prom'uei Zn ' '^ '"'"™P°""''
Its spelling, still further so tl?t' J?^^' eenenMy,
Its history, we do not t L'nk of wh»T' t ""' '*"''*"'^
feo with liolklau<inh, ,1,,,, f i '* ''°""*>* ^om.
A'»-efc«<« and 6rertM,«/ i,,J,°- ?,' \, ^°' ''"''" with
^^ but the Pro£tiaMtd""^or- ■!
is diSuVm'the' mea^nin'fof '^ ^ """P"™''
separately. A Jtoc^jS^^^f^ ^lfi!">.^"t^ t'"'™
'*fif!^j~S^>* '^* j"' ' Cj) " - ■'
COMPOSITION.
77
■
bird that is black, whori
hJackhird
. a particular
kind of black lird. So, too, a mad house means a
household chat i mad, wheit-as a madhouse is a houH(»
for mad people— a lunatic asylum.
The closeness oi tlie coinbinntion of the ])aits of a
compound differs "ii d"^'ree. Sohk) compounds are
only occasional!,'^ used or e confined to one author.
Ex anples are
prize-ox gift-horso, air-balloon, star-tuned, sphere-music.
Others, again, go into ureneral use, as, for instance,
bank -deposit, book-case, book-cover knee-deep, folk-lore.
Such combin.itions are called temporary compounds:
tht'ir pa ts are connected w th a hyphen and the first
member is stressed m^ > than the rest. They form a
connecting link bet\.. -n the phrase and the true
compound.
On the other hand, true compounds ; Lhat is, those
combinations which are permanently welded together,
are cilhd permanent compounds: they have no
hyphen, and have but one stress. So gradual, in 1 ed,
is the transition from the phrase to the temporary
compound, from tue temporary compoun to the
permanent comi)ound, s id from the perman it com-
pound to the derivative, ^hal it is sometimes difficult
to decide in which of th. asses to place an expression
90. A compound may itself enter into other com-
pounds: thus, by adding ivine to the coi.)p«Hmd goose-
herr>f, we have goose in rryiHne. Such compou .ds are
known as decomposites. Other eAamples are
handicraftsman, toj illantsails, poeketham. ercbief.
\nd, further, a compound may also yield deriva-
tives ; thus, from harefoot we have barefooted. Such
combinations are known as compound deriva Ives,
and are very frequently found, especially in poetry.
Other examples ar
knierht- errantry, hnnihlj-mindednoss, deepthroated, golden-
bhafted, subtle-cadenced, royal -towered, pure-eyed.
Tlie cloKcnoRg
of thf eon-
necfi(,n of the
piii-ts varies;
Tci jiorary
ami Per-
manent
Coiupouuds.
Derivatives
and com-
pounds from
compounds.
'A fii
.» !
78
The Root re.
PrcHorits the
fun«la!!iental
Idea.
'''"rinative
ele«n«nt8 und
OtOUlH.
^yORD- FORMATION.
"g, lovolier, /ov«
Such roots
not neces-
sarily roots in
Human
speech.
The sources
of our forma
live elements.
«»« syllable lov is ..on.,'. •"' '"""''• '"™"' '"-O--
as formative elements i. ''"inxes, whicfi are known
r«0 .-and tU. si,„™S*,„,^";;,^.;' «.vll„We i. ,;,li::,"
f o-in. by [;:■ atltfonT; '""f ""^ ^'fsttf/I'
e"^*:.f""»« of Plants grow ZmTC'"^ ""'"'"'><' J""
examples are, ^ "^'^ "leir roots. Other
(l>ap in grab, fn-amZ 1'^'^' """-"I^^. tUH/,.««t ;
for often in Ar. - .. ^ ^ ^' ^"^^P, Onijmel : '
roots only with refereneefo fi. < "^ "''<'• t^ei-efore
they are found; thev «,t „ J"" '""guage i„ which
human speech. So L ! ""* necessariiy roots in
are defined as simple lo'fL^'l"?;"^ 'vords v^ich
IS eoneerned, are found to h ''" S"«"«'' ''u.guage
eompo„„d, when weto „e to knor"^ derivative or
however, have gone m t of ^ f?''""'''"•^'^'•'^"m^'"r
«^ements,■ although of Im ^fr" "*■« «« formative
words of old forfatio ..'"Th;;;"';^ *"* ««» fo'-din
'^mi_
fENTS.
» loved ;
he tniuhi-
'» l>y tlio
'•e known
called H
• from
'»M as
•f^w, just
Other
'^P, the
honetie
' forms
-iily of
I'efore,
which
3ts in
which
gruage
ve or
them.
t and
ation
INFLECTION.
79
Such formative elements are (tailed dead, while those s.,.„e <i.«d ,
we still use are called livirifi:. Examples of words "»''«••'«■ "^--«-
containing' the latter are
/><^Kii(llo, mLsileeii, dislike, extra- reffuhir, practrrnnUxral
inurden>,<.s, pernomge, niinstrel.vi/, enioynimt. '
nol!;fn^f ^^''^^if' resembled Modern German in its aoif-oxpi,.,,..
elements Man v of 'til^"";""' ''*\'"^^^*""^^ ^"^ ''^ "^^*i^« !-"•'"
elements. Manv ot these have, however, })een replaced
by words of Romanic origin : thus, for example;
deed h6t (doed-bettering), penance; hdc-hus (book-house),
library; trc6w.,n,rhte (tree-wright), carpenter;
Jlasch mongcre (fleHh-monger), butcher
exS'".!^"^"''' '"" "*"'"' ""' "''^"■' ''*'' f°'
rock-oil, steam-boat, street-car;
but not nearly to the same extent as Old English • for
we generally resort to Latin or Greek for the material
of our new words : thus, "mitriai
telephone, telegrarn, microbe, manufactory, juxtaposition.
INFLECTION.
wor^: ^1 l^""- ^A ^"""^^ ^l^"" considering how some inflection.
woids are derived from others or compounded to form ?*'^«'"«"*
others, We have now to notice eertalli o^r a W & ''^^^•
tions in form whii..h some words undergo, according
to differences in their meaning, or differences in the
connection in which they are u..ed. Such altered
torms, although, in a way, derived from other forms
dves ^'^^^^^^ *'^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^e^' iiever called deriva-
NUMBER.
95. In the sentences :
The hoy learns, The man thinks so, The horse kneels,
each of the nouns, hoy, man, and horse may alter its
form to mean something a little different from what
it means here. If, in each case, we want to speak of
!^?if:JH^^ ?^^' T^ ^1^^^' the sound (and hence ihi^,
""""'"'"^' ^"u say ooys, men, horses.
i..
■■■*
1 4
80
Number in
Mouns, a
fihftnge in
meaning and
usually in
form.
WOED-FOBMATION.
Number in
verbs, a
change in
form only.
Government
and Agree-
ment.
I
Merely figur-
ative terms.
A fee: irthi tr -) r- -"« ^
Hence we call it a '^hms^f^^numC^"^''-, '"''"'■
Mdt boi/, mm, and /w^e ai-e f th .■' ?'"' ^« say
Umgular means "single" V,^]l'f f^^"''''' ""'"bel-
Ws are plural {p,f„,i , ,,!''<^^ .t.'""' %■', meu, and
What is true of tliese nnnLl • . ""'™ ">au „„e ")
rest, that is to say om nnV '™' "^ '"^"''ly ,,11 tie
number-forms. o,7si^gular "nd ZfT''! ^""'^ t»^«
96. But if m f^ : "'"^ P'""'*'-
form« as^LUets'inS:,^ .t^ - use the pinral
always use the same forms of th?"'^i'^^^'' ^' «^««ot
thus, compare ^ ^* *^^ ^erb a* predicates ;
The boy ?ertr?w ^ttj. ^, ^
The man ^/«nfe so '" if® ^^^^ ?^«m;
The horse Aviee/^^ ,, i,Je men ^/m«A; so,•
Th^«! nlfo«„^- . ® horses A;«eeZ.
-d^ U^tXrtt'".,"'^ "''^ -*. -'- " is
show a difference of meaS inT^^'' ™*'''<^^' ^oes no?
change in the noun • fo, »»!. ." *"'"'' *^"se as the
act of learning or thi, S„ro W •''''"^ ^"^ ''''' *e
ferent according as oneS, orli°^ '' '° "««'* dif-
one, take part in it. The cLn J ""' "^ ">«« than
consequence of the change of m"^1'"' ^'^r, a mere
We say, therefore, thatihe veH, " *^ ",f "'«' ^"''Jeets.
has sometimes tw^ forms one for "'""•*'' ^''^ »<>"".
forms dep?;,d: no^ of ^LytLl *"« use of these
the verb itself, but onlf/ 1'" *« meaning of
subject, we sp^ak of the ? , .-^^ '^^'""'•'""cr of ^1^
^orernmg i„ the ma ter tl e ""f • "^ '3'"'««n.^ "r
the verb is c^Mp^Ct™^' l"^''^"* >«'"'g given,
nomber. The use of these 7'"' '* « ''espect to
figurative, and the termlTl *^™" ■«■ however,
gcueral use among g,Z,ZlT"Ti ^'""J" "'« "
correct idea of what tarn ,^?'r% *'°.'f "<" g'^e a
expression is as much detern S y T"' ?"™ "^ «'« I
word as it is bv tl.« ' H ™ - ''•^ ""* governe,]" '
-„ -.« Aord tuai governs."''
IS made to
3ts meant,
"d we say
^r number
'>^i^n, and
in one"),
i-ly ;'II the
have two
the plural
ve cannot
■edieates ;
so;
hen it is
3oes not
^e as the
that the
self dif-
>re than
a mei-e
^ibjeets.
e noun,
subject
subject
lar and
f these
ingr of
of the
u^*- or
!?iven,
ect to
vever,
is in
ive a
>f the
INFLECTION.
9S If • PERSON.
*» (o.- she. Tw)' Z Ti;'" 'f 'J^i*^ ^l'*' pronouns 7
he verb; tlie real cht.'e 1" nf "^''T" ''>^'"<^^'i ^y
to signify hun.^tfVu,"^^ ^'^ ur'""" *"'™i^"'S
person or thing ' JU^ of /\' ^ ''*'^"«V <^"y
speaking uses the proZ mi,, /' >'* ."'" l"^'-»ou
Pei-sonto whom he is sTe^kinrVl 'T '' "»'"''«^ "'e
remains unchanged • tl n« l^' ''*" *"''"' of tlie verb
do occasionally .fflrt.r'/,"" Z'"'' '»"' if-as we
'*«" for the sUe pn^ose '1' f l""ffuage-we nle
also altered: ihn^,/Zfl.!^^,^''Z';.''^,^^'^ verb is
the pronouns is called i rKff ' ^'"^ <liflference in
order <o distingnlshaCn f^!^"'" °* f"'""'' «'"' n
the pronoun of the f/rS , °'"' f"'"'^^'-, we call 7
pronoun of the /i^o/rf pcrso ram/t' f"'' ^""'^ «>«
the pronoun of the tt/rrf person ' ^'"' ''"' *"• *'^
tiu^rtr;e:;e"^'!i;?;*'-;/J<;t«- verb has ^
first, second, and third „ersoi,'tf I '' f ''J''"'« of the
w« «>1I the first, secon land aS , ™'^'^ these for. .,s
Itself. And here, agai ft th *'''""'' of the verb
?r determines what' the form o?"f''''' I*'''* ^-'overns,
Tvir '" *' '"'""' ~ ';:::d\rbe? *°
secoXC,ZVS^ «-* or of the
the l^j-st or of theseord person ■'pv " '' ^r""''" of
has the verb in the thh'd ne> ','„ ^S^ry sub,jcct-nouu
ever, we shall see that t ii "V ^"''"'"r O", how-
number in the verb am " nh,^';?' *"'•• P*-'-^™' «>Hl
tion rather than the rule ^'hiase-forms. is the excep-
Person in
pronouns, a
tiifferenee of
nieiiniug, m
verbs, of
form only.
The subject
governs ;
' 'le verb
iigrees.
n
TENSE,
the verb, us well
--in.. We /Cot to"""'
99, But
alterations
I
as the
th
u
noun, has
feal differences of
forms Z^^6'A7^6-, ^/,/,,/.,
Tense, a real
<litterenceof
meaning.
82
ii:^:
WOBD-FOBMATION.
w..u!'^'s.:!tn:^n/^e=^^fe!.'!
kneeling-, took place
that case, we say
earniijgr, thinking, oc
at some time in the past. In
Mood also
show* a real
difference of
meaning.
Definition of
Mood.
(1). The
Subjunctive.
(2). The
Indicative.
(3.) The
Imperative.
present. This is 7al 17„ 1 'i" i?"'"""' "^ Past or
means "time'') and Ll '1',""*,'°" ?' '^"^^ <<««^
to be of the pn-sent 1 1 ' t -f ',' '""''' «'■<' ^»M
*-/.., or ^Xr LS' Jl'l-Ve-r ter^'''^'
we wish to express. *''""'"' "' "'« meaning which
MOOD.
in t?°ti,?:';;er"onf ',?r«;r„»''i r'"'"^ '^ ""'-«t«<i
an alteration^:rrfoi:'yr ^eir "wTL?''' '^
rp, . . M^e^e angiy, he would not go.
,^ („».,«„ ,:: "'is^s';',"''""'™
of denendpnf'M fi »nwjoniea, in the sense
tl.ere''i;rd ts 1 ein^'Sv'a "'L'™^'" "^ "^'"^
and, therefore « nnS^r "^''* """"options,
distiuguisheTC: r4 ' i^t™"::/fn t'% ^^
sentences is said to h^ nf fl - J- • ^ ^^^^^e
U..?.-..i/.. mean^simpl^';o'i„tt'^ ^oup'f 7 ."^f
the speaker here tren t/«« f?i ^^ 1 ^ ^^ stating ;
II
.--,, ^^^^ muuu ^OIj. This fr.,.ry,
^« iioi a (special one in Modern English;'
INFLECTION.
bove) if we
blinking:, or
past. In
83
>f the verb
s past or
nse {tense
s are said
, thought,
tense.
depends,
ng whicli
■ ve/'o by
ay
glad ;
i not go.
or mode,
viewing
s actual
iidition.
unctive
le sense
ly being
eptions,
ts. As
i above
• mood
ating) ;
re and
ay not
itenees
iglish;
subject is generally omitted *"' *""'■"'' "'''> "«
be used along^ith thl'dXe^tZ^oVothe^P' ".'^ ^--'-
thus varied i"„T/;,idtta*r *'''' "»•'
an^^sefo? w&CTerb In'' '^"f"^^ ''' '"^-'"^
. altered in form or inflect?^ Ti,"" i''"?"«ge is thus
is nsually called t.ctfus^L'''(T'°'' "* "" ^«'-''
only a " joining together ''om», '■ ** ""',"'' ™«'i°«
and the verb is^said to be co,^uga"7r '''''■""^'^^ ■-
^.«*, adding an -rtoThe^ameTo mirk «" " '""'"''' "™°'"
being the possessor of the ttin^ Ti"'"/*"'''''!,''^
noun, usually made bv mWilJ F' , ''^ ^"^ »' «
ton,ed to call its poLm/v^^X m ' ^^ ?'■" '^'^u^-
English. it most^ftrZ^s'po'ss'es'ir"' '° ''•''''''•"
~Sit%ni\ni.5r?h™'--^ "-^'/ '■>« —
before it; thus m/n'T.H,? ™,">e Preposition 0/ "W™ % the
children's phasuZ? JA "if *'" """' "f ««/ ""'""'"■
that is to say the' C^ , f'''"'""!*' "/ ''hMren;
another as is .'.xoresse, hv """" ."^ "."" "<>"" to
oherbythepreSm^^T eonnectmg.it with that
also often be eXe^^ ' t " f^" .f ""^ '<'"^' ^> ™«y
the possessive ca^l'^ """'"8 'he noun itself in
we now expr:ss"::,V iy.^^^^f^r''"'''''':':^^^
were formerly exm-LZd ,Tt ""' I"'opositions,
expi-essed in othe? lai^.„l "'.' '"'pa^e, and are stil
or changed form! .f "£'1^?.'. "' !^'' Sl'f other cases,
under the prononn Bn^i"*r""i' 1^° *'" "e seen later,
other Old Engli' h <-^ ^ "-' *'"''''' "■•« *'™''« "f
u p.ngiL,h ca8e-fo«i» ,n Modern English.
> 'I.
\i i
irai
kh
84
The posses
sive form
of some
pronouns.
WOED-FOM^fj^ TION.
The relation
shown hythe
Objective
case governed
uy the verb.
J^ffinitions of
^^bjeet, and
Objective and
■Nominative
cases.
A
Objective
eoverned by
a preposition.
The Common
ease.
as m noun, bv addir.^v";,'; ""*'"< 'pated "' »->-itin2
fid, as H-o shall seo late, th>,l '.,'/'" ' "'''«. «'''<'*<'7
«''I'jeet (18). If we say ' ^^ ""'^'^ than that of
*-^'*' and';ir;elotttr'°''r "^"^ "'™"
represent a part of vluthlZlT^^' '^'"'^"se they
the subjects staud for The .. '''I-'''"'"* "^e persons
act,„n of binding <."le.Z;-TinZf "^^ ^"
(that IS js made more defln te) L "^ ".^''' '"""^d
what particular class of thiS ^I '"""•""«^ «"* «"
A word added to a t™,,??? * exercised.
™lJed the of./ert of thHe-W z^"''^ *" *'« W is
thing put in the way") I ^^^"'^ "^ais "some-
Person or thing tharXeitlv end?'' '* ''^^'- the
Of, the action expressed by tVVe b^'^^'i^ "^^'^^
^/^'^y see Mm and /^^ see^ // ^
we call tL .fo-Jj^o^l -IVS'^on ^Lt ^and^
^eStlerTbe tVo '^^^ *"« ^ ^d^^^
to distinguish it from tV oT *"' " P™""""- we cal?
«««e-or, more usual vW T"'' ^J"^ ^^ibjective
nominative, or nl • •'^ ''"* tess coiTeetiv JJ;
«mply "naming'-r"""^ ''''^' ^«««S means
when a Dronnn« •
word by a p?epSo„ ' ZTT^^ "'"^ «ome other
ease of it, j„st as whe'nTt uT^ ,!'•'' *" object?.e
And because the nreno^iti ' "'*' °''J«et of the verb
influence upon the word 'V-'T? *° ««rt a kind of
something else, we cl?l th^^"-* l' *''"« attaches to
preposition. '"'" '''^t word the object of the
re.' "*!''¥'■« is no noun in „.,_ ...
"^v aus xor an objective ca.^; a form dSeTntt;;'
V '
INFLECTION.
85
in writing
'Jio, tvJiose;
tiJI greater
pronouns.
'apable of
ill that of
'ause they
le persons
le general
e, limited
s: out on
s^way is
i some-
ifies the
he oZ>;Vci{
the cor-
e same
se; and
5 object
sed as
^e call,
fective
V, the
means
other
iective
verb,
ind of
les to
►f the
v^hioh
from
Why we
speak of tlie
noiniimtive
and objective
cases of
nouus.
The govern-
ment of verbs
and pre-
positions.
the nominative, and used when the noun is in the
object relation. In Modern English, one form (some-
times called the common case) is used for both
the subject and the object relation. Thus, we say
The father loves the son, and the son loves the father;
The father went with the son, and the son went with the father;
without any change of the words father and smi ; the
positions of the words show their relation. Still,
partly by analogy with the pronouns, and partly
because many other languages .elated to English, and
even earlier English, generally, do distinguish the
object from the subject in nouns as well as in
pronouns, and partly again because a difference of
name enables us to indicate a difference of relation,
we usually speak of nouns as having a nominative
and an objective case.
And we speak of both verbs and prepositions as
governing in the objective the word that is their
o])ject, because it is compelled to be put in that case
after them, and because its relation to them, rather
than any difference of meaning which we feel in the
word itself, is the reason of its being made objective.
DECLENSION.
105. These are ail the kinds of changes that make gf'flnitionof
up the inflection of the noun and the pronoun. ''*' ^"^'*'''-
Being different from those of the verb, they go by a
different name ; they are called the declension of
the noun or pronoun, which is said to be declined.
The term case is derived from casus, the translation Origin of
made at Rome of ptosis, the Greek grammatical term. It *''® ^®'*™^
meant "a falling", a variation from the so-called primary dedeuslon.
form in a noun. Tliis form in the noun, now known
ai' the nominative, was represented by a perpendicular line
:md called the " uprigrht" case, while the others were called
the "slantin^^," or "oblique," eases. As the so-called
nominative in the noun or pronoun does not "fall" from
my form, it is, therefore, not really a case in Modern
English; it is called so with reference to its relation in
the sentence, not to its form. A scheme of these eases
was known as Declension. Gradually, however, the original
meaning of case and declension was tovgotten and they
came to be used as mere grammatical terms.
se
'^"^^■^omjTioj,^
r>e^flnJtJon of
the
fjefinition of
Composition,
s'^ade into
<'«e auother.
p-^flnition of
The Com-
Parative
g'ltl t)ie
superlative
derived '
forms.
simplest
f^i^ie from that Z''''^' «"d we'tUTf')!' ^'^^ "«»a%
a new wniT ' Produces whJi • ?^^*«nce; " r« -^
"f ? w, a eiSf'„/" Addition fflalr^"''' "'^ wean
relation, or a mealr*' *« «??«.«««' * ^ «ha„g^
word. ««a'"ng so generai L not t^''*™'"«««ai
""f are all uninflectf^ ^""' ^ere eani","- T"«*'«n
wever, sJjq liie history nf h ^^^Jetimes
^-tni and Gre;ic,"the^!'' ^'^ ^id i^L^^"-^-,
cnu super-
INFLECTION.
81
^s usuaJiy
others as
^flection.
^"linative
^ve (buf
^f^). It
'a forms
nation is
ing-e by
^6 from
owever,
"etimes
be the
hard
Js, for
in the
He is
Jed as
» and
^rson
5 the
lean,
ing-e
tieaJ
new
ive
ion
n;
f-y
[n
?s
'r
Q
(1). By adding
at the end.
lahve were derived from the positive by the addition
of suffixes, and, to the derivatives thns formed
inflections were added to show agreement with tha
noun. These inflections disappeared in tlie Middle
English period. The comparative and superlative are,
therefore, themselves stems, not inflected forms.
METHODS OF INFLECTION.
108. We have thus noticed in a general way all the
kinds of real inflection which we find in English ; that
IS, inflection consisting of a change in the form of
a word. Further on we shall take up each part of
speech by itself, and explain its inflectional changes
more fully. But, before leaving the general subject,
we will observe the methods of the change thus made
m the words inflected :
(1). The inflectional change is most frequently Methods
made by adding something on at the end of a word '" "
Thus, from liorse come horse's and Jiorses by an added
s-sound; so from hook come hook's and hooks: from
love come lovest, loves, loveth, loved, by similar
additions. Much the largest part of the inflection cf
English words is of this kind ; and, as we shall see
later, the other kinds of real inflection are in origin
only the consequences and alterations of this kind.
(2) Some v/<:>rds are inflected without any addition (2).changein
made to them but by changes made in them— altera- "'® ^*"'"^-
tions of the sounds of which they are composed •
thus the plural for man is men, and the past tenses
tor lead and send are led, and seMt.
(3) Sometiines, again, inflection consists of an (n).change
alteration ot the original sound with something added '7VV?' "'"'^
also: thus, A-v^.^Zhas for past tense both kneeled and
knelt, and teach has tavght; does and saijs are formed
trom (?o and say; children from child; and hrothers
and hrethren from brother.
EQUIVALENTS OP INFLECTIONS.
109. So far we have been dealing with real inflec-
tion . We have now to see what other provision exists
ll ""Y"Y^^'^"^ --''"' «""t3 aiiierences of the meaning or
the relation of words. ^
t H
H .1
ml
m
88
'^OKD-POBMATWM.
^2). Words
Extension of
of terms of
inflection.
Modern
phrase-
Forms
the result of
the (Iisup.
pearance of
*'^^9-E. in.
flections.
Phrases used
Dorcases.
feep is the .same ,,7;:'^",' ''"<^)m"n"d "'«''<='«'), othe«
?« "^Wed tt:objeeHl""'''*-'«°««' thus fl^"'?" '"•«?""?
" "«« to the o&tf «« of / hCu^\.y^n,e, „,l
fonnatiou of ..h?' ">««««o„s was ^f "if"' ^isapS!
represented f 1, J >f' "" "'hid, *i. ""*'»'ed ty thl
.. /"^tead'o/t'o" E '"?;^'«<'" "'^'"'-"'•'i Part
modern posse Li"^'^-""! Preposife/r^'^nted by
POfsession, «'he,^,'\.rA', f^-^'^^t S,/;; a"d the
for many „th,,r,;^f?;'n Oi<i EngKsr /// '" ''^Press
•"■■"o "it'e,,^ h .^j;*'',';^ •• thus, tlrtJt:''' '"""'
*" "1 meh long.'/ " '
INFLECTION.
89
''>fe ^vo /}„^j
t'lOii
^niiliy
'"flections,
"It Words •
'"•ai, fhey;
^^^•^ ^<r//yi
d/^i tcent-
*J"»etive.
'^» others
"le iiouii
^^'; whiie
f'^ is the
fie verbs
tense as
' found
ten we
enbing-
'eg-uiar
'ee, w^e
'ponds
from
tise it
d by
mpjy
tions
^ore
)ear-
the
part
say
the
3SS
od
We use, bfside.s, many verb-phrases whicli in some Verb-
cmsc^s represent O. E. infle<,ted forms and, in others a^-e ^'^— •
due to the modern necessity for greater variety and de-
W rr f expression. Old English had, indeed, a
jimetive and it had only two tenses. In Modern
i^nglish, on the other hand, only one verb (100) , in all
th^language, nses for the past subjunctive a tens^-form
different from the indicative ; and, even in the preseiS
So VTl r'; fr^' ^^- '}' '^'' ^^ *he same verb
Ihu:^ "■ -' ^ ' ^'^P'^^f IS found only in the second and
third persons singular (thus: Ind. thou lovesL he
loves; Subj. (if) thou love, h love), and this only
sometimes in literary English and Almost never n
spoken English. For the O.E. Subjunctive we use
suchL " "^ '^' Indicative, or verb-phrases
may go, might go, should go, would go, may have gone ;
whtr T ^""^^ ^u *^'' ^.'^' P^'^«^^* ^nd past tenses,
wh ch were generally used to express all differences
ot time, we have such verb-phrases as
''''' wmt """' gone, have gone, had gone, shall have gone
will have gone, do go, did go, should go, would go;'
and so on Each phrase in both the lists given n
above consists of a form of the notional word /and «* -^^ "
one or more relational words combined with it (35) • ^^''^''•
and the parts of each combination are felt to be so
closely associated, and the phrases are so often used
that we have come to look upon them and to treat them
as verb-phrases of the same value as inflected forms
111. In Modern English, therefore, differences of pi, p
the meanings and the relations of worrare shown P=
sometimes by mriected forms but oftener by phrasls ^=1^
l.^w ^^ .supposed, however, that there is *'°^'^'
anything unusual in the disappearance of most of the
older inflected forms and the developmenTof the^e
modern phrase-forms ; for both are the natnral results
of the growth of an Arian language. English ha.
simply followed the natural lax^l .i^an^i^^ffrV,
synthetic to an analytic condition'(6)^ ^ ^ ^^''' ^
II
90
^i'^rJS OF THE /.
'^HTS OF SFEFCU.
IIM f
r»eflnltlon of
Construction,
I
syi'tax, how
suown.
^- SYNTAX OP THJ5 p , T,-n
, "2. We wi« „... ^'^^^ '^i^' SPEECH
token up uiiX^?,, "^ P'"-ases and .!„"''"''« ^*^)-
Contrasted
^■'Hi Utiii
and Greek.
Simple
spufences
^vith com-
pound
laembers.
113 The * *^®^
?f file modern Ene-lkh?"'"^ survive • «„ H; .^^^"'of Uie
^ff'c'tl connection? ^aff'^.^^'^e '« a«*rtaiLrf'" "'« ^-Vnto
meaning") an,I ti ' '^ "« eonnefti^!™ "'"■<* by tlie
"leii- form, r "^^ P'^^'i'ion of jk'''"" according- to fC
«.V«ta So JUi;''? «»d Greek on^Te'"'"'^. *^^ t
««f.ntial members-'7'^^^«" whetan^v^V!'"'?-
subject or of f ht ~ j°^ adjunct or modifi^ ? "** '«"*»
ff^neraJ, if fte ,^,r'''«?te-verb-f,"°^'^«''t'"'' of the
the predicate ^ertt"" '*'''* '« "o^ponS^f' "'' '»
Itself is bri„; . f compound, mov^JilTl "'' "^^n if
sentences, wfdo'„"„'t l°\ r»P«Sfi*^ ^^"'^''ee
^"^ great rapidity.
SUBJECT AND PRE I ATE- VERB.
91
y Ji (I -n
of .speo< h
^^w means
ou^ht of
"Poiients
say 7iJl
1 clauses
3s, if we
subject
3e (48).
wiii be
fii they
G have
messing-
of tlxQ
by the
to tllQ
an by
V, the
2tions
sists
enee
less
', in
nit
nee
leh
hts
These sentences may each be valued as simple ^ith
c-iupou.. I members, althougl, we m.y sa^ wi. the
^nne mean.n. ''He went and I went" and ,. oil!
Friends and foes rushed together ;
Two and two make four ;
the connection is very close (28), the compounded
parts cannot be so separated. n'^mimm
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE-VERB.
115. In those words-namely, some of the pro-
?iZ V" i^' ^.7' ^*■^'"/• ^^^* ^^' nominative diffel-ent
used «. h ^'f ^^''' ^^W^^'^^^ the nominative is alone
used as 8u bject ; and, m nouns, of course, the common
oase-form is used in this construction (104)
Again, so far as he verb has different forms for
number and person, the form used is of the same
number and person as the subject-being, therefore
of the third person if the subject is a noun (98) '
sa>ing that the verb agrees with its subject in
number and person ; or that the subject governs the
n^e'd to bHotef '''''''' '''^^ '^^^ ^^^"^ ^^
SUBJECT,
repeiL?'"'''"^'"'"' ^^^ ''''*'^'' *^^ '^^•'■''* expresses is
(1). Usually to show its importance : thus,
Peace, O Virtue, peace is all thy own ;
Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,
These three alone lead life to sover ign power.
iJi^l' ?.^^^^^o^^a"3' fof Clearness; to recall t^he sub-
verb? thus "'^"'''''^ ^* "''"'^ ^'^^''^'''^ ^^^^" ^^^
w^'^^L^f''^""^ ^^""^ i^L^ ^^« really Samuel Weller who
was before me, and Sergeant Buzfuz, and Mr Pick-
wick and each personage of the story' in suceession-
this/edinf/ came over me, etc. / succession—
PREDICATE -VERB. *
117. First, as to number: the verb ia «nrof>.,,^;i
according to the meaning, not the form'of Us^subjeZ
How
valued.
First rales of
syntax:
(1). The Bub-
Ject, In the
nominative.
(2). The sub-
ject Koverns
the verb; the
verb agrees.
The notion
expressed by
the SUBJECT
repeated:
For
emphasis.
For
clearness.
I
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)
V
//
{/
/
1.0
I.I
M 11112.5
J" III
t i^ 12.0
iL25 i 1.4
— 6'
III (.6
1 nuiugicipiiil.
Sciences
Corporation
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SmTAX OF THE PASTS OF SPEECH.
The NT W HER
of the verb:
I. With one
subject :
(1). Phirjil
construc-
tions.
(2). Sininilar
construc-
tions.
ir. With
more subjects
than one:
(1). Plural
constmc-
tioos.
iT'lLipJeT'"^ "'' *" «''i«f application, of this
(ij^ThVH" •'"""'yo'"' object-
a collective S ', '^tn tf t '""^ ''<^"«« ««'''''l
-pa«tei„divMuaJ;o:pti„rthe':ole'!lo„"t^^^^^
^"^^ P< f ^1, '^'i ui inem are gone. '
subject whef;f L'::'hf "" ^.''l" "«"«'«*« nonn.
forming one body: thM, "^ *' '"dividnals a,
(3)" tIT VZt- """' ' '?' "-""^ '*'-'»^' '"e street
n Whpiifhp!^ ^''^^P^bl^^hed before his death.
(b) Whpn fi. ' ''^^''^® «''^ doomed.
t>.e4:&^^irexr-P|-ai^^^^^^^^
The s^ard\rtSr/e"S'ot;r ""'r--- '
« <^ded brmeans^'of ft ''^''''' ? ""»" <"• Prououn
meaning of the who°e subie.^^'fT""';' «"'*• """^ a"
the verb i-ometiCiUt^fJ^,-,,^'"*'' '^ ^'™''
««/i;ott?tL"'tLtra*™-.<J*»'Je'i a. a
«»d to wtt. ' ^"^ '"'''^« approved usage prefers
F
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE- FEBB.
93
' Of this
singular
lee called
fiind the
; thus,
treet ;
t^e noun •
iuals as
reet.
ihe sub-
': thus,
th.
tigular,
hough
1 a
)noun
I the
lural,
as a
efers
(2). The verb is singular,
(a). When, although there are several singular
subjects, they represent but one notion : thus,
Brandy and water is his favorite beverage ;
Wherein doth sit the fear and dread of kings ;
The saint, the father, and the husband prays.
(6). When the logical subject is distributed: thus,
Every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace.
So, too, when the subjects are taken alternately, the
verb is singular if the subjects are singular ; otherwise
it is plural; and, to avoid awkwardness, the plural
subject, if there is one, is put next the verb.: thus,
Neither the one nor the other appears to have understood ;
Never has my heart or ear hung on so sweet a strain ;
The King or his soldiers have done the deed.
And the construction is the same when each of the
singular subjects is emphatic, and so, one after the
other attracts attention to itself; or, when each may
be regarded as an explanation of some general idea
involved in all of them : thus.
To spread suspicion, to invent calumnies, requires no courage*
No part of their substance and no one of their properties
is the same ;
A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of
wealth, a loss of friends, seems at the moment unpaid loss ;
The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman does
not take the place of the man ;
Not enjoyment and not sorrow is our destined end or way.
(c) . When the attention is attracted especially to the
singular subject, which is next the verb-: thi ,
Her knights, her dames, her court is there ;
^ Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro,
I . And gathering tears and tremblings of distress, etc. ;
Care only wakes and moping pensiveness,
(d) . When there is a distinct suggestion of an
omitted predicate, and the attention is attracted to the
leading subject, which is singular : thus.
His brother, as well as his father and mother, looks on with pity ;
The oldest, as well as the newest, wine begins to stir itself;
Asia, as well as Europe,, teas dazzled by his power ;
Somewhat, and in some cases a great deal, is laid upon us ;
The king, but not his councillors, ivas present ;
Our own heart and not other men's opinions, forms our
true honor.
(2). SiugiJar
construe-
tious.
94
The PERSON
of the verb
With more
subjects than
one.
Sr^TAS OF THE PARTS OF SPEBCB.
■11 r
Verbs of
Incomplete
Predication.
subjelfhan oie: ^' ^^ ''''^''"' ^^"''«» ^here are more
(1). When the verb ie f^ i. ,
goes no change, as itVt fi '"''''^^ P^'"-'^^ it "nder.
(2). But wh^n two «; ^:r rr^^^ ^"^ings
persons are connectid by Xrn .r^^"'^' ''^ ^^«^«^«»t
conjunctions, the verb usifiiri ! '''^''^^ ^^ ^adversative
n^ost attracts' the atten ion ST' '"'t ^^' «"^ ^h.
preference to the otheiT ' . H l^^^'^}' "^^ ^^'^t in
Sometimes, how ver 'th. J ""' "" ""' "«'■*•
subject next it auTo?^; jl^^ ^^^ ag,^es with the
especial atteution .- thus, ■"** ''"'"^ "ot attract
verb w,th the iatter sub eoT when"'!"'" *° ''"^^^ '^e
W'thont greater awkwaS th^s ' "''" ''' '^°"«
COMPLETION OF THE BARE SUBJECT AND
119 W h PREDICATE. *•*"
necessary fram'ewo"r?'of^hrsinL''°^ ^ ^'™P'« «"<>
or pronoun and the bare verh ?"''*'r*''^ *>»•■« »onn
out, when we express more orT- '"''"' *"<' '^"«<1
greater definiteness, in a s.^^ L sSce""''"'"^^ ^'*
One ei ™;Zr:r T^-'
are aheady known to ml I f"'"^. *°''- They
predjeatiou, and what is adln- ' ,°^ ^complete
predicate adjective or ncm 18) ' ^'"'^'' '^ t],e
I^XT'" "' ^""^ ^^' - '^"^ W is not a ver,
l
COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
96
(1). The verb he is by far the commonest of the
whole class : thus,
I am ill; You are a scholar; You were greatly mistaken.
This verb, in its various forms and verb-phrases, has Be, the
come to be used as a mere connective of assertion «o™"o'»e8t.
between a subject and some word or words describing
that which the subject stands for; and, when thus
used, it has no meaning of its own except that of
signifying the assertion. It is notional only when it
expresses existence (35).
The verb be is, consequently, sometimes described as the The Copula.
copula (that is, coupler") because it couples two words
so as to make the relation of subject and predicate. In-
deed, every verb admits of being analysed logically into
some form of this copula be, which expresses the act of
assertion, and a predicate noun or adjective (especially the
participle), expressing the condition or quality or action
predicated. Thus, "T tand" is nearly "I am erect" or
still more nearly "I am standing," and "We gave" and '
They beg" are equivalent to "We were givers," or " We
were giving," "They are beggars," or "They are
begging."
(2). The following are examples of the use of the
other chief verbs of incomplete predication,
I became ill; His face gvew black ; It turned cold;
John remained silent; He continues grateful;
She seems a goddess; It looks terrible; We feel outraged:
It amells sweet ; The door stands opew ; He lay still;
My blood runs cold; They sat mute; He went viad;
He appeared sorry; He ran foul of me.
1 20. In such constructions as
He was made angry by them ;
They were called cannibals by him ;
a7igry and cannibals are the predicate adjective and
noun.
The meaning of these sentences may also be expressed
thus: ,
They made him angry | He called them cannibals.
As we shall s«^e later, made and called in the latter Active and
sentences are said to be of the active conjugation (101 ) f^^V^ ^"^
(active means *' acting"), because the persons the ""'
Other verbs
of incomplete
predlcatiou.
Pred. adj.and
noun in the
Active and
Passive Con-
structions,
on-
96
SYNTAX OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
Predicate
K'ljective
shades off
Into an
adverb.
subjects stand for are rpr>rp«onf«.i
made and were called of ^H "^^^ ^^ ackng. w^,
We feel ?mm; It is buried rJeep •
We feel «;am;?^; It is buried ^ec;,?y •
Ee looks well,
were we,p.rSZvTrbj";i^^^^^^ T '' "f
looking/' But in ^ ^^ ^^^^■
He sits next,
next may be understood in either wnv wifv,^ ^
important difference. ^^ without any
Again, we say of a fruit,
It looks n;,.; It feels ripe; It smells ripe; It tastes ripe;
Tudgrft a^Sf f ''-'^^^ "^ ^^^^^ ^^^'i-^« ways we
aUoiVL to say ^' "'^' ' '"^ well-established Lage
The girl looks prett,,; The rose smells stveet;
-^he wine.tastessow;
although, in each case, the adverb nrefh-Jv an.i .^
would, in strict theory, be the corrXfotm. """'
COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
97
cting. ^yaH
ices, are, on
the passive
or "endur-
'he sentences
, of course,
the active,
t>Jocts; and,
s.
? shades off
wo are not
i from each
' degree to
iiodify thp
5elf on the
77 "
buried
one, that
when the
s as if he
" is gfood-
hout any
es ripe;
ways we
ed usage
d so
on,
1 22. With the verbs of state and motion, especially,
the modifying force of the predicate adjective is very
often really distributed between the subje(;t and the
verb. Thus, in " He stands firm,^' we mean not only
that he is firm in his standing, but also that the
standing itself is firm. So, also, in
The sun shines bright; the messenger comes running;
The tone rings clear and full.
An adjective thus used may be distinguished as an
adverbial predicate adjective.
123. A word in the predicate (except a predicate
possessive [143] ) wLich has different forms for subject
and object relations, ought, since it describes what the
subject stands for, to be in the i^ame case with it ; and
this rule is observed in English in those pronouns
which distinguish nominative and objective : thusj we
say,
It is I (ive, thou, she, he, or they).
Owing, however, to the modern tendency to disre-
gard inflectional differences, careless and inaccurate
speakers often use such expressions as "It is them^^;
It was ws " ; "It was her ' ' ; and in the case of "It is
»we," the practice has become so common that it is even
held to be good English by respectable authorities.
OBJECT OF THE VERB.
1 24. A very much larger class of verbs than those
especially known as verbs of incomplete predica'ion,
are incomplete in anothef* way — namely, as they call
for the addition of a word to express something on
which the action they signify is exerted. Such verbs
are called transitive (18) ; and, when we use an
inflected pronoun as their object, it is put in the
objective case. Indeed, this case is so named as
being especially that belonging to the object of the
verb. Hence, we may say that a transitive verb
governs the objective case (103).
Transitive verbs may, almost without exception,
be used without any object. Examples are
I love ; Seek, fire, kill ; He stopped and then turned ;
■ They fought year after year ; The cakes ate short and crisp ;
Drink from the goblet while it fills.
Aflverbial
Pivdicnte
Adjective.
Agreement of
predicate
pronoun.
Transitive
verbs and
their object.
Transitive
verbs used
intransitively.
I
ll
i )'
i a
98
rntranaltlvo
Verbs.
Used
transitively.
(1). Reflexive
object.
STJfTA:C OF TUB PASTS OF SPEB
Some, however can ll ,. \ ?■"'''? "*'"'• ""''" (18)
eases of th?s use Ze: "'"'' fansitively. The chief
(2) Cognate
object.
f 3). Causative
verbs.
With
metaphorical
cognate
object.
-draVfl"ex&',^^: v;-;'""^ ^•"^°"'" P'~
Here will we rest m; They sat them down beoirt. th. „,
Go, flee .7« away into the land o? Judal! ""^ '"
noiu-form tt" action*"n' ^'' ''^^'^' expressing i„
expressed b/l'^^rUsSf." SSes^U"^ "<^-"
You danced 'Zt^^IbiV '^"j'l ">" »"'■• '"<*/
He struck a deS *L • ? hf* "" ""*•
They Shouted «,,,Jifjiern'7-f^,.
And this object is metephorical in
He looked ,k^r,ers at me ; The realm itself yawned ^
Such oWe<,ts are called cognate ■ ZtV7""-
l^.n as (",uiied in -eauing^to'^frthe ve^b' i^Ijf "^ ''"^'>
(3). men the verb denotes a cnsin, to act: thus
■tie trotted hi« hovQ^ • tt^ ., ""uc,
u ui /w,5e^ He ran the eno/we •
He marched his mew. ^ '
wmtrniat,*tj^rht:fi^''"-f- ^^ •
expt^^his meaning (a« .^^^^^ Sh^r^
-^^Ctee^tS^S^efi-^^^^^^^^^
Ho ra,„ed sHem and red-hot .«,fe^ on the city
i
COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
09
intransitive
thoin (18).
The chief
fe folio A^ed
1 {yeflexive
gr^made to
((
passiiia;
it myself;
!; himself;
1 pronoun
9 stream ;
?ssingr in
e action,
y smile;
ingeons.
he same
f.
t: thus,
■e. As
*orm to
ave lat/
rb and
$as
i
(4). When the verb denotes i)r()ducing a certain
effect by the act it expresses (131) : thus,
They yawned tlioir jrt>r.s- out of joint; He walked himself iceary .
(f)). When what is construed as the object of the
verb may also be brought into relation with it by
means of a preposition. Examples are
He sat his horse well ; There is not a ship that sails the ocean
While thou foughtest the Christian cause;
where we may say also "sat on," "sails over," and
foughtest for."
1 26. The kinds of object we have thus far considered
are known as direct objects, because their relation to
the governing" word is so direct and close as not to
require a helping word to define it.
Some verbs, however, take along with such a direct
object, another of a different character, in a relation
which we more usually express by to or for; thus,
He gave me the book ; They made the man a coat.
In the first sentence, me points out to whom the act
of giving the book was done; in the second, man
shows for whom the act of making the coat was
performed. This appears clearly enough when we
change the place of the words in question, putting
them after the direct object. We ar^^tiPen obliged by
custom to use prepositions : thus,^<r^
He gave the book to me ; They made a coat /or the man.
^ 127. Such a second object, then, is called an
indirect object, because it represents what is less
directly affected by the action of the verb, and because
the same relation may be, and often is, expressed by
prepositions— namely, by to or, more rarely, by for
One common verb ask takes a second, or indirect
object, m a relation usually expressed by of: thus ' ' I
asked him his name " ; but " I asked a favor of him" ;
and a like construction is now and then met with
irregularly, in the case of other verbs. But, although
we may use to and for in expressing the relation of
the indirect object, we must not make the mistake of
supposing that a to or for is left out, and to be
(4). Ol.ject
' ♦'efffct
proihieed.
(n) . Where a
preiK)8itlou
may he
euvplled.
Definition of
direct
object.
Indirect
objects.
Definition
of indirect
object.
SmTAS OF TU„ VAHTS OF SPKECJI.
Now wiHiout
«lH'cl(»l lorui.
pi rent and
indirect
objectives.
Passive Con
stniPtion of
direct and
indirect
objects.
vs
Kptafned
direct
objective.
Verbs used
with indirect
objectives
alone.
the accusative. ,
.e called the <«rffr"c/ , ,je",^'^« " *'\"«« *« ^
"■■the sentence, between the „ V'"''«'""'«'''y I'"t,
<"jeet, the case of which i,t, Zl'^ 7,"', "'« <'''•'«
objective. Sometimes howee.- """'' "'« *''«'^'
the indirect follows the dirtThj^^ti"; '''''' " '"«•"
taklf bofh'na,::,'";* tz r^"^' «-^-"^""'-
Pass've, its direct objeS relkW ? "^■"''''' ''««"■'<■>'
and ,ts indirect object remans 'ft-^T"' '*« «"l>J«'t,
times with, and some imrr,)!!'!'' ""* ^^rb, some!
show its relation : thus, ^"'''""t, a preposition to
His w„t6s"we..rpafjT '"" f"/ "> «J/
Owing, however to t^^ ••'""" '°'' '° "•" '»'"'''•' '
l>ein/of thlTam-e ft,™ a" ttotr'^ ''?''* "''J-'^t-es
Pften attached to the pe1!^on° S."^';'^''''"- -"Portance
indirect object is frequeX and ll ''^ "'" "<"• ">«
always, made the snbieet 1^'. .?• Z'*'^ ^"''"« ^erbs is.
after the verb: t^ius ' ''* "^^""^ remaining
and so on. The r,hi..Z Tlf ™ ■"■«''"" "'«'■■/«*/
i« called the reta&lCl':^,]::^^ '"'* ''""^"''^^
take theirTdireefobject alm;/T"'n*"<^ '^"^'^ «««"
thus, either, with direcfobjeet' """^ "' "'"''' '^™«t =
He paid the ,«.,„,, ,. We forgive the' fe,,;,, n .
or, with indirect ' " '""«'" '"«•<''■
Either Object, when thus used alone, is valued as a
CO
MPLETION OF DARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
101
(lirt'ct one; a.id it Ih only when we come to put them
together that we see their ()ri«,nnal rehition.
130. Sonfe ver])s, however, wlii(;h govern a direct
objective of tlie p«!rs()n, are also followed by the
objec^tive ot the thing affected or produced by the
act ', rnus,
John struck me a hlmo ; She heard me my lessons;
and when one of these objects becf mes the sul) ject of
the passive torni t,he other is retained in the objective
after the verb. Thus, we say
I was struck a blow; A blow was struck me:
I was heard my lessons; My /mv>».s were heard we.
This construction shades off into one in which
second objective should be valued as adver])ial : thus
He led me the life of a dog ; She took me a tvalk;
for, while we say
/ was led the life of a dog ; / was taken a walk;
we do not say i
The life of a dog was led me; A walk was taken me.
OBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.
131, We have seen above (119) that a predicate
adjective or noun is one which, being added to a verb
IS through the verb used to modify the subject.
Now it is sometimes also the ease that an adjective
or a noun is, through the verb, brought into a like
Thus''? ''^^^''*' ^^ '^^^^^J'ii^^ that object.
He made the stick straight,
the adjective straight modifies the object stick, bv be-
coming a kind of addition to the verb made, defining
safd""^ ^^ ^''*''''' ^""^'■^^^ '''' *^^ ^t^^^' as if he
He made -straight the stick.
And we do say instead, using a derivative verb,
He straightened the stick,
Where the adjective is, as it were, taken into the verb
and becomes a part of the assertion made bv the verb
alone Occasionally, also, as in white- wash, \he adiec-
tive forms part of a compound verb.
OhJ.'Ptlve
of thing
ftfftH'ted or
produt'HcI.
Shades Into
an adverb.
Factitive
objective
predicate
adjective
and uouu.
J 02
^1 thp p/iMdIvo
••oiutructlon.
*riVrjA' OF Tup „ , „',< .
nn
The con-
sfruntlon
8li(icJ«»s Into
'•nliimry
olijootlvo
prodipHto
'"IJectlve
«r UOUQ,
""•^^•^>'"^'it: M,„s ""'"""-^ l"*'''lintt. atljectivo
*!' -...liO' ills „h- « ' ^it ;;;'; ■« 'n«,Je by the to
"•"de by the verb Tue" Tt""!? '""' "'« »S1;;T
with "" '■'■<"' ""' n-aa »««»,
we see tliot, thong), in w.ti, «
dieat.on is in<:o,.M,iet, liH .LT" ?n'<""'es, the pre-
ex.,.essed ly the verb „o,- ^'i m " ™'"" «* "'« »"
beheved-insane the ,n«'n i ""^ assertion that „
t rt he drove-insane the man r "'" "'"»"•««>" is
this eoustruetion are ^"'«'' examples of
T;thesetheeor.spo„d;::;:~;:""'^'-"'-
f
COMri.KTtON OF HARE HUIUKCT AND PREDICATE. lOJ
Latm-, wlu'M w<f cotnc to coiisidiT tho (Hmstnu^tioiiH of tlm
infinitivo, we shall so.- that tlh indnilivK to he is Honu'tJMH'H
iiis«'rt«'(l lK'tw<'<-ii tlir (livrrt ohjcctivi! ainl thn oh.j(M'tivn
I)fi':li(Mil(' a<lji'ctiv«f or iioitii : lliiis, for i-xaniph',
I beiiove tlm iiiaii /« be iiman*' ; I huliovo him to lie a captive;
in wliiidh coiiHtruction.s the diroct. ol)j«u't has <'omo to seem a
kind of Hubjoct to the intiiiitivu; for hucJi HontciMcisH arc
cquivaUfiit to
I Ix'liovo Mint the man is insano ; ! beliovo that ho Ih a captive.
1S3. Ill l;iii{]:iuif,'OH which disMnj,niish tho olgoctiv^
(•use tlirouprhoiit from tho nomimitive by a diffcrciit
form, th(^ prcdic^jitoadjcctivooriionii would, of coiirw^
1)0 ill tJi(! o!>,i('('{iv(', as th(^ other predicate adjective or
noun (soijie lines v. .Hod subjective^ for distinction's
sake) in the noiiiinative (12;]) ; but an instance of sncli
ajrreenient for tlie olyec^tive predi(fate cannot oc('ur in
Kn^lisli, except in the ease of an infiected pronoun
after an infinitive: thus, " I knew it to be /m/i."
ADJECTIVE (X)MPLE_MENT8.'
134. We liave thus far ])eeu (ionsiderinpr cases in
which a noun inuy come to Ix; modified by an adjec-
tive or a noun used predicatively. An adjective also,
and niiich oftener, modifies a noun more directly, being
simply added to the noun to des(a-ibe it. Thus in
"Thisimin is o/^Z " we make the age the quality we
assert; ])ut in " This old man " we make the age i)art
of the description of t];e man (22). An adjective
thus used is called an attribuave adjective, or is
said to })e used attributively faftribtitive means
simply ' ' ascribed " or " attached " ) •
While a predicate adjective modifu^s only the
subje(^t or the dire(;t object of a verb, an attributive
adjective may modify a noun in any situation what-
ever, and is generally put before the noun.
135. A noun is, much less often, used to modify
another noun. Thus, in
My friend, the hunter, carries his weapon, a rifle, on
his shoulder,
we nave the objects the nouns friend and weapon
stand for, described by the addition of Jmnter and
Till nul»J«>rt
to (hit
iiiHulilvo,
Agrpomont In
«)l>|«ctlvo
pn^llcate
(!OIIHtlUCt'.0n.
Siilijfctlvo
prcdicdto
a(IJ<'clivi>
uiid uuuu.
Attributive
adjf.-'tlvf*;
dutiuitiou.
Nonn nspd
attributively.
104
^I^:^^ZZ!:!i^rs o. s^,,a^.
Called
Appositive:
definition.
Jfoun, apposi
tive to a
senteuce.
Appositive
atljeetive;
ueflnition.
^he natizre of
the appositive
aajeetive.
A noun thus IT ,', " ""'"""^ ""'^'■
.".<'. in ^^/-O^VU' wi h «f '.r^"^'"-"^. or is said to
word added ttL^^ ^ ft T''^ "» '"dieS
describing the same tMng "' ''"^ -"•"'I'ose of further
times"foS"bvT'"'<''-^ "^ ««ntenoes are also
to a prediej;:^.tasir t: "-"'^"^^ tr;-
H- daughter h.d „„,, -"of yl^?' ''■"'""' >" be piueked
, ^36. And an adiee'' "''T'''"^^ "'''•'''' '»=^'-<'-
-herethe shade Of """'"""^^'•"""""'"""'^
What it would be i^' '"^""'"^ i« » little ditferent from
*'or these at'o?<,erf and secr^/ ..
_,^ All ««ac;^^ o t,mY, reasons;
,.^37. We have in ,. ''''' "^^ ^^^^^'- Page.
d\«tnict suggestion nf positive adiectivA
Yet the attribuLo t^^Z ^"^ '"'''' "" ^"^ -' «'«•
•nan wholTd t S -I'T " ">v\et:^X''^^^^''
COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 105
'e tlie two
le;
e.
f* is said to
fiJs means
n§:side'';
*^ closely
than the
Impendent
f further
so some-
answers
)Iueked
mislead.
3d to a
ich Jike
iled an
t from
more
» the
e, we
etc.
into
iple,
Tins
(uite
impossible to draw a distinct line between the attributive
and the appositive use of the adjective. If we make the
description at all complicated by adding: modifiers to the
adjective, we may not put the adjective in the usual place
of an attribute, close before the noun, but must separate it,
like an appositive, from the noun. Thus, we say
His rwldy countenance ; The loveliest vale ;
but
His countenance, ruddy with the hue of youth
A vale, loveliest of all vales on earth ;
or
Ruddy with the hue of youth, his countenance was pleasant
to look upon.
1 38. The predicate noun and the predicate adjec-
tive, especially the adverbial predicate, shade off into
a construction which may be valued as that of an
ordinary adjective appositive to the subject or as
an appositive predicate adjective, according as we
associate its meaning wholly with the subject or with
both subject and predicate: thus, for example.
He left the court, the victim of the law ;
He sat down, dumb with grief ;
I had been caught up, a strmo on the tide of life.
The factitive objective predicate adjective also
shades off into a construction in which it has also an
appositive value : thus, for example.
He made the stick straight,
may mean that he made the stick out of a larger
piece of timber, and that, so made, it was straight.
So, too, with the ordinary objective predicate
adjective : thus, for example.
He had his hands dirty; He ate his dinner cold.
139. A pronoun, which almost never takes an attri-
butive adjective before it (24), has an appositive
adjective or noun added to it just as freely as a noun :
thus,
We, poor in friends, sought love ;
Tired and hungry, he hastened home;
You Frenchmen are livelier than we English.
And we sometimes, though rarely, find a pronoun
put in apposition with a noun : thus
I got it from James, him that, etc.
No distinct
line between
attributive
and apposi-
tive uses of
adjective.
Appositive
construction
of
(1). Predicate
adjective and
noun.
(2). Objective
predicate
adjective.
Pronoun,
used with
appositive
adjective
or noun.
Pronoun,
appo.sitive
to uoun.
Attribtitive
"86 of the
QouQ,
^^^ ^^^TS OF SPEECH.
Afirreement of
attributive
a.'Hl apposi-
tive words.
Ordinary
value of
possessive
case.
Pifirurative
values.
Possessive
iike attribu-
tive adjective.
. On the other h^uA « ~~~ ■""
"' the manner oft" ttriSve'! ,"T ""•J ",en „se<,
My *«„ter Mend- H,.,- „, ? "''•"'''''^e : thus
We may properl, :i ";:', "'"''"'■' ^'- "™„,„;:X.
nonn. Compound nouns 87^ """"^ '"' ««"/,«<,>.
this combination. ^ <*'^ sometimes grow out of
and it is onry%p^;f,X"mai^ "4T^"- "See'S
Pf^^the appositive ...,^ Xl rVo~r-«
P-fertosapC:,\:- -W^ ns, and we
-^n of the Possessircalri/r&V^^P"* *«
With another fr ^ f ^^P^cially used i r . . ""^J-^^^
bv him \J\^ ^^^'^ his debts • ii. \ " ^ "^an
f-fc rnd'ro'-. '■''^ ^-"^ ^eta^ et^ttStr^i^
^42. In this wav «>,«•'
form becomes a modif vi """.".i'?. "« , Possessive cas«.
" "° — t'on to another noun.
COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. i07
id then used
•• thus,
•unimcr boy.
(Attributive
Srow out of
reek, which
heir nouns
^Ppositive
ease, or in
pronouns)
reement is
B exception
nipJe"a«5
nes ''these
iinflected ;
^ssive case
^ to say,
' ^nd we
ay; as,
e put the
tlius,
h nouns
'. called
mection
^ssor of
a book
^; and,
ngr to a
a man
formed
are his
much as if it were an attributive adjective. Often we
can put an adjective in place of the possessive, with
little or no difference of meaning : thus,
The JTwgf'seiown; The r%'6- doings; ilfan's imperfections ;
may also be described as
The royal erown; The daily doings; Hxman imperfections.
The possessive is said to be dependent on the
noun which it describes, or to be governed by it ;
that is to say, the modifying noun is, as it were'
required or compelled by its relation to the other to
take the possessive case-form.
143. The possessive, with the noun on which it is
dependent omitted, is also used in the various other
constructions of the adjective: thus, as simple predi-
cate adjective;
The book is John's; That crown is the King's;
as objective predicate,
I made the book my sister's;
as appositive,
That crown, the King's, is set with jewels.
Also, like an adjective used as a noun: thus,
John's book lies by Barry's. Harry's is on the shelf.
ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS.
144. As the adjective is the usual modifier of the
noun, so the adverb is the usual modifier of the other
member of the simple sentence, the verb; and, as we
have seen, it modifies also the adjective and sometimes
other adverbs.
A word which is generally «.n adverb has very often
the value of a predicate adjective, usually with some
part of the verb be : for example.
The sun is dotvn, the moon is up, and the stars are out.
And the adverb so (32) is much used as a substitute
for adjectives, as well as for other parts of speech
to avoid repetition : thus, '
His step was light, for his heart was so.
Less often, an adverb (32) is used as an appositive
adjective: thus.
Ask at the house next aJjove; The wall icithin, and
that without.
Dependence
of the
possessive.
Used in
various other
adjective
constructions.
FunctiotifU
conversion of
the adverb.
As predicate
adjective;
Especially so.
As apposi-
tive adjective.
P.
Ill
im
\
J 08
As attl•i^»u-
tiveutljective.
As object of a
Prei)ositiou.
Objepfive
f»se of nouns
"sed as
uJverb.
Why tliis
I'elatioii is
valued as
objective.
I>efiiiition of
aaverbial
objective.
Sometimes Tanr? i^
eveu as au ^^rZ^TJ^^;^^-^ adve-b is „«..„
And an adverb m«v K. . ^P^^enee of maimer.
tion with the t.xTl^l Z^^' "^ « P-Posi.
145. Jhir*"''^""*"""' ""'"""' ^'"«•
special case-fom^rt? ''"^^ ^.'"'"' *»"• nonn hi« o
the objective re'istmSf'''/"'- «'«'^-«ven«^
«n. adverb: that is to sav t"^^^ ^i" "■'' manner of
adjective or even an Xrb' '?,'"'"''fy a verb or an
(1 ) . With verbs : Examples are :
They walked a mile- TT^ *
-ed eollo,niX^r^; j™-;n «„, , „^^^
(2)-withaSrs:-^'''-"'^- "'"^'■
A 3e™„?tVo'Z.S ^o'^'f ^-r ?'-'
(3). wiri:::."--^-^^^^^^
this W, and as ou "noun:.*" 'f«''*«'l Pronouns in
« the nominative and oblJf ''^!! '"«''^«°t fon^"
now to show that the ease ft,?' ^^T' '« "othing
objective Bn<- ihic *^"s used is rpaUxr t-u
English andt otoi^r ^™'» *e u agel"^'
jnferitf^mthetcTtte^:!/ «"<1 "'^ ™'^'>t ^o
*o connect such a noun withXtt":, X?. O^
Wemarbr^;'--^--""^r^'-^^^
we may best call this nso «* ti,
^'th the value of an ^dvi'b."' "''^'•'*'^« «««« "se3
COMPLETION OF BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 109
147. It is plain enough, for example, in
He walked a milcy
that mile is an adverbial objective ; the verb being
intransitive as usual. And yet, in such a sentence,
the noun thus used, sometimes so far assumes the
character of an object that we turn it into the subject
of a passive phrase (as we sometimes do an indirect
object also [128] ) : thus,
A mile was walked by him in twelve minutes.
r !t?*-P ^® evident, therefore, that tlieve is no hard and
fast dividing line between the so-called obieetive case
which IS governed " by the verb, and the adverbial
objective, w^hich modifies" it. Indeed, although it has
long been usual in grammar to make a distinction between
tlie objects and the adverbial complements of the verb the
objects are really adverbial also : thus, in '
I gave him a book, and I go home,
him, look, and home limit the meaning of the verbs in their
respective sentences. The general function is the same •
the species of function is difPerent, book and him indicating
respectively the objects directly and indirectly afPected by
the act, and home indicating the limit of the motion.
149. The adverbial objective is used especially to
express measure; whether duration of time, or extent
of distance or space, or weight, or number, or value,
and the like. But it also expresses the time at
which anything happened;, and much more rarely
manner, as in '
/^i^^^u® ^* ^^"^ *^^" ^'^^y' ^® "W^s bound hand and /oo«;
Uld John of Gaunt hath sent jwst-hastc; He came full speed.
Now and then, such an adverbial objective is, like the
adverb, added to a noun, with an appositive adjective
value: thus.
My dream last night; His adventures this day.
ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. f\^ -
150. Therj -^ yet another way in which a nou/ (6r
pronoun) with an appositive adjective or a word or
phrase of the same value, is sometimes made to
modify some word or phrase in a sentence, without
having its relation to what it modifies denoted either
Adverhlal
objective
valued as a
direct
objective.
Objectives
" governed '
by verbs,
really
adverbial
modifiers.
Adverbial
objectives,
especially
used to
express
measure.
Used as
appositive
adjective.
110
I s!
I'l .■!
lit iJil
by a ea«e^for„, by a connecting
He lay down, his ;,,,,,., ^„.5.
H /.. . •>. ."^"^ sorrow .•
rvt » "' '^li^OKl in hiinri ...,,1 .. ■
The
visor
AbMiute The nonn „. 7.1 '*■■ «'™8lite.-ed sire
WMiruction noun and the annnt.;f . ■
vHiaed ,."'°' aecompanyins trait nL^'^'^^'''^'' together si^nifv .
bjal predicate adlectlve'^ ' 'tZT^f ^" '^•i-'
or a conjunction and the va.Va " *"«'* or /"'WW
kmd, which might have bein ted T"™^*?""^ ''f h^
He lay down, l^.^^n^l^Zt^^" °'"'"'^ ^ t^us,
He lay down, while hT, i,f f"'' '""''y. etc. ;
He flies 'witi'ti^^ir i-n'I^n- •'•■^' ■•
■"© flies, and wiiri ♦^ '^"^ "i nis look;
And, indeed, ^e o Jn « T' 'V" '* '°°*-
expressed in modern En^hshv, f" P'-«Position with
'^""h'^SJ ;™'"«?o„,.cou„trv.t!/.^ ^"_ "«.«<1' thus,
I^s modern
equivalent.
Why c.illed
With fv, — '"-"^^ ^'^'wsmietion wonU i.^ ^ ^";^iisn,
^»</i the enemy invading our eounftVl ^^ "^^^- ^^iis,
A word, used like heart /.... ' "^'"'^ ".^^^"«* ^t.
I *
\ to be used absolutely 7v\lZ'' ^1^" ^^ove, is said
\ -n, because it apptt To s'tanVLif '^'"^
1 r^,^« concerns its grammatipp? '/ ^"^ ^^ose, ' ' so
/sentence to which it^^on^f ^,^^^
/.relation to the words it moS ?^^*A« "^ual sign of
Thecase > The absolute cnn«fl ?- — ^ ^^ wantiHff --^^^^^
S.S;.:; :;'haparti„arte\:"l*-a% common
■and the pronoun, which i? ,ff """ °'' Pronoun-
\tx-ueaoM except with a far LT^ i'^*"" '" this conl
)now used is regularly "iCi^^^:;'^ ''"*' '^« "-
IpJeSffoS' nectfn; lP^T^'«°»^«^hl°fs"e?W27> . .
iiecting word by means of ,„^- I '"^'^ '» be a eon-
's brought into relation wTm'"'' "^ "o™ O'' Proi'o^ i
forming with the noun or ^ """'her word, thus
"■odities the other word in T™"""" " Phrase 'which
preposition. The .11'^. !?">« ^ay defined hv /k.
■""-■"= "'°^ «^P«ssed are most
THE PREPOSITION.
Ill
Thus we say
TOW
down :
rht;
tier:
re.
.signify an
hey are used
* an adver-
or having
'ling of the
tted; thus,
e.;
>te.;
i^ion tvith
r English,
d: thus,
to remain;
nst it.
'e, is said
eonstruc-
oose,''so
from the
i-Sign^of
common
>ronoun ;
fiis eon-
the case
' a eon-
>ror>oun
h thus
ivhieh
hv flick
e most
hke^that expressed by the ease- inflection of the noun
And some languages have other case-forms to express
other relations which we express by prepositions only :
for example, hy,from ("ablative" case), in ("loca-
tive case) , and ivith ( ' ' instrumental ' ' case) .
The noun or pronoun attached to another word by
the preposition is called the object of the preposition
or IS said to be governed by it, and is put in the
objective case. And a preposition is sometimes
tollowed by a construction which resembles that of the
objective predicate adjective used aopositively (138) •
thus, for example, ' ^ v / •
He came in with his hands dirty.
152. The preposition and its object form together
what IS called a prepositional phrase, to distinguish
It from the phrase (as, for example, out of, as regards,
instead of J which has the value of a preposition and is
called a preposition phrase (36). The special duty
of a preposition is to form a prepositional phrase,
and we shall, therefore, now consider the general
syntax of such a phrase, taking up the more difficult
relations hereafter.
/63. The prepositional phrase has a value in the
sentence resembling that of the adjective and the
adverb ; and it is, accordingly, to be estimated as an
adjective or adverb phrase. Thus, for example :
As adverb :
It burned to the ground; He spoke loith anger;
He stood in this place;
As appositive adjective :
A house ofioood; a man of truth; a residence in the suburbs;
As predicate adjective : '
This house is oftvood; He seems of good repute;
As objective predicate adjective :
They danced themselves out of breath;
He drove the man out of his wits;
As modifiers in the absolute construction :
They left the convention, their minds at ease;
As adverbial objective :
He ran /or a mile; He came at full speed.
Relations
expressed.
Its Kovern-
meut.
Preposition
and Pre-
positional
phrases.
Values of the
prepositional
phrase.
Used in the
constructions
of the
adjective and
adverb.
III :i
J12
;?i 'l
SomepreposI
tional adverb-
Phrases,
stereotyped.
Interjections,
sometimes
Incomplete
exclamations.
^r:,TAX OF THE PABTS OF SPMECB.
objects of prepositions- ^"^""^''^ <>' verbs or
"""""«»'« is the best place- Th„ „„,
And they may be Z^T, ™" """ "'^'^ '*« »«"'-
example, ^ ""^ ^ """^'A^d by adverbs: thus, for
It is much to my Jikiniy- TT« .1 ^
154. Many prlposit.on 7 ""* '^ ""« ''''''•
assumed such a EoCeS 'form ^W^^''^''^ have
hardly to be taken apart n,?^ ?"* ""* words are
for example, ^ " """^ Pa'-sed separately: thu^
in fact, at hand, on the whole fn t- .
Sometimes, indeed suT V ' '" ™'°' "' P^^'""*-
enanp, due to stress (70 nh'fl'' °'^ '^'th phonetic
wh.ch a represents a», the M^fo'^'^', "^rU, Jea^t-t
155 Th. • . /NTERJECTION.
not, iu the^oSfSe'^ ^t '"'^^ ^^'■'■(ao) are
do not form part"7aTe„tenerV\^?«<*h' «« ^ey
m a eerta n way an ,,nT -j . ^'^^ interjection i/
language of feelinrrrher'"?,''' '?"*''"«« P"* n tte
Sometimes, howevfr nr^f *'"*"." «'«* of reason
complete the eSmVo'n'Tssrl'd ^ ^-l-'-^d "„
then resen.bles an ineom^lersintlte'-'thr''^"''''"
Ah «e/ Alas the day, o Ar » .., ' '
Which might be thn= '^^ """'"'■ <""«*/«"«««,•
reason: ^^' '" *^"« ^^P^^^^ed in the language of
Ipityme: Tmnn^r.*u. J
The Nomina-
tive of
address.
reason; - -« wic ianguage
i pity me ; I mourn the day • I w.Kh f.
. — .;„:.. ^^ ^ Js very often hsp^ ;» .^^. .
156. The r) ,'. " 7 '"""'"^^ «aJ°i» a thankful hea
• Vh:To.:^Ki;\i;lt-.n'^ the
I- Greek) of f>i« I ^ ^^* calling"
ictJKy or tile pronoTin nf fi.^ ^.„_° ,
nominative ease (the so-canpri"'"^""V'*""^®^«; with the
case of Latin or Greek) of tl ^^'^^^^^ "^r^' calling-
person and with tl^.'^^rlon^^^^^ *^« ^^n^i
.„ wiiu me common case nf fi^ ,"""
O <*<«. that bringest good mZ^^- *' """" = *"'
Thus uteTtb ""' "*■' ^" --■'^''%'i^'r-'
nomin'aZe'Zaares:: ''™"°"'' '« ^-d to be in the
djectives or
>f verbs or
rERBS— CLASSES.
us
^er the barn.
• thus, for
one side.
ises have
words are
^^iy- thus,
t present.
ompounds,
h phonetic
abreast; in
(30), are
: as they
action is,
it in the
reason.
Hired to
3rjection
nrt;
wage of
j1 hea
ith the
second
thus,
vens !
VII. VERBS.
ihl^^' A^ f**'* ^^ ^'•'^''^' ^'onsidered in a ffonoral w«v
the word, phrase, and danse : we will now ?x-uS
CLASSES.
ACCORDING TO MEANING
ft »«7 7. these classes shade into each "the" and
It IS not always possible to make this distincHon
the thmg the subject stands for; the adjective Zb«
being then classified as transitive and inVrans[tive
We have already seen (125) that some veZ that are
«s t^-r-di^]; ^:^^-^-^
taking into account to whom or to what it is done (mf
• "^/^'^i^«^t,« for the examination;
that is, -The sun s.^ms fo move itself-; - Clouds .^r.aci
Tmnsitive
ftiul intransi-
tive : shade
into each
other.
Copula and
adjective-
verbs.
Peculiar
transitive
verbs :
(1). Reflexive.
'mpm$fmm» :i.'
114
VERBS.
Shade Info
Intrmisitivea
(2). Rerlpro-
cal.
Shade into
lutransitives.
(3). Middle.
Causativos.
formed :
themselve/t over flio uL-^r»» i
<>W«r EnXr Z\ I '„rl"" ?,"• ^''^' "'"■'• ™"'» i"
(tv<';.<;i., for i„»„L^') ";"'^„„;; ;;;;; ',";"'■->} i-.^.w-.s
press,.,!; but tli,) nr,.,. „t t .,„f "■"''■"■'■^ *< •>ft«^» ex-
example, "■""'' "'"''<' ''« proper; thus, for
When are you goiug to washt
verb shades off iilto tlu i, ransitivo ' m' "'' ^.^/^^^^fl^^ive
aiid s/m^..^ i„ a hurry," we feel the v.J'' "' ^^ "^^''^''^^^
;n ''He stopped ^^hor"^ '' Tnd st 1 t >^«'^ '""'
"ot evident. ^' *"® reflexive meaning- is
cois'truotr:!'' "' "'^ ^««^'''™ ™>* »''ows itself in s„eh
Pox-terriers nearly „i„„y, j-^,,, „^,„ ,^^^ ,^_^^^
express belongs to the verb ™V°l, "" "' """^''<^ty they
/•«.>«.«/. Ami, as in tTo ^al ^^f «. therefore, called
reciprocal meani ,g mav n, ? r»™!- ^^e^'™ verbs, the
may be valucl as intransitive: ttos '""''"" ""'^ "'" ^'^
We shall mcci upon the river
The cakes ute short and crisp • '
atri":n"'T'],e"a1± ^'"?*°''^ °^ »-^''W>-*' Alls it-.
.;e«„itenes.-.rS\;-rbrect^^^^^^^
aeti"ve!^%el':' t'^ 7^ "AS'^-lIy"' ''>" '°™ '»
expresse,! a meaning between the 1,,™''^:,''? '* t'><'.V
conjugation. This use is ,e.M ! ''T'' '""* ""^ Pa-ssive
the reflexive use of Ihi v!v ^ 'J '*•■""" '""' "^teuLn of
above as meaning '°fll/s Le™"' '""^ «'« '"'■f.''" t»fe /^fe
Jn.ll ^r^.''^'^'.°^ transitive verbs deserve „„„„„.„
*''^" ""«■'" ^'i 'l'^'- ">eaning;-AsweWe
CLASSES.
?16
"icJi verbs in
im this class
er; thus, for
reflexive, we
(> look upon
,lie reflexive
* Ho washed
■stopped for
moaning" is
self in such
>ieet.
et, are one
n-ocity they
3re, called
verbs, the
1 the verb
rically the
well ;
fills it";
mt of it.s
id hate.''''
■ form is
if they
' passive
nsion of
ake fills
bite, hait;
blink, blench;
«an, ken;
clink, c/c«c/t/
drink, drench;
fall, /c//;
fare, ferrif;
lie, %;
q'mll, 7uc?Z;
sit, .vc//
swoop, sweep.
mutation: thus, ^ '' ^ '"*''"'« «" ''• «>at is, by "■jn^'ijHi^
not subject to mutation. ^^ ^''^ ^"^^ " «'''» '
raise<,.m.a (causa. infln.)<™<,, stem of grad. past of
V.I^ ris-a, "to rise."
veA!';itY^^rii:lrt[er 1'^^^^^ * V?^ ^^ ir-^f ^ve M.„on.
peculiar uses with i^ arsuhi-ppt fl •. ^ """^ ""^^'^^^'^ ^^^^« ''''•''•
a notion present to tL S^t"^^^^^ ^-Present
some action or process S^oini on ^f ^'^ u'^^'''''" ^^""^
impersonal, and are sai ctnTf i .^"''' ^^''^^ ^^^ «^"«<l
thev^WrMif J ^^^.sf.i<l to be used impersonally (because
they admit ot no variation of person) . Examples are
It rains; It es fine weather ; It greio dark ;
It m?; /are ill with him.
occt'^in^rtl^ee:' wZutr""' ''""•"^.r"^''"""" ^^^^
taking place. Such sentences shade off h 'T '.'
the .subjects, though ahnost M„able ale " ' '" "^^'"'^
wholly undeflned to the speaWsml^d • this, "' """"™'
It fa very dark ; It is grovviug dark ; Is it coL., to this »
The number of impersonal verbs has decreased since the
J!
116
Cniue of
VEUDS.
Character-
iBtlcH of ( )Ifl
Conjiijfatioii:
Qrndiition
pasty.
ACCOKDIXO TO FORM
4^^-a?;;i'^r (i';i,);l,t;:,.;,t tr;r'i' "'"««-• "■•
expivsH ,,.ist time 'H , , '" *"™ "^e^ to
..■.uiatio^ (7,.)"-i:' .m. ■ re r;;;!;^'^,^^-"!' -^
tliiis form iiL' what arr oJh.i ILJ }■ ' '"« ^te"'.
perfect purtieiil ends i'f "''"'"'" "«^t«; the
sonnd is the same as tla of fh« 'T' ""'' '*« ^"«"''-
or else is diiferent ^^m bou' "huf™ '■" °' ^^ 1">^^-
Boot Infill., g ve; past tense, ^ave- nerf nn.f •
bite; " ' r;7' P ..P*^^*'' g'vei;
^^^' bitten;
fly;
<<
flew;
flown.
Character-
istics of New
Conjugjition:
Tongiieston
pasts.
Root Infin., love; past, loved; p. „
wish; " wished;
^oad; " loaded;
I »^ed (pv. ft)
v.i^hed (pr. /)
loaded (pr. ed)
Consona.'tal
and Vowe:
Weak and
Strong 2o/
Jugations.
a^fae'v^rbf of\hiff ^o-'j'"?"""". because nearly
than thosrof the otherTSto^fh "' ^.^*'"' «"^-
i-S the past tense the OM^ •*\'^'"''' °* ^o™'
^■•y »ame the w^^i conlu^ ln""''"?*A°" '^ """"^^d
is called the .^frn„™t^' ":■:•. "i™- tl?e Old conjugation
" =■ "'^" -">= i"*** Ihe weaA; it bein.'
U^
CLASSES.
117
'<;« "f iiiflcc-
•f expression.
■>e " (that is,
'iHu present
lUg.
classes, or
'm used to
teristios of
ied ending
^ n alt of
the stem,
pasts; the
its vowel-
' the past,
givei;
l>itfen;
flown.
the verbs
Teutonic;
ense and
the addi-
' tongue-
ivhat are
p". (^)
P'-. t)
pr. ed)
' nearly
' origin
)f form-
> called
3w, the
iisration
t beiuor
Both found
in Oothic.
fancifully repraseuted that the Old vonjugation v. as
help, whereas the New was coo wmk to do so.
A difiperenee between tli(> vowels of the nnst nml fTm t
n!'p«<»iif M7'n ;„ 4» 1 • "'"'»" "I lilt, pasr and tlie TonKn** stop
piesLUt U7,j;, IS found m a few verbs which take the »»"'*•'- ^^'ti.
tongrue-stop sutHx : thus, for example, SSi
Sell, sold; tell, told; seek, sought; buy, bought.
The distinction between the New and tliP Obi n
conjugation consists, therefore, in the adding or the '"-'r^r <"'»
not adding to the stem of a tongue-stop consonant to S/uiuion.
the vowels^"" ' ''""^ '" ^^'^ differentiation of
Although one conjugation is called the New both
extant Teutonu, languages. Few, however, of the
root-verbs belong to the New conjugation, and there
are cases in which the root-verb has disappeared and
In Old En^in^^ '' ''" ""^ r'^^^^''^' renuxins^
in Old English, too, as m Modern English, a newly
formed verb always belongs to the New conjugation
A \^^" ^^1^^^^ original Arian, the pasts were formed bv
doubling the root, with plionetic changes, due to stre^^
-a process known as reduplication. This was the
regular mode m ancent Greek, as, for example, in phengo
(I flee), ,.e-pheug.a; tupt-o (I strike), te-tuph-a; and there
are traces of it in Latin-in the third, and probably oldest
conjugat.on-thus, for example, can-o, clcin-i. In the
leutonic languages this mode of formation was grnduallv
supplanted by vowel-gradation-to such an extent iS
hat, in present English, reduplication has let no
undoubted traces of its presence. It was preserved
anguage, a few of our verbs are believed to owe their pasts
to reduplication, and so are a connecting link between the
ImsairarVw^^ ""' ^r^^ huigliges. Gmdeton
has also affected the forms produced by reduplication.
., ffi'^'^f ;^^1?*'^''^ ^" *"™' ^^^« PJ^ce to the tongue-stoD An. .
suffix of the New Conjugation (-de or -te. wv:h or wifhnn. ? l"n' ^T*
connecting vowel and with -e final sounded) As fnfi/J tongrne-stop
ongin of this sufc, little is kaown? sle ytr. ag^ '""-■
Arlan Redu-
plication;
Gave way to
gradation;
Ai
^^^^^'-^-i-^^^^f, 'i*^
(fit
1 :':
118
VERBS.
Origin of the
tongue-stop
suflix.
Paradigms of
love and f/if e
contrasted.
Number of
different
forms in
each.
scholars supposed it to be a develonmB^t f
our verb do; so that <iii<.h ""; "'"Pment from the root of
equivalent ollo^e-m.' Tht tWhow """'K ™"''' ""^ "'«
"P or greatly modified and »ll tl ^t' '"'r«™'-. ''«« beengi eu
that the suiMx originated in If '" ""T" '<"• ""rtain is
specialized for thif purpose in ?heT'^", '''^'' y'"*-* became
i-uipose in the Teutonic sub-faraily only.
1 fi^ _^'*"A'>'<'MS OF CONJUGATIONS.
reference fn ZtfolK"' Jj^^.T "' ""«5^'' «■"» *«■•
verbs, one fromla'^'Ziugidt!"™" "' *"" ••«^»'«
NEW CONJUGATION. OLD CONJUGATION.
I.-INFLECTED FORMS.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Person. Sing. VhZT'^ ^'T'
1- l<>ve ^iZt «P«- Plural.
2- (lovest) Jove f -^ .n ^^^^
3. loves (loveth) love ^(^iiveth) £;:
1.
2.
3.
loved
(lovedst)
loved
Past T 67186.
loved gave
loved rgavest)
loved gave
gave
gave
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
inn , Present Tense.
^> ^) o. Jove „.
give
1 o Q 1 , Past Tense.
^: ^y o, Joved
gave
2^ 2 IMPERATIVE MOOD.
°^® give
II.-DERIVED FORMS.
INFINITIVES.
love, to love «;,,^ ^„ .
give, to give
loving „. .
^ giving
IMPERFECT PARTICIPLE
^^^^^g giving
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
loved
given
verroflL^NetTo'^Lttn Z''^'^' *^ «^"»-
different formsi thu^ "" ^ '*'' *'*"^'y
love, lovest, loves (or loveth), loved, I„«d,t •— -
H ill
PARADIGMS OF COKJUGATtONS.
119
n the root of
would be tJie
as been g-i eu
for certain is
hich became
-family only.
iel, and for
two regular
UTION.
lural.
ive
ive
ive
ave
av**
ive
regular
actually
revenf'ti;;^'"'''''^' "^ ""^ 0'<1 conjugation have
give, givert, gives (or giveth), gave, gavest, giving, given.
In both conjugations also, the root-infinitive the
unpei-ative, and the present tense in the sub miVtive
and the plural and first po.-sou shLXr of the
indieatiye, are the same as the stem; anfthe imper-
till' the\^«J<- w *'«"''^*'''«> J^no«' only the root-infini-
tTmSerZ , Z' "'V^ """**' P^'^^Pl^' "' order
to unaerstaud the whole conjugation of anv verb
Hence these three are called the principal va^'
and, m describing any verb ..,ey are to be given '
person'am]°n^!'^r"'^ the jaradigm, the inflections for
person and number are -st, -s, and -th.
tettn the n«.V ^^^^,*^^lP^»'««n singular is like the
nrst m the past ; but in the present, adds -s or -th
St and the third person in -th, once in common use are
found only in the higher and the solemn style Td f^r
the second person singular we ordinarily use the
second person plural ; so that -. is the only iXct on
Engnr" "' "'"''' '" ^"""^^^ -'' - P~
injs^%f^'f'!;d%*7^^^''^-^^!^ ^* the personal end-
ings, St, -s and -th, is sometimes accompanied with
various modifications of the sounds for greater Tase
pronunciation (71), or of spelling to fndicate the
sound to the eye, or of both sounds and spelling
sound of'^"^''*^'^ ^^ '^' *h^^^ P^^««^ '^^^^^^ becomes the
(rh^\.-7''''''f- '5 ^^^^f'' *h^ hiss-sounds (57) s, z sh
(c^=fs/i, and ^=d!^), thus in writing: >' *» ^» sn,
hisses, buzzes, rushes, touches, judges.
vo!vd;:^husf '^''''*^' other voiced consonants and the
dabs, sins, hoes, rows, adds, begs.
Principal
parts.
Inflections of
indicative for
person and
number.
■S, the only
inflection in
t Jimon us*
Changes of
sound and
spelling.
;T3
.1-1'
< i a
Iff ?=■
iff 'i
M
m
VERBS.
Subjunctive
and impera-
tive, invar-
iable.
Origin and
decay of
person and
number
inflections.
Reference
paradigms,
contrasting
O.E. and
Mod. E.
verbal inflec-
tions.
(3). Voicele.ss s, after voiceless consonants: thus,
hits, scoffs, mocks, raps.
svlTabirSf' ^""^ ''^-««""ds regularly form an additional
syhable, with various modifications of the spelling: thus,
lov-e5^, Iov-e//i; rn^-n-est, rxm-n-eth:
cavv-i-est, carr-i-eth; disahl-est, dlsabl-e</i (G8).
Sometimes, after a voiced consonant, the -.9^ does not make
an additional syllable: thus, castedst; and Zo.'.Vfor ZokT/!
fj J^^"''^'''"''''!''''' ^''^ *^'^ imperative have no varia-
tions for mood, person, or number; the imperative
tive, and the subjunctive forms being the same as the
corresponding indicative forms when uninfleeted
\f "^'^^.P^'^ff ^"^^ are the regular forms ; the exceptions,
ot which there are a few, will be taken up further on.
165. The variation of the verb to show the person and
he number of its subject originated and was serviceable "n
s biecJ w! «' T'^'^tr ^V"^ ^•^^n^n^^Se, to s1k>w what the
subject was when the order of the words in the sentence
was not fixed as at present. It began to disappear IZll
the language was becoming analytic and the order of the
words was comiug into use to show their relations. As the
to lowing 0. E. conjugations show, this variation was the
hp ' V. f ^"^ V* • *'*'^^'- ^" P^^'^^^^t ^"^li«^^ it has become
the exception: it is now a mere survival which we could
dispense with, and is a cause of confusion among the
uneducated whose language, of course, shows best the
natural tendencies. .
THE VERB IN OLD ENGLISH.
l^^; The following is a paradigm of bindav, an O.E.
verb of the Old conjugation. To it are appended those
torms of hadan of the New, the inflections or the sutfixes of
which are different from those of the corresponding forms of
the paradigm of the Old conjugation. These O.E. forms are
accompanied by the Early, Middle, and Modern English
torms, which will serve to convey a general idea of the
difference between the O.E. inflected and the Mod. E
uninfleeted system, and of the process by which the e'
inflections have been r( ' '
B person and
serviceable in
row what the
the sentence
appear while
order of the
ons. As the
tion was the
t has become
eh we could
amon^ the
ws best the
3nded those
le suffixes of
ing- forms of
E. forms are
ern English
idea of the
le Mod. E.
h the 0. E.
THE VERB IN OLD ENGLISH.
121
OLD CONJUGATION.
OLD ENGLISH. EARLY AND MIDDLE ENGLISH.
I.— INFLECTED FORMS.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular.
MODERN ENGLISH.
Person.
!• bind-e
2.
3.
h'n\^- est
bind-e</i
1.
2.
3.
bind-e
biiid-es« C-es, -is, .ys, in
Northern dialect) "
h'md-eth, hint (and -es
-*s, -rjs in Northern
dialect)
Plural.
h'md-eth, bind-e (-es, -is,
and -ys, in Northern
dialect; -en in Midland)
Past Tense.
. , Singular
band
bund-e bond-e
band band (bond)
1, 2, 3. bind-a<^
bind
{h'md-est)
bind-s (hind-eth)
bind
band
bound
{hourxd-est)
bound
Plural.
1, 2,3.|^^"^«"' bond-en, bond'-e, bond
I or bundioi bound
bound
1, 2, 3. bind-e
f bind-tt,.
' I or -en
1, 2, 3. bund-e bond-e
r bund-e?i
1 and -on
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD,
Present Tense.
, . , Singular. •
bind-e
f ,, , Plural.
' ' I or -en ^i^d-en, bind-e
Past Tense.
Singular.
r u J Plural.
190/ bund-e?i, , ,
' ' **• I and -on ^ond-en, bond -e
2. bind bind
2. h'md-ath
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singixlar.
Plural.
bind-e</i (-es in Northern
dialects)
bind
bind
bound
bound
bind
bind
J 22
VERBS.
OLD CONJUGATION
rrnfl ... "-^^«^VED FORMS. '"''
(Inflected in Old Eno-U^h „o
^nglKsh as noims and adjectives.)
INFINITIVE.
IMPERFECT PARTICIPLE.
bind-eHf?e omd-ewrfe (-intle, -and
-ande, -inge, -ing) ' binding
-ande, -inge, -ing)
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
bond, bound-cw, bound
{9e-)hund-en ^^'-^^'i-Jhond-en, bond-e
1.
2.
3.
NEW CONJUGATION.
I.-INFLECTED FORMS.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
r^, , Singular.
bel-c-r?e, hel-e-d
beal-ed?
(heal-ed-st)
hea]-ed
heel -de
iml-de-st hel-e-delt
b«el-rf« hel-e-de, hei-e-d
1 o Q 1 'i , Plural.
'^^'hhel-ed.e,hel-edheal.ed
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Past Tense.
log 1, ', , Singular.
12 3 /^»J-^e«, , ^''"■«>-
' -1 or-t?on ^el-«-^?^^^-^-^.,and-..^ beared
n.-DERIVED FORMS
r/,.. 'iV, 'l ^ PER»"ECT PARTICIPLE.
f??l'' t^tZZam!^' £:f'Z .'— ' 'he imperative
*«««« are the same a" those of It '"'Perfect participle of
btndan. * '"°*"' °' "le correspoudinjf form, of
NEW CONJUGATION.
123
ODERN ENQLlsr.
jeetives.)
id, to bind
bind
iing
Id
3d
■ed-st)
d
d
operative
i«iple of
forms of
NEW CONJUGATION.
^nmJ'Jl ^^^ ?i^- ^«;^J"^'ation, the tongue-stop Modifioatious
suffix makes an additional syllable only after another «f *«"«««-
tongue-stop consonant, when, of com^se the ending ""^""^•
In many verbs of this class -t was often written
instead of an original -d in early printed literature of
Modern English, and some people are beginning to
write it again. ^
•In solemn styles of reading and speaking, the -ed is
sometimes sounded still as a separate syllable after all
stems. Then, of course, the -d has the voiced sound
as there IS no association, and, consequently, no need
tor assimilation (71) with a preceding voiceless
sound.
These are the regular methods. But a great many
verbs ot this conjugation are more or less irregular
some even to such a degree and in such ways, that it
might seem doubtful whether they ought not to be
classed with verbs of the Old conjugation
TTPE VERBS'.
IRREGULAR CLASSES.
• ^^?V ^})' ^/-^ "'''''® ™'^***^^ '^^ spelling, in some verbs
in which the -d IS pronounced like a t, either -ed or -t is U). dress,
allowed to be written (especially in the participle) • thus dressea, or
' dre$t;
dress, dressed or drest ; bless, blessed or blest; pass
passed or past. '
And, as we saw above, this class is being extended
beyond what has for some time been usual.
(2). Some verbs, after a final w or Z sound in the stem, f^yrv.bumed,
.1 5S i"" '^"^ (pronounced as -d), or -t, probably owinsr to ''" *'""''•
the ditheulty in pronouncing the voiced consonants together:
burn burned or burnt
dwell dwelled or dwelt
learn learned or learnt
pen penned or pent
smell smelled or smelt
spell spelled or spelt
spill spilled or spilt
spoil spoiled or spoilt
169. Some verbs, of which thp rnof ortAo i^ ^ ^u* — ?
n or r, either add -ed, or simply change the final -d into -t.
y
124
VERBS.
f t
f
(2). bevP,
tj*>nt, bent;
blend,
blended,
blent.
H'i!LlSSfa;''.ltVnt'^
bend bent / ^^f "fled
1 bent
blend blended / ^^en<ied
I hlonf
^uild bdilt
I blent
/ builded
I built
gild JsM^d f gilded
Uilt [gilt
(8). creep,
crept;
leap, leaped,
or leapt.
gird \ ^.""^ed f girded
lend lent feat
rend /tended Trended
I rent | rent
send sent sent
spend spent spent
wend /wended
t went wended
flee, fled.
*/u. u;. verbs wliieh nrlrl + (a ^
peared) and shorten the vow;f of lelf^^ " ^^^^^"^ ^''^'-^P"
as often happens when two or^ "'"'"'" ^^^"""^iation,
tofifether: ^^® ^^ "^^^e consonants come
creep
deal
dream
feel
kneel
keep
reave, reft.
crept
dealt
dreamed or dreamt
kneeled or knelt
kept
Jean leaned or leant
^eap leaped or leapt
mean meant
sleep slept
sweep swept
weep wept
IS represented by he corresDonHi^ consonant of the present
the past and p. p'art. In Stl'-Tr'''''^" ■ <'''?'*"™"t i"
consonant of the present hpfk! ""e origmal voiceless
assimilation betweeVtrv^rete Tt^^^
rtvT .'LT™' "■■ '"'^'«
leave left
lose lost
^leove, ** split" of thp Ol^ « •
<^W/'adhere," sreL^^^^ ^^^^ also cleft.
as Its past. Th^se two^verb's ^LIT' ^%?«"^^ti"^es used
and their pasts have been intJI? «"«^*^°^e confounded
belong-s to the New verb and rf ^^'^F^A ^^'f* lightly
is now obsolete. ^°^ '^^"' *« *^« ^^^ verb. !,««;,
ad^tglh^^o'etj''"" ^'^^^^^^^ «f the vowel-sound,
fl^« fled say said shoe shod.
H^nl from near is a case by itself, but is most like to this
hm
NEW CONJUGATION.
*sult of stress
l\y -t:
J girded
1 girt
lent
/ rended
I rent
sent
spent
wended
aving- disap-
'onuuciation,
>nauts come
ed or leant
ed or leapt
at
fc
?8Tilarity as
the present
?nsonant in
il voieele'^s
■ stress a:" = )
dfian) ;
also cleft.
imes used
unfounded
ft rightly
b. Heave
^el-sound,
b to this
5ast and
' or -te.
125
be'cZ: sittetS-"""'"*^'"' '"■''^' "«" *« '<•»« vowels ,„. „.^.
bled.
bleed
breed
feed
bled
bred
fed
lead led
meet met
read read
speed aped
light lit
betide betid
east
cost
cut
hit
hurt
knit or knitted
put shred
quit or quitted shut
rid giit
^®t spit
shed sDlit
down ''"nnrtT r"'T"*"' ""'' '''>'" ('>'• "Hohl) "come
pZ"ZL " ""'""<'' "'^""'''^^y '" tl'« P»«t and
tliose in par. 170 exoeol fh- H*^" " ""V'f -"^""'^^^ '<> "T'"""'-
sl.ort, undergoes no ^SVctn^e :«.;:: ^"^ ""'"^ "
spread
sweat or sweated
thrust
wet or wetted
whet or whetted
Spit had a past spat which is still n«pr1 np „n ^i
added7f6;):'Z'„!U'"'' ™'"'^^^ ^'-^°""'l '» "«
chinl!" the" vowe"l IZJ'^V'if '?"f »''-''°f ^"^^ ""d al«o (6). T„,^..
verbs^latbeTrenTe fnfTni, ™ endin. and f;""'!^' *"<'^'' -"""--^
which, caused vowe.-n,„tati:nrthu'^^\Te Too ''oVS'is'",! ""^"-
(seen m our sa/e) ; so that the O F L// ./ "
and what has reiliy chaitdL^ P^et^lZ^tS'pS'"'''
catch caught tlaCi t°,"tt >™'* | "'-""S'"
bring brought tZk IZngL t or worl^ed
buTdSeretf mlaZ!' "° "''^*''' P''''^^"' <" "'^ »'''«'^ f"™ '
tVTni:"tr,::^i""r''''^''^^-''^-^^^^^^
uiinK, and the other thyncean, " to seem "
except in the solemn style.- a.for-JStlj'S j^^?* 'w™:
126
VERBS.
))' ) 1
(7). Contract
ed: have,
make, clothe.
Irregtilar
inflections;
have, need.
Decay of the
p.E. Old con
jugation.
Classiflcation
of O. E.
Old verbs.
..^.ne are shorteiu'rl V,7 " "»«^e verbs /tare,
stress) which has produS e ]os^ of 7/"'!^^^'"" ^^^»« ^o
of the stem: thus, had, 1:^/^?/^'',^"'^' consonant
r^iade O.E. ^'^«cWe; which etlvW' /if ^''' ''''^'''^ «^ ^^"dde;
tne UDcontracted form clothed I ^^\t' dad "^"'^'' ^'^"^
17*; rp, INFLECTIONS.
I/O. I he tense-inflection cV fh^ \t
alvyays regular (IM). B,t7„° 'i.t^T ^^b '« almost
in the present singular Ml,,,, ' ^^ ''«"'™''t'on, ii-regnlar
iV«. haVT'thrVrV^ ''""'' '"""' ( = "--)•
Present E^Iish pre ;™«Swr."?r"'T'. Tf' »^ «^^<'.
-t-,nfin,.lve(„..al,,.ltl,1,:t\^^^^^^^^^
but „..inotJ:i::c""^" ■""«"'
He ,«crfs to go; He needs more eoui'am
In these constructions needs has •■ «t •! •
need. ""«* "as a stronger meaning than
176 I oi , T ^°^''"*^^™'*-
hundred simple v^-bf of Vl.^OM """'" ''''?''^' «"'««
speak of numero„ner"*.ive«H '^°"'"«''««n. ""t to
only seventv-oio-lit 1, .* tneretroni. Of these
Eve";. rSld Eng i h L™"'''"'' "SP''''^'"" ^nglS t'
the Old eoniugatior And «ud«.'th7''l "'*'^'' '"
analogy, not only did all newl f ^ "iflnenee of
to the New eonjugation ., t f "'^ ! '™'''* "'^''''^ belong
eight verbs have ^w New fn""''*""" '** '''^ ^«^«»ty
eighty-eight of the otIef;:.£'oTthf on ' '*"" '^^'°"'
now belong wholly to the New. conjugation
intlY-uumbe'S'ttlS dl.e" ^Id eonjngation fall
the division are to be seen onffi' «"' *^? ^''""'"'^ "*
English, and in some of the n^tl," " "'''"'' ^°""« «f
to English, and the limit? of thl'' 'f"8^"T' ''^'^''^^
ver^ much confused ^:^^^,^^'~,:^ have beeu
OLD CONJUGATION.
d frmight by
e verbs have,
tion (due to
al consonant
'/t', or /««r/</e;
at c^o^/ie Ims
t> is almost
n, irrt'g-ular
es).
•'>' or need,
med by the
lees): thus,
^ning than
•st three
11, not to
)f these,
Eng-Iish.
d ceased
made to
lenee of
i belong
56 veil ty-
d about
"Ration
ion fail
nids of
rnis of
related
e been
127
not always the same vowfi as he steJ, n.^ "^^j Pf ^««"-^ J»«<1
pers. sing. Traces of thi. iff ""^ ^^'^ ^''''^ »"^1 third
the pi. of uj audi u *^'^^'^^^"^'« ^re still seen in tvere,
while.^e.andS W.^f/^^^^^^^^^ T" "f '^^«*^'
of the sing, in Old En^hl «1? v^ ^' "! ^'''"^ <^^^^ ^^wel
And, in tlfe case of tme tS tl/rf^ 'nl "' '^^^ P^"^^^'
tc the use of a or w (178) ' ^ ""^'^^ uncertainty as
tear.na break hZCn'JZc7\ '")""' ""i "'"l »"«*» "'
contain the vowel of thp n^S °^ ''^ ""'" '""' '»'"'"' «'"<*
given way to the past forms kM, satXZ'' """"• '"'™
4°s^p»«eSe:^irno':™^rX''i:st"r'''°' ^-^r »'
in the old forms, slungenrlnT^JuL T^l '""'^^' "«
again, it may be rLineror fet off Jl?,°"""' ™?'"'!
tendency to discard the endintr-tlmrJf' * ""'*<'<1
and (rod, cAidrfcj and cIM ' ' * "'"' ^"*' "■"*«
we''do"not':r;'L"&ilT'-' <" "f «" ™"^''*^--"-
ones, and mLe°y g^oTto Jtt^'thf '" ''•T "'« '^^""^
them now, are on^ tL X^^L'^rafe t^iZZT
CLASSES.
^ 1 78. Verbs with short -i in the nresenf . .• « • ^ • ,
m the present ; and a as in dran^ov fa^ In U,l ' /.'' ''"''**
Here may also be Dlaoed h,.Jn i" ^"-^"^.^ ^ the past,
the vowel-sound ' o the plsf 'enT'n^"^ ' uf ' ^? ^^^^^^^^ of
not short -i in the presentf ^•^•' ^^^^^^^^^ they have
Chief caiiRds
of modern
irreirularlties.
Classifieation
of modern
O.E. verbs.
(1). drink
begin
ring
shrink
sing
sink
spri])-;
swim
run
(2). cling
dig
fling
drank
began
rang
shrank
sang
sank
sprang
swam
ran
clung
dug
flung
drunk
begun
rung
shrunk
sung
sunk
sprung
swum
run
clung
dug
flung
sling
slink
spin
stick
stink
sting
string
swing
wir
wring
hang
strike
slung
slunk
spun
stuck
stung
strung
swung
won
wrung
hung
struck
Type-Verbs.
(1). (fmifc,
drank,
druvJc
cliiig^ clung,
clung.
slung
slunk
spun
stuck
stunk
stung
strung
swung
won
wrung
hun(j
struc]^
128
(2). Drive,
drove,
driven;
bind, bound
bound;
bite, bit,
bitten.
(3). cleave,
clove, cloven ;
bear, bore,
borne;
set, got, got.
rEHBS.
ailjec^tive rf™«X-, jw T.' T .' "™'" "'"fusion with tl,o
»«t by the best wrS un.HpSr """ »" '"" P""- '"'
Ihe pasts of the verbs \n(\\
l'7r pasts like the r p p i [ ^i^^/ '""' 'r^ ««"^^^times
Jn (2) has sometimes .ten/:' nnA " *^''"^^' "■^^^'«'' ^t^nk
put of use. X»,v, is also of Vl V ' ''*'' *" ^"^"^^ ''^ m^, is now
belonged in Oli t^Z"' tr^:?Z -"J"^-tion/to ;hieh HE
"sed as an adjective, generali; ' .f-^^''^'^^^^^^^^ '^«^
composition. /Am^.,J 1,,eans ^- 1"/''! ,^V,^'''^^ ^^^le of
= :i^--!-the-:Slen[
verb represents tvvooV"'''T ^^^^cuted ": the
1/y. Verbs with lone- -i ns .'n »; / • .
ag-reement in the other parts ' '^'*^' a general
(1). abide
drive
ride
(a-) rise
ohine
shrive
smite
stride
strive
thrive
abode abode ^.j.^
drove driven ^2) S , ''^'', ^niien
rode ridden ^^^^ 'if ''^'"'f I'ouud
rose risen f^, ^""?. ^«'"'*1
shone shone ^K ^^"^''^^ fo"^'ht
shrove shriven £V, i^ ff''ound ground
S'note smitten (3) bit« T.""'' T^""^
strode stridden „i-, ^/^ ''^'tten
strove striven J ^if ^^ ' chidden
bounden, which is novv i^!^ . " T!, r ' .• *'*^'^ ^^^^^ ^he form
and thrive are sometimes con'nw^f'''''^''^^-. ^^'''''^ '^^^ive,
180. Verbs with It r ^^^^^'^'"^ to the New
o as in .o/ct^: ^7i^;^^„ 3 - in clove (sometimes
with various vo'wels in tlepresent ' ^""'^ ^"'^ ^'P" ^^^
(I), cleave
freeze
heave
reeve
shear
steal
speak
weave
choose
(2). bear
tear,
clove
froze
hove
rove
shore
stole
spoke
wove
chose
bore
tore
cloven
frozen
hoven
rove
shorn
stolen
spoken
woven
chosen
borne '
torn
swear
wear
(^). break
stave
(a-)wake
(4). get
seethe
shoot
tread '
swore
wore
broke
stove
woke
got
sod
shot
trod
sworn
worn
broken
stoveu
wcke
/got
gotten
sodden
shot
trodden
■oear has two forms nf \h^ ^ "T" "'; "''^' **** f^afce, i
" carried or e uS!?. tdC^t»r.Vl!:t,-4 ''-^^^
s
ioirh
Si^ i:'''„
OLD coyjvcATioy.
^les, are now
Mion with tjie
tile p.p., but
ve sometimes
"sasre; stink
' m>i, \H now
>> to which it
frike, is now
31" style of
tlie modern
an.
1 a general
written
l)onud
found
t fought
i ffround
wound
bitten
chidden
, hidden
Jshdden
1 slid
it has an
s the form
ine, shrive,
> the New.
sometimes
' p.p., and
sworn
worn
broken
stoven
wcke
got
gotten
sodden
shot
trodden
had Old
iarcy etc.
d pass.),
ioirn :
also of the Now Heln nmv M "i' "^^ ""^' "'^'^'^ «»'e
and p.p. holjlcZ: ^ ' '' ^"^' ^"^^ "" ^^-^'J^^i^' past Ao/^.,
^^o</t, which belongs here Cfir^f «tw1 fi.: i
past), is a relic of aveTlnn^tT ^^T^ P''?"" •'^•"^"'ar
nearly obsoh,f«. «,wi J.!!^*". ."^'T^^^ '''}'}'^' »«t'd. It is now
«^ r 1 , '^ " ^^^^^ rormer V n
nearly obsolete, and means both ''says
»^« T • » •""• '"utvii.*. u<>rn says " iiTwi " ^...iM m i
pvece n.^U.«ubj«ct. Tl,ec„,„po„„A%,;:r.i::t,,;'K^
181. Two sub-clashes of verbs with fJ.^ ,
blow
crow
draw
«y
grow
know
blew
crew
drew
flew
grew
knew
blown
crowed
drawn
flown
grown
known
throw threw thrown
slay- slew ^slain
l-i.torsuke forsook forsaken
shake shook slmkeu
stand stood stood
take took taken
Crow is also of the New conjugation.
^^^^o'^^^^^^^i::^^^^ the
present and participles an ilff h • i ^ '^ '•'^^' varymg
which are inyariab^TttlSr yokels -"^ ''""^^"^^ ^^" ^^'^s
(l).(for-)bid bade bidden (2). fall fell f,,i,,,
come came come
§at— ate — eaten
give gave given
lie lay lain
sit sat . sat
(be-) hold held held
(Jj. beat__beat beate n
J>id bid bid
pui-st mrrs^ [jurst
let (allow) let let
see saw seen
**,*'^j" (1)' ''tV command" or "invite " -ind huj ,\ /q\
to offer," are from different O W III ^ '" ^'^^^
much confused in their deyelopn?ent ''^' '"^ ^'^" '^^^
Sometimerin cXoiUU ' id"''^^ 'n ^^'^ ^"^^ P-P- of mf.
tli^form is alsolS L^iS;^^-^^^;^^^^^^ E"^li^l^.
Hoklen and &./*oM.« are archaic p. participL
associating i/:ShrySi^;{jir '''"''' '-'-'^ ^^'
(4). blow,
blew, blown;
shake, shook,
shaken.
(5). bid.bade
balden;
fall.fell,
fallen;
bid, bid, bid
m . i
]30
VERBS
Newfomslu 188. Tho foil
PARTICIPLES IN K
'N.
iOW
Adjective
forma:
(1). Of the
Old.
(2). Of the
New.
Conjugal Ion
of be.
niK imrticipial torrns in -en belonir to
U'W verbs which hnvc flic n.j,nihir lor.ns als<, .
(eu-)gmven n,olte,i saw,. sown
holpen (arch.) mown (mi8-)shapcn sewn
'i^wn riven ui.... n.
hewn
laden
riven
rotten
shaven
shown
swollen
wiiHhen (arch.)
mu 11 „. v\uxen(arch.)
rhe older spellmi? of show wa.s sh„r (O.K. scmwiat, M F
the *en,le>icy to spe.ialiy.o tl„. „. «„ „/■ „°r "„, f^ j
form .„ .,„ ,, „pt ,„ ,,^ p„.,. .,.„.j ^. t|,J";,, : . '^N the
participles n^ to... .h;i',.':ri:i;:i': t'l'ZS w^ *'"
The following ure from verbs „t tlie Old eonnwHi,,,, •
bo„„den, <l™uke„, shrunken, sunken, strieken, korn ,
and the following are fron, verbs of the New: '
graven, molten, rotten, (mi»)-shapen.
1
UNCLASSIFIABLE VERBS.
184. We have now to note a few unclas.sifiable verbs •
Be 18 made up of parts coming from several diffprPT,*
roots, and is inflected here in full: different
PRINCIPAL PARTS,
be was been
INDICATIVE.
I.-INFLECTED FORMS.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
am
(art)
is
are
are
are
was were
(wast, wert)were
was were
Present.
Past.
IMPKRATIVE.
be
be
be
be
SUBJCNCTIVK.
be
be
be
were
wert
were
were
were
wers
INFINITIVES.
be, to be
11 _D-T>yVED FORMS.
GERUND.
being
Participles.
being, been.
-^ilj
^ycLAssirunu: verhs.
en beloiifjf to
II
II
ll«n
(«<<ii (arch.)
en (arch.)
aiviim, M.E.
I with iiceiUc
in us(% oiu'
UUliojry ^,„j
words, the
Ijective use.
low used H(s
re once the
r way.
nju^ntioii :
, Bhorn ;
•le verbs :
al different
e
e
e
were
were
wers
i'lPLES.
been.
.sin^
ative
hight.
present diffm.enti;;iic;;;\er'];;'''*H^^^ '^'"^"l'^^' ^"^'» tho
version of the Bible, "^"**' '" ^'^t' mithorized
They 60 blind leaders of the blind
found ^..r^ n form mal^abZ T^'^l ^''^^^ ^'«« i«
Mi<l(ile English p.>r<, wh.n I "^ "!>t appear until the
formed o„ the ana o^^y ^t'^ ,m'*; ^''.^''^'IP'*' ^'^^ was also
^'^>Imsforpast.tLa .''"'"''""•
rfon.; the pas{ ^Hd O E S/) i?'^'' ■''"^\ ^'' ^^' ^^^>^ and go unddo
oated form (1(12) IfL if^ supposed to be a redupli-
f»'^ isof J.^;;Chir ovv ,r^'''-^ *''' P^'^* «^ ^^'^^'4as
( 1 (19). ' '^'"^''' "^^^^' ^^« a s(.parate verb, has ..;emLrf
P-s.ve meaning, thus, fw'e™„™p": iuk^^:''"""' """ "
namely," belongs to iLal n hr!: 1 *''' ^^^'utive #0 z(,»Y,
curious example ^oftle^eot of "^^i- '^^■•^•' ^^"^'^^ ^
newiss, - certain," became Lr^L?/ • ''°'' ?^- ^^^^ 0. E.
in the sixteentl centrrW^.^warnf /''''' '^^tainly "; and
which gave rise to th7 S on That / wTT^" '''''^ ^ ^^'^ ''"•
ms a verb, the assumed^sen ot S*^'"r"""H"' ^"^
found m poetry, and, in bI^.^.^X, evL^'^Vowet
Went, ** accustomed " the n f ^
an invariable verb with the dnnkP*^* '''''*''^'^' '^^^^^"nerly wont.
analogy, and now an adjective ^^^^ '''''''^^ ^«^°^^d by
PoeT^'f'hul?'^^"^" ^^- ^- --^^-^ ^^ found only in .onn.
^J , ,., Woe tt'or^/i the day.
verbs like onif «* ,,,i,;„i. . . r^
and verbs "ke ft^, which ™p2''soLeL''r^,f''* "''"'«"«■ ""«*•
often called defective. """' """er roots, are ,7""' I'flni
ONTARIO GOLLFGE OF EDUCATION
n i
132
Ca7t, may,
shall, xvill,
originally
Old pasts;
Have become
presents with
New pasts ;
VERBS.
\^P\ A small class of irreg-ular verbs
with infinit
ivc. of other verb
Had origin-
ally notional
meanings.
Must and
ought,
originally
New pasts,
now chiefly
presents.
are used chiefly
.• ■ , ' ''*^'i'^ have neither infinitivou
nor participles of their own. They are "mnitivcs
can, may, shall, will ; must, ought.
The first four, though now valued as presents onlv were
ongma ly pasts of the Old conjugation (as is al^" fj and
hence, like other pasts, they have the third person Wular
«" " "'"'' ^'"'°^^ ^^'^ '^' first. %mTfor
1. can can
2. (canst) can
3. can can
May, in the second person singular, lias the regular form
mayest{^\n<,h is also used as a subjunctive in a wisiT shal
and m//have shall and m7^ (like ar^ and ..Jj but when
Having become present in signification, these four verbs
t7X'^:X """-'""" '" '""""^^ eo„Ju,ationt?
could, might, should, would.
These forms are inflected regularly, taking -est or -.9^ in the
second person singular. I , older English, they were of en
unmflected when used in sentences expressing I Tondition
and some grammarians hold that this is now proper The )
in could was inserted in writing (by analogy with ./.^i^zJ and
rvould) m couthe, th. M.E. past (our unloJhXmton
means unknown," and is<un. and the O.E. p.p. [ge-fcu^h).
oi I wX2'.' '''^^' contraction of the Old present ivol,
wginally, can (0. E. cunnan, whence cunning and
M con) meaiit '' to know"; may (0. E, magan, - to have
strength }; j/mZ; (O.E. sculan), "to owe" or *' to be
under obligation"; and toill (O.E. willan), - to will" or
to choose"; so that all these verbs once had strong
notional meanings. »i-iuug
Must and ouoht were originally pasts of the New con-
jugation (ought irom the same root as owe), though now
used chiefly as presents ; they have no correspondinrpasts
Ought forms oughtest in the second person sing-ilar- wms/is
invariabl^; we say both " thou .Lr' and^'^ he mS."
^^.^^:^.1'!^^^^L^^^^ - r- l-ited_to
" • '^ ^^^> Oi lO ixiniuuon or liie old style.
DERIVED FORMS.
133
sed chiefly
' intinitives
only, were
) wit) ; and
3n siingular
Thus, for
rular form
ish); shall
but, when
he second
tour verbs
gation but
■ -St in the
vere often
condition ;
?r. The I
hould and
n Milton,
[ge-'\cuth).
esent tvol,
ning and
' * to have
in ' 77iain
' *' to be
will " or
id strong
'"few con-
ug-h now
ng- pasts.
; must is
3 must.''''
Imited to
jIu style.
Dare, origin*
ally past,
now present.
For the past of must we now use nme nhi^r..^ • i • ,
must was used in enX mTi TV^.^^"^^ ^^ ^^^^h sense
to the pre^e^ • l'^ ^ Modern English Must now refers
mp.,n« //™"'^ •/""'> , He w«.s'^ have been there" reallv
being ^-adS^ "l^eS S by X 117%:^^" "^''•
He sa,d you ou^lujtu.t is, „.M) him a thousand 'pound
wl^ L^iitr to" totrserLtiu^^" r,"^''"! ""-^ "'^"^
however still ,<,pH il^! * meaning. Owr,/,; and ,imst are,
speaker:' ihui,"'"^ "^ I""*'^ ^"""^ *e report the words of a
He told me that I o,u,ht to (or must) do it.
cTnUf L^thoTe.a^irnL?r ninri?"i '''"' "« *''"
sAa«, sAo»id, mil, and ToS. '^^ ""^ *' ""'«'' *«"'«•
DERIVED FORMS.
187. Certain derived forms, made from nearly pverv ww, t
verb in the language, are used in such ways that they ^'-S
have always been considered with the verb aUh tgh
they are not really verbs, as they make no assertion
THE INFINITIVE.
To say "He gives a book," or "He goes " k to
declare that some one is the doer of a certain action on
a certain object, or is simply the doer of an ac^Son a^
which may then, like any other nouns expressing aA
action, be the subject or the object of a ve?b thfs
.0 g^ve '{^^'^;^^Joreeei^;G,v^ng is better than receiving;
±16 liked to go; He hked going; I saw him go.
Verbs with
botli notional
and relational
meanings.
Ill
?r
}M
VERBS.
Nftture and
deflnitiou.
•ms to gh
uiilimi
Three forms
(1). Root-
iufinitive.
(2). Gerund-
ial infinitive
Three
functions:
Noun, adjec-
tive, adverb.
(3). Gerund.
or ' ' indcfiniJo " fi " *^™^ '"ean;
not SaX ik ZTX^I '" '"; ■• -»- ■«
subject and conseouen Iv th^li f""""' *" " ('"rticula.-
number nor person ThHtflf-r"™' P?**'*^^^ "ei«i'-'i-
of verbal noun t ex~fl?V.''' *"^- '^ ^P'^^e^
wliich the verb ^serts (33) noun-form that
a)^'nt''T^' '"'*°"'^^ ''"« three forms-
the rooMnfinitiTO (106) '' accordingly called
4.«rfS^„t';lh:'^■t,^Ji^^^^^^^^^^ as the
aecount orthi'jtblanr f s^meVT*"' ""
those of the Latin gerund ^ "^"^ ^
allys Vf sa^e";?,l|f ''Zl'f' "^«"'«- ^^^ -'
fign without any meanL ast'™w ',V' " »»«
To firm is pleasaSTbut at othe,- H ^'^V" «"'"
real preposition, as i^ "T house fe W '?■ «' '" ^° *
*<■«»■," where <o oo and /^ i '' ^"'"e* '"
phrases. Aeeo.Sing to it« n 7- ""t P'-^PO^itional
noun (as in ' ' He ifkes to „« " ) ",u" ''^T'^?'^ ''' the
"A house lo ler')Zthra2;J'}^f^'?'=^':^^ <"« *"
A^«»-") gerundial infinit ve tiVf "" ^^^^^ '"
has, of course no meanfm^' o ^ 1^- "?"" "^^ 'he to
is called gerund"d onlv on'ae"c„unr of J'^T ^" "'^^"
many such infinitives have hep,? ? ,1 '""" ' *<"•
and were not o.Tglna ly daTvef t1 ^^, ™'*'"^-^'
adjective and advei^ n'i= """jes- ^ The to m the
prepositional vXwttL^ V '"''"''' ^'^ ""
form or is due to analog^ '' '* ''"''"''''^ «° ^-E-
Pa;£-tJdLbguifh™f:ottire"S '' "T"' '"'"<'■
cause it is believed to )JTS t^e others, and partly be-
known as ^Tserundu^'t?''^ '" "n^"'' th« form is
the reference S to fhl ??'""' ''""^"'e on " ) ,
which the Utir;e!.un;trfl°L°"^- <»• state
whip}, fi,o^ T ■• ^ ''"'^ continuous i
which the Latin gerund was re^«rrlM «
u k.? 1:1 ^r
presftjiiig".
DERIVED FORMS.
t-lins used,
mlimited"
or state is
particulai-
^ss neither
, a species
form that
s:
-word, of
gfly called
i as the
•epresent-
the O.E.
ndial on
uses to
^ has not
a mere
to go,''
le to is a
^weet to
3sitional
I as the
^ (as in
^\Qet to
e the to
so used
•m; for
nalogy,
in the
, has a
1 O.E.
going,
'tly be-
'orm is
on"),
• state
135
'ms,
,:"',' "'l.!'.'"'?^.^? that belong to
These three for...„, ,
some cases not. These isesam'r^r^'f'*'' ""'» '»
presence or absenerS T wi f b^t't'' ''' '". "">
hereafter. ' ' "'^ ^^^^^ "P fully
if retained, it wk n„t soulded "Vfi^V^^PPo'^'-ed, or,
expressed by the suffix -e S. the pren to W,, ""'f, -^
and by analo^^was 'in'tL"::^'!? XJ^ --'™««-
and (3) simeti ™f ihl'^tW Tnftl Tn^ &^='?r'''"^^^
endr;-.g*™Ssfn™t 1: -^'Tinrthlfot 1^^
or pari sufflx'^^XXhe modpf^f'™''' •°'",*-' ■''«"*'™
of the infinitive in funct ™ o'™ fT " *" '"J'"™'«'t
that they ae,SireVtS;L:S ^^^t^^J^^
THE PARTICIPLE.
aes?rUL^ aS o^^ .ot^rTonnnd^at h'^
modify nouns whUe tLHxlss w nt^tw"' T" ^""'j
</n'e nrprli'naf^ ,-v> "^ t^-'tpiess wiiat the verbs qo and
adttive?t?xp;:;t'fn*tr ^-^^^"^^ °* -'"^f
which the verb aS (33). ' '*'^''''"*' *°™ «"«*
191. There are two simple participles:
ea/le'l- ttn-;^^;.,^,t^;,^X:^- rj'^' ^'''^ '^
iio«»v,,.i^<-^ _„xf_ , i""i^i^ipie, as It exDressp.s an
by th;Tou„1t"mS.'''' "' ''^"^ "'"'^'' '^ -P-™*«<1
Uses Of infini-
tives partly
the same,
partly dif-
ferent.
Origin of
(1) the root
and gerundial
iniiuitive;
(2). The
geruud.
Natnre and
definition.
Two forms i
(1). Imper-
fect.
fr
1 f
136
(2). Perfect.
VERBS.
O'E. forms of
thepHrtieiple,
Constrnc-
tions:
(1). From the
verb.
(2). From the
iioun and
from the
adjective.
l>!ffer from
noun, adjec-
tive, and verb.
participle '^s exm-e seT; /' i f ""' "'« P^ eci
ot that which it^ZuTeprer If ''t '""T ^ ^t«t«
the ;7asswe particinle t. •, ^' '* "'«» ealJed
transitive verbs^ it feuites Ual i' !?™'^'' *™">
nndergoing or e.iduriug uf.f actt^?, ' "" "^»" °t
active for,„ of the verb (120) ''^Pressed by the
ended i'n -i, wlii™ beime'^^w *"?-"' ""PJ-ptions (106)
Ben Jonson we find -«d: "ms "^;i„„ "", .',". ^"'""^•^ ">"
^ The Old p. part. (ICO) ended i„ "^ "' *'""«"■"
tongue-stop suffix -« or /rf- If ' ""J the New in the
The O.E^ prefix ^.",,f^ 'IZM^'S T'*-''""' ^■•'«» ^"ffl'-
speech, but later to the n na> '',''" '° ■''<'™'-«' Parts of
form 100): tlms, ^.C/'-fovea"" f,' ^"'J "' « '»»<«fi«-l
sionally, since the sixteenth eenturl ^^f', ^™''-" ^cea-
Poery or burlesque; thus TZm 'iV?, "PPeared in
OTomtmg pyramid!" It "still dt/'' , ^"•^'"- " «'«■-.
Haveyea-vo„nd('foundVthebtM-''*'' "^' '" O"'-^^'-
have tietattdiCf-f,-;,-^ the ">fi-«ve mav
eome, and they may be fo ,owed by oIW '"l'^'' '""^^
My «/„'^S';r^i;;'--^,;-H?l.y,
constractions. The MW n J '"" """^ "* t'"'^"'
He -e^' ->»t;^:, *:- '^^^^^^^^^ ;
He was about to deimrt fZ 7 ^^ ^^^«''ere(124) ;
Particip,S:"'""°''™^^^'--1mf
Se is beaten; HeiBbeatmr, (119)- tt«„
He set us all lanahh,a- \ ' ' f*.®^ame77mMini7(122) •
, %'»7, she gave it to me (136)' '
pee^diaSo^^f^'-'h"'"^ -ture thiy have certain
DERIVED FORMS.
^ -<h or -/, oi
foird, crept,
tlie perfect
turn or state
^^so called
I'nied from
le result of
ssed by the
nations (106)
Spencer and
New in the
^rian suffix,
'ml parts of
a modified
le." Occa-
ppeared in
ler a star-
in Dorset,
itive may
liich they
thus,
lature of
' of their
of the
[19) ;
?re(124) ;
(122) ;
certain
(1). The infinitive is withonf ihr. ■ a ^.
»oun; the partieinle I 1 "V .-'"^'^''^^^^^
capability of eonC-i' wh i''*^^"' ^^**^^"* ^he
possess. Neithe \hel^„rt?ve r "'".? ""^'''''^'^
possesses the inflectio,L o?"tvorr *^' ^^^'^^^^^^^
predieat on ; eaoh evmlclf ?^ ^^ ^^« P«wer of
that which ?he Terh "ZT'fy the condition of
expresses it as incomplete ^S ' • *¥ Participle
Plete r given, gonej • andthfZTu^'''''^^^ «^ ^^ «om-
one whole, wUhoi^ r"ce tlh? '"^''T ^^ ««
or tl.e completeness, and s;^7ndl*.^t:ir'"^^^'^""^
• time: but tl^iirofijL"?;^,-'^^ P\^^i<^ipie imply Ti.ee.
belong to them in a sefil "fA ^bich seems to fSSte
them by the main verb thus in ^^ "'^"''^ ^^*^
the conduIo!r oi'f.^ " ^''" '''^^ ^^ '''' ^- ^--^^.
^^ ^?- t^ .l;^^^^^^^^ ^y tbe infinitives
according as the main v!^t' "^ P^^'^' ^^ ^"ture,
future. 1^0, too!.i?thVif ^^ ^^^'^«^"*' «- P^^t o^
I see (or saw, or shall see) him oo •
«ee („, saw, „,. shall see) hto/a«»p (;;•«„,„;.
194 A f '^SES OP FORMS IN -/JVG.
they „;„st' S"":L'r"f7/dl&rH''*^.r' *'««=«<'"«. ^"■"»'-««
examples illustrate the differencefT"'- ^^^ ^"""'''"^ -S?f.,„
(1). Participles: with different
J functions.
There ^o'^h^horsel^rS st '7, '^''^^ '
(2). Gerunds : ^ '^^^^ ^°^" *^^ street.
(3). Adjectives : "" " '^''^ ^^^^ *^« street.'
(4). Nouns '""""' ""-'"^ '" -^ ''We.
1 lie proper cro^sm^ of the'strPPt7.^«'""'^ ^^^'"^ '
The street o,«L, fa^.f rlr/eSS,!'*' =
138
VERBS.
Mi
I' I
TENSE AND MOOD.
SIMPLE FORMS.
Tense and
Mood, i'ORMs
showing
differences
of verbiiJ
meauiug.
TENSF.
Tense.
Special
meanings :
Present.
Past.
196. As we have seen (Ofi nmi o«^ .ij«f i. «
of the verb a.-e used to show d1ffere,^ces1^fX" nf"?''
foi-m i« tWof "°"^;,'»' *« present moinent. This
whUe Il^e/^^ T*^ f"- '"' "* *•"= -P^^^^n* t«Me;
exmss'That ^•«"'*'"" "* *^ P^''^^"* t«"^« form is to
thus ' ^"'"^ '"' »' **>« present moment:
There po., ray hatj Now /ate the .glimmering landscape
on the sight. *^
PnSWhr ^,^* *^^ present tense-form is generally used to express
presenttense. ^^^e^ me^^^^ ; for the name which a tense^orm has
its usS Tf "" '*' 'P'"^^^ "«^ ^« applied to it in all
lis uses. It expresses : ^ ' «ii
(1). A continued or habitual action or state: thus,
The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west ;
aZ ^•^""J^^«s/«o/; upon Marathon,
And Marathon looks on the sea.
(2). The possession of some faculty : thus,
My wife sings, plays, and dances well.
(3). A universal truth : thus,
Love is strong as death ; jealousy is erueJ ag the grave.
^ENSE AND MOOD.
ferent forms
the iiiiniber
onns of the
of meaning
e, we must
some time.
specially of
lent, this
*ent tense;
thing gone
^ast tense,
it is, those
form is to
; moment;
andscape
to express
^form has
it ii) alJ
hus,
St;
fhus
animated narrative (the historl
present):
Bfrave.
Towards noon Elector Ti.n..- 4.
"•ounl^ with bin, to the b1,t '''"'; '■'''""•'"t
"> t"" l"ittlement8, etc.
or "vidl^'anfeSJJ'f';,;!;^^^ event '' ^"^'^ ""d "ear at hand,
^"^ '0^' '•»"« taek »ext Saturday week
0-.,enthe...e.nee.e,e...„..,ee:„te::-t,„3
belo„^rn/?o%S'ti„t""'"™ -^ "-" to express also, as „.,
UA An act or state o-nmo. 1 . "'gsofthe
M-die going on dur ne- some r.^v.;«^ x, pa«ttenso.
«----wU„etUe„taer.rt: , r'-- """^'
(2). A,, habitual action or state (see fll k 7
After his return he iorro.e, withnt ^™^= ""■''
( j;. i he possession of some faenltv C,p» m v >
He .-0. better than any o;::^;,fJ^:^;;>-''-.
197 A *^°^°'
enee of form, odledmood ^^T^ 'j"*^ ''^ « differ- ""^
speaker views what the verb evn"""'" '" ^^ieh the
way in which the action or st«?f "'''"' """ '^' the
^ ihe assertion mav ha » - .
the speaker treats'^^^fa'^UX ufTT ?* ^""t — ™
01 not; thus in vvuecner it actually is a fact ^^"'J
the speaker treats a, f„„f Ti '°-»orrow ,
being able to gtw fa^L^ th» \ ''"^'"^ S»"«. their
having been thel-e. ^h.T"!??' I was there, and mv
we obligation on John "to'^o"'.;^'*'*,"^ ^'"^ 'here,
° to gro, and the possibility of
Mi
1
140
VERBS.
Subjunctive
Mood.
Indicative,
without
variety,
Sul)junctive,
variously
appiied:
(1). Desire.,
its raining to-morrow ; although tliese may not really
be tacts. And in "^
The Aitt^mwMhwPn Oa^fida; The s.ni moves round the earth;
the speaker treats as facets the Americans' owning
Canada and the sun's moving round the earth
although, as everyone knows, neither is a fact.
In the above sentences, «mi^, can, says, was, must,
s/wMZf?, ow'w, and wiom- are paid to be in the indicative
mood; that is, the mood of simple assertion.
1 98. But the assertion may be a statement of what
the speaKer treats as a mental conception ; that is as
something merely thought of, not as actually existing
independently of his thoughts : thus, in
If I he; Though I go; Supposing he toere hera ; God be with us •
IfCst she forget her duty ; '
the speaker treats my being, my going, his being here,
God s being with us,. and her forgetting her duty, as
mere thoughts, not as facts, although they may be
tacts m the future or even when he thinks of them
««iiin ^^?^^f press ions 6., go, were, 2.nd forget are
said to be m the subjunctive mood ; or, as it is some-
times called, the thought mood, to distinguish it from
the indicative, or fact mood.
199. Since therefore, by the indicative, we assert
what we treat as fact, its application has no variety.
Ihe subjunctive, however, admits of various appli-
cations ; for what IS merely thought of mav be s aped
by our mmds m various ways ; thus,
(1). A desire. Examples are
God be with us ! Heaven rest her soul.
Here God's being with us and Heaven's resting her
soul are merely thought of as desirable : they are not
treated as actual facts. .
To show the value of the subjunctive mood in such
sentences, we may express theii* meanings thus:
^''^'^^!}'\^r^^^.^ V*'^^*.^*^' "^^ ^« a fact, but as something
merely thought of and, therefore, as an uncertainty
or possibility) is a thing I desire •
Heaven's resting her soul (treated in the same wav^
is a thing I desire.
'•
TENSE AND MOOD.
ly not reall}-
nd the earth;
ans' owning
the earth,
faet.
, wan, mmi,
i indicative
m.
lent of what
; that is, as
illy existing
'd be with ns ;
being here,
ler dnty, as
tiey may be
ts of them.
1 forget are
5 it is some-
iiish it from
!, we assert
no variety,
ions appli-
i be s aped
141
resting her
ey are not
•od in such
thus:
something
tainty
le wftv^
V
(2). Purport
of desire.
(3). Piirposa
(4). Con-
cession.
(2) . The purport of a desire. Examples are
Tho A ^- ^- '^'*'*' '^ ^^"'^ y^" ^'^ there ;
The decision was that he leave the country
My proposal is that he vMt Toronto-
Mr R n"Ff.V*"'^ '^^^ •'^^ '^t'^^^' dinner; '
Mr. B. asked that the meeting he adjourned.
'Here, as above, the meanings may be expressed thus
l\w\t^l^^ ^if'^ ^*'^''*^^ ^« ^P^^'^smUy) is my wish-
His leaving the country (something meiilymlgl\X\
not >et a fact) was the decision ; etc.
(3). A purpose. Examples are
Take care that all le present , Mark him well lest (that not)
ne deceive thee ;
Here, also, the meaning may be expressed thus •
All being present (treated as a possmUy) is the purpose
TT;« ..f ^ «^the command to take care; ^
His not deceiving thee (treated as a poHsiUHtv) i. fh«
purpose of the command to maikS welK ^^
(4). A concession. Examples are
(5). A condition. Examples are
If to-morrow be fair, we will start early;
If to-day were fair, we could start now!
Here we have the two commonest kinds of sentences r
expressmg a condition, that employ the subjunctive '-monest
The meanings, as before, may be expressed thus ^-'
.To-morrow's being fair (treated as a possibility) is the
To aT^ T- *"" 7^'"? *^^P^"d« 0'»- future going •
To-day 8 being fair (treated as something not ;eal
hut merely thonghf of) is tlie conditfon on '
which depends our ability to start now.
xH tiiC- fet of these sentences, the condition has nnf
yet been tested by experience akd may ofeourse, be
(5). Con-
dition;
condition.
;■» *iM*»»ralKSWSf-.<*m--(-
142
VERBS.
'M
the second, the eondition is ren
thought, of, and it is implied that
•epre-
it
Less onmraon
uses of tlie
Subjunctive.
Snhjnnctlre,
dependent in
thought,- not
necessarily in
n subordinate
clause.
Subjunctive
forms still
found in
prose and
poetry;
But seldom in
ordinary use.
Its place
taken by
verb-phrases
and the
indicative.
fulfllled; but,
seuted as rnere.^
is contrary to fact!
• ^ Is ! "fitT "'^5^"^«. "^y «^«'» '^ hacked ;
is It fat this soldier keep his vow?
She 11 not tell nie if she love me ;
He feels if the axe be s):arp ;
I know not whether it be tn.e or not ;
The tree will wither before ii fall-
It is better he die. '
whferf,:fe?th r r"""«" ¥ ^''■"' ^^ fch
wiiicn may either be expressed or implied Thi« iL
wi.l""a reetr! oT™ SSn e^ ^^1"^^
or lu the emphatic expression of rpoTsibil^v fv,*;
indicative is used instead, even L liCarv Enili^h
pnrases. And, in snok^n ^?no.^•c^ • f. , "
hardly any special si^SpIe^'suwSvk ^^"J'i'l'! "'-i
usea except «.r. to express a-desire-or'ite^pli^p^rt:
TENSE AND MOOD.
14S
on is repre-
alied that it
w found in
fill surely
icked ;
ptive in the
pendent in
is not, of
iictive does
', what is
1 have no
Jr thought,
I This is
itences or
n the prg-
the sub-
n and the
absence of
er) is still
fy; for it
age; but,
itinctions,
speaking
Kcept in a
► the fact,
ility, the
English,
by verb-
articular,
i n ^^r\ «-> ^-v ...
' CliC IIUVV
purport,
<>!• a condition contrarv to thw fnnf rn,
example, in each of the IcZnZ. ^^"'' ^^"
I do not k„ow\vhS:? '"s'^;'^ '^^^ ^'^«-'
When Jie comes, I will speak to him •
Though he s%s me, yet will 1 trust in him-
If lie ,ra. guilty, he deserved punfshment^ '
the meanings may be expressed thus :
His «Iaying me (an actual fact, and so treated) will
whereas, if i„ the above sentences, we substituted
Though he slay me, If he were guilty •
™n.ta.etJeX
cases, we view as coLZions L?«t i"PP°'f'' "»*«. '» ">«»«
are now averse to the subtle Tl S n ^'^ ™ *'''"'''''' '^^'^
special subjunctive forms and we li^^f' T" *»™ ^y
was formerly treated aTl m^nli ™ *''''?' "^ '««' ""l^t
has, therefore, taken n?acerol-^„ eonception. A change
verbs, but in the wav wp vt I"'^ '"."■« 'o™' »« »ome
:heeont;K'^ak:„rm7antg':?C^''™-''-~'-^^^^
Indicative
used In con-
trast with
8ub;;unctlve
in somecasei,
Subtle dis-
tinctions of
tlie subjunc-
tive now
seldom made,
a
to
Iff
If ^ f
'M: J
li
144
VERBS,
Indlcntlve
HMlI
■ubjunetjve
forniH, often
tb« BHIUtt.
Imperative
Mood.
Expresses
possibility.
Hence 8ui)j.
sometimes
substituted.
Dptatlve
subjunctive.
<lcU.rn,i„„ tl,„ n .„ X v , H ""'r'"'™' '""I wo c«„
the pu,.H.iiK,„s or ti , .'k ' ! , ' ; ™!'7, ;. «•■'•"■•«-, •"
bythed«»tn>rtio»«f thoi,t.ct',I(v. ; ""' "''"w;" »» H'at
"uifled; so tlmt, when we usotL .'■"™ '«""'"'
same forms «» thor o7 tC i^^e, "ve™ if w "?, '1'^
^c off; ^,/p us in all our undertakings ; Call on U8 •
o" '/and tr^ and '?h ^'- '^^^ ^''^ ^^"^-^^^
2^.^.- thus for example '"^^''''^'' '''''' ^^ *^«
"Now^-.«d we a measure " said young Loehinvar;
T'a ^v!," ^"endship from your land,
And, noble earl, receive my hand.
expressions i. usuaiiy^that ''! do? ord^^S? if :
more emnhnUp m. r^r^o^f,-,,^ „ ^-V ,, » n^2^ is a
" ' " i--'=^''^vc, aBBuriion man "i give or
)
r
i (
bjunctivo
bjunetivt)
d we cftii
oreneo to
M UH tlmt
niiuibor,
bet'onu*
^tive tho
'ould he
for sub-
mmand,
us;
by the
le sub-
shades
press a
e third
solemn
ivaleiit
to the
some-
lat is,
ptative
'ly the
»y the
mple,
I do
in the
' is a
ve or
TENSE AND MOOD.
lias (;orne to h,!" ^f/'Jf; " '^^^^^n and in negation It
i"tendin,. emphar'uiV;'" ''"^'""^- ^^ -y!- wiZnt
Suoh fo,.n.. „. - r . *' *" "^*' ^ fi^'^^e not.
T45
IiiforrojcHtivp
Hnd NeK/iflvH
'"niiN. not
empJmtle.
Suoh fonns «« " r
«"■•■« in use i„ older EuXl, ,,'f ""'"■"'■'' f" "'« "
poetry and the „|,je_ '/f, „ ' ' '"<' *(! still (i,„i •,,
not" 1111,1 ■' r "'>"' Si"''!! ftiriii^ n^. ",'."'
J^xamples are ^'"Phasis ivas intended.
Revolt our subiects ? T>,«
and become relational it st '";> "''"°r' '"««""'^
IS, the Dart that is essent,«i f„ li ""* '*'»' ^erb (that
and ffive, the root-inflni«; • •?" P''«di«ation [171)
P~P-lv enough' alwi:'7;;.,;f;*«fj-t. We '^Uli
simdar one in this manner I „f? '''',''"'«' «'"1 any
of substitute for the niBtl' f . *" '»'"•»«« is a kind
a".ltherf„is„,edwU,lf h^ fl'?'*' "* «'« verb ^>
H>is Phrase. Aecor^n^t «!^ tre';;;"' ''t '" '"«^"'K
I''" fve" and "iJn "L" "":'' ""''■■ases as
ea .ng them the empha cZll,t T f ""»'''* *^"««»'
"sod in asking a qnestL tt^ !f ' 7'**- The forms
hose in nejtio^ 7egTtive '''^j'f^'-!-osative; 2a
the archa e forms nf ti, ^"•^' «'''en thus used
;inp.lar are .^ m d^LrHi"')' V"'''' P--°^
which are notional. ' ""' ''"^^^ and doeth,
207 We f. ''■"'™'=SS,VE PHRASES.
past, ^r •■T'lUC^td'i^' "' ''--* -"
!""!..*?_?-?«'>' a^d tlfe p:"t'of 'J'!! ?"'«^.".''y
"•- i-.ttciiig- aiOHir with thpm ^1. " " "" ""-^niaries,
«. Here theUitTas^TaKlS^t
Old foroiR.
Orifirin of
Kmphatlc
form.
Auxiliary
verbs.
Emphatic,
Interrogative,
and Negative
rorms.
hi
Mi
f<
M
mmm
146
VERBS.
P.ti ticiple in
Progressive
form, ft yred.
adjective
Simple forms
of verb for
present and
past only.
Shall and
will origin-
ally notional.
Weakened!
they are
future
auxiliaries,
forming two
sets of
phrases.
I. Shall and
will in
assertive
sentences :
(1). When
the speaker
does not
cause the
act or state.
adjective, modifying the subject of the auxiliary verb ;
and, as in "I do give," it is convenient to treat these
phrases as if they were simple tenses. And, because
in them the action or state is thought of more
distinctly as continuing, or being in progress, we call
them the continuous^ or progressive^ present and
past.
FUTURE PHRASES.
208. Our simple verbal forms have a distinction of
tense only for the difference of time present and time
past. If we wish to speak of anything to be done in
the future, we use as auxiliaries the present tenses of
the irregular verbs shall and will, putting along
with them the infinitive of the verb expressing action
or state; thus, "I shall give,'' "He will go.''
This verb-phrase is, therefore, called a future tense.
And, in these phrases (as in "I do give"), the
infinitive is the object of the auxiliary considered as
an independent verb.
209. Shall meant originally (as still sometimes)
"to be under an obligation," and ivill meant " to be
resolved to" (185). These notional meanings still
determine the uses of shall and will in our modern
future phrases; but their meanings have become
weakened, and shall and will are now used to express
not only futurity combined with the notions of com-
pulsion and choice respectively, but simple futurity.
We have, therefore, two sets of verb-phrases according
as the speaker is represented as causing or not
causing the act or state :
210. We will first consider the uses of shall and
will in assertive sentences :
(1). When the speaker is not represented as caus-
ing the action or state, we say, for example,
1. I shall go, 2. You will go, 3. He will go;
because in "I shall go," the speaker is the person
the subject of the verb stan. for, and the going is
v4- J-'U^ ^/^oi-iH r^f Vila Tinll . onrl irj ' Vnn -Hrill cro." OP
He will go," the speaker and the person the subject
ii
iary verb ;
treat these
d, because
of more
is, we call
•esent and
tinction of
; and time
)e done in
; tenses of
ing along
sing action
will go.^'
ure tense,
ve"), the
Lgidered as
I _
TENSE AND MOOD,
i47
ometimes)
int " to be
nings still
ur modern
v^e become
to express
IS of com-
e futurity.
3 according
11 g or not
shall and
id as cans-
■^»
ill go ;
the person
le going is
ill sro." or
the subject
I '?;i;^.SV are_different, and the
of the will of the latter.' But
going is the result
mere wish
part of the sneaker \in„c f ^ '"'"'* ^'^^^ O" the
unmistakably afltUTta SenTtt '"'""'r «»
under which he is nlaeed " i ? n '*"''""P"'«i»n
originally meant "I am obliged to"', F' ^^''^
idea of will at au. ''''P''^^^'"'' hardly suggests the
the^S'prrsoTam/wf/''/"'.r'^ ^« "^« **«« for
ae/ol-st^rwfsartraJnir"'^^ —^^ ^'^
l.Iwtllgo, 2. Yon Shall go, 3 Hp .7,^77
hpf»ano/i 4,^ "t Ml " b^) O. tie Shall 00',
^11 ; and in * ' You sh"ui ll '^ » "f '^^^^ T'"'* «* ^is
going is eaused bT ttlpSker"' ""' ''^"" ^"^ " ^^"^
the^'sTeaker! w^uTj/tr ?^ TT^ "" *»>« P-"'* of
for the second and thild 4^1'* PT'^'i ''"•J**""
called f„t„..s of a«'^f • or^";Ut/''tnh''"
phrases, more of the onmnni r.^/ i ^^ *^^se
auxiliaries is reta'nedTS • .i,^''''^^^ meaning of the
So, too, to exmvs^ V/'' '"^ *^" '™Pl« ^^^^^e (35).
sec..d a„^^h^,^'rpLo\sT:^^^^^ ^^ ^^e
are called futures of commanj and r-oK
(fir^„Tnraf^^e'^fi^pet";;'a 1^^'"'^ l? «-« Pe-on
second, and the second thaTtleSf '"If^rtant than the
of .hall to express simplefuturity tu / sZ h S "'"^ T"'"*'
Rule for
Simple
futurity
(2). When
the speaker
causes the
act or state.
Rule for
futures of
Assent,
Promise,
Command,
and
Prophecy.
Peculiar uses
of shall and,
wilL
'f ?!l
jimi
148
VERBS.
II •
u '
Here ihe you involved in such subjects attracts the
attention. When, however, we separate the parts of such
phrases, we naturally follow the usual construction: thus,
Wc shall all be puuished ; We shall Jjoth go.
(2). Both nill and shall, when emphatic, are sometimes
used to express strong determination. Thus, '*I will do
so implies obstinacy; and "I shall do it" certainty
as if the speaker's will were controlled by a force outside
ot himself ; and they are used in conjunction to express
the strongest kind of determination— as if the speaker were
asserting his determination from all points of view thus
we have both * '
I will and I shall do it ; I ioill and shall do it.
2\2, Will is also used as follows, having different
shades of meaning according to the stress upon it:
a?"inthe 1^^- ^f *^® ^^^,®^^ ^^^ tl"^<l persons, to express a
second and sottened command, willingness being courteously assumed-
third persons. Jbxamples are
You will kindly remain for a minute or so •,
The teachers will see that no one leaves the room.
And in '' You will do it," where the ivill is emphatic the
meaning is that the speaker will see that it is your will to
do it. /
(2). In the third person, to express
(a). A habit, the notion of inclination in will being
subordinated and the attention being directed to the
habit to which the inclination leads: thus,
He will spend hours together in their company ;
and, by a sort of personification, we say
Accidents will happen.
(6). A persistent course of conduct on th irt of the
person represented by the subject, the notion ot inclination
being also promii mt: thus,
He will fef. there in spite of my warnings.
(c). A general statement expressing a fact which is really
the predicted result of an experiment: thus,
Any port will answer in a storm (that is, if you make the trial) .
{d). A conclusion to which the mind has been coming as
an inference from facts: thus,
This will be his reason, no doubt.
(2). In the
third person.
X
if m\ \
TENSE AND MOOD.
are the same as in^'sse^e' „tet"r Xf"''"''^^
for example, ocuteiices. U\\\b we say,
'^Mlgo? ^/mZ; you (OR he) go?
;th t: jitT'i: rShf:/r';? «^ <'■--,,
dependent on an influree exi^rnaMt ^"^^'^ "^
subject stands for; and we say ^"^°° ""*
WiJyou (oEhe) go?
^eptnty tlL^Z^o^/^r ' '"^- '"'^ ^P««ker as
for. And we do not sav ' ' M^'»°? t^^f "bJect stands
future going here denenH. " ^ ^?J *"^''"«« the
speaker, and he would not »f "*^", *'"'' ^"' "f the
on his own will ' *'"''"'™ ''''«"' «'hat depends
peS:;;?' we traerstrd ' t "^^ """?" -•" «"■•<'
according as we exneetthTni.,"'^**"" «»• ""«
i" reply, alth^gh^'of course thTf" ''" *° '"' "^'^'^
not be used. ' *'"' *°™ ^« ^^Peet may
anf ttrt/'^t' cTaZrS? "^'/T'"^ *>>« "«<' °* ''Ml
verbs of which ~a^^^^^^^^ '? ?*>'"• «'««««« the
time or a time of wh,Vh m "'" ^"*' "' the present
E-^mples are: '*' "" l""'^««"t torms a part.
(!)• Of simple futures
(^J Of futures of assent, promise, etc.
I hereby declare that I ivilL etc •
215. When, however, the verb of fh« T'- • ,
clause expresses whet is n«vf ft.t •. • P'''neipal
ordinate clause is eTpressedl^, f; ^^!,'^ '" ">« «»b-
Pasts of Ml and J«F Z,s for examn.r """"'^' *''*'
I fear I slmll fall; I fe„red f,,,'TK /."'"' ^"^ ^^^
future at the" time 'o/'th^'f "aHnf 5f ' ''^Vr' ''""'y
viewed as past from the stfrdp;!fnr;fVe':p::S
149
II. Shall and
will in Inter-
rogative
sentences.
Rnle for use.
III. Shall and
will in
subordinate
clauses:
(l).When
verb in prin.
clause refers \
to the present,
shall and
will.
(2). When it
refers to tl\e
past alone,
should and
would.
|i «
S;.
sS
150
TERES.
laUtrlci min
Should ftiul
would, here
indicative.
How com
posed.
Meaning of
Present
Perfect.
''' W,r"we 1™ lltHf "^^l''^'" "■ "" """belonged
I knew It icomW turn out well "«'' <^eMa,
Such a verb-phrase is called a future-past.
PEEFECT AND PAST PEBEECT PHRASES.
216. By using the verb Jiaoe as an auxiliarv in
Jbl lil„ \ f**"' participles given a id «o«e "nd
the like, we form two other so-cal ed tenses , amelv
I A«« given" and "I Aarf </««.." BothThes;
tenses show past action, like the simple past but ««
I hm^e given " marks the act of gi vhig es wiiaUv Z
completed at present, we call it I presV^verfeTt
ter.se (perfiet here means " eomplte^^) "'/nd L
someftaSimr'f^V''*' ''f ^."^' -"P'"ted a
had%iwn if ? K*? P'^'-thus, for example, "I
^a'.4';;us^xrt:nsr^'''-^^ ^^" '' '^
past and the giving is now completed " S is it^^
bo, too. He Aas fee« here for a year," means "He
was here in the past and still is hie" The perfect
the utf '/'T-'''''** ?" '"^* "'• " ''t^te that be^^an t
the paiit and IS continued in its effects or i.? it Jif
rand'rt •?/" '^',r'-'}t- The pa'sto/th: Xr
act or the ofLf ' "■■. ^ !"f ''^^«'" ""P'-^S'^es the
the nresent T. "^ P»«*' . ^i*out any reference to
the DoSiW t"""'""»'«' -ndeed, the past excludes
we s'r''''ilX-'- -"'^ '" ^''^ e-r"t. as when
that he is not'no; do'ing'sJ' '"" '" '"'^'•" ""P'^'"^
J
IS are..«iini)ly
long to the
)etweeii the
Jtween shall
lat belonged
ive it;
be permitted
it once ;
)ver again;
St,
miliary, in
Liid putting
i gone, and
1 : namely,
^oth these
st ; but as
pecially as
It perfect
And, as
mpleted at
imple, "I
i call it a
3 both the
ve in the
It is, it is
B present,
ans ' ' He
e perfect,
began in
is itself
the other
■esses the
3rence to
excludes
as when
implying
TEXSE AND MOOD,
for example, A«rf j,4« !„'•?>..! "."* l»V'»«'nt = thus, v^^y'rt^i.
asked" expresses the act of ^iv^ ^'™" " ^''^''"^ ''«
o( course, eoutiuuiug 1u ,f^ ^'« "? f «"»ipieted (and,
aet of his asking. '" "^^"^^^ ^ioK the past
those with^fJL' 'fo ™4''2''^'^<'.^. »"ed as compound tense, „
from their ori^i J me*a'S"/"te,"« fft'-.t remo™^ l&V^^
transitive verbs, followed hv f'v"^'""" be made from »K<rtn«teaii,
"l««f "y, th^ paS^^leVVe'Cv I'"'*" ""r ' ™« °''--"«-
predicate ; for example, "^ "' ao objective
'*'"':'"^ '"'-"•/'<■ I *<.» the letter ,.„■««.
£prLteretV^;l^^^^^^^^^^^^ om, the res^t
the action itself, getting the s"ame mSnga'sTur'""^ '"'
And thelT "^''' "' ''^'^' ' "^"^ '"■"- *" '»«er.
Ana then, Aaw coming- to sp^m o
time, as shall and ^ J; are o? th J^f"? ^"''^"^"y «^ Pa«t
analogy, made their perfect tpn^; "le future, all verbs; by
however, .,. and J/eon^^^^^^^^^^ Jor a long time! , , ,
ZT: I' '^' i«transid4 verb,. Ld'^^ "« ^/^^^^'^^ies ;WhS«
use are to be seen in occasional phrasetlL'^''^''^' ""^ ^^'^ '"""
^^isco.e; yarearri.e,; He .«.,.„, .^fore you .ode „.
The use of both the perfect and fl , ^^"'^^^"P.
phrases goes back to the earlL^t t • H^^ Pl"Perfect verb-
but the simple past was geS^^^ i «"r language;
as IS now often the case^am^^^ re'ut^dt^er "^ ^'''>^
2ifi A ^U^J^^NCTIVE PHRASES.
subjuttfv:Ttha\'l/'-hf^-- (202;, the simple
mfleetion),isuowa]mos ont ".■'""""T* *«™<"1 by
u^e the indicative^ or phrases w th'!; ^"^'f "*> «* '* ^« ««'>i-«™
with shotild and »m«w h . '""* '"><1 "">*< and pi«-»«» with
iaries shall and .J/ '^ThelT* ^"'"^ °* *''^^"-''" ^'^^
subjunctives. Like shJltT^ % ""^ "^ pAra^a/ S""""'
and still generally fsttiona/sr'/*''^ was originally """•
mission" or *'-o--^ -•" -= ^^^^^ expressing ^er.
have, howe^ver, disapD^^^^^ If^^^ "otional meanings .
■n. the .„, or' "'iJ^rn^^l^:^!'^::!^^^-
I i
152
VERBS.
M
h '!
ill i
't I:
Snbjuiiptive
phrases,
coinpHi-ed
with simple
forms :
(1). Desire.
(2). Pni-port
of a desire.
futures) imrely relational. Subjunctive phrases witl,
ml hTM™"" "'•'' "^*'"' ^'"'»' form af 2«\«X ;>
pasts, but they serve a different pui-pose.
.i^^^i' '''j'^ verb-phrases with may and miaht and
Khould and tvoidd may, indeed, often be su bstLted
Xe'' 'S t:^""""^", "'*•"• "* course "^e'lame
Inllv. 199), ' ""^ ''"""P'''' <««"'P'"'e the sentences
( 1 ) . A desire ;
May God be with us I poR God 6. with us !
(2). The purport of a desire:
FOR My wish is that you 6e there.
My wish is that you should he
there,
The judge decided that he
should leave the country
i I
(3). Purpose. (3) . A purpose :
(4). Conees*
sion.
Condi-
Uavk him well lest he should
deceive thee,
(4). A concession:
Should it he ever so humble,
there's no place like
home,
Whate'er may hetide, we'll
turn aside.
And see the braes of Yarrow,
(5). A condition:
If to-morrow should be fair,
we will start early.
Government tcotdd he im-
possible, if the system
should (or ivere to) fail.
So many thoughts ran to and
fro
That vain it ivould be her
eyes to close.
t <
<(
((
< (
Other
subjunctive
phrases used
r — f^
forms.
The judge decided that he
leave the country.
Mark him weU lest he deceive
thee.
Se it ever so numble, there's
no place like home.
Whate'er betide, we'll turn
aside.
And see the braes of Yarrow.
If to-morrow be fair, we will
start early.
Government ivere impossible
if the system failed.
So many thoughts ran to and
fro
That vain it wcri her eyes to
close.
ftf Bame°wa*v' 'J'^""''*'? verb-phrases are used in
Lxitj bame wav: that is tn aat,c,Y.t- ,„i — 4. xi.
treats, not as actual fact luFas' m^:;?; thoughrof*-
» I
3 plirases with
as the future
id might and
►e substituted
rse, the same
the sentences
is!
at you 6e there.
eeided that he
country.
I lest he deceive
tumble, there's
ike home.
le, we'll turn
aesof Yarrow.
e fair, we will
?»'e impossible
)m failed.
hts ran to and
>•'? her eyes to
ire used in
1- - ■.
ii\i speaKei'
bought of;
^^^^7UZZi^lrZ^^^&t) live (a rmrt^ose):
„ It seemg abaiir<1 f i,.t i ";<""'' ""»* so, ndeed •
What have I done that yoSl«i':^'r« "f-* ^° '■
lu all these Rnhl,.„ 5 ""^ '"""' "° ■»»■*•
(like *, i^''/do'g?^e .''raOfiir''^^*'^,', *« ''"-"i^'T
the subjunctive mood with ,> nnii '^ ?! '^ *" ^«>-b in
(for, as we have seen above^ t^ relational meaning
the place of the inflection n^ ^^ sometimes taki
S'mple subjunctive) and what S> '""'^«'"te i" the
phrase (as, for example tin'' M^T^ I" ^^^ "kerb-
's a verb in the infinitive ..^'''y 9<"i *« with ns " )
considered a. an ind^Se^i 4^4 «»'J««t of the nu^l,
a^eus^e'dtoTxp^la'^sh' T.T'''^'''"' ™-'-ries,
«*««« and*^ wmMave eswciafr"' Tl" P"'^''^"'
conditional assertion • that if t^ "*'?'' ^ '"ake a
on a condition: thns.'for exaAiX"'""'*''"' '^'^P'^'"!"''*
Where my vour „. If •'^ ''' °°"" «"' ""v) i
actual fa^t,ZTC'ctSt"o"''*/°"i-«^'«'l «« «"
your, or his being aWe to fef l' '^'^Pf "^ent, on my,
also be used to efpress tte InTv^' ^"'^ **"«'<' m«y
example, P ™ condition itself : thus, for
If he Bnould come (you worn ,ee him)
whieh^:Sst sr ■i^i.ri'r-*'' """-.
clause ; and the principal c^,;i i "u *'''* <:onditionai
sntls from, or deSsor .•«„?*• "'''"''' ''^^'"•ts what re-
of the conditionf is called the ciX!!,* "" ^ *"'fi"n«'^t
*^?««« moans " resulting from "n/^?^"' «>»«« ^«««-
Sometimes, however the „^„^"*^ dependent on " ) .
wordoraph;ase..S,t:xam^c"iL' """'''"' '" ^
Which are en„;„.,„„* .. ourselves his accomplices;
Value of each
part of
subjuncMve
phrases.
Uses of
(1). may and
might.
(2). Should
and M;oMJd in
a conditoinal
assertion
and in the
condition.
Conditio) .'1.'
and
Consequ< -, .
Clauses.
Condition?
(1). Con-
cealed.;
fHMlMfMM
154
VERBS.
\i ,
N"i!!
!f
(2). Under-
stood.
Other uses of
should aud
would.
Mood, not
dependent on
what is im-
plied in whole
sentence.
Why the
future is
indicative.
How ahciild
and would
have their
subjunctive
meanings.
Rules for use
of should and
Again, the condition may be understood: thus, for
example, in
I should say lie is mistaken ;
where we may supply the condition, "if I ventured an
opinion. In such constructions, however, we do not
think of a condition, and the verb-phrase has come to
be used as a softened form of assertion when we
feel that the indicative would be too abrupt and
positive.
In such sentences, however, as
There is no need that she shmdcl be present ;
He is afraid lest you should fail;
no condition is implied, but her being present and
your failing are treated, not as facts, but as mere
conceptions. The meanings are
Her being present (something merely thought of) is not needed :
lour tailing (also a mere conception) is the cause of his fear.
And, in such sentences as
wi * 1. ^® ^^ ^^^^y ^"^ father shoidd have stayed;
What have I done that you should be my friend no longer ?
while it is actually implied (199 [5]) that his
rather stayed and that you are no longer my friend,
his father's having stayed and your being my friend
no longer are mere mental conceptions ; they are not
treated as facts. Hence the mood depends on how we
conceive and treat the act or state ; not on what is
incidentally implied in the whole sentence.
221. Future phrases are in the indicative mood,
because, by them, we assert our present certainty
m regard to the future (although what is future is, of
course, uncertain). But, in the subjunctive verb-
phrases made with should and would, the uncertainty
expressed by the future is increased by using the past
form ; that is, by adding to the remoteness— by putting
it further from us— and thus giving those auxiliaries
the uncertainty and doubtfulness the subjunctive is
intended to express.
As another result of the origin of should and ivould
~ • ^'^^ vixvii Line a,ic MIC Btiiiii; iia iiiose given
above for shall and will. Hence should is used in all
i •
TENSE AND MOOD.
160
exLni;r"' """ -nditional Cause: thus, for
If I (or you or he) should do so (I should fail) •
uecause my, vour or lii« flr»;,.r. c. • ,
bility of wl ich deDendM nn n ^- ^ ''" ^" ^^* *^« P^ssi-
Vou (or he) should feel sorrv ■
Should would have the notional meanS; of " ought >'
225. r^'rr" ^^ -"" ™™^ -""^^B.
addh.g the' ;<^fe 'Z-Si'"? r* "?«»• ^« -"ade,
I may (and"jugMrhav'e%r.''' ""^ «'™» '
999 C -J X, '"'■''■"■"^^ PHRASES.
/„ ''^'"*'*"'<' optative subiunctivpC9n';^ „ *•.
aT.iLt^r^Z'eh\td];'i^S^^^^
orjnstruetiou in the thirdVet^, lT™et i^^^
£e( me (or us) give; let him (her it - ^^..~^ ■
i.« the messenger J< „ui at once '"' '^"''•
eommonZt'rsZslo ut t"'"' ? T«°'«- '^ -
missing firS 'a^d "hird pers^nS ^t^" P^'"''' "* *•"«
Here Z^-^ is Dlainlv a t^pqI ,. x:__. , .,
an infinitive to whlplT^r'- T^""'"'"'*^' ^^^ ^^^ O^'^e
noun s^nd^in^hT'l^L!^: -f :S.^. -a s Z^
Future perf . ;
Fut. perf.
past; phrase
subjuuc. perf.
Let as an
auxiliary.
»l i
Its real
nature.
J
156
VERBS.
Progressive
phrases.
tW
! t
Phrases
formed with
do.
Limitation
of use of
emphatic do.
(•ombiiiatioiis as " Mahe him </r>," ''See him give,^^ or
" (7ai him to give'' (132); out, in the phrasal
imperative, the notional meaning of let has become
weakened.
OTHER PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC PHRASES.
224. We may make continuous or progressive
forms for the entire series of verb-phrases, by puttmg
in each case the corresponding tense of he before the
imperfect participle : thus,
1 hove been giving , . had been giving ; I shall be giving;
I may be giving; I might be giving; I should be giv'iig;
and so on with the rest.
But the forms with do as auxiliary, are made only
from the present and the past, and not from any of
the tense- phrases (except the phrasal imperative),
whether in assertion, or in question and negation.
For example, we are allowed to say eithec
I do have or I have; Does he have? or Fas he?
They did not have or They had not ;
when have is an independent verb : but we say only
I have given; Has he given ? They had not given;
when it is an auxiliary. And so with all the other
auxiliaries except let.
An emphatic form of fee, ivill, shall, or may,
except in the emphatic phrasal imperative, (as, for
example, "Do be still,") is not admitted, even in
the independent uses of these verbs. To make such
forms emphatic, we lay the stress of the voice upon
them when we are speaking, or italicize them in print,
underline them in writing, or arrange the context so
as to show our intention.
NATURE AND RELATIONS OF THE TENSES.
225. We may now see how the different tenses are
related to one another. The simple divisions of time are,
of v^ourse, the present, the past, and the future ; and the
action or state may, in each case, be represented as (1)
incomplete or goin^ on (the progressive forms), (2) as
complete (the perfect forms), or (3) without regard to its
completeness or incompleteiiess ; that is, indefinitely (the
present, the past, and the future).
IXFINITIFE AND PAUTICIPUL PHRASES.
107
??
im give," or
the phraHal
lias become
progressive
;, by putting
te before the
I be giving;
t)e giv'rg;
) made only
from any of
imperative),
id negation.
8 he?
3 say only
given;
II the other
I, or may,
ve, (as, for
;ed, even in
) make such
voice upon
3m in print,
context so
5NSES.
t tenses are
of time are,
ire ; and the
ented as (1)
rms), (2) as
regard to its
sfinitely (the
^'^' ''o";::;'""*' ™ '"'^";- U- indicative m,.,d =
{•'■-. give"- anrJI^h"- ,'""'«•
Past gave »,,.. ,1^. • '' '""■" «'"«"
and. as the- perfect may e.xp.es! a" act ■"' f '"
mid continued into ti.e nies,. t w f ^''•'."" '" "'« P«>»t
in.p;™u™m^o.:d°htbrort:ns: """"""••^ °^ »-'>■"«'
^^^^7 ^ Zj^r:^^ -f-, not to the
tunc of their possibility A^^^T- , ""^ ''™'"''' ^ut to the
tl.«. M.e PO-i^bi,ityt'tatfd''r^t\"f&I rn^-^Z' '"■''"''''•'^
tl.e past It h' "" '""."^' " "'°" "* '-- -^»°"
«ny Selt\:t ^eSilfei^, J^^-' ^""-
1 would that I were dead ; If I were he rTh^ . '
I» he mad that he sh^J ^'/ot '" ""' "" '» '
the present perfect th«f ti.,. » '""osor
con,pietedatt'l.et!;l''f1he'plSli^;Xs'^ '"'"^'' "^
-^^Jiyiie have done so;
Hadst thou less unworthy proved, I hud loved Iht;
2 ™S' T P*«"CimL PHRASES.
gerund ako:' "" """* '""^ ""'"^ the Ws'of the
InOlcntive
mood.
PrimHry and
Historic
tenses.
Imperative
mood.
Subjunctive
mood.
Simple
and Perfe"*
Influitiveb
Imp. and
Perf. act.
part. ;
— -* —...Jo.
VERBS.
PiiMn. purt.
phraaeii.
Sim pi f^ forms
in CMpitiiU.
Alltheotliorfl,
phnuie-furui8.
Finally, the perftHft ([)assive) participle, oiven, has
its progressive form, hciug (jivni ; and from it is also
made a phrasal perfect (i)assive) i)artieiple (without
progressive form), having been give a.
THE ACTIVE CONJUGATION.
^27. All these tense and modal forms we put into
one b'^heme l)eh)w. The original and simple forms of
the verl> are in capitals. Only the first person singular
of each ttnse is set down ; but, from what has been
said as to peison and number forms, and the u^es of
shall, will, should, and would, the other persons may
be readily supplijd.
Stem.
GIVE
PUINCIPAI. PABT8.
GIVE GAVE GIVEN
A.
MOOD AND TENSE FORMS.
Present.
Past.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect.
Future.
Future Perfect.
Future Past.
I. INDICATIVE.
Empliatie.
do give
did give
Ordinary.
GIVE
GAVE
have given
had given
shall or will give
shall or will have given
shouldoT" would give
Future Perfect PasK should or would have given |
Projtress'vo.
am giving
was giving
have been giving
had been giving
shall, or will be giving
shall or wi II have i)een giving
should or would be giving
should or would
have been giving
II. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Past.
Ordinary.
GIVE
Emphatic. Progressive,
do give be giving
Ordinary,
may give
-Phrasal-
Progressive.
maybegiving
GAVE did give were giving <
{
Pres. Pmf. { ^^^;^« j^'^^"
Past Perf. had given
f (have been
\givir<^, arch.)
r had been
I giving
might, should 1"^^^'**' ^i^^ll^
or would give 1 °V .^^^^^^ ^^
*' I giving
may have S may have
given 1 been giving
r might, should f might, should
\ or would have -j or would have
\ given ( been giving
III. IMPERATIVE.
Ordinary.
OiVD
EmpliaticT
do give
Ordinary.
let (me, etc.) give
-Phrasal-
{
Empliatie.
do let (nic, ■ tc.)
give
Progressive
; let (mf
be giving
c
i
f,-. \
PASSlriC TMA'SB A,n MOOD .'URASM-rORMS.
Progressive.
DERIVED FORMS.
I. INFINJTIVB.
Perf. Root and ^ivji, to p^ive be ffivlnir tn h« «• :
° (. been ti\\\nir
Imperfect "' GERUND.
Fei-feet. ' GIVING
having given
Imperfect.
Perfect Active.
Perfect.
ni. PARTICIPLE
GIVING
having given
GIVEN
, n ■ ' ■ • 1
been giving
having been giving
having been giving
such veVb.phra.,en:tk;\™rf„th°'"*S ""« >«"--' T"--
and those yet looser anr] hJa i ^" ""^ named above ^'n^t'on.
words ent/r in ZuCes t 'XTk '"?!'""", ""° ^^^'^^ -"-"'
action in still other wavs «» !^: !> '!"" ""•! deflne an «»"J"«««on
Thus, one might prS 'to claT'''' ""'"' ""<' ""Mer?
phrases as " I am in the Jt ^tlZ^^"""""'' T^ ^^^b-
airiKOingtoKive"; " I am aho„?r "^ ' T.fs futures "I
point of giving,., ^d to for^'Tirief :?'/ ' """ "" ">«
combmations: thus, '"^ <"' '<'''»e and modal
I was (have been, shall be, mav he et„ 1 • .1.
„ . giving (or BO "7to give) ■•* '" "" '^' <"
tioipLirs'ehre: oTtrvTb" "^ '"^™ -<"> --fina.
Phrases":h?ehte"„nh: wMrthTVo^.T^'"^'-'"'"'' ">»«« w.,„„.
most regular; those in v\ZhtLrlT JTP"''^ ''"'' ">« «Sd.
distmctly the character of a„"vi|'l''''t" '°™ '«« '«<>»*
Anally, those which most rearlv f7 """ '"'''P*''' ""'y ' »nd,
and tenses of the verbs 0I tr^SrCju^e"''' """"'"
PASSIVE TENSE AND MOOD PHRASE-FORMS
■s^a. There is one more «et «f , i, , ""*"*•
responding to the tri^e verba (or "'f'"?'''-'^''*'' «*»-
k '" 1
« i -t
Eittphntic
form for
Phrjisal Im-
i)erative only.
A continuous
aet or state, in
the passive,
present
and past.
Forms in
good use .
I'ff
By using the passive, instead of the other conjuga-
tion, we are able to give greater variety to our
language, to emphasize the object of the act rather
than the agent, and to represent the enduring of an
act without mentioning the agent.
For none of the passive- tenses, except the phrasal
imperative, is there an emphatic phrase made by do;
since the auxiliary of the passive he never makes an
emphatic tense-phrase (224), we say only "I am
struck" ; "Am I struck? '' "I am not struck" ; and
so on ; not Do I be struck ? " etc.
230. The passive verb-phrases in ''The master is
esteemed," The pupils are loved," express the enduring
of an act which is continuous; but in "The house is
painted," 'The Indian is scalped," the verb-phrases
express an act completed, not continuous. To express a
continuous act, in cases like the latter, the active conjuga-
tion, or some circumlocution, was at first used instead.
Another method was to form a phrase out of he and the
gerund in -ing governed by in or on; thus, "The house is
m, or ow, building, ^^ and from this, by the absence of stress
• on the^ preposition, or by the omission of the preposition,
came The house is a-building ' ' and ' ' The house is building. ' '
But, as the form of the latter phrase is the same as that
of the active progressive, it was found to be unsuitable
when the subject possessed life: thus in "The boy is
a-striking" or "The boy is striking," the verb-phrase
could not readily be regarded as passive. This difficulty
led to the formation of phrases made with the progressive
instead of the simpi^ form of the perfect, or passive,
participle: thus, for example, in
The house was being built ; The book was being printed.
These are the corresponding passives to the active pro-
gressive expressions in :
They are building the house ; They were printing the book.
Sach progressive forms as is building in "The house is
building " have never come into general use, on account of
their Lability to be confounded with the active forms, and
such progressive forms as is being built and was being
printed are still regarded by some as bad English, and care-
fully avoided; but phrases like the latter are also freely
used even by writers of the first class, especially in Eng-
land, and are, consequently, to be considered good usage.
ty to our
act rather
'iiig of an
tie phrasal
-de by do ;
makes an
y 1 am
ck " ; and
master is
e enduring
3 liouse is
3rb-phrases
► express a
e eonjuga-
?d instead.
he and the
he liouse is
?e of stress
)reposition,
5 building.^ ^
ime as that
unsuitable
'he boy is
erb-phrase
s difficulty
progressive
)r passive,
printed,
ictive pro-
the book.
e house is
account of
'orras, and
was being
, and care-
ilso freely
ly in Eng-
•d usage.
161
A.
MOOD AND TENSE FORMS.
I. INDICATIVE
Ordinaiy.
am ]oved
was loved
have been loved
had been loved
Present.
Past.
Pres. Perfect.
Past Perfect.
Future.
Progressive:
am being loved
was being loved
Present.
Past.
II. SUBJUNCTIVE
Ordinary,
be loved , Phrasal.
^ may be loved
Present Perfect. / (have been ^
Pa.t P.. .• .* ^''''^^' ^'*^^-^ "^""^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ioved
ni. BfPERATIVE
^ ''''^'^^'^- ^ ^^;^r7 ^'''^'^'- — .
beloved. |^®* ("^e* you, etc.) be (a ^"P^atic.
1 loved •" ' ^'^ ^^ |<io iet (me, etc.)
I be loved
B.
DERIVED FORMS-
I- INFINITIVE
JJe lovsd, to be loved 5' ^^R^ND.
{ "Ced"" '"™''' '» '-- keen , ItZg'^Ct
\ loved
' Or<i,- "^- PARTICIPLES
_, '-'rdinarv r> "•-'o, ,
■Pe;/ecf. r.OVPn Progressive. p,
1.0VED being loved ^ • ''"*'
Imperfect.
Perfect.
Ml,
iWii
162
VERBS.
,.l
Active and
passive
conjugations.
Active and
passive
voices.
Nature of
passive
phrases.
Two uses of
pred. perf.
participle in
phrases.
Equivalents
of passive
phrases.
Peculiar
passive com-
binations.
r fj ( ll,:hi-: 'il
Tn distinction from the passive conjugation, the
other and simpler one is called the active; and in
languages which have real inflected forms for both
uses, the two sets are styled respectively the active
voice and the passive voice of the verb.
PASSIVE AND NON-PASSIVE PHRASE-FORMS.
232. The forms of the auxiliary he, that make the
passive tenses, are the same as make the progressive active
tenses; but they have with them the passive participle, as
given or loved, which marks a thing as acted on ; instead of
the active, as giving or loving, which marks a thing as itself
acting. In both cases alike, the participle has originally the
real value of a predicate adjective, modifying the subject.
But by no means every case where a perfect participle is
combined with the verb he is to be regarded as a passive
verb-phrase. Often the participle has the value of a predicate
adjective merely, and is to be treated like any other adjective.
Thus in "He is fatigued"; " He was fatigued in consequence
of over-exertion" ; fatigued has as pure an adjective use as
weary in " He is weary," and it is to be so parsed; but, if
we say " He was fatigued by his exertions," was fatigued is
a passive verb-phrase, because the sentence is the same as
"His exertions fatigued hiia " cast into a passive form.
Hence the combinations of the perfect participle passive
with he ai 3 or are not passive verb-phrases according as the
participle denotes actual endiiimg of action, or condition as
the result of action.
Phrases of nearly the same meaning as the ordinary
passive ones are made also \rith the verbs become and get:
thus.
He became frightened ; He has got beaten ;
but it is not usual, althougn correct, to reckon them as
passive; nor has the latter phrase the sanction of the
best usage.
VERBS. FORMING PASSIVE PHRASE-FORMS.
233. As a passive verb-phrase is one by which the object
of the verb in the active conjugation is turned into the sub-
ject of the sentence, passives are regularly made only from
those verbs that take a direct object. But this rule is not
strictly observed in English. Objects of prepositions and
w
Cfi
tion, the
; and in
lor both
he active
KM8.
make the
jive active
:ticiple, as
instead of
ig as itself
finally the
subject.
irticiple is
i a passive
I predicate
adjective,
nsequence
ive use as
d; but, if
fatigued is
le same as
5ive form,
le passive
iing as the
>nditiou as
ordinary
\e and get:
I them as
)n of the
MS.
the object
3 the sub-
only from
ule is not
itions and
— — __^^ ^-ti.
indirect objects of verh. - , ~~" ~
-; e subjects of correTpt dtVpLivTot--' ^^ ^^^o^^,
(0. We often separ-tto . Vhv^^e^.. ^^'
/his kind of nassivo ; ^ ^^"^-
«th the agent oSe™. '' ^"'^ -^O""""". usually, however,
(-/ Even when a vo k •
P-ive Phrase "V„r.fc:„1r "^ '-^--ttdit^
™-.e„aaepr;:rr::;:;''^^--
<-'^- ^^-'. in such phras!:;; ^' ""^^ "" "^ "»•
^hey gave this rain f«
163
_, It becomes her- tt«
The h„„,e adjoin, he'clmrer'S'"''^ '"'^ '■■'«"<! ;
' " "hanee that ; The'e'ltio^tSl;™" i'^^^-'«n
»Wc* ar^fertn k" P*?'™ ™i«e. because ; !
' '" "*' """-'' -her th:rditre/:^"ef--j
164
VERBS.
(1). Words
ordinarily
other parts
of speech.
(2). Various
kinds of
phrases.
CO. Other
combinations
of words.
if becomes, resembles, and adjoino meant respectively "is
becomiui? to," "looks like,' and "is near"; in survived,
we do not feel that an act is performed on an object —
survived is rather "lived after"; chance is unusual in this
sense ; and took place forms an idiom ; that is, the mean-
ing? of the phrase is not that of its parts combined.
OTHER VERB-FORMS.
234. Any expression which possesses the power of
predication is a verb : thus,
( 1) . Words ordinarily used as other parts of speech :
thus.
If thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss ;
He ages fast; The liie dries the room;
Hence, home, ye idle creatures.
(2). Phrases. Under this head are included the
various active and passive tense and modal combina-
tions, though in these it is the real verb-'f orm . that
predicates. Such combinations also as are given
in par. 233, (1) and (2), above are to be classed
as phrase- verbs. With these may be included the
phrases in
He falls in with my views ; The vessel heaves to;
in which the modifying element is loosely suffixed
instead of being prefixed as in compounds which such
phrases resemble. In don and doff, that is, do on and
do off, we have compounds formed in this way ; so,
too, we find as noun-phrases lookers on and goings
out, as well as on lookers and out goings. An object,
however, sometimes intervenes between the modifying
part and the rest of the verb phrase as, for example,
in "I found Mm out," of which the passive is ''He
was found out."
(3). Occasionally we find constructions' with more
than, as much as, and so on : thus.
He more-than-spoke, he voted;
He has more-than-spokeu, he has voted.
He as-much-as-said he would come;
He has as -much -as -said he would come.
^'oam-CLAssEs.
VIII. NOUNS. .
CLASSES.
235 , ^^COI'DING TO MEAOTNG.
Of a w,i-- .^^ -ja% the „^„e of. each .e.ber
example, fofe, ^^ ^ ^ to another, thu^ for
nameg,ve„i„eom^,;o,rtoeafhoar?n?'^ also be thl
thus, for example caoh „^ ?"'* "f some materinl .
mass Of i.on, ofV^tZlaf Z ^^^^-^elyX
or ^'^tt/, or bread. ^^^'^' "^^^^ be called iron,
Nouns used Jilcp /V#z.« ^
are called common ouLrt/"'"' ''''"'• «"«'- iread
belonging in eommo^ fo ajf?r" "f'^"'' «* course
. But a common nonn is ^o 1 ,h '""^"'^'''^^ ") •
,by It we know that theobS n V """"^ "™e; for
characteristics : thus, f fltrnZl T^^^^ ««'•'«'»
the name for each ot a numb '' if ^1; >''''''<'« being
that any one of them k ' T'^'"^ ,<>* things, tells u?
rounded by land. The nametf ^^ "^ water su™
thing that possesses this cwilf "^^^ ^'^ "PP'^^d to any
«l?e. Common nouns are thlf''' '"'*' *" -^"thi^
wzth a certain uniform me'aS^f'"'^' «'S"ifle«nt wo.df
ia^^^ Which is distinUh^d'b^* tSfntnlVrS;
pi' to,"r '•';;"^ ? proper noun (that is
particular)'. It is aTameX'o .*"'" ^«'"«'hhig J
class to distinguish ittl^H ^ «" 'ndividual of a
Bame class, Tfe'i, ^^j^'' "?<'ri<'uals oflC
« -. -~fact.'appaerai^or,~,','^so^^^^
•-« a city and a county in the
Chief Classes:
(1). Common
nouns,
phuracter-
istics.
Definition.
(2). Proper
louag.
A>eflnition.
Proper and
eoiumon
nouns con-
trasted.
li
166
^OUNS.
Proper
nouns.
Used as
common.
Specialized:
(1). By
t!hr?stian
names.
(2). By
titles.
meaning. ^"^ ^''"'' ''«« a certain uniform
.nindf al? the Xraeteri,H.f ' f '';. 'r'r^^"'« '" ««'•
Accordingly, the common nn ?^' ^"'"^ "^ ^a'^r.
i"^ (.omm^oS'to allThTi'diviZals ^f tlr^f " '"'^'',"-
parts of the material • whil» f ^ *" "'"^^ """ "i*-
connected in our m nd's wif fh " f 'T^ "''»"' ^'>'^>'
is highly specialLw hLT " ""'■'?<'' *' represents,
the oneLdTvMual o^ly ^ " """"""^ ''«'«"g"'S to
in ».-^herrv?Si;rp;"'e„^rP^';^ ■""^ "e u.ed
tims, for exaiLle wt ' if^t.'l^f more tlian one individual:
other human befngs not "oTamed "it T*? '""^ ""'"""
proper; for it does not impr that thi ' ''"T™""' *""
«"«•« possess common charSriJtf, .l^ff ""."^i* '"""'^'l
possessed by people nnmoT » different from those
But, if, on tKher hZtfiZ"' '"' '^"""' ''"' "^"'■"P'"-
Milton, the noun is herewIL f™" P°.<"'* ^y "■« "ame
unifori meaning; for trepreSr"^ B.gniflcant with a
ing in common the literarvT !■,""?" ^""^^ P^^^ox^-
(254 [1]). ^ ''""'"y °f tl'e poet Milton
vidtlLrnd'nJfJa'st lerf "^"^^ ',? '» -J^ote indi-
called CW^t'-'r^e^;''..-;^^--'^^^^^^^^^^^^
proper" to individuaL (\n ihL ^ **^"^ ™<^^e
descriptive noun in r word eoLoun.n%T^ ^' ^^"« *^^
for example, in .«e7o4oTfr"r^^^^^^^^^^ ^«--- -'
John Smith, Henry Brown, John Plantagenet Smith
ma'CdirTO' '''^*^^" "^^^°^ ^^- I'-P- noun more
.eSy';^^^^^^^^^ effect, and are
which they are added ^fon.PfLl • ^^ 5'*''^^^ ^^"^^s to
real adjective): thus, ^'^°^^^'«^««- ^«deed, the title is a
The Hor.orabl« Ahn hSl^''?^}^'^.:^ ^<>^ «'nith ;
..raun, ^uuu oiui^ii, Eurl of Utopia.
I the noun
n uniform
and it as
its to our
of water.
5 a mean-
ass or the
»un, when
^presents,
mghig to
Ly be used
Qdividual :
lith. The
>m certain
ever, still
e named
fom those
example,
the name
at with a
possess-
't Milton
lote indi-
additions
ill more
3oes the
uns: as,
ith,
m more
md are
ames to
tie is a
>pia.
only one objec, wi.ich k H? •."*•* """"'s ''epi-esent r""'
of what miffht I eeo no nv i """'"''•>' '^P'^sentative r"'"""-
thns, we misht speak V-^I ^n reiu'esented, as a elasJ: &"-
nouns would be common nouns aT"- ''"^^ "'«'««
s««, «wo«, an.] so on are Ai^.^^ ordinarily used,
nouns. Nor are they moneV i"^^^"''?' ""' «<"nmon
nseu onb as the uumos of oL, „f '"i H' ^^"y ««" be
eharactenstios. Thev mav L"" n' 7 "S'^ ''a^e certain
to distinguish thenrfromcommo^i'f'''''^"''' •'«'»»«
2S X The meani,,. of U '"''"^'' "°""^-
especialiy connecter! with • Pr°Per noun was at flr^t ,>
annlio.1 t„ ""•"'<-}ea witll a sinifle ohiVcf u , Pfopetnomn,
appied to thi.v„bjc,.t alone • anrl ,„*i'' " "'»■'* "ie« ?'S';''
the individual, its signiflA'ti^n L^^ '" """'" """>'" marked '"'""''''«l-
was therefore lo.t sS of So thTn' ""'"'Portant, and
Ser'Spri''---'™-^^^^^^^^^^^^^
of !o°ns!^7t' if t^'^J^^^^SZ^^ the meanings c...
which need notice hereT "' "^ 'P^'^'*'' importance;
(1). Some nouns are names nf a 4.
qualities and conditions and rlti J*"' r'"''^'' "* "'■ *"*«*
which have no ••ooi „ • I lelatious of obieets
that possess them f 'thus ""' ""'"■' ^'•<"" tie obS
Sncrnr""""' '""""'' '""'^' ''^''™-^' -^-t"--
qtli^Krio Z Zr^t^^ -- of'X
towhichtheybeUg;! idtMik ofr' 1* ""^ <"'j*'«t«
as If they had a separate elisteuce '" ^^ themselves
In contradistinction to ah»f..,^f ,,
objects which have a real" 'flmV'"""''' *'''' "^mes of Ooncret.
outside of our own miuVrri c^Z^^.S^^S:
IGS
IfOUSS.
whole," "considered
li !
(2). Col.
lectives.
(3). Gender
nouns.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter,
Definition of
gender.
all
Gender
shown by
(1). Different
words.
means formed into o
tlieir properties togethe
army, flock, »ohool-board, legislature, seaate.
man, woman, so., daughter, actor, altress; hero, heroine
>^rt^leaZasfulfZT""' *'''" '^'^'"'y ™«Ie beings
gender; wMe w th.'f ' ?"■ "".""r* ^^^ "^^^culine
called femMne 2L} r. ^'" ^ '^^"'^''' ''''"'S'* are
gender ""**' ""^ """"« »* the feminine
n«J^.r nouns, o^- ^o.t o7 thet'«;;VVS''aira1'?''
«ex, like «„t1^,„ S o^^fl" ob,iocts that have no
entl. to heings o^f hofeS . t^,,- f-^indiffe.
^^^.t tire t^^-^oii^t;-/ ^'-'^
=:sZi:rt;3e"^!;:S^^^^^^^^
's of practical importance only so fa -I'""' '""^t"''
proper use of the pronouns of th;.-/""''**™^ *«
their derivatives anrt tl^l" • *" '"■•' P^''^"" and
about gende. 'mless Z "^^ "'"^ *" ^"^ «»y""»g
distinetiou of sJx. "°"" '"''"'""y ^P'ies a
in fhtee wV^f ""*''"' "' '"" '^ "*'"^*«'' by common nouns
(1). By the use t different words. Examples are
buck, doe; hart, roe: , . ~!,.i . -x. .. ,
brother, sister, io^ ;„'"«■ '"■^'J! -
CLASSm.
I'ed in all
hing, but
e things.
and des-
;e.
signified
heroine
in older
J beings
isculine
ings are
'minine
'-nouns,
e called
(that is,
• of the
have no
ndiffer-
mnd.
strictly
line or
living
•wever,
ms the
)n and
ything
)lies a
I nouns
J^A'ampJes are *'*''' *emn„nes are now formed)
j>«., Iand^ntvil*5J:X^ . Slav e^arina<czar ; ""^"^""^^^•
^;-., be le^-beau ; ^"""^^ ' ■^'•«*-, 8"ltana<8ult'an •
ituL, signora<8ignor(e) • '^^'«^-' do»na<don '
r rom 6re^c E / '^
eW^^dei^! SortrpL^:^^-- -tsofsuffl.es to o......
<2) . «Pmn-ere (male spTn- - " "^'.^"^"^ (^idow) ;
ner); ^'^ spinn-e.9/,.. (female
sang-crc (male «« spinner) ;
f3) " * singer); «a"?.-^*^'-e (female
^^''- fox (male); «< ^ singer);
fyx-en (female), bv
All the iif{\' ' A mutation
^t4r?Jf^*"'''n.&^^^ ™ the «...
ana we have the double fo JT "'"''" > songster s neuter
been voiced to .««7|1| f^^-^^'^-m; while fy^^Ztl
nouns •is^'alS'rat rX'"''''^ '« ^-der i„ common
g— .b.the.et.'dyte7aUUS2.r^ -^^
and oe:t:";:te7i rr '."'^' '-^^"-
(compare 241 r21 > . f C "''^ ""^ femmme derivative 9
Paul, Paulme; George, Geore^V,., • ti
S ' ^eorgena; Henry, Henri./^a.
109
f-i
S:*r'
lit
^■i
m
hVI
m
^H/i|
1
^nf
i
III
fi
HM
i 1
Hi! [lit
K ;
ill.
^^iff
■M
lii'^
Gender In
other
Iftnjfimges.
Oniiniimtical
Hntl Naturnl.
Declension.
Number
and Case.
Plural and
Possessive.
(1). How
formed in
speech.
we n„y M-i,\ toX «' ' |E,?;J«" -'""«".? which
y* •! - fh, names „f „,. 'son, ^^ ','•"'*' '"? S''"">-nll.V
form, t;„.t, „ro usually a' "iTne. Z'"T' ■"'''«■''' "'"
ots:""- '"« '•--"■■•' nif ;l jfy rntt%„'ri:
and in most other lanffnairf^--„« V ■' "I ' '' '^•■*^''»''
Greek, and German-wl X^ n„„"t' '' '.•'"^"™' I^"'".
females are penemlly nmClino a f,'"''' •'"'*■' '""'"^ ""«»
tliose denotin.r obieots wlfE i? *"","""« ■•'spectively,
line, feminine", or t^^uTer °^ llT """'''" "" '""^^-
way, the gender depen^Con thruffiv^','"" ™, '":^"™>^
had. ThiB distinction, whih aff^ts w„ i *","' ""finally
«a,:^:?',eLerrwtr'a«4^> ™^^^
r
INFLECTED FORMS.
245. As we have already seen (95 'inH mo^
nouns are inflected, or varied^ n fom to I'vf """
aifferences of nimihpi. nr./i «i / !?,' ^^ express
is called decXS (105) ''"'"'"• ™'« '"««««<'■>
P/«ra7%5f, and twrete'f*' *(^^«''"' ""O *e
representinff both thrn^ml^T"^' ** comn;jn ,ne
inflection. ''<'«««»'e (102), which is formed by
variously modified. "'"'«« "y adding an .s-sciind
inttrre^^^,re:,l!.tw iiH^= ""T-"?V be diyided
additional syllab™ in the fl^fr •■*'"''■■ ^. *» ^' «"
iiBcnt..!. „nj._ii--' . ,'" n"^'! a» n,e voiced « ir, tl,„
. , -na a» uiu- voiceless s in the third. ' '" ""'
•eal ircmlor.
tevcr which
3 grtmemUy
"<W(1, fhe
to feninle
'6' to nialo
ted as the
''I Kn^Iish
L^e, Latin,
imles and
<pectiveJy,
as mjKscu-
arbitrary
orig-inally
is known
nc'tioii to
tie srender
-), some
express
iflection
tnd the
ion one
y'ective
■med by
^ plural
>'-soiind
divided
le hiss-
voiced
oiceless
flection
«>, an
in the
INFLECTED fORMa.
Class If.
hoe dog
hO€R (iogS
hofc 8 dog's
hoes' dogs'
Class HI
eat
oats
cat's
eats'
Stan
stall es
8t4n-c
Stan
car-w
ear-e
ear-e
car-e
Stan -OS
st&n-a
. In u'litin^, tl)e forms ofth«r~T~~ ' ~ ^
in Modern En^Hinh : ^^ "'"^" «'««««« ^re thns represented
Smg. Com. . ^''^«« f-
Plur. «' J<^'«e lass
'W'."f^ '"'.•■eed not no t "ff,' 7J^!\»'"-'». «« written
care ; A,.rs '* a horse "• «^v. '< ■ • ' " ^tone "; c«rM
^"^ ef. -an eye."'Vs d?s' the th^ '' ^"«' "-»«"';'
^.E. the nominative, g-en v. *^''^'' ^^^^^^ (''ailed in
"H-e. and, ^^o^^^n^V^Zl] ^^^^^^^l. ^^ """^ »
SINGULArt.
hoi-s scip
hoi-^-es seip-cs
" ^-e sefp-c
" ^ scip
PLURAL.
^ors seip-tt
hoi-s-« seip-a
hors-Mw geip-t««
Hoi's Rnin a. ^^fi^—iivi
,^^^e endings became ^duaiJv 7 '""'^ "^^"'^
P'unl became -un «n.j n .^ reduced: first f . ^ ^
where became . and 1 ^'''" ^^^ ^^din^s « o ^ ' ^*^-
With these ehan^jes ^.h'"!' ^" -«»* a^d .«^ b'ec^l ;^^^>^-
-d the influet^"^o/"an: r 7 ''^T'^-« dtppe^rlS*
reducing all to the type of f^ ^ ,:,^i"Pieted the woi-k ,?J
possessives in -es. ^^" ^^ "*^""« ^^ *^^'^ with plZt and
NUMBER.
24fi 4o 1. "0»^ INFORMS.
The.l.endl'r^wSV'''''''"™'''''''^'^'-
separate syllable, hut b'v Sf r°?''"?<«'d for a time a »
period, it e,,ised t,. K ™ wgmninff „t thn mL d,"
i/1
(2). How
Mhown in
writing.
Reference
trtbleof o.E
tlecicgiona.
^yom.
Oen.
Dai.
Ace.
JS/.om.
Oen.
Dat.
Ace.
car -a
V aar-cna
8tan-wm car -um
8tan-a,s ear-«
ox -a
ox-an
ox-an
ox-an
ox-a'i
ox-ena
ox -urn
ox-an
e&g-e
^g an
e&g-an
e&g-e
e&g-an
^g-etia
o&g-um
PI- and POS8.
ending, ea:
Origin.
"eeriilarl
iriously
Mcxi. mode
of formiuir
plurals.
OriKln of
Mod. D) ide.
I: f
!te .
172
HOUNS.
I 111
Other
f Iwinups on
MtlUitlon of -s
But,
(1). Nonns in
/sound:
general rule.
regular pi u nil
the
Of English
origin.
Of Romanic
origin.
Bxplunntion
of exceptions.
sometimes the addition of tli
knife life, wife, leaf, thief, sheuf, loaf:
and nouns in -If, except gulf.
i'yome undorlyins principle, we «ZtL ' ' " "" '""'^
a p^;iledl;t„;' voTeiloS'" ™f 'T "' TZ-T"" -««
«e«: thus, regularly out! m the voiced
leaf, leave, knife, knives; thief, thieves; calf, ealves-
except roofi, hoofs, beliefs, dwarfs, scarfs, wharfs.
cliffs, puffs, muffs, ruffs, turfs, mischiefs.
br,ef, briefs; chief, chiefs; fife, fifes; strife, strifes
HOW in'":^l!; S'e& P T\«''''«.™l'y voiced, as even
inttr '"'" ""* " """^^ ^tandLd' Eull^t ht ^;tht;
vrom, avore, volk, vind, vloor.
•^ In foreign words, the original voiceless -f remains in iha
plural, and, in some pure English words the nlZl/Zn
Zrl/as'sr^ ^7'^''^ *^ different 'ti^C n S
Hilar plurul
igos besides
or -fe), the
/ and Htaff,
ormation of
, if we look
-sound with
I the voiced
, calves;
8 when the
/ staff \\^9.
; the com-
Sometimes
B, are now
s voiceless
«, except
;rifes.
3, as even
Blling was
dialects,
s/: thus,
ins in the
lis in -ves
:s in the
, also, as
INFLECTED FORMS.
m
t iwr example, with voiced
t^»rth, death, hearth. w^J**"
J , '*'^' ™«th, truth, youth;
and the following have the voiced -M. only:
CJnfh ( ^'**^' P"*^'' '^'^^h, mouth.
^loth (compare staff) has dnth^ «Mw*
and e^,,.*.., "dro.s^^X,f/tf^ bc'^'^otd"'' "' "'"'«■•"
>8 to use the voiced -ths after am, jv ''P?'""«:. the tendency
^ter a »aort vowel. '^^^ZTi^^^
t^ye^^tZeXmZntZ''^'} "^"""'^^ P'""' besides (3, ^
different sense» • thus' *""" ^"'"S "^^d in somewha? S'Ar
(■l;. Nouns in evervrlflv „.,^ i-
sonant, add -« insteaZT^ Xnl'i-f;," t"„T/thu'r " "«"-
cargo, cargoes; po„,, p„„ies , eono" ! J^"''.
The following, which m»„ v. """oq.ues.
naturalized, ha?^ pCl Tnl: ""^'^'"^ *' imperfectly
bravo, canto, embryo srrottr, ™
p.ano, solo, aomiuo, tyrf ' rta"?';';'''' ''?"''°' "i'-""-
and such ^ords"af ;rI:'::S"°^' f^=»" '
the .^J^^r^^ofz ''i^rr::'"' "'■? ~-'.
Examples are """o reason, still unsettled.
The raretl' """"''°' "'"''■"°' "■■"''"°' '-^i--
naturahzed. '^"*' ^« ^he word is imperfectly
-•"v^t.cxs 01 speliinir: tho eniiv>.i . ~\"''^'^"« -cfi, are mere ^^ip^fnerpi
P«>bahly the ^"^ ^^ ^ZC^Ti^^^^l^i ^'^'"^'
(4). Nouns In
o. y, and ;.
•«-
i
m-wn iii!
174
iiJ
IfOUNS.
Origin of
plurals in
-iea.
(1). Plurals of
letters, etc.
Plurals:
(1). By
mutation.
(2). By
adding -en.
Their origin.
«ary was dropped, and find rwas p^etrfdtf """^^^-
before the -.thrttr:rt5^^;;;jri^^^ ^'^ ^^«'^^^^P^-
Dot your Ps and cross your t's; In 999 there are three 9-
He uses too many Fs and me's and my 'a '
This also is, of course, a mere matter of spelling.
OLD FORMS.
249. The foregoing are the modern modes of
forming the plural; but a few English nouns in very
common use have their plurals foLed in ways thit
are now oosolete: - ' ^^^
(1). By mutation, without any ending; thus,
man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; tooth, teeth •
goose, geese ; louse, liee ; mouse, mice • '
the last t^yo have also a change of spelling from s to c.
In UJd English these words were
Sing., man, wifman, fot, toth, g6s, lus, mus ;
Plur., men, wifmen, f^t, t^th, g^s, ly's, mys.
BreechesKthe E. plur. brec, sing. In'6c, has conformed to
the general rule, but retains the mutated vowel.
ox, oxen ; brother, brethren (or, brothers) ; child, children •
cow, (in old style) kine. '
The plurals of brother and coiv are now used in
different senses: thus,
brothers, related by blood ; brethren, of the same community •
coivs, individual ; kine, collective. '
folWsf^''^^''^'"^''* ""^ ^'*^'''''' '^'■^^''^' ^"^ ^'''' ^^« ^s
hvethpn<brether<brothre<:brothrii, pi. of O.E. brothar •
children<childer and chilffrfi<:cildru. pi, of O E cM-'
kme<:kyn or kyen<C7J or %', mut.'pl.' of O.E.'cu."'
INFLECTED FORMS.
17d
ira vowel,
offlios.
reg-uJarly
ies<iladie,
1 an early
unneees-
•un in the
)ostrophe
•ee 9;
)des of
in very
lys that
IS,
eth ;
1 5 to C.
rmed to
muta-
dren ;
sed in
unity ;
was as
%r;
The -Ten represents the original plural ending r-u to whioh
en was added by analogy, when the u had los its olS
force, and the form had also become weakened WS^^
chider andhje are still found in dialectical English Th^
-e IS retained in ktne, to show that the i is long
In O.E. -an (-en) was the commonest plural suffix- henop
It was the las to disappear. Examples of its use in 'words
not long obsolete, or still in provincial dialecL? are: '
hosen, "hose"; shoon, "shoes"-
een,
"eyes"
pesen, "peas"; toon, "toes."
Survivals of
other O.E.
forms in
-n, or -en.
FOREIGN FORMS.
250. A considerable number of words taken
unchanged from foreign languages form their nluraTs
according to the rules of those ifnguages.^^^mpt^
Foreign
nouns retain
their plurals:
Lat., formula, formulae;
genus, genera;
genius, genii ;
stratum, strata;
basis, bases ;
index, indices;
appendix, appendices ;
miasma, miasmata;
analysis, analyses ;
Latin series, species,
Ch'.,
Fr.,
(<
Gr.,
<(
The
phenomenon, phenomena ;
messieurs ;
madam, mesdames ;
beau, beaux ;
Ital., virtuoso, virtuosi;
bandit, banditti;
ffeb.^ seraph, seraphim ;
cherub, cherubim.
vaviutir^r."^f~f^^Z^'r' "/-v^^.o, superficies, apparatus, have no
variation of form to express number. •
But many of such words, being in frequent us ^
make regular English plurals as well as foreign ones •
thus, for example, ^ '
formulas, geniuses, indexes, bandits, virtuosos
seraphs, cherubs. '
The two forms of plurals, when both established
dr-e generally used in different senses : thus,
genii, "spirits"; geniuses, " persons of unusual'abilitv" •
^nd^ces, signs in Algebra"; Liexes, " reference tab es ''''
formulas, "prescribed words " ;/om«te, "scientific expressions "
^^ Messieurs (shortened to Messrs.) is the French mes sieurs,
my masters ' ; but for the singular we use 3fr. (an abbre-
viation for Mister, i.e. Master, an older form), not having
adopted the corresponding singular. Monsieur. Madam is
the naturalized French Madame, the French plural Mesdames
having been adopted unchanged. For thp ^\L,1TZ,
,i.e. M^,stress the feminine of Mr.) is generally" used is a
title prefixed to a name.
Except when
naturalized.
Different
forms with
different
meanings.
Common
titles of
respect.
1
I! m
i '
.,'1
fill
17P
HJtory of
plurals oi"
foreign
uouus.
Plurals of
other foreign
words.
I. Singular
forms with
plural
meanings.
(1). Certain
names of
auimala.
^OUIiS.
(2). CoUec-
tives.
into genera] u,se, (hey sWd T' ^ ""'' "' "»"" "•••»«
plurals. Couf„sion%f c"r, -. ^''""^y 'otake English
cases, in one plural being ele.«™S [f" ''"«' 'P f"«
being retained with somewhat ^ !<? ' i """"■"' '" ''o*''
convenience having decSJS ''"*'":™' meanings, our
But usage has bee! by no mea- uS"°" i" ''""' '"'O'-
bisons, ideas, spKnxe7 oV«l 1 '."'!'''"■'" • 'or we find that
the older Ws;«CS; ZS.L '*"""' ^™ *'™° <">*
genera, ,m!ii, 6m«,l"e pre S ,„ ""' '""' *"'"""''• *'»'«
The iuabihty of 'the^^X^^.'.* "^"f^"'. TO"r^ *«««.
foreign plural has led to the tor- ti„„ „f i j" f"?™** "' »
as serapkuns, e/,«,WM, a^" t. the beh: ' tf'?'"'"'
c#wma, etc., are siiiirulars (v^h\oh « f, *"^* stamina,
wofi'-tKt ofhef oat f " "l^'^'l '-^'««-
using them ar^oims and ?nt '• "m!"'' *"" °''"°«-
they were Eng^^.^^^iT^ "'"" "'""'^ "^ '*
aliases, ignoramuses, items, bcuules, extras, Te Deums
=^™-™NAL USES or MODERN POEMS.
also instead of fo^rir;:;Cplu^af tts"^''"'"^
U;. Certain names of animals : as
sheep, deer, swine, neat, fish (also fishes; taken separately) •
and sundry kinds of fish : as Parately; ,
cod mackerel, perch, trout, salmon, shad, pike
EnS^Lthlvt^CatptrLn^^.^ "^"^^^ - ^^^
and ace. (see hors, 247 are of t.?. ^^^?'^^ ^" *^^ "«°»-
lar. The other words ai^ used is if t "'™ ''' ^^^ ''"^^'
miSurS,' we^hTs'tt'e "uSi!? t^^^^ "-d names of
objects or' tellinT^ernurer, Sc! : thuT'^ " ^^^^'^^^
brace, pair, yoke, dn^pp ^««-.„ x__ ' ,
■ ■ ' -*-—'-; &'•-==, luii, cead, sail.
S(
in
do
cha
or I
the
T]
regu
Qamt
:0
Iiave been
mical ones
d with the
lem came
e English
?, in some
;s, in both
ings, our
th cases.
i find that
riven out
ta; while
€s, beaus.
>rce of a
le plurals
stamina,
of alms,
ve some-
iural for
le plural
nouns,
Is as if
urns.
certain
eaning
INFLECTED FOMMS.
tely) ;
in Old
nom.
sing-u-
les of
inting
The same peculiarity show^ M.cA^- T
noun, compounded wifl/nZ^nll^^^'thus'^' ^"^^ ^^ ^^^^-^
twelvemo,.^/,, fort,«^/,,, sen./^/,, (tj^^t is -
Biirl ,'« +1 ^i^'iatii,, seven niffhts").
and m th<^ same way we h«v« fi • '^ '
expressions as ^ ^^ ^'^"^^ ^^^ smguiar form in such
an eighteen ^en;,7/ book n fi
stance that the mmforal St?.' f 'i^''^ '» the drcum!
instance, "a o„ e«.( stamo ' ?!■ ' '' '"'""' »« ""y, for
two wnt stamp. " "P' " seems sufficient to say "I
(3). A few other words : as,
The '"""''"' '"'°'' '""*""'■ P^°P'«-
-mo u-rfor:rat,:s",i];:':'tiji':'„t ri.r^"'"^^- -
sAo/!, "balls"' p/ / << '
«.«»o»"eolleetive"'; emmm,, '^i^'"™?^^";
p.oi.te. "diffeSTati„SS",f^-.-"
in thr JSr'^C ri- -- ..ed, except
<lo. hot^rSetS'C- -e Of these nouns
177
Nouns com-
pounded witli
nunienils.
(3). Special
cases.
II. Singular
rorms only:
Proper,
abstract,
material.
in^ indivK r elTeSl^;^ ^^^^^ P^-als si,nify-
characteristics in common S^/f'^f'"' """^' ^^tlu.ft'^fy
the Smiths and the Browne • di .u x^
orindVidnals resemblin T '" *'^ ^^^"-^^^^ ;
^i- P-Per nam^llt:?^ - ;;;;^-«s the one to whom
the Miltons and the Shuk^«p«,^ ,.
The plurals of "^'^«P*^'e« of our century,
regrularly: thus, ^'''^" "^'^«« ^^e, in general, formed
The Smiths, the Catos, the Beattvs th. t
Crcft«^ i.,._. . o«axtys, the Joneses.
-«-n-:^--r;-™™tMs^^
"•y* "Ke common
Sometimes
plural.
(1). Propec
ti -
1:: I
I
flP^*''^*i??K2
I i
178
NOUKS.
(2). Names of
materials.
(3). Abstract
nouns.
III. Plural
forms only,
with pi.
meanitip?.
Some plurals
originally
singular.
Special
forms.
nouns, make other changes besides the addition of tho
regular plural ending : thus, luuiuou or tlie
the Maries, the Henries ;
and some people write the plurals of proper nouns thus :
the Smith's, the Percy's, the Cato's.
But tfie latter mode of formation is uniustifiahl*. oc , u
forms might be confused with the posseXes ^^'' """'^
(2). Most names of material are also used as names of
'-rticles made of that material, or as names of kinds of it
or masses of it, and so on ; and as such have plurab ' thus,'
a ship's coppers ; the leads of a roof •
the clays and gravels of the West ; the snows of winter.
(3). And a great many abstract nouns form nlural^
signifying the quality in separate acts or exhibitions f thus!
a good man's charities ; the heats of summer ;
the loves of the angels ; the beauties of its form.
255. Some nouns, on the other hand, which are
the names of masses or collections of single obiects
or of objects consisting of several parts, are used
only m the plural, and are construed so : thus,
thanks, proceeds, filings, billiards, bowels, victuals, 'vitals,
wages, annals, nuptials, breeches, drawers.
So, too, with some foreign plurals : as
aborigmes, antipodes, literati, minutiro, errata, stamina.
The following nouns also, which are derived from singular
forms are now construed as if they were plural :
r.. /S'l^'^^'^- ^^^'*^^-^« ; riel.es<O.E. riehesse;
pease<M.L. pesc, pL pcsen; eaves<O.E. efes, M.E. eves
asSar^lC ''"^'"'' "'"" ""'' ~"" ^'"''' -» "-"^
None was heaid to ask an aims ;
in one hour ts so great riches come to naught.
The plural construction in Modern English is due to the
IZo'^'fu !"?"«"^^«f J^eir plural forms, and of the circum-
stance that the words themselves suggest a plural meaning.
1,,-P' ^^'^^i: ^^"^ ''' ^'"'^'''''^ ^^'""^ ^^'' M.E. pese; the final
vZTf ^r'u^ ^^^Pr>osed to be a plural sign. So, too, in
vulgar J^nghsh, we have Chinee and Portuaee formed Prom
\^ninese ana Fortugcse. "
i
INFLECTED FORMS.
Summons (0 Ft. „^, .
i;7 ~^ --'- -aa'Ko «=£""«
frequently oL.^^TL 'ptl? o/'/'^^'f -"""s are
nouns, on the other hand areVow^' i^""'" P""™!
-m. regarded as representf^^ o'^'^Xfe "tkir ""■'
Of "uuuie ), sessn,as, shambles
Binsuir,"''Cn1'„*';fji7« »7the plural form only the
amend, gallow, mean „„„ti„, '"'"' ""
Names of branches „ 1' '""' ''"'' "■"'' ™^-
are the names ^^ofetrve SsT/T /" -'^•'' ""'™ ttey
strued as singular. Examples are '"^ '""' "^'^ «<»»-
ethics, mathematieei nJrcrc-
Th. • ' P^y^^^S' optics, polities
wSrsro^j^Lts"^^^^^^^ p'-'. from
form, just as we doin ,1 *" adjective in -ic tlie X. !i
and so on. I„ makhg 4 ' ZZ,f """"I"' ««^fe' «wl
-«e^wMch^s„pp,ies!fte?raCtiv:^^^^^^^^^^^ t ^^
with''al-te^2';«:S^^.'lC,"X:-n to have pl.u-al.
i" the 'in,ulaT,\„re''SldS'-' ,t7 ^""^ '- ">-"-««
less common singular meanfnJ fc' <;»'-"-sP"ndi„g to the
Dlur I ^; "'■""' <'°«-'' not talS a iVr"' ''f'"* ""^ "ame
tt;;n:i,i-;^--j:^ r -■^> '= i--'":
forms 'foT^th^Ifi J!?"" 3^* «^_m« nouns havp f.„.
1^3 and .0)7 So™ noZ rCe"orSl!
IV. Plural
iorms with
siiiianxlar
ineauiugs.
Their
s'lifinilar also
m older
English.
Why some
are plural.
V. Plural
forms with
altered
meanings.
Vr. Plnral
forms with
different
meanings.
J
1 R( ■
I'J
180
NOUNS.
(*'.
the plm-al, with one moaninjf eon-esporidinff to th(i
singula,-, and one or more different from it: thus,
Vir.Pluralsof
compounds:
general rule.
(1). Valued
as simple.
(2). Descrip-
tive.
(3). Proper.
(4). Titles:
Of one part.
letfn-. .,f 'f' (1), V'\^^''"'^''" (-) "trouble";
lettos, (1 ot the ulphuhet, (L>) literature, (:3) "epistles"-
Cii.stoo.s (1) 'habits," (2) 'S-evem^e duties"; '
numUrs {]) meoimtm^, (2) in poetry ;
parts, (1) "divisions," (-J) "abilities.''
COMPOUNDS.
259. Oompoimd nouns add the sign of the plurai
to t le noun part; or to tlie princioal noun (the oup
modified by tl,e other), if the conipound cons st "t
two nouns. Examples are
blackbirds iiierehantmen, housetops, brothers-in-law
steamboats, hangers-on, drawbridges, afterthoughts,
also such expressions as
master workmen, brother officers,
which, though really temporary compounds (89), are
often written without a hyphen.
The following formations need to be noticed :
foii^^'P^'Tu^T'^^' »ri^i»'^lly compounds, which would
fall under the above rale, but which are no longerfelt
to be compounds, are treated as simple words : thu?,
mouthfuls, handfuls.
(2). A descriptive compound adds -s to the last word,
whether noun or not : as '
redcoats, turnkeys, runaways, forget-me-nots, three-per-cents
castaways, good-bys (good-byes from good-bye). '
(3). Compound proper nouns pluralize the last: thus,
the John Smiths, the John Henry Smiths.
(4). In the plurals of titles, usage varies; we may say
the Mr. John Smiths, the Miss Smiths, the Doctor Smiths,
as well as
the Messrs. John Smith, the Misses Smith, the Doctors
Smith.
behit%!^*\!fK'p^'^ more correct mode <,f formation; but.
TnT/ ^« be formal It is not so common as the former.
i-yAnf^^^'^^'^^'^^^^ T'^^' ^''^'^''■"' ^^«" ^^ ^ften evade the
vfx^i-culLj oy sciymg, the ^mith brothers, etc.
^
INFLECTED FOliMS.
181
When, however, the is omitted, we must say
u.ajo,.-,e„era,s, gove„,„,..ge„e..a„, lieutenant-governo.:
kn,ghts-templa,.s, knigUts-erranfa, loris-justiees.
■Note also the modern
men-servants, women-servants.
CASE.
th^ef;o-t:ii::,t::rTh^'no/"' v^"^'''*'' "«""« have
objective, wi h ho;ever o LlTtr'/ff''*''!'^; ^''^
one for the poLes/ve ",'„ "he^otheil^r"* *°™^'
case-form) for all other fuuet^oLlud rllatio^r"""
THE POSSESSIVE.
261. As we have also »<pp7t ^9ir\ ^i,
case in the singular is mn?l.r ir ^ ^^^ possessive
never written ^v Affo« +i i • Plural; but it is
additio„al":Ai:,;i«,Te^ te i^Stted 'to'"'"^'^^ ^l
confusion with the plural form" ^ *° P'''*''""
in.'r,J -";TvilLZr%*l;E)tn,er„^^^^^^^^^^^^ '"f
possessive siirn to avoirl tf !]t ^°'"<'f™es omits the
hiss-sounds. In su,S a c se a^r^f' ' r".'**'""" "^
alone at the end, 1 a s^ to the"^;;'*''£ '^ «•""-
Moses- law, for conscience' (or acquaintance') sake
But we must say and write
a mouse's skin, James's hat, James's sake, etc. •
Of two parte.
Number
of cases.
Possessive
sing., how
formed.
Its pronun-
ciation.
Modifications.
(^
<i '-A
iW
182
NOUNS.
Posh, pi u nil
of nouus :
(I). Not
ending in «,
(2). Ending
in ti.
History of
tlie possessive
Old incorrect
tJieory as to
origin of -'s.
Possessives
(1). Of com.
pounds.
bvSL"t 'h^"'^ "' ' "^"^' ^^^^"- possessive ease,
by analogy, m tlie same way as singulars: thus,
men's, children's, mice's, sheep's.
And as in the ease of singular nouns of more th-in
one sylhib e, plurals ending in . make no Tange in
pronunciation for their possessive cases- buf an
apostrophe is written after the . as a sign to the eye
ot the possessive use : thus, ^
cats', dogs', hidies', horses', judges'.
262. As the O.E. paradigms show (247), there wem
oriRmally different genitive endings, es being at Trst
limited to one declension and the other conmo^n endini
being . and «n. Some of our compounds contain, or onfe
contained, these endings: thu ,
v'^UufX'^S'l'-^'''-'' '^'^('^' ^^y «^ Tiw, the war-god".
teunday<0. E. iiujm-an dmj, "day of the Sun."
Shak:«S " "■" '^ ' """ " '"'""' ^^""""^^ t""^' '"
To show his teeth as white as whales bone.
When the origin of the possessive inflection had been
forgotten '. was for a time supposed to be a corruption of
n Old a d'S ^rV^^'r V'^? P'^^^^^^ ^"^ *« '^^ f^«t that
written iilfdf^i^^^'^ this pronoun was occasionally
written instead of the genitive ending is (or es) : thus,
Enac his eynryu, " Anae his children" ;
and possibly also to the fact that the is was sometimes
written apart from its noun : thus, in Middle EngSh,
Anoynt the limolce is erys ("hawk's ears") wlthoile of olive.
The /,,« and i. were in this way confused, especially as
te fi y;. n^''n^ ^' ^"^ f^^'^^^ pronounced. According?^
Zll^l^^'f^ '" "^-"^'^^ ^^'^ sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, such expressions as
For Jesus Christ his sake ; Mordeeai his matters ;
John Smith his book.
By some, indeed, her also was used by analogy after
feminine nouns. ^ ^^
263. Owing to the necessity for showing the
relation of tne expression as a whole, the sign of the
possessive is added at the end of a comnonnd of ^rhat.
ever kind it may be: thus. '' his' fcUher-in-iaw^s
INI'LECTED FOUMS.
183
house." The
lie
264. Even when nouns are connected by and or «^
the possessive sign is added only to the L7nf tl '
when they form a compound notion" thus "
reS:?t<!'::srrLis^^
John's a„d Marys book ; i„ A„„e'f and Z^e' Le '
h^^e^Zan^ ^•'"' '^""'^^ -''' '- -'''^-"' «-- are
»«fsm Ja«k?nl?^*- ""' Pf ?«^«ive case as the <fase of
!l02 and 411 ) f'hv 7"!'" ^ ^'""'^^hat loose sense
i^>„r I i J-'' "^ *'"■ "i«* "lost common of all in
a day's jouiney ; three days' grace ; a stone's throw •
fi, 1 ^^^J'f^ ^^^''^dth ; a pound's weiffht • '
the law's delays ; the earth's axis ; heTen' s will •
and, for shortness, in certain familiar expressions:
for mercy's sake ; at his wits' end ^ ^'
nodee.*^''' ^'" ^^"^ "' ^^'''' ^*^^^' "«^« ^hich call for
tioL^ and^ fM«"'''^''^K^ ""^"^ "'^'^^^^^ ^'^^^"e action or condi-
noun ?n .1 '^'' ^^ expressed by a verb of which the
oXd n ^^2-P,«««^^««^ve becomes the swft/ec^ the cp^-^ -
called a subjective possessive. Thus, in
_ _ A mother's lovo ; Troy's fall ; the'bugle's sound ;
the mother loves ; Troy has fallen ; the bugle sounds
(2). Of nouns
joined by
and or or.
General
function
of possessive.
Examples
of looser
meaning.
case is
Special uses.
(1). Sub-
jective*.
i • 1.
( '
' 1
i
I
.1
i r t
U '-1
If'
a I
184
(-•). Objective
J^OUNS.
(•'"• Apposi
tive.
Phrase-
equivalent
of tlie
possessive.
Falsely
partitive
possessive.
Its valae in
expression.
tlmn tho'^^Si^v:"""'™ '" "'""'' '"- -"""on in English
ease ,s ,..a,l..,| a« a^^o./^J^^olS^f • 'u.uT ''"'''"'•■''' ""^
Britain's i«,e ,• Nu,„idi„-.s »paci;„., ki,;,„„„
adjective pU..a«„ witE „/ f„ suV^o^r^fH™,*:;/'''""^"'™
the e,t, „, London ; the continent of A,neriea.
trli^::' f '■■ "*" '^^-^ ^o™« »«.« different
"""^'•■''^ day ; the day of the Lord.
Xzf r":c z^ z "^^''" "^^<' - ^he
employed instead. * expi-ession being •
-Xra^el?„etto*'^J'lhor"-^'r"<'^' "^ P^-
certain), consisting nfti,'' "^^ .^^ ""' know for
a servant of John's, a poem of Kiplin.'s • thnt „-f .
James's ; that faee of my ?*ther's "' """ ""
■tiy It we secure
of ^ posseSr'Ts' Se;VaT''!'n"'^ ' '""''S' '""> "^o"-
-.ant ./^.;.,,''Ta;^^f. -. e.n^^atie, in ''a
cet^tdn easerthus'wrsat"":'"'''' '« "^"'^^^^^'^ i"
and "thnf fa""^"^. ^i' t'*^''''^''"' '^^<^«'««'s''
-- hce of ,nu Mher's," not '"a John's
INFLECTED FOIiAfS
uses
m
f
servant" jil„
would chuajje ,
awkward
(3). A mv
thus "a pi 'tun ,j
to John, whereas
liken of John.
^Imt n,i, fathvr\H face-; thr for ...
"K'anniff, and the latter is felt to .e
'':1m s means a picture belongiuff
a picture of Mn^' means a
I
^y
tak/n' Jmea'^%L''oV?^^^^^^^^ '^ '^"^"'«" '"^^ be Partuivein
case serraufs'L th ob^cf of ^ ^^^^^^^^ '" "^'^'h S;.--
sense fpnrtitivf rneanl ''L, ''•^.^'«^<^ ^n a /^«r^^7«V«
'•thatfLofn Ser's ' /r^^^^^^^^^ ^"^^"^ ' but
struetion due h. m„i!. \ ^ ^" extension of the eon
my fath r's Le ' teVff/ ""' '''''''■ "^^at one of
in forn., but ^fot in l^'l'v^'^^'T '' "^'''^^^^
-.^th«ti-
THE DIRECT AND THE INDIRECT OBJECTIVE
of form (247) iiul ivi,;.)/ • ^ ,? ' "•>^ a ditferenee
many lan^uagk, 'ireweLd h^ ''f '■"^•"«'«'<1 '"
expressed in Modern Eng I by /o or If""' T"^^^^
sessive expresses that sonified hy of ' "^ ^' ""'■
nouns*; wh&vTC ^'^Vl-'^''^''^''' "<" ^ven pro-
differenr? o n he oWeZe t^t'^''„"«''«a spe-ial form
m^rert ob "ctive ..u TV^ eal U word so used an
necessary, 7X%r7c' oteetfvT' *'" "'"'''' "''''"
as, for example, in seld-on,^ru] ^'^'^'^ " present Eng-lish; o.E.dHtivel.
nouns in wlic" fina^ "t llri 'dl^'lllf^/r ^/ "\^"^
retained to show th^ lo„cr ,'Sd f - dat ending) is
thus, for example stone (Owtf ^"^ P»'^<^'*^J'"I? vowel:
stone "[247]) ^ ^^' '^'^''-'^ ^^t. from stAn/' s,
v'
^ai
^
^?^
.0^. ^^^^^
IMAGE EVALUATION
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186
1^0 UNS.
I
OHglnal
dfttives with
out the sigii.
271
Dat. and
obj.. absolute
No Inflection
for person.
Nom. of
address, like
interjection.
He was near falling ; She sits near me •
A man like few others ; He drives likeTehu ;
and m the following archaic expressions :
Woe ism./ Woe me! Woe ike day ! Woe the wUilef
Woe worth (184) the chase, woe worth the day.
n4n ^- .t'^ f^^""^-''^'' the dative was the absolute case
ourtinth' ctn rv^'^I" '^''•"' ^'^^^ ^^^ middle'ofX
luuiteenm century the nom. oegan to disnlacH if r«
Milton we find a few examples of the o"ii Xohl in J
case of pronouns (probably^n imitat!Si7ihtlatin) :"h!f^^
him destroyed, us dispossessed, me overthrown.
THE NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS.
272. Nouns have no distinction of person • that is
<> say, a noun used as subject takes the ;erb always
m the same person, the third, even though used Cthe
speaker about himself, or in addressing another thus!
The subscriber gives notice ; Is your honor well ?
But we often address an object by name • thus
^ ^wv,- . J^ '*'''' •' ^^^ ^ere, mv friend : ' '
What do you mean, you blockhead ?
Some languages have for this use a special form
which IS called the vocative case: we useTe comTn
case ;^ and we distinguish it, when thus used '^ the
nominative of address (156): '
a sentence; it forms no part of either subiect or
predicace, but stands by itself, like an inteSon
But It may have the same words or phrases, or even
clauses added to it as the other cases have by way
of limitation or description. Thus, for example :
Your Grace of York, set forward ! O great Sciolto !
O my more than father ! Our Father whifh art in heaven.
OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS.
WORDS.
bina^tL^^f"^' *^^ ^'' ''l^ "'"^"*^ ^«"°«' also com-
binations of words, even phrases and clauses, are used
in sentences with the value of nouns
i
-i|.
OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS.
187
has been
id unlike
Mle!
uto case
le of the
if. In
e in the
i): thus,
that is
always
I by the
: thus,
?
•s, .
form,
)mmou
as the
iber of
ect or
action.
' even
y way
' •
I
ven.
com-
used
Jk
l
-1 .
A.«ectiyes are especially often used in this way:
u;. borne adjectives are used in the singular with
rj:!^%:!-?orrrers,'"-"'- ""^*"^
Avoid the wrong and choose the right.
(2). Almost any adjective may be used as a nlnrpi
noun signifying fhe persons in general that hav«Thi
quality denoted by the adjective T thus *^'
Give to the poor ; The virtuous alone Lre happy
timL uiedlffthr^ ^^^^/'^' T^ adjectives were some-
.imes used in the singular : thus, in Shakespeare,
For ever will I walk upon my knees,
And never see day that the happy sees.
(3) Many adjectives are used as nouns either in
the singular or in the plural, to sigi^fy Arsons or
a noble, the nobles, a brave (''Indian warrior").
« .^pvfnln^^'^'^"/' ^"^ adjective thut means belonging t»
a certain country, or race, or sect, or party: thus
an American the Americans, a Greek, a Lutheran a Sto'io
the Asiatics, Medes and Persians ' '*''
An adjective denoting country or race also denotes
the language of that country or race : thus,
English is our mother-tongue ; He reads Chinese
io *^p:utdrlxt;rtht: ^"^'^ «^-'-'sz
the English, an Englishman ; the Dutch, the Dutchmen:
Unldce classes (1) and (2), which are examnles of
partial conversion (85), those under (3) (excepting
the snb-class ending in a hiss-sound) Cing beef
fully converted, often form plurals like ordin^y nouns
of nouns'^ a«t "' """'"""'' "'"^ '^^ '^'^ ""^^^
the ups and downs, since then, from abroad.
I. Adjectives.
(1). Abstract
nouns.
(2). Plural
nouns.
(3). Sing, or
pl. nouns.
Kxceptions
for euphony.
II. Adverbs.
11
188
^OUNS:
ril.Infinitives
and sorunds.
276. Ai
IV. Any ex-
pression used
as sucli. with
its meanint^.
V. Various
phrases.
VT. Various
noun-clauses.
(1). Subject.
(2). ObJ.
olverb.
(8). Subj. or
compl. of
infln. to be.
He wants to leave ; He dared not Jeave '
th.^r'L'** i''*^""" ^?*^ «2«res and so on are like
T.es^Lrrr«:/-.4'^&t*.r4e„...
. ^' PHRASES.
278. Phrases may also be used as nouns : thus
. To have attempted this would have been folly •
After havtug gone so far, why stop ? '
^; ;«.. o#ceis the best place to see him; '
ihe cat jumped from under the sofa.
CLAUSES.
279. A clause, used with the value of a noun ,•«
rtpldTrdT ^^^ ''' con^tl'tior^eo -
respond to those of the noun. It may be used :
U;. As subject of a verb:
WhJ!^^^ *^®^ ^""^ '^ ""^^ *o *he point ;
Whether you go or stay is of little account ;
Ihat he IS already gone disappoints us.
(2; . As object of a verb :
I l^^^^J^ot what I shall do ; They saw that she was ill :
We considered whether it would answer •
1 was taught that sueh conduct wa« dishonest.
genLlt^^'f tU^ complement of an infinitive
Do you believe what he says to be untrue?
I^mTI ^ ^ T?^ *^ ^« *h^* you should go ;
I intend what I am giving to satisfy you ;
I expect It to prove what is needed.
a
ai
ac
aE
(9
art
J
sid(
ifinitive
I verbs,
:plaine(l
noun,
ith the
fe like
in the
IS,
un, IS
5 cor-
tive
OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS,
1«J9
(4). As predicate noun:
The trouble is that he is too rash •
Our hope is that he will yield to Necessity.
(5) . In apposition :
He derued the statemeni that he had failed '
(4). Pred.
noun.
(5). In
apposition.
relation to the dirtt nh^ f ^ ^^^?^^ ^"^J^^^^ thereto, in a
thus, in iXs^.'^tiJzTc^^:' ^"^^
Consider the lilies ot the iield, liow they „,„».
I see your father's face, that «'is not tS me:
and m Shakespeare,
T\\AJ 4. ^x. Conceal me what T am •
D,d.st thou not mark the king, ,hat ^ords he spakef
Where the meaning is
Consider how the lilies of the field grow
and so on. '
Consider the lilies in respect to their growth •
(9? b^C: '" "^^^^ '''' *h« construction would fill under
(6) . As object of a preposition :
He traded with what capital he had ;
i^ou err m that you think so ;
. ^i*s. ^e any notion of why I did so ?
She IS doing well except that she cannot sleep •
He says nothing but what is true ^ '
^^Noun-cIausesafter...presentsomediffieulties. Examples WeW,
T , after but.
wTZJi^^^^""^ ^f *^''^* y«" ^ere there ;
vve would have done so ha that our means failed.
''without,''^A.Tf.tv^^^^^^^^
(6). Obj. of
preposition.
190
yoUNS.
M i
(7). ObJ. of
Interjection.
(8). Nom.
absolute.
(9). Adj. or
adv. with
or without
preposition.
Analogous to
the adverbial
objective.
equivalent to ^'""'' ">« o^amplea given are
We would have done Z'Sina ou, ?"? ""h'f ?/ "'' «°»i"8:
(or) the fkilure oVou/m^ei^" " ""' ""'"'
^uamU ''"' '"""""^'^ "'''''' ^' "" interjection (53
that he were here •
(8). Occasionally, as a nominative absolute-
That he did 80 being eoncedid "^ ^°" ^^^"^ *« ^^ ?
conceded, are you any better off?
(y;. As an adjective or an adverb-
of that, is ofteuadirmrecHvwSf.t"'','''"''?'*''^
adverb or adjective, to a verb 'oraSiectivI "' "* ""
where a noun would ro,^„il adjective or nonn,
a« connective:™" exT;;^," ^"■'P''^'"''" '« Reused
They insisted that he should stav •
We cherish the hope that he willret.lrn •
There IS no needthat she should be present •
We are quite sorry that it is so^- ' '
He was afraid 'est he should fall ;
while we should say
neifof Z ^'' '^''^^"^ ' h«P« «f his return •
need of her presence ; sorry for its being so •
and so on with the rest.
noZjt.::f:C'^t.^^*^'> '^on.trnetion "^ the
iao..eir„roti^^1:-td^?rwferh:^^^^^
adSiaTobSilTfiVnis^'^"''''^""^ *"»''»'<'* 'he
to some othTworf withot,'^ "' """" ?""'« ""^junct
between them b^ng exptsd '' ''^" "^ *''* '"''''"<'»
^
OTHER FORMS OF NOUNS
ts in this
riven are
there ;
i coming;
'< been
ion (53
cient :
.?
off?
rarely,
nssion
of an
noun,
e used
the
the
unet
tion
Mr a ok:xsu. lu SUCH a sentence as constructions
la whatever state I am, I am always content.
The complete expression is
Whatever state I am in, I am always content witU •
or representing wAa^eyer sto^c by its eauiv«'«nf « -fu
junctive pronoun, equivalent with a con-
I am always content with any state in which I am
thJ^So^i^f 1^, r Sr ^ ^^^"- ^ ^~ to suit
In whatever state I am, I am always content with it ;
form'arC^lTedr' *'' ^^-•^■P^-e .itk it gives the
In like manner,
^ Whirevt r^ '*'".^^^t' ^^ «^"°°t «««ape;
Wherever he may be, he will be happv ^
Whoever may say it, I shall not believe it •
are equivalent to '
^llTw'iUhThT *^ ''^^ """"y ^'^ "^'"■''^ h« may struggle •
I Shan not b«l£P^ -rr^ ^^'^'^ ^'^ ^''^■^'^ he may bf . '
Shall not believe it from any person who may say it •
with the connectives hy, in, and from expressed.
forltSVprU'sitt^^^^^^^^ -Wch were a p....
that have now com*, f.. k1 i^ noun-clauses introduced by ^^'om-^ a
as eon^rnrc?;r„r;sLnrsr?^^^^^^^^^^ ir'-»'
«/<«-b,ehadgone, «<« he shall arrive; ^.j,* he coata it •
while we may also say, '
after that he had gone, etc
There is no one hut believes it :
that is '
There is no one who does not believe it,
J 1*2
J^OUNS.
t
(1). Direct
narration.
Construction
uuchanged.
(2). Indirect
narration.
Construction
"iliacsed.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION
ASSBUTIVJS BKNTfiNCES
ten'eVnay t'rjS'''''""^'' '" '^" "^-^ive sen-
mi , 1AW18U , bhe has gone," he replied
called rf/r^cf '" ""^ *^^ narration is also
speeeh-are CobjS oT "vtb'of '^dt^^n"* '^
or eominaiiding (48) • bein^ n«„H ?i *r?""ff' asking,
in par. 277, in the ^nT!f"tV '" ?^P'-««^i<">«
-, with the meaniuS belo„'iL%n''^""" ^« """l
differs, aK^h V"lhe t^^ir'^'T'r ^ »<^' "-erefore.
to be the »»e : tr'/ taC X haf'stia'lo^.r. ^'"""
She IS going," may be reported thus- ' '"^'a"™'
He sa,s " 8he is going ■> , a„d He says she is going.
as-i. Aud, further, as the sentences
I go if I wish ; Shs has gone j
become, when expressed indirectly
He says (has said, or will say) that h. goes if he wishes •
n„ -J / , "■"* «■»« has gone : vnsnes ,
He said (or had said) that hS went if he wished :
these examples .show * """ ^'""' '
tilt' Wollootaf E^Xt^v "" "'""'"y '"foduced by
generally omhtodl '''"''' ^'""''"'' ^^'> """.iuncfon is
<m^
i\
ti
I
DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION.
193
thus
:
the verb o„ which tin* m.I^ut Idr.ll ''f^^ *".-"'•
primnry tonso of t,l,„ AW^t form an hSi ''i r™ "'•". «-""-"™
the toiisi' oF (1.,. T,„j. : »V . ™ historical tense, if ot tenses.
««</««« of TS' ^''"'.''""^'^tioi, is known as the
itx™ tt = t'„S-t ^f^;^ '" - — -
of tere?''h;''S™ V 'T'^^'l "'«"'''* f"^ 'he sequence E„.„.,.„.
retainedl;'tt ^Zrafnatedalf """' ""■'■''™««'"' '^ '""'""'•
(1). When greater vividness is aimed at: tliiis.
He answered that the people have fled •'
always 7rn:'; t^T'"^'''' "''"''' ^'^'^ -"^'^-e ttat is
Galileo maintained that the earth m round
INTEBHOGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
or eonminds n!nvT "* "''"•'''> ^•'"'•'"•'es. questions c„„„„..,„„
or coramaiids may be expressed as eomiiiff indii-petlv efnemiiy
IhlL ^""^'^'^ ^ different construction, except when
there is an interrogative word and the order i^ the
same as in the assertive sentence: thus,
What do you say? Has he gone? Who has cone?
Make him go ; Thou shall ^ ; God bless /ou?
become, when expressed indirectly
He commanded, etc., that you (should) make him go or vou
He ^^^Zi^^J^Ztoi't^/^?^^
He prayed that God might bless'you, or God toCyou.
These examples show
(1). That indirect questions are introduced bvw/jei/i^r nr «
Kin tTt"at"indtT^^'"^ "T^ "^ ^^- dirTct cfn' tC "^^^''
lion, ana that indirect commands, when expressed in the ^^''^^^o^^-
194
NOUNS.
JM
IfAi '
Eiceptional
•ongtructions.
General ruJes
followed.
Usafe of
direct,
somotUiies
retained.
Cases of
ambitruity.
How avoided.
n, o for ir« . '^^'^' '1 *''^ .subordinate clauMes follow the
rwlo for the «ef,nence of tenses already mven for as JwJv!
Hentencea m indirect naiTation assertive
would she ever forget it?
When the re^ar forms would be, in direct narration,
_ Do you hear them?" "Will you ever forget it f"
or, m indirect,
Paul asked Florence, in a whisoer, :<• „>,,
heard them, and if she would ever'fo;.get il! '^'
USES OF SHALL AND WLLL
284. When the subject of shall or ivill in the nvf^o^
form IS changed in the indirect, the genera iTles W
the use of these auxiliaries are followed 2l( and 213^
lb retained ; thus, for example, we may say
^H« w^-/"*" **1^ ^^ 5 He says I will go ;
lie asked Tom if he should be at home to-morrow 4
It the reported speaker said «
^ Tom ZLn'''' "'f ^ ^? [ ' *'*«" b« absent ;
lom, «/m/^ you be at home to-morrow?
fj J ?"^® ^'^ "'^^^^«t i^ either wav would somP
times produce ambiguity; as, for instancrin "
(1). You say you will go ; He writes me that I shall
(o\ V, -J "® appointed ;
(2) . You said you teauM go ; He wrote me that I should
be appointed ;
although emphasis in speaking or italic. n^V.f
f'fiO^OUNS-CLASSKS.
195
IX. PRONOUNS.
CLASSES.
ACCORDING TO MEANING
^oijkv^/; (^'''^^^^^^^^^ ....
use?aJ: To 7JZrZr "' ^n'; •"«^^' «'«i '^^ir
them all-as Ts uot ihll ** Tv."*'"" "'"J describe
speech. *■ ""^ *'^'' «'■'!' ""y other paa of
PERSONAL PKONOUNS.
thf/espI!|dl7'Z.k iff""""' T '" """^d because
are quite diffe : ft ToX re'. m"Th?" *' ' ',''" "'"^'^
have no real possessive ,",«L I \ • ■'"''»''"'a'^ ; they
is Quite a <iii^^^z;ra^ zi^;^'^^'^^
are unnecessary . lecLt'^^''''^'' <i'««»««o»«
aey have conse^queuOy notUn devel„rd"'"'' ''"'
General char-
acteristics.
No gender
forms.
Declension.
Nom.
Ob).
PiKST Person
8yJK- plural.
I we
me us
Second Person
sing plural,
thou) you (ye),
(thee) you
The forms my, mine, and o?^r ours • //,« /z..-^
ad,-eetives, aid wfll ITe eotidSTat^- ^^ '"•''"''™"'"'
Uses of
personal
pronouns.
IF ^'
K!-
i'f
ft:-/,*'
100
mo NOUNS.
(I). we,ua;
our, oura.
History of
I ttud //te.
Me, an an
ethical dative.
(2). thou,
thee;
yon, ye.
"V (l„m„.„ boing«) have speoal,, and rt.j, („i|„,. „„i,„,j.)
H'l ?J' '"y/""JP'^"i'>'»«) took H long wHik together.
ne (Curuu ntns) livo i„ the WostenMIemisXe ;
'^c CyoM uud /; 866 each other. '
In certain styles, w, ^^9, and the pronominal mlipo
tives ..er .«.. are used by a single s peakrof hims d?"
bo, especially by a soverei^ni ; as ""nstii.
We, Victoria, Queen of Eugland ;
also, by a writer, an editor, or a contributor to n
periodical, who speaks as if he representc he ,• hc>le
>ody of people concerned in editiuL' ov^Mnthu^t
the publicatiou for which ho writes. '^''""*^"^"^^' ^"
e O F^' ""^^ :«^' « dative, from another 8to.n, ,v place,
down, and, as in Shakespea^rtheylrroTen ^Z^
Knock me at this gate a..d rnp me well ;" '
See how this river comes me cranking in'
And cuts me, from the best of all my land
A huge half-moon. ^ "
In the Elizabethan period this ethical dative was o.^Pn «
mere expletive, Hs value having become weakened!
. 290. The singular of the second person, thou (hep
s now confined to certain higher and more solemn «;
poXy :X:;""' ""^' "^^^^^"^ "^ prayeT and Z
O </<o« Shepherd of Israel, that did'st comfort thy people-
Thou lovest, but ne'er knew love's sad satiety! ^ '
th^^^ ^'^"'*''^ ^""^ '^'' "^^ ""'^ "' """"^ *^^'^ same way :
O night and darkness, ye are wondrous strong »
JNfor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault.'
"^
/
'1
CLASSES.
e speaker
iiiiumlx)
btlier ;
ere;
al adjec-
himself.
or to a
le whole
'utiai^r to
i'('j)lj(ce(l
■sixteenth
ne broke
ihanpfed.
e, but in
ists," in
sitive of
3 means
197
oiten a
I, thee,
Bmn or
and in
pie;
way :
/|.■«'';:^t,i;::;";;^...':t';s' ;;,.t ^t"" =">'-^""' "'«'"•-
ouo c«,..,„':„j. With' 0,™,"';';,,,"''' '■'"••""■•"'" *" *'«'"« '"
i" the „|„ al, eve 'tl o„M, "'V"''"'" '""'J'*'. «'«^ verb
Like ^ """ '""'""" '** "ddi-essed.
AiiH 'o «,« ij ''l'«^«io, ethical dative.
Aud a would «...n«,e ^,„ H, piece a,., aud come ,„„
'", ana come you out.
the'^S^r if'a^^^^^^^^^^^^ 1^^',|.^^« r-«' -ed in ..o.,.,,,
things addresHed: thus! fo^' eL^^^^^^^^ '" ^^^^'«^"« «'' i^^-^'
Othou to vvhom all creatures bow
How mighty is thy name I '
^ou, James, come here f
wh,ch .., „,ai„tai.ed in the authttreS^Tf t'S : -" - "
I do beseech y., if you bear aie hard
^^'^''^^tZ^^^ttX^^^'^^^^ and Oh.
however, remained " moaTt e ' ^'^'^'■*'''- ^"^ '''"K"'*'".
used to some extent amono^ti"" "^"^^O' ""^ ™s
'iends, by super ors to ?„t!>r or. """7 "'"'^"^ 'o™'''''
anger towards strangers iTJ.' n "** '," contempt or
among friends, and flnallv w ',"'• /'*"■"' ™'* "sed
singular, havjng become arcl^^'' ""^T"''^' ""d "«'
poets. Probably this ^'^'^Z' ^Z^^^^;'^^
(
198
PRONOUNS.
iii
Explai)fttion
of siliuular
reference
of you :
And of its
displaca-
meut of ye.
(3). Demon-
sti'ative use
of . ersonal
prouoans.
General char
acteristies.
Declension.
men.'inXkZ'^'Irr'' T ".' "'"'•« ™POrtanee than a
direct ™S:- add^e^tht T '^''' /'" '" ''«'"«>'»
Modern Gcrma., the f ht,l -''e singular ; just as, in
use the seZd .md i IT'™ .p'"™' ''^ "'"<' where we
third person s used fo" bo h he'T T'!? ?^ '""tation, the
^9«o\ 4^u e ^^i'^u hpeecn. As lias been nointpd mif
Ws^musVr^aLZ'teT T' '''■""-'^ --'o-dedf but'
inflectional distin"S^sanTa°ndt„*tr™' T'""'''™'' "'
whi,.h, after inflectZs "d ^Te„ di^LTtj ",' "™"^
form for both nominative and oblectiv^'^'^ ' ^°^ "" '»""
tJ^o?;i^o=t^a=;'Tnsrs::^i;V:r^^^^
Nor you, »« pipud (adj. as uouu) impLte, ete '
rurrcet? iwzUiv-rtt p"= -
THE DEMONSTEATIVE OP THE THIRD PEKSON.
,, Jd^^f^v^''*' pronouns he, she, it and iliey, which are
nsed for anything spoken of, are, stricti; soeakinr
What is fte at the gate ? TAey of France ;
also, at present, in formal statements : thus, '
He who is not for me is against me.
foUows:^^' ''''"^^'*' declension of the pronoun i« as
Masc. ^^Fem^^" Neuter. Plubau
Norn. he she it ♦v.
OV- Wm her !t' '^
^ As m the case of my, mine, etc., the forms his her
l>ers. Us, their, and theirs are here vaS 1' tZl
uomiiiai aUgeetives. --• f'"-
CLASSES.
36 than a
be a less
st as, in
where we
ation, the
nd. The
assimila-
ace-stress
inted out
ded; but
ience of
of nouns
:he same
esembles
3, in
o fail ;
ng: the
ms.
ON.
ich are
mkingr,
point-
rative
ure of
loderri
1 la as
, her,
he, she.
obj^f ts^a'n V^'Z^^i:^ ^"- both dir. and inUin Hi.o.on..
her. The t in it, .£ hit ]\vf \^1: ■''''' !^^ *''^ "le obj. "he.u.et..
the Latin d in qrod%ua 1-) '" '''*''' '''"^ ^''«^' ^"'i
^7.. is from ^^the fe m of thJ i' ^^\«"«« ^"euter ending.
. fern. ..0, neut; /L ; Id repfa "n'/'V'" 'V^' ?^^««- ^^'
the fem. of he, (thus masl t } i^'''' '"^' ^^^^^ ^^^
from which /..rha^ been formed rt''' ^?S'"''^ ^"^
once the plural of the OP T P^^ ^^^ ^^'^'^ were
early part of hfsxteentfV.T''"'*^^^^^^^ ^^^^- ^^ ^he
probably, the mod. W as if fnrn'^ T .^"^ ''^"^ ^^^"^e,
ing the O.E. /Jor Lr wW^^^^^
displaced. ' ^^^^ ^he demonstrative ^Aew
persons may^'incM; h' setr'^Bv ^h""'^'' 1
in whicMh^mffZ.t''nf^''''''' evidently have sex, or
and especi?u/lf i~lrg" t-'P-'^^"* "atter, '
those wiirZLi' rr'^'f? «l'J''«t«-that is, in
sTea\^';£^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
ofalhip,* t X. " '"• "'"^ ''^ '""^ '»-'. - «'e earth!
are\? Jotf "'"' '•"""'P'"^ "«" «^™r„ personiac'ation ph„,.,„„
are regarded as male; for example' ''•""''y' " sublimity,
death, war, the sun, the ocean, Jinter, anger, heaven.
or^L'n'ii^-jr^rXTafelte^^^^
care, are regarded as female, for exa^Te °'
n«h. nature, the earth, spring, hope, virt'ue, poetry, art.
cat\oL?ihi:: rt'Te' d.r'"" "'"r"""^ »" p---"-
re^arded ar,;.l„ . ", ":*:...,?'"^"'r'U. ^^^? and Time are
of Personi-
fication.
200
■jrf
ill
PEoyouys.
U, use<l of
livingobjects;
he atid slie,
without refer-
ence to sex.
He for both
male and
female.
Both lie and
she in some
cc nstnictions
Colloquial
use of tJiey
in such con-
structions.
Special uses
of it:
(l). AsRepre-
sentative
Subject.
298. On the other Jiand, some objects that have sex
as the lower animals, are usually denoted by^^ heir se^
not bemg important enou^^h to be noticed. ^)r' n some
cases, we use he and she of them-as he of the doe „d 2
of the ca -without any particular reference to the'Jex bu
because their qualities in general appear to us to usl^?; the
use of these pronouns. It is regularly used as com nond
mg pronoun to child, hah!;, and ^ther"^ such wordT because
tlH.y imply an overlooking of the sex of the being^'signS
oy tnem. ho, too, it is sometimes used for anothpr
pronoun to express affection or contempt : thus,
What a nice little man it is ! What a fool it is I
And in the case of human beings, the masculine singular is
used to represent both the male and the female : IhSs,
^^talh of ?ho^^'''-,^"^ '''^^'' ^"<^^« '^^ has a share ;
Jiach of the family knows he owns the property.
Sometimes, however, and especially whei there is a markpH
reference to a female, both forms of the oronoui are used
«o, too, m the case of the pronominal adjective : thus, *
John and his sister are here ; each knows that he orlhe
will receive the property ; either will do his or J,- duty!
But the awkwardness of this form of sentence usually leads
to Its reconstruction. In colloquial English thZil of?pn
rL^pir'^^ demonstrative^, this c^ontuctfon^ thus^
Nobody knows what it is to lose a friend till they have lost him-
I do not mean that I think anyone to blame foi takSg '
due care of their health.
But, though this usage would be convenient, it is not
reputable and national (13). ' ^^
fi.-^^^' Besides its ordinary use to represent some-
thing without sex, spoken of, and its special use to
represent an object with sex (298), it has a variety of
other special uses m which its usual force is weakened
The more important of these are as follows :
(1). It very often stands as subject of a verb to
represent a phrase or a clause which is the real
subject, and which is then put after the verb : thus '
It is not difficult to die ; It is doubtful whether he will come •
that is, '
^"^ ^'^ii?''* ^^^^^^* ' Whether he will come is doubtful.
CLASSES.
201
but
So, too, in interrogative sentences •
When was it that he went f Is it true that he has gone T
that IS,
When was that he went (that is, his goii.g)? etc
of the sentence." ^"'' "' ''''^' meaning,
meaning of idiom, see par. 233.) ^'^
*«vlobJe"et"o? : rbrTh^s,^'"""^ ^^ *^ ^''^^''*^"*''-
Logical
subject.
An "Idiom."
that is,
T X, . ,^ *^^°^ *^ wrong to do so ;
I think U wrong that he has done so ;
I think to do so wrong ;
I think that he has done so wrong.
(2). As Repre-
sentative
Object.
(3). And, as we have already seen (160) it ^stnTi^lB
as impersonal subject of a verb; thus.
It came to blows between them ; Is it ij to Montreal?
expr'ess'^nT "'"" " ''' "" '' ' "^ *^^ ^^^^^^
/< repents, shames, pities, pains me ;
do'not^^^^^^^ '^^^^ *^ ^^P-- f-l-^« -l^icb we
ino?dt E^Xr^^ ^^^'^ ^«ry common
m oiaer J^nglish; thus, m Shakespeare, we find
It yearns me not ; It likes us well ;
Where Present English uses personal snhipnf« .^,-.«
Lo rne cununuai tendency to definitenesr shown 'b?
English and other progressive languages ^
(3). As
Impersonal
Subject.
Common
in older
Englisli.
f
li'J-
K*«aE . # rs?^aK3m
1202
PRONOUNS.
(4). Imper-
sonal Object.
m
m
m
(5), Indefinite
Subject.
( (
Hi8ii)ry of
my, thy,
out , etc.
Why valued
as adjectives.
Still posses-
sive oases
in two con-
structions.
(4) Sometimes, also, it stands as impersonal
object of a verb or a preposition ; that is, it does not
signify any real object : thus,
They footed «< through the streets ; He lorded it over them •
Come and trip it as we go ; Foot it featly here amf there^ '
We modern converts have a better time of it.
As used after the verbs, it here corresponds to the
(5). It i^ UBe^ indefimtehj for "the person," or ^
tne one," in such sentences as
A^ « ^^ *.^.^^ ,'" ^^ ^^^ ^^^e<^t8 ; in that, H is man ■
Art thou not tt that hath cut Eahab. and wounded the dragon f
This use of it is called indefinite.
THE POSSESSIVES OF THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS.
have gone entirely out of use. The modern my, our thv
your are derived from the 0. E. declinable pCom nai
adjectives vnv "my"; 4re, "our"; thin, "thy"; eW
JXe The o'f ^''^'^ '^T ^ ^ replaced^^th^ a E.'
fl. - if: J t • ■^; P^«^«??al adjectives Us, "his, its ":
m.^v H..?^* '"^T,^«"?J^^d the analogy of mm, etc., and was
partly declined. For this reason, chiefly, the possessives are
now treated as pronominal adjectives. There arrhowever
two constructions of these words in which the; arlnow
really possessive cases in function, although we have no
s^rlTllsoftrt ^«^.«^PP<^«i^g that these forml^re
surviv als of the old genitives :
(1). In early Modem English and still in poetry we find
such constructions as P"«try we una
^^IFM ^^^ ^^^^^^ «ti" embrace his heart
That doth not wish thee joy ;
Tell her 't is all our ways ; it runs in the family ;
in wnich " ^15 heart " is the equivalent of "the heart of
htm,^^ and " all our ways," of "the ways of all of u'.- ^
So, too, in colloquial English of the present day, we find
such sentences as, j, we uuu
Having heard the noise, my attention was aroused ;
in which ''my attention " is the equivalent of " the attention
CLASSES.
personal
does not
pr them ;
I there ;
t.
Is to the
v^eakened
son/' or
dragon f
SRSONS.
**thou,"
our, thy,
^nominal
'; eotver,
he 0. E.
is, its";
ble; but
and was
sives are
However,
ire now
bave no
•ms are
we find
leart of
s."
we find
tention
W. The falsely partitive possessive phrase:
of mine, of ours, of thine, of yours, of his, „/ its •
•^ bool< of John's; the lovely face of my daughter',. '
the literal meaning of d,i(or min seo Mreste the O P fL; "/'»*««.•'«•
InZdTnt' th"^''''"-'" «^ " daughterS; the deaLt "
an£ti?e fZZ^^^^^^^^t^ •>-- definite
ot lor T-'t^."'' *"T ™^ not^e^ene'etX^nurer
of»,e"T„tti!l„ J ni-st this may have been "a book
ofxThe' a^llo^Tf'^^af 'Z-tmrr''*''"-^''^' "".'"""'
and (2) tLt ?hf ^^! ^f O.E. and the French possessive, expiaunJnp-
ana \^) tnat the double possessive is apnositivP^2«Pi T'^lT
COMPOUND PRONOUNS OP THE FIRST, SECOND, AND
THIRD PERSONS.
oif^A* "^^^ "^'"'^^ ^"^^f ^«i"^) and selves (plur ) are
added omy,..er, tJ^y , your, Mm, her, it, and^Am, W
ing a class of compound pronouns of the first, second
and tJiird person,, .inch have two principal us^sT'
Vi;. 10 mark empMsts, usually along with a noun ohi.f
or another pronoun : thus, ^ ?^!t'''^^'
I rr^svij or me mystlf; none but herself- ^^*"*''
^e (or, James) was /iwweZ/ present. '
III
i |1 i
204
PRONOUNS.
(2). Reflexive
¥ i
Simple
pronoun used
reflexively.
History of
compounds
of self.
f: %m
Emphatic and
reliexive
phrases
with own.
T s used, they are eullod emphatic i^^vmimX pronouns
Aiid tiiese compouiuLs have so far nss uned he
character of eniphatic personal pronouns tlmt 1 }
and ///y.v.7/ are occasionally found in the more elected
ot the veib in the hi-st and the second person ; thus
Myself am Naples ; TJiysclf art God.
(158) ; tut '''•^^'^''' ''^•'''^ ^^ ^ ^'"^ ^^ ^ preposition
I dress myself; You will hurt yourself (or ymirselve^) •
He IS anxxous about l^nself; He is on goo^d termCSS W.
Thus used they are calk d reflexive personal pronouns
0^.r.,,?/and 2^o.ir.d/ denote a single person -^^^S",
and yourselves, more than one. own9e^t;es
So too the simple pronoun is somr-^'mes usprl
reflexively in old-style literature (125 [l]) ; thus
T rin ,.^^^® went and sat her down over against him • '
I do repent me; He laid Mm down; Stan^d thee.^^, then.
r. 7^ 'J^.^^;^V*'^-^("«^'f") was an adjective- thus
aL I (py)«e]f "; min selfes, - of me (mvSf 5' Ito .'
le m4 self, th<i ^/.e> self, h6 him self, w6 ti^ selfe.
ye eow selfe, hi /mw selfe.
In the course of time, while se7/ was used with the dative of
pronouns of the third person (thus, MmseJfXr^elfUeW
m the case of the other personal pronouns it wTs trel ed as
a noun modified by a possessive adjective tims? J.e / and
tL7if) anH' "^"'^ ""^ ^'^' '''^^ thatis':;.:/:"d
l^y'^W, and, by analogy y^s seZ/andf'ow self, became 0^^//"
when^"?;t ""T" ^ ''' ^^^* ^^^^^ ?^ *h^ Sixteenth ceS/
wnen self was valued as a noun (thus for Pvnmr.in '
man's better self^) and the origin nfi. example, a
foro-offPTi fi.« J / ciua ine origin ot its compounds was
lorgotten, the plurals conformed to the e-eneral vhIp fnt.+iV^
formation of noun-plurals in -If (248 [l]^.
304. Besides the forms under par. 302, (1) and (2)
we find 0..^. (which is etymologically d^, the p P of
the O.E. dgan, "to possess" [185]), in the emnhnt?p
iise, or in a use which is both e^hatic LTreT^^^^^^^^^
He came unto his own and his own received him not. •
CLASSED
2«5
ronouiis.
iiied the
it myadf
elevated
subjects
: thus,
position
himself.
onoiins.
urselves
is used
lUS,
then.
^ : thus,
'," etc.;
tnetimes
n, gave
ative of
itself),
iated as
ielf and
'If and
our self
ientury
)le, "a
ids was
for the
ad(2)
).p. of
phatic
ctive :
And Bometimes selfm added for greater emphasis:
I w,ll do it my own self, Who his own self bare our sin,.
•THB« DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Sing, this and that; pi. these and those •
M« were originally neuter In M 'l^f 'i. '".-"r* '*"' »»<•
another pi., (liw and /*!. tl^ fl?'^''' EnglKsh, tAis had
Mod.pl.?«J wWletheni ^^t'"' »' ^H'"*; S,»™ "»«
the pi. of ««;owin^o colln witr.ir'''''"'' "' "^''
to Z!; liLlT^*" contrasted, <«« and these are nned ti«.,
I7« is right ; au,, is wrong ; Take Ikis and give me mi;
anTaTX'^H '' ""f," equivalent to "the latter"
ana t/iat CO the former": thus
Reason raise o'er instinct as you can
In th^s, 'tis God directs ; in tC, 'tis man
wfth %felt- ^ in" th^'^^'.f *'^ ^^*^ '^' ''^'^ a^d even
by some gesture ; thus, ^ distinguished
J7.^. book IS well bound, but this one needs rebinding
He tool. ""^ "'^^7^" ' ^^'«^ ^« ^e C grod'sLr^'^' '
He took n^o care of his life ; he knew tins TovtMffL l.« .„f. .
W^ 1 ^" T Y^ ^^^ '^*^ "^^ l~that is the question •" ' '
He learned tins at least, to bear up agaS'Sortune.
I 1
^1^^
206
^3). For the
aemonstrji-
tlve of the
third i>er8on
PRONOUNS.
(i). With »
phrase or a
clause,
for a noun.
^y ^ .«c worn^ fr^ 1 • V, , instead of «V
•onoun relates. Thus we ?nnT ^^''' , conjunctive
^xevated style, ^ '"""^ ^^^' ^^ the foi-mal or
-^^ whom you saw;
Dut we must say in all styles,
^ T/m< (not /O which you saw,
the person, ^tcjThellT^LTl^''\^^' ^^'«^««^'
are not now felt to h«vf ' . ^^.^^^^^^ the pronouns
force for such uses. ^ sufficient demonstrative
nout^or^tun-pVat'wh^^^ '^ P^«- of a
be repeated along with a IrlT^"^ ''^}''^''' ^^^« *«
It: thus. ^ "^^ ^ P^^^«« or clause describing
(5). For an
emphatic
subject.
Natur© and
uses of so
and such.
My horse (or, my horse and buggy) and thnf ( . -..
W. . neighbor • ^' ^°°* '^>> «* ^y
^^ (5). Sometime, these is ''"^•™'™'l'«rePet'tion.
the no«on expressed Zl 'tKl^rS' f^^ttl' ^
He said *o; He told me .so-
s «o ^vS^*'' ^"'"^ -'-^ •'^^-•
the nominative aud ob "etivf ,\ ''«T".^*™«-« *»
■neinded among the indefin7ti w ""f "^ • " '« ""en
Examples of itfnse as a pron^unar? '" '*' "^'''^'°^-
«««» as you cannot ,„ecoed; I cannot »„* ,„ .
'"» octvre as ae.
CLASSES.
m
stead of it
onjunctive
foi-mal or
'e prefer,
e woman ,
pronouns
'ustrative
ace of a
have to
ascribing
of my
•ad (or,
rse and
le repe-
etition.
atieally
thus,
tese
'evh, is
icfes as
efore.
ve in
often
ning.
le.
i^^aZlZf}': ^^^f./^-j;- •'"•^'^^' Goth, s^va-hiksj
18 equivalent to so-hke, thus aeeounting for the
tendency to form the compound meh-like t was
originally followed by whichr which means ''who like-
or what-hke" [3091), and we find this cortnietL
m older English: thus, in Shakespeare! '"""'^'""^'^^
There rooted between them such an affection lohich cannot
choose but branch now ;
but present usage has established as.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
wmcn Iheir office is to ask a question, or to mark
an interrogative sentence; and their usual place Ts as
n^ear as possible to the beginning of the'^Sencef
Wh^.i. f^'^ comes here? W'Aaf does he want?
Which of us does he seek ? Whom are you looking for f
Whether once an interrogative pronoun is not
ofTwo "'o^f ^* f- T T^^^^« ^"r -i^ich 01^'
thus ' ^ ' ^^^ reference is to two:
RTi. F'^^^/!'> ^'■eater, the gift or the altar?
Whether of them twain did the will of his father?
309. \Vho is used, without any change of form
both as singular and as plural. '
Ithas, however, three case-forms: nom., tvho: poss
tvhose; obj., tvhom. * ^ '
Which and what are uninfleeted, and are used onlv
or nlZr*'?'.^-''^ objectives ; ivhich is either singular
or plural ; tvhat is only singular.
-wr5w?f;'tw1^r'5r^^/^^^^-)' «« that it means
who-like or what-hke." It once related to persons
and has displaced the old-fashioned whether, '
suffi^tllnV^'^'"''""^ *^'' '''^*'' ^^ ''^''^ ^' ^^^"^ *h« °«^t«r
Tr/.ose<the O.E. gen. ;«(;«^s, later whds ; the -se bein^ a
possessive inflection. It was not c\^o\\r..<\ uv. _„"?:"?.*
m Old English and may now be valuedas a p;ss:;;i;;';ase ;
Dorivntlon
of such.
Once followed
by which.
Now by as.
General char-
acteristics.
Desleusioa
Ovigin of
the inter-
i-ogativeft.
208
s-i
PRONOUNS.
Uses:
who and
what.
vihieh.
Adj. uses
of what
and which.
Exclamatory
iHterroga-
tives.
Adverbial
nses of what
History of
the O. E.
conjunctives.
(O.fc. hwiim) 1, a dative indi.etion ' '" ""*"'»
persons, l„„„an I^ , L . ll ■'' "'''T^ '« "''•'.I of
else, whether living frekuf '" 'i^^*! ."* overything
"-WeA is nsed of b^otr~s '^.ui'";,''"'*'''' ""'"f-"'
differs from both wAo„n,i.!i,^'', '""*?"• "'/«<•*
that is, it implies a eertSh?kl':f '" ''"?*•' selective:
individuals, from arrum^ L m' "".'"'"^'' '"'' ''"dy of
if we siy, • Mvt d U r 'or'" Vl "ff^"^' '^''us!
!',".* appear to know anlthh . .. "*' l\"' '" «'« "l"
'WcA did it?" imS"'f."''""*«'e agent; but
persons or thines onn n. !! A"' T "^""w eerfain
been the agent "' ""<"'"*'■ <" "-hieh "lust have
»*l?arrio"^x;rortir:r"''? •""f ' •^*«' -i
^"hat (and other iSoS ve w^^''^""- "'*» «"<!
an exclamatory se„serCl7f/i7/>-f a'«^
in thet::se''o7!S • th„^ ^""^"""^^ "--^ ""-rbi'ally
W-;,a< need we wine when'we have Nilus to drink off
fr;r?ri~plru;.^r^7:;;r:' >««'^^^^ *»» n,ake itr
With anyeM'ta°r4rCl/u2^ H^?""^"'
CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS
and -i/o^S&ttSr''^^' '"^^ '*• «'*«^
way that is called ^'co.Hnn?H, I'! T ? "" "^^-l « a
and, when so used tW ^ ^°'" relative"):
CUSSES.
I ^Jie nnalofry
le -m in whom
I <«istincrion
«l«e ill the
is used of
everything
ate thiiifrs;
?s. WMch
selective :
or body of
)iie is to })e
te. Thus,
tr* we do
ifc'ent; but
w certain
must have
tvhat and
H7i<? and
ed also in
already ?
3verbially
ikoff
^ we find
ike it ?
partly")
ised in a
itive") ;
functive
inctives
s^o, that
? (itself n
909
»mnK the doll,,!,,,, duuse i 0,,", '"' ''''" " '"'"'^' <""'"'»■
^ .8 brydgtmrn, tkal is the bridegroom.
So tiiat the clauses were at first co-ordinate.
Later, the interro^mtives were used- thev l»«nn»*,« a *
indeanite; as, for example, i.» Shakespeare, ®"*
He doth nothing b„t frown, as wl,o (."as if o««"; should
say, If you will not have me, choose "
which v,m not sotfUl C'„ ? ""*'"' "™ <"' •"'"' ™<1
DEFINITE CONJUNCTIVES.
313. TfAo, which, and ^7<«^ refer dffinitfh, r>^. ,i
hence they are called definite conmnctiveT)^^^^^^ ^
or another pronoun in the samHenSe fchT
as 1 generally stands first, is called t^e'a/jfec^^^^^^^
and its antecede^L'S tl 'be'lV'.^r^^l^?
this relation is of a peculiar kiml ''^^\f'^"^f- But
introduces a separate d^se Lnd io^ns TiZ'''''
adjectively to the antecedent in the wlvo? .^^ -f I''''
or description (23) with a v r Pf v 5 ? • '"i'''^*'^"
which we will take Cwhen we d^^'il T'^^^
clause. Examples are '"' *^'^ adjective
The man that was sick is now well •
T r.r.r^A.f'^'' "'^'*'''* ^h'^es above is golden -
I notified the constable, who arrested^h m at once •
He struck me icho had done so much Sr him '
cJjtT ''Y ^^^* ^'""^'^y ^5« fearlessly .
Can I believe kis love will in«f;»^ ,..„.! ^ '
^Ho has no reverence for the God^Hovel^OOCl]).
The modem
KtniKgle
between thatt
niul who and
which.
Definitions of
conjunctive,
wntecedent,
correlative
i I
210
"Conjmif.
RelttHve."
PRONOUNS.
ConJunctlcu
wforo the
conjunctive.
'•'rif?r«'f ™";- ^y .ifHcnptiv,. of ti,;:,;r ti,;„
may be de^J^Z'^'MZlP"'^ '•^■'''""""' ^'"•"«.
Ski A, K n i.'i
Conjunctive
wpeated.
Conjunctive
Sroverns
the person
of the verb.
Uses of
conjunctives:
V>ho.
HI i
WW '
III B !
word ; ccmj'Ill,-:^^^^ .i^" \ " *"""«•''"<?
couii. t tho "«,';"''' ,"°* P''«'*''« " ""less «.
anothe,.eo„j,.,;,;;r'::,r;:1Z'' i--"'-<"»«te'y with
we should read ° mtereaW;
'"''" ""S onee a groat favorite etc
or we should reconstruct the sentenlr^'
ateiy'ther-jultifirextr","™."^^'' -■-■<''«■
i« a pro„?„:/of,si%r:t"rthr:' **?" "^ ""■'«««'«»'
as it were, the pmo, „f it« „ T°",'' P"''"""' «h«'*s.
subject, it takes the verb inth.^ '"'"'"•.. ^* "^^^ "^
and, to prevent amhii.„/flTr''*''P*;"<'"'KP««on:
possible: thus, ^"^ '** antecedent as
Ta (W '"'? T 5'™"' ''•«''<'. '«« yon 80 -
. " "^ oujirwu invs H11'^ ^'^x—
i4a« (or have) been i^utvom'Z.
!OFrOV/J5
'»
CLASSES.
2U
pronouns
o a wonl
jnnctive"
f»<'m than
lal words,
onnecfiiijj
unless to
tely with
le Comte,
tid;
30-or(lin-
f should,
in
3ject of
e
clauses,
3 clause
ecedent
shares,
Lised as
)erson ;
? other
lent as
: thus,
tigular
d the
b us,
whic
whoae for
of which.
When not persons, hut otlier crentnr-f^s or thipi?s
are meant, the eorresi.ondJnjj conjunetive is wiiirh
(not tvhaf, as in the interro^^mtiv^i u.^e). Thus,
We hav the letter which ho wrote ub:
Brunches which hung from tlio tree.
^yj'osP is, however, often used for of ,vhirh, because
more eonvenient and less fornuil : thus,
A tale whose lightest w^vd, etc.
Some needlessly disapprove of this, and prefer to
say only 0/ «;/,v./,^p,,)hably on aeeount of the modern
ro!.;?'^ ^r'^'-'^ l** ^''^'''''^ ^^^^ possessive c.ase of
nouns WhosP IB, however, often used in this way
by the best writers : thus, ^
Through the heuvy door, whose bronze net- work closes the
place of his rest, let us enter.-RrsKiN •
A religion whose creed they do not understand, and tchose
precepts th(3^^ habitually disobey.-MAOAur^AV :
^'^:rSc^:^;:i^^^. ^^-- ^^ ''*"^ ^« ^-^ -^^-^ to a
Wliich is sometimes used descriptivelv (23) of the
noun notion eontained in the preeeding^ sentence, or
or Arl/^irthuT'' "'"'' e^l^iivalent to and this
The nmn was said to be innocent, which he was not •
We are bound to obey all the Divine eomnuiuds, XV we
cannot do without Divine aid.
Which now used only of things, or of persons
collectively, ^), nerly applied to individual persons
also : it was then regarded as more definite than that
and ess so than who, beinj? etymolo^^ieally " who-
hke " or " what-like " (309) : thus.
Our Father ivhich art in heaven, etc
^ - . , , 'Twas a foolish quest,
TJu which to gain and keep, he sacrificed all rest.
Your mistress fi-om the whom I soa
There's no distiqction,
whirl},
descriptive.
Older nses
of which
and who.
I f
I-
f **;
212
Mi wil
Constrnctlon
witi: pre-
position.
tiogieal
values of
ihat, and
U'ho and
which.
ponstruetions
m which
(1). fJiat
should
bd used.
Piioyouys.
persons and to th i V n "^^''^'' ^'^^^^'^^W b^4h to
*>>^' example, ^'' '"^^ ^^ «»« o^' to more than one
The ho <1 //,a/ wears fl,e crown • ur , .
"•"" W^W o"Jr''-f;r' *'- "<" folio. « ,„.,,,„.
, Yet, if the eonj„„,ti' " / ' "■■ ^''"'" *'"'(■
stands apart from iJ J./ ".iJ*"" of a prenositio,,
one of the otherdefimte Z"'' T*' ^"iierS „"
thus, either '''*' <^0Bju,ictives may be used
but only •^' '^''° '«""' «•*«'' I toM you „/,.
SIS C!„ '^'■^ ''°°* "/""»« I told you
eZv "'^" '^^ -"^^ Srihtr t If
„ ""'"1^'^%^^:--"^^ were, eft;
, But although the dkZT """"'■ ■
be^t English Ssage bf„'o'''Z ^T'" "« "«eful, the
"i^aT^h"'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ "^'""•*^ ^*'
-liiere are, however oerffli,.
.«beused audnJtSTS/" ^'''«'> *'
^-i>'- When there ova f.
expressing both persons an dfi,"'' ""^^ antecedents
<*«<, not «,*„ or ImT in "^- '^^''^' "'e use
. (2). me:xTsror/;^""'^™^°'"*^--
•n doubt whether :%;';* «;;«*>A wonld leave „s
Merely descriptive .- tlms 1" "'" *' ""''""^ ^
-.houid':;?;::^^*''-' -?'"-'«" tow.,
""«*€»■ by the eonjuncU;eXse ""' "''^ *" '^"^'^
CLASSES.
213
■ ; it may bo
'ing: both to
■e than one.
hat sleep ;
« preposi.
the town
from that.
'I'epositiou
3r ^/i«i! or
be used;
d you of;
honid be
hiis, foi
fwl, the
orts it,
'edents
ve use
ive us
ingror
lefine
of in adt'etrv:^ht' "'"' ^"^'^^ superlative degree
This is all (or all the money) that I can give you;
It was the only thing that I could do : '
Who </*«< know^: him would believe so ?
He has made the greatest mistake that can be made.
Often, however (especially in colloquial English)
(DlTlfr 'T.^!i! 'T' ^* '^' eonstructfons in
itself (323) ' ^'^'""^^y ^""^^ ^«<^ P^'«««"t
the^LttdPn^'L^^i^^'/^'f '^'^^^ "«* ^« ^^«^^ if ^^>-'''«*
tne antecedent is already clearly dtined- that is it should not
f^M not r' T^.V^ H.4ngclau;es''^V:;ce "^^^^•
It shou.d not be used after proper names, and such
other nouns or noun-phrases as have already a clearly
defined reference : thus, ^ ^ ^icuuy
He received it from my father, ivho went away.
seelto^hpn?''' *\' ''^''*^^^ ^^ *^^ conjunctive
rXr th.n of ^''''"* ^ n"'*^^^^ ^* ^"P^^^^y «r taste
Tennysonf ' '" "' ^ descriptive clause : thus, in
When I that knew h'm iierce and turbulent.
Ketused her to him.
CONDENSED CONJUNCTIVES.
that It has not .isually an antecedent expressed -™5-»-
in the sentence and, therefore, lacks their definite^ss "'°'"""'™
of reference. In its ordinary use it imnlie* wt
antecedent and conjunctive ,\hat' is i7 ne^^y
equiyalent to that i^Mch (that demonstra ive a d
whwh conjunctive), and, consequently, it a'lwa ..
J ? . Jit
1.<
'4
.a
'I
214
What, with
a correlative.
PRONOUNS.
TTiat and
wlio, as
condensed
conjunctives.
o^n^^%^?^T •"'"V« '"*<" is often „„ A
der EnD-],-c.i. „.„ ^ , "txaein.
'^o. which,
what, as
Indefinite
'conjunctives
and Subor-
tlmate Inter-
rogatives.
mmm' i
. In older Englisi, we fl ^ *''"^'"'-
™ . thus, for example ' ""ndensed con-
We speak t)Mt we do knnw'„ a .
^"0 ako is . condensed r ' '*"' "" ""^ -»•
'-'-ast,etj:e;::,:!r.T:rr™^''"""^'™<='-
">•'. - this use, it is arehai; o c iT,!"^'';'^'''^'™*'
320. But thet^ ill ^™°«'"«*™ ™tekroo^,„,,
,<^-fly in obiect^e",:.r •' l"','"'!^". «nd -C
regarded as tJ.e equiva^t'f /''"''? ^^^^' cannot be
antecedent. For exam l„ **. eonjnnetive with an
sentences as '"'"'P'*'' ^^ do not feel that such
We well know who dirt it ..j ,
people blamed, an^.^ro? £7^^/^!^ ^^^^ -'--
-e equivalent fo ^^°^'^^' '''''' ^^ -Stf ^^^ »^^-e;
We well know ^/..^,,,,,,,,^
J*f has the se "^^ On which
tive), are known as simvTfnJ^}^%^^ ^'^ interroga
This use resembles thlf V .^^^^^^^^ conjunetivf s
".^direct questions (283) ''solh?^ '"^^^ Pronouns Tn
^distinguish the uses rhv r^ ^^- '^ '^ ^^<^en difficult Jo
iiiterrogatives in sulmr.J!! . ^ ,"^^^' ^^^ valued as
example, in "" s«l>ordinate clauses): thus for
We weil know who did it, etc.,
CLASSES.
215
"sed as an
' ^^ the other
»
ae
ative of an
acipal clause
holily;
leth.
demonstra-
liensed con-
ive seen.
-lections as
^als trash ;
^
OGATIVES.
innot be
with an
fiat such
d ?<;7/ow
lame ;
1 which
erroga-
letives.
nns in
cult to
netion
led as
3, for
I
be valued as the
the subordinate clauses should
indirect form of the question :
fFho did it, and whose fault was it, and whom did people
blame, and which of them most deserved blame ?
if we know that a question has been asked. For
distinction's sake, the pronoun in the indirect question
is called a subordinate interrogative.
321. In indirect questions the interrogative pro-
nouns are necessarily indefinite, but not all subordinate
clauses containing simple indefinite conjunctives are
necessarily indirect questions. This indefinite use of
who, tvhich, and ivhat is the direct result of their
interrogative origin, and causes their resemblance to
the pronouns of the same form in indirect questions.
Only those clauses should, of necessity, be treated as
indirect questions which are associated with some
verb, or noun, of inquiry, and which are, as it were,
the echo of an inquiry : thus, for example,
He asked me who did it, whose fault it was, etc.
COMPOUND INDEFINITE CONJUNCTIVES.
322, When the reference of ivho, ivJiich, ivhat, is to
be of still more indefinite character than in the
simple or the condensed indefinite conjunctives, we
use the compounds whoever, tvhafever, whichever, who-
soever, etc.; and, in old style, tvhoso; the meaning of
the conjunctive being generalized by -ever, -soever, and
so: thus,
Whoever did it ought to be ashamed ;
He will give you whichever you want ;
They overthrow whatever opposes them.
These words are called compound indefinite con-
junctives.
Sometimes, in older English (as with ivhat [2191), a
correlative is expressed : thus,
Whoever so doeth, he erreth in the belief.
The forms in -so and -soever are nearly obsolete. They
occur frequently in older English and in the Bible: thus,
Whoso Ulggeth a pit shall fall therein ;
Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted.
Siibordlnate
iuterrogativea.
Origin of
iudeiiniteuse.
Indirect
questior .
Forms in
-ever.
Forms in
-soever, -ao.
Pi *
If '.^
i-fi'i
im.
h^'
'\ \
' kVKKM
1 ^l^^^^l
v'j&^^l
2i6
fi!
VA
■f ' I
If
il
C'onJunctlvea
not used.
Preposition
or preposition
and conjunc-
tive not used.
Conjunctive
siiljject
not used.
Historical
expIanatioD.
PRONOUNS.
The addition oF o * ~ — —
l"" we fl«d in Spea™ ,'" ""^ ""'«■• form ,!,«„ „„,„ ,, ,^^.
^/V<afeo the hpnvor, • , .
^, 323. The defitl l''""'™ »»vnot,ve.
instead of «^ '-- '^etr C^^-^
The man that (or «•;,«„, ) „
v'-'i tinunij wg SAW* TV. 1
Often ako » '' '""^ ""'^ ^^' " """ '" *«^
-«.n-etive arelfS;"-; - """^ P-positio„ and
■IiletimeweB,etTon•Tln»•'.^
»'•« i-sed instead of ' " """ ^^ '"' did it ;
^vhere tt„, • '°'' """^. etc?:' '^''^ '"'^ '» »'««
In o r "r '"'^^'*-' «l'J-tive.
^" Older Enp"Ii«}i i
antiquated or soje" „ ,f [^ ««metimes stiJI in ^i,
suDject IS aJso not used: thus ^' ^^ '•^"■
'Tls distancri^ng:!,;^^'"^*^ "o cure';
, And in eolJoquiaJ fIi t?.'"'"' '' '^' ^^W.
'- - -e ^a..atteat .Z^r^Zf^'': ^
- W'a5, ana la joose/y
CLASSED
217
connected with raged as its logical subject : and, bv an
extension of the construction, in ^
I have a brother is condemned to die ;
„. „ , You are one of those
Would have him wed again ;
hrothernrxA those are objects, while they serve logically aa
subjects oUs and ^.o^^Z^ respectively. Only by th! end of
the fifteenth century did the modern more precise construe-
sTtW tl ^ "^?J""^^r PTT«""'^' ^^««»^e fully developed.
fet«nttn nf ?^^''°,7"r^"'^.^ ^"^^ ^"^^^^ "^i«°^ ^« due to the
retention of the oldest and simplest construction, not to
the omission of the conjunctive.
OTHER WORDS USED AS DEFINITE CONJUNCTIVES.
.^^^' ^k' ^^^""^^ '^"^ "^odievn English, is generally «.
an adverb, is sometimes used after the same, and
especially aff^r such and as, with the value of a
delinite conjunctive : thus,
This is the same as he has ; I love such as love me :
As many as were there were slain
used as an ordinary definite conjunctive: thus, in
bnakespeare, '
That gentleness as I was want to have.
vh-^l""^ writers sometimes, and often in colloquial other
li^nglish we find other conjunctives than as after Ime «?"i"-«-««
(not after such or as). Used adjectively sameZ
h Hftf b'"'^ by as if the a.-clause isl^comXte
but often by one of the other definite conjunctives if
it IS complete : thus,
They believe the same of all the works of art, as of knives
boats, looking-glasses ; '
For the same sound is in my ears
mu- . XV. ^'"^^ ^^ *^^^® ^^ys I heard ;
This 18 the very same rogue ^oho sold us the spectacles.
Like the other conjunctives, as may introduce a ^s-ciause.
descriptive clause : thus, ^.„„-._..!!-
In this country, the Prime Minister rules, as is not the
case m many other countries ;
He sat down, as is customary in such cases.
And the «s-clause may shade off into an adverbial ^s-ciause.
liSi *.- -t
descriptive.
OnP. flS re ehmirn \\\r +1^^ *^n : i . , . .
r^ ~; " V. ; ■' '7 "^-^ ^--^^""liig uxcimpie, m which
Che subordinate clause may be either adjective or
adverfaiai.
218
Il: If
Sut.a
negative pon
junctivp, by
contraction.
Adverbial
♦"onjnnptijjjjj,
^•elated to
conjuncth^.g.
General char-
«2teristies.
PHONOUNS.
adverb, aceordinc o. ^IZ~. ^"^ ^^
t^^«/' or -and thu'^^ "^^^^stand as to mean "and
The King, as I ve,,-]y beHnv«
826. ^,./ ;>, ,^ . ^ ^''''^^' ™ responsible.
«;;d i« a eo„Ct"m fo™'T,,f "•''"''^ '"" know it "
827. The ,f ""'"'"' ""'"™"°™-
derivation to ,rt» and »*„ ^'^ '«**••. a™ related if^
eQn";S7' n'* ''e;te;e"LroV;r '^""^•»-«-
tW t ^* *^ ^''^'^^^ and which Zti ^^^^^ ^ords, or
You see the place ,rWW-.u. ,. ^
You see whe,., (UaeY^?^''' ^'^'^ ^^ stands -
-^nd the same ^ff,i^rr. ^ r'"^^^-) he standi. ''^'
''■ '''^^ «^« adverbial conjfinrtiot ""'"'"'^"^'^'y'
«- ,-a J^ 'It'tJ^J'^^: ^'^^^ ^''^^'h-. under
between the rei pronm nso,? ./"^*'™«*«te PosS
and a^ectives on the o£ m ""'' '""'d and nouns
*'" '^^ - '"^ieate a VISKf.ST.f
-y.-«---s=^
CLASSES.
219
mean 'and
sible.
8'ative verb
ient to that
know it ^*
laii hut he
' find such
^c^, why,
'elated by
njnnetive
^^ords, or
^ns; and
'lite and
is only
tands J
>unds of
f^ hereby,
by the
are the
3tively ;
under
words
^ay in
louns.
■ they,
>sition
nouns
nally,
any means "one of a number," but which is not
indicated; the reference of the pronoun is lef
"m' ThP^'^^ii^'-^^'^f-"^^^- T^ this'^class belong '
(1). The distributives each, either, and ufither fn n,
These pronouns refer to objects, not as a colleo on *^^-^^'-.
but as taken separately. The v are tLrpfntr »
strued, with the singular: tliusf *^^^^^«^«' ««^-
Each (Either, or Neither) of the men (or women^ expects
that he (or she) can succeed. ' ^^Peets
Each distributes two or mnvt^ fVio« + i, ^
(2). The mdefinites of number and auantitv «,,..,
«««^A«. These words are construed with the siiKrnlar ""'''""■"'"'■
or the plural according to their meaning some bein^
smguar only; some plurals only; and' others both
47y |u^tlt^f<'a;^^n„=^;T^^ ^
early Modern English, it is often singuTar : thus '
If my of you lack wisdom, let him ask God '
mZ'tr^ ^^""^ "' '"^-^ "°'»-^' "-^has two
the^rp=lTro= ^itSflts^^i^^rr :J
clearness of reference : thus, directness, or
One may just hesitate to believe your statement.
Consequently, using one in the same sense, we say
On. may just state that one (not he) doesn% etc •
COnJLctS'T^f f^^ *^ *^^^^ P^^*«^- i^ all Con^rnc-
ouiih II actions, thus, for example, tionsofo««
On. of them (or t.., or you) always Zm.e. /,i. books on
the table ;
but, in the case of some, which is plural when it refers
220
lif
^i(
II if
;|t
! i
nont.
(3). Com-
pound
indefinites.
(4). The
comparative
'Other.
(5). Recipro-
cal pronoun
phrases.
PRONODM.
to number
according
Som
always leave their
He to]d scne oT ff LT"" °" '"^ '"W'"; "■°" '" ""'''
:nTr''"a„tr;''^i::^,^nf:j^-. «o.e. ^« <„,
^t in the .e„.e'o. '''Llfe"'l IhuTin'SlVlr "^
'^""^ ""« '"e brave dese^esth; fair °'
i^^l^sSKtll:^^^^^^^^^ "not an.,.a„,
but singular when useaotZZtif- TifuT'' '"'"•'"'^'
Perhaps n«« „, „„, Governle 1 , '^ *''"''
something, somebody, "to ' ^ *'"'^-' *°^'. ««»««»^,
incfS,tr"^^- «^-i„, ,, ,„re than two and
o/| ^SZ^t^i^^^'^^er Onaceonnt
scholars (307). ^' ^^^ ^® Placed here by some
betn ^Jfr SS "''" ""^ « --™'. - « still n..y
t-^^proca^or " m ituaP ' Z, «'"''*^'-. „^Weh have a
pronoun phrases, and are n?eH « ™* '■""'' ''^'^OCa/
really »„^ fond of another''. 1 a ",;,/*"' e'tample,
»'**'•" -s " They love *„/,.?i..^hey love each
"'■■ """"' "■"«/ os/*«r," each
CLASSES.
ml (117)^
(or our,
heir (or
'O leave
'^w <ine,
strued at
rden.
ny/Und
ai'ticles,
Dch
day, we
'ufferin
, every,
omeone.
vo and
ceount
V some
221
11
may
ave a
rocal
ouns.
mple,
l«ing in apposition to <7,.j,. But, in such constructions
Thev spoke to each other (or one mother),
only w^rrefor^'o^i'fo'/"'" "ff^'' '^' ''■^ »«''y- »««<i
uiny wi, 11 reference to two; and one another onlv with
tt;Xre^XKr;-eenn^^^^^^^
r^^Aris^^: .^iCtS^ *- ^'^"-«- ^^-
havf pluml'formf H:'"' P'-r'7"«- ""'^ "'^ and other
thfttiVt^tr^TanrL^S^/t^^^^^ -^ ^""^^
eitrt^'^^i^,-'' «°^ « ~«'- for
They are both in either's power.
OTHER WORDS USED AS INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
indpfinif^^"''^^' ^^^ "^^^^^ enumerated above as
indefinite pronouns, a good many other words are
th r Ti:: Zr^ T' ^^^^ ^ -akerd'^afu
(299[5f ) ert'asr the" ^Lin'^f' ''''^ ^''^'^' ''
From whence can a man satisfy these with bread here in
^ the wilderness;
^ney (that is, people" say Wolseley will be rechUed •
mnitlT. fr^f ^"^^^^^ ^hen'^in the waj! '
Will It cut a bo(hf (or a fellow)? I tell you tUat •
He knows ivhat's what; He knows t. J/Jf '
"3T2) 'used in thf"" ^"^'"''' '""''"J' '■'■'•««'«. «*»
nli?^l— --"^
nites; and there is force in the onnter^iSn sinT-'-
Each other,
and oHfl
another,
distinguished.
Inflections of
indefinites.
W- As with
a weakened
vjilue as
indefinites.
'/t
ADJECTIVES.
None in
Mofiorn
li^nKlisb.
these, those.
b I
The O. E.
RtJjective.
•X. ADJECTIVES.
INFLECTION.
they^!;v^fr^^K,,^-4-t in Mod,. „ English („s
■Mtunce) any inHet o„ f, "„^'""' ""d Greek, f,„-
number, or case, or g' hv ^'V^f '"*«« differenei „f
are tlie Pronon,i„a) u, , tK,,f 'f, ?»'Purent exceptions
wth a plural uoim am ,1 ,""' ""d "'"< wl.iel,
This change of for ;Hl%''''""S''d *» "'ese midZ''
English of what w' a's ibST' ? ^""■'^"' -'■'"" 01 i
real inflection ; forT/w,. t"'"'^" ?<>•■ inflection, n," a
of ««■* (305). '""■"' '« «t>'"ologieally the pCu
During" the Oh] P i- i
the other indefinite. Before !.?"•' ^"^ ^^^"^^0 and the
haT'di ^'"^"^' however ;, 't^T^ "*' ^^'^ ^^'^-n
5^1 '^'-'^^PP^ared, except fl ""^ adjective inflection
Siiakespeare, Iiov^ever has ll '''!;'^ ^^^ ''^^'^'^ 'injrl MosT
used as au mdeflnite pronoun ' '"" *''"■ »'' »« ««- here
CLASSES.
332 P ^'^°°''^'N« TO MEAOTNa. ■
lite no„nrTnd*'';err,''te"'°''^ "* "^'^''^^^-S which
separate and treat by 'them elvr"'''^''?' ^^ ''"vfo
Inmted classes; muih pZnnJT^?"' '^P""'"' and
adjectijes related to pvonZn^ J/"" «d,,ectives, or
tives of number; and toeart/^'.o""'"/''^'*' O'' adjee-
speeial classes, the general ma^i f.P'-"'' from there
conveniently call ad ective? „f * ad,,ectives we may
mder the term not o r - •-?""''^3'' in«l«din^
express
a^jcctivefs that
CLASSES.
223
'griish (as
reek, for
renoe of
xceptioiis
t which,
'I'oin 01(1
>», not ii
»e plural
3re fuJjjr
1 ^render,
an," for
tat gfood
Modern
and the
Modern
» flection
1 t?iose.
ST in the
(dder is
^i, here
V'hieh,
ve to
1 and
's, or
idjee-
these
may
iding
press
as itnLh ^' ^"'^7.' ^^'^ortous hnt proper adjectives,
nuant ?v ; W^ ^'^ ^"^, ^^IJ^'^tives that express
ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY.
REGULAR COMPARISON.
?af^n\lfT^ a(ljectives of quality have a variation of
for whieh IS sometimes valued as an infleetion, but
which IS really a matter of derivation (107); for in
olmL^"^ ' ''!'*' *?'''"^ ''''''' ^^'^'I'^'^^^l with full
gender, case, and number inflections (331)
^ The word larger in "a larger book,'" and in
of r rnmn^.'Jf- ^""i^ l^^ks larger," is 'said to he
of the comparative degree ; and, by means of this
degree we show that a thing exceeds another thiml.
or itse f under other cii-cumstances, in the degree Tn
which It possesses a certain quality
The word largest in the phrase "the largest book "
IS said to be of the superlative degree (superlative
means surpassing" or "exceeding") and v
means of this degree, we show that, amcmg a v
number of things (more than two) confp red o o
exceeds any of the rest in the degree in which it pos-
sesses a certain quality. ^^^
said^tnTI"^ f'T' "' ^l". J'^"^'^' *^ J^^-ff^ book," is
said to be of the positive degree (positive means
stating simply, without modification' ) , whidiT
thus, the adjective in its simplest form '
And this change of form, by the addition of the
undetl7 ^"^'fi: ""f'^ ^''^"^ ^^]^^ti^.. of qual ty
iTv.. \- •T * ^^'^^ describe, when compared with
other objects possessing the same quality, is called
suffix comparison. ^' ^^
334. Many adjectives which denote qualities having
diffei^nces in degree, but which are not compared
by the suffixes er and est, have these differences
expressed by adverbs. And, especially, the addufon
... „,.,„, „„^.„ makes adjective plirases which
have the same meanings as the comparative and the
Pompftr' -
a tiiutier o^
derivatioo
(1). Com-
parative.
(2). Super-
lative.
(3). Positive.
Suffix
comparison.
Phrasal
coiuparison
with more
aud moat.
1
I
234
^liJLcrnEs.
A<IJ«(«tlve»
with Imth
luruis.
able
more fit
more able
most fit ;
most able.
Other rormj
t>' pnriisHl
couipurisoD.
'f
History
^>)- Of suffix
comparison.
336 Bv ,?"'"""""' ''^"'■'•"""'■"'''■'-t.
and speakers prefe, to f<! ?: ^^''"•'' t'-'<'<i writers
336"ner::;r;"r--'-'"'^.
-ot been m/de!"" ^" '"-•<0- E- '^-r.^Z^:;,^ Z
*^'' ^ ''*«^*-''^«^, ''greatest'^?/ '^'^^^^P^^'^i^^^^^^
CLASSES.
22fi
>y Hiifflxes
'<i phrasal.
""iparison,
(his,
^»'« of one
«^e is uow
" pleasant) .
i'«, other
I'ls, with
11(1 super-
o,sf being
iitivea of
J writers
sal com-
on were
for the
SnglisJi :
Pmff of
'* as an
fig:e iia8
'I'ian s,
formed
uriher,
> of an
fher".
nd, as
s -ma
♦I .^,37. Phrasal comparison did not show itsc^lf nntil the
h.rt..entlM.,.nlury, and is probably due to the extension '.f
i\w ISO ot more an<l most with pnrticiph.s ami adjectives
wh.ch did n.,t strictly allow sufllx c<,n.parison. I)nnW
Chaucer s time ,t made rapi<l progress, and for a while was
used n.d.scrnn.natcly alou^' with suflix comparison. In
Liizabethau literature we tiiid such forms as
ancienter, eloquouter, repiniugost, virtuousest, unhopefullest.
Later, owinjr diiefly to our desire for euphony, the present
differentiation came into use. l 't^s^m
838. The eoinpnrative degree strictly implies a
eomparison between two objects of thought, the
superlativr among more than two. Yet we sometimes
say, for example, longer than all the others,"
though longer than H!her or than any of the others "
woiild be better. And, on the other hand, botiriu
ordinary talk and in literature, it is very common
to speak ot one of two things as oeing the longesL
although to say tln^ longer is more approved: thus
for example, in Goldsmith,
She thought him nnd Olivia extremely of a size, and would
Dia l)oth stand up to see which was the tallest.
This irregularity is due to the common tendency to
drop a distmetH)!! when, as here, the meaning would
be evident without it.
339. \Vlien an object is compared with the rest of its
class. It IS excluded from the class by the word other: thus,
This grammar is larger than any of the other books on the shelf. '
And we can express the same relation by saying,
This grammar is the largest book on the shelf;
but, in the first.examph, we consider the grammar and the
other books on the shelf as separate objects of thought,
whereas in the second the grammar is considered as one of
the group of books compared with one another. This
ditterence in u- is sometimes indicated by describing the
comparative as exclusive, and the superlative as incLive.
buch constructions as the following are, therefore, gram-
matically incorrect : » k ^-^^
In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in
any novel I remember to have read":
Adam, the goodliest man of men since born,
xxis sons ; the fairest of her daughters, Eve.
(2). Of
phriiMnl
coiupariaon.
1
Use of the
comparative.
Compftrative,
exclusive;
Stiperlative,
inelasl<re.
I
ADJECTIVES.
Absolute and
relative
superiutives.
m t
11 4
P E
i '
■^chaic
absolute
compftr»tive.
Than, sign of
comparison.
Words, com-
parative in
meaning,
but not in
construction.
here and in similar adieetivp nl, «"P«'-iatives
«... .J. ii5S";i:i.f. f '-T "-—
TToT *t, ' ' ^^ Spenser,
^*'' whll^r^hS:^:K''"^: --tmed wia
however, in En&]i<h « V ' . ^^^ ^^SPn. There are
Paratives /.i SinV art^'"''"^' *°»eh c^m:
construction. These are: comparatives in
Comparison
depends
partly on
D^^aning.
"• that laugu'a^e ;''but wS ^J/f ^'^ comparatives
comparative suffix, and so' nnf T''"^ *''<' E"*?>i«h
comparative, are not eonstr, ^ """"^ ^<''* to be
Examples are constuud as comparatives.
(2) aT"' '""'T' '"'""'""' """'"'■ "«-'»-
««age-has th^s reswfa^ ^"^^^^ ""««' ^hich
342 m V°7"' '"""' "P"*'' ""o-' ■•■»-.
partly -onthdrmS','^'" ^' ""'"P^^d "lepends
ditions hardly adTit o/'aSrere^o?"!""*'^ ^ -""
compared: thus, ' ^''^ ^^^y "lay then be
*^^ ^'^^^^^ among ten thousand.
.^;.t'; m'v^''"^::'^^^ superlatives ..,^,,. „„.
CLASSES.
227
de^fl'l^n^VJ ^Vyf'^i ^^"^P^^i^o" «hall be used .««.
aepenus chiefly upon the form. Most adiectives of ^""'P«rison.
one syllable admit of suffix comparison: thus ' "''"^•
short shorter shortebt fit fiff^^ L. ^
dry drier driest e^ Z^r e'oyetj
but comparatively few of two syllables (generally
those in very frequent use) . Examples are ^^""^"^^'^^
sincere smcerer sincerest clever nl^vov^^ i
and of three syllables almost none
mo?orvIh!i?«n.V"^'r'^' ^^ purely English origin, Qeneralrule.
monosyllables and easily pronounced dissyllables add
-er and -est; bivt there is no inflexible rui[e and much
depends upon pleasantness of sound and the desire for
vai lety of expression or some rhetorical effect Thus
for example, we find: '
the imviensest quantity of thrashing; the wonderfuUest liftlA
shoes; more odd, strange, and yet fami] ar -Saokfr^^^^^
eS''t'e;fchi:'n-''^^' --"^"^'^-^^ ^Peeraclesftherarp':
est, huest chiselling, and patientest fusing.— Ruskin.
addltfon1)f tt%nffi"'^^'? ^^''^^^'. ^'^''^ «h«^' the Changes 1„
aadition ot the suffixes of comparison usually makes T'""^'
t'ime'. t^'""^ syllable The addition is also some- ^^^^^
^mes accompanied with modifications in spelling
These modifications are as follows : *P«umg.
(1). Final e mute is dropped: thus,
abler, ablest ; handsomer, handsomest.
inflfl- ^w^-l'' P'^^^^^^,^ ^y a consonant, is changed
pkce!'thus, "" ^''''^''' "^ ^^^^^^^ t^^es
happier, harpiest ; but, shy, shyer ; gayer, gayest.
vowPl^•«^J^n'5T''^''^?''^''^^'^ ^^ ^ ^h^^-t stressed
vowel IS doubled to maintain the quantity, and final
aZZd iL"" """"'"'"''^ "^"'^ '' also'^^ometimes
red, redder, reddest ; cruel, crueller, cruellest.
IRREGULAR COMPAKlSOI-f.
« ^**' ^J^"^ a«JJectives are irregularly compared
Some of them »ero .o in Old Knglishf and Xrs
%
228
ADJECTIVES.
If iiii
List of
jcljectives
inegiilarly
conipaz-ed.
better, best.
less, least.
worser, lesser,
more.
elder, eldest ;
older, oldest.
l>etter ^^^^
worse (rarely, worser) worst
less (sometimes, lesser) least
lite?]!^^' oldest, eldest
later, latter latest, last
latter, last;
later, latest.
near.
mL:'""" '^'"'""' '"'■ '^■'^y ""'y be classified as
(1). good
bad, or ill
little
much, many
old ^
late
nigh
„ ,, , , ^ ~ "»«uesL, next
Xe.ss and least<0. E. fessa and hesest • 7.;./ ^7n r n \ i •
mutation forms from thp ^f^m /lo u- , -^ . ^1]); bein^
that of Uttle<0 T iZ Thl ' ""'^''^^ ■' ^^^^^^"^ ^^oni
?/«/..^ occasio^ia ly appet fo^ rl^T^^T'^r^ ^'"^^^' ^"^
owin. to the mistaLnSni^JhlJlS ^^l^l ^^^^^^
riie forms tvwser and ?mer we owe to thp f..f fi
and Zess, not beino- pnnir.«v.of,- T , ^ *'^^^ *^^^t ivwse
by analogy, been mTde to ?n f '^^" T"^^ ^^P^' ^^^^^^^
English S.uHIl rSedV r^e^i '''thf E '^ f '•
in this use. *^ ' ' ^ne U.E. positive
™f ;r;"S-a''dj::f?:'e[yt\,i?: 5'';7\""'/^^<0- E. adv.
-&Wer and eldest (formed by mutntion .- h. ■ • ■ „
preceded the suffix thus OF .^S' ^•^^^»^, originally
are the old formr They a;e ^sed of'r^' ^^^^«<^«?^-^>«^
not now used with ^I^^i^^^^^n?lost^"^'o?1i;' -"^^ ^^^
parative force; older and r./XT^ i. .i '^^, ^^^'^ <^oni-
and construction : thus ^^"^^ **'^ ""^"^^^ "^^^^"ng "
my eldest son ; My son is older tMn you (or his sister) .
Latter and 1nst<0. E. 7a#os/ r7n r^^^
express position in a tpr/il ; . '^ '1 ^""^ "^^ "^^d to
time: thus, ^^' ^^^''' ^"^ ^«^^^^' to express
This is the ?«f.., news j for it is on the last page.
oriS'ctp r^IoTtaVS^^"-^^^^^ ^^ ->'^'- - tliat the
first an adverb n Mod S )*"?'' ''''^'' ^^'^^'^ ^^'^^ ^^^
iV^^«m>^ now denotes snaoP^nv 7f^ ''''''''' ''^''^^ ^^«''^«'^-
position: thus, ^^ """^ distance; ,^,^^, order in
My house is next his, but his is nearest the road.
CLASS£:S.
229
issified as
at
)rst
fist
iest, eldest
;est, last
?liest, next
ion forms
ike good,''''
' to 600^ "
U); being-
'rent from
ittler and
probably
Hitive.
liat tvoi'se
pe, have,
In Mid.
!• positive
>. E. adv.
1^. in tlie
)rig-inally
mld-i-ra)
, and are
eir corn-
meaning
iter) .
used to
express
e.
tliat the
near (at
nearest,
>rder in
(2). A certain number of comparatives and superlatives Superlatives
nave an adverb for their primitive; and the superlatives iJi-'«08«.
have usually the ending most, which, moreover, is some-
times added to what is apparently the comparative degree.
Examples are,
from
in
out
up
inner
outer
upper
inmost, or innermost
outmost, or outermost
upmost (rare) , or uppermost
Forms
from /ore.
FoiTUS
from /ar.
Forms dis-
tinguished.
Titter and utmost, or utternwst, are originally the same as utter, utnwst
outer, etc.
Fore (sometimes itself used as an adjective) makes /omer-
(O. E. for-ma, M. E. for-me; -er being added to the super-
lative ending [336]) and foremost, or first, its true super-
lative, which, however, became specialized and detached
from the series. From fore (0. E. fore) we have also
further, and furthest or furthermost.
Far<0. E. feorr, makes farther and farthest (the 0. E.
forms were fierra and fierrest) on a mistaken analogy
with further and furthest, assisted by the greater ease of
pronunciation produced by the insertion of th.
By many, the use of further and furthest is restricted
to expressions that involve the notion of something
additional, farther and farthest being used for others : thus,
New York is farther from Toronto than from Boston ;
He can go no further to-day ; A further reason exists.
(3). A kind of superlative is also sometimes formed with
-most from words which do not distinguish any positive and
comparative. Examples are
midmost, undermost, hitherraost, nethermost, hindermost,
southmost, northernmost.
The most (O.E. mest) in such words as utmost, midmost Origin
(in L^J and [3J), is a double superlative suffix, consisting of (1). Of -most;
the Arian superlative suffix ma (336) and the O.E. suffix
-est, the -ma having become weakened, when -est became
generally adopted. The of the modern form is due to
confusion with the adverb most. Of the superlatives which
consist of this -most added to a comparative, the oldest
forms did not contain the r, which seems to be due partly
to analogy with comparatives and partly to its making the
pronunciation easier.
Other super-
latives in
-moat.
t
'0
IM
230
f2). Of. mer
informer.
Jiouble pom-
pai'fttives nnd
superlatives.
^^'JECTIFES.
Pronominal
value varies
^^^^l^VelnmTl''^^^^^^ to for (fore) ., Uu
«„i: «:"■"•»■• »^»<'-» English, we often fl„d such
"■"'' *'"■ ^^'"■Ple, in Shakespeare
-<''-hea.hoH.e.vei':::r^r.'"""'
This doT "" "'"'' '"■'""*' '^'=' °' °»' ^^"Sion
b«^an to die out) it'^l^ t/ST"'" ««»/"ry "whr it
as an elegancy of s„e„„i, i ;'"'V' '" ™&ue, being regarde,!
desire for emphasis'^^rLJU'™ ""S ?*"'y *» the TS^^^
the mixing of the Frem-hSi, ""i'" Hsinally) part "?„
comparison. I„ M^d'rnP .•'■.""'' '^e Old English snfflv
t.ves and superlatitt"ad^"ettC,:f-r ^ ^^^
by far the larger („, ;„-„,, ° ^''rases : thus,
and so on. 'TS a^™'^ ""«««. '"e lowest
S4fi P ''^°^°*"«AI' ADJECTIVES.
aad pargTot^^^^^^^^ P-fe adjectivai
divided into classes corre"nod?„l^ ^?v "^^^^^ ""^ «'-e
"^ot ^T tn&ie'p "^^ - ^^e pro.
marked, thus, •„ "'■ *'"* ^■•''"^'"inal value is eUly
J . . , , '"mes lost to hat,
«»» evidently refer^i tn ih^
il other pro„omS:i °ad -eetTves ttf "* "^ '''"»^*- ^ut
shows itself in the f«i fw *T Prouominal vatae
added, as in ' ***' *'""' "'though a nonn is
*:"*"■ *'»-'-'-^ citizen Of the t„^.
l-
a.t'.\j
,,.1 . ., ' „ .7 """ ' ^^'^'^ citizen of thfi tnv^ .
-W or tue context or of the attendant or
^
CLASSES.
231
*re), m (the
>; the O.E.
^Hative ma
find such
ndest,
le;
^urteenth
'when it
•egardetl
natural
tartly to
^h suffix
^mpara-
owest
3etival
id are
e pro-
assess
1 the
learly
But
^alue
n is
fc or
other circumstances is necessary to enable us to deter-
mine the exact reference of the phrase (20 and 35).
POSSESSIVE. ^
347. Most of the possessive adjectives correspond
to the personal pronouns. They are
Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural-
ist pers. my, mine; our, ours; Srd f?;^^^, | their,
Sndpers. thy, thine; your,yours; 2>ers. U-^j^s.^^^^ I theirs.
The distinction of person, gender, and number in
these words is, of course, a distinction belonging to
the persons or things possessing, and not to the persons
or things possessed, or to the words modified by the
possessives.
348. The possessive pronominal adjectives were origin-
ally O.E. genitives, which became — some more, some less —
adjectival. Those which became most so were the genitives
of the first and second personal pronouns. In Old English
these were fully declined like adjectives, and his, a late
formation, showed the same tendency. Except in a few
expressions we have lost the use of these words as posses-
sive cases (300). The forms mine and thine (in O.E. min
and thin, e being used in modern spelling to show the long
i sound) were the original genitives. In early Modern
English, these began to drop the n before words beginning
with a consonant, thus producing the two additional forms,
tmj and thi/.
By the fourteenth century, s had become the general
poss. ending of nouns, and it was that of his. Accordingly,
-s was added to the other single forms, giving our and ours,
your and yours, her and Jiers, and later their and theirs.
And there were besides (as still in dialectical English)
forms with the genitive ending n (made, probably, on the
analogy of mine and thine); thus, ouren, youren, etc.
The original genitive of it (O.E. Jiit) was hie; but, as
this was also the genitive of he, its was made about the
end of the sixteenth century and became gradually
established about the middle of the seventeenth. For a
time it was used as a possessive also : thus,
Go to it grandam, child.
The n in mine and thine, the r in our, your, her, and their,
and the s in his and its are genitive endings. Accordingly,
the forms ours, yours, hers and theirs have two endings
expressing possession.
1
Relation
of forms.
History of:
his;
mine, thine;
my, thy.
The value
of-s.
its.
The Values of
-n and -r.
m
I'll
111 ii)
232
«
ADJECTIVES.
I'll
ffr our, your mu\ thH 'r.^^
follows; -naMs^aii:^:'^^^^^ - »o/n
^y book and ,.«,.,.,,,,,/ ' "'"''
The book is t / ^ Of • •''''^ ^""'^ "'•■'^'^Z
.^nt 111 older Ene-Iis;. • .
»m^^ and ame are freouer. i "\oi^^-«t.vle English
%, especially beforr^Towel .'^^ "^^^^^^^ ^^ -^ and
Compared Rnf >. « i • i • "' ^<^W thy voipp
with posses- Otil adjectives on rl r.^ . ^ >oice.
2»- """J'f^ "oius, SwteC "Sire ," r^ ^« "-" *o
These re::::r'''-/^^^''°-'--wv.
•livide h^tZTiC:^, ""'"• "'^ -'d '«»«, and so on,
^^(\ VI. 1 ^DEMONSTRATIVE.
, The first two pars are' Zj' "' ^""''•
dimionstrative ProlZLTl,^ '^''"T ^r*" '^ ">e
differences of meaning "" ""'''' witii the same
.en^™,,5LT^fi->^rt''*- point to a remoter object
use _ r«„ belongs t?oldernteat;.^'™.'f '" ^^^'^
^"S'lsh, where it is fm„.!j *"'"*' '« dialectical
Examples from Shakcspea^ are '' " P''°"«"° "'^o
J'"'"?.;*- is still n T , '™''* "■'"" ""' polo-
gone /onder ' ' "''"' '^'^^'^''''i''^ ako; as in "He has
><^o mav be volno/i
such sentences as ""' ^ demonstrative adjective in
He was tired and so wa- r • TM
Ti-ou f„„.d'st -"e Po„'/a'„:rfe;p^t'**r.r ""
yon, yonder.
ao.
l
CLASSES.
tr
233
asth'sJ aS givr '''^^' '"' ^^"^^^ demonstrative ,
jS^ecA also may be valued as a demonstrative adjec- .«.;.
tive when It refers to something which has iusthPPn
mentioned or is going to be mentioned : thus
He is not truthful ; I dislike such a man ;
Such men as Milton live for all time.
INTERROGATIVE.
351. The interrogative words ivho and whether are
// ,V^^ .^ ^"^ "x?^^' ^'^^ ^1'^' therefore, interrosa-
Tt^tllTll, T"" ^'i^^"^ "PP^^ *« ^^^her persons
seleoHvP^ ' T? '^'^ differ only in that which is
selective. Thus, in general. What book have you ? " •
but, if two or more are had distinctly in mind and the
^'""wl-Ti^' i"\^^ ^^' P^^^i«"^^^^- «»« among them
mich book have you? " TFA«^ may also be us?d
as an exclamatory adjective ; thus,
exclamatory.
What a piece of work is man !
CONJUNCTIVE.
I know what book (that is, the book in general, which)
you mean ;
Let him make what efforts he pleases ;
I know which book (that is, the book in partindar, of a
certain known set), which you mean;
I asked him tvhich (or, what) book he had •
What time ( = "At the time at which," arch.)' I am.
afraid, I will trust in thee.
^ But tvhich is sometimes used like a definite con-
junctive: thus,
He was gone a year, during which time he travelled all
over Europe.
l''l
I w '
h
234
ADJECTIVES.
Compound
fOTOls.
(1). Dis-
tributives.
(2). Com-
paratives:
such.
other.
(3). Quan-
titatives :
one.
many, few.
Many,
a noua.
l..onouns, and a \C\n",L^^" ''''' "" ^''^^ "« "f
""^^f'^^^'s^raC^-te--
!"eani„g ('^so-li'ke''), SifST' *^r"'*f '« >'«
indefinite. It is Dure v flff f "^einonstrative and
He came ,o see 1 „„ '^, /^'"** '" '''"«'' "^ ««""«"<'« ««
and I .a;;\- »:^-3 S/ar:Z:/?L^.;„te-')
answer or Other") ^ °^®
general: thusf ' ''""^ «'""I»'rative adjectives in
'*'« *™<"" other worlds than oara.
Other has a markedly indeflnite use in
'*fj'°"'«'«'' came home the ott«.aay.-
I saw him one day ( = "a dnv r,nf .- "^"^ence as
>r ^ T "^y ^ot mentioned 'M loot «,,s i
One Jones came to see me ^^^ '
In such uses Of m«^y and /mas in
^ ^^"^* «^^°y "^en, a very few men,
/^'^ an adjective nsed «^ /. ^"^f ^^'"^^ ^^^^^^ and
anadverb/andsobeinLnl^lT'n^''"^ "^^^^^^d by
, u fc,o Demg only partially converted (85 )
By earlier Modern English writers a^H ^ J
poets, many is used as a^nounrtS, by'SespTar^
""""^^"""^^trri^^^rs;-™'^^-"^. '
^
•<7
J
/
CLASSES.
235
itpver, and
^'^11 as of
pronouns,
'd also as
3 are three
mh either
ch iniply-
i"fi: to its
'ative and
■utenee as
other")
lome
t^e (336),
3tives in
?/?, hoth,
nee as
week ;
iny is a
]t; and
ified by
1(85).
now by
speare,
"
I
J^
a lid by Tennyson (who has reproduced many old
Bngiisli expressions) :
They have not shed a many tears,
Dear eyes, since first I knew them well.
In modern prose, the word great usually precedes
many ; and, in some phrases with both many and few,
the of is expressed : thus,
a great many (and a few) of my (and our, the man's,
pnd John's) acts.
After definite numerals the of is sometimes omitted
and sometimes expressed : thus,
a dozen sheep, a hundred sheep, three score years and
ten, a score of sheep.
353, The genitive was used after numerals in Old
English, so that when case-endings were dropped, tlie
modern form resulted ; but why in some phrases the of is
now inserted, and, in others, omitted, we do not know.
We know simply 1;liat such forms have become established.
The origin of many in such phrases as ''full many a
gem," many an opportunity," lias not been ascertained.
It seems to have the force of a multiplicative numeral
adverb, meaning "many times one gem"; and so on. The
O.E.moni "many' which is found in this construction as
far back as the thirteenth century, was used as an adverb.
In such phrases as
what a piece, such a Roman, so excellent a print, as
queer a man ;
and 80 on, the usual order is inverted. In older English
the inversion does not take place, and, sometimes, in
Modern English, the usual order is followed thus:
a so excellent fruit, a man as queer.
Such illogical phrases as
both of us, all of us, the whole of the world,
have evidently been formed on the analogy of the partitive
in such phrases as "five of us"; and the of ue, etc., is
consequently falsely partitive (268).
NUMERALS.
854. The quantitatives are often called indefinite
numerals^ from their use in describing number. But
Of, after
defluite
numerals.
many a.
Adjective
similarly
placed.
Indefinite
numerals.
«
li'
» ^
#,'l
2:iG
IM!
Uses: lower
numbers.
Archaic
possessives.
Higher
numbers.
Other forms.
^DJECTIFES.
CARDINALS.
a. u«ed here. "pn^.ipaC^'!:^:^;:^!!';'" '"«""-.
mJteTidl't'^:i,Tdi''T' 'T' ^'"''' -'I ^o o";
l'"t also as ."ouns wh™ ,M "^■' ""><Jifjing « "oun
followiiiff uoZ hv M ""?'. "'' ''""''eeted with ,
they may aU form plurals .- thus' ' " "' '""■"'■
They walked by twos and ll,rees;
anit of usua"ir& ttl""' /"T""'' »"•"-«.
en,™eration even after to^ /r"'"'; *°™ '" ^""P'<^
if tliev form T>,Jt „f ' *'^'^"^' «*«•! a>i<J always
<'co hundreds; but te» //m,»!' J -^ /"'" '"""^w^',
singular form; which aln.„! *!;• '"': '"""'red the
the sum mexelV and ^r^r ''.''•'"''t'y'^'' '"'•i'^ating
only, having 2o reference tl"[^ ^';h'ch are noun!
constitute the sum *° """ ''"«'"«' Pa^s that
andl'r'is'acommoT 'T?;'! ^"" ^""^'^^^ "^^d;
for <«„„<^ """"""'" -substitute for t.aelve, and .c^,;
dels wo'rdsf "' "'""'' *« ^"""^'"^ «l««^e« of
ORDINALS.
Pla'efof 'S!;iS[^t:::^,^^^^l^^^<^^ or
^«ost Of the ordinals are-formed 'fro^X'ctdS
'
I
<■ j'-r--
CLASSES.
237
aiititatives
numerals.
in answer-
are called
^elow) the
(tl means,
nd so on ;
gf a noun,
^d with a
ws, either
as nouns,
them in
million,
1 simple
always,
Je up of
undred,
'ed. the
iicating"
! nouns
rts that
3 used ;
id score
s&es of
''der or
3 first,
•dinals
1
t
Vr
by the suffix th, whieh, in the ease of compound Formation;
numbers, is added to the last only (compare 263); '^''*'*'
thus,
fourth, fifth, eighteen hundred and seventy -seventh;
and so on. But the ordinals of one, two, and three
live first, second, third, and these are used also in the
compound numbers : as
twenty- first, ninety- second, hundred and third.
357. When an ordinal and one or more cardinals are Position,
used toff ether to modify a noun, there is no settled rule for
their order. Thus, for example, we find
The delay in the first three lines, and conceit in the last,
jar upon us constantly. — Ruskin ;
These are the firnt three needs of civilized life. — Ruskin ;
He has already finished the first three sticks of it. — Addison ;
The seven first centuries were filled with a succession of
triumphs. — Gibbon.
Both arrangements are used by good writers and
speakers, although the meanings are not the same. The
meaning, however, sometimes decides : thus, for example,
tlie other order would be objectionable in
Mankind, for the first seventif thousand years, ate their
meat raw;
and when there are not more than one three, the order in
the first three is an awkward one.
FRACTIONALS.
358. The words that are used as cardinals, except Usm.
first and second, are also used as nouns to denote one
of a corresponding^ number of equal parts into which
anything is supposed to be divided : thus,
a third (or, third part) cf an apple ; six hundredths of the
amount.
In this sense they are called fractionals.
The fractional corresponding to two is half, instead
of second; and instead of fourth we more often say
quarter.
MULTIPLICATIVES.
359. In order to show how many times anything Uses,
is taken, the cardinal nun^eral is formed into a
U ;i
t >
I
m
u
n
238
fjtt:.
Komanlc
totmt.
Numeral
adverbs.
Origin.
Sim'ivals of
old forms.
Uses, when
not articles.
«*•» or a.
B! i
ADJECTIFICS.
twofold, tenfold, hundred-fold
These word., are ealle,l multipUcativl
Wf the some value are
tive adverbial phrZs Zfi. ,^ '"* "''° "lultiplica.
so on. '^ ^'''' "« ""■''' times, four fimei, and
360 Th • ™^^"™l.ES.
of ^omewhat"''petaai!"'Z «• «"1 ^'«. «•* two words
means "a littl,. j-oi„r'4t t"" r' '''««« ^«'-«*
o-ie time faneif df Warded ^r''' '"''.^'"^ ^een at
sentence). An nri 11 .^,, 1* Joints" of the
tbe demrnKstr^^ive "^SJ :[?,'ef '^«/^"r^'^' «•>" '*'
peculiar meanings and uses th^t ?.?* *''^ ''"^e so
«P separately. *** """ '^ey must be taken
derivatives, both in' form ami i^ "^^'^P^^'^^^ely weakened
numeral ^„ (Mod. E„ron.l • d%'''''"f.: ^^«™ ^^« ^.E.
strative adjective ,e ,^n /?//'.. ^^^"^ ^^^ 0. E. demon
ytd a weak'ened nJ^L^^'atfi^o'fd F'S^'f ' ^^^^^ S"
J ;e on. and M. other were form er?J/;?^^^'^^- ^^' '»«dern
the latter surviving- in fhl^T ^JJ'"* "*'"' ««'' *hf^t other
vivmg in the Scotch V^ "^^1] tt T/'T' "^^ ^«^^ ^^r'
I" phrases like ' '''^^''' ^«' '^■'f*«^>' •
the«.,or;i?ir"'°^';^^^^«"-«po-d;
fonn of S nu^taTor^!^ ^tt^ele; it is a weakened
one, each, every." '° another sense, that of ''each
In other eases, however, as in
*),„ , . , ^ ^^^^ twice a week :
thresh the absence o^f selSe'-ZZ' r70%\"'-'" '''-'^^'
He i» gone a hunting; They ,etVt;;„i;;f
^^
r/^
and the
ing, a-goi
The ti
(atljectiv
the inor(
is an ad
of the d
junctive
TJie
862.
coiisona
pronoun
persons
sounded
Befor
only a ii
just as ^
363.
some or
noun is
A
The
From
These
article, tl
the ori^i
*'a certai
not speci
so; in t
equivalei
ness is s
"any hoi
is to gen<
CLASSES.
239
J..
i
1 y
and the like (which are often, and better, written a-hunt-
ing, a-going).
The the whicii we often find before a comparative ths.
(ailjective or adverb) in .such expreHHions as
the more, the merriar ; The more ho vvvrked, the less he did ;
is an adverb, being, etyn-ologically, the inatnuuental ease
of the demonstrative. In this construction, it is both con-
junctive and demonstrative : thus,
37te more ( -"by how much"— oonj,), /fte( = "by80
much" — dem.) merrier.
862. A71 is used before a vowel-sound ; a before a Th« hhi^:*
consonant-sound. But, if a word beginning with a when used.
pronounced h is stressed on tlie second syllable, most
persons use an, as the h in such words is not fully
sounded: thus,
an Aotel ; an /tistorical novel ; an hypothesis.
Before the sound of y or w, whether written or not,
only a is proper in present English ; thus,
such a one ; a wnion ; a ^Jiropean ;
just as we should say a ivonder, a youth.
363, An or a indicates that we are speaking of why called
some one or of any one of the objects of which the ^"'^'^^^^^^
noun is the common name. Examples are:
A man called on me to-day ;
An officer should be sent to him ;
A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse !
A man should bear himself bravely in adversity ;
The simple perception of natural forms is a delight;
All men are at last of a size.
From this use it is called the indefinite article.
These examples illustrate the chief uses of the indefinite Explanation
article, the exceptional ones being due to the weakening of "f "ses.
the original force. In the first, it is nearly equivalent to
"a certain," thus indicating an individual of the class, but
not specifying which one, although it may be possible to do
so; in the second, it is more indefinite, and is nearly
equivalent to " some or other" ; in the third, the indefinite-
ness is still greater, and a horse is nearly equivalent to
''any horse whatever; " in the fourth, the effect of its use
is to generalize the statement, a man being nearly equivalent
^.4
\
I .s-a
ADJECTIVES.
The article
the:
Why nailed
I>eflnite.
Explanation
of uses.
Repetition
of article.
or e.a.p<e, and, in'the ^:T^;^:^^^^^^
and hearer can in theh' St et±"5 ""* T^^^^
the same class : thus, separate from othei's of
The boy we want is not here ; Thon »,.» .h«
Thedukeisdead '"'*""'°i
From this nse it is called the definite article
« ' ConL "LVtme tr""'"'^"^'' ^^^ «>-
generally expressed WTde^tZ^Jir'™^'''°«« i«
two main uses ■ Merstood with it. It has
(1). In
tCirZ «""■ "^ ""™ ""■""■ *« ™» ""0 was there.
S^:u Ittttn f r ""'- - -''--^. and to th!:i
^^3^nnpi^^^K^:^,^..e^^^^
**e points out a particular obi::ror:!a.s'"f 1^^ '"^''
K^h In such expressions as "ojects.
,,^ :^^^-^^'^^'^'^^^.^^,.
^^^^^^^l^^^^^, -e is no
ad^ect,eSff -:«^ tirnri ^^ t-™'
th^t t"?4t-''Lr J:^S^^^^^^^ ^' ^« clear
andit'^r"^
~eXcL"St' "'^" ^''^ ^^^~ - to two
«^ red and the white flag , « red and u white Sag;
SPECIAL USES OF THE ADJECTIVE.
.
■\ '
>/■
V
241
36V
"'" "^ '"0 "Wto flag, a red and white flag.
names or nidtenals, the noiniimt ve of addi-ess nrnno.. "'""ici.
"Th'^r„H'"if™'r.'' ''""•to™, Queen of England'
They made him king ; He was elected emptor '
A^d no article is found in many phrases in common
*" "™nto2i\'rSer:n?.e*^„r.rtS:'-„'n°hti --
Germanic: ^'""' '''""' "^'''^ "" '"•""^'^^ "' the parent
SPECIAL USES OF THE ADJECTIVE
He owns a white horse, and I a Mack (horse) • X
riis horse is white, but mine (my hori) in black •
I will give you my book, but I wilf take /i (hi! btok) •
She waL bvf!;ffl"'r^'r^"S""^' '" ^^"erous man ; ^ '
fehe was by far the hvehest (girl) of the three girls.
(2). And a comparative or a superlative is sotyip-
times used alone where, with a positive we should
have to use one, or a noun, or the like: thur
She was the loveliest among the three :
Vt the pair she was the lovelier;
while we should say
She was the lovely one of the family.
uses
i
JW?
ADJECTIVES.
How to
<l<'!il with
sucli uses.
Complements
to subjectless
infiuitives.
I. Nouns.
(1). Common
case.
(2). Posses-
sive case.
It may fairly be made a question whotlier in flu-
aajective as modifying a noun not expressed or ns
having the value of a noun, with a ToniewhMt
re^a lonal meaning Probably tiie latter ts toTe pre
.erred; for, in each case, the sense is evident from
the context without supplying the noun.
(3). In such expressions as
T u , T*^ ^-r® "'f*^ ^^ *o be truly hanpv ■
John's (or, His) being young was S^st him ;
the adjectives are used as complements to infinitivp^
without subjects or to gerunds, and have tWfore
no words to modify. The phrases are greml i^tS
nature, and are equivalent to nouns : thus!
Wisdom is true happiness;
John s (or, His) youth was against him.
This function of the adjective follows from thp
nature of the infinitive and gerund (187^ andTf thp
adjec ive verb or its equivalent, the copX wL «
complement (157). ^"jmia witn a
OTHER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES.
WORDS.
adfeoLt' l^pCef rd'ol^r""'^ nofordinarily
used as adjeetiver(32) ' "'" ^'""''"'"^^
very ofterre'dT^n'^*'""* ''^r*'"^ ""'teri'^'. ""-e
formrtlms "^jeetives, without any change of
a gold watoh, a rail fence, a WSfc text
rut :i tKni iuLtrxr'- '^ ^^ ^
Miown U4z;, adjectival in function an^ h^i o/i-;^«+-
may sometimes be substituted thSorC
^father's care, and /^a^mm? care, ov fatherly care.
I i
OTHER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES.
248
predicate.
Of diflferent
kinds.
adfecLtlm;: tZl '''° "^ "'^-^ occasionally aa n,A.ve.^.
the then ruler, my sometime friend-
Napoleon, <Ae>^ emperor, favored the scheme
the «i, train, the after part, the ahme remarks.
The man was </<ere; The stars are out • '
Hi8 step was light, for his heart was .o.
PHRASES.
A plirase is often adjectival. Examples are
Ihe war hetioeen Prussia and Amtrio •
\ ^r^^? firon. away, he bettered his fortune •
/ A cat and dog life ; an all romui scholar? '
CLAUSES.
871. The adjective clause is the simnJesf nf fi.^
subordinate clauses in construction. ItTaW« fh«
older Eaglish:Tt-plXur'thu7"'''' '''P^<''«^'^ '»
not seen the beauty and rulers of the woria (S'Z)
p4V„t: f:t1?lc^Uer'''™''*'°" °' *" '"•J-«™.clause. p™™,. ,
^Thu*''?? "^*( = "oa which") thou eatest thereof etc •
»M.e, (- at no time") sees me ««( ( = "at which")
Til. / / << ^, , "® "**^8 not mock me :
"^;L%h'^e^^r2i9„T.-«,nrn!?r'
^e 18 not here f;mr(antecedent "a being here- implied)
I know of. ■ '
constructions.
II
lii
(1). Ordinary
Umiting.
5 8!!
(2). Adverbial
limiting.
ADJECT! FES.
withm/f fl, ' ''""'^' T^ ^^"^^^ examples, that is usod
Tfir- !r P7P«^'t^«» (ft» O.K. construction also)- an
n the sixth and seventh, the antecedent of the coScd^e
IS miphed, not senaralely expressed. The use of a eo"
unctive, with its antecedent in the possesXe case is
common m poetry; but, though colloquki it if not
sanctioned m present prose. ' ^®^
LOGICAL VALUES OF ADJECTIVE MODIFIERSc
CLAUSES.
372. Adjective clauses, although always modifiers
of a substantive word, have a^ variety orTogical
vakes which are often not shown by their const^u:.
iion tor, as we have seen in the case of fha
subjunctive mood (220), what i impTed in a
sTucTure. '' ^'' "''^'^'"'^ ^^^^^^ ''' Mmticat
ma^y\e^ckssted'i*^'T/"^^'^^ ^^^^^^' ^^^'^''^^^ '^^^^--
may De classihed as follows; but, of course, in some of
te^w!' *^' ''^""^ "^^ ^^^^ «^^- value's"th3re
Uniit'nt^tf''^ fi^""^^^' *^^^ ^"""*^«" «^ ^hi«h is simply to
dre;ib:^fs:!?f c*^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^'^^^ antecedents ;^Ly
Thev hnl'fl!/r^*^VT^ *^^* ^ ^"«* ^^rd against ,
He Lth th. ™ *^^ P.^'* ^^^^^ ^°d ^^'i placed them ;
He hath the means whereby he may accomplish it •
Never yet was noble man but made ignoble talk (306) •
A c«,^- ^^^^^e ^le savory meat such as I love (325) •
A soldier who fights bravely would not do so, even if he might.
Such clauses are
adjective clauses.
lim?taHo^n™!tL°f ^Aiective clauses which, as a result of the
imitation, are logically equivalent to adverb clauses also:
An old maid that {-'\lt or when she") has the vapors
Q«i^- 7 ,..P/o^^"ees infinite disturbances;
Any one mat ( - if, or when he ") does so, will be fined.
distinguished as ordinary limiting
fnn^-*^^^^''^!^^ ^>"?^^ ^^^ «^^"ed adverbial limiting, oi
condition, etc. As is shown by the last example if (1)
above, the co^text will indicate wh^f fi.^ «^«..;*:„„
• ■
>}
IS.
LOGICAL VALUES Of ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS.
245
fy
(4).Co-
ordinntf
descriptive.
(3). Adjective clauses in which there is no distinct (3).0r(Unftiy
suggestion of co-ordination, and which simply desnibe descriptive,
without limiting : thus,
The sun, which shines on high, is golden.
Such clauses are called ordinary descriptive.
(4). Descriptive adjective clauses in which there is a
suggestion of an addition, and which are, therefore,
logically equivalent to copulative or illative co-ordinate
clauses : thus,
He spoke to you, wlw ( = " and you ") then left the room ;
I gave him some bread, which ( = "and it," or "and
this ") he ate;
He passed it to the stranger, loho ( - " and he ") drank heartily;
She carried it to the closet, ichere ( = " and there ") she hid it ;
His father, who ( = " for he ") was close by, came over at onee ;
My dog, lohich ( - '" for it ") had come with me, began to growl.
Such adjective clauses are distinguished as co-ordinate
descriptive^ copulative or illative, as the case may be.
In this use ichich and as (316 and 325) may have their
antecedent implied in the preceding context : thus,
He did not come, which I greatly regret ;
He has been long dead, as is well known ;
the antecedents being " his not coming" and "his being
dead," which are implied in the sentences. But, as we
have already seen (325), this construction shades off into
one in which it is proper to value the as-clause as
adverbial.
(5). Descriptive adjective clauses which are logically (5). Adverbial
equivalent to an adyert-clause : thus, descriptive.
When I that{ = '* because I ") knew him fierce and turbulent,
refused her to him ;
He deceived his master, who ( = " although he") had been
Lis friiiid.
Such adjective clauses are called adverbial aescriptive,
of cause, etc.
WORDS AND PHRASES.
373. Words and phrases have the same logical
values as adjective clauses and may generally be
replaced thereby. The following are examples ; but,
m I
i !
2m
ft -
24C
ADJJCCTIVES.
(I). Ordinary
iimitintf
(2).A(lverbiftl
liiniting.
(3). Ordinary
descriptive.
(4), Co-
ordinate
descriptive.
(5). Adverbial
descriptive.
Smith, the orator, is dead •
He has a WacA hat on his head •
■^^---methlug^o6.,.„,./,;:^^,,,.
U;. Adverbial limiting:
She forgave him, the^m.7or ( = " although he was a
Q, ^ „ , traitor"); ^ "« was a
She forgave him, her brother (J '' beeansfi h. ^ u
brother"). ^^^^"^^ he was her
A brave man would trv it ( - "\v i.
The pot-h„„te. shot the'il4-.<4tj.?«,.t*rh''r'„V
/Q X ^ ,. ^ "^ ^~ ^^ he were wealthy")
U.; Ordinary descriptive :
^'^ tSI^I;*?' ^""■''''''^^''^'•' '^^ed of poison.
1 he g^Men sun sent forth his r^ys ;
1 he fireman had a helmet of bZss;
ine man came running (122).
(4). Co-ordinate descriptive :
He worshipped God, the Creator ( = - for [or and! He
AndTH 7 . was the Creator"); ""^ '-^'' ^"^J ^e
I shall leave to-mor^w for PortTth^'^^^'f "^ '
Heeame,2:-r;^:-^J>-^--'')-
(j). Adverbial descriptive:
He respected hi., unele, Ms guardian ( = "because for
Mute at ^« MttS it «'"•««-")' ^ •
to hold on the electors"), hettiU ftom ^oimcs?''
AD yJi^UBS— CLASSES.
24?'
other
lauses ;
a
er
»
iLi.
XI. ADVERBS.
CLASSES.
ACCORDING TO MEANING.
374. Adverbs in English are inhimierable, and' of ciassiflcaHon,
the most various meaning. We may divide them »''«"«*^«°®
roughly into the following classes, but the same word
may be an adverb of one or another class, in different
meanings and connections.
(1). Of place and motion: as, here, yonder,
thither, up.
(2). Of time and Succession: as, now, formerly,
next, first.
(3). Of manner SLud^uality: as, so, somehow, ill,
foolishhj.
(4). Of measure and degree: as, little, more,
scarcehj, enough, hut ( = " only ") .
(5) . Of modality y or modal adverbs : such as show
the mode in which the thought is conceived by the
speaker, the relation of one thought to another, and
so on : thus,
(1). Affirmative : SiB, surety, certainly, indeed.
(2). Negative: as, not, notvays.
(3). Potential: as, perhaps, possibly, probably^
(4). Causal: as, hence, therefore, accordingly^
375. Adverbs used in asking questions; as, when, interrogative
where, whence, how, why, wherefore, are called inter- «<^v®''^8-
rogativCy and are themselves classed as interrogative
adverbs of time, place, manner, and so on.
Like the interrogative pronouns, these adverbs are Exciama-
used in exclamatory sentences, especially how: thus, ^^'•y"'^-
How kind of you to take this trouble !
Hmv often have I warned you to be careful !
fr /cue. \-^ji\j; ID aiDU USCU III tXJU SUIIIC Way
What a brave fellow your brother is !
thus.
\
I
if
248
^t)rEnn$.
I,
! s I
t
•Adverbs
shade into
prepositions
and fon-
JunctioDs
Suffix
comparisoa
rather.
these parts of speech ".^ve/'.m h' "'''<' «» '»<> ot
oldest and simplest p.lS^V r*' . ^''"^ the
«P, to, were originallv advp •)! ' ?*''' "'* "'- "«. "//,
still used as such, thus ^*"'"' ^""^ w^t of them are
He came in; Thev mn n^- • t* +
and .i„ee is adverb „, . '" ""'• '"'"' '" ""^>°'-
He7„::«;,r To ""■""" -'i"netio„, i„
. , We came 5?wce I Jeft ^ '
the^vf;btrrs"e,:^!;:^,;« ?*' ^<^^^y^-^ ^'^w
weaniug) the who ie se.tC^e ?,? ' ^"^"'"^^y <">«' i«. >»
and showing its relaHon tn t' .?""'^ " ""« «» adverb
it has the vflue of a eoni m^t'So ''";,.''^"'**'''« -"■ word^
are adverbs in «onj"netion ; thus, then and wkeu
''''t*™ win™"' ""<""«'-»' away.
hnf „„ • . . '" ^"" '■'"'"■n to work J '
but eonjuuetions in
"7«.y?'' finished f r;,«, go awav •
I will see you ,c*«, you ,5tum y '
377 COMPARISON.
adverbs without^t';;ge:l^t^th"'"' "■•*•"''•''' ««
-perlafve are general, used" dV^^M:«7a":"Thu\'"
««, better, best ;*„.,„,,y,„„,.3^_^^^^^
hav^^pf^* t^^ij;^: -'* that are always adverbs
example, ™ their own: thus, for
soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftene,, oftenest
o J„;th?iv^!°Trvt "'/'""' '^ corresponding positive
oM words, has th.^Z'r^^^'^^-bo has nfed" „r;
And M-I/'""" "" ™''' ''»"-«^«»*«'i wi'th the thought
pr?iofe'.'^ "^*^^ «"« ""-'ete adjective in ''"' ratHe
COMPARISON.
249
Modern
surviviils.
The archaic erst is a superlative from the 0. E. adverb erst.
icr, our couj unction and proposition ere.
(3). Phrasal comparison is used for iuFcny adverbs Phrasri
of quality as for adjectives of the same kind: thus, ««">»'' '•'«°'^-
for example,
truly, more truly^ most truly ; less truly ; as truly.
878. In Old English, the adverbial suffixes of comparison o. E. suffixes.
were or and oat (now er and est). These were added to
adverbs in -e or -lice (our -ly).
In modern poetry, we sometimes find adverbs in -ly fol-
lowing the O.E. mode of comparison : thus,
I should /reeZicr rejoice in that absence.— Shakespeare ;
To show what coast thy shiggish erare
Might earliest harbor in.— Milton ;
Its strings holdlier swept. — Coleridge ;
Then must she keep it safelier. — Tennyson.
FORMATION.
379. A few adverbs are primitive in our language,
as, so, noiv, quite; but many are either shortened
forms of words and phrases, or they are survivals of
cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Owing to
these peculiarities, we notice in some detail the
formation of adverbs.
New adverbs are almost invariably formed from Usual
adjectives, with the suffix ly (O.E. lice, "like," ^''^'■^y-
which became ly, just as ic and ich became IJ.
Adverbs formed in this way are by far the largest
class. The addition of -ly causes in some cases
changes in the sound or the spelling of the primitive,
or in both : thus, for example,
true, truly ; hasty, hastily ; ga?/, gaily ; frantic, franticaHy.
A few adverbs have been formed from adjectives and -wise.
nouns by the suffix tvise (O. E. ivis, " manner"), as,
likewise, lengthwise; but, as tvi.^e is still an inde-
pendent word, such adverbs may be regarded as
compounds.
wtiinr suiuxes are icavd, or wards (s being a, genitive -wara,
suf&x); and ling, which became lony, by analogy, as in •^'*''***-
Jifl
2:0
■ling.
^r>rmiiis.
r. AfJJeftivps
UH Hdverlis.
•Some in
•ly alHo.
Poetioftl
usage.
<^ '•!«:}» of
ulentify of
forms.
II. Adverbs,
ease-forms:
Adjectives.
"" "^'^^ *^'y Uangeious wuy.- Scott
mael., most, „ll, m, f^t, ,,„3_ ^^^
^ehr«:oS,:fif :!.r ^ «. sum. ,,, ,<..,.
tte two forms: thus *"""*"* '"eanii.g between
BTn """'"■""' '"'" — --y Mate, ,ate,y.
to spf-ak loud, rp^, .^ . . ,
to serve a man riqht - t • ^^"* ^''"^'y '
to live close to me : ' " \l 'C^f ^'' conclude righily;
' to I'e f^ose/// confined .
lue birds sane* dm-' ■ ti,« i- 4. "^"^i^io,
word may be valued as a" rdjeelive *•"'' "'' '"".'^''^'"^
a<lve*bJ iJdSe to™he";ii"f '•'™ "^ """'y '«ijeetives and
™ffl.e.. tlmX^'adve bSr!!.°f "'« 0. E. adverbial
adjective Ucrd a„d advtrb /S"™,'J''P"-r""'K*''^ ^.E.
we have only the arehaie ,,s,' TJl' i P""'"^' therefore,
|t,tutio„ of the Hdjoet ve for The ,^ k' """•""'■y the sub-
English, in.leed, ' l,is ,tsaie w„t r*" '" '='"■'>' Modern
present English and ZmetiJ^tiT^^ ?'""""' ">"" i"
-^.ae by sule : thus, for e^anl^^J^rin'shrsp're! '^^ '""'"»
009 . , ' '"" '"<'e<"J aoo »««''* deified,
tivfs: th„t'^" '"J™'"^ «« ""odifled case-forms of adjec-
^^'■^^^'^-^^
- - - cr-"--"i
i
i.
^fc-
'^Ss
FORMATION.
2A{
il \
A f(;w are also adverbially used caaos ol nouns, thus, Nonnn.
needs; M\i\ -ways, -days, ■ times, in oonipound adverbH, ant
Kenitives; the obsolete u'hUom and the suffix meal (in
1^necemeal)<0.¥j. dat. pi. hivilum, "at times," ai\d mealiim,
by portions"; ever and never<0. E. dat. sing, rt/re and
nafre; and home, back, and half were originally accusatives.
The noun part of a large number of adverbial phrases and-
compounds was originally accusative : thus, for example,
sometime, alway, straightway, no way, likewise,
yesterday, meanwhile, the while.
And many such compoundi* have other forms which are due
to analogy : thus,
sometimes, always, straight J<7ise, otherways (and -wise),
noicays (and -wise).
383. Three series of adverbs corresponding to one iii. Pro-
j/^ another come from pronominal roots (tlie whers- ad^S
series being adverbial conjunctions when not used
interrogatively) ; they are
here, hither, hence ;
there, thither, thence, then, the, thus;
where, whither, whence, when, why, how.
The ending re marks place ; tfier is comparative ; n is
accusative, then being a differentiated form of than; nee is
a compound suffix, ce being genitive; the (before the com-
paratives [361]), :rhy and its doublet hoiv, and probably
thus, are instrumental cases.
384. A number of adverbs come from nouns and iv Deriva-
adjectives by the prefix a (usually for earlier on [154] • t'^^^^^jth
both forms being sometimes still used) : thus, "
aback, ahead, aside, aright, anew, along; alive (on life [70]),
afire (on fire), afoot (on foot), ashore (on shore),
asleep (on sleep. Acts, xiii, 6) .
And the be- of betimes, beside, beyond, betwfen^
before, and so on, is, in like manner, from the
preposition by.
386. Compound adverbs are mostly phrases of two compcuu^s.
(rarely more) words, which have, as it were, grown
together into one. Examples are
sideways, headforemost, knee-deep, meanwhile, always.
vff '
II
!'•
rj'2
ADVERBS.
AU'erlm
with aUverbB.
O. £. idiom.
PecnUar
uses of
adverbs:
With lire-
positions
and con-
junctious.
With nouns.
w»!il^''''"^''"''^'""' "^ ". l^^^'VoshUm with the wonl
whK^h It govoniH are especially coimrioii : thus,
indeed, erewhile, overhead, forever, forsooth.
Th(. adverbs hfre, there, and whre, are eoin})ined
with many words whiel, are now usnal ly prepoii .s
forming compounds which are equivalent to 7 .v'
uiat, ivhich, or tvhai, along with the preposition : thus,'
T ^fr"l ^" r ^" *'*•« ") "«« t^e difficulty ;
in the day thou eatest the}'cof ( = " of it " ) •
The .nenns whereby ( = "by which") I live':
WhercHUth r = «' With what ") shall I save Israel •
In whatever state I a.^. f Herewith {J' with that ' ') to be c;ortent.
In Modern En^rlish we say "James sat in there/^ where
jn IS an adverb nmdifled by there, both forming a sm- o?
temporary compound. The O. E. equivalent of this co -
struciion was 'James sat there in Avhere the J „ od fies
ltV7"'u'' *'-^*'/." f^^rein, thereof, etc., we have reailv
two adverbs united into a compound. ^
PECULIAR WORDS.
386. Adverbs sometimes seem to modify preposi-
tions or conjunctions : thus,
He jumped clear over the wall :
He came long after I had gone ;
but, as clear and long modify the adverbs 'ot^.r and
after in
He jumped clear over ;
. He e.ime long after ;
they may be taken as modifying the adverbial notions
m the preposition over and the conjunction after
Frepositions, indeed, may be described as transitive
adverbs, especially as they aro adverbs in origin
±Jut, as in such constructions, the adverbs logically
modify the whole phrase, they may be so described
properly enough. '
887. Sometimes, also, adverbs seem to modify
K'^uns; but when the adverbs have not h^^^me
converted into adjectives, they really express a modi-
ncation of the verbal notion either of action or of
PECULIAR nORDS.
2J3
<^
yi.
Pec;.liftr
words:
Evev, i\n
stat«5 or exiatenee, whi(;h many nouns snggpst ; thus,
for example,
After my re'urn (action) home yosterdny;
We recall our misfortunes (state) hereto/ore;
He ca;nfc during my residence here;
or of the ^nimmatieal value which the noun possesses
from its fuuetiou in the sentence : thus,
80 Rweet that joy is almost pain Cpred. nom.) ;
Gladstone, formcrbj premier of England (api)os.)
Henee the adverb in this use is oftener predicative
or appositive (137) than attributive (144).
888. A few words, ordinarily adverbs, are pecu-
liarly used. Even, for example, may be used in ^,.^^„ ^,j
connection with a word or a phrase to emphasize the juIvJh.^rI
identity: thus, for example, partkJe.
It is even she I mean ; It was even her brother that did it ;
Sweet thoughts do cvfu- refresh my labors ;
He is even great and terrible in his wrath ;
or it may intimate that the sentence expresses an
extreme case of a general proposition ; being, in this
use, placed before or after the word, phrase, or (tlause,
on which the extreme character of the tLhitement or
supposition depends : thus, for example,
Eoen this stupid man is more useful than I am ;
He was in debt to no man, not even to his tailor ;
He (The man, or, Men) evcyi would not do so ;
I would not do so even if you were to threaten me ;
The gain is even more remarkable than the loss.
Thus used, even is not one of the so-called parts of
speech ; for, although it resembles the adjective and
especially the adverb, it is, as the above examples
show, more general in its application. It seems to
change, somewhat as does stress, the value of the
expression with which it is connected. Accordingly,
it may, from its origin, be described as an adverbial
particle modifying the expression to which it is
attached (the name particle is applied to any of the particles,
minor adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, or inter-
jections, that have peculiar uses) . And, in the ease of
even and words of similar value, the name intensifying
may be added.
I
■'•,«a
254
Words
like even.
^T) VERBS.
There,
expletive.
Origin of
the idiom.
Other uses
of there.
Sentence
adverbs:
perhaps,
probably.
ways that resemble thotn/'/ fmeinnes used h
o„h, fK 1 • ^ w«*^ . uius, for example
iou aiei«5< the man : Emctl ttt ' ^^ ^'^ "«* speak ;
JustJauxe, (or James ^^n ^f orT ""^^ ^^^«" ^'"^ ?
tliem ; no one else ' ""' ^'"^^^^^^ ^^a
Siieh constructions sharlo ^«^ • ^ .,
^ome^f these .o.-ds ™tf betafi ^^/^l^-l'^eU
transposition of the fX^t^'^CltrexT^fe '" *"'
^/iere is no money here • TA^v. ^ *
usedthr/""""''"'''^'™^^^^^^^
particle ui^lJZ Z^^XZ^XZl 'f'''''
Vsf(Z' at:;1t"17in?£l,-r^ ".-. t'.is'p.aee.'.
has been expanded without Iim1^^ ! I^''!^.'""' '"wnin?
remotely that of " i e "itten;'' ,f '£"' '* "PProache.
IS usually a eopula, means "evkV " ^*'"'*.' *"• ^^ich
are taken togethe,' : so that ' ' Th>**" '^ ""'^ ">^re
means "No money is in «.vt ," '^ "» money,"
^'V^r. is used withi U. sueh iff ' ^"^ *'^'^*^> • " And
to express '' existence ''.'"'•''*'"«« '''e following
felt to possess i;fsrheo";:tnS;"/ '' '^^'^ ^ "«'
imply existence. " ""^^^^ ^^^^^ themselves
aufmVr;rdt„t;tXet;rs^ -'enees.
", ■ .1.- ha« ^one ; Probably he is here.
a.
PECULIAR WORDS.
2j5
as mihj^
' used ill
they are
sample,
> so;
speak ;
I him •
eif) has
n whieli
itives or
■fills up
r to the
e,
fc;
^erbial
)hiee."
eaiiinsr
oache,-;.
which
1 there
iiey,"
And
wing,
s not
'-re IS
elves
aces,
But the fact that, in the first example, the same mean-
ing may be expressed by a change in the predicate ;
tlius, He mmj have gone," shows that such adverbs
belong especially to the verb. They modify primarily
the copula, which expresses the act of assertion (119
LIJ ; : they thus characterize the reliability of the whole
assertion-whether it is certain, probable, or doubtful
bo, too, with phrases : thus.
Without doubt he has gone ;
To the best of my belief, he has gone.
.fr.!^.!? r' ""* ^^1 ^?"^P«»^"ts of the sentence is Position.
stressed, these modal adverbs are often placed near it
and seem to belong to it; but they are still sentence
adverbs: thus,
Probably ^le rode home (or, he rode home : or, he rode home) •
He probably rode home ; He rode home, probably! '
391. Again as is shown by the sentence "Maybe Modal
he has gone " (m which the phrasal compound rnxn/be ''TT'
IS shortened for " It may be"), son/e senten es '''''""
independent in form (apply par. 47) and often
parenthetical are logically modal : thus,
He has gone, 7/mr; He has gone. / have no doubt;
He IS, I think, mistaken.
• Phrases and clauses like those italicized in the fol-
lowing sentences, are of similar construction :
Proper!!, speaking, there is no such thing as chance ;
Ihat IS he yonder, if I am not mistaken.
Such constructions shade off into others in which Des.np-
the adverbial expression adds to the meaning (as do ^''"'^'^
other adverbs ordinarily) without, however, limiting
It (as do other adverbs) : thus, ^
Unfortunately he has gone ; Happily for us, he has gore •
To my great disappointment, he has gone. '
Here there i.:; no limitation of the assertion that he
has gone. The meaning is
He has ^oan, and this has happened unfortunately, etc. ;
--"viTv^^irii cAi;Ie»^lon IS co-oraiuaie descrii)tive
resembling: m function the descriptive ad^jective/
< (
I''
ttses
I
256
ADVERBS.
Interjep-
tiouai use
Not,
modifying
(1). A sen-
tence.
(2). A clause,
we are saying, and X^h rese nh i''-"';"'-'^'"'^ *'"' ^''"^
they merely intimZo^'^Zt^! TPT''''^ '^ *•""
for example, belong here '''"'^- 0»"'s.
where the meaning is
modifier th:rb^.^t f;itr;: •'"'^- "°' *-• -^
He did it, ,„( for i„ere but for love •
the ««^ modifies the phrase /«,• lucre; and in
I^ he „„, penitent ( = ..i„pe„ito„t..„ He Jo" •, .
It modifies the word pemlent ■ hJl '"" '
adverb in '««-«c, but it is a sentence
qq? TJ ^ H« «»'' penitent.
respon•ding^oTte's«on""inT•."'''* «- "-<J 'n
originally adverbs, but are ,h n^ i„ "^^''f"'^^. were
are in themselves eoniDlete^ '^'''■' •'"•'''"'*'' '"'«?
example, in answe? to the^'„tstfon'''?W-n ^'"'^' *<"•
yes and «« mean respective v'' I , -.f'" T" ^°^"
will not go." The resno, If,£ ., *'" S^"*' and " I
sentence^ and henceTre not n"' '*?'^ ff"" a whole
speech" (33). Theva.rmo^t.'^f ""''^ P'^"'ts of
W. tea. nav. jection. Besides T/s ,« ^f f"alogous to the inter-
Bometimes«sedasrn'afflLit^°'f *°''"^ °* "'^"^ '^
««|were, nntil recently ^greralTrr^- ,f "«""
tind fw, •^' ^*^"eraa nso, as well as //^.v
(3). A phrase,
(4), A word.
yes no
t'-J
('
PECULIAR WORDS.
-1
/
8S7
^?^..i'!f """l^ »*<> inay be made to .signify differenee othe
in the speaker's state of mind
used
aceording to the tone
yen, iio ,
yea, nai/.
r uses of
the statement He is mad," we may say,
Tes (acquiescent) meaning " He is mad " ;
re9 deliberate) - "He may be mad " ;
iVo incredu ous) - - You don't say so '' •
iV^o (contradictory) - " He is not mad '' ; '
r^lf ""?• ^'^''^ '{'' ^"^ *'^ ^^« a commentary on a
in the iniT* ? ''^ •'''. ^"^'^^' ^'^^ ^^""^h* «^ feeling
11 the speaker's mind may be added in a way that
resembles apposition : thus,
Tes; he is mad ; Yes; he may be mad ;
-A^o; you don't say so!
In sentences like the last example, the responsive
being exclamatory, closely resembles the interjection
In older English, yea and nay are used as sentence
adverbs m the sense of "truly," "indeed" W
for example, ' * '^^"^'
Tea, hath God said, " Ye shall not eat of every tree in the
<<TXT ^ garden";
Were he my brother, yea, my kingdom's heir."
395. In older Englisli, two and even three negatives tt,« *
were regulady used to emphasize the negative thus --"- "
for example, in Ascham, ' "'"'^'
M Sonne, were he never so old of years, might not marry.
And, even in Modern English, the same construction
s found occasionally, one of the negatives, however
being also a connective : thus, '
rvhr, ^ ^ '«f' ^'' did see him again, nor never shall ;
The property of no empire, nor tlie grandeur of no king
can so agreeably affect, etc
But careful writers avoid this form of expression.
Iwo negatives are now equivalent to an affirmative
except in vulgar English, in which the older usage
still prevails, the effect being that of emphasis by
repetition just as in the case of double comparatives
and superlatives (345) : thus, for example,
There werew'^ no pies equal to hers.
I one.
258
ADVERBS.
Otfior parts
of speech.
Some not
easily
analyzed.
Ordinary
phrases.
OTHER FORMS OF ADVERBS.
WORDS.
alSl?(14G''aidT80)r ^^f^-''\-- have
fpw ../ fiTr ;r "^^^' ^^® "sed as adverbs A
He ,s .„«,„,„, ( p,„ , ) „„ -g^^j ../ -^-
Hang interj.; ^oes the o'uti •
»«»/>, «™„;, (verb) LiL the han-d they «peed •
hplash, splash, iieross the sea '
use. and .o,„eti,„„. even ir^^;^""'"^:^::^
that higli, this far, that much, this much.
PHRASES
by stealth, of yore, at random, in lieu •
in vain, of old, at all, on high, ere long, for good
mfhn^7f^-^ ^''f ^'''''''^y^ ^^ ^^^es a happy life •
we got to sea, the admiral being tvith us
A
al
ta
cc
sa
m
09
th(
thi
OTUEll FUllAlS OF ADVERBS.
259
varieties.
lue oiner value ot the nominative absolute.
CLAUSES.
in the way of definh g a desr^ Tl * IT^C ''T''^'^
it has the sauie\?;ietTflUi,^'C"ht:l?"^,:;;:I '"" ^
to the simple adverh Thp «ioooi« ^- whk n oeionj?
is not abiolul^rt tl^e' dr^^^t^TXd^
vaiiety ot uses, a^ the examples given partly show.
Ihus we have adverb clauses:
(1) . Of place : for example,
He lay whore he fell :
lou can go where ( = " vvliifhpi. "i ,.«.. i
Whither I ,„, ,„ ,.„.<„, eo;'e!"r',o toe' iTaie.
(2). Of ^im^ ; for example,
When I awoke, it was one o'clock •
He smdes when ( = ''whenever ") one speaks to him;
Come down ere my child die.
He does as he hkes ; I was as ti, d as ever man was tired) •
Th. w^^^ ^'^ ^^"'^'' *^^^» w« li'Hl expected^ ^ *
a1>ire;iS"^ ^^^^^•' ^^'- -^ --^--s are usually
modifying adve'rb):^ht:t'Srpt!h/'^ "^^' ^"' ^^^
I am a. (^-to the degree") tired as (:=-in which
degree") any man was; "' ''^^''^^
«5 and the a.-clause together modify tired. So, too, m
. 7^ ^'^her you go, the more difficult is the ascent,
the higher you go modifies more, which is itself mnrUfin^ u
the demonstrative th^ (^a^\. ,•.'.":!.''' ^^^^^^ modihed by
*
(1). Place.
(2). Time.
(3). Manner
and degree.
I will
(361); just as in
give j-ou this book which I have
-- •■"■^.. » llrtVC III 111
this and the etVi/c/i-clause together modify hook
in my hand,
200
(4). Cause.
(5). Result
aud effect.
(6). End or
purpose.
Seqiience
of tenses
(7). Con-
dition ;ind
aoncessiou.
Three
classes.
ADVERIiS.
(4) . Of cause : for cxamph
Since
you say so, we l)elieve it: As
yoii are hove. I will
1 he hnelin- fleetli, because he is a hirelintr •
I "^"^^^"ovv; not that 1 want to ,.o, but that [munt;
A„H f . ! th'^'.^^^^^t him a hero tliat he did so :
• And, for that wine is dear, we will be furnished with our own.
(5). Of result and effect: for example,
Tj. . , .^^ was so weak that he fell :
His Ideas are^.n such confusion that he is unintelligible •
He shouted till the woods ranff ;
Is he an oracle that we should look up to him ?
Am if ."^Tr.y^" ^O'"^' that you were late ?
Am I a child that you should speak thus to me ?
wl^kXt'^llW^^^^^ T'r ^f ^"^^ '' *«^^^her modify
weoK Kio^utcxWy the adverb clause modifies so wfali-
and m he second, the adverb clause modifies tt//
"itutir^' -odify logically.. ,reat if we rade'rhis'^^uC:
for exainple,'''^ ""' ^^ ^"'^^'^ ^ ' ' ^""^ ^^^^^ " ^ '• t^"«'
He died that we might live ;
Ye shall not touch it, lest ye die ;
He comes (or, came) to school, lest he should fail.
The rules for the sequence of tenses (282) apply here
when the subordinate clause is introduced by S ^ W
fuV\: '!"' T'l ""'^^^^^-^ '^ "- - « 'wl^S is past
in form but mdefinite as to time [2211) wliatpvpr ht tl
tense in the principal clause. ^^' ''^'^^^'^'^ ^e the
rsf ind^29oT'^'r''''rf ^ co/icm/o/i (219 [4] and
Le3j and 220). Conditional and concessive clauses
are opposite in force ; tnas, for example,
If you are strong, you will succeed ;
1 hough he was strong, he did not succeed,-
are equivalent to
Be strong and yoii will succeed ;
He was strong hiii did not succeed.
399. The realization of the consequence in con-
ditional and concessive sentences (that is, complex
concessTv; ''"" -^ '''' subordinate clause conditional or
CO cef V^^ V'"'''''^'"''''^"^^ ""' ''"' ^'^"ditional or the
concesoive clause represents what i^= f-e"^-^ a- «
S(
C(
a]
di
OTUER FORMr OF AD FEE US.
261
question, or as an imaginary case (pure supposition),
or as impossible : thus, for example,
(^0. Open:
If yon are stiwug, you are self-reliant:
Unless you are strong, you are not self-reliant:
It never rains, but ( " if not") it pours;
Though you are strong, you are not self-reliant':
If that l>e (or, is) so, I shall go;
If you go, shall I see you?
If thou ho the son of God, oomniand, etc. ;
I hough that be so, I shall not go.
(b). Imaginaiv:
n« ,,.f f ^^ \ '''""''^ *"" become nuid, I might do so ;
Do not forget lum, even ,f you should never see him again;
You would not succeed, though you should do so
(c). ImiM)ssible:
If thou hadst l.-on here, my brother had not died ;
Though thou hadst been here, my brother would have died
400. Such sentences as the following are also con- onodanse
mtional, although die (condition is concealed or omitted ''"""^^i^ «^
in some (220), and the consequence is omitted in the ''
last:
It would be folly to do so { = '' if one did so ") ;
Life piled on life {-='' \f. it were, etc. )
Were all too little ;
This kiss woul'l wake the dend (if it were given) •
rrv, ?A i ^?,'"^ ^ '^^^^ f^^" thee (if I tried) ;
Thy elder brother would I be (if it were possible) ;
If I were covetous (I should be rich), how am I so poor?
And, as we shall see later, an ellipsis of the con-
sequence IS common with such phrases of conditional
comparison as as if, than if: thus,
^ He looks as (he would look) if he were rich ;
He 18 now richer than (he would be rich) if he had gone
to the Klondyke.
«v.1?J' ^"^ ^^^Z ^""^^'^^^ ^^'^ "^ P^^^^y we find Archaic
aichaic conjunctions or conjunction phrases of con- Tn'f''T'^
dition : thus, for example, conjunctions
Yet what is death, so it be glorious?
Catch me an (:=" if " ) thou canst ;
So as men live in peace, they die free from strife ;
The chronicle were welcome that ( = "if it") should call
Into the compass of distinct regard
The toil and struggles of thy infancy.
I
!! r
i
p^H
202
ADVERBS.
m
CoTidklonal
inversion.
How
produced:
Interrogative
still used.
whether . . or.
402. So far we have dealt
introduced by eonjuu.iions. TI,
ever, often expressed by tlie in
with conditional elanses
e eo
of the subject
ai
I'dition is, ho
inveivsion of (Ik; (),•(]
V\'
grown out of the int(
'u predicate. This const
ler
niction has
thus, for
Imperative in
a condition.
examnlo w. — «i"ogative senten
txampie, we can say
^W u m^2 ^^'" ^"'•^' h^ h^d not died ;
iusteadof ^"''™^^''°""^^^--'-''
,Jf'^''ou luid'st been here :
If (or though) thou crio«t never so loud.
. This is called conditional invpr^inn 4.u
..said to ,e a„ inveneU^fol^'^ZTaTZ^LT''''''^
l>.d you see him, you would know this '
bucfi sentences as
Should ,^u see Mm, y„„ would find him changed, '
J3e It a tride, it should be done well •
owe the ortor of the saborilinate clause m'h,„ • • ,
interrogative construetioii -iiJ tL j . tae origina!
conditional eonstruction """"' '° '^^ '"'^r
for thf etS^tiot^S::;,""' '"'"-"^^"™ "'™ '« -^'i" -od
W.aste,.a'litZo»u'i'&nt"S^^^^^^^^
^/tc^Aer you go or «cay, all will be well •
^^'^r^^::^?^: -^^ -^ordinate
*V conditional T.Wrw/th..r^ ^'^^If ' ^'^^" ^^^•>^-"
../i«^...r,ete.,seerr 279 9,(6). '^^^^^"^ conjunctives,
is tfrn^thn^"" ^^"^ interrogative, the imperative sentence
IS sometimes used to express a condition : thus
Fling but a stone, the giant dies ;
Let earth unbalaneod from her orbit fly
- -meco «.x^ aunts ruii jawie«s through the skv
.
LOGICAL VALUES OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS.
2f?3
■
And the imperatives HnppoHP, admit, ffrant, and satt
(some ot which, in their weakened sense, may be
vahied as conjunetions) are used to introduce condi-
tional clauses: thus,
Suppose Ijo fail, whnt matter dops it make f
Say 1 be eutertaiued, what tbeu shall follow f
So, too, some participles in the absolute construc-
tion, by the omission of that: thus,
You shall have it provided it pleases you ;
where the full construction would be
that it pleases you heiug provided.
406. The conjunction introducing a clause often
has a correlative adverb of kindred meaning, in the
clause to which the clause so introduced, is sub-
ordinate, answering toward it much the same purpose
as the antecedent to the conjunctive pronoun: thus,
Where the bee sucks, there suck I ;
JVhen the heart beats no more, then the life perishes •
// 1 speak false, (hen may my father perish : '
Though he slay me, yet will I trust him;
As I entered, so will I retire.
And adverbs of manner and degree are apt to be
followed by corrective conjunctions; as so by that;
so and as by as; a comparative adverb— w;Y>r^ less*
and the like— by than; the by the (361). Out of this
usage grow a number of conjunction phrases, as so as
so that, so far as, according as, and so on. '
LOGICAL VALUES OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS.
407. Adverbial modifiers are usually limiting ; but,
as in the case of adjectives (but less frequently)
adverbial words, phrases, and clauses are used merely
to describe. This use in the case of words and phrases
has already been noticed in par. 391. It is especially
common with clauses introduced by an adverbial con-
conjunction of the tvhere series (less frequentlv in
as-clauses [325] and [372] ) : thus,
T site mv dinner loh^n ( r= "oTirl t^^n 'M v>« a — j i x_ i
TT "i- 'i"^ — -., .1..-.. ^ ^ ...!., I,. .a ; nc ucBircu uiu lu leave :
He lives at Pans— ?{;/tere is it possible you have never been ? (50) •
He wiJl be here to-rr^i-row — when please call again (51). '
Rome Itnpern
tivo ftiid
piirtiplplftl
coujuuctioua.
Correlntlveg.
Conjunctive
phrases.
Usually
limiting;
sometimes
purely
descriptive.
ifi 1
t
i-
^
I* t.'
PREPOSITIOys.
Jt
wi: '» i'
Iff'
Or'flrlnftlly
ajjveros.
Origin of
relations.
Not classified
Connection
witli words.
XIT. PREPOSITIONS.
frofteu uted k „ ^ l-ave seen (;i7fi), t!,,, smne word
to st«y/,-„„ „,„,,„„g till eve,,!,,/; ,„ eo„mA„,„ fear-
to happen /tow no fault of mine. '
t.„m rZd'd' {'" P'-<'''"^''T^ ''^ eo„.iderably ]es.
wotdf;|fonowi L"'''T r *™'" "^"Se, particular
^aftsolve from, conversant tnVA, mvolve m, comply with
11..^''^' ""f \"' '"■' "^'"^ ^^*^' particular preposition^
^^horrent to, averse ^o, alien <e>, con.; v. a<.
FOBMATIO^.
..
205
Olhc/s arc followed bv inoro fl.nn ^.
each ex....e.iu« a m.Ja Sll VJ^CS '/.i:'
to get «< facts : to Pnfmof * • ^""'Pit,
to entrust i t»iin]? /o one ;
one with a thini. •
to look (^fur the house :
to get «< facts ;
1'^ oi^er a fever ;
on oith u person •
OM<«/Uebt;
<« a journey's euu ,
take afler one's father ;
,^ one /or a thief ;
^^ ff. anything ;
7/0H oneself;
"^ a person r thing;
iito » matter ;
/«/• wJiat Is loHt ;
<wt>' ai account ,
hrotujh an account ;
out of fi windov-
Jvlu'tiou; thiViir simple!'""' "'• """"'' "" *"""^'
to txp»ot o/(„,.yi.„,„j „„; ^.„^
to die ,,/• f/,.„,„, ^it„) ,,„„g^,. ■'-' y»" .
and speaker. ; 'to. t.™L a.^;;; tn'^f J"'^-
FORMATION.
compounds, or d iraL .^ "I"' ^''^ derivatives, 01'
words used rXtio afh . Ti^Tl''^. f independent
origin: tons, fT xalnpi; ^^^ ^"^'^^^^ and Romanic
priced ^fo^^l;;^^^^^^ (<^r, nominative) ex-
''''":" ^';:.s::iLj^!> ii;:t""ni^ ^-'-^"^ ^- "^-^-r');
i>fl.i the 1 ice; that L' f..! '. "".^ '""' ^'^^thstandinq ; ^ ' '
PmL./the event . t^at^rfh^'"' "'^^ '^^''^^ /^^^-^?/
all e.ce,i the boy ;7hat Isfl ' he' l^^bSf V'^'
. a year «,o; that is', a yeaM^iLW "''^'
Dimnsr the Middle and Earlv M. . I .
tongue-stoi. suffix (11^ \v^,1, Tmf^/i"^' P^^^«^«' ^^e
participles of Latin ori^ . U^J^t ahnt'\ '\"^f"^. ^'^^^•
been recently ii^roduee<l \^.^^^*5^^^'' above). whi<'h, having
meanino- ^Pi - ..^ !^^**' T«'tanied some ol H...<,. «r.;o-!...*!
usage
How best
learned.
Oldest,
simple.
Derivative*.
From the
absolute
constriu ioa
except.
'te IS also a survival of tbis
fWll
»
fftl
J( *'«iiifek'''^
iCd
PRKPOSITIOSS.
4»i
m
m
m\
p
w
ago.
Compounds
hihI otlier
derivatives.
Ago (<»I,U.r af,tmr, "j.,„i«' hy") mny also (,uh1 better) bo
now vulued ns an a<lvvrb of (inns n.,ulili,Ml by the pr J'oc i L
ncnce, a day snice.^^
^ (b). Without any quasi-Hu])ject expressed (the
impersona use of the al)soIute eonstruetiou) ; thus
for example, ' '
Comiihrimi the distanco, you linve ootne enily •
Ounuiiio Uk. (listunce, you have come late ; '
Tell me reganUny (comernbuj, Hndting, etc.) your journey.
In (a) when the i)arti('ii 'e beeaire eouverted iuto a
preposition the ori^final ik a,, abs. I,e(.ame the objec-
tive after it; andiu (h) the non.iuative disappeared
No doubt some of tlie forms are due to aiialo|?y
Comparatives (2). Comparatives :
over <0.L.<>>-, comp. connected yvithup aud ore iu "above."
(3) . Compound and otlier derived prepositions :
(a) . From other prepositional or adverbial elements:
unto, upon, anderneath, before, beliind. above
toward(8), within, throughout.' '
(b). From nouns and adjectives:
among(st), across, beside (s), amid, between,
around, aslant, along.
(4) There are besides many phrases, combinations
ot independent words, used relationallv, which may be
valued as preposition phrases (152). ^Examples are
''''* fn' //.T ?"k' ^' *^' .^^ ^^••' «" *'"« s'^ie, alongside,
in front of, by way of, because of, for the sake of. '
instead of, in lieu of, according to,
in respect (or, regard) to ;
and many others An expression like as regards,
which IS shortened for so far as it regards, may also
be Vi^Iued as a preposition phrase, meaning "concern-
ing," or in regard to."
PECULIAR WORDS.
412. As we have already seen (408), the preposi-
tion was originally connected closely with the verb
-_ ...... i vf^u^ lO aiiaen itacu especially to a verba]
Phrases.
PECULIAR trORDS.
267
word, with, liowever, differ^'ut logical values- thus
for example, in vmues. mus,
a --"- on^. ,ookecW«.j, ; a place fo. pitlhin, .^." 'l„t in;
iins chair has been Hiit upon by stiidouts ;
on, with, into, in, and upon are each nart of u Ml.vnan
pare the ,-,. ati..n of H,e prelix i„ u .l,.rivative) I k ■ """'"'"■
«< v,M-l« these words nrndify the v,.rl.a[ wonl „■ h
jvneh they are «o,uu«te.l, u.ul, althoii^.h li^v .. ,
whi':his^hrp'aU:e"oT"""""^ '" ""' ""' --""p'^-
students have sat upon this chair;
phraie.''^'"^ ^'''"' '""^ ''^''' ^^^'^^« ^ transitive verb-
The words upon, in, ivith, etc., thus used, are partlv
^IdvlrMJ^^^^ «"^' may !>; desS
as aaverbial prepositional partieles modifvine thp
expressions to which they are attached. ''""''^"'^ ^'^^
Two intermediate st.-c. of this conversion of the
ordinary preposition are seen in such sentences as
John is the name (wliieh) he answers to- .
ties all ties above; travels the whole woi'd o^er;
in which to above, and over are still preposition^ hnf "
less markedly so than in the regular cCructio,;. '
413. In such constructions, again, as
Foi' me to die is great gain,
for also has only part of the grammatical value of the
ordinary preposition, but this value is different from
that of .,., upon, etc., above. Whereas the prenor
tion, 111 the usual construction, has two terms ^ the
latter being in the objective), on, upon eZ Ihovt
(412), have only the first term, While /.rhksonlv
the second. For, thus used, may, theref^e be called
an introductorv nr/'nncff/r.«..i J.,„^: , "^^' "® ^^^^^^
:i
For, an
liitroduct.ory
prepositionitl
particle.
— ..^^„„vc. ^„,, Luiis useu, 1
an introductorv nrpnnvi+ir,r,
t*t piirticie.
im
PBE POSITIONS.
In such const
Oriaiii of the
idiom.
Nom. after
save, but.
Nigh, and its
derivatives.
'ritrf
•tions as the following, for has of
course, its full preposition value :
The wind sits fair /or news to go to Ireland •
The night is too dark /or us to see. '
t^ui* '^^''x'"^,''^'^'^^"''^ prepositional particle for is
probably due to the influence of the archaic fw to a pre-
position piirase introduced when the io of the OF
gerundial infinitive began to lose its preposition value"
thus, tor example,
What went ye out for to see f
If ye will not suffer my children /or to pass, etc. ;
conjoined to the fact that the construction without the ^r
Uound, for example, in Chaucer and other Middle English
writers) in such a sentence as " .
No wonder is a lewed man to rust ( = "No \\cnder it is for
a common man to rust") ;
doe.^ not mark precisely the relation of the infinitive and its
subject to the rest of the sentence.
%^' ^^1^ nominative case is sometimes found after
.wve iOFv.sauf, safe '0 and hut, both in Elizabethan
Ji^nglish and in present poetry : for example,
No man hath seen the Father save he which is of God •
Nor never none (395) '
Shall be mistress of it save / alone.— Shakespeare •
Where nothing save the waves and /
Shall hear our mutual murmurs sweep.— Byron •
What stays have I but </<e//.— Shakespeare. ' '
This construction is found in still older stages of
the language and is apparently due to the confusioi
between prepositions and conjunctions especially in
abbreviated sentences— a confusion which is still seer
m vulgar Englis^ (434) : thus, for example,
grf ,ler than me; as tall as me;
416. The word 7iigh and its derivatives, nigher,
mghest, next, near, nearer, nearest, which were origin-
ally followed by the dative case (271), may now be
valued as transitive adverbs; that is, as prepositions,
in those constructions in which thev are followed by
the objective case : thus, for example,
He sits near (nearer, next, etc.) my son and me.
'nm
PECULIAR WORDS.
2G9
'
.
A8 however, owing to their origin these worck
in such constructions are often not felt to have been
ully converted into prepositions (as is showrby the
frequent nse of to after them), they may be vahied as
al aXu-b :^ ''Y'"^^' ''"r"^^ ''''''' ^^"^^ also vaLd
as adverbial; for, as we have already seen (271) to
IS not omitted When the ^. is expressed ;.«r/f
etc., may be valued as preposition phrases or the
a'^Tdvelr'' "'"" '^^'"""^ '''''' "^^'^ -1-^
She walks Ztfre (unlike, etc.) a goddess (or, her).
although its function resembles that of near etc
above, It IS better, owing to its meaning (409) to
rtfa^v^rbtl^dl^^^^^^ '''' "^-^ "^^^ ^^
In vulgar English, lihe is often used as a coniunc-
lon (by analogy) ; thus, "He walked me I d^- but
this construction is not reputable, and we have «. to
express the relation. In "He walked Z/Wohn - Ue
cannot be a conjunction, as we see when we subkitute
for Jolm a personal pronoun. ^uohcimre
difflculVifr'^"'^'T.i'''*^.^"'^ occasionally present constn.ct,
aifliculties. Some of those in which it is followed bv ''^'^"''•
a noun clause we have already considered (279 [61)
Its origimil meaning may be .een in its other preposi-
tion constructions; thus, for example, ^
I cannot hut believe ; that is, "except believe" •
He was all but ruined ; that is, "all except (being)
mined" ; "'
B' t for you, he would, etc. ; that-i., " except for you "
wh\lh\iZl ^ir ^^"'f.^^ """" *^^^' ^'^^ the verb, Another
Which It resembles m the so-cnlled governing power -r^"^««o°
the preposi ion may be followed by an obE -positions,
predicate adjective (151) especially in ih.on.Jl^'llI^
which m present English often replaces the'abso ute
ions
I- ",.-''
41.
270
Apparent.
Henl.
PREPOSITIONS.
Know tlioii me for thy Ueqe lord;
We have Abraham to our father.
OMISSION.
position and the context. Examplefai-e "" *''*'""
bhe sat her horse, man fashion • '
/«.*.»; a./ Lrt^t vat; .'■",;? r'^'"" ■■"'!^ "'^'»
omission of a ureno^ifinn J n i '^^ ^"^ ^^ ^^^
e- ^^r -'^ "~'^ -^^^^^^ tr.!^
_ This is worth two pounds ; He is worthy your notice •
with objectives of sn«e„ t* ' *""; S^erally
objeetiv^X ,^A "?^; etTV'r?) "the 'of'' V-*'^
after an interieetion V'Tm a \i '' , . objectives
tion with «w 27 ).' IVioul in* T''''"' ""'''''''■
relation may be /«nJ^ 1^ f- *''■*' ''"•''<'«• t^e
expressed b,'-; pirepoiuL.^'""*'"""'^ """' '^ '^-^
!>:
/ .
CONJUNCTIONS-FORMA TIOX.
271
XIII. CONJUNCTIONS.
FORMATION.
420. A« we have already seen (47), conjunctions Mostly from
are of comparatively late growth. They have been C&eT"
tormed in various ways, mostly from other parts of
speech : thus, for example, from
pronouns: fliat, hence, whether, both;
adjectives : provided, except;
adverbs: consequentlii, lastly, now, namely;
prepositions : hut, for, since, before;
verbs : say, siqypose, to wit, videlicet (viz.)
As we have also seen (376), many words can be used
both as conjunctions, and as adverbs or prepositions
or both ; only a few words, indeed, are used solely
as conjunctions, as and, nor. Manv words also,
ordinarily prepositions, and some words ordinarily That omitted,
participles or imperatives (405), are now used as coii-
.lunctions, especially by the omission of that, which
once followed them. In Modern English, this use of
that has disappeared except in a few conjunction
phrases, as in that, save that, but that.
On the other hand, in old style English, that (owing r^at inserted.
m its derived conjunctive value [312]) was often
inserted after words which were originally inter-
rogatives, in order to give them a conjunctive force:
thus, for example, in Shakespeare,
When that the poor have cried, Caesar hp.th wept;
and it may still ])e used, for the same purpose after
some adverbs : thus, for example,
(Mce (or, Now) that he is here, I may go. '
By an: Jogy, that was aino n^A in old style English
even after words that had a c«^ijjunctive value: thus
tor example, in Shak^^p-are, '
Lorenzo and Saierio, .velcome hither,
If that the youth of my new interest here
to
uitj you srt^icome.
272
COSJUNCTIONS.
while.
M>. ■
Origin of
that.
Adverbial,
Ordinary.
meaning •'«„«.' fi^^fLi'i^ was originally a nonn
:nnet:.ns owing to the accident o^rtrSTegLrg
I do not think that (namely) he is here •
I came after that (namely/ he had S
CLASSES.
aiiu, m aetail, the different fla^epc «# ..^ .: '»
adjectives or pronomCadv^bsVp,''™"'''"'"'''
relation^ tlT'''^^^^ '""^^^* ^^^"«^« and ^show h h-
relations ; thus, for example, in
I stay and he goes ; I stay ^/he goes ;
«W(? and if are ordinary conjunctions ; but,' in
I stay; therefore he goes ; I stay lohen he goes •
therefore and when are adverbial conjunctions.'
Other examples are:
Ordinary co-ordinate:
for, but, either, or, both, and, neither, nor.
Adverbial co-ordinate :
theiefore, so (colloquial), hence, still, consequentlr
accordingly; yet, nevertheless ;' furthi.rrmSver^'
CLASSjES.
273
'-)rdinar,y subordinate :
Adverbial subordinate •
example, we say ""I'hatic word : thus, for
I Stay ; rsvertheless he eoes Co.. j,o .7 ,
or i.JL^ ^ ' ^® ^nevertheless troes •
or, iie goes, nevertheless). ^ '
The connection made bv th^ r...rv
eonjunetions is also ,1a ^ elo'er H anTh,T"°''t''j''' «""°'"-
the adverbal eo-ordinatn f^r,,,^.. *■ 'hat made by
often find the ela.LTco Lee ed bv'?h ' f ^" "">' ^«
separated by a comma or w"X, wYtl.i Z™™*'''' •^'"""•
mark, while those eo.mectebvT^i'?",*,'' ••""«'"««<>"
separated by a sem mlnn ^ ® '""*"' '"* "«»ally
showing a longer pZe " P»"etnation mark
Again, while the adverbial eo-or,Un,,f^ . ,.
never refer back to a par ion h, eonjunetions Adverbial. '
clause, the subordinat^ adve 1 ,? "' V? "'« «>•«'
do: thus, for example in ««»Jn"etions often
U It;\iti&^\";,",^,-" ^'»-. r connects
tvhere is an adverb in its own !^'f " ''^"^'' ^'^'-''-ea*
as a whole with the first el nil If "', ""'' "onn^ets it
adjeeti;u t,> ihe Z^7o,m ' "" '"''^'•^"'^'''"'^e being
-ftL';e74ri::S'i)"es'':,^ T^ -pound
eonjuncticns that are n^P.{ ft ^^^ co-ordinate
we,^<»nshlered i^aTene::? Irtrt.!'.--'.-^
-v/iijuuc Lions exijjvsfcj TT'iiri.. „ " ' ' • -^i.~ liiuae
expiesb. Having also examined under
:? 1
274
CONJUNCTIONS.
IS ' ,1^
Sboniinate ^'''^^s ^eads the difforoiit varieties of su^ordiiinre
conjunctious. chiuses, we may now classify, on the basis of meanii;^
the eoiijimctions tliat are used to eonneet these chiiises •
remembering, however, that the same conjunction has
otten a great variety of uses and meanings. TJie
subordinate conjunctions may be classified as :
(1) . Of place and time : thus,
where, wheu, whenever, as, while (whilst), unjtil, before.
^ By some English speakers and writers, directly aiui
immediately arc now used for as soon as : for example.
Directly (or, hnmcdiatelij) he got in, the train started ;
but this usage is neither reputable nor national, and
sliould not be imitated.
(2) . Of cause : thus,
because, since, whereas, for that (archaic).
(3). Of condition and concession : thus,
if, unless (=- if - not") except, provided, though, although,
notwithstanding, albeit (arch.), without (colloquial).
(4) . Of end or purpose : thus,
that, so that, lest ( = "that—not, so that— not"— colloquial)
in order that. '
(5). Of manner and degree (including com-
parison) : thus,
as, than.
(6). Of result or effect: thus,
that, till,
(7). Substantive; that is, those introducing noun
clauses :
that, whether, if, why, how.
424. We have now to add a few particulars in regard to
the uses and meanings of some conjunctions.
As we have already seen (45), some of the co-ordinate
conjunctions, as and, or, nor, but, for, are often formally
(not logically) detached from the preceihng context, and
stand at the beginning of a sentence or a paragraph;
so that the relation they show is looser and more com* r-"-
hensive than when they formally connect clauses. Oiwot
Special
comments:
a7id, or, vor^
ptc.
CLASSES.
275
il>i 1 1
these conjunctions, for exanipl(3, may even sliow the
logical connection between two paragraphs.
425. As we liave also seen (41), the relations between (Wr,i iv«
clauses are sometimes shown by correlative conjunctions : '^""'' '^*«-
thus, for example,
Both lie and I will go ; Either he o>- I will go.
These correlatives are more emphatic than the single
conjunctions. The first in a pair leads us to expect the
second, and is as it were, an outside prop to strengthen
the relation. Other correlatives are
not only— but (or, but also), neither— nor,
though (or, although)— yet (or, still),
if— then, whether — or.
When not onhj—btit (or, but also) is used the second
statement IS more important than the hrst; both— and,
however, simply emphasizes the co-ordination.
Ovving to the fact that neWm^nor (n- neg.) is the Neither ana
negative of either— or, the following are equivalent in "''^•
meaning:
I knew neither the iimn nor the woman •
I did not know either the man or the woman •
I did not know the man, and I did«o< know the woman ;
for, T^en we deny alternatives separately, we logically deny
the affirmative s atements. Hence, nor is used for ail noi,
and we have such mixed copulative and alternative co-ordi-
nation as IS seen in the following examples :
John was not Ibere ; nor was James ;
neither wiia ,] amen; ■
and neither was James ;
and James was 7iot either.
426. Some conjunctions and conjunction phrases express Condition
condition along witli other relations : thus, for example, 'vuTXr
Come in ; otherw^e (or, colloquial) you will get wet : '
// (or, men if I went wrong, I have a good excuse
He will fail ichcther he does it or not •
He acts as if (or, thowjh) he were the king •
He IS richer than if he had gone to the Klondyke.
Here, besides condition, otherwise signifies that the second
clause IS the result of the non-observance of the command
in the first, its meaning being ''for, if you do not come in"-
1/ expresses concession; ivhether—or, an alternative- and
au" .-.■:-■-' y v<-onjanetion phreises by sentence
abbreviation), comparison, ^
n
i I
< (
relations.
m
If .
r 1 «ps 5
ft"
«,1
f '
11 1
276
coxjuxcTioys.
for, because. 427. For, hernu
whether, or.
Whether in
subordinate
questions.
or.
hut.
t\w 1
fir.
TIk! co-Old inuto for properly states
ojrical jrroniKl lor a preceding' statement, and the
connection it uuikvs is soniclinu's so loose that the /or-ehiuse
seems an aft('rthou.i.lu. The si.hordinate because introdnees
a cJause vvhieli expresses the canse of what is predicated of
the subject in Its principal clause; so that it is a causal
adverb clause. Soineti.nes, however, for and because are
mterchanjred, especially wiien, so far as the sense is con-
cerned, it is immaterial whether we take the /or-clause a^
co-ordinate or subordinate. But there are cases in which
for only siiould be used. Examples of the uses of these
words are : «^'ic»r
The soil is rich ; for (not, because) the vegetation is rank •
Ihe vegetation is rank ; because {or, for) the soil is rieli ;'
Wc came home because the doors were closed; for such
were the master's orders ;
My brother came to my i oseue ; for he happened to be
i M 'ent.
4f28, Whether— m\ These correlatives are ordinar\
conjunctions when they connect principal interrogative
clauses; but subordinate, in alternative conditional clauses:
^/<e^/<er will you go w stay?
I will go whether you go or stay.
In a subordinate question, tvhether is adverbial sub-
ordinate: thus,
I will ask him whether (or, if) he will go.
although no interrogative word is used in the direct
question.
429. The alternative or may exclude one alternative or
it may include both, or it may signify that there is only a
verbal alternative— that the terms are synonymous • thus
for example, ' " '
Will you go or will you not ? I want two or three books •
Boys like James or John are sure to succeed • '
The premier, or chief of the cabinet, opened the fair.
430. B^it, which, as we have seen (279 [6]), was origin-
ally a preposition, may sometimes (owing to the omission of
that) be valued as a subordinate conjunction: thus for
example, '
It never rains but ( = "if not ") it pours ;
Perditjon catch my soul but { = " if not ") I do love thee ;
it cauuot be huL ( = *''tuat not") he has gone,
o
PECULIAR WORDS.
277
sub-
A
A^
431. Noir,n-cll. These are sometimes used like copula- now. well.
rive co-ordinate conjunctions to introduce a new statement ;
noiv, as an explanation of one preccdinpf; and well, as a
commentary on it, expressive also of some feeling ; so that
it is somewhat interjeetioual : thus, for example.
Then cried they all again, saying, "Not this man, but
Barabbas." Mow, Barabbas was a robber;
You have come, have you ? Well, it is more than I expected.
PECULIAR WORDS.
432. In such sentences as
The soldiers were there as well as the sailors ;
The soldiers as ivell as the sailors were there ;
the phrase as ivell as really connects two clauses asxveiiaa,
(•o-ordinately ; but, in
The soldiers were there as well;
The soldiers as well were there ;
asi well resembles a sentence adverb, attaching itself Adverbial
(compare eveit [388] ) to the word with which it is more conjunctive
particularly connected in sense and which in that case ^'"'^"'^^'•
is stressed : thus, for example,
The soldiers as icell were there (that is, as well as
the sailors) ;
The soldiers were there as well (that is, as well as
somewhere else).
Likewise, also, too, and a few other words are used in
the same way. Such words have not lost all their con-
junction value, for they suggest an additional thought
or notion. They may be described as adverbial con-
junctive particles. So, too, the subordinate thotoih in
such a sentence as
He is sure to be there, thongh.
Of a siimlar nature is the use of the prepositional Adverbial
phrase in the following : prepositional
particles.
The father loith his son was well treated ;
where the phrase is so closely connected with father
that there is a tendeiicy«t(i make the verb pinra! (117)
but where it might also be taken with the 'verb'
lleuce such expressions as besides, in addition, may be
f ]^?tl^,.."" .IT!."""!?"
278
\
1' 'I
ii \
arid, that
Construction
after than
and as.
CONJUNCTIONS.
Ill
That, as
introduetory
fonjunetive
particle.
And, an
intensifying
partiolfi:
lie rides on horse hack bcsiden,'
wliere they are attaelied, like inodific^rs to nartienl«,.
expressions, and imply a second term. ^^^^'^"J«»'
433. In such eonstrnctions as
That he was there cannot be true ;
that has only a part of its conjunetive value (m^t «. f
m one construction, is only partly arr(w,s,tio,rr4T^^
In Its ordinary use, it shoves th^ re i^ Swien tlil
daises, introducing the subordinate one here it
mere y introduces the noun-clause. In th s use fwhi.
express .ie..p4TjrotdS^^^^^^^^^^^^^
He is better «,«« I (am) • He is as tall an I (am)
this shortening has led careless and inaeeurate soeakov^
to confound these conjunctions with prepositions ami
to use the objective case after then, (415) T ," uiZ
though comnjon in coUoqnial English and fo m,d
c"sTo™","V™r*T " ""' '•«'""«^'« --P' i" t e
lfht%?i the conjunctive pronoun whom, the use of
tfn^^SVxiU':-/feo^ '^"^ been'sanetiredf
hett^J^J'T "f""^ ''}"""' <*23), the use at the
^nuctions" .l^r.z' V t '''''*'^'*"^ eo-ordinare con-
. -mctions. And, however, has a use peculiar to itself.
*
yji.
P£CL^ IR tfORDS.
2T9
*
^
uses.
Ill older Engllsli, it was often used as an intensifying
particle (compui-e even [388]) : thus, for exanii)le,
lie thill lias and a tiny little wit.- Shakesi .;are ;
W^ u tl) t 1 w .((/ II tiny little boy.— Hhakespeare ;
Th > of Northumberlande,
An, to God made he.— Percy's Reliques.
It (lies ana ij ( -=*' even if ") it had a thousand lives.
I Modern Englisli, and has a use that resembles
thiri: thus, for example,
And art thou cold and lowly laid t
This and, however, may be now taken as connecting its modem
an expressed thought with one preceding and not
expressed ] he speaker or some one else, although
probably it is, in origin, the intensifying particle.
We find a somewhat similar use of and in such
sentences as
That the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head,
And we far away on the billow (150) ;
where it is unnecessary as a connective but where it
emphasizes the expression that follows. So, too, in
such sentences as
God help her, and that right early ;
Chaucer often hits the mark, ayid that by means the least
expected ;
He rode several races for Sir Thomas, anS this with such
expertness, etc.,
where that (rarely this) represents the preceding sen-
tence repeated, with an emphatic addition. Analogous
expressions are
I heard a humming, and that a strange one too ;
With short intervals of sleep, and those ntirely filled
with dreams ;
She had one foe, and that one foe the world.
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Classification,
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i^TERJECTlO^S.
XIV. INTERJECTIONS.
If
divld'i Yr^oZTZ}^^ ^'^^ interieotions may be
that the interjection i« imt „ „ "'^ "''^'' also seen
like a cry or a g?oan ft iffT '^'""•"^^'o" of feeling
eommnnicate ouf feeUng I XTV'' ">"'* «-
few particulars. Some inferiwH^ ^"^ """' '"1<1 a
f>s! simply show om- emotC'^k''^ '"'•'- /"«'•'.
'«/, ?<»<•/, ;,„,,/,/ have pait V H« ^ ' '"^'''"' "'
t.ves, being used to influe' fcc^ther^ p" "' '"'P"™-
asseveration also, as imlJd' T/i ^f "^^sions of
up to the strongest oatl rar;'of the n^^:- ' ^,*'''"'-^-'.
tons; being, some of them lo'evl ""''"* '"'«''J^^^
than words like ?«/, and les^ so rt I. ' '""'*, """tional
And, as wr have se^nTs'^r n v "'■*"''''' '"'*^ «''«•'•
interrogati.'e sentences nnd ""''•"•*'^«' ""Perative, and
partake of the , atm^''o?''lr;;'' '^"boi'dinate clinses
are used in exclamation !f '" '^'■■"^'^t'"". when they ■
the interjection is som«f '"""" "''^o ^^en (155)
with othei e^ors"- ' "xtlaml' rl '^>"'-«-"y
way also approaching the viltr" f '^' P""? ^"^^ = "' this
especially often rcsem^blgti:'v,.b t^T, "^ ''^''^'
A- me,; Alas the day!; ho,™ o I "''''""'"''
O that U JXe (obj'w ." ■""" 'P°".-
Alas, that he has done so (adv')t
OthouthatruIesttheheavensI,.O.i,,tyC;sar; '
CLASSES.
ACCORDING TO MEANINO.
clatf:fied^on the't^S'or''^"^^^^^"^^^^'''"^^^^^^^ are
list; some, ho w ;^ 1^^%^ ^^ ^^"---^
according to tliP tona ;,..^V - ^'^^'[^^^ emotions
"" ^ ""^^ ^^ Utcerm^ them. But, as
e
d
a
u
(^
J [.
ar
CLASSES.
281
s -
V
we have seen above, there are many interjectional
elements which, owing to their peculiarities, it would be
difficult to include in a classification : such expressions
are best described in accordance with their exceptional
uses and meanings :
(1). Of joy, glad surprise, pleasant emotion:
oh !, ah !, ha !, hey !, hurrah !, huzza !.
(2). Of painful feeling or suffering;
oh!, ah!, alas!, well-a-day!, dea. me!, heigh-ho!.
(3), Of disapproval or contempt :
poh !, fie !, faugh !, fudge !, whew !, oh ! oh !.
(4) . Of calling attention r
ho !, hullo !, halloo !, hem !, lo ! .
(5). Of quieting or repressing:
hist !, hush !, tut !, mum !.
(6) . Of approval or assent :
bravo!, hear! hear!, amen.
(7) Words made in imitation of natural sounds
are a kind of interjection : thus,
pop!, bang!, bow-wow!, ding-dong!, rub-a-dub L
I f
'A
282
IS'FIXITIVES ANL PARTICIPLES.
XV. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
«ome of their simpfe«t cofs Cet on (iTo-m") ' T
INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS.
USE AND OMISSION OF THE SIGN
especially an adverb, is plaeeHrtween fl i , '* ZZ^'
rest of the infinitive: thus! "'"' ^'"^
J^^rX&TJeTeS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ »- -^ -e
Tliere are very many eases in which the root inflni
tive IS used, not the geruudial infinitive:
(1). After tlie Old verbs enu and mnit a.xl «w„
;to, ««?/, ste^Z, and will, both as aux S;«t „ f
mdepeudent verbs. Ouok is ai::;s foUowe" b^l "'
I sent for you to come speak with me. -Shakespeare.
Root
lufinitive.
Infinitive,
with or
witliout to.
k1 I
INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS.
283
CES.
ife of the
'iple, and
•4) . We
fegard to
nfinitive
nsidered
er word,
and the
ties ;
id more
t-inflni'
d after
and as
t>y to.
onally,
nnn^n,
fi corn-
certain
I with
.1 ^.
(3). In certain peculiar or elliptical constructions: Rootinflniuve
(a). After had Mloy^^ed hy as lief (or lievej, bettrr, TJiStSo^nL
best, rather, etc. : thus, for example,
I bad as lief be none ; You had better cease.
(fr^ In comparative phrases like
As well yield at once as struggle vainly ;
He resolved, rather than yield, to die with honor.
When, however, the infinitive in the first clause
has to, the same form is often maintained in the
second : thus, for example,
It is as well to yield at once as to struggle vainly •
He resolved to die with honor rather than to yield,
(c). After the preposition &w^ (and, in some construc-
tions, except J following a negative ; thus, for example,
I cannot but be sad ; They did nothing bnt (or, except)
idle about.
id). When, owing to the emotion of the speaker
It IS used absolutely in exclamations (that is, without
any governing word) ; thus, for example,
"How ! not know the friend that served you ' "
Lewis marry Blanche ! O boy, then where art thou ?
(4). After certain verbs, when preceded by a word
having the relation of object to these verbs, but also
the logical value of a subject to the infinitive (447).
The most ccmmon of this class of verbs are see
hear, feel, let, make, hid, have (in the sense of "make''
or eause''), knotv,find. Examples are
I saw him do it : He will have you question me.
After some of these to is allowed, or is even more infinitive
usual ; and, on the other hand, there are other verbs ^*^*^ '"•
after which the to is occasionally omitted, especially "'"""'
m the archaic style : thus,
Do but speak what thou'lt have me to do:
To bid me not to love is to forbid my pulse to move ;
Command the grave restore her taken prey (archaic) :
Come, I charge you both go with me (archaic).
And when the preceding verb is made passive, to is
regularly used: thus.
He was seen to do it ; hnt he was let
go.
284
tNFlKiriVES AND PAHTICIPLES.
Root
iiiHnitive.
Effect of
omitting to.
Elizabethan
usage.
Either
gerund or
geruudiall
infinitive.
(5). Oocasionally when it is a logical snbiect- but
this usage IS somewhat archaic: thus '' '
• Better .Uccll in the midst of alarms than reiffu in this '
wniH 1 horrible place ;
tet^ntT';;"'"/ . ^' ^^'"^ ^««^ "«t hww myself?
Me lists not tell what words were said (289) ^^^"
or ine lutinitive and produces a formal effer.f Tn fi.?
to the following idiomatic constructions^
Go a»jr; see him ; Come and tell me
thp^nJ'"^. /^^ Elizabethan period, and even later
the use of to was unsettled. Examples are '
You ought -otjalk; Suffer him speak no more ;
Who heard me to deny it ?
T v,n 1 *i •'^'V^*' ^y lord, ^0 ?w(7er she is honP«it •
I had rather be a doorkeeper in the ho'i e o? my God than
lo dwell m the tents of wickedness '
CONSTRUCTIONS COMxMON TO INFINITIVES
AND GERUNDS
which are common to all ^ousriuctions
noun with a verb; and. when subject or o^ieerthev
o";,1^e!'%"99lK 'U " -™"^«- '^Sef :^
Xrbe?!;rti'™:sc?.is-'^^^
He hkes tojoimmi (or, journeying) rapidly •
ThPv.«= f^/r*^ ^^ "''"•' («'•' ^'«'W to morrow-'
They resented hav^ng heen insulted (not, to haveleln 'insulted)
f.itf Tv,^^^^ ^l^^^^y s^en (206), the infinitives that
follow the auxiliaries are direct objects
'^ '
INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS.
28S
iect; but
1 this
myself?
>f to is
meaning
In the
y, along
has led
ti later,
1, than
:s
initive,
in part
uctions
HP ire
edicate
t, they
ject or
nndial
t; but
he one
Ited).
3 that
^'
^jir
i
441. The gerundiiil infinitive is used nowadays as
object of a preposition, almost wholly with abont,
in the peculiar sense of " concerned with," *' being
about," and so " on the point of"; and occasionally
either the root or the gerundial infinitive is found
after hut and except. Examples are
He is about to depart (or, about departing) •
He could do nothing except go; He cannot choose but hear;
No coui-se IS open to him but (or, except) to leave.
In Modern English, the use of for before the
gerundial infinitive (413) has disappeared except in
vulgar English and when the infinitive has n subiect
(447) : thus,
It is improper /or «s to act thas.
It is frequently to be met with in the literature of older
English, usually expressing purpose: thus.
And all countries came into E^ypt to Joseph for to buy corn ;
Therefore 'tis good and meet for to he wise ;
Shame unto thy stock
That dar'st presume thy sovereign /or to mock.
The root-infinitive is also to be met with in Middle
English after the preposition at, a usage which is due
to the Northern dialect. To this idiom the modern
ado (that is, "at do") owes its origin.
442. On the other hand, the gerund is very common
after a great variety of prepositions: thus.
He is tired of wasting his time on trifles ;
I know nothing about her having done it.
The horse is worn with having been ridden so hard ;
On becoming king he reversed the policy of his father ;
His dread of being thought stingy makes him liberal.
The omission of the preposition produces the follow-
ing construction in which the gerunds are adverbial
objectives (361) :
He was busy {at) ploughing ; T am tired (of) speaking to you.
PECULIARITIES OF THE GERUND CONSTRUCTION.
443. The constructions of the gerund are especially
peculiar in this: that it very often has before it a
noun in the possessive, or a possessive adjective,
signifying that to which the action expressed by the
A'tei- nhr^ut,
bill, except.
After /or.
Rooc
infinitive
after at.
Genind,
common after
prepositions.
.1
Gerund
adverbial
m
*-A \ ^1
With a
subjective
possessive.
]
i^l
280
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
Witli an
objective
possessive.
Gerund and
abstract noun
Modern
English
poiistructions.
thus; for exampL ^''''*'^' P^«««««^^« (265 [ij);
Tcm^s being here was a lucky thing-
They „,s,8ted on his foUo^vJg them •'
He knew of my having been left ou^ .'
are equivalent to '
It was a lucky thing that Tom was here •
the deep damnation of his taking off-
the object turned intf a twi™ ''•'/• "'y^' <"•• ^'th
to draw a line shar-nW v^^f, -1 /® "^^ possible
aud as the oth^^t^X^- ^IT^^ "^ ''^^ -«
We read of Caesar's p«,,s.-,,^ the Rubicon
passing is unmistakably a gerund h^opnc. '•. * ,
direct object Ruhicon. * Buf in ' ^^'^ '^ *^^^« ^
Caesar's i^asm^' of the Rubicon,
and yet more in
the passing of the Rubicon by C«sar
passing has simply the value of a noun a. if if
the passage of the Uuhimn. AgainTn ' '^^''^ ■
Neither blessing nor c«m»r7 could change him •
i^^^:^'^.f rt^-|^-^Mo say ;hether
Ut the following: constructions :
(1) for the passing the Rubicon • Co\ 4!^„
Pubicon , (3, ",„,. .,,«17 the'i; rr"/) %of'
We/iasansro/theBubicon; ' W lor
INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS.
s almost
565 [IJ):
11 objec-
bjeetive
>r, with
is being
-coming'
) those
)os.sible
he one
akes
a
t were
lether
aims ;
3le.
he
287
Modern English sanctions only (8) nnrl il\ fr. •
In older English we find, however, as a resnlt of .
confusion, many examnlo^ r»f (^\ '^'''' "Z"^^*^ ^^fiit ot Archaic
Shakespeare ^^»'"P^^^^ ^Ml) and (2): thus in ^onstructious.
We altered mueh upon the hearing it ;
So find we profit by losing of our p/ayers.
PECULIARITIES OF THE GERUNDIAL INFINITIVE
CONSTRUCTION.
advct-b ImfT^^t^lZ (the adjective and the w,.■,^.„
lU^e the de,cnpt.ve adverb (407). Examples are •
U;. Adjective:
A work ^0 do (or to be done); a path to guide our feet •
He was not a man to call upon his friends '
This IS to Ue done at once ; He is to rfe/at um'ise
Adjectivi
Adverb.
(2). Adverb:
How came you ^ogro? He proceeded to count the ballots •
H« n. r "^'^ *'^ "*^"^^ '^' '^^ ^/">-^'-»' premier? '
He came to secure the position ; He left liim to ftsh ■
too r.. ,^ r '^^''^y ^''^'"'^ ^'«"lt and hard to W-
too many to he sacrificed {^m [o]) ; strong enough o conauer •
Hpf.n ^^«^e you too much /o /e< you go • '" '^"'/*^^^'
He fell, never to use again (407) ; He ca^e hfme, only to die.
the ni;3^ construction of the gerundial infinitive in '
kind, a different preposition would be necessary : thug^
hI ?5i ? / f ^ ^™ '■ ^ •'^"^ '-^shamed /o heg
He failed ^o Zmrn it ; He resolved to entef-
What were you thinking of, to trust himsofar?
/Q fmr turn talk, one would think him master
if if
286
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
Ih
'. ill
I
II
[ 11 •II I t
U *
Resultfnjf
constructions
After a verb
and its object
Infinitive,
an object.
Inflaitive,
an adverb.
Objective
subject of
the iuflmtive.
where we might say:
resolved on entering; in trusHno \nm so fur •
on hearing him talk. '
OTHER ROOT AND GERUNDIAL INFINITIVE
CONSTRUCTIONS.
liktt?; I^r ^"^"1*!^'^'. With or without to, is used
nS9) «?L '^'^ t''''*^:" P^'^^i^^t^ ^djectiv; or mnm
They saw he..^^«rj; Nobody imagined him to he listenina-
^ hey declared h.m to have been killed • ^'*"'^'
He prevailed on them to no- '
He waited for them to leave (233' [1])
I told him to go; Tliey forbade us to enter •
the dhlnl^'T '' r^"^ *^' "^"^ gerundial infinitive in
the d rect objective, and the pronoun is the iiXee?
objective. In other cases, like indirect
I forced him to go; They induced us to remain;
It t^^'^'''^ '^ *^^ ^^^^^'b gerundial infinitive and
But here again (as in 446) the construction has been
earned much beyond its natural limits, as the object
nupk'ion);
);
^•
: resemble
that, or
voi'd with
I <'l llOllll
malo^'-ous
145-147).
as noun
)r adverb
VE
is used,
or noun
adjunct
; is con-
Uening;
ion has
IS
itive in
ndirect
ve and
ositioix^l
IS been
object
INFmiTlVES AND GERUyuS
objeeHv^ubj:::^;'^;!;^^^^!- subie<.t (the
He believed his friend IT I ' ^'"" ''''^"^^^^^*'
1.. tl.o firs, i,,,,„,„,,. ,, "V". '° '"'™' '"'«""<»i!^<»(.
for as w„ hav.. »(.(.„ abov . Ti P'" '«•«'« ailji'ftivB (122)
a«tive, a kind ,,f a<l u, ,rto\' , r'"'' "'«'''tiv«s are, i,, tho
»re different »l..-«ies o ' I ,^e « r H "'',;"'?•. """'o *h" «
passive verb niuv i„ ..n „„' ™'"". "le mfiiiit ve after thn
»ucl. a senteueel'iloweve.rar' " ''"'""'' "" "Jverbial '?„'
tl-adjeetiveval„?„f'ti:ir/r" ''"""'•
't owes ,,n^, valuer fl"'/U«!;(tSr'-^ ""'■" '""^''«''' ""t
*•*». T« Jf, and to krive hen, tbo : « •.•
eopnla are often nsed witl, «,'.-! '"fi»"'ves of the
'>f an adjective verb I, ^m?! ^ ""* '"flnitive
■He telt it /o /j/? <7r hr,.,r... /, . ^ '' ''^
268
PftHStv*
''onstruc.
tion witn
ft'lverblal
infinitive.
Subject
ftfter /or.
Infinitive* o»
the eopuii^
with an
adjective
or noun.
— xc-xt jt fo oe ar hnnn^- n— ■• '--' " ' ^'^ " source)^
I esteemed it a« /.o,.o. '(less oJLr."""vf'l.''r''^^^
ft'
Id
c
an
lUen of
inflnitive
After:
(1). aeem
(2). <u.
(S). A con-
junctive
word,
(4). have.
lyFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
But to he must bo used in s(Mit4Miccs lik(^ \\w follovviiiMf.
where we wish to express tlie verl)Hl notion of state
existing?— u notion whicli may often })e expressed in
8ueh sentences by the gerund also :
It is good to be wise: Ho trU'd to he honest ( or, hdng honest);
To bv honest is best hi the long run.
450. The infinitivi^ is sometimeii used in other
more anomalous eases :
(I). After seem and the like: thus,
They seemed to tremble; Even the dogs appeared to know.
Here we have the gerundial infinitive used as a pre-
dicate adjective.
(2). After an, preceded by so, such, and the like.-
thus,
You must act so as to win ai)probation ;
It was so used as to be ivorn out ;
Ee is such u fool as to believe the story,
This is most like the use of an adver])ial gerundial
infinitive after an adjective or adverl) with too or enough
(445 [2] ) . As will be seen later, the construction has
grown out of an abbreviation for
You must so act as (one acts) to v/in approbation.
(3). After a conjunctive word in such phrases as
He knows not when to go, or when to stay;
Make up your mind which to take.
This may be explained as an" ellipsis for "when (he
is) to go," and so on, n'here the to go is adjective.
(4). After have in the sense of " be obliged" "be
called upon " ; thus,
We have to leave in an hour,
in which to leave may be valued as an adverbial
gerundial infinitive, this is, no doubt, an extension
of such constructions as
We have to perform a duty ;
and this is itself a transformation of
We have a duty to perform ? .
Here, however, it is simpler to value to leave as the
.u
'■''''■''"-"■'■-'< -i-y'aKni'.yos.
following.
11 of state
pn sscd in
ng honest);
ill other
1 to know.
i as a pre-
. the like;
genindial
f) or enough
uction has
ation.
hrases as
'when (he
jeetive.
Lged " "be
adverbial
extension
ave as the
.u
regard)
predicate
i- should h
and so on.
w;. In exclamations iv],,.,, fi
ilowl not /^-.o*. the f ';,Jh'"" ^^^^^^ «f him j
Wed, Basil, only to t^ZieuJl^'r "W''^'^''
priHone^^r *'"^" «''«'"d ">eet here
►^ornetnnes also tJii* i
subjea, vvLieh is usua ly i^'ICIlf '^ 'l'"'""^" '"»« a
«'«-*n,yp„.do„, poorw„„„, ' 7"""^'^" ««««: thus.
/f '■» '««'Ty Blmml,™ o ' n ''"1*'"' ■"> my heart •
And he to („,.„ „„,„t^,. i„ " ' °y. "'en whwe n-t thou ! ''
She and /;« pfp i,, i,
described as th'e subje-Loftfl? v'*™^*'''"^' '"''v be
Ai'd such ex<Jamat o^« ^ av '*'^'' =■' exela,„aiio„
veloped exclamatory sentences. ''thu^T""^ as unde-
4,6 ^ A 1 . '•'^P'^'^on, poor woman!
•*oi. A snbstantive wm.^i o^^-
a subject which is Tn Ihe rbW"''" '"^'""^^ ^^^^^S
^n the objective, to agree w^h ^ '"''.' ^^' ^^^^ P"^
relates: thus, ^ ^ ^'^^ ^^^ word to which it
ye /«m IS an impossibility.
(6). As
senf i:^e
advoios.
In exclama-
tions:
Without tt
subject.
With a
subject.
Case of
iirudicftte
substamlve.
292
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
■I- F
fit :
¥ I
I
It- I
When the subject o£ the infinitive is omitted or is
represented b.y a subjective possessive, there is nothing
to decide the case of the infinitive cv mplement ; but
the infinitive complement is here also to be valued as
objective; for tlie subject, if expressed in the usual
way, would be in the objective, and this is the regular
constru(!tion in languages that show such relation by
inflected forms : thus,
To be (or, Being) me is desirable ;
There is no doubt of its being him;
tlie hope of being elected President;
a desire to become the owner,
PARTICIPLES.
CONSTRUCTIONS.
452. The constructions of the participles differ less
from those of ordinary adjectives than the construc-
tions of the infinitives and gerunds from those of
ordinary nouns, since adverbial modifiers are taken
in general by adjectives as well as by verbs, and only
the imperfect participle (with its phrases) takes an
object, or is followed by a predicate noun or adjective
(excepc in verb-phrases with the auxiliary have).
453. Both tne simple participles (not the participle-
phrases also) are freely used as attributive adjectives,
with only such modifiers as may be taken by all
adjectives. When used as an adjective, the participle
expresses merely the quality of the object, without
referring, as does the participle, to action or state as
existing iu time (190). Examples are
a charming face ; a very loving heart ;
his brightly shining arms ; a cage of singing birds ;
a charmed snake ; a warmly loved friend.
A perfect participle, when thus used attributively,
sometimes has a fuller form than in its participial use;
thus in "a learned man," "a blessed sight,'* we
regularly pronounce the words with two syllables.
And we have seen (183) that the old form of a
perfect participle in -en is in many cases presented in
As attribu-
tive adjeetive.
Perfect, with
difffii'ence
iu t'orm.
adjective use;
face."
thus, "a drunken man
n
a swollen
PARTICIPLES.
tted or is
is nothing
lent; but
valued as
the usual
;ie regular
Nation by
differ less
constnie-
those of
are taken
and only
takes an
' adjective
\ave).
participle-
id jectives,
?n by all
participle
, without
)r state as
)irds ;
ibutively,
iipial use;
gilt, ' ' we
syllables,
orm of a
esen^ed in
'a swollen
M?
.
hardly -e.nVusto'te p^ "^ef ^rSr^ "''V*''^-
ba.e,o„.ea, one-a^ed, cMe.en-.earted, L e^.
Mmple*p^tf:iXs':re"ofte°'u::f/r'-^ '"'^^''«-^- *»«
example, ™" ^^^^ ^ »o"ns •• tlms, for
the living and th d^.^ . ^^ ^_^^
strayed, or stolen. ^ '
U;. fc>imple predicate (119).
He is (or ias been) .«,«„,, h.-^^ („^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^
^3(2). Ordmary adverbial predicate (122 and 373
u-^r,;;sa;&^crLn..t
^^(3). Appositive adverbial predicate (138 aud 373
In sueh colloquial constructions, however, as '
HelostUsfS/"rS.-^tfgSr^'
an tJvlS'^^Kr-ilf --'»•«. ""^^ -P-- Bi„p,y
objective, which is due < an onTittl"^"'"* '' t*^"»«' '" "•«
U) l?„„*-i- , omitted preposition.
and 132) f"" """^ "'"'^'"'"•y objective predicate (131
As ordirijiry
ad.iectlve8.
Compounds
with -eA,
As nouns.
In the con-
struftions of
the predicate
adjective.
Adverbial
forms in -inflr.
I wiJ] have a ^nt^kr^y, o^„* ii-_ -^^
H» kept uv««;^7 '^y - iir^,S;"«--/.«,.
294
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
As ordinary
appositives.
Being,
having been,
auxiliaries.
Appositive
adjectives:
logical
values.
How
specialized.
(5). Appositive objective predicate (138) :
We own the book bound in morocco ;
He eame in, having his hands covered with paint.
455. The participles are used with the utmost free-
dom as ordinary appositives (136) : thus, for example,
She, dtjinff, gave it to me ;
The enemy, beateti, fled to the camp ;
Not having an overcoat, he caught a severe cold •
Sleeping or waking, I must still prevail. '
And often, instead of an adjective or a perfect
participle by itself, as directly appositive, we insert
being, haimiff been, the participles of the copula (as we
do to be and to have been [449], in parallel infinitive
constructions) as a kind of verbal auxiliary to the
adjective expression, which thus comes to be com-
plementary to it ; the phrase thus formed ( orrespond-
ing to the participle of an adjective verb: thus for
example, '
John, being weary, has returned home ;
John, being tired with the day's work has gone to bed-
The enemy having been beaten retired to his camp. '
And, as in the case of the auxiliary infinitive, the use
of the being is sometimes optional and sometimes
necessary.
456. The appositive adjective, as we have seen
(137), especially implies the suggestion of an added
clause of which it is itself the predicate. The
participles and participle phrases used appositively,
have very often the value of such clauses. They are,'
in a manner, a substitute for them, which, by securing
brevity, adds force to what we have to say. Thus, in
place of some of the examples given in par. 4,53 we
may say: '
She gave it to me when she died;
The enemy, when he had been beaten, fled to the camp ;
Whether I sleep or wake, I must still prevail.
Since, however, the participle phrases in such a
sentence as '' Sleeping orwaMng , I must still prevail,"
may be the equivalent of different subordinate clauses;
in Modern English ambiguity is avoided without
a
PARTICIPLES.
29S>
liut.
nost free-
example,
)ld;
a perfect
WQ insert
la (as we
infinitive
y to the
be com-
•respond-
thus, for
5 bed;
mp.
, the use
►metimes
ive seen
n added
>. The
isitively,
hey are,
securing
Thus, in
4e53, we
amp ;
such a
re vail,"-
clauses ;
without
to principal clauses -Sus ""' "* ^"bordinate
27 'a, T' °^^"'""""' '^'»-) Sleeping or wak:.g. etc
«euteucesas ""'Pare 673 [4J) occurs in such
Ta^;"^ S'idlor is' hr ^^ ^^T^ ^-^^^ and
colloquial English. Our spoken 2'"^"'' '?^1«"^ ^^^^^ i«
respects, more analyt c £ " , "/^^^^^^^ is. in all
former follows the n/odernaLv^^^^ language. The
latter has been greatly i^Leneedbv?'-"''^ ^ > ^' ^'^^'^' '^"
ot the sentences in Latin ami Pv t^rl^ complex structure
nowthan in Elizabethan Engt^^^^ th«»^li less
Modern English, we often fin;] :^T'^i^^^?%' i" written
ordmate sentences of spoken eLS'^^ ^^ *?" ^^^ ^•«-
m which the verb of one of H^' ^ "'""P^^ sentence
turned into a Participial phrase li'us"?''"'^^ ^^f ^^^
spoken form of the above sentence would be' '''"^^''' '^^
He leaped from his horse nvA ^fi, ^
he Greeks and Roman.,) wfare no l-.v f f''''' ""».' ^""'"'^
ture, always to mark cleaX ?„?""'' •'™;' '" ''f«™-
sequenee of events. In te abo " - T"*'? , '''"' '"^'-^al
for example, tl,e then, which wonW """"fl"'^! 'sentences,
■s generally omitted. ""'"^ """''^ "'« sequence,
Again in sucii a sentence as
we Inve InT '""' "' '""''' ''"'"^'"'0 >"' '"o country,.
of bursting and devasta ing c?nte " r""' '" "'t^ "'« *'='^
precedes; so that A<.«.(„"f '""efc Tl^^r",', "'" ""."•««"«
to and then devastated," etc '"^'"""y equivalent
Partt1ple"™o,3ifriIr ™^<'^. "'« •"'"^'■•"elion with a
objective pred ca e o1. .s\nn„l'"v'"r" <"''««'"• "«
that of «„;„«. :t.' ."? ajipositive) is eonivnlent t„
^ ..fiu.uvo witii „, objective subject u'i?)"
Idiomatic nse
of imperfect
participle.
Origin of the
construction.
Eqnivalents
of participle
with objec-
tive uoun.
I
290
MIH
Interchange'
able con-
structions.
fii '; M
Concrete,
originally
preferred.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
J
li J 'll!
ii
Isaw him get down from his horse • ^
I saw him getting down from his ho'rse •
1 saw /«s getting down from his horse. '
i^f'an'^d'lf T "f "'■^ equivalent expressions, the
that "he ,otdown™r hTtor .Z^HLT'^
veZl'^o '"LfjiT "','"' '•''''"•''• ^"^-^ in wh"h" i,e
■•\, „, I, ! ' . ''■"'*'''™« are made to plav a nart
oSeXer-^' '"-^ "'«' "^ -' -•'-'" -b-
of ^StX'Zs, '" ''"^^ '"''"■'^■- P'"^-^ ''•^ P"t
I saw him struck down by the assassin.
459. Hence, both after a verb and after a crenosi
tion, the two eonstrn-tions, of an obTertive ea,e
modified by an imperfect participle, ^ and of a
possessive modifying a gerund, are to a eeitaiu extent
interchangeable, and the question somet me" arise,
wh«: loll' mtt d'f "fr^"- ^''-•"«™ ' -
even amo, g gTod wrif^^fa^^^^^ttT""^' ^^P"'^ """^
less ones),"th"e one'is'o^on 1 - riuid^wS Zll
exCpTe """"■ """•^ P^''^'''- "'^ «thei-.. thus ?or
Would you mind mt asking a few questions?
, . rai-don Me bluslimn;
The certamty of the old mm inlerrnpti„n him •
The hope of society is in «.„ carirg for better things.
y^iK my Hushing, my asking, the o?fi man's ,-«/.r-
«<p(t»ff, and meH's caring would be more approved
nnde°tood thar*" """"n /« "Iways more easily
nnae.btood than an abstract one. Conseouentlv /«
we should expect, "Pardon me blushing " forexamDle
devfS tile ,h J "t- *" "'•' ™^'^ """J tlie language
coSe one bnf • ""' """^f-iction displaced the
cuutreie one ; but. in ae^o»''lqnf»'^ "m*^- "
■^^
111
t*^ItTICtPLES.
e (443)
ons, the
action
? being
aw it."
hich the
a part
in sub-
he part
)reposi-
'e ease
of a
I extent
arises
3 eases
r: and
? eare-
1 more
as, for
inter-
easily
ly, as
imple,
3f the
gnage
\ the
jreuoe
■1^
for simpiiejty of expres^ioTT. ' ^~~
"ito use again about ^he Sl^f ^?''"^^' ^'"^^ ^'an'o
present, the eonerete eonZ / ""^ ^^"« «««^"ry. At
;n spoken English m^dtr^'''"' ^'"^ "^ ^^''^"'on use
literary English. As a gener^'^l ""'1 ''?^ «"comm«i/ n'
sessive with the geruifd ^ ^ ''"^^' however, the dos m
writers wJmn ^i ^ ^^ ^^^w preferred! hx/fK u . ^"''^"con
lueis When the notion iha A^""^*^"^" by the best strucuons.
emphatic and when it snronp/""""^ ^presents is
possessive: thus, for exLnpTe^ """ ^^'"'^^^^ *« "«« a
On account of Jo/(«\r,»» .'
Bun « not usea in such sentences a«
o- -count „, ''"^■pn.-r:?:-'';;*,^- 'f'T;
o^^. to t,epo.u.: ;::::;: ;:--■•-•
It IS, however, correct to say ^
one notion. And, oTcol^-stlrfu'^^^t ^ J---
"^^'e^'i^t-fo'" Sir- ^""-"^ ^"^'^ '""
the possessive form wo Im V,"""'"^ ''°"""
reference is to tractor ^^^^ ^'^ ^-''.''''^^^''''e; for the
are participles. Indeed the nS'^Kf ?"<' """"''^
first sentence would be P'^'^^^'able form for the
46t'TL";::tii-r"^^^^^^^^
«oun or pronoun '''^'^^" construction with elS """"^"°'^
^ The absolute construction i, ^0— -
H^^al one, and, even by writer^ ,>7''''''\"^^ ^ ^^"«-
^ venters, it is not commonly
297
1 'J
^
m
INFtKlTIFES AND PARTICIPLES.
Being,
having been,
auxiliaries.
^
Logical value
of absolute
construction.
I, 1
Impersonal
coustruction.
used: by many, indeed, it is avoided as being
uiiidiomatic. Exanii)les are
The teacher abseniing himself, there was no school ;
One of them luiving fallen, the rest ran away ;
This said, he sat down ; Dinner finished, he went away.
And, as in the case of the infinitive and the participle,
instead of a simple passive participle, or another
adjective word or phrase, being taken directly with
the noun or pronoun in absolute construction, the
auxiliary being or having hmi is often introduced:
thus, for example,
_ This being (or, having been) said, he sat down ;
Dinner being (or, having been) finished, he went away;
He sat down, his heart being heavy with sorrow
In this construction, being said and being finished are
not the progressive forms of the perfect participles.
8a:d and finished are simply complementary participles
to the participle being; but the forms with having been
may be valued as phrasal perft ct participles, for the
meaning is then the same as when we value said and
finished as complementary participles (226)
462. Like the absolute construction already described
(150), the noun and the participle in the absolute con-
struction express some accompanying circumstance or
condition of the action and are generally the equiva-
lents of adverbial clauses : thus, the sentences above
are equivalent to
As the teacher absented himself, there was no school.
When he had said this, he sat down ;
and so on with the others. And, as in the case of
adverbial clauses (407), the absolute construction is
sometimes descriptive co-ordinating: thus,
He left for the Continent, all his family accompanying him.
Occasionally, the quasi-subject part of this con-
struction is omitted as in,
I! ^^^' or One) Assuming this to be true, what will follow?
\Sru i- ^«^^*"«.'7 of failures, I heard of one to-day ;
Mhe fox terrier is, generally speaking, a faithful companion.
This is called the impersonal absolute construction.
And, as we have seen (411 fll). snob nr.p^/^cjfi«r.c
ir
I
i
Participles.
as being
chool;"
ay;
it away.
participle,
1" another
'eetly with
iction, the
itrodueed :
wn ;
t away ;
■row
nished are
)articiples.
participles
aving been
s, for the
e said and
I described
solute con-
nstance or
he eqniva-
ces above
ehool.
le case of
ruction is
ying him.
this eon-
[ follow?
mpanion.
struetion .
Infinitive \n
absolute
construction.
"> this way eitherdi,:ecti;'n"7; ".IT!-^.""" P™<'''«e<l
In snch sentences as
[27i?)V^s\ ^n^iv/!''''^"^ ^^«^ ^as we have seen . .
«- J/ wob d aative m an arlvAvKioi i ""^« »een Archac
our nouns lost their inflect onrtl; ."''T"- ^^en '»"»••
and, then, the nominativ; 1 ' ^.'l^"'"" disappears!,
of the objectivein ?he absoZ'. '"'" »"'•'• ^^^"P'^s
be found in Early Modern F„r ."""''"'"tions are to
Milton, ^ ^"'"'^™ English, as, for example, iu
at'ofcT fu^S'ol'ttT^^ r ^^«".''^'^«-
"'^ cne u.Ji,, construction
464 T .f "^"''-'^"VE COMPLEMENTS.
forms of othe^^erbTo? iitf "f. '''^' '^'^ <i«rived
be followed by complements^'"* "^ Predication may
and phrasal vLb folTCs',' tXt '"" ^'"'"'^
ppets"o7J^rin*fl^„re'^;;;"^^^ ^^'^'^-'^"•"^ -»-
he phrases so formed co^r^nond^ "'f^'Pi* ' *"r
forms of verbs of comnlet'p '^^5?^ ? *'^^ "ierived
par. 368 (3). complete predication. See also
A
— jt-i »i i i i fj ii^i ,_n iii f^ ^^ I ,
300
IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION.
* iv
1 1
It ^
ij. !t
i ,
XVI. IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION.
465. So far we liave been dealing mainly with the
regular forms taken by what we call the complete
sentence—that is, the sentence which contains a
subject and a predicate (16). Often, however, from
Abbreviation, various causcs, wc usc irregular forms. Espeeiallv
Src^ur'^" ^?,.T ^''P'"^^" ourselves by combinations ot' words
which are not grammatically complete sentences. This
abbreviation {or, 'shortening") by leaving part to
be unaerstood is treated by grammarians as irregular
compared with the so-called "sentence"; but the
process is a very common one and conveys our mean-
ing just as completely and regularly. There are other
causes of deviation from the regular tynes of gram-
matical construction ; but the desire for brevitv is
S^'Kr" ^}\% ^^^^J ^aiise. Abbreviation is especially common :
"' U; in tamiliar colloquial speech, because there the
mutual understanding of speaker and hearer, and the
aid ot surrounding circumstances and of tone and
gesture, do much to fill out the expression; in this
way we economize oUr utterance : and (2) in lively and
picturesque, and especially in impassioned or emotional
speech, because it is sought to impress the mind more
strongly by putting before it only the most important
Ideas. In written speech, abbreviation is, of course,
allowab e only when the context shows the meaning
mtendeo. - ^
ABBREVIATION FOR ECONOMY.
I. TO AVOID REPETITION.
466. The simplest and commonest kind of abbre-
viation, which is used in almost every sentence we
make, is that by which, when two or more co-ordinate
clauses following one another would be made up in
part by repeating the same words, these words are
omitted in all but one, and left to be understood, or
sunplied, from the connection, in the others Thus for
I. In co-ordi-
nation:
(D.Of
clauses.
\ T
ABBREVIATION FOB ECONOMY.
301
with the
eotnplete
»ntains a
v^er, from
Especially
of words
es. This
? part to
rregular,
but the
IV mean-
are other
of gram-
irevity is
onimon :
here the
and the
;one and
; in this
vely and
motional
ind more
nportant
course, .
meaning
I abbre-
enee we
ordinate
e up in
►rds are
tood, or
hns= for
Unjustlflfthle
abbreviation.
v»mLu are put in parentheses;
The boy de'pls'ertirl;.f'''V'\r* ^^•"^^^^t) '
n.veH£53^n=^^^
These a. .a. ^^I^J^ irrlS^JSr/,;
ing^nhongh^Te^v'^LuLt'T'"^^?^ ^^ '"^^ ^«"-
justifiablef • ^^"""^^^' ^s not g.-ammatically
The matter wan hushed up ; the servants (were)
forbidden to speak. ^
to JL^v means ?f "^"?"-\P""^«t the clauses ,.,.„,.„,„
fully exp.eLeTs„ji,o"r kf^rea^ ^^Tof ^^- "" """'"'^
tions lu eouneetiiig the frairmmfr m T °^ ".""June-
the un.eeessa>y refetitie'riT^^^ritted' thus"" "'""
consider. ^
con^n'ec\tes":f'"e,a~r ' otr^h "'''^•'' ""■•<' °"«'-"^
very large seale Z„eS,''of alT''^ ^ ^' "" "
and phrases which are eo ordina e i a'^intllr"""'
468. As we eaJl a se„*„„„: '.'!". l"!"^^ "'""««•
.?!
> ^
468 A« wp noli : "^^"^'ue m a single clause.
'Koo. AS we call a sentence compound ivh^n ,> •
> of two or more CO-OrdinX nl '*^ '^ Compound
.J X. ,, iiiwic I.U Oiainate Clansps nunulU, members.
nnected together bvcnnT ''''.'■""''' '''""^<*' "■''"«lly
member of a senfi ?^""''''?"'' ^^ "'^ ""H any
mmfte^oreleme„tJ,.rf •''*'"? "^ ^ompounrf
more co-ordinatrwnvl "„'^ ™ade up of two or
conjunctions (114) ^' "'"^"^ ^'"''^ '"K'^ther by
ele^eltV: Je'l^'ce "tZ "IJ "''ll"' "^'' ^--^^'i^'
there are as ma y "entencc f'T^^" ^ hold that
verbs in anythh'g^^ve sa^ ^ ''""'"'^ "* ''^"^''^ «'•«
offtn!; t?I '^T,'":?'™*?, «<>ninncf.V,n «„rf is used far
thus compou'udi;; the"£enrof ^ '"^'''r '"
a..tinctly do we feel i^T^^l'T^ri- .^■"> ^
And. in co-n-
poundinj;
binds together into
one
m
802
II. In Rubor-
dinatiou.
l> >
I ' I
if ' h
Conjunctive
word left.
mREO ULAR CONSTR UCTWN.
tprJ.T^l"'^" r^»"P«si»gr f compound element tliat the
Zraf as"^!?^: %'/"^''f '? -'"P-"^^«d is made
piiiral as if it had a phiral subject (117 [III)
Indeed, there are combinations which cannot be taken
apart mto single clauses : for example,
We thought Tom and Dick and Harry I noisy trio •
He confounds ri^ht and wrong:
Ihree and eighteen make one-and-twenty •
He sat between his sister and his brother.
Such combinations with any other conjunction are
only rare and irregular.
470. But even the subordinate conjunctions are
sometimes used to join a mere word or phrase which
represents an abbreviated subordinate clause to tlial
on which the clause would depend ; thus,
Are you mad ? If not, speak to me :
Though often forbidden he kept coming;
He fell while bravely defending the flag-
It can be done, though not without trouble :
Did you go t If not, you may remain now ;
^llwh "'* ^? '''*'."?* *^"^'" "though he was often
trouble '^etc ""* '" ^"^^ '* ''"'' ''''* ^' "'"''" '^'^^''"^
In all such cases if we are to parse the words or
clauses, we must supply what has been omitted
Most commonly this form of ellipsis is found in the ease
Z t W nT;ri^ ^r^^^t ^^^^"^ 7^^. ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^"^^^ ^^ t^^ same
as that ot the other clause. And, in all such cases, ihe fact of
an omission of what might be and generally is expressed
I. much more distinctly present to our minds than when
we abbreviate by means of and or w or hut and the like.
471. By a like desire to avoid unnecessary repeti-
tion, we sometimes let a conjunctive word or a
subordinate interrogative represent alone the whole
clause which it would hav3 introduced: thus,
He has been gone all day, no one knows lohere;
I cannot come, and I will tell you ichy •
One of you must give way, I do not care which;
that is, "where he has gene;" " why I cannot come ; "
aim M> on. ilere itis, of course, proper to give ivhere,
etc., the values of the clauses which they represent
-^^f
>^;
ABIiREVUTION FOR ECONOMY.
303
fc that the
i is made
7 [II.J).
^ be taken
trio ;
ction are
tions are
ise whi(;h
e to that
as often
? without
vords or
3d.
I the case
the same
he fact of
xpressed,
an when
le Hke.
' repeti-
d or a
e whole
>>
some;
) ivhere,
esent
He IS older than ycu think (that he is old) ;
r „« 1^ S® *^ ^^^^'^ *han I (am tall) :
I would rather go than (I would soon [377]) stay;
-She 18 as good as he (is good) •
ae put It off a« Jong as putting it off was) nossihlfl •
We thy neighbor as (thou lovestT Tl yseT '' '
I regard it as (I regard a thing) possrble '
phrases as ' *^^^' ^^ ^""^^^SY, we make such
He gained great fame as an orator :
Mis fame as orator was great ;
He did this as a precaution ;
He did his duty as chairman ;
where it would be by no means easv to fill nnf fK^ ^ir • •
such a way as should give as its Zper meanii^i n i?fif '"
- may be described as an aaveVti^Uo'lljSe partt/e'"^'
Often, before a conditional clause, a whole clause
of comparison, involving a repetition, is omTtted after
T ^?l ^°?^^ ^^ (^® ^ould look) if he were tii-Prl •
I would thank her as (I saould thaik he:)Tflhe^had gone-
clau; Auf ' " '"' ''''' ""''''' ^^^^^ ^^'-^^ '-f
Nor w«Vh'* ^' T "' ^^"" "''" ^'^^•^ ^^^" y°» ^re in health ;
Defied Z^T -T ^^^^'? ^'*h "«'««« than (one's ear is
pealed little witH poises when Bellona storms or
less than (one's ear would be, etc/ifthJ^'f.lanie '
ot Heaven were falling.
Even the clause immediately following the tf.?.ol«ii«a
may be abbreviated m«Vi^« for i™ 5 a^-clause
He looks as if tired ; Stooping as if to drink •
Vou are just as gay as token in health. '
In rompari-
sou: than, at.
adverbial
conjumtive
particle.
Conditional
and otlier
clauses
after as.
804
IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION.
V
a$ though.
Origin of
inturchiinge.
At with
subjunctive
-a« if.
So as to.
Poor as they
are, etc.
In con< ji.onal clatisos this kind of ahbreviutiou is so
<M)nm,<,„ that a, ,f has vnuw in seen, to us a eon.pound
rr.!i"" moVn""" 7»J""<*^i""-P'H™, of eonditio.ial com-
pa. son (4J()) and we are quite uneowscious of the ellinsis
really in.p .ed in ,t A., thouoU is used in tiie same sense
whde. If the Ihpsis were tiJIed out, thouyh eould luird i
ever be^'in the eonditional clause. ^
tJ'lhaHn7!'r"^T^ of //,o4/. and if is prolmbly due to the
tact that 1. (,lder English the one is often used for the other
even n, ordinary constructions, as is sometimes the case in
Modern English also : thus,
A well armed, if (or, though) undisciplined army, poured
ir I ^. .. sooner than was expected ;
If (or, Though) your exterior be never so beautiful vou
must possess a beautiful interior also. '
In older English and even in present poetry, we find con-
pos^Llity^^tlms'^""'"^ '"•" ''''''' "^ -^-^^-^ th^
To throw away the dearest thing he used
As t tcere a careless tnfle.-SHAKESPEARK.
And half I felt as they tcere come
10 tear me from a second home.— Byron.
t^o"tVe logoff ^^'^"^ *iT ^"^^''^"" "^ ^^'^ ^f i« unusual,* owing
to the loss of force on the part of the subjunctive.
By an abbreviation kindred to as if, we shorten
. You must so act as one acts in order to win approbation
into
You must act so as to win approbation ;
and this has become, its origin being unthought of b^ •
one of the common constructions of the infinitive (450[->jy
And further, we frequently form sentences like these :
My friends, poor as they arc, are above being bought • '
All unarmed as he may he, he will disdain to tlj- • '
where the MdiVctiyes poor and unarmed are in npnositive
construciion mod f'-^ne- the «nKno«fu ^p /i • VPP"'^^'^^
clauses, fn^n^.. 5 ^fi^^ "Td ""^^l^^^ independent
thev reA . . '^ n€,~-as if it were 'being as poor as
tncy recuh , ve ;wor," and so on. Indeed, the adverb «*
appears occasionally in present English ^« f hi «i.
of thi'««c. +1,,,.. t> ■ ' t''^'^^"^ riiignsn, as the correlative
or tnis as,^ thus, tor instance, we find in Carlyle,
For Nature, as green as she looks, rests everywhere
on dread foundations.
r)
V
'
tl
an
eoi
abl
sen
eon
exp
two
Thii
.^-^
fttiou is so
compound
ion ill coin-
tho ellipsis
mm sen so ;
•uld Imrdly
duo to tho
r the other
the case in
, poured
ful, you
o find con-
• hich no ij
ating the
\
ION.
iial, owing:
bation
of b\ M'-!,
these :
ight ;
ppositive
ependent
J poor as
dverb as
)rrelative
lere
'118.
more phmses or elmises t e,™,f;''™''" f" fwoor
Too much « undertaken /,„ , P"^""**^ *'"' -"'ee.- thus,
in Written, »o,.e',?:;'„3;t;:-™bed „,s, „,. ^-^
that is, ^ "" '" '■P"'"'"- '«"y«»i,.., etc. ;
Too much is undertaken I . /;. . ,
than the rest "''' ^"^* ^« greater
and. so on "^wi nf '
Man never is bnt .. f ,'"J"*'^^^^We; Hbbreviatioi'
abbreviate - , at iT^W ■;"'''' ="'" '"^^i""-'' ki"d of iv i
Be„tenee which are s^ Li,'"""^. ""' P»''t« of the '-■ "5""-
connection that it wo ,ld t fere'lf 7'""<^ *™"' " « ''°""'-
express them-that in qnostio , .„r "'' '-^'^tiyo" to
«f o„?^;^- " »'--X:^:^s oTi'ir
aoj
I
h *
'ii
m
i\ I.
Hi:,
306
IBBEG ULAR CONSTR UCTION.
Abbreviated
question,
added to
statement.
Tea, yes;
nay, no.
V. Use of
substitutes"
pronouns,
so.
do.
I |:^
Verb
auxiliaries.
it is quite enough to reply JacJc, without rei)eating the
whole stdry of whit Jack did. Or, if one says
You need not expect to see me at school to-morrow,
the return-question Why? and the answer Because I
(tin going out of town, both imply repetitions of the
first statement ; but these need only be implied, and
not actually made.
So, also, we very often repeat, in the form of an
abbreviated question, a statement just made, in the
way of asking for assurance as to the truth of the
statement (49) : thus,
So tliey are off already, are they ?
You do not believe it, do youf
"We may oe sure, may we not, that he will betray us?
The responsives yea or yes, nay or no were originally
adverbs, the one meaning "certainly" or "to be sure"
(which we ,often use instead), the other meaning "not,"
and each now stands by abbreviation for a sentence in
which it had the office of an adverb (393 and 394).
475. To save the burdensome repetition of nouns,
we have the pronouns as brief and much used sub-
stitutes. In a similar way, the pronominal adverb so
is a very frequent substitute for a word (oftenest an
adjective) or phrase or clause used as complement of
a verb: thus, for example.
He is an Englishman and so are you ;
He irf either married or going to be so;
I thought that he could be trusted but I think so no longer •
If he is not already tired of waiting for us, this last delay
will make him so.
And do is an almost equally frequent substitute for a
form of a preceding verb, which would otherwise need
to be used : thus,
Sleep seldom visits sorrow; when it doth, it is a comforter;
Embrace me as I do tliee ; I love her better than he does;
He spoke louder than he might have done.
476. The infinitive, or the participle of a repeated
verb-phrase, is very often omitted, and the auxiliary
left alone to represent the phrase : thus, for example.
He has never seen it, but I have;
I will join them If you ivill;
Do you promise me? I do.
)eating; the
iays
lorrow,
Because. I
)ns of the
plied, and
:orm of O"
ide, in the
ith of the
ay us ?
i originally
) be sure"
ng "not,"
lentence in
).
of nouns,
used sub-
adverb so
Ptenest an
)lement of
longer ;
aet delay
tute for a
wise need
)mforter ;
he does;
1 repeated
auxiliar3'
example.
^""'"^'^^'O-^ "on ECOXOilT.
. In easy colloc/iiitil sopppI, „ "^
'« represented by it. s^^f/j aTo'e" '''■""""'^ "'«'"*'vo
bu; this nsacp n>„ •'^ ''"^ " yu warn /„,.
"ot aliov;i:ri,:'eaU^r''' ^^ -' -■"•'^•'ie and i.
II. OTHER ABBREVIATIONS a r r ^.
avoidable repetition of somlll ■ "'"i«~-.sarv and
by, but also where tl,e eoZ.- ^^ """""'^ ^""'^ ^''""^
^»«'> f , to show plahdy e Zl^T! '• ' '"P^^'-'h are
o«en take the libe.'ty of^o^t" "^ J^ .^ .'iU"-"*. -
yl)- We may have -i «,.k ^? ""'""^"^"igr.
sentence omitted, a.7n '"^^^'^^'"^^ member of the
He is fifteen (vears n]<^\
1 shall leave on thl!^ ' . ^''^'^^ed St. Pete •'« ^«k . .
tJ :e.?XVrHS'%'''''^"''-'>ieetor
where, as in " r «,„ i ^°'"°™J the twi„w! '
■supplied; orwher. a^t '':''A''"/''e subject may be
definite subject can be s, p,;,^,"' Tlf , ?/ f^"°«' " '^
s the ac'rve e(]uival,.,,f Jli. ■"" ';'*tei- expression
be eont.,,unded," in wWd/t so?'''' ^uy th'efeC
Also in diary style : a.' " "^"^ '=* "'dieat^d
Went to church vestei-,1.,,. .
In the second pers„, 'i ' ■"""" '° ^" ^^^'^ «''"'^»y-
Go; Hast heard f Whatsnv'ct , ,
In concessive clauses lite ' "' ^''^ "»«' »'«- - '
307
.^'K» of the
inliuitive.
Omission of.
I- A sulmrdi-
nate member.
II. An essen-
tial member.
0); In diary
style.
(2). Siipplieti
'>y circum-
stances.
I>o what we will.
hard
for Do..«"(thatis, -^
accomplish „othi4^^^ "^^3^> we yet
'"g:
"« do"), and so on (40.-
^•0. In
concessive
ciauses.
•f II
308
IRBEG ULAR CONSTR UCTION.
(4). In
foinpiiViitive
phrases.
(5). With
impersonal
verbs
(6). Copula
omitted.
(7). Verb, in
commands.
III. Both
essential
members
omitted.
In comparative phrases, an indefiuite subject after us or
than (compare 472 above) : thus,
I will come as oarl^ as is possi])le ;
The day was fairer thau loas usual at that season.
With impersonal verbs the subject is sometimes omitted
iu poetic and antique style : thus, in Milton,
Pure, and in mind prepared, if so befall,
For death.
Of this u.sage, which was common in older English,
vieseems, methinks, etc., might seem to be survivals; but
the clauses that follow these verbs are their real subjects
(289) : thus, for example,
Methought (that) I by the brook of Cherith stood.
Again, the copula is sometimes omitted— of tenest
before a predicate noun or adjective, and in a question :
thus,
Why all this noise here ? You a soldier? Hence these tears ;
The higher the mountain, the greater the cold.
A verb of motion is often omitted in commands,
being made unnecessary by an adverbial adjunct,
which, indeed, may even be regarded as converted into
a verb (85) : thus, '
Up and aicaif! Off with you !
Back to thy punishment, false fugitive ;
and after the auxiliaries and some Old verbs (here, of
course, the asserting word still remains) : thus.
Farewell: Vll hence; I must after him to tell the news;
And now let us down to breakfast.
(3). Both subject and copula, or both subject and
predicate verb may be omitted, only a subordinate
member remaining : thus, for example,
Where (am I) to begin? How (am I) to excuse myself?
But how (am I) to gain admission?
(I wish you a) Good morning, ladies 1
(I drink to) Your health, sir ; (I am) Here, master;
(I give you) Many thanks for your kindness ;
Waiter, (hand me) a clean plate; (It is) Agreed!
(Give me) Your hand upon it, boatswain !
My daughter is married to I know not who (he is) ;
(Go we) A little further, and we shall be at our journey's end ;
1 know not wliat (I am) to do ;
I will tell you when (you are) to begin.
after as or
ason.
les omitted
r English,
avals; but
al subjects
tood.
— oftenest
question :
ese tears ;
)Id.
")mniaiKls,
adJTiiK^t,
erted into
(here, of
us,
3 news ;
bject and
bordinate
myself ?
ister ;
s;
eed!
' is) ;
ley's end ;
EMOTIONAL ABBREVIATION.
309
the auxmary Vein, -J, on.itteT^frri'nee^r"''" ""^
feo not in such sentences as
iVbUhat I was ever afraid of him •
Compare the abbreviation with hvt nnf,-n a •
A7Q m , ' "ot^ced in par. 326.
I was .„ glad to see y„„ ; „ „,3 ,„ ^^^^^,^, .
member; a s. Cdi,nte S- °"^' °i '"'"'"'' *<^ ""'^r
is left uuexpressed ' ""••odueed by as or <A«<,
Wen e^tabi^hed „sa«e authorizes such expressions as
ht:!.-*i.Tr;tfer;„';^i,^h::;:: ^- v^"-*- "-" '
«te, I have," etc., is lesTeumbZ'r' rr^'f' ''"'/'"•/'•««
for .t »ay be taken as a -lesSiSadveSX::' (ISt'
EMOTIONAL ABBREVIATION.
but often'imXtve'^ts'abo • '"" "f ^"""""'■^ ''''"'«
by abbreviate.? In The °'/' '"'i"'/' *<> '^'« attained
we throw aside' om , «n., '.^'u""'' ^"""^ "* fueling,
expression bTassertion iL l^"™**' "'"''<' "f <=«lm
part of thA^ r'^<^'"<"i. and brine fortl, onlv ti--^
part of the .euteuee which most strongly affects om.
In the
absolute
coustriictioiu
With
what if, etc.
With not.
IV. Use of »6
so far from,
that.
Effects of
feeling on
granimatioa'i
structure.
I
310
IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION.
Interjection,
with words or
piirases.
'{
! i Interjection
;l omitted.
i '1
1 Prepositioc,
; after inter-
i jection,
' ' '! i
,: , i 1
1
i Interjectional
words.
, , i
III
Exclamatory
subordinate
cluuaes.
mind, or which we wish to have most strongly affect
the mind of another. Hence all emotional expresrnon
tends strongly (o grammatical incompleteness (4fi5) ;
the exclamatoiy sentence is apt to be a defective one.
And any admixture of feeling adds to the readiness
with which we resort to the various modes of
abbreviation. Examples are,
What ! that to me ! ; You, my long lost brother ! ;
I, a liar ! ; So young and so unfortunate I :
Speak ! I couldn't have uttered a word.
For the exclamatory infinitive, see par. 450 (7).
481. Along with an interjection we often put a
word or a phrase pointing out more distinctly the
kind of emotion we feel, or the occasion of it : thus,
O horrible ! And oh, the difference to me !
Alas, my unhappy country ! Lo, the poor Indian !
Ah, the pity of it ! Fie, the lazy fellow !
Pish, nonsense ! Pshaw, how absurd !
But quite as often we make an exclamation of the
occasion of the feeling, without any interjection added,
the tone and gesture showing plainly enough what the
feeling is. Thus, the interjection may be omitted with
any of the a-bove examples.
Occasionally, as if the interjection were an assertion
instead of a mere sign of the feeling intended to be
intimated, a preposition is used to combine it with the
added explanation (see 436) : thus,
Fie on you ! Alas for Troy !
for a lodge in some vast wilderness !
which may be taken as equivalent to
I cry shame on you ; I grieve for Troy; etc.
482. A number of our ordinary words are so
commonly used in incomplete exclamatory expression
that they have almost won the character of interjec-
tions: thus, for example,
why, how, what, well, indeed, hark, behold, hail,
help, silence, quick, away, out, back, to arms.
483. Subordinate clauses are often used in an
exclamatorv wav. with omissinn nf fhe r^ain nlo""'-- +^
THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS.
311
gly affeel
xprestjioii
5s (465) ;
:;tive one.
readiness
nodes of
7).
m put a
tictly the
: thus,
f
m!
n of the
>n added,
what the
tted with
assertion
ed to be
with the
are so
pression
interjec-
lil,
I in an
H.d we but known Of it in time !^ '
WJmt a pleasant day it has been !
That a king should be so conveyed !
Oh ' Mr V ,'''' "^ ^^' ^'''^^y «f «"cli meanness .
Oh Mk Simple. . you only knew how I loved that girlf
as if the construction were :
Ti .. I ^?^^^^^ *^^^* lie were with us •
Such may be called exclamatory subordinate clauses
THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS.
. 484. As has been already stated fS' on,! ^t^ «,
imperative and optative modes of exmCln .i.«^'
exelamatrf ";• ff ^" ^"^ "eari/^eS d" t:' the'
x^Tef aiiirstt:: '^.Varn s-r/c^- f '
viewed as the one or the otheV^i-n«f 'l^^'P*^'^^^ ^^ best
word of dire,.t inLation o f f din^ 'Th?fif' ?" "?
three variously accord in theifp'rtdc'Ks' '"' *^
what might seem' rposiHvfor bI„rT;T "^f"™'"^
purposes, we are apt in famihar eolllZ d st* t°, "■, '""''
mto our sentences little sentenee" an 1 h ^ , • ? ""''Vect
no grammatical connect™ iwH ™,'.l''"fes winch stand in
are also like interjecC " „ t te ZirS™' """^ "•'"'"'
mfmate onr states o( feeling. Exllmples^^e ^^"^ '" *"
you know ; you see ; I tell yo„ ; I declare or fancy •
„, '" be sure ; by your leave. ^ '
sen^fne""'' ""' "'""'' """'' '"'^^f^^'ional phrases and
Imperative
aud optative.
Relation of
nom. of
address,
imperative,
and inter-
jection.
Interjectional
phrases aud
sentences.
I
$12
irhegvlah construction.
I' !
iii.
Shade into
niodai
adverbs.
Assevera-
tious.
A
m I I
Such phrases and sentences, we liave already seen (391)
shade ott into modal adverbs, which are more or less closely
connected with the sentences where they are found, and
winch show the way in which the thought is conceived by
the speaker. *^
Asseverations and oaths are of the nature of interiectional
phrases. Thus, for example, "By Jove" strictly means
1 swear by Jove," and would be, if used seriously, the
invocation of a divinity to attest the truth of what we are
saying-. And the same impulse to make our expression
more forcible by putting into it a strong word or two
something that seems to imply feeling or passion, leads
occasionally to the insertion of absurd bits of phrases,
which It would be in vain to try to build up into sentences:
tnus, tor example,
Who tlie mischief efin have done this?
What in thunder are you here for ?
GRAMMATICAL VALUES CHANGED BY
ABBREVIATION.
486. Abbreviation often changes -the grammatical value
ot words: thus, for example, the sentences,
He kept himself quiet ; He got himself appointed ;
where the verbs are transitive, and the adjectives are objec-
tive predicate, have been shortened, in familiar style, into
Ht lept quiet ; He got appointed ;
where the verbs are intransitive, and the adjectives are
subjective predicate.
positions Rnd Again, o/ow^T, originally an adverb phrase, on long, like
conjunctions. ^^ '**5'«> ^^ vain, came early, like many other adverbs, to be
used as a preposition also: thus, ''along the side of"'; and
this, by a further abbreviation, has given us along side of,
and along side : thus,
The ship lay along (the) side (of) ours.
In like manner, hecanse<bg cause, and for<fore ( = *'iij
front of") have become conjunctions :
We stayed iu because ( = "by cause of the fact that")
it was stormy ;
We stayed in /or ( = " in front, or in view, of the f ict that")
it was stormy.
Verbs and
adjectives.
Adverbs, pre-
Ben (391),
ess closely
3und, and
eeived by
'rjectional
l\y ineiins
ously, the
lat we are
'xpressiou
I or two,
on, leads
phrases,
3ntences :
Ommt lUREGVLARiriES.
813
cal value
3d;
re objec-
le, into
ives are
mg, like
bs, to be
f " ; and
' side of,
t")
;hat")
We have already seen tint ;» fi •
positions and evcMi othe J." t, p^^^ ^^^V^^-b« and pre-
converted into conjunctions /n il ?! .^'^^^''^} ^^^^^« been
And we have also seen (o-j4 j^/f ^. P;:«f^«« '^ «till goin^ on),
viation produces phrases wii ch h tv. H "' ' ""V ^^'^^ ^^^bre-
speecli and are inflected like them ""^ ""^ P^^^« «f
regular) of the wa"^ i wh^] 1."' r T"'" nsual'and
abbreviated, with tL Juir „^"f f ^. expression is
character to words in rv^vt f ^'f ^ ^^ ^^^« a new
elliptical sentences WS^h^havAn?^^./"^^^P^^t^ «r
to be described and mrsed t ^' ^^^'.^ "P ^" ^^^er
made a question whetCwfshalld^^'^^^r ^^"'^^ ^e
word or certain wov<lt Zltll^^' ^^^^^^ Ho. to parse
stood, or whether weshoM foi .1 ^^PP^^^d or under- f »-evia?eT
stands, regardfn^ The m^ de ,? *^' ''".*^"^^ ^^^^ ^^ it '""^•
that the mind, even on refle/tin''^'"'''^^^ ^« «« "«"al
he absence of anything thai ^1 ''i J'. "^««n««ious of
It would be quite abS to ,1U Z/^ ^l '^''''r Thus
/o*- was used as conjunction to t^ / P^/''''^ "^ ""^'^^^
a^^:^ve , out of whS^h ts ?.l ^ ^ ^"^^ ^^^ explained
t- we rnayeitWtre^^^^"?^ con unction grew;
or fill in the clause wSr^hl^ ^eal^re^^^^^^^^^^^^
effects upon grammltiSlconifi!''".^ '"'^*'^" P^^^^^^es other , ,
times be^un^n ot"paraTcon.nffr^"^^ '««-»- ---^L
Unusual emotion or an unus^fnllv ^^^^"^ ^° ^"^^her.
thoughts renders our speech n^i ""^^'^ succession of
tollows another before the pv. "" '^"^"^^ ' «^« thought
completed. Examples are, '^P^"^«'«° °f the former^is
HL\wA.!!'r^^^^*^^" ^^ them all,
He that eurseth fathlr n!-^' T""^ "° the wall ;
^ And He charged him to t'^ifno'' J^' ^^ ^'^ *^« ^^ath ;
And now, lest fee put fortl ^His hS' ''"' fn '""l ^^^ '
I^ thou had'st kLtn^elrf 5-^^'- ' ^^^ ^^^ ^'^
unto thy peace ! but lo^ thevVh-^}}''^^ ^^^«^ belong
Such construction. "^T .^Y ^'^^'■'^™ t^ineeyes.
wanting scuence-). They are avoided 7n modern prose.'
I
au
IRliEG DLAR CONSTM VCTl ON.
Emphasis :
(1). By repe-
tition.
(2)
etc.
By It is.
Attraction.
The concrete
for the
abstract.
the form of which is the result of the imitation of chiis.sical
models and of centuries of experi nent ; but tiiey are found
in ohler Engrhsli, in present colhMjuinl Enj^lishjund in poetry,
which is especially the huif^uage of emotion.
489. Our desire for impressiveness leads, under certain
circuni.stances, to the very reverse of abbreviation. When we
are in doubt in regard to our meaning being understood or
when we wish to impress something upon our hearers, we
occasionally lepeat the expression, using either the same
words or a synonymous form (IKi [1] and [2]). Here, too,
belong the double comparative and superlative (345) and
tile double negative (395). The desire for impressiveness
has also led to the idiomatic use of it is, etc., in such
sentences as,
It was then he did so ; It was because of you I went away ;
It was before to-day that he went ;
which are emphatic for " He did so then,'''' etc. Here,
it may now be valued as a representative subject: thus,
His doing so was then ;
My going away was because of you.
Sometimes, again, as in
It is / that say so ; It was you that were there.
the verb of the adjective clause is attracted (117 [II.]) into
agreement with the emphatic word ; it doos not agree with it,
which may be valued as the antecedent of that.
490. The concrete is more readily apprehended than the
abstract. This we have already seen in the case of the
gerund construction (4G0), and it shows itself, also, in our
use of an adjective complement, instead of an adverb : thus,
And sloio and sure comes up the golden year;
and such constructions as,
I know thee who thou art (279 [5]).
As we should expect, we find many illustrations of this
principle in the older stages of the language, and in poetry :
thus, for example, in Tennyson,
Fearing the mild face of the blameless king,
And after madness acted question asked ;
where the modern form would be "and being questioned
after having acted madly."
of classical
y are found
d in poetry,
ider certain
. When we
derstood or
hearers, we
r the same
Here, too,
'e (345) and
•ressiveness
c, in such
snt away ;
stc. Here,
ject : thus,
OTam IltREGVLAniTIES.
815
3re.
[n.]) into
:ree with it,
ad than the
ase of the
dso, in our
erb : thus,
ir;
ms of this
in poetry :
»> oui-miiKls wit), olhor coi, ),i> f; '7"''" '» "s^ciatpd
turns aro made after a ™ ta n tvof' f ''!" ""* ™"'''"'"-
Extension
0»' 7 ""^ r*"".' "' gframniatical analysis {UG,'&fTtoT
fluence of both. Example- o'? ^^"-^ ^l^^' ^"^ '^"^^''^ t^e "°°'
/^ol 'l*"* friends with him;
J; • Fare thee well ;
. . " "'^ '-*^" "lain classes:
.nflueuee of both. E^pllst: the ^ninTet ^''"^'•■^ """
(!)• I ana fri«nrla i.rUU I.' „
; • 5: yd: z It' rei'r.z *i °-'^ r-"- p---' =
(4) . Climbiog the tree, he fell ^ "'""«"■ P''^'""' "
While he was climbing the tree, he fell
either\'™"r„i"a'ZXn"''';='' "7!^"-^ - '>'^- form (of
form are confused S?^*™™^ u-'t" " 'r\f»«.P«'^ «' o.5f
distinguished as contZiZZn l^JTn-''' '" ^^tnotimes
•ndeed, may be --.arderafa^rfetTof ^tSjrol'""^'
questioned
I
' ^' •^s^mmmmmm K i » i lt ii ^«<. i
■•'II I
I i' I
3t6
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
XVII. HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
RELATIONSHIP OF ENGLISH.
492. In tho introduction to this grammar, are given the
leadinpT facts iti the liistory of our language. We now adtl
.some further details.
The relationship of English to the other members of the
Teutonic sub-family, and of the Teutonic sub-family to the
other members of the Indo-European family of languages
is shov/n roughly in the above diagrams, from Emerson's
History of the English Language. .
RELATIONSHIP OF ENGLISH.
317
3 given the
Ve now add
3ers of the
mily to the
languages
Emerson's
the small circle,, I e p" set "n ' ^'f "" ''™'-'"PP"'(f "(
together the minrn- gto^vT ""'"'' '"™'* ''""«■'(?
IWUU - IRANIAN (two groiins) — n\ t i-
Ved.c, the UMoient language omeVeda^ or R?"/"' '"^'"^in^
writings , Sanskrit (the lite mrv InnJ ' ^'"I"""^ '^'^^'"^^^
Prakrit (the colloquia iansM of ITF'T ""{ ^"^'''^^5 ""^
CfiSre'liri,;",'."'"' "■" '^.'".'"■''"' ""'' O'"^"" dialects.
France. In its eadv wS«n f *^^. ^^^noan of Northwest
its inflectional system. "''"' ^^^^'"^ resembles Latin in
(3)''wes'tT'minM:efp^ ^^*^^«' (2) Norse, and
(l)Xtl'! i'ncltli^VS SZi^ ^^^^^
sian and Polish. Prussian. (2) Slavic, including Rus-
lr^ttt^^J''CZ,':::f^trZ' ^ f.- the other
example-ia many partfeularr Th„fJ '^ fl ."^ ^?'"'' 'o'
belti".t£teTh^\"eT„^i: tTt^T ''F^^^^
mg as .t was or was not preceded by a demo„sTS;e(33lt
v>„r„n u""" ?K "'®'" ''*™ * 'utui-e formed by suffix (nn\
wlXt^ (TiV^^ ^^'^ ^' '^^"^"^ ^^^' ^-'- -
In tL!^ *>^.,I?do-E«ropean, word-stress was at first free
In Teutonic it became fixed, originally resting and to «
f,'reat extent still resting, on the root'^ylLblef^'exeept that
n nouns and adjectives and the verbs derived from them
it was on thp fircf qxrijoU]^ „.u_i^i. . "Y^.V""^ tnem,
. -J — sj..., .s^iicDic, vvaviuur a root-syiiabie or not.
Menilwrs of
th« hido-
KuropeaQ
family.
1 I
Differences
between the
Teutonic and
the others:
Inflections.
Adjectives.
Verbs.
Word-stress,
I
818
HISTORICAL OUTLINE,
(4). Aw is seen by oomparirif? tlu' following? :
l.Aim.— ;>odcs firenus colii« ynui f/oraare /res.
CoiuonHutt. the Tontonic Inn^nui^^.s have "shifted," as it is called
the original voieecl to voiceless stops and their voiceless
HtopH to fru'atives. We must, however, bear in mind that
the other leutonic lanjruaf^es a^^ree, or oikm^ ai?reed, with
hiiK'lixh as to the uiifml consonant while all the other Indo-
hiiropean lanjruages are in this renpect like Latin.
ri'^1* '^'**' ^^'* branches of the West Germanic group
ditter from each other chiefly in two respects:
(1). High German underwent a second consonant shift
which did not aft'ect Low Gtu-tnan: thus, compare,
H. GLKMAN.-oier iykd schu./ J'ag Zuiifro />i„jj joc/,!
(2). Hifrh German has held fast more inflections than
Low German, which has lost most of them.
THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGE.
495. The Jutes settled Kent, the Isle of Wight, and
^^r'^l'^''^"*'"^ P*""** ''^ Hampshire; the Saxons, the banks
ot the Ihames, aiul the rest of Englajid to the south ; the
Angles, the rest of England, and the Lowlands of Scotland.
The Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria was the first to
come to the front in literary and political importance. The
first Bretwaldawas an Anglian king; and Bede, our first
historian, and Crodmon, our first riiristian poet, wrote in the
Anglian tongue. The name English, accordingly, was
early applied to the languages of all the Teutonic tribes of
Britain, m contrast with Latin, or Laeden, the language of
the learned; the whole island was itself called Angla-land
Antrio-Saxon. «!* England, and the people, Englisc, or English. The term
Anglo-Saxon should be applied only to West Saxon (490), in
which nearly all the early literature of England has been
preserved. Old English, on the other hand, is the name
given by modern scholars to all the dialects spoken bv the
leutonic tribes till about the period of the Norman Conquest.
OLD ENGLISH PERIOD.
496. Throughout the Old English period (11) there were
four chief dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the
Humber to the Forth ; Mercian, bet wee. he Humber and
the Thames; pnd West Saxon, south of the Thames except
\n Kent (and, perhaps, Surrey), where was spoken Kentish,
Differences
between
H :;;k1 L.
(lerinnn:
CunRonant8
InHectiouB.
Where the
Teutonic
tribes
settled.
Iniportnnpeof
Nortliumbrin.
Tlie names:
English
Old English.
500-1200
Four cliief
didlects.
Where
spoken.
I
le //*ree
aare tres.
it is callod,
ir voicch'ss
» mind that
ittTt't'd, with
otlior Indo-
n.
lanic group
onant shift
■e,
iiifj Jocli.
2tions than
Viffht, and
, the banks
south ; the
f Scotland.
he first to
mee. The
?, our first
a-ote in the
iiigly? was
ic tribes of
lUfiruag-e of
ngfhi-laiid,
The term
n (49(5), in
has been
the name
cen by the
Conquest.
here were
th of the
mber and
es except
I Kentish,
OLD ENGLISH PKltlOD.
tile cJii4,f.
t), Jed
wrote
work
n
E, ward, the (;o„fi,,.,„r T L f ■'""' '*» »"P''™m( v
aiih,» court were Nonnmi in , .''"■,> '?'"*-'• '"'"' lie
Ensfhsh restoration wa» f « "i ' IT' J*''«"li«. tliis brief
m eve„t of ^reat iu.port, I ", ' ,^l -'T ^"".""" <'""q"e,s;
E.^.hsh penod. E„^,,,„ was, 'u;,.„^,',re ii.IS."' "- '"-'
unsettled condition of the ^J^!''^?'^:']^'''^ '"^^^ ^I'e
the incursions of the Dan e^ N wV ''' "-^ *^"^''^"<^ '^urin^.
been preserved to us almost wlm '"",';'''"' literature has
[^nd very httle Jms renmh.ed of ^ ^'?. ^^ ^\^'^ ^^^-^'"» versio
''»I>"i"'s,or Nor^erae '^''tr'^.^'^l'"''- ^^ W'
'Ud east of Eue-Iand .„^ '■ .'^"'*"'.V, settled iu the north
;'- beginning of Z ' ^nlh^: "^f Pf clon.inanr It
U,nfessor. As we shall slef:./^ ^'"^'"^^^ •' ""^^^r the
^ '^^'^t H,,rease in onvl^^^^:"^. "^''1 to these only a
■^bnost unmixed. No effect w-^' "''" ^^'^^ ^*^f«re been
;:-' unless, perhaps, tl e ^^ .t. . Jic?'/""^^ "?-^ ^^^ ^^^
-'I already be^^un, was hSS bv n.'r-'?''-^^^;^^^*^"' '^^^^^
^1<1 English syntax was i, ^^.^^'"^''^'^ influence,
of the words in ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ , the order
.. .>! (uar ui. iuodern Ge
.Saxon.
KukHhIi,
<lialectic /»t
the Conquest
M')st O. E.
literature in
VVest Saxon.
Foreign
influences.
Effect.
(Character-
an.
O.E,
csof
syntax.
320
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
)
If
f
,'8 i
l''00-1500.
Three
diHlects.
Southern.
Northern.
Midland.
East Midland,
the parent of
Modern
English.
Causes of its
supremacy :
The language
of Loudon.
Oxford and
Cambridge
Universities.
Its gram-
mar, a
compromise.
The sentences were awkwardly eoni})ine(l, proportion and
unity were wanting, and conjunctions were often omitted(47).
MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD.
498. In the Middle English period we find the same
dialects as in Old English, but it is simpler to classify
them as Southern (West Saxon and Kentish), Northern
(Northumbrian), and Midland (Mercian).
The West Saxon dialect is still spoken in a modified form
in Southern England ; and, during the present century, it
has appeared in literature in the Dorsetshire poems of
William Barnes.
Lowland Scotch is the modern representative of the
Northern dialect, which is seen at its best in the poems of
Burns. Practically the same dialect is still spoken in
Northern England. Specimens of it also we have in
Tennyson's Northern Farmer, the Northern Cobbler, and a
few of his other poems. These, however, are rather experi-
ments than serious attempts at a revival of the dialect.
Modern English is the descendant of the Midland dialect,
which was spoken between the Humbci and the Thames.
Of this there were two svib-divisions, the Eastern and the
Western; and it is really from the Eastern, spoken in
Jjondon and the counties north of it, that Modern English
chiefly sprang. This diaiect owes its supremacy to the fact,
above" all others, that it was the language spoken in London,
the commercial and political centre which had displaced
Winchester, Egbert's capital, as the metropolis of England.
Similarly, in ancient times, Rome and Athens made Latin and
Attic Greek the language of classical literature ; and, in
later times, Paris made Parisian French the standard for
France. " It is," says Prof. Skeat, " a curious reflection
that if London had been built on the south side of the river,
the speech of the British Empire and of the greater part of
North America, would have been very different from what
it now is." This dialect was also the speech of the district
in which were situated the two great universities of Oxford
and Cambridge, with their powerful linguistic influences.
In its grammatical character also, it was a compromise
between the Northerr and the Southern dialect (498); and,
as men were gathered together in London from all parts of
England, it was further modified by their intercourse. It
borrowed, for example, from the Northern, and it adopted
more French words than either of tlic othcvR. U \v.-s. tlius
well fitted to become the common language of the nation.
)
MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD.
321
I
oportion Jintl
omitted(47).
ind the same
r to classify
h), Northern
nodified form
lit century, it
re poems of
tative of the
the poems of
ill spoken in
we have in
obbler, and a
rather experi-
e dialect.
dland dialect,
the Thames.
Lstern and the
[•n, spoken in
odern English
,cy to the fact,
en in London,
had displaced
hs of England,
lade Latin and
ture ; and, in
standard for
ous reflection
e of the river,
greater part of
?nt from what
of the district
ties of Oxford
tic influences.
I compromise
ct (498); and,
n all parts of
tercourse. It
,nd it adopted
1> w.ia fl
t'lUS
of the nation.
The language
of literature.
Chaucer's
intluence.
Staiu'.ard in
Hcotlaud.
In it, too, were written the beginnings of Modern English
literature. In it, Chaucer wrote his Canterbury Tales, and
into it Wyclif translated the Bible. It has sometimes been
claimed for Chaucer that to his genius we owe the fact that
the Midland dialect became pre-eminent. But modern
research has shown that his influence, in this respect, has
been greatly over-estimated. According to Prof. Emerson,
"we now know that Chaucer wrote, as did Wyclif, Lang-
land, Barbour, in the dialect most familiar to him, the dialect
of the place of his birth. But it was Chaucer's good fortune
to write also in the language of the chief city of a realm, now
thoroughly united, in the language that was inevitably to
become the standard of after ages, so that his works have
been more easily read and appreciated in the centuries since
his death. Chaucer may have chosen to write in English
rather than in Latin or French, as Gower has done, but he
was, in no wise, the creator of the language he used, and it
would not be safe to assert that he exerted any particular or
lasting influence on his native speech."
The Midland dialect, however, did not at once become
the literary language of the whole nation. From the time
of Chaucer until th3 union of England and Scotland under
King James, there were really two standards in the island :
the English of Edinburgh for the Scotch, and the English
of London for the English.
499. But, in view of the far-reaching character of the
Norman invasion, one naturally asks how it was that one of
the English dialects became the common speech of both
Normans and Englishmen. When the Normans settled
in England, French became one of its languages^ The J^^'y^°]J^^
conquerors spoke at first their own tongue, while English not French.
remained that of the conquered. For a long time, indeed,
the languages kept apart: the English of 1200 is almost as •
free from French words as that at the Conquest. But the
number of Normans who settled in England was really
small, and they made no attempt to supersede English as
the spoken language. William's policy, we know, was to
conciliate iks new subjects. He even tried to learn their
language. Henry I. is said to have been taught English.
Henry II. understood it, and many of his courtiers spoke it.
Edward I. used it in receiving the Turkish ambassadors, position oi
and he charges the French king with proposing "to destroy ^^f^f^^^
the English language wholly from the earth." Edward III. Normans.
r»r"^r'"r' ?%ri-Mi;r>.Tr,r>v.f /'I'ClfiO^ -^'Ul^ n c.»-vo/irtVi iri "Rna-lish. and,
•on pet'lion jfirouj tljie conjmoos in the same year, he enacted
C. ; 4|
I
.322
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
M
H
: 'i r
Eaglish,
always a
literary
language.
Bixt dialectic
until Chaucer.
English
influence
increased by
political and
social events
that law pleadings should be in English. Henry V. was
represented at the French court by ambassadors who could
not speak French, a proof thai French was no longer
spoken at court. For a time, it is true, schoolboys trans-
lated their Latin into French, and students at Oriel College
were required to speak Latin or French. We know little
about the schools of the early Norman period, but it seems
probable that thi.^ prominence was due, partly, at any rate,
tc the celebrity of the University of Paris, which many
English students attended. However this may be, it is
abundantly evident that English had been continually
gaining ground, and tliat, in the middle of the fifteenth
century, French ceased to be used in the courts and the
schools, and English became the common tongue of the new
nation.
500. Besides, English had never ceased to be a literary
language ; nor had the Conqueror deposed it from the place
which it had held in public documents, and which, for a part
of this period, it shared with Latin and occasionally with
French. The earlier years of Norman influence were, as we
might expect, comparatively barren. Latin continued in
England as elsewhere to be the universal language of
scholars, and there was also, for a time, an Anglo-French
literature; but, from lloO, literary works in P]nglish
became more numerous. Until Chaucer, however, each
English writer wrote in the dialect he spoke ; for the Con-
quest prevented, for a time, what would otherwise have
happened sooner — the establishment of a standard literary
language.
501, Political and social events also helped to lessen
the importance of French influence and increase that of
English. Both William Rufus and Henry I. appealed to
Englishmen for help against the Norman barons, and it was
to Englishmen they owed their English crowns. Henry
married Matilda, the descendant of Ethelred H. ; and, not
so long after the Conquest, many other intermarriages took
place between the Normans and the English. After
Henry's reign, indeed, the distinction between the two
races was obliterated. The loss of Normandy in 12C(>, the
enactments of Louis IX. and Henry HI., prohibiting the
subjects of the one from holding lands in the dominions of
the other; the rebellion of the barons under Montfort, and
the political events in the reign of King John prevented
any further influx of French-speaking foreigners, and led
the continental French and the inhabitants of England to
MIDDLE EsausB PERIOD.
OU4. Sometimes 71 on ;c,
ning: of the Middle Eno^lll! f^'^'Vl ^^'^ date of the beHn
regrarded as a period .ff P'^'"- ^^' ^^«»' ^100 to Ao bii
ci.angcd to 4, 'i;,j'';^' ^' ,f f "^J to « ; o H„d *. were ,„rs" ?
Early (or.
Transition)
period.
11001200.
Charac-
toristics.
at^r-'V'''^^^^ began to bo
in « .?/'"''' *'"•' S^itive^n t hif .•'""■"^Ple.beim
in -cs and -en were often u^L ■ T ".""' K>^neral ; nlu,.al„
endingof the genmdial fnfi -t^ '"'''"iniinately <'Un\ nt
iarp numbers, and the S N ?./'• \ ^^^^, were used 1n
tlieir moderrr fnvm. !,' "^ Pronouns bee-an f./ 1 '
-d past in5fead™V;i„"rnd'ed?'-^ "' verbf!:;', : p^S
adverbial en.lings T^,!, 1 •/''•"'! "''J'^'^tivs, as wjll^^
dropped or to beS„,e^ „r otSjr",-- '-«»"t':!' bt
J 200- 1350.
C'ham
teristics.
1350-1500.
tJharac-
teristics.
Causes of
eraniniutipftl
siiuplifleatiou.
I
fii
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
^oup where there was little or no foreign influence.
But, from about the middle of the twelfth century,
inflectional changes were certainly accelerated. The
English of the period, both spoken and written, was dia-
lectic; so that the levelling went on in many localities, being
also unchecked by a literary standard. And, under the
circumstances, as this process could not have been a uniform
one, comparatively few inflections had survived when a
common speech came into use. The Normans themselves
may have confused or discarded the endings, when using
English words ; but this influence, if felt at all, could have
been but slight. The Con(iuest, however, did affect our
grammar by delaying the establishment of a standard
language.
The decay of inflections gavp greater importance to
relational words and th'' ^••der ot tlie elements of the
sentence. Under Frencn iufliunce, i.ro?\',u',,', tlie Modern
order became establisb'.'*i (s^iV^-^'^^ft, verb, o5>i.?rl'" -^nd, as
might be expected, the s>.- i\ fir^i »\;'«i.; ev: ; ^o
stiffness.
Influences in
early period.
506. Old English had rivalled moU ' :: (jterhu i in »i.e
power of forming self-explaining compouu'^' V.'hns. fo
example, it had hundreds of words like "
treow-wyrhta (treo-wright), flesh-monger (flesh-monger),
boc-hus (book -house), leorning-cniht (learning-knight);
our carpenter, butcher, library, pupil. During the fourteenth
century many of these compounds were replaced, as we see
from the above list, by equivalent, but, to the English,
unmeaning, words taken from the French. This, however,
did not take place until many foreign words had been intro-
duced. The decay of O.E. prefixes and suffixes also began
now, but Latin and Greek formative elements did not
become dominant till the Modern period.
MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD.
507. The Modern English period began about 1500 or a
little later; for, from 1460 to 1520, there was a general
dearth of literary productions, owing largely to political dis-
turbances. During this period, however, two events took
place which had a direct influence upon English, especially
upon its vocabulai-y : the introduction of the art of printing by
Caxton in 1477 and the Renascence, or Pevival of Learning,
in the fifteenth century, which, in England, gave prominence
to Latin and Greek models, especially to Latin.
I influence,
th century,
ated. The
m, was dia-
ilities, being
, under tlie
sn a uniform
ved when a
s themselves
when using
, could have
d affect our
a standard
iportance to
ents of the
the Modern
ri'" -ind, as
Uitir evcit to
rhu- I in »r.e
*,nnis^ U"
i-monger),
r-knight) ;
le fourteenth
3d, as we see
the English,
lis, however,
d been intro-
!S also began
3nts did not
out 1500 or a
as a general
political dis-
events took
sh, especially
[)f printing by
of Learning,
e prominence
(U^eJi'^m !■""'' '""^ "^ ^"Mivided into-
Of Latin and Greek an^L^'" ^^"^^ ^"^o use and tlie sfv^'
-f speech could be^?e;u\:rot^^^^'^'' ^^-ost ty pS
the use of the inflectio s hTrel •'' T^ «^ «Peec], (86)
retained which we have reiecfp^ ! i *''*^"'' ««me bein^
which we have revived • nl i ^""^ ^^'"^ being reiectef
grammatical inaccTr^ TlrtZ "^^^^^^ of JZrent
specialization of words'^ had not ^i'^' ' T^ ^^ °«>^ern
Teutonic mode of accentuation ^^^^.^^^eloped. The
general; so that the prevanrnL . ''J''' ^^^^^ ^o become
the stress upon the firT svilfbir^S?^^ ^«^ i« to ?Cw
t^iese statements have alre?dv k^'- ""^ i"»«trations ol
with i..ections and construSns ^'^'" ^^^^" dealing
(2). The Ene-lish nf fi,^
the death of ofyden" f yM™"*!'!^?"" T'''^' <>'"i'-^ witl.
bya arge..-„fl„^„f Modern Vre^'^ woX™", '^ ■"»'*''"
-«■• (.^48). With Charles rr . i P"«sessive adjective
everything French came inti, ?" 1'^**"=''"' P'-'^fercnce for
important one, for by"700th. "","•• ^''« Period is an
ha4 econae ^n,ost as^sitrd'^rit^n^'ir °' ""^ '-^"^e
ceitiS- ^"-"^^ »' the eighteenth and nineteenth
two'tS /!^^[^rttrL^l^ h"^^' '™ -"i '-e .ast
Sweet puts it, that "the former ;*."'' P''™'^ ™s, as Prof
:So7.-. ^"« '^- "^"a^s\rsesr5
Standard. '""^"^^ now recognizes but one
. ,^^9- Modern Ene-h-sh ,'. on-h-f • i
paeed, than any other En rni^r,'' '" ^^^ "i^in, more so
.n«ections areU^;fare«Thni7.^; ^XJ
Three sub-
Periods ;
(1). Elizft.
bethan.
(2). Age of
Dryden.
(3). Late
Modern
English.
First and
seeoiKl halves
contrasted.
Character-
istics of
Modem
English.
One standard
langiiage.
Inflections.
I
HiilMIHI
a-a
HISTORICAL OCTLIKE.
I Ir,
Syntax.
Vowel -
souuds.
Orthography.
The spoken
language.
Influenpe of
dictionaries.
)iC
IS eitlier disappeared or is
Middle P^nj^lish, was sy
retained merely to show in writing a long preceding? vowel.
The ehief characteristic of Modern syntax is the perfection
of its form. No doubt, the language would itself have
developed this quality ; but the unity and proportion which
now distinguish our sentenee-struc*"- : 'la^'e been due, in a
large measure, to the influence of : nd Greek models.
511. The Old English system ^l vowel sounds was
replaced by a new one in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries; for example, according to Prof. Skeat, the
following O. E. and Mod. ^>. words correspond (the pro-
nunciation of the O.E. wr- ' represented phonetically):
hdt (bant), boat; bete (Ivtltv, , '><•*■! . '^>tan (beetan), bite:
hot (boat), boot; nhn^an (abbooi '.■ .\ about.
512. Modern EngiK,. .•■In;.j.^ruphy i.< -. .. i a. -> of anoma-
lies. Old English orthogiapbv was psin-ly plv-iru ji', and
remained so, in the main, until ". :; inventifa of priistiugr.
The Anglo-French scribes had resp.lt the Utijiiiage. i'siug
French forms ^ Latin letters; but, ae» t'j.-fp w<»to many
resemblances between French and Enghsx. sovtnd.;: atid
letters, not much harm was done. Real harm, i ■ w \
resulted from an attempt in the sixteenth century to :i' re-
duce etymological spelling, or what writers (in some cases,
poor scholars) thought to be so. Thus, for example, at the
time of the Renascence, many took to writing debt,
doubt ioY the then current dette, doute; because the Latin
primitives had b. Similarly, the M.E. parfit has become the
modern perfect, and we owe these in scythe (<0.E. sithe)
and scent (<Fr. scnt-ir<.hat. sent-ire) to the analogy of the
Latin science. The M. E. iland(<O.E. ig-land) has, in the
same way, become our island, because it was supposed
to have come from the Fr. isle (<Lat. insula).
513. The tendencies referred to in par. 512 affect mainly
the written language. But, in the eighteenth century
(Bailey's dictionary was published in 1721, and Johnson's
in 1755), steps were taken to make the spoken language
uniform. The dictionary indicated first the stress and later
(Kenrick's, in 1773), the sounds of the vowels.
The use of dictionaries has produced two effects. It has
led, in a slight degree, to modern pronunciation being
changed to follow the anomalies of our spelling; thus, we
no longer pronounce sewer, shore, and in courteous, the
first syllable is now rather court than curt, and wont (wuut)
eared or is
ViufX vowel.
! perfection
itself have
•tion which
1 due, in a
ek models.
ounds was
eventeenth
Skeat, the
i (the pro-
netically) :
n), bite ;
:t.
of anoma-
*rn ii', and
lagc. i'siu^
■•<i\ti* msLxiy
'>ttnd.:. and
'y to ii'''7-...
ome cases,
iple, at the
iting debt,
I the Latin
jeeome the
3.E. sithe)
logy of the
bas, in the
i supposed
'eet mainly
th century
Johnson's
I language
s and later
:s. It has
;ion being
; thus, we
ieous, the
ont (wuut)
MODEm ENGLISH PERIOD
the
;;^x^eieitiiih::^::^Lvr'^r"^^- «»^^
514 A '"''^^^^^'^rJ^ ""iformity.
Middle EniirpS;;;:^^,^^"/^^^)^ we lost in the
compounds. Many of tl e O^ Fn rT'"^ '^^'If-explaining
appeared towards he cIosp J? \^ ^"? '"'^^^ Prefixes, too dis
ot the Modern, Englsh period • oH ^"i^^"' "^ '^^ beg'nn t.
,w^th other prefixes: thus for ^'''' ^'"^f ^^^^» confounded
>ecomeJ>.^/„>,^, ^nd ti.e £nnic /^T^^'i Oethincan has
the O.E. mis-: w/./;e/L?i"f T '^'*" ^'^^ ^^™ost driven on^
have suffered in thl^tm vv^;. Xr^o""*^^^'^^^' «"«"
we have masc. -er, fem. J^l' an,l '• ^^'^'^'"^P^*^' "^ O.E.
fern, -e.., and masc. -stre Tm if' '" ^'.''"^^^' »'««e. -.r
was confounded with the'o E* iT''- 7^^ French -stre
appear that of a masc. noun and o^t'' ""^^'"^ ^^'^ ending
in -6«<rm (242). ^" "^"^ ^-ivmg us a new fem. suffix
^' Latin and Gre^t^h *.^ /j
replaced our losses. ^'"^^^^^ ^"^ suffixes have fully
vo'l^^^.S:;i-j;;-^^^own themselves in our
opposed to this, the effrto^tT^ ^^'*^'^" words, am
the language. Thus, f the J^ "'"?''^^'"«" ^^^ " fix ''
hke Sir Thomas El vol nni ''f^^?"*^^ century, manv
classical writers but L.!: .^ """^^ miitated the stvT "^p
Spanish, and r[:,it vTtt .r"'? -'^^"^ ^adn, F Lh
Word-
formation.
"Vocabulary
Grenerul
influences.
the r nflnl " f "^-uage. These w?re the - '"^^ ^'^^^^^^
i:'ieir influence tended fr» ,.« ''^ were ttie purists " in<i
But notwithstanding M«,:„rFrr' , ".""""''''d b„n-owi2
'f we examine a„ ^dbary dwf "■""•' "' *"»■ ™eabukry
one-fourtli of tl.e wov « ^7 ""V"""^' we And less S;
number of suoh" To d ? TJ±^i;>'''f\ ""^'"^t,^
fr. ri "iV 7."^^" '"or sources M.,f fV ' ^^'e rest beinir
Copioiisuess.
Sources.
328
First
Period,
Secoid
Period.
it
^IIIM^
loan-wordA,
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
)g VOifl
^^%a
' >.E. ceostet < LaL. m»in'
treated of, science and philosophy using a far greater per-
centage of words of classical origin.
516. We shall now consider how and when the almost
nnmixed English of the Teutonic settlers developed into the
highly composite English of modern times.
THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN THE VOCABULARY.
LATIN.
517. Latin loan-words were the first adopted.
(1). Some of them had, no doubt, been incorporated
before the English invaded Britain ; for we know that there
had been a good deal " intercourse between the Teutonic
tribes and the Latin ^ • ^ '^xamples are
chalk, kettle, min^ ■ • 'ough), fuller (cloth).
(2). A few Lf u wi.Mu.^ a.is«> ■ 1 .ic t law) rrh Celtic — the
result of the Roman lt'\;r-"'*<>r> '■ ^ itro
{a). Geographical namt>.
(colony) ; Chester, caster, or cestet
(camp). Examples are
Lincoln, Lancaster, Winchester, Worcv' " .
(&). And the following other words :
lake, mount, port, mile, street, wall, wick, wine.
Latin words, introduced before the coming of the
Roman missionaries in A.D. 597, are known as the Latin
of the First Period.
518. To the Roman missionaries (497) we owe some
words which are either pure Latin, or Latinized Greek or
Hebrew — about two hundred in all.
(1). At first, naturally, the new words were connected
with religion. Examples are
altar, bishop, candle, chalice, creed, deacon, devil, font.
(2). In the course of time, other words were introduced
to express natural objects and articles from abroad.
Examples are
lily, plant, doe, trout, butter, cook, copper, fork, kiln,
pillow, shambles, silk, sock, tippet.
Latin words, introduced between 597 and the Norman
Conquest, are known as Latin of the Second Period.
The Latin loan-words of the first two periods are said to
number one hundred and eight. Others were also borrowed,
eater per-
he almost
id into the
JULARY.
lorporated
that there
Teutonic
(cloth),
'eltic — the
... '.■.■■'?;?? »!a
La.1. castm
ine.
g of the
the Latin
owe some
Greek or
connected
il, font.
ntroduced
1 abroad.
:, kiln,
3 Norman
eriod.
ire said to
borrowed,
519. During- the Midfllp n t
the learned professions. uSS^n'^^nf *^' ^''^"^"^^^ «f '^^^^^
their lectures in Latin ; and it wJ! ^ P^'ofessors delivered P«'-'"<i-
and other scholars. Some of o^rt 'fw '"i ^^ ecclesiastics
able to the Latin, or Vulgate vll? ^^^""^ '' ^^« a^^" trace-
was used before the ap^in^'Twycl ? ^Z^^^' -^ich
All these Latin words are less ch«nlL f^ translation,
borrowings through Norman French m"^ r^^^'^" «»r ^arly
Examples are ^ ^'^ ""^ dialectical peculiarities
«ased circulation of^S "«. "if • "°''*' ""''ng to
...mtjnar. The religious and n„lL* f^-""' 'ntrodnction of
teeuth century contributed tolei ^'''"'"'' "^ ">e TJ.
a'tention was given to writers thot""". 1"^' '»>• """ch
classica models, influenced ever tk,t^."^'- ""^^'^ "Pon
*'■« an«;fnt classics. TbetlZi„°fJ^r'^<"'f"gnormtoe
and Philosophy, and, untif relenUv T'^r"" "^ Science
study of classics in the Grammar '4 u ^""'" ««lusiv8
helped also to swell the classS nt ) "^"^^^ «' England
^^ trVeTh-^B ?! ~^^^^^^^^ Si
S^t^,'tf^-Ss -t-stSd i«n; -
by French. Milto^ Cromwe l'^"'^r ""9 ™P«"-Beded
wrote h,s official cor^sponZt In La«n""''' '"' ^^""P'^-
At first, under the influ«-„^ ^f ., " ^
influx was so great that it 'threateneH 'f? ^'^«°ascenee, the First effect,
element. This tendency was! w;^^^ of^lZ^^L.
vvever, soon checked by the
329
i a
fWrfJ' ^.•
!
i- i
I
I!
330
Niituntli-
Number of
loiiu-words.
At first
indirt'ctly
introduced.
Since 1480,
botli dir-
ectly Jiiid
indirectly.
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
Ri'fornuition, itself a popular and Toutoiiic movement, which
led also to the rejection of certain loan-words, some of which
had been introdiice'd even before this period : for example,
fucinorous, hidilmiulness, mulierosity,
immorigiiious, stultiloquy, stramiiieous.
Latin words, introduced at and since the Renascence,
constitute the Latin of the Fourth Period.
The naturalization of such words has generally affected
the suffix oidy, and the verbs have been formed from the stem
of the infinitive or of the perfect participle. Examples are
annala<^ auual-es; Uuweewco <Ci)in(>caif- in ;
nudacious <C.(i udac-is ; l&yG<Clav-are; \wnetriite<Cptnctrat-um.
From the Latin loan-words of this period (estimated at
2,400), and to a less extent from the Greek, we have an
innnense number of derivatives. From one hundred and
fifty Greek and Latin root-words, for example, it has been
calculated that we have nearly thirteen thousand words.
GREEK.
521. From Greek, too, though in smaller numbers than
from Latin, we have borrowed much in recent times. Until
the Renascence, when Greek was first studied in the
Universities, all our Greek words came to ns through Latin
or French. Of the two hundred Latin loan-words of the
second period, at least one-third were originally Greek; so
that they are now greatly changed in form: for example,
alms <0.E. ahnesse < Lat. elccmosyna < Gr. eleemosune :
blame <^0.F. hlasmer <C Lat, hlasphcin-are <^ Gr. hlaf^phrm-ein.
Since the Renascence, maiiy have come direct, but others
have come through Latin and French as before, or through
other languages, as Italian or Spa- 'sli. The following are
examples of Greek loan-words: (._) from the original, (2)
through Latin (3) through French :
(1) analysis, bigamy, epidemic, telegraph, i:,oology ;
(2) alms, angel, bishop, Christ, devil, desk ;
(3) blame, dropsy, fancy, ink, surgeon, jealousy.
CELTIC.
522. The Celts, or ancient Britons, were quite different
from the English invaders in language, religion, and man-
ners and customs. The Engli.sh, too, waged a war of
extermination against them. The number of Celtic loan-
words is, therefore, very small, consisting chiefly of
geogiTtphical names adop^^'^d hy tlie eoiiqnerors: an,
Avon, Arran, Derwent, Exe, Mendip. Ouse, Usk ;
Few; chiefly
geograpliical.
leiit, which
u' of which
r example,
enascence,
lly affected
<n\ the stem
amples r.re
>tnetrat-um.
timated at
/e liave an
mdred and
it has Vieen
wordtj.
nbors than
les. Until
ied in the
ouf^h Latin
ords of tlie
Greek ; so
example,
3emosune;
, but others
or throngfii
llowing are
riginal, (2)
ology ;
usy.
te different
, and man-
a war of
[Celtic loan-
chiefly of
^rs: UK.
Usk;
'lr:<l. (broad valk-j'^at '"'■'' ^'"'""'V'- ''" '■'"'«•';
Aberdeen, Inven.e s. C„,,i„ C '" '"'"'^ ^ "»'
And a few other words, a.
Jr-anoek, mattock, bog, b,og„e Vurn .1
b"e, c.uin, claymore, glen
goo NOESE.
Hdopted tl,e English Ian '^e^-N™ '"*""' "'->' ■•"'"l V
were used early in the 3! !' ^"''■* »•<"•<'«. no dont,f
about 12M«rir.te"r,'ihat''^he; ,;S«' f."' '' was ,t"ti i
500 words in all are believf^ 'W'l^ed in literature. About
source. Norse words 1 ul « / V''^ '^"^« *« "-^ from th^
tion, that is, the chan^ o ftc, cvf^r S/^^^^^ P^^'nlaHt
arly took place in genuine English ^z-*^ ''^^' ^^^^'^''' regu-
^y, *^;^, for example, are, acShtlv '"'"'' ^'^ ^'^ff^ 4^,
while Engli,)! words like V^/ h- tp?^^' ^'egarded as Nors^;
same influence. , Our proifoun also i""'"'^!.^'^' ^ ""^^^ th^
Norse they, their, ^A..^ dispCedthe oT;"^?^''^-' *'«^- ^^e
(295 . Examples of other loan word," f;/"'' '"^^" ^"^^ ''^'-
EnyiLd^rrX'^ttlS^ 'r-;? ^?^^«^ -^ Northern
made themselves moJtf "it Th. "*'^"^.' ^^'^^^ ^'^e Danes
Norse words: W- (brook) IIu'^TT.^^''' '^^^^Ctll
Mce, or Mv (waterfall^ it^ IZ^; ^"M/nle), y^/7 (hiu"
jwo verbs ending in .r^'xTveT wft^t'^' ^^"^' ^^^ -^^
lEng. -in^;; as, ^'""^^^ ^^^h .patronymics in -son
skin, bask, busk, dreirs kilf .«•
' ^ ' ^'^*' ^^^««' «waiD, Anderson
524 P u FRENCH.
vocabufa./at1!j;^^Th^^^^^^^^^ ^oan-words in our
^rom the time of thp r I standing- next,
mandy in lon^ p" i if <-onfessor until tie los«5 nf \r
test ~|. 2= iiss:,,;- ~ -^
Akin to
Anglian.
Character-
isticf:.
Oeographical
and other
name«.
First Period:
Normun
Frenph.
I
West, origfn-
alJy Latin
^i)
m
m
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
Frt'iK'h
Hyl.rMs.
Loan-words
Hlowly
Introduced.
Chnraoter-
istics.
Some
replaced
O.E. words.
Prodtxction of
synouynis.
Bilingualism.
they had become srroatly altered before bein^ introdiUMMl
itJto Knjfli.sh (7). Moreover, the latiKim|?e of the Norman
settk'rs in En^'Ijuul, J)einj>: intlueneed by En^Hish lunl un-
inHuencM'd by the French of the continent, developed by the
time of Edward III. many ditferetices from the hinj,niaKe
them .spoken in France. From this AnKlo-Freiicli diah-ct,
as it has been called, we ^radnally ad()i)ted words which
became part of the texture of English speech, being, most
of them, of equal value and use with words of native origin.
Such hybrids (that is, words formed from more lan^iages
than one) as (irmulfather , grandmother, show the close
nitmiucy of the connection. How slowly, however, this
element came in, appears from the fact that Prof. Skeat has
found only 3,400 French words in thirty-one books written
before 1400. Even Chaucer has less than thirteen per cent,
of foreign words in his Prologue.
Generally speaking, most of the loan-words relate to the-
Church, government, war, and knighthood, or to new things,
introduced by the Normans : but it is impossible to classify
them exhaustively. It should be noted, however, that the
Normans introduced the Romance fa.shion of hereditary
names, or surnames. Before this an Englishman had but
one name. Examples of words from cliis source are
duke, mayor, aid, battle, attorney, ..,, irjiir.
tonsure, lesson, venison, chase, 1 . >\\l<^
salmon, cherry, aunt, cousi ... .\
Some words had the same meaning i some. Eujcii.-sh word';,
and eitherdrove out the English equi' -i' ••t- , ;'. f^-. ,.^..,. j,,
has been the case with the first of each of the following pai s :'
ikcnncd, conceived ; vondinge, temptation; sfeih, ascended;
yelderes, trespassers ; ariste, resurrection ;
or both English and Norman words were retained with a
difference of meaning, thus helping to enrich our vocabulary
with .synonyms. Examples are (the first of each pair is of
French origin)
deliver, free ; dame, lady ; gain, win ; terror, dread ;
purchase, buy ; route, road ; humility, lowliness ;
county, shire ; strange, uncouth ; sage, wise.
Indeed, during the period in which both Norman French
and English were spoken in England, there came into use
^ duplicate system of words, known as bilingualism. To be
intelligible to both the upper and the lower classes, it was felt
to be needful at times to use the speech of both. Examples of
such pairs, some of which are even now retained, are
asseuiblu, meet ; acknowledge, confess ; use, wont ;
testament, will ; dissemble, cloak.
f intr<><lu(MMl
tlu' Norman
isli nin\ un-
opcd by the
>o laiijfuagc
'iich (lialcot,
lords which
boiiig, most
ativeoriijin.
a lan^iaj^es
' the close
iwpver, this
L Skeat has
K)ks written
en per cent.
•elate to the
newthingfs,
e to classify
er, that the
hereditary
an had but
! nrp
s, iriur,
^ii.-sh word' ,
tving-pai s:
iscended ;
ned with a
vocabulary
h pair is of
dread ;
ness ;
36.
an French
le into use
sm. To be
, it was felt
xamples of
, are
vont ;
^;^^fo^^^u^y_^SNT m TUB vocAnvLAnr.
333
fcixamples are "onian Province of Qaul
barber, braruliei. f..:,.i. ^ .
Sonip, origin,
ally tVltic"
Teutonic;
Sopond
Period:
Parisian
*'rench.
'nflneiiceof
^'ourtiers;
The xJZ2 TT' '■■■'.^«'"-"•. iony.
526' °;^^™^' °f "- ^'"'XoT ''■""™ - ^or-an
the sf,md^ria;/u™S. Tf" ptnee^r *=''• f'"^''' ''»<' become
the end of (he Ihirteenth „,■/,„ k' -'"^ *" '•""•" i" K'wnrd,
«ent«ry. Some of tTe fil 1 f ""l" '*-' "^ ""^ f"urteemh
French, but it does nof sSm t<, h?*"'''.'^^f" ■"P"'"' ""»
degree, the geneml „»e of Si' ''T <^'»P''«'«1. h, „„y
by this tiv: ,;,, , „ „ J . "'fi"'"' Norman Freni'li li,..i
• 'f K-n. .; .;.•.':■■'":." et'^rSmnt"" ™-'""»" »nd we
""• hft. :■ ™;^ ."" hterary Freneh. Durinu-
Some of the ln«n °"''''^' demure, encourage.
duets i»;^tX";r:f\^i^i^T.:. "r '^""- »^ -»-
""' "^- -^r pet?.' '^e^tZce,
„ This element is ealled pS„ T' u
Second Period. ''"nsmn French, or French of the
beetmtomXtlirt'uTSd't''^'''' ^^""^ ™"'^^™ tin.es
of pronunciation/ Conin.'„; ''^
I'omer,,,,™^,- and LTTf' (*"■ ""mple. rage with tlVe?- ^^
'-,which'aiThetm;r;dtZtr'i'-'''^'''"'''^'^^^^^
^ The last class of French 7''°'^"'^ » *"^™nd time,
from 1500. Even beforl . '""""Words may be dated
writers drewmnci'ont?.:,^^., |:-.»f Eli.ab'eth, Xl
iW oorrowed manv word« f^.^ ^^''n''""^ i'lench, Ene-lish
""--ee increased^l^^oS, fcnt*^ J-^iJ:;^^^ ^-^
Commerce.
NaturalizaHon,
Third Period:
Modern
Freufli.
.'if
9
fl
1 '■
334
HISTORICAL OUTLINE.
>i(
!.
Literature
prefers
genuine Eng-
lish words.
Naturali-
zatiou.
Dutcli
settlers
and saiIor&,
Spanish.
Henrietta Maria of France, and rose to its height after the
/i7^^T^*^^°' ^*^^^"""fe' ^"^out the time of the death of Pope
^ ;.• J^^tfaoug^ Dryden protested against the excessive
use ot French words, he followed, to some extent, the
fashion of the court, and in his vocabulary we find French
words that are now no longer current. Examples of words
introduced during this period are
chagrin, repartee, debut, dejeuner, elite, caress, reveille
.corps, tirailleur, personnel, precis. '
As Paris has long been the criterion of fashion and social
taste, French influence still exists, but it hardly appears
in the vocabulary of pure literature. The best English
writers now show a preference for genuine English words,
as being simpler and more forcible— a tendency which
lennyson has done much to foster. Words borrowed since
the seventeenth century are used mainly in scientific works,
or to represent French ideas, as emeute, plebiscite, xyrestige.
vVhen first introduced Modern French words retain their
pronunciation. Some, however, gradually become natural-
ized, but some retain t^^-^ir pronunciation wholly or in part,
and the pronunciation of others is unsettled. Examples of
these classes are
brilliant, corset, deference ; prestige, glacis ] ballet,
bureau, depot, clique, douceur.
The French loan-words, introduced since 1500, are known
as Modern Frenchy or French of the Third Period.
DUTCH.
627. In the reign of Edward III., Dutch weavers were
induced to settle in some parts of England, and, under
Elizabeth, English soldiers, who aided the Dutch against the
Duke of Parma, brought home some loan-words with them.
Still later, after the fall of Antwerp, in 1385, many of its
inhabitants settled near the Thames. Dutch sailors also
gave us some nautical names; and we have a few from
South Africa. Examples are
deck, dollar, hogshead, boor, sutler, waggon, easel.
FROM OTHER LANGUAGES.
628. During the latter half of the sixteenth, and the
first half of the seventeenth century, the Spanis" language
was widely known in England, owing mainly to the many
points of contact, friendly and hostile, between the two
countries. Examples of words from this source are
AvrriQ/la fni'/iSi^'^ -fl/^+illo »»jtT«^*Jl!^ ^«_~^ _•„„_ _ii._-^j
; (.!;«!!«:,..; .,.!in!ti, i^UIiuiutu, v;aigu, i;igar, uiiigaior,
don, duenna, liegro.
rnEn>UEia.y slemmmt ny the vocABULAin:
33d
rht after the
ath f*f Pope
le excessive
extent, the
Snd French
les of words
, reveille,
a and social
ily appears
3st English
flish words,
incy which
rowed since
tific works,
e, prestige.
retain their
ne natural-
or in part,
Ixamples of
ballet,
are known
avers were
md, under
against the
with them,
lany of its
sailors also
few from
easel.
, and the
1 language
the many
n the two
are
alligator,
Afe
guese.
w words havi
Portuguese.
EWptes are " ■"""" '"'educed from the P„r(
the reigns of Henry Ylll ElizIhpH?^ i courtiers during
English authors of ^he thne, w "o tl '"^"^ ''^-
copied some of the peculiarities nf V. '^'''^.^^ Italian works,
of Italian architecture and ^^^^ T''^^'^' ^he stud;
tion of Italian nutnu W ures contit!!.''! ^"^ 'Y ''^^-'''^-
of our vocabulary. But the ac .p«^^l f '" ^? ^^^^ '"^'^•^^^^
.•a.hio„s Italian influe^ ■■aSXrd^eteW.i-S^^rr
miniature, balustrade. »n„t„ cartoon v. ■ „
brought ifstrbTiXuLTo t iir,:;^ n"» '" '"'- "-»
England. Travel, eommerce «", - lif """'' '""■"" "'' ™"™''-
l.«ve brought us w;rds.."^''T;a,:pies'o?rh'a'rr.'""''' "''
Hebrew : amen ehetr'-"? ■,''''«"/' '="<'"«' ""'Jy-
America.^ CTain h^ •• ^"'',''''''' '«'!n<l'«n, sei-anh.
Chinese : boC! i'u kTI' i'f T'"'''; *•"'"«■• "'S™--
Malay: bambon bJl* ' """''een. typlioon.
HuMAR.AS: hu.;°',-I;,,';7'"'' ""^-se, steppe.
ApmcAV. '""''■"■''• ''''""• ■"■■™moth.
"aturalization.orbyinclK;'/!;'^-:^]; ;«- "^^^ ""-«<» "^
I
i,j
336
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PREFIXES, SUFFIXES, AND ROOT- WORDS.
XVIII. PREFIXES, SUFFIXES, AND ROOT-WORDS.
PREFIXES.
NATIVE.
If" • I
I. LIVING.
By-, Je- ( about, thoroughly ; forming
transitives) : begirdle, befoul.
Mis- (wrong, not) : misdeed, miscall
(sometimes Fr., as in mischief).
Un- (not; with verbs, the reverse 'I :
un-English, untruth, undo.
After, fore, in, of, on, out, over, th(o)r-
ough, and up, which are still separate words,
are used like prefixes, and are sometimes
called SEPARABLE prefixes, t
II. DEAD.
A- (on) : a live «on life [384]).
ROMANIC
I. LIVING.
Ante- (before): antedate, anticipate.
Anti- Gr. (against) : antipope.
Bis- hi- (two, twice) : biped, bi
monthly.
Com-, CO- (together, strongly): co-
heir, commingle, concur, collect,
correct, countenance.
Contra-, Fr. counter (against) : contra-
dict, controvert, counterbalance.
De- (down, from, the reverse,
thoroughly) : depress, depart, de-
odorize, desiccate.
Demi- (half) : demigod.
Dis-, Fr. des-, de- (asunder, the
reverse) : dissever, dislike, diffuse,
diverge, descant, defy.
Ex-, e- (out, out and out): ex-presi-
dent, evolve, effect. Gr. exodus,
ec-gtasy.
In-, Fr. en-, em- (in, on): incrust,
impassioned, illuminate, irradiate,
engrave, embolden.
In- (not) incautious, imperfect,
illiberal, irregular.
Inter-, Fr. enter- (within, among):
interchange, introspection, enter-
prise.
A- (of) : adown, afresh, akin.
A- (intensive): ashamed, athirst.
A- (out) : abide, arise, arouse, accurse,
affright.
A-, an- (against): along, answer,
acknowledge.
A-, e- (meaningless): afford, aware,
e-nough.
At-: ado (441), twit, «wit "tc
note").
For-: forbear, forbid, forego.
Ne-, n- (not) : never.
With- (against) : withhold.
AND GREEK.
Nan- (not) : non-denominational.
Post- (after) : postdate.
Pre- (before) : prearrange.
Red-, re- (back, again): readmit,
redintegrate.
Retro- (backward) : retroactive.
Semi- (half) : semipolitical.
Suh- (under, upwards) : sub-examiner,
succumb, suffix, suggest, summon,
suppress, surreptitious, suspend.
Super-, Fr. sur- (over) : supercargo,
surpass.
Trans-, Fr. tres- (across) ; tranship,
traverse, trespass.
Ultra- (beyond) : ultra-radical.
Vice-{\n place of) : vice-consul.
II. DEAD.
A-, ab- (off, from) : avert, abnormal,
ab-s- tract.
Ad-, Fr. a- (to) : adjudge, abbre-
viate^ abridge, accompany, affix,
aggrieve, allocate, ammunition,
annul, applaud, arrange, assign,
attune, achieve.
Ambi-, am- (both, on both sides);
ambidextrous, amputate.
Jmpki-, Gr. (on both sides) : amphi
theatre.
SUFFIXES.
rt, abnormal,
^Po-, Gr rfrnLT ^* 'Analysis.
C«.a.Gr.(dow„).e..ast.ophe,„„.he.
ellipsis, endogen.
^yper; g;. (over) . hT'^P'^^^'^-
When. ^"""^^"^-^^^Pophosphite,
SUFFIXES.
06- rin f "^^'«o"^ent.
oe'eurfotrrVp'elr'^'""'™-".
Para-, Gr rvLc-T '
^^^pa^d^^.-pLtt',.™"'™-^ '»)••
wronglv?;'" il''™",«''- "wroufjhly
-S/zn- c\ u > • subterfuge.
I. LIVING.
""'/^r^.;r%«'.'' •■belong.
NATIVE.
"• DEAD.
?a&™« '™''' ''•"'«) Z Carting,
•'"•'• «"ucnrui. -kin Cliff lo^". i i., .
"'"'dwiSf:^ »"^ -»"): heaHn.. .,„.!'^'''-« Ti-lln':: •'""'-P"'''') ^
. in Godhead).
•^ng (part, and noun), i, •
dwelling "'' • hearing,
.,7?,.'"'""»"t) : fadeless.
-'// (like; a so adv ) • m.Lt „ ,
-««<' (the being) :-4|<'J™'y. M™ly.
_-6'»„«(,ike):b?;de^s„me •
-.,-.«/(l!ke"bel™yi„7trt?/^
I- uvma. (forming Ferbn.)
- — ■ - ^.k.) : aeepen, fatten. ., („„,„;■/ j^^^-
■^&:uil:^'^- 'p«t--
duckling, hireling! -™-7 •
bladder ^""^ ^^'^^) •• daughter,
■'t'dge!^^^^^*^*-)^ wedlock, know-
-.T^ /ii",^^) •• hillock.
T/f i */^*.^^ • hatred.
daughter. ^°°' ^^^^ •' brother,
^ ■
f
-4
^j^f
f 1
ill
^1
SUFFIX i':s.
ROMANIC AND GREEK.
(Forming Nouns and Adjectives.)
I. LIVING.
-able (that can be) : reliable.
-ade (state, eolleetion) : blockade,
colonnade.
-age (act, state, product, collection,
place) : bondage, postage, village,
hermitage.
-al (act of, belonging to) : with-
drawal, tidal.
-an, -ian (belonging to, one who) :
pagan, publican, Canadian.
-ard (one who) : dynamitard.
-ee (one that is): payee, (=-y, in
jury, attorney),
-er, -eer, -ier, -ar (one who) : archer,
engineer, brigadier, vicar.
■y (place, state) : tannery, villainy,
-e-ry (state, product, collection) :
slavery, roguery, poetry, rookery.
-cy (state) : bankruptcy, tenancy.
-ess (one who : fem.) : governess.
■ -ese (belonging to) : Chinese, Cai-lyl-
ese, courteous (by analogy).
-et, -let (little) : floweret, circlet,
-ic (belonging to, like): athletic,
domestic.
•ical ( = ic + al): angelical,
'ive, -ory (inclined to): plaintive,
determinative, advisory.
'ism, Gr. (the being, what is, doe-
trine of) : Anglicism, mannerism,
Puseyism, witticism (by analogy) .
~ine, -in (like) : adamantine.
-ist, Gr. (one who habitually) :
copyist, anti- revisionist (cf. gym-
nast, enthusiast).
-ite (belonging to, adherent of):
Israelite, Parnellite.
-merit (act of, means, result) :
judgment, pavement.
-ose, -ons (full of): grandiose,
furious.
II. DEAD.
-ant, -ent (= -ing): observant, con-
sistent.
-ance, -ence, -ancy, -eney (the being
from -ant, -ent): observance, con^
sistence = consistency.
-ar (like) : angular.
■ary (belonging to): tributary..
-ate (office) : consulate.
-esqiie (like) : picturesque.
-iee, -ise, -ess (quality, the being)
justice, riches (255), franchise.
-il (belonging to) : civil.
-iff (inclined to) : plaintiff.
-men, -me: regimen, regime.
-mony (state of) : sanctimony.
-nd, (that is to be) : dividend.
-one, -oon (great) : trombone, balloon
-or (one who, quality, act) : governoi
ardor, behavior.
-t, -te( = -ed): elect, favorite, licenti
ate, postulate.
-t,-ot, (one who, an enthusiast for)
prophet, patriot.
-ion, -tion, -ation (act or state of)'
rebellion, solution, salvation.
-tor, -trix (the doer): competitor.
-trum, -tre (object or means):
spectrum, spectre.
-tude (the being): fortitude.
-ty (the being): cruelty, fragility.
-ule, -cnle, -de (little): globule,
animalcule, particle.
-ure, -ture (act of), departure, im-
posture.
(Forming Verbs.)
DEAD.
-ate (originally Lat. part, suffix) :
assassinate, vaccinate.
-fy, Pr.( to make) : fructify, beautify.
isn Fr. (become, make, treat as) :
nourish, cherish.
ize, Gr., or -ise (to make) : pauperize.
'ans, result) :
It.
) : grandiose,
(bservant, con-
yieij (the being
(servanee, con«
jy.
'ibutdry.
e.
que,
y, the being)
), franchise.
il.
itiff.
egime.
timony.
vidend.
ibone, balloon
3t) : governor
^'orite, licenti
ithusiast for) :
or state of) .
lalvation.
20mpetitor.
or means) :
tude.
r, fragility.
le) : globule,
sparture, im-
:e^ treat as) ;
: pauperize.
^^Tm Rooi.iroMDs.
ROOT-WORDS.
The folio • "^^'A-WUKUS,
given in thTfoms'\\«7"K'"''? *^^ important Latin and P... ^.
iniquity eonSo ^ " ' '"'<")oate, Andm mil: """'e™'", oriole.
^esuZ, ''^SZll''^Z:^^\J . atLieror/avafcT"^^^ ''^"^"^•
t™7&^ ^ -™i. longi;;ity. -8"'T. inaiguS::"' '"''^'«'°''^'
^»"' ««"'» (dTX^erSrt? • ^r,"""""' (^"«'=) •• bacillus
binary. bien„i;i K?'?/ (twice);
Argentum (silver) ■ ' « ' ^Z^^"-
clear), amis ' "'^"'' ^"^ke
Armn(^L- ^^^^"t'ferous, argue.
Tul't"?!' --«) : ariorfal, arm,. -
^;-s rlvn ^. '^'■"''^^''^' alarm
^^;^er (iou *hi .^^t^^^e articulate.
^uaaxi^t^l. SL?^' f,^a«l>erate.
a,n.ln«-!!::r L.^"'^f'«« (boldness) :
hiSe^L'^ri^^^^^
eadenc; ""T^^''^^^^ deciduous, de-
cerulean {.\.J Unt'''^'' ^'^'-^S,
Calxmlc-isiUrne) ■ caLlus (pebble) •
r.j^^^"*'^;' chalk, calculable ^ '
(fire) • PnnS' ' ^""^"^ ' ^''cendi'un
^ ine"idi:.^;tcenr ^'^^^' ^^^^^^'
^«««5 (dog) : canine. *
tive, canorous, cant, chant
Ca;..o, ca/,r,„„ (take) : cantivP r..«-
(frrlo, cardm-is (hinge)- eirdJnni
Caro, mm-is fflpsh) . „ <^ardinal.
vorous.earnaSl'hSA'"^"^-
atiuii,cuainei, carrion.
tummmm
n
842
LATIN ROOT- irORDS.
\ if!'',
Cartis (dear) : charity, cherish.
0(stus (pure) : castigate, chastise.
Cautns {niiv'^axl) • causa (cause): in-
cautious, causal, excuse, roeusant.
Cavus (hollow) : cavern, cave, cage.
Cedo {go, give way); cesso (leave
oil) : cede, decease, accede, cease,
Celer (swift) : celerity, accelerate.
Censeo (judge) : censor, census.
Centum (hundred) : cent, centurion,
centesimal, centenary, centuple. '
Cerno, crctum ^sift) : discern, discreet
concern, secretion, discriminate. '
Cer<M4- (resolved) : certify, incertitude.
Cimjo, cinctum (gird) : cincture, pre-
cinct, succinct.
«m«5 (circle) ; circim (around):'
circle, circulate, circlet, circuit.
Oito (arouse) : cite, excite, incite.
Civis^ (citizen) ; civitas (citizenship) :
CIVIC, civilize, city, citadel.
Caleo (be warm); calor (heat)-
caloric, caldron, chafe, scald.
Clamo (cry out) : clamor, claim.
Clams (bright) : clear, clarify, clarion.
Uaudo, clausum (shut): conclude.
clause, close.
Clino, (bend) ; clivus (slope) : incline,
declension = declination, declivity
Cognosco, cognitum (And out) : recog-
nition, cognizant.
Coio, cultmn (till) ; eolonus, (tiller) •
culture cultivate, colony '
Comes, comit-fo (companion) : con-
comitant, viscount, county
Commodus (convenient) : commodity
incommode. ■^'
Communis (common); communion
community, excommunicate
Copm (plenty) : copious, copy.
Coctum (cooked) : decoction; concoct
Cor,cora.is (= heart): accord? X-
cord, record, core, quarry (prey)
Corona, corolla (garland) :^ crown
coronation, coroner, corollary
Corpns,corpor-isiho^y) ; corps,corpse.
corporal, corpuscle, corpulent.
Credo creditum (believe): creed,
^ credit, credible, incredulous.
^rcu ^maKe) ; creseo (grow) : recrea-
tion, crescent, increase, recruit
Crepo, crcpifum (crackle) : decrepit,
decrepitate, crevice = crevasse
Crux, cruc-is (cross): cruciferous,
excruciate, crusade, crucify
C«/;jo (desire) : cupidity.
Cwrrt (care) : curious, sinecure, pro-
r„Z'^' «"^e = secure (without care).
tu)w, cursum (run) : concur, current
cursive, course, succor.
Defteo, d(Mm (owe) : debt, deben-
ture, devoir, due.
Decern (ten); decimal, decimate.
decirate ' '^^'''''' ^^'^""^^ ' ^^''^°*'
/?ew5 (tooth) : dental, indent!
J>eus (God) : deity, deify, deist.
Dictum (said); dicatum (assigned):
n/.oM f^.^'f'?.^''^' '"*^'«*' dedicate.
/^«e5day);dial,diary,diurnal = journal.
Digitus (finger, toe) : digit, doit.
Dignus (worthy) : dignify, condign,
deign, disdain. ^ '
Do, datutn (give, put) ; donnm (gift) •
date, dative, donate, add, render.
Doceo,docium (teach) : docile, doctor.
Doleoigneve) ; f?o/or (grief) : condole,
dolorous, indolence, doleful.
Donmius (lord) : dominate, domain,
dominical, danger, dungeon.
Domus (house) : domestic, domicile,
^om^o (sleep) : dormant, dormitory.
Dubms (douUm) : dubious, doubt.
Duco ductum (lead) ; dux (leader) •
ediicatum (brought up) : adduce!
reduce conduit, duke, educate.
Duo (two) : dual, duel, double.
Duro (endure) ; durus (hard) : during
durable, duress, endure, indurate.
Edo.esum (eat) ; esca (food) : edible,
obese, esculent,
^mt., ^wp^Mw (take, buy) ; exemplum
(exam-)e): exempt, exemplify,
sample, rec^^mption = ransom.
i:guus (horse) ; eait-^o (ride) : equita-
tion, equitant, equec<^^rian.
^rro (go wrong) : errant erratic.
aberrant, aberration, erroneo-s
£sse (to be); futurus (about tobe"«'.
eswHf.^e, ^icaeni, entity, luturi^V
Experior,expertum (try) : experiment
exDerienee, expert.
^^TIN ItOOT-HORDs,
o) : decrepit,
•crevasse.
cruciferous,
crucify.
neeure, pro-
ithout care) .
cur, current,
•r.
iebt, deben-
i^eimate.
ee) : decent,
ent.
I deist,
(assigned) :
', dedicate.
al = journal,
t, doit.
7, condign,
mum (gift) :
dd, render,
eile, doctor.
f) : condole,
)leful.
;e, domain,
igeon.
domicile,
dormitory.
s, doubt.
"' (leader) ;
i : adduce,
educate,
ible.
i) : during,
, indurate.
i) : edible,
exemplum
sxemplify,
["ansom.
) : equita-
-n.
erratic,
■oneo:'«.
lit to be^ '.
, futur'K"
perimeo*
Fairer (workman): fubricnfo f
Fades (face)- fn^/ini ^'®' ^^^S^.
Fallo (dec9ivp\ . f , 1 ^'^^'''^y* faculty ;
i^a^mm (temple) f^^^^^ '^'^^-
Fatum spoken )/•!; ^^^f""^^ fanatic.
.(speU'hWte,^Sb^';i'f''''^
infant, infantrv ;^f ' ^^'^"lous,
^:"t'i^S'(^l5?.^^fi;^«^«f^ fence.
Fcro, litum bear ■ l?rf' /f °«'*y-
defer, efferent h//^'^**^^^''*"^) •
Filius (son)- fii/n "^,9i^"cifix.
florist, florid effloii"''""" •'
fluid, inflU Je,' iSe„/ °™' '
fluence, flux finih T f I '"""-
folio, tSl' ''"«"' »^'<"»te.
frugivorous,^ructifyfSi[S.^^^ =
I'y>, fugitum (floe) : fugitive fehrS
rulgency, eiruJt?«nf <.,;, V""'ng; :
^'""'"s (smoke f^.«' ^^"^'°ate.
;"tne,^rk„t^;";:!;,/,7;5'^-'-,
»« (nation) ;ZihJ% ^'"l^'
ingemum (gpnius) ^1 ^^°'''^'
Smierate, congenei" IZT^' ^'■
genital, ingenC;' X ^'^^-
Cfero, gestum (carry) ' «!^,, /u ^
gerund, belligerent S ^^?P^ •
gesture; exagSe'. '""^^«*' ^^^
i^lans, gland-is (acorn). ,i ^
ate, glut nou^ ^i V^!'- «°"gJonier-
Gradus ntZ / ^Sglutinate, glue
Oralus (grateful)^ »m/L ',f!™«f-
gratitude, gratifv ■ <'"<"■):
hereditary herif»T'- u '"?'•««»?,
;.,.».. ™?"'' '"'OMnus rhnm.u).
- -^1
iiJ iriiH
If!
844
LATIN ROOT- frOEDS.
Hostis (enemy) ; hospcs, hospU- -
(host) : host, hostile, hospital, hole..
Ignis (fire): igneous, ignite.
Imitatum (imitated) ; imago (image) :
inimitable, imagliiary.
//«/;e/-o (command;; imperium (rule):
imperative, imperial, empire.
Insula (island) : insular, peninsula,
isle {not island [512]}, isolate.
Integer (whole) : integral, integrity,
redintegrate, entire.
Intelligo, intellectum (understand) :
intelligent, intellectual.
Ira (anger) : irate, irascible.
Itum{(ro) ;inj7tMw( beginning) ; itinera
(journeys) : adit, circuit, sedition,
ambient, initiate, itinerant, com-
mence, exit, issue, perish.
Jactum (thrown) ; Jaceo (lie) : abject,
trajectory, adjective, conjecture,
adjacent, jet, jetsam, jetty, jut.
Jungojunctum (join) ; jugtim (yoke) :
juncture, conjunction, jugular,
conjugal, joint, junto.
. Jus, fur-is (right, law) -Judex, jndic -is
(judge); Justus (just): jurist,
jurisdiction, juridical, judicial,
judicious, juror, jury, injury.
Juvenis (young) : juvenile, rejuvenate.
Juto (help) : adjutant, aid.
Labor (work) : laborious, elaborate.
Lapso (slip) : lapse, elapse, collapse.
Lac, lact-is (milk) : lacteal, lettuce.
Lacrima (tear): lachrymal.
Laedo, laesum (dash, hurt) : elide
lesion, collision. '
Lapis, lapid-is (stone) : lapidary.
Latera (sides) : lateral, collateral.
Latus (broad) : latitude.
Laudo, laudatum (praise) : laudable
Lavo (wash) ; lavanda (things to be
washed) : lavatory, alluvial, laven-
der, laundry, diluvial, deluge.
Laxus (loose) : laxative, laxity, relej- 9.
Lego, legatum (appoint); lex, leg -is
(law) ; collega (colleague) : legate,
legacy, legal = loyal, privilege,
legitimate, college.
Lego, tectum (pick, isad) ; hgio
(legion) : legible, collect, lecture,
lection = lesson, legionicry.
Lenis (gentle) : lenity, leniet ,
Levis (light): levity, levant, levef,
alleviate, elevator, relief.
Uber (book): library, libel.
Liber (free) : liberate, liberal, liberty,
libertine, deliver, livery.
lAhra, libella (balance) : libration,
equilibrium, deliberate, level.
Licet (it is allowed); linquo, lietum
(leave) : license; illicit, relinquish,
relic, rer^t, leisure {O.Fr. leisir).
Ligo, ligatu.u (tie): ligature, liga-
ment, religion, league, liable.
Liqueo (be moist): liquid, liquor,
liquefy, liquidate, deliquesce.
Littera (letter): literary, literature,
literal, illiterate, obliterate.
Locus (place) •,locatus (placed) : local,
locate, dislocate, allow (permit).
Longus (long): longitude, elongate,
prolong = purloin, lunge.
Loquor, locutum (speak) : eloquent,
loquacious, colloquy, locution.
Luc^o {shine) ; lumen, lumin-is{Ught) ;
lu,m (moon) : elucidate, luminifer-
ou«, illuminate, lunatic.
Machina (engine) : machination.
Magnus (great) ; niagister (master.
I.e., "a greater"); maximus
(greatest) : magnanimous, major-
ity, majesty, magistrate, maxim.
Mains (bad); male (ill): malice,
malevolent, malignant, malady.
Maneo,mnnsum (remain) : permanent,
mansion, manor, remnant.
ilfa»ms (hand) ;/wanr7«<?iw (entrusted) :
manual, manacle, emancipate,
maintain, manoeuvre, command.
Mare (sea) : marine, maritime.
Malcr (mother); materia (matter):
maternity, matricide, mater'alize.
Menibrum (limb): member, mem-
brane.
Medins (middle): mediator, imme-
diate, medieval, mediocre, means,
Memor (mindful) : memory = memoir,
remember, commemorate.
Mendum (fault): mend (=amend, for
emend), emendation.
Mens, ment'is (mind) : mental, de-
mented, mention.
vnnt, lever,
ief.
el.
jral, liberty,
iry.
: libration,
e, level.
f^MO, lietiim
, relinquish,
).Fr. leisir).
iture, liga-
, liable,
lid, liquor,
quesce.
literature,
3 rate,
ced) : local,
(permit).
, elongate,
ige.
; eloquent,
)eution.
i-w(light) ;
luminifer-
nation.
f (master,
maxinms
us, major-
), maxim.
: malice,
malady,
•erraanent,
mt.
ntrusted) :
nancipate,
oramand.
ime,
(matter) :
ater'alize.
jr, mem-
r, imme-
:'e, means,
= memoir.
e.
mend, for
tntal, de^
LATIM HOOT- WORDS.
^^tt.^^^'"^' •"'r^'' fpurehase).
merx merc-is wares); msrcL'
«j.j.rf-.. (reward: )mentS'8'
nierchant, merchandise, meiien-'
ary, mercy, market, mart
Mensum (measured): mensuratinn
commensurate, immen^e"meas,^re'
diet/ '^n^M '^^ '■-.r^^*' "'^^^'-i^ (sol-
Minnr nl "!''^' '"'"'°"' militate.
Minoy (less); m^M(o (lessen) ; mivi'>
f (.servant) : minority, d imTn siV
Mi.oTr'T\ "^^°>«t^'^' nn-nsTreT. ''
Mi^or (wonder): miracle, admirablfi
M^sceo mixtnm (mix) : p'rom^cuous'
medley, miscellany, meddle
ment, immolate,
^olhs (soft) : mollify, emollient
(rwa:r^';" ^^^^-Tm7Lu>n
(a warning) : monition, admonish
MoZTlT' "^'T'^^' demonstrnte!
(death) !.^^l']' ^'"'•*' ^^'-^-^-^
jaeath): morbid, mortal.
mordanr"'" ^""'"'^ '' mordacity,
moidant, remorse
Mores (manners) : morals, moralist
Moveo motum (move) : im>veme;t
Multus (many) : multitude, multinlv
(^ift)'^T''^ /'^?;^^i ' ^'-'-^
Igittj; murus (wal : munition
remunerate, munificent muS
-f(VmteT^'tiirmS^^^
immutable, mutual. ^^^'""^^te.
Nascor mtum (be born, originallv
v>., / i.."^'"'*®' cognate.
iVaw (ship) ; ,ja«^a (g^ilor) : naval
navigation, nautical, navy, navVv
^^?r, r?«- ^"\^^^ = negative, deny.
iVeu'W5 (sinew) : nerve. PnPvLfo
ivoeeo (hurt); «oxa (harmiV innocu-
ous, innocent, noxious, nuisance
145
XS;«fT"" ("^"'e) ;--older,
notion nn?V"^'«' "«tice, notify'
notion, notation, notorious d
^ovus (new); ,r,o/<«/,. (news): novel
innovate, novice, announce. '
iN^o^,««c/-/.. (night): nocturnal eaul
nox, equinoctial. "»", equi-
fudus (naked) : nude, denudation
^"-...(number) : enumerate "
^utno (nourish) : nutriment, nutri
tious, nurture, nurse. '' ""^"
Oculus (eye) : oculist, ocular.
Odium (hatred): odious, annoy -
ennui, noisome. «uuoy _
Si /lonii^ °'^'''' °™^ipotent.
i^<em (loads): onerous, exonerate
Opto (desire) ; optimum (best) : op L
optative, optimist, adopt. ^°"'
Ow oratum (speak, pray); omen
(sign) : orator, adore, orison
^f; «*^^;/*'. (bone) : osseous, ossifv
Olmm (leisure) ; .,e^o^eM,M (business) •
otiose, negotiate. ^^ *
Ovum (egg) : oval, ovary, oviporous.
^""fp^ace^^r'""""'^' ^«^' P««-'-*
(peace); /^awgro, pactum (fasten
P«.lw'-\i' P"^'' P^«'fi«' impinge '''
^ar (equal) : parity, peer, disparaffe
Paro, paratum (get ready : compafe'
^epair,prepare,paraehute, parasol'
P«reo (appear) : apparent. ' ^"''•
^«m (bring forthf: parent, viper
Pars, part-is (part) : partitiorl parW
PasZTrfJT^'''''^ P"''^^^' partner ^^'
r^n,l^^ open); panr/o, />a,m,«
(spread) ; passus (a pace) : patenf
pass expanse, pan, pail ^ *'
P«^.r (father) ; ;,aMj (fatherland) •
paternal, patrimony, patron natri
cian, expatmte, repair (go)^
Patwrpassum (suflfer) : patifn pas-
sion compassion, passive.
Pauper {poov) • pauci (few): nnu^^r
ism, poverty, poor, paucity. '"
Pectus, pecior-is (breast) : pectoral
expectorate, parapet <Jar.or
1
■k
f4r
\^P
i-m
846
LATIN HOOT- f FORDS.
Peculium (private property) ; pcciinia
(money) : peculation, peculiar,
pecuniary.
PeUis (8kin): pellicle, pelt, pelisse,
surplice.
Pcllo, pulsus (drive) ; pulso (beat) :
impel, dispel, pulse, compulsion.
Pendeo (hang) ; pendo, pcvim
(weigh); pondem {weights): de-
pend, spend (<di8pend), expense,
ponder, pensive, poise.
Pes, ped-is (foot): pedal, pedestrian,
pedestal, pedicel.
Peto, petitum (seek): petition, com-
pete, repeat, appetite, petulant.
Pictum (painted); pigmentum (pig-
ment): picture, depict, orpiment.
Pius (dutiful): impious, piety-pity.
Placo (appease) ; placeo (please) : im-
placable, placid, pleasure, plead.
Plantn (plant, sole) : plantation, plan-
tigrade, plantain.
Planus (flat) : plane, plain, plan,
piano, explain.
Plaudo, plmmim (clap) : plaudit, ex-
plode, plausible.
Pleo, pletum (fill) ; pUnus (full) ;
plehes (the commons) : replete,
expletive, accomplish, eomple-
ment, plenary, plenty ; plebeian.
PUco, plicitum (fold) : implicate, ex-
plicit, comply, complex, simplicity.
Plumbum (l^ad) : plumb, plumbag< ,
plunge, plummet, plumber.
PluH, pluris (more) : plural, surplus.
Poena (punishment) : pceniiet (it re-
pents) ; punio (punish) : penalty,
penitent, penance, punitive.
Polio, politum (polish) : polite, inter-
polate.
Pono, positum (place) : positive, re-
pone, deposit, compound.
Pose and its compounds, as expose, are from
pmisa (a pause) < Gk. pau -omai (coase).
Fopulus (people) ; publicus (public) :
popular, populace, people,publish.
Porta (gate, part); porto (carry);
partus (port): portable, porter,
portcullis, export, opportune.
Postulatum (demanded): postulate.
Patens (able) : posse (be able) : poten-
tial, impotent, possible.
Praeda (booty) ; prehendo, prehensum
(seize) : prehensile, prison, prey,
depredation, apprehend.
Preces (prayers) : precarious, impre-
cate, deprecation, pray.
Premn, prcssum (presa): reprimand,
pressure, depress, imprint, print.
Prciium (price) : precious, appreciate,
price = praise = prize.
PnwM.'*(fir8t) ; prior {former); princeps,
prindp.is(ch\e{)i prime, primrose,
primate, priority, principal, prince.
Privus (separate); privo (bereave):
privilege, privateer, deprive.
Pn;;ie (near); proximus (nearest);
proprius (one's own) : propitious,
approximate, proper, approach.
Pugna (fi-ht) ; pugil (boxer) : pugna-
cious, impugn, pugilist, poniard.
Pungo, punctum (pierce): pungent^
poignant, puncture, punctual,
point.
Purus (pure); purgo (purge); puto
(cleanse, think): purify, purga-
tory, amputate, compute = count.
Putris (soft, rotten) : putrid, putrefy.
QuaerOj guaesitum (ask) : query,
inquire, quest, inquest, exquisite.
Qiialis (what kind) ; quantus (how
much) : quality, quantitative.
Quartus (fourth) ; quatuor (four) ;
quadrus (square) : quart, quadrant,
quafTroon, quarry, quarantine.
Quassum, in cpds.-chssum, (shaken):
quash, discuss, percussion.
Queror (complain) : querulous, queri-
monious, quarrel, cry.
Quintiis (fifth) : (Quintain, quintuple.
Radius (ray) : radiant, radiate.
Badix, rndic- is {root) : radical, radicle,
eradicate, radish.
Mapio, raptnm (snatch) : rapid, rap-
ture, rapacity, ravenous, ravish.
Rarus (thin) • rarify, rarity.
Ratus (reckoned) ; ratio, ration-is
(reckoning) : rate, ratify, ration
= reason, ratiociiiation.
Rego (rule) ; reclus (straight, right) ;
regiila (a rule) ; regno (rule) ; rex,
reg-is (king): regimen, regent,
rector, regular, regnant, reign,
dress = direct, rule.
Res (thing) : real, realistic, fepublie.
---_ . „ J, J t<_tiiia| iclidiy.
Rideo, risum (laugh) : ridicule, risible.
Bigeo (be stiff) : rigid, rigor.
irious, impre-
ray.
> : rpprimand,
nprint, print.
iH, appreciate,
ize.
ner); princeps,
me, primrose,
acipal, prince.
>o (bereave) ;
deprive.
15 (nearest) ;
I : propitious,
, approach.
•xer) : pugna-
list, poniard.
) : pungent =
, punctual,
purge) ; puto
irify, purga-
uto= count,
trid, putrefy.
sk) : query,
st, exquisite.
uantus (how
ititative.
tuor (four) ;
-rt, quadrant,
arar.tine.
m, (shaken) :
ssion.
ulous, queri-
•
, quintuple.
radiate.
Ileal, radicle,
rapid, rap-
»us, ravish,
ity.
io, ration -is
atify, ration
n.
ight, right) ;
(rule) ; rex,
len, regent,
aant, reign,
ie, republic.
cule, risible,
gor.
i?»i;«* (brook) : rival, rivnlvt, derive
But nvcr <Lat. rip. (bank
ilo" ^'os'u^f'^ •• T^-O-l-roiorate.
Rnnn'f t^ (gnaw): rodent, corrode
fe ^fwhi'* n '''°*^^"^' prorogue •
iioto (wheel) ; rotundus (round)-
Bankrupt, rout, route -= rut
^"'' ^•"^-*^ (country) : rustic', rural
.S'«Z r««in *;• ''*^' «""<'^''on, saint.
So'S«r/r' ?'"'^.' «'^''^J.«auce.
»a«o m/„;^i (leap): salient, salmon
assail, assault, insult, resilie '
Cir^^S"'?"''^'''^'''-''''^^^^^^
health) : salvation, save, salutarv
Sangmssanguin-is (blood) J^u^^^'
Sams (sound) ; LnifJ 1 "a l."
ZlTv'Jr^' whole)V"sanl;
sanity, sanitary, sanatory.
sapient, savor, in.,lpid, sage.
sltX''f^;'^''''''(^"""^=««tisfy,
satiate, asset, saturate, satire
'Wo .9mu.'«7« (elin.},); ^^r^/a (lad-
der) : scan, ascend, descent, scan-
sorial, scale, escalade. '
fZi '''^^■- '^'^"^^' nescient.
i>cn^o, scrtptim (write): scribe
describe, script, conscript, sh ke'
VttcT^r^^ •■ -^-'t' -gm^nt:
iDut sect <;L<at. scqnor.
s7deT'-'^' (sit): sediment, sub-
^.2,,' f «'duous, sedate, possess.
Semen semm-is (seed): seminal
seminary, disseminate. '
Snilio, sensum (feel) : sentient, sen-
tenee, scent, dissent, sense.
'S^;^/m (seven) ; septeni (seven apiece) :
septennial, septenary.
Soqnor secuW>, (follow) ; ......?.,
(fo owing ; soeins (companion):
«ri ''•. o^r^"ies, consecutive,
SeZ 'J^i ' "/'^^' ?^^^"»^' sociable.
Seio, sertnm (set in a row, join).
^ series, sermon, exert «r.n..^''.* ' '
■^■vm (slave) ; senno (serve) : servile
^^n, sergeant, deserve But m-?'
servf t^ser'^o reave). ^
347
'W.m (stars) : sidereal, con.sidor
•^'WMsign):signal, assign Heal
^i;;nJ:;'dk;::;:;;^?«""'"'^*«'--
'""'""^y'-'l^i ;n>lf ) ; .vo/r/«/^ (one bv one) .
simplicity, simplify, ii,,^,,,^"^^ •
,;^^;;;;;;);^so;:--;s^^^ --
■■;"'"•' (iiloiii-) : 8oIr, solitude snln
solvent, resolve, dissolute, soluble
'noir";r^ ^'^"^^P^ ^ -porific sot:
So» ' y Homnia, somnambulist
e son-1^ '""^••"V'^' consonant,
person -parson, un son, sonnet
5p«n7o, ./>«..v,o« (scatter : spaJse
asperse, disperse. sparse,
'>'/«■«/;. (space): spacious, expatiate
Spcao, spectim (look); sneezes U^'
sptcious, despise, respect, sniee
SZ ^ ;? ^'V' ^"T"''-' Jesper'ate^
bVe: h'i "''• (^''^^the); .p,n7„,
(bie.ith : spiracle, aspire, expira-
^n/. 7' ?''".'t"«'' sprite, sprghlv
fle>ideo {^\nn^) , splendor st^endid
N>ohum (spoil); spoliation despoi
' Tof'one'r""'^ ^P'"'"'«^) '• ^' ^^i-
(ot one s own accord) : respond
sponsor spontaneous, spouse'
Stela (s ar) : stellar, oonstellatTon
Sterno, stratum (throw down, spreTd) •
,,. f°"«t^'',"'ition, street, stnitify. ^ '
(goad) : distinguish, extinguish
instinct, stimulate. "'^"»8'»»
''i/Z'.^ t''!*^^ ' ^Z"^"*- (a standing) ;
statiio (set up : station, stable
^ad^, , establish, eontrast.ob^^^^^
distant extant, substance, exist
state, statue, statute, armistice '
Stnu^,o, striclum (g.az'e, tighten)'
stringent, strain, strict = strait
-S^r^o, .7n„..a,>« (ouiid): construe
s ructure, instrument destroy '
Suadco, sHasnm (induce) r .L,.,,
vswee;.) : persuade, suasion, suave
Sal ^'^'^V '' 'r^^' sudorifi; ^'^"•
nen^^r'"''' ^^^^^^ ' ^^'^/^'^'^^ (ex-
pense) : assume, sumptuous.
imu
m.
348
LATIN ROOT- WORDS.
vm
.!»
'* ' If
Snpcrus (upper) ; supremus or summus
(uppermost) : insuperable, supre-
macy, summit, sum, consummate.
Surgo, siirrecium (rise): insurgent,
resurrection, source = surge.
Taciturn (silent) : tacit, taciturn.
Tango, tactum (touch) : tangent,
tangible, contingent, contagion,
contiguous, tact, taste.
Tego, tcchim (cover) : integument, de-
tect, protect, toga, tile.
Tempus, tempor-is (time) : tempest,
temporal, extempore, tense.
Tempero, trmperatum (moderate) : tem-
per^ tamper, intemperate, tem-
perature, temperament, distemper.
Tempto, temptatum (try): tempt =
taunt, attempt.
Teneo, tentum (hold) : tendo, tcntum,
or tensum (stretch): tenant, per-
tain, tf^ndeney, extent, tenor.
Ter (thrice) ; iri-a (three) : ternary,
trinity, triangle.
Termimis (end): term, terminate,
exterminate, determine.
Tero, tritum (rub, wear away) : trite,
try, detriment, contrite.
Terra (land): terrestrial, terrace,
terrier, inter, tureen = terrene.
Terreo (frighten) : terrible, deter.
Testis (witness) : testify, detest.
Textum (woven) : text, texture, tissue.
Torniis (lathe) : turn, tornado.
Torquco, tor turn (twist) : torture, tor-
ment, contoit, torsion, torch.
Torreo, h.-tiim (parch, boil): torrent,
torrefy, torrid, toast.
Totus (whole) : total, surtout.
Traho, traction (draw, drag) : tract,
retract --^retreat, trait, train, trail.
Tuber (swelling) ; tumco (swell) :
tuberous, tubercle, protuberance,
tumid, tumefy, tumulus.
Tueor, tuitum, (behold, guard) : in-
tuition, tutor.
Turbaicvowd) : turbid, disturb, trouble.
Ult.j (beyond) ; niiimus (last) :
ulterior, penult, ultimate, outrage.
Unguo, iinciHin (anoint) : inio-uent
unction, unctuous, anoint.
Undo (flow) ; ^tw, , (wo.ve) : undulate,
inundate, aljund, redundant.
Unus (one) : unit, unite, unison.
Utor,ustis (use); titilis (useful):
utility, utensil, abuse, usurer.
Vacoihe unoccupied) ; vactms (empty) :
vacant, vacation, evacuate.
Vagor, vagaturu (wander) : vagabond,
vague, vagary, vagrant.
Valeo (be strong) : valid, convalesce,
prevail, valedictory {vale, fare-
well).
Vamis (empty) : vain, vanish, vaunt.
Veho, vectim (carry) : vehicle, vehe-
ment (carried out of one's mind),
inveigh, invective, convex.
Vulsxim (torn) : convulse.
Velum (veil) : revelation, unveil.
Venio, ventum (come) : convene,
advent, venture, event, venue,
covenant.
Venter (belly) : ventral, ventricle.
Verbum (word): verbal, verbatim.
Verto, versum (turn) ; vertex, vertic-is
(top), advert, versatile, obverse,
verse, adversary, divorce.
Verus (true) ; verax (truthful) : very,
aver, verify, veracity.
Vestis (garment) : vest, vestry.
Via (v,'ay) : devious, convey= convoy.
Video, visum (see) : evident, visage,
provident, prudent, invidious =
envious, vision, visual, visor.
Vilis (cheap) ; vile, vilify.
Vinco, vietu (conquer) : convince,
invincible, vanquish.
Vir (man) ; virtus (valor) : virile,
virago (manlike woman) virtue.
Vitium (fault) : vice, vitiate.
Vitrum (glass): vitreous, vitriol.
Vivo, victim (live) ; vita (life) : vivid,
vivacity, revive, victuals, vital.
Voco, vocatnm (call); vox, voe-is
(voice), vocation, invoke, vocal.
Volo (will): voluntary, vol'Kif- er,
volition, benevolent, malevolent.
Volo, volatum (fly) : volatile.
Volvo, volutum (roll) ; volumcn (a
roll); voluble, revolve, evolution.
Voro (eat) : devour, voracious -vorous.
Voveo, votim (vow) : vote, devote,
devout.
Vulgus (the commons) : vulgar, di-
vulge, vulgate.
Vulnero (wound) : invulnerable.
GREEK ROOT- WORDS.
e, unison.
'Mis (useful) :
se, usurer.
acmis (empty) ;
aeuate.
?r) : vagabond,
rant.
id, convalesce,
y {vale, fare-
vanish, vaunt.
vehicle, vehe-
\ one's mind),
convex.
3e.
n, unveil.
) : convene,
3vent, venue,
, ventricle.
, verbatim.
crtex, vcrtic-is
itile, obverse,
/oree.
ithful) : very,
y-
vestry.
ivey= convoy,
ident, visage,
invidious =
al, visor.
fy.
f) : convince,
alor) : virile,
aan) virtue.
tiiite.
s, vitiiol.
(life) : vivid,
tuaJs, vital.
vox, voc-is
voke, vocal.
r, vol'Kif' er,
malevolent,
atile.
I'olumcn (a
i^e, evolution,
ious -vorous.
.'ote, devote,
vulgar, di-
lerable.
The folio • V GREEK.
The Greek u, ai, and oi have WoZ resMjtil.1 '?;'""' «"<i Anal el
*eogi^. leading; „,.„ ., ,„„,„,r "T "!'^, '"r^-^"^" «' "'
elements,
and to.
But
Agiii (a leading; <,,„-„ (a „ r '^^^'^^'^'y '"« English ..V/
synagogue, aiony, antagon"st ' ^f"™*'* (mark) : oliarncter
iSSM^ adimantSlnd. '"ZluJ^T^I' ™«"«"^'-
s^eipiws (brother): monadelnhie o^ cnanty <Lat. caritas (love)
^2 /-^''^;.^^'°"a"t' aero-. ^ '• ^^'''' \^}^^^' '■ cl"rography, sWeon
"^''li'^'f (feeling) : aesthetics, anaes- CJnr ')'r'Seon (ergon, wo^rk) ^ "^
thesia. «, anaes Clnha (ten thousand) : kilo-
Akouo (hear) : acoustics. ^''^"T /Pal«-g'*een) ; chlorine chlor
«««!« (change) : allopathy, ""«: CW,= "^^ ' "ho'erio, cholera.
SaS^r:,!,.?-'')' p»->'»'. "'oi^o^rbSi, htSchorr^"-^
enallage, parallax.
:id"f"^^"^^^^^-^-^ynous,
jnmo.(wind) :anemone,anemometer
"SgS=(^rsr^hr^:i
fiaJ|ro„ (stick): bacterium, bacteri-
^''^j!l)tj^ro^y); hole (a throwing).
diabolns accuser): belemniti'
Vperbole, metabolism symbol'
emblem, diabolical, devil '
Ta:tfc^--^^^P«^^-^'epiblast;
i^^«2>';j;-;(«peak m) : blaspheme,
•«>o?«05 (stench) : bromine. hrn,„^_
W^. (vvindpipe) : bronchial ^bron-
song, originally
chorus, choral.
Chows (dance and
dancing place):
choir.
S,Zi'^"T-^ •■ ^^''''^' chrism.
Uuoma chromat-os (color): aehro
ism ivn'^h^ = '^^'^"^«^^' anachron-
ism, synchronism.
^ISUtfA'o^^'^-^''^'''^
2)«»«on (heathen deity) : demonia,.
demonology "tjmoniac,
/><rt«to (mode of life)- di«f ^- w-"
i> Y;J_tvvice) ; dickain two: di-,
matism, orthodox (orthos rurun
notos(gWen); dosis (givifgY ^nee
dote, antidote, dose ^^ ' ''^'
/>morr?o) drama: drastic
/ro».os (running): dromedary
'"'^Zf (?;-!= ^y-,dynam\,dy-
Chaos^
cJiasma
} Ghabva
(yawning, gulf) : cha-
.^ (sight, form ; e/r?otou fimaee)
350
' , I
GREEK ROOT- WORDS.
Eikon (image) : icon, iconoclast.
Etron (a dissembler; : irony.
Endon (within) ; entera (entrails) :
endocarp (carpos, fruit), endo-
enteric, enteritis. '
Ergon (work) : energy, metallurgy
Eremos (desert) : eremite = hermit
Eruthros (red) ; erythroblast {bS^^s,
germ): erysipelas (pella, skin) •
erythr-, erythro-. ' '
^''ethnir^'""^ ' '*^^^"' ethnology,
Etumos (real) : etymology
Eurus (wide) : aneurism.
Mo (sound) : echo, eatechist.
Eos (dawn): eo- (beginning).
Ethos (custom, moral nature) : ethics.
^Tm""^ J""""''^^^^^ •■ bigamist, poly-
S<^^y, gamo-. '^ ^
Gaster (stomach) : gastric, gastritis
Ge- (earth) : geology, geodesy.
Glossa (tongue) : glossary, glottis.
Glukus (sweet): glucose, glycerine
G^MMp (engrave) : glypticf hierogly-
phie (Ineros, sacred) .
Gnosis (knowledge) : gnostic, diag-
nose, prognostic. ' ^
Gm/>/<o (write, paint) ; gramma (writ-
ing) : graphic, grammar, gram.
Gumnos (bare) ; f^wmm^o (exercise) •
GwS^"^'' F"'''^ *^^' gymnasium.'
G-Mwe gunaik-os (woman) : gynae-
cology, misogynist.
ffaimayhaimat-osmood) : hrematoloev
hematite, anaemia, hemo-
^mrm? (taking) : heresy, aphaeresis.
Beteros * other) : heterogeneous.
Becra (seat) : cathedral, hemihedral.
^m(one): hyphen, hen-.
Bf^ (six) : hex-, hexagon, hexa:iieter.
Behos (sun) : heliacal, helio-
Bemera (day) : ephemeral, ephem-
eridos.
Bieros (sacred) : hierarchy
^wto> (inquirer) : history, story.
Bolos (whole) : holocaust, holo-, hol-
Bomos (same) ; homoios (like) : homo-
^oiiucus (genos, kind), homily
(i^e crowd), homo-, homoeo-.
i^om (season, hour) : horoscope.
Borti^o (define) : horizon, aorist.
Budor (water): hydrogen, hydro-,
dropsy, anhydride. '
Ichthiis (fish) : ichthyology.
Mws (peculiar) : idiom, idiot, idiosyn-
erasy (cmsw, mixture),
/on (violet) : iodine, iodide.
Isos (equal); isosceles (sA;eto5, 2eg).
Si''°^.i"f7^ •■ c^enozoie, encffinia.
Eakos (bad) ; cachexy (/jear/s, state) •
cacography, caco-.
^rt/os (fair) : calisthenics, cali-.
Ealnpto krupto (hide): apocalypse.
^^,^"«a^yPt«8» crypt, cryptogam. '
Katharos (pure) : cathartic.
Eaustos (burnt) : caustic, ink.
Kentron (centre) : eccentric.
Kephaleihe^A) : cephalic, cephalopod.
^«»eo (move) ; Mnema (movement) :
Kinetics, kinematics.
Khno kUma, (slope) : synclinal, cli-
mate, climax (lit. ladder).
Eoinos (common): cenobite (bios,
life), epicene. '
KoncM (shell) : conch, conchology.
Kosmos ornament, world) : cosmetic
cosmic, eosmo-. '
^o/«os (festivity) : comic, comedy
(ode, song). ^
Ronos (cone) : conical, conifer.
Www (skull): cranium, megrim
^r«^o. (strength, power)! au?ocmt,
aristocracy (aristos, best), -cracy
^nm (judgment); krites judge)-'
critic, criterion. ^ ^ '
Krnos (frost) ; krustallos (ice) : cryo-
scope, crystal. ^
-ff«anos(dark-blue) : cyanogen, hydro-
cyanic, eyanoraeter.
Kuklos (wheel) : cycle, cyclic.
Jxulindo (roll) : cylinder
Euma (wave) : cyme, kymograph.
Kmi-os (dog's) : cynic,
^t^o (contain); t«,,i, (bag); kutos
(cell): cyst, eyto-.
Lego (choose, say) ; ?ea7s (speech) ;
logos (discourse, reason) : eclectic
lexicon, dialect, logic, -logy '
" «^noKi A",". ^P"*^Psy» eataleptc,
syllable (taking together)
Leipo (leave) : ellipsis, eclips'e, lipo-
Leucos (white): leucite, leuco-.
on, aorist.
ogen, hydro-,
3logy.
, idiot, idiosyn-
re).
dide.
(skelos, leg).
ie, enesenia.
(hexis, state) ;
ies, eali-.
: apocalypse,
ryptogam.
rtic.
c, ink.
itric.
;, eephalopod.
(movement) :
y^nelinal, eli-
ider) .
nobite (bios,
onehology.
i) : cosmetic,
nie> comedy
conifer,
ti, megrim.
) : autocrat,
est), -craey.
'^s (judge):
(ice) : eryo-
)gen, hydro-
^elie.
lograph,
sag); kutos
(speech) ;
i) : eclectic,
-logy.
cataleptic,
iv).
ipse, lipo-.
!UC0-.
GREEK ROOT- WORDS.
Luo (break) : analyze, dialysis.
*£f "'^^-' -XT: "''^-
361
^losos (disease) ; nosology
t„„„t;rt4,°*f (inhabit):
organic, organo .^ *' organize,
S^S^S^^^^f^/orjuthology.
C^mUe^ writing) irfhn*^^^;^P^^y
word), irThi ^^' orthoepy (epos,
Osteon (bone) : osteology osteitis
Oxus (sharp) : oxygen, ^J^y'^^el'
Palmos (ancient) : paleontology (ont
p being), paleozoic. '""^^ont-,
all) ' P^°to-» diapason (through
rmtStS (a Stoppiiiffl • nn.ioi
-pose. '•''"•SI- pause, pose,
S 'fi'^"??') ■ pirate, empirical
^awetes (wanderer) : p/anef
apoplexy, hemiplegia ^ ' '^'"«"*'
dunes) .nno P. "*^ '■ P^^umon
Pons, podos rfonn ' P'^T' P^^:^-
r^/S many) ^^an,?'''-^"^' P^^^P
Poleo (sell) . Z ' ^",*'P?^^^' Podo-.
^«''/p5 (proeesS?'^^' ^^^""P«^^-
/^m4;' (S);^'ATP'PrP«"f-
_ practice, pra . hV^if ^''^^^^ ''
^^•esiMs (old)- nrA«K f ' ^'^glli^tiy.
/'/•o^os (first) •* P'*'f'^^*ei"= priest.
Pi-e^r/S /fof ^^^P®' Protozoon. '
isoui; . pbyehical, psychology.
I :rj
li
352
GREEK ROOT- WORDS.
I '
k:i' 1
1
■
nvlfi \^^'\ Py"*^«' pyrometer,
pyrotechnics (techne, art).
shall bear) hippophagy.
Phaino (show); p/w«to^o (display).
^Jrr' If ^^^"^^^ ' ^^'«^^^ (appear-
ance): phenomenon, phantasm =
phantom fantasy = fancy, phane-
rogam, phase, emphasis.
ptZr^u"" ^^^'"^)' pharmacy.
PAero (bear); p/^om (a carrying)-
r^^fnghtt^'^'-^^^^'P^-^P^--
P^eme- (speech) ; p7i5„e (sound)-
• pJ^^rT'^"^' P^«"i«. phonograph
tanfi^-^'' friend) :' philanthropy
(anthropos, man), philosopher
rsojo/wa, wisdom). P^^^^^opner
P;.o^5^oMfear): hydrophobia, Ang^
physics, physiology. ^^ ^ '
rS, «^ ?^ f^*^'^^^' rheostat
U^atos standing), rheo-; rheum
^, rheumatism, rhythm. '
Rhetor (orator) : rhetoric.
h^;tT;?hLT"^'"'^^°^^^-^^--'
^'^twee?'!^^'^^''"^''"^°"«^^^^"^«^,
^^'l^-^? (of flesh) ; sarcasm, sarcopha-
^awm (lizard) .- saurian, sauro-
Schema (form); scJiole (leisure)-
scheme school, scholastic? ^^ '
-^cto (split -sehism, schedule (or
<;jjat. scindo, split)
^^^05 (food) : parasite, sitology
"'itlidir^^^^^ ^^-^'' --
^'tceni^r '^^^— )= -ene,
^*tf**^,^ (reflective) ; skope (look) •
sceptical, scope, -scope Pp.Wp^r
^^'f"?^-^ V^"'^'^^?'^*' overseer)' '
2/(dtrwf ^ •* '"P^"^*' Philosopher
«/>at. (draw) ; spasm, spasmodic
^'^:pT;adr"^"^^^-P--'3pore,
'^'^'vapor) ^'^"^ ' atmosphere (atmos,
Sphu^oithroh) : asphyxia, sphygmo-
-S^a o. (made stand) ; ms4 (stanS) .'
ecttasv^''«r.^'^^ '''"^^"^^ ^P««tafe;
ecstasy, system, asthenia, calls-
^^o«. .^0^0, (what is sent, equipment),
stole, apostle, epistle, apostolic
f LT' ^?«"'r^ 5 stenogi-aohy •
'Stereo* (firm ; stereotype, stereo
^^ scope rsA-oi>.o, look).^^ ' ^'^''"
^'t4lnin^j'^^^^^^'--«««^«^^^^^
^Si fc""^-^ ^ ^'*^■''^^^^' stratagem.
£ l.T"r^\-* '^^^Phic, apoltro-
pae, catastrophe.
?nTii^7"^^?*^''*^5 ^«^^0* (ar-
TofJ^« telegraph, telephone, tele-.
-torn (a cutting); ^o^„o5 (section)'
anatomy, dichotomy, tome atom"
entomology (en.tomon,S^l^cT) '
Tnlinr^f -f ^^^"^^ •• t«-e tune,
WoWnlS*''^^"^' peritonitis. '
Tfnr.-P /^^ • t^Pie^ topography,
Utopia (<o?<, not, "nowhere")
Ji/pos (blow, impress : type, typify
tympanum, timbrel, timbre ^^^'
the.fr? fi' ^^"T' (spectator):
77,Io ?n i^*^®''^^' theodolite.
^<eo5 (God) : theist, theology
^ferapeuo (heal) : therapeSs
rS^ealh^r^"^?*-^^^^^^^^^
TJiesf, (S^^^\ thermal, therm d-.
T^fn IP^'^^'"^) '•, ^''^»^« (something
laid down); theke (ease, chest)?
theme, parenthesis apotheearv
treasure (thesauros, treasure) .^'
firfbeTn''^^''"^°"«=J^^^«"s-
^owe (belt): zone, zonule, zona-
2oon animal ) • ''ar>^r^Z ^^^^';
-Z^^we (leaven) : zymotic.
I) ? sperm, spore,
losphere (atmos,
^yxia, sphygmo-.
stasis (standing) ;
statics, apostate,
asthenia, ealis-
(kistos, web).
?nt, equipment),
stle, apostolio.
loo^raohy
eotype, stereo-
k).
'uth) ; stomachos
itomaeh, stoma,
acrostic (akros,
?gy, stratagem,
ophic, apostro-
ph, cenotaph.
; taktos (ar-
taxy, tactical,
slephone, tele-,
'nos (section) :
% tome, atom,
on, insect).
': tonic, tune,
peritonitis.
< topography,
nowhere").
, intoxicate.
type, typify,
tmibre.
nt, tyrannous.
(spectator) :
dolite.
?ology.
peuties.
eter, isotherm
h therm D-.
i (something
5ase, chest):
apothecary,
reasure) .
jealous.
^ zonaw
', zoophyte,
iia'^, (cocUoii,
EXERCISES
XIX. EXERCISES.
PART I.
rt ON THE TEXT
^ooS^^tltA^'^'T' ""'^ '' t-o kinds- analv.' fn
and then divLw "^1^,:^' '"^"^'^^^is consists ir^Tiv "f',>^T'"-"' «^ ^^m-
showing.- their f..ff ""'T ^"^^ ^^s essential an .^^ . '"^" '*'' «^'^">^^S
(1). The kind, or c/a<t« of fu
the parsm/?o thes'" ^f ••*''*<'«. Very ofteTt is ',«'■'" '"'"''«"> '^
convenient fo ,10.^1 ■,? . ""-V '»" "sed. I„ „7,.> ' • *""", "xercises, any
o.-ing to «,*; tt: ;; ' ', T '*'■'■"" P-'i' >aS'if. a ce';^ • ""f '« '' «
sion would ofie L ;, ''^■^■»■"•■■"■"«al relations -f^ff?" °"''"'' ''"t,
e«epti„„al to™ ooonf'^f ''?''''^- Wbe.-e 'e, in ?^ f"-;™ of expves-
language. "---^ '' .s,.o„,a bo ^^^'>^>^.SSSr^^^
n. TH. ..TO^eE Am ITS COMPo^^s.
T ^, .^ CLASSES OF WORDS. §3 IG-'H
capti
fv
':"'e ;. «;;■ ™c:z:;;?;''i;!i:;i '-..5!"- sill in,^!':;:,;-';"^'.;? .oi;.!
liiy cheek and cold.' ' 7
niovuless stiJl
What
art e:
IS t|j(
^•^/y told. 5. Soft
grassy stream. 6. j
tn wash her guijt away?
file
and
grew
\l 1
^r^ 8. Here, to the
354
EXERCISES.
\ \.\
I i
houseless child of want, my door is open still. 9. Lightly and brightly breaks
away the niorning from her mantle gray. 10. Around, in sympathetic mirth,
Its tucks the kitten tries 11. No more to chiefs and ladies bright, the harp
of Tara swells. 12. In thy right hand lead with thee the mountain nymph,
sweet Liberty. ^ *^ '
DIFFERENT VALUES OF THE SAME WORD. § 32.
II. Classify the italicised tvords in the following:
1 Home they brought her warrior dead. 2. Farthest from him is best.
3. Hard bji a spreading lime -tree stood. 4. The many rend the skies with
loud applause. 5. The paths of glory lead hut to the grave. 6. None but
the brave deserves the fair. 7. In Venice bnCs a traitor. 8. Thank me no
thankings, and proud me no prouds. 9. Past hope I have lived, for my noon-
day is past. 10. The cardinal is not my better in the field. 11. If thou
thou St him some thrice, it shall net be amiss. 12. Certain were there who
swore the truth of this.^ 13. // me no ifs and but me no buVs. 14. Heavens <
^ovf^ unlike their Belgie sires of yore! 15. Mark you his absolute shall f
16. No! no/" says aye, and "Twice aimy,'' says stay. U. Him is the
objective case of he. 18. lUjures the land, to hastening i^^s a prey.
PECULIAR WORDS, NOTIONAL AND RELATIONAL WORDS, PHRASES AND CLAUSES.
U 33-37.
III. Classify the phrases'- and select the noun, adjective, and adverb
clauses, in the following:
Make a list of ten relational and ten notional words, and classify the
italicized words : ^ jy ^
«wJ,;l^'Tli^^^^'''?lu^^®'''*^> ^''"'^ natures, wj/mc;^ leads them to sport with
awful and hallowed things. 2. To expect men, holding such opinions, to have
consideration for the prejudices of others is to expect the impossible 3 1
endeavored to form some arrangement in my mind of the objects I had been
of New York. 5. He is a good-for-nothing, and always begins triflirig as
not'low 7'S'^?h '%r' "^ ''f^'- r^.«^ ^^*«^ «^«^^^«*h the wind slall
not sow. l.ffhcn the fit was on him, I did mark hoiv he did shake. 8. We
ihTJ'l^TT^ "^^ "'u ^^^^^ ^^ grammar makes the smallest difference in
the speech of people who have always lived in good society. 9. You all did
did thdceTefusl ^^''' ' ^ ^^"'' Presented him a kingl/crown, whth he
what uouslT^ fnr''^hdn*i!."lK' '?*'•'' f" /^pression as the italicized ^irt of " He is guilty of
III. CLASSES OF SENTENCES.
MODEL OF SENTENCE-ANALYSIS.
th JhI!^!'''.'' f' ^a'^*^^"'? f^"««'^«'-^ tliat he is obliged to ea!) the attention of
ott ff allbounds -"^ ^ ^'■'"' *' '"' ' ^"' ^' """^^^^^'^ '^ '' «^««««i^« ^"^^
An assertive compouna-complex seutence, containing ihre^ dauses.
brightly breaks
patifietie mirth,
right, the harp
untain nymph,
tn him is best,
the skies with
). 6. None but
. Thank me no
i, for my noon -
i. 11. If thou
fere there who
14. Heavens!
ibsolute shall?
17. Him is the
El prey.
i AND CLAUSES.
e, and adverb
d classify the
n to sport with
)inions, to have
*ipossible. 3. 1
ets I had been
fo there by way
!?ins trifling as
the wind shall
shake. 8. We
t difference in
9. You all did
)wn, which he
f " He is giiilty of
B, the phrase does
le attention of
excessive and
ree clauses.
EXERCISES.
Prin „ . oeaioid conceives
^"n. assert.; incomplete.'
«""-<'• tod); noun, object of e„ • "'""«»- '<"'i»
(=»• -»o,) ,e consider^ i. , ""'""'• """• ">« -nneetive. '
, Prin assert. ; in .,„,,/' T"'" '""' °"' "' «" ""-Us
Sd" "hS ir^» o- ■^y"t',''ih„\''r « left forCve? alot' 1" T'."^'' '"y
thoua-h hft of„„ : "® first entero/i u " three fiffure/ ,..,^ i "" -^^ ^
suceeer^ i o ""m® *« recover h;« / ^® ^^emed ffre«flv ' ^^^^ ^^^'^ed in
"1 ThJ , ^^ our 0VVI2, and in t\'^, tiHm% of H,« ri™ *"'^* formed it-
we ^^^ll'^y- "^ the 'dr.;".!!'.!., ," ' ."f destiny „'^^.*!<' ''e we weave
" ' ^® waters under the
'¥
m
H !
i: J
m
356
EXERCISES.
heaven he gatli.'red together. 20. The bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to
niet't him. 2G. To solenni feast I will i. 'ite liim-where be thou present.
27. Green be the tuif above thee ! 28. How happy he looks !
Wr-PruPtifo ill cliissifyiiiK tl>o sounds of tlio ImignaKo may bo found in any of the other
exercises At first, lir)vvev<T, only tin- more important classes of sounds sliould be dealt with.
' In tlio analysis of words, almndant practico can l)0 luid in applying the principles wliicli
canse clianKe of form. After most of the Latin and (ireek root-vvor.ls. in the lists in bection
XVlll., uro cited, us exuiui)les, words which may be xmed for the same purpose.
V. WORD FORMATION.
MODEL OF WORD-ANALYSIS.
irresistible = ir + resist + ihle = '' that can be (-ible) not (ir-) resisted";
- And at a hiter stage, thus :
irr€sistihle = ir + re + sist + ihle = ^' that can be (-ihlc) not (ir-) witli
(re-) stood (-sist).''^
After some practice in the preceding schemes, the following will be
suj3icient;
enable --= en + able = ^^ to make able."
countless = count + less = ' ' without count. ' '
translate^ trans + late = '' to carry across," that is, " to carry thoughts
from one language into another."
impervious = im+j)er-^vi + nus=''\\aVmg no way through it."
JKT-In working the followingexercises, consult the lists of prefixes, suffixes, and root-words.
BY SUFFIX. II 77-83.
X. Anah/ze the folloiving into primitives and suffixes, and show hoiv the
suffixes affect the meaning:
healthiness, drainage, trembling, sailors, European, courteous, godhead,
rookery, maidenhood, artist, kindred, responsibility, darling, stealth.
IT. From the folloicing primitives form by siiffiixes as many derivatives
as possible, giving in each case the force of th" addition:
law, sweet, gold, brass, saint, Canada, friend, winter, water, break, lamb,
wed, stream, hate, count, jewel, hill, game, eat, rose, black, nun.
BY PREFIX. § 84.
III. Separate each of the following into primitive and prefix, and show
how the prefix affects the meaning:
discontent, encourage, unmarried, impotent, extraordinary, withstand,
propose, oppress, undres; , unbelief, mishap, prolong, denude.
IV. Fi'om the folloiving primitives form by prefixes as many derivatives
as possible, giving in each case the force oj the additions:
patience, turn, shore, bid, lay, trust, ever, run, manljy , do, hold, bitter,
siege, cover, bear, date, worker, ease, danger, human, midst.
.mti
;o ye out to
liou present.
ny of tho other
(1 be dealt with,
rinciples which
lists in Section
le.
) resisted";
t (ir-) witli
ving will be
,rry thoughts
it."
, and root-words.
show Jioiv the
s, godhead,
g, stealth.
nij derivatives
jreak, lamb,
lek, nun.
3fix, and show
, withstand,
ienude.
my derivatives
hold, bitter,
midst.
EXEBCISES.
3S7
WITHOUT CHANGE OK KORM. Si 85-80
anotUer das, mlhout uUeml^Vjhrm " '""" '" '"""f^'r^U to
war., notion, post, ,o„., „™vi™„,- preface, fear, notice, n^ini.ter.
COMPOSITION. §^ 87-88.
VI. Translate into phrases a<i in '6 nfi ti r li ■
«» temporary co»,j,o,.„<ls those ««r.l*l't: {:'':S ™'"''°''"*' "•"«•"'
^tfeirbei;frrttn;n":™t:^.^^^^^^^
«...„oppe,, ™in^pwn«,^;;-5";rrrtwt;n'u'S;:f™'
VI ._ Express by a compound each of the following phrases ■
ashal!'ito7tir;™';,';tr'i^;Tvholl','? "^'^ »^ ^"™"'' " -"» who be^
™y .-ave «„n,et.in« to'eat, ,^ i:ii::^Z^,Z^:^ ^SS!^ ^
uZ^ffi^cT-"' ""f''"<"'«'0, aimng the force of the root-words, prefixes,
..o.,K.,.,„ iueWin^aMrdirpil"^;::'';:?;.^^, 'n-;;!'--"-'
<'«eh addition affects the mianiny:' ^ '"■ff'«'<- or of both; state how
hot, fresh, absent, real, dear w„tl» ,i,„i, i- ■ .
mountain, nainC"Aat .na,!',";':',,ir"'- ™"^^' ""'«•
-a J,- a «o"4!„^rrs:^,1S;™. -'."Jean.one who '^"f^ ^-tiy, a kin.-s
nalie new again, the race of man the o„nl t V'"™'"''''"" °'' " «l'iW, to
testimony, made of lead, of Z „atum o^^ , nT^ "■''<'• »"" "I'O bears
possessing teeth, to daze often, to stay often ' ''<»»«'^l"' K-'een, not
.ooi|gTrerSetn'g1,LS';:'tt'er:;f;''S'J?r*f"'"«-'°«- -■• '"^ -' o'
for otliers, given to visions, the rn le ot^tl 1 , "f ,"' '?"""*•' to.Wther, feeling
11'^ i^L'."^'-'.' "» "■'« Of the'twfon^s' We^'tir l".:"^« °'-".'« ™"' "-
who lives in a place.
ifcteu by one's self,' one
¥
358
fcxjciicisit:^.
IVFLECTION-
94-105.
XIV. Gifc mill ^)tme nil the in/lrrfoa forms of the following, stntinq the
effect oj the injlection :
abbot, fo;:, ox, brother, (isli, ^M-at, 1, thou, he, she, it, thi^, that, who,
which, other, be, slowly.
XV. Name, with explanations, the yoverninj and the agreeing ivords in
the jolloiving :
1. I saw him and his father. 2. Thou seest 1!ie boy's books; she sees uib
sistt'r s. 'i. It this bo so I shall leave. 4. For conscience' 8ai<e.
«#- other exercises in inflection mny l)e found tiiroutjhout tlie hoolc,
VI. SYNTAX OF THE PAKTS OF SPESCH.
MODKLS OF SKNTENCE -ANALYSIS.
I.
Ardent and intrepid on the battlefield, Monmouth ^ag eve'-yvvbTe else
effeminate and irresolute.
Monn.outh
ardent .... battlefield
was
efifeminate and irresolute
everywhere else
I. Bare subject.
I. Modifier.
III. Verb.
IV. Subjective complement.
V. Adverbial modifier.
As there is no predication in either the interrogative or the imperative
sentence (48), it is better, in a general scheme, to use the term " verb "
tor III., and it is simpler to include under this term both the simple
verb and the verb-phrase. So far as the assertive sentence is con-
cerned, the verb " might be called the bare predicate (18).
II.
Having been a good boy all his life, he had never giveu bis parents anv
unnecessary anxiety, notwitlistanding his lively disposition
he
having been
had given
his parents ,
I. Bare subject.
• ' • life II. Modifier.
III. Verb.
. . anxiety IV. Objectw.
j V. Adverbial modifiers.
never
uotwitlislaiiding .... disposition
Here IT., being logically equivalent to "as he had been, etc.," is also
an adverbial modifier of the predicate (373 [5]); and, in an exhaustive
analysis, this should be added under either II. or V.
Both IV. and V. are adverbial (148), but it has long been usual to
distinguish them. Sometimes, however, the indirect object is described
as an adverbial modifier; and the objective predicate (131 and 132) as
M-A
, .stating the
hat, who,
ng ivords in
she seeb ^lifc,
^vfi'^re else
[plement.
ier.
imperative
111 ' ' verb ' '
Hie simple
ce is con-
tarents any
fiers.
;.," is also
9xhaustive
1 usual to
described
d 132), as
EXERCISES.
'in objective complement. But fl.n r^- " ' " ~
more easily made i„ parsin/w h '^'•''''•"•;'"«tion amon^^st objects i«
continued analysis. Wh!^; viV V'' ''•' ''' *' '^^^'^ (p ^iS.T s oulv
«till to he ^■al^ed as an o bjec an MI ^T''"? '' '^'^^^'"•^^1 *>'>i<^*'t , 128) h
becomes tli. su*>jective colii^^Lr^/l^ ife^S^'lSif " "^ ''^' ^-
yachts
the
lie
Jike swans. . . water)
With folded ving- j
drramiug ^.^|es
1. B.'i ' Subject.
ni. Verb.
IV. Adverbial Modifiers,
V. Subjective Complement.
H( ' V ' I I "^""jctuve L^omplement
tei»g»„cC.," TomJwHtuhT'''''''' ''^'""<"''«' ■■'»'' "positive not
. CAUTIONS.
above) and sometimes (a« i„ MoL m /■ *^'?"y <"■'' i» M„,l,.| if.
attaoM to it a complement X h a i, ' n r/'''?,'""''' ''<•«*' imni'd .tely
th; ch.ef relationship in eae c ,se t; ,'","' *''« ■'"'''■i''<-t ^ogi. ilv-
«-. .nd especially V .hrposiT;:: „',''i;* ;'^™:««<1 ">' the ge„e4i
an|; s'"""if SI T:''s^t.::t'Tr ^'"•'t'™-- •>« -'»p"'" f-r
Y-t^-tieal pe,-,di„rities th"t "eed te^fJ'T''' ""!' "'"'' «>•« n-ny
that co«pfe,, trbaveTubiletTtL^^rn '^?P^"T' '" ■'" "'^ <!™en:s
analysis, it is usual to r,^ triot the fev , ^If^'""^'- (">• H'- v.Tb); l,„t, . ,
verbs of incomplete p, edKatlm' '" "'" '^^P'-««--*i»>>« "hat complete
waetl,ersWnbyar^-^r^'lX^^--fr(-9e;
..Mi
u
p n
vmi
1 1
I
\\
3G0
EXERCISES.
[h.w to nj.uly/.. a si-nU'twe into its cluuscs, ,m,l the two schemes eo,,,-
blued Will jr.ve a complete auulysis. See also .scheme on pp. 374-^75
(4). An interj..ction.<il element is no part of tl... sentence, but it is
r;^' conS:""^ ' ''""^'' '" ^'''''*" "'^' integec.ional expres^^cm
In the following exercises explain the syntax in accordance icith the
subject as dealt with tinder the paragraphs referred to :
«#'Somo of tho sentences may ulso bo used tor analysis.
SUBJECT AND PHRDICATE VERB. |g 115- Ig.
I. 1. Nearly one half of the Inhabitants were aHseml)lt-(l.' 2 The armv of
the queen mcMn to besiej?e us. 3. Havoc and spoil an.l ruin "are n.vTmin
'in u ^;;n ;;•-.;' ''^ o'ti;;;;:'"'"'' r- ^ ^"*' '^^ ^"^ yenoii^s.^ " «
lunm r ana niiiif^'ht. O.lhine are honest tears. 7. Ami I l.clio!,! F
establish my covenant with you. H. He was a wonderful n m tha u c o f
nmi h> i.Ki.t. 11. he tramp ot horses, the blast of a trumpet were lu^-ird
^: i^r m-u^ s zj^i^tl:: ;rit!o;.t.srrL C t
;s natural to the English. la. My purse, in^ :^^ " n l.^el " J^E'
10. So doth the prince of hell and his adherents. 17. Peace fd estecn s .li
that ase can hope for. 18. Why is dust a.ul ashes roud ? ' None o t le
nunates ,s m the house. 20. There are a great number of inhabita"rts
JLnTnflf''^^f^''^''^^^^ ^''' /o?/o.t'm^, using the present or the
past teniae o/ be, and assigning reasons for the agreement:
1 . Either John or .lames. 2. Either you or I. 3. John or vou 4 He as
I'i "« Th- ''•,^""' '"^"^ "^^ ''^- «• More than a little.'^ 7.' Mo'rehan
five 8. Notlnng hut ease and comfort. 9. Not you, but Mary 10 oh
or James or their sisters. 11. More than he. 12. Th^ h,[e a id civ
IJ. Fifty cents. 14. "Thompson's Seasons." 1.5. The lors and buc^v'
16. Bread and water. 17. Twice two. 18. Six and five. ^^^^'
PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. §§ 119-123.
man^" \' T.11 h°^' yellow to the jarndiced eye. 2. A dress' suit becomes a
man d ihe tiinc turns torment, wfien folly turns man's head 4 With
London 8 Nov^'Llr^ •''f ' I' ^ ^i?"''' ^'"^ ^«^ '^'"^"^^t prisoner to
tln-s sun of' VnX *i^%^'«t«'' f ^"r discontent, made glorious summer by
11 Thl fn, • ^' ^^^ >''''''''' ^ ^^^"^ hevou^e. 10. She stood silent,
weddhir. ^^iT-""' ^''"''"^- '"• ^^- ^^^ '"^"^^ ^"^ «it drooping. 13. My
OBJECTIVES OF THE VERB. §§ 124-133.
17' ^' -^u" '®^^® ™y ^'^^ ™y virtuous deeds behind. 2. He wrought the
castle much annoy. 3. I mean you no harm. 4. He gives his mSs no
tremulous anxiety 5. Ask me no questions, and I'll tell ySuno fibs
sweet'M T ?he 11^.^^"- TV^'/"?.''.^^^^"^ ^ "^^^ ^^'^^^^P-"' ''Soli bide s
bweec ! <. lue jrale had siffhed itsfilf to rest 8 TTp r;-T-^^ . 4.1 i.
11.- -11 tu ittM. ,>s. j^e pra^eu u prayer that
* •
- ■^''•-'•^>im(0m^:.
I'^^mcisKs.
ht'MU'S COHl-
p. 374-:i75
20, but it is
1 oxpivssion
ice u'ith the
The nrmy of
re niy gjiiii.
'V Tibcp, was
, l»('llol(l, I
Imt II Hole of
•dsof tlu!^ is
were luvard.
11(1 eonu'dy,
1 ill religion
'If is tliiiie.
?steem is nil
Sfone of the
'itaiits.
csent or the
4. He, as
More than
. 10. John
) and ery.
iiid buggy.
becomes a
I. 4. Witli
y sit quiet
prisoner to
summer by
ood silent.
?. 13. My
) meet me.
•ought the
)arents no
>u no fibs.
Solitude is
irayer that
301
it would last hin, a yoar o TT« i ^7"! ~ ' ~ '
near"'- to tlie tomb Vl \> "*'' '"^'^ '"'« '"^t on 10 Prn.ii..
vr. 1. witi,„„t Z"'""!'' '""'■'•''»"=^-^«- 2§ 134- 140.
eo„e, u»„e.,,« JX. ^.^-^'h 'l^.^-S'l' --..i.* 1^1:^/^^^
VII 1 Th P«S«K«SIVE CASK. 22141-143
ime nsf „;.,..* ^_ ''" '^'"'a old man of ft»;«>c .._ ., : r^
under one man » uwe? y. n
iiot call Silvia Alexander's Q TiT« "v7- !^' ^f^^^iiii days' growth «'"n"
Ihe possessive when used: " """ '" '«'* '™<^. «»<' ffio.V^j, the LluTof
1. This crown belono-c fn fh„ /-i
.iudgment fi tL ""' intercourse of six years w H, ^''''^"f ,"^6" were
1^- u , "• ^^^ power of trTifii ,, tA,-'^*'"^'^ with him. 5. Thp i^qv ^u
l^iehard are for sale « w J . '^^ ^^^ estates of John p * ^ °^
isle of Iceland 17 rn^ T ^^ '^^"^«- J5. The dav nf n t 1" ^f''*«' of
19 T,„ 'r"?-.r,™« ,^"',0/ ^is „i„a. ;,8n,l' te/rt ^l-ll?
-luug,„g i„ ,„y ,„„. „, A ,,iet«,.c „ft/,'„^"" ""»■■">'«• 21.- A i;ictu"e
<l
^Tsn?"""*
^'.fl
m
f ;
I
1 ■
f
1 :
j
i 1
362
EXERCISES.
APv^ERBIAL complements; ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. §§144-150.
IX. '. Thf iniglity wreck lay right athwart the stream. 2. Here was the
chair of stnte, having directly over it a rich canopy. .'3. He is above sir
changing his dress. 4. His father left liim well off. 5. Use a little 'wine
for thme often infirmities. G. Cowards die many times before their deaths
7. Tiius have I been twenty years in thy house. 8. The rest must perish*
♦,heir great leader slain. 9. Five times every year he was to be exposed in
^he pillory. 10. Seamen, with the self -same gale, will several different
courses sail. 11. From morn till noon ht fell, from noon to dewy eve a
summer's day. 12. The last impossible, he fears the first. 13. Each in his
narrow cell forever laid, the rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 14 He
left my side, a summer bloom on his fair cheeks, a smile parting his
innocent lips. 15. Raw in fields, the rade militia swarms; mouths without
hands, maintained at vast expense, in peace a charge, in war a weak
defence ; stout, once a month they march, a blustering band, and ever but
in times of need, at hand. '
X.
PREPOSITIONS. §§ 151-154.
1. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, leaps the live thunder.
2. Why to frenzy fly for refuge from the blessings we possess? 3. All the
triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice and power, in every country
and m every age, have been the triumphs of Athens. 4. We ne'er can reach
the inward man, or inward woman, from without. 5. The time 'twixt six
and now must by us both be spent most preciously. 6. Shriller shrieks now
mingling come from within the plundered dome. 7. Till then, in blood mv
noble Percy lie. 8. Other ways exist besides through me. '
GENERAL EXERCISE. §§ 115-155.
1. The horse has broken loose. 2. O'er our heads the weeping willow
streamed its branches, arching like a fountain shower. 3. Under the cool
shade of a sycamore, I thought to close mine eyes some half an hour
4. He wished me well. 5. You played me false. 6. The murderer made
away with his victim. 7. Fe refused me point blank. 8. Thou'lt take cold
shortly. 9. I cry you mercy. 10. The maiden breathed her last. 11. I would
fain live. 12. He drank a glass too much. 13. He played fast and loose
14. For hours now wind and rain have ceased. 15. I met him the day before'
16. What a dance you have led him ! 17. No veil she needed, virtue proof'
18. He came five minutes or so before t»ie time. 19. It is all over with us'
20. Make haste back. 21. She led him a sorry life of it. 22. They were
hand and glove together. 23. The prisoner pleaded guilty. 24. He ate his
father out of house and home. 25. It will last my time. 26. He fell full
length on the floor. 27. The children sat the play out. 28. And the imperial
vot ress passed on, in maiden meditation, fancy free. 29. They marched
out five and five. 30. He limped shoeless across the street. 31. Given
health, he meant to do his duty. 32. He is all heart and soul. 33. He went
out raving. 34. He got rid of his troubles. 35. He walked his best.
^(1. (Tive me some more pudding. 3'.. Have done saying so. 38. Her face
flushed crimson. 39. He was picked up alive. 40. He took his soup hot.
41. Ihe hat doesn't become you, although you have become its ownsx*
4L. James proved his statement ; so James's proved a mistake. 43. How vile
au idcl pro V OS this god ! 44. He was soon reputed the best sport iu the
144-150.
Here was the
is above, sir,
a little wine
their deaths.
must perish,
»e exposed in
eral different
dewy eve, a
J. Each in his
leep. 14. He
I parting his
ouths without
I war a weak
and ever, but
live thunder.
? 3. All the
very country
)'er can reach
me 'twixt six
r shrieks now
in blood, my
eping willow
ider the cool
alf an hour,
irderer made
'It take cold
11. I would
5t and loose,
e day before,
v^irtue proof,
»ver with us.
. They were
. He ate his
He fell full
the imperial
ley marched
. 31. Given
33. He went
)d his best.
38. Her face
lis soup hot.
3 its ownsx'.
43. How vile
sport iu tb8
inehof him^" ^7' iil "" ^''''^'«* ^^en my guide ' 4fi tt •
our native seas' ^9% T^ '^",'?*''y ' 48. Karlners o'f ^n T ^ '^["^ ^^^''^
does the same " ' ^ ^^' ^ ^^^'"Pse of love .' 5^ Year ^n^^T^ ^^''^' ^"^'"^
• xear in and year out, he
VII, VERBS
DERIVED VERBAL FORMS. '^ 187-194 22fi
Wo lately. I dotf rem^eZ "f ".'""^^ "^^e S fn"" TZ''" ? "'"d
TENSE AND MOOD POBMS. ?a57-186. 195-234.
rp, ,. , CAUTIONS.
dent, «t J:;tr ^St'tl^-ira't^'^ =""r ""«»-' and i„depe„
The following are examn J f T """"""al or auxi iary
which fo.,0.. -erve:rfi?,„id' ':th"rztra^"r -i '"«--«™
^ Indicative: Hecan^nf-''- u, "^ ° analysis, [20GJ).
liberty Z\T-\7 ™ "' """'^ '" have done'so°'.1'; He^C^o^l'l^.T^t
„„ f^Asth. examples show, when a sin,p,e fo™ of a notional verb
.7 "^ ^i*",iunccive, a phrasal snhinT,«f; L "^ * notional v
it: we thu= »'«"- " ^-i- p "*-^/ ^UDjunctive form mnTr k^ "„h^i-f ?
- -ua.. „„^c t^ (^^jjj^ |.Qj, ^^^ forms '' auostituted
for
■m
oa.
G4
EXERCISES.
.be uses of the indioative and subjunctive auxiliaries have been taken
up hilly under the verb. In some cases there is a difficulty in decidintr
wh(. uer tlie torms are auxiliary or notional : thus, for example, in
I hope he may get it,
ma, mig:ht seem to be a subjunctive auxiliary. It is, however
not onal and indicative; we express a hope about the possibility of
h^ .netting It; not a hope about his getting it, viewed as a possibility.
Tht meaning is I hope there is a possibility of his getting it."
1 ) Parse the verbs in the folloiving sentences :
^t nf fi,i Vr ^f ^iT ^'^ **'^ "^'"^"^^ ""^ individuals come to the know-
ledg. of the public. 3. She gaveme of the tree and I did eat. 4 Wherefore
bles.ed. 6. When I shall have brought them into the land, then will thev
him S tni"''- '• """ •^''^" ^"^ ^^ '''''' »^-^^'-« except God be with
him. h Men were grown impatient of reproof. 9. The Picts were never
tr':;ffo murdlr^ flr"^^^^^ ^''''^'- ''-^-^^ criminaTfs beTng
obtot; 7o jZ\ "• ^V ^"^ "V'?"'"* ^^ bwmanity to he *nd she inanimati
objects. 12. He as much as said ho would j?o. ]3. My father savs i mav aro
deaTh Tfshr;..'^-,?^' that I might b.fdeliverediom the Sdy o^'thls
death. 15. She asked that she might be allowed to take tie examination
fai^l-rTr strh^iS'",^ should grow up in you .which would Zseyour
tail.re. 17. She hoped she might be concealed. 18. The Lord iudge between
wn ' .rv? ri }^- ^ ^^''^•^ ^ ^^^'^ ^ ^1«^« "P^^ that hand. 20^ N?t whaTwe
woutd but what we must, makes up the sum of living. 21. MornTng and
night he would weep. 22. The philospher, being asked why he would not
suTliTf r^^- ^f'''''\'- '^ ^'' ^■^"^*'' «^'d thft he should think himsel
won d ill . ^'^^^.f ^ *^'« r'^'^^ ^^"'^ fi"^'^ ^''th loving friends.^ 23. Who
Ton d hive stSthnr-"/. '^- .^Ii^^e"^«^y'sdogthough he had bitten me!
Should have stood that night against my fire. 25. Might I speak my mind?
woVfd ^^•^^'^ "?'/r"' '^ ^\''^'^^'^^ ^o^e> l^e will find me here. 27 Fain
Z; H. ^'t\^'i\^ 'P^^^'^ ^^*h y^^^^r pair- 28. Even if he was n
fault, they said he had been punished too much! 29. If chance will have me
king chance may crown me. 30. Ah, that thou could'st know tlyoy ere
a hawk of iSlwn ''^o n?/" ^hey talked of the time when each shJuM^^hav:
fho J!.\ . X- 1^"- ^\'® ^''^*''^ ^'a'"^ t« ^^^^'^ as she was setting out for
the park where sheknewshe should meet her friend.^ 33. The tone! swelled
to such harmonies, that though I was wide awake. I might have b'lieved I
had gone to heaven. 34. I knew she would not reveal my secret « 35 How
can you wonder that he should be impatient? 3G. O my king God save mv
king, whatever me befall ; I would not be without his cJe, fof houses lanS^
of the'^SeakeA!ire™"°*^ "^ '^' verb-forms in such a sentence, see first what the actual words
^ 215. 3 What would be the subordhiate clause if k,iew were turned into know?
III. Explain the values of shall, will, should and would in the following:
He. I shall go to town to-morrow. Of course you will ?
Sir. No thanks. I shall wait for better weather, if that will ever come
When shall we have three f.-iir dnv^. fn<ynti.o« „„„,• ~ ' *'^*"^ *^°™®-
■•-B'
in?
\^
B been taken
' in deciding
iple, in
s, however,
•ossibility of
I possibility,
it."
3 have almost
to the know-
4. Wherefore
•rtal must be
hen will they
God be with
;s were never
inal is being
he inanimate
ays i may ^o
body of this
examinatio-B.
3 cause your
idge between
Not what we
Morning and
le would not
hink himself
Is.i 23. Who
d bitten me,
ik my mind?
e. 27. Fain
if he was in
svill have me
thy joy, ere
should have
tting out for
ones swelled
^e believed I
t.» 35. How
jiod save my
•uses, lands,
e actual words
know?
^'following:
ever come.
EXERCISES.
365
He. You should so. T shnnlri i:i,„ + i.
our friends would be glad to see Ms *' ^"^' ^"" ^'^' ^he opera. Besides,
^le. No, no ; I will not go.
8houfdehLg?yo{r-'m?nd,^l''s^^^^^^^^ //.r J Well, remember, if you
come; you would enioy the on^m • « T ^'""PP^ ^« ^^'^^'^ your coraDanv Do
su,^er afterwards. N^w'Un^ryouT' Member ^^-^^ "'-srSsib;:
She No; I should not enioy the onp.o !, t ^ ^""'^ ^ "'^^"^^ So.
the drive for the best suppel you wm e^^er . ^ ^^^^^n'twalk to the end of
He t"7f ^°^ ''' soS^Bthfng g:od to :it^"" "^^^ ^^" '^'^ *« think I
^e. Most human creatures will vv^ii -f '
But my trip would be dull withoutvou T «\^°/','^''" '^^^ at home, you shall
yourself upon those ugly, giggliug'giH* r'"* ' "''^ "'"'"'I JO" waste
wouMo-t 'be .uiVp™Vn:S.:t'a,r-;„»i:.1t'/'^V^t"-; "^ '""-' ^'
ana-after all I should like to he.,/,?,^ ' '"'™ "o eo with /ou-and-
•k«ut with those cackling gTrls-,^:?,", j'ohn^T^ri" Uo'."" '"'"" "^ ""'"^
VIII. NOUNS.
GENDER. ^g 240 -'>44
"- ^^aerheSofstj, s.r :;aer- »->
NUMBER. §§248-259
Pyl'hTgo?:^ cupoTa"' ap"stShe?Jimu;"%',i.r''''"'"'-''' «'""'»'?"n<ii, Livy
7t'A n'"' '^*''<'' Hercules, WoS %Cn-^'"l "".«». «'h", Buffalo, hero
LadyEossmore, pMsident.ilcnt «, ^'fi y, Ijoiiri, America Mjs« t< ii
and
fetSfirSL;? ;;;.:r„';s, ru^;«sn' t"-"' •""-'-'-'-. --s
grouse, bellows, vermin. f,.v ..,.!!.'.', "'l*?'. "oollcus, re„,„i„s, „„,;„ ?,™»'
pease, pence, vespers, yeomknryrtV^i;::';;;^";,^!':^:'!,';!;^^
F i
It I
! >'
! '
366
EXERCISES.
CA&E. g§ 260-273
6. Envy no mnn his honors fi H„,l,', • .?* ?^'!'"^ *""> """l » question.
7 Meat and matins hinde, no man" Eney'", H^'.-fl'""' ^"'"'^ ""•
for righteousness' sake. 9. Reoroof r»vl^ L ■ ''"' '"^ master's worli
ended '.he day'„ sorrows. uTook, CrEtahU."'''' """' '"'™- "' «°
plZalZf"' '"'"' "' "'"''""■°"'' *'"""'^' "'' t«>ssessive case,, singular and
'^'^A i;rS.TK— ;h2^r^„-^,-' Moses.
yi Discuss any case peculiarities in the following :
^^r^^r^'^^^^^^^^ of the
and prophet of the Jewish people ^iTJZ ^^'''^^' "]« king, the priest,
hand 5. After a fortnighfor thret weeW . ''^'^' °^ ^^^ ^^^ ^a^^ure's
pride's, religion's, virtue's sake 7 Vh^^n P^^^ession. 6. For honour's,
this a poem of Kipling's or Is it Moo J's ? ^ ^""^ *^' P'"*'' '^«^«- «• I«
NOUNS AND NOUN-PHRASES. §§ 274-278
yil P«..e </.. not^^s «n^ ^otm-^/.m..5 m the flowing :
3. Jn Jht^^l^aL"^^^^^^^^^^^ da^^TthrVgr^^-S^^ *^- ^ ^-t nation.
strong. 8. From gold to gray our w^ldfwL^t",? ^''YrJ ^' ^'^ ^^"^^-^S
too soon. 9. So sweet a kiss the Jni^i^ o * ^^^ ""^ ^"^^^^ summer fades
ing drops upon the rose 10 Jove bu? anir'. T* ^*^°«^ ^^^^^ °^«rn!
fears being thought foolish i 9 'p! i? *u "?''^ at lovers' perjury. H Ho
is the best^ time. 14 He eame f,nn, ^ *^"!J' ^°*^^^^- ^^ li the evening
much, he had no t me to trHta^n TtI^^'^'^'J^- '"^^^'^ ^^^^^ out so
Mary's : James's is the one^wf is; if rw'f -^ ^"?^ ^^ ^^^^'^ = ^^ isn't
old soldier over me. ^^- "^^''^ imagine you can come the
NOUN-CLAUSES. g 279.
VIII. Analyze the following sentences ■
abaLTe^eToTdeTtr b '^^^^^^^^ cheapens life
there should have been sn^h „ f.^ "*"°^P*^ ^f my soul is that I am.» 4 That
I fought bravely 6 I'neter warwhJ -"' ''''''I^V '■ You have heard i
7. They made a bargaii tha'thry w^uid ^'! J^P^^^^iy '^^^l^ superstitious,
said nothing of howl mif?h" h« fiLT i^^^"^ forsake each other. 8. You
in that I bftrayed'iL fn;>tt Sd"1o I 'am '' f'"- '• ' ^^^« ^^-^
much-deeried children have been dunces il Hn 'J '"^ '^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^
are a prince. 12. It is to youTood «eo 'ip J^A^r * ^^^^ a jot whether you
It might anger thee. 14. B?d hfr be?X l1^^^1-A'£"«^- .^^- ^ ^^^red lest
.. u„ je ju.,s^ rriictaur xsassaniu had not once a
EXERCISES.
3G7
''orms in the
ames a blow.
I a question.
. shines on.
aster's work
rm. 10. Ho
ngular and
h, Moses,
m.
less of tlie
the priest,
ad Nature's
r honour's,
Bme. 8. Is
sat nation,
d geniuses
Thy songs
3 wondrous
imer fades
•esh morn-
y. 11. Ho
le evening
ing out so
8: it isn't
come the
ipens lift
» 4. That
e heard if
srstitious.
. 8. You
ive sinned
that these
lether you
>ared lest
ot once a
mT' le'i arsc'r^tTatem "T ,""?' "^^ """ »-"«""> w„» faith to
could be stricken deadf "" """" """i 8i™ the alarm before h?
and then <,e,„t.o .e„raSr.^ .?JA1LS Sj^r-rsSf"^^^^
IX 7« «* 77' *"" """'''" "^"""'OK. 52 281-284.
woLnr^; thaUhefmX notX,d iJlf • '"^ """"-P"" ' " ' -"« the
man should live in peace H,J1 « "l'^ ™y' '»■• I have heard that a
allowed them to remafnT i s^a" be Zn?,".' 8°™'. S"«'y you have not
are gone, are they f I should nte t! * ^ ''""""^ " y" hwe. Oh ' thev
then, in full detail. You oujht .1 ""J/"""'""- Let me have them
rate, whether you will or not '? ° ^'""'^ "">• ^o" "hall do solat an^
whiiIadSec:roffis''°rr«o'"%t"" ^?^^'^ '"«' "^-e Ws ship was and
pened-how h. had gTven «p his ves's°el' iitr?/^' ""? ■="" ^vhat^«d l«p*
Jfth. •«!"■' '""''' "'"h him and make S!; ?, ^^ ''?.'""' ''"nseuted to
father „ he was satisfied and wov,Idtfve'tLm"h,"'SessPng."'^" "^''^'^ "-
K. PKONOUNS.
^§ 286-330.
I. Parse the pronouns in the following ■
ea,/-^XrTuT '\yrt,t' ^fZCr^dl'VV'^ i"^"- Alps who
triumphed. 3. These are propositionrnf Ji^ ® T^'""^ °^ ^^'^ two parties
that speak to thee am he. 5.The that th«AhT *'"*^ ^^ «"« ^«°w« 4. I
which. 6. What does it matter what he did ort^'^'' "sed should have been
there who swore to the truth of this « h. Pir^^""^^ '^ is ? 7, Certain were
9 Few shall part where many meet l6 bV o Sf "''^/ f ^^ ^^« ^^^^ been
their own. 11. Some are haoDv whiu r>fV^ ^^'^'''' ^^"'^^ wise men correct
hold of oae another'-. aa?f^ n Th« ''' ^'^ miserable. 12. They took
applause. 14. None but che hit. ^ '''''"^ '^"^ ^^^ «kies with loud
anything he calls secure, le. ^n Ihis CGod*^- '?"' • ''' Neither hs
17. There is no vice so simple but assumes «L? ^V^%^^' ^" ^^''-^t 'tis man.
IT- 19 'Vl". P--ide-e secJ^rs^n'eve Teb.Te S ^IV^^'^ ^"^^^^
90 VoJm; ,^5lteveryoi do, don't do that • wh f/^^V '"^'*^'^ «"^ >'«"''-
20 I still nad hopes, my latest hours to crown «,>• w'^l''''""''^ ^'^ ""*^""^-
to lay me down. 21. Whern v«f Jt!t ciown, amiast these humble >k)vvpvq
22. O, then, how b1 nd to a,i thatZtrc'"-""^ '^'^^ ^he, their nio her'
a^part aspires ! 03. It is til tf.o '"^i'^VI'i.^^.f '__^h« "^il'k it freedon. .;"«
.ua. Doin m«J.e8 ttiendsandkeepslhem so:"" 1? We's Jat't^f ' f " ^'^">^
^u. vve speak that we do know.
fm
5/ '■■;■ ,^
V
368
EXERCISES.
* i
1 i
27. He knew not which was which '>« Tf Jo n
woo, rayself would be his wife. 30 It dawL' f- nT ^° ''''^' ^^' Whoe'er I
raarch in person to the war 32 it was «f t 'i "^^^" ^« ^^^^ ^ 31. We
33. Now call me thechief of heharL Tuard -Tt""' ^V^ ^* ^^« ^^^t^^.
pacing, trip it deft and merrily 3T TW • '^^^ ?^"^ ^^^^^ ^^eir morrice
power which you brought here Las made volfr'"' *^,' ^^^^'^ °^«^- ^6. The
was taken to a new toy of hL nnd Thy •'"'f^'^ ^^'^ *^^ ^^^^'s- 37. I
married or going to be si 39 VhtwitLn^^^^^^^^^^ 38 My son is either
I am nearly mad. 40. His suit wore hTm a yea'^°^ ""^^^ ""^^^ ^°"*^^^'
X. ADJECTIVES.
parte ot speech, the kind of mo iifio.Hn^ Parsmpr, however, both of these
modifier limits, or de^r be^ ortriits ,'o|'Lf'''''^,r"hetI.er the
vahie, when tiie adjecti-e or the „,w ■ '"i'-^'*). with its logical
(372-373, 407) . '■""'" *"<* "dverb is not simply a limiting one
AD.BCT,V.S ANB ^D.ECT.VE PHBASKS, ?| 332-370.
I. Parse Me arfjeo^i^es in the J^Uowing sentences:
able i^rxA^^thrr.-,?.^ 't^';::!^^'\^^^f- w.., the .ost ..it-
3. Beneath those ruggPd elrns '} nF? T , ^"^^ ^^^^^st wlfnJn Greece
of the hamlet sleep.^^4 Th^go gtus ESr'^'f^'-'l.'^^ ^"^^ fore-fSrs
her kings barbaric pearl and Si ^ vlt^ '^^ "^^^"^ h^"^' ^'^^owers on
. mis . of their fortune. 6. M»nya carll ol/'' T"^^"^ T ^^« ^^^^ «<^«^^-
strels. 7. God, in the nature of eLb beW fi ''^»<1. saintly, sang the min-
a man will win any woman I.Thu^fd^d ^^ '^' ^'''^'' ^^''- «' »^-h
10. Every third word is a lie. U Avr ;,l3 " " i '"^7\^ "^'^^ ''^'^ breast.
o'erhung with wild woods, thicken:!^' S?^.'",^' ^V^^^'^ ^is pebbled shore,
Wiornhoar twined amorous round\he'r?Snv. 1 "^ ^'''^TJ ^'''"^ ^^^ ^^w^
f a dangerous thing. L3. Unto fhp n ,^.o n f."^''^' ^^- ^ '^ttle learning
lower, second, and third stodes si aU thou n!* L'-f^^l.^^ ^'''''- ^^- With
honour, yours^ gave land. 16. The adv?s d.-H^ ^^- ^^^ ^^ther gave me
false accusation. 17. Th^re will a wJS com- n'!^^" /"'"« ""^^ my master's
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. gf 371.373
pnJhi:^liS^^1,:;:f f ;^^^^ 2. Iknowab.nkwhere^
18 a very pretty reason. 4. HLs praise i^ fosAt . ''"^T' '^"^f ^^-o only seven
5. For those that fly ma- li^ht nSnfn u- zl^^^'^' «Kvs til] all ooriimend
0. Whai hand but wouM a iSand oiii fn. r^ ^'/''^^^ ''''''' ^'^ that's ^Sn
next time that Mr. ThornhiH camp t V / "" '^^''' ""''^ «^ beuutiful ? 7 The
the way, 8. My own ^^m^Zu^Sl^l^ir'^-^f^re to be onf of
that life sho(„I(] live foi
29. Whoe'er I
9 day? 31. We
it was winter.
38 their morriee
over. 36. The
?• king's. 37. I
son is either
t with another,
'b, the general
, both of these
— whetlier tlie
h its logical
limiting one
^he most suit-
IfeJn Greece.
'Q fore -fathers
d, showers on
le best eeonn-
ang the min-
Hss. 8. 8uoh
on his breast,
ebbled shore,
'•ch auQ haw-
little learning
i-e. 14. With
tther gave me
1 my master's
■ lie returned
t full length,
'■ RimiJfirly, in
«-•.»," mil is an
bsnk where-
e only seven
I i^ommend.
that's slain,
f'»'-? 7. The
to be out of
)iM live foi"
J^^ERCISES.
309
f^vermore o wj, ' ^-- — -^ ^*
the lowp«<- ^.^' ^ "^evor wakes in 7;^ -, ~ — •— — _
ai
V
themorn T. T"? ^^'-^^d^' about 7?- f'^^'^^^ shrill sal^^^^'^'d there.
as to be .3X^i^!lf^'«m whence ^1 T.^. '^''/'^"^'e 'tw ..f. te," , ^^^^?n i was
Jous good
20.'Tho.«'^" Y^*"^ whenf^'uTf'"'''^'' ^v'^enl\;/''^^""^'- "* ' '^
was toTe'«P*^^^'^>«f^'omwheiee*r' .*'^" ^''''-^^e '
J^%^r - -^^- ;:rt^^^^ ^^^ ^•cShe^^^^r;^ j-f td :: i?
A n,.T, ^"f Uient, IS HOC to
398-407.
''j'-^aled ajrain L/^ ^^ tliroi,;.), n,p ,/• *^^'arce h.-.d he mn„. f \ '^ ^""^ "o
St
praeti
ha v.
«e. If). If
iJurted with th
yo" iiad kn
^oiild Jiayp
OM^a the virt
to
iiiiu
" ^'"'fe'- IG. Though
I'f^ Of the
i''"'d"ots,..,..}
' ^^''.v, I had
Bi
nuir
rnam ^vood be
no(
you would not
coiuo to
i\
rri (
f'^'M
m ■! '•
i
q I
li
1 '
. I M
■ I III
i 1-
l-i
•;i|
I
1 i
^1
VTO
MXEIiClSES.
Dunsinnne, yet I will try the last. 17. K he were lionester, he were mueh-
goodlier. IH. Thoiijj^h men may Idckcr with the tliiiif^s they love, they would
not make them laughable. 19. Though all things foul would weai- the
brows of grace, yet grace must still look so. 20. If you did know to
whom I gave the ring, j'ou would abate the strength of your displeasure.
21. Were he here, yes, standing before me, 1 would hear him. 22. I do not
think, where'er thou art, tiuit thou hadst forgotten me. 23. Angela gives
promise she will do whatever he shall wish, betide her weal or woe. 24. I
will go provided you renuiin where you are. 25. I will do it, war or no.
26. A time there was, ere England's griefs began, when every rood of
ground sustained its man. 27. I love not man the less, but Nature more,
from these our interviews, in which I steal from all I may be, or have been
before. 28. 1 don't like to trouble you, only I know you'll forgive me.
29. I cannot run the risk of being the only one, as once happened before.
30. As it was, he missed the mark. 31. The king is mad, as is well-known
to the Count.
GENERAL EXERCISES.
1.
Analyze the following sentences:
I. If the people of Canada were disposed to agiee with Mr. Dingley after
his own fashion, he would speedily discover, that while we buy largely from
the U. S. because it is convenient and profitable, a very small tariff obstruc-
tion would turn the trade into other channels. 2. In all the place there was
not a groan, a word of com])laiiit, save now and then an ejaculation of
impatience lest the fighting should be over before they should have a chance,
3. Paul was very anxious. In a few days his ease would be called ; and
should the verdict be against him, he knew he must submit. To ap))eal to a
higher court would mean the selling of the farm, and what could he then do
for his family?^ 4. I determined to keep him with us, that we might both be
saved, as might please God. 5. If you are asking me if you may rely on my
regarding anything you maj' say to me as strictly private and confidential,
my answer is that you may. 6. I know not what happened after, save that I
found myself upon my own bed, with my purse clasped in both my hands. I
had been mortally afraid some one would snatch it from me, 7. We shall be
sorry to 1 "se you; but, if it should come about, I could give you some letters
that might be useful to you. They could do you no harm. 8. On the few
occasions when the family had gone to London, it was to stay with my aunt,
who was an unmarried sister of my mother's.
1 215.
II. Distinguish the meanings of the folloiving:
1. It is time he went ; It is time he was going ; It is time he were going.
It is time he should go. 2.1 will go if he comes ; I shall go if he come ; i
should go if he came ; I would go if he came ; I should go if he were to come.
3. I said he would go ; I said he should go ; T said he might go. 4. I am
surprised that he was there ; I am surprised that he should be there.
5. Should you think it likely? Would you think it likely? 6. He acts as T
shall ; He acts as I will ; He acts as I should ; He acts as I would. 7, Did I
think so. I should speak ; Were I to think so, I should speak ; If I thought so, 1
would spctik ; Had I thought so, I would speak ; Had I thought so, I would
have spoken. 8. She wondered what it all meant. She wondered what it
l»,m»f'
were inueh-
, they would
d wesii- the
id know to
displeasure.
22. I do not
ugela gives
woe. 24. I
war or no.
ery rood of
ature more,
i- have been
forgive nie.
ned before,
well-known
'ingley after
argely from
riff obstruc-
?e there was
iculation of
ve a chance,
called ; and
) ap))eal to a
1 he then do
ight both be
y rely on my
confidential,
, save that I
iiy hands. I
We shall be
some letters
On the few
th my aunt,
were going.
he come ; i
reve to come.
?o. 4. I am
Id be there.
He acts as T
Id. 7. Did 1
thought so, 1
t so, I would
iered what it
J^^ERCISES.
_^ QTJ
'^'I might mean o rr ~ — —
f'>m act v„ f/t„ ; "",""' - "■■•on^'i !';," ki^r vt' ■""!;" '"™""
'o h,8 g„„, „,,„ „. J J. J-- «%yoK. 1„ l,i, „„,,;,?,° IIJ:""«- ''I'i" one
should be tnie ! 4 n, fj, '''■, ' <>»■ °<W tlwt i tn,r. '*■'''• ■ "» "l^^
John was tliere 11 r.., "'"' "'"'"i wiero i,„t tL t "»»■ O'M tint it
Je- Now I ti hi'k I'L "■?,' "'" "•'«'. "-.IM I ,vs« '. ."■" •• ^"'^'"^^ .lames , or
'-^;.4';tvL"/s • ti,.e"," '■« -•■■^' ''• "v'sv,'.':"":.r"\S
ntcrjeet.ons may be foiuul through-
I- -Parse </« m/„,(,w 88 i.i« 4o..
., ,?; Oi", .-.t !. exeenent to C a 1 ' '"""" '" ''«/"«<""-..•
It like a g,ant. 2. The fnii?!^ giant's strength • but it {« f
old in drawing nothing up '^".^'^^r^P"^^ ^ucketf in oenipty wS^"?^ *° "««
not finding Mansfield du IJ ;« '^•.^,^''^° see that Mrs Gr,nf .T '^"'^^"'^^'"g
g'vmg him to me as « in ^ ''''°*®^ ^omes on at ^l'""* ''^ anxious for her
the height of foHy'^ Vn^'r ^^ ^^^^^ king's poitistino."i'7""f ',^' P^^«PJ«'«
used to read • ).«;« / "® ^'^'^ ^'th not a fvil .,i ! ^ '° ^"^h designs wi«^
visit us to ta^t^ . f ""'^ ^««»stomed to speak "^S^x!/^ 'i^'^ ^'"^ eyes. ^7 hI
10. The Lo d God h.d'^'f "^'"^ ^^'"e- ^^ i mii't I' ""^'^^^^^^ the stringer
for us to rema n' 'l^ 'if^:'"^' ^^ *^ -■" - ^ e e '""'"1 Z^^} *^ ^^ ^^•
read to sleep. 13 He i«T ' "^ ^'"'^''^ter luxury t /,; i^\^}^ »« anxious
wrongs. 15. lamsurnri f"?*^ ^^ink so. Y4 Vp ! ?'^^ "^''^^ being
00k him to be, ^actTC l? "^ ^^^ -^^^ - ' 16 .C k' Z, *? ^^" ^^'^
18. He grieves to see vm ;i:,-.^^'^^vere your wits ufJ^ "^t the man I
where you live. 4 %l ] ^'^tress. 19. That if'J. ""^r^^^'^^^^'stake?
would be the turtle dove l^^ ^^ ^'^' ^^^ wo Id not Th"'? ^ ^'^^' *^" "^e
and touch her glinUnrh J ^' ^'^'^^ with cu^e? to re "unon'," 'l" ^^ "' ^
IT p , PAKTICIPLES. «4D2-4<i3.
In. 'n .^S:'?S!W^''""^' "- "-AT «"*". ab„„t
of song is dpflrl c t, ^.'*''^' '• With mvmiTi«f,.oi 1 [\ "• 1 hey set him
Pf
have the
m
sleeping
see. 11. H
if-e lost in the glare
e couxu not have beea
372
EXERCISES.
impressed with her, to have forpfotten her so soon. 12. The French, hi: iiij?
been (lisj)ers('(l in a ffiile, hiid put biu-k to Toulon. l-'K 'I'hat arose froui tlie
fearof niyeousin liearinj^ these niatteis, 14. (J ranted that niencontiiniing as
they are, there must be war ; wliat then ? 15. It is too soon for the news to
have readied him. KJ. Tlie liour concealed and so remote the fear, der.th
still draws nearer, never seeming near. 17. They gave him knowledge of
his wife's being there. 18. She loves to sit up late, either reading or being
read to. 19. Their being neighbors, only made it more embarrassing to play
the host. 20. Don't stay wnsting my time. 21. He is too long winded to bo
effective. 22. lie began cutting bread and butter, and went on doing so.
2li. He took advantage of my absence to lock the doors. 24. Vice is a monster
of so frightful mien, as, to be hated, needs but to be seen. 25. Two army
corps crossed safe, myself among them. 2(j. A rabbi is a very ordinary person
in Jerusalem, there being three hundred of them there.
XVI. IRREGULAR EXPRESSION.
ABBREVIATION AND OTHER CAUSES OF IRREGULARITY. ?§ 465-496.
I. Complete the (ibhreriated sentences in the following, and discuss any
other grammatical peculiarities :
I. Ruin from man is most concealed when near. 2. Why nra I beaten?
— Dost thou not know f— Nothing, sir, but that I am beaten. — Shall I tell
why? — Ay, sir, and wherefore. 3. He looked as though the speed of thought
were in his limbs. 4. Worse than that, he fell sick. 5. Come, you at least
were twenty when you married ; that makes you forty. (5. And what if I
call my servants and give thee in charge? 7. O for tliat warning voice,
which he who saw the Apocalypse heard cry in Heaven aloud ! 8. b'eally, he
did it, more because he values criticism than because he values the author.
9. No matter who went, he would go day after day. 10. There are more
reasons than the mere interpretation of the treaty why the Canadian view
should be insisted on. 11. It helped to throw him into a more than usually
excited state. 12. It wouldn't do to leave out the furze bush ; and there's
nothing prettier to my thinking, when it's yellow with flowers. 13. The
blest' to-day is as completely so as who began a thousand years ago. 14. He
told me that wisdom is better than wealth, as if I had not known that licfore.
14. Oh, but she will love him truly ! 15. Don't imagine but that he has
done his best. 16. One hardly knows whether to speak to him or not.
17. And yet here, as long and as broad as they are, these glaciers are but six
streams in six hundred. 18. Work as he may, he will fail. 19. Much as I
should like to go, I will stay here. 20. As for me, I defer to Tully as to a
learned man. 21. No one, so far as I am aware, said so. 22. Will you be
so good as to take the will for the deed? You know it is as good as
done. 23. They did so, not that they thought me worth a ransom, but that
they were not saf^^^hen I was there. 24. He has gone I know not whither.
25. There is more tliftK^ possible danger. 26. They are, sad to say, all dead.
27. To my astonishmeiih he is more than satisfied. 28. To think that he
should have been so tmfwtunate ! 29. Distraction! if the earth could swal-
low me ! 30. As sure as can be, here he comes. 31. I must speak to him,
and that as soon as possible. 32. For all that you tried so hard, you have
failed. 33. Surely he is no other than my long expected friend. 34. Talking
of ghosts, I expect to see my grandmother's to-night. 35. He is as methodical
iioh, li!i iiij»
8n t'roMi tlie
iitiiiuing iiH
the news to
fear, der.th
aovvied^e of
ug or being
■^[np; to piny
inded to bo
>n doing so.
is a monster
. Two army
iiary person
15-496.
liscuss any
I I beaten ?
Shall I tell
I of thought
,^011 at least
i what if I
iiiiig voice,
li'eally, he
the author,
re are more
iiidiau view
hiui usually
and there's
^. lU. The
xo. 14. He
:liiit licfore.
hat he has
lini or not.
are but six
Much as I
ully as to a
^^ill you be
as good as
tn, but that
lot whither,
ly, all dead,
ink that he
could swal-
eak to him,
i, you have
34. Talking
methodieai
KXEliCrsES.
873
not knou whatcoursu to ,. :J"'"*'^ '^"^ then a^ZS^ ^"""Tu '''^\
i" bids m, that r iro 4(, u ■"""•^^'^ "".eh put out '{o rl ; •^'1\^'« ^^'J
years ago-ns trim „ L * ^*'^^' -^'O" taken cokW 4 i, • ^^ is not because
l»e in gtod Te .V ^^7^^''' f ''*^« ever ta k^n pine ' 'i'^^V'" ^"'"^
you driv- .gat , -J^ "^ ^'''^ ^iJden lilmself th« .?;; , V" ?}'■ ""'"'^ ^<is
went gallopinL H« L T^ '"'^^*^ «« t>oid? 4!' Ho ' ."' ' ,^-*- ^^''"'^ ^re
^ 274 (2) ' '"'''''"^ ^* *'"^^ «I^««d. "^ ^''^^' Tlie horse
J. „ ^ . GENERAL EXERCISE.
11. J^xplam, where p< hie th.
folloivtng; and, where t„. InJ.LT''''^^^'' irregulaHti-^s in ihe
I- -Lose kind Of apple, cl„„7 V ' "" ""'•'<^*i<^:
s^^e=±- /;'™-"^,™:=5nf i?;-!:^_^ "" i"„rr
ar(
man,
13. Verso a nd'^lr' "^ '" "'"'M l""t I ',™""* l""!'»l', but sl,e I will
like I dT V, ' M v7" """' """""Otter I ke lial land '5*"T "''" taportant.
will he do tht ,?.;? a. -''i'-rv;,: "rr "?■■" -i" « « "':■; , 'le^L";-,"-
..ever have nor „ever will taJet it "',0 ^»^'"»'»M tl,e hogshef.d la'^f
ehori8ter.r'-.o"Hi!n '""""•"' *''«' «<•"■•«» had bS,^ ^d " '"■'"'<' "^ «%
look freshed men- iV 33'"^?) •' ^V!*'^ ^hou acqutt ulee 32 G '', ;?;; ^''"'^^
whom there is none greater' 3V Tr'" '^'? ^^'"^^^ ^ avoided Lee ' 34 ^'ff"'
iias good ancestors 3fi \k. ' ^^^ ^^"th, howe'er distiosi .^^^ ' "^^^^
the learned BeNnv/n ^ i,' ;\''*^'esueh as thou mave^f firu . • '^' '^Pl'^ars he
«-i^t.f;rL^- £f ?^^..?h']^ -- i^t -f er^:i;--:
Which I see ..ot-so^'eX^Z-'ea'^'Tarhelrr/ fT^^^'S^^Z
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374
EXERCISES.
■ I
EXERCISES.
PART II.
EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
In a complicated piece of analysis, the clauses siiould be written out
in the order in which they are met with in the passage, and one should
be dealt with at a time.
MODEL OF SENTENCE-ANALYSIS.
The Thompsons, who were by no means anxious to leave home, put off
wrestlinfj: \\itli the problem as long as they could, hoping, perhaps, that
soiiietliing \\(ni]d turn up to solve it for them ; but, when nothing happened
and the thermometer kept rising, the day luid finally come when the question
had to be faced and settled, no matter how reluctant they might be.
An assertive compound-complex sentence containing nine clauses.
(1). The Thompsons put off wrestling with the problem as long — ,
hopi'ig, ^ perhaps,—
Principal assertive; incomplete.
(2). — who were by no means anxious to leave home, —
Descriptive adj. to Thompsons ; in causal co-ordination with (1); who,
the connective."
(3). — as** they could (put it off) —
Abbreviated; subord. to (1); adv. of degree to long, correlative to as;
as, the connective.
(4). — (that) something would turn up to solve it for them ; —
Subord. to (1); noun, obj. of hoping; that, the connective.
(5). — (but) the day had finally come—
Prin. assert., incomplete; with its complements, in advers. co-ord.
with the complex clause (1) — (4) ; but, the connective.
(6) . — vvhen nothing happened —
Subord. to (5); adv. of cause to had come; when, the connective.
(7). — (and) when the thermometer kept rising,* —
Subord. to (5) ; co-ord. with (G) ; when (understood) and and, the
connectives.
e written out
d one should
home, put off
perhaps, that
ing happened
[1 the question
ht be.
e clauses.
1 as long — ,
ith (1); who,
elative to as;
ve.
Ivers. co-ord.
inective.
and and, the
EXERCISES.
375
W. -w,.o„ t,e question .,«„ .... .„,, „,.^.,, ^
U;. -how reluctant they miRlit ),e.
V^:1t^,S::^'- '" -" »'«««• • • • • »'^"' *.. a„ absolve adv.
EXTRACTS
^ei?;AL"a"wLt-r,.l!|,li'S%?-r--°' "- »i-iona,.v. in North Fo™
»~ea^.Uhthe„,,a.^:-Sri^.^--^^^
Adv. conj. : „i such constrs., ^/ia^ Ins r J :, '^*'" dictionary.
5. When I told Hm «o . • „ »eplaeed an older as. a 4,8
that the poor^,e„oi i^^^R::^:^^^^^ ^^'-^^i^!:^
6. As the Palmer lixrlifori k
' Wh.tw.„.h. ;^r^^:-^""'^ ""-•nea the Knigwff 'S;;:."''™
37fi
EXERCISES.
V '.'':/'>?" ^'^/^ '''''^^" ^^<^J^J"d therampans.shiniiifr' on the snow-covered
-oots of tho town »)eneath, where, on a cold December eveuini;, a friar with
niH .h,rk rope-sirdled gown wrapped-' closely ronnd him. climbed the'steep
trozen caiineway l^t^'ading up the shoulder of the rock to the castle gate.«
nr,f Vifjn/f". 'JJ'"'*'' *^® new key-note, when he took the broad ground that the
one thug that was necessary was the power to look after their own interests-^
s";es y;:^:r^orriif"'^ ''^*' ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ '^ *"'^^^^ *« ^---p^^^ t^--
1279 (h).
9. When I first entered upon the world of waters, and lost sight of land I
looked round about me with pleasing terror, and, thi;iking' my soul enSd
by tne boundless prospects, imagined that I could gize round wiSt
wh^n^r irh '"i" ""'^ ^' ■"'^' \ ^'T ''■^^'■>' «^ ^<^«king on barren uniformity,
when I could only see again what I had already seen;
^ 373 (5).
n JV"" ^^""''^ ^'Tf}' ''•"? ^l '"''" practised in public address, that hearers
are never so much fatigued as' by the endeavour to follow a speaker wno
fn!f Ln """i • V^ }? ^? purpose, I will take the slight mask off at once,
and tell you plainly that I want to speak to you about books; and about the
way we read them, and could, or should read them
1 477 (3).
11. On the fifteenth of October, 1894, a captain in the French army was
arrested charged ' \yith the crime of betraying military secrets. Had he
been guilty, the affair would never have aroused much comment, and Dreyfus
would have died on Devil's Island, forgotten'^ by the world. From the day.
however when his arrest came upon him like a bolt out of a clear sky
through the long five years, he has shown not only that he is an innocent
man, but that his courage and determination are almost unparalleled.
_ 12. His Honor is not to receive to-day, being advised' that, though^ greatly
improved and continuing to improve, he has not yet recovered so completely
that It would be safe for him to endure the fatigue to which a public
function might expose him.-"'
J 373 (5). 2 477 (;j) 3 ^j^,^^ ^^^^ ^^^ actual words of the advice ?
13. Only a sense of one's self-importance prompts one to keep silence
when opportunity presents itself for saying pleasant things; for silence in
such cases means simply this-it would make you conceited to know' my
real opinion of yourself, your acts, or your belongings, and so^ for your sake
I shall keep it to myself. = o ' j
1400. 2 42.
14. I am ahyays very well pleased with a country Sunday, and think, if
keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it would be
the best method that could have been thought of for the polishing and
civilizing of mankind.
1 232.
15. Untilal'terthe circus had arrived, itwas the intention of the manager to
camp near the Exhibition Grounds at the corner of Dufferin and King Streets
and the show had_ been advertised accordingly. But when the advance-
guard of the organization arrived on the ground, they found that they could
F^XERCrsES.
16
' '^ wf^''^ ••ii'ebiteets of Fate
Working in these walls'nf rn. ^or the strueturR fh ••
Nothing useless is, or low • '^^^^^'^ ''"■^'' "''--'- -
strengthen, and support^Je rert.
A>.ethe.,;eT/„'irSl''e"
1 ™ly shape and fashion these -
^ *»iii remain unseen.
17 rnv ^'^ *^'" remain unseen
17. The man who will r,n ?»f
great water-wheel fh. I ^ "*^ ^ <^otton mill an^l «« .
steam engine shonMH ^'T *^^ ^''st movement r.i'*^:?,?^^*^ ^'^ ^^om the
of the ma^ehTne J' ai^* f: ^'J^^^ -oving povl^e' j\,t til nh™'^^ ^'" ^ ^^e
hydraulic press wM whiehT?"' P^^^^^sses of he fabli tmT'^^ ^^'^ P^'^^
by which it is sent fn n^ 1 V^ '''^^« '"^o a ball Vrfn f^ " ^e reaches the
department of scfenee I?ff^'^' "^^^^^ «"^1 every br^"i*^t; ^'"^"^l or railroad
other, likethe woof 'J r: ^^''"•'^■^^^'' intertwined inf?. *''^'' ^"^^ ^^^ry
and the warp of the article mrnifactuTer" ^''"^ ^^^^>^
''• ''c:nS:?Se'"^'^*'^f' ^"* '-^ few
:»rss?^--.-w
J^s sehoolboys, tindinJ^ fW • ^'^^^ ^^ain ;
Draw a wJt spoZe^l'Z ^f ''' '?' '''''
That year in Kv accusing slate.
, Without "le'^Erh's ''^•^"*-- --e
The wonder of the f-ilif "' T^^^'^'^ ^«ok,
^ The illumined pa.^'of1,;*"^^^^ A^^e,
A few lost leaves bfushpd 1 •''^^^-Day book.
And drowned themSvi T^'^" • ^^^^ their shame
W^iile the wild wind ™t ^o.T'''^^' '" '^' ^^'o^K'
Lamenting^ the denH 7i;-7^ ""^ everywhere
^ ^^otioual. . 160. 29^3? ^'nf ^^; ^^ ^he aif. ''"'
^^. If we could^ know when softt r ^ '"' " '''' ''' ^''
And smiling ijns oL ! ^ott repi,eg
Hide hea?ts fh;.tTreS"e'^L\.nr" .
^ As silently they irripv» o 'i x,™^' ^^^ ache,
Beneath their mZ if nf ^"? ^'^a'^'
We might nit Sn tS^l''^?'
But spare?^f^rS?*' '"'^^^^ "«^^ "^^ke,
Our frioni K.ii "'^^^^' sorrow's sak«. '
t
378
EXERCISES.
if •;
If we could know, how in the mines
Of tenderness the pure gold shines,
We might not feel the smarting stings
^ The longed-for message often brings,
From heart that round our own entwines ;
We'd read, between the formal lines
Aiid careless words, unerring signs
Of love that onward, upward springs
To meet its own on steadfast wings,
And commune hold on sacred shrines.
20. Thesavage tone in which this was whispered, perhaps completed the ecu -
fusion of the Marquis's nerves, for he stumbled as he made to horse ; and, though
he recovered his feet, sprang to the saddle with his usual agility, and displayed
his address in horsemanship as he assumed his position opposite to the
challenger's, yet the accident did not escape those who were on the watch
for omens which might predict the fate of the day.
21. As had beenarranged between us,^ my ship let go her anchor in the harbor
between the island and the bridge by which the city is entered on that side,
while the other galleys stood out some distance in the bay. Sending^ a
messenger ashore, I made known the errand on which we had come, and
after waiting a long time, received answer that the Lord Deputy was not yet
come» to Perth, but Sir W. would see* his Grace and would give a safe
conduct to her and her guard.
1 407.
457
3 217
* 215.
22. What may follow your course of obstinacy, if persisted in, I cannot
take upon me to predict, nor do I wish to conjecture; but this I know
full well, that, as sure as man is mortal, and to err is human, justice deferred
enhances the price at which you must expect safety and peace ; nor can you
expect to gather in another crop than they did' wlio went before you, if you
persevere in their utterly abominable husbandry of sowing injustice and
reaping rebellion.
1 475.
23. There is no flock, however watched • d tended,
But' one dead lamb is there!
There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended,
But- has one vacant chair.
The air is full of farewells to the dying.
And mournings for the dead ;
The heart of Rachel, for her children crying,
Will not be comforted?
Let us be patient ! These severe afflictions
Not" from the ground arise.
But* oftentimes celestial benedictions
Assume this dark disguise.
We see but* dimiy through the mists and vapors;
Amid these earthly damps.
What seem to us but sad funereal tapers
May be heaven's distant lamps.
», ^, ♦, 5. Contrast these buVs. ° 392,
EXERCISES.
mpletedthecou-
)rse; and, though
ty, and displayed
opposite to the
iVQ on the watch
jhor in the harbor
red on tlnit side,
ay. Sending- a
} had come, and
pnty was not yet
ould give a safe
;ed in, I cannot
•ut this I know
justice deferred
ee ; nor can you
ifore you, if you
ig injustice and
d,
)rs:
379
24.
My life given o'er n ^ k ''''y^^'^^^'
"Ac, r.e ^^*^" ^ Pr to ambuscade?
I seek, gJod S ° 'r ':°;',^"'?>'''^-
Free hadst thou Ln to '5""'"' '""'<'■-
}n peace ; bir^'Lt' ?\7n,t'^:C «"" '
Icomewth bqnno,. I '-"'"•^ again.
As leader ;eerr,S '."JSC"'''
Perceiving all fSseZiiftSfd!""'^ '='"""''"'.
Yes and the heart dntl,„ *s«>"se thee.
More ove, dead roie tT . " °"* '''ee
Which Ju ia weaJa »(■' ^ '" "'y ''»»''» boM
Lie still upon thif'.^r'^'?'"'"8 «M •—
■ Cf. JS *" ^'""* "'"'I' •"■eais below thee '
Bearing SiflTunW .?; '' ''.^/'"•Ker sprang
Inhis glided S'l^Sf'den k"i«ht,
It seemed the dark cL ?!? "° •"''eW
Those shaft' the fierce' u„f,d*^f."r"^ »"
In hi, siege of three hnml™/ *"' °'">" "« wall
And, binding them « • "^ summers long,
Had cast them foSl, ,„" T """'"S ■"■«»'.
.tn^iS/.-Tnoo^stS"*"""^'™"^'
foseeEirarllS'eS'tt'^or.t:",-".
25
•^ 472. 7 302 (2;
li
1
380
EXERCISES.
I" ■ n
'^ 11 1
2/. One (li.y wIhmi thrsnnw was drivinj,' so thjit thn sled nlumd eould not be
seon lom was s.-ated in the reindeer sle.l of tin, train. Huddenly his sled
struck a stump 0.1 the road, whieli broi<(i the traee. He whoiiteil as loud as
be cM.uld, but ail to no avail;' no one eould see him, and the man ahead did
not knc.w what had happened. Ho, alter waiting,' for someone to come bacK
Tom concluded that they would^ not notice he was left until the train stopped'
—which i)roved to be the case -and crawled into his sh^eping baL' which
fortunately' he had with him. Had ho tried to run after the train he would
probably have lost the trail and wandered about all night; but deer will
follow a trail when a man eould not see.
1 40. ■•i 215. 3 31)1.
28, When the procession had passed, the young Emperor sat looking after it,
-bonnet still in hand, * with an abstracted expression on his face. And'' well
might he gaze long at the iron arch-bishop; for lie had come on a weary
journey to see that potentate, and judge for himself, what manner of man he
might be who was reported to have remarked to his brother arch- bishop of
Cologne, when he cast the vote that helped to make William an Emperor
that the young man was said to be a romantic fool who would be the more
easily led by their lordsliips of Treves and Cologne, than any older and more
seasoned noble. Therefore had it been given out that the new Emperor was
gone to smite the Saracen, whereas he had merely journeyed from Frankfort
to Treves in disguise, to look upon a man who might prove more formidable
to his peace than the present Saracen roaming the plains of the East
1 461. 2 424.
29. Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting :»
The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
Hath had elsinvhere its setting,
And Cometh from afar;
Not' in entire forget fulness.
And not in utter nakedness,
But trailing clouds of glory, do we come
From God, who is our home.
Heaven lies about us in our infancy !
Shades of the prison-house begin to close
Upon the growing boy,
But he beholds the light, and whence it flows-
He sees it in his joy ;
The youth, who daily further from the east
Must travel, still is Nature's priest,
And by the vision splendid
Is on his way attended ;
At length the man perceives it die away,
And fade into the light of common day.
1 46. 2 392.
30. Upon the afternoon of which 1 now speak, in the midsummer of the
year 1621, as I sat upon my saddle-bags, my long pipe between ray teeth, and
my eyes upon the pallid stream below, my thoughts were busy with these
matters— so busy that I did not see a horse and rider emerge from the
dimness of the forest into the cleared space before my palisade, nor know,
until his voice came up the bank, that my good friend was without and would
speak to me.
EXERCISES.
381
atl eould not be
(Idciily his sled
itetl lis loud as
iiian uhead did
to come bacK,
le train 8top{)e(i
ing bag which
train he would
but deer will
ooking after it,
26. And'' well
ne on a weary
aner of man he
arch- bishop of
1 an Emperor,
d be the more
)lder and more
V Emperor was
Tom Frankfort
ore formidable
ae East.
summer of the
I my teeth, and
usy with these
erge from the
ide, nor know,
out and would
And l,«.,lle™, f , '- "I ",'." '""'■I- lifis
w]n,.i^ .,,:;:^,r,,i;' ---j'tii^ ^>;;[i'->vo.;ici,
VVe pass uuco^ s, ,„. • '*"'^' *^ t''^* "^''t
Th. nK,uK. a "\ V .'u IP' >' -'""•l-- ^'.idgo.
Which cruml,l,r« il ""! ,"."^^^^" ''<'iHls,
And marvelling kolllye 4o n?^^ '"^"■"^'"'
Content ourseltes to call th I.^Y^'■^^■^^ «t^"'<3»'
S"^- O for' the cominrrnf f) *
34. Aman'rdop'sif.inri.. I i- . j^ "^uiues;
his head boi Jen his naw. h-^''"'^"''*^" ^^'"' "le noble doo- be to"„i^''^^?^^
faithful and true^v'n Tdk^^/^/^'- ^^^ '^"t open in alert 'tvaSuin^r
1^8. ^A^ote the subjective eo,np,e,„ents.
^5. Time ghVles away and we grow old
TIT » V '""'='''' "1^ ine siipnt vpnr«
More fa n. the busy hand, to^fo d'
More quiet rvhen a tale is told.
When death appears
It is not that the feet would shrink
As one grows old, '
382
EXERCISES.
it i» pa»»il,le tl,.y only il\l,Zri:\^l:J\ll''l^^^^^^
extruva;/!inco n dress nrociM'ds from « Jii • "^'^/""I'l« P^an, since every
than nature made usT and thsLsoZ Vf coming more beautiful*
but approve it ; a de^irro ^e m'^J^'^te eut'EoH^' ' •"' only pardon,
makes usso;'^ and us thousandsZd n liv?iaf ^ • "■*"''^? '^ '^*"^^ actually
none but the ignorant inTelg^:^,^,^ ^ society by such appetites^
> 464. a 475.
would be" bnf ?f'«r^' ??'^''* *^!^* *^^ "^^'^ *h^y subscribed the safer they
39. If it be reasonable to estimate thedifficultyof any enterprise bv^'reouent
miscarriages it may justly be concluded that' it is Lt easy for a man ?o
know himself; for v^heresoevor we turn our view, we sh 11 find a WaU
mor^T^""' Z '""^"T. '" "^^^^'l^ ^^ '° -i"^^^^ «^ th^ir sentiment, tidu ging
more favorable conceptions of their own virtue than they have been able to
impress upon others, and congratulating themselves upon Te^rees of exce -
lence. which their^fondest admirers cannot allow them to have attained
40. I' Now, in good sooth, *" LordMarmion cried,
Were I in warlike wise to ride,
A better guard I would not lack,
Than your stout foragers at my back;
But, as in form of peace I go,
A friendly messenger,'^ to know
Why through all Scotland, near and far,
Theirking is mustering troops for war.
The sight of plundering Border spears
Might justify suspicious fears,
And deadly feud, or thirst of spoil,
Break out in some unseemly broil."
1 485. 2 138.
41. After due pause, they bade him tell
Why he, who touched the harp so well, *
Should thus, with ill -rewarded toil,
Wander a poor and thankless soil,"'*
' TiV. -a. poetic eoiisti'uctioii.
^XERCIShS,
I departing from
their character ;
an, since every
more beautiful*
lot only pardon,
iH what actually
such appetites,
panies shall put
ains out of the
the beneficent
rehouses of the
are reckoning
iph of the cotn-
it most surely
iblic ownership
3' the intention
I the safer they
ng in such an
oer would have
three hundred
men of various
rise by frequent
' for a man to
find almost all
jnts, indulging
i^e been able to
»rees of excel -
) attained.
wou;;,*;;;!,r;;!;;/^;''y-- «'>uth,.rn 1..,.,
■Liked not to I'^'T' r-' ^^•'»'•'
42 Ah \ whot b„t of. , ' ^" ^^^'^^ «<> ^l«'ar.
that constitute '^t^*',;-^^ ^-^ ^-m my Ln. ' ^J.^^'«'Tbody ; and
pretty intimately. He «^rl''' '"""" "^' «^^'''»ff' .1 lufo v " u'L'"*'-^' «"^
was scouring milk cnn« , T"."'"^ ^""'^ Pay ^rt n : ' "" ^^'^ P^'ople
Christian ab^o.^ L ^u lilt ^" ^?'''"'^^''«''^''^'' e~w,*^ 7' ^^''f ^ the work
^ 462. . 391. :^^ ^'^^'t «o'"ehovv didn't «eem to fit^wll.^'lJ^Ji'jy thing
well by the officers it '"'"". '^'""^■'^ ««-^'''»l7^'rs and ^'fvl" '"^'f"''^ ^^ ^^''^^^ ?
deer to be taken 'if '' ^'^^^mely doubtful if he wonH P' ^^^" ^^'^^ted
finally let them go . Lff ""^ ^thout many n'sgivln 'M''^^^^ ^^"^^'^^^ i^'«
of his family anS'thot^ l^Zl^J ^'^T'^ber'^d th^;;'e"f;e's S ''""' '"
deiay m obtaining the dZ, f ""'' ^™- He w/s Xnfd i ^^'^ support
natives would laufh^lT ht" '"" ^^^^^ - ^he s;>ri,t ^nd ^th^l S^l.^^
in answer otlii!^ f'^ *^ ^^"^P ^'^to ran^ o f.f •*'''"^'^* ^«'' the British
384
JCXKIiClSES.
HI
4(i.
If with rcmlM.r f-nr tlioii hordosf whiit tl)o Ttnviml Teacher sailh
L.Hten.nK w.th H willing s.-.irit nn.l ,t chil.l-Iik.. laith
wi;!!l r"7i'' Jn ^'\ -''r' ""' ^''^''"•' ^^*'"' ''i"'«^''»' ^>"' frail and weak
VVouhl at least the lui,'heHt vvelfni-M of another seek •
And h.H Kift, thou^rh p,H„. imd losvly it n.av seen, to other eres
Yet may prove aa unge.. holy in a pilK'rinr;. giuHo. '
47. FuIIen chonO), to be weak Ih niiserahle
JJoing or Hutrerinj,';' but of this he Hure,
lo do aught good never will be our task,
But ever to do ill our sole deligiit,
As Ix'ing the contrary to lus higii ViH
Whom we resist. If then his »)roviden('e
Out of our evil seek to bring forth good,
Our labor must be to prevent that end,
And out of good still to find means of evil,
Which ofttinies may succeed, so as perhaps
Shall grieve him, if I fail not and disturb
ills inmost counsels f -om their destined aim.
1 Adv., by aljbroviation.
48. If tJiat high world which lies beyond
Our own, surviving love endears,
If there the cherished lieart be fond,
The eye the same except in tears—'
How welcome those untrodden spheres
Iiow sweet this very hour to die,
To soar from earth and fiiul all fears
Lost in thy light— Eternity.
It must be so: 'tis not for :self
That we so tremble o?'. the brink-
And striving to o'erleap the gulf, '
Yet cling to Being's severing link.
Oh, in that future let us think
To hold each heart the heart that shares.
With them the immortal waters drink,
And, soul in soul, grow deathless, theirs.
49
That time of year thou mayst in me behold
When yellow leaves, or none or few do hang
Upon those boughs which shake against the cold,
Bare ruin'd choirs, where late the sweet birds sang.
In me thou see'st the twilight of such day,
As after «un-set fadeth in the west,
Which by and by black night doth take away,
Death's second self, that seals up all in rest.
In me thou seest the glowing of such tire.
That on the ashes of his youth doth lie,
As- the death-bad whereon it must expire,
Consumed with that which it was nourished by.
This thou perceiv'st, which makes thy love more strong
To love that well which thou must leave ere lon^
■bt
by
IT sallh,
ail and weak,
or tres,
og.
roug,
F^XEItClSES.
380
50. I fho,ip:l,t of Thoo, ,„3
• rfiu'
For backward, J) .1 r^i.T "'"^^''''fmtJiiegl
J' see whnr, whs , , i ; "^f '">' ^^es,
Still glides ho st're ' T" ''"' ''^''^'^^'^
The ele.e\\t;''^.-CS:\:^{r ^^««^ '
inuny soldiers
Hailor.s and
9
«ailor.sand her ih nl. '' "'•^"' ^''" «''»"J'J n./u-nta f u r V • ""-^''^^^^
9-em/s will whtH i ? "'^".' "^ "'"^ <''*^y wo.Jd 1 v«v« I ''".f'' ""^ ^^^^
To be sure slu r. M T? '" ^''« ^^"^t^n, eo ^ s of f. ''i '""^"^^^ ^« ^« <^'e
to receive due con 'i "V^"" '"'^^ "« ^''^ was r? de'd^ ^'iw'''",^' «•' ^^^ «cothi„d.
^ Uuecon.derat. wheu Ler petitio^ltilho^Sll^l.^^-'
A3 bc.,„, eo,.eious .hat u'eirti,?: iS t^r^' °' ^'«'<'ows „»,
2 ^^ wu£ ^^a'^:- --'Si^-; a;e^pa,„te., eve. o„e ,
A Witness of .-,,, .o^TS ',tL7S&"^ "^ ^""^ '"rth
«». •-•w"M-s'^%s:irwi;^S^'i
386
EXERCISES.
I h
54. Sure ho that made us with such large discourse,
Jjookiiig V)efoio and after, },ave us not
'i'hiit capability and god- like reason
To fust in us unused. Now, whether it be '
Bestial ol)livion, or some cvaveu scruple
Of thinking too precisely < n the event, —
A thought which quartered hath but one part wisdom
And, ever, three parts coward,— I do not know
Why yet I live to say, " This thing's to do."
r)5. As I stood looking at the great wall of empty hogsheads in front of me,
wondering if it would not be better to give up searching any more on this
vessel which evidently had not been laden with valuables ; and make some
sort of plan for fastening lines to those treasure boxes so that they might be
hauled up on board the brig, I began to feel a sort of trouble with my breath
as if I were in a very close room where I might suffocate if I did not get out
soon.
56. '-.M'obleKingof England," hesaid, " wenowpart, never to meet again.
That your league is dissolved, no more to be reunited, and that your native
forces are far too few to enable you to prosecute your enterprise, is as well
known to me as to yourself. 1 may not yield you up that Jerusalem which
you so much desire to hold. It is to us, as to you, a Holy City. But what-
ever other terms Richard demands of Saladin, shall be as willingly yielded
as yonder fountain yields its waters. Ay, and the same should be as frankly
afforded by baladin, if liichard stood in the desert with but two archers in
his train ! "
57. I was like enough to have paid for ray rashness with my life ; for, as I
emerged upon Ihe deck of the poop, the point of a sword flashed off my
body armour, and I received so violent a buffet upon my shoulder from a
battle axe, that I nearly lost my footing, ana, as it was, would have done so
but for the press of men behind me.
58. Firmly as he believed' that a time of trial was inevitable, he believed no
less firmly that it might be passed at public schools sooner than under other
circumstances ; and, in proportion as'^ he disliked toe assumption of a false
manliness in boys, was his desire to cultivate in them true manliness, as the
only step to Homething higher, and to dwell on earnest principle and moral
thoughttulness, as the great and distinguishing mark between good and evil.
Hence his wish that as much as possible should be done by the boys, and
nothing for them ;=' hence arose his practice, in which his own delicacy of
feeling and uprightness of purpose powerfully assisted him, of treating the
boys as gentlemen and reasonable beings, of making them respect them-
selves by the mere respect he showed to them ; of showing that he appealed
and trusted to their own common sense and couscience.
1 472, 2 Criticize, o Orilicize.
59. And yet, dear heart, remembering thee,
Aiu I not richer than of old ?
Safe in thy immortality.
What change cuu reach the wealth I hold T
EXERCISES.
idom
in front of me,
y more on this
md make some
b they might be
pvith ray breath
did not get out
r to meet again,
lat your native
rise, is as well
jrusalem which
ty. But what-
illingly yielded
3 be as frankly
two archers in
r life ; for, as I
flashed off my
loulder from a
d have done so
, he believed no
an under other
)tiou of a false
uiliness, as the
iple and moral
good and evil.
r the boys, and
iwn delicacy of
of treating the
respect them-
at he appealed
60
And wh.le ,n life's lute afternoon,
7 ^^^^" Shape and shadow overflow
I cannot feei that thou art far '
bince near at need the angels are •
Sh^l""!" «»nf t gates unbar, '
AnnM '""^ ""^^ *''«« waiting stand
Like one that draws hi' dra Iv ^f i^ ^"'''\
About M., and He. d^tvn^To'XtLTdSi'
The peril is.beside'us^Sky b"d y"" " "" "'^'^ '
The book will close upon ns in,.',,, i
Just a. we lift curseh'-es to soa,-'.w^y '^
L pon the summer ai.N R„f •, ^ ,
The closing boo^ n^^y^^tof ;:^";i ' A.^, ^tj.
^ Yet leave no lustre on the page of death! ^^'
^"' ^ Jf'"".^ ■ ^^^"^ knowest a lenient hand to Inv
Lu Wfn "'T^'' ^°""^' and slowly thence
l^ulhrig to sad repose the weary sense '
The fa.nt pang stealest unperceiv"d awav •
£|nl»ri,i7d^,t>'2,,Z:e.
ings
Forgetful
I sunbea
though
m
Wh,-?? I ^""^ i»'"^Ii"'U".st that poc
Which hopes from thee, and thee
of the tran^ lent shower
i'HifS -AVC^ «.,-.« «^J,„ ..1 .,
vvet the while;
poor heart endure.
alone
a cure.
888
EXERCISES.
63. " There never yet was flower fair in vain,
Let classic jtoets rhyme it* as they will :
The seasons toil that it may blow again,
And summer's heart doth feel its every ill; ^
Nor is a true soul ever born for naught;
Wherever any such hath lived and died,
There hath been something for true freedom wrought,
Some bulwark levelled on the evil side :
Toil on, then. Greatness ! thou art in the right,
However narrow souls may 'jail thee wrong ;
Be as thou would'st be in thine own clear sight,
And so thou wilt in all the world's ere long;
For worldlings cannot, struggle as they may,''
From man's great soul one great thought hide away.
1 299 (4). 2 472.
64. The stars are glittering in the frosty sky.
Frequent^ as pebbles on a broad sea coast ;
And o'er the vault the cloud-like galaxy
Has marshalled its innumerable host.
Alive all heaven seems ! with wondrous glow
Tenfold refulgent every stai appears,
As if some wide celestial gale did blow,
And thrice illume the ever-kindled spheres.
Orbs, with glad orbs rejoicing, burning beam,
Kay-crown 'd, with lambent lustre in their zones,
Till, o'er the blue bespangled spaces, seem
Angels and n:reat archangels on their thrones ;
A host divine, whose eyes are sparkling gems.
And forms more bright than diamond diadems.
1 138. 490.
65. Let me quote once more from opinions expressed three years ago : — "Let
us in discussing the future that lies before us, consider what future measure of
authority in particular we should possess, and what further responsibilities
we should, in decency and fairness to the parent state, be prepared to
assume ; because I take it that the moment we enter the field of external
relation as one with which we have to do, and as one which politically con-
cerns us, we cannot stand toward the mother country, in reference to questions
of defence, as we stood before. The're has been on the part of the English
Government, ever since Parliamentary Government for domestic purposes
readied luatuvity, a determination to throw upon the colonies the mainten-
ance of peace within their own borders."
66. " Charlotte, my dear, how is it that I find you weeping ? Have vou had
bad news from your husband ? " " Oh, worse than that ! ]\Iy Arthur writes
me from Carlsbad that he would die with ardent longings for me, were it not
that he could ga^e affectionately at my picture, and cover it with a thousand
kisses every day." " That is really very nice of him. And, pray, is it that
you are crying for? I would give anything to have such a poetic and
tenderly-lovii'.g husband as you have." "Ah, yes, my Arthur is very
poetical ; but let me tell you that, just to try him, I slipped mother's photo
iuto his truveillug bag instead of my own before he started."
£:xEncis^S.
389
:ht,
iaffo :— "Let
•e measure of
sponsibilities
prepared to
I of external
litieally con-
to questions
the English
itie purposes
;he mainten-
lave you had
Lrthur writes
), were it not
h a thousand
•ay, is it that
poetic and
thur is very
)ther's photo
tal^aIu^:;t?^S:^^^i„^he wc^, a^
ot a monastic life ; and, indeed "!j^''"^ '"^''' ^^'^^ions to the severities
ail regard to another est'a e be lot exlim!^ " ^"'^'^^ ""^*^^'^^» ^^ busine i
though, perhaps, not the resolutio,, of ?"',',''^'^' '""'^'^ ^'^''^ the conviction
neglect disgracefully, L evei-v L« J^^"'^' f^*^^ ^^^^ children whom^oj
more respect for the mother ofVvL^^'' ^"* "^^ <=^" y«" thil' 1 have
you can read if you like thL f "^ ««» ^^ expressed in this letter wlXh
grandfath^t Wm^'yo^f " S i^,f *. ^'^'*' ^^^ "'"^ «" I'^^est man like vonr
this child that your foriune?. LI '? ^^" ^'^"'^^ "^^^r havrcome to . 'n
whether this is the case or not I 1-?^^"^' ^"^ >'""^' ^itle her title^ though
opinion of your own looks/which as I fill" ' ^^'^' ^'^'^ ^'''^^^ too^good .n
nothing compared to my own at your n J ^""^ ""'^ ^°^ ^^^ ^-'^^t time a"e
your grandmother. ^ ^^ ^°''\ ""^e, or even to those of my daughter
388,
70.
As once iu aiboon.ISS: "rfc^
An agency divineria", „ toS"""^ " '?»
71. As when upon a tranced summer-ni-ht
x\n • , '" "ne gvauual solitarv fust
So caniA fiioc , '^'"t one wave ;
Just whevB l,„. f.n .,r,'5f..'°r''!"'»'' to the Kronnd.
Asor^a„d3nken-.;;arfo;'s;S,''?er''^™'' '
yuo
EXERCISES.
I.
if
72.
As we wax oldei on this eartJi,
Till many a toy that charmed ns seems
hinptied of beauty, stripped of worth,
And mean as dust and vain as dreams—
I" or gauds that perished, shows that passed,
borne recompense the Fates have sent:
iliriee lovelier shine things that last,
Ihe things that are more excellent.
Tired of the Senate's barren brawl.
An hour with silence we prefer,
While statelier rise the woods than all
Ion towers of talk at Westminster,
i.et this man prate and that man plot,
On fame or place or title bent :
The votes of veering crowds are not
The things that are more excellent.
73. I deny not but that' it is of greatest concernment in the church and
a^ m™"^"nd' lie : irto\T«"^' •^^^'.°" "^^^^ demean\hems:i:e",'atrn
as ma^efac tors 1, b^^^^^^^ imprison, and do sharpest justice on them
1491.
^oZ^'f^''"'?/'^'^"'®.*"'^^ '''''''* ''•''"'^'^ ^ ^e^ days since by the rumour which
came from Washington sources to the eft'ect that some new difficulty had Trisen
to delay proceedings in connection with the Behring Sea arb tra on tSs
now good reason to hope that either the rumour was unfounded or that the
difficulty has been overcome, whatever may have been its nature There
seems however, to be a good deal of delay in completing the arrani^ements^
f the T . ted States authorities should become a little restive, since it must
be to tluMr interest to have their rights defined before the openingof anoTr
cel^n terHtn ' J^'M' '"''"^^•^?^ '}'''' '^^^ "^^^ reasonably expect to have
ceitain territorial rights recognized, and to be enabled thereby to mount
guard over a certain area more effectively than was done last seUon^nder
the joint arrangement. Whether they have any good ground to exnect s^ich I
cotK^ession is another question. Be that as it may, eveiyol cSerned wiU
feel a sense of relief when it is announced that the arbitrators have been finX
chosen, and a day fixed for the commencement of their deliberltions
con?oVStv wifr'^tr;?'''"'/'' 7^d^^y./e^eived or long retained, but for some
a^ainrke^e^n^ * • ''""^ ""^^'I'^V '^ ''^"'^' ^^ confessed, that this caution
against keeping our view too intent upon remote advantages, is not without
evit^'TlL'' "'f "^•';f 'V '^^.I'.f %^^ have been recild with too muTh
vehemenL nf T •'^ "^'^ i^"'' ^'"^^ distinction; for, not to speak of that
jehemence of desire which presses through right and wrong to its gratifica-
tion, or that anxious ino-rat tud^ wh?"h i^ i,,ofi,. -.i,„^~„^m'' _,.. ,rV "r".
Heaven, subjects too solemn for my present purpose; it frequently happens
m
Exji:iicm':s.
ke church and
selves, as well
stiee on them
; do contain a
progeny they
extraction of
mmour which
Ity had arisen
ion. There is
d, or that the
iture. There
rrangements ;
be surprising
since it must
ngof another
cpect to have
sby to mount
season under
expect such a
oncerned will
e been finally
Ltions.
but for some
this caution
3 not without
ith too much
peak of that
its gratifica-
ih distrust of
ntly happens
391
7(). God 18 master of fhp «« ^"pped awry.
ou earth as it is in hi *" "' '^ ''''" ^"^ we who p Av t •'. f -""^T^ "''^y'"^' " ^^
commanded h«L ^T''^''^ ™"«* remember thut n,7„ .^"^"^^ ^''^ Redone
, My toil by day and onr>n ^k"'<' *'""«^«/
(Light heart, l^^lU foof h'S ^/ "/^^^ '
These lights shall jgi^'f^^o old' '"1 ^'"""^'^^^- ^^g^*'
^hile monarchs xvhnt i ,,? °^^ ^^^ ^ gate,
Heavy wilL fe;;^ Jh h'^^^^^^J^' dreams^ffn-jji.t
Whilst here I wTndel n i' ^"/f "1 ^""^•"ons wSt :')
Weighing in thon?, .V ^ '^^^"^ ^'^ ^« ^^^ne, '^
I cannot ch^or tu t i^a^it' ' m"^ '"^P^^^^'
TiS-i^:^^!-^i--ti;d;j^s
if mat<,he"aty h tL " p '° "'" -"'"'''^t^ o Nature Zv't ''>'" "■*"' "'"•
intricacy rarherfSnf!- ',", '™. '^°"««ie„ce-cbuded " ,S''°'""? """"« 'he
t^?/.9?^°^' yesterday to dine wither old .-r- • .
of ir'heV'nM'"^" family very much deT;eted ''' 7^*'"''?'.^ ^«^ the misfortune
392
EXERCISES.
to thoir children. At lior eominj? into the room, I ol.servo.l a settled
rnfilancholy in her eountonanco, whioh I should have been trou))led for h-id
1 not heard from whence-' it proceeded. We were no sooner s;it down, but •'
after having looked ur.on me a little while, "My dear," said she, turninL' to
her husband, you may now see the stranger that was in the candle last
night. boon atter this, as they began to talk of family affairs, a little boy
at the lower end of the table told her that ho was to go into long-hand on
Thursday. " Tlmrsday!" says she; "No, child; if it please God, you shall
not begin upon Childermas-day; tell your writing-master that Friday will
be soon enough." "^
1 457. 2 Value of -ce not felt. 3 Criticize.
80. Whether it was the result of religiousdivisions or physical convulsions
or civil tends— whether it wus due to the gradual dissolution or the suddeA
dismemberment of tribal relations— \vhether it was simply caused by the
natural growth of population, or by the restless spirit of enterprise— all this
is buried in eternal oblivion; but the main fact is certain, that ' Westward
the course of empires took its way,' and the con.-hisions on which we are
about to dwell may be regarded as established in their broad outlines if not
in their more minute details.
81. While justice, candour, equanimity, a zeal for the good of your country
and the most persuasive eloquence in bringing others over to it, are valuable
distinctions, you are not to expect that the public will so far comply with
your inclinations, as to forbear -elebrating such extraordinary qualities. It
18 in vain that you have endeavoured to conceal your share of merit in the
many national services which you have affected. Do what you will, the
present age will be talking of your virtues, though posterity alone will do
them justice.
82. ''There are many things from which I might hav3 derived good, by
which I have not profited, I dare say, ' ' returned the nephew, ' ' Christmas among
the rest. But I am sure I have always thought of Christmas time, when it
has come round— apart from the veneration due to its sacred name and
origin, if anything belonging to it can be apart from that— as a good time •
a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time; the only time I know of, in
the long calendar of the year, when men and women seem by one consent
to open their shut-up hearts freely, and to think of people below them as if
they were fellow -passengers to the grave, and not another race of creatures
bound on other journeys. And, therefore, uncle, though it has never put a
scrap of gold or silver in my pocket, I believe it has done me good, and
will do me good; and 1 say, ' God bless it.' "
83. Let a clear, apprehensive mind, such as every man knows among his
friends, converse with the most commanding poetic genius, I think it would
appear that there was no inequality such as men fancy between them ; that
a perfect understanding, a like receiving, a like perceiving, abolished
differences ; and the poet would confess that his creature imagination gave
him no deep advantage, but only the superficial one, that he could express
himself, and the other could not ; that his advantage was a knack which
might impose on indolent men, but could not impose on lovers of truth;
for they know the tax of talent, or what a price of greatness the power of
expression too often pays, i believe it is the conviction of the purest men,
that the net amount of man and man does not much vary.
84
EXERCISj!.S.
if true there be another, better lnn,l
3d:j
No more
T ^ri ? . "' ^i"e«n wor (1. No mm
Let me not hear that dread command.
i'otSlL^;'p"^,tea'uTv%r^^^
That w».«T, 1.^ V "®^"ty from the world
bSL wa"ted KT,: "^k"'" '" "-^ •""»<"
Of vapo,. tLt di:ifee'^;,^?lr4,^;^L""»'^
It all the year were playhiL- hoIidiiv«
2°utttnThet^e^ir^^'°"^''''°™
bhall show more eoodiv nVui of* %. '
^ Kedeemiug ti^e when men Xl'lLt I will.
oebatt,ir|s^?»^ed°:iL'":,rai^:sL^''«^
o.weT„'i?„rp*,Xt:^i'°yriaro?7 "»
io wonder, fallen such a pernicious height
*'• Of" fote^l'ii'^^'eTllnS.r""' *'«'» ' "-
3M
EXEIiCISKS.
• ;
Or do Ilia ermruls in tlic Kl<»oiny dnep ?
What cjiii it then avail, thougli yot we feel
Strength undiininiHliM, or eternal V)eintj
To undergo eternal imnishinont.
88. myriads of immortal spirits, Powers
Matchless, but with the Almighty ; and that strife
Was notingloiioiis, though tif event was diro,
As this place testifies, and this dire change,
Hateful to utter ; but what jiower of mind,
Foreseeing or presaging, from the depth
Of knowledge past or present, could have feared.
How such united force of gods, how such
As stood like these, could ever know rei)ulse 1
For who can yet believe, thougli after loss,
That all the puissant legions, whoso exile
Hath emptied Heav'n, sliall fail to reascend
Self-raised and repossess their native seat?
89. The colonel, as soon as ho could bo removed from the English hospital
was exchanged for an English prisoner of equal rank ; and as he and younff
Downy hai)pened to be despatched invalided tx) St. Petersburg by the same
conveyance, it was only natural that they should make friends by the way
As a matter of fact, the young hu//,ar was greatly attracted by his brother
otticer, and, though the colonel cordially reciprocated his advances, he could
not help feehng that Downy 's tone toward him partook somewhat of de haut
en bay, as though the huzzar was well aware that in fraternizing with a lines-
man ho was makmg a concession. Possibly the colonel in the zealous dienitv
of the mfantry ofhcer, imagined more than really existed of the affectation on
the part of Downy, who would have been extremely surprised if any one had
suggested to him that he had adopted such an attitude towards his fellow-
travellers, much as he might be supposed to think of his position.
90. It is when the sentimentalist turns preacher of morals that we investi-
gate his character, and are justified in so doing. He may express as many
and as delicate shades of feeling as he likes,— for this the sensibility of his
organism perfectly fits him, no other person could do it so well,— but the
moment he undertakes to establish his feelings as a rule of conduct, we ask
at once how far are his own life and deed in accordance with wl .; he
preaches? for every man feels instinctively that all the beautiful sentiments
m the world weigh less than a single lovely action ; and that, while tenderness
of feelings and susceptibility to generous emotions are accidents of tempera-
ment, goodness is an achievement of the will and a quality of the life
Fine words, says our homely old proverb, butter no parsnips ; and if the
question be how to make those vegetables palatable, an ounce of butter
would be worth more than all the orations of Cicero.
91. Even as a bird, 'mid the beloved leaves,
Quiet upon the nest of her sweet brood
Throughout the night that hideth all things from us,
Who, that she may behold their longed-for looks.
And find the nourislnnent wherewith to feed them
In which, to her, grave labors, grateful are,
t!XERClsE$,
3DS
igHsh hospital
he and young
I by the same
^ by the way.
)y his brother
iices, he could
tiat of de hmit
J with a lines-
ealous dignity
affectation on
F any one had
[Is his fellow-
1.
at we investi-
•ress as many
sibility of his
i^ell, — but the
id not, we ask
v'ith wl o he
111 sentiments
ile tenderness
8 of tempera-
of the life.
3 ; and if the
ce of butter
IS,
Anticipafes tlie time on open snrav
And with ardent longi.V^ wait, fhp «
And vy? L! i. «t^;'<i»»g was, erect
Unl;St^^';,S^.^-'-d towards the zone
So that behold ,rJ,e.dst^r ^1'^''^^' '«"«* ^^^ste;
«ueh I beeamt as he ^ ^who i^"^ •""^^'''
For something yLvL iJl? ^««"'ng
lug yearns, and hoping is appeased.
Sweet counsellors .W^f ■ Y"?' ''° y" say,
Back stmigrtv^^y't^'^^','™"f»' that ' "I'ouW go
Another /ooth, ^ly'do itt '»f ff'""' "-ef
H^iaaeaa';:urtt^'S"s;/elr£,^i°-
''• inTfent^l" ' irthrt""? ^^,f' '^'" «- ^old
What yet they 'k™"'^„ttf *',!"" f""''' "'"» f"^-'
Exile or igno;^!,,";:^ bonds:' 7ai^ ^'""'™'
Our supre^etfin^Ceray^rut S'it"'"'
N^ mif/' »■"' P"''"l« thus^far rl™ed
mth wv,^f"? ""' ?ffending, .atisfled ' '
vYitn what is punished.
' Note omission. a 135
realm of imnions Pharaoh him*^
Like
So numbe
!;^Ot, ana darkened uli the
were those bad angel
land of Nilt
s seen.
;}90
EXERCISES.
95. Tf, RH I tako it, yon are mamudors spfkinf^ crnin from l)nl> ^a ■ .„p-
it 18 hut honest to tHI yon that, ir, cast, of vHo.y 4,^.0 f-fl "•"'
yon a,.., hnt two, an.l (i.nnans at that, there is litJt tot pi^c^eS'Vr;^^''^^^^
utnl k.HK.ks or, g.von a pro{.erdistanee, a well placed shaft, which yo^wou Id
ud hardM- to d.^es ban anything you have taken inwardly this some time
past. I say this Imt .n the way of fair dealing a« between man and man^o
prevent alter d.sai)po.ntment, and not as prejudicing a fair encouD ir Thou d
your inclination tend in that direction. «ucoum«i, bUould
90. Self-love, which, never rightly understood,
Makes poets still conclude their plays are good.
And malice in all critics reigns so high
That for small errors they whole plays decry :
bo that to see this fondness and that spite,
You'd think that none but madmen judge or w^e
Therefore our poet, as he thinks not fit
To impose upon you what he writes for wit,
bo hopes, that, leaving you your censures free.
You equal judges of the whole will be •
They judge but half, who only faults will see.
-Poets, like lovers, should be bold and dare,
Ihey spoil thei" business with an over-care-
And he, who servilely creeps after sense, '
Is safe, but ne'er shall reach an excellence.
Hence, 'tis our poet, in his conjuring.
Allowed his fancy the full scope and swing.
But when a tyrant for his theme he had,
He loosed the reins, and bid his muse run mad ;
And though he stumbles in a full career,
Yet rashness is a better fault than fear.
97. Those heaped affronts that haughty subjects brini
Are burdens for a camel, not a king.
Kings are the public pillars of the State,
Born to sustain and prop the nation's weight:
If my young Sampson will pretend a call
To shake the column, let him share the fall :
But, oh, that yet he would repent and live I
How easy 'tis for parents to forgive !
With how few tears a pardon might be won
From nature, pleading for a darling son !
Poor pitied youth, by my paternal care
Raised up to all the height his frame could bear !
Had God ordained his fate for empire born.
He would have given his soul another turn';
Gulled with a patriot's name, whose modern sense
Is one that would by law supplant his prince ;
I he peoples' slaVe, the politicians' tool;
Never was patriot yet but was a fool.
■ There is a bondage worse, far worse, to bear
Than hisi who breathes, by roof and floor, and walJ
i eni, in, a tyrant's solitary tlirull:
» 371.
EXERCISES.
oh. -d ■ .lyfarors,
! dou. .ful, seeirif?
ked from me, but
which you would
ly this some time
mau and man, to
mcouDtyr, should
'He.
^^
397 .
98
pine.
1S9
fi'S his who walks nhonf :„ i.i
And rash, beCh, r I ,',„ V'"' f lf-<l«fiv<.,i
Tbe strength l«t":„":„Ve"wirh'" T"-'"'"
Two things provided moiVltlmt fn. f, • .
He presently become n r i!,.- V- ' ^*^' *'"» ^avor,
The other f hcf K ~. '-"ustian ; '
TT ."*^^ that he do ree(jr«l « cvV
Here in the court nf oii i ,^ ^'"'
Wonder to all wh?d?, ?,° .e^er;"™"' '
, t^ rh^t'iT::r rS "■■■''f ?-. -^ whence .
Of rock or sand reooaeth Vi ' !""' °" " «''elt
Such seemed this man .«/?'* .'■" '"" ''««" !
Nor alJ asleen-.Thi °'''" "I™ "or dead
Hi? body wasTen 1", ?„rS an^i" "^' '^
Comjng fogetlier in life.VpfM""
A ..ore taan t,„mL wei^;t*™tVffS; had cast.
aU
I
898
EXERCISES.
EXEltOISES.
PART III.
SBNTENCES FOU CUITICISM.
ttJ^ Some of the sentences are correct.
1 c, ^•
1. Hhe wrote ainonff other works a spirited defence of I.er ««^ n m
stron^NM' and Htraiiger a figure is desorihpH inf. . • . ^' ^- ^°
England. 3. If I were ol.lSfgh tote ,mm^^^^ ™«dern
mv fRther'u iini.uQ 4 rr .'""«" lu uo luarnea, 1 am old enouffh « nianwce
lM,t to oL' person, LTlTe'ihemosuL^tTeler in ?heSl""r '.".'rP'
anyactot hla life/ »! irMoX„l hTs L™1 f^.^:'"''''' '? "'' P'^'^'-'es <^^ in
man has been pointed out to me as the author of Vhti.ff ,T A^?" °"^
the culprit, no blame can be too great for h L ^ %\^''' -J^ " ^^ ^''^^
books as may be selected by the tP»Ph«r «n.i «?•" u ^^' V'7 "^'^ '*"<^y 8»c'i
school library. 16 The tlohini r?.nfL • ^'""^ ^'? *° ^^ obtained in the
that many ol its members hlv^a ^f^^^^^^^^^^ «^ Z''' ^f'^^^
believed him so foolish as to hoJl ??! i • I!*. ^^- ^ ^^"^^ ^^^ ^ave
dlphthongisthatin whic'h Toth'the VoUfa^e ^ounSed T9 It^^" strn^^'^?^^
}iow a great part of life is made up of t-ifler In vv»,n../ Vif ',^.«"'Pi'J8ing
the duke will find employment for him! ^^' ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^S favors,
II.
their pi'^oplrorder ""fl^^ ^L'^'^'t^}'^ f'^'''' '^'^' ^^«t« before him in
not be'en'my intention! 3 HeX'u t"mo,fv" ' •"^* . •'^"'^ '^'^ «"«^^^«
am highly gratified by your commTndatTon oV^'row^^ i^s suspicions. 4. I
never was a more virtuous or abJJ^w^S % 0^?'"'^^.^'' *'*^" ^''°"^ ^^ere
official and otherwise are aU in n T i £' ^^u ''^*1'™' ^^ *^^« elections,
intend on cards, tTeir' countenTnc^^ IhnT ''"^'' *^.u"?^* **^^*' ^ '^«» «^«^ ^^'^
wheii engaged nT^veSon 7 T T m'V^ *^^^' '"^^ characters than
him. •^^' expecTed rh*r-been^:t"by^noV"J The^'leV^^^/r
honesty, aoility, and neisev^vnn.r^^"^ ^""P^?*" ^^"^ *^ ^'«P'ay the same
lOvn. niter V'Uiir own fluHU 1Q TI.^-^ _ • '^ j.,._,. u r^^ rvutiiuai
u. I neve/vi.te. ^cx.'^,i:::z:z^:.^ji^^xs^-^
k^^
xxju/t.-rrfiKfi.
\
lier sex. ?. No
ory cf modern
loiigh ! ) Dianuge
his poems, they
hosts to appeal
0. 6. I let him
ided the rest in
3 pleasures as in
"joying perhaps
have spoken to
? eonfereace till
self. 10. I find
t in his shoes.
1 not assist you
More than one
14. If he was
will study such
obtained in the
lo poor salaries
could not have
18. A proper
It is surprising
he king favors,
3 before him in
d thai such has
ispicions. 4. I
^n whom there
- the elections,
, when men are
'haracters than
I to have seen
least said the
more wisdom
splay the same
i predecessor.
• i« \rs. jOU. ixiuai
IS in the yard,
rested in what
/.He .r tl/. rit:t„„Sz,'t ;i;;;, ',"" «'•"'" -j:i«„'r :,;',;;;;if
Jiill descnntioii r, tlio book q „ ,™ '' ™ wiw. 8. I fonii,] il,„ .t; ■^^^ .
book ™ |,ro,«ir«I. 11, St ellov Hko Rv,!!''1',"''' " "'"'"""■ '"■■ "lioj^.^ , °
fiui,.\r'f„5'l/ritt.r a?:- nrt*?!;' '"'" I ™"'' not go S The
ffie i,r ""r'-S ""ended all he .tb^nfT ??"":• *' »- "a™ ™
shall do „= 1, V '"' *«••<' ■•eally to blame whv if l, ^ ""' ^™<' mistiJto
veari in < ""^ . !''";««• 9. Next SepSer VI n"°,' P""'"'"''" «■ Ho
evident compassion was not ?he least tl^'T^.'^ f*? ^^ «^ ^o st^ H ffi^
will imke a KnJ'f T" ""'^ ^^^^ ^hee ^o excent fhn n ^''" ^'^^^ ««
^ a better teacher than clerk 9 Wf^wR ^^?'' ^'^«« '«e. 8. He
J. He will make a better teachw
■HH
K.I
400
EXERCISES.
than a clerk. 10
person besides a
does his duty.
14. He made t.p
thick on the door
himself the great
few good qualitio
kept a black and
their gloom. 20.
his knapsack.
. No person other than a contractor need apply. 11. No
contractor need apply. 12. He always maintained the man
13. I should feel obliged if he would gratify me so far.
his mind you will go home. 15. He laid the paint quite
16. Whose own example strengthens all his laws, and is
sublime he draws, 17. All the Stuart sovereigns had very
8. 18.^ He drowned the black and white kittens, but he
a white one. 19. For thee nor yew nor cypress spread
Between each of the soldiers was an 'nterval where lay
VI.
1. Every one of us talks worse English every hour of our lives. 2. How
sweet these violets smell ! 3. During the last century, no prime minister
has become rich in office. 4. I intend to have gone by to-morrow. 5. Sarah
Bernhardt is the greatest actor of her age. 6. A noun and a participle may
be so connected logically as to stand independently of the rest of the
sentence. 7. He is the only one who ventured to differ with the minister on
any matter. 8. It is I, your teacher, who command you. 9. Directly the
session ended, the government appealed to the country. 10. I am not that
fond of dogs that I want to have them with me all the time. 11. This
statement was repeated and carefully impressed upon the audience.
12. Driving down the street, his horse ran off, and he was thrown out of the
carriage. 13. Let none of you imagine evil in your hearts against your
neighbors. 14. The Canadian climate is not as equable as those of Northern
and Southern California. 15. Neither men nor money was wanting. 16. If
he outlive me, he shall find that he was higher in my esteem than perhaps
he thinks he was. 17. Is it you that was at the door, or your elder sister?
18. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows, where oxlips and the
nodding violet grows. 19. How happy he must have been to have succeeded
80 well ! 20. This publication being somewhat of an oflaeial character, I
think the profession are entitled to its being accurate.
VII.
1. They have no more control over him than others. 2. They were much
opposed to one another. 3. The people is one ; they have all one language.
4. And they dreamed a dream, both of them, each man his dream in one
night, each man according to the interpretation of his dream. 5. Sorrow not
as them that had no hope. 6. I am just arrived from the country, but I
find your brother is gone. 7. Scarcely was my brother gone, than he
attempted to give nie trouble. 8. As sure as you go, you will see him.
9. We already possess four times as great a trade with China as every other
nation put together. 10. Few of the crew except yourself, knew of the man
being here to-day. 11. I shall complain at once without you act different.
12. I am looking forward to the time when he will talk as much sense to me
as I have to him. 13. He did not run yesterday as he wished. 14. He can
go as well as you. 15. Crippled by no creed, but rather questioning all,
James's outlook upon nature is wide. 16. The greatest number of candi-
dates came up to that examination of any former year. 17. No laws are
better than English laws. 18. The ends of a divine and human legislator
are too often at variance. 19. My old friend, after having seated himself
and trimmed the boat with his coachman, who, being a very sober man,
m '^
1 apply. 11. No
intained the man
itify me so far.
the paint quite
his laws, and is
oreigns had very
kittens, but he
• cypress spread
tervai where lay
r lives. 2. How
' prime minister
arrow. 5. Sarah
a participle may
the rest of the
I the minister on
9. Directly the
). I am not that
time. 11. This
the audience,
lirown out of the
•ts against your
lose of Northern
wanting. 16. If
>m than perhaps
our elder sister?
oxlips and the
> have sucecGded
iial character, I
Phey were much
11 one language.
is dream in one
. 5. Sorrow not
country, but I
gone, than he
1 will see him.
a as every other
tnew of the man
ou act different,
uch sense to me
ed. 14. He can
questioning all,
amber of candi-
17. No laws are
uman legislator
seated himself
'ery sober man,
3. Polities was too Strnno. f.. X'
us forever fi Tf «f ^'^^ ' ^° ^'^all God be onvrlT ^h'""^ ^^ ^'^^ sun in
QueenrE^gLu uTXr'^fh^^'""''^" ^o have arranged iJ"'^ ^'"^ ""''''^^ ^'t^
variety of cSour Tn f . ^^^.P^rts of speech 7 fvi^^" "^^^ ^^^'sion of the
value you more hi^hiw/'^^^^^'' ^^ are led to lonL^ T *^^ ^^^^tiful
■D?^vid, who buil^ fho f^ , '° vhoever you like lo t- "^^^^- H. You
oarriag; rides f,sv™ 2n 'T!"""*^ '^^^ "bo", se dl'lr^'^d '"'"''Wy but
vvno IS the man said to hav3
I .ill
402
EZEECISES.
been? 6. Ah two is to foar, so is four to ^^iv 7 t ^i,
mined in a year. 8. The Dutt ni off. r^^' h^"^'' ^^'''' ^ million tons are
called spellinf.'. 9. A butclKr bouJhf- h ^'''^^';' '" '''' ^° ^^''"^ ^vords is
them lor sale. The t^^^^^^^^^^ '^•ous from two men who offered
animals, and then to(^ tl o ido n '"'"'^'1''^^^"'^ slaughtered one of the
that this took place the owner tradi'trH/;? !'f 'i'"'' ^^ "^« ^^"^^ ^y
was not clever in business, nor was he cl -er a Jn ' -^'"^^^^^i^"- l^' ««
performs acts quite unworthy of 1 ,n n.^ 7- u ^^^''"•"g- H- He often
12. And you may gather Srhndst'hPro ' "n ''' '^""'^* ^^^ condemn.
13. WemusthavealnfereLeinresnP.r;.?."^ f-^'' ^ ^""™«^ ^"^^n-
hat I often feared he wouhl lave Ted ^ ^^^^ject. 14. He is si sick
16. Bunyan compares the life of Ch7istia^w•ifh^^V^^^^^ °^ ^ «"^ *« S"-
remember to have n.et witirhim one Lw f 't^^ "^^ ^ "'^'^
rules of art nor of my own feelings to writ Jin .i'^" I* ,'''°"''^ "«* ^uit the
was planted between each apple Jr^ee Vo nJ *^V' -^-T'"- ^^- ^ P^^r tree
of the earth revolving on its axis ^ ''''^ '"^^^^ ^'^ ^ consequence
XT
fo^ Je^yti^.j^^^lir^^ i\"s:i;i;;r '':nr''i ^^^ ^^^ "^*--^ove
mental music'appear on every p S ramL 3 T*^:. '' X^'"^ ^"^^ ^"«*^"-
4. The words are as follows 5 If I hnTn ?h ! "" Z'''''^' ^^^ ^s follow,
of walked, I would have got there time eno,^.h ''Vl^ ^'"VT ^^''^' ^"^^ead
in he office, making theLelves comforHb ? 7 '...""Jf ?f ^ ^P^"* ^""^^'^7
as intense as to-day," which I hope i mav f l; .1.;.^ '"^m/J' '""^^ ^""^'""^
victim was a youni man who it .•<= n' i skating will be good. 8. The
death by ndin|hinfdorn\; ;n^LlerlTnt nceT '^l^^^^^-^ *«
ever before seen such a high tower" 10 T,nf- ^^ ^'T'°'- ^' Have you
done more towards elucidating tie d ffic Jl ies of '"' f '^''' scholar l/ave
other writer on the subject. 11 I W7 s nrespn? ,f °"' language than any
early. 12. Neither he nor you are meant 34 Vt"^' "^"'^^ ^ ^^^ *^ ^^'^''^
house save we two 14 Thrn<,f fhi i , ?^'^^'^ ^^'^''^ "« stranger in the
15. Two spoonfuls of w^tl to one of'?hI ^'''^' • "^^t^^« ^^ts of^he hoy.
16. I have no other saint than thou to ifn !'''".- ''n.'^^^''^^^^''^ enough,
teachers for the kind reception a coded nvii"-- ^'\ ^^nking my fellow
mitted with the hopes that it maTmec^ wiH, Pre^ous books, this one is sub-
as well as his pupils were prS A „f'n"' f' ^^^^ ^^' ^'^^ ^'^^^'^
when he thinks he will be wVcome. 2o' ^ could not h/"'/r ^^'7' ^^^^P*
him. • '^^' ^ couia not have beheved it to be
1. This was surely tec slender i flimari +^ + j. , .
to. 2. Had I bMt served m^ God S^^^^^^ h "'^ a busi^.g^ ,f ^hat weight
would not in mine age h Jve lef nl , 1 '/'^^ ? '"'^^^ "^^ ^^"g, he
instructions, not from tiie De^Ltment mu t not Ip T'. T^''- ^^ ^"
not less anxious to destroy his enemies l^n T- ^].^^'*^f"ded to. 4. He was
correctly, because more convenient ,'nllli- ." ?''"'^'- •'■ Comparison is
purse when he was from home " i eat mv' li'"""" '^ ^' ^'""^ ^««^ ^is
eaten my dinner. 8 The darkni<,\-« . ^ '"' ^' "°"" ^''"'^ ^ have just
trip was now over. 9 WheHl ef t thTl"/ °"V V* ^^ ^'''"''''^ ^^^^J o"^
meeting him. 10 The des!S"oJ i^aV^cares^'iif to" ..TlJo'V^-'^t"- ^'
.nd ..e d..:gns of the evil one are thus furthered: ll.'scott's wir^s'S
a million tons aro
'o form words is
men who offered
'red one of the
On the same day
^session. 10. He
r. 11. He often
ot but condemn.
summer queen,
U. He is so sick
or I am to p;o.
irney. 17. I only
Jl'l not suit the
19. A pear tree
I'e a consequence
his intense love
•eal and instru-
are as follow,
w yards instead
y spent Sunday
e cold continue
e good. 8. The
i frightened to
r. 9. Have you
lis scholar have
uage than any
I had to leave
stranger in the
ts of the boy.
idered enough,
ing my fellow
his one is sub-
8. The teacher
there except
lieved it to be
of that weight
i my king, he
mies. 3. 411
0. 4. He was
Comparison is
had lost his
(1 I have just
ing cold; our
he chance of
temptation,
's works were
EXERCISES.
Jt- lSS£°£'°'!''«'''S"lSri'''^!,°/ /" '"-"'^d Europe,
is you thus charge *lT n""""'J ^"'""^ «y mistake S^"" , ""> ^•"'.i«t
;?• Not returS-hou;f°T-' ''^ ?'*""'"« '^t I most tevi?" ''°°.«' 5"°" "
hisabsenee. 17 Sht rt!^^ J"," '""^ «"PPer, his Silv h "'* '° Heaven,
tat that he i, Lu.^ent^T'firh"''"''^ '-"'"" 5? TTere'?™^ "'
10. Theso^oys see,, to do uothL'g e'tThrSfhr
tr;:l£S-? Jgsl»^^ - He
IS none other h.,f fh^ • ' ^°"^ opin on is verv nrZ ^"*oth;' ^hair. 6. I
enjoying themselve 5 'h^S^'^ 'T' ^^ He oped evefvl^',^1^' ^"^^
conduct, have troubled hp ^ ^f ^^uct, and what is Lrl 7- "^"^ ^'^^ ^^«n
each prayed for he of ^ ^'^.f ^^- ^6- Each thought of h '"^y"j»«tifiable
difficulties were gi; Um„'''"-'^' *>''^'^' *«'' the Stes if t'^^"' ^^''^^ '
greater than ais in everv nH ""'"^ '" ^^^«t'on to his own n, ^ '•'' general's
bank. 19 Vpt„i ^^^'^ ^^lier respect, is q^w. .' ^'^^^'^tions : mine
room, hnt\ui^^,ZTV t^V'^^^ol-nill' dawn ^ndTl-^r^ ^^^^'e^
see if he was up yet ^%7^"5''^"^^f '^t vanishes 20 She n^lf l?''^^ ^"^^^ ^^i^
her firm belief Vat all ""^''^^^ •''"'"^ rendered thei^vpt^-1.^^ ^^ ^« and
that the coldness LvL^r'^'P^-^ marriages dated on v Jr^ 'V -' ^^ ^as
faculty in woZ^ . " ""f ^^^ independence nnri T ^^'^ ^^^e ; and
23. Heaven forbid thatT^y'^'',."^^'^ «^"«^« ^f ma trin^'oS,"!,-''^^ ''^'^^'-'"^
^j.„ ootain Its removal.
as his who kent th^ hTj ^"°"' "<" "li"- 3 For hov= ^•l?"f ' 2- He left
in such a mTbl^tS ZTlt- *■ ''""■" i"° .X a Wnd oT''^ »^''°"1
P ayed for imfniri o ^"to this earth, .^i Tf ,•„ -^ Kind of saeredness
players Yna^lme off-' ^'^^7 "^^« ^"d w^man of n. f ™' ^^'^^^ ^^^^ been
"&!mT££t-r^^^
man nor boy, nor all fLf • 1 "either listlessness no J^^ S ^^P^^^^^nre of
looks like Js m'herllf .;t.^l.^"^!*-Y.-ith Joy, c'n "^ZZ't^.l^'^-oy, nor
He would be burned. 16 The v^T ''"''' ^''^^ ^'^ ^^thev 'li't^^'- '*: ^e
"jet-ii. 17. A seconcl
404
EXERCISES.
V
J8. Trusting that you will remLber us 3 w -^ "'' T""^ ^^ ^'« ^"^mies
time, and with best Jove (in which we' a h^'lA ^'''•^^" ^' ^^^ ^'^^ ^P^^e
ever, etc. 19. There are man/Cs whose fX^ •'^l."'^ remember me as
they were infants. 20. Of all^mTrash advln^n ^"*^ "'^^^"''^ ^''^^ ^'^en
must prove the ]ast. ^ ^^^ adventures past, this frantic feat
1 V ^ XV.
lake, ^nti/SToeiytfe ^MS ^a^^d^^m^Vlhe-'^t^^ -^"^ «^ ^^-
2. Four times five is twenty. ^3 Th^re^s S i^. '.I '^^"°P °^ *^e beach,
take that much trouble. 4 I am onHf fj,i l^^ ^^'''" another man would
6. All that is seen— the world the P,lh]l\hlVt t"^ ""^^^^ ^^^y ^ose him.
types 7. There is no fear o7 JoL fa^L^ « ?/'' ' '^^•'"'" l^imself-are
his father died so soon. 9. The Italian unW«t-r ""^^ ""^^^ *« ^^« «0"duct
heir professors from France and SpaTn Vn."' """'" ^^'"'^"^ *« ^^^^ ^^r
honest. 11. There wasn't a man of them hn.^i ' 'i'''^P^'}y i« fairer than
company. 12. How old might you be? 1? Whf ^ ^""u ""^'^^ "''"""^^ ^^^
now 18 he, who, when he snnkp iu^u- \^. ^^^11 we say since silent
me next Saturday rf\or ut able o'^lsT L"^'> ""'' ''"^^y «« "-"
strong.'^ 16. Never was boy so harassed or IS ^^^^r?.^^ '^^^ ^^^d and
done to-day. 17. I had no idea it was so coin iT'^^^'^^^-i''" ^^^^ ^ have
18. She looks as though she was much Sfi.i l""^ T '^^^ ^* ^« «« ^old.
charms should a man or woman Sdtre^tet^^^^^^ Z^",^^* °° «"^™d
a horse or mare has lost its shoe Pretensions to please. 20. Either
^ « The irregvzlarities here are probably due to the analytic tendency.
XVI.
l-X^^^^ 2. Xenophon's
3.Aquarter's notice is requirerprevL^^^^^^ ^^'* ^^.^ Spartan king.
hearing ear and the seeing eye thrLoJdhH ^^^^^^^^ 4. The
5. It was thought to be him that did it fi t5 f wl ^"^^^ ^^^^ ^^ them.
fair. 7. One of them, who was the e s;id ."' ^"«* ^^t ^^^^^ ^^«^^^«« the
seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof L?;« ^' ^^T. ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^ich
to my life which you did not prolon< the wo^d h-l""^' ^^-''^^' ^' ^"'"^
song 10. Even failure at an eSnationT. if .^''^ "^^ny an idle
dictate and allow themselves to be dTctated to hn. hi ^^^"^ !^ '^P^' ^^- To
and his cabinet. 12. 1 would detain vnntl ^®^'''^® "^^^^^^ *« the king
when he lived, his heaTh and b^aurset ^loT "^T.*"^' "' *^°- l^' ^ho^
violet. 14. I have not from your eves tS t ^^ ^"^ *^^ ^^'^' «^«" ^n the
15. The objection is freauentlv mn^l f gentleness as I was wont to have
are read i^ an indlffere'nt! mLhanicar ?at\"/ ''f fiWe, that the lessons
had better not be read ; but let th^ nnl'J ?^'' .'t^^®' ^"<^ therefore they
character be free to do its work ifi wf '°"' 1"?^°"" ^^ ^^e teacher's
special peculiarity that in the case of each of'^th. h ?."*'®* '"^^ ^'^^ the
has the exclusive right to say what nrp ?n hf fi /^^®' l^'^^ Professions it
this profession.any fay asTjJ^lToir tt'lVrn^l t"J*^--- Has
Pf .....u^u^unnj. IT. Keproach and everlasting shlmeTsittorou^'^ire::
EXERCISES.
)rivedof his estate;
set of his enemies,
in as you can spare
) remember me as
nothers died when
t, this frantic feat
tiing mirror of the
Hop on the beaeli.
mother man would
go when I am not
itil they lose him.
man himself— are
ing to his conduct
forced to send for
any is fairer than
■vhat shunned his
^e say since silent
14. Try and see^
^ my tea good and
:_ the pain I have
idea it is so cold.
Not on outward
lease. 20. Either
? 2. Xenophon's
a Spartan king,
f a pupil. 4. The
•n both of them,
•aye deserves the
J is a way which
death. 9. Friend
ed many an idle
to copy. 11. To
tural to the king
rtwo. 13. Who,
36, smell on the
ras wont to have,
that the lessons
1 therefore they
3f the teacher's
et met with the
e professions it
Imittance. Has
ian any member
on our plumes.
^^'nSfl^''"'^' her lands
ore her goes th-
call fair, if what I was I be
405
^ff^SSl--^! ^^.ir j?H^^--^^
^i^'fi"^^^^^ -- disappointed Of the
belTeves it 'and Ti' '^^ ''^"'^ ^^^ ^ he mayXrit'^l directly you get
guished scieSs who'\'"" '" ^^^^«^«- ^^ He "s one^'o'f T '^^^^ ^« ^«
7. It seems tha to wa i ''' V^'^ ^'^^^- «• He ^Le n, ""? "^""^^ distin-
wav «w ^^y^''^^^ and to murder th« 1^ ^ ™® only two books
Sing'on'lrnobTe /"^' '^'^ ^-'^t'^e'' T\t^^^^^^^
things^have happtitd '"il '1 "^ ^^ ^^^^n a^ked me whatTdo'^^ ^ ^"^
that thinks so S go if he wanT.'"" ^'^ ^'^^ like I dV V'a!" ^"^^
bridge over the 0-nJfK/ wants to. 13. This nian t \ ^' ^^y one
between aJl clasfpl ^1*7^4° "^« workingman ar d his.^^f ^^"^ ^"^h to
19. He de^veVed thrte!;,:r"'L?'',"'''<"' "l'»«e ey°°™;f .• ""'l "« counties
too'igno'rar ro brhumWe"* S T P ^-° ^ong gone 2 So
gress. 3. The natinn? .' ^^Jhout which there is nn X! -i-; ^°°^® men are
4. I have not went ?h7« "/l'° ^^^«* ^« ^hee must in thP.V ^'^'^^ ^^^ ^^ P^o-
has heard from h'ome ft ^^K; ^' ^' i« no4 nore^^^^^^^^^ *^^'^^>^ ^^^i-
these devour onWfi. ^ •/* ^'"^ better to fall amnn^\ u ° ^ y^*^*' since he
voice of th^eh™. ^ ' *^^''' *^« living 7" Vo"^*T' *^^^ flatterers;
amazement at seeing v^ f"^,^ °"* «^e to another ^n^S.?K''^. '^''®" ^^^^ »!'
what shelf dTd von IT; • J^- "« thought tlatnni ^^^^wa^ not my
mistaken ?q S^ " ^^^^ ^^'^ book is? 19 Vn„M, ^°® ^^''^ iost. H On
J|imS'wHh"tLe".r„n^« 'o^^- h'^ >°v Sn'tt 'L^'^' "' ' ™
because the nolic. ,,il' i*' ^'' maintained ♦.hat h. L^ f",'^*' P«sented
16. Both m£i'Z:T.:^l\J't- . "• I «■•" t?y fo se"e voTfo''™"""'^
visaares do Pi.on»v, „^ came to the door 17 tv.^ ^*^^^ to-morrow.
AngfLs is Saps "he"m°o"'^ '"">" ^'"nding 'plSr ",'« %f '' ?■' ""^ """^^
other spot in r,??f„ • ™°^' e«"'a' and the hp«t .', •. ?' /''* <^i™i te of Los
that, in'^Jow Sim, Li?v'\ ^- 1 ''"'<' i™ (or he 3™'^ •'?■ '"'"'''^- °' av
l-Still, itwasonthp^.i^o''^-.. ,^^^-
^ good enough for any book that
m
t:XERClSES.
prevented him doing so. 9 Thou hn./ilV ? f"''''^^ ""^ *'>« eatastroohe
- you ? ]0. The chief ruler is styled ^rlLTn'r:;."*^ "' ^'^^ ^'^"'^" ^« ^^t honoi
father's, the town councillorT l'> fam J^'if "^''^^\ ^^' He lives at his
proud yet ? Ay, that I am not thee"" 14 IV^Uh T,'' ""u^ ^''°"- ^'^- ^'^ t^ou
are remarkable for their good looks i?w«^ tlie brother nor the sister
prudence. 16. More than ofe boy felt nrm^d n v.-' ^'"^ *^^^ ^'^^^ ^^"^d
scarcely a publication which issues froS^a ^'' success. 17. There is
same defect as I object to here Tg W« Un P^f «'. ^^^t does not show the
us t^ the work. 19? Severalpeople spike to us on ^V^'^.f^" «^«* «^"«d
me that ye might have life. ^ ^" ^^' ^^ ^^^^ "«* come unto
XX
2. uir^efj r,tTuJ ™ r isTtht" r ' ^i- ?r ^-^ -'-—
woman was the wife of a olv^^T^^ themselves into the work. 3. Yonder
had long dwelt in Amsterdam 4 He'mn Jr".' ^''^^^'' ^^ °^^«' ^ut who
his debts. 5. The gold and ;ilv;; « if ^''F^ somehow or another to pay
deposit banks. 6 T^e atrociou crime iftt- "' "^" ^^"« ^'^ ««»* *« the
attempt to palliate nor deny 7 He if w"f "" y^.""? ^^^^' ^ «hall neither
8. He arrived at, and quicSy entered the door q' T ^'?' "'^ ^^ ^'^«'"«««-
get ready for business. 10. W^ savv thprnhn ^•. ^^^S; days was needed to
another. 11, Lady, you are tlm ..nli' . ^ hanging by myriads, one to
graces to the gravJ'a^d'leaTe the' Zmt f:j''\% %r "^". l'^^ ^^^^
least understood, who all my sense coX?/^; 1 ^^^u great first or i^.^,
art good, and that myself S^ bTimi Ti^' ^"^ ^"?^.b"t this that T. ,
give for it. 14. You wHl n^ fin -f £ ^wo pounds is as much as I ,J
ought to act so. 16. iTa or?orpeace. w'wi ^T^ ^^'r^' ^^^ «« hadn't
they make them ready to battle ? 7 ^r^l^^"" ^ ^^^V^^^ *^^'^ thereof ,
yesterday any man "ilmt had lold me 1 1 8 t?^' ^ S"^^ ^^^« «^id
Ermlja's arms ; Emilia fairer than aUeSe bui thnn ?i^®P' ^llen, folded in
btkrit\^^cj:ien^^..^h%r^ir£
love and a dast.rd in^r ^^LTr/r^: ^ ^n^S^on^,;^:^ ^
XXI
2. k n: "a^ra^eTh^w^^l^ritt^^to"^!:" "^ ^T ^ ^^^^ - three volumes.
3. So I were out SpT[ on an/kC sheen' ^.^ *h^P«f ^o^ of the word r J'
oug. 4. Him I accuse, the city ports Sv^lshnlh*^ ^' ^'."'^ ^« ^^^ ^ay is
justice to tell me what I have a title tn hi Jt -^ entered. 5. Do me the
certain to know more truly fiomvou thnn ft'^^^l^*"*^ ""'^^^ ^°d which I am
listened patiently to his heart Teats bnrnnirf u^.l''; v^" ^^^^ ^^d not yet
violently. 7. I have made no Srm;^ .1 ^^^* ^^""^ ^^' ^^^ ^as beating
had as yet exhibited he structure of ?he^/*' """V^"" ^ ^^^^- «• ^o onf
only examined them in dogs 9 if wn^ h^^ ^'^''^^i' ^^«^""« ^^^i^^g
was killed. 10. And hesnilnnfo/- his hoj.se and not himself who
saddled him the as 11 He sa d he b«r«' 7/.^?^ ^^ ^^^ ^^«-" ^o tley
the >^-'>t ro'i-" ■"" '"' • • , h® believed that honestv wpc ,•« +i,„f. -„„"1
-. ...t poa.,, ... ,„3 .s he, my master said, despisedtteto Senta
EXERCISES.
407
>y an innings and
ppening? 6. Hq
kiing the hostile,
the catastrophe
lall we not honoi
I. He lives at his
»u. 13. Art thou
er nor the sister
that hath found
3S. 17. There is
oes not show the
who first called
11 not come unto
?ood references.
3rk. 3. Yonder
name, but who
another to pay
re sent to the
1, 1 shall neither
or in business,
s was needed to
lyriads, one to
will lead these
reat first cr --^j
this that 1 u
much as I vn
15. Ho hadn't
)them thereof,
luld have said
len, folded in
art fairer than
does not buy
. A laggard in
Lochinvar,
;hree volumes,
the word only.
' as the day is
5. Do me the
id which I am
3 had not yet
a was beating
r. 8. No one
salius having
himself who
s." So they
a \r\ +Unf — „„-,
fair Athenian
parliament were ill favornf Hw^K-n ^^j^'**'"'^ sonous results 14 ti,«. fi
thee of what firce tlu ^l^^l^Sf^f/J '^««oi^^^
attempting to extract the ba 1 the niiir> '''^"'"^^' ^«^« "' ^^e 16 On
r'ate^bv h '^"."7 '^^^' ^^ ^-^ " Ere^with'^^VV/"'• ''' «« - ''ver?
ness that^^ h"; '"1° ^^'^^ ^^^^ ^^d rSil ty weZ-e no; fT ''^ ''''".'. ^° character
ness that it did not seem to his viifid,^.^Iu7,\- ""^^ thrown with such vivid-
twenty men appeared at the doo ■ ' r *'^!"^ actually done. 19 Some
wages have been found to go together " "^"'^ '''''''' ^ ''^'^ ^^ rents and 7n
XXII
wS"-"^'«°"n»™» «»."• '■ N°- <" them was
intention of returning to E W-ind V Vi'^^'^^' ^^^^t have resumed M^
S-t '^^^L i -^-- '"irs ,^r:tror iSr
onedoubted that heker/s'hJs w r^o'^l'diS'nft^'^ ^" "^^ eor^er^nX'
deal of 7^ J"""^ ^^^ ^^^^'"^d to like n^thini i"f ^T^/^^^^'-^'-^y as I wished?
aeal of talk was going on about ml ,^r g "»* what you do. 14. A £?ood
arrived at the vahie of half a plum as th; -r ^'' ^^ «°"^« strange ma.^e
18 Thon I; ^P/"^ ^^^^ ^^'^"i the tablehe St n.r,?- '°^ ^'^"' ^^^^^ «ame
■i». Ihou lovest, but ne'er knew lovA'ac, ?' 5 struck him a sounding blow
XXIIl
wh^hTs^LTr's^oV^^^^^^^^^^ be performed. 2. And
makes as many mistakes, if not tndl 'h '^^ ^^^^'<= minstrel sung. 3 He
4. He walks like me but he ac?s as bkln'^^^u'^^''^ mistakes, than you
have mercy and not sacrifice 6 And mn?'^'" ^,' ^^""'^y^ ^oni 5. I wiH
that teach the rustic moralist to die 7 fl7 ^ ^^^^^ text around she straws
- — . XXIV
408
F.XERC1SES.
sq^bbr 'wS have" reded ""'rif fe '' "'« 'r\?^^^-^,..^, of all the
troops for a moment .L'^tt L oonflc T^ *^" \'''.f''^' ^"^ *^^^"«'»
my man. 7. Now I would have thought fhn; fi, ''"" *•'''' ^^^ ^*'^« "^"'^l''
would have been the most wellome 8 T n ^'f^^^.^^'-e J"«t the people who
afterwards trying to pacify rhebaron« ^ul i^'l i ""* .^'f.'" ^^^^ *^^° ^>«
is not a man to tamely submi to t'ie thr«nt nf r'^ ^'^"1 *^^'' *^"- 10. He
was taken with him. ]2. I hope vou wil «v!n ^'«'"'««'!'- !!• Much pains
not doubt that he is ill. if i do n^ dnnhfl";^,"^'"'".^ ^'^'^' 13 I do
doubt but that he is ill. 16 Of aH me^ else h„v« T^'" m 'i'' ^^- ^ ^^ "«*
no orator, as Brutus is ; but as you Wv m« ^u "r^^^l*''^^- 17. I am
love my friend. 18. While wSilTin't " ?' "" P^'""' blunt man, that
occurred to me. 19. What shr/d fis in/^'^T ' "^ '^J ^"^•^^"'J^
much for charity. ^ "^^""^ '^O- 'Ivvere good you do so
1. rhey set him free without his ransom nniri o ti
those gifts should have, and I to live and ;^F«^^' ?' ^^^""^^ ^ould that she
I had a friend that loved }ler^ should w/'^'^^ ^' ^^^ '^^^« «^^ ^^
4. So please him come into this place 5 hZ •'"" ^"""^ *^ *^" "'^ «t«ry.
o'er. 6. When a superlative is used fho^ -"'k^. ""^'^ ^« *«^^«"« »« g«
parison is made and wWch L Lrodueod hv . / ^^^j^" ^hieh the corn-
thing compared : as, -Gl^ii^ne^Vs relre/^^^^^ o}" f.H ^f .^"^'^"^^/^^
''Gladstone is the greatest English statesSian ' ' 7 rnu^ -^ statesmen,'' or
be used for a full infinitive unlesrthe verh fn H, * ^\^ ''^" ^^ ^''^^^d not
from the preceding part of the L„ten?e L - v''™^ ^'''" ^^" ^^ «"PPl'«^
ought to 'is wron/sinoT if ;« ?1 : T' ^"".V never wrote me >cu
8. The perfect TSWTfs used wr'^^^^^^^^^^ '" " '^'^•
pleted fc.fore the time expressed bv thp t ^^^^'' ""^ \' regarded v. corn-
have gone t>3fore the meeting ''9 wfcoul7mS ^^'^ ' f ' " ^ ^^P«d to
and we could act. jo f.ruer stfltem!nf ?h i?'^*.®w''?™ °^ b®**^^ -""^hority
total abstainers" is weii knLn to i 1! " ^^^^ "' the superior vitality ot
than a steward. ll.Thy cunTsh snfH? „"'^ ?^P^'*' ^^ Art any more
human slaughter, even fr'^S^ thf gXws dldTslS ^'\^'.^^ ^^""^^'^ '^'
fore they thought it good you were at d1 a v Ah '*'" ^,^.^*- ^^- ^here-
hands, no venom'd lord dares blister thL L ^ ^^'^^-^ "P^^^^ ^^ey
14. Well, sit we down and Ifif n« il iJ ' ,"*' ^''"^^ ^^^i^ dare creep,
him of m'yselfrwhtcTwas as much «. t.'j. '''"^',^^'F^^^^ ^^ ^his. 15. I toM
hours I spent to write Tt over 17 Thon hln '^''''^^r P'''^^^"- l^- Eleven
18. That thou Shalt see the differeule of n.^ "''"? ^"««"d for more money,
before thou ask it. J9 I saw hfm w ?L 'P'"^'' ^ P^''^^"' ^^^^ thy life
he. 20. Judges and Senator! We beeL rouS"^ifh"Jo.' f' I'' ' '"^^ ''''
were never to be sold. ^ougnt with gold ; esteem and love
INDEX.
40d
lified, of all the
ish and French
^ou this much,
the people who
3 good than his
mtall. 10. He
11. Much pains
lere. 13. I do
15. I do not
hee. 17. I am
uiit man, that
idea suddenly
ood you do so
ivould that she
ihe bade me if
tell my story,
tedious as go
lich the com-
ics include the
tatesmen," or
to should not
m be supplied
I'ote me 'cu
it to vv «)te. '
irded %-, com-
. '* I hoped to
)tter f'uthority
■ior vitality ot
'^rt any more
o hanged for
. 12. There-
' spread they
dare creep.
8. 15. I told
. 16. Eleven
more money,
thee thy life
}t I know 'tis
Jem and love
INDEX.
I. SUBJECTS.
The numhers refer to the panes. Full dpfiih nf th^ „ ».• .
■rgiml notes. ^ ^"* "^-^ '^*^ subjects are given in the
A.
Abbreviation of exjpresslon. ellipsis- 18-
c Huses : adjeetlve, 243 , adverb. 'Umi ; co-
Clauses, dUO-dOl-subordinat on, 302-;i05- snlit
due, use of substitutes : pronouns, 3()6,aux-
^'355^^4<.-^^^7hW' '""''^'^'^ sentence-. a>l-
«», .358-309, 374-375; word-, 356.
Anglo-Saxon, 318; An^lo-
iiiaries, .306; sign of infinitive, <o, 306-307
ZXT oJ ^nf^'^'^'^'T'^' «r 'vn'essetSai
" 307 aw FmnH^''?'V?' members, use of
so .iij/-d(w ; Emotional abbreviation. 309-311 •
grammatical eflfects. 312-313 '
Abstract: nature, 167
tion 189, 314.
AcMve : conjugation :
138-159 162
Angles, 318,330
French. 331.
Antecedent, 209, 263,
Appositive constructions: nonn, 104 ; adjective
l^;:..?'"®'^'^^*^ adjective and noxxu m:2\
296-297
Adjectives
in construe
plirase-forms
nature, 23-24; inflection, 86-87
95-96
nitfi fdi«tvih„V7,7 ' """-"'"^I'.ve. -50J-SJ1; indefl-
^4 235- ™ "^?' 7"'Pa™tive, quantitative)
^»-^A>; numerals (cardinas, ordinals frac-
*ion«l?. multiplicatives) 236-238 .-articfes
sofnt«"';J"^f '"'^^ ^^^■•^"' special uses (ab
t&) 24TS'";f"*%''^ subjectless infini-
lives; <i4l-"i4ii; other forms : words 242-24^.
?a^rs"2?^i4\slf ' ^^-r ^••"^^^^^^^^^^
mradj'ictfvt" veUs' Tir^'^^'""^- ''■''' '''■
mrison '248'24^^^-f ' 'h''^' ^S'^^^' com-
parison ^48-249; formation, 249-252- nro-
nommal,251; peculiar words 252-257. other
forr..s: words 258; phrases, 36. 1114i2? S
^te9ifi?fiSr,=28Ta' '''-''''' ^^^"«-'
^iJn^y}^L^y^f''^^^'- a^^ie^tives, 96-97; parti-
ciples, 293; absolute construction. 109-110
Agreement :
81, 91-94 ;
predicate
positives, lOG,
jective predicate" adjective. 105 107 ■ '.,;«-
Siirtf 2J.8'""'^' '''-' P» ticipie;/2i«.§95:
auxiliaries, Jy8 , agreement, 106
"^deflnfti, 24"?.^'"' ^^;?*'' {"definite, 239 ■240;
uennite, 240 , repetition and omission, 240-241
Arian family, 10-11; sub-fumilies, 316-317.
Articulate, 57.
"^iSJF ''"*^'''^' *^' **' '"'^'••«^* narration.
Association, 63; changes due to, 63-64,
Assimilation;, consonants, 63; vowels, 63-64
Attraction in syntax, 93-94; 314.
adjectives, 103-105.
. = - nent, 106.
alonS!"'''' "^' '''P"''*' ^^' ^*' 298; used
B.
Breath: sound, 50; breath-groups, 58
Bilingualism, 332.
C.
Case : nominative, subjective, possessive nb
Jf::!'Xf:il"™7^«'^- "Wique, 83-85';7alseirpaS-
pronouns,
tive
203;
O.E.
Possb.-'sive : nouns, 184-185'- "
adverbial, 257 ; in Old Enfffish' 171.
dative. 185-186;' in other lavages
dative, accusative, 100; ablative inst.M,"
rnental, locative, 110-111 j" vocative? 112. lis;
Celtic: people, 9. 230; in vocabulai-y, 13. 329, 332.
^. ^^90^® in language: 11-12; 66-69; 89; 76-77- 119-
oent: nature, 80; verb with subiect 80 1
i"cat'/l'o''*9Q,^<^'''*.'*""^«'»7; objective' Chaucer: influence, 321.
Comparatives: 86-87; adjectives, classes- ex-
elusive.. inclusive. 255: double ' 9.^ Ill; .®i
verbs, Zi6-}iiiii prepositions. 266. ""' ■'"'
"^guU?!?.^^' ^^"^^' <^«fe«tive. redundant, irre
Anacoluthic constructions, 313-314
Analogy. 65; in words, 64-66; in syntax, 315.
.^
4i0
INDEX.
II
Cornpfirison: drgrpps: positive, comparative
^^7.2;j..; siK... 22f;;1iar^r ' v;;:! .;. i Hu "!■'
mrity. equality. Inequality. 1.-1; a.iverbs, !>18:
Composition of words: compoiindsj classes-
phrase ..ompoun.ls. frnporary. p^rnu menf"
te'isriHo'ir ""•' ^^••'^^'^'-^•^•^^'
"^•^iTHnco^^lrtiJl^^lS^r ^'•'^^^^^•''^' ^-
Conditional; elanses, 153; aentonces 2fin.
eliisses: open, ima«inary. impoMsil.kV m'-
.^"'':' ,•'•"'■'' ;.">'""'<" ««'nte we, 2«2; e. p hnti •'
^2-JW; ,..,,„Htiu« with otherrelations. J75 27(5'
'Si;Si:%:1^«;Si.^od^^s;r'\i^^
New, l^S-l^Ji: Old 127-lW .t: Vvt ' '^''*^^'' =
Conjunctions : nature, 27-20. 2J8,. phrases 'VS
W-m. ^'^""»«"t«' ^74-277; peculiar wo/dV.
Conjunctive: pronouns; classes: definite con-
densed indefinite, simple i.Hleflnito ' sCh-
ordniate. interrogative, compounnk>fi,'t'
omission of definite, 21(J-217; ohe w -s
litS'^f 5-?;^^ ^>«-?18 ; pronominal S^^
^aDfiaS^itW?^:''" «^ conjunctives.
%T^«!uf^'.*'"'?;;'i'V,'iM".'l= ^^^ at'JPftives, 272.
211-212 '■• ^^^'^^^^ ^^'^"^^ conjunctives.
Consequont clauses: nature, 153, 260-202
Consonants: nature, 51, 318; classes, 51-53.
Construction: definition, 90; direct 102- in-
spm '-r'.^' "''''''"'^' ^''''- "•'■^euiar mlml,
SeVil e rvfvJf ■7"'^''",''*'^°"' ''^^' ^ee also
miiiei nie parts of speech.
Contamination: word-formation, 6,5-60; syntax.
l).scriptive, limith.fl-. qualifying: nature. 23-24
niiilects: nature, 1,"); Norf humlii-l„n -{IH m
;i<i".VVestNa.xo,, ;U8.1J(;'k ,Msh ?l8^lT
fcnchf fl. ^"'•"^t^'^'re. 17-'. aior Auilo:
Dictionaries. 328-327.
Doublets, 328.
Dryden's Influence, 325.
Dutch: lu vocabulary, 33i.
E
Ease, principle of ease: 66; applications, pas.
Emofiniial expression- 20-3(1 is io ■ i
iin.l optative 311 ;,! /i ' ? ' '"'Perative
tiss^'"'''''^'''^- «^Sui
'^SSi.ill^r*-''"--^"- See also under
English Grammar: divisions. 16; value, 16-17.
j'r w'?>'i^""'^';= "'-iKin, 9-10; composition
•M5 iii^?*?'''"'''?' ^^'^' Middle and Moder";
io, d' b id S; ^J'7«ties: dialects, standard
.Vi i-317 '^'iV : m \^^\'^Xf^'^r■;■ Teutonic, 10,
dialec ir. •< 1 V :• ' ^^''-^l^; name, 318;
UMiectic, 31f), position under the Normans
HuAda^.^:"32^:' '" «-^^'^»^. 3^1: "'oden;
Etliical dative; 196, 197.
Etr,„olo8y: „„,„„, lo;' folk, or popular, ee.
a ^^o'lis-rsTfi, iiiiiV: ^iS!'--
F.
^ifouns'iof ?,?>.*'>;? predicate adjectives and
103?usooJve;bs,"l(l2!'''^" construction. 102-
French: influence 13 319 321 S22 • v.
"Tt. ^S' '■■"»'"™ -"- .*.,„ or isiKsissnJsiSii
Functional conversion: nature, 73, 75; 107-325
orT^mi^'r\'47"H^"''''P'"'''^'^^^= "^ «^««"t
ii7 1?^ l^ J ^^'' "^ command or prophecv
117 loo; tuture-past, 149-150; indicative IM^-'
in indirect narration, 149-150 jyf *'^"^«' ^•^•
noun! 289-290".
*^27V27«''^'= .adverhs, 2^3; conjunctions. 40
£lo-n{i: conjunctives, 209. '
D.
^EtgHs'lTn'l't^r- f • ^^"•- """"«■ 171; in Old
r^ngiisn, inilS; of pronouns: personal 195-
demonstrative. 198; interrogative. 207.
Derivation: nature. 70-75, 86; by s„ffi^ 70.73.
by vowel-mutation, 73; by prefix 73^ ,viH.n,;
Change of form. 73; shadfn^utocompoiS
G.
Gender: modern, 168-170- in nouns ifiO i7n •
pn.nouns. 1!)5,' 19.9-200 ;' Z 01 "LgS {(«)!
1/0; grammatical and natural. 170. '
INDEX.
411
ved forms from verbs •
L'ruiid8, niKl K.-rmicliu!
lifyliiR: luiturp, 23-24.
Hiuinbi-ift,,, ;{!«; Mcr-
i-O; Koiitish, ;ii8-;n!).
Sontlieni, ;i20j Mid-
e, 172. 320 J Anglo-
5; i*PPliontions, paS'
•?».48-4J); imperative
loii of iioiii. of ad-
iuterjeflioii, 311;
^i-i. See ulso under
.311. See also nnder
ns, 16 ; value, 16-17.
9-10; composition,
Middle and Modern,
dialects, standard,
terary, spoken (or.
;isliip: Teutonic, 10,
1<>-317; name, 318;
nder the Normans,
land, 321; modern
k. or popular, 66.
ti^'e. interrogative,
'^inll^i' M'fl'iitives,
JUJ-jil ; jnterroga-
233, 217, 310.
ite adjectives and
construction, 102-
I 78; dead and liv-
'21-322; in vocabu-
, 13, 331-33:^; second
third period (Mod-
re, 73, 75 ; 107 ; 325.
)hrases: of assent
land or prophecy,
0; indicative, 15i;
)0, VJi.
nouns, 168-170; lu
Old English, \m-
i-al. 170.
West, l;'. 318; Higi, „,Kl Low, 10,;U8; Hi,,!,
in vocabulary, Xii. ' "'•'"■
"rjllnT^iWw*' •^'■.^•''»F'! "instructions.
I»5-1J7, 28J-.fli2; origin, l.V).- 28^1-287 • gerunc
Jud'iSK,;'?^"-"'^^''^^^^ -'-« »'--•«
Gerundial infinitives: classes: noun adiec-
Gothic, sub-family, 10, 316.
Jurtivt' 210. '''■*• '' P°««e««ive,107: con-
^ne-ns."' ""^ture, 62 63 ; gradation pasts;
Grammatical: subject, 201; values changed bv
al>breviation 212^-213 ; 8lmpliflcatio.,?3lir S
Sio, gender, 170.
Infjirrogative sentence: 45 47, 49; alternative
46; inverted. 47; invorte.l condition 2ffi?;
interrogative foruM of verbs, 145; In Indirect
narration, 103-lW. • 'uunc^,j,
Inlransitlve verbs: 20,
!»8, 113.
!W; u.sed transitively,
Italic, or Italian : sub-family 11, 316, 317 ; iu vo-
cabulary, 335. » " »w-
J.
^ .nge In
•17.
""cltey^il! m= '"'""'"""' "• ^'' ''' '
H.
Hybrids: nature, 331.
Idioms: two meanings, 164, 201.
'"^1iSSS.,f„'.*&!f„S°"'""-"'»-
'"lllie''^' •'Object and object, 201, 202: verbs.
Incomplete predication: verbs, 94-95.
Indicative mood: 82, 157; s'mple, 1.39 140; indica-
Imh)-European family: 10 11; sub-families, 316-
tnfinltives, 33: simple, classes: root, gerundial
tnoun, adjective, adverb', gerund 133 1.34-
^o'^lKr^' B^f'.^^^A' 2i» the .sfgn
to ^8^-284; split-inflnitive. 282; sign used
8 one, 307; subject of, 103, 288-289, Wl-
SSe'mut m "'*' ^^'^"^^ '^'- «"^J-* -
''tf^^n,'rts^'^^|r;^ftffl"ff'^?^
equivalents of 87-89 ; extension of meaning',
88, of verbs, 116-120; New coniugation 126-
Old conjugation, 127; nouns, hS?' pro-
nouns. 195, 197-198, 205,207, 211, 221; adTec-
tives, 2p; history of, 320, 323, 325-326 See
also under the parts of speech.
Interjection: nature. 29-31, 280; classes: accord-
ing to origin, primary, secondary. 31 280*
m°2^'"fin? T''"i"g.'-^80 281; cnsti-uction
STO qn 'qio-' P^'i^'^f s and sentences, 36, 256.
610, iJll-312, related to nom. of address and
jiupcraiive, oil.
Judgment: nature, 18-19.
L.
I-iariguages : living, 11; dead. 12,
323-324 J25-32b ; synthetic, 12-13, 89. „,
Latin : 13, 318; influence of, 319; direct and in-
direct introduction, 13, 327-32!> ; in vocabular ■
r^f ^''Si.o^v^'^^; second period, 327; third
period, 328; fourth period, 328 329.
vo- Letters of alphabet: classes: 50 56.
H^'i'^'J/ry^*'*' ^",V ^''.'l"esof: conjunctives,
-ii^j modifiers: adjective, participle, and ad-
^M^il. '^"''*js. phrases, and clauses, 244-246, 263
^M, absolute constructions. 109-110; 2!)8 299.'
M.
Meaning: changes in, 66-6!); effects of com-
position on, 7b-79; contraction, 67; degrada-
tion, 68; extension, 67 ; figurative uses, 67 ;
correspond to changes in object. 68 ; improve-
ment, «)8; influences on, 68-69.
Middle English: period, 14, .320-324 ; transition
or Early, period, 323; syntax, 323324; fom"'
passim, under the parts of speech.
'^'32&'l '''"'^''*' ^^^-^^'^- Eastern and Western.
Modern English : period, 12-15; .324-328- sub-
periods: Elizabethan (or, Tudor), age of
.J'lfV^"' ^P^'■.^?!^'^,'■"• ^^••^25; Modern Eng:
ish, from East Midland, 320-321; characte^
istics of, 12, 14, 89, 325-328 ; also, passini
^^?.u^!^!i \^S'''«1 values of words, phrases,
f .mses (ordinary limiting, adverbial limiting
oulinary descriptive, co-ordii.ate descriptive
adverbial descriptive) 244-246, 363.
^tTvp' sT S^^'l-^nirl^y*'' «."'^J"""tive, impera-
tive, 82 83, 139-140, 154 ; simple forms, 141-144
mood '^140*""^' ^^^'^^^'' t'lought mood, fact-
Mutation : nature. 63-64; consonant (or.
consonant-assimilation), 63; vowel, (M ; con-
cealed, 64, 115, 125; in plurals, 174; in
comparatives, 228. '
N.
Naturalization: 172-173, 175, 329, 333-335.
Narriition, direct and indirect (or, oblioue)-
assertive sentences, 192-193 ; interrogativ^
»»J| 'J-'^Pei-ative sentences. 193-194; shall and
verbs 145 "*" ' "'^*^*"^'® fotm^ of
412
INDEX.
I i
Nomlimtiv.. f.r oiil.jmu'tlvp. p,isp: imturo 84-
;r';:;,v„!;?:Aii'; ■" "•-• "^. '»»■ •'^^
NoMo: Hilt. .UvlHion, 10; i,, vocjiJiulai-y,. 330, .3.12.
^SJ/"""'"''""* '*'"«''"'" «"»• tlinlecf, 318.3l!»,
Notion: imture. 24; iiotiotml words, 34 .^5. 1.32.
Nouns: nntiiro, 21; sutmtantivp, 22; .•Ihsh.'h:
common iiroiHT, Individiml, ,ib«friu-t, .-on-
cret«, follecMve, gender nouns, !i2, KfcVlTO;
Inflectod forms: number nnd case, 17(tl71;
words i'^'S »«: Plirases, 188; dauHes. con-
struetionH 188 1!U; specialized by CliriHtlan
names and title«, 1«0 175.
Number: nature 79-80; origin of. 120; verbs
Il». nouns: Modern forms 171 174- fVi,
;«••"?«. V^"*^*^= *'orel«n fon^i^/iy ?0;^xl
ceptlonal uses of Modern forms m\m
mxTmr^' 17' 178; con,pounl: 1S18T
21& P"*"""""". 1!^1«8. m, 205. 207.
Object and objective: nature, 84; verbs. 20 »7-
1)1; adverbial objective. 10^. lOiJ; representa-
tive. 201 impersonal, 202; after verb mul
preposition 8^ IJiMSo'; reflexive li8;Xme^
r;'"^rot>jeSiirsh;rd;;i!;tc;'L iT ^-«- nHtureanduse.73; 78.89.
^£5|^6^;'SSSiSn:!^ '"'"""'""• "" """^ ""'^
Objective predicate
Parts of sjiPoHi: nature, 29; classes; Indopen
lle,.tV.d,"N;. ""'■''• ''»""«'^«*-«". '»••-'» ^ ..nin
''rrnrH^'';Vl'<!i;';'''= •,"""• «,"•• """•«» I''"-H«e-
pasHvo and iioii passive pbrase-forms 1«)2
passive, or perfect participle. 13t], 162
Person; pronouns and verbs. 81. 11». orli^ln nf
120, nouns. 180. Persoultication. llS! "
Phrases: classos: 3.5.36; verb, lll-lfll; infinl-
mno'r''>R'"'^''il' 1^7-15«: noun. 188;
.Vl? .?.'-"• ^^^^■^^i adject ve, 22;j-224 228 2:M)
Portuguese: in vocabulary, 331
Posisessive case: nature. R3-84. ISMP.^; bistory
2«U:Ha.s.ses: subjective, objective, appositive
18.3- IHl ; phrase-eouivalents. 181j fHlselv
partitive: noun, 184-185; pronoun. 20.3 3
^^u"?fr' ""tare, 18; bare and complete. 20.
«Vt oi \= ^^*''.'' «ffr<"<'"ient with subject
;.!eiM.t:.%""*'^^' «^-^''^-- Pr-»lcatlv?tS:
omission. 270; preposition phVase. SO^YlT-
J..vpositional phrase: adjective and adverb;
' V/.^" adjectives, nouns nnd
pronouns 102; agreement in. 103; objective
subject of infinitive. 288 289 oojecnve
Old English: 12^14; name, 318; periods .318- ^'""^'''^6 words : 70.
i%;Tn'5^ag.a ioSf ^12te^«^ ^?--P-l^cl'-es. nature, 39; parts of verb. 119.
form;.174Sr--^^^-^^-^-^^^ -n- 'ZS-^ltJ^:^^^s,^^Om^.
classes: ru^vo^,...] Kis.mo , ' "^^y ^^n, m.
forms. 174-175
Omisslonof : connectives. 43-44; preposition in
;ronoun"2r6 217''f '= ,*?««'.^^^« eSncuie
pronoun, ^lbJ17, in adject ve causes 243:
conjunction 7AaM91,.>271 ; definite co:Junc-
^InAKfr- ^^ '*^'?': ^««"'^<^ numerals,^235;
SI^^H,?' • * PJ'^'PSS]*'"" witli words, 270; in
flnitlve sign Jo, 284: interjection, 310. See
also under abbreviation.
Orthography (or, spelling): history of. 320;
difference between Modern and Old English
14; plurals, 173 174; comparison 227
cla^s: V;V;on;u;mi98! d^^tSvfJ^
the third person, 198 2f/2 ; possessives of first
second, and third persons, m203;pom™d
persona : emphatic, refiexive, mafWi^'^ther
demonstratives. 205-207; interrogative. 207-
tive) teoQ- '''\^^' .''«"J""'-ti^e.or!'rSa-
co;l.,T Jd'^Adefln ?"'Sl2/ '^"'•^^' ,^^^
flnitA ntiH\, V. 1- ' r*"' '*'*• Simple inde-
nnite and subordinate nterroeative 214-215-
compound indefinite, 215 210; other definite
2lSri-'l?^' 217-218: indefinite 'pronouns
qSS'v ^''^'^^^ <1 stributives. number and
quantity, compound, comparative, recinrocal
o^her words used as indefinite pronouBs 219-
Parsing : 313, 353. 368.
Particles
W^78?V«'r-' j"'V ""*"^^""i' prepositional ^«"ascence (or, Revival of Leftrnin^V ii wa
277-278; introductory conjunctive, 278; intrr 328, 329. "«vivai or i^eaining). 13, 234,
ductory prepositional, 267 ; intensifvinir 2t^1 p^.^ • «,
279. intensltying, 2o.i. R^gonsives : affirmative and negative, 33, 256
^Reduplication, Arian: nature. 117-118,
i: expletive adverbial. 2,54; adverbial l^^'^tion^l words: 34 35; also i>a««i7ra.'
cuve, jsit, adverbial prepositiona' Renascence (or. Revival of LeRimin^v
; introductory conjunctive. 278: intrr 328. 329. ' "*"'*^'*i °^ l^eaining).
f. 28; cliiAHes; Indopen
inectiveH, 1».\!>J: uiiiu-
"«e Mid mood plirnse-
Kin of conjugation, IHI;
lv«' phrase-formH, 1«2:
rtlciple. IJm, 102.
k'erbH. 81,119; origin of.
Joiiilication, lOtt-JJUO.
••• ,^?rh' '^^16*: inttnl-
157-158 J noun. 188 ;
•^5Ji. 256. 25e. 25>7-2!i8
"JunctlonH, ;«), 277; In-
iJ-jKJsition lyid prepoHl-
•xH,
ry. 334
83-84. 181-185,. history.
-i('7i of pronouns. 2(ri-
', objective, appositive,
j-ulents. 181 j falsely
w; pronoun. 2rx3. 231-
mrtitive. 203 ; archaic,
«re and complete, 20,
. 25. W.H7. 189, subjec- '
-"|e»t with subject.
fJl; pr dleative com-
J; 78-89.
j7. 264-265 ; constntc-
\ 2fJ{J-270. 310; forn.a-
!ir words. 266-270;
ion phrase. 36. Ill ;
idjective and adverb,
39; parts of verb. 119.
phiases. 220 221; in-
g, 204, 205. 207, 221 ;
«; demonstrative of
s, 202-203; compound
exive, 20.3-205; other
interrogative, 207-
•onjunctive'or. rela-
te, definite, 209 213;
3214; simple inde-
iterrogiitive, 214-215;
•216; other definite
^definite pronouns,
itives, number and
parative, reciprocal,
finite pronouns. 219-.
i, 105, 110. 196. 209-
ire. 117-118.
80 passim.
Learning): 13, 234,
1(1 negative, 33, 256-
INDEX.
413
Roman: mUslonari^g. 1.1. 328; Romanic: !«„-
giiHges. 11; plurals, 172, multlpllcaiivt>M,23,S.
Roots, root-words, ridicals: nature, 78.
S.
^prCnounrXw.'"*''"'''''"^^ "^"^ conjunctive
Sentences: nature, 18-19, classes: nccordinff to
coinposition, simple. :W-:«»; compoun.l VcMl"
HU-Ml ; compound member of, ;«tl ; complex'
noun adjective, adverb, 37. Jl-i;{; compound^
complex 43, acc.rdinfl.to form: assertive.
I748 "in • "!'*"''.''*'• ^^''^ *•*• i"'perativc
9«**'« \*''"'^»"'»tory forms. 48-49; modal
taflni -vSr' ''"'■'"' ^' .idverb8.'254-257;
^1'^?""; ^Vi -^.^"^ Producod, 50; classes: con-
fv '^n"' ^7*^^ ^"r'''- ^*^5 •" combinatio .
syllables, 57-58 ;change« in. .59-(J6, 119, 226
in inflections. 119-120, 170-171. *• . ^-".
Spanish: in vocabulary, 334.
^^7*" 325 '*"''"' °^ '=°»*f'»«"on of meaning: 62,
^ v"bs° 86*!*"® *"' inflection. 86, 78; or root in
^^qT^^'o.}^'""'^"''*''*''''' ("••• af^Pent; 59. 60-61. 76
6144 sentence-stress (or, emphasis;, 09]
Subject: npture, 18; government of, 91; re-
Kol'- Lr^'T."*'?"^^ <"'■• KrammaticHl)
21; W^f"^"'' ^^^J impersonal, 201; indefi-
nite, f'-J. bare and comnlete, 94; objective
subject of infinitive, 28»-289; clause, 188
^"i1.l"4-/. ''?'• '^^Pen^'e"*) ; subordination :
?«^"o%H'/.'^"'l^^®8: noun, 188 191, 367; adjec-
tive, 243, 244. 247 ; adverb! 259-263:
Subjunctive mood: nature, 82, 157; simple 140
144. con rasted with indicative, 14M43; op-
tative, 144 ; phrasal, 151-155. * ^
Suffix : nature and use, 70. 71, 78-79.
Superlatives: nature. 86-87; absolute 226-
relative, 226; double. 230. """'"^e, ^m.
Synonyms : production of, 332.
^^i.^^ English. 319-320; Middle English
S?a, f s n";^^'" ^V^^^«^' ^^«- See also undir
me pai'ts of speech.
Syllables: nature, 58; classes, 58.
T.
Tenses: nature, 81. 82; simple forms, 138-139 •
remtion of tenses, 156-1.57 ; sequence of 193
260 , primary and historic, 157. '
'^^"1,""''"; «"'>-fin'llyHnd (livisionH, 9-10. 316
.H«. tribes, where settled m Knirlund 318 •
in vocabulary, 9, 13,332; inHections, sV *
Thing: definition, 18.
Tongue stop pasts: nature. 116-117; origin of
tensesufflx. 118; modifications. l;2" with
;:erri>,!;?;^ffi'ig:2fi^-'«--^«p -«- of
''obj:cC97:ii3:= ""''""• ^o. 97; without
U.
Understood : definition, 300, 99-100.
V.
l-litglish, 88-89, 120 122; principal parts, 119;
classes: copula, adjective. refi«xive. recipro-
enl, middle, causative, impersonal. 98 113-
116; eonjugations. 116 119; paradigms- sim-
ple. 118; OM English. 121-122; i/.iaK can i:«-
simple and phrasal: active paradigm, 158^1.59*
passive panidigm. 161; tense and mood
tonus: simple. 138-144; phrasal, ;i6, 89 144-
JC'i!*.li'«'ivedfovms: simple. 133-1.37; phrasal
l.,7-1..8| undassittable verbs. 130-133; adjec-
tive. 113 ; defective 131 ; of incomplete predi-
V/v*u^i'.^"\-^-"^= forming passive phrases
lb2-lf)4 ; other verb-forms, 164 : uuxiliarv an.
notional. 145. 3(>3-3(>4, ""Jtumry and
^ImiS 'TirifJO-"':- ^^^' '^'''''"- emphatic.
tense and mood Phra'^es ISitl^iif^iri^^
nou-passive phrases, 162, pasnv.. luid
Vocabulary: composition of, 13; how i.>
^••«'^«'.70: foreign elemen : chef source"
327-3JO, minor sources, 334-335 »o"rce3,
oj, piuiais, 173, voice, or conjugation, 162.
Vocal organs, or, organs of speech: 50.
Vowels: nature. 51, classes .'M.W • «i,„„^ <
vowel RmiTir'i !>o«. """",'"'• ««-0' . change of
vowej soanc3. dJt>; vowel-mutution fiTiHI '7i-
vowel-gradation, 61-62. ""^""^O'*' »* M, 7J,
W.
West-Saxon dialect: 318, 319 320
^'3f.^n£-^=«Ji^-^lues
|«^270; conjun";lront 2Sf9V SuToTa
II. WORDS AND PHRASES.
a, 238-242
a-, 112, 261
abbreviate, abridge,
liDOut, *y^
a-building, 160
adjoin. 163
admit, 263
after, 266
ago, 265-266
almost, 254
alms, 178, 329
along, 312
alone, 69
ftUo, 277
a man, 221
an, 201
and, 278-279, .SOI.302
and, or, etc., 274
and that, 2'S
annexation, 58
any, 219
apricot, H
as, 217. -278, 290, 303,
31)4,308
as if, 261, 275, 304
askance. 75
assemble, meet, 332
as lief, 28;i
as-much-as-say, IM
as regards, 266
l''
M!*!
S f
l> i
I 'I!
414
as thouah, 275, 30i
at, 285
ay, 256
B.
back, 251
backward, 75
bad, 2vJ8
bait, 115
baize, 68
balcony, 60
ballot, 6S
bare looted, 77
be, 251
because, 276, 312
beck, 830
become, 163
beet, 326
begin, 62
being built, 160
"^^J^iK. having been 29
besides, 277
bethink, 327
bid, 12U
bind, 120.] 23
birth, 61
bite, 115, 320
blackbird, 76
blame, 329
blench, 115
blink. 115
blood-red, 76
boat, 326
body, 221
bonfire, 61
book, 6H
boor, 68
boot, 326
born, 12^
borne, 128
both-and, 275
bounden, 130
breakfast, 61, 76
breeches, i74
bridegroom, 169
brother, 174
bugle, 68
but. 189-190, 191, 218
^ 2d8, 269, 276, 2& '
butcher, 79
-by, 330
byJove, etc., 312
C.
can, 116
car, caer, 330
carpenter, 79
caster, cester, cheater,
certain, 221
chance, 163
chandler, 333
chiefest, 226
child, 174
children, 65
_i I J •
?hurl. 68
clench, 115
clink, 116
clomb, 123
cloth, 173
clothe, 126
-coin, 327
company, 67
conceived, 331
concerning, 29.)
considering, i;66
corpse, 67
courteous, 323
cow, 174
D.
-d, 123, 136
daisy, 61
-dal, 330
-days, 251
-de, 117
debt, 326
deliver, free, 332
dice, 173
'«. diiuiering, 75
directly, 2/4, 313
disbelieve, 3ia7
distraught, 125
ditch, 69
do, 118, 145, 306
doff, 161
-dom, 72
don, 164
doubt, 326
down, 69
drawbridge, 76
drench, 115
drink, 115
drunken, 130
dune, 69
during, 265
dyke, 69
E.
each, 219
each other, 220-221
eat, 114, 129
eaves, 178
-ed 72.
either, 319, 221, 224
either-or, 275
el.se, 250
-en 72, 127, 130
English, 63
enough, 250
|r^^^^3. 223. 248.249
erst, 249
-ess, 72
■es^^J2. 73.223, 240.
dven, 263
ever. 261
ex, axe, ux, SCO
cjfse^)*, 265
fall, Ho
falls in with. 164
fare, 115
farther (est), 229
feast. 333
feet. 318
fell, 115
-fell. 330
IXDES.
fellow, 221
ferry, 115
few, 231
tiglit, 114
fill. 114
fi at two, etc., 237
foot, i7i
for, 267-208, 270, 276
285,289,312 '
force, foss, 330
fore-, 229
forehead, 7G
forget-me-not, 75
fortnight, 61, 76. 177
fraught, J25
friends with him, 315
I riday, 182
front, 2(J4
frore(n), 129
-ful. 71
furlong, 67. 76
furrow, 64
O.
ge-. 122. 136
gender, 64
generous. 68
get, 330
gin. 282
give. 118
Gloucester. 61
good, 228
goose, 65, 174
gooseberry wine, 77
gosling, 61
gotten, 129
grant, 263
graven, 130
guest, 330
H.
half, 251
hanged, 128
have, 126, 151
he, 138-200
headache. 7C
heal. 120-122
heartrending, 76
heaves to, 164
her, 182
here, hither, etc., 251
herein. 252
hewn. 130
hill, 318
his, 182, 231
holiday, 61, 76
holm, 330
holp, 129
hoi pen, 129, 130
home. 251
-hood. 72
how, 251
housetop, 76
I.
I, ixiO-im
i-. 122
if, 275
immediately, 274, 313
lmmorig{nous.S29
» addition. 277
iv'h, 330
-ii"C, 72. 136
IS building, 160
-ish. 72
island. 326
it, 115, 198-202, 221
It is I that, etc., 314
»t likes me, 116
Its, 231
jet, 69
just, 254
jut. 69
ken, 115
kill, 330
kin, 318
kirk, 330
kitten, 61
knave, 68
knee, 318
knee-deep. 76
laden, 130
lark, (il
late, 228
lave, penetratft 329
lay, iJ5
legion, 67
-let, 72
levee, 69
levy, 69
library. 79
lie, 115
like, 186, 269
likewise, 277
-ling. 72, 250
little, 228, 250
lone, 61 69
love, 118
loved, 61
louse, 174
lurch, C9
lurk, 69
-ly. 71, 249-260.
M.
madame, 175
madhouse. 76
make, 126
man, 174
man's, 61
man-of-war, 75
many, 234-235
many a, 256
may, 151-153
me, 196
-meal, 251
meet, 114
men, 65
melists, 196 '*
-msr 2Sfl
merely. 254
meseems. 196, 308
messieurs, 175
methinks, 125, 196 3u
minister, 68
molten. 130
INDEX.
415
iTu.h, 330
-iiie, 72, 136
18 building, 160
-ish, 72
island, 326
it, 115, 198-202, 221
It is I that, etc., 314
't likes me, 116
its, 2dl
jet, 69
just, 25i
jut, 69
K.
ken, 115
kill, -.im
kill, 318
kii k, 330
kitten, 61
knave, 68
knee, 318
knee-deep, 76
L.
laden, 130
lark, til
late, 228
lave, penetratft 329
lay, iJ5
legion, G7
-let, 72
levee, 69
levy, 69
library, 79
lie, 115
like, 186, 269
likewise, 277
-linff. 72, 2r)0
little, 228, 250
lone, 61 69
love, 118
loved, 61
louse, 174
lurch, 69
lurk, 69
iy. 71, 249.?60,
M.
nadame, 175
nadhouse, 76
nake, 126
nan, 174
nan's, 61
aan-of-wrar, 75
nany, 234-235
nany a, 256
flay, 151-153
le, 196
neal, 251
leet, 114
len, 65
lelists, 196 ■'
ner 2Hfl
lere'ly, 254
leseems, 196, 308
lessienrs, 175
lethinks, 125, 196 30
linister, 68
lolten. 130
more larger, etc , 230
more, mosi, 223. 225
249 • . .
more-than-t.peak, 164
more than father. 188
-most, vi29.
most straightest, 230
mouse, 174
move, 113
mown, 130
Mr., Mrs., 175
much, 228
much as I love, etc..
murder, 64
"Mi"i'i?/'*'*''-^°2-^03' raee, 333
myself, etc., 203-203 ^'"■^^' ^'-^
perhaps, 254
person, 6i)
pickpocket, 76
plain, 68
pomp, 67
poor as they are,
305
prepare, 113
probably, 254
304-
quail, 115
Quell, 115
Q.
R.
N.
-n, 127, 251
nay, 266-257, 306
naught, 69
-nee, 251
near. 186, 228, 268
nearly, 254
needs, 251
•-either, 219
neither-nor, 275
-ness, 71
never, 251
nigh, IfcB, 268
no, i!50.257, 303
none, 220
nostril, 76
not. 69, 256
not but that, 309
not only-but, 275
not that, 3 9
notwithstanding, 265
now, 277
O.
of, 172, 235
off, 61
of mine, etc., 203
old, ii2H
once, 250
one, 219, 234
one another, 220-221
one by one, 385
only, 254
or, 276
ordinary, 68
or ever, 266
other, 520, 221, 234
otherwise. 275
over, 266
own, 204-205
ox, 65, 174
P.
parson, 69
past, 265
pay, 67
peu(so), r/3, 178
penance, 79
pence, 173
pending, 265
people, 221
perfect, 326
rascal, 08
rathe, 248
rather, 248
■re, 251
reads, 114
reason, 60
redcoat, 76
regarding, 263
resemble, 163
rhyme, 65
riches, 60, 178
righteous, 65
rise, 115
riven, 130
rockoil, 79
rotten, 130
S.
•s, 119
same. 217
save. 268
saving. 299
sawn, 130
say, 263
scar, 3:J0
scent. 326
scythe. 326
seldom. 75. 185, 250
self, 203-205
sell, 114, 125
set, 115
sew, 130
sewer, 326
sewn, 130
shall, 146-149, 194
sham, 69
shame, 69
shapen, 130
shaven, 130
she, 198-200
sheriff, 61
shew, 130
shorn. 130
shotten, 129
shouRH9-l-0.i5l,
shown, 130
•" -rrti, Iju
Sit, 115
situate, 265
sk-, -sk. -son, 330
so 200. 209, 232-2;!3.
261, 306, 3C9
SO as, 261
so as to. 304
(so) far from that 303
some, 209, 219
songster, 169
sovereign. 65
sown, l;dO
spice, 67
spinster. 169
spread, 113
■St, 119
staff, 172
starve, 67
steamboat. 76. 79
-ster, -stress, 327
stop. 113
strath, 330
streetcar, 79
stricken. 130
twelvemonth. 177
twice, 2.50
twopence, 61
uu- 73
U.
V.
van. 61
villain, 68
vixen, 169
volume, 68
W.
-ward(s), 249
wash, 114
washen, 130
wash-tub, 76
wast, 64
such 200-207. 217, 233, ^axe'n, 130
ways, 251
summering, 75
f^unday, 1«2
sundry, 221
sunken, 130
suppose, 2ii3
survive. 163
Sutton. 61
sweep, 115
swollen. 130
swoop, 115
•t 123. 136
take, 163
taken notice of, 161
tame, 318
tastes, 114
•te, 117
tell-tale, 76
•th, 70, 119
than, 27S, S03, .308
than if, -261, 'J75
than whom, 278
that, 191, 205-206, 208-
1^09, 222, 232, 243-244
2il, 263, 271-272 278*
the, 238-242, 251 '
then, than, 251
■ther, 251
there, 32, 254
there, thither, etc., 251
tlierefore, 273
therewith, 252
they, 198-200, 221
they, their, them, 330
this. 205, 222, 232
throttle, 61
thorough, 61
thorp, toft, 330
thou, 196-198
though, 277
thought of, 163
three, 318
thus, 251
-times, 2.51
to, 69, 282-284, 307
too, 61, 69, 277
tooth, 174
touching. 29S
Tuesday, 182
turn, 113
Wednesday. 61
well, 277
what, 213-215
whatever, 191, 234
what if, :^09
when, where, etc., 218
where, 273
where, whither, etc.
251 '
whereby, 252
wherewith, 252
whether, 275
whether -or, 262, 276
which, what, 233
while. 272
whilom. 185, 251
whilst. 64
who, 221
whoe%'er, etc.. 215-216
},n^ what, which, '-07-
who which, that 209
215, 216- .17,
who, whether, 233
why, 251
widow (er), 169
width. 61
will, 146-149, 194
wisdom, 61
-wise, 249
woe, 186
woman, 174
wont, 326-327
won't, 61
wormwood, 65
worship, 68
worth, 180
would, 149 150, 151-165
194
would-be, 75
y.
y-, 122
-y. 71
yarn, 64
yawn, 232
ye, 196-198. 221
yea, 256-257, 300
yes, 266-257, 30S^
you, 190-198, 221
you k^ow, etc., 311
m I
I
41t)
' :.i
HI
INDEX.
jil I
abide
- l^S
awake
• 128
be •
■ 130
bear
. 128
beat
• 129
begin
- 127
behold
- 129
bend
- 124
bereave
• 124
beseech
• 125
betide
- 126
bid
• 129
bind
- 128
bite
- 128
bleed
• 125
blend
- 124
blow
■ 129
break
- 1'28
breed
- 125
bring
■ 125
build
- 124
burn
• 123
burst
• 12S
buy -
• 125
can -
• - 139
cast •
• - 121
catch
- 125
chide
- 128
choose
- 128
cleave
- 128
climb
- 128
cling
• 127
clothe
- 126
come
- 129
cost •
- 125
creep
■ 124
crow
- 129
cut •
- 125
dare
• i;33
deal
• 124
dig •
- 127
do •
■ 131
draw
- 129
dream
• 124
drink
. 127
drive
- 128
dwell
• 123
eat
- r29
engrave -
. 130
fall •
- 129
feed -
- 125
t»el •
• 124
light
find .
flee .
fling
fly -
forbid
forsake
freeze
freight
get -
gild .
gird •
give •
go •
grind
grow
hang
have
hear
hew -
heave
h?Ip
hide
light
hit
hold
hurt
keep
kneel
knit
know
lead •
lean
leap
learn
leave
lend
let •
lie •
light
lose -
make
may
mean
melt
meet
methinks
mote
mow
must
need
ought
• 128
• 128
- 124
• 127
• 129
- 129
• 129
• 128
. 125
- 128
• 124
• 124
- 129
• 131
• 128
- 129
• 127
- 126
• 124
• 130
• 12i
■ 129
• 128
■ 181
. 125
• 129
- 125
• 124
• 124
• 125
■ 129
• 125
- 124
124
123
12t
124
129
129
125
124
126
132
124
130
125
125
182
130
132
126
132
R VERB-FORMS.
pen
- • 123
put
• • 125
quit
- 125
quoth
• 129
read
• 125
reave
- 124
reeve
• 128
rend
• 121
rid
• 125
ride
• 128
ring
- 127
rise
• 128
rive
• 130
run
• 127
say
• 124
saw
• 130
see
- 129
seek
- 125
seethe
• 128
sell
■ 125
send
• - 121
set
- 126
sew
■ 130
shake
- 129
shall
- 132
shave
• 130
shear
- 128
shed
• 125
shine
• 128
shoe
- 124
shoot
- 128
show
- 730
shred
- 125
shrink •
- 127
shrive
• 128
shut
. 125
sing
• 127
sink
• 127
sit
• 129
slay
- 129
sleep
- 124
slide
- 128
sling
- 127
slink
■ 127
slit
• 125
smell
• 123
smite
• 128
sow
• 130
speak
• 128
speed
• 125*
spell
- 123
spend
• 124
spill
• . 123
spin
- 127
spit
• 125,129
split
- 125
spoil
- 123
spread
■ • 125
spring
- 127
stand
• 139
stave
• 128
steal
• 128
stick
- 127
sting
■ 127
stink
- 127
stride
• 128
strike
- 127
string
- KZ
strive
• 128
swear
• 128
sweat
- 125
swell
• 130
sweep
- . 124
swim
• - 127
swing
■ 127
take
• 12&
teach
• 1 5
tear
• 128
tell
- 125
think
• 125
thrive
• 128
throw
- 129
thrust
• 125
tread
■ 128
wake
- 128
wash
- 130
wax
• 130
wear
- 128
weave
• 128
weep
■ 124
wend
- 124
wet
• 125
whet
• 125
will
• 132
win
• 127
wind
. 128
wis
■ 131
wit
• 131
wont
. 131
work
• 126
worth
- 131
wring
• 127 1
write
• 128 1
spill
• - 123
spin
• 127
spit
• 125,129
split
- 125
spoil
- 123
spread
■ • 125
spring
- 127
stand
• 139
stave
• 128
steal
• 128
stick
- 127
sting
■ 127
stink
- 127
stride
• 128
strike
- 127
string
- KZ
strive
' 128
swear
• 128
sweat
• 125
swell
- 130
sweep
- . 124
swim
• - 127
swing
■ 127
take
• 12I&
teach
• 1 5
tear
• 128
tell
- 125
think
• 125
thrive
• 128
throw
- 129
thrust
• 125
tread
- 138
wake
- 128
wash
- 130
wax
• 130
wear
- 128
weave
• 128
weep
■ 124
wend
- 124
wet
- 125
whet
• 125
will
• 132
win
- 127
wind
. 128
wis
- 131
wit
• 131
wont
. 131
work
• 126
worth
- 131
wring
• 127 1
write
• 128 1
I